THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 i 
 
 mssss 
 
 
 
 pi 
 
 HI
 
 IBRARY 
 
 nlVSRSlTYOF 
 CALIFORNIA
 
 THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 AND 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 AN HISTORICAL STUDY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 SOURCES, DEVELOPMENT, AND ANALOGIES OF THE LANGUAGE 
 
 AND OF THE 
 
 PRINCIPLES GOVERNING ITS USAGES 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY COPIOUS EXAMPLES FROM WRITERS 
 OF ALL PERIODS 
 
 SAMUEL RAMSEY 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
 NEW YORK LONDON 
 
 37 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET 24 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND 
 
 &t ^nichtrbotktr ^rws 
 1892
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1892 
 
 BY 
 SAMUEL RAMSEY 
 
 Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by 
 
 Ubc Knickerbocker press, TAcw V?orfe 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 MUCH of what is contained in the following pages was 
 first written for purposes of private instruction, and without 
 any view to publication ; but as one chapter was added after 
 another, it began to be thought that some portions might 
 interest a larger class of readers. There are many persons 
 who would be glad to know more about the English 
 language than can be gained from the formal routine of the 
 public schools, who, nevertheless, are unable to procure and 
 read the great number of valuable works on the subject that 
 have issued from the press within a period of fifty years. 
 Such persons are in a position to appreciate a work taking 
 a somewhat wider view than the common text-books, and 
 presenting some of the more familiar results of modern 
 philology. 
 
 There are two classes for whom this book is not intended. 
 The first are those who are already familiar with all the 
 results of past labors, and who, therefore, can find nothing 
 here to add to their present ample stores of knowledge, there 
 being no claim to original discovery or invention. The 
 second class are those who neither know or care anything 
 about the history or philology of their native tongue. 
 Between these extremes is the large and important class who 
 already know something and desire to know more. 
 
 There was a fable of the Rabbins that the first pair of 
 blacksmith's tongs were made during the six days of cre- 
 ation, because, without such primordial instrumentality, no 
 tool could ever have been fashioned. I cannot but think that 
 many have unconsciously imbibed a somewhat similar belief 
 in regard to English grammar. It may not be distinctly 
 taught, but everything tends to impress the learner with a
 
 iv Preface. 
 
 vague idea that the rules laid down in his manual were 
 ordained " in the beginning," and have remained unchanged 
 and unchangeable ever since, and that in the fulness of time 
 the English language was made in obedience to them. The 
 reader of these pages will have an opportunity to become 
 acquainted with the opposite doctrine that language, so far 
 as we are acquainted with it, is a human product, subject like 
 others to evolution and mutation as liable to change as the 
 forms of our garments or our dwellings, and that the office of 
 grammar is not to go before and decree what men shall say, 
 but to follow after and describe what they do say. 
 
 S. R.
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 19, line 23, for acres, read races. 
 " " " " for Higdon, read Trevisa. 
 
 21 " iS,f0r ne spe, read nes fe. 
 " 63 " 6, for extradition, raz</ extrajudicial. 
 " 65 " ZZ,f or puine, raz</ puine. 
 
 71 " 4, for ac-ia, read at-ia. 
 
 73 4i t forfam t read far. 
 
 " 76 29, yi?r /zV, like, read ling. 
 
 " 134 " 2$, for fuss, read Fuss. 
 " 181 " 22,f0rt's,read/'s. 
 
 " 2 39 " 3 2 > Note, There was also a pural, cildra, or cildru. 
 " 242 " 29 if, for fit, gis, tit5, read fet, ges, teS. 
 " 2 93>f or t* 16 initial pa, rm^/-everywhere pa. 
 " 294, line 22, for preceded, r^dt^did not precede. 
 " 324 " 20, for ipsi, readipse. 
 " 347 " 21, for Ir J^, read\\se. 
 " " " 22, /0r Venir j^, r^a^ Venire. 
 " 359 " Zif or grafen, razd' grave. 
 " 364 " 28,y<9r sow, read saw. 
 
 " 375 " i8,for wollede and shullede, read wolde and sceolde. 
 " 412 " 2g,for levdeyr, read levy r. 
 " 428 " 29, /-<?^/ 1 did not hear it. 
 " 436 " 25, 28, y<?r ecrire, read ecrire. 
 " 440 " 4, /c?r thries, r^d!</ thrice. 
 " 445 " 1 9, /^ f and-e, r^^/ f und-e. 
 
 " 21, for fanth-um, /-^</ f unth-ura. 
 
 yi?r fand, r^^^/ fund-on. 
 
 " " " 22,/^rfanth-uth, rw? funth-uth. 
 /<?/ fund-e, r^</ fund-on. 
 
 " " 23, /(?/- fanth-un, raz</ funth-un. 
 
 for fand, r<?^/ fund-on. 
 " 463 u 1 9, for lie, read like. 
 11 467 " 9, /<?r gesoth, read geseoth. 
 " 480 22, for five, read lice. 
 
 " 504 " *, f r
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Chapter I. THE INSTABILITY OF LANGUAGE ..... 3 
 
 Chapter II. THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH 12 
 
 Chapter III. THE PROVINCE OF GRAMMAR ..... 43 
 
 Chapter IV. WORD-MAKING 53 
 
 Chapter V. THE ALPHABET ........ 94 
 
 Chapter VI. GRIMM'S LAW 132 
 
 Chapter VII. PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING ..... 138 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Chapter I. PRELIMINARY 217 
 
 Chapter II. NOUNS 225 
 
 Chapter III. ADJECTIVES ......... 288 
 
 Chapter IV. PRONOUNS ......... 307 
 
 Chapter V. VERB AND THEIRS SEVERAL KINDS .... 343 
 
 Chapter VI. AUXILIARY VERBS 372 
 
 Chapter VII. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS 415 
 
 Chapter VIII. ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS . . 476 
 
 Chapter IX. SYNTAX ......... 506 
 
 Chapter X. SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG WRITERS . . . .552 
 
 INDEX 569
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE INSTABILITY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 A LANGUAGE in common use is subject to continual change. 
 Old words sink into disuse, or become altered in sound or 
 signification ; and new ones are constructed or introduced. 
 Two principal causes accelerate this transformation the 
 commingling of diverse races, and a change of habits, ideas, 
 and pursuits. The vocabulary of a simple pastoral people 
 would entirely fail to meet the wants of modern civilization, 
 with its attendant arts and sciences, while the loss of any 
 art or body of ideas would be followed by the disuse of its 
 peculiar terms. Several causes also contribute to retard 
 change, among which are freedom from foreign influence ; 
 political, religious, or literary bonds of union among the 
 inhabitants of a considerable area ; and a continuance of the 
 same mode of life. The sanctuaries of Jerusalem and Mecca, 
 and the Olympic games at Elis brought together people of 
 kindred blood and faith ; and such great works as the He- 
 brew Bible, the poems of Homer, the Koran, and the author- 
 ized German and English versions of the Bible have had a 
 most powerful conservative influence on their respective 
 languages. Dr. Schliemann found the Iliad and Odyssey 
 still understood and appreciated by the villagers of Greece 
 two thousand five hundred years after the text was settled 
 by Pisistratus. 
 
 3
 
 4 The English Language. 
 
 Change seems to be spontaneous and inevitable, beyond 
 all requirements of utility, as evidenced by the great variety 
 of pronunciations found in dictionaries and in common use, 
 and the frequent introduction of new words when the old 
 ones are equally good. The change, in small, undeveloped 
 communities, is sometimes surprisingly rapid. Waldeck, 
 who labored as a missionary in Central America, completed 
 a dictionary of one of the native languages in 1823. Re- 
 turning to the same tribe after an absence of ten years, he 
 found his dictionary already antiquated and useless. How 
 this is brought about is very graphically shown by Robert 
 Moffat, a missionary in Southern Africa. He says : 
 
 " The purity and harmony of language are kept up by their 
 pitches and public meetings, by their festivals and ceremonies, 
 as well as by their songs and their constant intercourse. With 
 the isolated villages of the desert it is far otherwise ; they have 
 no such meetings ; they are compelled to travel, often to a great 
 distance from their homes and native villages. On such occasions 
 fathers and mothers, and all who can bear a burden, often set out 
 for weeks at a time, and leave their children to the care of two or 
 three infirm old people. The infant progeny, some of whom are 
 beginning to lisp, while others can just master a whole sentence, 
 and those still further advanced, romping and playing together, 
 the children of nature, through the live-long day, become habitu- 
 ated to a language of their own. The more voluble condescend to 
 the less precocious ; and thus from this infant Babel proceeds a 
 dialect of a host of mongrel words and phrases, joined together 
 without rule, and in the course of one generation the entire character 
 of the language is changed" 1 
 
 In some such way were produced the countless languages 
 and dialects of the native American tribes. Even in Europe, 
 where some kind of national literature is rarely wanting, the 
 same tendency to separation has been at work with a force 
 proportioned to the prevailing ignorance and disorganization. 
 The early Celtic population of the British Islands became in 
 time separated into five mutually unintelligible branches ; 
 
 1 Mttller's " Lectures on Language," vol. i.
 
 The Instability of Language. 5 
 
 the Basques in the adjoining provinces of France and Spain, 
 numbering little more than half a million, have their mother 
 tongue split into seven dialects ; and in Friesland the travel- 
 ler encounters a different form of speech in every village. 
 
 The gradual transformation of the English tongue may be 
 illustrated by a series of selections reaching back to a time 
 when the language becomes wholly unintelligible. The 
 words which would not be used now, at least in the same 
 sense, are distinguished by italics. 
 
 DAVID HUME, 1761. 
 
 " He promised that the present grandeur of Harold's family, 
 which supported itself with difficulty under the jealousy and 
 hatred of Edward, should receive new increase from a successor 
 who would be so greatly beholden to him for his advancement." 
 
 JOHN LOCKE, 1687. 
 
 " If we will disbelieve everything because we cannot certainly 
 know all things ; we shall do tnuchwhat as wisely as he who would 
 not use his legs, but sit still and perish because he had no wings 
 to fly." 
 
 SIR PHILIP SIDNEY, 1580. 
 
 " There were hills which garnished their proud heights with 
 stately trees ; humble valleys whose base estate seemed comforted 
 with the refreshing of silver rivers ; meadows enamelled with all 
 sorts of eye-pleasing flowers ; thickets, which being lined with the 
 most pleasing shade, were witnessed so to by the cheerful dispo- 
 sition of many well-tuned birds ; each pasture stored with sheep, 
 feeding with sober security, while the pretty lambs, with bleating 
 oratory, craved the dam's comfort ; here a shepherd piping as 
 though he would never be old ; there a young shepherdess knit- 
 ting and withal singing ; and it seemed that her voice comforted 
 her hands to work, and her hands kept time to her voice music." 
 
 Although we are now too busy and business-like to indulge 
 in a style of such knightly and dainty elaboration, it will be 
 readily seen that the language itself has scarcely changed in 
 three hundred years.
 
 6 The English Language. 
 
 SIR JOHN FORTESCUE, 1470. 
 
 " It hath ben often seen in England that iij or ij theves for 
 povertie hath sett upon vij or vj true men and robbed them al. 
 But it hath not been seen in France that vij or viij theves have 
 ben hardy to robbe iij or iv true men. Wherefore it is right seld 
 that Frenchmen be hangyed for robberye, for that they have no 
 hertys to do so terrible an acte. There be therefor mo men 
 hangyed in England in a jwr for robberye and manslaughter than 
 there & hangyd'vo. Fraunce for such cause of crime in vij yers" 
 
 SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE, ABOUT 1370. 
 
 " Theflrestes of that temple han alle here wrytynges, undre the 
 date of the /0#/ that is clept Fenix ; and there is non but on in 
 alle the world. And he comethe to brenne him self upon the 
 awtere of the temple, at the zafc of j" hundred 3<?<?r J . for so longe 
 he lyvethe. And at the jw Zeres ende, the prestes arrayen here 
 awtere honestly and putten thereupon spices and sulphur vif and 
 other thinges that wolen brenne lightly. And than the brid Fenix 
 comethe and brennethe him self to ashes. And the first day next 
 aftre, men fynden in the ashes a worm ; and the secunde day next 
 a//>v, men funden a r*tf ^2^^ and perfyt ; and the thridde day 
 next d//r*, he fleethe his ze/^y. And so there is no mo briddes of 
 that kynde in #//<? the world, but it allone. And treuly that is a 
 -r<?/ myracle of God. And men may well lykne that r>v/ unto 
 God, be cause that there nys no God but on, and, also, that oure 
 lord aroos fro dethe to lyve the thridde day." 
 
 PROCLAMATION OF HENRY III., 1258. 
 
 " Jfenr' thurl godes fultume King on Engleneloande. Lhoauerd 
 on Yrloand'. Duk on Norm* on Aquitain' and eorl on Aniow. 
 Send igretinge to alle hise halde ilarde and ileawede on Hunt- 
 endon 1 sehir' that witen 3<? wel alle that we -willen and vnnen 
 that, that vre radesmen alle other the moare dal of heom that 
 beoth ichosen thurf> us and thurZ that loandes folk on vre kun- 
 
 1 This character (3) here represents a modification of the Anglo-Saxon g much 
 in use from the twelfth to the fourteenth century, with a value varying from 
 jf to gh, the latter no longer recognized in English.
 
 The Instability of Language. j 
 
 eriche. habbeth idon and schullen don in the worthnesse of gode 
 and on vre treowthe. for the freme' of the loande. thur~$, the 
 besi^te of than to foreniseide redesmen, beo stedefcest and ilestinde in 
 alle t hinge abut en cende." ' 
 
 FROM THE "PETERBOROUGH CHRONICLE," 1150. 
 
 " And te ear I of Angau ward ded, and his sune Henri toe to the 
 rice. And te cuen of France to-dalde fra the king and sees com to 
 the iunge eorl Henri, and he toe hire to wive, and Peitou mid hire. 
 thafarde he mid micel far d into Engleland and m? castles and 
 te kingferde agenes him mid micel mare ferd, thothwathere fuhtten 
 he <?^/, oc fardon the arcebiscop and te wise men betwux heom, and 
 makede that .ra^te that te king &?/<& z lauerd and king //te he 
 /zz^dfe and #/ter his dai ware Henri, king." 
 
 
 
 ^ELFRIC, ABOUT 980. 
 
 " Gif hwelc man hcefth hund sce'apa, and him losath dn of thdm, 
 hii, ne forldett he thd nigon and hundnigontig on thdm muntum, and 
 gdeth and secth thcet dn the forwarth ? And */" &V gelimpeth that 
 he hitfint, sothlice ic secge that he 1 swythor geblissath for //df//z */#z 
 thonne ofer //fo nigon and hund nigontig the na ne losodon." 
 
 MATTHEW xviii., 12-14. 
 
 KING ALFRED, ABOUT 890. 
 
 " That Edstland is swathe my eel, and /!&zr ^V/z swythe manig 
 burh, and <? celcere by rig byth cyninge ; and thtzr bith swythe my eel 
 
 1 This is often called the oldest extant specimen of English as distinguished 
 from Anglo-Saxon y but it probably represents nothing ever really spoken. Its 
 exaggerated rusticity is the clumsy attempt of a court scribe to render a French 
 original into the speech of the common people. In this and the following 
 examples I have used the modern th instead of the single letter thorn (>). The 
 passage may be read thus : 
 
 Henry, through God's help, King in England, Lord in Ireland, Duke in 
 Normandy, in Aquitain and Earl in Anjou, sends greeting to all his subjects, 
 learned and lay, in Huntingdonshire. This know ye well all, that we will and 
 grant that which our counsellors all or the more part of them that be chosen 
 through us and through the landfolk of our kingdom, have done and shall do to 
 the honor of God and our allegiance, for the good of the land, through the 
 determination of the aforesaid counsellors, be established and obeyed in all 
 things forever.
 
 8 The English Language. 
 
 huntg, and fiscath j and se cyning and thd Hcostan men drincath 
 myran meolc and tha unsp<fdigan and thd thedwan drincath medo. 
 Thar bith swathe mycel gewinn betweonan him ; and ne bith thcer 
 nxnig edlo gebrowen mid Eastum, ac thcer bith medo genoh." * 
 
 THE VENERABLE BEDE, 735. 
 
 " Fore there neid-f&rae ncentg uuiurthet 
 thonc-snottura, than him tharf sie 
 to ymb-hycgganna, cer his hin-iongce 
 hucet his gastce, godces ceththa yflas 
 after deoth-dcege, darned uueorthce.'* * 
 
 GNOMON, A.D. 680. 
 
 " Nu sculun hergan Now we shall praise 
 
 he/an ricas uard heaven's kingdom's ward, 
 
 metudas macti the Creator's might, 
 
 end his mod gidanc and his mind's thought 
 
 uere uuldur fathur men's glorious Father ! 
 
 sue he mtndra gihuas as of all wonders he 
 
 eci drictin eternal Lord ; 
 
 or astelidcs from the beginning 
 
 He arist scop He first made 
 
 elda barnum for earth's children 
 
 heben till hrofe heaven for a roof ; 
 
 haleg scepen holy Creator ! 
 
 tha middum geard then mid-earth, 
 
 mon cynnas uard mankind's ward, 
 
 eci dryctin" s eternal Lord. 
 
 1 This Eastland is very large, and there are very many towns there, and 
 kings over the several towns ; and there is very much honey and fishing there ; 
 and the king and the richest men drink mares' milk, and the poor and the serfs 
 drink mead. There is very great strife between them ; and there is no ale 
 brewed there among the Esthonians, but there is mead enough. 
 * Before the inevitable journey no one becomes 
 More thought-prudent than he has need 
 To ponder ere his hence-going 
 What to his ghost, of good or of evil, 
 After death-day, adjudged shall be. 
 3 This is reckoned the oldest literary Anglo-Saxon.
 
 The Instability of Language. 9 
 
 ULPHILAS, ABOUT A.D. 380. 
 
 " Yah hairdyos wesun in thamma samin landa, thairhwakandans 
 yah witandans wahtwom nahts ufaro hairdai seinai. Ith aggilus 
 Frauyins anaqam ins, yah wulthus Frauyins biskain ins ; yah 
 ohtedun agisa mikilamma. Yah qath du im sa aggilus, Ni ogeith ; 
 unte sat ! spillo izwis faheid mikila, set wairthith allai mana- 
 gein."* LUKE, ii., 8. 
 
 Our English tongue has thus been traced step by step to 
 a point where only a few particles remain unchanged. If 
 now the German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish and Icelandic 
 were followed in the same manner, all would be found to 
 converge like meridians of longitude. Although the pole, 
 to continue the comparison, may never be reached, the 
 highest latitude thus far attained is the Moeso-Gothic of 
 Ulphilas. These collectively form the Teutonic or Gothic 
 subfamily of languages. Again, if the Armorican, Welsh, 
 Cornish, Manx, Irish, and Gaelic were subjected to a like 
 treatment, they would be found to point to a primitive, but 
 inaccessible Celtic. Fortunately the French, Provencal, 
 Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Wallachian can be traced 
 to a well-known source, designated by the ancient Romans 
 as the Latin Tongue. We can go one step farther, and dis- 
 cover that the Latin, Greek, Teutonic, Sclavonic, Lithu- 
 
 1 Ulfilas, a Goth and a zealous convert to Christianity, conducted a colony 
 across the Danube about A. D. 376, and obtained a settlement for them in the 
 Lower Moesia, the modern Bulgaria, whence they were sometimes called the 
 Mceso-Goths. He translated for their use the Old and New Testaments, with 
 the exception of the books of Samuel and Kings, which he omitted from a 
 belief that his people were sufficiently inclined to war already. This great 
 work, the first ever undertaken in their language, was preserved by the Visi- 
 goths as a sacred palladium until the gth century, when it disappeared. About 
 the end of the isth century, a part, containing nearly the whole of the four 
 Gospels, was discovered in an abbey in Werden, whence it was afterwards taken 
 to Prague. The Swedes captured it in 1648, and it is now preserved in the 
 University Library of Upsala, under the name of the Codex Argenteus or Silver 
 Book, the letters being of silver laid upon purple stained vellum. A fac- 
 simile may be seen in Bosworth's "Gothic and Anglo-Saxon Gospels/' London, 
 1865. A great part of the Epistles were also discovered in a monastery in 
 Lombardy in 1818.
 
 io The English Language. 
 
 anian, Celtic, Old Persian, and the dialects of the Brahmanic 
 nations of India lead to a single unknown original, whose 
 oldest representative is the Sanskrit of the Vedas. This 
 very large group, the most important of all in a literary 
 point of view, has been variously designated as the Indo- 
 Germanic, or Indo-European, but is now best known as the 
 Aryan family of languages. No valuable results have been 
 obtained by any attempt to trace its genealogy farther, or 
 to combine it with other groups in a wider classification. 
 Yet among the innumerable dialects spoken over the globe, 
 several more or less distinct family groups have been dis- 
 covered. It is unnecessary here to speak of more than one 
 of these ; but that one ranking very high in the extent and 
 importance of its literature. To it may be assigned the 
 speech of the Babylonians, Syrians, Hebrews, Arabians, 
 Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Ethiopians. The whole is 
 known as the Semitic, or Shemitish, family, from a belief 
 that the several peoples named were descended from a 
 common ancestor named Sem or Shem. These people 
 occupied a comparatively small area, and were distinguished 
 by great tenacity and fixity of ideas and habits. Their 
 languages have changed less rapidly, and so resemble each 
 other more closely, than the Aryan ; and they have been of 
 the greatest service in disclosing the general principles of 
 language. When written, they have no vowels, as we 
 understand vowels ; but their place is sometimes supplied 
 by a system of marks called vowel points. As a general 
 rule, the words are conceived to be derived from verbs, and 
 from that particular form of the verb called the third person 
 singular, masculine, perfect tense, as that is the simplest, 
 or root form. It is generally composed of three consonants 
 with two vowels between, the first a long a and the second 
 a short a. There is indeed a considerable number of two- 
 letter roots ; and there has been considerable difference of 
 opinion as to whether the first class was developed from the 
 second, or the latter abbreviated from the former. The 
 verb has two tenses, but a full system of endings for the 
 different persons. It has also a number of derivative forms
 
 The Instability of Language. 1 1 
 
 called conjugations, which bear to the original form some- 
 what the same relation that set does to sit, lay to lie, or fell 
 to fall. The declension of the noun, instead of being of a 
 house, to a house, etc., is my house, thy house, etc. ; and the 
 appended pronouns have been so far preserved that they 
 furnish a clue to the meaning and origin of declension and 
 conjugation in all other languages. The derivation of all 
 words from certain root forms, which could generally be 
 identified without difficulty, suggested to European scholars 
 the idea of tracing any other language whatever to a com- 
 paratively small number of roots.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH. 
 
 THE groundwork of English is the language of those 
 Teutonic tribes who, in the fifth and sixth centuries, over- 
 ran a great part of Britain. From the dreary sandflats and 
 fens of Sleswick, Holstein, and Friesland, poured in succes- 
 sion the Jutes, the Angles, and the Saxons. The first 
 established themselves in the fertile fields of Kent, where 
 their memory perished ; the second possessed the North 
 and East, and gave their name to all England the land of 
 the Angles ; the last founded the kingdoms of Essex, 
 Wessex, and Sussex the East, West, and South Saxons. 
 There were doubtless differences of speech among them, 
 which will account in part for the variant dialects heard 
 among the rural population of England. There are slight 
 indications that the speech of the Angles was a little more 
 like modern English than was that of the Saxons ; and the 
 Kentish tongue sounded harsh and strange to Caxton after 
 nearly a thousand years. As the invasion involved the 
 almost total extinction or expulsion of the earlier inhabi- 
 tants from the districts occupied, but few British or Roman 
 words were adopted by the conquerors. A few great Roman 
 works for which the strangers had no names, caused the 
 retention of such words as street, port, Chester, wall, and 
 mile ; the few British women reserved as household drudges 
 taught their captors their homely names for crock and mug, 
 lor maggot and spigot, for clout and cradle and bogle. Upon 
 this foundation of Anglo-Saxon there was first laid a thin 
 stratum of Latin by the Christian missionaries of the seventh 
 century, words connected chiefly with religion and morals.
 
 The Sources of English. 1 3 
 
 Next followed the inroads and conquests of the Northmen 
 and Danes, begun in the eighth century, and continued till 
 within twenty-four years of the Norman Conquest. As 
 these involved permanent settlements, and even a dynasty 
 of Danish kings of England, for twenty-five years, their 
 influence must have been very considerable. As these 
 northern nations were closely allied to the earlier conquerors, 
 especially to the Angles, upon whom they intruded them- 
 selves, their respective dialects would naturally melt together 
 and form an intermediate speech, smoothing down the 
 special peculiarities of each. And so it is found that for 
 several succeeding centuries, for which there are literary 
 remains, the dialect of the North differed considerably from 
 that of the Saxon South ; and something of that difference 
 is observable in the common speech of the people to this 
 day. The general effect of the Danish influence was to 
 shorten and simplify words that were long or of difficult 
 utterance, and dropping or shortening grammatical forms. 
 These are the natural results of combining several dialects. 
 The special results more particularly worth mentioning here 
 were : 
 
 1. The vowel-system was simplified. Saxon abounded in 
 compound vowels ae, ea, ei, ie, eo, ia, which were varied 
 by accents placed on one or another of the vowels. Especial 
 favorites were ea and eo, in which the sounds are supposed 
 to have been kept separate. I cannot but think that these 
 compound vowels added considerably to the labor and diffi- 
 culty of speech. The reader may practise upon geolewearte, 
 a nightingale, giving the letters any value he pleases that 
 will make the word easy to pronounce. The Devonshire 
 pronounciation of world, for example, weurld, and the 
 keow of rural New York are probably genuine Saxon 
 survivals. 
 
 2. The substitution of s for th comes instead of cometh 
 is due to the North country. 
 
 3. The present pronouns of the third person are northern, 
 and not the original Saxon words, as will be seen by the list 
 presently to be given.
 
 The English Language. 
 
 4. Names of places ending in -by, a dwelling or settle- 
 ment ; -wick, or -vick, an inlet ; -ey, or -ay, an island ; -holm, 
 a small island ; -thwaite, a lot of ground ; -garth, an enclos- 
 ure ; -ness, a cape ; -thorpe, village ; -toft, a field ; -with, a 
 wood ; -wark, a fortress, are Scandinavian. Zell's maps of 
 England and Scotland show 142 such names ; and these are 
 known to be far from the whole. 
 
 The following are a few words from the Lindisfarne Gos- 
 pels, A.D. 950, which are nearer modern English than the 
 Saxon of the same period : 
 
 SAXON. 
 
 axode 
 
 breost 
 
 bryd 
 
 burh 
 
 cymth 
 
 deth 
 
 duru 
 
 eart 
 
 com 
 
 feor 
 
 fixas 
 
 hi 
 
 hyra 
 
 na mara 
 
 se 
 
 scalt 
 
 seoc 
 
 slsepth 
 
 sunu 
 
 synt 
 
 ANGLIAN. 
 
 ascade 
 
 brest 
 
 bird 
 
 burug 
 
 cymmes 
 
 does 
 
 dor 
 
 art 
 
 am 
 
 farra 
 
 fisces 
 
 tha 
 
 thaera 
 
 noht mara 
 
 the 
 
 salt 
 
 sek 
 
 slepes 
 
 sona 
 
 aro 
 
 MODERN. 
 
 asked 
 
 breast 
 
 bird 
 
 borough 
 
 comes 
 
 does 
 
 door 
 
 art 
 
 am 
 
 far 
 
 fishes 
 
 they 
 
 their 
 
 not more 
 
 the 
 
 salt 
 
 sick 
 
 sleeps 
 
 son 
 
 are 
 
 The Angles seem to have been superior intellectually to 
 the Saxons. In the seventh and eighth centuries they were 
 the first of Teutonic peoples in learning and civilization. 
 Their language had made the greatest advances towards 
 modern simplicity of structure ; and the compositions of 
 Caedmonand others were so highly esteemed that the Saxons 
 of the South were fain afterwards to call their language
 
 The Sources of English. 15 
 
 English. Bede, the greatest scholar and most prolific writer 
 of the age, and Alcuin, invited to enlighten the court of 
 Charlemagne, were Angles of Northumberland. But the 
 heathen Danes and Northmen destroyed their monasteries 
 and burned their libraries ; and only fragments remain of 
 their venerable literature. 
 
 In the year 1066 the supremacy in England passed to the 
 Normans. They were originally of the same northern 
 stock that had kept England in tribulation two hundred and 
 fifty years ; but they had been settled long enough in the 
 north of France to acquire its language ; and in courtliness 
 of manners and the arts of war they surpassed all other 
 Teutonic peoples. Great as was the effect of this event, it 
 was probably less, and less direct, than is generally sup- 
 posed. French speech and manners were cultivated in 
 England before the Conquest, and the Saxon language con- 
 tinued long after it. Edward the Confessor had been 
 brought up in Normandy, and he bestowed the highest 
 places in the realm upon Norman favorites. Hume says of 
 this reign : 
 
 " The court of England was soon filled with Normans, who, 
 being distinguished both by the favor of Edward, and by a de- 
 gree of cultivation superior to that which was attained by the 
 English in those ages, soon rendered their language, customs, 
 and laws fashionable in the kingdom. The study of the French 
 tongue became general among the people. The courtiers 
 affected to imitate that nation in their dress, equipage, and 
 entertainments ; even the lawyers employed a foreign language 
 in their deeds and papers." 
 
 On the other hand, the Conquest did not exterminate the 
 Saxons, suppress their language, or abolish their customs. 
 For a conquered people their situation might have been 
 quite tolerable, if they had not risen in revolt against the 
 Conqueror. The body of the Saxon people, always very 
 greatly in the majority, were at least permitted to live, fol- 
 low their usual occupations, and speak their mother tongue. 
 The two languages were long kept distinct, as two streams
 
 1 6 The English Language. 
 
 confined in one channel will sometimes flow for a distance 
 side by side, without mingling their waters, yet at last be- 
 come inseparably mixed. The Saxon Chronicle was kept 
 up till A.D. 1 1 54, and adopted only 14 foreign words in 88 
 years. The " Ormulum," written about the year 1200, is a 
 metrical paraphrase of the Gospels, containing 20,000 
 lines. It was 130 years after the Conquest, yet the author 
 admitted only five or six French words. Layamon's " Brut," 
 written a few years later, is a metrical history of Britain, 
 largely mythical, containing 32,200 lines. Although in 
 the main a translation from the French, and so offering the 
 greatest inducement to borrow foreign phrases, it has only 
 104 French words, not counting repetitions. That is at a 
 rate of one to 309 lines. Scott's " Lady of the Lake " has 
 a ratio 400 times as great, so that the flood of French words 
 must have come into English long after the Conquest. Yet 
 we see that the " Brut " had eleven times as large a propor- 
 tion of foreign words as the earlier and more purely English 
 poem. If we then pass to the versified " Chronicle of Robert 
 of Gloucester," also a translation from the French, finished 
 about 1295, we shall find the foreign words six times as 
 numerous as in Layamon. Still they are sixty times less 
 numerous than in modern English. And yet the close of 
 the "Chronicle " comes almost to modern times. It is longer 
 after the conquest than from the accession of Charles II. to 
 the present time. Jerusalem had then been won and lost 
 by successive crusades, and Marco Polo was telling Europe 
 of the wonders of the farthest East. 
 
 Nevertheless, the Norman Conquest and the relentless 
 severity used in suppressing repeated insurrections influ- 
 enced deeply the language and institutions of England. 
 But the influence of the French was complicated with that 
 of the Latin tongue. Latin was the language of the Church 
 and of religion through all western Europe ; and as few 
 laymen were educated, reading and writing were mostly the 
 work of ecclesiastics, and in great part Latin. In England 
 Gildas, who had seen the Saxon invasion, wrote a short history 
 in Latin, and Bede, in the eighth century, composed forty-
 
 The Sources of English. 17 
 
 one separate treatises in that language. Almost everything 
 of grave and solemn importance was written in Latin down 
 to the fifteenth century. This continual use of Latin by 
 the learned naturally prevented the cultivation of the native 
 tongue. 
 
 So long as Saxon and Norman remained ununited, Nor- 
 man-French was the language of the king and his court, of 
 the swarms of adventurers that came over seeking lucrative 
 places in England of the only society that possessed power 
 or influence and dictated the fashions. It was required to 
 be employed in all schools, and thus made the only medium 
 through which other learning could be acquired. The pro- 
 ceedings in Parliament and the courts of justice, all public 
 acts, charters, and documents from the Conquest to the 
 thirty-sixth year of Edward III., a period of 296 years, were 
 required to be in the same language. At that time Edward, 
 having good reason for desiring to make one united people 
 from the discordant races under his sceptre, had it enacted 
 that for the future all pleadings in courts should be in Eng- 
 lish, but the court records in Latin. Some think that these 
 records had always been in Latin. However that may be, the 
 records of the courts and the writs issued by them continued 
 to be in Latin until the fourth year of George II. It had 
 then become customary to attach to a writ a note in English 
 to explain what it was about. Notwithstanding the statute 
 of Edward III., the lawyers were so accustomed to their 
 old Norman-French that they continued to employ it in 
 making up their reports of cases adjudged ; and law reports 
 were so written until the reign of Charles II. And thus it 
 comes about that law books and proceedings are full of ob- 
 solete French and barbarous Latin. Nothing shows better 
 the small figure once made in English law by the English 
 language than legal maxims those gems of juridical wisdom 
 all compact, gathered by the industry, and polished by the 
 wit of eight centuries. Out of 2,169 given in Bouvier's " Law 
 Dictionary," 2,037 are ' m Latin 31 in French, and 101 in 
 English. 
 
 But, to return to the effects 01 the Conquest, the Saxon
 
 1 8 The English Language. 
 
 language was depressed as much as Norman-French was 
 exalted. A great part of the native nobility and gentry per- 
 ished either in the first shock of battle or in the repeated 
 revolts and disturbances that followed ; or they were com- 
 pelled to go into exile. Nearly all positions of honor, 
 power, or profit were conferred upon Normans. The Saxons 
 were crushed, despised, and impoverished by taxes, fines, 
 and a sweeping confiscation of estates. To the exactions of 
 the early Norman kings were added the arrogance and out- 
 rages of the Norman barons. The " Anglo-Saxon Chronicle " 
 gives the following graphic account of the state of things in 
 the reign of Stephen. I preserve the quaint old phraseology 
 so far as it can be made intelligible : 
 
 " When the traitors understood that he was a mild man and 
 good and soft and executed not no justice, then did they all 
 wonders. They had made homage to him, and sworn oaths, and 
 they no truth held not. All they were forsworn, and their troths 
 forlost. For every mighty man made his castles and held against 
 him, and filled the land full of castles. They tasked sorely the 
 wretched men of the land with castle works. .When the castles were 
 made, then filled they them with devils.nd evil men. Then took 
 they the men that they weened had any goods, both by night and 
 by day, men and women, and did them in prison after gold and 
 silver, and pined them with unspeakable pining ; for there never 
 were no martyrs so pined as they were. They hanged men up by 
 the feet and smoked them with foul smoke. They hanged men 
 by the thumbs, and others by the head, and hung corselets on 
 their feet. They did knotted strings about their heads, and 
 writhed them together that it went to the brains. They did them 
 in prison wherein were adders, snakes, and paddocks, and killed 
 them so. Some they put in the torment-house, that is in a chest 
 that was short, narrow, and un-deep, and did sharp stones therein, 
 and squeezed the man therein and brake all his limbs. In many of 
 the castles were 'lof & grin ' that were rack-irons, that two or three 
 men had enough to carry one, that was so made, that is fastened to 
 abeam. And they did a sharp iron about the man's throat and 
 neck, that he might not nowhitherwards, nor sit, nor lie, nor sleep, 
 but bear all that iron. Many thousands they killed with hunger.
 
 The Sources of English. 19 
 
 " I can not nor I may not tell all the wonders that they did 
 wretched men in this land. And that lasted the XIX winters 
 while Stephen was king ; and ever it was worse and worse. They 
 laid tributes on the towns every now and then and called it ten- 
 serie. When the wretched men had not nothing more to give, 
 then they reaved them and burned all the dwellings ; and well thou 
 mightest fare all a day's fare and shouldest thou never find man 
 abiding in a house, nor land tilled. Then was corn dear, and 
 flesh and cheese and butter, for none was not in the land. 
 Wretched men died of hunger. Some went on alms that erewhile 
 were rich men, and some fled out of the land." 
 
 No literature except a chronicle of horrors could thrive 
 amid such surroundings. Accordingly with the exception of 
 the above " Chronicle," the scanty remains of English litera- 
 ture are chiefly a few homilies in prose and verse, without vigor 
 of thought, elegance of expression, or elevation of sentiment. 
 The wisdom and the long reign of Henry II., did much to 
 advance England as a nation and prevent the oppression of 
 one race by another. Thenceforward each generation saw 
 the parting chasm closing up. Still in regard to language 
 French had everything in its favor, and was almost as indis- 
 pensable to a person of any ambitious aspirations as English 
 now is to the native acres of India. Higdon, writing in the 
 time of Richard II., shows the general eagerness to learn 
 French : 
 
 " Also gentlemen's children are taught to speak French from 
 the time that they are rocked in their cradles, or able to play with 
 a child's brooch ; and country people try to ape the gentry, and 
 eagerly desire to speak French, so as to be taken more account of. 
 This practice has lately somewhat changed. For John Cornewal, 
 a teacher of Grammar, changed the instruction in the Grammar 
 School from French to English ; and Richard Pencrych learned 
 that way of teaching from him, and other men from Pencrych ; 
 so that now, in the year of Our Lord one thousand three hundred 
 and eighty-five, the ninth of the second king Richard after the 
 conquest ; in all the Grammar Schools of En gland children leave 
 French and construe and learn in English."
 
 2O The English Language. 
 
 All this time in the seclusion of the monasteries a con- 
 siderable number of historical and other works, sometimes 
 taking a very wide range, were written in Latin. Higdon 
 himself wrote in that language, and the names of Geoffrey 
 of Monmouth, Henry of Huntingdon, John of Salisbury, 
 Mathew of Paris, Roger of Wendover, and William of 
 Malmesbury may be instanced. 
 
 About the year 1200 were written two poems, widely dif- 
 ferent from each other, but far superior to anything of the 
 kind since the early Anglican Caedmon, and both of great 
 importance for the study of early English. A monk named 
 Ormin composed a long poem on the Jewish and Christian re- 
 ligions, and called it the " Ormulum," in imitation of his own 
 name. He must have been a man of very strongly marked 
 individuality, for he undertook not only to write in purely 
 Saxon English, but also to write phonetically, by doubling 
 the consonant after every short vowel. This was the last 
 considerable work that made any attempt to exclude French. 
 I give here a very short specimen. 
 
 " & nu ice wile shaewenn 3uw 
 
 summ-del wij>]> Godess hellpe 
 Off J>att Judisskenn follkess lac 
 
 ]>att Drihhtin wass full cvveme, 
 & mikell hellpe to )>e follc, 
 
 to laeredd & to laewedd, 
 Biforenn fatt te Laferrd Crist 
 
 was borenn her to marine." 
 
 And now I will show you 
 
 Something, with God's help 
 Of that Jewish people's worship 
 
 That to the Lord was very acceptable 
 And much help to the people, 
 
 To learned and to unlearned, 
 Before that the Lord Christ 
 
 Was born here a man. 
 
 The other poem, entitled " The Brut," was by a priest 
 named Lasamon (pronunciation uncertain, oftener written
 
 The Sources of English. 
 
 21 
 
 Layamon). It is a mythical history of Britain from the sack 
 of Troy to King Athelstan. Brut is a descendant of ^Eneas, 
 \vho after incredible adventures lands in Britain, to which 
 he gives its name. The poem is an amplified translation of 
 a Norman-French poem of the same name ; itself a transla- 
 tion from the Latin original by Geoffrey of Monmouth. 
 
 " pa 3et spaec Haengest : 
 Lauerd ich wulle fin iwil : 
 & don al mine dsede : 
 Nu ic wulle biliue : 
 & asfter mire dohter : 
 & sefter ohte mo#nen : 
 and J> u 3if me swa muchel lond : 
 swa wule anes bule hude : 
 feor from aelche castle : 
 ***** 
 
 Of J>ere hude he kaerf enne 
 
 Jnvong : 
 
 ne sfe J> wong noht swiSe braed : 
 }>a al islit wes ]>e ]>ong : 
 a-buten he bilaede : 
 
 Then yet spoke Hengist : 
 
 Lord, I will thy pleasure : 
 
 And do all my deeds : 
 
 Now I will quickly : 
 
 And after my daughter : 
 
 And after brave men : 
 
 If thou give me so much land : 
 
 As will a bull's hide : 
 
 Far from each castle : 
 
 ***** 
 
 Of the hide he cut a thong : 
 The thong was not very broad : 
 When slit was all the thong ; 
 And about it spread around : 
 
 cnihten alre hendest. 
 
 dri3e her & ouer-al. 
 
 sefter Jrine raede. 
 
 sende after mine wiue. 
 
 J>e me is swa deore. 
 
 fa bezste of mine cunne. 
 
 to stonden a mire a3ere hod. 
 
 aelches weies ouer-sprseden. 
 
 amidden ane ualde. 
 
 ***** 
 
 swiSe smal & swifte long. 
 
 buten swulc a twines f raed, 
 he wes wunder ane long, 
 muche del of londe." 
 
 of all knights courtliest, 
 do here and everywhere, 
 after thy counsel, 
 send after my wife, 
 that to me is so dear, 
 the best of my kinsmen, 
 to stand in my holding, 
 each way overspread, 
 in midst of a wood. 
 
 ***** 
 
 very small and very long, 
 but such as a thread of twine, 
 it then was wondrous long, 
 a mighty deal of ground. 
 
 From this time onward translations and imitations of 
 French works became more and more frequent, and have
 
 22 The English Language. 
 
 never once ceased to this day. In the thirteenth century 
 French had become the literary language of Europe ; and 
 nearly all that was worth reading for amusement was derived 
 from that source. It is not from the Norman conquerors 
 but from seven centuries of contact with French literature 
 that we receive the greater part of the French words in our 
 language. Mr. Kington Oliphant says of the period from 
 1 220 to 1303: 
 
 " English was cast aside as something vulgar, and nearly every 
 cultivated writer in our island betook himself to French or Latin ; 
 our tongue almost lost its noble power of compounding, and 
 parted with thousands of old words. A very few translations 
 from French and Latin kept a feeble light burning during these 
 baleful years. In Age III., 1280-1303, English writers transla- 
 ted copiously from the French, though they gave birth to noth- 
 ing original ; they thus stopped the decay of our fast perishing 
 language, and French words in shoals were brought in to supply 
 the place of the English lost." 
 
 But it is not words alone that we have thus acquired. 
 French examples have influenced our pronunciation, spell- 
 ing, and grammatical and literary forms. The following are 
 a few of the most easily distinguishable features due in 
 whole or in part to French influence : 
 
 1. The prevalence of the hissing sound with which our 
 language is reproached the sounds which we represent by 
 sh, ch, and j, the sibilant sound of c, the almost universal 
 ending of the plural in s, the verbal ending in s goes and 
 speaks instead of goeth and speaketh. 
 
 2. The loss of the guttural sound represented in Saxon by 
 //, and in later English by gh. 
 
 3. The loss of a very useful character j>, and the substitu- 
 tion of two letters (tft) in its place. 
 
 4. Ownership expressed by of " the house of the planter," 
 instead of " the planter's house." 
 
 5. Comparison of adjectives by more and most "the 
 most beautiful," instead of Carlyle's " beautifullest." 
 
 6. The placing of the adjective after the noun, or giving
 
 Tfu Sources of English. 23 
 
 it a plural form sign manual, letters patent, courts martial, 
 Knights Templars. 
 
 7. You instead of thou. 
 
 8. The union of a verb and noun drawbridge, cutpurse. 
 They are not very numerous; and the latest coinages 
 know-nothing, push-cart, grip-sack, do not make us wish them 
 more plentiful. 
 
 9. The anomalous expressions ; " It is me" " That's him" 
 
 10. Rhyme and the modern system of versification. The 
 earliest English poetry depended neither on rhyme, accent, 
 nor measure, but on alliteration, that is, identity of initial 
 sounds. This was natural with the Saxons and Scandinavi- 
 ans, because, as a rule, all words were accented on the first 
 syllable. In an old poem on the deluge, God says to Noah : 
 
 dalles ther-inne, & ^alkes ful mony, 
 2?oth ^oskes & <5oures, & wel fcmnden penes ; 
 For I schal ze/aken up a water to ze/asch alle the worlde." 
 
 Two populations of kindred blood and a common worship, 
 and occupying the same country, could not remain separate 
 and hostile forever. Social and family ties began slowly to 
 draw together Saxon and Norman. The wisdom and vigor 
 of some of the Norman kings, the baseness and imbecility 
 of others the generosity, bravery, and wrongs of Richard, 
 the futile tyranny of John, the splendid victories of Crecy 
 and Poictiers and the sight of two captive kings in London 
 at once diverted the thoughts of men from the question of 
 race, and taught them to sympathize, resist, and feel a com- 
 mon pride together. It was during the fourteenth century 
 that the varied population of England became one people, 
 speaking one language, still easily understood by the intelli- 
 gent reader. In this age of rapid transit and sudden revo- 
 lution we are struck with the slowness of progress a few 
 centuries ago. It was two hundred and ninety-seven years 
 after the Conquest that Edward III., in his anger against 
 France and desire to unite all his subjects against that 
 nation, abolished the use of the French language in legal 
 pleadings and public acts. Still time was necessary to give
 
 24 The English Language. 
 
 full effect to the law, and the oldest public document in 
 English preserved in Rymer's " Federa" is twenty-three years 
 later. We have seen, too, that English was not admitted 
 into the schools until the reign of Richard II. 
 
 What, then, was the character of this early English, and 
 of what elements was it composed ? As the great body of 
 the people were Anglo-Saxon, we may safely infer on a very 
 general principle that they furnished the framework of the 
 language. If a people whose principal intercourse is with 
 each other have occasion to borrow words from a second 
 people they will be chiefly names of things, especially of new 
 things for which they could have no native names, just as 
 we have picked up such words as caravan, indigo, chintz, 
 manna, alkali, bamboo, gorilla, jalap, canoe, moccasin. Next 
 they would adopt words expressing actions, especially pro- 
 cesses unknown before, and lastly words expressive of qualities. 
 The little words that express nothing by themselves, but 
 are of wondrous convenience the, he, it, any, what, why, in, 
 to, of, if, and, but, though, yet, the winged words that save 
 labor, the articles and particles that express time, number, 
 relations, and conditions there would be no need to borrow. 
 People are satisfied with what they have already. Of the 
 hundreds of words which our present English has borrowed 
 from extra-European sources, all but three are names, or 
 what grammarians call nouns. Of these three, two shampoo 
 and tattoo are verbs, that is, express actions. The third 
 taboo is an adjective, an expression of quality sacred or 
 devoted to the gods. So of 600 French words found in 
 " Robert of Gloucester," 386 are nouns, 140 verbs, 68 adjec- 
 tives, and 6 of all other kinds. The last six are all made of 
 nouns or nouns and particles ; and only two of them because 
 and piecemeal are still in use. This will give a fair idea of 
 the kind of words, grammatically, that were introduced from 
 French and Latin. 
 
 Another effect of commingling languages would take the 
 form of loss and not of acquisition. A word, while still re- 
 maining the same word, may have little appendages affixed to 
 the beginning or the end, or it may undergo internal changes.
 
 The Sources of English. 25 
 
 boy boy-s ox ox-en 
 
 sing sing-s child children 
 
 love loved speak spoken 
 
 This phenomenon is known by the general name of inflexion ; 
 and some languages have much more of it than others. In 
 some a word may have several hundred or even a thousand 
 forms ; and in such cases a knowledge of them forms the 
 greatest part of what is called grammar. English has now 
 only remnants and traces of a system once much more 
 extensive. Both Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French had in- 
 flexional systems much more largely developed, but quite 
 unlike and incapable of combining to any great extent. The 
 greater part was dropped altogether. When people under- 
 stand each other imperfectly they cannot preserve a multi- 
 tude of niceties. The ear catches the essential part of the 
 word, and gives little heed to the ever changing termination. 
 This neglect was the more effective as the accent was gen- 
 erally near the beginning of each word and the termination 
 pronounced indistinctly. The colored race in this country 
 when first emancipated afforded an amusing illustration of 
 this. They could not be got to utter the parts of words 
 that preceded or were far from the accent. Ascription, 
 description, inscription, prescription, were all alike scription 
 and nothing more. 
 
 It is often questioned which is the best preserved part of 
 a language, and, consequently, the best evidence of ancient 
 relationship, the words or the grammatical forms. This 
 question, I think, does not admit of a general and absolute 
 answer. Much depends on circumstances. The principle 
 might be presented in the form of a supposed case. If people 
 of two races A and B, capable of friendly union, be placed 
 together on an island, a mixed language will result. Suppose 
 the people of A to outnumber those of B ten to one, but the 
 intelligence of B to be ten times the greatest ; and further 
 suppose them so far intermingled that the learned B's talk 
 chiefly with the ignorant A's ; then the grammatical system 
 of A will survive in a simplified form, and words will be bor-
 
 26 The English Language. 
 
 rowed from B, according to necessity or fancy. Much de- 
 pends on the relative numbers brought into intimate contact. 
 There are instances of small numbers belonging to ancient 
 races, scattered among large populations, who retain more 
 or less of their ancestral words, which they use according to 
 the grammatical system of the country. The Armenians 
 scattered through Asia Minor are said to use native words 
 with a Turkish grammar. A German Jew will say to his 
 wife : " Ich habe noch haiyom lo ge-ackalt. " " I have not 
 eaten anything to-day yet." I distinguish the Hebrew por- 
 tions by italics, but the structure of the sentence is purely 
 German. A very interesting example is furnished by the 
 gypsies, who have a considerable vocabulary of their own, 
 but are too much scattered to maintain a grammatical ays- 
 tern. In Spain their grammar is Spanish. All their verbs 
 are of the first Spanish conjugation, which they follow in all 
 its great extent and complexity. In England they adopt the 
 very simple structure of the English language. The follow- 
 ing is from a song of the English gypsies given by George 
 Borrow : 
 
 " We jaws to the drab-engro ker, 
 
 Trin /ivrsevsorih there of drab we lels, 
 
 And when to the swety back we ivels, 
 
 We pens we '11 drab the baulo." 
 
 We goes to the poison-master's house, 
 Three pennyworth there of poison we buys, 
 And when to the folks back we comes, 
 We says we '11 poison the pig. 
 
 Here are merely single gypsy words in a setting of pure 
 English. The grammar is furnished by the majority ; the 
 words by those who know most. And again, words are 
 gathered by wide intercourse ; grammatical forrns are de- 
 veloped by isolation. People who go round the world in 
 sixty days will not wait to transform a single word into a 
 thousand shapes. 
 
 Having seen that the words adopted by the English were 
 chiefly significant ones, representing things, actions, and
 
 The Sources of English. 2 7 
 
 qualities, we may next inquire, for what kind of things, 
 qualities, and actions they found it necessary to borrow 
 words from French and Latin these two being almost in- 
 separably connected. The necessity arose from two causes 
 the loss of native words, and the access of new objects 
 and ideas. 
 
 We may assume that any language, however limited and 
 threadbare, can, by combining, recombining, and modifying 
 its words, develop expressions for all human thoughts. Yet 
 all cannot do this equally well. We know the unlimited 
 copiousness of modern German ; and Anglo-Saxon, a sister 
 tongue, might, under favorable circumstances, have become 
 equally rich. There was a considerable literature before the 
 Conquest, and, by compounding the native words, writers 
 were able to say all that they had occasion for. They had 
 especially an ample stock of words for representing the 
 emotions and ethical ideas. I do not raise the question here 
 whether those words would always commend themselves to 
 our eyes or ears, but they served the purpose intended. But 
 after the Conquest, literature ceased almost wholly. Only a 
 very few cloistered monks read and wrote. Books and the 
 language of books were forgotten. The great body of the 
 Saxon people were in the condition of a low type of farm 
 laborers ; and it is but a small part of a language that such 
 people have occasion for. Marsh thinks that one half of the 
 language had disappeared before the year 1300.' Successive 
 literary specimens show an ever decreasing native vocabulary, 
 deficiencies being supplied at will from French or Latin. But 
 the condition of the Saxons left them at liberty to preserve 
 a multitude of words belonging to every-day rustic life, which 
 are still heard in every hamlet and rural district where the 
 English tongue is spoken. The names for the family rela- 
 tions and the domestic animals are Saxon. I give here some 
 examples of a more miscellaneous character, merely to show 
 
 1 "A careful examination of several letters of Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Dic- 
 tionary gives, in 2,000 words (including derivatives and compounds, but excluding 
 orthographic variants), 535 which still exist as modern English words." 
 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica, viii., 390.
 
 28 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 more distinctly the kind of words that serfs and rustic labor- 
 ers were in a condition to preserve : 
 
 land 
 
 tree 
 
 sickle 
 
 to hew 
 
 hill 
 
 grass 
 
 spade 
 
 to delve 
 
 dale 
 
 hay 
 
 rake 
 
 to sow 
 
 marsh 
 
 fodder 
 
 axe 
 
 to reap 
 
 field 
 
 thistle 
 
 hammer 
 
 to mow 
 
 meadow 
 
 nettle 
 
 nail 
 
 to thrash 
 
 sand 
 
 bramble 
 
 saw 
 
 to winnow 
 
 day 
 
 briar 
 
 loom 
 
 to live 
 
 loam 
 
 thorn 
 
 oats 
 
 to bake 
 
 dung 
 
 fern 
 
 wheat 
 
 to brew 
 
 furrow 
 
 dike 
 
 barley 
 
 to watch 
 
 ridge 
 
 ditch 
 
 straw 
 
 to wed 
 
 wood 
 
 stile 
 
 chaff 
 
 to spin 
 
 water 
 
 harrow 
 
 honey 
 
 to weave 
 
 well 
 
 scythe 
 
 wax 
 
 to sew 
 
 From the Norman-French and the early French romances 
 and songs were naturally derived a multitude of words such 
 as are used by the wealthy and governing classes, relating to 
 government, law, war, hunting, dress, furniture, and amuse- 
 ments. The following are a few of the words introduced 
 before A.D. 1300 : 
 
 amour 
 
 conquer 
 
 homage 
 
 palfrey 
 
 armor 
 
 countess 
 
 honor 
 
 park 
 
 arson 
 
 court 
 
 jest 
 
 parlor 
 
 ball 
 
 crown 
 
 jewel 
 
 parliament 
 
 banner 
 
 dame 
 
 judgment 
 
 pavilion 
 
 baron 
 
 dress 
 
 jugglery 
 
 peerage 
 
 battle 
 
 duke 
 
 lance 
 
 prison 
 
 castle 
 
 empire 
 
 madam 
 
 ransom 
 
 chamberlain 
 
 enemy 
 
 mantle 
 
 renown 
 
 champion 
 
 ermine 
 
 marshal 
 
 rent 
 
 chancellor 
 
 falcon 
 
 messenger 
 
 sable 
 
 charter 
 
 galley 
 
 miniver 
 
 scarlet 
 
 chess 
 
 gentleman 
 
 noble 
 
 tower 
 
 chivalry 
 
 governor 
 
 palace 
 
 venison
 
 The Sources of English. 29 
 
 While the difference here exhibited is very general, we 
 need not expect anything in language to be carried out con- 
 sistently. Knighthood, the very crown and blossom of Nor- 
 man Chivalry, is Saxon, while the flail with which the rustic 
 thrashed his barley, was French-Latin. 
 
 It has often been pointed out that, while the names of the 
 domestic animals, ox, cow, calf, sheep, swine, are Saxon, their 
 flesh, as an article of food, bears the French names, beef, 
 veal, mutton, and pork, with the apparent implication that the 
 Saxons merely raised their flocks and herds for others to eat. 
 While that may be true in part, I do not think it the imme- 
 diate or the principal reason. No doubt the Normans 
 called the animals, whether alive or dead, by French names, 
 and were most immediately interested in them when brought 
 to the table, but what did the Saxons call them in that 
 state ? If they had any special names, they were probably 
 oxna-flcssc, nedt-flcesc, cealf-flcesc, sceop-fl&sc, swin-flcesc, in 
 analogy with modern German ; but the men who knit 
 together the bones and sinews of the present English gener- 
 ally left out long Saxon compounds, not because they were 
 Saxon, but because they were clumsy. Or if the Saxons 
 had no distinctive terms for the flesh of the animals, the 
 greater was the necessity for preserving the French names 
 and restricting their meaning. We have here, as in so many 
 instances, words of similar signification, but from different 
 sources, preserved and assigned different duties. 
 
 Did space permit, the condition of the two peoples might 
 be outlined by naming their domestic surroundings. The 
 Norman baron dwelt in a castle, 
 
 " Hemmed in by battlement and fosse, 
 And many a darksome tower" 
 
 with its barbican and portcullis, its esplanade, court, chapel, 
 stables, and offices. Its central strength was the donjon keep 
 or dungeon, in which were the cellar and pantry, the parlors, 
 chambers, and closets. The beds were surrounded with cur- 
 tains, and the walls hung with tapestries. There the baron 
 and his guests sat on chairs and dined at a table.
 
 30 The English Language. 
 
 The Saxon churl had still his house and home, hearth-stone, 
 and roof-tree ; but they were unpretentious. The poor man's 
 dwelling had but two apartments, the Scotch but and ben 
 by-out and by-in. It had neither parlor nor chamber, cellar 
 itor garret, closet nor recess, partition nor ceiling. It had not 
 even a chimney ; its roof was of thatch, and its windows were 
 without glass mere eyes, or openings for the wind. The 
 householder might learn from the Norsemen to put up a loft 
 under the roof, to be reached by a ladder. He had neither 
 chair nor table, but sat on a bench, a stool, or a settle, and ate 
 his meat from a board. Outside might be a wort-yard where 
 potherbs grew the parent of the modern orchard, and near 
 by were the barn, the byre, and the sty. 
 
 As Latin was especially employed for the graver purposes 
 of religion, philosophy, and diplomacy, the words taken 
 directly from it, and not passed through a French filter, 
 would naturally have a character of dignity all their own. 
 Words like abstract, belligerent, conscience, desolate, eternal, 
 formula, genius, hereditary, inviolate, jurist, lunar, millennium, 
 nominalist, omniscient, perpetual, will sufficiently illustrate 
 the character I refer to. It is observed, too, that when we 
 have words from other sources for a number of individuals, 
 we often have a Latin word that includes them all. Father, 
 mother, brother, sister, son, daughter, husband, wife, child, are 
 English, but fain ily is Latin. The distinctive name of every 
 well-known living thing, or weed of field or forest, has an 
 English name, but creature, animal, beast, plant, and herb 
 are Latin. So we run, walk, leap, hop, creep, swim, ride, 
 sail, turn, wheel and reel and totter and fall in plain Eng- 
 lish ; but every motion is Latin. 
 
 From a great variety of other sources we have acquired a 
 few words, sometimes in very roundabout ways ; thus the 
 name of the muscadine grape of the South is traced back 
 through French, Italian, Latin, and Persian to Sanskrit. 
 These are relatively trifles, but it remains to speak of 
 another source of English, as important as any yet men- 
 tioned, and that is Greek. As the New Testament was 
 written in Greek, a few words, such as alms, baptize, cate-
 
 The Sources of English. 31 
 
 chism, Christ, heretic, hermit, have followed the Gospel 
 wherever preached. But with these scanty exceptions, 
 Greek was almost unknown throughout the Middle Ages, 
 outside of the ever-shrinking Byzantine empire. Learning 
 had forsaken its ancient seats, and when Pope Paul, in the 
 eighth century, sent Pepin a present of what books could 
 be found in Italy, the collection consisted of a Latin gram- 
 mar, a hymn-book, and the forged works attributed to 
 Dionysius the Areopagite. But while all real learning was 
 banished from the West, the successors of Mahomet, under 
 the guidance of the Jews and Nestorians, were eagerly 
 acquiring it in the East. While a French priest was cir- 
 culating a letter purporting to have been addressed to 
 mankind by Jesus Christ, and brought down by the 
 archangel Michael, Al Maimun at Bagdad was trans- 
 lating Euclid, measuring a degree on the meridian, and 
 determining the obliquity of the ecliptic. The Arabs 
 found useful and congenial employment in collecting and 
 translating the writings of the best ages of Greek literature ; 
 and it was through the schools of Seville, Cordova, and 
 Granada that these works found their first entrance into 
 western Europe. From Spain the revived learning spread 
 to the free cities of Italy, and from them was slowly dis- 
 seminated through Europe. Greek was first introduced into 
 the University of Oxford in 1500, eight years after the 
 discovery of America ; and it was still forty years later when 
 the first professorship was established at Cambridge. But 
 neither those early teachers nor the ancient Athenians could 
 have imagined the wide application to which the Greek 
 language was destined in naming the objects and operations 
 of modern thought. They could not have foreseen the 
 searching analysis that was to be applied to every substance 
 and movement in nature, to every tissue and function 
 disclosed by organic life, every process and product of art, 
 every operation and aberration of the human mind. He 
 who finds a new thing has a right to give it a new name; 
 and the consumption of Greek in giving names to things 
 remote from the daily thoughts of men is enormous. The
 
 32 The English Language. 
 
 words of Greek origin, including all those belonging to special 
 subjects, probably outnumber those from any other source, 
 and in English exceed those from all other sources. The 
 exact number can only be approximated ; but the following 
 is such approximation : 
 
 Descriptive of the animal kingdom 72,000 
 
 Vegetable kingdom 13,000 
 
 Sciences connected with medicine 18,000 
 
 All other subjects, perhaps 10,000 
 
 Total ii 3,000 
 
 The practice of forming scientific terms from Greek is, no 
 doubt, in part a matter of habit and fashion, but, aside from 
 these frivolous reasons, no other source would serve so well. 
 It is not because Greek is a learned tongue, or that the 
 Greeks had the words we now use. They neither had the 
 words nor any use for them. We make them to order, just 
 as we might make such a word as switch-tender-stand, which 
 is an excellent example of the kind of words we should make 
 of native material long, inelegant, and cumbersome. Greek 
 has the advantage of combining with extraordinary facility 
 into pronounceable compounds. Its consonants and vowels 
 are not gathered into solid, insoluble lumps, but very evenly 
 distributed, and upon a page are almost equal in number. 
 This, I think, is the foundation of its excellence. The 
 languages of northern Europe abound in undistributed con- 
 sonants, strz, ntzsch, Idschm, krzyz. Hence, in combining 
 several words into a new compound, each part is apt to begin 
 and end with consonants, and the result is such a word as 
 Grundungsschwindeln. Compared with such an unwieldy 
 leviathan the longest term in Greek is a plaything. Skoro- 
 dopandokeutriartopolis ripples along as pleasantly as a sum- 
 mer brook on a pebbly bed ; and the farrago of Aristophanes, 
 that contains 169 letters, moves so trippingly on the tongue 
 that one might dance to it. We may illustrate this modern 
 use of Greek by the familiar word geography, from ge, earth, 
 and graph, write ; literally earth-writing. We see at once
 
 The Sources of English. 33 
 
 that the word we actually use is much neater than its Saxon 
 equivalent. It is next observed that between the parts an o 
 is inserted, that belongs to neither. The privilege of inserting 
 at pleasure a connecting vowel facilitates greatly the making 
 of new compounds. In this way we form just as easily 
 geology, geodesy, geognosy, geogeny, geometry, geonomy, geo- 
 phagy, and about 140 others, easily distinguished, easily 
 pronounced, and to the learned of all nations disclosing 
 their meaning at sight. It is even an advantage that their 
 structure is seen only by the learned. They are thus kept 
 to the form and signification intended, and are not corrupted, 
 frittered away, and applied to whatever might happen. 
 Dinotherium is literally terrible beast ; but the English 
 equivalent could not possibly be kept as the name of a 
 particular animal. 
 
 There are patriotic persons who lament the loss of every 
 Saxon word, and deem it matter of deep regret that our 
 language ever admitted foreign elements. I do not, to any 
 great extent, share their grief. With words as with men, 
 present usefulness and good qualities far outweigh ancestral 
 pedigree. Sugar is not less sweet, nor is its name harsher 
 to tongue or ear, because it is a stranger from Arabia. We 
 cannot, indeed, be quite sure how a language would sound 
 that we never actually heard ; but, so far as I can judge 
 from its appearance, Saxon seems to have been a cumbrous 
 affair. While in no case more facile than modern English, 
 it was often far more unwieldy. Take a few examples of 
 the more unmanageable words : 
 
 daeghwamlican daily 
 
 leorning-cnihtas pupils, scholars 
 
 msegen-thrymnesse glory 
 
 modstatholnesse fortitude 
 
 onbesceawian oversee 
 
 unanbindendlicum inseparable 
 
 I do not question but that words of any desired power 
 might be constructed in this way, if only made sufficiently 
 3
 
 34 The English Language. 
 
 long and unpronounceable. Russian and German show 
 what can be accomplished with native material. Here are 
 a single Russian word and half a dozen German : 
 
 Bolotnoperemezhdayushchagosya 
 
 Erschiitterungssphare 
 
 Geschwindigkeitsmesser 
 
 halbkreisformiges 
 
 Grubenschienenbahnwarter 
 
 Kriegsverpflichtungsamt 
 
 Verwandtschaftsnamen 
 
 The German comes as near as possible to making his word 
 a sentence and his sentence a metaphysical disquisition. 
 The German language is unquestionably an instrument of 
 great power ; but its power is a little like that of the bow of 
 Ulysses, which was chiefly famed for the difficulty of using 
 it, and was not half so effective as a Winchester rifle. Eng- 
 lish has been saved from such productions as those just 
 exhibited, and been made what it is by a thousand years of 
 living contact with other peoples and tongues. 
 
 If it be said that Saxon words might have been simplified 
 by time, as many of their modern representatives really are, 
 I answer that such a change was no doubt possible, but would 
 it have taken place without the constant presence and pres- 
 sure of foreign models? No such simplification has taken 
 place in Russian or German. And further our words of 
 Saxon origin are easy because they are short, and we have 
 given up making them into long combinations. Looking 
 then merely to the past and present qualities of the English 
 language, I cannot but regard the Norman conquest as a 
 great blessing. 
 
 The English language has profited by its multifarious 
 acquisitions because it has transformed them all after its own 
 image. All but a few of the simplest words have been recast, 
 and are no longer Saxon, Norse, Welsh, French, Latin, or 
 Greek, but English. Every language has a character of its 
 own a scale of sounds, an accentuation, a rhythm and
 
 The Sources of English. 
 
 35 
 
 cadence, a set of beginnings and endings, and a whole 
 mechanism of speech peculiar to itself so that a good ear 
 may distinguish one language from another without knowing 
 a word of them. If our words had been preserved in their 
 native forms, we should have an unspeakable piebald jargon 
 instead of the harmonious unity seen in the Bible and the 
 works of Lord Macaulay. It is well that our fathers followed 
 the example of the diligent bees, that gather the juices of 
 every flower and combine them into a homogeneous whole, 
 sweet, nutritious, and wholesome. Our words are often so 
 transformed that their own mothers would not know them ; 
 and the average English speaker can no more distinguish 
 them according to origin than he can the children of the 
 Saxon and the Norman. Here are 60 words from 24 different 
 sources, and none but the scholar would know that they are 
 not all equally native-born : 
 
 barrel 
 
 chest 
 
 frolic 
 
 muslin 
 
 skunk 
 
 basket 
 
 cider 
 
 giant 
 
 myrtle 
 
 slag 
 
 bishop 
 
 clinker 
 
 ginger 
 
 paper 
 
 spigot 
 
 block 
 
 cradle 
 
 girl 
 
 peach 
 
 squirrel 
 
 blue 
 
 crease 
 
 gum 
 
 pepper 
 
 swindle 
 
 bonnet 
 
 dirt 
 
 hemp 
 
 queer 
 
 talk 
 
 boy 
 
 dish 
 
 hurricane 
 
 rose 
 
 tea 
 
 brindled 
 
 dog 
 
 husband 
 
 rum 
 
 trowel 
 
 candle 
 
 dog-cheap 
 
 jacket 
 
 sable 
 
 vampire 
 
 carpenter 
 
 elm 
 
 kale 
 
 sabre 
 
 viper 
 
 cedar 
 
 fellow 
 
 lamp 
 
 sack 
 
 vow 
 
 cheese 
 
 fog 
 
 measles 
 
 silk 
 
 whiskey 
 
 At present the disposition is to maintain foreign words 
 with all their foreign peculiarities unimpaired, as if it were 
 more important to preserve their original nationality than to 
 make them good citizens. The only reason of any perceptible 
 force is the desirability of preserving the pedigrees of words ; 
 but that is a matter that interests only the small number 
 who have no need of such aid. We can scarcely avoid 
 believing that the outlandish words are sprinkled in, and 
 their unfamiliar sounds imitated to display the elegant
 
 36 The English Language. 
 
 acquirements of the writer or speaker. Far the greater 
 number are French, and so have the least possible harmony 
 with English. Why should such expressions as denouement, 
 couvre-pied, coup d'ceil, be forced upon the English reader or 
 hearer ? They are unnecessary, and jar upon a sensitive ear 
 like discords in music. They are the stock-in-trade of inferior 
 writers, and especially female novelists. The writer of " Robert 
 Elsmere " might have taught all she had to teach and more, 
 without introducing similar uncouth expressions 1 80 times in 
 one small volume. 
 
 Several estimates have been made of the relative number 
 of modern English words derived from different sources. In 
 the last century George Hickes estimated on the narrow basis 
 of the Lord's Prayer, that nine tenths of our words were still 
 Saxon. Widely different was the conclusion of Sharon 
 Turner, that the Norman were to the Saxon as four to six. 
 Dean Trench computes that 60 per cent, are Saxon, 30 per 
 cent. Latin, including those received through a French chan- 
 nel, 5 per cent. Greek, and 5 scattering. M. Thommerel, by 
 counting every word in the dictionaries of Robertson and 
 Webster, obtained the result that of a sum total of 43,566 
 words, 29,853 were of Greek or Latin origin, 13, 230 Teutonic, 
 and 483 from all other sources. These discordant computa- 
 tions seem to overlook the fact that many words that may be 
 conveniently called hybrids cannot properly be charged to 
 any particular source. They are of three classes. The first 
 and largest consists of compound words like penman, peacock, 
 pyroligneous, aldehyde, the parts of which are taken from dif- 
 ferent languages ; the words of the second are derived from 
 proper names, as Cartesian, Flemish, dahlia ; and a few are 
 of uncertain origin. 
 
 Skeat's Etymological Dictionary contains a little over 
 13,000 words, as it excludes generally obsolete and local 
 words, derivative forms, and the technical terms of the more 
 unfamiliar sciences. A classification of its contents, omitting 
 a few duplicate forms, will give a very fair idea of the sources 
 of the words employed in general literature and conversation. 
 They are :
 
 The Sources of English. 37 
 
 Anglo-Saxon and English 2,863 
 
 Low German 1 16 
 
 Dutch of the Low Countries 187 
 
 Scandinavian 688 
 
 High German, of all periods 221 
 
 Teutonic, indeterminate 90 
 
 Celtic languages 351 
 
 Latin 2,094 
 
 Latin through French 3,545 
 
 Latin through other channels 341 
 
 French, not traceable farther 129 
 
 Proven9al (cJiarade) i 
 
 Italian 43 
 
 Spanish 25 
 
 Portuguese (cocoa, dodo, emu, yam) 4 
 
 Greek, adopted directly and indirectly ^388 
 
 Slavonic languages 14 
 
 Lithuanian (talk] i 
 
 Hungarian (hussar, sabre, shako, tokay] 4 
 
 Turkish 14 
 
 Persian 77 
 
 Sanskrit 39 
 
 Hebrew 72 
 
 Syriac 8 
 
 Chaldee (raca, talmud, targum) 3 
 
 Arabic 107 
 
 Other Asiatic languages 53 
 
 Oceanean 5 
 
 African languages 24 
 
 American languages 46 
 
 Hybrid words 419 
 
 Unknown . 21 
 
 Total 12,993 
 
 But a great part of these words are rarely met with, being 
 either obsolete or confined to some special art or science. 
 The vocabulary of almost any single author would show a 
 much larger native element. 
 
 The proportion of words from each of the principal
 
 38 The English Language. 
 
 sources varies greatly, according to the subject and the 
 mental habit and associations of each speaker. Country 
 folk talk in Saxon of their farms, crops, and families ; ladies 
 of "society" prefer a liberal seasoning of real or supposed 
 French ; literary people and those who aim at being sarcas- 
 tic use a great many words derived from Latin ; and scientific 
 specialists abound in Greek. 
 
 Several methods have been proposed for analyzing the 
 styles of different writers, but chiefly with a view to showing 
 the extent of the native element, without further distin- 
 guishing the others. One method has been to select a pas- 
 sage, arrange the several words as in a dictionary, and count 
 each one once. It is objected to this plan that a word that 
 occurs only once, and so has little effect on the general 
 style, counts for as much as one repeated a hundred times. 
 It has therefore been proposed as a second method to count 
 each word as it stands on the page, making " the " perhaps 
 equal 30, and " flocculent," I. The results of these two meth- 
 ods would be very different. But the words of most fre- 
 quent occurrence are little ones that by themselves suggest 
 no idea ; and these are always native English and are always 
 present, whatever the style may be. They are a constant 
 element, and, if counted, disguise the actual differences of 
 style. There is therefore a third resource, to count only 
 the significant words those that represent things, actions, 
 and qualities, including those secondary qualities that de- 
 scribe actions and other qualities, as rapidly, slightly. To 
 make this clearer let us take a sentence and italicize the 
 significant words : 
 
 " Many cabals were formed, loud complaints were uttered, and 
 desperate resolutions taken ; but before they proceeded to extremi- 
 ties they appointed some of their number to examine the powers in 
 consequence of which the cardinal exercised acts of such high 
 
 authority" 
 
 ROBERTSON : " Charles V." 
 
 Here are 40 words, of which just one half are insignifi- 
 cant and such as have to be used by every one. Of the
 
 The Sources of English. 39 
 
 other 20 cabal is Hebrew; loud, high, uttered, and taken 
 are native English, and the remainder derived from Latin, 
 either directly or through a French medium. According to 
 the second method of computation the native words are 
 60 per cent. ; by the third they are 20. The last method 
 is the one adopted in the following table, which is calcu- 
 lated on a basis of 200 significant words divided into 
 two classes, native and foreign. Proper names are passed 
 by altogether. The numbers give the percentage of native 
 words. 
 
 Kentish Sermon A.D., 1250, 92 ' 
 
 Havelock the Dane " 1300, 87 
 
 Sir John Mandeville ' J356, 69 
 
 Chaucer, Prologue, Cant. Tales " 1390, 58 
 
 Wycliffe (Luke xx.) " 1389, 70 
 
 Tyndale (Luke xx.) " 1526, 63 
 
 Authorized Version (Luke xx.) " 1610, 64 
 
 Ghost's Story in Hamlet " 1600, 49 
 
 Bacon, Essay 29 " 1612, 30 
 
 Dryden (prose) " 1683, 29 
 
 Dr. Johnson " 1748, 24 
 
 Gibbon " 1776, 18 
 
 Hawthorne " 1853, 43 
 
 Macaulay (History) " 1848, 33 
 
 Dasent's Translation of the Gisli Saga. . " 1846, 81 
 
 The native English element underwent a pretty steady 
 decline from the age of Edward the Confessor to the close 
 of the last century, reaching the lowest point in the ponder- 
 ous sentences of Gibbon, in some of which every significant 
 word is Latin : 
 
 " From such laudable arts did the valor of the Imperial troops 
 receive a degree of firmness and docility unattainable by the impetu- 
 ous and irregular passions of barbarians" 
 
 In the present century there is a reaction against this 
 mlemn, labored style and in favor of a freer use of native 
 English. The result has been a style more crisp, fresh, and
 
 40 The English Language. 
 
 direct. The writer who, so far as I know, has carried this 
 use of English furthest is Dr. Dasent, distinguished by his 
 illustrations of Icelandic literature. As a contrast to the 
 style of Gibbon I present a passage from his translation of 
 Njal's Saga, introducing a famous chief and warrior Gunnar 
 of Lithend : 
 
 " He was a tall man in growth, and a strong man best skilled 
 in arms of all men. He could cut or thrust or shoot if he chose 
 as well with his left as with his right hand, and he smote so 
 swiftly with his sword, that three seemed to flash through the air 
 at once. He was the best shot with the bow of all men, and never 
 missed his mark. He could leap more than his own height with 
 all his war-gear, and as far backwards as forwards. He could 
 swim like a seal, and there was no game in which it was any good 
 for any one to strive with him ; and so it has been said that no 
 man was his match. He was handsome of feature, and fair 
 skinned. His nose was straight, and a little turned up at the 
 end. He was blue-eyed and bright-eyed, and ruddy-cheeked. 
 His hair thick, and of good hue, and hanging down in comely 
 curls. The most courteous of men was he, of sturdy frame and 
 strong will, bountiful and gentle^ a fast friend, but hard to please 
 when making them." 
 
 The simpler the ideas are, and the nearer to every-day life, 
 the greater the share of English words that may be used. 
 
 Sentences made up wholly of native words are common 
 enough in conversation, but are rare in books, except in the 
 Bible. See as examples Job xxxi., 21, 22 ; John i., 1-4. 
 
 Sentences containing no native English words are still 
 rarer. Here is an attempt at constructing one : 
 
 " Injudiciously profuse eleemosynary aid, defeating benevolent 
 intentions, frequently stimulates voluntary pauperism." 
 
 The question how large a part of their native tongue most 
 people know is answered by Professor Max Miiller in his 
 usual clear and decisive manner : 
 
 " A well educated person in England, who has been at a public 
 school and at the university, who reads his Shakespeare, the
 
 The Sources of English. 41 
 
 Times, and all the books of Mudie's Library, seldom uses more 
 than about 3,000 or 4,000 words in actual conversation. Accu- 
 rate thinkers and close reasoners, who avoid vague and general 
 expressions, and wait till they find the word that exactly fits their 
 meaning, employ a larger stock ; and eloquent speakers may rise 
 to a command of 10,000. The Hebrew Testament says all it has 
 to say with 5,642 words ; Milton's works are built up with 8,000 ; 
 and Shakespeare, who probably displayed a greater variety of 
 expression than any writer in any language, produced all his 
 plays with about 15,000 words." 
 
 " Lectures on Language," lee. vii. 
 
 This is not precisely saying how many words we know, but 
 as eloquent speakers may only rise to the command of 10,000, 
 it may be fairly presumed that common folk could not use so 
 many if they would. The qualifications of his lowest class 
 are so high, that most cultured Americans would certainly be 
 limited to not more than 4,000 words. Very few of us have 
 had the advantages enumerated. But approaching the ques- 
 tion from another side, we find Webster's Dictionary 
 edition of 1890 professing to contain over 1 1 8,000 words. 
 Joining these two points, we should reach the remarkable 
 conclusion that a moderately educated American is ac- 
 quainted with less than -fa of his mother tongue, which is 
 manifestly and widely erroneous. The term word is not 
 used in the same sense by both authors. The Oxford pro- 
 fessor is doubtless a better guide in this than the American 
 lexicographer. The enormous number of words stated in 
 the Dictionary gives a false impression. Some of these 
 words are completely obsolete, others are still entirely foreign 
 expressions, others again are restricted to particular arts 
 or sciences, and form no part of the language of ordinary life 
 or literature. Examples of these words which might prop- 
 erly be omitted are : qa ira, bedagat, cackiri, caimacan, cous- 
 cous, Davyt, dawm, dendrocolaptes, doand, couzeranite, Ich 
 dien, ad quod damnum, (Zgrotat,pulmonibranchiate, angiomono- 
 spermous. Many words are merely various spellings of the 
 same. Many are repeated as nouns, adjectives, verbs transi- 
 tive and verbs intransitive. Winter and water are each
 
 42 The English Language. 
 
 counted as three words. The obsolete dogly is made to do 
 duty as two words, and the equally antiquated dorr as seven. 
 Words are drawn out in long array by means of suffixes and 
 combinations. The simple word delight counts for 16 ; 25 
 combinations are made with honey ; and water is an element 
 in 203. Some of these combinations are such as well-water, 
 well-borer, winter-apple, winter-wheat, which every one can 
 make for himself ad libitum and ad infinitum. Most of 
 these words may be very properly placed in the Dictionary, 
 but their reiteration gives an undue air of immensity to the 
 language. On 40 pages taken at random I find 2,741 words, 
 of which 357 may be reckoned as obsolete, foreign, or tech- 
 nical expressions. Of the remainder 1,635 are repetitions, 
 derivatives, or compounds, that retain the primitive significa- 
 tion, leaving 749 really distinct words. Then taking my own 
 knowledge, as the only measure of the general intelligence 
 that can be applied, I find 209 with which I am not ac- 
 quainted, which is less than one third () of the primary 
 words, or one eleventh (yV)> including the derivatives and 
 compounds. The outcome of all which is that instead of 
 knowing but an insignificant fraction of our language, we 
 are more or less familiar with over five sixths ($) of the words 
 and forms of words available for general literary purposes 
 and daily use ; also that with the above limitations Webster's 
 great Dictionary probably does not contain more than 30,000 
 independent words.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE PROVINCE OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 ENGLISH grammar has long been defined as the art of 
 speaking and writing the English language correctly. One 
 of the text-books used in the public schools of this city calls 
 it more ambitiously, " the science which teaches how to speak 
 and write the English language correctly." The claim is a 
 large one, and not to be conceded without inquiry. " Our 
 language," says Professor Whitney, " like every other, is 
 made up of words." Of these, Webster's Dictionary, edi- 
 tion of 1890, professes to contain "an aggregate of upward 
 of 118,000." One who knows all these thoroughly, or even 
 20,000 of the most necessary, and how to use them, possesses 
 the art of speaking and writing the English language cor- 
 rectly. The art should certainly include a knowledge of the 
 words themselves. Let us see : we may select almost any 
 word and inquire what the grammatical text-books have to 
 tell us about it. We may take the word theatfe, and inquire 
 its origin and history, its meaning, its form theatre or the- 
 ater, its pronunciation theatre or thedtre. As a mere word, 
 this is nearly all that we care to know about it. To all 
 these questions, a good dictionary will furnish answers; a 
 grammar will give none. From the grammatical text-books 
 we may infer one point as probable that when we speak 
 of more than one such establishment we should add an s. 
 But that simple fact is known about as well by the street 
 Arab as by the graduate of the highest schools. In justice, 
 however, it must be conceded that when such a distinction 
 is uniform, or nearly so, a considerable labor of search is 
 saved by assuming it to hold good, and taking the chances. 
 
 43
 
 44 The English Language. 
 
 Unfortunately the assumption would fail us just where it is 
 most needed in unfamiliar words, as anas, amaryllis, incubus, 
 polyergus. No grammar will help us to distinguish the lum- 
 bar region from the lumber region, or discriminate between 
 the expressions, to differ from and to differ with, so that in 
 nearly all cases of difficulty we must have recourse to the 
 dictionary and not to the grammar. . 
 
 If lion were the name of the male of a certain species of 
 animal, and lioness were the female, and the same held good 
 universally, it would be quite convenient, as on learning one 
 form of the word we could readily infer the other. But this 
 relation is of so rare occurrence, that a knowledge of it is of 
 no practical value. Again, in Arabic for example, in words 
 of more than one syllable the last never has the accent ; if 
 the next to the last ends in a consonant or written long 
 vowel, it is accented ; otherwise, the second from the last. 
 Here the whole system of accentuation for the language may 
 be expressed in a single sentence. Icelandic is still simpler 
 in that respect, for there the first syllable is always accented, 
 be the word long or short. But no such absolute rules 
 obtain in English, where the accent of each word must be 
 learned by itself. In short, ours is a language of exceptions 
 and irregularities, in which the dictionary counts for every- 
 thing, the grammar, almost nothing. But if, from the irreg- 
 ularities of our language, grammatical rules are of narrower 
 scope than in some others, we shall find that we have less 
 use for them. It has been hinted above that plural names 
 names of more than one have generally an s added to dis- 
 tinguish them. There might well be other additions or 
 changes corresponding to modifications in the meaning of 
 words. In point of fact there are a few such in English. 
 The orderly presentation of these changes in names gram- 
 marians call declension ; in words expressing action of any 
 kind, it is called conjugation ; and these comprise the larger 
 part of grammar. Professor Max Miiller says rather abso- 
 lutely, " What is grammar after all but declension and con- 
 jugation ?" It is unquestionably true that they constitute 
 the greatest part of all that is of immediate practical value.
 
 The Province of Grammar. 45 
 
 But some languages may be richer in varying forms and 
 require more declension and conjugation than others. In 
 English a name, or noun, as it is called, may assume four 
 forms, thus : 
 
 man men 
 
 man's men's 
 
 None present a fuller declension than this, and few are so 
 complete. If boy had been selected instead of man, while by 
 orthographic expedients four forms might have been pre- 
 sented to the eye boy, boys, boys, and boys', to the ear there 
 would have been but two. So in other languages some of 
 what are theoretically different forms are no longer dis- 
 tinguishable ; but, counting the full number, a Latin noun 
 has 12 variations, a Greek 15, a Hebrew 26, while a Hunga- 
 rian or Magyar, with its various affixes, admits of 1,154 com- 
 binations. Or, if we take such a qualifying word as earthen, 
 or English, which with us has only one form, its synonym in 
 Latin might have 36, and in Greek 45 variations. Again an 
 English verb never has more than 8 distinct forms, and sel- 
 dom more than half that number in actual use. Of the 
 entire system, as write, writest, writeth, writes, writing, 
 wrote, wrotest, written, three are practically obsolete ; while 
 far the greater number have in use only four forms, as sail, 
 sails, sailing, sailed. In contrast with this scanty stock, the 
 Spanish verb presents (theoretically) 120 variants ; the Latin 
 444; the Greek according to Kuehner's Grammar, 1,138, ac- 
 cording to Professor Miiller the round sum of 1,300; the 
 Hebrew 246; and the Arabic over 2,100; while Professor 
 Whitney cites the Rev. T. Hurlbut as saying that he had 
 ascertained by actual computation that an Algonkin verb 
 admits of 17,000,000 variations. If then grammar be merely 
 declension and conjugation, which is not far from the truth, 
 it plays comparatively a very insignificant part in English. 
 All the irregularities of our language are more than compen- 
 sated by the extreme paucity of its grammatical forms. It 
 is almost as grammarless as Chinese, in which no written 
 word is ever varied by a single stroke or dot, and when
 
 46 The English Language. 
 
 spoken admits of only a change of tone. The weary hours 
 and years spent by our youth in parsing English sentences 
 according to forms borrowed from Greek and Latin are 
 worse than wasted useless for the avowed purpose of learn- 
 ing to speak and write, and leading to a misapprehension of 
 what our language is. Professor Whitney, in his " Essen- 
 tials of English Grammar " says, " Nor is the study of the 
 grammar of one's native tongue by any means necessary in 
 order to acquire correctness of speech. Most persons learn 
 good English in the same way that they learn English at all 
 namely, by hearing and reading." The same opinion is 
 probably held now by all competent persons who have given 
 the subject attention. We know, too, that many of the 
 masterpieces of human literature, in languages incomparably 
 more intricate than ours, are the work of men who had never 
 heard of grammar as either a science or an art. All that is 
 most prized in Greek literature was written before any book 
 on grammar had been seen west of the Euphrates. Only 
 two peoples of all the world, the Hindoos and the Greeks, 
 originated the idea of analyzing their languages and codifying 
 their peculiarities. The former had the priority in time, and 
 the superiority in analytical acuteness. To learn to write 
 and speak correctly was not the object of either. They 
 could do that already ; but both wished to preserve unaltered 
 their oldest and most revered writings. The Brahmin re- 
 garded the hymns of the Veda as no mere human composi- 
 tions, but only seen in vision and copied by the ancient 
 Rishis. To him the correct pronunciation and accent of a 
 syllable might determine his salvation. Hence immense 
 labor was spent in observing and noting the form of every 
 word and the recurrence of every change. In the fourth or 
 fifth century before Christ, and long before the invasion of 
 Alexander, the Hindoos had traced all the words of the 
 Sanskrit to 1,706 roots, and determined the particles and 
 affixes with which they were combined, and all the outlines 
 of grammar as now understood. The thought of grammar 
 had not yet occurred to the Greek. Plato, in his philosoph- 
 ical speculations and with no view to correctness of style,
 
 The Province of Grammar. 47 
 
 divided words into nouns, onomata, and verbs, rhemata ; 
 although we are left in the dark as to what each class con- 
 tained. He was also acquainted with the distinction between 
 vowels and consonants. Aristotle, for merely rhetorical pur- 
 poses, added the classes of conjunctions and articles, but by 
 the latter he meant pronouns and relatives. This is as far as 
 Greek grammar advanced in its native country. 
 
 But before Hindoo or Greek had made the analysis of his 
 language the nations of Chaldea had compiled dictionaries 
 and grammars for the more practical purpose of learning a 
 language not their own. The great kingdoms of which we 
 read in the Bible had been preceded by a cultivated people 
 of wholly different speech a people devoted to science and 
 literature, who had left behind them considerable writings, 
 or rather printings. The speech of that early people was to 
 those who came after what Latin was to Europe for so many 
 ages, and text-books were prepared for learning it. Modern 
 explorers find fragments of those ancient grammars among 
 the ruins of the royal libraries of Sargon and Assur-bani-pal. 1 
 
 Early civilization had three chief, and perhaps independent, 
 centres of development, China, Chaldea, and Egypt. The 
 first two had but little influence on the rest of the world ; 
 but Egypt, lying on the Mediterranean, the great highway 
 of nations, was the mother of western science, whose cradle 
 was rocked by the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies. 
 
 In the new city of Alexandria men of all climes, from 
 India to Spain, and from Mount Atlas to Norway, met and 
 exchanged the products and ideas of their countries. The 
 halls of the great Museum were, thronged with more than 
 10,000 students. The director, Demetrius tPhalereus, had 
 orders to collect all the writings of the world for its 
 libraries. The copies of the old Greek classics were found to 
 
 1 Sargon I. looms in the dim distance like the figures of Haroun Al-Raschid, 
 Charlemagne, and Alfred. Assur-bani-pal is celebrated by Arrian and Nicolaus 
 of Damascus as ' ' Sardanapalus, King, and son of Anacyndaraxes, who built two 
 cities in one day, Anchialus and Tarsus." He was really the son of Essar-had- 
 don and grandson of Sennacherib II. (Kings xix., 37), the prototype of Louis 
 XIV., and among other things a munificent patron of learning.
 
 48 The English Language. 
 
 contain various readings. Out of these the scholars of the 
 Museum undertook to publish critical editions. This neces- 
 sitated a minute study of the text. Zenodotus, the first 
 librarian, about B.C. 250, detected and pointed out the per- 
 sonal pronouns and the singular, dual, and plural numbers. 
 Nearly a century later Aristarchus discovered the preposi- 
 tions. In all this there was no thought of developing an 
 art to teach people how to use their mother-tongue. But 
 when it became the fashion for the young Roman gentry to 
 learn Greek, as the moderns do French, a necessity arose for 
 systematic analysis. How could the 1,138 parts of the 
 Greek verb be reconciled with the meagre ^/j/] of the Latin, 
 unless they were tabulated and explained. This work was 
 reserved for Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus, who 
 came to Rome as a professor of Greek in the century before 
 the Christian era. For convenience he reduced the sub- 
 stance of his lectures to book form the earliest European 
 treatise on grammar, and still extant. From this work the 
 distinctions and terminology of the Greek language were 
 afterwards, by translation and mistranslation, applied to the 
 Latin. The Latin language was stretched upon the iron 
 bedstead of the Greek, as the languages of modern Europe 
 have long been racked on that of the Latin. 
 
 The ideas of grammar were not applied to English until 
 about the time of the Tudors, and then under the impression 
 that every human dialect could be laced in the harness of 
 the Latin. The first text-books used in the schools were 
 written in that language, and designed, not so much to 
 teach English as grammar in the abstract, as applicable alike 
 to all. They of course taught only Latin. The most 
 famous of these early grammars was that of William Lily, 
 first printed in 1542 by express authority of Henry VIII., 
 and long known as " King Henry's Grammar." Although 
 called simply " A Grammar," and not the grammar of any 
 particular language, it was not only written in, but related 
 exclusively to, Latin. And when the same author subse- 
 quently published a dense black-letter volume with the 
 deceptive title of " Lilie's English Grammar," it was but a
 
 The Province of Grammar. 49 
 
 collection of the rules of the Latin strung on a thin thread 
 of English text. The first really English grammar was 
 claimed by William Bullokar, who published in 1586 "A 
 Bref Grammar for English/' which he said was " the first 
 Grammar for English that ever waz except my Grammar at 
 large." Since that time there have been English grammars 
 innumerable, not a few of them written in Latin, as those 
 of John Wallis and Charles Cooper, in the time of William 
 and Mary, and with rare exceptions ignoring the real source 
 and character of the grammar of the language. 
 
 Even so late as 1796 the greatly improved grammar of 
 Thomas Coar, published in London, filled its pages with 
 diagrams like the following: 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 NOM. a house NOM. houses 
 
 GEN. of a house GEN. of houses 
 
 DAT. to a house DAT. to houses 
 
 Ace. a house Ace. houses 
 
 Voc. O house Voc. O houses 
 
 ABL. with a house ABL. with houses 
 
 It would have been quite as easy and rational to have 
 added a dozen more prepositions, or to have omitted the 
 most of these, but that this was the scale recognized in 
 Latin. Eminent men, not the authors of systematic treatises 
 on grammar, have sometimes furnished valuable suggestions. 
 Roger Bacon pointed out the folly of trying to explain 
 words by reference to some remote language with which 
 they had no connection. Locke expressed his conviction 
 that all words, if they could be traced to their sources, 
 would be found to have originally denoted visible objects,, 
 their sensible qualities and actions. Following up this hint, 
 John Home Tooke published in 1786 his famous " Epea 
 Pteroenta," or " The Diversions of Purley," a work of singu- 
 lar acuteness and ingenuity, designed to show that all our 
 little words of scarcely perceptible signification if, and, 
 but, although, etc. are the relics of once substantial nouns 
 and verbs, and that their source is to be sought, not in 
 
 4
 
 50 The English Language. 
 
 Greek and Latin, but in the earlier forms of English and 
 the closely allied languages. Although from rashness and 
 imperfect knowledge, Home Tooke was often wrong in his 
 derivations, and would be a very unsafe guide, still he 
 pointed the way for all subsequent investigators. 
 
 The first grammarians, as Dionysius, undertook to teach 
 the signification, the spelling, and the pronunciation of 
 words; but that has long since been turned over to lexi- 
 cographers. This leads to consider again the distinction 
 between the two classes of books. The dictionary treats of 
 single words, and one at a time. When it has told us all it 
 has to say of any word, as almanac, boom, yacht, we are not 
 thereby helped to understand the next word that occurs. 
 The grammar, on the other hand, deals with classes of facts 
 or of words, and points out their distinctive agreements and 
 differences. In the sentence " The swallow flies about catch- 
 ing flies" the word flies occurs twice, presenting no differ- 
 ence to the eye or the ear. The grammarian sees a difference 
 in the meaning or application, and should at least try to 
 discover whence came the s that is common to both. By vary- 
 ing the above illustration we might say, " Two swallows 
 fly in pursuit of one^fj/." The curious question would then 
 be presented why the form that is singular for nouns is 
 plural for verbs, and the reverse. Whatever result the 
 grammarian might reach in this case would be equally appli- 
 cable in thousands of others, and would be recognized as a 
 general principle or rule. If the ed in march^ refers to the 
 past, so it does in other words, and if its history and signifi- 
 cance be discovered in one case, the discovery is equally 
 good for all. Grammar then treats of everything relating to a 
 language that can be reduced to general facts, principles, or 
 rules. It has to deal chiefly with the various forms assumed 
 by the same words. This is, in English, a very narrow field, 
 but extremely rocky. 
 
 Grammar, like botany or mineralogy, is a purely descrip- 
 tive science. The duty of the grammarian is not to invent 
 or create, but to state and classify the facts as he finds them. 
 What is true of nothing else is true of language, that whatever
 
 The Province of Grammar. 5 1 
 
 is is right. Expressions may be intricate, awkward, incon- 
 sistent with other expressions, difficult for the tongue or 
 harsh to the ear, but so long as they are the unmistakable 
 symbols of certain ideas, they answer their purpose. But 
 there may be different and conflicting expressions for the 
 same idea. One class of speakers say them is, while another 
 say those are. The grammarian may indeed point out that 
 the latter phrase is the most consistent with general usage, 
 and is employed by the most careful speakers, and there- 
 fore preferable ; but if the former were the sole recognized 
 form, we should have to put up with it ; and it would be as 
 absurd to object that it was ungrammatical as to accuse 
 some wild-wood flower of being unbotanical. 
 
 But it may be objected, " If grammar does not make rules 
 for the government of language, and people can learn to 
 speak and read without it, what is its use?" I readily 
 admit that these considerations deprive it of a fictitious im- 
 portance long attached to it, but it still retains a real value 
 rarely thought of. That great body of knowledge known as 
 learning is valuable indirectly rather than directly. By it 
 are formed habits of calm, thoughtful observation and dis- 
 crimination that modify the whole character of man. If a 
 savage could be induced to give his attention for half an 
 hour to the drawing of a circle, to the equality of its radii, 
 its relation to the hexagon, the ratio of its inscribed and 
 circumscribed squares, he would be a little less of a savage 
 all his life after. All honest pursuit of knowledge has this 
 humanizing effect. The world has more faith to-day in 
 its men of science than in its princes, prelates, and states- 
 men ; and yet a great part of science has no practical appli- 
 cation. It requires but a small part of astronomy to find a 
 ship's place at sea, or locate a boundary, and that small 
 part is about all that touches his material interests. Minute 
 examinations of protoplasm, of annelids and bacteria, are 
 commended as science, even by men who would scout phi- 
 lology as a waste of time upon " mere words." Yet if man is 
 the highest of earthly creatures, and language his most dis- 
 tinctive attribute, that too may merit some attention. Sir
 
 52 The English Language. 
 
 Samuel Baker thought he could distintinguish nine distinct 
 caJls a language in embryo used by the baboons of 
 Abyssinia ; and Dr. Charles A. Abbott claims to have 
 found twenty-seven separate caws among the American 
 crows. 1 The verification of these cries would be esteemed as 
 a valuable contribution to natural history, even if we should 
 never have occasion to converse with crows or baboons. A 
 much higher interest attaches to the study of language. 
 Like everything else in these days, it is the result of growth 
 and development under conditions and laws that can be in 
 part ascertained. Each word has a pedigree reaching back 
 to the times of the paleolithic cave-dwellers. The philolo- 
 gist may be compared to the geologist found poring over a 
 gravel bank or a ridge of disjointed stones, who explains to 
 the curious wayfarer that each pebble or block has a history 
 of its own a part of the history of our planet. Not one of 
 them is a native of this place, or has the form it once bore. 
 They have been torn from their distant beds by successive 
 convulsions or slow upheavals, rolled for ages in currents of 
 water until their angles are worn off, borne across seas by 
 drifting ice, or dragged snail-pace over the land by glaciers. 
 Here, side by side, lie fragments of granite and quartz, with 
 silurian slates and limestones, breccias, porphyry, and basalt. 
 We can trace the track of some ; and were our knowledge 
 complete we could find the distant source of each. From 
 the mould overlying some, their coming must have been 
 long ago. Somewhat similar is the position of language. 
 
 It has been intimated already that the chief part of gram- 
 mar is declension and conjugation, and that these in English 
 are scanty. Indeed, our language offers but the scattered 
 remains of an inflexional system. In this respect the inflec- 
 tional systems of Latin and Greek, for example, might be 
 likened to skeletons set up in a museum, bloodless and life- 
 less, indeed, but with every bone and joint in its place. On 
 the other hand, English presents only here and there a bone, 
 so broken and worn as to be identified with difficulty and 
 only by comparison with the appropriate skeleton. 
 
 1 Popular Science Monthly, vol. xxv., p. 475.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 WORD MAKING. 
 
 THE reading public, at least of this country, owe much to 
 Professor Max Miiller. He has furnished them a great 
 amount of philological information in a very attractive form, 
 and he has given every one something that he can take 
 exception to. Among others is the dictum that " No man 
 ever invents an entirely new word." It is true, indeed, that 
 the scholar, with a wealth of words, ancient and modern, will 
 rarely contrive a new combination of sounds, which would 
 necessarily be unintelligible. But pure invention comes of 
 poverty rather than of riches, and those who have fewest 
 words have the greatest temptation to invent. Little chil- 
 dren often form new combinations, that become for a time 
 household words, while a few obtain a wider circulation. 
 The very illiterate are prone to do the same, and it is prob- 
 able that many low words, like bamboozle, cavort, doggerel, 
 splurge, scalliwag, and mulligrubs, originated in this way. 
 Mormon, now familiar to the whole world, is an entirely fac- 
 titious word. Persons with no lack of words occasionally 
 amuse themselves by contriving new ones. Opodeldoc is an 
 invention of Paracelsus, and Decandolle, the Swiss botanist, 
 devised sepal to designate a division of the calix of a flower. 
 The word quiz was introduced by the keeper of a Dublin 
 theatre named Daly, on a bet that a new word of no mean- 
 ing would become the town-talk in twenty-four hours. He 
 gained the wager by setting boys to chalk the word upon 
 walls. Van Helmont proposed two new words gas, to de- 
 note a form of matter then attracting attention, and bias for 
 a supposed influence of the stars. The world having use for 
 
 53
 
 54 The English Language. 
 
 the word gas, and not for its fellow, the former has had uni- 
 versal acceptance, the latter total neglect. Darwin or Huxley 
 could not find a clearer case of survival of the fittest. Still, 
 with few exceptions, all the words we are likely to meet with 
 are made up of modifications or combinations of previous 
 words. 
 
 Doubtless there was a time when all the words of our early 
 ancestors were few and simple, each consisting of a single 
 vowel a, i, o a vowel preceded by a single consonant do, 
 be, go, no, say or a combination of the two, as ado, ego, era, 
 In many languages the words are still chiefly made up of 
 alternate consonants and vowels. In all the Polynesian 
 tongues no syllable ends with a consonant, and two conso- 
 nants never come together. The words are formed on the 
 pattern of ta-bu, Ta-hi-ti, la-ve-na, Ho-no-lu-lu. In many of 
 the native American languages this habit is quite observable. 
 In 50 pages of the Hidatsa Dictionary of Dr. Matthews I 
 find but 30 syllables that end with consonants. Many other 
 languages show a dislike to certain consonantal endings. 
 Every Chinese word is a single syllable, ending either with 
 a vowel or a nasal. Greek admitted no final consonants 
 except n, r, and s ; the French suppresses many in pronun- 
 ciation ; and modern German discards the sounds of final b, 
 d, g, v, and z. It is probable that wherever several conso- 
 nants come together intervening vowels have been suppressed. 
 
 In respect to signification, these earliest words were prob- 
 ably nouns, adjectives, or verbs that is, they represented 
 things, qualities, or actions indifferently as occasion might 
 require. If we say that a man brings a saw&nd a jaw-horse 
 to saw a load of wood, we employ the same word succes- 
 sively as noun, adjective, and verb. In English, this free- 
 and-easy way of playing at rights and lefts is very common 
 and very convenient, as when we say a bean-pole and a pole- 
 bean, a cart-horse and a horse-cart. In Chinese, which is the 
 most primitive form of human speech, and therefore one of 
 the most instructive, every word is of one syllable, and every 
 syllable a word, unchangeable except in the tone of utter- 
 ance ; and grammatical distinction is unknown. Thus ta, as
 
 Word Making. 55 
 
 a noun, is greatness ; as an adjective, great ; as a verb, to 
 grow or be great ; and as an adverb, greatly. Of these 
 primary Chinese monosyllables there are reckoned 450, and 
 it is thought that no language has a much larger number of 
 ultimate elements. 
 
 These primitive syllables are often called roots, as many 
 of them have produced abundant crops of derived words. 
 We may get an idea of a root sufficient for our present pur- 
 pose by taking such a series as corn-pel, d\s-pel, ex.-pel, im- 
 pel, pro-pel, re-pel, and calling pel a root with the sense of 
 drive. The other syllables in this instance are termed pre- 
 fixes ; if they followed the root, they would be called suffixes. 
 The root itself may undergo changes, as in com-//-sory, im- 
 pul-s\vQ. As the same root may run through a large family 
 of languages, it can sometime^ be traced in several thou- 
 sand combinations. The same prefixes and suffixes may be 
 attached to many different roots : thus zw-tend, z'#-spire, in- 
 fliction. 
 
 While the earliest words, no doubt, represented material 
 visible things, their qualities and actions, one may see, by 
 turning over the leaves of a dictionary, how they become 
 freighted with secondary and figurative meanings. In this 
 way all terms for abstract and immaterial things are ob- 
 tained. The original meaning is often lost sight of, and the 
 derived alone remains. Thus spirit once meant only breath 
 in-spire and ex-pire, to breathe in and breathe out compre- 
 hend was to grasp and hold together, and disgust was a bad 
 taste in the mouth. At a very early period, too, a few roots 
 must have assumed a pronominal character. They became 
 hieroglyphic or short-hand expressions, denoting in them- 
 selves neither things, qualities, nor actions. They were in 
 signification such words as here, there, this, and that, accom- 
 panied no doubt with the act of pointing with the finger. 
 But while we should naturally expect our first ancestors to 
 have busied themselves like Adam in giving " names to all 
 cattle," it is remarkable to observe that the tendency of 
 research in the most developed languages the Aryan and 
 Shemitic is to show that the oldest words that can be
 
 56 The English Language. 
 
 reached represented, not things, but qualities and actions. 
 Still we must remember on the other hand that the vedic 
 hymns and the martial ode of Debprah are relatively little 
 nearer the beginning of things than we are. 
 
 I have said that Chinese retains the most primitive char- 
 acter, consisting of single syllables, every one uttered sepa- 
 rately as a child begins to read. Most other peoples think 
 this too slow. Not content with learning to do a thing, they 
 want to do it quickly and with little labor. Let us take a 
 French sentence as an example " Tu as ce que il te faut" 
 No Frenchman utters this as seven separate words. What 
 he does say is something like, " Tua skeelt fo," and his whole 
 language is similarly compressed. The motive is to so great 
 an extent the saving of labor that laziness has been recog- 
 nized as one of the chief factors in the production and con- 
 fusion of tongues. Words that happen to be used often 
 together come to be combined and pronounced as one. This 
 is a gradual process in which we easily distinguish three 
 steps. In brick house we have two distinct words, but brick 
 has become an adjective descriptive of house ; in work-house 
 two words are treated as one, but to show that they are not 
 yet perfectly consolidated, a hyphen (-) is placed between 
 them. The first part is uttered forcibly, the second lightly. 
 The greater stress is called accent, and the two parts have 
 but one that is, they are accented as one word. When we 
 come to householder we are no longer notified that the parts 
 were ever separate. Under which of the three forms we 
 shall find any combination depends on length and frequency 
 of use. Turnspit is written without, and turn-table with, a 
 hyphen, because the English people have been much longer 
 used to roasting meat on a spit than to turning railroad cars 
 on a table. 
 
 But laziness will not rest here. Compound words must 
 next be shortened. The Danes have a pair that are very 
 handy faster, a father's sister, and moster, a mother's sister. 
 Comparable to these are the gaffer and gammer, for grand- 
 father and grandmother, that used to be commonly heard in 
 the West of England. To take a few more miscellaneous
 
 Word Making. 57 
 
 examples, the Portuguese coin moidore is moeda de ouro ; 
 priest is reduced from presbuteros, bishop from episcopos, and 
 alms from eleemosune. Our simple word which once had an 
 / in it, and the Saxons commonly called it hwilc, which was 
 itself an abbreviation, the fuller form being hwilic, what-like. 
 If we go back to the fourth century we shall find that the 
 Goths had a still fuller form, hweleiks. Our fathers in the 
 days of the great Alfred, in praying for their " daily bread," 
 took time to call it daeghwamlican hldf. Let us see what 
 we have made of these two words. We will take the last 
 first. We have thrown away the initial h, turned the Saxon 
 long a according to our wont into a long 0, and now write 
 the word loaf. From the more formidable looking word we 
 have dropped the termination an, the g of daeg, a day, and 
 hwam, meaning each. We have also reduced lie, like, to the 
 now unmeaning ly. Taking these successive amputations in 
 the order named, we should see the word as daeghwamlican, 
 daeghwamlic, daehzvamlic, daelic, daely. These changes were 
 not all made in a day. The tendency here illustrated is not 
 exceptional. All languages that are at all developed are full 
 of it. In fact that is what development means. The effect 
 is sometimes curious. We will take as an example the 
 French aujourd'hui, meaning now, to-day. First separate 
 it into aujour d' hui ; next observe that au = a le = Latin 
 ad ilium, that jour is from the Latin diurnus, that d' = de, 
 and hui is Latin hodie = hoc die. Treated in this manner it 
 can be stretched out into the very low Latin of ad ilium 
 diurnum de hoc die. In like manner m$me is discovered to 
 be a desiccated preparation of semetipsissimus. But such 
 choice specimens are not confined to French. Old authors 
 give an English phrase of the seventeenth century which 
 they write muskiditti, meaning much good may it do you ; and 
 Shakespeare has godigode'n for God give you a good even. The 
 modern editions naturally give it quite incorrectly ; see 
 " Romeo and Juliet," Act iii., Scene 2. But the masterpiece 
 of all is the one most common. The final m of the house- 
 maid's hourly Yesm is all that remains of the once dignified 
 me a domina.
 
 58 The English Language. 
 
 Languages differ greatly in their aptitude for forming 
 compound words. Chinese does not admit of them at all ; 
 Spanish has few of native growth ; French has less ability to 
 form them than English ; and this last has to a great extent 
 lost the habit. There are three European languages Ger- 
 man, Russian, and Greek that have almost unlimited capa- 
 bility of forming new verbal combinations. Owing to the 
 excess of consonants, German words are apt to be unwieldy, 
 like Einwanderungsgesellschaft and Unabhdngichkeitserkla- 
 rungen. In most instances each section begins and ends with 
 consonants, and, in the language of working mechanics, the 
 joints show. English labors under the same disadvantage, 
 but to a still greater extent. Milk-maid may as well be 
 deemed two words as one. It is not an indivisible whole, 
 like the Greek derivations astronomy and geology. It is 
 partly from this cause, and partly from the early acquired 
 habit of adopting French, Latin, and Greek terms, that for 
 the higher purposes of literature and science we rarely form 
 a new word from native material. English, as we know it, is 
 doubtless a very noble language ; but well it may be, for it 
 has at command all the resources of at least three. Confined 
 to the original Saxon, it would be very far from what it is. 
 
 By long use and attrition, words quite diverse in their 
 origin come to be written or pronounced alike. These 
 homonyms, as they are called, are quite numerous. The fol- 
 lowing, although less than a fiftieth part of them, will be 
 sufficient to make their character intelligible : 
 
 bay, i. Old French fai, Lat. badius, reddish brown. 
 
 2. Fr. bate, Lat. bacca^ a berry a kind of laurel tree. 
 
 3. Fr. bate, Lat. baia, an inlet of the sea. 
 
 4. Fr. abboyer, to bark. 
 cleave, i. Anglo-Saxon cleofan, to split. 
 
 2. A.-S. clifian, to adhere. 
 
 dock, i. Norse dockr, the tail to cut short. 
 
 2. A.-S. docce, a plant. 
 
 3. Old Dutch dokka, a place to lay ships. 
 fell, i. The past tense of fall. 
 
 2. A.-S. fellan, to cut or knock down.
 
 Word Making. 59 
 
 3. A.-S. fel, fierce, destructive. 
 
 4. A.-S. fell, the skin. 
 
 5. Norse fjall, a mountain ridge. 
 
 gill-, i. Norse gjolnar, the breathing organs in fishes. 
 
 2. Norse gil, a ravine. 
 
 3. Old Fr. gille, the fourth part of a pint. 
 
 4. Lat. Julia, also the ground ivy, nepeta glechoma. 
 let-, i. A.-S. latan, to permit. 
 
 2. A.-S. lettan, to hinder. 
 
 In languages having short words homonyms abound, and 
 sometimes greatly embarrass the learner. In monosyllabic 
 Chinese they are his principal difficulty. 
 
 In words like wind-mill and horse-back the elements remain 
 as complete and distinguishable as in Chinese ; but in such a 
 word as un-kind-ness there are two parts that no longer exist 
 as separate expressions. Most persons would surmise that 
 the prefix un implied negation ; but many would be puzzled 
 to assign a meaning to the suffix ness. Language is full of 
 prefixes, suffixes, and interpolated syllables and letters that 
 have no longer any independent life of their own, but cling 
 like parasites to the more obviously significant parts of 
 words. In un-sym-metr-ic-al-ly the main root of the word 
 is metr, to which are attached two prefixes and three suffixes. 
 The origin and meaning of some of these affixes can be 
 traced, of some conjectured, and of others not even guessed. 
 
 The following are the principal prefixes that occur in 
 English : 
 
 a-, i. Greek , without acephalous, amorphous. 
 
 2. Lat. a, shortened from ab, from, by, with amanuensis, 
 
 avert. 
 
 3. Lat. ad, to ameliorate, astringent. 
 
 4. Lat. e for ex, from amend from emendare, through 
 
 Old Fr. amender. 
 
 5. Gothic us, ur, Norse or, forth arise, awake. 
 
 6. A.-S. of, from adown ; A.-S. of dune, from the hill. 
 
 7. A.-S. and, over against, like Gr. avrl along. 
 
 8. A.-S. on, on, in, at afoot, aground, asleep. 
 
 9. A.-S. dn, one apace, apiece.
 
 60 The English Language. 
 
 10. K.-S.ge, without any appreciable signification aware ; 
 
 through gewaer, ywar oryewer, iwar, aware, 
 
 11. Norse at, to ado. 
 
 12. Fr. a, to achieve, from a chief, Lat. ad caput. 
 
 13. Fr. he, interjectional alas ; Fr. httas. 
 
 14. Dutch houd, hold avast, from houd vast, hold fast. 
 
 15. Dutch aan, to, towards aloof. 
 
 16. Arabic al, the apricot, introduced by the Portuguese. 
 ab-, i. Lat. ab, from abjure, aberration. 
 
 2. Lat. ad, to abbreviate. 
 abs-, Lat. abs, from abscond, abstract. 
 
 ao, Lat. ad, to access, accommodate. 
 
 ad-, i. Lat. ad admire, administer. 
 
 2. Lat. ab advance. The " d " is an interpolation of 
 about the year 1500. The word was previously 
 written avance, Fr. avancer, from Lat. ab ante. 
 adv-, Lat. ab advantage. 
 
 af-, Lat. ad affix, affidavit, affront. 
 
 ag-, Lat. ad aggregate, aggravate. 
 
 al-, i. Lat. ad alliteration, alluvium. 
 
 2. A.-S. eal, all alone, altogether, always. 
 
 3. Span, el, the alligator, i. e., el Jagarto. 
 
 4. Arab, al, the alcohol, algebra, alkali. 
 am-, i. Lat. ad ammunition. 
 
 2. Lat. in ambush. 
 
 3. Lat. am, shortened from ambi, around amputate, to 
 
 prune around. 
 
 amb-, Lat. ambi ambient, ambition. 
 ambi-, i. Lat. ambi ambiguous. 
 
 2. Lat. ambo, both ambidextrous. 
 
 amphi-, Gr. aftfpi, around, on both sides amphitheatre. 
 an-, i. Gr. av, Eng. un anarchy, anhydrous, anodyne. 
 
 2. Lat. ad annex, annul. 
 
 ana-, Gr. ava, up, back again, reverse anatomy, anagram. 
 
 ant-, Gr. avri, against antacid, antagonist. 
 
 ante Lat. ante, before antedate, antediluvian. 
 
 anti-, Gr. avri antidote, antichrist. 
 ap-, i. Gr. fX7ro f from apanthropy, aphelion. 
 
 2. Lat. ad appeal, append. 
 apo-, Gr. ano, apogee, apostate.
 
 Word Making. 
 
 61 
 
 ar-, 
 as-, 
 
 at-, 
 
 aut-, 
 
 auto-, 
 
 be-, 
 
 bene-, 
 bi-, 
 
 bin-, 
 bis-, 
 by-, 
 
 cat-, 
 
 cata-, 
 circu-, 
 circum-, 
 cis-, 
 
 CO-, 
 
 col-, 
 
 com-, 
 
 comb-, 
 
 con-, 
 
 contra-, 
 
 contro-, 
 
 coun-, 
 
 counter-, 
 
 cu-, 
 
 cur-, 
 
 Lat. ad arrive, arrogant. 
 
 Lat. ad ascend, assist. 
 
 Arab, al assegay. 
 
 Lat. ad attend, attest. 
 
 A.-S. at, Eng. at atone, i. e., at one. 
 
 Gr. avro?) self authentic. 
 
 Gr. fxvro? autocrat, autograph. 
 
 A.-S. be, a shortened form of bi, a prefix of very 
 wide application. With verbs it intensifies or 
 applies the action to some object, as in bedew, be- 
 moan, benumb. With prepositions it has little 
 force ; perhaps defines location more exactly, as 
 in before, behind, beneath. 
 
 Lat. bene, well benefit, benevolent. 
 
 Gr. inij upon, over bishop from sniffKOTto'S. 
 
 Lat. bi = dui, from duo, two biennium, bifurcated. 
 
 Lat. binus, double binocular, binoxyde. 
 
 Lat. bis, twice bissextile, bistort. 
 
 Eng. by by-path, by-stander. 
 
 Dan. by, a town by-law ; Dan. bylov, Icel. boejar 
 log, local or municipal regulations. 
 
 Gr. Kara, down, by, confronting catacoustics, cate- 
 chise, catholic. 
 
 Gr. Hard catalepsy, catastrophe. 
 
 Lat. circum, around, about circuit, circulate. 
 
 Lat. circum circumference, circumnavigate. 
 
 Lat. cis, on this side cisalpine, cisatlantic. 
 
 Lat. co, for con, a form of cum, with, together co- 
 agulate. 
 
 Lat. con = cum collateral, collocate. 
 
 Lat. com = cum commingle, commotion. 
 
 Lat. com combustion. 
 
 Lat. con concatenation, concur. 
 
 Lat. contra, against contradict, contravene. 
 
 Lat. contro, against controvert. 
 
 Lat. con council, counsellor. 
 
 Fr. contre from Lat. contra countermand. 
 
 Lat. con custom, from consuetudo. 
 
 Lat. con curry, to work, or dress, i. e., hides, a 
 horse, etc. NOTE. To curry favor is a corrup-
 
 62 The English Language. 
 
 tion of curry Fa-veil, that being an old English 
 proper name for a horse. 
 
 d-, Fr. de, of daffodil fieur d'asphodele. 
 
 de-, i. Lat. de, down, from decapitate, degrade. 
 
 2. Fr. de, Old Fr. des, Lat. dis, asunder ; sometimes 
 negative and oppositive, at other times intensive, 
 or with a variety of meanings scarcely perceptible 
 deform, defraud, desiccate, desolate, destroy. 
 3. Lat. dis defer, delay, deluge. 
 
 demi-, Lat. dimidius, half demigod, demilune. 
 
 des-, Fr. des, Lat. dis despatch, dessert. 
 
 di-, i. Gr. dia, through, apart diaeresis, dioptric. 
 
 2. Gr. 6fe, twice diphthong, diptych, distich. 
 
 3. Lat. dis digress, dijudicate. 
 
 4. Lat. de, down distil. 
 
 dia-, Gr. dia diameter, diaphanous. 
 
 dif-, Lat. dis differ, diffuse. 
 
 dis-, Lat. dis, often with an adversative signification dis- 
 
 honor. 
 
 dys-, Gr. 6v?j painful, difficult dyspepsia, dyspnoea. 
 
 C-, i. Lat. e, out of evade, evolve, edict. 
 
 2. Fr. prosthetic, without meaning esquire, from Lat. 
 
 scutum. 
 
 3. Du. ont, away elopement. 
 
 CC-, Gr. KJ out of eccentric, ecstasy. 
 
 ef-, Lat. ex, from, out of efflorescence, effrontery. 
 
 el-, i. Gr. fry in ellipse. 
 
 2. Arab, al or el, the elixir, Arab, el iksir, the philoso- 
 pher's stone. 
 em-, i. Gr. v emphasis, empiric. 
 
 2. Fr. em, from Lat. in embroider, emboss. 
 en-, i. Gr. ev encyclical, encyclopaedia, energy. 
 
 2. Fr. en, from Lat. in, negative = Eng. un enmity, 
 endo-, Gr. svdov, within endogenous. 
 enter-, Fr. entre, Lat. inter, among entertain. 
 ento-, Gr. SVTOS, within entoblast, entozoon. 
 ep-, Gr. snij upon ephemeral. 
 
 epi-, Gr. en i epigram, epitaph. 
 
 equ-, Lat. cequus equal, equanimity. 
 
 CSO-, Gr. effGo, within esoteric.
 
 Word Making". 
 
 i. 
 
 eu-, 
 ev-, 
 ex-, 
 
 exo-, 
 
 extra-, 
 
 for-, 
 
 fore-, 
 
 gain-, 
 
 hemi-, 
 
 hetero-, 
 
 holo-, 
 
 homo-, 
 
 hyp-, 
 
 hyper-, 
 
 hypo-, 
 
 i-, 
 U-, 
 
 im-, 
 in-, 
 
 inter-, 
 intra-, 
 intro-, 
 
 iso-, 
 juxta-, 
 1-, i. 
 
 2, 
 
 mal-, i. 
 
 Gr. ev, well, pleasantly eulogy, euphony. 
 
 Gr. sv evangelist. 
 
 Gr. e, from exodus, exotic. 
 
 Lat. <?AT, out from exculpate, expel, expose. 
 
 Gr. H%c&, outside exogenous. 
 
 Lat. extra, beyond extraordinary, extradition. 
 
 A.-S. for, only found as a prefix, with the sense of 
 away from ; or it intensifies the verb. The com- 
 pounds are : forbear, forbid, forfend, forget, for- 
 give, forgo, forlet, forlorn, forsake, forswear. 
 
 Fr. for, Lat. foris, outdoors forfeit. 
 
 A.-S. for, as above forego, should have been forgo. 
 
 A..-S.fore, before forebode, forewarn. 
 
 Fr. for, Lat. foris foreclose, more correctly forclose. 
 
 A.-S. gegn, against gainsay. 
 
 Gr. rjfAi, half hemisphere. 
 
 Gr.-erspoSj other heterodox, heterogeneous. 
 
 Gr. o\o$, whole holocaust, holograph. 
 
 Gr. oftos, alike homogeneous, homologous. 
 
 Gr. vjtOj under hyp-hen under one. 
 
 Gr. VTtsp, over, beyond hyperborean, hypertrophy. 
 
 Gr. V7f6 hypogean, hyponitrous. 
 
 Lat. in, negative ignominy, ignorance. 
 
 Lat. in, in or into illuminate, illustrate. NOTE. In, 
 prefixed to verbs, is usually equal to Eng. in, into, 
 upon ; with adjectives = un. 
 
 Lat. in, negative illegal, illiterate. 
 
 Lat. in, with both significations implant, impure. 
 
 Lat. in infuse, intemperate. 
 
 A.-S. in inland, inlet. 
 
 Lat. inter, between interlude, intercostal. 
 
 Lat. intra, within intramural. 
 
 Lat. intro, into introduce, introspection. 
 
 Lat. in, as above irradiate, irrational. 
 
 Gr. fo?, equal isometric, isothermal. 
 
 Lat. juxta, near juxtaposition. 
 
 A.-S. eal, all lone, contracted from alone i. e., all one. 
 
 Arab, al, the lute. 
 
 Fr. mal, Lat. male, ill malpractice, malversation. 
 
 Ital. mala, bad malaria.
 
 6 4 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 mis-, 
 
 mon-, 
 mono-, 
 multi-, 
 n-, 
 
 male-, Lat. male malediction, malevolence. 
 me-, Gr. fat, half megrim, from hemicrania. 
 
 medi-, Lat. medius, middle mediaeval. 
 meso-, Gr. jusffo?, middle mesocarp, mesogastric. 
 met-, Gr. ftsrai, with, after, altered metonomy, metempsy- 
 chosis. 
 
 meta-, Gr. jusra metaphor. 
 mid-, i. A.-S. mid, middle midnight, midrib. 
 2. A.-S. mid, with midwife. 
 
 A.-S. mis, wrong misdeed, mistake. 
 
 Old. Fr. mes, Lat. minus, less, imperfect misalliance, 
 
 miscount. 
 
 Gr. jtovo?, single monarch, monandria. 
 Gr. jtoroZ monogram, monomania. 
 Lat. multi, many multiform, multiply. 
 An n has been transferred to a few words, to which it 
 did not originally belong, from a preceding an, as 
 newt, for an ewt ; nugget, for an ingot. In the 
 phrase for the nonce the n was the dative end- 
 ing of the article for then ones. On the other 
 hand, an n has been transferred to the preceding 
 article from nadder, napron, nauger, norange, nouch, 
 and numpire. 
 
 2. A.-S. ne, negative prefix naught, none. 
 ne-, Lat. ne, negative nefarious, nescience. 
 
 neg-, Lat. nee, negative neglect. 
 
 neo-, Gr. VEO$, new neology, neozoic, 
 
 non-, Lat. non, not nondescript, nonsense. 
 
 ob-, Lat. ob, generally with the sense of against obdurate, 
 
 obstruct, obloquy. 
 
 OC-, Lat. ob occur, occasion. 
 
 of-, Lat. ob offend. 
 
 op-, Lat. ob oppose, opprobrium. 
 
 or-, i. A. S. or, out of, away from ordeal, i. e., or-deal. 
 
 2. Du. over, over orlop. 
 
 ortho-, Gr. opdot, right orthography, orthoclase. 
 OUtr-, Fr. outre, Lat. ultra outrage, i. e., outr-age, not out- 
 rage. 
 
 palim-, Gr. noikiv, again palimpsest, 
 palin-, Gr. noikiv palinode, palindrome.
 
 Word Making. 
 
 pan-, 
 panto-, 
 par-, i. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 4- 
 
 para-, 
 pan-, 
 pea-, i. 
 
 pel-, 
 
 pen-, 
 
 per-, 
 
 peri-, 
 
 pil-, 
 
 pol-, 
 
 poly-, 
 
 por-, 
 
 pos-, 
 
 post-, 
 
 prse-, 
 
 prseter-, 
 
 pre-, 
 
 preter-, 
 
 prim-, 
 
 primo-, 
 
 pro-, i 
 
 pros-, 
 
 proto-, 
 
 pui-, 
 
 pur-, 
 
 Ram-, 
 re-, 
 red-, 
 retro-, 
 
 5 
 
 Gr. itav, all panacea, panoply. 
 
 Gr. Ttavro, crude form of not?, all pantomime. 
 
 Gr. Ttapoc, alongside parallel, parhelion. 
 
 Lat. parum, little paraffine. 
 
 Ifr.par, ~Lai.per, through paramour, pardon. 
 
 Fr. parer, to parry parasol, parachute. 
 
 Gr. Ttapa paragraph, parameter. 
 
 Lat. far, equal parity, parisyllable. 
 
 Lat. pavo peacock. 
 
 Du./^', a coat pea-jacket. 
 
 Lat. per, through, thoroughly pellucid. 
 
 Lat. pene, almost peninsula, penumbra. 
 
 Lat. per perambulate, percolate, permutation. 
 
 Gr. Ttspi, around perihelion, perimeter. 
 
 Lat. per pilgrim. 
 
 Lat./^r, or fort, towards pollute. 
 
 Gr. TtoXvS, many polygon, polypus. 
 
 Lat. for, or port portent. 
 
 Lat. por, or port possess. 
 
 Lat. potis, able possible. 
 
 ~Lat.post, after postpone, postscript. 
 
 Lat. prce, before praemunire. 
 
 Lat. prater, past, beyond prseterist. 
 
 Lat./?r, for pra preamble, prejudge. 
 
 Lat. preter, for pratei preternatural. 
 
 ~Lzt. primus, first primeval, primordial. 
 
 Lat. primus primogeniture. 
 
 Gr. Ttpo, before program, propyleum. 
 
 Lat. pro, forward, forth, from procrastinate, pro- 
 
 V gress. 
 
 GrS&po?, towards proselyte, prosody. 
 
 Gr. TtpaJTo? , first protosulphate, protozoic. 
 
 Lat. post, after Fr. puine, Old Fr. puisne, Lat. post 
 
 natus. 
 
 Lat. per purlieu. 
 Lat. pro purloin. 
 
 Fr. rem, from Lat. re and in rampart. 
 Lat. re or red back, again refund, relapse. 
 Lat. re or red redolent, redemption. 
 Lat. retro, backwards retrograde, retrospect.
 
 66 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 S-, Lat. se or sed, apart sure, from securus. 
 
 SC-, Lat. se or j^/ secede, segregate. 
 
 sed-, Lat. se or sed sedition. 
 
 semi-, Lat. semi, half semiannual, semicircle, 
 sempi-, Lat. semper, ever, forever sempiternal. 
 sesqui-, Lat. sesqui, one and a half sesquisulphide. 
 sim-, Lat. radical sim, single simplicity. 
 
 simul-, Lat. simul, at the same time simultaneous. 
 SO-, i. Lat. se, apart solve. 
 
 2. Lat. sub, under sojourn. 
 Soli-, Lat. solus, alone soliloquy, solitary. 
 
 SU-, Lat. sub suspect. 
 
 sub-, Lat. sub subscribe, subterranean. 
 
 Slibter-, Lat. subter, under subterfuge. 
 SUC-, Lat. sub succumb, succor, 
 
 suf-, Lat. sub suffer, suffuse. 
 
 SUg-, Lat. sub suggest 
 
 sup-, Lat. sub support, supposition. 
 
 super-, Lat. super, over superfluous, supernatural. 
 Supra-, Lat. supra, over, above supralapsarian. 
 SUr-, i. Lat. sub surreptitious. 
 
 2. Lat. super surface, survive. 
 
 3. Fr. se, self surrender. 
 SUS-, Lat. sub suspend, sustain. 
 
 syl-, Gr. ffvr, with, together syllable, syllogism. 
 
 sym-, Gr. ffw symmetry, sympathy. 
 
 Syn-, Gr. 6w synchronous, synthesis. 
 
 t-, i. A.-S. at, to or at twit A.-S. atwitan, to blame. 
 
 2. Eng. Saint tawdry. NOTE. Cheap, showy finery 
 bought at the fair of St. Awdry, held on St. 
 Awdry's day, Oct. i7th, in the Isle of Ely, and 
 other places. 
 
 tauto-, Gr. TO avro, the same tautology. 
 
 to-, i. A.-S. to, to or for to-day, towards. 
 
 2. A.-S. to, intensive to-break. Judg. ix., 53, "And a 
 certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon 
 Abimelech's head, and all to brake his skull," i. e., 
 shattered it : formerly written, to-brake. 
 
 tra-, Lat. trans, across, beyond trajectory, tramontane. 
 
 trans-, Lat. trans transfer, transgress, transit.
 
 Word Making. 67 
 
 tres-, Old. Fr. tres, Lat. trans trespass. 
 
 ultra-, Lat. ultra, beyond ultramontane. 
 tin-, i. A.-S. un, a negative prefixed to adjectives untrue. 
 
 2. A.-S. un, reverses the action of verbs unbind, un- 
 
 dress. 
 
 3. A.-S, on, in unless. 
 
 4. Goth, und, as far as unto. 
 lit-, A.-S. ut,yte, out utmost. 
 utt-, A.-S. ut uttermost. 
 
 vice-, Lat. vice, in the place of viceroy, vice-president. 
 
 with-, A.-S. with, away from, against withdraw, withstand. 
 NOTE. In common use with has now usurped 
 the place of mid, with, no longer found but in 
 midwife. 
 
 The terminal particles, or suffixes, are considerably more 
 numerous, and present greater difficulties. Of a great part 
 of them nothing further is known than that they change 
 nouns into adjectives, or adjectives into nouns, verbs, or ad- 
 verbs, etc. Although admitted to have been once separate, 
 independent words, they are often reduced to single letters, 
 which may have undergone several transformations. Parti- 
 cles, quite distinct in their origin, assume the same form, 
 while the same particle may appear under various forms. 
 The termination il-is, of which the essential part is //, recurs 
 in gent-/<?, gent-^r/, and gent-z/?/ and et-us furnishes repl-ete, 
 discr-^, and secr-^/. The suffix is often joined to the radi- 
 cal part of the word variously termed the stem, theme, or 
 crude form by a connecting vowel, usually a, i, or o. Ge-0- 
 metry and ge-0-logy are familiar examples ; but it is not 
 always easy to determine whether the intervening vowel be- 
 longs to the theme or the suffix, or is mere padding inter- 
 posed between them. Several suffixes are often added, one 
 after another. I will give here a few examples of the way in 
 which affixes no longer living words are strung together 
 around a significant root, reminding us of a magnet support- 
 ing a pendulous series of iron tacks and filings. The last 
 atom seems as capable as the first of attracting and holding 
 others. In the Greek mythology there was a bevy of semi-
 
 68 The English Language. 
 
 divine blue-stockings called Muses. It was quite according 
 to rule to add ik, or, as we should put it, ic, to this designa- 
 tion, and thus make an adjective of, or relating to, the 
 Muses our English word music. But in process of time 
 the Italians, French, and others seem to have forgotten that 
 mus-ic was an adjective, and to have taken it for the name of 
 an art or branch of culture ; and in order to form an adjec- 
 tive, added a/, making mus-ic-al. Next, the Germans, who 
 make a great deal of music, added a third adjective ending, 
 bringing the series up to mus-ik-al-isch ; and the requirements 
 of their grammar may even induce them to say mus-ik-al- 
 isch-er. Or we may select the syllable voc as a starting-point. 
 In this form it is neither noun, adjective, verb, nor adverb, 
 but, with some slight additions, may easily become either. 
 First attach to it the syllable re, and it will become re-voc. 
 If written revoke, to suit our peculiar views of spelling, it 
 would now be a familiar word. Without such change, we 
 may append the syllable bit ; but re-voc-bil would be too 
 harsh without the cushion of a connecting vowel, and an a 
 may be interposed. We have now re-voc-a-bil ; but again 
 the habits of English spelling require us to write so much of 
 the word re-voc-a-ble. Or at this point we might add the 
 suffix tat, which we should be obliged to change to ty. At 
 almost any stage of our progress the negative prefix in might 
 have been added, which would entirely reverse the meaning 
 of the word. But as n and r are rather difficult to utter 
 together, the former letter is assimilated to the latter. The 
 whole may be exhibited thus : 
 
 ORIGINAL FORMS ENGLISH FORMS 
 
 VOC 
 
 re-voc revoke verb 
 
 re-voc-a-bil re-voc-a-ble adjective 
 
 ir-re-voc-a-bil ir-re-voc-a-ble adjective 
 
 ir-re-voc-a-bil-i-tat ir-re-voc-a-bil-i-ty noun 
 
 The following list exhibits the principal English suffixes, 
 but by no means their entire number. The explanations 
 given are not to be received as complete definitions, but as
 
 Word Making. 69 
 
 illustrating the central or original idea of each. There is 
 scarcely a more important principle in the formation of 
 language than this, that every word or usage is at first of 
 very limited and obvious application, but may be gradually 
 extended, by virtue of analogies, real and fanciful, to such 
 a variety of cases, that it is difficult to see the principle that 
 pervades them all. This may be made clearer by a familiar 
 example. The word post is remotely derived from the Latin 
 pono, to place or set, and has been used with the following 
 significations : 
 
 1. A piece of timber, set upright, and immovable. 
 
 2. A place where persons or things are stationed, as a 
 military post. 
 
 3. One of a series of stations for accommodating travellers, 
 and receiving and delivering goods, letters, etc. 
 
 4. The person in charge of such a station. 
 
 " He held the office of postmaster, or, as it was then called, of 
 post, for several years." 
 
 5. A position of trust or profit. 
 
 " For neither pension, post, nor place, 
 Am I your humble debtor." BURNS. 
 
 6. A letter carrier. 
 
 7. The public establishment for carrying letters and 
 parcels. 
 
 8. A kind of paper used for writing letters. 
 
 9. To fasten to a post or wall ; to post bills. 
 
 10. To expose to public reproach. 
 
 11. To assign to a station. 
 
 12. To transfer accounts to a ledger. 
 
 13. To inform, to keep one posted. 
 
 14. To put off, or delay. 
 
 15. To deposit letters in the post-office. 
 
 1 6. To travel with the public conveyance for letters. 
 
 17. To travel rapidly. 
 
 1 8. Rapidly adverb as to travel post or post-haste. 
 Thus the word varies in meaning from immovable fixity
 
 70 The English Language. 
 
 to rapid motion. Now if the first and ninth significations 
 were to go out of use, there would be nothing in the others 
 to suggest the original idea of an upright piece of timber. 
 In this way words may lose all trace of their original mean- 
 ing. It is the same with suffixes, of which one of the most 
 common and best understood is ly, which is most frequently 
 attached to adjectives to form adverbs, thus : 
 
 He was walking slow-/^, 
 
 She sang sweet-/y. 
 
 Originally the particle was, and meant, like ; and God-like 
 arid god-/j/ are the same in origin, although now differ- 
 entiated. Hence we may suppose that such words as god-ly, 
 king-ly, lord-ly, knight-ly, were the earliest adjectives de- 
 rived from nouns. The process was next extended to form 
 adverbs from adjectives. Yet there are several words, as 
 elderly, goodly, sickly, likely, lonely, that remain adjectives 
 after the addition of ly. Comely and seemly are adjectives 
 formed from verbs ; and ear-ly is a double adverbial form. 
 Holy and silly are formed by the addition of y from ig, and 
 not ly from like or lice. In short, we cannot reason with any 
 certainty as to what a word must necessarily be. Such a 
 proportion as : 
 
 bring : brought : : sing : sought, 
 has a very limited application in philology. 
 
 LIST OF SUFFIXES. 
 
 -able, Lat. bil-is, with connecting vowel a, adj. from verb 
 teachable, capable of being taught. 
 
 -EC, Gr. x-o?, Lat. c-us, with connecting vowel a, adj. from 
 
 nouns. Syriac, elegiac, maniac. 
 
 -ace, i. Lat. at-ium, nouns preface, palace, solace, space. 
 
 2. Lat. ax furnace. 
 
 3. Fr. ace and asse terrace, pinnace. 
 
 -aceous, Lat. a-c-e-us, double adjectives arenaceous, cre- 
 taceous. 
 
 -acious, Lat. a-c-i-os-us, a double adj. form tenacious. 
 
 -acity, Lat. a-c-i-tat-, turns the adj. into an abstract noun 
 tenacity, loquacity, sagacity.
 
 Word Making. 
 
 acle, 
 -acular, 
 
 -aculous, 
 acy, 
 
 -ad, 
 
 -ada, 
 -ade, 
 
 -age, 
 ago, 
 
 -ain, 
 -al, 
 
 alia, 
 -ality, 
 
 -an, 
 
 -ance, 
 
 -ancy, 
 -and, 
 
 -andum, 
 
 -anda, 
 
 -ane, 
 
 -aneous, 
 
 -ant, 
 
 -ar, 
 -ard, 
 
 Lat. a-cul-um, nouns from verbs miracle, oracle. 
 Lat. a-cul-ar, adds an adj. termination oracular. 
 Fr. acul-eux miraculous. 
 Gr. ax-eia, Lat. ac-ia, abstract nouns from adjectives 
 
 pharmacy, obstinacy. 
 Gr. a*S, adoG, nouns dryad, monad, chiliad. 
 Span, ada, past participle armada. 
 Span, ado, past participle brocade. 
 Fr. ade arcade, brigade, promenade. 
 Fr. age from Lat. aticum savage, voyage, passage. 
 Lat. ago, nouns from other nouns with the sense of 
 
 like plumbago, like lead ; virago, like a man. 
 Fr. ain. fr. Lat. a-n-us captain, fountain. 
 Lat. a-l-is, adjectives from nouns, astral, vocal. 
 
 Canal was originally an adjective of the same 
 
 class. In nouns formed from verbs, like trial, 
 
 proposal, refusal, al is a modern factitious ending. 
 
 In bridal it stands for ale, once a common name 
 
 for a feast. 
 
 neuter plural of the preceding regalia. 
 Lat. a-l-i-tat, a nominal added to an adjective ending 
 
 formality, legality. 
 Gr. a-v-oZ. and Lat. a-n-us, adj. from nouns or other 
 
 adj. Augustan, orphan, human, veteran. It is 
 
 often used to form adj. from names of countries. 
 
 Persian, Roman, Russian. 
 Lat. antia, made by adding the fern, termination a to 
 
 the present participle abundantia. 
 the same as ance elegancy, repugnancy. 
 Lat. a-nd-us, ending of the future passive participle 
 
 multiplicand, a number that is to be multiplied, 
 the same as the preceding, 
 plural of andum. 
 
 the same as an in humane, mundane. 
 Lat. a-n-e-us, a double adj. ending cutaneous. 
 Lat. a-n-s, a-nt-is, ending of the present participle, 
 
 one who (does) assistant, occupant. 
 Lat. ar-is, adj. from nouns solar, secular. 
 Fr. of Old High German origin, allied to the English 
 
 hard drunkard, sluggard.
 
 72 The English Language. 
 
 -arious, Lat. ar-i-us, a double adj. ending gregarious. 
 
 -arity, Lat. ar-i-tat, nouns from adj. similarity. 
 
 -arium, the neuter of the preceding used as a noun aquarium. 
 
 -ary, Lat. ar-i-us forms adj. ar-i-um, nouns military, 
 
 sanctuary. 
 
 -ast, Gr. affrrjS, nouns from verbs encomiast, enthusiast. 
 
 -aster, Ital. astro, from Lat. is-ter in magt'ster, minister, a 
 double comparative poetaster, pilaster. 
 
 -astic, adds the adj. ending i-c to ast enthusiastic. 
 
 -ate, i. Lat. a-t-us, ending of the past passive participle 
 ornate, duplicate ; extended to nouns, as magis- 
 trate ; used also as verbs circulate, tabulate. 
 2. a class of chemical salts nitrate, sulphate. 
 
 -bility, Lat. bil-i-tat, abstract nouns flexibility. See able. 
 
 -bund, Lat. bund-us moribund. 
 
 -CC, A.-S. or early English s, adverbial once, twice, since. 
 
 -cle, Lat. cul-us, diminutive nouns article, particle. 
 
 -cule, the same as cle animalcule, reticule. 
 
 -cund, Lat. c-und-us j adj. having a tendency to rubicund. 
 
 -cy, Lat. tia and Gr. reia, nouns policy, potency, fancy. 
 
 Some are formed in imitation of Fr. in cie from 
 Lat. in tia chaplaincy, captaincy, conspiracy. 
 
 -der, denoting the doer spider for spinther, the spinner. 
 
 -do, i. Gr. dcav, nouns teredo. 
 
 2. Lat. do, nouns, torpedo, uredo. 
 
 3. Span. See ado. 
 
 -dom, A.-S. ddm, judgment, authority kingdom, wisdom. 
 
 -ed, This termination of the English past participle has 
 
 been extended to a quite different class of expres- 
 sions, as left-handed, quick-witted, and other 
 adjectives denoting possession. 
 
 -ee, i. Fr. /, /<?, a participle used as a noun, one who does, or 
 to whom anything is done trustee, legatee, com- 
 mittee. Grantor, one who grants ; grants?, one to 
 whom anything is granted. 
 
 2. after names of peoples or countries, forms adjectives 
 Bengalee, Parsee, Hindustanee ; written also 
 Bengali, etc. 
 
 -eel, an irregular formation, genteel, from Lat. gentilis. 
 
 gentile, or gentle, belonging to one of the [first] 
 families.
 
 Word Making. 
 
 73 
 
 -eer, 
 
 -el, 
 -en, 
 
 ence, 
 
 -ency, 
 
 -end, 
 
 endo, 
 
 endous, 
 
 ene, 
 enger, 
 ent, 
 eous, i. 
 
 2. 
 
 -er, i. 
 
 2. 
 
 -ern, 
 -esce, 
 
 -escent, 
 -escence, 
 -ese, 
 -esque, 
 
 -ess, 
 
 -et, 
 
 -etta, 
 
 -ette, 
 
 -etto, 
 
 -eur, 
 
 -ey, 
 
 -fare, 
 
 mostly from the French ier and aire, a noun denoting 
 profession or occupation muleteer, musketeer, 
 mountaineer, volunteer. 
 
 Heb. El, God, in early Scripture names Israel, Ariel. 
 
 A.-S. el, diminutive kernel, laurel. 
 
 A.-S. en, adjectives from names of materials earthen, 
 leaden, wooden. 
 
 Old Eng. en in verbs of causing fatten, harden, 
 lengthen. 
 
 Lat. entia, nouns from pres. part. patience, violence. 
 
 same as the foregoing. 
 
 see and. 
 
 Lat. innuendo, i.e. by nodding or pointing. 
 
 Lat. adds the ending ous to end tremendous, of a 
 nature to be trembled at. 
 
 Lat. e-n-us, adj. from nouns Damascene, terrene. 
 
 Fr. ager messenger, passenger. 
 
 Lat., see ant. 
 
 Lat. e-us, adj. from nouns igneous, ligneous. 
 
 A.-S. wis righteous from rihtwis. 
 
 A.-S. ere, nouns from verbs lover, writer, robber. 
 
 forms a class of secondary verbs, with no other spe- 
 cial characteristic in common batter, clamber 
 slumber, chatter, whisper, sputter. 
 
 A.-S. ern, adjectives eastern, western, northern. 
 
 Lat. ese-o, verbs denoting the beginning and progress 
 of an action convalesce, deliquesce. 
 
 a participial and adjective form of the preceding. 
 
 the corresponding termination for a noun. 
 
 Fr. is, ois, ais, from the Lat. ensis Chinese, Maltese. 
 
 Fr. esque, equal to the Eng. ish Arabesque, pict- 
 uresque. 
 
 Gr. *?, tffffac, Lat. tssa, Fr. esse, feminines empress, 
 heiress. 
 
 Fr. et, diminutive bullet, pallet, pullet. 
 
 Ital. etta, diminutive burletta. 
 
 Fr., the same palette, lunette. 
 
 Ital., the same cavetto, stiletto. 
 
 Fr. equivalent to er and or or tor amateur. 
 
 see y clayey, skyey. 
 
 A.-S. farn, a journey welfare, homefare.
 
 74 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 -fer, Lat. fer-Oy bear, carry conifer, lucifer. 
 
 -ferous, the preceding with ending ous added auriferous. 
 
 -fic, Lat. fa, from fac-i-o, to make or do pacific, terrific. 
 
 -fice, Lat. fic-i-um, a thing done or made artifice, edifice. 
 
 -fill, A.-S. /#/, adj. from nouns fruitful, painful. 
 
 -fy, Fr. fiery from Lat. fay fac-i-o fortify, solidify. 
 
 -gerous, Lat. ger-o, to bear or carry, with ending ous added 
 armigerous, lanigerous. 
 
 -head, A.-S. had, state, rank, or condition Godhead. 
 
 -hood, another form of the same childhood, knighthood. 
 
 -ia, i. Lat. ia, a frequent ending of the names of coun- 
 tries. 
 
 2. Lat. ia, neuter plural of adjectives regalia, pene- 
 
 tralia. 
 
 3. Gr. ia. ambrosia, paronomasia. See_y. 
 -ible, Latin i-bil-is. See able. 
 
 -ic, i. Gr. IKO?, adjectives conic, graphic, logic. 
 
 2. Lat. i-c-uSy adj. from nouns historic, public much 
 employed by chemists to form the names of cer- 
 tain acids. 
 
 -ice, i. Gr. irsia, Lat, itia, itiumy ities, nouns police, service, 
 justice, malice, notice. 
 
 -ician, Lat. a double adj. ending, formed of ic and an with 
 connecting vowel ; chiefly used to denote a pro- 
 fession, as musician, physician. 
 
 -icious, Lat. double adjective ending. 
 
 -icular, formed from ic, ul, and ar reticular. 
 
 -iculate, Lat. composed of ic, the dim. ul, and ate ; at first 
 properly a participle, but often used as a new 
 verb. 
 
 -iculation, a noun formed from iculate. 
 
 -iculous, equivalent lo icular ridiculous. 
 
 -id, i. Gr. sidr'fi ; see oid orchid. 
 
 2. Lat. id-us , adjective ending humid, rigid, solid. 
 
 -ide, a primary chemical compound chloride, sulphide. 
 
 -ile, Lat. i-l-is, like a-l-is, adjectives from nouns and verbs 
 
 puerile, hostile, fragile, missile. 
 
 -im, i. Heb. im, a masc. plur. ending of Scripture names of 
 
 peoples, as Rodanim, Anakim. 
 2. Lat. im, in adverbial endings interim, verbatim.
 
 Word Making. 
 
 75 
 
 -ine, i. Gr. z-y-Os, adj. cedrine, petrine. 
 
 2. Lat. t'-n-us, adj. from nouns aquiline, canine. In 
 this sense it terminates four chemical elements, 
 chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine. Also 
 the medicinally active principle of certain plants, 
 as quinine, santonine, morphine. 
 
 -ing, i. A.-S. t'ng, added to the name of a person, like the 
 Greek idr}?, distinguished his descendants ; ap- 
 plied next to the people of a particular town or 
 district. Towns and districts were also named 
 from families. The names Billings, Isl-ing-ton, 
 Wall-ing-ford, Wals-ing-ham, are relics of this 
 usage. 
 
 2. A.-S. ing, forms nouns with something of the charac- 
 
 ter of adjectives hearing, shilling, whiting. 
 
 3. A.-S. ung, verbal nouns morning, evening, building, 
 
 wedding, writing, reckoning. 
 
 4. In modern English the ending of the present partici- 
 
 ple which had already begun to supplant the 
 participial endings a-nde, i-nde, by A.D. 1200. 
 The verbal noun and the participle, originally 
 quite separate, are now indistinguishable, friend 
 andjfe#</are relics of the original participle. 
 
 -ion, Lat. ion-is, forms abstract nouns from verbs ques- 
 
 tion, contagion, derision, dominion, vision. 
 
 -ious, Lat., a secondary adjective formation, mostly from 
 adj. ax or ix audacious, sagacious. 
 
 -isation, see ize. 
 
 -ise, see ize. 
 
 -ish, i. terminations of certain verbs from Fr. verbs in ir, 
 
 and Lat. in ire banish, finish, polish, punish. 
 2. A.-S. fsc, forms, i, patronymics, as English, Spanish ; 
 
 2, adj. from nouns, bookish, sheepish, waspish ; 
 
 3, adj. from adj. greenish, sweetish. 
 
 -isk, Gr. iffx-oS, IGK-^J iffx-i-ov, diminutive asterisk, 
 
 basilisk. 
 -ism, Gr. ztfju-oS, condition, characteristic, idiom, doctrine, 
 
 barbarism, Gallicism, mesmerism, Methodism, 
 -ist, Gr. i<JT-r)S anatomist, organist, florist, spiritualist. 
 
 -ister, a double nominal ending barrister, chorister.
 
 7 6 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 -istic, combination of ist and ic linguistic, sophistic. 
 -ite, i. Gr. trr)?, designates classes of persons anchorite, 
 hypocrite. 
 
 2. in Scripture forms patronymics Edomite, Levite. 
 
 3. Lat. i-t-us a termination of the past participle, form- 
 
 ing Eng. adj. contrite, erudite. 
 
 4. forms the names of certain salts nitrite, sulphite. 
 
 5. forms names of minerals Arragonite, calcite, selenite. 
 -itious, Lat. i-t-i-us, an adj. added to a participial ending 
 
 nutritious. 
 
 -itis, Gr. in?, names for inflammatory diseases arthritis, 
 
 pleuritis, meningitis. 
 
 -ive, Lat. iv-us, adj. added to participial ending delusive. 
 
 -ival, Lat. second adj. ending added to the preceding 
 
 estival, festival. 
 
 -ize, Gr. zCctf, a frequent termination of derivative verbs 
 
 apologize, baptize, symbolize. There are many 
 imitations, which some write with s and others 
 with z, as humanize or humanise, patronize or 
 patronise. 
 
 -kin, Old Du. ken, diminutives gherkin, lambkin, catkin. 
 
 -ledge, Norse leikr, game, play, occupation ; used like ness to 
 form abstract nouns knowledge. 
 
 -less, A.-S. leds, loose or free from stainless, painless ; not 
 
 connected with, little, less, least. 
 
 -let, Old Fr. /-<?/, a double diminutive chaplet, cutlet, 
 
 brooklet. 
 
 -ling, i. A.-S. l-ing, a double diminutive darling, duckling. 
 2. A.-S. /if, like darkling, sideling. 
 
 -logy, Gr. Xoyos, word, speech, story, doctrine, often pre- 
 ceded by a connecting vowel, o or / geology, 
 meteorology. 
 
 -long, a variant of ling 2. headlong, sidelong. 
 
 -ly, A.-S. /if, like forms, i, adj. from nouns friendly, 
 
 lovely, manly ; 2. adj. from other adj. goodly, 
 elderly, sickly ; 3. adv. from adj., a very numer- 
 ous class nobly. 
 
 -mancy, Gr. fuwr/r, divination cheiromancy, necromancy. 
 
 -menon, plural mena, Gr. participial ending phenomenon, 
 appearing, that which appears ; prolegomena, 
 prefatory remarks.
 
 Word Making. 
 
 77 
 
 -ment, 
 
 -mony, 
 -monious, 
 
 -monial, 
 
 -nal, 
 
 -ness, 
 
 -o, 
 
 -ock, 
 -oid, 
 
 -or, 
 
 -ory, 
 
 ose, 
 -ot, 
 otic, 
 our, 
 
 ous, 
 Pie, 
 plicate, 
 -red, 
 
 -nc, 
 -ry, 
 
 -ship, 
 
 -sis, 
 -some, 
 
 Lat. mentum, of participial origin, forms nouns from 
 verbs fragment, segment, argument. 
 
 Lat. mon-i-a, mon-i-um ceremony, matrimony. 
 
 adds the adj. ending ous to the preceding. 
 
 equivalent to monious. 
 
 Lat. n-al-is, double adj. ending diurnal, paternal. 
 
 A.--S. nesse, nes, nis, nys, Gothic nassus, forms abstract 
 nouns from adjectives goodness, darkness, sweet- 
 ness. 
 
 Latin o, ablative folio, quarto, octavo. 
 
 common ending of nouns and adj. from Italian or 
 Spanish alto, solo, studio, embargo, negro. 
 
 A.-S. uca, diminutives hillock, hummock. 
 
 Gr. o-isdrjS, fr. eiSoZ, form, appearance spheroid, 
 conoid, deltoid. 
 
 Lat. or, added to the stem of the supine, and so al- 
 ways preceded by s or / ; denotes the doer act- 
 or, orator, inspector, assessor, confessor. 
 
 Lat. orius, oria, orium, nouns and adj. formed from 
 supines dilatory, victory, promontory, posses- 
 sory. 
 
 Lat. os-us, adj. jocose, lachrymose, morose. 
 
 Gr. orr}$ and oyrrj? idiot, patriot, zealot. 
 
 i-c added to the preceding. 
 
 Fr. eur fr. Lat. or (see or) which is now restored in 
 nearly all words except Saviour. 
 
 Lat. us and os-us, adj. arduous, devious, pious. 
 
 Lat.///V, fold triple, quadruple, multiple. 
 
 ~Lz.\..plic-at-us, folded duplicate, triplicate. 
 
 A.-S. raden, condition hatred, kindred ; originally 
 kinrede or kinred. The first d is interpolated as 
 it is in thunder, or the b in number. 
 
 A.-S. rice, dominion, jurisdiction bishopric. 
 
 ery or j, an act, trade or the collective body of those 
 employed in it cavalry, cookery, surgery. 
 
 A.-S. scipe from a verb signifying to shave or to 
 shape and make, in any case denoting activity, 
 duty, labor clerkship, friendship, horsemanship. 
 
 Gr. fft?, primarily, the act of doing anything, second- 
 arily, the thing done synopsis, thesis. 
 
 A.-S. sum, Norse samr, Eng. same fulsome, irksome.
 
 The English Language. 
 
 Ster, A.-S. es-tre, signified originally the doer or actor, but 
 
 became restricted to females spinster, tapster. 
 
 -Stress, a second feminine ending added to the preceding 
 seamstress, songstress. 
 
 -sy, an Anglicised form of sis heresy, hypocrisy. 
 
 ter, Gr. T/7p, ending of some nouns crater, character. 
 
 tery, Gr. rrjpiov, names of instruments cautery, psaltery. 
 
 -th, A.-S. dh, equivalent in force to ty from the Lat. tat-s, 
 
 forms abstract nouns from adjectives and verbs 
 health, truth, worth, birth, stealth. After /, s, 
 or gh, th becomes / theft, thirst, weight. It is 
 used also to form the ordinal numbers after the 
 third. 
 Lat. t-r-ix, a feminine termination corresponding to 
 
 t-or directrix, executrix. 
 
 Lat. tu-d-o, a double suffix forming abstract nouns 
 from adjectives, equivalent, therefore, to ness 
 from A.-S. attitude, solitude, rectitude. 
 Lat. tur-us, ending of the future participle future, 
 
 adventure, sepulture. 
 Lat. tat-s, abstract nouns from adj., equivalent to ness 
 
 or tude equity, liberty, plenty. 
 A.-S. tig, meaning ten twenty, thirty, forty. 
 
 -tlble, Lat. u-bil-is, see able soluble, voluble. 
 
 -ula, ule, ulum, Lat. diminutives nebula, pendulum. 
 
 -ulent, Lat. u-lent-us, with the general sense of abounding 
 in, corpulent, fraudulent, succulent, virulent. 
 
 -ulous, Lat. ul-us, nearly the same in sense as the preceding 
 garrulous, tremulous. 
 
 -und, Lat. und-us jocund, rotund, rubicund. 
 
 -ure, Lat. ur-a, added to past participles, forming nouns 
 
 figure, nature, picture, structure. 
 
 -uret, a term formerly used for a certain chemical com- 
 pound cyanuret, sulphuret. See ide. 
 
 -ward(s), A.-S. weard(es), denotes direction forward, upward. 
 
 -way(s), A.-S. meaning road or direction always, straight- 
 way. 
 
 wise, A.-S. wise, manner likewise, otherwise. 
 
 -y, i. Gr. la or ezor antipathy, astronomy, irony. 
 
 2. Gr. fiov mystery, trophy. 
 
 trix, 
 -tude, 
 
 -ture, 
 ty, 
 
 i. 
 
 2.
 
 Word Making. 79 
 
 3. Lat. atus deputy. 
 
 4. Lat. turn ceremony, remedy, study. 
 
 5. Fr. ie from Lat. t'a, denotes condition, faculty, etc. 
 
 misery, memory, modesty. 
 
 6. A.-S. ig y forms adj. from nouns horny, silvery, rainy, 
 
 windy. 
 
 There are many other words ending in y which prop- 
 erly fall under neither of these heads. 
 
 Thus the English language has an ample apparatus of 
 prefixes and suffixes, by the aid of which, from almost any 
 given word, a small family of derivations may be developed. 
 We import the Latin word radix (stem radic\ for example, 
 and from this we form : 
 
 1. radic-a/ n. radic-ation 
 
 2. radically 12. <?-radic ate 
 
 3. radic-alism 13. e-radic-ati0n 
 
 4. radic-ality 14. e-radic-ative 
 
 5. Tadic-a/ness 15. e-radic-able 
 
 6. radic-^/ 16. e-rad\c-ability 
 
 7. radic-/<? 17. ine-iadicable 
 
 8. radic-ule 18. ine-rad\c-ably 
 
 9. radic-ate 19. ir ra.dic.-ate 
 10. radic-anf 20. ir-radic-ation 
 
 In forming compound words of any kind it is considered 
 good usage to obtain all the parts from the same language. 
 Words thus formed have a neatness and harmony that 
 hybrids cannot always attain. Cablegram is an extremely 
 harsh word compared with telegram. Incorruptibility is 
 faultless, but incorruptibleness would be stiff and awkward. 1 
 
 1 We sometimes witness acrobatic feats of word-making, as in aldehyde, the 
 first syllable of which is Arabic, the second, Latin, the third, Greek ; or the 
 names of new towns, like Copperopolis and West Las Animas. The first 
 founders of Cincinnati performed a greater exploit in calling their embryo city 
 Losantiville. L was for Licking Creek, that entered on the other side of the 
 river ; os, for mouth, anti, for opposite, and ville, for town. The first part was 
 English, if anything ; the second, Latin ; the third, Greek ; the fourth, French. 
 There is a practice growing up at present, especially among the learned in
 
 8o The English Language. 
 
 In the same way durability ', fatality, voracity, and valor are 
 preferable to durableness, fatalness, voraciousness, and val- 
 iantness. Still there are thousands of hybrid words fully 
 established in use ; and practically some of them serve their 
 purpose well. This is especially so where the heterogeneous 
 part is merely a suffix. We are quite satisfied with tender- 
 ness, although, had we been used to it, tenerity might have 
 seemed a more elegant word. In regard to the largest class 
 of suffixes, conformity to the rule indicated would be hope- 
 less. We form adverbs by adding ly to adjectives, no 
 matter from what source the latter are derived. But ly is 
 Anglo-Saxon, while a great part of our adjectives are Latin. 
 The corresponding adverbial terminations in Latin are e and 
 iter ; of which we have not a single instance in our language. 
 We must perforce say modestly and morally instead of modeste 
 and moraliter. The most that can be said then is that, so 
 far as practicable, words should be homogeneous. 
 
 There is yet another mode of developing words, and that 
 is by declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs. If in 
 illustrating this I occasionally refer to languages remote and 
 little known, it is not because they have always a special 
 connection with English, but from a belief that the growth 
 of language has been, in its essential features, everywhere the 
 same, as resulting from approximately the same human 
 faculties and wants. And as spoken language is never at 
 rest, but continuously growing and decaying, like the trees 
 of the wood, a particular phase of development wanting in 
 one place may be found in another. The principal words in 
 any language, and therefore the chief subjects of inflexion, 
 are those that denote things, qualities, and actions : in other 
 
 Germany, of fabricating words that shall be self-explaining, and tell their own 
 story, however long it may take them. Thus Schleicher, in his " Compendium 
 of Comparative Grammar," employs such words as ariogrcecoitalokeltische. But 
 perhaps the most unwieldy combination, since Aristophanes constructed one of 
 169 letters, is azoc&boxylbcnzolmethadimelhylamidocarboxylbenzol, which may be 
 found on page 393 of the " General Register zum Chemischen Centralblatt, " 
 iSyo-'Si. This may be good in chemistry, but is bad in language. It is 
 about on a par with calling a house a bricklimesandtimber, etc. , or naming an 
 ox by enumerating every bone and tissue in his body.
 
 Word Making. 81 
 
 words, nouns, adjectives, and verbs. The pronouns, being 
 substitutes for nouns, are here reckoned along with them. 
 Inflexion does not change the class or meaning of a word, 
 but only indicates a change of relation. If a certain word is 
 a noun, it continues so ; and if it denotes a horse, it repre- 
 sents that animal throughout, and no other. The same 
 holds good of the adjective and verb. As has been said 
 already, the inflexional system of English is meagre. The 
 Latin words btpenni secatur may be rendered he is getting cut 
 with an axe, in which each word of the original is represented 
 by at least three. Roughly speaking, with an stands for the 
 termination i, and he is for tur. These two terminations are 
 not known as words in Latin. They are not even intelli- 
 gible fragments with recognized meanings. They are mere 
 forms of ending of which the Roman could give no more 
 account than the average Englishman can of the n in blown. 
 The principal transition type between such a form as he is 
 cut and one of a single word, as secatur, is one that prevails 
 very widely one in which the chief element, cut for example, 
 stands unaltered, with as many suffixes as may be necessary 
 appended one after another. These suffixes may be no 
 longer in use as independent words ; but it is essential that 
 they be readily recognized and their meaning perfectly 
 understood. In that respect the compound will be some- 
 what like our word fear-less-ness. This, which is called 
 agglutination, or sticking together, is the characteristic of 
 the language of nomads. It must be intelligible to many 
 who seldom meet. It must consist of words like good-for- 
 nothing that can be put together in an instant and under- 
 stood at a glance. Nearly all the native languages westward 
 from the Wall of China, and including in Europe Turkish, 
 Finnish, Magyar, and Basque, are of this character, and have 
 received the general appellation of Turanian, from a word 
 signifying to roam, and indicative of the supposed original 
 nomadic state of these peoples. The following example of 
 agglutination has often been presented, in one form or other. 
 In Turkish, sev means love ; not as a noun or verb, but the 
 germ of either. With the suffix mek, it becomes sev-mek, to
 
 82 The English Language. 
 
 love. But a number of other suffixes might be interposed, 
 forming a long series of derived verbs : 
 
 1. sev-mek, to love. 
 
 2. sev-me-mek, not to love. 
 
 3. sev-e-mek, to be able to love. 
 
 4. sev-e-me-mek, not to be able to love. 
 
 5. sev-dir-mek, to make to love. 
 
 6. sev-dir-me-mek, not to make to love. 
 
 7. sev-dir-e-me-mek, not to be able to make to love. 
 
 8. sev-ish-mek, to love one another. 
 
 9. sev-ish-dir-mek, to cause to love one another. 
 
 10. sev-ish-dir-me-mek, not to cause to love one another. 
 
 11. sev-ish-dir-e-me-mek, not to be able to cause to love one 
 
 another. 
 
 The series might be continued up to the number of thirty 
 or more, in each of which the root holds its place and is un- 
 changed, and all the suffixes are distinct and intelligible. 
 Each one of the series becomes a new verb, to be conjugated 
 throughout by person, number, mood, and time. Thus, if 
 er be added to the primary root sev, it becomes sev-er, liter- 
 ally loving. Next attach the pronoun ?';, and we have sev- 
 er-im, loving /, or / love, thus : 
 
 PRESENT. ' PAST. 
 
 {ist person sever-im sever-di-m 
 
 2d person sever-sen sever-di-n 
 
 3d person sever sever-di 1 
 
 {ist person sever-iz sever-di-k (miz) 
 
 2d person sever-sez sever-di-niz 
 
 3d person sever-ler sever-di-ler 
 
 These suffixes are not the personal pronouns, as found 
 separate but evidently derived from the same originals. It 
 
 1 The absence of any suffix to the third person singular is a feature observed 
 in languages having as little visible connection as Hebrew, Turkish, Hungarian, 
 and the Basque of the Pyrenees. It is also a curious fact that substantially the 
 same particle, di, d, or /, is used to form the past tense in Turkish, Magyar, and 
 the Teutonic family of languages.
 
 Word Making. 
 
 is very rarely that they are alike. The verbal suffixes 
 resemble more closely the possessive pronouns attached to 
 nouns. This will be made clearer by exhibiting first the 
 Magyar pronouns alone, and next combined with nouns and 
 verbs. 
 
 engem me 
 
 teged thee 
 
 6t, or olet him 
 
 j minket ) 
 
 ( benunket J 
 titeket you 
 
 oket them 
 
 to 
 
 en 
 
 I 
 
 nek-em 
 
 to me 
 
 te 
 
 thou 
 
 nek-ed 
 
 to thee 
 
 6 
 
 he 
 
 nek-i 
 
 to him 
 
 mi 
 
 we 
 
 nek-iink 
 
 to us 
 
 ti 
 6k 
 
 you 
 they 
 
 nek-tek 
 nek-ik 
 
 to you 
 to them 
 
 us 
 
 Nak, or nek, here = 
 
 DEFINITE FORM. INDEFINITE FORM. 
 
 kis-em 
 
 my knife 
 
 var-om 
 
 
 var-ok 
 
 I sow 
 
 kis-ed 
 
 thy knife 
 
 var-od 
 
 
 var-sz 
 
 thou sowest 
 
 kis-e 
 
 his knife 
 
 var-ja 
 
 
 var 
 
 he sows 
 
 kis-iink 
 
 our knife 
 
 var-juk 
 
 
 var-unk 
 
 we sow 
 
 kis-tek 
 
 your knife 
 
 var-jatok 
 
 
 var-tok 
 
 ye sow 
 
 kis-ok 
 
 their knife 
 
 var-jak 
 
 
 var-nak 
 
 they sow 
 
 In the Hungarian, or Magyar, another class of suffixes, 
 corresponding to what we call prepositions, may be placed 
 after these pronominal endings. Every suffix may assume 
 two forms, as its vowel may be changed if necessary to har- 
 monize it with the vowel of the leading element of the 
 compound. We thus have : 
 
 haz-am-ban 
 
 haz-ad-an 
 
 haz-a-nal 
 
 haz-unk-ba 
 
 hdz-atok-ra 
 
 haz-ok-haz 
 
 haz-am-bol 
 
 hdz-ad-rol 
 
 haz-a-tol 
 
 hdz-unk-ig 
 
 hdz-atok-e"rt 
 
 in my house 
 on thy house 
 at his house 
 into our house 
 up to our house 
 unto their house 
 out of my house 
 down from thy house 
 away from his house 
 as far as our house 
 for your house
 
 84 The English Language. 
 
 hdz-ok-mal by means of their house 
 
 haz-am-ma made into a house for me 
 
 haz-ad-iil for use as thy house 
 
 The list might be extended to several hundreds. If the 
 first vowel were different an e, for example those that 
 follow would also be different. This change of letters, by a 
 kind of induction to use a phrase of the electricians 
 through mere proximity to other letters is an important 
 part of grammar to which it will be necessary to recur 
 again. 
 
 In the foregoing example there are two distinct classes of 
 suffixes fragments of pronouns, and particles expressing 
 such relations as for, in, by, with, etc. The Aryan languages 
 use exclusively the latter class with their nouns, with the 
 single exception of the modern Persian, in which pronominal 
 suffixes are a late innovation derived from contact with 
 Arabs. The Shemitic languages employ the former class. 
 A Sanskrit noun is declined with three numbers singular, 
 dual, and plural and eight cases the Nominative for the 
 doer ; the Vocative for the person addressed ; Accusative, 
 object of the action of a verb ; Instrumental for that with 
 which anything is done ; Dative, the relation to or for ; 
 Ablative, expressing the relation from ; Genitive, denoting 
 possession, and Locative, the place where. Then deva, a 
 god, is thus declined in the singular, dual, and plural : 
 
 N. devas deva-u deva-s 
 
 V. deva deva-u deva-s 
 
 A. deva-m deva-u deva-n 
 
 I. deve-na deva-bhyam deva-is 
 
 D. deva-ya deva-bhyam deve-bhyas 
 
 Ab. deva-t deva-bhyam deve-bhyas 
 
 G. deva-sya deva-yos deva-nam 
 
 L. deve deva-yos deve-shu 
 
 It would be in vain now to inquire the meaning of all 
 these endings when they were yet separate words, as they 
 no doubt once were. In Magyar we have seen them pre- 
 served with tolerable distinctness ; here they are considerably
 
 Word Making. 85 
 
 more reduced. A noun in Hebrew would be declined upon 
 an entirely different principle, thus : 
 
 Sus a horse 
 
 sus-i my horse 
 
 sus-cha thy horse (masc.) 
 
 sus-ech thy horse (fern.) 
 
 sus-o his horse 
 
 sus-ah her horse 
 
 sus-enu our horse 
 
 sus-chem your horse (masc.) 
 
 sus-chen your horse (fern.) 
 
 sus-am their horse (masc.) 
 
 sus-an their horse (fern.) 
 
 sus-im horses 
 
 sus-ai my horses 
 
 sus-eicha thy horses (masc.) 
 
 sus-ayich thy horses (fern.) 
 
 sus-aiv his horses 
 
 sus-eiha her horses 
 
 sus-einu our horses 
 
 sus-eichem your horses (masc.) 
 
 sus-eichen your horses (fern.) 
 
 sus-eihem their horses (masc.) 
 
 sus-eihen their horses (fern.) 
 
 As we have seen, the Turanian languages use both classes 
 of suffixes with their nouns. All languages necessarily con- 
 nect personal pronouns with their verbs ; although they may 
 sometimes be so disguised as not to be apparent. The 
 Shemitic languages have preserved the pronominal affixes 
 better than most others, as will be seen by exhibiting, in 
 Arabic and Hebrew: (i) the personal pronouns; (2) the 
 prefixed, (3) the suffixed, fragments of the same ; (4) the 
 perfect tense, (5) the imperfect, of the verb katal, to kill. 
 
 The reader will not fail to observe how close is the resem- 
 blance between these two sister languages. There are indi- 
 cations that the Arabic is the elder of the two. It has a 
 well preserved dual number, which has almost vanished 
 already from the Hebrew of the Scriptures, being restricted 
 to natural pairs, as the eyes and ears, and two or three words 
 where its use cannot now be accounted for. The pronouns 
 of the 1st and 2d persons are held to contain a prefixed 
 demonstrative, an = here or there perhaps originally accom- 
 panied by pointing. It is wanting in the 3d person, possibly 
 because the 3d person was not generally present to be 
 pointed at. The ancient Egyptian had it throughout, and 
 the Arabic retains it in the 2d person, where it has been 
 phonetically reduced to at in Hebrew. The final a in the 
 3d person singular has in Hebrew dwindled to a silent 
 letter and at last disappeared.
 
 86 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 ARABIC. 
 
 I 
 
 ana 
 
 a- 
 
 -tu 
 
 katal-tu 
 
 a-ktul-u 
 
 thou (mas.) 
 
 anta 
 
 t- 
 
 -ta 
 
 katal-ta 
 
 ta-ktul-u 
 
 thou (fern.) 
 
 anti 
 
 t- 
 
 -ti-ina 
 
 katal-ti 
 
 ta-ktul-ina 
 
 he 
 
 huwa 
 
 i- (y-) 
 
 -a 
 
 katal-a 
 
 ia-ktul-u 
 
 she 
 
 hiya 
 
 t- 
 
 -at 
 
 katal-at 
 
 ta-ktul-u 
 
 you two 
 
 antuma 
 
 t- 
 
 J -ani ) 
 ( -tuma j 
 
 katal-tuma 
 
 ta-ktul-ani 
 
 they two (mas.) 
 
 huma 
 
 i-(y-) 
 
 i-"- \ 
 }-am f 
 
 katal-a 
 
 ia-ktul-ani 
 
 they two (fern.) 
 
 huna 
 
 t- 
 
 <-ata ) 
 \ -am f 
 
 katal-ata 
 
 ta-ktul-ani 
 
 we 
 
 nahnu 
 
 n- 
 
 -na 
 
 katal-na 
 
 na-ktul-u 
 
 you (mas.) 
 
 antum 
 
 t- 
 
 j -turn ) 
 ( -una J 
 
 katal-tum 
 
 ta-ktul-una 
 
 you (fern.) 
 
 antunna 
 
 t- 
 
 j -tunna ) 
 (-na J 
 
 katal-tunna 
 
 ta-ktul-na 
 
 they (mas.) 
 
 j humu | 
 ( hum f 
 
 i- (y-) 
 
 j-u ) 
 ( -una J 
 
 katal-u 
 
 ia-ktul-una 
 
 they (fern.) 
 
 Jumna 
 
 i- (y-) 
 
 -na 
 
 katal-na 
 
 ia-ktul-na 
 
 The fragments employed as affixes cannot all be deduced 
 from the existing pronouns, but must have been derived from 
 earlier forms. This is equally true of the suffixes of verbs 
 in other languages. 
 
 Words may also be developed by internal change, without 
 the addition of anything. This is one of the leading charac- 
 teristics of the Shemitic languages. Thus the Arabic makes 
 from the same root : 
 
 katala 
 
 kattala 
 
 katala 
 
 aktala 
 
 takattala 
 
 takatala 
 
 inkatala 
 
 iktatala 
 
 iktalla 
 
 istaktala 
 
 iktalla 
 
 he killed 
 
 he massacred 
 
 he tried to kill 
 
 he set on some one to kill 
 
 he slew himself 
 
 he pretended to be killed 
 
 he got himself killed 
 
 he committed suicide 
 
 he set some one to kill for him
 
 Word Making. 
 
 HEBREW. 
 
 Anokhi, ani 
 
 a- 
 
 -ti 
 
 katal-ti 
 
 a-ktol 
 
 attah, atta 
 
 t- 
 
 -ta 
 
 katal-ta 
 
 ti-ktol 
 
 atti, at 
 hu 
 
 t 
 
 i- (y-) 
 
 -t, -i 
 
 katal-t 
 katal 
 
 ti-ktl-i 
 yi ktol 
 
 hi 
 
 t- 
 
 -ah 
 
 katl-ah 
 
 ti-ktol 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 anakhnu, anu ) 
 nakhnu ) 
 
 n- 
 
 -nu 
 
 katal-nu 
 
 ni-ktol 
 
 attem 
 
 t- 
 
 -tern, -u 
 
 ktal-tem 
 
 ti-ktl-u 
 
 atten, attenah 
 
 t- 
 
 j -ten ) 
 \ -nah \ 
 
 ktal-ten 
 
 ti-ktol-nah 
 
 hem, hemmah 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 katl-u 
 
 yi-ktl-u 
 
 hen, lien 71 ah 
 
 t- 
 
 -u, -nah 
 
 katl-u 
 
 ti-ktol-nah 
 
 Each one of these now becomes a separate verb, to be con- 
 jugated throughout. 
 
 In respect to signification, we have in English a mere 
 trace of this usage, in such pairs of words as drink and 
 drench, fall and fell, lie and lay, rise and raise, sit and set. 
 These couplets were more numerous in the earlier period of 
 the language than now. Something apparently similar is 
 one of the marked peculiarities of the Teutonic group of 
 languages. It is the formation of what are commonly called 
 the irregular verbs which foreigners must find one of the 
 great difficulties of English. A few examples will show how 
 hard it is to guess the past from the present, or the present 
 from the past. 
 
 eat 
 
 sing 
 
 bring 
 
 slay 
 
 fly 
 
 seethe 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 sang 
 brought 
 slew 
 
 sung 
 brought 
 slain 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 sothe, sod 
 
 sodden
 
 88 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 Again, we have : 
 
 teach taught 
 buy bought 
 
 seek sought 
 
 think 
 work 
 bring 
 
 thought 
 wrought 
 brought 
 
 where six entirely different presents have almost the same 
 past tense. 
 
 Although our language has little of declension and con- 
 jugation now, yet it was not always so. In that earlier form 
 known as Anglo-Saxon the inflexional system was fuller 
 than in modern literary German, but less complete than in 
 the still older Gothic. Thus the adjective blindh^ in Saxon 
 the following declension : 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 MASC. 
 
 FEM. 
 
 NEUT. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 blind 
 
 blind-u 
 
 blind 
 
 GEN. 
 
 blind-es 
 
 blind-re 
 
 blind-es 
 
 DAT. 
 
 blind-um 
 
 blind-re 
 
 blind-um 
 
 Accus. 
 
 blind-ne 
 
 blind-e 
 
 blind 
 
 ^ INSTR. 
 
 blind-6 
 
 
 blind-e 
 
 I NOM. 
 
 blind-e 
 
 blind-e 
 
 blind-u 
 
 GEN. 
 
 blind-ra 
 
 blind-ra 
 
 blind-ra 
 
 DAT. 
 
 blind-um 
 
 blind-um 
 
 blind-um 
 
 Accus. 
 
 blind-e 
 
 blind-e 
 
 blind-u 
 
 Plural 
 
 The change that such a word has undergone consists of 
 omitting the terminations entirely, and perhaps altering the 
 pronunciation. How was this brought about ? Evidently 
 to use all these various forms correctly requires care and the 
 skill that comes of long and constant use. Such a type of 
 language could be developed and maintained only in a 
 closely united and isolated community. Immigration, con- 
 quest, and the commingling of races would be fatal to it. 
 Those who, without sufficient knowledge, should attempt to 
 use these inflexions would blunder perpetually ; and their 
 only safe course would be to drop them altogether. In this 
 they would be determined somewhat by the place of the 
 accent. Some languages, as the Hebrew, the Greek, and 
 the Latin, reckon it from the end of the word ; Saxon and
 
 Word Making. 89 
 
 Icelandic from the beginning, while Sanskrit and Russian 
 seem to have no preference. The accented syllables are 
 longest and best preserved, while those farthest from the 
 accent, like outlying provinces, are exposed to waste and 
 destruction. Now as the Anglo-Saxon generally placed the 
 accent near the beginning of each word, the terminal portions 
 were readily worn off. It is known that this wasting process 
 had begun long before the Norman conquest, especially in 
 the north of England settled by the Angles and exposed to 
 the inroads of the Picts and the Danes. And when long 
 after the conquest Normans and Saxons united to form one 
 people the inflexional system was fated to disappear. 
 
 Every student must be struck with the amount of irregu- 
 larity in all inflected languages. Turn to the imperfect active 
 of the Latin verb and see how beautifully regular it is how 
 easy to learn and to use. Why cannot all paradigms be as 
 plain ? But as they are we encounter at every step either 
 forms so worn down and altered as to be scarcely recogniza- 
 ble, or forms obviously of different origins. The words first 
 and second are not derived from one and two, nor are eleven 
 and twelve constructed on the same pattern as thirteen and 
 fourteen. Better and worse are not akin to good and bad. In 
 such cases we must suppose the original native word to have 
 been ousted by some intruder. Fortunately we know of at 
 least two instances where that has been done. Within the 
 memory of living men mariners very consistently called the 
 right and left sides of the ship starboard and larboard, but 
 as these were not easily distinguished in the tumult of a 
 storm, port was arbitrarily substituted for the latter. Go and 
 went are another mismatched pair. Go had once a past 
 tense which is well preserved in the Scotch gaed ' : 
 
 " Then I gaed hame at crowdie-time 
 And soon I made me ready." 
 
 BURNS: "Holy Fair." 
 
 Scott, in the third canto of " Marmion," employs a form 
 yode, which follows closely the A.-S. eode ; but as early as 
 the time of Wycliffe and Chaucer, went had completely
 
 90 The English Language. 
 
 usurped the place of this old word. On the other hand, 
 wend is now scarcely ever used seriously, so that we have 
 only the present tense of the one and the past tense of the 
 other. 
 
 There is reason to believe that languages in their more 
 primitive stages are less irregular that, as change is inces- 
 sant, irregularity is a constantly growing quantity. In the 
 Sanskrit verb we have found slight traces, and in Arabic and 
 Hebrew considerable remains, of the personal pronouns. 
 The same could not be detected in the languages of modern 
 Europe. This point may be illustrated by two or three mis- 
 cellaneous examples. The first shall be the three series of 
 Sanskrit adverbs, viz., of time, place, and cause or source. 
 The first series corresponds to our now, then, when, when ? 
 always. 
 
 adhuna tada yada kadi sarvada 
 
 atra tatra yatra kutra sarvatra 
 
 atah tatah yatah kutah sarvatah 
 
 Yet notwithstanding this remarkable uniformity, one anom- 
 aly has crept into each line. Again, the English personal 
 pronouns, 1st, /, 2d, thou, 3d, he, she, or it, have no simi- 
 larity ; and the plurals are not in the least like each other or 
 like their singulars. 
 
 It is quite otherwise in the language of the Dakota Indians : 
 
 ish he ish-pi they 
 
 n-ish thou n-ish-pi ye 
 
 tn-ish I unk-ish we two m-ish-pi we 
 
 They have a possessive pronoun from a different root, but 
 equally regular in itself : 
 
 tawa tawa-pi 
 
 ni-tawa ni-tawa-pi 
 
 mi-tawa unki-tawa mi-tawa-pi 
 
 In the language of the Hidatsas, an allied tribe, these 
 pronouns are :
 
 Word Making. 91 
 
 i he hi-do they 
 
 d-i thou di-do ye 
 
 m-i I mi-do we 
 
 It is a curious fact that in many languages, the most 
 diverse geographically and in character, the forms for the 
 third person are simpler than any of the others. 
 
 Finally there are words that are mere mistakes. Of these 
 there are two kinds. One class, relating chiefly to animals 
 and plants, are errors of fact ignorance of natural history. 
 Toads do not sit on toad-stools any more than they carry 
 jewels in their heads. The cuckoo does not expectorate 
 cuckoo-spit, nor do the stars drop star-jelly. The other class 
 are merely verbal errors, due to catching at the sound of 
 strange words and turning them into something familiar in 
 sound but different in sense. Thus there is a parish in 
 Derbyshire called Sandy Acre originally Saint Diacre ; and 
 in Oxfordshire there is Shotover Hill (French, Chateau vert], 
 and ever-ready tradition tells how Robin Hood's lieutenant, 
 Little John (so-called from his great stature), shot an arrow 
 over it. The English sailors used to call the ship of war 
 Bellerophon, Bully Ruffian ; as the soldiers pronounced the 
 name of Surajah Dowlah, Sir Roger Dowley. I suspect that 
 Cinderella's glass slipper is a mistake of a word, for a glass 
 slipper is too absurd even for a nursery tale. But let us 
 suppose that the story took its present form in France about 
 the thirteenth century, when vair was a common name for 
 gray fur or anything trimmed therewith. Suppose further 
 the ill-used maiden had furred slippers des pantoufles de vair 
 and that ages after, when the word was no longer in com- 
 mon use, they were mistaken for des pantoufles de verre 
 slippers of glass. Legends, mythology, and superstitions owe 
 much to a misapprehension of words. The following are 
 some of the principal English words originating in this 
 manner : 
 
 Alewives (from aloof , an Indian name for the fish) are not 
 married, and confine themselves to cold water.
 
 92 The English Language. 
 
 " When the ground is bad and worn-out, the Indians used to 
 put two or three of the fishes called Aloof es under or adjacent to 
 each Corn Hill, where they had many a Crop double to what the 
 Ground would have otherwise produced." 
 
 Philos. Trans., London, 1700, xii., 1665. 
 
 Belly-bone, or belly-bound, a variety of pear, Fr. belle et 
 bonne. 
 
 Benjamin, benzoin, a gum. 
 
 Blue Peter, blue repeater, a marine signal flag. 
 
 Charter House (Fr. Chartreuse], a Carthusian monastery in 
 London converted into a charity school and asylum. 
 
 Condog", a ridiculous word for concur, on the basis that a cur 
 is a dog. 
 
 Country-dance, for contra-dance. 
 
 Cow-itch is a corruption of an Eastern word which as a word 
 has no connection with either cow or itch. 
 
 Crawfish is not a fish. Tracing backwards we have crawfish, 
 crayfish. Fr. tcrevisse j Ger. Krebis or Krebs, a crab. 
 
 Cudbear, a purple dye introduced by Dr. Cuthbert Gordon. 
 
 Demijohn, Half John ; Fr. Dame Jeanne, Lady Jane ; said 
 to be named after the place of its invention, Damaghan in Central 
 Asia. 
 
 Dear me, not a simple expression of self-love, but the Italian 
 Dio mio, My God. 
 
 Fiddle-wood, ^v.fidele, faithful, for its durability. 
 
 Fistinut, pistachio nut ; Arab, fustak. 
 
 Godown, Malay godong, a warehouse. 
 
 Gooseberry, gorseberry, has no connection with geese. 
 
 Hammercloth, a hybrid Dutch and English word meaning a 
 covering cloth. 
 
 Handsaw, heronshaw, " Hamlet," Act ii., Sc. 2. 
 
 Isinglass, Dutch huizenblas, sturgeon's air-bladder. 
 
 Jerusalem artichoke has no connection with the holy city 
 Ital. girarsole, turning to the sun. 
 
 John Dory, Fr.jaune doree, a gold-colored fish. 
 
 Johnny-cake. Nothing but the cake is now known of this 
 particular Johnny. The early settlers of Pennsylvania and 
 Virginia used to prepare journey-cake to take with them when 
 going a great distance.
 
 Word Making. 93 
 
 Maul-Stick, Ger. Mahlstock, is not a stick to maul with, but to 
 support the hand in painting. 
 
 Niger auger, low for Nicaragua logwood. 
 
 Nightmare. The incubus here is not the female of the 
 horse but A.-S. mara, oppression in sleep. 
 
 No-cake, worse fare than Johnny-cake, only a kind of 
 porridge, Indian nookhik. 
 
 Rosemary, not a rose or specially pertaining to Mary, but 
 rather ros marinus, sea dew. 
 
 Rotten Row in London is not especially a scene of decay or 
 decomposition, but a celebrated thoroughfare in Hyde Park, 
 where people of wealth and fashion disport on foot and on horse- 
 back. Long ago it was le route du roi, the king's route, or road. 
 
 Saunders blue, Fr. cendres bleues, blue ashes. 
 
 Shuttlecock, originally a piece of cork batted to and fro. 
 
 Sirloin for surloin, a misspelling backed by a silly story that 
 James I. conferred knighthood on a roast of beef. 
 
 Summerset, somerset, somersault. Fr. soubresaut, soubresault, 
 Ital. sopra salto, Lat. supra and saltus, a leap over. 
 
 Sparrow-grass, asparagus. 
 
 Stave's-acre, Gr. ffTaqnS aypia, wild grape. 
 
 Tennant-saw for tenon-saw. 
 
 Wormwood has nothing to do with either worms or wood. 
 It is from the A.-S. iver-mod, the name of the plant absin- 
 thium. 
 
 Yellow-hammer is not a hammer, and in Europe is not even 
 a woodpecker but a small bird, the yellow bunting. Ger. Gelb- 
 ammer or Gold-ammer.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 THE invention of an alphabet to represent the single 
 sounds of vocal speech requires such a power of analysis 
 that it is doubtful if it has ever been accomplished but once 
 in the whole history of mankind, and then only by the labors 
 of many ages and diverse peoples. Like everything great, it 
 is the product of slow development and not of sudden crea- 
 tion. The man who had no hint of an alphabet could not 
 devise it ; and he who had once seen one could produce only 
 an imitation. 
 
 The first attempts at recording were undoubtedly pictures, 
 and were confined to no race or country. Yet picture writ- 
 ing and monumental markings had certain centres of special 
 interest, of which the most important were Mexico, (includ- 
 ing Central America), China, Babylon, and Egypt. The 
 American art was cut off before maturity, the greater part 
 of its monuments destroyed, and no key left to the myste- 
 ries of the remainder. The three other systems yielded very 
 notable results. 
 
 The attempt to convey intelligence by pictures soon dis- 
 closes the imperfections of the medium. It is bulky and la- 
 borious requires too much time and space to say a little. 
 This may be obviated in part by abridging and abbreviating. 
 A few footprints may represent a journey ; a sword or a 
 handful of arrows, war ; a ladder leaned against a wall, a 
 siege ; or the head and horns of a deer may stand for the 
 whole animal. Again, no picture tells its own story, but 
 must be supplemented by other knowledge. The most per- 
 fect painting of the Last Supper or the death of Socrates 
 would be unintelligible to one who was not familiar with the 
 story. Admitting that a wall and ladder may represent a 
 
 94
 
 The Alphabet 95 
 
 siege, they cannot alone tell us what siege, and still less its 
 cause, history, and results. For this purpose a secondary set 
 of figures, often quite arbitrary in form, must be added as 
 keys, headings, inscriptions, or letter-press ; and these latter 
 may ultimately be so perfected as to dispense with the pic- 
 tures altogether. 
 
 Pictures, too, can represent only visible objects, and not 
 abstract ideas. How can a picture be designed that will 
 convey to every beholder the sentiment, " Love thy neigh- 
 bor as thyself " ? A rude attempt is made to solve this 
 problem by means of that exhaustless fancy that sees a figu- 
 rative or symbolical meaning in everything a metaphorical 
 likeness in things the most unlike. A pair of scales might 
 indicate justice ; wisdom might be represented by the head 
 of an owl ; cunning, by a fox ; and the act of forgetting, by 
 a sieve that retains no water. Among the Egyptians an 
 ostrich feather was the symbol of justice, from a belief that 
 all the feathers of that bird are of equal length ; a bee was 
 the emblem of royal authority, as bees were supposed to live 
 under a perfect monarchy ; and a roll of papyrus aptly rep- 
 resented knowledge. 
 
 The Mexicans painted a serpent with head and tail joined 
 for eternity, and also for the divine power ; while the plain 
 practical Chinese drew a pair of clam shells for friendship, 
 and for the conjunction and, a bunch of roots bound together. 
 
 But there are cases where all such contrivances fail. For 
 names, especially of foreign persons or places, mere sounds 
 must be expressed. Every system of writing must perform 
 this feat or utterly fail. So far as I am aware all attempts 
 to do this have been essentially the same in principle, which 
 is that of the rebus, so common in popular publications for 
 the young. A group or series of objects is depicted whose 
 united names give the required articulations. Such names 
 as those of the Indian chiefs, Cornstalk, Black Hawk, Red 
 Cloud, Sitting Bull, present no difficulty ; but it would some- 
 times be necessary to use only parts of words, as it will 
 generally be possible to find some word either beginning or 
 ending with any desired sound. In this way the Mexicans
 
 96 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 expressed the name of their king Itzcoatl by an arrow pointed 
 with obsidian, itstli, a water jar, comitl, and a symbol for 
 water, atl. By combining the initial syllables, they formed 
 the name required. The Chinese and Assyrians varied this 
 method by combining the initial syllable of the first word 
 with the final syllable of the last. 
 
 Many peoples have claimed for their arts and institutions 
 a divine origin or a fabulous antiquity ; and remote dates in 
 general are to be accepted only as approximations. The 
 Chinese assign a date of 2278 (2278 before the Christian 
 era) to a rock inscription of one of their early kings record- 
 ing the completion of an outlet for the floods of the 
 Hoang-ho. However uncertain, the date is not in itself 
 improbable. Like every other people, they began with rude 
 outlines of objects, which have been altered and abbreviated 
 so many times that little of the original likeness is left. An 
 obvious resemblance can sometimes be traced in the oldest 
 texts, which is lost in the modern characters, as. will be seen 
 by a few examples : 
 
 
 
 the sun 
 
 H the moon 
 
 m mountains 
 
 / a dog 
 
 / i a fish 
 
 MH 
 
 iK: a tree 
 
 1$ 
 
 ^ a child 
 
 a man 
 
 F| the eye 
 
 ran 
 
 raj 
 
 high 1 
 to shoot 
 
 We have already seen that all languages began with 
 monosyllables, and that the Chinese never advanced beyond 
 that stage. This perpetual fixity is perhaps due to the fact 
 that it was committed to writing in that primitive form, and 
 so remains a conspicuous example of arrested development. 
 Every word at first was a little picture, representing at once 
 a visible object and a spoken monosyllable. As the language 
 
 Three mountains piled upon each other with trees on the top.
 
 The Alphabet. 97 
 
 has no grammatical distinctions, the same figure, as noun, 
 adjective, and verb, represented an object, its most conspic- 
 uous quality, or its most characteristic action, as the case 
 might require. By an extensive system of secondary and 
 metaphorical significations, all the purposes of more artistic 
 languages are attained in a manner that, though bald and 
 stiff is perfectly intelligible. As the written characters are 
 ideographic, like the signs in our almanacs and mathematical 
 books, they convey their meaning directly in all parts of the 
 empire, whatever may be the spoken dialect. The Chinese 
 are so wedded to their system that they not only have never 
 invented or adopted an alphabet, but they find it difficult to 
 conceive how other nations can fill libraries with some two 
 dozen letters not one of which means anything. 
 
 But the number of pronounceable monosyllables is limited. 
 Chinese has 450 some rate them as high as 500. Each 
 spoken word therefore stands on an average for 100 quite 
 separate ideas. The written characters far outnumber the 
 uttered sounds ; and in discourse at all important or recon- 
 dite the tongue must be aided by the hand and pencil. The 
 Chinese grammarians divide their written words into the fol- 
 lowing classes : 
 
 First. There are 600 characters so pictorial as to need no 
 explanation. 
 
 Second. Characters that vary in meaning according to 
 position, as the figure of the sun above or below a horizontal 
 bar, distinguishing dawn from sunset. 
 
 Third. There are some 700 compound characters originally 
 made up of two or more. 
 
 The fourth class numbers 372 which change their significa- 
 tion when either the form or the sound is inverted. 
 
 The fifth class comprises 600 that are used in metaphorical 
 senses. 
 
 But as all these elaborate devices must fail in the end, the 
 Chinese had recourse to an ingenious system. They under- 
 took to distribute all possible conceptions into 214 classes. 
 Each of these divisions is distinguished by a character taken, 
 
 with few exceptions, from the class first above mentioned. 
 
 7
 
 98 The English Language. 
 
 These characters, when so used, are called keys, and are not 
 pronounced. They are combined with characters repre- 
 senting the 450 monosyllabic sounds, and show in what sense 
 these latter are to be understood. Thus the character to be 
 pronounced fie, combined with the key-word muh, meaning 
 wood or tree, to distinguish it from every other pe, is pro- 
 nounced merely pe and not pe muh, and is then understood 
 to mean a wooden spoon. The word ngo, united with 27 
 different keys, represents as many wholly dissimilar ideas, 
 but still pronounced the same. In this way the written is 
 vastly more copious and precise than the spoken language, 
 which haa, as a substitute, a very inadequate system of tones 
 that give it a sing-song character. 
 
 About the year 39 contemporary with the preaching of 
 Saint Paul in the West Buddhist missionaries from India 
 first entered China, bringing with them the Devanagari 
 alphabet and some of their religious books. Their teachings 
 exerted a wide influence, and by the end of the fifth century 
 it was computed that more than 5,000 of their books had 
 been translated into Chinese. The foreign alphabet never 
 superseded the native mode of writing, yet for certain pur- 
 poses it was imitated. For expressing foreign names and 
 unfamiliar words 36 characters were selected, representing 
 the initial consonants of the language, and 38 others for the 
 final sounds. One of the former followed by one of the 
 latter will form a word beginning with the one and ending 
 with the other. This system has been in use in dictionaries 
 since the year 543. 
 
 Intimate relations existed from an early period between 
 China and Corea; and thither the Buddhist missionaries 
 penetrated in the fourth century. As they were not there 
 confronted with a system of writing so deeply rooted as in 
 China, the Coreans, profiting by their example, constructed 
 an ingenious and very simple alphabet of 27 letters, 
 adapted to the sounds of their language. It is important 
 to observe that this alphabet has not the slightest resem- 
 blance to the one that suggested it, but rather reminds us of 
 modern short-hand. All that an ingenious people require is
 
 The Alphabet. 99 
 
 to see and understand that vocal speech can be resolved 
 into its elements and then represented by visible symbols. 
 All European alphabets are unquestionably derivations of 
 the earliest Phoenician, but the liveliest imagination cannot 
 detect a resemblance in more than two or three of the letters 
 used by us ; and that resemblance is wanting in the Hebrew 
 and the Arabic, which are next of kin to the original. One 
 set of symbols may be derived from another, and yet the 
 two may look wholly unlike, as our stenographic and common 
 printed characters. 
 
 The Japanese learned Chinese through the medium of 
 Corea. The sovereign of Japan, having learned that an art 
 of writing was known there, sent an embassy in 285 and 
 brought a Chinese professor with books and writing materials 
 from Corea. Those apt and ingenuous islanders learned 
 readily, and in later ages honored the memory of their 
 teacher as of an apostle and tutelary saint. What they 
 learned, however, was the Chinese language and mode of 
 writing. Some centuries later, when intercourse with China 
 became more common, discrepancies were discovered that 
 had been at first unobserved. The language they had 
 learned was getting obsolete. Their pronunciation was 
 peculiar. The Chinese, for example, could pronounce no r ; 
 the Japanese, no /. The one people employed many nasals; 
 the other, none. Hence mutual understanding was not 
 easy. At the same time, to express their own language in 
 Chinese characters was impracticable. They were thus 
 driven to attempt an analysis of their speech, and resolved 
 it into 47 elementary syllables. They represented each by a 
 single character Chinese much simplified, some of which 
 were modified by diacritic points, making 73 in all. This 
 syllabary was devised in the eighth century by a Buddhist 
 priest, a native of Japan, who had spent many years in 
 China, and was acquainted with the Devanagari character. 
 He too became a justly canonized saint. His system is 
 known by the name of Catacanna, and is really very simple 
 and practical. Thus neither the Corean alphabet nor the 
 Japanese syllabary was a purely original invention. Both
 
 ioo The English Language. 
 
 were due to the influence of Buddhists acquainted with a 
 real alphabet. 
 
 What, then, and whence was this real alphabet the De- 
 vanagari ? It is the especial alphabet of the Sanskrit lan- 
 guage. The name signifies, pertaining to the city of the 
 gods the holy city that is, Benares. It might therefore be 
 called the Benares alphabet, to distinguish it from many 
 others. It has contained at different times from 45 to 50 
 letters, which we may suppose to have represented perfectly 
 the sounds of the spoken language : but its aspirated letters 
 and duplicate series of consonants are difficult for a European 
 to distinguish. It has not the slightest trace of having been 
 derived from pictures or hieroglyphics. The oldest charac- 
 ters, occurring on monuments and coins, are simple ; but, as 
 now found in books the letters have the appearance of being 
 devised to make reading and writing as difficult as possible. 
 But as a means of preserving literary compositions they are 
 not of great antiquity. We read in Exodus xxiv., 7, that 
 Moses " took the book of the covenant and read in the 
 audience of the people " ; and Job xix., 23, " Oh that my 
 words were now written ! Oh that they were printed (?) in 
 a book ; that they were graven with an iron pen, and with 
 lead in the rock forever ! " It is clear that the authors of 
 these passages were familiar with the art of writing, both lit- 
 erary and monumental; but in all the 1,017 hymns of the 
 Rig Veda, which may reach a date as low as 800, there 
 is no allusion to writing or writing materials. The Greek 
 historian Megasthenes, who, as minister of Seleucus Nicator, 
 spent eight years at the court of Chandragupta, King of Ma- 
 gadha or Behar, reported that the Indians were ignorant of 
 letters, and preserved their laws by memory, but set up in- 
 scribed milestones along their roads. Nearchus, the admiral 
 of Alexander's fleet, declared that they wrote letters 
 (fTrrffroAa?) on cotton well beaten together that is, on cot- 
 ton paper ; but he also admitted that their laws were un- 
 written. Unless there be a contradiction between two 
 perfectly competent witnesses, the Indians, by the time of 
 Alexander 327, had learned some art of writing, and used
 
 The Alphabet. 101 
 
 it for inscriptions but not for literary compositions. Such a 
 state of things would be curiously paralleled by the case of 
 our Teutonic ancestors who employed their runic characters 
 for inscriptions, charms, and secret messages, but not to pre- 
 serve their laws, songs, or sagas. The oldest extant speci- 
 mens of writing in India are the rock and pillar inscriptions 
 of King Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, and great 
 patron of Buddhism, about 250. They are in two dif- 
 ferent alphabets, the early Devanagari, written like ours 
 from left to right ; the other, a Semitic alphabet, then in use 
 in the northern provinces of India, and written from right to 
 left. How the Devanagari came into existence alongside of 
 the other cannot now be proved, but to suppose that it 
 sprang into full-blown existence at once, without leaving a 
 trace of development, is contrary to all analogy. It is more 
 natural to suppose that it was an improvement on the hint 
 furnished by an imported pattern. As has been already 
 urged, such an imitation would not necessarily have much 
 resemblance to the original. 1 In a canonical life of the 
 Buddha, which must be old as 250, it is related how the 
 young prince is sent to school and asks his teacher what 
 writing he is to learn. The pedagogue enumerates 64 alpha- 
 bets or styles of writing, and among them the Deva, or De- 
 vanagari, which last is the one studied. It is thus a curious 
 circumstance that, while the Brahmans imprecated the direst 
 curses on one who should convey or acquire their doctrines 
 through a written medium, Buddhists carried everywhere the 
 knowledge of letters. A Buddhist book is the first in the 
 remote East to mention writing as a part of education, and 
 
 1 A striking example of an elaborate system developed out of a mere hint is 
 the syllabary invented in 1824 for the Cherokees by the half-breed Sequoia, 
 otherwise called George Guest. He was in possession of English books, but 
 had never learned to read them, and he devised a scheme of 84 characters, to 
 represent all the single syllables of the language. In form they were as far as 
 practicable imitations and modifications of the English capital letters and 
 numerals. Nearly every syllable began with a single consonant and ended with 
 a vowel ; and they were arranged in the manner of ba, be, bi, bo, bu. The 
 scheme is still considered well adapted to the Cherokee, but is not equally suited 
 to other Indian tongues.
 
 IO2 The English Language. 
 
 a Buddhist prince leaves the earliest specimens of the art. 
 Was there a Western impulse at the bottom of it all ? In 
 view of the perplexing coincidences of Buddhism and 
 Christianity, the question might be asked : Was it some 
 stranger from Western Asia perchance some wandering 
 Jew that first stirred the soul of Siddharta Gotama? and 
 did Buddhism, after seven centuries, react upon the early 
 types of Christianity ? 
 
 Among the earliest seats of civilization was the rich allu- 
 vial plain at the head of the Persian Gulf, where wheat and 
 barley grew wild beneath the shade of the date-palm, and 
 yielded the cultivator two-hundred-fold. Two distinct peo- 
 ples occupied those sea marshes and river bottoms. The 
 one was the so-called race of Shem, that overspread Arabia 
 and all the plain of the 'two rivers the ancient Aram 
 Naharaiim as far as the highlands of Assyria and the 
 mountains of Armenia. But earlier than they were the 
 people who bore the generic name of Accad, who seem to 
 have descended from the mountains of Susiana, on the east. 
 From the exhumed relics of their ancient cities, the language 
 and character of this people are now known in part. Their 
 language was allied in general structure to those of the 
 Turks, Tartars, and Magyars ; and special affinities have 
 been suggested between them and the Finns of Northern 
 Europe. But structural resemblance of language, when 
 of a low and simple type, does not prove affinity of blood, 
 but only a particular stage of development. 
 
 On those fertile plains were cities of the hoariest antiquity. 
 There was that " Ur of the Chaldees," whence Abraham 
 and doubtless other enterprising young men " moved west," 
 seeking homes less crowded, and wider freedom. There were 
 the Erech and Calneh of Genesis, and others less known, 
 and, at a later date, the mightier Babylon, " the glory of the 
 Chaldees' excellency.' 
 
 From a date that can scarcely be guessed at, the Accad 
 had a peculiar art of writing. The extant remains show 
 mere traces of derivation from pictures or hieroglyphs, but 
 in general the appearance is that of perfectly arbitrary
 
 The Alphabet. 103 
 
 marks. Specimens, regarded as especially archaic, exhibit 
 combinations of straight strokes, but by far the most common 
 are groups of six to a dozen slender isosceles triangles, like 
 wedges or spear-points, whence the writing has received the 
 name of cuneiform or arrow-headed. If there were any docu- 
 ments of fragile material, they have perished, and only stone, 
 burnt clay, and metal remain. From Babylon downward to 
 the sea stone was scarce, and the use of brick universal. The 
 singular expedient was adopted of impressing words upon 
 plastic clay with the end of a slender three-sided stick. The 
 clay was then dried and baked, usually in the form of bricks, 
 tablets, or cylinders. Bricks were often printed on all sides ; 
 a tablet might contain several hundred lines ; the cylinder 
 had a projection at each end, by which it could be held and 
 slowly turned as the reading progressed. As the writing 
 material was bulky, space was economized by printing close. 
 The characters, although very distinct, were sometimes so 
 minute as to require a magnifying glass to read them ; and 
 that such may have been used is evidenced by the quartz 
 lens discovered by Layard in the ruins of Nineveh. In the 
 last-named city, stone, especially alabaster, was largely used 
 for records. The early and extensive use of this kind of 
 writing is shown by the fact that Sargon the first of that 
 name established a library which, from the catalogue, would 
 seem to have been a public one, some say as early as 2000. 
 The Assyrian kings declared their anxiety to make learning 
 accessible to the people. The literature was varied, and, for 
 that time, extensive, especially in astronomy, history, and 
 poetry. As the Semitic race obtained the supremacy, the Ac- 
 cadians disappeared as a distinct people, but their influence 
 long remained. Their tablets were copied, commented on, 
 and translated. Dictionaries and grammars were made for 
 their language ; and it came to be studied as a dead and 
 learned tongue, as Latin is now in Europe. 
 
 The cuneiform characters doubtless originating as pictures 
 at first represented things or ideas, and not mere sounds. 
 They continued to do so in part in the hands of the Baby- 
 lonians and Assyrians ; but at the same time they were em-
 
 104 The English Language. 
 
 ployed for the sounds of syllables, without regard to meaning. 
 They were never used as an alphabet of single sounds. A 
 word might be expressed either by a single character, or 
 spelled by the combinations that formed its successive sylla- 
 bles. To distinguish the former use, it was either preceded 
 by an unpronounced character, like the Chinese keys, or 
 followed by a grammatical termination. While Chinese and 
 Japanese are written vertically downwards, and the lines 
 succeed each other from right to left, the cuneiform was 
 written from left to right. 
 
 When the characters of Accad were adopted by the Shem- 
 ites, the identities both of sound and sense could not be 
 preserved. The learners might accept the signification, and 
 express it by a word of their own, as when we write Ib. and 
 pronounce it pound ; or they might adopt an opposite course. 1 
 In point of fact, they tried to do both the former in writing 
 holographically, the latter in spelling. This was liable to 
 cause misunderstanding, which was greatly increased by the 
 circumstance that even in Accadian the same character gen- 
 erally stood for several different words. The effect may be 
 illustrated in this way : Suppose the Latin " anser," a goose, 
 to be represented by a single hieroglyphic, which we adopted 
 and pronounced sometimes answer and at other times goose. 
 Suppose further that there were local pronunciations, such 
 as anther and anker ; we should then have the two families 
 of derivatives : 
 
 a reply a fowl 
 
 to reply a tailor's smoothing-iron 
 
 a part of a flower a game of chance 
 
 a measure of 10 gallons a simpleton 
 
 a ship's anchor the source of nursery rhymes 
 
 Hope 
 
 If the original figure stood for other words besides anser, 
 the number might be indefinitely increased. The first char- 
 acter in the vocabulary of Sayce's Elementary Assyrian 
 
 1 I remember to have heard, when very young, old persons call the character 
 &, eppershand, an expression to which they attached no meaning. Subsequent 
 reflection led me to suppose that the term was et per se = and.
 
 The Alphabet. 105 
 
 Grammar, consisting of a single horizontal wedge, had in 
 Accadian five phonetic values. When adopted into Assyrian 
 it acquired thirteen more, and represented Assyria, heaven, 
 the deep, a memorial, obedient, happy, to produce, to give, one, 
 in, etc. Every transfer to another dialect swelled the num- 
 ber, and helped to fill the Land of Shinar with a veritable 
 " confusions of tongues." 
 
 The Persians, before the time of Cyrus and Darius Hys- 
 taspes, seem to have been ignorant of letters. The Zend 
 Avesta lays great stress on the correct recitation of the 
 liturgy, but never alludes to reading or writing. In adopt- 
 ing the cuneiform, the Persians completely transformed it. 
 The change was so thorough that it must have been made 
 at once, and systematically. The redactor accepted little 
 more than a mere hint. He retained the ultimate wedge- 
 shaped element, but rejected the greater part of the groups, 
 retaining only some forty or fifty. These he altered and 
 simplified in form, and stripped of all their primary signifi- 
 cance, so that, like our letters, they expressed only sounds. 
 The sounds, however, as in Japanese, were syllables, and not 
 letters. Still, as some syllables are only single vowels, and 
 the vowels of others are fleeting and ill-defined, the new 
 syllabary made a near approach to a real alphabet. That 
 one with views so radical should have undertaken to work 
 over material so unpromising, proves conclusively that no 
 real alphabet was commonly known at that time 530 B.C. 
 in Persia or Mesopotamia. 
 
 The date of the founding of the Egyptian monarchy has been 
 variously estimated Champollion-Figeac giving 5867, 
 and Wilkinson 2330. These are near the extremes, but the 
 computations" of twenty-five modern Egyptologists give a 
 mean of 4180, from all which it results that Egypt has a 
 fair claim to priority over all known establishments. A well- 
 developed system of pictorial writing was in use there from 
 the earliest known dates, and continued with little change 
 to the second or third Christian century, the last word found 
 written being the name of the Emperor Decius. The char- 
 acters consisted mostly of the figures of men and animals
 
 106 The English Language. 
 
 in whole or in part celestial bodies, trees, plants, implements, 
 and familiar objects. They became world-famous as the 
 Egyptian hieroglyphics a word signifying sacred carvings, 
 were used chiefly for monumental inscriptions, and re- 
 tained their pictorial appearance to the last. They were in 
 the possession of the priesthood, not so much because the 
 hierarchy treasured or fostered learning as because in those 
 ages all art and thought took a religious form, and so fell to 
 the lot of the clergy. Few strangers ever penetrated the 
 secret of their meaning ; and until the present century they 
 were as much a mystery as the fountains of the Nile. About 
 the time when they passed out of use, Horapollo, whose 
 name, half Egyptian and half Greek, denoted one of mixed 
 blood, wrote a little book, still extant, explaining one hun- 
 dred and eighty of the hieroglyphs. The work was almost 
 entirely misleading. It treated them solely as ideographs, 
 embodying the most strained and fanciful ideas. As an 
 example, he taught that 1,095, the number of days in three 
 years, denoted mutism, because if a child did not speak 
 within that time he was given up as dumb. Still, modern 
 research has sustained some of his renderings. A few fanci- 
 ful attempts were made at long intervals, but all on the same 
 principle, although Clement of Alexandria and Porphyry 
 had declared that they represented sounds as well as ideas. 
 Zoega, in 1787, ventured the conjecture that the royal names 
 occurring in inscriptions must be written phonetically. 
 
 Thus the case stood when in 1799, during the French 
 occupation of Egypt, a slab of basalt was found at Rosetta, 
 bearing a triple inscription of some length in hieroglyphics, 
 in the demotic character a kind of short-hand hieroglyphic 
 and Greek, by means of which Dr. Young in 1818 effected 
 the first breach in the hitherto impenetrable lines. The 
 inscriptions were naturally assumed to be three versions of 
 the same. Yet that did not avail much, for we might have, 
 for example, the Lord's prayer in Chinese, and yet our famili- 
 arity with the subject might not enable us to identify the 
 sound or the sense of a single character. But in one part of 
 the Greek text he found the name Ptolemaios, and in a corre-
 
 The Alphabet. 107 
 
 spending place of the hieroglyphic the enclosed group, 
 which he assumed to be its equivalent. He next conjectured 
 
 that this should be read from right to left. The upper right- 
 hand character was presumed to stand for P, and the one 
 beneath it for T, without a vowel between. The last, on the 
 left, was supposed to be 5. Five characters remained to take 
 the place somehow of seven Greek letters. This, which was 
 only conjectural, was about all that was gained in twenty-two 
 years from the famous Rosetta Stone. In 1822 an obelisk at 
 Philae was discovered to bear a hieroglyphic and Greek in- 
 scription, from which J. F. Champollion made out the name 
 of Cleopatra, and confirmed in part, and in part corrected, 
 the results obtained by Dr. Young. In the succeeding eight 
 or ten years the names of several native and foreign princes 
 were deciphered and a foundation prepared for reading the 
 hieroglyphics. 
 
 The Egyptian writing did not differ essentially from the 
 Chinese or the Babylonian. Originating as pictures, the 
 characters might be used in at least four different ways. We 
 might draw a picture of a lion and intend to express by it 
 either, I, the animal itself; or, 2, strength, courage, or roy- 
 alty ; or, 3, the syllable li; or, 4, the letter /. So the hiero- 
 glyphs were used as syllables, as single articulations, or as 
 ideographs. These several usages were mixed together in 
 the same document. One of the most important uses of the 
 ideograph was exactly that of the Chinese " key." A cer- 
 tain number of them, of which about one hundred have 
 been ascertained, were employed to designate classes of 
 things, and when so used were not pronounced. Thus a 
 figure meant to suggest a pond, accompanied any word sig- 
 nifying wafers, seas, lakes, rivers, canals, irrigation, cultiva- 
 tion, etc. Signs so used have been called determinatives. 
 They generally followed the word as otherwise expressed ; 
 but any number of the letters or syllables might either precede
 
 io8 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 or follow the determinative. They were even attached to 
 holographs that seemed to need no explanation. A well 
 executed figure of a goat might be followed by a symbol 
 denoting an animal, an example followed by the artist who 
 deemed it necessary to attach to his picture the words " This 
 is a horse." 
 
 As words are originally of one syllable, and in some lan- 
 guages most of them continue so, symbols that represent 
 words necessarily represent syllables ; and thus the transition 
 to syllables is easy. Again, open syllables, if the vowels be 
 indistinct, become mere single or double consonants. In 
 Egyptian the vowels seem to have been little differentiated 
 merely divided into three indistinct groups which might be 
 roughly represented by the a in man, the i in machine, and 
 u in rule. When there was no danger of a mistake they 
 might be left unwritten. In this way an actual alphabet was 
 reached, but never used as a separate mode of writing. The 
 alphabetic remained inextricably mixed with all the other 
 uses of hieroglyphs. 
 
 The Egyptians wrote either vertically downwards, from 
 left to right, or from right to left. The last was the most 
 common. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHIC. 
 
 HIERATIC. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHIC. 
 
 HIERATIC. 
 
 U-* 
 
 ft 
 
 A. 
 
 2 

 
 The Alphabet. 109 
 
 The mode of writing thus described was extremely labo- 
 rious, was adapted to inscriptions on stone, and limited to 
 grave and solemn subjects. Specimens have indeed been 
 found written on papyrus ; but with the freer use of that 
 material an abbreviated script was gradually introduced. 
 This is known as the hieratic, is the one chiefly found 
 on papyrus rolls, and is supposed to have been fairly 
 in use about 2,000. The original pictures were here 
 greatly abridged and simplified, as will be seen by a few 
 examples (see opposite page). 
 
 A second modification, called the demotic, by which the 
 hieratic was still further simplified, came into use at a 
 later date, and was employed for the secular purposes of 
 the common people. 
 
 While the nations of the East are carving arrow-heads, 
 and the priests of Thebes executing miniatures of men and 
 animals, somewhere in the midland between, as early as the 
 tenth or eleventh century before our era, real alphabetic 
 writing all at once appears. It is in possession of the Phoe- 
 nicians and of the Hebrew-speaking peoples of Palestine. 
 How, when, or where it originated is not yet established 
 beyond a doubt, but we will first see what light the alphabet 
 itself sheds on the question. It consists of twenty two let- 
 ters all consonants each bearing the name of some object, 
 whether they resemble those objects or not. The objects 
 thus named must have been at least known and familiar. 
 Seven are parts of the human body, and therefore common 
 to all ages and countries. Aleph, an ox; gimel, a camel; 
 hheth, a fence or hedge ; lamed, an ox-goad ; tsade, a sickle ; 
 tan, a cross-mark branded on cattle, denote a settled agri- 
 cultural and pastoral life. Beth, a house ; daleth, a door ; 
 he, a window ; van, a nail ; samekh, a post, show a people 
 who no longer dwelt in tents, but in fixed habitations. 
 Mem, waters ; and nun, a fish, imply the presence of bodies 
 of water sufficiently large to make fishing an object. There 
 is no allusion to trade or navigation ; hence the alphabet 
 probably did not originate among the Phoenicians after they 
 became a seafaring people, distinct from the other inhabi-
 
 1 10 The English Language. 
 
 tants of Canaan. The other conditions might be satisfied 
 by the coast of the Mediterranean, by Egypt, or by the Jor- 
 dan and its lakes. 
 
 The origin of this art of writing must be referred to a 
 pretty early date. The books of Joshua and Judges ' rep- 
 resent that Debir was called, before the conquest of Canaan, 
 Kirjath-sepher, the City of the Book, or, as the Chaldee 
 paraphrast renders it, the City of Records. 
 
 The general belief of antiquity was that the art arose 
 among the Phoenicians, who derived the idea from the 
 Egyptians. Such was the opinion of Philo of Byblus, the 
 most considerable Phoenician writer of whom any remains 
 have reached us. The same belief was shared by Diodorus 
 Siculus," Tacitus," and others. But here it will be safest to 
 consider the Phoenicians as merely the best-known represen- 
 tative of a family group of tribes, closely allied in tongue 
 and lineage, dwelling between the Euphrates and the west- 
 ern sea. The most that can be said against this view is its 
 want of complete proof. Equal probability has not been 
 adduced in favor of any other origin. 
 
 Sometime about 1854 the French Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions and Belles-Lettres proposed, as the subjects of two 
 essays, the Origin and the Diffusion of the Phoenician Al- 
 phabet. The first was undertaken by the distinguished 
 Egyptologist, the Vicompte de Rouge, whose essay was 
 read and accepted in 1859. The question of the Diffusion 
 was discussed by Fr. Lenormant f whose long and elaborate 
 report was not presented until 1872. These two essays are 
 regarded as having settled, at least provisionally, the ques- 
 tion of the origin of alphabetic writing. 
 
 They agree in deriving the alphabet from the Egyptian 
 hieratic. Their success cannot fairly be considered com- 
 plete ; but then we are to bear in mind that one set of char- 
 acters may be known to be derived from another, and yet 
 show little resemblance. A few single characters may pre- 
 
 1 Joshua, xv., 15 ; Judges, i., n. 
 8 Hist., i., 69. 
 * Annals, xi., 14.
 
 The Alphabet. in 
 
 serve a striking resemblance to their parents, as in the case 
 of the letter representing the sound of sh in ship, thus : 
 
 Hieroglyphic (Shn$, a J.J.T Old Hebrew W 
 
 bed of plants) ^^ 
 
 Square Hebrew 
 
 Hieratic ^L 
 
 Demotic V/ Arabic 
 
 Coptic 
 
 Phoenician W ^ - . /, 
 
 Russian (from Cop- 
 
 tic) 
 
 In Greek and old Latin inscriptions the character, as 
 acquired from the Phoenicians, is found turned in various 
 positions : M M S2E . In one it is still easily recognized as the 
 Greek 2. It is sometimes found without the bottom stroke 
 ^ In the continuous curve lines that distinguish hand- 
 writing from inscriptions it becomes S, 5, 8, and by the 
 atrophy of the upper loop we get the small s of our every- 
 day writing, @f<*. But the family likeness is seldom pre- 
 served so long and so well. 
 
 M. Lenormant holds that the alphabet is derived from a 
 rather old style of hieratic earlier than the XVIII dynasty, 
 to which Lepsius assigned the date 1591, and the more 
 recent Egyptologist Mariette 1703. This would place it 
 during or before the invasion of the Hykshos, or Shepherds. 
 That pastoral Shemitic tribes about that time entered Egypt 
 from Canaan and dominated for a long period admits of no 
 doubt, or that their rule made the memory of Shepherds 
 " an abomination to the Egyptians." The latter identified 
 these invaders with the inhabitants of Canaan. There is a 
 very attractive hypothesis, advanced or cited approvingly by 
 Ewald, Boetticher, Longerke, Renan, and Lenormant, that 
 these Canaanites developed the alphabet during their stay 
 in Egypt ; yet, however plausible, it is only conjecture. Be 
 that as it may, among them it first comes to light ; and the 
 examples of the Japanese and the Persians make it prob-
 
 112 The English Language. ' 
 
 able that the first idea was derived from some older system. 
 They occupied the same vantage-ground as the last-named 
 peoples. The foreign characters would not represent to 
 them both the original sounds and significations. Unlike 
 the natives, they were not withheld by any national pride, 
 priesthood, or piety from handling them as best suited their 
 own purposes. Like the Japanese and Persians, they disre- 
 garded the meaning altogether, caring only for the sounds, 
 and preserving at first something of the original forms. Part 
 of the Egyptian characters already represented single articu- 
 lations, while a larger part expressed syllables. The Canaan- 
 ites were led to reject the latter by the peculiar circumstance 
 that their language almost ignored vowel sounds, and re- 
 garded them as too unstable to be expressed. With them 
 ba, be, bi, bo, bu, were alike merely b ; and they wrote Leba- 
 non, Ibnn. It is true that after a time certain consonants 
 came to be associated with their respective groups of vowel 
 sounds, and were sometimes used to show their location, for 
 the sake of emphasis or distinction. As only single articulate 
 sounds were to be expressed, but a small number of charac- 
 ters were required. 
 
 New names were given to the letters without any refer- 
 ence to the old ones or to any principle of selection that we 
 can discover. Perhaps some light may be thrown on the 
 naming of letters by the Old Norse Runic alphabet in 
 which the objects and order selected were : money, a bull, a 
 thorn, the mouth of a river, riding, a boil, hail, need, ice, a year, 
 the sun, the god of war, the birch, man, law, the yew tree. It 
 is pretty clear that these names were not chosen because of 
 their meaning but because they were convenient words of 
 one syllable that could be woven into some kind of mne- 
 monic jingle. 
 
 When letters have once been imbedded in acrostic verses 
 they continue to be learned and repeated in a particular 
 order. There is reason to believe this was the case with the 
 primitive alphabet from a very early period. Psalms in, 
 112, 119, Proverbs xxxi., 10 to the end, Lam. i., are acrostics 
 in the Hebrew text, as are also Psalms 25, 34, 37, 145, and
 
 The Alphabet. 113 
 
 Lamentations ii., Hi., iv., although with some irregulari- 
 ties. The alphabetical order of the letters, too, determined 
 their value as numerals, and so formed the basis of that 
 strangely fanciful system of rabbinical interpretation called 
 gamatria, of which Rev. xiii., 18, is the most famous ex- 
 ample. Several tablets in the British Museum from the 
 Library of Assurbanipal the Sardanapalus of the Greeks 
 give the Phoenician letters with their mystic numeral powers 
 explained in cuneiform, thus showing that the alphabetic 
 order was established before the fall of the Assyrian empire. 
 Mariette has discovered acrostic hymns on the walls of Egyp- 
 tian temples, but the order of the characters is wholly differ- 
 ent from that of the Hebrew. The order of the letters does 
 not seem to have been determined by any rational and con- 
 sistent principle, yet, as the three grave mutes, B, G, D, are 
 placed in one group and the three liquids, L, M, N, in 
 another, it does not seem to have been left entirely to 
 chance. 
 
 The landmarks and outlines of an alphabet must be the 
 work of a single hand. It would be left to successors only 
 to distinguish the fainter shades of sound. The scheme 
 must be in some measure complete before it can be of any 
 use. An alphabet, like a parliamentary body, requires a 
 quorum for the transaction of business. 
 
 The forms of the earliest letters are learned from inscrip- 
 tions on durable material, and from papyrus rolls found in 
 ancient tombs in the dry climate of Egypt. The table given 
 on page 114 exhibits some of the principal examples. 
 
 The first column is the Egyptian hieratic, prior to the 
 XVIII. dynasty, given by Fr. Lenormant as the basis of the 
 Phoenician. The reader can form his own opinion as to the 
 degree of likeness, and the probability of the derivation. 
 
 No. 2 is a short inscription around the rim of a bronze 
 patera, or dish, obtained in 1877 from a junk-dealer in the 
 island of Cyprus. The inscription is a dedication of the ves- 
 sel to the temple of Baal-Lebanon, in the neighborhood of 
 Sidon. The giver styles himself a servant of King Hiram. 
 If this prince could be proved to be the king of Tyre who
 
 The English Language. 
 
 Names of 
 Letters 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Aleph.... 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 f 
 
 f/ 
 
 *r 
 
 ^P 
 
 A, A 
 
 A 
 
 s 
 
 Beth 
 
 4 
 
 <3 
 
 & 
 
 9? 
 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 ^^ 
 
 & 
 
 n 
 
 Gimel 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 A 
 
 7 
 
 A^lC 
 
 <C 
 
 i 
 
 Daleth... 
 
 * 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 / o 
 
 ^ 
 
 <l 
 
 -A P 
 
 D 
 
 T 
 
 He 
 
 ITT 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 g x 
 
 A 
 
 
 -x x* 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 Uv 
 
 
 ** 
 
 1 <\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 A A^ 
 
 v 
 
 1 1 
 
 Vav 
 
 ^ 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 ^f 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 <*\ f^ 
 \ /* 
 
 F 
 
 1 
 
 Zayin. . . . 
 
 F 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 ^ i 
 
 V 
 
 ^7 
 
 r.z 
 
 
 T 
 
 Kheth . . . 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 # 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 H 
 
 n 
 
 Teth 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 ID 
 
 Yod 
 
 y 
 
 " 
 
 A 
 
 y 
 
 /,//> ^ 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 Z 
 
 T 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 *V t* L 
 
 
 c. 
 
 + 
 
 L 
 
 
 Caph 
 
 <^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 J/ 
 
 ^1 K 
 
 K 
 
 ^ 
 
 Lamed. . . 
 
 L 
 
 t 
 
 u 
 
 ti 
 
 z, 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 L 
 
 h 
 
 Mem .... 
 
 l 
 
 *J 
 
 9 
 
 \*\J 
 
 V 
 
 } 
 
 ^I/A 
 
 M M 
 
 to 
 
 Nun 
 
 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 L 
 
 5 
 
 L 
 
 VI A/ 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 ^7 
 
 ; 
 
 7 
 
 / 
 
 7 
 
 / 
 
 1 A 
 
 N 
 
 j 
 
 Samech . . 
 
 ^ 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 ty 
 
 f H 
 
 
 D 
 
 Ayin 
 
 , 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 Ou) 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 y 
 
 Pe 
 
 -M 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 L 
 
 j 
 
 n p 
 
 n p 
 
 j. 
 
 " 
 
 
 \J 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ' 
 
 / 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 K 
 
 
 Tsade 
 
 s* 
 
 r 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 5? 
 
 Koph.... 
 
 &, 
 
 <p 
 
 f 
 
 ? 
 
 ^ 
 
 ? 
 
 Q 
 
 Q 
 
 p 
 
 Resh 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^/ 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 4? P 
 
 R R 
 
 " 
 
 Shin 
 
 % 
 
 w 
 
 iv 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 
 /v\^ 
 
 * S 
 
 ^ 
 
 Tav 
 
 6 
 
 t 
 
 X 
 
 f 
 
 / 
 
 t 
 
 1- 
 
 T 
 
 n
 
 The Alphabet. . 115 
 
 was the friend of David and Solomon, it would carry the in- 
 scription back to the eleventh century before the Christian 
 era, and would make it the oldest yet known. 
 
 No. 3. The Moabite Stone. 1 This highly interesting 
 monument first came to the knowledge of Europeans in 
 1868-9. It was then a piece of black basalt, about 3 ft. 10 in. 
 X 2 ft. X 14 in., bearing an inscription of thirty-four lines on 
 
 1 The following is a translation of so much as remains of this important 
 monument : 
 
 ' ' I am Mesha the son of Chemosh . . . the Dibonite, King of Moab. 
 My father reigned over Moab thirty years, and I reigned after my father ; and 
 I have built this altar to Chemosh in the plain in ... because he has 
 helped us in all our straits, and has caused me to see the downfall of all my 
 enemies. Omri, King of Israel, arose and oppressed Moab many days, when 
 Chemosh was angry against his land. And his son followed him and said like- 
 wise : I will oppress Moab. He said this in my days ; and I have seen the 
 downfall of him and of his house, and Israel is utterly undone forever. And 
 Omri took, the . . . Medeba and placed a garrison therein . . . his 
 son forty years. And Chemosh restored it in my days, and I built Baal-Meon 
 and placed . . . therein ; and I ... Kirjathaim. Now the men of 
 Gad had dwelt in the land from of old ; and the King of Israel built . 
 and I fought against the fortress and took it, and devoted all that were therein 
 to Chemosh and to Moab ; and I brought back the . . . before Chemosh 
 in Kirjath. And I brought thither the men of Sharon [?] and the men of the 
 East [?]. 
 
 " And Chemosh said to me : Go take Nebo from Israel . . . went in the 
 night and I fought against them from the morning light until mid-day, and I 
 slew them all, seven thousand, as a sacrifice to Ashtar-Chemosh. And I took 
 thence all that belonged to Jehovah and . . . them before Chemosh. 
 
 "And the King of Israel built Jahaz and put a garrison therein in the war 
 against me, but Chemosh drove him out before me. And I took two hundred 
 men out of Moab, all of them chief men, and led them up against Jahaz and 
 took it ... unto Dibon, and I built the defences of the city, and I built 
 the gates and the towers thereof, and I built the King's house, and I made 
 lodgings for men within the wall and storehouses for corn in the plain. And I 
 said to all the people : Let each man make a cistern in his house. And I digged 
 again the water courses digged by Israel for the plain ; and I built Aroer ; and 
 I made the causeway over the Arnon ; and I built the mountain temple, that had 
 been laid waste ; and I built Bezer, for . . . fifty of the men of Dibon, for 
 all Dibon was obedient. And I ... the cattle that I brought into the 
 land ; and I built . . . and the temple of Diblathaim and the temple of 
 Baal-Meon ; and I brought thither . . . the land, and Horonaim, and I 
 returned thither in ... and Chemosh said unto me : Go fight against 
 Horonaim, and . . ."
 
 1 1 6 The English Language. 
 
 its principal face, and lying amidst the ruins of the ancient 
 city of Dibon, east of the Dead Sea. Many efforts to obtain 
 copies, impressions, or the stone itself, were made with vary- 
 ing success, especially by Ch. Clermont Ganneau, a zealous 
 young scholar attached to the French consulate at Jerusalem. 
 These, with the high prices offered, excited the cupidity of 
 the Bedouins and the local authorities, who quarrelled 
 among themselves, and, by the alternate application of fire 
 and cold water, broke the stone in pieces, and carried off the 
 smaller fragments. Happily the larger pieces were event- 
 ually secured, and are now in the Louvre in Paris; and, 
 with the various imperfect copies that had been taken, give 
 the greater part of the legend. It was found to be nearly 
 pure Hebrew what Isaiah (xix., 18) calls "the language of 
 Canaan " and by that Mesha mentioned 2 Kings, iii., 4, 
 therefore about the date of 890. 
 
 No. 4. Mr. Layard found in the ruins of Nimroud, the 
 ancient Nineveh, sixteen bronze lions, evidently intended for 
 a set of weights, and ranging from forty pounds to an ounce 
 and a half. They were found to bear inscriptions in Phoeni- 
 cian and Assyrian characters, and to be marked with the 
 name of Shalmanassur IV., which fixes their age at about 
 825. These three agree in presenting an archaic style 
 of the letters quite distinguishable from that of the next 
 specimen. 
 
 No. 5 is the inscription of Eshmunazar, discovered in 
 January, 1855. Some natives then digging for buried treas- 
 ure in the necropolis of old Sidon came upon a tomb con- 
 taining a basaltic sarcophagus, in Egyptian style, bearing 
 upon the cover a Phoenician inscription in twenty-two lines. 
 This proved to be the grave of a king named Eshmunazar, 
 son of Tabnith and grandson of Eshmunazar all otherwise 
 unknown. Here was the first Phoenician inscription found 
 in the mother country, and the most considerable yet found 
 anywhere. According to a custom common in the East, the 
 monarch prepares his own grave and writes his own epitaph. 
 He says little that is of strictly historical interest, as he 
 mentions no person or event that can be identified, yet, as
 
 The Alphabet. 117 
 
 he acknowledges to have received from the Lord of Kings 
 adn mlckm, a term known to apply to the Persian monarch 
 Dor and Joppa, in the plain of Sharon, it is presumable that 
 he lived, died, and was buried between 538 and 334. 
 Treasure-seeking in the East is as old as the Book of Job, 
 and the unfortunate king, aware of that fact, and bereaved 
 of all his sons, pours forth abundant curses against the 
 grave-robber or treasure-seeker who should remove his coffin 
 or violate the place of his rest, declaring that there is no 
 treasure there. But vain are curses ; the sarcophagus is now 
 in the Louvre in Paris, and when found had been already 
 empty for unknown ages. 
 
 No. 6 is Old Hebrew as found on engraved seals and 
 trinkets of various dates before and after 600. The Gimel 
 and Hheth are from ancient shekels, supposed to have been 
 struck soon after the return from the captivity. 
 
 Thus far all the specimens were written from right to left. 
 
 No. 7. Early Greek. This is from various inscriptions 
 dating from 616 downwards. The story repeated by Pliny 
 (vii.-56) that Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phoenicia 
 to Greece, and that eight others were afterwards invented by 
 Palamedes and Simonides, is only an idle tale inconsistent 
 with the facts. The Greeks at first naturally wrote from 
 right to left, like their instructors ; next backwards and for- 
 wards, like the movement of a plough, and hence called 
 boustrophedon ; and at last only from left to right. The 
 alphabet, like the language, of Greece was broken into 
 several dialects, the most prolific of which was the Chalcid- 
 ian, which was introduced into the Greek trading towns of 
 the Italian coast, and became the parent of all the alphabets 
 of Western Europe. 
 
 No. 8. Old Latin. 
 
 No. 9. Square Hebrew. This peculiar character came into 
 use after the return from the captivity, together with the 
 language to which it belonged Aramaic, or the language of 
 the region north of Palestine, from the Mediterranean to the 
 Tigris. Jewish tradition ascribes its introduction to Ezra. 
 It is likely that it came into use later and gradually. The
 
 n8 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 oldest known inscription in this character is of the date of 
 176. 
 
 In adopting the alphabet the Greeks retained with little 
 change the names and order of the letters ; and the order is 
 still substantially that of all our text-books. 
 
 HEBREW. 
 
 GREEK. ENGLISH. 
 
 HEBREW. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Aleph 
 Beth 
 
 Alpha 
 Beta 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 Lamed 
 Mem 
 
 Lambda 
 Mu 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 Gimel 
 
 Gamma 
 
 
 Nun 
 
 Nu 
 
 N 
 
 Daleth 
 
 Delta 
 
 D 
 
 Samekh 
 
 Xi 
 
 
 He 
 
 Vau 
 Zain 
 
 E psilon 
 (Digamma) 
 Zeta 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 Ain 
 Pe 
 Tsade 
 
 O mikron 
 Pi 
 
 O 
 P 
 
 Hheth 
 Teth 
 
 Eta 
 Theta 
 
 
 Koph 
 Resh 
 
 (Koppa) 
 Ro 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 lod 
 
 Caph 
 
 Iota 
 Kappa 
 
 I 
 K 
 
 Shin 
 Tau 
 
 San, Sigma 
 Tau 
 
 S 
 T 
 
 Thus the arrangement of the letters now learned by every 
 child is as old as the days of Jeremiah. 
 
 The application of an Eastern alphabet to the radically 
 different language of Hellas involved many changes. The 
 Greeks, in altering the direction of their writing, turned also 
 their letters round. The nations of Canaan had omitted all 
 vowels, but inserted signs for a number of more or less for- 
 cible breathings ; the Greeks considered the former indis- 
 pensable, the latter almost useless. Hence they ingeniously 
 turned Aleph into A, He into E, and Ain to O. Hheth was 
 retained for a time as an h, but eventually transformed into 
 a vowel, probably with the power of the Spanish ey. This 
 left the alphabet without an H. Its place was poorly 
 supplied by the spiritus asper, while the zero power of Aleph 
 was represented by the spiritus lenis. For a time Vau kept 
 its place and the power of our w. It obtained the name of 
 Digamma, which referred to its form and not to its sound, 
 but was at last abandoned altogether. Yod lost the semi- 
 vocal power of y, and became the vowel i. The Shemitic 
 alphabet had four letters, Zain, Tsade, Samekh and Shin,
 
 The Alphabet. 119 
 
 having sibilant or hissing sounds. The Greeks reduced the 
 first two of these to one, having the form and place of Zain, 
 the name of Zeta, and the power of dz. Samekh was trans- 
 formed into H. Its original power was retained by a letter 
 having the sound of Samekh and the place of Shin, while its 
 Dorian name of San resembled the latter, and the Ionic 
 Sigma is suggestive of the former. Teth became Theta. 
 Koph, as a second k, was entirely superfluous, but it kept its 
 place as a numeral, with the value of 90 and the name of 
 Koppa. The Dorians, ever unwilling to learn or forget, 
 retained it as a letter, and carried it into Italy. Five letters 
 were added at the end of the alphabet. When or by whom 
 T was introduced is unknown. It had probably nearly the 
 sound of the French u or the German u. 0, with X and @, 
 formed a triad of so-called aspirates, with the powers, ap- 
 proximately, oip'h, k'h, fh, somewhat as in uphold, pack-horse, 
 pot-hook. W, a quite unnecessary compound letter, is said to 
 have been introduced by Epicharmus about 500. D. is a 
 modification of O due to the need of distinguishing the long 
 sounds of the vowel from the short. We are not to suppose 
 that all these changes were effected at once, or that they 
 obtained equal currency in all the discordant states of Greece. 
 
 The Chalcidian alphabet, introduced into Cumae and some 
 other Greek colonies in Italy, had certain peculiarities. The 
 Gamma became a semicircle, open towards the right. Rho, 
 which was liable to be mistaken for some forms of Pi, had a 
 stroke added, giving it the form R. Sigma had three forms 
 the old zigzag figure of four strokes, but turned half-way 
 round ; second, the same with one of the strokes omitted ; 
 and third a serpentine curve, somewhat like .S. To distin- 
 guish Iota from Sigma, the former was reduced to a single 
 vertical stroke. The figure X had been adopted to indicate 
 the sound of kh. This character followed by s had been used 
 for ks, and eventually retained that value when the s was 
 omitted. Finally V-was used for kk, the same figure which 
 survived in Greek as the representative of ps. 
 
 The alphabet was brought into Italy while writing was 
 still directed from right to left. The literary remains of all
 
 1 20 The English Language. 
 
 the Italian nations except the Romans have that direction. 
 The application of letters to the Latin tongue necessitated 
 still further changes. Zeta and Theta were entirely 
 dropped. Gamma, written in the semicircular form, gradu- 
 ually lost the sound of g, and acquired that of k, indicating 
 that the two sounds were not clearly distinguished. At the 
 same time Kappa became unnecessary, and was retained 
 only in the peculiar word kalendce, and as an abbreviation 
 for a few words and proper names otherwise written with C. 
 After a time it was found necessary to restore the lost 
 sound, when a heavy stroke was added to the lower ex- 
 tremity of the semicircle, and it was assigned, as the letter 
 G, to the place once occupied by Zeta. The Vau of the 
 Phoenicians, soon dropped by the Greeks as a letter, was 
 retained by the Latins for the sound of f. H was retained 
 with the value of h, and not of ey. The short stem of 
 Koppa was turned obliquely to the right, and it became Q, 
 with the value of kw, a favorite combination in Latin, where 
 it was followed by a superfluous u, or was itself a supernu- 
 merary k. The Roman grammarians were not agreed as to 
 which was the true explanation. U, written with the form of 
 V, had as a vowel the long sound of u in rule, and a shorter 
 sound, probably like the German u. The Latin alphabet 
 ended with X as late as the time of Augustus, 1 when Y and 
 Z were added in writing words borrowed from the Greek. 
 
 The Romans, after a time, dropped the long Greek names 
 of the letters, which were becoming more absurd and un- 
 meaning at every step, and called them ah, bay, cay, day, 
 etc., combining a single vowel with each consonant. Where 
 the consonant represented a merely momentary sound, it 
 was placed before the vowel ; one of continuous sound, as 
 /, m, n, r, s, was put after the vowel." 
 
 1 Suetonius, Octav., 88. 
 
 * I cannot but think that the lines of Juvenal 
 
 " Unde habeas, quaerit nemo ; sedoportet habere. 
 Hoc monstrant vetulae pueris repentibus assse : 
 Hoc discunt omnes ante alpha et beta puellae." 
 
 (SAT., xiv., 207) 
 imply that in the second century the letters were still known by the Greek
 
 The Alphabet.' 121 
 
 Thus far we have been considering characters such as we 
 should call capitals, distinguished by large size, straight 
 lines, and angles, such as would be made by a chisel upon 
 wood or stone. Writing with a pen or pencil tends to run 
 in curves and link the letters together. Gradually there 
 grew up, both in Greek and Latin, a style termed uncial 
 a word of uncertain origin and meaning, which we owe to 
 Saint Jerome. The characteristics of this style are, some- 
 what reduced size, curved lines, and part of the letters 
 extending above or below the others. Specimens of this 
 style have been met with as old as the middle of the second 
 century B.C., and it continued in use until the ninth century. 
 The most celebrated specimens are certain old copies of the 
 Scriptures, as the Vatican Manuscript, the Alexandrian 
 Codex, and the Sinaitic Codex. 
 
 But the uncial letters were only a transition to the minus- 
 cules, which we familiarly call small letters. This kind of 
 character, like all others, came into use gradually ; and 
 capitals, uncials, and minuscules were long used together, 
 according to the taste of the writer or the impulse of the 
 moment. By the eighth century, when Latin was the prin- 
 cipal written language throughout Europe, great confusion 
 prevailed from local peculiarities of penmanship and spell- 
 ing. Then Charlemagne, by an ordinance of the year 789, 
 required the books of the Church to be revised and cor- 
 rected. The result was a beautiful and regular minuscule 
 style, which became the basis of the written and printed 
 character of all Europeans and their descendants, except 
 those of the Greek Church. 
 
 The style of letters called italics, commonly used to 
 express emphasis or antithesis, was introduced about the 
 year 1500 by Aldus Manutius, a publisher of Venice, from 
 whose press were issued the celebrated Aldine classics. 
 Italics are employed in the Bible to render more intelligible 
 
 names. On the other hand it is perfectly clear from Ausonius (Technopseg- 
 nion 348, London ed., 1823) and Terentianus Maurus (De Litteris), that by 
 the fourth century these had been completely displaced by the simpler 
 appellations.
 
 122 The English Language. 
 
 the elliptical expressions of the original, and, occasion- 
 ally, as in 2 Sam., xxi., 19, to give a more acceptable 
 version. 
 
 The nations of northern Europe, who possessed the runic 
 characters, did not employ them for writing books, and no 
 trace of them remains now in use except in Icelandic. On 
 the other hand, the Romans carried their alphabet into 
 Britain where it was learned by the Celtic inhabitants. The 
 Saxons learned to read and write from the vanquished 
 Britons. But during the five centuries of Roman dominion 
 and Saxon invasion several differences of usage had grown 
 up. The letters d, f, g, r, s, t, were not written and pro- 
 nounced as on the Continent. C had exclusively the hard 
 sound and, with the addition of w, rendered both k and q 
 unnecessary. Z was not used. The sounds which we repre- 
 sent by th in thin and by w were indicated by the runes 
 thorn and wen, ]> and J? ; that of th in thine by a d crossed, $. 
 After the Norman Conquest the Saxon peculiarities gradually 
 disappeared. Wen was replaced by two z/s, whence its 
 modern name of double-u. The stricken d gave place either to 
 a plain d, or to the runic thorn, which continued to hold its 
 place until the middle of the fifteenth century. Its loss a 
 really serious one was probably due to the early printers, 
 whose types made for Latin and continental languages had no 
 representative for this peculiar English sound. The art of 
 making books by machinery introduced disorder in two 
 other instances. The old Saxon g, besides the sound in go 
 had, in middle English, two others, one of which is now 
 entirely lost to the language, leading to further confusion. 
 Sometimes alone, and always when combined with h, it had 
 the value of the German g in Burg ; at other times it had 
 the sound nearly of our initial y. For these two sounds the 
 Saxon form had been preserved. The printers having no 
 types for this character took others that seemed nearest in ap- 
 pearance, not in value. They selected y to represent th, and 
 z for either g or th. Thus it comes about that the people 
 of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are represented in 
 old books as if they said zour for your, zou for you, and ye,
 
 The Alphabet. 123 
 
 yat, yem instead of the, that, them, whereas they really spoke 
 much as we do. 1 
 
 Every language requires an alphabet adapted to its own 
 special system of sounds. Such alphabet, to be perfect, 
 should have a separate character for every single sound, or 
 shade of sound worth distinguishing, while no character 
 should represent more than one. The letters should be 
 easy to distinguish, and in writing should be easy to make ; 
 and, combined in words, they should present a neat and ele- 
 gant appearance. It may be safely affirmed that all these 
 requirements have never yet been met. Our own alphabet 
 offers little ground for complaint in regard to the last three, 
 but in respect of the first two is sadly at fault. It is both 
 defective and redundant. Each of the vowels represents 
 several sounds. Ears and speakers differ, but a considerable 
 number are easily distinguished. 
 
 A has distinct sounds in amaranth, far, fall, wander, fare, 
 and fame. 
 
 E is variously pronounced in met, meet, there, and perfect, 
 while in such words as permit and suffer it has an obscure 
 sound scarcely distinguishable from a very short u. 
 
 I has three well defined sounds, in pin, pine, and pique, to 
 which some add pirn, girl, and alienate. 
 
 O has four distinct sounds, in dot, dome, done, do, and a 
 fifth tolerably distinct in wolf, to which some add a sixth in 
 form. 
 
 U is variously heard in rust, rule, full, mule, busy, and 
 burial, to which some add turn. 
 
 Y differs in pyx, pyet, myrtle, plenty, and yet, and some say 
 in hyrse. 
 
 W is treated as interchangeably vowel or consonant. I am 
 unable to perceive in it anything but the sound of u in rule 
 pronounced with varying degrees of quickness and force. To 
 my ear the difference between the short sound of a vowel 
 
 1 This curious spelling was retained in a few words in Scotland as long as the 
 Scottish dialect was spoken. As an example, spulzie or spuilzie (Scott's " Wa- 
 verley," chap. 48.) was pronounced spool-ye. The late Saxon character for g had, 
 however, begun to be mistaken for z by the middle of the fourteenth century.
 
 124 The English Language. 
 
 and the prolongation induced by a succeeding r between 
 then and there, or but and burn is only one of duration. I 
 see no greater difference than between the s in sun and that 
 in hiss, or the / in pale and in pull. At the same time I dis- 
 tinguish two shades of the long i or y in fine and in fire in 
 fiy and in try. 
 
 There is a kind of personal equation in this matter, as I 
 sometimes detect differences unperceived by many others, 
 and still oftener fail to perceive distinctions generally recog- 
 nized. 
 
 C performs triple duty in case, cease, and chess, to which 
 we may add its use in spacious and machine. 
 
 F is pronounced differently in ^and of. 
 
 G is said to be hard in get, and soft in gem. 
 
 H is employed in producing six sounds or combinations 
 in hair, share, chair, sphere, there, and thorn. 
 
 L and N, when combined with i, as in salient and lenient, 
 yield peculiar sounds that may be attributed either to the 
 consonant or the vowel. 
 
 Pis employed to produce two different sounds in periphery. 
 
 S stands for two sounds in dose and rose, and combined 
 with i it yields two others really simple sounds in mission 
 and fusion, the former of which is also produced by sh. 
 
 T performs fourfold duties in time, thin, thine, and nation. 
 
 Z in azimuth differs from the same letter in azure. 
 
 Our alphabet is further defective in having no single char- 
 acters for the sounds which we represent by sh, by th, and 
 by the z in azure. 
 
 It is redundant in that c, q, and x are superfluous. In call 
 and cell, c could be replaced by k and s. In chair the ch is 
 indeed a compound, but it is wrongly compounded, the real 
 elements being / and the sound which we usually express by 
 sh. It is obvious that q might always be replaced by either 
 k or kw, and x by ks or gs. 
 
 J is not redundant, since we have nothing to take its place, 
 but it is a malformation. It should be d, followed by some 
 character having the value of the French /, or the zhivete of 
 the Russians.
 
 The Alphabet. 125 
 
 A great number of anomalies, as ph, ew in sew, eau in 
 beauty, are not defects of the alphabet, but irrational 
 spelling. 
 
 Speech is produced by a mechanism combining the lead- 
 ing features of the reed organ and the bagpipe. The lungs 
 are the reservoir from which the air is urged through the 
 flexible trachea, or windpipe, by the muscles of the chest 
 and abdomen. The larynx and mouth, with their great 
 powers of modulation, roughly correspond to the chanter of 
 the Highland pipes, and the nasal passages may represent 
 the accompanying drones. On the upper extremity of the 
 windpipe is placed the valved box called the larynx the 
 special organ of voice. It is composed essentially of 
 four cartilages, four ligamentous bands, the lid called the 
 epiglottis, and an exceedingly delicate arrangement of mus- 
 cular and other tissues, too intricate to be described here. 
 The lowest cartilage, forming the base of the larynx, is 
 called the cricoid, meaning ring-shaped. It is but little modi- 
 fied from the rings that compose the trachea. It is con- 
 siderably higher behind than in front. Upon this rests the 
 thyroid, or shield-shaped cartilage, composed of two plates, 
 united at an acute angle in front, so that a horizontal section 
 would resemble the letter v. The angle makes a carinate 
 projection in front, easily felt by the hand in the upper part 
 of the throat, and is popularly called Adam's apple, from a 
 conceit that the forbidden fruit not only stuck in the throat 
 of our first parent, but still inheres in all his descendants. 
 The thyroid forms the greater part of the front and lateral 
 walls of the larynx, but its ends do not meet posteriorly. 
 Each extremity has two projections, termed horns, the one 
 extending upward, the other downward. The lower ones 
 articulate with the cricoid, leaving between the two carti- 
 lages an open space in front and considerable freedom of 
 motion. Upon the posterior part of the upper edge of the 
 cricoid, articulate two small bodies called the arytcnoid, or 
 ladle-shaped cartilages. By means of their controlling nerves 
 and muscles, they admit of great celerity and delicacy of 
 movement. From the last-named cartilages to the angle of
 
 126 The English Language. 
 
 the thyroid extend two pairs of ligamentous bands, one pair 
 at a little distance above the other. The lower are known 
 as the inferior or true vocal cords. They serve the same 
 purpose as the reed or tongue in an organ pipe, and are the 
 immediate determinants of the tone or pitch of the voice. 
 When they are quiescent, the space between them, called 
 the glottis, rima glottidis, or chink of the glottis, forms a 
 slender triangle, from the angle of the thyroid to the two 
 arytenoid cartilages ; but when they are tightened in pro- 
 ducing the higher notes, there remains but a mere seam, not 
 wider than the thickness of writing paper. In elocutionists, 
 and still more in accomplished singers, these cords are ad- 
 justed with marvellous quickness and delicacy to produce 
 the various tones. Without them there is no voice. In 
 whispering they do not vibrate. That is breath made articu- 
 late, but not vocal, and may be imitated without allowing 
 any air to pass through the glottis. M. Deleau illustrated 
 this by passing a current of air through the nose into the 
 pharynx by means of a rubber tube. If then the mouth 
 assumed the successive positions necessary for articulation, 
 whispering was heard without any action of the lungs or 
 larynx. If at the same time vocal sound was uttered, 
 speech and whispering were heard simultaneously from the 
 same mouth. A little above the true are the false vocal 
 cords, which do no not approach closely, or in themselves 
 produce sound. Between them and the true there is on 
 each side a concavity known as a pocket or ventricle of the 
 larynx Morgagms ventricles, which seem to augment the 
 voice by reverberation, as sound is intensified by partial 
 inclosure in the fiddle or the drum. The piercing cries of 
 the howling monkeys are due to extensions of these ven- 
 tricles. 
 
 At the superior margin of the larynx, held erect as a sen- 
 tinel by elastic ligaments, stands the cartilaginous valve or 
 cover called the epiglottis, which falls like an automatic draw- 
 bridge when anything is to be swallowed. 
 
 Above the larynx, the pharynx extends about four inches 
 toward the base of the skull. It is a muscular sac, serving
 
 The Alphabet. 127 
 
 somewhat the same purpose as the air reservoir in a forcing 
 pump, as well as that of the reverberating pipe of a wind in- 
 strument. It is the common meeting-place of seven passages 
 the aesophagus and windpipe below, the mouth anteriorly, 
 and at its upper part the nostrils and Eustachian tubes that 
 lead to the ears. From its extent and situation, its muscular 
 structure and power of distention and contraction, the phar- 
 ynx is of prime importance in giving character and volume 
 to the voice. 
 
 Separating the cavity of the pharynx from the mouth is 
 the pendent curtain known as the soft palate, or velum palati. 
 It is terminated below by the heart-shaped point called the 
 uvula (little grape), is movable in speaking and swallowing, 
 and does not at any time form a perfect closure. It rises and 
 sinks in passing from one vocal sound to another, and 
 aids in closing the passage to the nostrils. The more 
 accessible parts that contribute to articulate speech the 
 lips, teeth, tongue, roof of the mouth, and nose need not 
 be described. 
 
 Some writers discuss with great particularity positions 
 assumed by the several organs in speaking, and even en- 
 deavor to teach in that way the pronunciation of remote and 
 unknown languages. But such directions, although sound in 
 principle, are apt, in practice, to become unintelligible as 
 soon as they become necessary, for the reason that a great 
 part of these positions are out of sight and unknown. The 
 reader will readily admit that the different articulations do 
 depend upon the movements and positions of the organs 
 above enumerated ; and can illustrate this to himself by 
 pronouncing leisurely and carefully syllables beginning or 
 ending with 0, oo, p, b, f, v, m, t, d, n, k, I, r, s, and th, and 
 watching the positions assumed, so far as they can be 
 observed. 
 
 If now the mouth be opened moderately wide, and the 
 tongue allowed to lie flat, so that the passage for the voice 
 shall be unobstructed, and a vocal sound be uttered, it will 
 be that of the a in far, or as I should prefer to say in alarm or 
 Alabama. This may be regarded as the fundamental sound
 
 128 The English Language. 
 
 of human speech. It is the first utterance of infants, and 
 abounds in the most primitive languages. It occurs twice in 
 the simplest or ground form of most Hebrew verbs, and in 
 Sanskrit is employed about half as often as all other sounds 
 together. Next pronounce the word stop, allowing the pres- 
 sure of the breath to cease before parting the lips ; otherwise 
 it will be pronounced, stop-ih. The lips will be firmly closed 
 and all utterance cut off. A opens the mouth wide ; / closes 
 it completely. It might seem at first sight that all possible 
 articulate sounds must lie between these extremes, and 
 might be arranged in a series. And as every space is infi- 
 nitely divisible, if only the divisions be infinitesimal, there 
 is theoretically no limit to the number of intermediate 
 sounds. The greater the number, however, the less dis- 
 tinguishable. The number really found in different lan- 
 guages and dialects, and in local and personal peculiarities of 
 utterance, is very great. Mr. A. J. Ellis has devised an 
 alphabet which he thinks capable of representing the 
 sounds of all known languages. It consists of 270 letters ; 
 and the Standard Alphabet of Lepsius contains 172 
 besides the tones of the Chinese and the clicks of the 
 Hottentots. 
 
 But may there rrot be other closures of the outlet for the 
 voice besides the one above described ? In point of fact 
 there are in English two others, observable in pronouncing 
 pit and pick. One free passage, therefore, is contrasted with 
 three complete closures, and articulate sounds might be 
 exhibited in three lines diverging from a point in common. 
 Such an arrangement is by no means new, and has been 
 veiy fully presented by Professor Whitney in his Sanskrit 
 Grammar, and other publications, and in a manner not 
 widely different from the following. 
 
 The letters within brackets represent sounds not now in 
 the English language. 
 
 The diacritic marks attached to the vowels are those used 
 in Webster's Dictionary. 
 
 The prolongation of a vowel is not regarded as a difference 
 of sound.
 
 The Alphabet. 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 vocal * 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 e 
 
 6 
 
 
 y 
 
 7 
 
 
 . ni >g 
 
 8 
 
 voiceless h 
 
 9 
 
 vocal zh 
 
 10 
 
 voiceless sh 
 
 ii 
 
 vocal [gh] 
 
 12 
 
 voiceless [ch] 
 
 13 
 
 vocal g 
 
 14 
 
 voiceless k 
 
 
 palatals 
 
 a a 
 
 e a 6 a 
 
 u 
 
 e 
 
 W 
 
 rl 
 n 
 
 z 
 
 s 
 
 dh 
 th 
 
 d 
 
 t 
 linguals 
 
 vowels 
 
 w semi- vowels 
 m nasals 
 breathing 
 
 ) sibilants 
 
 v ) 
 
 > spirants 
 
 mutes 
 
 conso- 
 > nants 
 
 P ) 
 
 labials 
 
 Words that will illustrate the sounds represented in the 
 several lines are : 
 
 1 alarm 
 
 2 let, care, not, awe 
 
 3 bane, bun, bone 
 
 4 bit, bird, bull 
 
 5 be, German iiber, rule 
 
 6 yet, ray, lay, way 
 
 7 onion, singing, nun, mum 
 
 8 heigh-ho 
 
 9 azure, ooze 
 
 10 hashish, sister 
 
 11 Arabic Ghizeh, thy, vow 
 
 12 German noch, thin, fife 
 
 13 grog, deed, babe 
 
 14 kick, tight, peep 
 
 The u in mule and the i in fire have been omitted because 
 both are composite sounds. The former = yu, and the latter 
 is composed of the first vowels on the first and fifth lines. 
 
 It will be seen that the sounds of u in bun and i in bird 
 occupy the centre of the triangle of vowels. They are indis- 
 tinct sounds that have been compared to the gray among 
 colors. All short, unaccented vowels tend to degenerate into 
 these obscure sounds. Observe what there is of vowel sound 
 9
 
 130 The English Language. 
 
 in the last syllables of circular, paper, pallor, pillar, or the 
 second of atrophy, harmony. 
 
 As this is the first instance where a classification has been 
 necessary, it may be as well to remark once for all that in 
 nearly every attempt to classify a number of things some will 
 be found to have claims on more than one class. The claims 
 may be so nearly equal that to locate them anywhere will be 
 an arbitrary sacrifice of principle to convenience. The oldest 
 and most familiar division of letters is into vowels and 
 consonants, but then come the semi-vowels between. F is 
 properly enough classed with the labials. It is produced by 
 emitting the breath through the slight chink left in bringing 
 together the lower lip and the upper teeth. It is therefore 
 nearly as much due to the teeth as to the lips. So the nasals 
 are not produced by the nose, but only with its assistance. 
 Indeed, very few are formed without the combined action of 
 two or more organs. R may be pronounced as a pure 
 lingual when the tongue is raised and made to vibrate with 
 the passing vocal breath but does not touch the teeth or 
 palate. 
 
 The vowels are uninterrupted emissions of voice. The 
 passage varies in form with each, but is unobstructed. 
 
 The experiments made by Helmholtz and Koenig with 
 graduated tuning-forks show that the vowels, as uttered by 
 the same voice, are separated by regular musical intervals. 
 As pronounced in North Germany, Koenig found the num- 
 ber of vibrations to be approximately : 
 
 u o a e i 
 
 450 900 i, 800 3,600 7,200. 
 
 It is interesting to note that the old grammarians of India 
 regarded o as a union of a and u, and e as a combination of 
 a and i. (See Comptes Rendus, April 25, 1870.) 
 
 The term consonant signifies sounding along with, as if in- 
 capable of utterance without vowels ; but the sibilants cer- 
 tainly need none, and scarcely do the spirants, and / and r 
 are in some languages treated as vowels. We might say, 
 then, generally that consonants are the result of arresting or
 
 The Alphabet. 131 
 
 obstructing the voice or breath ; but in that case what should 
 we say of h, which is voiceless, and in the formation of which 
 the breath is neither stopped nor impeded ? Still, it is true 
 of all other consonants, and they naturally divide themselves 
 into those in which there is complete closure and those that 
 require only various degrees of obstruction. This is there- 
 fore a division into momentary and continuous sounds, the 
 former of which are sometimes called explosives, and some- 
 times mutes. They are further distinguished into those 
 requiring the exercise of the voice and those produced by 
 mere voiceless breath. The former are often termed sonants 
 and the latter surds. Strong and weak would seem to be 
 more expressive. This distinction, in the case of the mutes, 
 is that with the weak the closure is made or broken instan- 
 taneously without any accompanying vocal murmur, while 
 an initial strong mute is preceded, and a final one followed, 
 by a brief resonance of the voice in the closed cavity of the 
 mouth and pharynx. 
 
 The want of a uniform alphabet has long been felt by mis- 
 sionaries, travellers, and all who have to deal with languages 
 that differ widely from common European standards. 
 Among many attempts at a uniform system of writing 
 second in importance only to a universal language that of 
 A. J. Ellis, called paleotype, and the Standard Alphabet 
 of Professor Lepsius of Berlin, seem at present to be re- 
 garded with most favor. The former is used to exhibit the 
 pronunciation in the great dictionary now in progress under 
 the auspices of the English Philological Society, and the 
 latter is employed by the latest edition of the " Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica" in transliterating foreign names. Both 
 are chargeable with excessive refinement and hair-splitting, 
 and neither of them has been made at all intelligible to the 
 general reader. For these reasons, and because neither of 
 them has yet obtained, or is at all certain to obtain, general 
 acceptance, I shall not try to introduce either in this place, 
 although aware that it is very annoying for a reader to find 
 his page filled with marks to which he has no key.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 GRIMM'S LAW. 
 
 WHEN languages closely related are compared, many 
 words are found in all that are much alike, both in form and 
 meaning, yet seldom quite the same. The following is a 
 very simple example : 
 
 ITALIAN 
 
 SPANISH. 
 
 PORTUGUESE. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 uomo 
 
 hombre 
 
 homem 
 
 homme 
 
 cavallo 
 
 caballo 
 
 cavallo 
 
 cheval 
 
 terra 
 
 tierra 
 
 terra 
 
 terre 
 
 mano 
 
 mano 
 
 mao 
 
 main. 
 
 No one of these is an imitation of another. They are 
 the common offspring of the Latin homo, a man ; caballus, 
 a pack-horse ; terra, the earth ; and manus, a hand. There 
 is sometimes a kind of method observable in this diversity, 
 Thus we have 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Dorn 
 
 thorn 
 
 Thier 
 
 deer 
 
 Ding 
 dick 
 
 thing 
 thick 
 
 theuer 
 Thiir 
 
 dear 
 door 
 
 dun 
 
 thin 
 
 Thai 
 
 dale 
 
 durch 
 
 through 
 
 Theil 
 
 deal 
 
 Daum thumb Thau dew. 
 
 In these and a multitude of similar examples, d in either 
 language corresponds to th in the other. 
 
 A somewhat similar mode of comparison has been applied 
 to the whole Aryan family of languages, and especially in 
 
 132
 
 Grimms Law. 133 
 
 their treatment of the instantaneous, or mute, consonants 
 of the three series ending in k, t, and /. (See page 128), 
 To these correspond the sonants g, d, b. Each of these six 
 may be aspirated ; but all the aspirates are seldom found in 
 any one language. The complete series would stand thus : 
 
 k kh g gh 
 
 t th d dh 
 
 p ph b bh 
 
 in which kh would be pronounced somewhat as in bulkhead, 
 gh as in big-horn, etc. Of the members now known, Sanskrit 
 alone has all the twelve sounds, but makes comparatively 
 little use of the lighter aspirates kh, th, ph, while the graver 
 gh, dh, and bh occur very often. Ancient Greek had the 
 lighter set, x> ^ Pi Latin and the other members generally 
 were without any. As Sanskrit is the best preserved, we 
 may suppose that the common mother tongue of all had 
 these twelve consonants. If now words containing all of 
 these were inherited by each of the descendants, what were 
 they to do with them, when they had dropped or forgotten 
 part of the constituent sounds. Their case would not be 
 very unlike the problem of placing twelve guests in eight or 
 nine single beds. In fact, they would often put two in a 
 bed, and perhaps sometimes on the principle of first come 
 first served. The Greek, the second best appointed, would 
 use x f r ^ an d g^, S f r th and dh, and cp tor ph and bh. 
 Latin, having no aspirates, replaced them imperfectly by 
 h and f, and occasionally by d and b. As an illustration of 
 the effect we may take a word, or rather words, very familiar 
 to the Latin scholar do, dare, dedi, datum, and its real or 
 apparent compounds, ab-do, ad-do, circum-do, con-do, sub-do, etc. 
 In the simple word do signifies give ; in the compounds 
 cited, put or place. To all appearance they are the same 
 word, and have been generally so regarded ; but they are 
 really different, and correspond to the Sanskrit da, give, and 
 dha, place. The Greek, though unable to preserve them 
 perfectly, could still keep them distinct as didomi and 
 tithemi.
 
 134 The English Language. 
 
 We may now do as the Greeks did, reduce the twelve 
 consonants to nine, bearing in mind that the aspirates, 
 kk, th, ph, were comparatively little used in Sanskrit, while 
 gh, dh, and bh were very common. We will also premise 
 that Gothic will be cited as the oldest representative of a 
 numerous secondary family, embracing Frisian, Norse, Ice- 
 landic, Danish, Swedish, Dutch, Saxon, English. The gen- 
 eral system of corresponding sounds may then be represented 
 in tabular form. The first line gives the sounds as spoken 
 by the ancient Hindoos, the second those uttered by the 
 Greeks in derivatives from the same words, the third those 
 of the Latin tongue, etc. 
 
 This table exhibits in condensed form what is known as 
 Grimm's Law, which may be further illustrated by tracing a 
 few words through their principal transformations. 
 
 Sanskrit kal, to cover or hide ; Greek kalia, a shelter ; 
 Latin celare, to conceal ; Irish calla, a hood ; Anglo-Saxon 
 helan, to hide ; English hell, hole, heal, hull. 
 
 Sansk. tan, to stretch ; Gr. tein-ein, to stretch ; Lat. 
 ten-uis, stretched thin; Ir. tan-aigh ; Goth, than-jan ; Eng. 
 thin ; Old High German diinni ; Modern H. G. diinn. 
 
 Sansk. pad, go ; Gr. pod-, Lat. ped, a foot ; Goth. 
 fot-u ; A.-S. fdt ; Eng. foot ; O. H. G. Vuoss ; Mod. Ger. 
 fuss. 
 
 Sansk. gan, to generate ; Gr. gen-os, kind ; gen-esis, origin ; 
 gyn-e, a woman; Lat. gen-itor ; Irish gean ; Welsh gen-i ; 
 Goth, kwens, kwein-s, kwin-o, a woman ; Icel. kon-a ; A.-S. 
 cwe"n ; Eng. queen and quean ; also Eng. kin, kin-dred, kin-d ; 
 O. H. G. khind, a child ; Mod. H. G. Kin-d. 
 
 Sansk. dant, a tooth ; Gr. o-dont ; Lat. dent ; Welsh 
 dant ; Goth, tunth ; Lithuanian dantis ; Old Saxon, Dutch, 
 Dan., Swed., tand ; Icel. tonn, for tannr = tand-r ; A.-S. 
 tdth ; Eng. tooth ; H. G. zahn. 
 
 Few words in Sanskrit begin with b ; few in Saxon and 
 none in Gothic, with the corresponding/. 
 
 Sansk. ghama, the earth ; Gr. cham-ai, Lat. humi, on 
 the ground ; Rus. zemlia, land ; Lat. homo, Goth, guma, a 
 man, a son of earth ; A.-S. bryd-guma, a bridegroom.
 
 Grimms Law. 135 
 
 T3 
 
 bfl bo 
 
 bjo bJD 
 
 o k (X -^ a 
 
 43 43 
 
 4-1 V> 
 
 45 'rt 
 i i *~ 
 
 4- >^> 4-> -4-> 4" ^ 
 
 4-" 
 
 4* X 
 
 CT "J _V _V - v< n 
 
 '^-^ *~^ *"^ h/} DJD 
 
 
 <? ^ * 
 
 43 
 
 & 43 43 43 43 CX 
 
 M-T 
 
 a. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 0- 
 
 TD 
 
 4-> 
 
 ^S " " " ^ *" 
 
 e 
 
 bX N N 
 
 "S * 
 
 bXI . . bJJ 44 
 v^- ao b/3 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 rt "1 
 
 
 
 .a 'S : e 
 
 
 c 5 o w 
 
 45 g J * 
 
 tyl t^l 
 
 in i) 
 
 S 5 * M 
 
 .S ^ ^ 45 * 
 
 C 4J 
 
 rt - 
 
 Jo O 
 
 JJ *O T3 T3 -g T3 
 
 j O O O
 
 136 The English Language. 
 
 Sansk. dkran, to sound ; Gr. thren-os ; Goth, drun-yas ; 
 Icel. dryn-ja ; A.-S. drdn ; Eng. drone. 
 
 Sansk. bku, to exist ; Gr. e-phu, he was ; Lat. fu-i, I was ; 
 Welsh bu ; Irish bi ; Lith. bu-ti, to be; Goth, bau-an, to 
 dwell ; A.-S. bed-n ; Eng. be ; Germ. bi-n. 
 
 If we now take a somewhat narrower view of the subject, 
 and confine ourselves a moment to the Teutonic sub-family, 
 we shall find that it naturally falls into either two or three 
 divisions, as we may regard them. High German ; Low 
 German, Low Dutch or Platt Deutsch ; and Scandinavian. 
 The Scandinavian branch comprises the Old Norse, as the 
 pa-rent of the others, and the modern Icelandic, Danish, and 
 Swedish. Their most marked peculiarities are a suffixed 
 article and a reflexive form of the verb. The definite arti- 
 cle is attached to the noun. Thus in Icelandic : 
 
 madhr a man madhr-inn the man 
 
 sonr 
 
 a son 
 
 sonr-inn 
 
 the son 
 
 vetr 
 
 winter 
 
 vetr-inn 
 
 the winter 
 
 hridh 
 
 a storm 
 
 hridh-in 
 
 the storm 
 
 holt 
 
 a copsewood 
 
 holt-itt 
 
 the coppice 
 
 The reflexive, or passive, form of the verb is made by 
 appending a fragment of a pronoun signifying self Icel. 
 gremja, to vex ; gremja-sk, to vex one's self, to be angry. In 
 Danish nothing remains of the pronoun except the letter s. 
 
 at give to give at give-s to be given 
 
 at elske to love at elske-s to be loved 
 
 at finde to find at finde-s to be found 
 
 at faae to get at faae-s to be gotten 
 
 at drive to drive at drive- s to be driven 
 
 In other respects these languages belong to the Low Ger- 
 man branch, and High German that is, the language of the 
 interior, remote from the sea-coast, represented by the mod- 
 ern literary German stands alone in the transmutation of 
 sounds. This will be shown by exhibiting a few words in 
 ist, Gothic; 2d, Danish; 3d, Swedish; 4th, Dutch; 5th, 
 English ; 6th, German.
 
 Grimms Law. 
 
 137 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 4- 
 
 5- 
 
 6. 
 
 taihun 
 
 ti 
 
 tio 
 
 tien 
 
 ten 
 
 zehn 
 
 timr 
 
 timmer 
 
 timmer 
 
 timmer 
 
 timber 
 
 Zimmer 
 
 tindan 
 
 tender 
 
 tindra 
 
 tender 
 
 tinder 
 
 ziinden 
 
 tungo 
 tunthus 
 
 tunge 
 tand 
 
 tunga 
 tand 
 
 tong 
 tand 
 
 tongue 
 tooth 
 
 Zunge 
 Zahn 
 
 tvai 
 
 to 
 
 twa 
 
 twee 
 
 two 
 
 zwei 
 
 taikns 
 tairan 
 
 tegn 
 taere 
 
 tecken 
 tara 
 
 teeken 
 tornen 
 
 token 
 tear 
 
 Zeichen 
 zerren 
 
 threis 
 thata 
 thu 
 thaursti 
 than 
 
 (Icel.) thrir 
 " that 
 " thu 
 " thyrstr 
 " thann 
 
 (The sounds of th are 
 wanting in all but Eng- 
 lish and Icelandic. 
 
 three 
 that 
 thou 
 thirst 
 than, then 
 
 drei 
 das 
 Du 
 Durst 
 dann, denn 
 
 thagks 
 dags 
 dails 
 
 " thakkir 
 dag (Dan.) 
 deel 
 
 dag 
 del 
 
 day 
 deel 
 
 thanks 
 day 
 deal 
 
 Dank 
 Tag 
 Teil 
 
 dal 
 
 dal 
 
 dal 
 
 dal 
 
 dale 
 
 Thai 
 
 dauhtar 
 daur 
 
 datter 
 dor 
 
 dotter 
 d6rr 
 
 dochter 
 deur 
 
 daughter 
 door 
 
 Tochter 
 Tiire 
 
 dragen 
 dreiban 
 
 drage 
 drive 
 
 draga 
 drefva 
 
 dreggen 
 drijven 
 
 drag 
 drive 
 
 tragen 
 treiben 
 
 It follows that of all the languages of this sub-family the 
 literary German of to-day is the most remote from our own. 
 The shifting of consonants is not confined to the initial 
 sounds, as will be seen by the following additional exam- 
 ples confined to the English and German. 
 
 crib 
 double 
 stubble 
 lead 
 
 Krippe 
 doppel 
 Stoppel 
 leiten 
 
 ladder 
 
 Leiter 
 
 leaf 
 
 Laub 
 
 life 
 
 Leben 
 
 calf 
 
 Kalb 
 
 bridge 
 ridge 
 
 Briicke 
 Rticken 
 
 ship 
 sweep 
 water 
 
 Schiff 
 schweifen 
 Wasser 
 
 cat 
 
 Katze 
 
 malt 
 
 Maltz 
 
 salt 
 
 Saltz 
 
 earth 
 
 Erde 
 
 wether 
 
 Widder 
 
 give 
 love 
 
 geben 
 Liebe
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING. 
 
 IT is not the intention here to show how all words should 
 be written and spoken. For information on these points, as 
 on many others, the reader is referred to the dictionaries ; 
 but as our spelling is admitted to abound in anomalies it is 
 my purpose to make these a little more intelligible, by show- 
 ing how some of them arose. 
 
 This chapter has been headed advisedly, Pronunciation 
 and Spelling, thus giving the spoken word precedence over 
 the written, contrary to what I suppose to be the popular 
 judgment. Languages are spoken long before they are writ- 
 ten. Very few are written yet to any considerable extent. 
 Were it possible to take an account of the words spoken 
 and written on any one day, I doubt not the former would 
 outnumber the latter a hundred to one. Writing is to 
 speech as a portrait to the living face an attempt to repre- 
 sent and perpetuate a perishable original. A man may not 
 look like his portrait, but in that case which is correct ? Our 
 aim should be not to pronounce as we spell, but to spell as 
 we pronounce. 
 
 Pronunciation and spelling agree and are consistent when 
 the same written signs no matter what they may be al- 
 ways represent the same sounds. They disagree when the 
 same characters are assigned to different sounds, or different 
 characters by turns to the same sounds. The English c and 
 g represent at least two unlike sounds each, while f, ff, gh t 
 and ph are used for the same sound. Twelve different com- 
 binations are put for the vowel sound heard in peel, and eleven 
 
 138
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 39 
 
 for that in no. In though half the word is in the position of 
 a representative without a constituency, and the g in gaol 
 is a peculiar and solitary exception. There is not a single 
 letter in our alphabet that always stands for the same sound. 
 R comes the nearest to it ; but in regard to that letter there 
 is considerable diversity both in theory and practice, and it 
 seems in danger of being entirely lost. 
 
 In looking for the cause of these divergences we observe 
 that people do not all pronounce alike, even when brought 
 up amid the same surroundings. Minute peculiarities of 
 organization combine with diversities of tastes, associations, 
 and pursuits to produce dialectic differences of localities, 
 families, classes, and trades. Webster's Dictionary gives 
 a list of 1,275 words in the pronunciation of which 
 authorities are not agreed ; and the differences among these 
 experts are sometimes quite considerable. Again, our ears 
 agree about as little as our tongues. If a foreigner were to 
 recite to a hundred persons a sentence of say twenty words 
 in his native tongue and manner, to which all were strangers, 
 and they were to take the words down from his dictation, 
 they would undoubtedly make a hundred discordant reports. 
 In the third place, with a system of writing like ours, persons 
 left to their own unaided judgment will differ much in their 
 application of letters to express sounds. In examining many 
 letters from various parts of Europe and America some of 
 them wonderfully spelled, I have had the curiosity to note 
 in how many ways the same word would be written, and I 
 have found 210 variant attempts to write the single word com- 
 mutation, all in good faith and under circumstances to put 
 the writers on their best behavior. 
 
 Moreover, when words are once committed to writing they 
 remain in that form to be read for centuries, while living 
 speech moves away, leaving them behind like old water- 
 marks, showing the former course of an ever-shifting stream. 
 And this is the principal cause of the divergence between 
 pronunciation and spelling. When Butler celebrates the 
 linguistic acquirements of Hudibras he represents that his 
 hero
 
 140 The English Language. 
 
 " made some think when he did gabble, 
 Th' had heard three laborers of Babel, 
 Or Cerberus himself pronounce 
 A leash of languages at once." 
 
 These now seem poor rhymes ; but when men said Bab-el 
 and pronunce they were perfect. 
 
 Finally, if a set of characters were invented expressly for 
 one language of few and simple sounds, the adaptation might 
 be perfect till the language changed. This temporary suc- 
 cess was probably attained by the Devanagari and Arabic 
 alphabets and the Japanese and Cherokee syllabaries. An 
 Indian chief is said to have written a letter in the last-named 
 characters the day he first saw them, so easy it is to learn 
 a system at once simple and self-consistent. But a bor- 
 rowed alphabet, like a borrowed coat, is very apt to be a 
 misfit. 
 
 Now to apply these general considerations to our mother 
 tongue, we learn that in Saxon England considerable diver- 
 sities of speech prevailed, whence probably originated the 
 present rustic dialects. Among these, through the political 
 ascendancy of Wessex and the learning and patriotic labors 
 of King Alfred, West-Saxon attained a temporary suprem- 
 acy and has been regarded as the typical Anglo-Saxon. The 
 Angles and Saxons had come from the shores of the North 
 Sea as unlettered pagans. The religion and civilization of 
 the Mediterranean coasts were brought to them by Christian 
 missionaries. Their runes and beechen tablets where ex- 
 changed for Roman letters, parchment, pens, and ink. In 
 adapting the new alphabet to their wants they rejected k, 
 q, and z, and they did not distinguish j from i or v from u. 
 They retained an old rune to represent the sound of th in 
 thin, and crossed a d (i$) for the th in then, as the Romans 
 had no way of expressing these sounds. They introduced w 
 with the same power as at present. Setting aside minor 
 distinctions of different writers, the Anglo-Saxon alphabet 
 represented the following sounds :
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 141 
 
 A, as in hart ; never as in hate or hare ; d, as in hall, or as in 
 
 far. 
 
 B, as in babe. 
 
 C, " " case ; never as in cease or cheese. 
 
 D, " " deed. 
 
 E, " " men ; /, as a in mane ; indistinct when final, but not 
 
 silent. 
 
 F, as nearly v as possible. 
 
 G, as in go, not as in gin ; like y before e and /. 
 
 H, " " home, when initial ; in the middle or end of a syllable, 
 like the German or Scotch ch the lost sound of 
 English. 
 
 I, as in tin ; t, as in machine. 
 
 L, M, N, as at present. 
 
 O, d, as in Soho ' ! 
 
 P, as in puppet, but rarely beginning native words. 
 
 R, trilled, or fully sounded. 
 
 S, as s, when double, or when preceded or followed by c, p, or 
 t ; otherwise like z. 
 
 T, as at present. 
 
 U, like the vowels in cuckoo. 
 
 W, as at present never silent. 
 
 X, seldom used, and then as a monogram for hs, or an ana- 
 gram for sc. 
 
 Y, y, as the French u and the German ii. 
 
 Th (a single character) acquired the two values of ih in thin 
 and in thine. 
 
 D = th in thy. 
 
 The chief diphthongs were : 
 
 ae = a in care ; a, the same prolonged. 
 ail, aw, ow = ow in now. 
 ie, the same as / followed by a faint e. 
 
 ea, ea, eo, /<?, the vowels pronounced separately, with the prin- 
 cipal stress on the first. 
 
 As a scheme of sounds, this alphabet had one represented 
 by h, now lost. On the other hand there is no indication of 
 the sounds which we represent by J, ch, sh, oi, i in pine, u 
 in mule, II in million, n in pinion, z in azure ; and we have
 
 142 The English Language. 
 
 many delicate distinctions which might be sought for in vain 
 in the primitive language, at least at this distance of time. 
 
 Some of the relations between pronunciation and spelling 
 that strike us now as most characteristic are these : 
 
 1. Every letter was sounded, although e final, or following 
 i, had a tendency to become indistinct and faint. Initial w 
 was pronounced before r in such words as writan, to write ; 
 zvreccan, to avenge ; so also c before , as in cnif, a knife ; 
 cnedan, to knead. 
 
 2. An initial h, of which there is now no trace left, often 
 preceded /, n, or r, as in hldf, bread, a loaf ; hltid, loud ; 
 hnappian, to nap, to slumber ; hrdf, a roof. 
 
 "Tha hnappodon hie ealle, and slepon." 1 SAXON GOSPELS. 
 
 3. Cw was written where we now put qu cwic, quick, 
 alive ; cwealm, a qualm, sickness. 
 
 4. Our ancestors wrote Jnv where we absurdly write wh 
 hwd, who ; hwcet, what ; hwczther, whether. 
 
 From Saxon times to ours there has been incessant change 
 now rapid, now slow, but always change. The general 
 tendency of the change, as shown in the chapter on the 
 formation of words, has been to shorten and simplify to 
 make speech easier. It has been said that the words used 
 by the older nations were a great deal too long. In these 
 busy ages we have had to shorten many of them. Take the 
 following as examples : 
 
 andswarian 
 aeghvvsether 
 setspeornan 
 aheardian 
 
 to answer 
 either 
 to spurn 
 to harden 
 
 gegadrian 
 cyning 
 butan 
 betweonan 
 
 to gather 
 a king 
 but 
 between 
 
 beheafdian 
 
 to behead 
 
 hlaford 9 
 
 lord 
 
 afhreowan 
 nase-thyrel 
 
 to rue 
 nostril 
 
 hlafdige * 
 wif-man 
 
 lady 
 woman 
 
 1 Then they all napped and slept. 
 
 2 The derivation of these two interesting words is uncertain. The first part 
 is clearly filaf, bread ; ord is probably a contraction for weard, a guard ; and 
 dige may be allied to the Gothic digan, to knead, prepare bread. On this sup- 
 position lady would have meant once, bread-maker, and lord bread-protector.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 143 
 
 For ages spelling was quite irregular. The Saxon word 
 to ask is found in the forms : ascian, ahsian, acsian, axian, 
 acsigan, axigean. In the absence of all authoritative stand- 
 ards, each writer made his own spelling as he went along. 
 It was quite common to write the same word differently even 
 in the same sentence. Some words had at least two pro- 
 nunciations, and a still greater number of spellings a con- 
 siderable convenience in versification. This fluctuating 
 orthography continued till the sixteenth century, and has 
 not yet entirely disappeared. Edmund Paston, writing to 
 his wife in the year of the discovery of America, called her 
 indifferently his wyve, ivyffe, ivyveffe, or wyffve; while the 
 good dame subscribes herself with phonetic brevity : " Your 
 yf, M. P." Personal names have been the most cruelly 
 treated. The acts of their martyrdom test the power of 
 believing. The editors of " Webster's Dictionary " assert 
 that the name of Mainwaring is written 131 different ways 
 in the family documents. But for the last three hundred 
 years spelling has been becoming both more simple and more 
 uniform. The uniformity at least has been greatly pro- 
 moted by the printers, and the wide distribution of standard 
 works precisely alike in every letter. There is no doubt 
 much to be accomplished yet, for in addition to the varying 
 pronunciation of many words, and the want of a constant 
 agreement between the written and spoken language, there 
 are many words Webster gives a list of 1,550 whose 
 orthography is unsettled. 
 
 In regard to changes in pronunciation and spelling, four 
 cases may be distinguished : 
 
 1st. Both may remain unchanged. 
 
 2d. Pronunciation may hold its place, while the spelling 
 changes. 
 
 3d. The opposite may take place. 
 
 4th. Both may change together, or in diverse directions. 
 Of these the first two are very rare, the last two very 
 common. Land was written and no doubt spoken fifteen 
 centuries ago as it is now ; so too crisp, den, fox, hand, sand, 
 timber, and winter have come down from our Saxon fathers
 
 144 The English Language. 
 
 with scarcely a shade of change. Under the second head, 
 the Saxons pronounced door and drink as we do, but wrote 
 them otherwise. As to the third, we find, for example, in a 
 credo of the thirteenth century the word grace written as at 
 the present time, but its pronunciation we would be apt to 
 represent as grassy, also maiden (the Virgin) pronounced 
 miden, and Pilate, Peelahty. The great body of the words 
 do not remain the same, either to the eye or the ear. 
 
 But before going further we must adopt for the nonce some 
 system for representing spoken sounds. For the remainder 
 of this chapter, therefore, the following characters, when 
 placed in parentheses, will be used to indicate pronunciation, 
 not as being highly consistent or scientific, but because they 
 seem as little likely as any to be misunderstood. Mere pro- 
 longation, or the time occupied in utterance, will not be 
 distinguished into long and short when the sound is the same. 
 
 aa, for the vowel in arm, parameter. 
 
 a, as in man, fat. 
 
 ae, " " care, fair, there, 
 
 ai, " " fain, fane, 
 
 aw, " " law, fall, thought. 
 
 ch, " " church, 
 
 dh, like th in this, that, 
 
 ee, as in meet, receive. 
 
 e, " " met. 
 
 e, " person neither purson, parson, nor pairson. 
 
 f, " " fluffy. 
 
 g, " " grog, not gin. 
 
 h, when alone, as in high, hill, but representing different sounds 
 
 when combined, as in ch, dh, gh, kh, sh, th, zh. 
 ii, as in fire, dry, aye. 
 w, " fine, rhyme, 
 i, " " tin. 
 kh, the lost sound of English Scotch and German ch. 
 
 gh : kh : : g : k. 
 
 oa, the vowel in moan, loan, lone, lo, low, though, 
 o, " " " not. 
 oe, " " " girl, pearl, berth.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 145 
 
 oi, as in toil, toy. 
 ow, ' " house, owl, bough. 
 
 r, distinctly sounded, not reduced to h, w, or nothing, 
 sh, as in shallowish. 
 th, " " thin, 
 uu, " " rule, food, two, through. 
 
 u, " " but, flood. 
 
 , " " full, put, foot, 
 ue, the French #, or the German '. 
 yu, the u in mule, use, few. 
 
 y, as in yoke ; when final and unaccented, as in penny, 
 zh, like the s in pleasure, the z in azure. 
 
 This is but a rough scale of sounds easily distinguished. 
 Those who have made a life-study of orthoepy discover a 
 great number of intermediate shades that elude the common 
 sense and sometimes perplex the professional ear. The most 
 laborious investigator, Mr. A. J. Ellis, thus recapitulates the 
 results of analyses of long i, as represented by different 
 authors : 
 
 " Sheridan and Knowles Ai 
 
 Haldeman a\ 
 
 Walker and Melville Bell ai accented 
 
 Melville Bell ahi unaccented 
 
 Londoners aei 
 Scotch e\, ei, Ei, a\, ahi 
 
 Wilkins and Franklin ai 
 
 Wallis and Smart aoi ' 
 
 Now this being the sound of the personal pronoun, is heard every 
 day, and constantly ; but after competent orthoepists have care- 
 fully examined it, they are unable to agree as to its analysis." 
 
 The meaning of the analysis is not important to our 
 present purpose. The point to notice is the failure to agree 
 as to the best way to 
 
 " distinguish and divide 
 A hair 'twixt south and south-west side." 
 
 1 Intended to represent twelve different pronunciations.
 
 146 The English Language. 
 
 The letters b, d, f, I, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, x have continued 
 to represent the same sounds for a thousand years, with this 
 qualification, that originally f was often v, a value that it 
 now has only in of; that s once had the sound of z more 
 frequently than now ; and that s and / now combine with h 
 and i to express peculiar sounds. K, q, and z have remained 
 unchanged since they came into the language, except in 
 the termination que from the French. The vowels are the 
 unstable elements. 
 
 Many letters are retained in positions where they repre- 
 sent no sounds. They are then called silent letters, and are 
 analogous to the rudimentary organs known to comparative 
 anatomy surviving traces of parts that once performed real 
 duties. They could have become thus mute and inglorious 
 only through decay and phonetic degradation. 
 
 A final b has become silent after m in bomb, climb, comb, 
 crumb, dumb, lamb, limb, jamb, numb, plumb, thumb, tomb, 
 and womb. It is still sounded in corymb, dithyramb, and 
 rhomb, from the Greek. 
 
 Final e is silent in modern English except in a few words 
 borrowed from the Greek. It is also silent when followed 
 only by s, as in blades, hides, mines, except when preceded 
 by a sibilant sound passes, wishes, watches, wages, foxes. 
 This silent e arises in several ways, through degradation of 
 some fuller sound, as a result of inflexion ; or it may be 
 a part of the original word. In the earlier forms of the lan- 
 guage it was always heard, as it still is in German. But the 
 German poets omit it wherever such omission suits their 
 verse, marking its place by a (') as is often done in English : 
 
 " Heav'n never took a pleasure or a pride 
 In starving stomachs." 
 
 PETER PINDAR. 
 
 But our early poets wrote the words in full, omitting the 
 superfluous letters in reading. This practice can be dis- 
 tinctly traced as far back as the thirteenth century. In the 
 following specimen from that period the silent letters are 
 italicized :
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 147 
 
 " If man him bithocte, 
 Inderlik<? and ofte, 
 Wu ard<? is te fore 
 Fro bedde te flore, 
 Wu reuful is te flitte 
 Fro flore te pitte 
 Fro pitte te pine 
 That neure sal fine 
 I wene non sinne 
 Suld<? his herte winnen." 
 
 The same usage is observable in the " Prisoner's Prayer " 
 and Layamon's " Brut " assigned to the earlier part of the 
 same century. The plural termination es was treated sub- 
 stantially in the same manner as final e. Chaucer (end of 
 the fourteenth century) made "wyves" rhyme with "live 
 is." Mr. Ellis, from an examination of the prologue to the 
 " Canterbury Tales," found final e pronounced before a conso- 
 nant or at the end of a line 658 times, elided, principally 
 before a vowel or h, 622 times. Es was fully pronounced 
 124 times, reduced to s 18 times. That is, the versification 
 required these letters to be so treated. By the time when 
 Spenser wrote the final e was mute, and only the ed of the 
 past tense or participle was heard as a separate syllable. 
 
 G and k before n in the same syllable are now silent, as in 
 gnaw and know. G is in like manner silent before m. There 
 was once a g in flail, hail, nail, rail, sail, tail, main, rain, 
 wain, day, say, way, draw, law, saw, buy? and many others, 
 where there is no longer a trace of it left even in writing. 
 It is silent in sign, but heard in signature ; and similar pairs 
 may be made of benign, benignant, paradigm, paradigmatic, 
 etc. 
 
 Seven words heir, herb, honest, honor, hostler, hour, and 
 humor that come to us through the French, begin with 
 silent h. It is not heard after ex, as in exhaust, exhort. 
 
 In ck, one letter is as good as both, and k may generally 
 be regarded as the intruder. 
 
 1 It is preserved in bought.
 
 148 The English Language. 
 
 In an earlier stage of the language there was an / in as, 
 bag, each, suck, which, foumart, hawser, jasmine, and savage. 
 It is written but not pronounced in balm, calm, qualm, calf, 
 half, talk, walk, salmon, salve ; still sounded in film, helm, 
 realm, whelm, solder, soldier, and talc. In the old word 
 salver, a quack, it is silent, but heard in salver, a dish. Its 
 position is insecure in haulm, solder, and soldier ; so that we 
 have here a letter in all stages of decay. There are fading 
 letters also in gimblct, handsel, castle, pestle, trestle, pumpkin, 
 raspberry, rundlct, and others. 
 
 M is silent only in mnemonics and allied words from the 
 Greek juvj/jsr/, memory. The Greeks, although notably well 
 supplied with vowels, admitted combinations of consonants 
 that seem to us unpronounceable. In adopting Greek 
 words we generally write a representation of all the letters 
 and the aspirate, but sometimes have to leave part of them 
 unspoken, of which an extreme example is phthisis. 
 
 N is now silent in damn, hymn, kiln, 1 solemn. 
 
 Initial/ is silent before n, s, and /, from the Greek pneu- 
 monia, psalm, ptyalism. In ptarmigan from the Gaelic, it is 
 intruded by mistake, but not pronounced. 
 
 The suppression of r is seriously threatened, and some of 
 us may live to see and not hear it. 
 
 5 is silent in aisle and island. It properly belongs in neither. 
 Letters have often been intruded and after a time dropped. 
 Aisle is from the French aile, from the Latin ala ; island \s 
 from the Middle English Hand, A.-S. ig-land, in which ig 
 alone means an island, like the Icelandic ey compare 
 Aldern-rj/ Angles-^j, Guerns-^j', Orkn-^y, Rams-^y. The 
 error arose from supposing the word indentical with isle^ a 
 form ground down from the Latin insula. 
 
 7 is silent in many situations ; between g and a vowel 
 guard, guess, guide, guy ; in the digraph ou, sounded as o, 
 and the terminations^-/^ and que, imitated from the French. 
 
 W\s now silent before r, as in wrack, wren, wring, wrong, 
 wrung; although I was accustomed in youth to hear it 
 
 1 A.-S. cyln from the I .at. culina.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 149 
 
 pronounced in such words. It is also silent before h in who, 
 whole, whoop, and whore. The w was foisted upon the three 
 latter words in the sixteenth century, and who is from A.-S. 
 hwd. When final w follows a, it merely determines the 
 sound of that letter, as in draw and law. After o it 
 either forms a perfect diphthong, as in now, or is very faintly 
 heard, as in know. 
 
 Intruded letters that is, not belonging to the earlier 
 forms of words are the converse of silent letters. In the 
 latter case a part of the old is dropped, in the former some- 
 thing foreign is added. When they arise without effort, 
 while the organs of speech are changing from one articulating 
 position to another, they are called excrescent. Such are 
 the b after m and the d after n. B is excrescent in chamber, 
 clamber, cucumber, limber, (of a cannon), number, lumber 
 (the verb), remember, timber, assemble, bramble, dissemble, 
 crumble, fumble, gamble, grumble, humble, mumble, nimble, 
 ramble, resemble, rumble, stumble ; crumb, numb, thumb, limb 
 (of a tree). The limb of the sun or of a sextant is from the 
 Latin limbus, a border. Part of these are sounds introduced 
 to round out words to goodlier proportions, and after a 
 time abandoned. D is excrescent in tender, thunder, and 
 yonder. Pis excrescent in swamp, and /is intruded m fault 
 and vault, and c into scythe, through misunderstanding. 
 
 We come next to sounds that have not ceased but changed. 
 
 A, primarily (aa), then passing to (aw) on the one hand 
 and (ae) on the other ; in time filling up the spaces between 
 a and u, and between a and e, with two indeterminate series 
 of intermediate sounds. The general tendency, still more 
 marked in French than in English, is to narrow the aperture 
 of the mouth, and utter what might not inaptly be called 
 thin, slender, weak sounds. As these seem especially 
 adapted to the female voice, the tendency is often called 
 effeminacy. It comes under the more general head of 
 economy of exertion, in short, laziness, the dry-nurse of 
 language. One of the greatest changes has been the exten- 
 sive reduction of a from (aa) to (ai), begun about the close 
 of the sixteenth century, and brought to nearly its present
 
 150 The English Language. 
 
 point in the eighteenth century. So great a change could 
 not have been effected suddenly. In passing from (aa) to 
 (ai), the pronunciation must have been successively (a) and 
 (ae), which almost entirely supplanted the original sound in 
 the seventeenth century. In the middle of the sixteenth 
 century ale was pronounced (aal), face (faas), able (aab'l), 
 bake (baak) ; and we see what they have come to now. The 
 several sounds now represented by a are exemplified by 
 far, fan, fare, fane on the one hand, and wharf, fall on the 
 other. Our dictionaries represent wharf as equivalent to 
 whorf, which to my ear would be a faulty pronunciation. 
 I should reckon the word intermediate between /#//" and hall. 
 
 Ae was common in Anglo-Saxon with a range of sound 
 iroTd fan to fare. In the thirteenth century it went out of 
 use, being replaced by a and e. This digraph was reintroduced 
 in the seventeenth century to represent the Latin ae and the 
 Greek ai. It is found in no native English word, and has 
 always the value of the long e of the period. 
 
 Ai and ay == (ii), until the latter part of the sixteenth 
 century, since which time the value (ai) has spread to all 
 accented syllables except aye, meaning yes. In the termi- 
 nations of captain, bargain, etc., it is obscure and = (i). 
 The point of Shakespeare's pun (" Henry IV.," part i., act. 
 2, sc. 4.) depended on adopting a pronunciation then new. 
 He did not, as some have supposed, call raisins (reezins), 
 but reasons (raizins). The Scotch word plaid, which does 
 not mean a kind of cloth, but a kind of garment, is incor- 
 rectly pronounced plad in England and America. 
 
 " If they hae twenty thousand blades 
 
 And we twice ten times ten, 
 Yet they hae but their tartan plaids 
 And we are mail-clad men." 
 
 SCOTT'S "Antiquary." 
 
 Ao is never recognized as a genuine English combination, 
 and is found representing a single sound only in gaol, extra- 
 ordinary, and Pharaoh, the sound being different in each. 
 The order of derivation of gaol is : Lat. cavea, a coop or
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 151 
 
 cage ; Low Lat. gabia, gabiola ; Old French gayole, gaole ; 
 Eng. of the thirteenth century gayole and gayhol. The 
 modern Fr. is gedle, from which the present pronunciation 
 may have come. Jail has been used as an alternate form 
 since the first part of the sixteenth century, taking the place 
 of an earlier gail and gay I. Jay, the name of a bird, has 
 passed through changes similar to those of jail. In extra- 
 ordinary, two vowels that originally belonged to different 
 syllables are now run together. The same is true of Pharaoh. 
 
 Ail = (ow) up to the end of the sixteenth century, since 
 which it has passed through various shades of transforma- 
 tion, ending for the most part in (aw). There are exceptions, 
 however. In aunt, avaunt, daunt, flaunt, gauge, gaunt, gaunt- 
 let, haunch, haunt, jaundice, jaunt, jaunty, laugh, launce, 
 launch, staunch, stauncheon, taunt, vaunt the u is not heard. 
 The au in hautboy and hauteur still retains the French value 
 (oa). Meerschaum, a recent German importation, is variously 
 pronounced (mairshowm, meershawm, meershum). 
 
 Aw was little used in early times, the preference being 
 given to au. The value has always been the same as that of 
 au, except that in modern times it is exclusively (aw). 
 
 C in the Saxon period = k, as now in call, close, etc. By 
 the twelfth century it began to = s before e and i. An 
 Ave Maria of that period runs : 
 
 " Moder of milce ' and Maiden Mari 
 Help us at ure hending for thi merci." 
 
 The combination ch was rare and late. There is in the 
 Bodleian Library at Oxford a manuscript referred to the 
 tenth century, containing a transliteration of parts of the 
 Greek Scriptures into Anglo-Saxon letters. Ch occurs there 
 with the value (kh), which it continued occasionally to 
 represent until the loss of that sound. By the twelfth 
 century, if not earlier, it had become also (ch), as in the 
 ballad of " King Horn." 
 
 The transformation of (k) to (ch) is one of the great 
 changes of our language. Much the largest part of the 
 
 1 A.-S. milts, compassion.
 
 152 The English Language. 
 
 words containing the latter sound are from the French. 
 The next greatest part are native, the result of imitation. 
 The remainder are from the most various sources, as chert, 
 chimpanzee, china, and chocolate words from the four quar- 
 ters of the globe. In the Saxon words that have undergone 
 this change, the c was followed by e, z, or y. The sound (ee), 
 represented in most languages by i, is produced by raising 
 the front part of the tongue close to the palate, leaving but 
 a narrow seam for the emission of the voice. The effect 
 upon a preceding consonant is like the injection of the semi- 
 vowel y. In one form or other this palatalization is wide- 
 spread in our language, and still more prevalent in some 
 others, notably Icelandic. 
 
 Icelandic bjalla pronounced byalla a bell 
 djup dyuup deep 
 
 gjald gyald payment 
 
 Scotch heuk hyuuk a hook 
 
 pock pyok a small bag 
 
 Virginian card kyard 
 
 garden gyarden 
 
 Italian figlio filyo a son 
 
 magno manyo great 
 
 English few, dew, demure, enure, sure. 
 
 The letter e in Anglo-Saxon must have produced some- 
 what the same effect, as may be aptly shown by comparing 
 a few Icelandic and Saxon words. 
 
 Icelandic fjon A.-S. fe6n hate 
 
 fjandi " feond fiend 
 
 kjaptr ceaftas (Scotch) chafts 
 
 kjosa " ceosan to choose 
 
 kjuklingr " cicen chicken 
 
 mjolk " meolc milk 
 
 skjota " sceotan to shoot 
 
 41 skjalf " scylfe a shelf . 
 
 " ceaf chaff 
 
 " ceorl churl
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 
 
 153 
 
 Thus the palatalization of c resulted in ch, a change not 
 at all confined to English. The Sanskrit cha andja are held 
 to have been thus derived from ka and ga, and in Italian c, 
 before e and i, is pronounced (ch). The change is the most 
 sweeping in French, where the c of the Latin ca becomes 
 regularly ch, pronounced (sh). 
 
 Campus becomes champ 
 
 canis chien 
 
 caput chef 
 
 castellum chateau 
 
 causa " chose 
 
 bucca becomes bouche 
 
 furca fourche 
 
 perca perche 
 
 peccare pecher 
 
 vacca " vache 
 
 The transformation, supposed to have been accomplished 
 before the eighth century, can only be understood as effected 
 gradually and in the direction of (k), (kh), (ky), (ch), (sh). 
 The influence of the Norman French was doubtless one of 
 the principal causes of the similar change in English. 
 
 The same palatalizing tendency transformed ci, si, and ti, 
 when followed by a vowel and not accented into (sh) 
 ancient, pension, action. But this process was not com- 
 pleted till near the close of the seventeenth century. 
 
 When c became ch, sc naturally followed as sch, from 
 which c was after a time dropped, leaving sh, as now. 
 
 When words containing ch are borrowed from French, and 
 it is thought worth while to keep their foreign origin in view, 
 the ch is pronounced (sh) as in chaise, charade, machine. 
 
 In a few Saxon words ce or ci occurs twice, leaving the 
 option to change either pair, or both, or neither. Of cicen we 
 have made chicken ; of cicene we make kitchen; and from 
 circe, or cirice, with the Icelandic kirkja, come the Scot- 
 tish kirk, Chaucer's chirche and the modern church. 
 
 In words derived from Greek, either directly or through 
 the Latin, ch is very generally (k), but there are such excep- 
 tions as chart, schism, schist. We are reminded at every 
 step that human speech is not laid down once for all by the 
 line and the square. What words will yield to any fashion 
 or usage and what will escape no one can foresee.
 
 154 The English Language. 
 
 The palatalization of the c gave occasion for the doctrine, 
 more prevalent in the last century than now, that it cannot 
 end any English word. If in combination or inflexion it 
 should come to be followed by e or i, how should it be pro- 
 nounced ? If, like our Saxon ancestors, we were to write 
 cwic instead of quick, ought we not also to write cwicer and 
 cwicest ? as I saw a short time ago the people of the prov- 
 ince of Quebec called Quebecers without knowing how to 
 pronounce the word. Indeed the rule in question is still 
 substantially in force. Words of one syllable, the most apt 
 to add cr and est, as black, slack, thick, retain the k. The 
 only monosyllables ending in c are arc, disc, fisc, lac, marc, 
 ore, ploc, roc, sac, soc, talc, tic, and zinc, which scarcely admit 
 of inflexion, and are not very often used. Finally, as a last 
 resort, the k can be restored, as in rollicking and frolicking. 
 
 E. The so-called short sounds of the vowels, a, e, i, o, 
 have undergone little change in a thousand years, while the 
 long values of the first three are the most unstable elements 
 in the language. There has been a shifting of places among 
 the first three vowels. There was originally a series of sounds 
 represented by a, e, i, ai, now represented by ah, a, e, i. 
 E then was originally like (ai) in pain, the short sound, as in 
 pen, having been always the same. Doubling of the letter 
 made no difference but to show its length. By the middle of 
 the sixteenth century the sound began to be attenuated, and 
 the, be, bee, me, we, he, she were among the first words to give 
 way and be pronounced as at present. The prevailing value 
 is now (ee), heard in all cases of the doubled e, of the single 
 in an open syllable, or followed by a silent e, except a few 
 words, as ere, e'er, there, were, where, containing the disturb- 
 ing letter r. To these may be added most syllables contain- 
 ing ea, ei, and ie a vast number of words in which (ai) has 
 given place to the thinner, sharper sound (ee). 
 
 Ea had been occasionally written by Chaucer without dif- 
 fering in value from e ; but in the middle of the sixteenth 
 century, when the single vowel was fast yielding to the new 
 fashion, ea was adopted as an orthographical expedient to 
 distinguish those words that still retained the sound of (ai).
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 155 
 
 It was thus set up as a fragile bulwark against the tide of 
 innovation, only to be swept away in its turn in a wreck of 
 fragments as various as beam, bread, break, dearth, and heart. 
 But this took two hundred years, during which each succes- 
 sive chronicler of the language recorded fresh encroach- 
 ments. The Scotch and English colonists planted in 
 Ireland by James I. carried with them their respective 
 pronunciations of the end of the sixteenth century, and 
 whoever listens to an intelligent Irishman fresh from the sod 
 may haply hear some of the following illustrations of the 
 Elizabethan era : 
 
 preach Irish praich bold Irish bowld 
 
 receive resaiv soul sowl 
 
 mean main roll rowl 
 
 supreme shupraim chair chiir 
 
 The tendency to thin and palatal sounds was carried so 
 far that before the middle of the eighteenth century many 
 words had acquired the sound of (ee) from which custom has 
 receded. A chair was commonly pronounced cheer ; a 
 steak, steek ; great, greet ; and oblige, obleej ; some of which 
 may perhaps still be heard from old persons. 
 
 E has the sound of (ae) when followed by r in there, were, 
 and a few others ; but (ee) is more common even in such 
 situations as mere, sere, persevere. 
 
 In syllables like ber, her, mer,per, ser, when accented, e has 
 a delicate and peculiar sound that can best be learned from 
 a lady born to the use of the English tongue. ^"hus perfect 
 is neither par feet, r\or paerfect, nor purfect ; yet there are a 
 few words in which the people of England pronounce er as 
 ar, saying Darby, dark, sarjeant. It is a seventeenth-cen- 
 tury usage which clings chiefly to a few local and aristocratic 
 family names. 
 
 Eau is from the French, and with two exceptions is still 
 imperfectly assimilated to our language and retains the value 
 (oa). The exceptions are beaufin, a variety of apple, pro- 
 nounced biffin, and beauty. The first word has been treated 
 as French names of fruits now are by our nurserymen and
 
 156 The English Language. 
 
 farmers. Beauty has long been domiciled among us, from 
 Old French and must have been called byowty, a pronuncia- 
 tion that I heard from old people in my childhood. Tyn- 
 dale and Sir Thomas More wrote bewty, which fixes its 
 pronunciation for the first part of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Ei was in use as early as the thirteenth century, and for 
 more than three hundred years represented (ii). The sound 
 then began to pass into (ae'ee), somewhat as we should pro- 
 nounce they, in attempting to give each vowel distinctly. 
 Next the second vowel was slurred over entirely, and tow- 
 ard the close of the seventeenth century deceive, receive, 
 conceit, either, heifer, leisure, purveigh, seize were all pro- 
 nounced with the sound (ai). So late as 1704, Dr. John 
 Jones could declare (perhaps rashly) that ei never repre- 
 sented what is now its value in seize. The eighteenth cen- 
 tury made the digraph what it is now prevailingly (ee). Still 
 it represents the various shades in heifer, heir, feign, forfeit, 
 height, deceive. Thus in less than two hundred years a single 
 pronunciation is split into six. Herbert Spencer's doctrine 
 of the differentiation of the homogeneous finds nowhere 
 apter illustrations than in language. 
 
 To the question which is preferable, iither or eether, it may 
 be answered that there is no principle on which it can be 
 decided. The former was once the only pronunciation ; 
 the latter is now the prevalent one ; but which may fall 
 to the lot of any word is as much a matter of chance as 
 cases of snake-bite or hydrophobia. The party of (ii) has a 
 respectable following in height, sleight, heighho, and a number 
 of late importations from the Greek, as kaleidopJione, ophi- 
 cleide, pleiocene, and pleistocene. Still the natural tendency 
 of the language is towards (ee). We might indeed com- 
 promise, as Dr. Johnson, when asked whether he would 
 say eether or iither, is related to have answered, " Naither, 
 Sir." 
 
 Eo is a combination of vowels inherited from the Anglo- 
 Saxon, in which they were pronounced separately, with a 
 little more stress on the one than the other. When the 
 accent was on the first the tendency was to become merely
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 157 
 
 e ; if on the second, to become yo. Eo occurs in George, 
 leopard, people, and in the rare or obsolete words feod, feoff, 
 jeopardy, and yeoman, with five different values. It is also 
 found in the termination eon in bludgeon, pigeon, surgeon, etc., 
 where it degenerates into the common obscure (#). The e, 
 however, may be considered as serving no other purpose 
 than to give the value of j to g. People comes to us from 
 the Latin populus, through the Old French pueple. The 
 English spellings are imitations. Poeple occurs in the " Vision 
 of Piers Plowman," and Chaucer wrote peple, peeple, and poe- 
 ple. Whichever vowel was placed first, the two were equiva- 
 lent to e alone, which was the general value of eo in Middle 
 English. Yeoman is a word of obscure origin, variously 
 written, but most frequently yeman. 
 
 " A lytle boy among them asked, 
 What meaned that gallow-tre ? 
 They sayde to hange a good yeman, 
 Called Wyllyam of Cloudesle." ' 
 
 Jeopardy is from the Old French jcu parti, a game of 
 chance in which the chances were equal, which was therefore 
 risky on both sides spelling and pronunciation various like 
 the last. Feoff is likewise Old French, with similar uncer- 
 tainty of spelling, but always spoken fef. Feod is perhaps 
 remotely from the Icelandic/?VMtf/, a heritable estate. The 
 dictionaries give the absurd pronunciation feud, which suits 
 the Low Latin and French forms of the word. Leopard is 
 of course Latin. A consistent pronunciation of these two 
 words would have been /"/-#</ and le"-o-pard, but would be too 
 much labor. 
 
 Eu and Eiv. In most instances we find one original sound 
 dividing into several, but here are two sounds coalescing 
 into one. In the fourteenth century there were two classes 
 of words, respectively of Saxon and French origin, but 
 written alike, indifferently with eu, ue, ew, ewe, the sound 
 of the former class being that heard in certain rural pro- 
 nunciations in New England, as keozv, teown, neow ; the 
 
 1 " Adam Bell, dim of the Clough and William of Cloudeslee."
 
 "158 The English Language. 
 
 latter (ue). During the sixteenth century the distinction 
 became forgotten and unheeded ; and now, with two or 
 three exceptions, we call them all (yu). But as we can no 
 longer utter that sound after r, we say run and thruu. Shew 
 is now pronounced (shoa), and in this country is generally 
 and consistently written show. Shrew is now pronounced 
 (shruu), although the readers of Shakespeare will recall the 
 lines : 
 
 " Hor. Now go thy ways ; thou hast tam'd a curst shrew. 
 Luc. 'T is a wonder, by your leave, she will be tam'd so." 
 
 " Taming of the Shrew." 
 
 Sewer was, until lately, often written and pronounced 
 shore. Compare Shore-ditch, London. Strew is regular in 
 pronunciation. It is recent ; the older forms, straw and 
 strow, running back side by side to Saxon times. 
 
 Sew stands alone in the perfect antagonism between the 
 written and the spoken word. 
 
 Ewe may be construed as ew with the addition of a final 
 silent e, which applies equally to all such words as tie, toe, 
 rue, dye, etc. 
 
 Ey. What has been said of ei applies equally to ey ; as * 
 and y were used interchangeably from the middle of the 
 thirteenth to the end of the sixteenth century. Ey has 
 passed through the same transitions as ei, eye being a solitary 
 relic of the oldest usage, sley, convey, obey, abeyance of the 
 seventeenth-century pronunciation, and key (Irish kay) the 
 later attenuation. As a termination ey is equivalent to y 
 and fluctuates between (ai) and (ee), as in alley, valley, pulley. 
 
 F has always had the same pronunciation in English, 
 except in the modern of = (ov). 
 
 G, initial before everything but e, i, and y was always g, as 
 at present ; before these vowels it was (y) until the sound 
 passed gradually into the modern (j). Often in the middle, 
 and always at the end of words, except after n, it was (gh) 
 not easily distinguished from (kh). In modern usage the 
 primary sound (g) has gained on the others, and we have
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 159 
 
 get, gild, give instead of jet, jild, jive. This is not actual 
 etymology, but only an indication of the change in the value 
 of the letters. G combines with a preceding n and with a 
 following h (which see below). Judgement is now almost uni- 
 versally written judgment. Abridgment and lodgment are 
 also common, a violation of general usage poorly compen- 
 sated by the economy of a single letter. But the practice is 
 not new. Sir J. Finett wrote in 1656: 
 
 " At the furthest end of the town eastward, the ambassador's 
 house was appointed, but not yet lodgable" 
 
 King James's Bible, Ed. 1613 and Shakespeare, Ed. 1623, 
 have the full form judgement. 
 
 Many words which in Saxon began with g are now written 
 with y, as yard, yell, year, young, the sound having never 
 changed. 
 
 H represents a jerked emission of voiceless breath, the 
 organs of speech being generally, but not necessarily, in 
 the position for uttering the succeeding sound. This has 
 always been its character at the beginning of a syllable. 
 Uncombined it ends no English word except a few exclama- 
 tions. It combines with c, g, p, s, and t to represent a 
 variety of sounds, all of which except the first are simple, 
 and should be expressed by single letters. H is pronounced 
 with some difficulty before or after a consonant, although 
 the Saxons seem to have found it easy enough before /, n, 
 and r ; and the escape of a little breath after consonants 
 produced the Sanskrit and Greek aspirates. The present 
 Irish occasionally aspirate perfectly. I remember to have 
 listened with wonder when a child to a travelling Hibernian 
 (modern tramp) who thus set forth his own erudition : 
 
 " I was once in the cap'haacity of a t'haicher, an' I cud t'haich 
 aanything that iver was t'haicht be man Haibra, Aljaibra, 
 Matthamaatics, or aanything at haal." 
 
 What is called Cockneyism originates in the slight diffi- 
 culty of uttering two successive vowels, or an h after a
 
 160 The English Language. 
 
 consonant. One who should try to say " a ass and an 
 horse" would be very liable to say " a hass and an *orse." 
 
 In the middle and end of syllables, in Saxon, h was (kh). 
 As ^was (gh), the two became confused. In the " Ormu- 
 lum," referred to the beginning of the thirteenth century, 
 the two are used, generally with the above distinction. After 
 that time the g began to take the place of both. A further 
 advance was made by writing the two letters together. 
 
 " Kityghtes in her conisantes, clad for the nones." 
 
 " Piers Plowman." 
 
 Layamon in 1205 had written cnihten, and Robert of 
 Gloucester in 1300, knigtes. Gh then always represented 
 (gh) or (kh), a sound that waxed ever fainter until by the 
 close of the sixteenth century it had vanished entirely from 
 the speech of the most polished society in the South of 
 England. It lingered long in the North, and in Scotland 
 and Ireland, where it was still common within the memory 
 of living men, and perhaps may yet be heard in secluded 
 valleys. Since English organs are now too dainty for the 
 sound, the spelling gh has become the special opprobrium 
 of our orthography, and gives rise to a number of futile 
 substitutes. If a German teacher were to require a class of 
 American youths to say nicht, some would pronounce it nikt, 
 a part would answer nisht, while the greater number would 
 content themselves with nit. So of ninety-four words and 
 their derivatives containing gh, the digraph = p in hic- 
 cough ; k in hough and lough ; g in aghast, burgher, ghastly, 
 ghost, gherkin, ghoul, nylghau ; f in chough, dough, cough, 
 draught, enough, laugh, rough, slough, sough, tough, and 
 trough ; and is silent in seventy-three. This digraph, when 
 not beginning a syllable, follows only i or u. 1 The i may be 
 preceded by a or e ; the u must follow a or o. The loss of 
 the sound is to be regretted. The Germans, Spaniards, and 
 Russians do not find it difficult or inelegant. I, who heard 
 it every day for twenty years, can testify to the emphatic 
 
 1 Burgher is an exception.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 161 
 
 strength it imparts. How feeble and foisonless must be the 
 speech that does not distinguish the might of nations or of 
 the Deity from the -mite of old cheese ! 
 
 I. The primary sounds represented by i are heard in 
 pippin and pierce. The former, called the short sound, has 
 held its place from the earliest times ; the latter is now never 
 represented by / in English, except in a few words of foreign 
 origin, as magazine. Yet that was the long sound until the 
 sixteenth century. It is held by the most competent author- 
 ity that Chaucer and Gower, and all before them pronounced 
 even the pronoun / as (ee). The change took place in the 
 sixteenth century, and doubtless spread gradually from 
 word to word. Shakespeare (edition of 1623) treated /, aye, 
 and eye as identical in Juliet's frantic outburst on the reported 
 suicide of Romeo: 
 
 " Hath Romeo slaine himselfe ? say thou but /, 
 And that bare vowell / shall poyson more 
 Than the death darting eye of cockatrice, 
 I am not I, if there be such an /." 
 
 The long sound at present expressed by i is clearly a 
 diphthong, but its elements are not so clear. Two sounds 
 may be distinguished in fire and in fine. The first = ai, 
 that is (aa'ee) run together very rapidly ; the second is 
 more doubtful, but to my ear is nearest the rapid utterance 
 of (u'ee). 
 
 There are a series of intermediate sounds represented by 
 i, ranging from (i) to (u), firth, girl, squirrel, birth, first, bird. 
 
 An unaccented i between a consonant and a following 
 vowel has a palatalizing effect, becoming equal to initial y, 
 or even transforming the consonant. Examples are labial, 
 radiant, ruffian, region, retaliate, abstemious, opinion, incipient, 
 interior, envious. The d in soldier is converted intoy, and the 
 sound of sh is produced in spcciotis, revulsion, potion, anxious, 
 etc. the order of transformation being (see'us), (s'yus), 
 (shus). 
 
 Ie. The Saxons pronounced this digraph nearly as we do 
 in the words mischief and mischievous. In the fourteenth 
 
 ii
 
 1 62 The English Language. 
 
 and fifteenth centuries it was used for the sound (ai), of 
 which we have relics in the Irish thaif for thief, and belaive 
 for believe. Again I may repeat that the essential point is 
 not that the people of those ages pronounced these letters 
 differently from us ; but that they pronounced certain words 
 differently, no matter how they might be written, which was 
 a quite secondary consideration. The following examples 
 will illustrate the pronunciation and writing of the fifteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries : 
 
 FIFTEENTH SEVENTEENTH 
 
 Written Pronounced Written Pronounced 
 
 beleve belaiv believe beleev 
 
 bere bair bier beer 
 
 brefe braif brief breef 
 
 chefe chaif chief cheef 
 
 fende faind fiend feend 
 
 frende fraind, frend friend freend 
 
 lege laij liege leej 
 
 pece pais piece pees 
 
 priest praist priest preest 
 
 sege saij siege seej 
 
 thefe thaif thief theef 
 
 The change to (ee) took place in the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth centuries, which is still the prevailing value of ie, 
 but proved not to be permanent for the two words friend 
 and sieve. Friend and fiend, correlative in their origin, 
 kept together from Saxon times till the seventeenth century 
 as freend and feend, fraind and faind, freend and feend ; 
 and at last parted company. 
 
 Ie was generally used in the middle ages as a termination, 
 where we now write y, or ey. 
 
 leu is French and equal to (yuu) 
 
 lew is a more anglicized form of the preceding, found 
 only in view and its compounds. 
 
 J has always the same sound, with the single exception 
 that it is (y) in the Hebrew phrase Hallelujah. 
 
 It is not found in any word of known Saxon origin. It 
 came into the language from the French when Saxons and
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 163 
 
 Normans began to unite into one people. It probably had 
 from the first the same sound as now, although it has 
 ceased to have that value in French. Although not fojund 
 in the extant remains of Anglo-Saxon, jar, to be discordant, 
 jaw, jerk, jingle, jolt, and jowl, occur early in English, and 
 are not traceable to any other source. 
 
 L must have been always essentially the same. In utter- 
 ing the sound the tip of the tongue touches the front part 
 of the palate, while the voice passes on each side, slightly 
 vibrating the edges. The sound is thus like a vowel in 
 being continuous through an aperture of a certain conforma- 
 tion, and like a consonant in that the voice is obstructed. 
 In Sanskrit /, like r, was treated as either a vowel or a 
 consonant, but possibly with a distinction between the vowel 
 and consonant values. Owing to this vocal character, / and 
 r, with final silent e, may follow an instantaneous consonant, 
 as in simple and centre. The final e in such words serves no 
 purpose, and would be no better if placed before the / or r, 
 as the pronunciation is really simpl and sentr. 
 
 In uttering one articulate sound the anticipation of others 
 immediately following often modifies the first. This phe- 
 nomenon has played a large and important part in determin- 
 ing the forms of words, and will be adverted to again in 
 treating of the numbers of nouns. If then an / follows an a, 
 there is generally a tendency to modify the a into (aw), as 
 ball, call, fall, salt, balsam. This is carried to such an ex- 
 tent as completely to suppress the / in chalk, talk, walk. 
 On the other hand, when followed by i and another vowel, 
 the / is palatalized by anticipation, as in salient, valiant, 
 million, postilion. In French and the Spanish of Mexico 
 the palatalization, which is somewhat differently indicated, 
 leaves no perceptible trace of the /, and travailler and tor- 
 tillas are heard as tra-va-yai and tor-tee-yas. 
 
 N. Besides its plain sound in noon, n is subject to two 
 modifications : the one when it is followed by (g) or (k), the 
 other when followed by / or e and another vowel. We have 
 examples of the former in ink, cincture, cinque, minx, ring, 
 and finger. If the (g) or (k) be in the same syllable with the
 
 164 The English Language. 
 
 , the latter is always modified. When they are in different 
 syllables, the result is less uniform. If the syllable begin- 
 ning with (g) or (k) has the accent, the n remains unaltered ; 
 if the syllable ending in n be accented, the n is generally 
 modified ; but there are a number of exceptions, among 
 which are ancony, penguin, concrete. The n remains unaf- 
 fected in the prefixes en, in, un, and generally in con and 
 syn. It may be questioned whether the n itself is ever (ng) 
 or if the sound always requires both letters. If all the words 
 were like sing and singer, there would be a showing for the 
 latter alternative ; but in a word like languid pronounced 
 lang-gwid the n alone in the first syllable expresses the full 
 sound. 
 
 N in accented syllables, followed by i or e and another 
 vowel, is palatalized, as in Albanian, opinion. The alphabet 
 of the Sanskrit has four 's, two of which are the palatalized 
 and the n before k, thus recognizing them as distinct 
 sounds. In Spanish the palatalized / and n are counted as 
 distinct letters ; the former written //, and the latter ;/. The 
 mark, called tilde over the n is said by the Spanish Academy 
 to have been originally a second n. 
 
 O is used at present to represent at least five vowel sounds, 
 easily distinguished in cold, hot, wonder, wolf, who. Exces- 
 sive refinement enlarges the number considerably. Mr. A. 
 J. Ellis makes fifteen heard in English alone. The first and 
 second of the above five are the most liable to division, the 
 first into three, heard in no, know, which is supposed to fade 
 away into (uu), and thirdly a sound allied to (aw) fawm for 
 form. One of the distinctions between speech at present 
 in England and the United States is the growing tendency 
 in the former country to assimilate long o to (aw), especially 
 before r, and say glawry, ^mpa^vrtant, memawrial. So 
 humorists represent gentlemen of the Dundreary type as 
 saying dorg or dawg for dog, and prefacing their oracular 
 utterances with Aw ! where an American would use O ! if 
 anything. 
 
 It is possible that this English sound may be the original, 
 and that the present fashion, like many other fashions, is a
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 165 
 
 reversion to an earlier form. In that case the long and short 
 0's would have been once an exact pair, differing only in 
 duration. To this point I shall advert again. Such a sup- 
 position is strengthened, among other evidence, by the spell- 
 ing of the word land. Henry III. writes it loand ; before 
 his time it was written, as now, land, but afterwards for 
 more than a century it was usually written lond. All would 
 be reconciled by supposing it pronounced for several ages 
 lawnd. So. many words were written sometimes with an a 
 and sometimes with o. 
 
 Many words once pronounced with the full long sound of 
 o have fallen away, generally towards u ; such are do, who, 
 shoe, two. 
 
 " And lay an apple upon hys head, 
 And go syxe score paces hym/rt?, 
 And I my selfe with a brode arow 
 Shall cleave that apple in two." 1 
 
 One, which is now pronounced wun, was generally written 
 oon, but pronounced (oan), a sound still retained in alone, 
 atone, and only (when not called urily). 
 
 " None save only a little foot-page 
 
 Crept forth at a window of stone : 
 And he had two armes when he came in, 
 And he went back with one." 3 
 
 Oa. As o is intermediate between a and u, and liable to 
 oscillate between these two extremes. When it was thought 
 necessary to distinguish the long sound of <?, it was some- 
 times written oo, which I observe first in Sir John Mande- 
 ville, middle of the fourteenth century. In two hundred 
 years that had declined sensibly towards u, when a further 
 distinction was adopted. Words that were tending towards 
 u were written with oo, and oa was chosen to represent and 
 preserve the long sound of o, a distinction that has been well 
 
 1 " Adam Bell, Clem of the Clough and William of Cloudeslee." 
 * " Old Robin of Portingale," Percy's " Reliques," page 209.
 
 1 66 The English Language. 
 
 maintained. Oa is uniform except in broad, which is perhaps 
 the persistence of the older sound of o. Its occurrence in the 
 proclamation of Henry III. is temporary and exceptional. 
 
 Oe. As already remarked, I have preferred to treat the e 
 in doe, foe, roe, sloe, toe as a silent final e, indicating the length 
 of the preceding vowel. Shoe was formerly pronounced shoa : 
 
 " For though a widewe hadde but oo schoo, 
 So pleasaunt was his In prindpio, 
 Yet wolde he haue a ferthing or he wente." 
 
 CHAUCER. 
 
 A few words derived from the Latin are at the present 
 time generally written with az, as fcetid, foetus. 
 
 Oeu. Manoeuvre is a word adopted from the French in 
 the present century. 
 
 Oi is the most perfect of diphthongs, both vowels retain- 
 ing their earliest sounds. It came into our language from 
 the French, and Mr. Ellis is of opinion that it must have 
 been at first nearly (uu'ee). By the middle of the sixteenth 
 century, however, it had acquired its present sound. In the 
 seventeenth century, when slender sounds were in fashion, 
 oi took the sound of (zY) in many words ; and we still occa- 
 sionally hear laboring people say biil,piizin,piint,jiint, which 
 we complacently regard as vulgarisms. They are merely 
 old-fashioned. 
 
 The diphthong oi is a prolonged, distinct sound which 
 cannot be fully preserved except under the protection of the 
 accent. Otherwise it is liable to fall away into some indis- 
 tinct sound, as in av<?zrdupois, conn^sseur, tortoise, porp<?zse. 
 Patois, soiree, and some others are still treated as foreign 
 words. 
 
 Oo, as already observed, was first introduced to mark the 
 long sound of o, as in go. When o in many words was fast 
 declining towards u, oa was introduced to secure the old 
 sound, and oo was left to indicate the downward tendency. 
 It now represents only sounds that are also indicated by u; 
 and good, rude ; foot, put ; blood, bud are perfect pairs.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 167 
 
 Ou is a form first employed about the close of the thir- 
 teenth century, when it = (uu), as in French. The design 
 seems to have been to fix and define that sound when u 
 itself showed a tendency to become (ue). It was next em- 
 ployed to express the sound of o in soul, in which some 
 think they hear both vowels a distinct o, followed by a 
 very faint (u). That value of ou which is now the most com- 
 mon in loud, doubt, out, came into use in the sixteenth 
 century, when a large number of words changed their vowel 
 sounds from (uu) to (ow). 
 
 Ow represents three sounds, in cow, flow, and knowledge. 
 The first may be considered its normal power ; the third is a 
 single exception. In the earlier ages of English, ow = ou, 
 and represented the same sounds. Palsgrave, writing in 
 1530, compared the French ou to the vowel sound in " a cowe, 
 a mowe, a sowe " that is, a cow, a hay-mow, a sow which 
 would make these kuu, muu, suu, as in Lowland Scotch. 
 The transition, word by word, from (uu) to (ow) went on 
 through the whole of the sixteenth century, and in the 
 seventeenth the last of (uu) disappeared. At the same time 
 there were a large class of words, chiefly from A.-S. dw and 
 6w, that have always had the sound (oa), and the boy who 
 
 bent a bow to shoot a crow " 
 
 might belong to any age. 
 
 Oy = oi. 
 
 P, in our language, when not combined with h, appears to 
 have been always and everywhere the same. 
 
 Ph = f except in Stephen, and generally in nephew in 
 England. It is used chiefly in words derived from the Greek, 
 where it is now believed to have had the" value of ph in 
 uphold. The Romans who were accustomed to hear Greek 
 as a living tongue did not render tp by their f, but always 
 by ph. On the other hand, the Greeks had no other means 
 for expressing the f in Roman names. Ph is also employed 
 in the same manner in transliterating Semitic words, as 
 ephod, seraph, naphtha, sapphire. P is silent before ph.
 
 1 68 The English Language. 
 
 Q is inseparably followed by , and = ku, or rather kw. 
 Let the tongue be pressed against the palate so as to pre- 
 vent the utterance of sound ; the release of that contact and 
 consequent issue of the voice is initial k. W, or (uu) is 
 formed by protruding the lips and narrowing their aperture. 
 These positions of the tongue and lips may be assumed at 
 the same time ; the result when the voice is released is ku ; 
 if there be instant transition to another vowel, it will be kw, 
 followed by that other vowel. Qu in European alphabets 
 is always derived from the Latin ; hence the Greek and 
 Russian have nothing equivalent. Our Saxon ancestors 
 employed in its place cw, which dispensed with an unneces- 
 sary letter. Even in Saxon times qu began to creep in, and 
 now there is not a cw in our language. 
 
 R has overtaxed the discriminating powers of orthoepists, 
 who are far from agreed as to its varieties, or the manner of 
 their production. Ben Jonson, 1640, says: " R is the Dog's 
 letter, and hurreth in the sound the tongue striking the inner 
 palate, with a trembling about the teeth. It is sounded 
 firmer in the beginning of words, and more liquid in the 
 middle and ends, as in rarer, viper." Exception may be 
 taken to the words which I have italicized ; but the fact 
 remains that two and a half centuries ago, as now, initial r 
 was pronounced more distinctly than the medial or final. 
 The point of the tongue is brought near to the anterior part 
 of the palate, without touching, and vibrates slightly under 
 the passing vocal breath. With most persons there is no 
 vibration, and consequently no r at all. Mr. Ellis says : " In 
 English at the present day r has at least two sounds, the 
 first, when preceding a vowel, is a scarcely perceptible trill 
 with the tip of the tongue, which in Scotland, and with 
 some English speakers, as always in Italy, becomes a clear 
 and strong trill. * * * The second English r is always 
 final or precedes a consonant. It is a vocal murmur differ- 
 ing very slightly from (u). * * * After (a, aw, u) the 
 effect is rather to lengthen the preceding vowel than to pro- 
 duce a distinct diphthong. Thus farther, lord, scarcely 
 differ from father, laud, * * * That a distinction is made,
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 69 
 
 by more perhaps than are aware of it, is certain, but it is 
 also certain that in the mouths of by far the greater number 
 of speakers in the South of England, the absorption of the r 
 is as complete as the absorption of the / in talk, walk, psalm, 
 where it has also left its mark on the preceding vowel." 
 
 This may be taken to be the present state of the case in 
 England ; and many in this country are entirely incapable 
 of uttering the sound of r except after a pause or a con- 
 sonant. As it is, or was, the most sonorous of the consonants, 
 its disappearance, like that of (kh), is a further weakening 
 of the language much to be deplored. Of course, like all 
 phonetic degradation, it is economy, or parsimony, of exer- 
 tion. But parsimony in speech does not differ in principle 
 from parsimony in food, clothing, or in any application of 
 labor or material. The first object is to do the work re- 
 quired, and do it well, and next to retrench needless ex- 
 penditure. But retrenchment may be carried so far as to 
 render the product worthless. So language may be trimmed 
 down until it becomes weak and feckless, unfit for the work 
 of strong, manly speech. 
 
 As r is so nearly allied to the vowels, it has generally the 
 effect of prolonging or modifying a preceding vowel, which 
 will be perceived by comparing 
 
 fan with far fin with fir 
 
 fane " fare bolt " borne 
 
 pen " per lost " born 
 
 feet " fear bulk " burn 
 
 fine " fire house " hour 
 
 It will be observed that after a long vowel or diphthong, 
 a short faint sound of u is interpolated. 
 
 R is apt to change places with an adjacent vowel, being 
 sometimes before and sometimes after it. In older speci- 
 mens of the language we find 
 
 arn for ran girdle for griddle 
 
 brid bird kers " cress 
 
 brunt " burnt fersh " fresh 
 gers " grass
 
 1 70 The English Language. 
 
 In consequence of its vowel character, r final after certain 
 consonants, however written, is pronounced without an 
 intervening vowel, or with a scarcely perceptible vocal 
 glide. Compare : 
 
 sombre somber sombr 
 
 sundry sunder sundr 
 
 offer offr 
 
 eagre eager eagr 
 
 whisper whispr 
 
 centre center centr 
 
 The same is true, even to a greater extent, of /, as in 
 stubble, sickle, idle, eagle, shuffle, maple, whistle, brittle, driz- 
 zle. Among the spelling reforms undertaken by Dr. Web- 
 ster was the substitution of the ending er for re after b and 
 /. This particular reform was not one of his happiest 
 inspirations, as in either case the e is not pronounced ; as 
 the same rule is not applied to /, and both immediate and 
 remote etymology is disregarded in center, meter, and 
 theater, the three words specially cited in illustration. The 
 English, French, Latin, Greek, and the English derived 
 adjectives of these words are : 
 
 centre centre centrum kentron central 
 
 metre metre metrum metron metrical 
 
 theatre theatre theatrum theatron theatrical 
 
 the r in each case following the t. The change is not 
 generally adopted in England, nor universally in this 
 country. 
 
 The Greeks always, and the Norsemen and our Saxon 
 ancestors often, indicated an aspiration or sound of Ji before 
 r at the beginning of a word. It has been customary in 
 transliterating Greek to write h after the aspirated r, and for 
 the other two languages either to do the same or omit the 
 h altogether. 
 
 I find no difficulty in pronouncing Ji before r, but great 
 difficulty in pronouncing it after; and I venture the opinion
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 171 
 
 that the three peoples named understood themselves and 
 wrote as they spoke, and that the Greeks, for example, 
 did not say Rhode and Arrhias, but Hrode and Arhrias. 
 
 S, alone or combined with h, represents the four sounds 
 heard in sister, rose, fashion, and pleasure. The first 
 two have been the same from the earliest times ; the 
 other two came into use in the seventeenth century. 
 (Sh) had previously been represented by sch> as it still 
 is in German. That century was filled with disorders 
 and civil wars, political and religious. It saw the acces- 
 sion and expulsion of the House of Stuart, of which 
 one king perished on the scaffold and another was 
 driven with his sons forever from the inheritance of his 
 fathers. It saw London twice desolated by plague and 
 once by fire, a parliament turned out-of-doors by armed 
 force, a commonwealth established and overthrown. It 
 witnessed the rebellions of Montrose and Monmouth, the 
 landing of a second William the Conqueror, and the fruit- 
 less attempt of James to array the Irish against England 
 and Scotland. So many great events had never before 
 been crowded into a single century ; and the constant 
 popular ferment had its effect upon the language of the 
 people. The changes were so great that in many instances 
 usage has receded from the extreme water-marks of that 
 period. Among these were the sound of (sh), once heard 
 in consume, pursue, sew, suit, supreme, but now met with 
 only occasionally in Scotland and Ireland. There is an 
 illustrative anecdote of a Scotch shopkeeper, who, worn 
 out of patience, replied to a higgling customer : " Weel, 
 weel, just shoot [suit] yersel, an' Al shoot mysel." 
 
 To tell concisely the sound that s represents in each 
 instance is very difficult. We are reminded again that 
 usage is unconscious of any rule or principle, and that the 
 systematizer can at best give but a semblance of regularity 
 to the chaos of flying atoms. However, s initial is always 
 (s) ; also when immediately before or after a weak consonant 
 f, h, k,p, t, th in thin whiffs, goshawk, skips, speaks, starts, 
 faiths ; in the prefix mis and the terminations ss and us
 
 172 The English Language. 
 
 mislay, darkness, circus, genius, famous. It is generally so in 
 the prefix dis ; but usage is not quite uniform. I have been 
 accustomed to except only disaster, discern, disease, dismal, 
 dissolve. Even in these few the dis is not always from the 
 same original. To these may be added, 1st, final as, except 
 as, whereas, has, was, and a few foreign plurals; 2d, yes; 
 3d, final is, except is and his. Final s in all other connec- 
 tions is generally (z) ; in a few words from the French it 
 is silent. A following e sometimes preserves the sound 
 of (s), which would otherwise be (z), as in asperse, expense. 
 The final e does not generally save the (s) after a vowel 
 lose, dispose, please, fuse, amuse (all verbs), but has that effect 
 in base, dose, geese, lease, loose. We have thus a distinction, 
 often but not always observed, that nouns or adjectives 
 present a weak consonant where corresponding verbs have 
 the strong. 
 
 WEAK STRONG 
 
 advice advise 
 
 bath bathe 
 
 belief believe 
 
 brass braze 
 
 calf calve 
 
 close close 
 
 device devise 
 
 grass graze 
 
 WEAK STRONG 
 
 house house 
 
 life live 
 
 loss lose 
 
 mouse mouse 
 
 price prize 
 
 rise rise 
 
 thief thieve 
 
 use use 
 
 S = (sh) when preceded by a consonant and followed by 
 ion, the i palatalizing the combination, as in diversion, expul- 
 sion, mission, passion ; also when thus followed by a palatal- 
 ized u sugar, censure, tonsure, sensual, fissure, pressure, 
 impressure, sure, sumach ; and in the words nauseate, nause- 
 ous, osseous, where the e following s has the palatalizing 
 effect. When the termination sion, sure, etc., is preceded 
 by an accented vowel, the s is (zh) instead of (sh) cohesion, 
 contusion, explosion, disclosure, exposure, measure, pleasure, 
 treasure. It has also the same value in combinations that 
 are similar though not identical as crosier, osier, hosier, 
 brasier, ambrosia, elysian, scission, abscission.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 73 
 
 T when not modified by the following letter must have 
 been always (t). But when a palatal vowel (u) or, what is 
 the same thing, the semivowel y or (yu) follows, there is a 
 tendency to palatalize the /, like c and s in the same situa- 
 tion, to (sh). It never becomes (zh). This palatalization 
 must have taken place as early as the fourteenth century, 
 since Chaucer wrote indifferently discrecioun, discressioun, 
 and discretions.. In regard to the termination ture, usage and 
 opinion both differ, varying all the way from (naichuur) to 
 (naitr). The first extreme is heard only from pedants on 
 exhibition, the second from rustics. The admissible means 
 are (naichur) and (naityur) of which I should prefer the 
 latter ; but would say (temperatyuur) and (sepultyuur). 
 
 From a want of suitable single characters, th is now in use 
 for (th) and (dh) in thin and thine. This spelling superseded 
 the Saxon thorn and crossed d in the fourteenth century. 
 
 U and V are originally the same letter. From the Greek 
 transcription of Roman names, it seems to have had in 
 Latin the three values (uu, v, w). The first of these seems 
 to have been the uniform Saxon sound, varied only by its 
 greater or less duration. The Conquest, and prolonged 
 intercourse with France introduced a great number of 
 French words in which u was (ue). Out of these grew our 
 present (yu), the vowel heard in use, unity, mule, pure. 
 There are only three words in the language having this 
 value of u that do not come to us through the French or 
 the Latin. Of these hue and puke are native English, and 
 emu, of unknown origin, was introduced into Europe by the 
 Portuguese. 
 
 It was when the long u had come generally to signify (ue) 
 that the digraph ou was introduced to distinguish and pre- 
 serve (uu). The change from (ue) to (yu) may be referred 
 to the seventeenth century. 
 
 U has now the six values, (yu) in mule, (uu) in rule, (u) in 
 put, (u) in but, (i) in busy, and (w) in anguish, (u) and (i) 
 may be termed the vanishing points to which all indistinct 
 vocal sounds tend, for which compare the last syllables of 
 ocean, further, kingdom, simpleton, captious, and the first
 
 1 74 The English Language. 
 
 syllables of perform, hirsute, congratulation. Even when not 
 recognized as a separate vowel sound, it probably exists as a 
 kind of residual product in many languages, and in my 
 opinion is more frequent in French than in English, (u) has 
 probably existed time out of mind along side of (uu), they 
 being respectively the short and the long of the vowel, 
 (ue) has gone entirely out of use in English. Persons in 
 this country who try to learn German are apt to mistake it 
 for (u) or (i). A trace of short (ue) remains in bury and 
 busy, written in A.-S. with y, in early, middle, and modern 
 English with u, but probably always with nearly the same 
 sound, (u) was not recognized by orthoepists as an English 
 sound until the middle of the seventeenth century, when it 
 extended to many places now occupied by (u). 
 
 V, as a consonant, seems to have been from a very early 
 period always the same. There was originally only one form 
 for u and v ; and when two simultaneous forms came into 
 use in the twelfth or thirteenth century, it was not to dis- 
 tinguish the vowel from the consonant. With some irregu- 
 larity v was written at the beginning of a word, and u 
 everywhere else. This usage continued into the seventeenth 
 century, and was followed in King James's Bible. Sam 
 Weller is a type of a class who find it difficult to pronounce 
 an initial v. When I was young, there was in the neighbor- 
 hood a man of that class from the old country whom the 
 boys used to banter to say rapidly, " Veal, wine, vinegar, 
 very good victuals, I vow." When thoroughly roused, the 
 old man would run off in a string : " Yes, I can say ' weal, 
 wine, winegar, wery good wit ties, I wow,' as fas' as any 
 of ye." 
 
 It can be little better than a superstition that prevents any 
 word from ending with the letter v. The avoidance of cer- 
 tain endings is curious. No word in English ends with /, 
 except the names of a few foreign animals ; none in j, q, or 
 v. Few native words end in o, still fewer in u, and none 
 in a. 
 
 As u is the last of the independent vowels, w being never 
 used alone, and y only as the equivalent of i, this may be a
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 175 
 
 proper place to remark on the distinction of long and short 
 vowels. In languages having simple scales of sounds the 
 distinction might be merely one of duration, the sounds 
 remaining the same, like musical notes differing only in 
 time ; but in English the long and the short of any vowel 
 are entirely different sounds. This will be seen by placing 
 them in pairs, the long below the short. 
 
 hat met bit not us 
 
 hate mete bite note use 
 
 Of most of our vowel sounds exact pairs cannot be made, 
 unless by taking accented and unaccented syllables, as in 
 notorious, in which we may call the first o short and the 
 second long. The following are nearer making pairs, 
 although as generally heard they are only approximations : 
 
 LONG SHORT 
 
 far fat 
 
 mare met 
 
 pane pa(ternal) 
 
 fall folly 
 
 LONG SHORT 
 
 feel fill 
 
 file fi(duciary) 
 
 foal fo(ment) 
 
 rule full 
 
 but 
 
 W. If the lips be protruded and brought near together, 
 the vocal sound that can be produced is (uu), usually repre- 
 sented by oo. If the lips be brought a little closer still, and 
 if, on the instant that the voice issues, the organs of speech 
 move to another position, the initial and instantaneous 
 sound heard is w as a consonant. It has no perceptible 
 duration, but is a mere starting-point, like/ in part. In our 
 language it must be followed by a vowel. It is certainly 
 possible, but not easy, to pronounce r after it, on ac- 
 count of the vocal character of that letter. L is still more 
 difficult. 
 
 Wh has been the subject of much dispute. In my judg- 
 ment it is (hw). Bearing in mind that h is not a vocal sound 
 but a mere breathing, try this experiment. Pronounce sep- 
 arately, with intervals between, h oo en ; then diminish the
 
 1 76 The English Language. 
 
 intervals until they disappear, and you will have a fair 
 approximation to when. Next try the order, oo h en. 
 Thirdly, place the lips in the position of w, and say when 
 slowly and carefully. You will find that there is first the 
 voiceless breathing, which ceases the instant the vocal w, or 
 (uu), is reached ; that passes instantly into e, followed by n. 
 To speak of wh as a simple but peculiar consonant partaking 
 of the properties of w and h seems to me little better than to 
 call it a univocal compound of sound and silence. 
 
 As a vowel w = (uu), and as such it occurs alone in 
 Welsh, but never in English, where it is always preceded by 
 a, e, or o. After a it merely indicates one sound of that 
 vowel. After e, omitting the exceptions cited under that 
 letter, it is (uu). I thus construe ewe. The last letter is 
 final silent e ; the first gives the palatal sound expressed by 
 y, leaving w = (uu). 
 
 Latin and the languages derived from it are without the 
 letter w, but have the sound, which most of them express, 
 as in English, by u, as in the Latin anguis, Italian guado, 
 Spanish igual, English languish, assuage. 
 
 There is a pronunciation remarked on in England as pecul- 
 iarly American, which culminates in, but is not confined to, 
 the word whole. It consists in making the o " long " in 
 sound but short in time, and dwelling upon the / as if it were 
 doubled, thus differing from hole in making the o shorter and 
 doubling the /. The word then insensibly becomes hull. It 
 ought to differ from hole only in having the o longer. A 
 still worse pronunciation is appearing among some of those 
 who insist on speaking as they spell, in trying to make the w 
 audible. This produces a most uncouth and barbarous 
 vocable for sake of a written letter that is no part of the 
 original word. In all the equivalents except the English the 
 w is wanting. It appears to have crept in from some local 
 dialect about the year 1500, and attached itself to a number 
 of words in the manner of the cockney h. In some words, 
 as whole, whore, and whoop, it has been retained in the writ- 
 ten but not in the spoken language. One and once present 
 the w to the ear but not to the eye ; and from hoot and hot,
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 177 
 
 hoary and holy, it has disappeared altogether. As to wholly, 
 which Walker very justly thought should be written wholely 
 to correspond with solely, I have always been accustomed 
 so to pronounce it. 
 
 X is a compound equivalent to ks or gs. It begins no 
 English word, and is followed only by c, ch, h, /, q, s, t, or a 
 vowel. It is (ks) when final, when accented, or when fol- 
 lowed by any of the consonants named except h. As x = 
 ks, the element s becomes (sh) in situations where a single s 
 would undergo the same change anxious, fluxion. 
 
 Y originated, as we have f seen, among the Greeks, with 
 whom it probably had nearly the value of (ue), which is 
 peculiarly liable to pass into (ii, i), When the Romans be- 
 gan to study Greek as a polite language, they distinguished 
 this letter from all their own vowels by introducing it as a 
 new character ; and the French and Spaniards still call it the 
 Greek i. As a vowel its various shades of sound have ranged 
 between the extremes i and u. The sound (ue) is one that 
 the English early sought to avoid. It seems to have disap- 
 peared in the thirteenth century, to have returned again with 
 the influx of French words in the fourteenth, written u or 
 eu, only to disappear and become unpronounceable in the 
 seventeenth. In Scotland, at least near the Border, floor 
 may perhaps still be called (fluer), but farther north will be 
 found various substitutes as (fluur, flyuur, fleer). But when 
 the sound first died out it parted company forever with the 
 letter y, which then became indistinguishable from i. 
 
 " I schal ryse, and I schal go to my fadir, and I schal seie to 
 him, Fadir, I have synned agens heuene, and bifore thee ; Now 
 I am not worthi to be clepid thi sone, make me as oon of thi 
 hyrid men." LUKE xv., 18, by WYCLIFFE. 
 
 Gradually custom assigned y to certain places and i to 
 others, so that they are never interchangeable. 
 
 F" is a vowel equal to i except when initial, in which latter 
 case it has always the force of a consonant, and is to (ee) as 
 w to (uu).
 
 1 78 The English Language. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF SPELLING. 
 
 1. Every word of considerable length can easily be divided 
 into a number of parts, as cir-cum-loc-u-to-ry. Each of these 
 parts is called a syllable, from a Greek original signifying 
 taken together, and consists of a single vowel sound, together 
 with such letters as are pronounced along with it, without 
 the aid of any other vowel sound. It may be a single vowel 
 alone, or a vowel sound represented by several written char- 
 acters, preceded or followed by consonants, or even by vowel 
 characters not sounded. A, an, no, now, stone, view, thieves, 
 are examples. 
 
 2. An open syllable is one ending with a vowel, one that 
 ends with a consonant is called a closed syllable. Under the 
 head of word-making I have shown reasons for believing 
 that all syllables were originally open, and that a closed syl- 
 lable is the remnant of a dissyllable that has lost the last vowel. 
 
 3. Our language, like many others, has a decided prefer- 
 ence still only a preference for open syllables. Any Eng- 
 lish-speaking person seeing for the first time the words 
 carat, pater, would naturally divide them ca-rat, pa-ter, 
 and not as they should be, car-at, pat-er. 
 
 4. The tendency is to give a prolonged, slender sound to 
 the vowel of an open syllable. To this there are many 
 exceptions and limitations. A final a is always short, hence 
 the article a is never what is called long. / and a end no 
 native English word, unless they can be said to do so when 
 standing alone. 
 
 5. The vowel of a closed syllable is preferably short. It 
 is uniformly so only when a single vowel is followed by a 
 single consonant. The vowels of closed syllables are pro- 
 longed in a great variety of ways, many of which are mere 
 contrivances for showing that the vowel sound is long. Of 
 these the first in rank is the silent final e, which makes the 
 difference of bat and bate, bit and bite. Then combinations 
 of vowels, whether pronounced in whole or only in part, are 
 generally, but not universally, long. There are also a few 
 instances where i and o followed by two, or even three, con- 
 sonants are long bind, blind, behind, find, grind, hind, kind,
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 79 
 
 mind, wind, pint, bolt, colt, dolt, jolt, molt, bold, cold, fold, gold, 
 hold, mold, old, sold, told, wold, fort, port. Finally i followed 
 by gk silent is long sigh, fight, lights. The lengthening of 
 the i is a compensation for the loss of gh. 
 
 6. The termination ed of verbs is written in full, however 
 pronounced, as in landed, stamped, hushed, snuffed, sighed. 
 There are, as usual, a few exceptions. We write heard, not 
 heared, and laid, paid, said, and sometimes staid instead of 
 layed, payed, sayed, and stayed. Made, shortened from 
 maked, is disguised almost beyond recognition. When a 
 verb already ends with an e, one e is omitted live, lived, 
 smile, smiled. One e is also omitted with the termination er, 
 and generally before ing. It is retained in dyeing, singeing, 
 swingeing, tingeing, to distinguish them from dying, singing, 
 swinging, tinging, and in hoeing corn, shoeing horses, and 
 toeing a mark. In general, a silent final e is dropped be- 
 fore all suffixes beginning with a vowel : 
 
 Fine, fined, finer, finery, finest, fining, finish, finable j bride, 
 bridal; guide, guidance; plume, plumage; grieve, grievance; 
 move, movable ; force, forcible ; ice, icy ; true, truism. 
 
 7. A silent final e is generally retained before a suffix 
 beginning with a consonant, or when necessary to preserve 
 the sound of the original word peaceful, peaceable, change- 
 able, courageous, mortgageor. It is sometimes omitted when 
 it immediately follows the main vowel due, duly, duty, and, 
 contrary to the soundest analogy in such words as judgment 
 and lodgment. Truly, like truth and trust, is consistent, 
 being older than the present spelling of true. Wisdom is 
 not from the modern word wise. It is Saxon unchanged. 
 
 8. Any monosyllable or accented final syllable, having a 
 single vowel and closed by a single consonant, doubles that 
 consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel : 
 
 Fit, fitted, fitter, fittest, fitting. 
 
 Red, redden, redder, reddest, reddish. 
 
 Rid, riddance, ridder. 
 
 pi g, Pigged, pigging, piggery, piggish. 
 
 Confer, conferred, conferree, conferrer, conf errant, conferring.
 
 i8o The English Language. 
 
 If the consonant were not doubled, the preference for 
 open syllables would cause the first line of this example to 
 be read : fit, fi-ted, fi-ter, fi-test, fi-ting. 
 
 9. When the last syllable is not accented usage ceases to 
 be uniform. 
 
 a. The termination ly in civilly, morally, etc., is not a 
 doubling of the last letter, but the same ly as in comely. 
 
 b. Final c adds a k, and g a second g, to preserve the hard 
 sound before suffixes beginning with e, i, or y. 
 
 c. As an accent on the last syllable causes a doubling, so 
 if a word consists of two nearly equal syllables, the final 
 consonant is doubled hob-nobbing, kid-napping. This is the 
 only reason that can be assigned for doubling the/ in wor- 
 shipper, as is most frequently done. If such words as hard- 
 ship, flag-ship, war-ship, could admit of these terminations, 
 the last letter would probably be doubled. It remains 
 single in filliped, galloped, and walloped. We can only sug- 
 gest that lip and lop are elements of less volume than ship. 
 
 d. The following list contains most of the words of two 
 syllables that are written sometimes with and sometimes 
 without doubling the last letter before the suffixes ed, er, 
 est, ing, ish, ist : 
 
 anvil 
 
 cudgel 
 
 hatchel 
 
 pencil 
 
 snivel 
 
 apparel 
 
 dial 
 
 hovel 
 
 peril 
 
 stencil 
 
 barrel 
 
 dishevel 
 
 jewel 
 
 pistol 
 
 swivel 
 
 bevel 
 
 dowel 
 
 kennel 
 
 pommel 
 
 tassel 
 
 bias 
 
 drivel 
 
 kernel 
 
 postil 
 
 teasel 
 
 bowel 
 
 duel 
 
 label 
 
 pupil 
 
 tinsel 
 
 brothel 
 
 enamel 
 
 laurel 
 
 quarrel 
 
 tonsil 
 
 bushel 
 
 equal 
 
 level 
 
 ravel 
 
 towel 
 
 cancel 
 
 flannel 
 
 libel 
 
 revel 
 
 trammel 
 
 carol 
 
 focus 
 
 marshal 
 
 rival 
 
 travel 
 
 cavil 
 
 fuel 
 
 marvel 
 
 rowel 
 
 trowel 
 
 channel 
 
 funnel 
 
 medal 
 
 sandal 
 
 tunnel 
 
 chapel 
 
 gambol 
 
 metal 
 
 shovel 
 
 vial 
 
 chisel 
 
 gravel 
 
 model 
 
 shrivel 
 
 victual 
 
 counsel 
 
 grovel 
 
 panel 
 
 sibyl 
 
 
 crenel- 
 
 handsel 
 
 parcel 
 
 signal 

 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 8 1 
 
 Dishevel and enamel, although trisyllables, having the 
 accent on the second syllable, follow the analogy of dissyl- 
 lables. Of the whole number 76 end in / and 2 in s, 
 letters very apt to be doubled at the end of words. More- 
 over a single s is liable to be pronounced as z. Other suf- 
 fixes, not originally English, often follow the analogy of 
 the original words from which these are derived, but not 
 with entire regularity. Perry in England and Webster in 
 America are the principal advocates of the single letter. In 
 this country probably the majority follow them in most 
 instances, while the opposite practice prevails in England ; 
 but no one seems to be entirely uniform and consistent. 
 
 10. Trisyllables of similar endings, accented on the first 
 syllable, and having a consequent secondary accent on the 
 last, should, according to the widest analogy, double the 
 last letter, but only a few of them, as handicap, manumit, 
 ricochet, having the second accent well marked, do so in- 
 variably. Reason and analogy are allowed to count for 
 little. A few are variously spelled by different writers, of 
 which carburet, sulphuret, pedicel, sentinel, and hospital, need 
 no special remark. Parallel scarcely ever doubles the final 
 letter for no other visible reason than to avoid four z's. 
 Bishop Hall has even unparallelable. Most authors write 
 compromised and benefited. As mere English words there 
 is no reason for the difference. One may possibly be found 
 in their derivation from the Fr. compromettre and bienfait. 
 
 11. A word ending with a doubled consonant, other than 
 /, retains both letters before suffixes, ebb-ing, add-ed, odd-ly, 
 stiff-ness, embarrass-ment. Usage is not uniform in regard 
 to a doubled / before a consonant : 
 
 dull-ness 
 
 dul-ness 
 
 enthrall-ment 
 
 enthral-ment 
 
 enroll-ment 
 
 enrol-ment 
 
 thrall-dom 
 
 thral-dom 
 
 full-ness 
 
 ful-ness 
 
 skill-ful 
 
 skil-ful 
 
 fulfill-ment 
 
 fulfil-ment 
 
 will-ful 
 
 wil-ful 
 
 install-ment 
 
 instal-ment 
 
 
 
 The shorter form prevails in England ; the longer among 
 those Americans who accept Webster as an authority,
 
 1 82 The English Language. 
 
 holding that two /'s are necessary to preserve the sound 
 after a and o. Full and fill are especially liable to be cur- 
 tailed. In general full retains both /'s in compound words 
 as full-blown, full-sailed, but is liable to drop one before 
 consonantal suffixes. Some write fulfill and others fulfil. 
 but no one writes fullfill. 
 
 12. Words ending in a doubled consonant generally retain 
 it when they are lengthened by prefixes. 
 
 boss emboss sell undersell 
 
 buff rebuff tell foretell 
 
 fall befall thrall enthrall 
 
 roll enroll staff tipstaff 
 
 It is the practice in England, and to some extent in 
 America, to omit the last / in such cases, especially in distil 
 and instil. Many words compounded with all, well, and 
 mass omit the last of the two consonants : almighty, almost, 
 alone, already, also, although, altogether, always, withal, where- 
 withal, welcome, welfare, Candlemas, Christmas, Lammas, 
 Michaelmas. All compounds of which full is the last part 
 drop the last /, artful, hopeful, etc. We also write until, not 
 untill. Mas is really a shortening, but the reason of the 
 others is that the old spellings were al, ful, til, and wel, and 
 the compound words were formed before the adoption of the 
 modern spellings of all, full, till, and well. 
 
 13. Some combinations of letters are avoided. A, i,j, k, 
 u, v, x, and y are never doubled, and w and h only in glow- 
 worm, slow-worm, with-hold, and a few imperfect combina- 
 tions not yet fairly consolidated into words rough-hew, 
 high-heeled, etc. Q never occurs without being followed by 
 u. /never precedes the closely allied letters/ and y. Some 
 combinations are preserved that cannot be pronounced in 
 full as phthisic, giaour, caoutchouc, but then we skip the hard 
 parts. 
 
 14. Up to the fifteenth century i and y were used indis- 
 criminately, and there are a few remains of their tenancy in 
 common, in which we sometimes meet with the one and
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 183 
 
 sometimes the other hythe or hithe, tryst or trist, gyves or 
 gives, mystery or mistery? syllabub or sillabub, cypher or cipher 
 all old words except the last, and seldom met with. Y 
 retains sole possession in scythe and byre. At present this 
 letter has its position defined with more than usual regu- 
 larity. 
 
 a. As a consonant it is the first letter of a word, or of a 
 part elsewhere independent be-yond, hal-yard, steel-yard. 
 
 b. As a vowel it is final, with or without a preceding e, and 
 takes the place of a number of terminations, Latin ius, ia, 
 turn, as, as in amatory, controversy, estuary, civility ; Fr. and 
 Eng. e, ee, i, ie, in ditty, dainty, majesty, cony ; A.-S. ic and 
 ig in homely, happy. As a final too it is a diminutive express- 
 ing affection, chicky, birdy, kitty, pussy, Bobby, returning to 
 ie in Annie, Jennie, Nellie. 
 
 c. Y forms a digraph or a diphthong after a, e, o, and rarely 
 u, in any part of a word defraying, abeyance, employ, 
 buying. 
 
 d. It is vjery common as a vowel in words derived from the 
 Greek symbol, amethyst, baryta. 
 
 e. The following words, although not of Greek origin, are 
 written with y from having passed through, or from being 
 supposed to be in some way connected with, that language 
 beryl, gypsey, gypsum, hyssop, lachrymal, lymph, papyrus, syca- 
 mine, sylvan. 
 
 f. The spelling of dye and lye serve to distinguish them 
 from die and lie. The y in rye has remained since Saxon 
 times. 
 
 g. The y in nylgau and typhoon is due to the whim of 
 those who transliterated these Eastern words into European 
 characters. 
 
 h. Words of more than one syllable, ending in y without 
 another vowel before it, change it to i before suffixes begin- 
 ning with a, e, or a consonant, but retain it before i to avoid 
 the doubling of that letter holy, holier, holiest ; carry, car- 
 
 1 Meaning an art, trade, dramatic performance, from Lat. minisierium, and 
 erroneously supposed to be the same as the Greek mystery, an esoteric or secret 
 doctrine.
 
 184 The English Language. 
 
 riage, carries, carried, carrier, carrying ; bury, burial. In the 
 few words of one syllable usage is much at sea. Verbs fol- 
 low the analogy of dissyllables try, tries, tried, trial, trying. 
 Nouns from these verbs, denoting the doer, admit of both 
 forms crier and cryer, drier and dryer, flier and flyer, pliers 
 and plyers with a preference in this country for i. Other 
 nouns are regular. The adjectives shy, sly, spry, and wry 
 retain the^ throughout. On the other hand, monosyllables 
 in ie necessarily change the i into y before i, die, dies, died, 
 dying. 
 
 15. There are now about 1,000 adjectives in the language 
 ending in -able or -idle, and a very few in -eble, -oble and -uble. 
 The primary meaning in this class is capability of undergo- 
 ing some action. Movable, fordable, fusible signify suscepti- 
 ble of being moved, forded, or fused. They are either from 
 Latin verbal adjectives in -abilis, -ebilis, -ibilis, -obilis, -ubilis, 
 or imitations of such. To the question which vowel to use 
 the following is an answer in part. 
 
 a. The termination when applied to words not derived 
 directly or indirectly from Latin is -able answer-able, bear- 
 able, drink-able, eat-able, fore know-able, unquench-able. As this 
 implies a knowledge of Latin it is rather a reason than a rule 
 of practice. 
 
 b. Words, from whatever source, that have been long and 
 commonly used in the language take -able agree-able, bail- 
 able, comfort-able, service-able, unconquer-able. This leaves 
 room for doubt and irregularity, as it is a question of degree 
 how long and how much a word has been in use. Some are 
 written in two ways, as add-able and add-ible, convers-able 
 and convers-ible, refer-able and referr-ible, the first forms 
 following a direct English, and the latter an indirect Latin, 
 analogy. In a few instances there are two different words 
 from the same source defend-able and defens-ible. 
 
 c. When a Latin original is kept in view, the verbal ad- 
 jectives in -abilis and -ibilis, if there be any, are followed. 
 Latin verbs are divided into four classes according to the 
 last letter of the essential part of the word. If that be a, 
 the derived adjective ends in -abilis ; if anything else, in
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 185 
 
 -ibilis. If there be no such Latin adjective, then the Eng- 
 lish one follows the characteristic of the verb. About two 
 thirds of the entire class end in -able. 
 
 1 6. There are a number of words ending in -nee and -nt, 
 preceded by a or e, and there is sometimes an uncertainty 
 which of the two should be used. These terminations be- 
 long properly to Latin participles and verbal nouns, and 
 come to us either directly or through the French. If the 
 characteristic of the Latin verb be a, the result is -ance and 
 -ant, the first of which makes a noun, the second an adjective. 
 Thus from the Latin abund-a-re, to abound, are formed : 
 
 Latin, abundantia English, abundance 
 
 abundant-s abundant 
 
 So verbs whose characteristics are e or / yield forms that are 
 regular : 
 
 sil-e-re silence, silent 
 
 sal-i-re salience, salient 
 
 conven-i-re convenience, convenient 
 
 The still greater number characterized by consonants 
 ought regularly to furnish -ence and -ent : 
 
 string-'-re stringence, stringent 
 
 solv-'-re solvency, solvent 
 
 resid-'-re residence, resident 
 
 but usage, formerly very unsettled, is still by no means con- 
 sistent. We have from consonant verbs affiance, affiant, 
 ascendant, defendant, attendance, attendant, repentance, re- 
 pentant, and many others. This irregularity is due to the 
 passage of these words through the French language. A 
 few words have both forms, as confidence, confident, and con- 
 fidant ; dependence, dependent, and dependant. In such cases 
 the form in -ant is treated as a noun, and that in -ent as an 
 adjective. 
 
 17. A number of verbs ending in -ize are formed either 
 from or in imitation of Greek verbs in -izo. Agonize, baptize,
 
 1 86 The English Language. 
 
 dogmatize, ostracize, syllogize, are examples of those from 
 similar Greek words. Eulogize, analyze, paralyze, are from 
 Greek originals not ending in -izo. Civilize, detonize,judaize, 
 mesmerize, naturalize, realize, spiritualize, are various imita- 
 tions. The manner of writing these words has never been 
 uniform. We generally find catechise and exorcise, although 
 from Greek originals in -izo. In this country the greater 
 part are written with -ize ; the following are the principal 
 exceptions, of which only two are from the Greek : 
 
 advertise comprise divertise misprise 
 
 advise criticise emprise premise 
 
 affranchise compromise enfranchise reprise 
 
 apprise demise enterprise revise 
 
 catechise despise exercise supervise 
 
 chastise devise exorcise surmise 
 
 circumcise disguise improvise surprise 
 
 In England the tendency is to write them all with -ise. 
 
 1 8. Words introduced into the language from any source 
 are treated for a time as strangers, and allowed to retain 
 something of their foreign look and sound. This is particu- 
 larly true of the Italian terms relating to music and painting 
 and the French phrases used by people of fashion. Although 
 these foreign features are gradually effaced by long and 
 common use, they are still one of the two principal causes 
 of the discordance between pronunciation and spelling, of 
 which asthma, bayou, Bootes, Canaanite, catsup, chapeau, 
 cognac, corps, ret, schorl, are examples. 
 
 When a word comes through one language, from another, 
 it is sometimes a question which of the two should deter- 
 mine its form. The largest element in our language is 
 Latin, that has reached us through a transforming French 
 medium. In general the French is followed, especially in 
 England ; but in this country there is sometimes a disposi- 
 tion to revert to the earlier type. One class o'f more than a 
 hundred words begin with French en or Latin in, like enclose, 
 or inclose, enquire or inquire. They seem to be the sport of 
 chance, yet in most instances a preference is shown for one
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 187 
 
 form rather than the other, favoring e in England, and in 
 this country inclining to i. 
 
 There is another class with numerous imitations, the origi- 
 nal members of which ended in Latin in -or, changed to -eur 
 in French, adopted into English as -our, and now in America 
 reverting to the orginal -or. 
 
 FRENCH ENGLISH AMERICAN 
 
 candeur candour candor 
 
 coleur colour color 
 
 doleur dolour dolor 
 
 erreur errour error 
 
 facteur factour factor 
 
 faveur favour favor 
 
 ferveur fervour fervor 
 
 honneur honour honor 
 
 odeur odour odor 
 
 19. In all cases of doubt consult the dictionaries. If they 
 be hopelessly at variance, the only resource left to the stu- 
 dent is to observe the spelling of the best recent writers, and 
 exercise his own judgment. 
 
 ACCENT. 
 
 In a word of more than one syllable some one is uttered 
 more forcibly than the others. That additional force or 
 stress is what is here called accent. It is much more marked 
 in some languages than in others. In those that are faintly 
 accented the words and syllables ripple along in what seems 
 to us a lazy droning fashion without spirit or force. It matters 
 not how long the words may be, as the oral speech seems 
 scarcely divisible into words, but to be drawn along before 
 us like the successive links of a chain, or a string of uniform 
 beads. On the other hand, our language is very strongly 
 accented, and seems to foreigners irregular, jerky, sputtering, 
 and quarrelsome. We think that the strength of our lan- 
 guage, as the emphasis of earnest speech, is laid on the 
 accented syllables.
 
 1 88 The English Language. 
 
 In many languages the accent is always near the end of 
 the word, in others near the beginning, while a few, like 
 ours, seem to distribute it with a show of impartiality. All 
 attempts to assign rules for the place of the accent in Eng- 
 lish only serve to render the subject hopelessly intricate and 
 confused. Still some leading tendencies may be discovered, 
 and where the confusion is inextricable the cause of that 
 confusion may be found. The principal cause is the compo- 
 site character of the language. There is first what may be 
 called the native element either Anglo-Saxon in origin, or 
 developed in English at an early period. About the pro- 
 nunciation of this portion all are agreed. Then there are the 
 multitude of words from Greek, Latin, and foreign languages, 
 altogether strange at first to the body of the people. 
 
 Let us then in the first place see if we can discover any 
 principle regulating the accent in the native part of the lan- 
 guage. I remark in passing that the place of the accent is 
 usually denoted in English books by the mark (') thus 
 ty'rant, embit'ter, require' ; that its place is reckoned from 
 the last, or ultimate, syllable ; that the one next to the last 
 is called the penultimate, or, for shortness, penult ; the sec- 
 ond from the last, antepenult, and the one before that,/raz#- 
 tepenultimate. Beginning then with native words of two 
 syllables, as the simplest, we readily discover three tenden- 
 cies, quite independent, and sometimes competing with each 
 other. The first is to accent the principal syllable, where 
 there is much disparity. It could scarcely be otherwise. 
 Awake, at hirst, bestride must be accented on the second 
 syllable, if at all, and stranger, proudly, on the first. The 
 second tendency is to accent the first syllable, if there be no 
 marked inequality. Thus pairs of syllables that are mere 
 variants of each other, as hob-nob, criss-cross, hodge-podge, 
 hum-drum, pic-nic, see-saw, are all accented on the first sylla- 
 ble. So are chaffinch, chilblain, distaff, daylight, foresight, 
 larboard, starboard, lukewarm, mermaid, nothing, onslaught, 
 and many others, in which the second syllable by itself 
 requires the most effort to articulate. I have before me a 
 list of the principal independent native dissyllables in the
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 89 
 
 language, amounting to 955, of which 763 are accented on 
 the first syllable. If the derivatives formed by the suffixes 
 ed, er, es, esf, ish, ist, ly, etc., were counted, several thousands 
 would be added to the list of penultimate accents, and not 
 one to the ultimate. As it is, of the 192 words accented on 
 the last syllable, 104 are made with the weak prefixes a and 
 be abide, become, etc. The third tendency is to accent verbs 
 on the last syllable. This will be best shown by contrasting 
 nouns and verbs in which the first syllable is the same : 
 
 fore'-foot fore-go' out'-break out-bid' 
 
 fore'-ground fore-know' out'-come out-do' 
 
 fore'-hand fore-arm' out'-let out-go' 
 
 fore'-head fore-cast' out'-look out-grow' 
 
 fore'-land fore-show' out'-house out-live' 
 
 fore'man fore-stall' out'-law out-run' 
 
 fore'-sight fore-tell' out'-works out-wit' 
 
 This last tendency sufficiently accounts for our meeting with 
 words of foreign origin, like contract, which when used as 
 nouns are accented on the first syllable, and on the last 
 when they are verbs. The final accents are nearly all due to 
 weak prefixes or the use of the words as verbs. 
 
 Passing next to native English trisyllables, I find in Skeat's 
 Dictionary 125. The number in the largest American dic- 
 tionaries is much greater by including those formed by 
 adding suffixes, which have the effect, as before, of throw- 
 ing the accent back towards the beginning. Of the 125, 
 inasmuch, insomuch, and upsidedown may be left out, as 
 being phrases rather than words. There would then remain 
 58 accented on the first syllable, 22 on the second, and 42 
 on the last. Of this last division, 36 are verbs ; overworn, 
 overwrought, and unaneled are participles, with ultimate 
 accent because of their verbal character. The remaining 
 three words, overhead, overmuch, and overivise, have the 
 character of composite phrases. There is not a noun in the 
 list of 42. Of the 22 accented on the middle syllable, 10 
 are verbs, 7 have the weak first syllables a-, be-, to-. The 
 other 5, like almighty, already, are as easily explained, with
 
 190 The English Language* 
 
 the exception, perhaps, of newfangled. There is but one 
 noun in the class. Of the 58 accented on the first or ante- 
 penultimate syllable, there is but one verb caterwaul, in 
 which the balance is nearly even between the first and last. 
 By general analogy, it should be ultimate. That an excess 
 of volume in the first syllable is not essential, will be evident 
 from such words as alderman, bedridden, didapper, emberdays, 
 forefather, godmother, honeycomb, indwelling, offscouring. 
 The tendencies of English pronunciation then are such that, 
 of words of three nearly equal syllables, all verbs would be 
 accented on the last syllable and all the others on the first. 
 
 Of native words of more than three syllables, those 
 accented on the first are about three times as numerous 
 as those accented on the second, and these latter bear the 
 same ratio to those having the accent on the third, while 
 ultimate accent is limited to a very small number of verbs. 
 This tendency to accent the first syllable produces some 
 curious results, both in native and adopted words. The 
 following are found in the dictionaries accented on the first 
 syllable : 
 
 almainrivets caterpillar-catcher ganglionary 
 
 alveolary disciplinableness lachrymatory 
 
 bluestockingness disputableness mainpernable 
 
 calculatory excellency 
 
 calipercompasses explicableness 
 
 In very long words, or words having two syllables of con- 
 siderable volume with a faint one between them, there is a 
 secondary accent, or even two or more, besides the principal 
 one hy'drocyan'ic, im' mate' rial' ity. 
 
 Besides the three tendencies above described, there is a 
 fourth, affecting words from learned and foreign languages. 
 So long as they are used only by scholars and specialists, 
 there is an effort to keep up their foreign pronunciation. 
 But they gradually percolate through the masses, who 
 naturally tend to assimilate them to their native speech. In 
 this way there may be two pronunciations current at the 
 same time. There is a drug much used in the South and
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 191 
 
 West that fashionable people call kin-een' , but which the 
 dictionaries and common folks call qui'nine or quin'ine. So 
 scholars say abdo'men and opponent, but the majority are 
 strongly inclined to say ab'domen and opponent. The battle 
 is fought over every dubious word separately, with victory 
 in the long run generally with the majority. It is obvious 
 that the result, even when reached, must be very irregular. 
 Words that have been long in common use are accented like 
 original English. Armor, equal, rapid, prophet are accented 
 on the first syllable because that is the general habit ; attend, 
 impend, combine are accented on the last, for the double rea- 
 son that they are verbs and the last syllable is the heaviest. 
 The English tendency to accent the first syllable has sub- 
 stituted an antepenult accent for a penult in many words, 
 and in others the change is in progress, there being one 
 pronunciation by scholars and another by people in general. 
 
 ora'tor or'ator lyce'um ly'ceum 
 
 sena'tor sen'ator anemo'ne anem'one 
 
 cica'trix cic'atrix elegi'ac ele'giac 
 
 abdo'men ab'domen eurocly'don euroc'lydon 
 
 minis'ter minister charac'ter char'acter 
 
 pletho'ra pleth'ora dysen'tery dys'entery 
 
 cogno'men cog'nomen panthe'on pan'theon 
 
 muse'um mu'seum thea'tre the'atre 
 
 umbili'cus umbil'icus 
 
 An example of this gradual naturalization is furnished by 
 a group of very recent botanical terms ending in phyllum or 
 phyllous Greek <pv\\ov, a leaf, about which the authorities 
 are much at variance : 
 
 adenophyllous epiphyllous microphyllous 
 
 anthophyllous exophyllous monophyllous 
 
 aphyllous gamophyllous myriaphyllous 
 
 caryophyllum heptaphyllous pentaphyllous 
 
 coleophyllous heterophyllous podophyllum 
 
 decaphyllous hypophyllous polyphyllous 
 
 endecaphyllous hexaphyllous rhizophyllous 
 
 endophyllous macrophyllous tetraphyllous, etc.
 
 192 The English Language. 
 
 From the double / near the termination they ought all to 
 have the penult accent, but probably more people say 
 caryoph'yllum than caryophyl'lum. 
 
 As most words derived from Greek and Latin have lost 
 the final syllable in the process of adoption, the original 
 accent is often displaced by that means. The accentuation 
 is then left to be determined chiefly by the last two sylla- 
 bles. When they have sufficient volume and weight, if we 
 may use such an expression, they retain the accent on the 
 penult, as in effulgence, embrasure, indulgence, inconclusive, 
 superstructure, hermeneutic, pazdobaptism, otherwise it will be 
 drawn towards the beginning of the word. Elaborate rules 
 are sometimes given for determining the place of the accent, 
 which are well exemplified by the terminal analysis of Greek, 
 Latin, and Scripture proper names given by Walker and 
 Worcester. The latter gives 558 divisions, or rules, exhibit- 
 ing no principle, useless for reference, and impossible to re- 
 member. Sixty of the classes contain each only one word. 
 It was of such wasted labor that Dr. Latham said : " The 
 voice of a ruler of rules is a sound to flee from." 
 
 A native word, no matter how long, \\ViQcaterpillarcatcker, 
 retains all its original syllables unbroken, so that it is in- 
 stantly recognized ; but a word from Latin, Greek, or Hebrew 
 is often taken to pieces and put together again in a quite 
 different manner, and that too generally for the purpose of 
 moving the accent towards the beginning. From kalendiz 
 and grapho, a hybrid word, kal-en-dog 'raph-er was once made, 
 the most important syllable of which was dog, that did not 
 appear in the original. This practice is very common. 
 
 Ab melech 
 anti phrasis 
 anti strophe 
 anthropo phago 
 carni voro 
 
 A-&V'-e-lech 
 aiWzjM'-ra-sis 
 an-ftV-tro-phe 
 an-thro-j^/z'-a-gi 
 car-wzV-o-rous 
 
 equa anima e-qua-mW-i-ty 
 di pteron dip'-t&ca. 
 grandi loquor gran-aW -o-quent 
 Jeho shaphat Je-/w,rA'-a-phat 
 therme metron ther-TW/w'-e-ter 
 
 The accented syllable of such compound words therefore is 
 made up of the last letters of the first part and the first 
 letters of the second.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 193 
 
 ENGLISH AND AMERICAN USAGES. 
 
 There are at present a few points of difference between 
 the spellings current in England and in this country, which, 
 although not uniform, are tolerably well maintained. Web- 
 ster's Dictionary, and those who follow its guidance, diverge 
 the most widely from English usage, while some of the dif- 
 ferences are due to changes now in progress in the older 
 country. The points in question may be each illustrated by 
 two words as well as by many. 
 
 English ise, American ize, 
 
 dogmatise 
 
 dogmatize 
 
 
 
 ostracise 
 
 ostracize 
 
 x " rf 
 
 connexion 
 
 connection 
 
 u < 
 
 inflexion 
 
 inflection 
 
 " our " ^r 
 
 ardour 
 
 ardor 
 
 < u < 
 
 favour 
 
 favor 
 
 " / " // 
 
 enrolment 
 
 enrollment 
 
 " " " " 
 
 fulfil 
 
 fulfill 
 
 < 77 < 7 
 
 traveller 
 
 traveler 
 
 " " " " 
 
 jewellery 
 
 jewelry 
 
 In regard to the first it does not appear on what principle 
 one should write baptize with z, and dogmatise with s, since 
 both are from Greek verbs ending in izo. If verbs so de- 
 rived were written with z and all the others with s, it would 
 be intelligible. The second pair of words are from the 
 Latin connexio and inflexio ; and in regard to all words so 
 derived the English practice is correct. Those in our are so 
 written to show that they come from the Latin or, through 
 the French eur ; but English usage is not uniform on this 
 point. Richardson, like most others, gives the preference to 
 errour, but in the authorities he cites it occurs five times as 
 err our and four times as error. Skeat (1884) writes error 
 and says that the spelling has been changed to make it 
 more like the Latin ; and that is just what we in America 
 are doing with that whole class of words. Jewellery and 
 jewelry are the most divergent, but the American form 
 follows the analogy of chivalry, rivalry, devilry, chapelry,
 
 194 The English Language. 
 
 and, what is more to the point, revelry, for I suppose no 
 Englishman writes revellery. The aim of educated Ameri- 
 cans is to make the language more simple, consistent, and 
 easy to use. 
 
 It is a question how far Americans are under obliga- 
 tion to adopt new forms of expression originating in Eng- 
 land, or even to retain old ones. We are generally prone 
 enough to imitate, even in things so little deserving of imita- 
 tion as the ever-changing styles of arranging our clothing, 
 hair, and beards ; and there are even Anglomaniacs who 
 assert that no amount or unanimity of mere American usage 
 can render a word or expression legitimate. But from be- 
 fore the dawn of history families have been separating, send- 
 ing out colonizing swarms eastward and westward to conquer 
 and settle strange lands ; and these in their new homes have 
 developed new languages, laws, and institutions, and new 
 types of character. In this way have been formed all the 
 languages spoken on the globe. It is the way of all the 
 world, and the fear of criticasters will not alter it. Our 
 ancestors brought, with the language and laws, the general 
 physical and spiritual make-up of English and Scottish men 
 and women of the useful classes, and were for a time a mere 
 appendage to the parent country. We rightfully inherit all 
 that was prior to the separation. Whatever date may be 
 assigned for that event, it is clear that by this time we have 
 emerged from the state of marsupial nutrition. If the 
 highest European culture is rarely or never reached in 
 this country, there are probably more persons in America 
 who can appreciate and enjoy good English than in all the 
 British Islands. Whatever commends itself to our judg- 
 ment and taste, and is suited to our wants, should be wel- 
 comed, from whatever source it may emanate ; all else can 
 be left to those to whose different circumstances it may 
 be adapted. It is not apparent why the example of an 
 English writer should be more binding upon us than the 
 decision of an English judge. Deserving of careful and 
 respectful consideration both may be, but obligatory they 
 are not.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 195 
 
 ANOMALIES OF PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING. 
 
 After all that can be said in the way of general principles, 
 tendencies, or rules, there is still outstanding a considerable 
 amount of irregularity, especially in proper names, that can 
 only be treated item by item. Some are words written 
 according to pronunciations long abandoned, and others are 
 foreign importations not yet assimilated. We should natu- 
 rally look in the dictionaries for them, but as no one will 
 make a general search, a very inadequate idea will be formed 
 of the amount of the irregularity. Some would not be found 
 by seeking, and of others the treatment is very unsatisfac- 
 tory. Webster gives Da-el', and Worcester De-el' , as the 
 pronunciation of Dalzell ; and Webster has the following : 
 " Strath'-spey, n. [Denominated from the county of Strath- 
 spey, in Scotland, as having been first used there]." On this 
 last example, I remark, first, that, as given, it is nearly un- 
 pronounceable ; secondly, that it is incorrect ; and thirdly, 
 that Strathspey is not a county, but merely the valley of the 
 river Spey, extending through or into Elgin, Banff, and 
 Inverness shires. Strath, like glen, signifies merely a valley, 
 and prefixed to the local name is never accented. There 
 are more than a dozen such in Scotland. The th is pro- 
 nounced before vowels, as, Strathallan, Stratfi-aven, Strath- 
 earn, but is not heard before consonants in Strathbogie, 
 Strathdon, Strathmore, Strathspey. The ey in Spey is nearly 
 but not quite the ay in day. It is the Spanish ey in rey, 
 which may be attained by sounding both vowels separately. 
 
 I omit here the Italian terms learned as a part of educa- 
 tion in music and painting, and also the numerous French 
 phrases daily met with and involving the whole subject of 
 French pronunciation, to be learned only from a living 
 teacher. 
 
 It will be necessary here to add a little to the notation on 
 page 144. A smaller type or a curved mark will denote the 
 short, faint, obscure sound of the vowels a, e, i, o, u. Ob- 
 scure e is equal to a faint /, and the others incline to the 
 obscure neutral u.
 
 196 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 There are a considerable number of Greek words in which 
 a final e is sounded diastole, epitome, strophe hyperbole, syn- 
 cope, and others. There are also a few from the Latin dele, 
 finale, optime, rationale, secale, vice, etc. 
 
 The termination es in English = s after f, k, p, t, th, = s or 
 ez in all other cases, in Spanish words = es ; but in words that 
 retain an original Greek or Latin form it is commonly, though 
 not with entire correctness, pronounced eez. 
 
 Words containing any form of the Greek GOOV, an animal, 
 separate the vowels epi-zo-ot-ic, not ep-i-zoot-ic. 
 
 The abbreviation cor. in the following list denotes a pro- 
 nunciation correct but not common. 
 
 accompt, pron. account. 
 
 aches, aiks. 
 
 aggerate,gg = j. 
 
 Aino, iino, a man of the Kurile 
 Islands. 
 
 aisle, HI. 
 
 answer, w silent. 
 
 apophthegm, ap-5-thetn. 
 
 assoilzie, as-soil'-ye, to ab- 
 solve. 
 
 asthma, as'-ma or az'-ma. 
 
 avoirdupois, voir = vtir. , 
 
 aye. 
 
 bagnio, ban'-yo. 
 
 balmoral, bal-mor'-al. 
 
 bass, bais. 
 
 bayou, bii'-uu. 
 
 beaufin, bif'-in. 
 
 bechamel, besh'-a-mel, a kind 
 of broth. 
 
 beguine, beg'-in, a nun of a 
 certain order. 
 
 bijou, bl-zhuu'. 
 
 boatswain, boa'-sm. 
 
 Bootes, Bo-o'-teez. 
 
 bowls, bowls, a game. English. 
 
 brevier, bre-veer, a size of 
 
 type. 
 
 Canaanite. 
 
 caoutchouc, kuu'-chuuk. 
 cap-er-cail-zie, * = y. 
 cascalho, kas-kal-yo, gravel. 
 catechise. 
 cateran,lcai-ter-an, or kait-r^n, 
 
 a Highland outlaw. 
 caviare, ka-veer', ka-vee-ar'. 
 cento, chento, medley of verses, 
 challis, shal'-ly, a fine woollen 
 
 fabric, 
 chamber, 
 chapeau, shap-o. 
 charpie, sharp-y, picked lint. 
 choir, kwiir. 
 
 chose, shoaz, a legal term. 
 chough, chuf. 
 Christ, 
 chute, shuut. 
 cicerone, chee-che'-ro'-ny. 
 cicesbeo, chee-ches-bai'-o. 
 cinchona, cor. sin-choa'-na. 
 cinquecento, chink-wai-chent- 
 
 o, abbreviation of (A.D.) 1500.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 
 
 197 
 
 circuit, cult = cut. 
 
 cocagne, kok-ain',LubberlancL 
 
 COgnac, koan-yak, brandy. 
 
 colander, kul'-en-der. 
 
 colewort, kol-ard, Southern 
 U. S. 
 
 colonel, kur-nel. 
 
 color, kul'-ur. 
 
 comptroller, comp = con. 
 
 concetto, kon-chet'-o, a con- 
 ceit. 
 
 conch, konk. 
 
 concierge, kon-sarj', a janitor. 
 
 conduit, kon'-dit. 
 
 condyle, kon-dil. 
 
 consigne, kon-seen', a coun- 
 tersign. 
 
 conversazione, kon-ver-sat- 
 see-o'-nai. 
 
 COquina, ko-kee-na, a cockle. 
 
 Cordillera, kor-deel-yai'-ra. 
 
 corps, koar. 
 
 cortege, kor-taizh. 
 
 Cortes, Kor'-tes, Spanish par- 
 liament. 
 
 cotillon, ko-til'-yun. 
 
 counterfeit, feit = fit. 
 
 coyote, koi-oa'-tai, prairie 
 wolf. 
 
 creux, kru, cor. krti, intaglio. 
 
 cuirass, kwee'-ras. 
 
 cuish, kwis, and kwish, armor 
 for the thigh. 
 
 cupboard, kub'-urd. 
 
 Curasao, kuu-ra-so', name of 
 a cordial. 
 
 Cymric, kim'-rik. Welsh. 
 
 5y pres, see prai, a legal term. 
 
 Czar, cor. tsar. 
 
 Czarina, cor. tsar-ee'-na. 
 
 dengue, deng'-gai, a rheumatic 
 
 fever. 
 
 disciple, would be better ac- 
 cented on the first syllable, 
 discompt, dis-kownt'. 
 does, duz. 
 door, floor, etc. 
 eclegm, and many others, 
 
 with g silent before m ; all 
 
 Greek. 
 
 enfeoff, en-fef, a legal term. 
 English, e = i. 
 estramacon, es-tram'-a-son, 
 
 a small sword, a sax. 
 extraordinary, aor = or. 
 eyas, //'-as, an unfledged 
 
 hawk. 
 
 fa9ade, c = s. 
 feod, fyuud, a legal term. 
 ferrule, fer'-il. 
 
 fiord, or fjord, fyoard, a nar- 
 row inlet of the sea. 
 flysch, fbVsh, a certain series 
 
 of rocks. 
 
 forehead, for'-ed 
 foreign, for'-m. 
 forfeit, for'-flt. 
 fuchsia, commonly fyuu'- 
 
 shee-a, cor. fuux'-ee-a, from 
 
 which fuchsine. 
 fyst, fs, a little dog. South. 
 
 U.S. 
 gaberlunzie, gab-er-luun'-ye, 
 
 a beggar's wallet 
 gaol, jail. 
 gaucho, gow'-cho, a native of 
 
 the pampas. 
 gauge, gaij. 
 geyser, g/V'-ser. 
 giaour, jowr.
 
 198 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 glamour, cor. glam'-ur. In 
 the 35th chapter of the Gret- 
 tis Saga it is related how 
 Grettir fought with and over- 
 came the ghost of an un- 
 believing heathen named 
 Glam. The hero never re- 
 covered from the effects of 
 the contest, but ever after 
 saw ghosts at night, and it 
 become a common saying 
 that Glam had cast a glamour 
 over any one who saw what 
 was not to be seen. This 
 was written about A.D. 1300. 
 
 groschen, gro'-shen, a small 
 German coin. 
 
 guanaco, gwa-naa'-ko, a 
 species of llama. 
 
 guano, gwaa'-no. 
 
 guava, gwaa'-va. 
 
 guerdon, ger-don, a reward. 
 
 guerillero, ger-eel-yai'-ro. 
 
 guinea. 
 
 guitar, gee-tar'. 
 
 gunwale, gun'-el. 
 
 halfpenny, hap'-eny or hai-' 
 pen-y. 
 
 halser, haw'-sr 
 
 han't, hant, or haint. 
 
 hautboy, hoa'-boy. 
 
 Hawaiian, hawii-yan, cor. 
 Haa-waa-ee-yan. 
 
 heather, hedh-er. 
 
 heifer, hef-er. 
 
 hiccough. 
 
 hidalgo-, ee-dal'-go. 
 
 hornito, or-nee'-to. 
 
 hough, hok. 
 
 housewife, huz'-if. 
 
 humor, yuu-mtir. 
 
 hussy, huz-y. 
 
 imbroglio, im-broal'-yoa. 
 
 improvisatore, final e sound- 
 ed. 
 
 improvisatrice, -tree-chy. 
 
 indict, in-d//t. 
 
 intaglio, in-tal'-yoa, engrav- 
 ing cut in, as of a seal. 
 
 ipecacuanha, cor. ip-ai-kak- 
 uu-an-ya. 
 
 iron, i-urn. 
 
 island, isle, s silent. 
 
 isocheim, '-so-kzVm. 
 
 isosceles, w-sos'-el-eez. 
 
 jaquima, ha-kee'-ma, a head- 
 stall for breaking horses, 
 West. U. S. 
 
 jarl, yarl, Norse for earl. 
 
 judgment, etc.,g =J before m. 
 
 keelson, kel-sSn, the interior 
 counterpart of a ship's keel. 
 
 kilo, kee'-lo, contraction for 
 kilogram. 
 
 knowledge, knowl = nol. 
 
 kreutzer, kroit-zer, a Ger.coin. 
 
 lammergeyer, -g-er. 
 
 laugh, laf. 
 
 lazzarone, lad-zar-oa'-ny, a 
 ragamuffin. 
 
 leeward, luu-ard. 
 
 ley = lye. 
 
 Leyden, hV-den. 
 
 lieutenant, liv-. Eng. 
 
 Limoges-ware, lim-oazh- 
 
 llano, lyaa'-no, a grassy plain. 
 
 lot'o, name of a game. 
 
 Lucchese, Luk'-keez, people 
 of Lucca. 
 
 machairodus, Ma-kii'-ro-dus, 
 a fossil animal allied to the 
 bear.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 
 
 199 
 
 machine, ma-sheen', 
 macigno, ma-cheen'-yoa. 
 magazine, -zeen. 
 maguey, ma-gwai, great Mex. 
 
 aloe. 
 
 Magyar, mad'-yar. 
 Maharajah, ma-ha-raa'-jah, a 
 
 prince of India. 
 mahout, ma-howt', an ele- 
 phant driver. 
 maleic, mai-lee'-ik, a form of 
 
 malic acid. 
 manada, ma-naa'-da, a herd 
 
 of mares. 
 
 manoeuvre, ma-nuu'-ver. 
 mantua-maker, tua = tu. 
 maraschino, ma-ras-kee'-no, 
 
 a cherry cordial. 
 marine. 
 
 marline, mar'-lin. 
 mascagnin, mas-kan'-yin, 
 
 name of a mineral, 
 mate, maa'-tai, Paraguay tea. 
 matico, ma-tee'-ko, a medici- 
 nal plant of Peru. 
 meerschaum, mair'-showm, 
 
 likely to become meer'-shum 
 
 or mur-shum. 
 mesa, mes'-a, an elevated plain, 
 
 West. U. S. 
 
 mesne, meen, a legal term. 
 mesquite, mes-kee'-tai, or 
 
 mes-keet', a species of tree, 
 
 also of grass, Texas. 
 
 a cross be- 
 
 mestino, -tee-no 
 
 mestizo, -tee-zo 
 
 tween a 
 Creole 
 and an 
 Indian. 
 
 mezzorilievo, med-zoa-ree- 
 lee-ai'-voa. 
 
 mezzotinto, med-zoa-tint'-oa. 
 
 mirage, mee-raazh'. 
 
 mise, meez, a legal term. 
 
 misle, mizl, a fine rain. 
 
 mistle, mizl, a fine rain. 
 
 mochila, moa-chee'-la, a sad- 
 dle-flap, West. U. S. 
 
 monte, mon'-tai, name of a 
 game. 
 
 morne, mor-nai, a term in 
 heraldry. 
 
 mortgagor, mor-ga-jor'. 
 
 mosquito, 
 
 muezzin, mwed-zin, one who 
 calls to prayer among the 
 Moslems. 
 
 muscle, mus-H. 
 
 nephew, Eng. nev'-yuu. 
 
 neve, nai-vai, upper part of a 
 glacier. 
 
 nowed, nuud, knotted. Her- 
 aldry. 
 
 oboe, oa'-boa-ee, a wind in- 
 strument. 
 
 often, soften, etc., / silent. 
 
 Oglio, olla, oal'-ya, a stew, lit. 
 a pot. 
 
 olla podrida, poa-dree-da. 
 
 pachisi, pa-chee'-zy, an Indian 
 game. 
 
 pali, paa'-lee, an ancient Hin- 
 doo language. 
 
 pall-mall, pel-mel. 
 
 paradigm, g silent. 
 
 paradis, -dee, a wet dock. 
 
 parapegm, g silent, an ancient 
 form of placard. 
 
 parasceve, pa-ra-see'-vee, the 
 eve of the Jewish Sabbath. 
 
 paraselene, final e sounded, 
 a mock moon.
 
 2OO 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 parliament, a silent. 
 patois, pat'-wa, a dialect or 
 
 brogue. 
 
 peirameter, \ . _, 
 peirastic, j-ei--i. 
 
 peso, pai'-so, a Spanish dollar. 
 petate, pai-taa'-tai, a palm 
 
 mat. 
 
 petit, pet-y. 
 Pharaoh, aoh = o. 
 phlegm, g silent. 
 phosphenes, fos'-fee-nez, the 
 
 lights seen under pressure on 
 
 the eyeball. 
 pibroch, cor. pee'-brukh, the 
 
 war-tune of a Highland clan. 
 picarisque, ) 
 picturesque, f que == ' 
 pico, pee-ko, a mountain peak. 
 pise, pee'-zai, a wall of rammed 
 
 earth, 
 pita, pee'-ta, fibre of the Mex. 
 
 aloe. 
 
 playa, plaa-zha, the sea-shore. 
 plaza, plaa-tha, a public 
 
 square. 
 pluries, pluu'-ri-eez, many 
 
 times. 
 poe, poa'-ee, root of the taro 
 
 plant. 
 
 polemarch, pol'-em-ark, Athe- 
 nian minister of war. 
 police, po-lees'. 
 pomegranate, pome = pum. 
 porpoise, portoise, tortoise, 
 
 poise, toise = pus, tiz or tis. 
 pose, poa-zai, attitude. Her- 
 aldry. 
 pozzulana, pod-zuu-laa'-na, 
 
 a hydraulic cement. 
 precis, prai-see, an abstract. 
 
 projet, proa-zhai, a scheme or 
 plan. 
 
 provost, proa-voa, title of an 
 officer. 
 
 pueblo, pweb'-lo, a Span.- 
 Amer. village. 
 
 puisne, pyuu-ny, cor. pwee- 
 nai. 
 
 pulque, puul'-kai, a Mexican 
 drink. 
 
 quaich, cor. kwaikh, a wooden 
 drinking cup. 
 
 quay, kee. 
 
 queue, kyuu. 
 
 quipu, kee'-puu, a knotted 
 cord to remember by. 
 
 realm, relm. 
 
 reata, rai-aa'-ta, a lasso, Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 rei, e as in there, / as in ma- 
 chine, a Portuguese coin. 
 
 reiter, r/V-ter, Ger. a horse- 
 man. 
 
 rendezvous, ran-dai-vuu. 
 
 resume, rai-zuu-mai, a sum- 
 ming up. 
 
 rilievo, ree-lee-ai'-vo, relief in 
 engraving. 
 
 rodeo, roa-dai'-o, a gathering 
 of cattle, Western U. S. 
 
 sacrifice, ce = z. 
 
 sauerkraut, au = ow. 
 
 Schiedam, skee'-dam. 
 
 schism, sizm. 
 
 schlich, shlik, a pulverized ore. 
 
 schnapps. 
 
 schorl, a mineral. 
 
 schottische. 
 
 schreight, skreet, a fish. 
 
 SCirrhous, skir'-us, a hard 
 cancerous growth.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 
 
 201 
 
 lio, sai-ral'-yo. 
 
 serai, sai-raa'-ee, an Eastern 
 palace or lodging. 
 
 Scrape, sai-raa'-pai, a Mexican 
 blanket or shawl. 
 
 seven-night, sen'-n/Vt. 
 
 sew and shew. 
 
 sheol, shee-oal, the old Hebrew 
 place of departed spirits. 
 
 shiite, a Mahometan sectary. 
 
 sierra, see-er-a, a mountain 
 range. 
 
 siesta, see-, a nap at noon. 
 
 signora, Senora, see-nyoa- 
 ra, sai-nyoa-ra. 
 
 soften, / silent. 
 
 soiree, swa-rai, an evening 
 entertainment. 
 
 spa, spaa, a medicinal spring. 
 
 spahi, spaa'-hee, a Turkish 
 trooper. 
 
 sprechery, sprek-er-y, cor. 
 sprekh, miscellaneous plun- 
 der. 
 
 spuilzie, spuul-ye, spoil, plun- 
 der. 
 
 Stiacciato, stee-ach-aa'-to, a 
 very low relief in sculp- 
 ture. 
 
 stomacace, sto-mak'-a-see, a 
 foul breath. 
 
 Stone, 14 Ibs., called in Eng- 
 land stun. 
 
 Storge, stor'-jee, parental af- 
 fection. 
 
 sugar, shuu'-gar. 
 
 Tagliacotian, Tal-ya-koa'- 
 she-an, Tagliacozzi's opera- 
 tion. 
 
 tailzie, tail-ye, a Scotch deed 
 of entail. 
 
 tazza, tat-sa, a kind of vase. 
 
 terzarima, ter-tsa-ree'-ma, a 
 kind of versification. 
 
 thaler, taa'-ler, a German 
 dollar. 
 
 threepence, thrip'-ens. 
 
 tongue, tung. 
 
 tortilla, tor-tee-ya, a griddle- 
 cake. 
 
 travail, trav'-el. 
 
 treenail, tren-el, a wooden pin 
 in ship-building. 
 
 tuyere, tweer, the blast-nozzle 
 in a furnace. 
 
 two-pence, tup-ens. 
 
 urao, uu-raa'-o, natron. 
 
 vaquero, va-kai'-ro, a cow- 
 boy. 
 
 verdigris, ver-di-grees. 
 
 vice, v//'-see. 
 
 victuals, vit-als. 
 
 vicuna, vee-kuun-ya, a species 
 of llama. 
 
 vidame, vee-dam', a feudal 
 dignitary. 
 
 vide, v"-dee, see. 
 
 viscount, vii-kownt, a title of 
 nobility. 
 
 visne, veen, vicinity. 
 
 vomito, vo-mee'-to, malignant 
 yellow fever. 
 
 waistcoat, commonly wes-kut. 
 
 weigelia, wii-jeel-ya, name 
 of a flowering shrub. 
 
 who, huu. 
 
 women, o = i. 
 
 yacht, yot. 
 
 zollverein, tsoal-fer-/m, an 
 agreement among the Ger- 
 man states in regard to cus- 
 toms duties.
 
 2O2 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 This list will give an idea of the extent and character of 
 these anomalies. 
 
 No class of words present greater irregularities than do 
 proper names. The following list contains a good number 
 of those met with in Great Britain and the United States, 
 the pronunciation of which is liable to be mistaken. They 
 may be presumed to be English, Scotch, or Irish, unless 
 marked Am. In a few instances an English and an Ameri- 
 can pronunciation are distinguished. To avoid repetition it 
 may be observed that in England the termination -borough is 
 usually heard as -bro y -ham as -am, or rather -um, for the vowel 
 is very obscure, that stone, in any situation, is stun, and that 
 ell does not control the accent Par'nell, not Par-nell'. 
 Names having no other peculiarities than these are omitted. 
 
 Aberdeen, Ae-ber-deen. 
 Abergavenny, 
 
 Ae-ber-gen'-ny. 
 Abernethy, Ae-ber-neth'-y. 
 Albuquerque, Al-buu-ker'-ky. 
 Annesley, Anz'-ly. 
 Ascough, Ask'-yuu. 
 Bagehot, Baj'-ut. 
 Balguy, Baw'-gy. 
 Barham, Bar'-am. 
 Beaconsfield, Bek'-onz-. 
 Beall, Bel. Am. 
 Beauchamp, Beech'-am. 
 Beauclerc, ) Boa . klair ^ 
 Beauclerk, ) 
 Bedel, Bid! 
 Beham, Bai'-am. 
 Belknap, Bel'-nap. Am. 
 Belvoir, Bee'-ver. 
 Berkeley, Bark-ly. 
 Betham, Beth'-am. 
 Bethune, Bee'-ton. 
 Bewick, Byuu'-ik. 
 Bicester, Bis-ter. 
 
 Blw. 
 
 Bligh, ) 
 
 Blythe, f 
 
 Blount, Blunt. 
 
 Boisseau, Bushel. Am. low. 
 
 Boleyn, B^l'-en. 
 
 Bolingbroke, Bol'-ing-bruuk. 
 
 Boscawen, Bos'-ka-wen. 
 
 Bourke, Burk. 
 
 Bourne, Burn. 
 
 Bowdoin, Boa-din. Am. 
 
 Bowles, Boalz. 
 
 Bowring, Bow-ring. 
 
 Brougham, Bruum. 
 
 Broune, Bruun. 
 
 Buchan, Buk'-an,cor.Bukh-an. 
 
 Bur'nett. 
 
 Bury, Ber-y. 
 
 Calderon, Cal'dron. 
 
 Castlereagh, Kasl'-rai. 
 
 Cavendish, Kon'-dish. 
 
 Charteris, Charterz. 
 
 Chisholm, Chiz-um. 
 
 Cholmeley, 
 
 Cholmondeley, ) 
 
 [ Chum-ly.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 
 
 203 
 
 Cirencester, Sis'-is-ter. 
 Clanric arde. 
 Clough, Kluf. 
 Cluverius, Klev'-erz. Am. 
 Cockburn, Koa-burn. 
 Coggeshall, Kogz-all. 
 Coke, Kuuk. 
 Colquhoun, Kuu-huun. 
 Compton, Kum-ton 
 Conyngham, Kun'-ing-am. 
 Coutts, Kuuts. 
 Cowper, Kuu-per. 
 Creighton, Krai-tSn. 
 Crichton, KnV-ton. 
 Dalhousie, Dal-huu-zy. 
 Dalzell, Dal-yel'. 
 Dampier, Dam '-peer. 
 Daviess, Dai'-vis. Am. 
 Derby, Dar'-by. 
 Derwent, Dar'-went. 
 Des Vaux, Dai'-voa. 
 Devereux, Dev'-er-uu. 
 Dillwyn, Dil'-un. 
 Douce, Dows. 
 Duchesne, Eng. Duu-kaan, 
 
 Am. Duu-shan. 
 Dumaresque, Dim'-er-ik. 
 Du Plat, Duu Plaa'. 
 Duyckink, Dii'-kink. 
 Eachard, Ech'-ard. 
 Eadmer, Ed'-mer. 
 Elgin, not Eljin. 
 Eyre, Aer. 
 
 Falconer, ) Fawk . ner 
 Faulkner, ) 
 Farquhar, 
 
 Far'-kwar, or Far'-hwar. 
 Fiennes, Fee-enz'. 
 Fildes, Feel'-dez. 
 Foljambe, Ful'-jam. 
 
 Forbes, For'-bis. Scotch. 
 Freind, Frend. 
 Frelinghuysen, 
 
 Freling-h-zen. 
 Froude, Fruud. 
 Gayarre, Gii-ar'-ai. 
 Geoghegan, Gai'-gan. 
 Gifford, Jif'-urd. 
 Gill, not Jill 
 Gill'ott, not Jil-. 
 Glamis, Glaamz. 
 Gleig, Gleg. 
 Gould, Goald. 
 Gower, Goar, 
 Grosvener, Groav-ner. 
 Hague, ) Hai 
 Haigh, ) 
 Halstead, Hoisted. 
 Hansard. 
 Harcourt, Har-kut. 
 Hardinge, Harding. 
 Haughton, Haw-ton. 
 Hem'ans. 
 Herries, Har-is. 
 Herthford, Har'furd. 
 Hobart, Hub-ert. 
 Holmes, Hoamz. Am. 
 Holyoke, Hoal'-yoak. Am. 
 Hotham, Huthm. 
 Hough, Huf. 
 
 Houghton, Hoa-tun. Am. 
 Houston, Hyuus-ton. " 
 Hoveden, Huv-den. 
 Huger, Yuu'-jee. Am. 
 Hughes, Hyuuz. 
 Ingelow, In'-je-loa. 
 Ingraham, Ing'-gram. 
 Iz'ard. Am. 
 Jacobi, Jl-koa'-by. 
 Johnstone, Jon'-s6n.
 
 2O4 
 
 The English Language. 
 
 Jervaulx,) Jar ,_ vis 
 
 Jervis, ) 
 
 Kearney, Kar'-nee. Am. 
 
 Keightley, Keet-ly. 
 
 Keill, Keel. 
 
 Keith, Keeth. 
 
 Kennaird'. 
 
 Kennard'. 
 
 Kerr, Kar. 
 
 Kirkaldy, Kir-kaw'-dy. 
 
 Knollys, Noal'-iz. 
 
 Laing, Lang. 
 
 Layard, Laird. 
 
 Leathes, Leeths. 
 
 Leavitt, Lev-it. 
 
 Leconfield, Lek'-on-field. 
 
 Ledyard, Lej-urd. 
 
 Lefevre, Le-fai-vur. 
 
 Legare, Le-gree". Am. 
 
 Leicester, Les-ter. 
 
 Leigh, Lee. 
 
 Leighton, Lai-tun. 
 
 Leland, Lel'-and, or Lee'-land. 
 
 Leveson-Gower, Luu-sSn- 
 
 goar. 
 
 Lewes, Luu-is. 
 Leyden, Lw'-den. 
 Lid'dell. 
 Lindsay, Lin'-zy. 
 Ling'ard. 
 Lockhart, Lok'-art. 
 Lough, Luf. 
 Lovat, Luv'-at. 
 Lucado, Luk-a-duu'. Am. low. 
 Mackay, Mak-y. 
 Mahon, Mai-6n. 
 Mainwaring, Man'-er-ing. 
 Majoribanks, Marsh-banks. 
 Marion, Mar'-ee-o"n. 
 Mather, Madh'-er. Am. 
 
 McKenzie, cor. M5k-en'-ye. 
 McLeod, Mak-lowd'. 
 Meagher, Mar. Irish. 
 Meigs, Megz. Am. 
 Melbourne, -burn. 
 Menzies, Men-yeez. 
 Meredith, Mere = merry. 
 Mereweather, Mere = merry. 
 Meux, Myuuz. 
 Millais, Mil-ai. 
 Milnes, Milz. 
 Molyneux, Mol-in-yuuks'. 
 Monck, Munk. 
 Monckton, Munk-ton. 
 Monmouth, Mon'-muth. 
 Monson, Mun-son. 
 Montefiore, 
 
 Mon-tai-fee-oa'-ry. 
 Montgomery, Mun-gum'-ry. 
 Moray, Mur'-ai. 
 Moultrie, Muu-tree, now 
 
 Moal-tree. Am. 
 Mowbray, Moa'-bry. 
 Murchison, as written. 
 Ogilvie, Oa'-gil-vy. 
 Olmstead, Um'-sted. Am. 
 O'Shaughnessy, Oa-Shaw'- 
 
 nes-y. 
 
 Ouless, Uu'-les. 
 Ouseley, Uuz'-ly. 
 Outram, Uut'-ram. 
 Paget, Paj'-it. 
 Palmerston, Paam'-er-stun, 
 Pole, Puul. 
 Polk, Poak. Am. 
 Ponsonby, Pun-son-by, Punz- 
 
 by. 
 
 Pontefract, Pom-fret. 
 Pouleston, Pil'-stun. 
 Powlett, Poa'-let.
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 
 
 205 
 
 Prideaux, Prid'-o. 
 Pugh(e), Pyuu. 
 Pulteney, Pult-ny. 
 Raleigh, Raw-ly. 
 Rantoul, Ran'-tuul. Am. 
 Reay, Rai. 
 Rives, Reevz. Am. 
 Rolleston, Roal'-stun. 
 Romilly, Rom'-il-y. 
 Rothschild, cor. Roat-sheelt. 
 Rouse, Ruus. 
 Ruthven, Riv-en. 
 Saint Clair, Sink-ler. 
 Saint John, Sin'-jin. 
 Saint Leger, Sil'-in-jer. 
 Salisbury, Sawlz'-ber-y. 
 Sandys, Sand-iz. 
 Savile, Sav'-il. 
 Schenck, Skenk. Am. 
 Schurz, Shuurts. " 
 Schuyler, Sk/V-ler. " 
 Sewall, Suu'-al. 
 Seward, Suu'-ard. Am. 
 Seymour, See-mur. 
 Sneyd, Sneed. 
 Somers, Sum-erz. 
 Sothern, Sudh'-ern. 
 Southey, Sow-dhy. 
 Stanhope, Stan'-6p. 
 Strachan, Strawn. 
 Stuyvesant, St/V'-ve-sant. Am. 
 
 Tad'ema. 
 
 Taliaferro, Tul-i-ver. Am. 
 Tallmadge, TaT-mij. 
 Tighe, T//. 
 
 Tilghman, Til'-man. Am. 
 Timberlake, Tim-lik. " 
 Tirrwhit, Tir'-it. 
 Tollemache, Tol-mash. 
 Trafalgar, Traf-al-gar'. 
 Trenholm, Tren'-um. 
 Troughton, Trow'-ton. 
 Tuomey, Tuu-my. 
 Urquhart, Urk'-ert. 
 Vaughan, Vawn. 
 Vaux, Vawks. 
 Villiers, Villers. 
 Waldegrave, Wal'-graiv. 
 Walmesley, Wamz-ly. 
 Walsingham, Wal-si-kum. 
 Warwick, War'-ik. 
 Wellesley, Welz'-ly. 
 Wemyss, Weemz. 
 Wolesley,) Wal , 
 Woolsey, ) 
 Worcester, "WW-ter. 
 Wrottesley, Rots'-ly. 
 Wycliffe, Wik'-lif. 
 Wykeham, Wik'-am. 
 Wythe, With. 
 Yonge, Yung. 
 
 PHONETIC SPELLING. 
 
 The foregoing examples will have prepared us to appre- 
 ciate the advantages of phonetic writing that is, of any 
 system in which the relation between the audible sound and 
 the visible symbol is always the same. No doubt there have 
 been such modes of writing, at least temporarily, until the 
 spoken language changed. The language of the Spanish
 
 206 The English Language. 
 
 Academy is now so far regular that the reader is never at 
 a loss except for the place of the accent, if left unmarked. 
 So German presents but little difficulty, and is now under- 
 going a pretty vigorous pruning of redundant material. The 
 present English pronunciation and spelling are probably 
 the most discordant ever known, and many have been the 
 efforts to harmonize them. The first attempt of which we 
 have any knowledge was the Ormulum, a metrical paraphrase 
 of the Scripture lessons of the Church, written by a priest 
 named Ormin, about the year 1200. His phonetic system 
 was limited to the doubling of the consonant after a short 
 vowel, as we write summer instead of sumer ; but to this he 
 attached great importance, imitating the author of the 
 Apocalypse in anxiety for the purity of his text. 
 
 " & whase wilenn shall thiss boc 
 Efft otherr sithe writenn, 
 Himm bidde ice thatt het write rihht 
 Swa sum thiss boc himm tsechethth, 
 All thwerrt ut affterr thatt itt iss 
 Uppo thiss firrste bisne ; 
 Withth all swillc rime alls herr iss sett, 
 Withth all se fele wordess ; 
 & tatt he loke wel thatt he 
 An bocstaff write twiggess, 
 Eggwhser thser itt uppo this boc 
 Iss writenn o thatt wise." 
 
 The object of the principal reformers has been more 
 comprehensive to devise either a universal alphabet or a 
 universal language. Conspicuous among them was John 
 Wilkins, Bishop of Ripon, one of the founders of the Royal 
 Society, who in 1668 published a small folio with the title, 
 "An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical 
 Language." The work showed much ability, acuteness, and 
 industry, and was thought by the Brothers Chambers worth 
 republishing ; but no one has thought it worthy of adoption. 
 
 About 1854 many "Alphabetic Conferences" of learned 
 men were held in London under the presidency of the Cheva-
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 207 
 
 Her Bunsen, the Prussian Ambassador, for the purpose of 
 devising a system of written characters capable of represent- 
 ing all human utterances. It is sufficient here to say that 
 these laudable efforts were unsuccessful. Prof. Max Mtiller 
 then undertook a universal Missionary Alphabet, which also 
 has not met with general acceptance. The next in order 
 was Lepsius' " Standard Alphabet," which was published 
 for the second time in London in 1863, and which has been 
 adopted in some works for representing foreign names. In 
 1867 Prof. Alexander Melville Bell published his " Visible 
 Speech or Universal Alphabetics," the first attempt, so far 
 as I am aware, to reduce the sounds and signs of language 
 to a scientific system. The arrangement, the forms, and 
 even the names of the characters are designed to correspond 
 with the various positions of the organs of speech. A letter, 
 instead of being called Alpha or A, may be named " High- 
 Back Wide Round." The total number of characters, with 
 similar names, exhibited on page 37 of the work, is 129. 
 Wonderful results are said to have been accomplished by 
 this system, in enabling adepts to reproduce at sight the 
 most strange and difficult kinds and combinations of sounds ; 
 but it seems to me that most persons would be utterly una- 
 ble to learn it, that it would be unwieldy, and that either the 
 printed or the manuscript character recommended would 
 present to the eye a most uninviting page. Lastly, there is 
 the palaeotypeof Mr. A. J. Ellis, comprising 267 letters, and 
 36 additional guides to pronunciation, in all 303. It is no 
 wonder that he was unable to apply an apparatus so cumber- 
 some to the very purpose for which it seems more especially 
 to have been invented. The inventor frankly admits its 
 unfitness for general use. Mr. Ellis is also the author of a 
 much simpler system which he calls " Glossic," in which 
 none but the letters in common use are employed. It fails 
 to show any nice distinctions of sound. The following is an 
 example : 
 
 " Glosik reiting iz akweird in dhi proases ov glosik reeding. 
 Eni wun hoo kan reed glosik kan reit eni werd az wel az hee kan
 
 208 The English Language. 
 
 speek it, and dhi proper moad ov specking iz lernt bei reeding 
 glosik bucks. But oaing too its pikeu'lier konstruk'shen, glosik 
 speling iz imee'dietli intel'ijibl, widhou't a kee too eni nomik 
 reader. Hens a glosik reiter'kan komeu'nikait widh aul reederz, 
 whedher glosik aur noraik, and haz dhairfoar noa need too bikum 
 a nomik reiter. But hee 'kan bikum *wun, if serkemstensez ren- 
 der it dezei'rabl, wedh les trubl than thoaz hoo hav not lernt 
 glosik." 
 
 This specimen contains 455 letters and u dots that have 
 no perceptible use 466 in all. In our common spelling 
 there would be 472 letters. The saving therefore would be 
 about 3^ per cent., a point of some importance, as one of 
 the arguments insisted upon is the great economy of time 
 from omitting the silent letters. And were it not for the 
 dots this would probably be the simplest plan yet proposed. 
 Its poverty is seen in the employment of the same letter e 
 for a, e, i, 0, and u in " word" " render," and " circum- 
 stances" 
 
 There are also various schemes, more or less known in 
 England and America, that use the common alphabet as a 
 basis, and supplement its deficiencies with additional letters. 
 
 In opposition to any kind of spelling reform, one Ameri- 
 can critic has written at considerable length, arguing, rather 
 inconsistently, that the present system presents no difficulty, 
 and that, even if it did, it is not desirable that it should be 
 easy. A more weighty defence of our anomalous spelling, 
 is that the origin and history of words are treasured in its 
 antiquated forms. But this argument, sound though it be, 
 has less weight than might be supposed. In general, it ap- 
 plies only to words that retain an Italian or a French form, or 
 have come pretty directly from Greek or Latin. For nearly 
 all words of Teutonic, Slavic, Asiatic, African or American 
 origin, the spelling is no guide ; for, in not a few, like bride- 
 groom, woman and hiccough, it is a blunder, and misleading. 
 Again, many words have passed through several languages, 
 and the spelling reveals only one stage in their progress. 
 What reader of the morning papers sees, or cares to see, 
 that his comb and pifc/ier, "his bottle and cards, his pantaloons
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 209 
 
 and galoches are Greek, his lemons and gherkins Persian, or 
 that the sugar that mollifies the rancor of his coffee has 
 come from the far Sanskrit, through Persian, Arabic, Span- 
 ish, and French, and is like none of its ancestors? Etymol- 
 ogy is not illustrated by writing move, shove, drove, nor does 
 the spelling teach the common reader anything of the history 
 of such forms as taught, thought, and bought. Nearly all that 
 etymology would lose by a reform would be a few silent 
 letters in words from the Greek. It is only words whose 
 spelling is regular that carry their etymology on their face. 
 Again the great body of readers neither know nor care any- 
 thing about etymology. They are willing to take their words 
 at their present face value, without questioning whence they 
 came. Not one in ten thousand of those who think them- 
 selves educated can tell without a dictionary the derivation of 
 words not of Greek or Latin origin ; and the relative number 
 of Greek and Latin scholars is becoming less every year. 
 
 But while the desirability of phonetic writing does not 
 admit of a reasonable doubt, there are reasons for believing 
 that its attainment is not at hand. In the first place, man- 
 kind are averse to radical changes. Their greatest reforms 
 are at best, not from bad to good, but from bad to something 
 not quite so bad. The new departures and radical reforms 
 so often clamored for, are generally but a reversion to some 
 shallow expedient that has been tried a hundred times, and 
 found wanting. The multitude has often been called fickle 
 and fond of change ; but their mobility is on hinges and not 
 on wheels oscillating backward and forward between points 
 that are near together. Were the ground at once clear and 
 fertile, how pleasant to plant, and watch the growth ! Were 
 the human mind a blank, how easy to write upon it ! But 
 we are like the medieval monks, who, in order to pen their 
 saintly homilies, had to erase painfully, odes of Tibullus and 
 hymns to the heathen gods. And the erasure was never 
 complete. With all but mere children it is not learning but 
 unlearning that is the rub. I believe that no people having 
 a religion embodied in sacred books ever accepted a new 
 one. Christianity and Buddhism were both driven from
 
 2io The English Language. 
 
 their native places to seek converts among races of men who 
 had no Bibles, Vedas, or Puranas. Just as little are bodies 
 of men inclined to change their languages or modes of 
 writing them. We have seen that the Egyptians kept up 
 their hieroglyphic systems until the times of the Roman 
 Empire, although the civilized nations around them had 
 been using neat and convenient alphabets for ages ; that the 
 ancient races of Mesopotamia never abandoned their arrow- 
 head writing ; and that the Chinese still persist in the use 
 of their excessively difficult character. There is therefore 
 an almost insuperable difficulty in the general conservatism 
 of mankind. 
 
 In the second place, those who have any voice or influence 
 in the matter are not generally conscious of suffering any 
 inconvenience, and so have no direct motive for change. 
 Those who can read and write do so with little difficulty, 
 and those who cannot may be counted out. Reading, in- 
 deed, presents no difficulty, except in new and strange words 
 and names, and is learned by children without much labor. 
 As to writing, we have seen that the saving in time and space 
 would probably not exceed three or four per cent. ; and it is 
 by no means certain that any system would be on the whole 
 easier than the present. It might be thought that phonetic 
 writing would at least save us from the mortification of mis- 
 spelling, but when we think of Mr. Ellis' " serkemstensez," 
 it is not clear that even that would be diminished. It may 
 be said that each one should spell as he pronounces that is, 
 express his peculiarities of utterance in his own peculiar way; 
 but that would be the utter confusion of the fifteenth century, 
 which might be brought about without any radical reform. 
 With so little to attract them, every person at all advanced 
 in years, all who are busy, and all who have much to do 
 with books would rather keep on as they are than learn 
 anything very different. Besides, the world is now full of 
 books, whose pages seem to us fair and familiar and smiling 
 as the face of a friend. The ability to read them and make 
 literal extracts must be kept up for a hundred years, no 
 matter what system prevails. We cannot afford either to
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 211 
 
 destroy or transform our literature ; and were the transfor- 
 mation considerable, our favorite authors would be no more 
 lovely than a mother's face in a paper mask. To impose a 
 radically different spelling or pronunciation upon the author- 
 ized version of the Scriptures, would be a more serious shock 
 to the piety of those who speak the English tongue than all 
 the assaults of the unbeliever. 
 
 A third consideration that has much weight with me is, 
 that a thing may be highly desirable and yet so difficult as 
 to be impracticable. Now to represent to the eye all the 
 sounds of our vastly copious and heterogeneous language 
 would not be easy, even with the zealous co-operation of 
 everybody. With some languages it would be easy. Span- 
 ish is very regular, but its sounds are few and simple. 
 There are Polynesian tongues built up of only about twenty 
 different syllables, all of the simplest kind. We have seen 
 that Japanese has but 73 syllables in all, and Cherokee 85, 
 while English, counting names of persons and places, con- 
 tains more than 9,000. Among them are such syllables 
 as frounced, glimpsed, knurled, smoothed, sixths, twelfths, 
 shrives, thoughts, thwarts. A still greater difficulty is found 
 in the fleeting, uncertain character of some of the sounds. 
 No two persons ever agree throughout as to what they are. 
 People differ in hearing and in utterance, and in their 
 attempts to represent what they hear and utter. We have 
 seen that Mr. Ellis, who has doubtless given the subject 
 more attention than any other person ever did, writes werd 
 for word, and agrees with our American lexicographers 
 in representing the familiar word what as whot. To my indi- 
 vidual judgment this is a bad rendering. The vowel is neither 
 the a in hat nor the o in hot, but something between ; and of 
 the two I should think the former the best approximation. 
 The guesses at the intermediate sounds heard in such words 
 as girl and pearl strike some on one side and some on 
 the other, and mislead by a show of precision. No ap- 
 proach to precision is possible without adding considerably 
 to our alphabet. It now consists of 26 letters, but q and x 
 add nothing to its compass, so that it is no better than 24.
 
 212 The English Language. 
 
 Webster admits 43 simple sounds, to which the diphthongs 
 oi and ow might be added. This would certainly not be too 
 many, and yet would almost double the present number. 
 He who will invent 19 new letters that shall harmonize per- 
 fectly in style with those already in use, and add nothing to 
 the trouble of either reading or writing, will have gained an 
 idea of one of the difficulties to be overcome. 
 
 The great caravan routes of the East may be traced across 
 the deserts by the lines of bleaching bones, and the path- 
 way of human progress is strewn with the mortuary remains 
 of schemes for the sudden improvement of the lot of man. 
 Healthy progress is slow and noiseless, as the growth of the 
 forest and the herbage is not by thunder and proclamation. 
 " The kingdom of heaven cometh not with observation," 
 but, " as if a man should cast seed into the ground ; and 
 should sleep and rise night and day, and the seed should 
 spring, and grow up, he knoweth not how." (Luke xvii. 20. 
 Mark iv. 26.) The treasures of the mind are gathered slowly 
 atom by atom ; and our 26 letters are the imperceptible 
 growth of 5,000 years. We might take a lesson from the 
 Spaniards and the Germans and reduce the chaos of our 
 dictionary by numerous reforms, singly so small as to shock 
 no prejudices. Just what these reforms should be I am in 
 no better position to say than any one else. I may, how- 
 ever, suggest a few, merely to show that some improvement 
 is possible without making either reading or writing in the 
 least degree more difficult. 
 
 i. We might omit all those letters that in the present 
 state of the language have no influence on the pronunciation. 
 This would give, for example : 
 
 beuty for beauty ful for full 
 
 lam " lamb kil " kiln 
 
 spek " speck peple " people 
 
 giv " give salmist " psalmist 
 
 puf " puff diarea " diarrhoea 
 
 agregate " aggregate demene " demesne 
 
 eg " egg depo " depot 
 
 rime " rhyme buz " buzz 
 
 seze " seize
 
 Pronunciation and Spelling. 2 1 3 
 
 A good part of the reforms of this character would be 
 merely a return to an earlier and simpler spelling. It may 
 be objected here that this would sometimes destroy the 
 distinction between words that sound alike but are written 
 differently, as wright, write, right, and rite. The objection 
 is sound in principle, but its force may be considerably 
 weakened. The above is the best example of the kind and 
 is often adduced, but as the gh has an influence on the pro- 
 nunciation, the four words would be reduced to two, not 
 to one ; and the effect would be offset by all pairs of 
 words now written alike but pronounced differently. Aye, 
 yes and aye, ever ; bass, in music and bass, a fish ; the bow 
 of an archer and the bow of a ship are examples. Moreover, 
 as words are addressed to the ear much oftener than to the 
 eye, the present ambiguity would be but little increased. 
 The following sentence too will show how little danger there 
 is of misunderstanding even an extreme case, which is not 
 in the least helped by the present spelling. 
 
 "I had just tied my bay horse to a bay tree and seated myself 
 in the recess of the bay window, when presently I heard the 
 hounds bay on the other side of the bay, where they had brought 
 a deer to bay" 
 
 2. We might confine g to what is commonly called its hard 
 sound, and write a/z'// of brandy instead of a. gill. 
 
 3. Substitute f for ph, as is done in Italian and Spanish ; 
 also lor gh wherever the pronunciation is/". 
 
 4. Confine s to its sharp hissing sound and let z represent 
 its value in muse. 
 
 5. Relieve q of all its present duties and turn them over 
 to k. Some other use might be found for this spare letter, 
 and it has even been suggested that it be put for the n in 
 finger. 
 
 6. Regulate the duties of a, e, ea, ee, ei, and ie so that no 
 one of them should conflict with another. 
 
 7. Do the same for o, oo, ou, and u. 
 
 8. Gaining courage as we advance, we might relegate to k 
 a part of the work of c, and to s another part, so as to let it
 
 214 The English Language. 
 
 stand for the English and Spanish ch in church, or the Ital- 
 ian c in cielo. 
 
 9. Restore the two characters used for th in thin and thine 
 until the middle of the fourteenth century. 
 
 10. Restore the long s of the last century with the value 
 of sh, and let z be differentiated thus, size, azure. 
 
 We might still have x left for whatever might be needed. 
 Some idea of the results may be gathered from the fol- 
 lowing few examples ; 
 
 fosforus for phosphorus kac for catch 
 
 jinjer ' ginger cure " church 
 
 laf " laugh flem " phlegm 
 
 use, a noun sizm " schism 
 
 uze, " verb flud " flood 
 
 kwik for quick muve " move 
 
 sak ' sacque duv " dove 
 
 cu " chew 
 
 It is not to be supposed that all these changes could be 
 introduced at once and made successful. Those that would 
 arouse the least opposition should be tried first, until the 
 idea of eternal unchangeableness be overcome. Any influ- 
 ential publication might introduce some of the least startling 
 almost without criticism. The old and new spellings might 
 subsist side by side until one supplanted the other, as there 
 are now hundreds of words, like gaol and jail, pedlar and 
 peddler, jewellery and jewelry, having two or more spellings. 
 To try to carry through an entire revolution at once would 
 ensure defeat ; and it is better to undertake little and suc- 
 ceed, than to attempt much and fail. Professional politicians 
 are especially familiar with the strengths and weaknesses of 
 masses of men, and they are wiser in their generation than 
 the children of light. They suit their wares to the market. 
 They never seriously undertake any reform wide-reaching 
 and deep, well knowing that to do so would arouse an oppo- 
 sition somewhere that would cover them with defeat if not 
 with ridicule.
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 PRELIMINARY. 
 
 WRITERS on English grammar have occupied themselves 
 chiefly with two questions : 
 
 1st. What various forms does any English word assume? 
 
 2d. What form is to be used in any given instance ? 
 
 The answer to the first has been commonly called Etymol- 
 ogy, that to the second Syntax. 
 
 The first application of words was doubtless to material, 
 visible, tangible things ; but from such words men have had 
 to select, as each one best could, under the influence of 
 fanciful and misleading analogies, terms to express all the con- 
 ceptions of the mind. The selections have not always been 
 happy ; and grammarians have been no more successful than 
 others. Thus the sounds of speech have been called hard, 
 soft, broad, slender, round, full, empty, thick, thin, flat, fat, 
 sticky words aptly descriptive of butternuts and building 
 materials, but vocal sounds might as well have been called 
 blue, alkaline, or rhombohedral. So, too, a class of words 
 have been labelled as adjectives meaning thrown to that is, 
 words or things thrown to some other words or things. A 
 second important class have been designated zsverbs that is, 
 merely words. The title of a third class is prepositions 
 meaning placed before as if all words except the last were 
 not placed before some others. So etymology properly signi- 
 
 217
 
 2i8 English Grammar. 
 
 fies the science of the derivation of words, and is so employed 
 by a class of scholars, but in the majority of English Gram- 
 mars has the peculiar signification given above. This point 
 may be illustrated by supposing an etymologist and a gram- 
 marian to give their respective views of the word daughter. 
 
 ETYMOL. A native word occurring in Middle English as dohter, 
 doghter, daughter, douhter, dowter, of which the plurals dohtren, 
 dehtren, and degter are found ; from Anglo-Saxon dohtor, pi. doh- 
 tor, dohtra, dohtru, and ddhter ; Dutch, dochter ; IceL, ddttir ; 
 Swed., dotler j Dan. dotter and datter ; Goth., dauhtar ; Old High 
 German, tohter j Mod. H. G., tochter ; Rus., dock ; Greek, 
 dvyactrjp $ Sansk., duhtri. Lassen and Curtius suppose the ety- 
 mology to be Sansk., duh or dhugh, to milk the milker and so 
 allied to the English dug. 
 
 GRAM. A common noun, feminine gender, singular number. 
 
 Syntax is primarily a military term, signifying the proper 
 arrangement of troops, on the march or in the field. It is 
 not inaptly applied to the marshalling of words, but should 
 include the order in which they are placed, a point that 
 receives little attention in works on English grammar. 
 
 Grammatical etymology and syntax might very well have 
 been denoted by the words analysis and synthesis, that is, 
 separating or sorting, and putting together ; for they are 
 not unlike the operations of the printer, who at one time 
 picks to pieces a page of types, putting each in its proper 
 compartment, and again re-collects and combines them into 
 a story or sermon. But when words are once fairly estab- 
 lished in use we are generally obliged to take them as 
 they are, whether they be admirably adapted to their pur- 
 pose or not. 
 
 All this pre-supposes that some words admit of differences 
 of form, as eagle, eagles ; swift, swifter, swiftest ; come, came, 
 coming, with corresponding differences of use. In this re- 
 spect languages differ greatly, ranging from Chinese, in which 
 every word remains invariably the same, to Arabic, in which 
 a word may assume some two thousand forms. English is 
 very poor in grammatical forms, so that only a person of the
 
 Preliminary. 2 1 9 
 
 most acute analytical genius would ever think of searching 
 for them and arranging them systematically, without previ- 
 ously seeing some similar analysis. But a language that 
 should present the following among other forms might easily 
 suggest the idea of reducing them to a system : 
 
 ama-ba-m ama-re-m 
 
 ama-ba-s ama-re-s 
 
 ama-ba-t ama-re-t 
 
 ama-ba-mus ama-re-mus 
 
 ama-ba-tis ama-re-tis 
 
 ama-ba-nt ama-re-nt 
 
 Interest would be increased by finding another set having 
 no resemblance to the former, as : 
 
 serv-us serv-um 
 
 serv-i serv-orum 
 
 serv-o serv-is 
 
 serv-e serv-os 
 
 It might easily be observed that each of these sets of 
 forms, or something like them, was common to hundreds 
 of words, that the one set was peculiar to words denoting 
 some kind of action, and that the other characterized names 
 of things. Whenever so much should be observed, the 
 grammatical analysis of the language would be fairly begun. 
 Yet the Romans, who had these very forms, seem never to 
 have undertaken such analysis until obliged to compare 
 them with another system of forms equally extensive but 
 different in every detail. 
 
 Here is, perhaps, the fittest place for a few general con- 
 siderations, which should never be lost sight of in any study 
 relating to language. 
 
 A language is not made once for all according to a set of 
 pre-existing rules. Taken at any particular time, it is the 
 work of untold generations who have made, unmade, and 
 altered words and phrases, according to their wants, con- 
 venience, tastes, and whims, provided always that there was 
 a general tacit consent among the speakers. Some rude
 
 22O English Grammar. 
 
 uniformity would always result from the imitative nature of 
 man and his readiness to acquiesce in things as they are, 
 from the common character and circumstances of any people, 
 and the necessity for being mutually understood ; but we 
 may as well abandon the idea that any language was ever 
 wholly regular, systematic, and consistent. On this point, 
 however, there are great differences, the most primitive 
 tongues being apparently the most regular. 
 
 Every word or combination of words must have been 
 once used for the first time, and by a single person. If no 
 one liked the expression, it died there and then ; if it took 
 the popular fancy, it was like the seed that fell upon good 
 ground and multiplied a hundred-fold. Thousands of such 
 words have now gone round the world. Grave authors have 
 related, that Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville, used a new 
 word, starvation, in a speech in the House of Commons. It 
 seemed to those who heard it so strange and barbarous that 
 they gave him the nickname of Starvation Dundas, but the 
 word has lived. 
 
 Not only do words and phrases spread till they are heard 
 from millions of mouths, but they spread to applications 
 and meanings not dreamed of by the first introducers. No 
 doubt each innovator sees, or fancies, an analogy with some 
 previous usage, but the ramifications become so numerous 
 and diverse that the point of departure is often wholly lost 
 sight of. A perfect exposition would trace the expression 
 step by step like the genealogy of a family. If this can 
 seldom be done, it still remains as the ideal to be aimed at. 
 
 Rules of speech are an after-thought, an attempt to arrange 
 a body of material already existing. Some of this material 
 is apt to defy all but the most arbitrary classification. If 
 one should come into possession of an old and vast pawn- 
 broker's shop and depository of second-hand goods, he 
 might find it desirable to put articles of the same kind 
 together. He might find it easy to separate watches and 
 firearms, but a piece of a meteorite, the urim and thummim 
 with which the Book of Mormon was deciphered, and 
 Barnum's Feejee mermaid might well give him pause. Or
 
 Prelim inary. 221 
 
 if one should undertake to classify the occupations of a 
 great city, there would be a considerable residuum to be 
 marked " uncertain," " various," or " all others." Precisely 
 this difficulty confronts the grammarian. He too has his 
 irreducible remainder, which, instead of labelling as above, 
 he usually calls " adjective pronouns," " conjunctions," or 
 more frequently " adverbs," throwing together words as dis- 
 similar as twice, where, very, yesterday, yes, and amen. At 
 the same time an entire class of words is generally made up 
 of two monosyllables of quite dissimilar origin, but used 
 precisely like another class of words, so that they do not 
 properly form a class either by their origin or their use. 
 
 There are certain purposes which every language must 
 fulfil or fail entirely. It must be able to name, or in some 
 way distinguish things. It must have the power to desig- 
 nate their various actions to tell whether they run, fly, 
 swim, strike, bite, or scream. It is necessary to be able to 
 show whether an action is going on now or ceased some 
 time ago. In using such words as man, bear, killed, there 
 must be some way of indicating which of the two killed the 
 other. There must be some way of denoting number, at 
 the very least the difference between one and many. Of 
 things that are at all connected, a mode of expressing the sim- 
 pler relations is necessary of telling, for example, whether 
 an animal is in or under or behind a tree. If not indispen- 
 sable, it is at least highly desirable to be able to distinguish 
 the qualities of things, and say whether they are big, little, 
 black, red, hard, or sour. Lastly, contrivances are needed 
 shortening many of the first expressions, or substituting 
 others like yes and no that have the brevity of algebraic 
 symbols. Now, although this is substantially the work to 
 be done by every language, their ways of doing it are in- 
 finitely varied in detail. The variety is so great that there 
 can scarcely be said to be any natural system from which 
 the others are deviations. There is nothing more natural 
 than that two words closely connected in their application 
 should be placed together. If one has to speak of a black 
 horse, a number of other words ought not to intervene
 
 222 English Grammar. 
 
 between black and horse ; yet this obvious requirement is 
 habitually disregarded. I have even met with instances 
 where two parts of the same word were separated by the 
 distance of half a page ; and if a principle so self-evident 
 in its propriety is neglected, we need not expect any other 
 to be faithfully followed. As every one has an equal right 
 to invent and alter words and their uses, so long as imitators 
 can be found, and all work without concert, and generally 
 with little knowledge, the result is a large amount of irregu- 
 larity and confusion ; and the irregularities of any one 
 people are quite unlike those of their neighbors. It follows 
 that there cannot be a science of grammar of universal 
 application. All that is possible is an exhibition of the 
 usages of some one language, or of a few compared together. 
 
 If every word had one invariable form, grammar would be 
 limited to the order of the words, and we should be spared 
 a great deal of labor. That is nearly, but not quite, the 
 condition of the English. Yet, however full and elaborate 
 the forms of any language may be, they would be easy to 
 handle if they were complete, regular, and consistent. It is 
 the irregularities and deficiencies that make the trouble and 
 make the grammars. There are professions that thrive on 
 the errors of mankind. The priest lives by our sins, the 
 doctor by our vices, and the lawyer by our quarrels. So the 
 grammarian is maintained by the absurdities of our speech. 
 When we speak of several things, we generally add s to the 
 name of one boys, horses, houses, trees, birds. Nothing 
 could be simpler. Yet, although that expedient will serve 
 for by far the greater number of the names met with in our 
 literature, the small remainder form their plurals in more 
 than sixty different ways, besides those that do not dis- 
 tinguish the plural from the singular in any way. He who 
 will faithfully try to unravel these and similar complications 
 will not be likely to say that English is a grammarless 
 language. 
 
 If the principal part of grammar has relation to the various 
 forms that words may assume, it is first necessary to learn 
 what those forms are. But as the variations are not the
 
 Preliminary. 223 
 
 same for all words, and some have none such as now, and, 
 before, yonder, all the words in a language are divided into 
 classes on the basis of these grammatical distinctions. The 
 words of these several classes are frequently called PARTS 
 OF SPEECH. Between these, speaking roughly, there will 
 generally be found not only differences of form, but also 
 differences in the kind of meaning conveyed. As to the 
 number and character of these classes, or parts of speech, 
 authorities are far from being agreed. I here abbreviate a 
 passage from Tooke's " Diversions of Purley," the most acute, 
 though not the most accurate, work on the subject. 
 
 " H. I thought I had laid down in the beginning the principles 
 upon which we were to proceed in our inquiry into the manner 
 of signification of words. 
 
 " B. Which do you mean ? 
 
 " H. The same which Mr. Locke employs in his inquiry into 
 the Force of words : viz. The two great purposes of speech. 
 
 " B. And to what distribution do they lead you ? 
 
 " H. i. To words necessary for the communication of our 
 Thoughts. And 2. To Abbreviations employed for the sake of 
 despatch. 
 
 " B. And how many do you reckon of each ? And what are 
 they? * * * 
 
 " H. In English, and in all Languages, there are only two 
 sorts of words which are necessary for the communication of our 
 thoughts. 
 
 "B. And they are? 
 
 " H. i. Noun, and 2. Verb. 
 
 " B. These are the common names. *\ * * 
 
 " H. * * * And I use them according to their common 
 acceptation. 
 
 " B. But you have not all this while informed me how many 
 parts of speech you intend to lay down. 
 
 " H. That shall be as you please. Either Two, or Twenty, 
 or more." 
 
 These parts of speech have been variously estimated from 
 three to ten, but the greater number of grammarians have 
 reckoned either eight or nine, while differing considerably
 
 224 English Grammar. 
 
 as to the elements that make up either number. I propose 
 to treat of seven namely, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, 
 Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction. It has been very com- 
 mon to make a class of the two little words the and an 
 (abbreviated into a), but I shall include them in the sub- 
 division called adjective pronouns. Still more frequently 
 have oh, ah, umph, pshaw, and the like been marshalled 
 among the parts of speech. If it be too severe a judgment 
 to say that they are no better than the cries of animals, 
 expressive of feeling and not of thought the mere raw 
 material from which words might be made, still they are at 
 their best independent of all rules and principles of gram- 
 mar, and need not be investigated. Yet, if any one chooses 
 to erect these two little groups, or a dozen others, into 
 separate classes, he has a perfect right to do so.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 NOUNS. 
 
 A NOUN is merely a name, and might as well have been 
 called so. The word is Old French, introduced in the four- 
 teenth century, when all learning was supposed to be either 
 French or Latin. The first names must have been those of 
 things that could be seen, felt, or otherwise perceived by the 
 senses, as the ground, trees, beasts, rivers, the sun and moon. 
 But gradually names were given to a vast number of merely 
 imaginary entities spirits of the air, the earth, and the 
 waters, to the relations of things, and conceptions of the 
 mind. For the human mind has a strange and marked ten- 
 dency to treat its creations as real things, and express by 
 names such abstractions as whiteness, difference, proximity, 
 futurity, age, freedom, forget fulness. The question has some- 
 times been raised : Of what kind were the first words ever 
 used ? There is a tendency among philologists to answer in 
 favor of verbs words expressive of action, for the reason 
 that in Hebrew or Arabic and in Sanskrit most words can be 
 traced to simple forms termed roots, the most direct out- 
 growth of which is verbs. But it should be remembered 
 that those languages are already, in their oldest monuments, 
 highly developed, and not perceptibly nearer the beginnings 
 of things than we are. It is among very rude and primitive 
 tribes that we should be most likely to find the earliest forms 
 of language and the arts, and they are quite apt to use the 
 same words as nouns, verbs, or anything else. Professor 
 Whitney says that the great Malayo-Polynesian family of 
 languages have scarcely any grammatical distinctions, and 
 nothing that can properly be called a verb ; that their so-called 
 15 225
 
 226 English Grammar. 
 
 verbs are only a special use of their nouns. 1 If this broad 
 fact were clearly established it would be much more conclu- 
 sive in favor of nouns than Shemitic and Aryan philology 
 can be in favor of verbs. It is said that the language of 
 Ancient Egypt, as recovered from the monuments, was with- 
 out distinction into parts of speech, and the same is to some 
 extent true of English. Very many English words are 
 used indifferently as two parts of speech ; and not a few are 
 alternately nouns, adjectives, or verbs, as calm, light, slight, 
 level, plane, square, salt. Now if one were to see snow for 
 the first time, and coin a word to represent roughly the gen- 
 eral phenomenon, what would probably be the principal 
 element in his complex conception the substance, coldness, 
 whiteness, or the act of falling ? There is one thing that, 
 being a daily necessity of organic life, must have been famil- 
 iar to the first speaking men ; and yet it presents to the 
 senses neither color, taste, nor smell, and usually little sound 
 or movement. It is difficult to conceive that our early 
 ancestors had no name for water until they adopted one 
 from some previous abstract word expressive of action. The 
 same may be said of many other things. Again, to name 
 any object from a characteristic property or action implies 
 comparison of several things possessing that characteristic, 
 generalizing them and abstracting that special feature. Sup- 
 pose a naturalist of the Stone age to observe a conspkuous 
 action in ten different animals, for none of which he had yet 
 any name. Let us suppose too that his first step is to invent 
 a verb to denote this action, and from this verb he forms a 
 noun or name. If he then applies this name to the whole 
 ten perhaps mammals, birds, and insects they would be 
 to him but a single species, with a single name. But it is 
 well known that the language and habits of primitive peo- 
 ples are the very reverse ; they abound in particular names 
 and trivial distinctions, but are wanting in general terms. 
 The Delawares had ten names for various ages and stages of 
 bearhood, but none for a bear in general. Or if our old 
 naturalist should confine his carefully elaborated name to 
 
 1 " Language and the Study of Language," p. 338.
 
 Nouns. 22 7 
 
 one animal, what was he to do with the other nine ? Are 
 we to suppose him guilty of the labor of studying ten ani- 
 mals to find a name for one ? I conclude rather that the 
 earliest uses of speech must have been to distinguish one 
 thing from another, as the first linguistic exercise of Adam 
 is represented to have been in giving " names to all cattle, 
 and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field." 
 
 Nouns have been divided into classes on several different 
 principles, quite independent of each other. They need not 
 all be enumerated. One division is into concrete and abstract 
 nouns. The former relate to what are regarded as substan- 
 tial entities, the latter to their properties and relations, or to 
 mental conceptions. Man, ox, sparrow, stone, house, water, 
 air, gas, comet are concrete nouns ; joy, fever, solemnity, sin- 
 gularity, whiteness, solidity are abstract. Concrete things 
 might often remain if many of the abstract conceptions were 
 not, but the abstract can seldom be without the concrete. 
 When a man suffers pain and disappointment, he would not 
 perish by their removal, but they would certainly cease on 
 his death. This possibility of separate existence is in gen- 
 eral the distinction. A fiddle and cornet may exist quite 
 independent of each other, and without emitting any sounds ; 
 and, indeed, we cannot but suppose that they might remain 
 entire if all the rest of the universe were annihilated. But 
 let two players sound them, the sounds would be abstract, 
 the concrete things being the players, the instruments, and 
 the conducting air. The harmony or discord of the notes 
 would be an abstraction of the second degree. A great 
 amount of confused and inaccurate thought and speech would 
 be avoided by habitually bearing in mind this distinction. 
 
 Nouns are divided into common and proper, the term 
 proper being used in its original sense of pertaining to some 
 one in particular. A common name applies alike to a whole 
 species or class, a proper name to an individual. Man is a 
 term for millions, Rurel Vantarel distinguishes a single per- 
 son. Proper names are not confined to human beings, but 
 extended to domesticated animals, countries, towns, lakes, 
 rivers, mountains, ships, books, periodicals, stars and groups
 
 228 English Grammar. 
 
 of stars, and in former ages to swords and battle-axes. 
 When the same name has been given to several who are 
 spoken of collectively, it is treated as a common noun, as 
 when we speak of the C&sars, the Ptolemies, the four Georges, 
 the four Maries, the two Carolinas. 
 
 Collective nouns include a number of individuals under one 
 designation, treating them sometimes as one, at other times 
 as many. Examples are mankind, the army, the regiment, 
 the meeting, the mob, the convention, society. 
 
 Nouns have four attributes which are exclusively the sub- 
 ject of grammar, and they are GENDER, NUMBER, CASE, and 
 PERSON. 
 
 GENDER. 
 
 Gender is based on the distinction of male and female, but 
 does not always adhere to it, in some languages spreading 
 out in the most capricious manner. But let us see what the 
 distinction means. We might say in Latin : 
 
 Ille equus albus Yonder white horse 
 
 Ilia equa alba Yonder white mare 
 
 Observe that in English the names of the animals in the two 
 sentences are entirely different, the other words precisely 
 alike. In Latin all the corresponding words are identical, 
 but their endings are changed. And if one should continue 
 to speak of the two animals in Latin, a large part of the 
 words directly relating to them would differ in the same 
 manner. Now it is this modification of the associated words 
 that constitutes the distinction of gender. Mere difference 
 of names would not do it. If it went no farther than the 
 names, boy and girl would be no more a grammatical distinc- 
 tion than boy and man. We have seen that in English the 
 gender does not change the descriptive words. What then 
 does it amount to ? Answer : We have a few words yet 
 that bind us to the observance of this distinction. If two 
 little words and their variant forms five monosyllables in 
 all she, her, hers, it, its were dropped, gender would be 
 thereby wiped from the language.
 
 Nouns. 229 
 
 Most of the languages spoken in the world are without this 
 distinction of gender. It is limited to the two leading fami- 
 lies the Aryan and Shemitic and a few African tongues 
 allied to the latter ; and Professor Lepsius regarded it as a 
 marked evidence of mental superiority. To distinguish by 
 special names the sexes of the larger animals is natural 
 enough, but how the distinction came to be forced upon 
 other words not names is difficult to discover. We can see, 
 however, that an additional vowel sound was often added to 
 female names, and in some way became attached to other 
 words used in speaking of them. Moreover, words expres- 
 sive of qualities were very generally regarded as names ; and 
 some grammarians to this day call such words nouns. They 
 divide nouns into nouns substantive and nouns adjective. 
 The former are looked on as representing substantial enti- 
 ties, the latter as something added or thrown in ; and the 
 elaborately inflected languages, from Arabic and Sanskrit 
 down, give nouns and adjectives the same endings. But 
 when animals had been divided into males and females, 
 what was to be done with the rocks and clouds, trees and 
 bushes ? Why, they were divided also, for, along with a 
 tendency to treat mental conceptions as things, primitive 
 men had the strange habit of regarding inanimate things as 
 having life, feeling, and intelligence. Some were called 
 male or female from some real or fancied characteristic, and 
 some because the endings of their names resembled those of 
 the one or the other class. 
 
 At this point the case rested with the Shemitic peoples, 
 but the Aryans went a step farther. They divided their 
 male names into two portions, and set aside a part as neither 
 male nor female. They thus had three genders, now for 
 several ages known as masculine, feminine, and neuter. The 
 idea was excellent, but not carried out in a way to be of 
 any benefit, for the female names seem to have been left un- 
 divided, and the others so imperfectly distributed as to leave 
 still a large number of inanimate things masculine, while in 
 some languages many male and female beings are made 
 neuter. In the grammar of our Saxon fathers a woman was
 
 230 English Grammar. 
 
 masculine, and our German brethren call a stick and a stone 
 masculine, a body of horsemen feminine, and a horse, a 
 woman, and a girl neuter. 
 
 Other races of men, though they have words distinctive of 
 age, sex, and condition, do not make them the ground of 
 similar differences in other words. 
 
 Some of the American Indians have systems in some 
 degree analogous, but much more extensive. Prof. J. W. 
 Powell says that in Indian tongues genders are usually and 
 primarily classifications into animate and inanimate. The 
 animate may be again divided into male and female ; but 
 this is rarely done. Objects are classified according to their 
 attributes, or supposed constitution. Thus there are ani- 
 mate and inanimate, of which one or both may be divided 
 into the standing, the sitting, and the lying, or into the 
 watery, the mushy, the earthy, the stony, the woody, and 
 the fleshy. All this may be expressed by pronouns, often 
 compound, incorporated into the body of the verb. Some- 
 times these pronouns are separated into their elements and 
 distributed in different parts of the verb. "A Ponca Indian, 
 in saying that a man killed a rabbit, would have to say the 
 man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case, 
 purposely, killed, by shooting an arrow, the rabbit, he, the 
 one, animate, sitting, objective case." 
 
 The distinction of gender, as originally established by the 
 ancestors of the Aryan races, has not remained everywhere 
 unchanged. The Persians have abandoned it altogether, the 
 languages of Southern Europe have dropped the third or 
 neuter gender, and the English have discarded it from all 
 words used as adjectives, retaining it only in the singular of 
 the personal pronoun of the third person. In Danish and 
 Swedish the masculine and feminine have been merged in 
 one, in contradistinction to the neuter, making thus an ani- 
 mate and an inanimate gender ; but the division of words 
 does not always coincide with the distinction of things, and, 
 as in English, the personal pronouns bear witness to a for- 
 mer threefold division. With us the interrogative and rela- 
 tive pronouns make a still different discrimination : who is 
 used for rational beings and which for all else.
 
 Nouns. 231 
 
 English stands entirely alone in making gender a rational 
 and intelligible distinction. Males are masculine ; females, 
 feminine ; and inanimate things, neuter. Most birds and 
 small animals, including the very young of all species, even 
 the human, are generally treated as neuter, the sex either 
 not being known or not thought worth distinguishing. 
 Sometimes however a gender is arbitrarily assigned. 
 
 " Go to the ant, thou sluggard, consider her ways and be 
 wise." PROV. vi., 6. 
 
 " Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings 
 toward the south ? " JOB xxxix., 26.' 
 
 At other times even the most considerable animals are 
 spoken of as if they were sexless. 
 
 "The hare sleeps with its eyes open." BARBAULD. 
 
 " The leopard in its chace of prey spares neither man nor 
 beast." BLAIR'S " Rhetoric." 
 
 " It is the war-horse that carries grandeur in its idea." Id. 
 
 " If a man shall steal an ox or a sheep, and kill it or sell //, he 
 shall restore," etc. EXOD. xxii., i. 
 
 Here, as in many other cases, we experience the want of 
 another pronoun that, like / and thou, would have no refer- 
 ence to gender. 
 
 By a kind of make-believe we speak of the sun as mascu- 
 line, the moon and ships as feminine. Sometimes, but very 
 rarely, except in scientific discussions, we treat them as 
 neuter. The reason of the following instance is quite 
 obvious : 
 
 " When Cleopatra fled, Antony pursued her in a five-oared 
 galley ; and coming alongside of her ship, entered it without 
 being seen by her" GOLDSMITH'S " Rome." 
 
 1 Quotations from Scripture, unless otherwise indicated, will be from the 
 common authorized version. It will be often cited for the twofold reason that 
 it is, or ought to be, familiarly known, and that in point of language it is the 
 most important and generally admired of English classics. Shakespeare was ig- 
 norant, careless, and inconsistent, but the translators of the Bible were scholars, 
 who did their work with scrupulous care. The spelling of the later editions has 
 been modernized, and when it is deemed necessary to give the exact version of 
 the translators it will be cited as King James's Bible.
 
 232 English Grammar. 
 
 By a still further exercise of fancy the earth, countries, 
 cities, the Church, religion, the virtues, and some other 
 idealized conceptions are spoken of as if feminine. 
 
 A considerable number of words necessarily relate to male 
 or female beings, but do not show which. Such are friend, 
 neighbor, cousin, servant, tenant, informant, artist, teacher, 
 elephant, bear, eagle, elk. It sometimes becomes necessary to 
 employ a pronoun, when a gender, if unknown, has to be as- 
 sumed for the nonce, or we must use the awkward expression, 
 " he or she," or " he, she, or they," which so often increases 
 the tedious wordiness of statute law. In all such cases we 
 experience the want of a pronoun of the common gender 
 that is, including both masculine and feminine. 
 
 Names of males and females of the same species are dis- 
 tinguished in several different ways. 
 
 1. Quite distinct words are used, as : 
 
 brother sister husband wife 
 
 hart roe ram ewe 
 
 In the present composite state of the language the two 
 words may be of quite diverse origins, as earl and countess, 
 bachelor and maid. Many terms are restricted to one or the 
 other sex, as clown, judge, knave, knight, satyr, squire, trib- 
 une, amazon, dowager, milliner, virago, witch. 
 
 2. Feminines were anciently made by adding the termina- 
 tion -ster, which continued till the end of the seventeenth 
 century, when it began to give place to the Norman-French 
 -ess. Not one of these early feminines now remains with 
 its mediaeval signification. Spinster may still be met with, 
 but only as a legal designation of an unmarried woman, 
 or in burlesque, and not as meaning a woman who spins. 
 Songster is no longer understood as feminine, but requires 
 for that purpose a second termination, making songster-ess 
 shortened songstress. So seamster is made into the double 
 feminine seamstress. Huckster and tapster have long ceased 
 to be thought feminine ; deemster, even as a masculine, is 
 confined to the Isle of Man ; and Baxter and Webster, in- 
 stead of denoting a female baker and weaver, figure merely
 
 Nouns. 233 
 
 as family names. When the meaning of the termination 
 -ster had been forgotten, and it was only remembered as 
 marking the doer of something, a number of imitations 
 sprang up, such as hackster, roadster, rhymester, teamster, and 
 finally a derogatory sense was attached to such words, dab- 
 ster, gamester, punster, trickster, whipster. 
 
 3. In the oldest English -en was a common feminine 
 termination, masculine fox, feminine fixen ; in the modern 
 form, vixen is the sole survivor in English. Carlin, feminine 
 of carl, may be found in Scotch. 
 
 " There were five carlins in the South 
 That fell upon a scheme, 
 To sen' a lad to Lunnon toun, 
 To bring them tidings hame." 
 
 BURNS. 
 
 Allied to this form are two or three feminines in -ine, from 
 the German -inn landgravine, margravine. 
 
 4. Masculines in -tor, taken directly from Latin, form 
 feminines by dropping out the o, and adding -ix. 
 
 administrator administratrix 
 
 executor executrix 
 
 testator testatrix 
 
 5. Far the greatest number of feminines are made by 
 adding to the masculine -ess, from the French -esse and -ice 
 Latin -issa and -ix. If the word can be easily pronounced 
 with this termination, it usually undergoes no change, as 
 lion, lioness ; otherwise it is shortened or modified in some 
 one of a number of ways. 
 
 abbot abbess dauphin dauphiness 
 
 actor actress deacon deaconess 
 
 adulterer adultress duke duchess 
 
 arbiter arbitress elector electress 
 
 benefactor benefactress emperor empress 
 
 caterer cateress founder foundress 
 
 chanter chantress giant giantess 
 
 conductor conductress governor governess
 
 234 English Grammar. 
 
 heir heiress negro negress 
 
 hunter huntress master mistress 
 
 host hostess tiger tigress 
 
 instructor instructress tyrant tyranness 
 
 Jew Jewess votary votress 
 
 marquis marchioness 
 
 Duke and duchess were much more alike in their French 
 forms, due and duc-esse. Master and mistress were maister 
 and maisteress. Marquis and marchioness are both from Low 
 Latin marchio, a prefect of the marches, or borders, but they 
 have undergone different degrees of modification. As usual, 
 what appears the most irregular is the least changed. So 
 tyranness is from an older form of the word than tyrant. If 
 we had occasion now to form a feminine noun from a mascu- 
 line, we should do it by adding -ess. All other modes are 
 either obsolete or still foreign too old or too new. 
 
 Hero and heroine are from the Greek, and as independent 
 of landgrave and landgravine as two languages of the same 
 general family can be. 
 
 A few words from the south of Europe take feminines in 
 a signor, signora ; sultan, sultana. 
 
 Czarina seems to be a Polish formation ; the Russian is 
 Tsaritsa. 
 
 Widower from widow is entirely anomalous. 
 
 Lastly, sex is distinguished by adding some descriptive 
 noun or pronoun. 
 
 man-servant maid-servant 
 
 male child female child 
 
 ram-lamb ewe-lamb 
 
 cock-sparrow hen-sparrow 
 
 peacock peahen 
 
 he-goat she-goat 
 
 bridegroom 
 
 tom-cat 
 
 The Elizabethan writers employed many more of these 
 feminine forms than we deem necessary. Such were cham- 
 pioness, butler ess, vassaless, waggoness, warriouress. It may
 
 Nouns. 235 
 
 well be doubted if there are not still too many. In a multi- 
 tude of instances it is not necessary to distinguish whether 
 the relation referred to is held by a man or a woman. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 A noun may represent one thing, or several, and generally, 
 but not always, shows which is intended. If I say : " Cook 
 the shad for dinner," it is left uncertain how many I want. 
 A noun signifying one thing is said to be singular, or in the 
 singular number ; if more than one, it is called plural. The 
 distinction might have been carried farther. Several old 
 languages, among which were Arabic, Hebrew, Sanskrit, 
 Greek, and Gothic, had forms for two, called the dual 
 number. But it seems to have been everywhere either a 
 new form never fully established or else, what is more likely, 
 an old one dying out by the time we see it. Its forms are 
 nowhere so fully developed as those of the plural, which in 
 turn is generally more scanty than the singular. Hebrew 
 has little more than a trace of the dual, which is confined to 
 things that belong in pairs, such as eyes, ears, hands, tongs. 
 Ancient Greek carried the distinction into all classes of in- 
 flected words, but gave the option of using the plural in all 
 cases, while modern Greek drops the dual altogether: The 
 Gothic of the fourth century had but scanty remains of the 
 dual, and when we next get sight of the Teutonic languages 
 it is found only in the personal pronouns of the first and 
 second persons forms for we two and you two in Old High 
 German, Saxon, and Norse. From two of these even that 
 scanty remnant has disappeared, and is now to be found only 
 in Iceland. 
 
 Some Polynesian languages are said to have separate 
 forms for a number three. 
 
 Some words are always singular because they express 
 ideas that scarcely admit of duplication. Such are anni- 
 hilation, chaos, eternity, omniscience ; also some arts and 
 sciences, as eloquence, oratory, poetry, astronomy, pharmacy, 
 dialling. Names of substances, or kinds of material, con-
 
 236 English Grammar. 
 
 sidered merely as such, are mostly singular, as gold, silver, 
 zinc, granite, tar, asphalt, gypsum, hemp, flax, wool. Of many 
 of these the plural is sometimes used for articles made of 
 such material, or different varieties or specimens irons, tins, 
 brasses, marbles, parchments, slates. But when a substance is 
 rare and not yet made into familiar articles bearing its name, 
 it remains singular, as atropia, phosphorus, lanthanum, zeolite. 
 
 On the other hand some nouns are always plural in form. 
 A considerable class, denoting arts, sciences, and pursuits, 
 end in -ics acoustics, hermeneutics, mathematics, optics, poli- 
 tics, physics. These were primarily Greek adjectives: thus, 
 physics meant physical facts or principles ; hydraulics, prin- 
 ciples and devices relating to water-pipes. Of this class, 
 arithmetic, logic, and rhetoric have remained singular. A few 
 nouns are plural as denoting things composed of pairs of 
 similar parts, as trowsers, breeches, scissors, pincers, tongs. 
 Finally there are nouns that are used only, or almost 
 exclusively in the plural form for no obvious reason 
 ashes, gallows, news, lees, shorts (a kind of meal), dregs, 
 molasses, suds, some of which may be more particularly 
 referred to hereafter. 
 
 Some words are the same in the singular and plural 
 sheep, swine, deer, fish, and the names of several species of 
 deer and fish a shoal of mackerel, a dozen perch, a herd of 
 fallow deer, of red deer, or elk. 
 
 By far the greatest number of English nouns form their 
 plurals by adding s to the singular ; and now for several cen- 
 turies none have been formed in any other way ; yet we have 
 introduced from abroad a great variety having the forms 
 prescribed by the several languages from which they are 
 taken. The Anglo-Saxon had several plural endings as, n, 
 or an, a, o, and u. After the Norman Conquest these became 
 reduced first to es, en, and e, next to es and en, and finally to 
 es or s. The termination es continued for a long time to 
 form a separate syllable, as has been shown at page 147. 
 
 " The knight-^ all in their arm-<?j went." 
 
 HAWES' " Pastime of Pleasure," 1554.
 
 Nouns. 237 
 
 Occasional instances are found down to the middle of the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 " Can by their pains and ach-es find 
 All turns and changes of the wind." 
 
 BUTLER'S " Hudibras." 
 
 At present if a noun ends with a sibilant sound, that is s, 
 sh, z, zh, an e is interposed between the final consonant and 
 the s of the plural, to make the word pronounceable : 
 
 circus circus-es morass morass-es fox fox-es 
 
 dish dish-es bench bench-es chintz chintz-es 
 
 When the singular ends with a silent e, it is not necessary 
 to put in another : 
 
 lease lease-s piece piece-s breeze breeze-s 
 
 bridge bridge-s crevasse crevasse-s 
 
 A few native words ending in the sound of /"change it to 
 v in the plural. They are calf, half, staff, wharf, elf, self, 
 shelf, leaf, sheaf, thief, knife, life, wife, loaf, wolf. An e 
 always intervenes between the v and the s of the plural, not 
 for sake of pronunciation, but from the habit of the language 
 not to write a v without a vowel after it. We sometimes 
 meet with hooves, prooves, dwarves, turves, etc., but they are 
 not reckoned good English now. In earlier stages of the lan- 
 guage words like the above were written with /"throughout, 
 but the/" was pronounced like v. The singular has retained 
 the old spelling, the plural the pronunciation. In dove, 
 glove, grave, helve, love, nave, reeve, stave, wave, the original 
 spelling of the singular has been overcome. 
 
 The plural of staff, when it means a set of executive 
 officers, is staffs. 
 
 Wharfs may sometimes be met with, but rarely in America. 
 
 Beef is French from Latin, and means originally a bull, 
 ox, or cow : 
 
 "A herd of beeves, fair oxen and fair kine." 
 
 MILTON.
 
 238 English Grammar. 
 
 In this sense it is seldom used. Its plural is beeves, in imita- 
 tion of Middle English. Different qualities or varieties of 
 the flesh of cattle would undoubtedly be called beefs. 
 
 Nouns that end in the single vowel y have their plurals in 
 -ies berries, daisies, lilies. If the y be preceded by another 
 vowel, the mere addition of s is sufficient days, journeys, 
 boys, guys. U after q is a consonant, the two being equal to 
 kw hence colloquies, obsequies. The termination -ies is con- 
 formable to the original form of the singular, which is in 
 most instances from a French ending -ie. This form of the 
 singular, once very common, continued to be used occa- 
 sionally down to the time of Milton. 
 
 " Now storming furie rose, 
 And clamour such as heard in heaven till now 
 Was never." " Paradise Lost." 
 
 Some nouns ending in o add es, and others only s, and the 
 distinction is far from uniform. The principle or habit 
 roughly followed seems to be to add es to words that have 
 been long and familiarly used in the language, and s to those 
 that are comparatively new and strange, and especially to 
 words imported from Italian and Spanish ; thus the plural 
 of the familiar word negro is negroes, but that of the recent 
 word negrito is negritos. 
 
 Bilboes, calicoes, cargoes, echoes, gambadoes, grottoes, heroes, 
 potatoes, torpedoes, tyroes, -vetoes, volcanoes. 
 
 Albinos, bambinos, cameos, cantos, drongos, embryos, folios, 
 halos, hidalgos, intaglios, pianos, pongos, pueblos, ridottos, salvos, 
 solos, sombreros, studios. 
 
 Although no really English word ends with i, yet several 
 of quite foreign origin are met with in English books. Of 
 these, alkali has become so fully naturalized as to have a 
 recognized plural, alkalies. Rabbi is in a transition state, 
 and just at this time admits of rabbies and rabbis. The 
 following rare words add only s: agouti, ai, coati, maki, 
 maori, moholi, mufti, peri, sat, saki, sofi, vari. 
 
 A very few foreign words ending in u also form plurals in 
 s emu, gnu, mitu, quipu.
 
 Nouns. 239 
 
 Particles are sometimes treated for the moment as nouns, 
 and then they admit of plurals formed on the general 
 principles. We read of the "pros and cons " of a question, 
 and the counting of the "ayes and noes" in which the 
 uncertainty recurs as to the plurals of words ending in o. 
 The letters of the alphabet are designated in several ways, 
 one of which is to spell their names. That, however, is 
 applicable to only a few, whereas they may all be conven- 
 iently called so many as, &'s, c's, x's. 
 
 Vestiges still remain of the old Saxon plural in an or en, 
 of which the most familiarly known is oxen, the only one 
 that has retained its original place unchanged in universal 
 usage, the only change in a thousand years being from an to 
 en. Brethren and children are not so well preserved. The 
 Anglo-Saxon plural of brother was like the singular, brothor, 
 but brothers taken collectively, even if not more than two 
 in number, were usually designated by a collective term, 
 gebrothru, like the modern High German Gcbriider. 
 
 " And dha dha tyn leorning-cnihtas gebulgon widh dha twegen 
 gebrodhru." MATT, xx., 24. 
 
 The A.-S. dative case singular for brother was brether ; and 
 in the long period of confusion between written Saxon 
 and written English, the several forms and significations 
 seem to have become intermixed. The final outcome was 
 brothers for the children of the same natural parents, and 
 brethren for persons bound together by some solemn or 
 mystic obligation. Of the two, brethren is the oldest, and 
 occurs in the " Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester," in the 
 form bretheren, toward the close of the thirteenth century. 
 Its age is no doubt the reason why it is employed exclusively 
 in the Bible. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon child and children were alike did : 
 
 " and he [Herod] a sende dha and of sloh ealle dha cild dhe in 
 Bethleem waeron." MATT, ii., 16. 
 
 In the period of transition a plural childer was developed, 
 which Robert de Brunne wrote childir in the beginning of
 
 240 English Grammar. 
 
 the fourteenth century. This plural has lingered in 
 localities till the present day, and is often heard from natives 
 of Ireland. By the end of the century en had been added, 
 making a double plural, already shortened into children. In 
 the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there were the simi- 
 lar double plurals calvern, lambern, eyren. Doughtren and 
 sistren were as common as brethren, and perhaps the latter 
 of the two may still be heard in devotional meetings among 
 the long-leaved pines fanned by the soft winds of the South. 
 
 Chickens and kittens are not double plurals. The en is a 
 diminutive, and not a plural termination a little cock, 
 a little cat. 
 
 Hose and pease are primarily singular, of which the old 
 plurals were hosen and peasen. 
 
 " Then these men were bound in their coats, their hosen, and 
 their hats, and their other garments, and were cast into the midst 
 of the burning fiery furnace." DANIEL in., 12. 
 
 " Next twenty yeomen, two and two, 
 In hosen black and jerkins blue." 
 
 SCOTT'S " Marmion," canto i. 
 
 " All men might well dispraise 
 
 My wit and enterprise, 
 If I esteemed a pease 
 Above a pearl of price." 
 
 LORD SURREY, 1540. 
 
 " Tickle treasure, abhorred of reason, 
 
 Dangerous to deal with, vain, of none avail, 
 Costly in keeping, past not worth two Reason, 
 Slipper in sliding, as an eeles tail." Id. 
 
 It is the singulars of nouns that are used as adjectives, 
 hence pease is singular in the following examples : 
 
 " Racket and Coppinger, as the story tells, got into a pease-cart 
 and harangued the people." DRYDEN'S " Religio Laid." 
 
 " Pease-porridge hot, pease-porridge cold, 
 Pease-porridge in the pot, and nine days old."
 
 Nouns. 241 
 
 The s in the word pease is not plural but inherent, it being 
 from the Latin pisum. When the plural termination en had 
 almost entirely disappeared, it began to be thought that 
 pease was the same in both numbers, and next that it was 
 exclusively plural, of which the singular must be pea ; and 
 now for all practical purposes we have/m and/mj or pease, 
 the last of which is fast disappearing. At the present 
 moment hose is the same in both numbers, but is not certain 
 to remain so. A few years ago, when I was one day look- 
 ing for stockings, the gentlemanly vender held up an elegant 
 specimen and declared it to be a very fine hoe. 
 
 Grilse and grouse are like hose. 
 
 A class of words, originally adjectives, but used indiffer- 
 ently as adjectives or nouns, are in the same situation, 
 Siamese, Japanese, Portuguese. Milton, who was familiar 
 with the singulars hose and pease, wrote 
 
 " The barren plains 
 Of Sericana, where Chineses drive 
 With sails and wind their cany waggons light." 
 
 " Paradise Lost," iii., 437. 
 
 On the other hand Americans, long familiar with the black- 
 eyed pea, and now learning to wear a " hoe " on each 
 " limb," have made the world acquainted with the " Heathen 
 Chinee." 
 
 Cherry is a product similar to pea. The final s of cherries, 
 or cherris the Old French cerise, Latin cerasus was mis- 
 taken for a sign of plurality, and the singular assumed to be 
 cherri. Cheesen and housen may still be heard in some 
 districts of England. 
 
 The Scotch een and shoon Chaucer's eyen and Shake- 
 speare's shooen are relics of the termination en. Jack Cade 
 charges his followers : 
 
 " We will not leave one Lord, one Gentleman ; 
 Spare none but such as go in clouted shooen" 
 
 2 "Henry VI.," 4,2, 178. 
 
 16
 
 242 English Grammar. 
 
 At first sight the proportion seems correct ; 
 swine : sow : : kyne : cow, 
 
 but it is only plausible. Swine is a modern form of the 
 Anglo-Saxon swin, which was the same in the singular and 
 plural, while sow A.-S. su was a different word, as Schwein 
 and Sau are in modern German. The singular of cow was cii, 
 the plural ky, well preserved in the Scotch kye. 
 
 " When new ca'd kye rout at the stake, 
 And pownies reek in sheuch an' brake." BURNS. 
 
 In kine an unnecessary n is added, as if to make kyen. It 
 is therefore a double plural, while swine is not a plural at all. 
 
 We have just seen that the plural of the Anglo-Saxon cii 
 was ky, and of this once common method of forming the 
 plural, by merely changing a vowel, several familiar ex- 
 amples still survive. They are : 
 
 foot feet man men 
 
 goose geese louse lice 
 
 tooth teeth mouse mice 
 
 The last two have suffered under French influence, having 
 been originally Ms, pi. lys ; miis, pi. m$s, precisely as in the 
 case of cii, ky. It is readily seen that the difference between 
 the singular and the plural was at first the same in each 
 instance. The ample sound of the singular was reduced to 
 what we may call a thin or slender one in the plural. It 
 remains to discover the principle that governed this modifi- 
 cation. It can scarcely be gathered from the Anglo-Saxon, 
 which, like the present English, shows in these words only 
 a change of vowel. 
 
 f6t fit mann menn 
 
 gos gis lus lys 
 
 t&8 titS mus mys 
 
 There is reason to believe that in all the Aryan languages 
 the plural was once generally made by the addition of as, 
 which in course of time coalesced in various ways with the 
 preceding elements, became altered, or even completely lost.
 
 Nouns. 243 
 
 In Latin we become accustomed early to the fact that when 
 a word gains in length it often loses in breadth, and that the 
 addition of a syllable in many instances has the effect of 
 rendering the vowel of the original more slender. It is 
 observed, too, that in some languages the vowels of succes- 
 sive syllables are required to harmonize according to some 
 peculiar classifications of sounds, and if they do not this 
 originally the one is changed to suit the other. This is 
 especially the case in the Magyar. In the remains of the 
 Gothic we find masculine and feminine nouns lengthened in 
 the plural, and ending in s, the main part of the word re- 
 maining unchanged. In this it is followed by the Dutch : 
 
 voet, a foot voet-en, feet 
 
 tand, tooth tand-en, teeth 
 
 In the Norse, the most outlying of the Low German part of 
 the family, the terminal s becomes r a phenomenon called 
 rhotacism and in the words under consideration the vowel 
 of the root is changed, as in Saxon and English, without 
 any further addition than doubling a final s. Yet this lan- 
 guage affords abundant examples of the modification of a 
 vowel by a syllable following as b(5c, book ; back-r, books. A 
 followed by a syllable containing u was changed to o of 
 which the declension of hjarta, the heart, will be a sufficient 
 example : 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 SINGULAR NOM. hjort-u 
 
 All cases hjarta GEN. hjart-na 
 
 DAT. hjort-ura 
 
 Ace. hjort-u 
 
 A clearer light is yielded by the Old High German, in which 
 occur such forms as : 
 
 kelb-ir calves 
 
 hels-ir necks 
 
 pelk-i skins 
 
 enst-i favors 
 
 This is well maintained by the Modern High German :
 
 244 English Grammar. 
 
 Fuss Fiiss-e Mann Mann-er 
 
 Gans Gans-e Laus Laus-e 
 
 Zahn Zahn-e Maus Maus-e 
 
 Indeed we have examples in still living English : 
 
 brother brethren cat kitten 
 
 child children cock chicken 
 
 There is no doubt then that such forms as feet and teeth are 
 due to the influence of terminal syllables that had dis- 
 appeared before the era of Saxon literature. 
 
 A considerable number of nouns, adopted from Hebrew, 
 Greek, Latin, French, and Italian, retain the plurals of the 
 original tongues, while there is yet a constant tendency to 
 assimilate them to English forms. Hence a considerable 
 number of them are used either with the original or an Eng- 
 lish plural, according to individual taste, the only principle 
 approximately followed being that the English ending s is 
 apt to be given to words that have been long and familiarly 
 used, while those that may still be considered the property 
 of the learned more frequently retain a foreign dress. The 
 Greek and Latin words that find their way into our literature 
 are very numerous, and present examples of most of the 
 plural forms of those languages. It would require a con- 
 siderable volume in itself to exhibit all such Greek and 
 Latin nouns ; the object here is merely to present examples 
 that will give the English reader some idea how he comes to 
 meet with so many strange ways of forming the plural. He 
 will observe that the body of the plural often appears to be 
 lengthened in some way, but that is because an original ele- 
 ment has been crowded out of the singular. Most of the 
 Greek words have suffered from the assumption often quite 
 groundless that they have reached us through a Latin 
 medium. Many of them too take forms, either in the 
 singular, in the plural, or both, that are neither Latin nor 
 Greek, but may be regarded as English. Thus we may 
 have the Greek forms orchis, ore/tides, or the English forms 
 orchid, orchids. It is well to preserve this distinction, and 
 not get such pairs of words mismatched. Wherever the
 
 Nouns. 245 
 
 singular is formed at variance with Greek or Latin usage, I 
 think it should be treated as English. Unfortunately the 
 form of the singular is sometimes such that it might belong 
 to either of two languages. Still worse there are many 
 words rarely or never used in both numbers, and if we 
 attempt to supply the missing one according to analogy, we 
 may find ourselves at variance with some one who has 
 adopted a different form. The whole subject is in a very 
 confused and unsettled state, and lexicographers would ren- 
 der a valuable service by determining, as far as possible, the 
 plurals of doubtful nouns, instead of giving only those that 
 are already well known. I shall divide these nouns into 
 three classes : (i) Latin ; (2) Greek ; (3) Greek Latinized or 
 Anglicized. The letter s after a plural will indicate that it is 
 also formed by adding that letter. This addition of s is a 
 practice on the increase, and is objectionable chiefly when a 
 word already contains a repetition of that sound. Censuses, 
 susurruses, synizesises contain altogether too much sibilation. 
 
 Latin Nouns. 
 
 1st. Singular -#, plural -a : 
 
 alga algae facula faculae 
 
 antenna antennae formula formulae, s 
 
 catena catenae nebula nebulae 
 
 corona coronae vertebra vertebrae 
 
 2d. Singular -us, -er, -ir, plural -i : 
 
 alumnus alumni puer pueri 
 
 cactus, cacti, s liber libri 
 
 calculus calculi centumvir centumviri, s 
 
 focus . foci, s decemvir decemviri, s 
 
 radius radii triumvir triumviri, s 
 
 3d. Singular and plural -us mostly from verbs : 
 
 afflatus crepitus hiatus singultus 
 
 apparatus, s excursus ictus sinus, s 
 
 census, s fetus, s inflatus 
 
 conatus gradus meatus, s
 
 246 English Grammar. 
 
 4th. Singular -us, plural -era : 
 
 genus onus opus viscus 
 
 5th. Lepus, lepores. 
 6th. Corpus, corpora. 
 7th. Crus, crura. 
 8th. Grus, grues. 
 9th. Incus, incudes. 
 
 loth. Singular -urn, plural -a often originally adjectives 
 or participles : 
 
 amentum 
 
 datum 
 
 medium, s 
 
 addendum 
 
 emporium, s 
 
 menstruum, s 
 
 candelabrum 
 
 flagellum 
 
 ovum 
 
 cilium 
 
 frustum 
 
 spectrum 
 
 erratum 
 
 infusorium 
 
 speculum 
 
 cranium 
 
 labium 
 
 stratum, s 
 
 congeries 
 facies 
 
 sanies 
 series 
 soboles 
 
 nth. Singular and plural alike, ~es 
 
 colluvies lues 
 
 manes 
 ingluvies 
 
 1 2th. Singular -es, plural -ites : 
 
 antistes antistites termes 
 
 1 3th. Singular -ies, plural -ietes : 
 
 aries arietes paries 
 
 I4th. Singular stapes, plural, stapedes. 
 1 5th. Singular -is, plural -es : 
 
 sordes 
 
 species 
 
 superficies 
 
 termites 
 
 parietes 
 
 avis 
 
 classis 
 
 naris 
 
 piscis 
 
 axis 
 
 amanuensis 
 
 natis 
 
 unguis 
 
 canis 
 
 fascis 
 
 oasis 
 
 vectis 
 
 caulis 
 
 ignis 
 
 orbis 
 
 vermis 
 
 1 6th. Singular lapis, plural lapides. 
 
 i/th. Glis, glires; vis, vires. 
 
 1 8th. Lis, lites ; quiris, quirites. 
 
 I9th. Anas, anates ; penas, penates.
 
 Nouns. 
 
 247 
 
 20th. Singular -o, plural -ines 
 
 albugo albugines 
 imago imagines 
 virgo virgines 
 
 2 1 st. Singular -o, plural -ones . 
 comedo septentrio 
 
 caligo 
 virago 
 testudo 
 
 turio 
 
 caligines 
 viragines 
 testudines 
 
 vibrio 
 
 22d. Gustos, custodes. 
 23d. Os, the mouth, pi. ora. 
 24th. Os, a bone, pi. ossa. 
 25th. Singular -x, plural -ces : 
 
 Apex, appendix, s, aruspex, calx, carex, cicatrix, codex, cortex, 
 crux, directrix, falx, faux, frutex, helix, matrix, nux, radix, 
 rectrix, varix, vertex, vortex, s. 
 
 26th. Singular -x, plural -ges : rex, interrex, remex, the 
 plural of which last is remiges. 
 27th. Sors, sortes. 
 28th. Singular -men, plural -mina : 
 
 Cognomen, culmen, dictamen, foramen, gravamen, legumen, 
 prsenomen, putamen, tegmen, tormen. 
 
 29th. Add -es to the singular anser, lar, passer, ren. 
 
 3Oth. Venter, ventres ; accipiter, accipitres. 
 
 3 1 st. Singular -r, or -re, plural -ria, mostly adjectives, of 
 which the En'glish in -ar and Latin in -aria are the most 
 common talaria. 
 
 32d. Singular in -/ or -le, plural lia, like the preceding : 
 
 Bacchinalia, crealia, lupercalia, memorabilia, marginalia, quin- 
 quinalia, regalia, saturnalia, semipedalia. 
 
 33d. Singular -ne, plural -nia, like the foregoing insigne, 
 insignia. 
 
 34th. Singular, -or, plural -ores, and therefore like 2Qth, but 
 in English books chiefly used in the plural, classifying birds 
 and insects according to their habits. 
 
 fossores, diggers grallatores, waders 
 
 insessores, roosters scansores, climbers
 
 248 English Grammar. 
 
 35th. Femur, femora. 
 36th. Glans, glandes ; f rons, frondes. 
 37th. Frons, f rentes ; quadrans, quadrantes ; vagans, va- 
 gantes. 
 
 38th. Ruminans, ruminantia. 
 39th. Caput, capita. 
 4Oth. Hyems, hyemes. 
 
 Greek Nouns that Retain the Greek Forms. 
 
 1st. Singular -ma, plural -mata : 
 
 aroma enchondroma plasma 
 
 asthma exanthema programma 
 
 atheroma glaucoma regma 
 
 bema gyroma rhizoma 
 
 blastema lemma, s sarcoma 
 
 carcinoma magma, s steatoma 
 
 dogma, s melasma zeugma 
 
 drama, s miasma, s zygoma 
 
 enema, s neuroma 
 
 enigma, s pedioma 
 
 A considerable number are so far Anglicized as sometimes 
 to drop the a of the singular, as miasm for miasma, and a 
 still greater number, like aneurism, paradigm, problem, use 
 the shorter form exclusively. 
 
 2d. Singular -on, plural -a : 
 
 aphelion epiploon paralipomenon 
 
 (apocryphon) etymon, s parhelion 
 
 automaton, s ganglion, s phenomenon, s 
 
 criterion, s liriodendron, s phytozoon 
 
 entozoon lithobiblion prolegomenon 
 
 eozoon lithodendron, s propylon 
 
 epizoon noumenon rhododendron, s 
 
 3d. Singular -on, plural -ones : 
 
 antichthon autochthon telamon 
 
 4th. Singular -as, plural -ades : 
 dipsas dryas (hyas) hyades monas (pleias) pleiades.
 
 Nouns. 249 
 
 5th. Singular -as, plural -antes : 
 
 atlas, s anabas 
 
 6th. Singular -is, plural ides : 
 
 amaryllis cantharis glottis proboscis 
 
 (anteris) caryatis hesperis parotis 
 
 aphis chrysalis lepis pyramis 
 
 apsis ephemeris nereis raphis 
 
 oscaris epinyctis orchis 
 
 7th. Herpes, herpetes ; magnes, magnetes ; litotes, lito- 
 tetes. 
 
 8th. Cacoethes, cacoethea. 
 
 9th. Singular -os, plural -ea : 
 
 epos (epea) bathos (bathea) meros pathos (pathea). 
 
 loth. Singular -os, plural -otes : 
 Rhinoceros rhinocerotes, s megaceros monoceros. 
 
 nth. Singular -ys, plural -yes : 
 Erinys, didelphys, helamys, lagomys, pterichthys. 
 
 1 2th. Singular -s, plural -thes : 
 Dinornis, enthelmins, epiornis, ichthyornis, megalornis. 
 
 1 3th. Singular -s, plural -es : 
 Cyclops, elops, myops, nyctalops, ops, seps, thrips. 
 
 1 4th. Singular -x, plural -ces : 
 Climax, donax, dropax, hyrax, labrax, narthex, pinax, spadix. 
 
 1 5th. Singular -x, plural ges : 
 Apterix, archseopterix, coccyx, larynx, meninx, pharynx, salpinx. 
 
 Greek Nouns, Latinized or Anglicized. 
 
 The greater number of Greek nouns have become so 
 thoroughly at home in the language that we seldom think 
 of their being Greek. Apology, baptism, creosote, dynasty, 
 euphony, hydrogen, iodine, lexicon, myth, nomad, octagon, 
 panic, skeleton, telescope, are examples. To any of this large
 
 250 English Grammar. 
 
 class that admit of plurality, we merely add s in the same 
 manner as if they were native words. 
 
 A considerable number take a Latin form in the plural. 
 Some of these have a form in the singular, identical with a 
 Latin termination ; some change the termination of the sin- 
 gular to conform to the Latin; and others have a Greek 
 ending in the singular and Latin plurals. Thus -os and -ous 
 are changed to -us in the singular, and, so far as I am aware, 
 have their plurals in -i. On becomes um, with plural in a ; 
 ai becomes a ; and eis, es. This Latinizing and Anglicizing 
 has been carried out in a very haphazard way. This is well 
 shown by the names compounded with odons, a tooth, or 
 pous, a foot, for which the following are various substitutes. 
 
 anodon 
 
 mylodon 
 
 bradypus 
 
 melampode 
 
 chsetodon 
 
 pleurodont 
 
 gasteropod 
 
 platypod 
 
 diphyodont 
 
 prionodon 
 
 heteropod 
 
 platypus 
 
 gyrodus 
 
 pycnodont 
 
 hexapod 
 
 polypus 
 
 labyrinthodont 
 
 rhizodont 
 
 lagopus 
 
 rhizopod 
 
 machairodus 
 
 toxodon 
 
 macropod 
 
 
 mastodon 
 
 antipode 
 
 macropus 
 
 
 megalodon 
 
 apode 
 
 megalapode 
 
 
 Most of these words are scarcely to be found in the plural. 
 Polypus is a word in common use with the Latin and English 
 plurals polypi and polypuses. The most consistent course 
 would be to give the plural in i to all that end in us, and 
 treat the others as English. In that case our kindred on 
 the other side of the globe would have only three syllables. 
 
 1st. Singular -a, plural -<#, not numerous : 
 
 cotyla, or cotyle glama parusia 
 
 epiphora lyssa synalepha 
 
 exedra ozena trachea 
 
 exorhiza paronychia trichina 
 
 2d. Singular -e, plural -ce the greater part of these either 
 do not admit of plurals or take -s : 
 
 Anagoge, apocope, apotome, diacope, diastole, epitrope, glene, 
 hyperbole, metope, paraselene, parembole, pericope, perone, 
 ploce, raphe, systole.
 
 Nouns. 251 
 
 3d. Singular -es, plural -<z : 
 
 Cerastes, ascetes, Hermes, kolpodes, mycetes, sorites, thera- 
 peutes, troglodytes. 
 
 4th. Singular -is, plural -es a very numerous class : 
 
 Acropolis, anaesthesis, analysis, antithesis, aphairesis, apodosis, 
 crisis, diagnosis, emphasis, enarthrosis, epanadiplosis, epiphysis, 
 exegesis, hypostasis, hypothesis, mantis, metamorphosis, metemp- 
 sychosis, phasis, prognosis, prytanis, symphasis, synthesis. 
 
 Hebrew Nouns. 
 
 Words from the Hebrew are few, and drawn mostly from 
 the Bible. The masculine plural ends in -im ; cherubim, ser- 
 aphim, teraphim, purim, urim, and thummim. Feminines 
 end in -oth ; behemoth, mazzaroth, sabbaoth, and Succoth-Be- 
 noth. The dual number ends in -aim, but is found only in 
 proper names, as Mizraim for Egypt that is, the " two dis- 
 tricts," of Upper and Lower Egypt ; Diblathaim, the two 
 Diblahs. The form cherubims in the Bible is a double 
 plural. 
 
 French Nouns. 
 
 Nouns still retaining a French character occur so often 
 both in literature and conversation that it is desirable to 
 know something of the principles on which their plurals are 
 formed. As in English, the plurals generally end in s ; but 
 when the singular ends in a sibilant s, x, or z it is not 
 necessary to add another. 
 
 fils, a son, plural fils 
 
 choix, a choice, choix 
 
 nez, the nose, nez 
 
 Nouns ending in au, eau, eu, or a?u, add not merely s, but x, 
 Esquimau, plural Esquimaux. 
 
 bandeau feu rondeau 
 
 beau, s flambeau tableau 
 
 bureau, s morceau trousseau 
 
 chapeau plateau voeu 
 
 chateau radeau
 
 252 English Grammar. 
 
 There is of course a general tendency to assimilate all 
 these words to the English usage. Bureau is the oftenest 
 used, and perhaps the most unsettled. It is oftener written 
 with s than with x. The United States statutes, and the 
 acts of the executive government generally, give bureaus, 
 but the Adjutant-General of the Army, one of the fountain- 
 heads of ancestral etiquette, writes bureaux. 
 
 Six nouns ending in -ou add -x in the plural. 
 
 bijou, a jewel genou, the knee 
 
 caillou, a pebble hibou, an owl 
 
 chou, a cabbage joujou, a plaything 
 
 Other nouns in -ou take s. 
 Twenty-one nouns change -al to -aux. 
 
 amiral fanal mineral 
 
 animal g^n^ral quintal 
 
 arsenal hopital rival 
 
 canal madrigal signal 
 
 capital mal total 
 
 cheval mar^chal tribunal 
 
 cristal metal vassal 
 
 The others merely add s. 
 
 Eleven change the singular termination -ail to -aux. The 
 others generally take s. 
 
 ail, garlic 
 
 bail, a lease sous-bail, underlease 
 
 corail, coral travail, work 
 
 email, enamel van tail, a folding door 
 
 soupirail, a vent 
 
 Betail, an animal of the cattle kind, has a plural bestiaux. 
 
 Nouns of one syllable ending in -ant or -ent add s gant, a 
 glove, plural, gants ; dent, a tooth, dents. Those of more 
 than one syllable generally omit the / enfant, a child, 
 enfans. 
 
 Italian Nouns. 
 
 The Italian nouns met with in English books form their 
 plurals mostly in a very simple and regular manner. Mascu-
 
 Nouns. 253 
 
 lines, whatever their terminations may be, change the final 
 vowel of the singular to i in the plural. 
 
 profeta a prophet profeti 
 
 padre a father padri 
 
 fratello a brother fratelli 
 
 zio an uncle zii 
 
 desio desire desii 
 
 When the final vowel is preceded by an unaccented /, a 
 second / is not added tempio, a temple, plural, tempi. 
 There are also the following irregularities : 
 
 hue an ox buoi 
 
 Dio God dei and dii 
 
 uomo man uomini 
 
 All masculines ending in -ca t and most of more than one 
 syllable ending in -co add h after the c in the plural, to pre- 
 serve the sound. 
 
 duca 
 
 a duke 
 
 duchi 
 
 monarca 
 
 a monarch 
 
 monarchi 
 
 banco 
 
 a bank 
 
 banchi 
 
 imbarco 
 amico 
 medico 
 
 embarcation 
 a friend 
 aphysician 
 
 imbarqui 
 amici 
 medici 
 
 Those ending in -go, except some words of more than two 
 syllables, in which the g follows a vowel, insert an h in the 
 plural for the same reason. 
 
 sugo sugar sughi 
 
 luogo a place luoghi 
 
 Feminines in a change it to e in the plural. 
 
 casa a house case 
 
 strada a street strade 
 
 Those ending in e or o, change it to i in the plural. 
 
 madre a mother madri 
 
 nube a cloud nubi 
 
 mano a hand mani
 
 254 English Grammar. 
 
 Nouns ending in an accented vowel, and feminines in -ie, 
 are alike in the singular and plural, except moglie, a woman 
 of which the plural is moglL 
 
 There are as usual some exceptions, but they are not 
 likely to fall in the way of one whose reading is confined to 
 English books. 
 
 Compound Nouns. 
 
 A great number of English nouns are formed by uniting 
 two or more into one. The closeness of the union varies in 
 every degree. Codfish, cowslip, and shepherd we scarcely 
 think of as compounds ; dairy-farm and dead-reckoning are 
 held together by feeble and transitory ties. The general 
 principle is that the last element is the essential one, and all 
 that precedes it is only descriptive, and of the nature of an 
 adjective. A cart-horse is a horse, and a horse-cart is a cart, 
 the first syllable in each instance serving as an adjective. 
 And as adjectives in our language do not express number, 
 the sign of plurality is added only to the last part. Thus 
 we have cart-horses and horse-carts ; and those who speak of 
 handsful and spoonsful are ignorant of the best established 
 principles of the language. It matters not that the first 
 element may represent a great number. A hundred cows 
 grazing in a field may make it a ^w-pasture, but never a 
 cows-pasture ; and a team of twenty oxen is only an 0.*r-team. 
 Three or more nouns may be combined into one. Dog- 
 tooth-spar is a spar, or crystalline mineral, that is not only 
 shaped like a tooth, but like the tooth of a dog : still the 
 plural would never be dogs-teeth-vpzx. 
 
 The principle here laid down is fundamental and general, 
 but subject to some real or apparent exceptions. In arms- 
 length, beadsman, bondsman, gownsman, headsman, oars-man, 
 swordsman, etc., the s is not plural but possessive, and the 
 plurals are regularly formed. When the elements of a com- 
 pound are so combined as to show in any way which is the 
 essential one, that is the one to take the sign of plurality. 
 A brother-in-law is not a law, but a brother in, by, or accord-
 
 Nouns. 255 
 
 ing to law, and the plural is brothers-in-law, just as the plural 
 of a barrel of flour is barrels of flour, and not barrel of flours. 
 The hyphen joining the two parts does not affect their rela- 
 tion to each other. A few expressions have the noun before 
 the adjective, in imitation of the French, cousin-german, 
 falcon-gentil. The plurals are cousins-german, falcons-gentil, 
 formerly written entirely in the French manner, with an s 
 added to each part. Chaucer, in the " Tale of Melibeus," 
 wrote cousins-germans ; and letters-patents occurs in a state 
 paper dated July 25, 1400, preserved in Rymer's " Federa." 
 Some compounds, survivals from the Middle Ages, still add 
 s to both parts. 
 
 Knights bachelors Knights companions 
 
 bannerets Knights hospitallers 
 
 banneret Knights grand crosses 
 
 Knights commanders Knights Templars 
 
 o 
 
 Knights j 
 
 It is not uncommon to hear people speak of a well-known 
 benevolent organization as the knight templars ; and the 
 War Department, in a circular of September 27, 1886, and 
 several newspapers of the period, called the order knights 
 templar, whether from ignorance or with intent to improve 
 the language, I do not know. Nothing, however, is better 
 established in our literature than the form Knights Templars, 
 etc., for which the general reader may consult Burke's 
 " Book of Knighthood," the works of Sir Walter Scott, and 
 the recent and respectable authority of the Encyclopedia 
 Britannica, article " Knighthood." 
 
 The formation of such double plurals is not confined to 
 the orders of knighthood. We also read of the "Lords 
 Marchers," "the Lords High Admirals," "the Lords Jus- 
 tices" "the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury." We 
 might reconcile these expressions with our ideas of propriety 
 by supposing the words, " who are," to be understood be- 
 tween the plural words. We might suppose the gentlemen 
 last indicated to be primarily and essentially Lords, who, 
 for the time being, are Commissioners of the Treasury. 
 But this will probably not hold good throughout ; and the
 
 256 English Grammar. 
 
 learner has to be often reminded that language is full of 
 inconsistencies. 
 
 On the other hand, we may suppose that the " Lord 
 Chancellors," the " Lord Lieutenants," and the " Lord 
 Mayors " are not necessarily Lords in their own right. The 
 " Lord" is only a part of the title. 
 
 Some titles made up of two or more words illustrate the 
 general principle that the leading word is the noun, and 
 alone takes the sign of plurality. There are Envoys Extra- 
 ordinary, Ministers Plenipotentiary, and Consuls General. 
 General was primarily an adjective, but in time certain gen- 
 eral officers dropped their distinctive titles, were called 
 merely generals, and so the word came to be sometimes an 
 adjective and sometimes a noun. I have before me a book 
 entitled "Opinions of the Attorneys General" ; and Post- 
 masters General, Adjutants General, Paymasters General, are 
 pretty well established both by official and common usage ; 
 yet there are occasional dissenting voices. The American 
 Medical Association, in a memorial to Congress, in 1874, 
 speaks of Surgeon Generals ; and " Inspector Generals " occurs 
 in an act of Congress dated March 19, 1862. 
 
 When signifying a military officer of a certain grade, gen- 
 eral is a noun, and the class is differentiated into brigadier 
 generals, major generals, etc. ; for a major general is a general 
 and not a major. But, unfortunately, the major is an un- 
 stable element in the compound, for sergeant-majors (the 
 expression is a bad one) are sergeants and not majors ; and 
 drum-majors are neither majors nor drums. The British Army 
 Regulations recognize Sergeant Majors, Drum Majors, Bugle 
 Majors, and Trumpet Majors ; and in the American armies 
 I have met with jife-majors that were quite plain fifers. 
 
 There are a great number of appellations, each consisting 
 of two or more words, the plurals of which are in an unsettled 
 and unsatisfactory state. The principle above laid down, 
 however sound, is not followed consistently. Moreover, It 
 is not always obvious which word of a number is the essential 
 one ; but we can generally analyze an expression and dis- 
 cover what would accord with the fundamental analogies of
 
 Nouns. 257 
 
 the language. It may save the reader some trouble to 
 restate the principle that applies here. 
 
 The essential name or noun alone bears the mark of 
 plurality. It is regularly placed last, and all qualifying or 
 descriptive words precede it. 
 
 In the further discussion of this subject, all examples 
 marked as quotations are taken from printed books or publi- 
 cations, and when important the sources will be given. The 
 opinions of writers upon grammar are very conflicting, and 
 but little importance is attached to them, as they are gener- 
 ally mere individual judgments given without the support of 
 any reason or principle. Still, so far as I have been able to 
 glean, the majority agree with what here follows relative to 
 compounds of which one part is an individual proper name. 
 In our modern life we may treat the name of a person as 
 consisting of two parts Thomas Osborne. It is common to 
 call the first of these the Christian name, and the other the 
 surname. But the expressions are very ill chosen. Our 
 Hebrew friend, Moses Rosengarten, cannot properly be 
 said to have a Christian name ; and surname ought to mean 
 a name super-added a nickname like Longshanks, or Red- 
 beard. More properly, the second name is the family name, 
 the first the personal name. Our personal names are 
 largely borrowed from the Jews ; our system of naming 
 from the Romans. Our family name, corresponding to the 
 Latin nomen and cognomen united, is the principal name. 
 We speak of Bacon, Shakespeare, Milton, Newton, Wash- 
 ington ; not Francis, William, John, Isaac, or George. 
 These latter would be as good as no names at all, little 
 more distinctive than the pronouns he and they. The 
 personal names of even distinguished men are seldom heard, 
 and many persons could not tell those of Descartes, Goethe, 
 and Wordsworth. According, therefore, to the soundest 
 analogy, the family name is to be placed last, and should 
 bear the s of plurality. If any other word makes such a 
 claim, it should be required to show its grounds of title. If 
 there were two cousins bearing in common the name Mary 
 Brent, I think it would be proper to speak of them as the
 
 258 English Grammar. 
 
 two Mary Brents, and not the two Maries Brent. The last 
 is the essential name, to which the other stands related as 
 an adjective. This holds good where both personal and 
 family names agree. 
 
 Suppose now we have Mary Brent and Sarah Brent, can 
 we unite them into a plural ? Only imperfectly, and by 
 ellipsis, Mary and Sarah Brent. Mary and Sarah Brents 
 would be no better than a two-story and a three-story houses. 
 Or let there be Mary Brent and Mary Barnet ; then, although 
 I cannot prove the position, I think the Maries Brent and 
 Barnet would not be good, but we should name each in full. 
 
 " Yestreen the queen had four Maries, 
 To-night she has but three. 
 There were Mary Seatoun and Mary Beatoun, 
 And Mary Carmichael and me." 
 
 Sometimes the first part of a composite designation is not 
 a personal name but merely a designation of rank, office, 
 position, or occupation, as King, Duke, Lord, Judge, Doc- 
 tor, Professor ; or it may be a mere title of courtesy, in 
 itself signifying nothing : Sir, Mr., Mrs., Miss. Let w and 
 x represent terms belonging to these two classes respec- 
 tively. Again the several persons may have the same or 
 different names. There are then four possible combinations : 
 
 ist, w . a -j- b + c zd, w .a + a + # = ' . Z a 
 3d, x . a + b -\- c 4th, x ,a-\- a + a = x .30 
 
 I do not press the circumstance that in the second and 
 fourth cases the family name naturally becomes plural. 
 The reasons bearing upon the subject do not apply equally 
 to these four cases. 
 
 Case ist. The title may be repeated with each name. 
 
 " lord Livingston, lord Boyd, lord Herris." 
 
 ROBERTSON : " Hist, of Scotland." 
 
 This is always safe and correct, and is preferred by those 
 who wish to be both courteous and exact. As the title is 
 significant it is sometimes the most important part, the 
 names being added merely by way of explanation.
 
 Nouns. 259 
 
 " The two potent earls, Edwin and Morcar, had fled to 
 London." HUME : " Hist, of England." 
 
 " All this was managed by three or four aspiring bishops, 
 Maxwell, Sidserfe, Whitford, and Bannantine." 
 
 Bp. BURNET : " Hist." 
 
 This is perhaps the starting-point of the usage, and is 
 aided by the circumstance that feudal nobles were lords of 
 certain estates. 
 
 "the bishop of Orkney, the earls of Rothes and Casilis, lord 
 Fleming, lord Seton, the Prior of St. Andrews. 
 
 ROBERTSON : " Hist." 
 
 But the general practice is now to make the first factor 
 plural. 
 
 " Drs. Whitcot, Cudworth, Wilkins, More, and Worthington." 
 
 Bp. BURNET. 
 
 This can be reconciled with the analogies of the language 
 only by assuming the title to be the essential part, to which 
 the name is subordinate. The only permissible alternatives 
 are wa -f- wb -\- we and 3 w (a -\- b -J- c\ 
 
 Case 2d. The most eminent writers on grammar, including 
 Matzner and Dr. Priestley, agree that the mark of plurality 
 should be attached to the name and not to the title. Dr. 
 Priestley says : " When a name has a title prefixed, as Doctor, 
 Miss, Master, etc., the plural affects only the latter of the 
 two words; as the two Doctor Nettletons, the two Miss 
 Thompsons " ; and Goldsmith mentions : " The two Doctor 
 Thomsons," following the example of Shakespeare's " three 
 Doctor Faustuses " in the " Merry Wives," v., 5. 
 
 " Whence hapless Monsieur much complains at Paris 
 Of wrongs from Duchesses and Lady Maries." 
 
 POPE'S " Dunciad," book ii., i., 135. 
 
 Dr. Latham gives the great weight of his authority in 
 favor of 
 
 " the two King Williams." " English Language," p. 399. 
 
 It must be admitted that the opposite mode of expres- 
 sion is quite as common. Carlyle speaks of the " Kings
 
 260 English Grammar. 
 
 John " (" Life of Frederick the Great," book ii., chap, xi.) ; 
 but Carlyle is a writer often to be admired, but seldom to 
 be imitated. We also read of " Dukes Hamilton " and 
 " Lords Grey." 
 
 Case 3d. The title is trivial, never the principal word, and 
 therefore ought not to bear the mark of plurality. There 
 may be an illustrious king, a great general, an eminent 
 judge ; but we never meet with a great Sir, an eminent 
 Mr., or an illustrious Mrs. The only unquestionable course 
 is to give each title and name in full. No cultivated Eng- 
 lishman would say : Sirs W'illiam and Robert, or Sirs Wil- 
 liam Graham and Robert Sands. 
 
 " Sir Edward Parry, Sir James Ross, Sir John Rickardson, Sir 
 George Back." Edinb. Review, Oct., 1853. 
 
 But a few years ago the daily papers of Washington filled 
 columns with matter like the following : 
 
 " Sirs James R. F. Appleby, John C. Athey, J. H. Barbarin, 
 H. C. Craig, W. B. Easton." 
 
 The editors probably did not feel called upon to re-write 
 the matter sent to them for publication. 
 
 Strictly speaking, Mr., or Mister, has no plural. The sub- 
 stitute, Messrs., or Messieurs, remains French with no per- 
 ceptible tendency to become English. Messrs. Box, Cox, 
 Fox, & Co. is a concession to the hurry and urgency of 
 trade, but is felt not to belong to a high type of speech. 
 If we must have a common title for all men, in which case it 
 ceases to mean anything, it is a pity that it could not be 
 English, either native or adopted. 
 
 Mrs. is in a still worse plight than Mr. It is unfortunately- 
 pronounced Missis, and we do not often hear of Missises. 
 In English publications we find Mesdames, which, as a word, 
 has no connection with Mistress. It is not even the plural 
 of Madam, but of Madame. In collecting " Society " no- 
 tices for several years in the city of Washington, I have met 
 with the word only once, and then applied to strangers and 
 foreigners. It is habitually said that Mrs. A, Mrs. B, and
 
 Nouns. 261 
 
 Mrs. C, were present. So there is a depth of bad taste that 
 we have not yet sunk to. If the people of London refuse to 
 say "Sirs," those of Washington avoid " Mesdames," and so 
 may call the matter even. But then we often encounter in 
 " Society " the Misses Hop, Skip, and Jump, or other young 
 ladies of equal distinction. I should prefer to allow each a 
 repetition of the title, in the same manner as the matrons 
 just mentioned. 
 
 Still worse than any of the examples here given, is the 
 case where an adjective is reduced to a mere fragment, and 
 then treated as the principal word and made plural. 
 
 " They were as follows : Revs. R. Johnson, Dr. Faunce, Hez. 
 Swem, T. Cutwater, G. W. McCullough," etc. 
 
 Reverend and honorable are adjectives, and properly have 
 no plural forms. 
 
 Case 4th. If there were two knights or baronets, each 
 bearing the name of William Thompson, I do not think 
 that any correct speaker would call them the Sirs William 
 Thompson, or the Sir Williams Thompson. The point is in- 
 susceptible of proof ; I can only express my own decided 
 preference for the Sir William Thompsons. We cannot as 
 in other cases repeat the title with each name, as there is 
 only one name. 
 
 " if hee were twenty Sir John Falstoffs he shall not abuse Rob- 
 ert Shallow, Esquire." " Merry Wives of Windsor." 
 
 " May there not be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science ? " 
 
 Dr. WATTS. 
 
 " 2nd July. I went from Wotton to Godstone (the residence of 
 Sir John Evelyn), where was also Sir John Evelyn of Wilts, when 
 I took leave of both Sir Johns and their ladies." 
 
 " Evelyn's Diary," 1649. 
 
 The genius of a language is best preserved by the rural 
 gentry and yeomanry, who live remote from foreign influ- 
 ence. On revisiting the home of my childhood after an ab- 
 sence of twenty-seven years, I met on the road and accosted 
 an old neighbor. He looked up a moment and said : " It
 
 262 English Grammar. 
 
 is one of the Mister Rarnseys, is it not?" The reader may 
 think this poor authority ; I think it the very highest. And 
 what else should he have said ? There is no plural of Mister 
 in use ; and an intelligent farmer, guiltless of aping French 
 fashions, is not to be held to say Messieurs. 
 
 " Both the Mr. Bludyers of Mincing Lane have settled their 
 fortunes on Fanny Bludyer's little boy." 
 
 THACKERAY : " Vanity Fair." 
 
 After what has been said under Case 3d, we may con- 
 clude that the wives of two brothers named Brown may 
 properly be called the Mrs. Browns. But the young ladies 
 give more trouble. We are continually meeting with such 
 groups as, " Misses Ada Bond, Bruden, Coleman, Aiken, Cox, 
 Henning, Morsell." " Misses Schmidt," " the Misses Baker," 
 and " the Misses Grouse." When one tells us of " Mrs. Con- 
 dit Smith and the Misses Condit Smith," and another of 
 " Mrs. and the Misses Preston," or " Misses and Mrs. John- 
 son," the identity of sound is at least confusing. Although 
 this way of designating young ladies is not the only one, it 
 has been for a good many years the most common. 
 
 Miss is a contraction or corruption of Mistress, which last 
 was applied to women irrespective of age or domestic rela- 
 tions down to the time of Addison. The earliest use of 
 Miss, so far as I am aware, occurs in " Evelyn's Diary " under 
 date of January 9, 1662. 
 
 " In this * * * acted the fair and famous comedian called 
 Roxalana, from the part she performed ; and I think it was the 
 last, she being taken to be the Earl of Oxford's Miss (as at this 
 time they began to call lewd women)." 
 
 The word continued to be used occasionally as a disreputable 
 term down to the present century ; and in early life I sev- 
 eral times heard it so employed. It appears as a title dec- 
 orating Miss Prue in Congreve's " Love for Love" in 1695. 
 When applied to more than one person it does not appear 
 to have been pluralized at first. 
 
 Goldsmith makes us acquainted with "the Miss Flam- 
 boroughs " and " the Miss Wrinkles " in the " Vicar of
 
 Nouns. 263 
 
 Wakefield," and "the Miss Hoggs" in "She Stoops to 
 Conquer." " The two Miss Montagues," " Miss Charlotte 
 and Miss Patty Montague," appear in Richardson's " Clarissa 
 Harlowe," in 1748. 
 
 " Mrs. Maplesone and the Miss Maplesones, * * * the two 
 Miss Crumptons. * * * The four Miss Willises." 
 
 DICKENS : " Sketches." 
 
 "What tricks Theodore and I used to play on our Miss 
 Wilsons." CHARLOTTE BRONTE : " Jane Eyre." 
 
 " Don't you remember the two Miss Scratchleys ? * * * I 
 wish you could have seen the faces of the two Miss Blackbrooks. 
 * * * Lady Mcbeth and (2) Miss Mcbeths." 
 
 THACKERAY : " Vanity Fair." 
 
 " She would naturally desire that the Miss Guests should behave 
 kindly to this cousin." GEORGE ELIOT : "Mill on the Floss." 
 
 " Tell me about the Miss Leyburns." " The two Miss Bate- 
 sons."" Robert Elsmere." 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to say that I prefer the style of 
 these last quotations. 
 
 Some expressions borrowed unchanged from more inflected 
 languages add the sign of plurality to both parts : 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 compos mentis compotes mentium 
 
 ignis fatuus ignes fatui 
 
 latus rectum latera recta 
 
 Others are foreign phrases analogous to the English brother- 
 in-law. Lusus nature, a sport of nature, is the same in both 
 numbers, because the letters of lusus are so. 
 
 aide-de-camp aides-de-camp 
 
 chevar-de-frise chevaux-de-frise 
 
 fleur-de-lis fleurs-de-lis 
 
 Cheval-de-frise is literally a horse of Friesland, and obviously 
 the plural is not horses of Frieslands. But when the expres- 
 sion ceases to be true to the original, and becomes a mere 
 English phrase, an s should be added only at the end.
 
 264 English Grammar. 
 
 flower-de-luce flower-de-luces 
 
 aid-de-camp aid-de-camps 
 
 " Nine hundred Pater nosters every day, 
 And thrice nine hundred Aves she was wont to say." 
 
 SPENSER'S " Faerie Queene." 
 
 Some words are plural only in appearance, as if by a kind 
 of mimicry. The following are the principal : 
 
 Arras, a kind of tapestry made at Arras in France. 
 
 Cypers, fine muslin named from Cyprus. 
 
 Dolichos, name of a leguminous plant. 
 
 Guills, the corn marigold. 
 
 Gules, the red color in heraldry. 
 
 Nems, an animal like the ichneumon. 
 
 Psoas, a muscle in the loin. 
 
 Quickens, dog-grass. 
 
 Sanhedrim has the appearance of a Hebrew plural, but is 
 really a Greek singular. 
 
 Schnapps, spirituous liquor, especially gin. 
 
 Summons, not plural of a singular summon, but from an old 
 legal French term semonse. 
 
 Thrips, an insect destructive to vines. 
 
 W^OOS, a kind of sea-weed. 
 
 If words like these mimic plurality, there are others that 
 may be said to mimic humanity. Compounds whose last 
 part is man, meaning a human being, change it to -men in the 
 plural. Such are horseman, leman, seaman, yeoman, woman, 
 Welshman; but others, having altogether the same appear- 
 ance, are not so formed. The principal words that have the 
 semblance of being compounds of man are : 
 
 ataman dolmen Ottoman 
 
 brahman dragoman shaman 
 
 cayman hetman Turcoman 
 
 desman Mussulman all of which add s 
 
 dollman norman, a short wooden bar 
 
 But, as it is extremely rare to find anything in language 
 consistent throughout, while the plural of Northman is
 
 Nouns. 265 
 
 Northmen, that of Norman essentially the same word is 
 Normans. The probable reason is that the latter reached us 
 not as a native Teutonic but as a French word. 
 
 There are also expressions often used as nouns, but which 
 are so only by a kind of mimicry. They occur chiefly in 
 accounts of legal or religious proceedings, and have oftenest 
 the appearance of being Latin nouns, but those I refer to 
 are never nominative singulars, and so do not admit of Latin 
 plurality. When used as plurals they are to be taken as 
 single phrases, and s added, as if they -were English words. 
 
 aborigine, ab origine Kyrie quid nunc 
 
 aegrotat levari facias qui tarn 
 
 alias magnificat quorum 
 
 alibi mandamus quota 
 
 ave memento quo warranto 
 
 benedicite miserere rebus 
 
 capias mittimus recipe 
 
 certiorari nunc dimittis retraxit 
 
 credo omnibus scire facias 
 
 de profundis omnium sederunt 
 
 dirige pater noster subpoena 
 
 fiat pluries supersedeas 
 
 fieri facias postea Te Deum 
 
 gaudeamus praecipe veni Spiritus 
 
 habeas corpus proemunire venire facias 
 
 ignoramus procedendo venite 
 
 inspexhnus propaganda 
 
 These are conspicuous words in certain formulas, and so 
 have gained currency as their names. 
 
 A few nouns remain with peculiarities that do not admit 
 of classification. 
 
 Acquaintance. One person with whom we are intimate 
 is an acquaintance ; two or more are acquaintances ; but, 
 again, the collective body of such are our acquaintance. 
 
 " And they sought him among their kinsfolk and acquaintance." 
 
 LUKE ii., 44.
 
 266 English Grammar. 
 
 Alms. Originally and properly singular ; Greek, 
 fAOffvrrf} ecclesiastical Latin, eleemosyna ; A.-S., celmcesse, in 
 three syllables. Robert of Gloucester, A.D. 1303, wrote it 
 almesse, still three syllables. Next the final syllable was 
 dropped. Wycliffe, Sir Thomas More, and the Bible of 
 1513 make it almes. Lastly the e was elided and the original 
 six syllables reduced to one. The most familiar evidence 
 that the word is properly singular is the passage, Acts iii., 3, 
 where the lame man asks " an alms " of Peter and John. 
 Steele also in the beginning of the last century spoke of " a 
 plentiful alms." The many compound words, too, in which 
 alms serves as an adjective alms-basket, alms-deed, alms- 
 house show that the word is properly singular ; still it is 
 now treated oftenest as a plural. 
 
 Aloes. Is the word singular or plural ? two syllables or 
 three ? In any case the word has been applied to two 
 entirely different things. First there is lignaloes, which I 
 know only as a rendering of the Hebrew ahalim in the proph- 
 ecy of Balaam, Num. xxiv., 6, although the same article is 
 mentioned, Psalm xlv., 9 (Hebrew text), Prov. vii., 17, and 
 Canticles iv., 14, where our version has merely aloes. In the 
 four passages of the Hebrew text the word is twice mascu- 
 line and twice feminine, but always plural. As the Greeks 
 heard the word spoken by Phoenician traders J they picked 
 it up as aloe, and they and the Romans treated it as a sin- 
 gular. The name lignaloes is the Latin lignum-aloes wood 
 of the aloe- slightly anglicized. The last part of the name 
 is not plural but a Greek singular genitive ; and I suspect 
 that this unusual Latin form may have led to the treatment 
 of the word in English as a plural in short that like several 
 others it is a plural through mistake. The article denoted 
 by the name is a sweet-smelling Indian wood, allied to san- 
 dal-wood, still an article of commerce under the name of 
 eagle-wood, and the resin obtained from the same. Botanists 
 call the tree agallochum, or aquilaria. This is the only aloes 
 
 1 Bochart long ago observed (Phaleg, ii., 31) that all the names of spices 
 among the Greeks were Shemitic and received from the Phoenicians. Compare 
 Gen. xxxvii., 25.
 
 Nouns. 267 
 
 known to Scripture, and has no connection with medicinal 
 aloes. The name is most correctly pronounced as three 
 syllables, as in the metrical version of the Psalms used in 
 the Church of Scotland. 
 
 " Of cassia, myrrh and aloes 
 A smell thy garments had." 
 
 PSALM xlv. 
 
 The drug known as aloes is the dried juice of several 
 species of large tropical plants. How the name came to be 
 transferred from the one vegetable product to the other is 
 not clear. Possibly the dried juice of the plant had a re- 
 semblance to the resin of the tree. Our Saxon forefathers 
 adopted the word as a plural under the form alewan. 
 
 "And Nichodemus * * * brohte wyrt-gemang and alewan" 
 
 JOHN xiii., 39. 
 
 Through all changes the word has kept the plural form in 
 English, but it is used as singular or plural almost indif- 
 ferently. Lexicographers incline to treat it as singular, 
 while medical men generally use it as a plural. 
 
 Amends has had the plural form since the early part of 
 the fourteenth century, but is used with a singular verb. 
 
 Bellows A.-S. baelg, baelig, bylig, belg, a bag, the belly : 
 used in the plural, bean-belgas, for bean-pods ; spelled bely by 
 Chaucer, of which the plural was belies. The present form is 
 clearly plural like tongs, pincers, and other implements com- 
 posed of corresponding halves ; yet it is generally treated as 
 singular. 
 
 " flattery is the bellows bl<nvs up sin." 
 
 SHAKES?.: "Pericles," i., 2. 
 
 " They watched the laboring bellows, 
 And as its panting ceased." 
 
 LONGFELLOW. 
 
 Breeches a double plural. A.-S. brdc, plural br/c, like 
 the plurals of book, foot, goose, tooth, etc., or rather of their 
 A.-S. originals. Middle English plural breke or breche.
 
 268 English Grammar. 
 
 When men began to forget that breche or breech was plural 
 they added es. 
 
 Cattle Middle English catel and chatel, identical with the 
 old French catel and chatel, derived remotely from the Latin 
 caput, the head, through capitalis, capitate, pi. capitalia, capi- 
 tal. At first property of any kind, but chiefly domestic 
 animals. Of the two forms one became cattle, expressing 
 plurality in the form of a singular, and the other became 
 chattel, oftenest used in the plural. 
 
 Cloth signified originally either a garment or the material 
 from which it might be made. We have now an old plural, 
 clothes a very unusual form meaning garments, and a new 
 plural, cloths, for material not made up. 
 
 Coal. As an article of common use it is mostly called 
 coal in America and coals in England. 
 
 Die, from Old French det, later de", pi. dez, des. Chaucer 
 has a plural dys, but some copies give dees, which is etymo- 
 logically more correct, and is the form used by " Piers Plow- 
 man." Shakespeare makes the singular dye and the plural 
 dice (" Winter's Tale," i., 2, 133). Bulwer Lytton, in " Pel- 
 ham," wrote one dice, an example not to be recommended. 
 What is curious about this word is that its compounds and 
 derivatives are made from the plural dice, and not from the 
 singular die dice-box, dice-player. 
 
 " There is such dicing-houses also, they say, as had not been 
 wont to be, where young gentlemen dice away their thrift, and 
 where dicing is there are other follies also." 
 
 Bp. LATIMER : Sermon v., before King Edward. 
 
 The probable reason is the necessity for distinguishing the 
 three words, dying, dyeing and dicing. 
 
 Die, as an instrument for stamping, has the plural dies. 
 
 Eaves A.-S. efese, edge or brink, is etymologically singu- 
 lar ; and so, like alms, plural through mistake. As the/" was 
 sounded like v, one of the first changes was to substitute the 
 latter. It was still a singular with the plural written eveses 
 by Robert Manning, otherwise called Robert de Brunne, 
 I337> and " Piers Plowman," 1362. After that time eves was
 
 Nouns. 269 
 
 mistaken for a plural without a singular. The original form 
 is shown by the compounds, which are made with eaves and 
 not eave eaves-board, eaves-dropper. 
 
 Folk a common collective word for an indefinite number 
 of persons, for the community in general. Used with a 
 plural verb. In England it is more common to say folk 
 are, and in America folks are ; but the usage is not uniform 
 in either country. Here folk seems rather affected, and folks 
 is no novelty in England. 
 
 " Yet merry folks who want by chance 
 A pair to make a country dance, 
 Call the old house-keeper and get her 
 To fill a place for want of better." 
 
 SWIFT : " Stella's Birth Day." 
 
 " Necessity and a little common sense produced all the com- 
 mon arts, which the plain folks who practised them were not idle 
 enough to record." 
 
 WALPOLE'S " Anecdotes of Painting," chap. 5. 
 
 Gallows strictly plural of a singular gallow, in use down 
 to the middle of the sixteenth century. Kington Oliphant 
 ("New English," chap. 2) quotes, "4 payre of galowys" 
 from the early part of the fifteenth century. This instru- 
 ment of execution was next called simply the gallows, and 
 on the supposition that the name was singular a duplicate 
 plural, gallowses, was formed. 
 
 " The fear of gallowses and ropes 
 Before their eyes might reconcile 
 Their animosities a while." 
 
 " Hudibras," part in., ii., 716. 
 
 I have also met with gallowses in the Spectator, but have 
 mislaid the reference. All the extant compounds are made 
 with gallows none with gallow. 
 
 Genius has a Latin pluralgenn for the creatures of Eastern 
 fable and story, and English geniuses for persons of rare 
 mental gifts. 
 
 Horse. We use horse for one animal, horses for several, 
 and again horse for a body of cavalry or troops on horseback.
 
 270 English Grammar. 
 
 Horse and foot, a phrase that came into use in the early part 
 of the seventeenth century, may be an abbreviation for 
 horsemen and footmen. The collective singular, horse, is not 
 generally applied to animals without riders, yet Byron's 
 " Mazeppa " was met by 
 
 " A thousand horse, and none to ride." 
 
 Index has a Latin plural, indices, for the characters that 
 distinguish algebraic powers and roots, and the English 
 indexes, when the word is employed otherwise. 
 
 Madam, Fr. Madame, ma dame, Latin mea domina, Eng. 
 my lady. At present no other plural is in use than Mesdames, 
 which is sadly out of tune with our mother tongue. As 
 Madam is no longer pure French, I think Madams not only 
 permissible but preferable. 
 
 Means Old French meien, Mod. Fr. moyen, Latin me- 
 dium from medius, middle ; used as a noun or an adjective 
 in reference to a point between extremes, as mean time, 
 mean annual temperature, a safe mean between extremes. 
 It next gets the sense of an intermediate agency by the aid 
 of which anything is done. 
 
 " The virtuous conversation of Christians was a mean to work 
 the conversion of the heathen." HOOKER. 
 
 But in this sense it generally takes the plural form. The 
 word occurs thirty-two times in the Bible, but always as 
 means. It takes singular or plural verbs and pronouns 
 indifferently. 
 
 "By this means thou shalt have no part on this side the river." 
 
 EZRA iv., 16. 
 
 "By these means, the queen had collected an army twenty 
 thousand strong." HUME'S " Hist, of England," chap. xxi. 
 
 Memorandum has two plurals, Lat. and Eng. memoranda 
 and memorandums. A useful distinction is sometimes made 
 by confining the former to a number of notes taken collec- 
 tively, and the latter to notes that are separate and inde- 
 pendent. For example : " He shewed me a paper containing
 
 Nouns. 271 
 
 memoranda relating to," etc. " He drew from his pocket a 
 number of memorandums" 
 
 Mister a thin and meagre degradation of Master, sup- 
 posed to be formed in imitation of Mistress, which latter is 
 from maister-ess. It is rarely, if at all, met with in the 
 plural, for which the French Messieurs is commonly used. 
 Mister is bad, Madam worse, but Mesdames and Messieurs, 
 set among English words, are utterly execrable. 
 
 Molasses. The older form melasses was more correct, 
 being a regular plural of the Fr. melasse, from the Portu- 
 guese melac.0. The word is a true plural, and was formerly 
 so used : 
 
 " The molasses will find their own outlets." 
 
 BECKFORD'S "Account of Jamaica," 1790, vol. ii., p. 79. 
 
 See also Encyclopedia Britannica, Art. " Sugar." It is now 
 very commonly treated as a singular. 
 
 News and tidings, plurals in form construed as singulars. 
 
 Odds, meaning odd things, came into use about A.D. 1 500. 
 It soon took the sense of difference or inequality, and in a 
 hundred years began to be used as a singular : 
 
 " I cannot speake 
 Any beginning to this peevish oddes" 
 
 " Othello," ii., iii., 185. 
 
 and is now treated indifferently as singular or plural. 
 
 Penny has two plurals. Six coins of that denomination 
 are six pennies ; their value is sixpence, which admits of a 
 plural of the second order, in a handful of silver sixpences. 
 
 Pox, the only plural in x, standing tor pocks, the plural of 
 pock, meaning the disease now commonly called small-pox. 
 
 " Yes, I have known a lady sick of the small pocks, only to 
 keep her from pit-holes, take cold, strike them in again, kick up 
 her heels, and vanish." 
 
 BEAUM. & FLETCH., " Fair Maid of the Inn." 
 
 That pock is the true singular appears from its use as an 
 adjective in pock-mark, pock-pitted, etc. ; yet pox is now used 
 entirely as a singular.
 
 272 English Grammar. 
 
 Pulse. There are two quite different words. The one 
 now in common use is from the Lat. pulsus, a stroke, a beat- 
 ing, a throbbing. Curiously enough, it was often mistaken 
 for a plural about the beginning of th'e present century, when 
 doctors were wont to say : " Your pulse are weak to-day." 
 The other word is rarely met with, but is an old collective 
 term for peas, or, if any one prefer, pease, singular in form 
 but construed as a plural. 
 
 " And Barzillai the Gileadite of Rogelim brought beds, and 
 basins, and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and flour, and 
 parched corn, and beans, and lentiles, and parched pulse" 2 
 SAM. xvii., 28. 
 
 Riches Fr. richesse, richness, wealth an original singu- 
 lar, converted into a plural through misapprehension as early 
 as Chaucer's time. 
 
 Sixpence see penny. 
 
 Summons from Old Fr. semonse, a warning, is, and 
 always was, a singular, although it has the appearance of 
 a plural. 
 
 Twelvemonth, a curious singular form for the plural 
 twelve months. Like it but more reduced is fortnight for 
 fourteen nights. 
 
 Wages, from the singular wage, payment, used mostly in 
 the plural form since the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 " The wages of labor, however, are much higher in North 
 America than in any part of England." 
 
 SMITH'S " Wealth of Nations." 
 
 The old singular is often seen in these days in compound 
 words in news-articles relating to wage-workers. 
 
 After the plural forms have been ascertained, many ques- 
 tions arise as to whether certain words are to be treated as 
 singular or plural. If the form alone were conclusive there 
 could be no question ; but singular nouns are often treated 
 as plurals, and plural nouns as singular. The distinction 
 depends in part on the form of the word, and partly on the
 
 Nouns. 273 
 
 nature of the thing or aggregate signified ; and we need not 
 expect strict consistency in adjusting conflicting claims. 
 Cattle, singular in form, is always treated as plural, while 
 game, meaning wild animals hunted for food or amusement, 
 however numerous, is singular. So is stock, which is nearly 
 equivalent to cattle. Poultry, birds domesticated for eco- 
 nomic reasons, and craft, a marine term, are either singular 
 or plural. 
 
 Nouns singular in form, denoting collective bodies of per- 
 sons, are sometimes treated as singular, and at other times 
 as plural. The only rational principle of distinction applica- 
 ble here is, that when the aggregate acts as a unified body it 
 is singular ; where the action or passion is individual the 
 whole is to be treated as plural. This may be made clearer 
 by a few examples, and first by three that I deem incorrect. 
 
 " The prisoners taken in this action had their right foot cut 
 off." HUME : " Hist, of England," chap. iv. 
 
 The amputation could apply to the prisoners only as indi- 
 viduals, and they must have had more than one right foot 
 among them. 
 
 " The circle of men was talking indiscriminately to both." 
 
 " Robert Elsmere." 
 Better, were talking. 
 
 " There was a score of candles sparkling round the mantle- 
 piece."" Vanity Fair." 
 
 It was the individual candles that sparkled. 
 
 We may properly say that a mob crosses a bridge, advances 
 upon the city, fills and obstructs the streets ; but the mob 
 shout, throw stones, and break into stores, for these are the 
 acts of individuals, those of a collective mass. So a political 
 party is singular in favoring or opposing a public measure, 
 but plural in voting. We may say that an army marches at 
 daybreak, and encamps on the bank of a river ; but we never 
 say that it eats breakfast, puts on its shoes, or washes its face. 
 
 Again a class of persons is generally plural ; an organized 
 body, acting as such, is singular. 
 
 18
 
 274 English Grammar. 
 
 The clergy are exempt from military duty. 
 
 The Senate is in session. 
 
 Branches of science whose names end in -ics acoustics, 
 hydrostatics, mathematics, optics, therapeutics are treated 
 as singular. 
 
 " Physics regulates more completely our social life than does 
 his acquaintance with surrounding bodies regulate that of the 
 savage." HERBERT SPENCER. 
 
 A proper name, plural in form, is correctly used as a 
 singular. 
 
 " The Three Sisters (name of a brig) was spoken off Cape 
 
 Hatteras." 
 
 " ' The Hundred Wives ' is to be acted to-night." 
 
 " ' English Bards and Scotch Reviewers ' is more bitter than 
 
 witty." 
 
 The national designation of this country, covering, as it 
 now does, forty-four commonwealths, is sometimes used as 
 a singular, and sometimes as a plural. Unquestionably it 
 was regarded at first as plural. It is plural in the Constitu- 
 tion, in President Washington's proclamation of April 22, 
 1793, and in the letters of " Pacificus " and " Helvidius " 
 (Hamilton and Madison) ; but lately it is beginning to be 
 used as a singular. 
 
 The name is treated as a singular in the treaty with Corea, 
 ratified May 22, 1882 ; in Elaine's reply to Gladstone in the 
 North American Review for January, 1890, and in the article 
 " United States," written for the Encyclopedia Britannica 
 by Prof. Johnston. The change thus begun is as much 
 political as grammatical. In the early days of the Republic 
 the plurality of origin was kept more before men's minds 
 than the unity of result. They emphasized the pluribus of 
 the common motto rather than the unum ; but since 1865 
 there has been a greater feeling of nationality. 
 
 Numbers expressing value, magnitude, distance, etc., and 
 not individual entities, are properly treated as singular; 
 yet usage, which is much divided, inclines to plurality. It 
 will be readily seen how harsh and strained the following ex- 
 amples are as plurals.
 
 Nouns. 275 
 
 Two hours are not long to wait. 
 Forty degrees below zero are extremely cold. 
 Seven feet are a great height for a man. 
 Ten dollars are too much for these boots. 
 
 The best writers very generally speak of a sum of money 
 as a singular unit. 
 
 " 6oo,oool, which was enough to procure a peace." 
 
 BP. BURNET. 
 
 " A thousand a year was thought a large revenue for a barris- 
 ter." MACAULAY : " Hist.," chap. iii. 
 
 " Moreover this forty millions does not * * * represent the 
 whole amount to be expended under the Government bill." 
 
 ARTHUR J. BALFOUR. 
 
 But how little this is adhered to will be seen by three in- 
 stances Sumner's " History of American Currency," and 
 the reports of the Secretary of the Treasury and the Direc- 
 tor of the Mint for 1889. The first treats a sum of money, 
 stated in figures or words, as plural ; in the second it is seven- 
 teen times plural and six times singular, in the last seventeen 
 times plural and five times singular. The distinction does 
 not seem to depend upon any principle. 
 
 A case belongs here that involves the question of what is 
 a plurality. Authorities usually give two definitions as if 
 they were synonymous, which they are not, viz., " more 
 than one," and " two or more." Now i comes under the 
 first, but not under the second. Is it then singular or plural ? 
 The short-hand style of trade adopts \\ cents, which is not 
 according to sound analogy. One and a half loaves is equiv- 
 alent to a whole and a half loaves, which certainly would 
 not be good. The correct expression is a loaf and a half = 
 a whole loaf and a half loaf, which would then be plural. 
 
 THE CASES OF NOUNS. 
 
 Number and gender are inherent and permanent. So long 
 as they live, three men never become more or less than 
 three ; nor do they ever change their gender and become 
 women. But their relations to other persons and things may
 
 276 English Grammar. 
 
 change at any time, and to an indefinite extent. If I say, 
 " The man is riding a bay horse," the man is the principal 
 thing spoken of, and he is represented as doing something. 
 But if I say, " The mans horse has run away," the horse 
 becomes the chief actor, and the man is named only on 
 account of his relation of ownership to the animal. Rela- 
 tions between things may be expressed in several ways, of 
 which four are quite common. 
 
 First, as in this instance, a change in or addition to the 
 word. 
 
 Second, by little words whose office is to express the 
 relations of one thing to others. Such are, of, to, by, from, 
 with, which, from being very often placed before nouns, are 
 called prepositions that is, placings-before. 
 
 Third. Another class of relations are expressed by such 
 words as my, your, his, etc. 
 
 Fourth. Certain relations are expressed by words repre- 
 senting action of some kind. In " The dog chased a wolf," 
 and " A wolf chased the dog," the relation of pursuer and 
 pursued is reversed. 
 
 The first and third of these modes usually express but a 
 small number of relations ; the fourth is limited to the one 
 general relation of the actor and the thing acted upon, un- 
 less we take into account the meaning of every separate 
 verb. The second is co-extensive with the number of prepo- 
 sitions. 
 
 Although there is not entire agreement as to the definition 
 of case, it is very generally limited to the first above model. 
 I shall use the term to denote a modification in the form of 
 a noun or pronoun to express a relation, not anything inher- 
 ent in the subject of the noun or pronoun. 
 
 The lively fancy of the Greeks represented that form of 
 the noun which denoted the doer as standing upright, and 
 all the others as falling away from it at varying angles of 
 declination or " declension," These slanting forms they 
 called ptoseis, or fallings. It was a foolish whim, as ground- 
 less as it was useless. In the Greek word for a woman the 
 essential part \s gunaik, but that form which represents her
 
 Nouns. 277 
 
 as being or doing anything is gune, a wider departure than 
 the most prostrate of the fallen cases. The Romans trans- 
 lated literally the ptoseis of the Greeks, and called them 
 casus, fallings, our modern cases ; but they applied the name 
 equally to what the latter supposed to stand upright. They 
 called it the casus rectus, upright case, and the others casus 
 obliqui, oblique or slanting. To their practical minds the 
 terms denoted merely certain variations in the forms of 
 words. There have been persons capable of arguing that 
 what stood upright could not be falling, and that therefore 
 what Cicero called the casus rectus was not a case at all. I 
 am not sure that this race of subtle dialecticians is extinct 
 yet. 
 
 We come next to the question, how many cases we should 
 reckon. To answer this the definition above given requires 
 to be further guarded. If it should so happen that any 
 word had two case forms that might be used interchange- 
 ably throughout, having no difference of signification, we 
 might properly say that there was but one case variously 
 expressed. Again, if a certain noun had but one form to 
 express two relations, while other nouns in the language 
 had two forms, we should conclude that the exceptional 
 word had two of its cases alike. It is difficult to find apt 
 examples in English, although they are abundant in other 
 languages, but the following will give an approximate idea. 
 " Moses' law " and " Moses's law " are the same thing, while 
 " sheep's wool " may mean the wool of one sheep or of 
 several. Moreover, if the same case form be used through- 
 out the language for three different relations, that will not 
 make three cases, but only one ; and it matters not that its 
 place is taken by three in some other language. What is 
 called the ablative case in Latin expresses the place where 
 anything is, the instrumentality with which a thing is done, 
 and the source from which anything is obtained ; still it is 
 only one case, and is uninfluenced by the circumstance that 
 in Sanskrit there are three separate cases for these purposes. 
 Hence the absurdity, so long persisted in, of assigning to 
 English nouns precisely the cases claimed for Latin. If an
 
 278 English Grammar. 
 
 algebraic expression may be permitted, to make n cases 
 there must be n forms with at least n corresponding func- 
 tions. It will not matter that in some particular words a 
 part of what are supposed to have been once separate forms 
 have become indistinguishable. If they be preserved in some 
 other words of the same class, they are to be recognized. 
 
 In the following examples " The man is waiting, A dog 
 bit the man, Man ! wait a moment, That is the track of a 
 man, I gave the letter to the man, The horse was stopped 
 by the man, Go with the man, It was taken from the man," 
 the word man remains unchanged, and any noun in the 
 language would yield a like result. How many cases then 
 are here exhibited ? I think there is only one, and as it is 
 used in so many different relations, I shall call it the common 
 case. The term common has often been used for an an- 
 alogous purpose in reference to the gender of mice, spar- 
 rows, and the like, not easily distinguishable. There is one 
 other form, that seen in the sentence, " This is the mans 
 house," and as this always expresses possession or ownership, 
 I shall call it by the usual name of the possessive case. 
 Although most grammarians have recognized at least three 
 distinctions, there is no novelty in thus limiting them to two. 
 The same thing has been done by Ben Jonson, Charles 
 Butler (1633), Fowle ("True English Grammar"), Web- 
 ber, Jamieson (Rhetoric), Priestley, Ash, Bicknell, Dalton, 
 Hyde, Clarke (London, 1853), Webster (" Imperial 
 Grammar," 1831), Latham, Maetzner, and, at one time, by 
 Lindley Murray. 
 
 For reasons similar to those exhibited in the chapter on 
 Word-Making, it is now generally held that case endings 
 were originally separate words pronouns, prepositions, etc., 
 that they became by frequent repetition closely associated 
 with nouns, that by rapid and careless utterance they 
 gradually lost part of their articulate sounds and ceased to 
 be recognizable as separate words. Nay, they became in 
 time so far reduced that often they were not distinguishable 
 from each other, and in many instances not a vestige of 
 them was left. But at their best, as known to us, they have
 
 Nouns. 2 79 
 
 generally failed to indicate all the relations required to be 
 expressed. The Hebrew language has eleven terminations 
 for nouns, which I think might, without overstraining the 
 term, be called case endings, and Magyar has twenty-four ; 
 but both have recourse to separate words to express many 
 relations. Latin has six cases, but employs besides forty- 
 three prepositions. Often the prepositions render the case 
 endings unnecessary. In languages as we now know them, 
 separate words can often do all the work ; case endings never 
 can. But where the latter are competent, they are the 
 .neatest, " The parson's house " is in that respect better than 
 " The house of the parson," two syllables shorter. Cases 
 may thus become matter of taste rather than necessity of 
 ornament than use. They will be prized by the scholar who 
 cultivates elegance, not by the illiterate who need great 
 plainness. So there is a constant tendency to lose case end- 
 ings. The illustration (p. 280) of their gradual decrease 
 within the Aryan family of languages will be of interest. 
 
 The Sanskrit alone appears to have all the cases complete ; 
 yet that apparent completeness is deceptive. But few words 
 have separate forms for all the cases in the singular, and 
 none have them in the dual and plural. Moreover, if it were 
 possible to go back a thousand years farther into the dawn 
 of time, we might find that the extant Sanskrit had lost a 
 number of cases before it came within the range of vision. 
 No noun in any of these languages, except in the almost un- 
 inflected English and French classes, has all the forms to 
 which it is theoretically entitled. One case, the vocative, is 
 especially defective. When it differs from the nominative it 
 is shorter adapted to shouts and exclamations. It is never 
 found but in the singular. In Latin it is confined to the 
 singulars of a not very large class of words ; and in Russian 
 to a few archaic terms of the Church service. We see here 
 how the number of cases has dwindled till Italian, Spanish, 
 and French nouns have no trace of them. In English the 
 accusative or objective case is found only in the seven mono- 
 syllables me, thee, him, her, us, them, and whom ; and in 
 order to follow the analogy of these pronouns a majority of
 
 280 
 
 English Grammar. 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 
 sf 
 
 'rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M H 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^en 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 >-) 
 o 
 
 E 
 
 U 
 
 en 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 <U 
 
 (A 
 
 O 
 
 
 S5 2 
 
 
 JjJ 
 
 
 C 
 
 en 
 
 i 
 
 
 ^M <J 
 
 <U 
 
 *y 
 
 
 U 
 
 <U 
 
 
 M 5S 
 
 O 5 
 
 <u 
 
 "2 
 
 
 !* 
 
 % 
 
 
 o S 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 E 
 
 'C 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 6 5 
 
 nJ O 
 
 
 
 <OJ 
 
 <u 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 O X 
 
 o 
 
 en 
 
 6 
 
 en 
 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 O3 
 
 
 < <" 
 
 ,<e 
 
 <C 
 
 * 
 
 03 
 
 <C 
 
 
 u 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 en 
 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 w; ^ 
 en en 
 
 en 
 
 
 * 
 
 i 
 
 
 O 
 
 <d 1C 
 
 1C 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 Xn 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 U! 
 
 i 
 
 } f Ji 
 
 ^^~ 
 
 
 (Si 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 r< ^ 
 O O 
 
 *i 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 IS 
 Q 
 
 
 
 fc k 
 
 te 
 
 
 1 
 
 Jj 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 JpJ 
 
 
 
 
 *+3 
 
 
 
 C C 
 
 n 
 
 
 e B 
 
 a 
 
 
 M 
 
 *U O 
 
 
 
 <U 1> 
 
 <D 
 
 
 
 > > 
 
 > 
 
 
 > > 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 rt 
 
 'rt 
 
 a 
 
 r^ . *^i 
 
 ^ 
 
 r^i 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 [3 
 
 rG J3 
 
 O O 
 
 ,C 
 U 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 id 
 
 IS 
 
 (J 
 
 M 
 
 rt cj 
 
 rt 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 *^3 
 
 
 H S 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 en 
 
 9 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 D 2 
 
 aj rt 
 
 nS 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 <o 
 
 u 
 
 K 
 
 r^ r^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 M 
 
 rl<i 
 
 rM 
 
 S* 
 
 '% '% 
 
 ? 
 
 'ft 
 
 ^ 
 
 '?. 
 
 '1 
 
 U 
 
 en 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 ^ 
 
 en 
 
 
 1 
 
 rf rt 
 
 rt 
 
 O 
 
 <cj <cj 
 
 ds 
 
 V 
 
 
 rt ci 
 
 rt 
 
 3 
 
 ci ctf 
 
 nJ 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 G C 
 
 C 
 
 
 C3 C 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 o a 
 
 
 
 Accus 
 
 H 
 en 
 2 
 
 (( 
 
 < M 
 
 Q < 
 
 IB 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 H
 
 Nouns. 281 
 
 writers on grammar assign an objective case to all nouns by 
 a kind of legal fiction. In confining the distinction of cases, 
 however, to those for which there are distinct forms, we 
 should have the countenance of the French, Spaniards, and 
 Italians, who do not attribute cases to their nouns merely 
 because pronouns have them. Moreover, when English 
 writers treat of the Anglo-Saxon stage of our language, they 
 assign only two numbers to nouns, although the personal 
 pronouns had three ; and we never speak of the number, 
 gender, or case of adjectives because nouns are thus dis- 
 tinguished. 
 
 If then nouns have two case forms, one denoting posses- 
 sion, and the other used in common in all other relations, 
 this distinction may, and does, hold good for both the singu- 
 lar and the plural. We have already seen the various forms 
 of the common case, and it remains only to consider the 
 possessive in both numbers. In Anglo-Saxon the most dis- 
 tinctive, and one of the most common endings of the posses- 
 sive singular was -es, and gradually all the other forms gave 
 way to this one, so that there is not now a noun in the 
 language that forms its possessive on any other pattern. At 
 the same time a considerable number of nouns had plurals 
 in -as ; and, as we have seen, all but a very few eventually 
 adopted that style. The common plural, therefore, and pos- 
 sessive singular were a good deal alike ; and in the very lax 
 spelling that prevailed up to the age of Elizabeth, and even 
 later, both were indiscriminately made with -es, -is, -ys, and -s 
 alone. All through the sixteenth century the declension of 
 an English noun was : 
 
 Sing. garden Plur. gardenes 
 
 gardenes gardenes 
 
 except that instead of -es, there might be -is, -ys, or -*-. 
 When the common case ended with a hissing sound the ear 
 could seldom distinguish -es or -is from his, and that crept 
 into use as a fifth form of the possessive. This form is quite 
 old, being found a number of times in the second manuscript 
 of Layamon's " Brut," second half of the thirteenth century :
 
 282 English Grammar. 
 
 "he was Vther his sone." 
 " his brode sweord he vt droh 
 and vppe Colgrim his helm smot." 
 
 It continued in use down to the eighteenth century, chiefly 
 with sibilants : " Hercules his club," " Orpheus his lyre," 
 " Ulysses his dog," " Phalaris his bull." It was even believed 
 that his was the original, of which the shorter forms were 
 only corruptions. In the I35th Spectator Addison undertook 
 to tell what he knew about English, which seems to have 
 been but little ; and he says of the possessive s : 
 
 "I might here observe that the same single letter on many 
 occasions does the office of a whole word and expresses the his 
 and her of our forefathers." 
 
 In the absence of direct evidence, it would be a strange 
 derivation to suppose s a substitute for her ; and the same 
 reasoning would derive it from their in " children's play." 
 Even admitting these to be blundering imitations of his, the 
 question remains : Is not his formed from he by adding a 
 possessive s ? The truth is that throughout the Aryan 
 family s, with or without modifying vowels, is one of the 
 most common possessive endings. 
 
 In Versification it is convenient to be able to vary the 
 length of a word by adding or omitting a syllable. The 
 omission is the most common, and syllables already feebly 
 pronounced are the victims. Our early poets wrote in full, 
 and trusted to the ear and intelligence of the reader to leave 
 some letters and syllables unpronounced. The rhythm might 
 require " landes," for example, to be read in one place as 
 two syllables, and in another as one. At length writers fell 
 upon the expedient of omitting silent letters and marking 
 their place with the sign ( ' ) which now occurs so often in 
 our poetry. 
 
 " But I must leave the proofs to those who 've seen 'em." 
 
 BYRON. 
 
 At the beginning of the seventeenth century these abbre- 
 viations were employed, but not especially to denote the
 
 Nouns. 283 
 
 possessive case, but rather more frequently for other pur- 
 poses : 
 
 " and for the rest o' th' fleet." 
 
 SHAKESP. : "Tempest." 
 "Your Son 's my Father's friend." 
 
 " Cymbeline." 
 " Loves Labour 's Lost." 
 
 " thou hast pared thy wit o' both sides, and left nothing i' th' 
 middle. " Lear." 
 
 The following examples from Sir Walter Raleigh will show 
 how the plural and the possessive singular were expressed 
 in prose : " the last of Jehu's house " ; " Zachariahs death " ; 
 " Uzziah's life " ; " Uzziah his reign " ; " Menahem his 
 Raigne " ; " the Painters wives Island " ; " Jesus the son 
 of Sirach his book " ; " Cato his family " ; " The Scipio's 
 marched into Thessaly " ; " The ingratitude of Rome to the 
 two Scipio's " ; " Sibyls verses " ; " in Ahaz time " ; " Ahaz 
 his fourteenth year " ; " Apolloes priests " ; " the three Ara- 
 bia's " ; " then were the negro's not men." This way of ex- 
 pressing the plurals of words ending in vowels continued for 
 a long time. Sir Thomas Browne, in his " Pseudodoxia " 
 (1650), speaks of " Several sorts of torpedo's " ; " Hyaena's " 
 etc., of " feathers brought from the Molucca's " ; of " Halo's " 
 and " Hydra's." A single sentence relative to the standards 
 of the Twelve Tribes will illustrate his manner of expressing 
 the possessive singular : 
 
 " But Abenezra and others, beside the colours of the field, do 
 set down other charges, in Reubens the form of a man or man- 
 drake, in that of Judah a Lyon, in Ephraims an Ox, in Dan's the 
 figure of an Aigle." 
 
 I have observed but one other instance of the modern 
 possessive in the whole work. 
 
 The wits of Queen Anne's time wrote of " extraordinary 
 genio's " (Tatler, l/io); "Voluptuous concerts of Venus's 
 and Adonis's (Censor, April 20, 1/15); and of the" Hilpa's 
 and Nilpa's that lived before the flood " (Spectator, No. 609).
 
 284 English Grammar. 
 
 In the Philosophical Transactions for 1780 may be read: 
 " Vesuvius does not exhibit any lava's irregularly crystal- 
 ized, and forming what are vulgarly called Giants Cause- 
 ways." Let the reader here observe the word Giants. The 
 last instance of this kind that I shall cite is from Gordon's 
 " History of American Independence " (London, 1788) : " It 
 was projected and brought on by Messrs. Otis's, father and 
 son." Thus it took two hundred years to settle the single 
 point, that Johns should mean belonging to John, and 
 should mean nothing else. 
 
 When a word ends with any sound of s, the addition of 
 another will sometimes produce an excessive and unpleasant 
 hissing. Most readers will agree with me that " Moses's 
 serpent " " and Caucasus's hard rock " (Spectator, Nos. 14 
 and 6 1 1), Ulysses's shipwreck and righteousness's sake, are 
 far too sibilant ; but there is a wide diversity of opinion 
 as to the proper limit. Usage differs ; and in such a case 
 usage is the law. The Bible has " Moses' hands," " Jesus' 
 disciple," for " righteousness' sake," " asking no questions 
 for conscience' sake " ; the Spectator (135) speaks of " Hudi- 
 bras doggrel expressions," and " St. James* Garden Hill 
 Church." In Oliphant's " New English " we find such 
 phrases as " Stubbes' remarks," " Erasmus Greek Testa- 
 ment," " Ellis' Letters," and " Monkbarns' lykewake." On 
 the other hand I have met with " Jesus's " in two quite 
 respectable and very recent publications. 
 
 Out of the chaos we may deduce the following general 
 conclusions : 
 
 1. As 's is now the sign of the possessive, presumption is 
 always in its favor, until a reason can be shown for its omis- 
 sion. That reason can only be that too many sibilants are 
 difficult to utter or unpleasant to hear. 
 
 2. The longer the word the more cumbersome the addition 
 is felt to be. 
 
 3. Add the 'j to all words of one syllable. 
 
 " The vera topmost tow'ring height 
 O Miss's bonnet." 
 
 BURNS.
 
 Nouns. 285 
 
 " Binding his foal unto the vine, and his ass's colt unto the 
 choice vine." BIBLE. 
 
 4. To words of more than one syllable do not add 'j, if it 
 would make three sibilants close together. 
 
 5. In no case add 's to words of more than three syllables, 
 so as to make Semiramis's or Telemachus's. 
 
 6. Most words of two syllables, not having two sibilants near 
 the end, will bear the addition of 's Thomas, Morris, Ellis, 
 Peters, Sickles. If the last syllable be accented it will bear 
 the addition Hortense, Delmas, Dundas, Fordyce, Laplace, 
 Maclise, Pelouze. If the last syllable be of considerable vol- 
 ume, but unaccented Greatrakes, Helmholtz, Leibnitz, Monk- 
 barns the 's will generally be omitted. 
 
 7. Words of three syllables will rarely bear 's, unless the 
 last have a principal or secondary accent Boniface, Espi- 
 nasse, Halifax, Palafox. 
 
 8. The termination will often be added to words that end 
 in -ce or -x when it would be omitted if the terminal sound 
 were represented by s. 
 
 9. The above principles apply when both the possessor 
 and the thing possessed are named ; but if only the former, 
 the termination is added or the expression changed This is 
 Carrothers* house, whose is that ? It is Quackenbos's. 
 
 Compound terms form their plurals by adding s to the 
 principal part, but their possessives by adding it to the 
 last part plural, sons-in-law, possessive, son-in-law s. This is 
 admissible even when the expression is of considerable 
 length, as, the postmaster of Columbia, South Carolina s son. 
 When that becomes too unwieldy, the only resource, as in 
 many other cases, is to change the expression. When to a 
 first noun a second, meaning the same person or thing, 
 is added, as if to make identification sure, both should have 
 the possessive sign. 
 
 "A small and old spaniel, which had been Don pose's, his 
 father's." BYRON. 
 
 When several different persons or things sustain the pos- 
 sessive relation, it should be shown equally for all.
 
 286 English Grammar. 
 
 " For honour's, pride's, religion's, virtue's sake." Id. 
 
 But conflicting and less correct examples are not wanting. 
 Captain Smith called Pocahontas " the Kings daughter of 
 Virginia" We also read : 
 
 " The king's daughter of the south shall come to the king of 
 the north to make an agreement." DANIEL xi., 6. " I left the 
 parcel at Mr. Johnson's the bookseller." Crombie's Grammar. 
 " The psalms are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the 
 Jewish people." LINDLEY MURRAY. 
 
 " And Otway, Radcliffe, Schiller, Shakespeare's art 
 Had stamped her image in me." "Childe Harold," iv., 18. 
 
 Yet when two or more names are closely associated, as 
 in a business firm, they require but one possessive sign 
 Call at Smith & Ward 's office. 
 
 A substitute for the possessive case may be formed with 
 the preposition of. His father s house and the house of his 
 father are the same in fact but not the same grammatically. 
 The latter is not a case or we should with equal reason have 
 as many cases as we can find prepositions. The possessive 
 case is commonly, not invariably, used in speaking of human 
 beings, the preposition when we speak of inanimate things 
 the boys skates, the judge s carriage, the bend of the river, 
 the shade of the oak. The two forms are used of animals 
 with almost equal frequency. 
 
 Thus far I have spoken only of the possessive singular. 
 The plural baffled the ingenuity of grammarians for a con- 
 siderable time. Where the plural did not end in s there 
 was little difficulty ; men's work and children's play afforded 
 an easy solution. But when the plural was formed by affix- 
 ing an s, it was not deemed desirable to add another. John 
 Wallis suggested "the Lord's House" and "the Common's 
 House " for the two Houses of Parliament, explaining that 
 these were intended as abbreviations for " the Lords s House " 
 and the Commons's House" ; but the absurdity of these forms, 
 which were precisely like singulars, prevented their general 
 acceptance. Yet something of the kind may be met with
 
 Nouns. 287 
 
 occasionally. Thus an article on the cuckoo, in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions for 1788, speaks of the eggs "found 
 in Titlark's nests " ; yet in general usage and in treatises on 
 grammar the plural was left without distinction of case. 
 Gordon's " History of American Independence," above 
 cited, has the following : 
 
 " They retired from their own to neighbours houses. * * * 
 The troops began landing under cover of the ships cannons. 
 * * * It was with no small indignation that the people beheld 
 the representatives chamber, court-house and Faneuil-hall occu- 
 pied by troops." 
 
 The "British Grammar" (1784) says that the plural in s 
 has no genitive ; and a " Grammar of the English Tongue," 
 by Thomas Coar, so late as 1796, has still no way of distin- 
 guishing the genitive case. Yet it is certain that before the 
 last-named date the present method of distinguishing the 
 possessive plural, by putting (') after the s had been 
 devised. The earliest instances I have met with are two 
 passages in the Gentleman s Magazine for January, 1788 : 
 
 " I should be very glad of some of your correspondents' opinion." 
 " and consequently instead of being circulated through all the 
 
 learned part of Europe, must be confined to the perusal of feeble 
 
 amateurs, or ladies' maids." 
 
 If the common plural ends with s, place an apostrophe (') 
 after it sartors' rights ; if the plural does not end in s, add 
 V freemen's rights. 
 
 PERSON. 
 
 The distinction of person is threefold. The first person is 
 the speaker ; the second the person spoken to ; the third any 
 one else. The distinction is better shown by the personal 
 pronouns, to which the reader is referred. All nouns are of 
 the third person, except when associated with the pronoun 
 of the first person or are appellations of persons directly 
 addressed.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 THE name, from the Latin adjectivus, added or thrown to, 
 gives no idea of the nature and use of the words so desig- 
 nated ; but, being well established, it has become a conven- 
 ient term. We may suppose that the first generations of 
 speaking men began by distinguishing things animals, trees, 
 plants, and the conspicuous actions of some. They might 
 next observe qualities in which one differed from another. 
 Animals were large or small, swift or slow ; grass was green, 
 while some blossoms were white and others red ; some fruits 
 were sweet, more were sour, and a few bitter. Whether 
 derived from the more essential parts of speech or wholly 
 original sounds we cannot possibly know, but the former is 
 the more natural supposition. 
 
 These words are of only secondary importance. While 
 we can scarcely express any meaning without nouns and 
 verbs, much may be said without mentioning qualities, good 
 or bad. The first chapter of Matthew contains 474 words, 
 of which, at the utmost, only five quite as properly only 
 three are adjectives. If that be thought an extreme case, 
 in the first twenty-two verses of John's Gospel 393 words 
 there is only one adjective, and that a monosyllable. Again, 
 if I utter the word horse, some conception or picture of the 
 animal rises at once in the active mind of the hearer ; but if 
 I say tall, no mental picture is formed, for the word may be 
 applied equally to grass, a man, a tree, or a steeple to one 
 thing, or to many. 
 
 We have often seen already that every usage in language 
 begins at a certain point, from which it spreads, and that in 
 
 288
 
 Adjectives. 289 
 
 its diffusion the point of departure is apt to be lost sight of. 
 Words expressing no quality, but relations of time, place, 
 origin, order daily, annual, recent, adjacent, distant, Irish, 
 foremost, central, hindmost are used with nouns, like the 
 primitive adjectives, and are classified with them. As adjec- 
 tives have so little independent existence, they are pecul- 
 iarly apt to be derived from words of other classes. In this 
 respect they may be distinguished somewhat in the following 
 manner : 
 
 1. Primary adjectives, native, or of foreign origin, which 
 are not obviously traceable to any other words acute, bold, 
 cruel, deaf, early, free, good, hard, idle, etc. 
 
 2. Adjectives derived from nouns. 
 
 a. From nouns, mostly English, by adding the native 
 suffixes, -ed, -en, -fast, -ful, -ish, -less, -ly, -some, -ward, -y or 
 -ey horned, ragged, tented, earthen, leaden, wooden, earth- 
 fast, shamefast, steadfast, shameful, tearful, truth/ill, child- 
 ish, English, waspish, fatherless, homeless, shoeless, godly, 
 motherly, shapely, handsome, toilsome, homeward, wayward, 
 windward, clayey, sandy, stony, woody. 
 
 NOTE. Adjectives in -ed seem to be formed in imitation 
 of participles. A man who has learned is a learned man, 
 and one who has been armed, or furnished with arms, is an 
 armed man. Next, a beast furnished by nature with horns 
 is a horned beast, and finally we have such words as long- 
 haired, four-footed, left-handed, tongue-tied, evidently not 
 participles of any verbs. It is impossible to draw the line 
 accurately between adjectives and participles, but we can 
 come near it by calling those adjectives that cannot be 
 traced to verbs. 
 
 The ending -some has no connection with the adjective- 
 pronoun some, but is related to same, expressing identity 
 or likeness : German langsam, Scotch langsome, slow ; Ice- 
 landic frith-samr, peaceful. 
 
 b. Adjectives formed from nouns by means of suffixes, 
 changed or unchanged, from French, Latin, or Greek 
 -able or -ible, -aceous, -al, -alian, -an, -ar, -arian, -ary, -ate, -eel, 
 
 -eous, ese, -esque, -tan, -ic, -//, -He, ine, -ive, -le, -lent, -oid, -ory, 
 
 19
 
 290 English Grammar. 
 
 -ose, -ous marketable, peaceable, contemptible, responsible, 
 amylaceous, sebaceous, moral, mortal, radical, bacchanalian, 
 Episcopalian, diocesan, Franciscan, columnar, ocular, parlia- 
 mentarian, vegetarian, Trinitarian, Unitarian, military, tribu- 
 tary, ovate, palmate, genteel, igneous, vitreous, Chinese, Maltese, 
 picturesque, Romanesque, Christian, Darwinian, Parisian, 
 angelic, volcanic, civil, gentile, hostile, servile, canine, feminine, 
 sanguine, festive, plaintive, gentle, corpulent, turbulent, fungoid, 
 pithecoid, sphenoid, mandatory, migratory, globose, operose, 
 varicose, disastrous, necessitous. 
 
 NOTE. The ending -arian is really a double adjective 
 ending. Although we have not the simple forms trinitary 
 and vegetary, unitary is met with, and parliamentary is 
 quite common. The same is true of -alian, and there are 
 several other double endings, as in merit-ori-ous,paradox-ic-al, 
 sym metr-ic-al. 
 
 3. Adjectives are formed upon other adjectives old-en, 
 hard-y, clean-ly, good-ly, kind-ly, dark-some, lone-some, weari- 
 some, whole-some, robust-ioiis. This last word is not com- 
 mendable, but is sanctioned by " Hamlet," and Benton's 
 " Thirty Years in the Senate." 
 
 4. Adjectives are made from verbs by adding -able, -ant, 
 -ary, -astic, -ate, -atory, -bund, -ent, -ible, -tie, -ite, -ive, -ory, 
 -uble blamable, pardonable, jubilant, rampant, intercalary, 
 sedentary, drastic, spastic, considerate, moderate, derogatory, 
 migratory, moribund, dependent, deficient, pertinent, fusible, 
 legible, ductile, facile, pensile, erudite, recondite, cursive, mis- 
 sive, persuasive, accessory, promissory, soluble, voluble. 
 
 NOTE. Those that end in -ant, -ent, -ate, and -ite are modifi- 
 cations of participles. 
 
 5. A few are formed from adverbs and prepositions, such 
 as aftermost, anterior, contrary, exterior, former, foremost, 
 further, hinder, inferior, inner, interior, nether, outer or utter, 
 prior, superior, thorough, upper. 
 
 6. Nearly every verb in the language furnishes two parti- 
 ciples that may be used as adjectives running water, a 
 graven image, a ploughed field.
 
 Adjectives. 291 
 
 7. Some adverbs, especially those ending in ward back- 
 ward, forvvard, downward, homeward may be used as 
 adjectives. 
 
 8. The greater number of adjectives may have their sig- 
 nification reversed by prefixing the negative dis-, un-, in-, or 
 non-, thus nearly doubling their number. 
 
 9. Expressions having the force of adjectives are formed 
 by combining two or more words water-proof, star-spangled 
 rock-ribbed, pepper-and-salt-colored. There is no limit to the 
 descriptive phrases that may be made in this way, and some 
 are of considerable length, as much-to-be-lamented, never-to-be- 
 forgotten. They are equally adjective phrases whether the 
 parts be united by hyphens or not. The German language 
 is capable of using descriptions containing a dozen words or 
 more in the manner of adjectives ; but in English such com- 
 binations have a burlesque appearance : 
 
 " and there 
 
 With an I-turn-the-crank-of-the- Universe air, 
 And a tone which, at least to my fancy, appears 
 To be not so much entering as boxing your ears." 
 
 JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL. 
 
 10. Lastly almost any noun may, without alteration, be 
 used as an adjective a stone wall, a gold watch, an iron 
 chain. Two or more nouns may be used together for this 
 purpose a bear-skin cap, a birch-bark canoe. In the office 
 of the Register of the Treasury in Washington is a paper, 
 pertaining to accounts of the Garfield Memorial Hospital 
 in which is an item of a " hand hole cover bolt. Each 
 word except the last serves as an adjective to the one 
 that follows. 
 
 Thus our language has an unlimited power of producing a 
 class of words that careful persons use but sparingly. When- 
 ever it becomes necessary to employ several adjectives, 
 variety of expression can be secured by drawing from the 
 various sources here enumerated.
 
 29 2 English Grammar. 
 
 The adjective is often equivalent to the genitive or pos- 
 sessive case, denoting possession or derivation : 
 
 a mother's love maternal affection 
 
 cares of a household domestic cares 
 
 the armies of France the French armies 
 
 the election of a President the Presidential election 
 
 In most languages adjectives have the same apparatus as 
 nouns of terminations to denote gender, number, and case. 
 It is not easy to see any sufficient reason for this. We are 
 left to conjecture that, being used mostly along with nouns, 
 the terminations of the one class were extended to the other, 
 as (speaking metaphorically) electricity or magnetism is im- 
 parted by induction, or as high-colored flowers impart some- 
 thing of their bright dyes to pale ones. This machinery, 
 wanting in English, renders adjectives more available for 
 use in the place of nouns. The only trace we have of this 
 declension is the plural forms of a few when used as nouns : 
 
 1. National, tribal, or partisan designations Greeks, 
 Romans, Spartans, Italians, Americans, Christians, Ma- 
 hometans, Arians, Socinians, Puritans, Republicans, Stoics, 
 vegetarians. 
 
 NOTE. If the word end with a sibilant, s is not added. 
 
 2. Various designations of classes of persons ancients, 
 'moderns, innocents, mortals, natives, nobles, sages, criminals, 
 heathens, pagans, blacks, whites. 
 
 To these may be added a number used as nouns only in 
 what is called the comparative degree of which hereafter 
 betters, elders, inferiors, superiors, seniors, juniors. 
 
 3. Collective terms for various pursuits, studies, or 
 branches of science ethics, acoustics, metaphysics, mne- 
 monics, hydrostatics, quadratics, politics. 
 
 4. Terms descriptive of large classes or groups of things 
 combustibles, eatables, goods, narcotics, opiates, sudorifics, 
 bitters, woollens, greens, canonicals, vitals. 
 
 The reader who cares to see how an adjective may be 
 spread out according to number, gender, and case, can 
 glance at the following Sanskrit declension :
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 293 
 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 VOCATIVE 
 
 papa 
 
 pape 
 
 papa 
 
 NOMINATIVE 
 
 papas 
 
 papa 
 
 papam 
 
 ACCUSATIVE 
 
 papam 
 
 papam 
 
 papam 
 
 INSTRUMENTAL 
 
 papena 
 
 papaya 
 
 papena 
 
 DATIVE 
 
 papaya 
 
 papayai 
 
 papaya 
 
 ABLATIVE 
 
 papat 
 
 papayas 
 
 papat 
 
 GENITIVE 
 
 papasya 
 
 papayas 
 
 papasya 
 
 LOCATIVE 
 
 pipe 
 
 papayam 
 
 pap6 
 
 DUAL 
 
 Voc. 
 
 papau 
 
 pape" 
 
 pape 
 
 NOM. 
 
 papau 
 
 pape". 
 
 pape 
 
 Ace. 
 
 papau 
 
 pape" 
 
 pape 
 
 INST. 
 
 papabhyam 
 
 papabhyam 
 
 papabhyam 
 
 DAT. 
 
 papabhyam 
 
 papabhyam 
 
 papabhyam 
 
 ABL. 
 
 papabhyam 
 
 papabhyam 
 
 papabhyam 
 
 GEN. 
 
 papayos 
 
 papayos 
 
 papayos 
 
 Loc. 
 
 papayos 
 
 papayos 
 
 papayos 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 Voc. 
 
 papas 
 
 papas 
 
 papani 
 
 NOM. 
 
 papas 
 
 papas 
 
 papani 
 
 Ace. 
 
 papan 
 
 papas 
 
 papani 
 
 INST. 
 
 papais 
 
 papabhis 
 
 papais 
 
 DAT. 
 
 papebhyas 
 
 papabhyas 
 
 papebhyas 
 
 ABL. 
 
 papebhyas 
 
 papabhyas 
 
 papebhyas 
 
 GEN. 
 
 papanam 
 
 papanam 
 
 papanam 
 
 Loc. 
 
 papeshu 
 
 papasu 
 
 papeshu 
 
 All that we have as the equivalent of this array is the small 
 unchanging word bad. It will be observed too that while 
 there are seventy-two distinctions in the combinations of 
 number, gender, and case, there are only twenty-six separate 
 forms ; and this holds good of all inflected languages. 
 They never have forms enough to go round. From an 
 inflectional table of seventy-two places we are not to sup-
 
 294 English Grammar. 
 
 pose that the change to one simple monosyllable was made 
 at a single step ; but to attempt to trace the gradual wear- 
 ing down would be too tedious. Only one intermediate 
 point shall be noticed. Our Anglo-Saxon fathers declined 
 the adjective good thus : 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter 
 
 NOM. goda g6de gode 
 
 GEN. godan godan godan 
 
 DAT. godan g6dan godan 
 
 Ace. godan godan gode 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 NOM. gddan gddan g6dan 
 
 GEN. g6dena g6dena g6dena 
 
 DAT. gddum godum godum 
 
 Ace. g6dan godan godan 
 
 The seventy-two places are here reduced to twenty-four, 
 and the forms that are to occupy them are only five. In 
 the Sanskrit example the inflectional forms were thirty-six 
 per cent, of those theoretically required, in the Saxon less 
 than twenty-one. The Saxon declension took another 
 pattern, slightly fuller when the definite article preceded 
 the adjective. 
 
 Although our adjectives dispense with distinctions of 
 gender, number, and case, they need and have distinctions 
 of a different kind. As they primarily express qualities it is 
 often necessary to show which of two or more possess a 
 quality in the highest degree. One man may be strong, 
 another strong-er, and yet another the strong-est of the three. 
 These distinctions are called degrees. The first is called the 
 positive, the second the comparative, and the last the super- 
 lative. The orderly exhibition of these three degrees is 
 called comparison. 
 
 When an adjective ends with e, one vowel can be 
 dropped.
 
 Adjectives. 295 
 
 free free-r free-st 
 
 white white-r white-st 
 
 able able-r able-st 
 
 It is not meant to indicate here whether it is the last 
 letter of the positive or the first of the suffix that is 
 omitted. It is a point of no practical importance, but 
 the earlier usages of the language countenance the division 
 given here. 
 
 All adjectives of one syllable are compared in this man- 
 ner; also dissyllables with ultimate accent, or whose last 
 syllable has no other vowel than a final y or a final e 
 preceded by /. The final y of course becomes /'. 
 
 genteel genteel-er genteel-est 
 
 complete complete-r complete-st 
 
 gentle gentle-r gentle-st 
 
 worthy worthi-er worthi-est 
 
 All other adjectives may take these terminations so long as 
 the result is easy for the tongue and pleasing to the ear, 
 which in all such cases is the ultimate test. More than a 
 law, it is the reason of the law. Soberest and honester will 
 do very well, but soberer and honestest are inadmissible. 
 Writers of the present day are far from agreed as to what 
 words admit of this comparison, and our ancestors indulged 
 in still greater latitude. Such words as fitting-est, cunning- 
 est, certain-er, tender-er, faithfull-est, de light full-est, wonder- 
 full-est, may be found in authors of the highest repute ; and 
 the readers of Carlyle will recall his favorite word of praise, 
 beautifullest. When these terminations would render the 
 word unwieldy, substitutes are found in the adverbs, more 
 and most, in imitation of the French : 
 
 eloquent more eloquent most eloquent 
 
 The use of -er and -est may be called the native or Anglo- 
 Saxon comparison, and has a pedigree longer than any 
 princely house. In Sanskrit there were two regular modes 
 of comparison. One added -lyas for the comparative and
 
 296 English Grammar. 
 
 -ishta for the superlative : the other added -tara and -tama. 
 We may call the first the old comparison. In the oldest 
 remains it was unfrequent and on the decrease. The latter 
 and more common we may call the new comparison. All 
 the other Aryan families exhibit remains of these termina- 
 tions more or less fragmentary and mismatched. The Zend 
 is said to have had them nearly as in Sanskrit ; but of that 
 I do not know. Greek retains representatives of both 
 systems : 
 
 kalos kail-ion kall-isto-s 
 
 leptos lepto-tero-s lepto-tato-s 
 
 In the last a / is found in the place of m, the original com- 
 mon to both languages having probably been mt. Latin 
 did not preserve these suffixes so well ; and retained the old 
 comparative and new superlative in a much altered con- 
 dition. 
 
 viridis virid-ius virid-issimus 
 
 longus long-ius long-issimus 
 
 Here I take the termination -ius, or rather -ios to be more 
 primitive than -tor, as an earlier s is well known to be often 
 converted into a later r. I can only conjecture the ss of the 
 superlative to have taken the place of t, a substitution of 
 which there are many examples. The superlative termina- 
 tion is rather better preserved in such forms as opt-imu-s, 
 ult-imu-s, from which, however, one / has still been dropped. 
 As representatives of the Slavonic branch Russian and Polish 
 are almost entirely without separate terminations for the 
 superlative, but form comparatives on the older pattern, the 
 former adding ai-ishii aishii, or merely shii, and the latter 
 jejszy, which are nearly the same to the ear. There are 
 only four Russian superlatives : 
 
 COMP. SUPERL. 
 
 velikii (great) bol-shii velicha-ishii 
 
 malwi (little) men-shii mal-aishii 
 
 vwisokii (high) vis-shii vwisocha-ishii 
 
 nizkii (low) niz-shii nizha-ishii
 
 Adjectives. 297 
 
 in which the endings are clearly the same, and the superla- 
 tives are developed from the comparatives. All other 
 superlatives are made by placing vsakh (of all) before the 
 positive. Lithuanian has only a comparative formed on the 
 older pattern. The Irish, the best preserved of the Celtic 
 stock, has a comparative ending in -nws, and no separate 
 superlative. 
 
 Coming now to our own more immediate kindred, the 
 Goths distinguished the comparative by adding -is or -os, 
 according to the other elements with which they were asso- 
 ciated. This termination was evidently akin to the Sanskrit 
 -lyas and the Latin -is in mag-is. When a termination was 
 added to denote number, gender, etc., s became z. The 
 Sansk. superlative -ish-ta was represented in Gothic by -is-ta 
 or -os-ta ; and here the s held its place by the help of the t 
 Hence an adjective ran thus : 
 
 COMP. SUPERL. 
 
 blind-s (blind) blind-oz-a blind-os-ta 
 
 haugh-s (high) haugh-iz-a haugh-is-ta 
 
 Now the tendency called rhotacism turned the z into r in 
 all the other Teutonic languages ; and that is how we come 
 to say blind-er, blind-est instead of blind-ez, blind-est. 
 
 Grimm, Bopp, and others hold that the superlative is 
 always formed by adding to the comparative, and conse- 
 quently is later in time, and that, if in any language one of 
 the two is wanting, it is the superlative. 
 
 Putting these fragmentary hints together, we may, from 
 the mere comparison of adjectives, infer that the Aryans of 
 Europe left their ancestral homes on the streams that supply 
 the Caspian at different times ; that the Celts and Lithua- 
 nians set out before the comparison in -tara and -tama had 
 come into common use, or any form for the superlative ; 
 that the Slavic emigration came next ; and that our Teutonic 
 ancestors learned only the pattern that was falling into dis- 
 use when the literature of India began. What we call the 
 ancient Greeks, then, seem to be comparatively late arrivals, 
 while our brethren of Tipperary belong to the oldest branch
 
 298 English Grammar. 
 
 of the family, and those who had conquered and colonized 
 India before Solomon sent forth his navies for algum-trees, 
 ivory, apes, and peacocks, are the youngest. 
 
 The terminations -tara and -tama have reached Western 
 Europe in connection with pronouns and prepositions rather 
 than adjectives of quality. Bopp holds that -tama is a 
 contraction from -tara-ma on the general principle that the 
 superlative is always a further development of the compara- 
 tive. It is held with still more confidence that -tara signifies 
 of two, and -tama, of several. Thus from the Sanskrit inter- 
 rogative ka were formed ka-tara-s, which of the two ? and 
 ka-tama-s, which of several ? In like manner, from the rela- 
 tive^ were made ya-tara-s, and ya-tama-s, and so of several 
 others. Taking ka, ka-tara-s, ka-tama-s as an example of all 
 words formed in this manner, I observe that k is represented 
 in Greek by k, p, in Latin by c, qu, in Gothic and Anglo- 
 Saxon by h, hw, in English by h, wh. We have then, cor- 
 responding to the Sansk. ka-tara-s, Gr. Tro-rspo-?, which of 
 the two ? Sansk. e-ka-tara-s, Gr. f-xd-repo-S, each of the two ; 
 Lat. uter (initial wanting); Lith. ka-tra-s ; Russ. ko-torw-i, 
 which ; Goth, hwa-thar ; A.-S. hwae-ther ; Eng. whether : 
 
 "The governor answered and said unto them, Whether of the 
 twain will ye that I release unto you?" MATT, xxvii., 21. 
 
 There are many other words in the different European 
 languages formed by affixing these terminations to pronouns, 
 prepositions, or adverbs, and all including the idea of duality. 
 We may instance in English either, neither, other, dexter, 
 sinister. Interior, exterior, ulterior are double comparatives. 
 Extreme Lat. extremus adds a superlative to a compara- 
 tive ending, and is an apt illustration of Bopp's conjecture 
 cited above. When Addison wrote of " the sea's extremest 
 borders" he probably did not know that he had heaped 
 three terminations together. 
 
 In words like ul-tima-te there is a relic of the ancient 
 -tama, or at least of the latter part of it, that comes to us 
 through the Latin ; but there -are many traces of it not thus 
 borrowed. These further strengthen the supposition that 
 the superlative -ma was a separate element. The Gothic
 
 Adjectives. 299 
 
 -*#, first or foremost, afte-ma, last ; and Anglo-Saxon 
 had: 
 
 for-ma fore-most nithe-ma neth-most or nether- 
 
 hinde-ma hind-most most 
 
 inne-ma in-most ufe-ma up-most, upper-most 
 
 mide-ma mid-most ute-ma ut-most 
 
 A double superlative ending -st was added while Anglo- 
 Saxon was yet in use, which gradually led to the belief that 
 these words were made up by adding the adverb most. 
 Even triple endings are not wanting : 
 
 " and behold we are in Kadesh, a city in the ut-ter-mo-st of thy 
 borders." NUM. xx., 16. 
 
 A few adjectives are marked by certain irregularities of 
 comparison. Especially are there a number of superlatives 
 made by adding most and originating in the misapprehension 
 just noticed. 
 
 aft after aftermost 
 
 far farther farthest 
 
 fore further furthest, furthermost 
 
 fore former foremost, first 
 
 hind hinder hindmost 
 
 late later, latter latest, last 
 
 The irregularity of farther and farthest is the inserting of 
 th in imitation of further and furthest. 
 
 A few comparatives and superlatives have nouns, prepo- 
 sitions, or adverbs as their positives. 
 
 in inner inmost, innermost 
 
 out outer, utter utmost, uttermost, outermost 
 
 up upper uppermost 
 
 stern sternmost 
 
 head headmost 
 
 top topmost 
 
 north northmost 
 
 south southmost, etc., etc. 
 
 Some are made up from fragments of different adjectives, 
 d&good, better, best, bad, worse, worst ; but it will be well to 
 treat these and remaining irregularities singly.
 
 300 English Grammar. 
 
 Bad a word of rather uncertain origin. It stands quite 
 alone, and the comparative and superlative, worse and worst, 
 are from a different source. Worse is one of the most per- 
 plexing words in our language, the doubt being whether it 
 is a positive, a comparative, or a double comparative. The 
 most plausible explanation is that it is originally and strictly 
 a positive, from a Teutonic root wars, to distort, throw into 
 confusion, from which was made the Gothic comparative 
 wairs-iz-a, and the corresponding Old High German wirs-ir-o. 
 If this be so, one sibilant had dropped out before the Norman 
 Conquest, and the Anglo-Saxon adjective had become wear, 
 wyr-se, wyr-st. A comparative, however, formed by means 
 of s is very unusual. Less is the only other example of which 
 I am aware. To confuse the matter still more, comparatives 
 like wer, werre, warre, waur came into use in England, and 
 still more in Scotland, as Scandinavian influence assimilated 
 the s of worse to r. 
 
 " The world is much war than it was woont." SPENSER. 
 
 A comparative wors-er came into use in the sixteenth 
 century : 
 
 " A dreadful quiet felt, and worser far 
 Than arms, a sullen interval of war." 
 
 DRYDEN. 
 
 But it can scarcely have been based upon any philological 
 reason. 
 
 Evil from the earliest times both noun and adjective ; in 
 the latter use equal to bad, and borrowing the same com- 
 parative and superlative. It has also been used as an adverb. 
 
 " The same dealt subtilly with our kindred, and evil entreated 
 our fathers." ACTS vii., 19. 
 
 But that part of its duty is now transferred to ill. Evil 
 is now almost exclusively used as a noun. 
 
 Good The comp. and superl., better and best, are from a 
 different root, bat, meaning good. The Goth, was bat-iz-a for 
 the comp., superl. bat-is-ta. Our best is obviously a shorten- 
 ing of bet-est.
 
 Adjectives. 301 
 
 111 a duplicate and Scandinavian form of evil, due to the 
 settlement of the Danes. 
 
 Little a lengthened form of A.-S. lyt, still to be met with 
 in England as a dialectic form ; from a root lut, to stoop or 
 be low ; compare Eng. lout and Scot. lout. The comp. and 
 superl. are from a root las, to be feeble. The A.-S. Ices and 
 last, shortened forms for Ices-sa and Ices-ast, in which the sa 
 is by assimilation for ra. A double comparative is common : 
 
 " The more my prayer the lesser is my grace." 
 
 " Midsummer Night's Dream," act ii. 
 
 " The greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule 
 the night." GENESIS. 
 
 A regular superlative littlest is sometimes met with : 
 
 " Where love is great, the littlest doubts are fear."" Hamlet," 
 iii., 2. (Late edition.) 
 
 Many from an Aryan root mag, to prevail or be great, 
 spring a large family of kindred words. Sometimes the 
 sound of n was intruded, making mank or mang, at others 
 -el was added, as in the case of little, and again the guttural 
 was softened into ch. Among the best-known members of 
 this family are: Gr. meg-as, meg-al-e, meg-a ; Lat. mag-nus, 
 mag-us, mag-is-ter ; Goth, manag-s ; O. H. Ger. manac ; A.-S. 
 manig ; Eng. many ; I eel. magn, main strength, margr, many, 
 mik-ill, large, mjok, much ; A.-S. md, more, mag-an, may, 
 mag-en, main, myc-el, great, many, much ; Scot, mae, mair, 
 maist , mickle or muckle ; Middle Eng. muck-el ; TLng.mag-ic, 
 majes-ty, mag-is-trate, maj-or, main, may, many, much, more, 
 most, and even Mr. Many is applied to numbers, and much 
 to quantity. Anglo-Saxon and English until the seventeenth 
 century had correspondingly separate comparatives : 
 
 " Many mo unto the nombre of ten thousande and moo." 
 CAXTON, cited by MAETZNER. 
 
 Alexander Gill, a grammarian of 1619, gave the two com- 
 parisons thus : 
 
 many mo most 
 
 much more most
 
 302 English Grammar. 
 
 Since that time mo has gone wholly out of use. A or an 
 is often put after many : 
 
 " Of gallant Gordons many a one, 
 And many a stubborn Highlandman 
 And many a rugged border clan, 
 
 With Huntley and with Home." 
 
 SCOTT : " Marmion," canto vi. 
 
 This curious idiom dates from the beginning of the thir- 
 teenth century. The many sometimes regarded as a noun 
 is from a derivative form, A.-S. menigeo, a throng, a multi- 
 tude ; but that it is not equivalent to a noun will be seen 
 by comparing it with multitude : 
 
 a great many men : 
 
 a great multitude of men. 
 
 Together with few, it rather belongs to the large hybrid 
 class of adjective pronouns. 
 
 Much See many. 
 
 Near Originally, and in its form, this is a comparative : 
 
 A.-S. Adj. neah nearra nyhst 
 
 Adv. neah near, nyr nehst 
 
 When the comparative was mistaken for a positive in the 
 fifteenth century, the redundant forms near-er and near-est 
 were added ; but the old superlative is still preserved in next. 
 
 Nigh A variant form from A.-S. neah, used adverbially. 
 
 Nether a comp. for which no positive remains ; A.-S. 
 comp. nith-er-a, superl. nithe-ma, nithe-me-sta. The last is a 
 double superlative. The Scotch say neth-most, but the 
 English sometimes attach an additional syllable : 
 
 " The neth-er-most chamber was five cubits broad." 
 
 i KINGS vi., 6. 
 
 This is formed on the common but false analogy of adding 
 the adverb most. 
 
 Old has two models of comparison, an earlier old, elder, 
 eldest, and a later, old, older, oldest. The vowel change in 
 the former is similar to that in men, feet, etc. This is the 
 only remaining example of such change in adjectives, but
 
 Adjectives. 303 
 
 formerly it applied to broad, long, strong, and others, and has 
 left a trace in eld, breadth, length, and strength. Elder and 
 eldest are now archaic forms, confined to persons. An 
 antique structure is not the eldest but the oldest house in 
 town. They do not imply great age, but only priority in 
 age. The eldest may be the senior of a group of children ; 
 the oldest is more likely to be the senior in a conclave of 
 aged men. It would be unusual now to place than after 
 elder. But these are modern distinctions, and even now 
 not strictly observed. 
 
 " I have * * * a son * * * some years elder than 
 this." SHAKESP. 
 
 " With us are both the gray-headed and very aged men, much 
 elder than thy father." JOB xv., 10. 
 
 Longfellow speaks of " the elder days of art," and the 
 " faded fancies of an elder world " ; but then poets write 
 in the oldest dialect that people will put up with. 
 
 Rather Of the full comparison, rath, rath-er, rath-est 
 soon or early, etc. only the second term remains, and that 
 has lost an initial h, and is used only as an adverb. 
 
 Although grammarians reckon only three degrees of 
 quality, they might with almost equal propriety have in- 
 cluded a fourth, making the full comparison : 
 
 green-ish green green-er green-est 
 
 Several other shades are expressed by the aid of such words 
 as slightly, somewhat, rather, very, highly, sadly, or exceedingly. 
 
 Some adjectives, chiefly derived from nouns, do not admit 
 of comparison. They are : 
 
 I. Adjectives that denote material, origin, source, author- 
 ship, time, place, constitution : 
 
 alcoholic 
 
 diluvial 
 
 annual 
 
 rhombic. 
 
 calcareous 
 
 oceanic 
 
 vernal 
 
 oval 
 
 woollen 
 solar 
 stellar 
 
 volcanic 
 American 
 Parisian 
 
 daily 
 hourly 
 subterranean 
 
 lamellar 
 metallic 
 fluid 
 
 atmospheric 
 alluvial 
 
 Mosaic 
 Cartesian 
 
 terraqueous 
 circular 
 
 gaseous 
 crystalline
 
 304 English Grammar. 
 
 2. Words that in themselves express an extreme degree : 
 empty, void, eternal, infinite, perfect, perpetual, universal. 
 
 3. A miscellaneous class of adjectives, mostly expressing 
 relations rather than qualities : baptismal, false, filial, lawful, 
 natural, parental, royal, true. 
 
 Thus far the double comparatives and superlatives that 
 have been noticed are single words that do not always 
 openly betray their cumulative character. Duplicate or trip- 
 licate expressions, like more superior, most handsomest, are 
 not according to the present usage of the language, but 
 down to the seventeenth century such redundancy was com- 
 mon enough. 
 
 " Most dennest flesh of briddes." " Piers Plowman," 8992. 
 " These poore informall women, are no more 
 But instruments of some more mightier member 
 That sets them on." " Meas. for Meas.," act v. 
 " more fairer then fair, beautifull then beautious." 
 
 " Love's Labor 's Lost," act iv. 
 " This was the most unkindest cut of all." 
 
 " Julius Caesar," ii., 2. 
 
 " After the most straitest sect of our religion I lived a Pharisee." 
 
 ACTS xxvi., 5. 
 
 The last point that I shall consider here, touching adjec- 
 tives, is the question whether in speaking of two things 
 that are good in different degrees, we ought to say " the 
 better of the two," or " the best of the two," or may properly 
 say either. The particular adjective used makes no differ- 
 ence. Expressions like " the better of the two " are so com- 
 mon, at least in literary English, that there remains no 
 question of their admissibility. Still I think that plain 
 intelligent people, who are neither finical nor coarse, are 
 more apt, in their conversation, to say " the best of the two." 
 And the spoken language of such people is generally truer, 
 purer, more idiomatic English than what they write with 
 the help of stilts, spectacles, dictionary, and grammar. 
 
 If languages were more amenable to reason than they 
 are, the question might be analyzed in the manner follow-
 
 Adjectives. 305 
 
 ing; The comparative treats of two, quite apart from and 
 in a manner contrasted with, each other, of which the one 
 exceeds the other. The superlative treats of a group, aggre- 
 gate, or class, and singles out one as the leader, who must 
 always be a member of the class. There is no contrast. 
 The oldest member of the senate is not contrasted in any 
 way with the other senators. Ranged in a line according to 
 age some one must be at one extremity of the line, and 
 some one else at the other, but all are alike parts of the 
 continuous line. The question then resolves itself into 
 this : Can a group, aggregate, or class that is, for purposes 
 of speech consist of only two ? If it can, then one may 
 be the best of the two. Indeed, if I mistake not, there are 
 some cases in which we would nearly all use the superlative. 
 Most persons would be apt to say : " The first half of the 
 day was rainy, but the last half was quite clear." Yet there 
 are but two halves. To say the former half and the latter 
 half would be stiff, pedantic, and redolent of a bad quality 
 of midnight oil. Or in speaking of the arrival of two per- 
 sons, with a short interval between, should we say the first 
 comer and the last comer, or the former comer and the 
 latter comer ? To say the first and the second would be 
 shirking the question, as second is neither comparative nor 
 superlative. Or would it improve the matter to say the 
 former and the second? Or again, in speaking of two en- 
 gaged in a race, are they respectively the foremost and the 
 hindmost, or the former and the hinder ? 
 
 While I admit that the written language shows a prefer- 
 ence for the comparative, as applied to two, yet the super- 
 lative is also used, and, I think, with more logical consist- 
 ency. Sir John Mandeville, speaking of two brothers, says, 
 
 " So that his eldest sone was chosen aftre him, Melchemader ; the 
 whiche his brother leet sle prevely." 
 
 " Hadde tuo sones * * * of which the eldest hight Algarsif." 
 
 CHAUCER : " C. T.," 10,343. 
 " I would haue put my wealth into Donation. 
 And the best halfe should haue return' d to him." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Timon," iii., 2.
 
 306 English Grammar. 
 
 "Your eldest Doughters haue foredone themselves." 
 
 " Lear," v., 3. 
 
 In this instance the comparison is between two parties, the 
 eldest sisters on one side and the youngest on the other. 
 
 " The question is not whether a good Indian or a bad English- 
 man be most happy, but which state is most desirable." 
 
 JOHNSON : " Life of Sir F. Drake." 
 
 So, numerous examples, from the beginning of the thir- 
 teenth century to the present time, might be found ; but let 
 the following suffice. 
 
 " Tha answerede the other, [Hengist] 
 
 that wes the aldesie brother." LAYAMON. 
 
 " One of the greatest questions of moral philosophy : whether 
 the enjoying of outward things, or the contemning of them be the 
 greatest" BACON : "Advancement of Learning." 
 
 " Master Simon and the general, who have become great cronies. 
 As the former is the youngest by many years," etc. 
 
 IRVING : " Bracebridge Hall." 
 
 " I rather apprehend that the latter would be the likeliest of the 
 two to speak the fitting word." 
 
 HAWTHORNE : " Blithedale Romance," xvi. 
 
 "many women would have deemed you the worthier conquest 
 of the two, you are certainly much the handsomest man. Id., xxvi. 
 
 "the swiftest runner of the two." 
 " the strongest person of the two." 
 "the likeliest interpretation of the two." 
 "which could run the fastest of the two." 
 
 WILKIE COLLINS : " Man and Wife." 
 
 "These two sections do not progress at the same rate. The 
 smallest in area is still the smallest in population, but it is gaining 
 fast upon the other." North Am. Review^ Jan., 1889.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 WE now come upon a distinction that goes deep into the 
 structure of language. It is the distinction between words 
 that, even standing alone, are significant, or suggestive, and 
 words that by themselves express nothing. If the word rose 
 be uttered, it calls up in the mind a tolerably distinct image. 
 So does, in a less degree, the word red ; and if we join the 
 two, making red rose, the mental image is complete. Again, 
 in the words -mother comes, nothing is wanting to a complete 
 statement of fact. On the other hand, we may take nine 
 words that may properly enough come together, yet if there 
 should ever be any, even the, and no meaning is expressed, 
 or remotely hinted at. No number or combination of such 
 words could tell anything. They are the mere pins and 
 couplings of discourse. The most substantial of them are 
 like the a, b, c of the algebraist, that must have new values 
 assigned every time they are used, having none of their 
 own. Chief among them is the capital /, which is at one 
 time, /, Alexander IL, Tsar of all the Russias ; and at 
 another, /, little Johnny Tims. 
 
 It has been made pretty clear already that I regard the 
 subject of discourse to be things, their qualities and actions, 
 expressed by nouns, adjectives, and verbs. This enumeration 
 requires an addition, more apparent than real. A quality 
 that characterizes a thing is called an adjective, but when it 
 describes an action it is called an adverb. Fierce and fiercely 
 express the same characteristic. The difference is merely 
 grammatical. Adjectives used as adverbs, with or without 
 the addition of -ly, belong to the division of self-significant 
 
 307
 
 308 English Grammar. 
 
 words. I shall distinguish these two great divisions as 
 independent and dependent words, observing, however, that 
 no classification can be carried out strictly. It seems prob- 
 able that all were originally self-significant, but that in the 
 lapse of ages many have gradually lost their individuality 
 and become mere attendants on the more substantial words, 
 indicating their relations and conditions. And this process 
 is constantly going on, and examples may be found illus- 
 trating every stage in its progress. To trace these words 
 to their independent sources was the task which John Home 
 Tooke assumed in his " Diversions of Purley " ; but, owing to 
 the imperfect knowledge of his time, his success was very in- 
 complete. He merely showed others in what direction to look. 
 
 Among the most important of these words that have no 
 individuality now are the Pronouns. The name means stand- 
 ing for or representing nouns ; and there is no possible noun 
 for which some of them may not be used. Hence a pronoun 
 has been termed a name for everything. Associated with 
 them are some words which, not in signification, but in 
 grammatical use, partake of the character of adjectives. 
 They sometimes take the place of nouns, and sometimes 
 accompany them. But here, as we might expect, there is 
 an insensible gradation from words that never go with nouns 
 to others never found without them. Those that partake of 
 the adjective character are sometimes called adjective pro- 
 nouns, and sometimes pronominal adjectives. I shall use 
 the former appellation, and include under it a larger number 
 than is usual. 
 
 Pronouns are commonly grouped under several subdivi- 
 sions, not always the same, or including the same words. It 
 will be sufficient here to designate them as Personal, Inter- 
 rogative, Relative, Adjective, and Indefinite Pronouns. These 
 subdivisions are all very small, except the fourth, which is 
 very large indeed, unlimited. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 These generally represent nouns, and do not, like adjec- 
 tives, accompany them. They are three in number, with
 
 Pronouns. 309 
 
 their respective inflections and combinations. They are 
 called personal because they introduce a distinction of the 
 speaker, the person spoken to, and a third, who is neither. 
 They are /, thou, he, and their variations. / tell you that he 
 is at home. 
 
 While nouns have only two forms to indicate case, personal 
 pronouns have three, Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. 
 The last also serves the purpose of a Dative, for which there 
 is now no separate form. All have two numbers, singular 
 and plural. In old books remains of a dual may be found. 
 The first and second persons have no distinction of gender 
 in any Aryan tongue. The third has separate forms for the 
 masculine, feminine, and neuter. 
 
 The Pronoun of the First Person. 
 The pronoun of the first person is thus declined : 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 NOMINATIVE 
 
 I 
 
 we 
 
 POSSESSIVE 
 
 mine 
 
 ours 
 
 OBJECTIVE 
 
 me 
 
 us 
 
 It is evident that these can scarcely be inflectional modifi- 
 cations of a single original, but are rather water-worn chips 
 from several quarries, but how many ultimate sources, all 
 inaccessible, it were hard to determine. Bopp supposes 
 four, ah, ak or ag, ma, as and ve. There cannot be less 
 than the first and second of these ; but the number is uncer- 
 tain, and to us here unimportant. These personal pronouns 
 are similarly worn down and irregular in all Aryan languages, 
 and are as inexplicable in the earliest literary monuments as 
 in the latest. The h, k, or g is an essential part of the 
 singular nominative, and has kept its place in most of the 
 allied languages. Its disappearance from literary English is 
 comparatively recent, and traces of it may still be found in 
 rustic dialects. The following are some of the principal 
 forms assumed by this pronoun : 
 
 Sing. Nom. Sansk. ah-am ; Gr. ey-ouv , ey-aa ; Lat. eg-o ; 
 Old High German ih ; Mod. H. Ger. ich ; Goth, ik ; Norse
 
 3io English Grammar. 
 
 and Icelandic ek,jak, eg,jeg; Swedish // Dan. /<?/ Old- 
 and Anglo-Sax, ic ; English (A. D. 1000 to 1600) ih, ihe, ic, 
 ice, ich, ych, uch, 'ch, y, I. 
 
 Sing. Pos. Sansk. ma-ma; Gr. fyov, pov$ Lat. mei, or 
 wanting; Goth, meina ; High Ger., Norse, Old Sax. A.-S. 
 min ; Eng. mine, myn, -mi, my. 
 
 Sing. Obj. Sansk. mdm, md; Gr. eju, )ii ; Lat. me ; Goth, 
 and Norse mik ; H. G. mich; A.-S. mec, me ; Eng. me, mee. 
 
 Plur. Nom. Sansk. v ay-am ; Gr. ap/MS, fast? ; Lat. nos ; 
 Goth, veis ; H. G. wir ; Norse ver ; A.-S. and Eng. we, wee. 
 
 Plur. Pos. Sansk. as-md-kam ; Gr. awecov, rfp&v $ Lat. 
 nostri, or wanting ; Goth, unsara ; H. Ger. unser ; A.-S. and 
 O. S. ztor, z/;v / Norse wz>, z/^r / Eng. ure, ur, hure, our, 
 ourn, ours. 
 
 Plur. Obj. Sansk. as-md-n, nas ; Gr. /i/ief, 7/urf; Lat. <?j/ 
 Goth. w^w, j/ O. H. G. unsih ; Mod. H. G. .?/ Norse 
 <?jj/ O. S. us ; A.-S. ^JzV, ^f/ Eng. us. 
 
 Sanskrit and Greek had a dual number, we two, etc. We 
 two and you two were preserved in all the early Teutonic 
 languages as relics of a dual number, once probably of wide 
 extent. The A.-S. was wet, we two ; uncer, of us two ; unc, 
 to or for us two ; unc, or uncit, us two. These forms sur- 
 vived till the last half of the thirteenth century. 
 
 " Unk schal i-tide harm and chonde." 
 (Harm and shame shall betide us twain.} 
 
 "Owl and Nightingale," A. D. 1250. 
 
 " Whi neltu fleon into the bare, 
 And schewi whether unker beo 
 Of bri3ter heowe, of vairur bleo ? " 
 (Why won't you fly into the clear, 
 And show whether of us two be 
 Of brighter hue, of fairer blue ? ) Id. 
 
 Me and us follow old datives in form and accusatives in 
 signification ; and the same is true of thee, you, him, her, them. 
 In such expressions as give me, tell us, like him, the dative 
 signification is preserved. It is not uncommon now to say
 
 Pronouns. 311 
 
 that in such cases to is understood ; but that is misleading. 
 It is true that in modern speech we may, and often do, insert 
 to; but it was not so from the beginning. There is no 
 original to dropped. In methinks, it seems to me, me is 
 dative in sense, and thinks is impersonal, from thyncan, to 
 seem ; quite a different word from thencan, to think. The 
 two parts were sometimes written separately : 
 
 " Al hali kirk, as thine me, 
 May by this schippe takened be." 
 (All holy Church, as thinketh me, 
 May by this ship betokened be.) 
 
 " Cursor Mundi," A. D. 1320. 
 
 As methinks dies out, expressions arise, like thinks I to 
 myself, that never had grammatical or any other consistency. 
 Languages are full of such. But to return. There are 
 expressions like the following: 
 
 " Woe is me, for I am undone." ISAIAH vi., 5. 
 
 " Wei is thee" COVERDALE'S Bible. 
 
 " Woe is us that we weren born." " Havelok, the Dane." 
 
 This dative pronoun was often used without any visible need : 
 
 "leape me ouer this Stoole, and runne away." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Henry VI.," part ii., 2, i. 
 
 Shakespeare makes this usage the basis of some of his 
 interminable punning : 
 
 " Petr. Knocke, I say. 
 
 " Gru. Knocke, sir ? Whom should I knocke ? Is there any 
 man ha's rebus'd your worship ? 
 
 " Petr. Villaine, I say, knocke me heere soundly. 
 
 " Gru. Knocke you heere, sir ? Why, sir ? What am I, sir, 
 that I should knocke you heere, sir ? 
 
 "Petr. Villaine, I say, knocke me at this gate, and rap me 
 well, or I '11 knocke your knave's pate. * 
 
 " Hor. How, now ; what 's the matter ? * * *
 
 312 English Grammar. 
 
 " Gru. * * * He bid me knocke him, and rap him soundly, 
 sir. Well, was it fit for a servant to use his master so ? " 
 
 " Taming of the Shrew," i., 2. 
 
 It was probably due to French influence that the Saxon 
 ic became early English ich (pronounced like modern itch). 
 This ich often united with the following word making icham, 
 I am ; ichabbe and ichave, I have ; icholle and ichulle, I will ; 
 ichot, I wot, etc. Next the / was dropped, leaving cham, 
 chulle, etc. When Edgar, in " King Lear," is personating a 
 Kentish fool, he says : 
 
 " Chill not let go, zir, 
 Without vurther 'casion." 
 
 A shrinking from self-assertion, a real or assumed modesty, 
 sometimes leads to an avoidance of the obtrusive /. So 
 kings and editors say we the speaker hiding his personality 
 in the collective body of the government or of the editorial 
 staff. Such, I opine, is the source of what may be called the 
 pronoun not of majesty, but of modesty. But the editors 
 carry it out the most consistently. They say, ourselves, 
 where a monarch would say ourself. 
 
 There is a curious anomaly, that seems also due to French 
 influence, in the phrase it is me. The Saxons rendered 
 Matt, xiv., 27, ic hyt eom, I it am. Wycliffe, following the 
 original tongues, wrote briefly / am. Tyndale expressed 
 the same by, it is Y, and is as usual closely followed by the 
 authorized version. The " Harrowing of Hell," A.D. 1280, 
 agrees with the Saxon ich it am. Those who wish to be 
 precise now follow the Scripture and say it is I ; but nine- 
 teen persons in twenty imitate the French, cest moi, it is me; 
 and bad as that is it is likely to prevail. Not only so, but, 
 it is him, that is them, are pretty sure to follow the French 
 c'est lui. Better would it have been to keep to the analogies 
 of our mother tongue, / am it, thou art it, I am he, John 
 ix., 9. German version, Ich bin es. 
 
 " Who koude ryme in English properly 
 His martirdom ; for sothe it am noght /." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Knight's Tale."
 
 Pronouns. 3 1 3 
 
 The Pronoun of the Second Person. 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 NOMINATIVE thou 
 
 POSSESSIVE thine 
 
 OBJECTIVE thee 
 
 It has been thought that these forms may be all from one 
 original, and that y may result from a softening of th. 
 
 Singular Nom. Sansk. tvam ; Gr. av$ Lat. tu ; Goth. 
 thu ; A.-S. thu ; Eng. thou. 
 
 Sing. Pos. Sansk. tava, te ; Gr. GOV ; Lat. tut, or wanting; 
 Goth, theina ; A.-S. thin ; Eng. thin, thine, thy. 
 
 Sing. Obj. Sansk. tvdm, tva ; Gr. GS ; Lat. te; Goth, thik ; 
 A.-S. the ; Eng. the, thee. 
 
 Plur. Nom. Sansk. yu-yam ; Gr. v-pjASS, v-j*iS; Lat. m?/ 
 Goth, yu-s ; A.-S. ge ; Eng. ye, you. 
 
 Plur. Pos. Sansk. yu-shma-kam ; Gr.v-fjjufGov, v-pajv ,- Lat. 
 vestri, or wanting; Goth, iz-vara ; A.-S. eower ; Eng. your. 
 
 Plur. Obj. Sansk. yushmdn, vas ; Gr. v-jta$; Lat. WJ/ 
 Goth, izvis ; A.-S. edwic, edw ; Eng. j<?#. 
 
 The singular of this pronoun has gone almost out of use, 
 being now confined to prayer and a serious style of poetry ; 
 as religion and poetry cling to what is old. The same cause 
 that prevents many from blurting out / do thus and so, leads 
 them to find some substitute for thou ; and several devices 
 have been adopted. The English, French, and Dutch say 
 you, the Germans and Danes they, the Italians she and her, 
 the Spaniards your worship, and the Swedes the master. So 
 thou came to express great familiarity, or inferiority in the 
 person addressed, or both. Away back in the times of the 
 Plantagenets thou and ye were signs of an assumed difference 
 in dignity. Robert de Brunne A.D. 1303 gives a long 
 conversation between a husband and wife, in which she 
 addresses her lord as ye ; and he accepts the homage by 
 saying thou to her. That was in the age of chivalry and 
 before the present Women's Rights agitation. To thou a 
 person was often an insult, that might lead to consequences. 
 In " Blind Harry the Minstrel " young Wallace says thou to an
 
 314 English Grammar. 
 
 Englishman, \yho indignantly retorts : " Quham thowis thou, 
 Scot ? " So Sir Edward Coke showed the insolence of office 
 and the malignity of the man when he addressed Raleigh 
 from the Bench : 
 
 " All that Lord Cobham did was at thy instigation, thou viper ! 
 for I thou thee thou traitor ! " 
 
 At length, in the middle of the seventeenth century, the 
 Quakers protested against this and other sinful vanities. 
 Charles Fox wrote in 1648 : 
 
 " When the Lord sent me forth into the world, I was required 
 to thee and thou all men and women, without any respect to rich 
 or poor, great or small. But, ah ! the rage that then was in 
 priests, magistrates, and people of all sorts, but especially in 
 priests and professors ; for though thou to a single person, was 
 according to their own learning, their accidence, and their gram- 
 mar rules, they could not bear it." 
 
 Thirteen years later he wrote : 
 
 " The book called the ' Battle-door ' came forth, written to 
 show that, in all languages, thou and thee is the proper and usual 
 speech to a single person, and you to more than one. This was 
 set forth in examples taken from the Scriptures, and out of books 
 of teaching in about thirty languages. When the book was fin- 
 ished, some of the copies were presented to the king and his 
 council, to the bishops of Canterbury, and to the two universities, 
 one apiece. The king said it was proper language for all nations ; 
 and the Bishop of London being asked what he thought of it, 
 was so at a stand that he could not tell what to say ; for it did 
 so inform and convince people that few afterwards were so rug- 
 ged toward us for saying thou and thee to a single person, which 
 before they were exceeding fierce against us for." 
 
 As a matter of grammar nothing could be more correct, 
 but correctness alone is not a thing to win acceptance. At 
 the present time we do not thou any one, and there is no 
 longer any ground for a difference or peculiarity of address. 
 But strangely enough the Quakers, who used to say thou art, 
 and might now with a clear conscience say you are, really say
 
 Pronouns. 315 
 
 thee is, an absurdity in speech that has no justification. It 
 is one of a few rather harmless oddities unworthy of a body 
 of people in many respects so estimable. 
 
 Thou, like the pronoun of the first person, had formerly a 
 dual number, the cases of which were in A. -S.,git, incer, inc, 
 incit. 
 
 " Either of ow havith his stunde to speokene, ne nis incker 
 nothres tale to schunien in his time." 
 
 (Either of you hath his turn to speak, nor isn't neither of you 
 two to shun talk in his time.) 
 
 "The Soul's Ward," A.D., 1210. 
 
 The last appearance of this dual was in the " Lay of Have- 
 lok," A.D. 1300, by which time it had become confounded 
 with the dual of the first person. 
 
 " Gripeth ether unker a god tree." 
 (Grip either of you two a good tree.) 
 
 The distinction between the Nom. ye and the Obj. you is 
 preserved in the older English writers. It is well maintained 
 in the Bible throughout. 
 
 " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with 
 you." JOB xii., 2. 
 
 At present ye is properly used only to impart solemnity and 
 grandeur to poetry, as in the following from Coleridge. 
 
 " Ye living flowers that skirt the eternal frost ! 
 Ye wild goats sporting round the eagle's nest ! 
 Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain storm ! 
 Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds ! 
 Ye signs and wonders of the element ! 
 Utter forth God, and fill the hills with praise." 
 
 But poets are apt to think that they have a license to defy 
 both rhyme and reason, and finding that ye, used legitimately 
 as a nominative, serves a good purpose, think to attain the 
 same by using it as an objective, whereby nothing is 
 gained.
 
 316 English Grammar. 
 
 "A south-west blow Q^yee." SHAKESP. : "Tempest." 
 
 "I fearer not, I know ye." BYRON. 
 
 "Bethink^, before ye make answer." LONGFELLOW. 
 
 In the last example " Bethink you " would have made better 
 English and better poetry. 
 
 The Pronoun of the Third Person. 
 
 This is the only word in the language now that expresses 
 the distinction of gender ; and it does so only in the singu- 
 lar number. It is declined thus : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 
 NOM. he she it 
 
 Poss. his hers its 
 
 OBJECT. him her it 
 
 PLURAL, ALL GENDERS. 
 
 NOMINATIVE, they ; POSSESSIVE, theirs ; OBJECTIVE, them. 
 
 This is not so strictly a personal pronoun as the other two. 
 Its connection with what are called demonstrative pronouns 
 is evident. The singular is from the same root with here, 
 hither, hence ; and the plural is similarly akin to the, this, 
 that, these, those, then, there, thither, thence, thus and an obso- 
 lete thy. Its genealogy has been wonderfully preserved. 
 
 Sansk., sa, sa, tat. 
 
 Gr., 6) 77, TO, where o represents regularly a Sansk. a, and 
 the aspirate replaces a Sansk. and Lat. s. Homer uses this 
 word indifferently as a demonstrative, an article, or a per- 
 sonal pronoun, unconscious of any difference. 
 
 Goth., sa, so, that-a. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon had three pronouns corresponding to our 
 he, this, and that, each having three genders and four cases, 
 two of them having occasional traces of a fifth case, the In- 
 strumental, denoting that with which anything is done. I 
 shall call them here Nos. i, 2, and 3.
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 317 
 
 No. i. 
 
 NOM. 
 GEN. 
 DAT. 
 Ace us. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 
 
 he heo hit 
 
 his hire his 
 
 heom, him hire heom, him 
 
 hine hi, heo, hig hit 
 
 PLURAL, ALL GENDERS. 
 
 NOM. hi, hie, hig 
 
 GEN. hira, heora 
 
 DAT. heom, him 
 
 Accus. hi, hie, heo, hig 
 
 Observe that the neuter singular is hit, and its genitive or 
 possessive his. 
 
 No. 2 is the demonstrative pronoun that. 
 
 NOM. 
 GEN. 
 DAT. 
 Ace. 
 INSTR. 
 
 NOM. tha 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. 
 
 seo 
 thaere 
 thaere 
 tha 
 
 se 
 
 thaes 
 
 tham 
 
 thone 
 
 thy 
 
 thaere 
 
 PLURAL, ALL GENDERS. 
 
 GEN. thara DAT. tham 
 
 No. 3. The demonstrative this. 
 
 NOM. 
 
 GEN. 
 
 DAT. 
 
 Accus. 
 
 INSTR. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. 
 
 thes theos 
 
 thisses thisse 
 
 thissum 
 
 thisne 
 
 thys 
 
 thisse 
 thas 
 
 PLURAL, ALL GENDERS. 
 
 NOM. and Ace. thas GEN. thissa, thisse-ra 
 
 Neuter. 
 thaet 
 thaes 
 tham 
 thset 
 thy 
 
 Ace. tha. 
 
 Neuter. 
 this 
 thisses 
 thissum 
 this 
 thys 
 
 DAT. thissum
 
 318 English Grammar. 
 
 Nos. 2 and 3 are obviously from the same source, but 
 were already distinct in the times of our Anglo-Saxon an- 
 cestors. No. 3 is supposed to have been formed by com- 
 bining the two roots of No. 2, while the latter was oftenest 
 used for what is now commonly called the article the, and is 
 its source. 
 
 Between the Norman Conquest and the age of Elizabeth 
 great confusion prevailed in the use of these pronouns, and 
 they assumed more shapes than can be easily imagined. 
 When they settled down, like ale that has passed its fer- 
 mentation, it was found that No. 2 and No. 3 had lost all 
 distinction of gender and case ; that No. I had lost the 
 feminine singular nominative and all its plurals, and taken 
 those of No. 2, which in turn had helped itself from No. 3. 
 And so the last-named plural became split into these and 
 those, similarly to the differentiations than and then, bind 
 and bend, band and bond. Of No. 2 nothing remains in its 
 original place but the neuter singular that. In this inter- 
 necine war of words, lasting five hundred years, the main 
 tide of fight ebbed and flowed between the Anglo-Scan- 
 dinavian dialect of York and Northumberland on the one 
 side and the Saxon of Southern England on the other. The 
 northern dialect had for the modern she, they, their, them, 
 sco or scho, thai, thair, thaim, while the southern long re- 
 tained the older heo, hie, or hi, here, hire, or heore, and hem. 
 The older forms are still to be found in Spenser ; but he 
 professed to use an archaic style. The nominatives were 
 the first to be exchanged. Along with the Nom. she we still 
 retain the more original her, and it is quite common to find 
 in old authors they associated with her and hem. 
 
 " The fader his doughters and her husbandes 
 Loued fulle wele, and had hem leef and dere ; 
 Tyme and tyme he yafe hem with his handes 
 Of his goode passingly, and they such chere 
 Hym made, and were of so pleasaunt manere, 
 That he ne wist how to be better at ese, 
 They coude him so well cheresshe and plese." 
 
 OCCLEVE, A.D. 1420.
 
 Pronouns. 3 1 9 
 
 The colloquial 'em is an abbreviation of hem, not of them. 
 
 " Summon 'em, Assemble 'em j I will come forth and shew 
 Myself among 'em" TH. SOUTHERN. 
 
 From No. I are formed he, it, his, her, him, its. Here, 
 hence, etc., from the same source, have become allied in 
 meaning to No. 3. One evidence of the great age of No. I 
 is that it has lost all trace of a demonstrative or adjective 
 meaning, and has become a mere abstract, colorless pronoun. 
 From No. 2 we have she, they, their, them, that, and the 
 adverbs there, then, etc. ; from No. 3 this, these, those. 
 
 It may be noticed that hit has lost its initial h and become 
 it, thus obscuring its connection with he. The accusatives of 
 the pronouns are lost, and their places are taken by datives. 
 One step is made towards understanding why her is two 
 cases. 
 
 The final t of it, that, and what is a sign of the neuter 
 gender, and corresponds to the terminal consonant in 
 Sansk., tat, yat ; Lat., id, quid, quod, illud, istud. 
 
 The instrumental or ablative cases of Nos. 2 and 3 are 
 entirely lost ; but why, the corresponding case of the inter- 
 rogative pronoun, is still in use. 
 
 " And thy ilcan geare sende Aethelwulf cyning Aelfred his 
 sunne to Rome." 
 
 (And in that same year King Ethelwulf sent Alfred his son to 
 Rome.) 
 
 " Ac thaes wundredan men, na forthi thaet hit mare wundor 
 wsere, ac forthi thaet hit wses ungewunelic." 
 
 (But men wondered at this, not for this that it was more won- 
 der, but for this that it was uncommon.) 
 
 'S " Homily on the Loaves and the Fishes." 
 
 "For thy great Mammon fayrely he besought." 
 " For thy the first did in the forepart sit." 
 
 " Faerie Queene," book ii. 
 
 We still have a representative of this old word in such 
 phrases as the sooner the better, the longer here the later 
 there.
 
 320 English Grammar. 
 
 " I love not man the less but Nature more." 
 
 In these instances the differs from the so-called article, 
 and is equivalent to the Latin eo in eo magis, eo melius, by 
 so much more, better, etc. 
 
 The forms with a superadded s ours, yours, theirs, hers 
 its are relatively modern. Of these its is the youngest, 
 not used by Spenser or recognized in the grammars of Ben 
 Jonson and Alexander Gill. Until well into the seven, 
 teenth century his was still in common use. 
 
 " Learning hath his infancy when it is beginning, and almost 
 childish ; then his youth, when it is luxuriant and juvenile 
 then his strength of years, when it is solid and reduced ; and 
 lastly his old age." BACON : " Essay," 58. 
 
 Spenser sometimes has her : 
 
 " For every substance is conditioned 
 To chaunge her hew, and sundry forms to don, 
 Meet for her temper and complexion." 
 
 " Faerie Queene," iii., 6, 38. 
 
 The Bible avoids the new word by means of his and 
 thereof " the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind ; " the 
 laver and his foot " ; "a cubit shall be the length thereof, 
 and a cubit the breadth thereof" In King James's Bible, 
 Leviticus xxv., 5 reads thus : 
 
 " That which groweth of it owne accord of thy haruest, thou 
 shalt not reape, neither gather the grapes of thy Vine vndressed ; 
 for it is a yeare of rest vnto the land." 
 
 There was an opportunity for a precisely similar expres- 
 sion in Acts xii., 10 : 
 
 " they came unto the iron gate that leadeth unto the city ; 
 which opened to them of his own accord." 
 
 This is curiously like a passage in the " Faerie Queene," 
 book ii., canto 2 : 
 
 " they came unto an yron dore, 
 Which to them opened of his own accord."
 
 Pronouns. 321 
 
 The coincidence, however, becomes less striking when we 
 find that both are imitations of Tyndale. 
 
 Hit or it as a possessive, although not very common, is less 
 exceptional than one might suppose. 
 
 " hit is demed euer-more, 
 For hit dede3 of dethe duren there 3et." 
 
 (it is doomed evermore, 
 For its deeds of death endure there yet.) 
 
 " Alliterative Poems," 1360. 
 
 " and that there thou leave it, 
 (Without more mercy) to it owne protection." 
 
 SHAKES?. : " Winter's Tale," 2, 3. 
 
 " It hath it originall from much griefe." " Henry IV.," i, 3. 
 " Of // owne fall."" Timon," act 2. 
 
 " The Coarse they follow, did with desperate hand 
 Fore do it owne life." " Hamlet," 5, i. 
 
 " Of it owne colour and mooues with // owne organs." 
 
 " Ant. and Cleop.," 2, 7. 
 
 " The Hedge Sparrow fed the Cuckoo so long that it 's had it 
 head bit off by it young." " Lear," i, 4. 
 
 Rare instances of this kind are to be found down to the 
 time of Addison and Steele. 
 
 " unless a young wood spring up from // roots." 
 
 Spectator \ No. 584. 
 
 It was not uncommon in the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries to write it's instead of its ; and that is the form 
 sanctioned by the authors of the Constitution of the United 
 States, art. i., sec. 10, par. 2. 
 
 He and she being the principal signs of gender in the 
 language are employed as adjectives to denote the sex, 
 especially of animals : 
 
 " behold an ^-goat came from the west on the face of the 
 whole earth." 
 
 " And there came forth two she-bears out of the wood and tare 
 forty and two children of them.'
 
 322 English Grammar. 
 
 There is a careless usage, not at all to be commended, of 
 employing a personal pronoun as a noun, admitting of 
 adjectives and adjective pronouns. 
 
 " I have seen more eloquence in a look from one of these 
 despicable creatures, than in the eye of the fairest she I ever 
 saw." Spectator ; No. 6n. 
 
 The English language is not rich in pronouns, and there 
 are few careful writers or speakers who have not felt the 
 want of more. One of these wants is a pronoun of the third 
 person, as destitute of number and gender as who or which. 
 Our Saxon fathers, like the Germans, used man as a pro- 
 noun, just as the French use on, which is a residual of 
 homme, a man. The Germans have Man sagt, just as the 
 French have on dit, where our modern phrase is they say, 
 people say, or it is said. In earlier stages of our language 
 man often became mon, men, or me. 
 
 "for with pouerte and with wa schal mon wele buggen." 
 (for with poverty and with woe shall any one buy bliss.) 
 "Wooing of our Lord," A.D., 1210. 
 
 " For me hi halt lothlich and fule." 
 (For folk hold it loathsome and foul.) 
 
 "Owl and Nightingale," 1250. 
 
 Shakespeare often uses a as a substitute for he, she, etc. 
 
 "You '11 nere be friends with him, a kild your sister." 
 " Who ere a was a shew'd a mounting minde." 
 
 " Loves Labour 's Lost," 4, i. 
 
 At present we employ a number of substitutes for a com- 
 mon pronoun, of which the principal are we, you, they, and 
 one, in such sentences as : 
 
 We are likely to have frost to-night. 
 
 You cannot expect the wisdom of age from one so young. 
 
 They say that gold has been found on Mill Brook. 
 
 Here the pronouns do not refer to any particular persons.
 
 Pronouns. 323 
 
 But the greatest need for a common pronoun is in re- 
 ferring back to some indefinite person already mentioned. 
 Take a sentence like the following. 
 
 If the purchaser of a house should find a hidden treasure in it, 
 would it belong to him ? 
 
 Obviously the purchaser might be a woman or a corporation, 
 in which case him would be inapplicable. Hence arise such 
 inelegant verbosities as he or she, to him, her, or them, or either 
 of them. In such cases Addison would have used a plural 
 pronoun, although referring only to a singular. Some one 
 finds a handkerchief and goes about " asking everybody if 
 they had dropped it." And again : " I do not think any one 
 to blame for taking care of their health." Spectator, No. 25. 
 So also Hume: "As he had now reached the twenty-third 
 year of his age, it was natural to think of choosing him a 
 queen ; and each party was ambitious of having him receive 
 one from their hand." In the stricter language of the present 
 day these sentences would be incorrect. 
 
 It is often used indefinitely, and apparently without mean- 
 ing or necessity. 
 
 77 is a pity that so many young persons are growing up without 
 acquiring the means of earning a living. 
 
 What does it represent here ? What is a pity ? Why, it 
 is the fact or state of things described. 
 
 It is all over with him. 
 
 Query. What is all over with him ? 
 
 Ans. Everything in this world is over with him. He is dead. 
 
 // is raining. It is going to snow. 
 
 We do not imagine any particular thing that is raining or 
 going to snow. It is merely a habit of language that has 
 become a necessity. The ancient Romans appeared to say 
 such things in single words pluit, ningit but the appear- 
 ance was deceptive. The final t is the equivalent of our it. 
 English has no separate reflexive pronoun that is, one 
 placed after the verb when the actor and the person or thing
 
 324 English Grammar. 
 
 acted on are the same. The word suicide may be divided into 
 two parts sui-cide of which the first is the Latin reflexive 
 pronoun and the second the verb to strike or kill self-killing. 
 The slayer and the slain are one. Sanskrit had no true re- 
 flexive pronoun, but employed a noun instead. It had, 
 however, an emphatic or intensive pronoun, sva-yam, of 
 which the first half is the essential part, when it was in- 
 tended to mark out a person very prominently. This sva 
 became the Greek oi, e, and the Latin sui, se. It found its 
 way into most of the Teutonic tongues, but was wanting in 
 Anglo-Saxon from an early period, and consequently in 
 English. Everywhere it is without the nominative ; for 
 when one betrays himself, this little word represents him, 
 not as the betrayer, but as the betrayed. It is represented 
 in modern High German by sich, in Dutch by zich, and in 
 Danish and Swedish by sig. Our substitute for this word is 
 self, always combined with the personal pronouns. This 
 compound performs double duty, as will be readily under- 
 stood by one who knows the difference between the Lat. se 
 and ipsi. If I say I fell and hurt myself, the word is used 
 reflexively, the action coming back upon the actor. But in 
 the sentence, I saw it myself, the word corresponds to ipse 
 and reinforces the nominative /. The true reflexive pronoun, 
 where found, is confined to the third person, and has no 
 distinction of number or gender. 
 
 The want of the reflexive deprives us of a very convenient 
 adjective pronoun that might have been derived from it. In 
 place of our single word his, Latin has illius, istius, ipsius, 
 hujus, ejus, and suus, all somewhat different, the last being 
 reflexive. It is some compensation, however, that with our 
 slender stock we are able to distinguish between his and hers, 
 which would have puzzled Cicero and Quintilian, with all 
 their wealth of words. 
 
 The absence of a reflexive is also one reason why our lan- 
 guage has never developed a passive voice for any of its 
 verbs. French, Spanish, and Italian make their verbs reflex- 
 ive and then passive by preposing or appending the pronoun 
 se. The characteristic of the Latin passive is r, which is held
 
 Pronouns. 325 
 
 to be the initial letter of the same se, changed to r, as so 
 often occurs. The Russian language does the same by ap- 
 pending to the verb sya, an abbreviation of the pronoun 
 sebya compare the Sanskrit sva govarit, he says ; gova- 
 ritsya, it is said. So the Norse or Icelandic forms a reflexive 
 by adding sk, a shortening of sik frelsa, to free ; frelsask, 
 to escape. 
 
 Myself, yourself, etc., are everywhere made by combining 
 a personal or a possessive pronoun with the emphatic ele- 
 ment self. The origin of this word is uncertain. Clearly it 
 is the same with the Gothic silba or selba, possibly made up 
 of the se, just considered, and lib, or liba, having the sense 
 of life or living body. It has also been a matter of question 
 whether the word should be reckoned a noun, an adjective, 
 a pronoun, or an adverb, a question of really little import- 
 ance as words pass insensibly from one class to another. It 
 is a noun when used singly or preceded by an adjective. 
 
 " Selfvs> an eloquent advocate." MACLIN. 
 
 " personal identity can by us be placed in nothing but conscious- 
 ness (which is that alone which makes what we call self)" 
 
 LOCKE : " Human Understanding." 
 
 " Agis who saw 
 Even Sparta's self to servile avarice sunk." 
 
 THOMPSON. 
 
 " The ministers for the purpose hurried thence 
 Me, and thy crying selfe." 
 
 SHAKESPEARE : " Tempest." 
 
 Self is an adjective when it precedes a noun. 
 
 " In all service and execution, he showed the self boldness and 
 courage that Hannibal did." NORTH'S " Plutarch." 
 
 " Love did us both with one self arrow strike." 
 
 It is an adverb when it precedes an adjective. 
 
 " The j^" same authors do affirm." HOLLAND'S " Plinie." 
 " In the .y^same day entered Noah, and Shem, and Ham, and 
 Japheth." GEN. vii., 13.
 
 326 English Grammar. 
 
 It is a pronoun only in combination with pronouns. The 
 set/was long written separately from the personal pronoun, 
 and began to be joined to it in the fourteenth century. 
 During the five hundred years when English underwent its 
 greatest changes these compound pronouns took a great 
 variety of forms, among which were : me sylf, my selve, us 
 seolf, us self, ourself, ouszelves, you self, he seolf, hemself, 
 himselven, their self es, their selves, them selfe, themselfe. Out 
 of this confusion emerged a compromise like most com- 
 promises inconsistent, but for the present fairly well estab- 
 lished. 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 ist person, myself ourselves 
 
 2d person, thyself, yourself yourselves 
 
 ( himself \ 
 3d person, < herself V themselves 
 
 ( itself ) 
 
 Five of these forms, being those of the ist and 2d persons, 
 unite a possessive pronoun with self, as with a noun. Himself 
 and themselves attach the second part to what is now called the 
 objective, formerly a dative case. This may be due in part 
 to an imitation of French expressions like lui m$me. Her- 
 self and itself are ambiguous, but may be considered as 
 formed on the model of himself. The prevailing construc- 
 tion then of self is as a noun preceded by an adjective or a 
 possessive. The two exceptions would be overcome by 
 rendering the expressions still more emphatic. We might 
 say : 
 
 his own great self, not him own great self ; 
 
 their wise selves, not them wise selves. 
 The admission of a plural makes self 'a noun and not an 
 adjective. We also admit of whose self and ones self. No- 
 body ventures on whomself ; and although oneself is met 
 with, it is against the analogy and prevailing usage of the 
 language. 
 
 Kings and their representatives alone employ the peculiar 
 form ourself.
 
 Pronouns. 327 
 
 There is no separate objective case, but a possessive is 
 formed by substituting own for self or selves, in which case 
 the pronominal part is always possessive my own, his own, 
 their own. This own, is a past participle of owe, 1 to possess, 
 for which we now use exclusively the strengthened form 
 own. 
 
 THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 The root of the interrogative pronoun is in Sanskrit ka, 
 which becomes in Greek HO and no ; Latin, quo ; Goth, and 
 A.-S., kva; Eng., wha and who. The distinction of gender 
 began to fail in Gothic ; Saxon and English do not distin- 
 guish between masculine and feminine. T is throughout 
 a sign of the neuter. The A.-S. declension was : 
 
 MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER. 
 
 NOM. hwa hwset 
 
 GEN. hwaes hwaes 
 
 DAT. hwdm hwam 
 
 Accus. hwone hwaet 
 
 INSTR. hwy hwy 
 
 Of these forms we have now entirely dropped the Accus. 
 hwone, and all the others have been more or less changed or 
 disguised. We place the w before, but still pronounce it 
 after the h. For hwd we write who and say hu, although I 
 have many a time heard it pronounced hwo ; and in the 
 straths and glens of Scotland it is still called hwa. For 
 hwas we write whose, disguising its possessive character by 
 adding e after s, and we call it hooz. As usual with pro- 
 nouns, we substitute the dative for the accusative, write 
 whom and pronounce it hoom. These are never used as 
 adjectives with nouns, and they apply only to persons. 
 What from kwcet without a noun retains its neuter char- 
 acter, but used adjectively is applicable to either persons or 
 things. 
 
 " What light is that ? " 
 " or what king, going to war against another king," etc. 
 
 1 The sense of indebtedness comes from the possession of a thing not paid for.
 
 328 English Grammar. 
 
 The instrumental hwy, by what, or by what means, becomes 
 the adverb why. 
 
 From the interrogative we have two derivative pronouns, 
 whether and which, also the adverbs how, when, where, 
 whither, whence. Whether, having the old dual termination 
 er, is which of the two. Which was originally formed by 
 adding He, like, to the instrumental hwy, or hwi, and was 
 thus equivalent to the Latin qualis, of what kind. It be- 
 came in A.-S. hwilc or hwelc ; and in the course of its trans- 
 formation h and w changed places, / was dropped out, and 
 c became ch. The ancient word may perhaps still be heard 
 in Scotland. 
 
 " Whilk cause is the best I cannot say." SCOTT. 
 
 Which has but one form for all occasions, is either singu- 
 lar or plural, and is used with or without a noun. While 
 who implies no knowledge of the person inquired about, 
 which refers to the undetermined member of an aggregate 
 known collectively. 
 
 " and he said, I have an errand to thee, O captain. And 
 Jehu said, Unto which of all of us ? And he said, To thee, O 
 captain." 2 KINGS ix., 5. 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Interrogative pronouns may pass imperceptibly into a 
 usage in which there is no trace of an interrogation. In 
 conversing about a picture, for example, the very same 
 words in the same order may occur in several sentences, 
 shading off from a distinct question to no question at all : 
 
 Who painted it } 
 
 I wish to know who painted it. 
 
 I do not know -who painted it. 
 
 Here is the son of the artist -who painted it. 
 
 In the last example who is said to be a relative pronoun 
 and to relate to the preceding noun, artist, which is called 
 the antecedent that which goes before. Who, what, which
 
 Pronouns. 329 
 
 were interrogatives before they were relatives, and began 
 to assume the latter character in the twelfth century. There 
 were, however, other and older relatives. 
 
 The nature of a relative pronoun can be made clearer by 
 a few examples than by any definition : 
 
 1. " There was a man in our town 
 
 And he was wondrous wise." 
 
 Here are two distinct statements connected by and, two 
 subjects, man and he, and the verb was repeated. 
 
 2. " There was a man in our town 
 
 Who was wondrous wise." 
 
 In this instance, as in most, who = and he. 
 
 3. " There was a wondrous wise man in our town." 
 
 Only one proposition, subject, and verb. Many relative 
 clauses, but not all, can be put into the first form, but if we 
 had sufficient adjective power, all could be expressed in the 
 third. 
 
 " He was the only candidate who was accepted," 
 is not the same as 
 
 " He was the only candidate, and he was accepted." 
 It is equivalent to 
 
 " He was the only candidate accepted" 
 Again : 
 
 " There was no one there who could swim," 
 cannot be put into the form : 
 
 " There was no one there, and he could swim " ; 
 but we might say : 
 
 " There was no one there able to swim." 
 
 But relative clauses, put into the form of adjectives, would 
 sometimes be lengthy and cumbrous, and placed after the 
 noun, and so contrary to the genius of the language. The
 
 330 English Grammar. 
 
 Germans have a habit of making up long adjective phrases, 
 which may be illustrated by a close translation of Apart of 
 a sentence from Friedrich Schlegel, combining the parts of 
 each phrase by hyphens : 
 
 " The harmonious majesty of the opposite-standing Magdalen, 
 whose consummate beauty in the toward-thc-beholder-turned feat- 
 ures, is strikingly like to the Dresden Madonna, reminds us of 
 the sweet harmony of the in-eternal-beatilude-blessed spirits, which 
 in the magic tones of earthly music," 
 
 and so on to the end of the sentence, that is, of the page. 
 Now if we had this habit, we might dispense at will with 
 relative pronouns, although it is not clear that our style 
 would be thereby improved. Thus instead of saying : 
 
 " There are still traces of the canal which was cut by Xerxes 
 across Mount Athos," 
 
 we could say : 
 
 " There still are traces of the by-Xerxes-across-Mount-Athos-eut 
 canal." 
 
 Relative pronouns save us from such lumbering expressions, 
 and, with the help of a second verb, dexterously turn a sen- 
 tence into a new direption, from which it may be again 
 deflected into a third. 
 
 What and which as relatives differ a little from the same 
 words as interrogatives. By a kind of poetic license which 
 takes the possessive whose, 
 
 " that sweet bird whose music was a storm." 
 
 SHELLEY. 
 " The sunken glen whose sunless shrubs must weep." 
 
 BYRON. 
 
 What has the peculiarity of being both antecedent and rela- 
 tive equal to that which. Which and what are sometimes 
 used with nouns, but oftenest without. 
 
 " What books he wished, he read : 
 What sage to hear, he heard ; what scenes to see, 
 He saw." POLLOCK'S " Course of Time."
 
 Pronouns. 331 
 
 The quaint old phrase, what time, meaning at that time when, 
 is found only in poetry : 
 
 " What time the mighty moon was gathering light, 
 Love paced the thymy plots of Paradise." 
 
 TENNYSON. 
 Which was often preceded by the : 
 
 " In the which ye also walked sometime." COL. in., 7. 
 
 More curious was the practice of requiring the three words 
 the which that to make a single relative pronoun. 
 
 " And the monstre answerde him, and seyde, he was a dedly 
 creature, suche as God hadde formed, and dwelled in the des- 
 ertes, in purchasynge his sustynance ; and besoughte the here- 
 myte, that he wolde preye God for him, the whiche that cam from 
 hevene for to saven all mankynde, and was born of a mayden, 
 and suffred passioun and dethe (as we well knowen)." Sir JOHN 
 MANDEVILLE. 
 
 It has been already said that the interrogatives were not 
 employed as relatives until the twelfth century. What and 
 which came first, and Dr. Morris assures us that who was not 
 so used until the fourteenth, nor common before the six- 
 teenth. This priority of which explains its occurrence in old 
 books where we should now use who. There are probably 
 persons still living who can remember the first sentence of 
 the Lord's Prayer neither an error nor an exception. 
 
 "But Paul said, I am a man which am a Jew of Tarsus." 
 ACTS xxi., 39. 
 
 The older relatives were : first, an indeclinable the ; second, 
 the pronoun of the third person distinguished (page 329) as 
 No. 2, se, seo, thaet ; third, these latter combined with the ; 
 fourth, swa, equal to so or as. In the Saxon Chronicle 
 King Henry acts 
 
 "be thaere rede the him abuton waeron." 
 (by their rede that were about him.) 
 
 " Man waes fram Gode asend thces nama waes Johannes." 
 (There was a man sent from God whose name was John.) 
 
 JOHN i., 6.
 
 33 2 English Grammar. 
 
 " Ne geseah naefre nan man God, buton se ancenneda Sunu hit 
 cythde, se ys on hys Faeder bearme." 
 
 (Not saw never no man God, unless the only begotten Son 
 manifested it, who is in his Father's bosom.) 
 
 JOHN i., 18. 
 
 " He toe the recless & te blod, 
 & 3ede upp to thatt allterr, 
 Thatt was withthinnenn wa3herifft." 
 (He took the incense and the blood, 
 And went up to that altar, 
 That was within the veil.) 
 
 "Ormulum," 1200. 
 
 In the "Lives of the Saints" (1295) occurs, 
 
 " thulke hous as he was inne ibore," 
 (the same house which he was born in) ; 
 
 and Bishop Bonner (1538) complains of Hooper for mis- 
 quoting him making him say : " the same as was hanged," 
 instead of, "the same that was hanged." As was then 
 beginning to go out of fashion. Still it sometimes found a 
 place in literature as late as the age of Queen Anne. 
 
 " he marches up and attacks their main body, but are opposed 
 again by a party of men as lay,".etc. Tatler, 1709. 
 
 Steele, in the Spectator, with the ignorance of English 
 philology so common in that age, presents the " Humble 
 Petition of Who and Which against the upstart Jack Sprat, 
 That, now trying to supplant them." The truth was, they 
 were supplanting That. Perhaps he was not acquainted 
 with the English Psalter of 1380. 
 
 " Blesse thou, my soule, to the Lord ! and wile thou not forSete 
 all the Seldingus of him. 
 
 That hath mercy to alle thi wickednessis ; that helith alle thin 
 infirmyties. 
 
 That a3en-bieth fro deth thi lif ; that crowneth thee in mercy 
 and mercy-doingis. 
 
 That fulfilleth in goode thingus thy deseyr."
 
 Pronouns. 333 
 
 In all ages of the English tongue that has been the standard 
 relative of the body of the people, and to this day which is 
 stiff and formal, suggestive of the student's lamp or the 
 pedagogue's birch. Here is an excellent example : 
 
 " This is the cock that crew in the morn, 
 Unto the farmer sowing his corn, 
 That met the priest with his pen and ink-horn, 
 That married the man so tattered and torn, 
 That kissed the maiden all forlorn, 
 That milked the cow with the crumpled horn, 
 That tossed the dog, that worried the cat, 
 That killed the rat, that ate the malt, 
 Ttiatlzy in the house, that Jack built." 
 
 This familiar word occurs here eleven times ; and to replace 
 it by which and zvho would destroy the rippling rhythm that 
 has delighted the young ears of so many generations. 
 
 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 If all be included that may with propriety be placed in 
 this class, it becomes a very large one. Its limits are as 
 usual rather arbitrary ; for its members are not used exclu- 
 sively as adjectives, nor are they the only ones so employed. 
 Several of those already treated of are often associated with 
 nouns in the manner of adjectives. Indeed, who is the only 
 pronoun never associated with a noun. The pronouns of 
 the first and second persons are never adjectives. When 
 followed by nouns, the former is the leading word to which 
 the latter is added. It is not the pronoun that is set to help . 
 out the noun. But the words of the present class are 
 habitually, and some of them exclusively, employed with 
 nouns. I shall include two groups not very generally 
 treated as adjective pronouns, and shall make five sub- 
 divisions. 
 
 I. What are commonly called demonstrative pronouns, as 
 if the speaker pointed with the finger at the thing spoken 
 of. They are three in number this, with its plural these; 
 that, with its plural those; and yon w yonder. The first two
 
 334 English Grammar. 
 
 have been spoken of under the head of the pronoun 
 of the third person. Strictly, this refers to what is 
 near the speaker ; that, to what is near the hearer ; and 
 yon to something remote from both. The words are applied 
 also to ideas, opinions, actions, sayings, etc. When two 
 things have just been named in contrast, the first is referred 
 to as that, the last as this. 
 
 " What conscience dictates to be done, 
 
 Or warns me not to do, 
 This, teach me more than hell to shun, 
 That, more than heaven pursue." 
 
 POPE. 
 
 Often we refer to something we are going to say as this, 
 and to what we have just said as that. 
 
 " Never break a bridge you yourself -may have to cross : re- 
 member that" 
 
 " Store this among your treasures of wisdom : If you cannot 
 keep your own secret, do not expect another to do it." 
 
 Like the Latin iste, this is sometimes employed to impart 
 a shade of contempt : 
 
 " There will be no end of such fantastical writers as this Mr. 
 Harris, who takes fustian for philosophy." 
 
 TOOKE'S " Diversions of Purley." 
 " this kind, this due degree 
 Of blindness, weakness, heaven bestows on thee." 
 
 POPE : " Essay on Man," i., 233. 
 
 On the other hand that is used to magnify : 
 
 " When languishing with love-sick eyes, 
 That great, that charming man you see." 
 
 ADDISON : " Rosamond," ii., 6. 
 
 " There Charles confronted the High Court of Justice with that 
 placid courage which has half redeemed his fame." 
 
 MACAULAY : " Warren Hastings." 
 
 Yon is now out of use in prose, and rare in poetry. The 
 later form yonder is frequent in prose as an adverb of place :
 
 Pronoims. 335 
 
 "And they too have a voice, yon piles of snow." 
 
 COLERIDGE'S " Hymn." 
 " Near yonder copse, where once a garden smiled." 
 
 GOLDSMITH'S " Deserted Village." 
 
 Like many other old genuine words, yon is more common 
 in Scotland : 
 
 " There 's auld Rob Morris that wins vs\yon glen, 
 He 's the king o' guid fellows, the wale o' auld men." 
 
 BURNS. 
 
 II. Two little words that have not much in common are 
 usually made into a class by themselves and called Articles. 
 They are an, abbreviated to a before a consonant sound, and 
 the, to which Dr. Latham would add no. An is the Saxon 
 numeral dn, one, fairly well preserved, and, as remarked, 
 sometimes drops the n. " I have caught a fox," and " I 
 have caught one fox," state precisely the same fact ; but the 
 latter carries an implication that there was some thought of 
 catching more than one, and thus lays stress on the number. 
 It is very clear then why an or a precedes only a singular 
 noun. 
 
 Down to the close of the last century the final n was com- 
 monly retained before the sound of h ; and we read of an 
 house, an high day, an hen, an hog, an heap. At present the 
 practice is to drop it before all consonant sounds, including 
 h,y, and w ; excepting, however, words beginning with h and 
 accented on the second syllable. In such cases the h is 
 scarcely heard. 
 
 The adjective pronoun no is merely the negative of the 
 preceding. One of the forms taken by the first numeral in 
 the middle ages was o : 
 
 " Anon he let two cofres make, 
 Of o semblance and o make." 
 
 GOWER. 
 
 Adding to this the n of the negative particle ne, makes the 
 compound no. A fuller form is none, but now slightly differ- 
 ent grammatically. Formerly none, like an, was used before 
 a vowel.
 
 336 English Grammar. 
 
 " He maketh the devices of the people of none effect." 
 
 PSALM xxxiii., 10. 
 
 but such a distinction is no longer observed. 
 
 The is from the same source as that. Our Saxon ances- 
 tors occasionally employed an indeclinable form the, but 
 oftener the pronoun se, sea, thcet, varied in gender, number, 
 and case to suit the noun to which it was applied. An, or a, 
 no, and the are thus weakened substitutes for one, no one, and 
 that or those. An does not indicate any particular one, while 
 the relates to something so well understood that its identity 
 is not likely to be mistaken. 
 
 " I hear a dog barking "; " I hear the dog barking." 
 
 The first may be any dog ; the second is a particular animal 
 well understood between us. 
 
 " There was a man with a monkey here yesterday." 
 " There is the man with the monkey again." 
 
 Having once seen and spoken of him he is now familiar. 
 
 III. My, thy, her, our, your, their, are called possessive pro- 
 nouns, as distinguished from the possessive cases of the per- 
 sonal pronouns. They are of course originally the same. 
 My and thy are shortened forms of mine and thine, in the 
 same manner as a is a clipped an. The Bible says " mine 
 house," " thine head." The possessive pronouns that end in 
 r are original, and their former places have been taken by 
 forms with an added s. fits remains the same for both pur- 
 poses, as it does not readily admit of a second s. Its is now 
 almost exclusively used as an adjective pronoun. Speaking 
 of a bird we might say : " That is its nest " ; we should 
 scarcely ever say : " That nest is its " ; yet that is the way 
 in which Shakespeare used the word : 
 
 " Each following day 
 
 Became the next dayes master, till the last 
 Made former Wonders it's" 
 
 " Henry VIII.," i, x.
 
 Pronouns. 337 
 
 The words of this and the preceding subdivision are used 
 only before nouns. We may say, " This is our house," but 
 not, " This house is our' 
 
 IV. Numerals. Words denoting number are commonly 
 classed among adjectives, but with a misgiving that their 
 position is insecure, like that of the bats among the birds 
 and beasts. They express no quality or characteristic, ad- 
 mit of no degrees of comparison, and, like pronouns, are 
 " names for everything." 
 
 It is not necessary to give a series of numerals, as they 
 are equally well known to everybody. They offer an ex- 
 ample of forms remarkably well preserved in the main, yet 
 occasionally suffering great changes, as will be seen by the 
 table on page 338, of the first twelve in several languages 
 of the Aryan family. The first column is a conjectural 
 original from which all the others may be supposed to be 
 derived. 
 
 The Sanskrit and Gypsy words for one are evidently not 
 from the source common to all the others. 
 
 The s or cs, added to several of the first numerals, is an 
 inflectional termination, and no part of the original words. 
 The same is true of final r, or the doubled consonant, in 
 Norse or Icelandic. 
 
 The d in the Russian od-in is excrescent. 
 
 Two, three, and six a multiple of two and three are the 
 numbers best preserved. Whether or not this has any con- 
 nection with the mystic character often attributed to the 
 number three I cannot say. The cipher 3 is still the same 
 in Sanskrit and in European books. 
 
 Eleven and twelve are generally one-ten, two-ten ; but are 
 constructed on a different principle in Lithuanian and the 
 Teutonic dialects. This is most readily seen in Gothic. 
 Bopp is no doubt correct in his conjecture that the -/if is 
 akin to the English leave, left. The line of thought would 
 thus be ten-and-one-left, ten-and-tzvo-left, shortened to one- 
 left, two-left. 
 
 In third, thirteen, and thirty r has changed places, as it 
 often does, with the adjacent vowel.
 
 338 
 
 English Grammar. 
 
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 3
 
 Pronouns. 339 
 
 The ty in twenty, thirty, forty, is allied to the Gothic tigjus, 
 a modified form of taihun, ten. 
 
 Our native tongue has no numeral larger than thousand ; 
 million, billion, etc., are of Latin origin. 
 
 The numerals here considered, whether great or small, are 
 called cardinal numbers, from the Latin cardo, or better 
 cardin, a hinge, because on them depend and turn several 
 other series in which number is the chief element. Of these 
 derived series there are three, one of which properly belongs 
 here first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. They are called 
 ordinals, because they show only the order of succession or 
 arrangement. It will be seen at once that first and second 
 are not derivations of one and two. First is a superlative 
 from fore, and second is from the Latin sequor, to follow. 
 
 The second derivative series single, double, triple, quadru- 
 ple are adjectives, and need not be further considered here, 
 The third are adverbs -once, twice, thrice, etc. 
 
 There are many other words, nouns and adjectives, in- 
 volving the consideration of number, such as hexagon, pen- 
 tagonal, dodecahedron, but they do not belong here. 
 
 V. Miscellaneous adjective pronouns : 
 
 all either ilk same 
 
 any else latter several 
 
 both enough many some 
 
 certain every neither such 
 
 divers few only sundry 
 
 each former other 
 
 Most of these are used either with nouns or without, but 
 every and sundry accompany either other adjective pronouns 
 or nouns. Only never occurs alone as a pronoun, but it may 
 precede or follow either noun or pronoun. When joined 
 with a noun enough generally follows it. Certain is now 
 scarcely ever used alone, but formerly was less confined : 
 
 " But before that certain came from James, he did eat with the 
 Gentiles." GAL. ii., 12. 
 
 The same is true of divers, now nearly obsolete :
 
 34-O English Grammar. 
 
 " for divers of them came from far." MARK via., 3. 
 
 " The Gospel is everywhere one, though it be preached of 
 divers." TYNDALE. 
 
 Ilk, when met with at all, is without a noun. It meant 
 the same. It is used now only rarely and half in jest. A 
 man is said to be of that ilk when his name and that of his 
 home are the same, as Kinloch of Kinloch. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Any, every, no, and some, united with body, one, and thing, 
 yield twelve pronouns used as nouns anybody, everybody, 
 etc. There are also ought and its negative nought equiva- 
 lents of anything and nothing. It is not uncommon now to 
 prefer the spelling aught and naught, on the ground that 
 they represent the A.-S. dwiht and ndwiht, and that such 
 was the prevalent spelling for some centuries after the lan- 
 guage had become what we should now recognize as English. 
 But, on the other hand, A.-S. d is most commonly represented 
 by o in the language of our time, thus : 
 
 an one cald cold ham home 
 
 ar ore crdw crow mal mole 
 
 ath oath dran drone mar more 
 
 bald bold laid fold na no 
 
 ban bone gd go ra roe 
 
 bat boat gdt goat sla sloe 
 
 Moreover, ought is spelled with o in the very careful or- 
 thography of the " Ormulum," A.D. 1200, and in the " Proverbs 
 of Hending," about a century later. Nought occurs in the 
 Bible thirty-six times and naught three times, but always 
 with the distinction that the former has the meaning of 
 nothing, and the latter of bad or worthless. 
 
 " Ye have sold yourselves for nought, and ye shall be redeemed 
 without money." ISA. lii., 3. 
 
 " The situation of this city is pleasant, as my lord seeth ; but 
 the water is naught, and the ground barren." 2 KINGS ii., 19.
 
 Pronouns. 341 
 
 " It is naught, it is naught, saith the buyer ; but when he is gone 
 his way, then he boasteth." PROV. xx.,i4. 
 
 Pronouns are nearly all native words ; the exceptions 
 being certain, divers, several, and a few of the numerals. 
 
 Many of the foregoing words are not universally regarded 
 as pronouns. Indeed, I am not aware that all have ever 
 been so grouped before. If, as I believe, words are all the 
 time undergoing changes, so slow that it may take centuries 
 to make the change clear and conspicuous, there must be 
 many in an intermediate and doubtful state, so that it is 
 easier to say what they were, or what they will be, than to 
 determine what they are. I hope that to loan is not good 
 English yet, although very common, but I have little doubt 
 that within a hundred years loan will completely displace 
 lend. 
 
 " Nebuzar-adan the captain of the guard carried away certain 
 of the poor of the land * * * } e f t certain of the poor of the 
 land for vinedressers and for husbandmen." JEREMIAH lii. 
 
 Nothing could be left more uncertain than who the respective 
 poor persons were. Certain is here precisely equivalent to 
 some ; and the word must have sunk gradually from the sense 
 of certitude, as an adjective, to that of entire indefiniteness 
 as a pronoun. There are no doubt words now losing their 
 individuality, and sinking into the condition of being 
 "names for everything." As an example of this kind, 
 Professor Earle instances the word thing. There is certainly 
 no object now in nature or art, to which it is more appro- 
 priate than to another. Originally it signified a public 
 assembly bearing some analogy to a town meeting. We 
 may read of such Things in the old Norse Sagas, and find 
 vestiges of them in the name of Thingvalla, in Iceland, and 
 the Tynwald, in the Isle of Man. But among our Saxon 
 ancestors, even before the Conquest, it had obtained a 
 wider range of indefiniteness than it has now. 
 
 Another of these half pronominal words is body, not only 
 in the compounds anybody, nobody, etc., but also alone.
 
 34 2 English Grammar. 
 
 Like who, it is confined to persons. It is more generally 
 used by the Scotch than by the rest of our kindred. If the 
 following example were translated into Latin, a body would 
 be everywhere represented by a pronoun. 
 
 " Gin a body meet a body 
 
 Comin' through the rye, 
 Gin a body kiss a body, 
 Need a body cry ? "
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 VERBS AND THEIR SEVERAL KINDS. 
 
 VERBS express actions. It is true that after many thousand 
 years of growth and decay, we can find a few verbs that do 
 not readily suggest to us any form of bodily or mental 
 activity. Such are forget, neglect, lose, omit, lie, sleep ; but 
 nearly all such words can be traced back to more active 
 ancestors. We shall hereafter find reason to believe that 
 to be the most colorless and inexpressive of all verbs once 
 conveyed the idea of doing something. Professor Whitney 
 says of the remotest accessible verbal roots of the Aryan 
 tongues, " that they are limited in signification to a single 
 class of ideas, the physical or sensual, the phenomenal, out 
 of which the intellectual and moral develop themselves." 1 
 That is, every verb at first denoted the perceptible action of 
 some material body. So we shall most readily reach a clear 
 idea by taking action to be the essential characteristic of a 
 verb ; and we need not be surprised to find, what is found 
 everywhere else, that some of the farthest developments lose 
 sight of the original conception. 
 
 It is often said that the essence of a verb is to assert or 
 declare, but this seems to me a less permanent and essential 
 feature than the other. We can find hundreds of assertions 
 without verbs, and verbs that assert nothing. A snatch from 
 an old song of the Buccaneers of the Spanish Main ran : 
 
 " Up with the black flag, down with the blue ; 
 Fire on the main-top, fire on the bow, 
 Fire on the gun-deck, fire down below." 
 
 1 " Language and the Study of Language," page 265. 
 343
 
 344 English Grammar. 
 
 These spirited lines make no assertion, but suggest a good 
 deal of action. So questions and many other expressions 
 do not assert. 
 
 " Oh ! that the desert were my dwelling-place, 
 With one fair spirit for my minister." 
 
 BYRON'S " Childe Harold." 
 
 This is the expression of a wish without any verb of wish- 
 ing, were being the only one present, which does not assert 
 that anything is or was or will be. In the sentence, The 
 rose is red, the adjective red is a more important part of the 
 assertion than the verb is. Many languages are without a 
 word signifying merely to be, to exist ; and others, like the 
 Hebrew and Arabic, use it very sparingly. " Every beast of 
 the forest is mine, and the cattle upon a thousand hills" is a 
 very large assertion, but the only verb in it is a European 
 interpolation. There is a passage well known to the friends 
 of temperance and prohibition, that in the original is with- 
 out a verb : 
 
 "Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath contentions? 
 who hath babbling ? who hath wounds without cause ? who hath 
 redness of eyes ? 
 
 " They that tarry long at the wine." 
 
 The essential idea of a verb is sometimes put into the 
 form of a noun. Some of these are grammatically mere 
 nouns like stealth, flattery, forgiveness, emulation, blandish- 
 ment. Although derived from verbs, they are not verbs in 
 any sense, and may be summarily dismissed. There is one, 
 however, ending in -ing, so directly formed from the verb 
 that it may be regarded as almost a part of it at least a 
 true verbal noun : " the writings, of the Fathers "; " from the 
 rising of the sun unto forgoing down of the same." What 
 is very commonly called the infinitive of the verb, to run, to 
 ride, to speak, is often equivalent to a verbal noun, as will be 
 easily seen in the familiar quotation, 
 
 " To err is human, to forgive divine."
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 345 
 
 " for to will is present with me ; but to perform that which is good 
 I find not." 
 
 There are thus two verbal nouns. 
 
 Again the verbal idea may assume the form of an ad- 
 jective, or of a word partaking in various degrees of the 
 adjective character. Solicitous, from solicit, responsive, from 
 respond, are mere adjectives, and not verbal forms ; but our 
 language has two real hybrids. The first invariably ends in 
 ing, and being an adjective admits of no plural " a running 
 stream," " the lark was singing," " the birds are singing," " the 
 girls were singing ' Old Folks at Home,' " In the first of these 
 examples running has the effect only of an adjective ; in the 
 others singing has all the force of a verb. This form is 
 called a participle, as partaking of the characters of the verb 
 and the adjective. It will be seen at once that this parti- 
 ciple is identical in form with the verbal noun in -ing. Of 
 this more will be said hereafter. Let it suffice for the 
 present that, so far as form goes, the noun is the original 
 and the participle a mistaken imitation. There is another 
 participle whose ending is not uniform, but is in a majority 
 of instances -ed roasted chestnuts, painted ceilings, frozen 
 lakes, bound volumes. Of these two participles the first is 
 connected with the actor or doer, represents the action as in 
 progress, going on, and consequently incomplete ; the sec- 
 ond connects the action with the person or thing acted 
 upon, and represents it as finished. The first is commonly 
 said to be present and active, the latter past, or perfect and 
 passive. Perfect, in grammar, signifies completed action, 
 and passive suffering or undergoing. In " The boy is stoning 
 the robins," the actor is put forward and made conspicuous ; 
 but if we say, " The robins are stoned by the boy," promi- 
 nence is given to the sufferers. This is the difference be- 
 tween the active and the passive forms of verbs. Besides 
 the two simple participles, there are several compound parti- 
 cipial expressions, such as, being writing, being about to write, 
 having been writing, having written, having been written, etc. 
 To the number and variety of these there is no precise limit.
 
 346 English Grammar. 
 
 Verbs are divided into several classes upon a variety of 
 grounds quite independent of each other, sometimes from 
 their meaning and sometimes with sole reference to their 
 forms. And first, as to signification. The leading distinc- 
 tion is between verbs expressing actions which begin and 
 end with the actor and those that directly involve another. 
 The actor is called in grammatical language the subject ; the 
 person or thing he acts upon, the object. In the sentence, 
 " The hunter killed a bear," the hunter is subject and the 
 bear object. To sleep, to smile, to shudder, to yawn, and 
 many others take no object. Those that take an object are 
 called transitive a word that means passing over. When a 
 bad boy pelts a homeless cat, the act of pelting is conceived 
 of as passing from the little barbarian to the friendless ani- 
 mal. But when the young savage lies down and sleeps, 
 these actions are confined to himself, and do not pass over 
 to another. Verbs that thus have no object are called 
 intransitive. Transitive verbs have an active and a passive 
 side ; intransitives have only the forms of the active. A 
 great number of verbs generally intransitive may, by one 
 or another contrivance, be used transitively. One may walk, 
 run, or sit a horse, fly a kite, or sweat coin. The Lord 
 rained bread from heaven (Exod. xvi., 4), and a tree may 
 snow its fragrant blossoms on the ground. While a few 
 verbs remain exclusively transitive or intransitive, the greater 
 number may be either. A few verbs originally single have, 
 by a change of vowel, been split into pairs, each pair con- 
 taining usually a transitive and an intransitive. 
 
 brood breed rise raise 
 
 deem doom sit set 
 
 fall fell stoop steep 
 
 lie lay drink drench 
 
 Besides the direct, verbs often have an indirect object, to 
 or for whom a thing is done. Sing me a song. Tell him the 
 story. Show Ada the pictures. It is sometimes said that 
 the little word to is understood before the words here 
 italicized ; but what are we to understand by its being
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 347 
 
 so understood ? In languages that have a considerable 
 supply of cases, one is chiefly set apart for the indirect 
 object. The above words would have been in the dative 
 case, so long as we had one, but without any to. Now, 
 when that case is lost we often indicate the same relation by 
 to, that we may avoid ambiguity. In the usual expressions 
 there is not an original to omitted ; but in the amended 
 phrases a particle is inserted. 
 
 Some languages abound in verbs whose action returns 
 upon the actor, as the boomerang is fabled to do. These 
 are called reflexive, or backward-turning verbs. Such are the 
 probable originals of the Sanskrit and Greek middle voice, 
 and of all passive forms. With the help of well-preserved 
 pronouns, the Italian, Spanish, and French employ a great 
 number of reflexive expressions. 
 
 Dar a far qualche cosa To undertake something 
 
 Intenderw della pittura To understand painting 
 
 Ribellaro To rebel 
 
 Se lo ban comido los mosquitos The mosquitoes have eaten him 
 
 up 
 
 Ir se To go away 
 
 Venir se To come away 
 
 Se promener To take a walk 
 
 Se servir To make use of 
 
 S' enrhumer To take cold 
 
 English has no reflexive forms, for reasons suggested under 
 the head of personal pronouns. It is true that one can 
 do but few things to others that he cannot do to himself ; 
 he can hurt, deceive, or give himself away, but we have 
 few words to express what one can do only to himself. Be- 
 think, betake, and behave make up the list. The last is some- 
 times used as an intransitive, but the older and prevailing 
 usage is reflexive : 
 
 " thou behaued'st thy selfe, as if thou hadst beene in thine 
 owne Slaughter-house." SHAKESP. : 2 " Henry VI.," iv., 3. 
 
 In the Bible it is reflexive twelve times, and four times 
 intransitive.
 
 348 English Grammar. 
 
 There is an old word, hight, now scarcely used in serious 
 speech, which, when signifying to be called or named, has 
 all the force of a passive : 
 
 " This grizy beast (which Lyon hight by name.) " 
 
 " Midsummer Night's Dream," v., 140. 
 " Ne liuing man like words did neuer heare, 
 As she to me deliuered all that night ; 
 And at her parting said shee Queene of Faeries hight" 
 
 SPENSER : " Faerie Queene," i., 9. 
 
 There are verbs that have no real subject, that express 
 actions performed by nobody. These are called impersonal 
 verbs. For form's sake they have generally an apparent 
 subject, it, but the it does not denote anything in particular: 
 
 It had rained all night. 
 
 May it please the Honorable Court, we shall first undertake to 
 prove, etc. 
 
 This it is often repeated and expanded into a long phrase, 
 of which the essential part is that form of the verb which is 
 a verbal noun. I shall here enclose the phrase subject in a 
 parenthesis, and italicize the verbal noun : 
 
 " O it offends mee to the Soule, (to see a robustious 
 Pery-wig-pated Fellow tear a Passion to tatters to verie ragges). 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Hamlet." 
 
 The impersonal form of expression was once much more 
 common than it is now. Verbs that can dispense with even 
 the formal subject it are confined to the archaic language 
 of poetry : 
 
 " Theresa's form 
 Methinks 1 it glides before me now, 
 Between me and yon chestnut bough." 
 
 BYRON: "Mazeppa." 
 " And ambling palfrey when, at need, 
 Him listed ease his battle steed," 
 
 SCOTT'S "Marmion," canto i. 
 
 1 Here me is a survival of the dative case, and thinks from A.-S. thincan, to 
 seem, not the same word as thencan, to think. The meaning therefore is : // 
 seems to me.
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 349 
 
 There is no precise limit to the number of verbs that may 
 occasionally be used impersonally. 
 
 Lastly, there are a few verbs that in the course of ages 
 have fallen so low as to lose their independence entirely, and 
 become slaves of other verbs. They are called auxiliary or 
 helping verbs. They are can, let, may, must, shall, and will, 
 which are never allowed to go without the conscious 
 presence of some more substantial verb. Be, dare, do, and 
 have are on the downward road, and have lost their inde- 
 pendence in part, and there is at present an effort to 
 reduce help in the same manner. Thus we can, as usual, see 
 the process in all its stages from shall at one end of the 
 scale to help at the other. 
 
 The division of verbs according to their forms is a much 
 more extensive subject than that depending on their signifi- 
 cations. A hundred years ago the good Lindley Murray 
 could divide all verbs into regular, irregular, and defective. 
 As the defectives, so far as they went, were necessarily 
 either regular or irregular, there were essentially but two 
 kinds. The regulars added -d or -ed to indicate that the 
 action was past ; the others did not. The distinction was 
 not profound or particularly useful, but it had the merit of 
 being very easy to perceive and remember. 
 
 To make the point clearer, we may revert to what was 
 said (page 345) of participles, that one of them, expressing 
 the effect of an action past and completed, very often ended 
 in -ed. There is also an active form of the verb, referring to 
 past action, and called the past, imperfect, or preterit tense, 
 which also often ends in -ed. 
 
 plant he plant-ed it was plant-ed 
 
 plough he plough-ed it was plough-ed 
 
 urge he urge-d it was urge-d 
 
 These are perfect specimens that have not been worn down, 
 like had for have-d. The verb undergoes no change except 
 the addition, and the past tense and past participle are alike. 
 But there is a class of verbs that differ very essentially from 
 these. In the best specimens there is an interior change of
 
 350 English Grammar. 
 
 vowel, nothing is added except to the participle, and the 
 preterit and participle are unlike. 
 
 sing he sang it was sung 
 
 begin he began it was begun 
 
 fly he flew it had flow-n 
 
 We saw in the chapter on word-making that the inflec- 
 tional system of the Shemitic nations was carried out largely 
 by vowel changes. This resource was familiar to the Hindoos, 
 not altogether unknown to the Greeks and Romans, and 
 has been largely employed by the Teutonic nations from 
 times of which there is no memory. To indicate that an 
 action is past and finished, one obvious way would be to 
 repeat the verb, as if one should say run-run he, meaning 
 he ran, or has run. But as the most constant tendency of 
 language is to shorten cumbrous compounds, this would 
 after a time become ru-run he. It would then be exactly 
 analogous to the Latin cu-curr-it, he or it ran. In Sanskrit 
 the practice was, as in the last example, to diminish the first 
 half of the compound by omitting the final consonant, and 
 substituting where possible a fainter vowel, and to double 
 or strengthen the vowel of the last part. 
 
 budh know bu-bodh-a he knew 
 
 m lead ni-nay-a he lead 
 
 tan stretch ta-tan-a he stretched 
 
 So the Latin has : 
 
 pedo pe-ped-it morde-o mo-mord-it 
 
 pend-o pe-pend-it curr-o cu-curr-it 
 
 tend-o te-tend-it sponde-o spo-pond-it 
 
 tund-o tu-tud-it parc-o pe-perc-it 
 
 In Greek the first part of the doubled verb dwindled to the 
 faintest form that the initial consonant could assume, and a 
 faint <?. 
 
 graph-o ge-graph-a thall-o te-thel-a 
 
 deir-o de-dark-a phraz-o pe-phrak-a
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 351 
 
 The Gothic, in repeating, or as it is called reduplicating, 
 the verb, preserves a greater part than any of the sister 
 languages. 
 
 slep-an to sleep sai-zlep I slept 
 
 gret-an to weep gai-grot I wept 
 
 hait-a lo call hai-hait I called 
 
 hlaup-an to run hlai-laup I ran 
 
 skaid-an to separate skai-skaid I separated 
 
 Yet although once so common, there are now only two 
 words in the language that show distinct traces of reduplica- 
 tion did and hight, and of these the last is absolete. But 
 as the first half of the doubled verb slowly disappears, some 
 part of the force of its vowel is apt to be transferred and 
 added to that of the second part ; and thus a vowel change 
 is effected. Dr. Morris gives a list of twenty-seven English 
 verbs whose past tenses, he thinks, have very evidently been 
 affected by reduplication. He cites held, the past tense of 
 hold, as a particular illustration Goth, hai-hald, O. H. Ger. 
 hialt (for hei-halt) Mod. H. G. hielt, A.-S. heold, which, by 
 allowing the stress to fall upon the first of the two vowels, 
 gradually sank into held. The Doctor even goes so far as to 
 hold that : " All strong verbs in the Aryan languages origi- 
 nally formed their perfect tense by reduplication." 
 
 Another way to mark an action as past was to prefix 
 a particle originally a, perhaps meaning then. This prefix, 
 called an augment, was especially common in Sanskrit and 
 Greek, but unknown elsewhere among Aryan languages. A 
 third method was, as shown above, to change the root vowel 
 of the verb, and we need not undertake to determine how far 
 that was the result of reduplication. Lastly a particle might 
 be added at the end of the verb. The last two are the 
 methods employed in English. 
 
 The orderly presentation of all the forms that a verb can 
 assume is usually called its conjugation. The word signifies 
 literally yo king-together, that is uniting the verb with the 
 various words and particles that modify its application. 
 Those that follow the same pattern are said to be of the
 
 35 2 English Grammar. 
 
 same conjugation. Hence it would seem at first sight that 
 English has just two conjugations. But these two contain 
 so many varieties that the term so applied would cover a 
 much wider and less defined area than it does in Greek 
 or Latin. On the other hand, to apply that term to each 
 variety would make an indefinite number a dozen or twenty 
 conjugations. For the present I shall speak of them as 
 two classes, premising, however, that none of the names 
 thus far found for these classes and their subdivisions have 
 proved entirely satisfactory. Grimm and the German phi- 
 lologists called those that change the vowel strong verbs, and 
 those that add -d or -ed, weak ; but the nature of the weak- 
 ness or strength is not very apparent. It often happens that 
 when a word loses a letter or syllable in one part, a vowel or 
 consonant is inserted in another. The syllable thus increased 
 is said to be strengthened, and the forms that contain such 
 syllables are called strong forms, while others, unchanged, 
 or reduced in volume, are known as weak forms. Let there 
 be a word find the i as in fin and let this word, through 
 some unknown witchcraft, be changed into found, it would 
 take but a moderate stretch of fancy to call the former 
 a weak and the latter a strong form. Or, let lip be a root or 
 simplest possible form of a word signifying to anoint, limp, 
 leip, leiph, loiph, might be called strengthened forrrls of the 
 same. In this sense the terms strong and weak are quite 
 common in philology, yet I suspect that verbs were first 
 classified as strong and weak for reasons still more recondite 
 and fanciful. The same two classes of verbs have been called 
 by some the old and the new conjugations, but as both 
 are equally found in the oldest literary monument of the 
 Teutonic nations the Gospels of Ulfilas it does not ap- 
 pear at first sight how the one can be proved to be older 
 than the other. The truth is both these distinctions have 
 to seek their justification by going far beyond the bounds of 
 the English tongue. As nothing analogous to the addition 
 of -ed is found in any but one branch of the Aryan family, it 
 is assumed to have arisen among our Gothic or Teutonic 
 ancestors after their separation from the other branches, and
 
 Verbs and TTieir Several Kinds. 353 
 
 therefore later than forms that are common to all. In the 
 present English the past tense is not always stronger than 
 the present in the sense above explained : 
 
 bite bit shoot shot 
 
 slide slid fall fell 
 
 This, however, is due to successive changes. 
 
 As regards the past or passive participle the common ter- 
 mination in Sanskrit was -ana, in Goth., O. H. Ger., and Old 
 Saxon, -an, to which terminations for number, gender, and 
 case might be added. The Norse changed this to -in, the 
 other Teutonic tongues to -en, in which form it still survives 
 in English in spok-en, wov-en, driv-en, and a few others. From 
 some words e has been pressed out blown, drawn, flown, 
 hewn, born from others the entire en has been dropped 
 burst, flung, fought, spun. Past participles of both classes 
 often had the particle go- prefixed in Gothic and Old High 
 German, ge- in A.-S. and Modern H. G., in which last it 
 is still very common : 
 
 ge-geben given ge-schrieben written 
 
 This particle was prefixed to both nouns and verbs. In 
 many instances it had no perceptible significance ; in others 
 it seemed to add the idea of completeness or collectiveness. 
 Grimm conjectured that it was allied to the Latin cum or 
 con. In A.-S. it came to be pronounced^- and then, through 
 the gradations y- and i-, passed from the living speech of 
 men, leaving only a single vestige in e-nough, Ger. ge-nug. 
 Although never used now but in burlesque or drollery, it 
 was once quite common : 
 
 " The wrathful winter preaching on a-pace, 
 With blustering blastes had &\ybared the treen." 
 
 " Mirror for Magistrates," A.D. 1563. 
 
 " But come thou goddess fair and free, 
 In heaven ycleped Euphrocyne." 
 
 MILTON.
 
 354 English Grammar. 
 
 More expressive terms might have been found for the 
 two great divisions of verbs. Botanists employ two words 
 that would very nearly express the distinction. They are 
 endogenous, growing internally, and exogenous, growing ex- 
 ternally. I would suggest endotropic and epithetic as express- 
 ing exactly the ideas of internal change and external 
 addition. They may be thought rather lengthy, and for 
 the rest I shall use the words strong and weak, not because 
 they are appropriate but because they are short and pretty 
 generally known. 
 
 The strong verbs are among the most original, characteris- 
 tic, and expressive words in the language. All but one or 
 two are indigenous. Rive is Scandinavian, but had gained a 
 residence before the thirteenth century ; plead came from the 
 Norman-French but a little later, and many do not consider 
 it a strong verb. All the others are natives ; all are primary 
 that is, not derived from any other known words ; and all 
 are monosyllables, or the verbal part is such, with an added 
 prefix, like a-, be-, for-, fore-, over-, under-, or with-. Their 
 most constant characteristic is that the vowel sound in the 
 past tense differs from that of the present, and they never add 
 -d or its substitue -t to either the past tense or participle. 
 Their number has been decreasing for a thousand years. 
 These relics of hoary eld succumb one by one to the rule of 
 an encroaching majority, relinquish the change of vowel and 
 accept an added -ed, as the Chinese did the pig-tail. It will 
 be seen by the lists given below that, out of 1 18, forms in -ed 
 are encroaching upon 29, and that 69 have gone over bodily 
 to the other class. In a very correct sense these so-called 
 strong verbs are of all words the weakest. Secondary verbs, 
 those derived from other verbs or from nouns, and all verbs 
 acquired from external sources, take -ed that is, belong to 
 the weak class, except a few that have passed from the weak 
 to the strong class in relatively modern times. 
 
 Even if it were possible it would require too much space 
 to show the causes that produced all the varying forms of 
 these verbs, but I may indicate one or two lines of transfor- 
 mation ; and doubtless there was an intelligible cause for
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 355 
 
 nearly every change. The past participle is seen to differ 
 very often, but not always, from the past tense. Now we 
 may go back to the Anglo-Saxon, and take sing-an, to sing, 
 as a sample of a considerable class. The first person singu- 
 lar and all the plural of the present indicative, the whole 
 present subjunctive, the imperative, infinitive, and present 
 participle have the same vowel, i. In the past tense the 
 first and third persons singular were sang, the second person 
 singular sung-e, and all the plural sung-on. The past parti- 
 ciple was sung-en, following the plural and not the singular 
 of the past tense. Of 184 verbs found in the remains of 
 Saxon literature with sufficient fulness of their several parts, 
 the vowel of the first person singular past is like that of the 
 present in only one instance, and that a doubtful variant. In 
 a similar doubtful instance the participle follows the singular 
 past. In all other cases the past tense is peculiar. In 47 
 the participle follows the present tense ; in 27 others there is 
 only a difference in the length of the vowel. In 52 the par- 
 ticiple follows the plural of the past tense, and in 57 others 
 it deviates only by having o instead of u. The participle 
 had o or u in 99 words more than half, and always had the 
 termination -en. Long i in the present takes long a in the 
 past with only one exception, and of 58 words having i in 
 the present 50 have a in the past. It will be seen by the list 
 presented below how persistently this a held its place against 
 the pressure of o and u. Like most old usages, it held its 
 ground best in Scotland, of which an old comic song, " The 
 Auld Wife wi' the Wee Pickle Tow," affords an excellent 
 example : 
 
 " She sat an' she gral an' she fiat an' she flang, 
 She chochert, she byochert, she wrigglet, she wrang." 
 
 While the u of the past plural is thus supplanting the a of 
 the singular, some hold that we ought to say : he sang, and 
 they sung ; but such a distinction is not generally observed 
 now nor sustained by the usage of the past two centuries. 
 The Bible uses the two forms interchangeably, having sang
 
 English Grammar. 
 
 nine times as a plural and sung three times. Chaucer writes 
 song (modern sung} indifferently as singular or plural. So 
 Dryden : 
 
 " War, he sung, is toil and trouble, 
 Honour but an empty bubble." 
 
 " Alexander's Feast." 
 
 The following list contains nearly all that can now be 
 reckoned as strong verbs, including some that hold their 
 places by a very insecure tenure. The word has been ad- 
 mitted when either the past tense or past participle is strong 
 in usage that is, at all recent. When a verb is found both 
 single and with a prefix, as hold and behold, only one is 
 given. Forms in italics are obsolete ; those in small capitals 
 are Saxon, given to show that the word once had family 
 connections : 
 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 I 
 
 abide 
 
 abode 
 
 abidden, abode 1 
 
 2 
 
 awake 
 
 awoke, awaked 
 
 awaked 
 
 3 
 
 bake 
 
 book, baked 
 
 baken, baked* 
 
 4 
 
 be 
 
 
 been 
 
 5 
 
 bear 
 
 bare, bore 
 
 born, borne s 
 
 6 
 
 beat 
 
 bet, beat 
 
 beaten * 
 
 7 
 
 begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 8 
 
 bid 
 
 bade, bid 
 
 bidden, bid 
 
 9 
 
 bind 
 
 band, bound 
 
 bounden, bound 
 
 1 " Eumenes could not have abidden." 
 
 RALEIGH'S "Hist, of the World." 
 5 " Behold a cake was baken on the coals." 
 
 i KINGS xix., 6. 
 
 " A firlot of good cakes my Elspa beuk, 
 And a good ham is hingin in the nook." 
 
 ALLAN RAMSAY'S " Gentle Shepherd," ii., 4. 
 
 * " And Solomon thad threescore and ten thousand that bare burdens." 
 
 i KINGS v., 15. 
 
 4 " Persand the sabill barmkyn nocturnall, 
 Bet down the skyes clowdy mantill wall. " 
 
 GAWIN DOUGLAS, A.D. 1513.
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 357 
 
 PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 10 bite bate, bote, bit bitten, bit * 
 
 11 bleed bled bled 1 
 
 12 blow blew blown 
 
 13 break brake, broke broken* 
 
 14 breed bred bred 
 
 15 chide chode, chid chidden, chid * 
 
 1 6 choose chose chosen 
 
 1 7 cleave (adhere) cleaved, clave cleaved * 
 
 1 8 cleave (split) clave, clove, cleft cloven, cleaved, cleft* 
 
 19 climb clamb, clomb, climbed clotnben, climbed T 
 
 20 cling dang, clung clung 
 
 21 come came comen, come 8 
 
 22 crow crew crowed 
 
 23 CWETHAN qUOth GE-CWETHEN 
 
 1 " His Bodi was Boiled, for wraththe he hot his lippes." 
 
 " Piers the Plowman," 1362. 
 " Yet there the steel stayd not, but inly bate" 
 
 SPENSER'S " Faerie Queene," ii., 5-7. 
 
 8 Bleed, breed, feed, lead, meet, plead, and read are not generally reckoned 
 among strong verbs because they were not so anciently ; but now they have the 
 two essentials that they change the vowel and add nothing. 
 
 3 ' ' And all the people of the land went into the house of Baal, and brake it 
 down." 2 KINGS xi., 18. 
 
 4 " Jacob was wroth and chode with Laban." 
 
 5 " he smote iill his hand clave to the sword. " 
 
 2 SAM. xxiii., 10. 
 " their tongue cleaved to the roof of their mouth." 
 
 JOB xxix., io. 
 "if any blot hath cleaved to mine hands." JOB. xxxi., 7. 
 
 ' "Abraham * * * clave the wood for the burnt offering." 
 
 GEN. xxii., 3. 
 
 T ' ' For hit clam vche a clyffe cubites fyftene, 
 Ouer the hy3est hylle." 
 
 "Alliterative Poems," A.D. 1360. 
 " We forded the river and clomb the high hill ; 
 Never our steeds for a day stood still." 
 
 BYRON'S " Siege of Corinth." 
 
 8 " The day is comen of her departyng." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale."
 
 358 
 
 English Grammar. 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 24 dig 
 
 digged, dug 
 
 digged, dug ' 
 
 25 do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 26 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 27 drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunken, drunk 
 
 28 drive 
 
 drove, drove 
 
 driven * 
 
 29 eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 30 fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 31 feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed 
 
 32 fight 
 
 fought 
 
 foughten, fought * 
 
 33 find 
 
 fand, found 
 
 founden, found * 
 
 34 fling 
 
 flang, flung 
 
 flung 6 
 
 35 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 36 forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 37 freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 38 get 
 
 gat, got 
 
 gotten, got* 
 
 39 give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 40 gnaw 
 
 gnew, gnawed 
 
 gnawn, gnawed T 
 
 1 Dug is modern. Digged occurs thirty-seven times in the Bible, but dug 
 never. 
 
 8 " And he drave out the inhabitants of the mountain." JUDGES i., 19. 
 
 3 " on the foughten field 
 Michael and his angels prevalent 
 Encamping." 
 
 " Paradise Lost," vi., 410. 
 
 4 " And he shal han Custance in manage, 
 And certein gold, I not what (juantitie, 
 And herto founden suffisant seurtie." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." 
 ' ' Donald Caird finds orra things 
 Whar Allan Gregor fand the tangs." 
 
 Scotch Song. 
 
 5 " To tell how Maggie lap and Jiang, 
 A supple jade she was and strang." 
 
 " Tarn o' Shanter." 
 
 6 " And David gat him a name when he returned from smiting the Syrians in 
 the valley of salt." 2 SAM. viii., 13. 
 
 7 " he laye downe to slepe, for to put ye commaundement, which so gnew and 
 freated his conscience, out of mind." TYNDALE : " Prologue to the Book of 
 Jonah." 
 
 "stark spoyl'd with the Staggers, begnawne with the Bots." SHAKESP. : 
 " Taming of the Shrew," iii., 2.
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 359 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 41 go 
 42 grafen 
 43 grind 
 
 gaed, yode 
 S ro ft graved 
 ground 
 
 gone 1 
 graven, graved * 
 ground 
 
 44 grow 
 
 45 king* han g 
 46 heave 
 47 help 
 
 grew 
 hang, hung, hanged 
 hove, heaved 
 holp, helped 
 
 grown 
 hung, hanged s 
 heaved * 
 holpen, helped * 
 
 1 ' ' Then I gaed hame a crowdie-time 
 And soon I made me ready." 
 
 BURNS. 
 
 " Thair scrippes, quer thai rade or yode 
 Tham failed neuer o drince ne fode." 
 
 " Cursor Mundi," 1320. 
 * " Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image." 
 
 3 ' ' Nae mair by Babel's streams we '11 weep 
 To think upon our Zion, 
 And king our fiddles up to sleep, 
 Like baby-clouts a-drying." 
 
 BURNS : " Ordination." 
 
 There are here two verbs, an original and a derivative. The original had in 
 A.-S. a shortened form, htfn, to hang, ic hd, thu he"hst, he he"hth, I hang, etc. 
 The past tense was king, participle hangen, from which the lineal descendant is 
 our hung. It was intransitive, so that we should consistently say : " His hair 
 hangs loose " ; " The fruit hung thick on the trees " ; " The sword had hung 
 there for years." At an early age, it is said in the year 1137, and in the North 
 of England, a transitive verb was developed, like set from sit, and raise from 
 rise, which took the form hang, hanged, hanged. The Bible adheres to these 
 later forms, even where we should not do so now. It has only hanged, and 
 never hung ; but the sense is always transitive. " We hanged our harps upon 
 the willows." PSA. 137. 
 
 "If he be not borne to bee hang'd our case is miserable." SHAKESP. : 
 " Tempest," i., i. 
 
 In modern times we have got the two verbs intermixed. We would not say : 
 " He hanged liis hat on a peg," but " He hung." We reserve hanged for death 
 by hanging. ' ' He was hung " would be incorrect on any ground. 
 * ' ' the icy island hove in sight 
 Like a city lost at sea. " 
 
 H. MILNOR CLAPP. 
 
 5 " Sir Robert never holpe to make this legge." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " King John," i., i. 
 
 " He hath holpen his servant Israel in remembrance of his mercy." LUKE 
 i., 45-
 
 360 English Grammar. 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 48 hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewn, hewed 
 
 49 hide 
 
 hid 
 
 hidden 
 
 50 hold 
 
 held 
 
 holden, held * 
 
 51 know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 52 lade 
 
 lod, laded 
 
 loden, laden 4 
 
 53 lead 
 
 lod, led 
 
 led 3 
 
 54 He 
 
 lay 
 
 lien, lain 
 
 55 meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 56 melt 
 
 malt, melted 
 
 molten, melted 4 
 
 57 mow 
 
 mew, mowed 
 
 mown, mowed 6 
 
 58 plead 
 
 pleaded, pled 
 
 pleaded, pled 
 
 59 read 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 60 ride 
 
 rade, rode 
 
 ridden ' 
 
 61 ring 
 
 rang 
 
 rungen, rung 
 
 62 rinne, rin t run 
 
 ran 
 
 ronnen, run T 
 
 63 rise 
 
 rase, rose 
 
 risen " 
 
 64 rive 
 
 rove, rived 
 
 riven* 
 
 65 rot 
 
 rotted 
 
 rotted, rotten 
 
 66 see 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 67 seeth 
 
 sod, seethed 
 
 sodden, seethen 10 
 
 68 shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken 
 
 1 " I have long holden my peace." 
 
 ISA. xlii., 14. 
 s " Loaden " was sanctioned by the writers of the Spectator. 
 
 3 " bi biholding upon ymagis or upon such peinting, his witt schal be dressid 
 & lad forth evener & more sabili." REGINALD PECOCK. 
 
 4 " And the metalle be the hete of the fire malt" 
 
 CAPGRAVE. 
 
 6 " Mew " a Yorkshire word. 8 See 41. 
 
 1 "som fresh othe, that is not stale, but will rin round in the mouth." 
 
 ROGER ASCHAM. 
 
 8 ' ' And Southron rase and coost their claes, 
 Behind him in a raw, man." 
 
 BURNS. 
 
 9 " And with his sword she rove her to the heart." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Legend of Dido." 
 
 10 "Jacob sod pottage, and Esau came from the field and he was faint." 
 GEN. xxv., 29.
 
 Verbs and TJieir Several Kinds. 
 
 361 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 6g shape 
 
 shope, shaped 
 
 shapen, 
 
 shaped l 
 
 70 shave 
 
 
 shaved 
 
 shaven, 
 
 shaved 
 
 71 shear 
 
 shar, shore, 
 
 sheared 
 
 shorn, 
 
 sheared " 
 
 72 shine 
 
 shone, 
 
 shined 
 
 shone, 
 
 shined 
 
 73 shoot 
 
 
 shot 
 
 shotten, 
 
 shot' 
 
 74 show 
 
 
 showed 
 
 
 shown 
 
 75 shrink 
 
 shrank, 
 
 shrunk 
 
 shrunken, 
 
 shrunk 
 
 76 shrive 
 
 shrove, 
 
 shrived 
 
 
 shriven 
 
 77 sing 
 
 sang, 
 
 sung 
 
 
 sung 
 
 78 sink 
 
 
 sank 
 
 sunken, 
 
 sunk 
 
 79 sit 
 
 sate, 
 
 sat 
 
 sitten, 
 
 sat 4 
 
 80 slay 
 
 
 slew 
 
 
 slain 
 
 8 1 slide 
 
 slod, 
 
 slid 
 
 slidden, 
 
 slid* 
 
 82 sling 
 
 slang, 
 
 slung 
 
 
 slung * 
 
 83 slink 
 
 slank, 
 
 slunk 
 
 
 slunk, 
 
 84 smite 
 
 smat, 
 
 smote 
 
 
 smitten 7 
 
 85 sow 
 
 sew, 
 
 sowed 
 
 
 sown 8 
 
 1 " God, that shape both se and sand, 
 Saue Edward King of Ingland." 
 
 LAWRENCE MINOT : " Political Songs of 1352." 
 s ' ' And with no craft of combes brode 
 They might his hore lockes shode, 
 And she ne wolde not be shore" 
 
 GOWER : " Confessio." 
 The original past tense was lost before the year 1300. 
 
 3 " And shotten ageyns him with shot." 
 
 " Piers Plowman." 
 
 4 ' ' Beneath its shade, the place of state, 
 
 On oaken settle Marmion sate" 
 
 SCOTT. 
 
 " After these grants the parliament was dissolved, which had sitten near two 
 years and a half." HUME : " History of England," chap. xxii. 
 
 * " In hys goynge out of hys schyp a slod wy th hys o voot & styckede in the 
 sond." JOHN OF TREVISA, 1387. 
 
 6 ' ' And David put his hand in his bag, and took thence a stone and slang 
 it." i SAM. xvii., 49. 
 
 7 " The sarazins he smatte, 
 That his blod hatte." 
 
 " Ballad of King Horn." 
 
 8 " The pt. t. now in use is sowed, but the correct form is sew ; the like is 
 true for the verb to mow." SKEAT'S " Etymological Dictionary."
 
 362 
 
 English Grammar. 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 86 speak 
 
 spake, spoke 
 
 spoken 
 
 87 speed 
 
 speeded, sped 
 
 speeded, sped * 
 
 88 spin 
 
 span, spun 
 
 spun" 
 
 89 spring 
 
 sprang, sprung 
 
 sprung 
 
 90 stand 
 
 stood 
 
 stonden, standen, stood 
 
 91 steal 
 
 stal, stole 
 
 stolen 3 
 
 92 stick 
 
 sticked, stack, stuck 
 
 sticked, stuck 4 
 
 93 sting 
 
 stang, stung 
 
 stongen, stung 6 
 
 94 stink 
 
 stank, stunk 
 
 stunk 
 
 95 strew 
 
 strewed 
 
 strewn 
 
 96 stride 
 
 strode 
 
 stridden 
 
 97 strike 
 
 strack, strake, struck 
 
 stroken, stricken, struck 8 
 
 98 string 
 
 strang, strung 
 
 strung 
 
 99 strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 1 Originally a weak verb and derived from the noun speed. 
 3 " She, them saluting there, by them sate still, 
 Beholding how the thrids of life they span." 
 
 SPENSER : " Faerie Queene," iv., 2. 
 3 " Bot stall abak 3ond in hys regioun far 
 Behind the circulat warld of Jupiter." 
 
 GAWIN DOUGLAS. 
 
 4 " Then he stac up the stange3 sloped the welle3." 
 
 " Alliterative Poems," 1360. 
 " The sowdan and the cristen everichone 
 Ben al taken and stiked at the bord." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." 
 
 Two verbs became confused at an early age ; an early English steken, stak, 
 stoken, to pierce, and a weak A.-S. stician, sticode, to adhere. See under 81. 
 
 5 " And therwithal he blent and cried A ! 
 
 As though he stongen were unto the herte." 
 
 CHAUCER : " The Knightes Tale." 
 
 ' " Then Jocky strack and Jenny strack 
 Till the sweat did blind their een." 
 
 " Scottish Song of Harvest." 
 
 " And fearing lest they should fall into the quicksands, strake sail, and so 
 were driven." ACTS xxvii., 17. 
 
 " How like a Deere, stroken by many princes, 
 Dost thou heere lye ? " 
 
 SHAKESP : " Julius Caesar," Act iii.
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 
 
 363 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 joo swell 
 101 swear 
 
 swal, swelled 
 sware, swore 
 
 swollen, swelled 1 
 sworn " 
 
 102 swim 
 
 swam 
 
 swum 
 
 103 swing 
 104 take 
 105 tear 
 1 06 thrive 
 
 swang, swung 
 took 
 tare, tore 
 throve 
 
 swung 
 taken 
 torn 8 
 thriven 
 
 107 throw 
 1 08 tread 
 
 threw 
 trod 
 
 thrown 
 trodden 
 
 109 wash 
 no wax 
 in wear 
 
 wesh, wiish, washed 
 wex, wox, waxed 
 ware, wore 
 
 washen, washed* 
 waxen, waxed * 
 worn* 
 
 112 weave 
 
 wove 
 
 woven 
 
 113 WESAN 
 
 114 win 
 
 was 
 wan, won 
 
 Ger. ge-wesen 
 wonnen, won T 
 
 1 " And aither a 3 en other swal 
 And let that vule mod ut al." 
 (And each against the other swelled, 
 And let out all its evil temper.) 
 
 " Owl and Nightingale," 1250. 
 
 ' And they rose up betimes in the morning and sware one to another. 
 GEN. xxvi., 31. 
 
 3 " And there came forth two she bears out of the wood and tare forty and 
 two children of them." 2 KINGS ii., 24. 
 
 4 " the blod that bohte, the water that te world wesh. of sake and of 
 sunne." " The Wooing of Our Lord," 1210. 
 
 Wush is Scotch, sometimes pronounced weesh, 
 
 5 ' ' Hunger wex in land chanaan. 
 
 " Genesis and Exodus," 1250. 
 " Anon ther sprong vp flour and gras, 
 Where as the drope falle was 
 And wax anonal medwe-grene." 
 
 GOWER : " Confessio." 
 
 And it came to pass that when the children of Israel were waxen strong, that 
 they put the Canaanites to tribute." JOSHUA xvii., 13. 
 
 6 " There met him out of the city a man which had devils long time, and 
 ware no clothes." LUKE viii., 27. 
 
 7 " So that the king in such manere suluer wan ynou." ROBERT OF 
 GLOUCESTER, 1298.
 
 364 English Grammar. 
 
 PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 115 wind wand, wond, wound wonden, wound 
 
 116 wring wrang, wrung wrung 1 
 
 117 wit or wot wist wist 
 
 118 write wrat, wrote written* 
 
 When there -is a surviving participle in -en and a more 
 modern one, the former is apt to sink into a mere adjective, 
 and the verbal character is left to the latter. Such retired 
 participles are bounden, cloven, drunken, hewn, molten, mown, 
 rotten, sodden, shapen, shaven, shrunken, stricken, sunken, 
 swollen, washen. 
 
 I have omitted the Scotch formula " not proven," which 
 seems to be gaining favor now along with other absurdities. 
 Prove is a Latin word, and has no claim to a participle in 
 -en. I do not know what the corresponding past tense 
 would be. 
 
 It has been already remarked that the strong verbs are a 
 small and diminishing class. There are few accessions. 
 Dr. Latham goes so far as to say : 
 
 " Many strong verbs become weak, whilst no weak verb ever 
 becomes strong." " English Language," p. 333. 
 
 This assertion is too absolute. In the present state of the 
 language I think the following, once weak, have the essen- 
 tial features of strong verbs : 
 
 bleed feed read speed 
 
 breed hide rot stick 
 
 cleave (adhere) lead show string 
 
 dig plead sow strive 
 
 1 " They called the porter to counsell, 
 And wrang his necke in two, 
 And caste hym in a depe dungeon, 
 And toke hys keys hym fro." 
 
 " Adam Bell, Clym of the Clough," etc. 
 ' " And, her before, the vile Enchanter sate, 
 Figuring straunge characters of his art : 
 With living blood he those characters wrate" 
 
 SPENSER : " Faerie Queene," iii., 12.
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 
 
 365 
 
 It is irrelevant to say that a few centuries ago these were 
 all weak verbs and therefore are so still. The question is 
 not what they were, but what they are. At the same time, 
 language used by a whole people never is or was self-con- 
 sistant, and scattered examples are to be found of strong 
 verbs used as weak, and weak as strong, notwithstanding 
 the prevailing usage. There are persons, not without edu- 
 cation, especially in the southern part of the United States, 
 who habitually say : " I seen it," and " I done so." Contrari- 
 wise it has been but too common to use the past tense, like 
 fell, hid, drove, shook, took, stole, wrote, instead of the appro- 
 priate participles. There is a good deal of that in Shakes- 
 peare, but much more in the age of Queen Anne. The 
 Spectator abounds with such truncated forms as rid and writ 
 doing double duty as rode, wrote, ridden and written. 
 
 The principal strong verbs that have become weak are 
 the following : 
 
 ache 
 
 bequeath 
 
 bereave 
 
 betide 
 
 bow 
 
 braid 
 
 brew 
 
 brook 
 
 burn 
 
 burst 
 
 carve 
 
 cast 
 
 chew 
 
 creep 
 
 dare 
 
 delve 
 
 dive 
 
 dread 
 
 fare 
 
 float 
 
 flow 
 
 fold 
 
 fret 
 
 glide 
 
 glow 
 
 gripe 
 
 knead 
 
 laugh 
 
 leap 
 
 let 
 
 lie 
 
 lock 
 
 lose 
 
 low 
 
 mete 
 
 mourn 
 
 owe 
 
 quail 
 
 reek 
 
 row 
 
 rue 
 
 scathe 
 
 shed 
 
 shove 
 
 sigh 
 
 sleep 
 
 slit 
 
 smoke 
 
 span 
 
 spew 
 
 sprout 
 
 spurn 
 
 starve 
 
 step 
 
 suck 
 
 sup 
 
 sweat 
 
 sweep 
 
 tease 
 
 thrash 
 
 throng 
 
 tow 
 
 wade 
 
 walk 
 
 weep 
 
 weigh 
 
 well 
 
 wheeze 
 
 wink 
 
 wreak 
 
 writhe 
 
 yell 
 
 yield 
 
 With all their irregularities the strong verbs have two 
 points that are constant. They form the past tense by
 
 366 English Grammar. 
 
 internal change, and they never add -d or -t to it. On the 
 other hand the so-called weak have two equally constant 
 features. The past tense and past participle are always 
 alike, and always end in -d or its weaker representative -/. 
 These characteristics are not quite the opposites of each 
 other, yet the difference between the best preserver? 
 examples of each is very apparent : 
 
 sing sang sung 
 
 employ employ-ed employ-ed 
 
 The one changes the vowel and adds nothing ; the other 
 adds ~ed and changes nothing. In the one the past tense 
 and participle differ ; in the other they are identical. 
 
 What then is this -ed that is added to the weak verbs ? 
 To avoid prolixity, let it suffice to say that it is now held to 
 be the past auxiliary verb did, so that / employ-ed is as good 
 as to say / employ did, or / did employ. Apd, as every one 
 knows, we say so now when very positive, and always use 
 do or did when we deny, forbid, or ask a question. But 
 this did has been so worn down in all modern Teutonic 
 languages that it would probably never have been recognized 
 but that happily it has been better preserved in the Gothic. 
 Even there it is only in the dual and plural that it remains 
 tolerably unbroken. The singular and plural of the Gothir 
 haban, to have, were : 
 
 SINGULAR, PAST PLURAL, PAST 
 
 ist Person habai-da habai-ded-um 
 
 2d Person habai-de-s habai-ded-uths 
 
 3d Person habai-da habai-ded-un 
 
 The last d is lost from the singular. The further ter- 
 minations are personal endings. And as this did is itself a 
 reduplication of do, if Dr. Morris is correct in supposing 
 that the same thing has taken place in the history of all 
 strong verbs, it follows that every simple past tense is a 
 more or less remote result of reduplication. What is here 
 said, however, applies only to the past tense, and not at all 
 to the participle. If they are alike now it is because the 
 verb has been worn down to the form of the participle.
 
 Verbs and TTieir Several Kinds. 367 
 
 The termination of the participle is a suffix that in Sanskrit 
 assumed the form -ta, in Greek * and Latin the corresponding 
 form -to, in Gothic -da, in Anglo-Saxon -od, -ad, -ed, -d, -f. 
 To these were added other suffixes distinguishing number, 
 gender, and case, according to the inflectional system of each 
 language. 
 
 The termination -ed has suffered so much wear and under- 
 gone such a variety of modifications that it is not always 
 easily recognized. This process of attrition was in full 
 activity long before the Norman Conquest, and Anglo-Saxon 
 Grammars give numerous rules under which the usual ter- 
 minations -ode, -ede become -de, and -te or -d and -t, and let- 
 ters are altered or suppressed in the radical portions of 
 verbs, rules which all depend upon the more general natural 
 principle of avoiding difficult combinations of sounds. But 
 instead of discussing ancient abbreviations, let us consider 
 those of the present. 
 
 Although -ed may be regarded as the termination of the 
 past tense and past participle, it is never found in full force 
 except when appended to verbs that end in -d or -t, and not 
 after all of them. In most cases writing and pronunciation 
 are at variance. 
 
 We write exalt-ed We read exalt-ed 
 
 surround-ed surround-ed 
 
 support-ed " " support-ed 
 
 " " absorb-ed " " absorbd 
 
 " " begg-ed " " begd 
 
 " " fill-ed " " fild 
 
 " " disarm-ed " " disarmd 
 
 " " display-ed " " displaid 
 
 When the verb ends with a light or surd mute consonant, 
 -ed is pronounced as /. 
 
 puff-ed puft hiss-ed hist 
 
 look-ed lookt quench-ed quensht 
 
 stopp-ed stopt preach-ed preacht 
 
 To verbs ending in e a second e is not added. 
 
 1 Found in what are now reckoned as verbal adjectives 
 SEXTOS, etc.
 
 368 
 
 English Grammar. 
 
 The less obvious modifications will be best understood 
 after exhibiting a list of the verbs in which they are found. 
 The very peculiar and important group of auxiliary verbs 
 will be reserved for particular consideration in the next 
 chapter. Where two forms are given in the following list 
 the one in most common use is placed first. 
 
 bend 
 
 bent 
 
 lay 
 
 laid 
 
 bereave 
 
 bereaved, bereft 
 
 lean 
 
 leaned, leant 
 
 beseech 
 
 besought 
 
 leap 
 
 leaped, leapt 
 
 beset 
 
 beset 
 
 learn 
 
 learned, learnt 
 
 bet 
 
 bet 
 
 leave 
 
 left 
 
 blend 
 
 blended, blent 
 
 lend 
 
 lent 
 
 bless 
 
 blessed, blest 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 bring 
 
 brought 
 
 light 
 
 lighted, lit 
 
 build 
 
 built 
 
 light 
 
 lighted, lit 
 
 burn 
 
 burned, burnt 
 
 lose 
 
 lost 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 make 
 
 made 
 
 buy 
 
 bought 
 
 mean 
 
 meant 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 pay 
 
 paid 
 
 catch 
 
 caught 
 
 pen 
 
 penned, pent 
 
 clothe 
 
 clothed, clad 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 quit 
 
 quit, quitted 
 
 creep 
 
 crept 
 
 rend 
 
 rent 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 deal 
 
 dealt 
 
 say 
 
 said 
 
 dream 
 
 dreamed, dreamt 
 
 seek 
 
 sought 
 
 dwell 
 
 dwelt 
 
 sell 
 
 sold 
 
 feel 
 
 felt 
 
 send 
 
 sent 
 
 flee 
 
 fled 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 gild 
 
 gilded, gilt 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 gird 
 
 girt, girded 
 
 shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 have 
 
 had 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 hear 
 
 heard 
 
 sleep 
 
 slept 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 
 
 slit 
 
 slit 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 smell 
 
 smelled, smelt 
 
 keep 
 
 kept 
 
 spell 
 
 spelled, spelt 
 
 kneel 
 
 knelt 
 
 spend 
 
 spent 
 
 knit 
 
 knit, knitted 
 
 spill 
 
 spilt
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 369 
 
 spit spit tell told 
 
 split split think thought 
 
 spread spread thrust thrust 
 
 stay stayed, staid weep wept 
 
 sweat sweated, sweat wend went 
 
 sweep swept wet wet 
 
 teach taught work worked, wrought 
 
 These words have the primitive monosyllabic character of 
 the strong verbs. Sixty-three of the seventy-eight are native 
 Saxon, and all the others have been long naturalized in the 
 language. Build, cast, hit, split, and thrust are Scandinavian, 
 due to intercourse with the Norsemen and Danes. Cut, 
 hurt, and put were received by the Saxons from the Britons. 
 Keep, pen, and spend came from the Latin so long ago that 
 they found a place in Saxon literature. Catch, bet, cost, and 
 quit were received from the French before the year 1400. 
 It is only old words that are so deeply modified. Changes 
 were much more rapid in ages when words were not fixed, 
 and in a manner fossilized by habits of writing and printing. 
 The process was no doubt always a natural one, and ap- 
 peared quite so to the several speakers, however strange 
 some of the changes may seem to us. Let us see if the 
 present confusion cannot be somewhat reduced. 
 
 The seeming irregularity of laid y paid, said, and staid is 
 only one of spelling. 
 
 Had and made are shortened from fcavedand maked, which 
 are found in old authors. 
 
 While -ed is fully written and pronounced only after d or 
 t, there is a tendency even there to reduce it to mere -d or -t, 
 in which case it becomes unpronounceable. So long as the 
 termination was -de or -te it could be sounded, but when all 
 final e 's were dropped from oral speech, -dde or -tie passed 
 quickly into mere t. Especially was this so when a final -d 
 was preceded by /, n, or r. We thus account in some degree 
 for bent, blent, built, gilt, girt, lent, rent, sent, spent, went. 
 
 A slight modification of the same usage produced blest, 
 burnt, dwelt, pent, smelt, spelt, and spilt.
 
 370 English Grammar. 
 
 When the vowel of the verb is long, it is sometimes short- 
 ened in adding -d or -/. In such cases -d is added after r or a 
 vowel ; otherwise it is -t, to suit which s takes a sharp sound 
 and v becomes/ bereft, crept, dealt, dreamt, felt, fled, heard, 
 kept, knelt, leant, leapt, left, lost, meant, shod, slept, swept, 
 wept. 
 
 But change of vowel is the leading characteristic of the 
 strong verbs, and there are a considerable number partaking 
 of the characteristics of both. Such hybridity is of three 
 kinds. The same verb may have strong and weak forms, as 
 showed and shown ; or the same form may both change the 
 vowel and add d, as sold and told ; or there may be forms, 
 like fed and led, that can be construed either way. Such 
 verbs may with nearly equal propriety be placed in either 
 class. 
 
 When a verb already ends in d or t, and does not add an- 
 other, it only remains for it to shorten the vowel, if long. 
 Regarding merely present form, light, lit is in precisely the 
 same position as bite, bit, only that it has reached it by a 
 different process. To light might have been placed among 
 strong verbs, if lit were a well-established form. 
 
 If the verb ending in d or t have already a short vowel, 
 there is no change to be made, and it remains the same 
 throughout beset, bet, burst, cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, knit, let, 
 put, quit, rid, set, shed, shut, slit, spit, split, spread, sweat, 
 thrust, wet. 
 
 Eight have augh or ough in the past tense. The gh was 
 fully sounded until modern times, and was developed from 
 a consonant closely allied. The verbal part of beseech is the 
 same as to seek, and the ch, like that in teach, is due to French 
 influence. We have then : 
 
 Anglo-Saxon 
 
 bring-an 
 
 brohte 
 
 to bring 
 
 bycg-an 
 
 b6hte 
 
 to buy 
 
 se'c-an 
 
 s6hte 
 
 to seek 
 
 tsec-an 
 
 tsehte 
 
 to teach 
 
 thenc-an 
 
 th6hte 
 
 to think 
 
 wyrc-an 
 
 worhte 
 
 to work
 
 Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 371 
 
 In the more modern wrought r has changed places with the 
 vowel, as it often does. Catch is a French word, and, when 
 introduced, no doubt took a preterit in imitation of such 
 words as se'can and t&can. 
 
 Clothe is an English verb developed from the A.-S. cldth, 
 cloth, and is found in early authors in the forms clathen, 
 clethen, clot ken. From the first of these clad is formed by 
 gradually suppressing th. 
 
 There remain only sell and tell with their past tenses sold 
 and told. Of these I can only say that they are veritable 
 hybrids that, from the time of the Saxons, have shared 
 equally in the characteristics of the strong and the weak 
 verbs.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 WE come now to the contrivances by which verbs repre- 
 sent not only actions, but also many of their attendant cir- 
 cumstances. In our language these modifications are only 
 to a small extent embodied in the verbs themselves. They 
 are mostly indicated by a host of little attendant words. 
 Chief among these are certain verbs that have in various de- 
 grees lost the power of expressing anything when alone, and 
 have become mere servile attendants upon others. May, 
 will, shall, can, must, let, and ought are always attached to 
 other verbs, and are called auxiliaries, or helping verbs. 
 But then dare, do, have, and be also afford indispensable help 
 when not employed on their own account. Besides their 
 use as auxiliaries, most of these verbs have something pecul- 
 iar and exceptional in their formation. At present must 
 admits of no change of form under any circumstances. All 
 the others have special, though obsolescent, forms for the 
 second person singular. Ought has no other variation than 
 that. May, shall, can, dare, and ought do not add s to form 
 the third person singular, for the reason that in their origin 
 they are past tenses of earlier verbs, and past tenses admit 
 of no variation for person or number, except for the second 
 person singular. All but must, ought, and let have separate 
 forms for the past tense as now in use, combining the 
 characteristics of the strong and weak verbs : 
 
 may might dare durst 
 
 will would do did 
 
 shall should have had 
 
 can could 
 
 Be is quite peculiar. 
 
 372
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 373 
 
 MAY. 
 
 This word is from a root Magh, which accounts for the gh 
 in the past tense might. The meaning is to be able, power- 
 ful, mighty. From this source are derived a large number 
 of words in several languages, among which are might, main, 
 magnate, magnitude, magnificent, magistrate, master, mistress, 
 miss, maid, maxim, mayor, major, megatherium. Gothic 
 had for the present tense ic mag, past tense ic mahta ; A-S., 
 ic mcEg and ic mihte. Throughout both languages, and 
 English down to the sixteenth century, the word was equiva- 
 lent to our can. Jesus having asked the sons of Zebedee if 
 they were able to partake of the cup and the baptism soon 
 to be presented to him, their answer was, in the Gothic 
 version, " Magu "/ in A-S., " Wyt magon "/ in the English 
 of Wycliffe, " We mowen." Indeed the usual word for can 
 in that early English translation is, in the singular, may, 
 plural mowe, mowen, or mown. This use of may will further 
 appear from the following examples : 
 
 " And thus he fleeth as fast as ever he may" 
 
 CHAUCER : " Knight's Tale." 
 " ye woot yourself sche may not wedde two 
 At oones. 
 
 That is to say, she may nought have bothe." Id. 
 " be my feth sayd the doughete doglas agayn, I wyll let that 
 hontyng yf that I may" " Ancient Ballad of Chevy Chase." 
 
 A trace of this usage lingers here and there in the Bible. 
 So great was the ferocity of the maniac, or maniacs, that 
 lodged in the tombs of Gadara, " that no man might pass by 
 that way." The revised version substitutes could. 
 
 All idea of power has now departed from the word, and 
 left it to express : 1st, permission ; 2d, supposed possibility ; 
 3d, a somewhat varying sense, always containing an unde- 
 termined element. 
 
 " May I open the window a little ? You may" 
 
 This may be taken at present as the primary meaning of 
 the word. The secondary may be found in such sentences
 
 374- English Grammar. 
 
 as : " It may rain before night "; " He may recover yet "; 
 " I may draw a prize in the lottery." Mrs. Toodles thought 
 that she might yet have a daughter ; and that daughter might 
 grow up, and might marry a man named Thompson, who 
 might write his name with a /, in which event a particular 
 old door-plate would just suit. In short, a thing that may 
 happen is one that is looked upon as not absolutely 
 impossible. 
 
 In the third class of cases no doubt is felt but that some- 
 thing will occur ; it is only its precise character or extent 
 that is uncertain : 
 
 " The past is safe, whatever the future may be." 
 " Notice ! To all whom it may concern." 
 
 Here it is not questioned that there is to be a future, or 
 that some will be concerned ; the details alone are indeter- 
 minate : 
 
 " and it shall be its duty to make arrangements, * * * 
 And for the purpose of defraying the expenses of said joint com- 
 mittee, and of carrying out the arrangements which it may make, 
 three thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary." 
 
 U. S. Statutes, 25, 980. 
 
 In such connections shall is sometimes used instead of 
 may ; but the fundamental meaning of shall is widely differ- 
 ent, and there is an inconvenience in having two words of 
 the same length with an uncertainty which of them ought 
 to be employed. 
 
 WILL and SHALL. 
 
 These two words are so interlaced in usage that they can 
 best be considered together. If has been often said that no 
 Englishman ever mistakes will and shall. I think it would 
 be much nearer the truth to say that none ever used these 
 two words consistently throughout. 
 
 Another wise saw, put forth quite as often and as confi- 
 dently, is to the effect that the prevailing error lies in putting 
 will in the place of shall. So too I think that the great
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 375 
 
 abuse is the undue frequency of shall. I scarcely open a 
 book or paper without finding it sprinkled with shaft's, as if 
 they had been dispensed from a pepper-box. Grammarians 
 tell a merry tale of a mythical Frenchman who fell into the 
 water and exclaimed : " I will be drowned ; no one shall 
 help me "; yet whatever error there is in this sentence can 
 be found equally with many who are not Frenchmen. 
 
 " I will be ill, will be very ill, if I cannot hear you are better 
 before I go." RICHARDSON : " Clarissa Harlowe." 
 
 " However small a society may be if it is a human one jealousy 
 shall creep in." 
 
 CHARLES READE : " Never too Late to Mend," ch. lii. 
 
 " there is no creature loves me, 
 and if I die, no soule shall pittie me." 
 
 SHAKESP. : Richard II., v., 2. 
 
 In regard to form, it is only necessary to say that would 
 and should are obtained by successive reductions of the 
 older forms wollede and shullede. Of these two important 
 auxiliaries will has been much the best preserved and most 
 consistently employed. The original meaning, so far as we 
 need inquire, is voluntary choice, intention, or consent. It 
 expresses generally not a mere idle wish, but a resolution 
 taken with the consciousness of power to give it effect. But 
 such a resolution is likely to be carried out, and to announce 
 it is to predict the event. It thus naturally passes into an 
 expression of the future ; and in good English is to this day 
 the most positive declaration of a future event certain to 
 take place. 
 
 " I view it as a student of political economy ; and * * * apply 
 to it the principles which I know will have their way, no matter 
 how formidable the attempt to defeat their operation." ' 
 
 As will expresses a determination of the mind, and every 
 one ought to know his own mind best, it is naturally asso- 
 ciated with the first person. This has at some periods been 
 the usage in a very marked degree, while at other times / 
 
 1 North Amer. Rev., February, 1889. The italics are the author's.
 
 376 English Grammar. 
 
 will has been intentionally avoided. Notwithstanding the 
 great prevalence of shall in the Bible, / shall is of rare occur- 
 rence, as will be seen hereafter. 
 
 Will, in Gothic, and generally in Anglo-Saxon, expressed 
 volition, not futurity. There was always an element of free 
 action. It is very rare to find in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels 
 future action indicated by will. Shall is still more rare. 
 The probable reason is that an archaic style is chosen for 
 religious writings ; for before pure Saxon ceased to be writ- 
 ten will was employed to express the future ; but it was the 
 future of free, unconstrained action, and generally took the 
 form of " / will." In translating the following passage from 
 ^Elfric's " Homily on the Good Shepherd " I shall mark the 
 word by italics. 
 
 " Wherefore I will require the sheep at your hands, and I make 
 you depart from the fold, and I will rid my flock of you. I my- 
 self will gather my sheep that were scattered, and I will keep 
 them in rich pasture : those that were lost will I seek and lead 
 back ; those that were lamed I heal ; the weak I will strengthen, 
 and restrain the strong." 
 
 Observe that the present is twice used without any aux- 
 iliary for the future, as was the common usage at a still 
 earlier date. Elsewhere the expression is " / will" never 
 / shall; and the idea to be conveyed is that of voluntary 
 resolve to be carried out in the future. So will has con- 
 tinued to express volition and futurity combined in all 
 possible proportions, like a parallelogram divided into two 
 triangles, the one end being occupied exclusively by the one 
 and the opposite extremity by the other : 
 
 Volition 
 
 Futurity 
 
 Often in the Bible it has no reference to the future, but ex- 
 presses purpose or willingness.
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 377 
 
 " And behold there came a leper and worshipped him, saying, 
 Lord, if thou wilt, thou canst make me clean. And Jesus put 
 forth his hand and touched him, saying, I will ; be thou clean." 
 
 "' I will " obviously means in this case, " I am willing," 
 and it will be seen that it is not an auxiliary verb. As an 
 independent verb it formerly expressed a desire, and even a 
 command. 
 
 " I will that thou give me by and by in a charger the head of 
 John the Baptist." MATT, vi., 24. 
 
 " And with that word she gave him kisse ; 
 And prayed him rise and saide she woulde 
 His welfare." 
 
 CHAUCER'S " Dream," 650. 
 
 But would, expressive of desire, was also used as if it were 
 a present of secondary growth. 
 
 " Sorrow would sollace, and mine Age would ease." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Henry VI.," part ii., ii., 3. 
 
 " I would thou wert cold or hot." REV. iii., 15. 
 
 " His legions he committed unto Cn. Octavius whom he willed 
 to meet him there by land." 
 
 " He willed them to consider what they had deserved." 
 
 SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 
 
 This modern past tense, willed, is still preserved where 
 the verb is independent and employed in a peculiar sense 
 " He willed the farm to his youngest son." Indeed one 
 will may be auxiliary to another " I will will the dwelling- 
 house to you." 
 
 Even as an auxiliary will had at times scarcely a trace of 
 futurity. 
 
 " Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life." 
 
 It was not the future action, but the then present unwilling- 
 ness, of the Jews that was reprehended. We have seen, 
 however, that will was an auxiliary, expressing futurity, with 
 more or less of voluntary choice, long before the Norman
 
 378 English Grammar. 
 
 Conquest. It has continued so to the present day, but has 
 sometimes had a hard fight to hold its own against shall. I 
 here introduce a very few illustrations out of many to show 
 how nearly the very early usage agreed with the very 
 modern, giving a close translation where the original might 
 be unintelligible to the general reader 
 
 " He will make a judgment day with his chosen." 
 
 " Homily on Easter," A.D. 1200. 
 
 " Now I will give him peace, 
 And let him speak with me. 
 I will not slay nor hang him, 
 What he asketh I will do. 
 Hostages I will have, 
 Of his highest men." 
 
 LAYAMON, 1205. 
 
 " Be a child never so dear, 
 Naughty tricks it will learn, 
 
 Beat it sometimes ; 
 Might it have all its will, 
 Willy nilly it will spoil, 
 
 And become a fool." 
 
 " Tell never thy foeman 
 Thy loss or thy shame, 
 
 Thy care or thy woe ; 
 He will strive, if he may, 
 By night and by day, 
 Of one to make two." 
 
 " Proverbs of Hending," 1307. 
 
 " But I swear now truly that sin will I hinder." 
 
 "Piers the Plowman," 1362. 
 
 Shall forms in several respects a contrast to will. The 
 latter has a participle, willing, serving as an adjective and 
 an infinitive. St. Paul could say, " to will is present with 
 me " ; but shalling, or to shall, has scarcely been heard 
 within a thousand years. Thus will has still a trace of in- 
 dependence, but shall is reduced to complete servitude.
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 379 
 
 Will started from a germ of free volition ; it was automatic, 
 originating in the conscious choice of the actor. Shall ex- 
 pressed an external compulsion, authority, necessity, or 
 obligation. And, strange to say, an American writer of our 
 time, in advocating a larger use of shall, has insisted 
 that there is quite too much exercise of the will among us, 
 as if it were not becoming a free people to act voluntarily, 
 rather than from constraint. 
 
 For the meaning of shall it is not necessary to seek farther 
 than the Teutonic root, skal, to owe a debt. The practice 
 of requiring a pecuniary compensation for offences led to a 
 widespread confusion of the distinct ideas of crime and 
 debt. Whichever had the priority, both were embodied in 
 this word. It is not ennobled by its pedigree. As relics of 
 the criminal side there remain the German Schuld, a crime, 
 schuldig, guilty, and Unschuld, innocence. There were in 
 Gothic three shades of meaning easily distinguished. 
 
 First, to owe a debt : 
 
 GOTH. " ains skalda skatte fimf hunda, ith anthar fimf tiguns." 
 A.-S. " an sceolde fif hund penega, and other fiftig." 
 ENG. "the one owed fat hundred pence, and the other fifty." 
 
 LUKE vii., 41. 
 
 GOTH. " Whan filu skalt frauyin meinamma ? " 
 A.-S. " Hu mycel scealt thu minum hlaforde ? " 
 ENG. " How much owest thou unto my lord ? " 
 
 LUKE xvi., 5. 
 
 From the same source were derived the words for debt 
 and debtor. 
 
 Second : It had the indefinite sense of obligation which 
 we express by ought and should. 
 
 Goth. " Yah yus skuluth izwis misso thwahan fotuns." 
 A.-S. " Ge sceolen eac thwean selc others fet." 
 ENG. " Ye also ought to wash one another's feet." 
 
 JOHN xiii., 14. 
 
 Third, and closely allied, is the sense of the inevitable 
 which we usually express by must :
 
 380 English Gram-mar. 
 
 Goth. " Yains skal wahsyan, ith ik minznan." 
 ENG. " He must increase, but I must decrease." 
 
 JOHN iii., 30. 
 
 It is the verb employed in such passages as : 
 
 "Wist ye not that I musfbe about my Father's business?" 
 " I must preach the gospel in other cities also." 
 " The Son of Man must suffer many things." 
 " It was meet that we should make merry." 
 
 Beyond this the word gradually loses its distinctive char- 
 acter and passes insensibly and in a few instances into little 
 more, that we can see, than a mere sign of future time : 
 
 " Seimon, skal thus wha qithan." 
 
 " Simon, I have somewhat to say unto thee." LUKE vii., 40. 
 
 " Wha skuli thata barn wairthan ? " 
 
 " What manner of child shall this be " LUKE i., 66. 
 
 " Whadre sa skuli gaggan ? " 
 
 " Whither will he go ? " JOHN vii., 35. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon shall had nearly the same shades of 
 meaning as in Gothic, starting from the idea of a debt grow- 
 ing out of either a contract or a crime. It expressed also the 
 idea of rightfully belonging or pertaining. And as that right- 
 fulness was often declared or even established by royal or 
 other authority, it grew to be the regular formula for ex- 
 pressing such authority in short, a phrase of enactment. 
 
 " Gif se thuma bith of aslegen, tham sceal xxx scill. to bote." 
 " If the thumb be chopped off, 30 shillings shall the compen- 
 sation therefor" not shall be. " Laws of King Alfred." 
 " Thys Godspel sceal on Cilda Maesse Dseg." 
 " This Gospel shall on Childermas Day." " Alfred's Gospels." 
 " Thissynt tha domas the thu him settan scealt." 
 " These are the judgments which thou shall set them." 
 
 " Alfred's Decrees." 
 
 As mere signs of future time wzY/and shall are exceptional 
 both in Gothic and Saxon, both of which were generally con-
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 381 
 
 tent with the present tense. Still both words came in time 
 to be used to form a future previously wanting : with this 
 difference, however, that our Saxon, and still more our 
 Anglish, ancestors favored will in preference to shall more 
 than the other branches of the Teutonic stock. For a long 
 time the distinction was very strongly marked, will express- 
 ing free volition and shall authority, compulsion, obliga- 
 tion. Here is an example from A. D. 1200, with modern- 
 ized spelling, in which the distinction is well preserved : 
 
 "And left all that they should to, and did what they would"* 
 
 " I will teach them 
 I can be either, if I shall [must], healer of body or soul." 
 
 From the same. 
 Authority, Threatening. 
 
 " ye sinned as long as ye lived, and ye shall burn as long as I 
 live." "Old English Homily," A. D. 1150. 
 
 Authority of Law. 
 " On whom the lot falleth 
 He shall go from the land. 
 The five shall remain, 
 The sixth shall go forth, 
 Away from his people." LAYAMON. 
 
 Necessity. 
 
 " for fare leuer he hadde wende, 
 And bidde ys mete, 3ef he schulde in a strange land." 
 
 ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, 1298. 
 
 This is like the example given by Professor Earle, who 
 heard an English yeoman remark, on setting up a land- 
 mark : 
 
 " There, that one '11 stand for twenty years, if he should" 
 meaning, if there be need for it. 
 
 Desire and Necessity. 
 
 " He who will have full power, shall first take heed that he 
 have power over his own temper.*' "King Alfred's Boethius." 
 
 1 Morris : " Specimens of Early English," i., 213. *
 
 382 English Grammar. 
 
 But shall gained ground rapidly, and by the middle of the 
 fourteenth century had become the common sign of the 
 future, and confined will almost entirely to the expression 
 of desire or intention. Thenceforward the latter kept slowly 
 and irregularly regaining and enlarging its original domain 
 until the end of the eighteenth century. At present two 
 tendencies are visible, that of some to revert to the use of 
 shall, of others to extend still further the use of will, which 
 latter seems to me the normal trend of the English language. 
 In a published extract from a letter of President Harrison to 
 Mr. Elaine the writer says three times " I will" but nowhere 
 " I shall" This is only one of many instances ; and one 
 who should accuse the President of not knowing his mother 
 tongue must be unaware that languages are moving, chan- 
 ging things, that, as in that instance, a movement may be in 
 one direction for five hundred years, and one may be at the 
 head or tail of it. 
 
 Here follow some of the exploits of shall in the heyday of 
 its power, when it aspired to universal dominion in the 
 language : 
 
 " And so dide they before him, that weren his Auncestres : 
 and so shulle thei that comen aftre him." 
 
 SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE, 1356. 
 
 " If the Kyng be poer, he schal of necessity make his Gyfts 
 and Rewards by Assignements, for which he schal have but little 
 thanke." SIR JOHN FORTESCUE, 1480. 
 
 "Loo ! myn herte swete, this ylle dyet shuld make you pale & 
 wan." "The Nut-Brown Maid," 1500. 
 
 Sir Thomas More declares six times in one sentence that 
 Christ shall presently do certain things. 
 
 " Whosoever will practise physike, not having these aforesaid 
 sciences shall kill more than he shall save." 
 
 "Breviary of Health," 1575. 
 
 " Or if they aborce not, yet they shall be deliuered with great 
 paine, and the birth shall be very weake and sickly, so that it 
 shall dye streight ; or if it dye not by and by, it shall prove but 
 very slenderly." tt Birth of Mankind," 1604.
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 383 
 
 " Cassia. I will aske him for my Place againe, he shall tell 
 me I am a drunkard." "Othello," ii., 3. 
 
 In the majority of instances Shakespeare's shall expresses 
 merely futurity ; yet it is sometimes a word of authority : 
 
 " Sicin. It is a minde that shall remain a poison where it is, 
 not poyson any further. 
 
 " Corio. Shall remaine ? 
 
 " Hear you this Triton of the Minnowes ? Marke you His abso- 
 lute Shall? " " Coriolanus," iii., i. 
 
 " Mar. He must be buried with his brethren. 
 " Titus' Sons. And shall, or him we will accompany. 
 " Titus. And shall! What villaine was it spake that word ? " 
 
 " Titus Andronicus," i., 2. 
 
 " He must be told on 't, and he shall." 
 
 " Winter's Tale," i., 2. 
 
 We thus see that shall is an imperious word, and much 
 stronger than must. 
 
 "These stars arise in the 16 degree of Taurus ; but in the lati- 
 tude 50, they ascend in the eleventh degree of the same, that is 5 
 dayes sooner ; so shall it be summer unto London before it be 
 unto Toledo." SIR THOMAS BROWNE'S " Pseudodoxia." 
 
 " an unskilful author shall run these metaphors so absurdly into 
 one another that there shall \>Q no simile." Spectator, No. 595. 
 
 " One man shall ask how you do * * * another shall beg a 
 pinch of snuff." Id., April 29, 1715. 
 
 If the last two examples are, as they seem to be, due to 
 affectation of an antiquated style, what are we to think of 
 the following, committed to print in the year of grace 1884? 
 
 " You shall see a lovely bright creature, with all the external 
 evidences of culture * * * so long as she is silent ; but let 
 her open her pretty lips, and she shall pierce your ear with a 
 mean, thin, nasal, rasping tone." * 
 
 1 " Every-Day English," by Richard Grant White, page 93.
 
 384 
 
 English Grammar. 
 
 Shall pierce ? " Hear you this Triton of the Minnowes ? " 
 It has not been my lot to hear anything of the kind from 
 " lovely bright creatures." 
 
 The varying prevalence of will and shall may be roughly 
 shown, as in the following table, by taking one hundred con- 
 secutive future tenses in any author, and showing how many 
 are made with these auxiliaries respectively. In regard to 
 versions of the Scriptures, in order to have a broader basis 
 I have taken the whole four Gospels, and have omitted 
 the forms would and should, taking only the direct will and 
 shall. Will, when not an auxiliary, has been excluded 
 throughout. 
 
 
 WILL. 
 
 SHALL. 
 
 I WILL. 
 
 I SHALL. 
 
 Layamon 
 
 A.D. 1205 
 
 72 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 Robert of Gloucester 
 
 1298 
 
 53 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 Robert Manning 
 
 i33 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 Dan Michel 
 
 1340 
 
 36 
 
 6 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 Sir John Mandeville 
 
 i35 6 
 
 35 
 
 65 
 
 
 12 
 
 Gospels by Wycliffe 
 
 1389 
 
 23 
 
 1,506 
 
 5 
 
 114 
 
 Reginald Pecock 
 
 1449 
 
 i? 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 Sir John Fortescue 
 
 1470 
 
 3 1 
 
 6 9 
 
 
 
 William Tyndale 
 
 1528 
 
 4i 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 Gospels by Tyndale 
 
 
 236 
 
 964 
 
 97 
 
 24 
 
 Sir Thomas More 
 
 !53 2 
 
 42 
 
 58 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Nicholas Udall 
 
 1553 
 
 57 
 
 43 
 
 2 9 
 
 
 Sir Philip Sidney 
 
 1580 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Bacon's " Advancement 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Learning " 
 
 1605 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 Authorized Gospels 
 
 1611 
 
 244 
 
 962 
 
 94 
 
 II 
 
 John Locke 
 
 1687 
 
 77 
 
 23 
 
 
 8 
 
 Samuel Johnson 
 
 175 
 
 70 
 
 30 
 
 i 
 
 19 
 
 Edmund Burke 
 
 1780 
 
 64 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 J 9 
 
 The Federalist 
 
 1788 
 
 76 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 George Washington 
 
 
 83 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 The fate of " / will" under which may be included " we 
 will" has been curious. At first the obvious propriety of 
 each one's knowing and declaring his own will was admitted. 
 After a time, that form of expression for a mere future was
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 385 
 
 swept away by the flood-tide of shall. By the fifteenth cen- 
 tury people began again to see the logical consistency of 
 saying " / will "; but three hundred years later the excessive 
 and affected modesty of modern times forbade any one to 
 assert his own will, except under extraordinary circum- 
 stances, and so we generally say " / shall." By using this 
 expression I seem to shirk all responsibility, and pretend 
 that some external force or influence constrains me. 
 
 We are now prepared to consider the frequency of shall 
 in the Bible. It has been attributed to the authoritative 
 character of the utterances. That is no doubt true to a cer- 
 tain extent, precisely as it is true of the " Statutes of New 
 York" or the "Articles of War"; but very little searching 
 of the Scriptures will satisfy any one that this principle does 
 not cover the whole ground. Shall is properly used only by 
 one in authority ; but in the Bible it is in the mouths of all 
 alike. The servant of him who owned the barren fig-tree says : 
 
 " Lord, let it alone this year also, till I shall dig about it, and 
 dung it : and if it bear fruit, well : and if not, then after that 
 thou shalt cut it down." LUKE xiii., 8. 
 
 A modern servant would not say to his master, "You shall 
 cut it down," but " You can" Again, one having authority 
 does not command or threaten anything at variance with his 
 own character and sentiments. 
 
 " For many shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ ; and 
 shall deceive many. * * * For nation shall rise against nation 
 and kingdom against kingdom, and there shall be famines and 
 pestilences, and earthquakes in divers places. 
 
 " All these are the beginning of sorrows. 
 
 " Then shall they deliver you up to be afflicted, and shall kill 
 you ; and ye shall be hated of all nations for my name's sake. 
 
 " And then shall many be offended, and shall betray one 
 another, and shall hate one another. 
 
 " And many false prophets shall arise and shall deceive many." 
 
 MATT, xxiv., 511. 
 
 It would be inconsistent with all ideas ever entertained of 
 Jesus to think these calamities and wrongs ordered, intended
 
 386 English Grammar. 
 
 or desired by him, or to look on the words as any other than 
 a most sorrowful prediction. Evidently shall was merely 
 an expression of futurity. Very generally, but not always as 
 consistently, will, in the Bible, expressed volition. The 
 distinction is sometimes finely preserved : 
 
 Voluntary Future : " I will arise and go to my father, and will 
 say unto him," etc. LUKE xv., 18. 
 
 Involuntary future : " But now he is dead, wherefore should I 
 fast ? Can I bring him back again ? I shall go to him, but he 
 shall not return to me." 2 SAMUEL xii., 23. 
 
 Will and shall : " And Barak said unto her, If thou wilt go with 
 me, then I will go ; but if thou wilt not go with me, then I 
 will not go. 
 
 " And she said, I will surely go with thee : notwithstanding the 
 journey that thou takest shall not be for thine honor ; for the 
 Lord shall sell Sisera into the hand of a woman." 
 
 JUDGES iv., 8, 9. 
 
 This prevailing use of shall to express the future can be, 
 to some extent, accounted for. The first translation of the 
 Scriptures into what people of the present day could recog- 
 nize as English was that begun by Wycliffe, 1360, and 
 finished by Purvey about 1390. It was at a time when the 
 use of shall was at its height ; and we have seen that in that 
 version shall was to will as 65 to I. As Wycliffe was in 
 his time a heretic, and as the later translations were made 
 by Protestants, this one must naturally have had considera- 
 ble influence on that of Tyndale, which was next in order of 
 time. That, too, was made while the use of shall was pre- 
 ponderant, as will be seen by our table. Tyndale's transla- 
 tion was so happy in its selection of pure English, and in 
 rendering for the first time the original texts into the ver- 
 nacular, that it has done more to preserve our mother tongue 
 than the work of any other man ; and if it were read in our 
 churches to-day, it would sound to most hearers perfectly 
 familiar. All succeeding translators and editors have made 
 but little change. King James's translators were instructed
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 387 
 
 to deviate from the former editions as little as the duty 
 of faithful translation would permit. With that religious 
 instinct that clings to the old, the recent revisers of the text 
 took special pains to preserve the antique phraseology ; so 
 that the English-speaking Protestant everywhere has before 
 him a style of speech that is three hundred and fifty years 
 old. 
 
 The next point to be presented is that writers are not 
 generally consistent in using will and shall, and often employ 
 them alternately merely to vary the expression. In the fol- 
 lowing examples I shall place the two on opposite sides of 
 the page, and the reader can amuse himself in finding reasons 
 for the distinction. 
 
 " Where shall he go ? " 
 
 JOHN vii., 35, according 
 to the Gothic. 
 
 " Also there is a pond, the 
 water there hath wonderwork- 
 ing ; for though a whole host 
 stood by the pond and turned 
 the face thitherward, the water 
 would draw them violently tow- 
 ard the pond and wet all her 
 clothes ; 
 
 " This charge woll alway be 
 gret ; and so inestimable gret, 
 that in some yere a gret Lords 
 
 " The Time will come 
 (thus did he follow it) 
 
 " We foreknow that the Sunne 
 will rise and that after the 
 winter 
 
 " Where will he go ? " 
 
 A nglo- Saxon. 
 
 so should horses be drawn in 
 the same wise." 
 
 JOHN OF TREVISA. 
 
 Lyvelood schall not suffice to 
 beere it." 
 
 SIR JOHN FORTESCUE. 
 
 The Time shall come that foule 
 
 Sinne gathering head, 
 
 Shall break into corruption." 
 
 SHAKESP. : 2 " Henry iv.,'* 
 iii., i. 
 
 the spring shall come." 
 
 RALEIGH.
 
 3 88 
 
 English Grammar. 
 
 " Neither shall it be needful it will be enough to relate " 
 
 to set down apart the several etc. Id. 
 
 authorities * * * 
 
 " A metaphysician will bring an alchemist, on the contrary, 
 
 ploughing and gardening imme- shall reduce divinity to the 
 
 diately to abstract notions, maxims of his laboratory." 
 
 LOCKE " On the Understand- 
 ing." 
 
 " Howbeit when he, the spirit for he shall not speak of him- 
 
 of truth is come, he will guide self ; but whatsoever he shall 
 
 you into all truth : hear, that shall he speak." 
 and he will show you things to JOHN xvi., 13. 
 
 come 
 
 " And he will shew you a " And he shall shew you" a 
 
 large upper room furnished." large upper room furnished." 
 
 MATT, xiv., 15. 
 
 LUKE xxii., 12. 
 
 " If any author shall trans- if any literary anecdote * * * 
 mit a summary of his works, be communicated to us, we will 
 we shall willingly receive it ; carefully insert it." 
 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 " This will be a busy ses- shall you prepare for it ? " 
 sion ; BULWER LYTTON, in " Pel- 
 
 ham." 
 
 " Will you recognize your " Shall you lack clothes, or a 
 kinsman if he passes in this roof to shelter you between this 
 crowd ? " point and the grave ? " 
 
 HAWTHORNE. 
 
 " Shall you be late ? 
 
 Will he be late, Cousin 
 Hortense ? " CHARLOTTE 
 BRONTE, in " Shirley." 
 
 " He will talk to you of a which you shall not under- 
 
 host of matters 
 
 stand." 
 
 PROF. WHITNEY. 
 
 " Rose said very decidedly Lady Charlotte said she would 
 she should be in town for the have an evening specially for 
 
 winter. 
 
 her." 
 
 " Robert Elsmere."
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 389 
 
 " Three fourths of all money the remaining one fourth shall 
 thus secured will be added to be distributed," etc. 
 the * * * the hospital fund ; " Decision of the Sec'y of 
 
 War," Nov. 14, 1888. 
 
 The regulations of the Military School at Fort Leaven- 
 worth, issued by the War Department, March 27, 1888, 
 convey the behests of authority by the use of 90 shalls 
 and 15 wills. No distinction between them is maintained, 
 and the latter seem to be employed merely to vary the 
 expression. 
 
 Such examples might be multiplied to any extent. Hence 
 one is surprised to find Professor Earle saying : 
 
 " that large numbers of our English-speaking fellow subjects 
 cannot seize the distinction between shall, should and will, would. 
 Here is a distinction which is unerringly observed by the most 
 rustic people in the purely English counties, while the most care- 
 fully educated persons who have grown up on Keltic soil cannot 
 seize it. This Kelticism is by no means rare in Sir Walter Scott's 
 works. 1 
 
 It would have been a real gratification to have the distinc- 
 tion stated by one so competent, and to learn whether it is 
 known to any besides " the most rustic people." 
 
 We are now prepared to ask, and in part to answer, the 
 question : When are will and shall respectively to be used ? 
 I shall lay down no rule or definition for things so vagrant. 
 One might as well undertake to define geometrically the 
 figure of Celebes. I shall start from fixed points that are 
 safe from dispute, and try to develop thence the use of the 
 words. Owing to the modesty or sensitiveness that shrinks 
 from saying " I " and " thou," the first and second persons 
 are not what they would be were there no disturbing influ- 
 ence, and therefore are not proper to begin with. The third 
 person, especially if not a person at all, but a mere idea or a 
 thing inanimate, may be spoken of without fear or favor, in 
 undistorted words. One further general remark is proper : 
 
 1 " Philology of the English Tongue," 239.
 
 390 English Grammar. 
 
 the choice of the auxiliary never depends on the circum- 
 stance that the subject is singular or plural. 
 
 I. Although will expressed originally an act of volition, 
 in the present age, when no conditions are expressed or 
 implied, and all disturbing influences are eliminated, it is 
 the normal and explicit expression of futurity. Presump- 
 tion is in favor of will, and any other claimant for its place 
 should be required to show title. Of course there may be 
 periphrastic substitutes, but they do not grammatically take 
 its place. 
 
 To-morrow will (not shall) be Friday. 
 
 There will be an occultation of Mars on the 2oth. 
 
 There will be a light crop of peaches this year. 
 
 The ipth term of the series will be 39. 
 
 The insurance will expire to-morrow. 
 
 In these sentences will is imponderable, without color, 
 taste, or smell to offend even a morbid sensibility. It is 
 precisely equal to -bo in the Latin, ama-bo, or -ai in the 
 French aimer-ai. 
 
 II. Shall is a word of authority and command. It ex- 
 presses no sense of duty. Thou shalt and thou shalt not 
 are the language of law-givers and commanders. Shall is 
 found 231 times in the Constitution of the United States 
 and Amendments, and will only three times, and then is 
 used indirectly. 
 
 III. Shall is properly used only by the power that can 
 enforce it. I have no right to say that a felon shall be 
 hanged. I may have a conviction that he ought to be, or a 
 belief that he will be, but it is for the court to say that he 
 shall. 
 
 IV. Hence shall is a harsh word, and at best requires a 
 deal of sweetening. So, instead of saying " You shall," 
 persons in authority are now much in the habit of saying 
 " You will please," do such a thing, as if venturing a pre- 
 diction that you will be pleased to do it of your own free 
 will and accord. But words, however chosen, soon come to 
 mean just what they are used for, and the " will please " is
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 391 
 
 but the glove that thinly covers, without concealing, the 
 hand of power. Let us not be churlish, however, but thank- 
 ful that princes and potentates are willing to take pains to 
 make the exercise of their authority as little offensive as 
 possible ; but for ourselves, let us never utter the word 
 shall when we can find a better. 
 
 V. You shall ! Bearing in mind that shall belongs only 
 to him who can and will enforce it, if I say : " You shall 
 stay home," that is equivalent to saying: "I will exercise 
 sufficient power and care to make you stay." Although we 
 sometimes meet at the present time with the expression, 
 "You shall" it seems to be only an affected imitation of 
 past ages ; and perhaps no one will seriously justify it as 
 the proper language of the nineteenth century, except 
 where one intends compulsion or grants a request. If one 
 asks me for the loan of my boat, he is not offended at my 
 saying " You shall have it " that is, " I will take all needful 
 means to see that you get it." 
 
 VI. What is the difference, if any, between " I will" and 
 "I shall" ? Assigning to will its lowest power, that of 
 mere futurity, nothing can be more natural than to say " I 
 will" I have a better opportunity of foreseeing my own 
 actions than those of any one else ; and if desire, determina- 
 tion, or consent be included, I alone have immediate knowl- 
 edge. Hence " I will" is held to be more explicit than " I 
 shall" and generally to contain a tinge of volition. But, 
 what is " I shall" ? Remembering that shall expresses com- 
 pulsion emanating from the speaker, if the natural sense of 
 the words be regarded, they mean, " I will compel myself" 
 But it is only the unwilling who need compulsion ; and if 
 unwilling, whence comes the motive power to compel ? The 
 expression, like several others, is an absurdity. But in 
 habitual phrases the meaning of words is little thought of ; 
 and there is a general impression that " I shall " is less ex- 
 plicit and self-asserting hence more modest than " I will" 
 The distinction is not one of grammar but of politeness. 
 Otherwise there is no difference in effect between them. The 
 old maxim that will promises and shall only predicts is good
 
 392 English Grammar. 
 
 neither in law nor morals, and would avail one little who 
 should seek its cover to evade an engagement. As has been 
 already noticed, there seems to be a tendency to return to 
 the more frank and direct phrase, " I will" ; and perhaps 
 persons now young may live to see it for the third time the 
 prevailing expression. 
 
 VII. In any assertion or command the authority is the 
 speaker; but in questions the person addressed is the au- 
 thority appealed to. It is for him to answer whether a 
 thing is, or will, or shall be. If I ask " Shall /" or " Shall 
 he do this work?" it is in effect asking whether you will 
 compel or require one or other of us to do it. So far is clear ; 
 but if I say " Shall you do this work ? " then I ask whether 
 you will compel yourself to do it, and reach the same absur- 
 dity as in "I shall" but without even the excuse of politeness. 
 As shall subordinates the person to whom it is applied, in 
 saying " I shall" I affect an appearance of belittling myself, 
 but " Shall you ? " if it has any meaning, belittles you. It is 
 to my ear one of the most harsh and unpleasant expressions 
 consistent with the Decalogue. What are we to say then ? 
 Say almost anything else " Will you f" Do you intend? ex- 
 pect ? or a dozen other things. Especially you can say : 
 " Are you going to do this ? " The phrase, like many others, 
 is indeed a French one ; but it was domiciled in the language 
 before the discovery of America, and so has had time 
 to become what is called naturalized, and is the prevailing 
 expression of plain, honest folks. It is doubtful if any one 
 ever says " Shall you ? " without a consciousness of putting 
 on an extra touch of style. Still " Shall you ? " has been 
 used occasionally for at least sixty years by writers other- 
 wise respectable. Some excuse may be found in the circum- 
 stance that " Will you ? " is a common form of request or 
 appeal. If I say " Will you go to the meeting to-night," 
 I shall be generally understood to ask it as a favor, or urge 
 it as a duty. Such an objection does not always apply, as 
 there are many cases where it is evident that no request or 
 appeal is intended. The proper idiomatic expression, how- 
 ever, is: "Are you going to the meeting to-night? "
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 393 
 
 VIII. Will is used in stating the condition on which 
 something desirable is to be attained ; shall is used where 
 the result is indifferent or undesirable. The form of the 
 result is governed by the principles applicable to the simple 
 future. 
 
 " If this will serve your purpose, you are welcome to it." 
 " If he will accept these terms that will end all difficulty." 
 " If he shall persist in his opposition, the case will be hope- 
 less." 
 
 " Whoever shall now compare the country round Rome with 
 the country round Edinburgh, will be able to form some judg- 
 ment," etc. MACAULAY : " Hist, of Eng.," chap. i. 
 
 The distinction is not a constant one, but is better pre- 
 served between would and should. 
 
 IX. In stating conditions, shall is often used unneces- 
 sarily, because, as will be seen hereafter, the present tense 
 may be extensively used as a future. 
 
 " When the city shall attain (or shall have attained) a popula- 
 tion of 100,000, new sources of supply will be required." 
 
 It would serve every useful purpose to say : " When the 
 city attains" etc. 
 
 " When I find evidences of a deposit of copper." 
 
 This fragment of an incomplete sentence may be either 
 present or future, and may be finished in either of two 
 
 ways : 
 
 " I always make a note of it," 
 
 or, 
 
 " I will let you know." 
 
 These endings determine the time, and leave no uncertainty. 
 So a great many expressions would be improved by shorten- 
 ing, thus : 
 
 Whoever shall find Whoever finds 
 
 Although he shall take every precaution Although he take 
 If it shall rain before night If it rain
 
 394 English Grammar. 
 
 This excessive use of shall belongs to a harsh, stiff, ungrace- 
 ful style. 
 
 X. We foresee, expect, hope, fear, believe, think, that a 
 thing will be ; demand, order, require, provide, that it shall 
 be. Thus thought, perception, feeling, is followed by will; 
 the intentional exercise of power or authority over another, 
 by shall. The distinction is sometimes very fine, if not 
 invisible. 
 
 " In the cathedral glass the surface is rendered wavy and un- 
 even, so that the transmission of light shall be correspondingly 
 irregular." 
 
 Shall shows the intention in making the surface wavy and 
 uneven. 
 
 " it is possible, without a single arbitrary conjecture, to con- 
 struct a continuous narrative which shall simply follow the 
 indications of our authorities without doing violence to them in 
 any instance." " Encycl. Brit.," xiii., 663. 
 
 XI. Poets, following the examples of the Middle Ages, 
 use shall where it would not be admissible in prose : 
 
 " But ne'er shall Hassan's Age repose 
 Along the brink at twilight's close ; 
 And here no more shall human voice 
 Be heard to rage, regret, rejoice. 
 ******* 
 To-morrow's night shall be more dark." 
 
 BYRON : " The Giaour." 
 
 XII. There is a curious use of will which may be con- 
 sidered provincial. It does not point to the future, but 
 indicates a cautious conjecture. It used to be common 
 in Scotland : " Ye '11 be frae E'nbro I reckon." That is : 
 " I venture to guess that you are from Edinburgh." It is 
 very common in Spanish, and is sometimes, but not often, 
 met with in English literature. 
 
 " Hence there is much plausibility in the view that the first 
 speech-signs will have been of this phonetic form." " Encycl. 
 Brit.," xviii., 770.
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 395 
 
 XIII. Would and should do not always follow closely 
 will and shall, either as past tenses or subjunctives. They 
 retain more of the values of five hundred years ago. Some 
 sentences consist of two parts a condition stated, and some- 
 thing following naturally as a consequence : " If ye love 
 me, keep my commandments." The first part is often 
 called the protasis ; and the second the apodosis. These 
 terms are more strictly applicable when the condition is 
 a mere supposition, not assumed to be true. Then would 
 and should, in the apodosis, preserve the distinction observed 
 between will and .$ > &2//when these latter form future tenses. 
 I should (or would), you would, he would. 
 
 If the sky were to fall I should (or would), you would, he would 
 have a chance to catch larks. 
 
 XIV. But in the protasis, would is used when the con- 
 dition is a thing desired or requested ; should, when it is a 
 mere supposition of something undesirable or indifferent. 
 
 If you would give me a little help and encouragment, I think 
 I should succeed. 
 
 If it would rain gently all night, it would revive the crops 
 greatly. 
 
 If the wind would only moderate a little, etc. 
 
 If this rumor should prove to be true, you would lose heavily. 
 
 If you should see Mr. S. you might ask him when he is to sail. 
 
 XV. Should no longer serves as the past tense of shall, 
 but would is still an expression of past time. It is rather 
 old, and not very common, but may be used of actions that 
 were repeated from time to time as a habit. " He would sit 
 silent for hours " that is, he often sat so. 
 
 " His listless length at noontide would he stretch 
 And pore upon the brook that babbles by. 
 
 " Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn, 
 Mutt'ring his wayward fancies, he would rove." 
 
 GRAY'S "Elegy."
 
 396 English Grammar. 
 
 In times when shall was everywhere, it was employed in 
 this way: 
 
 " And therewithalle his body sholde sterte, 
 And with the sterte alle sodeynliche awake, 
 And swiche a tremour fele aboute his hearte, 
 That of the fere his body sholden quake : 
 And therewithal he sholde a noyse make." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Troylus and Creseyde." 
 
 Would followed by not is also sometimes a past tense, and 
 expresses strongly an action of the will. 
 
 A pressing invitation was sent to him, but he would not come. 
 
 Otherwise than here shown would and should do not indi- 
 cate past time. In applying them to the past we have to 
 say would have and should have. 
 
 XVI. Should occurs as the equivalent of ought, retaining 
 the old sense of duty or obligation. 
 
 He should send the boy to school. 
 
 Here it is not a past tense, nor a subjunctive. It may be 
 regarded as a secondary growth from shall, just as ought, 
 originally a past tense of owe, has become practically a new 
 verb. This is the only sense in which should has any defi- 
 nite meaning. In other cases it only increases the doubt 
 and uncertainty of a supposition. 
 
 XVII. The lines that separate Shall from May, Will, 
 Can, and Ought are devious and indistinct. Suppose a per- 
 son were to say " I shall come to-morrow," and I am to 
 give, not the precise words but the substance of that prom- 
 ise, grammarians would be pretty well agreed that I ought 
 to say " He said that he should come to-morrow," not 
 that he would. It would follow consistently, and would per- 
 haps be conceded, that if the first speaker had said " will" I 
 might say would. But suppose, further, that I remember 
 only the substance of the promise, and not the precise words, 
 ought I then to use should or would? Or if a third person
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 397 
 
 were to ask me the character of the reply, which would be 
 the most proper for him to say? " Did he say he should 
 come ? " or " Did he say he would come ? " I am of opinion 
 that in thus giving the purport of anything said or written, 
 we are not bound to preserve the identity of a single word. 
 There are places where eggs are sold by the hundred else- 
 where generally by the dozen. Now, if a poulterer should 
 come to the door and offer to sell " half a hundred " eggs, I 
 think the servant who interviewed him would be sustained 
 in a court of justice, and in the court of conscience, in re- 
 porting the number either as " fifty " or as " four dozen and 
 two." So I think I ought not to be censured for taking my 
 own way and saying " would." 
 
 The following selected sentences will illustrate further the 
 obscure limbo that surrounds Shall. In each instance I 
 place in parentheses the auxiliary that is nearly or quite 
 equivalent : 
 
 " Considering the thing to be accomplished, it will seem likely 
 that the men intended successfully to resist the influence of such 
 a system should be endowed with little natural sense of beauty, 
 and thus rendered dead to the temptation it presented." 
 
 RUSKIN : " Pre-Raphaelitism." 
 
 The meaning is doubtful ; would or ought would be intel- 
 ligible. 
 
 " the necessity of joining expressions of the most exemplary 
 humility * * * with such assertions of Divine authority as 
 should (or would) secure acceptance for the epistle itself in the 
 sacred canon." RUSKIN : " Sheepfolds." 
 
 " it may by and by give the world an encyclopaedic dictionary 
 of literature, in which the chief of our standard authors shall (or 
 will) be thoroughly treated." New York Ev. Post, June 5, 
 1889. 
 
 " But what should (can) this mean." 
 
 WYCHERLY'S " Country Girl." 
 
 " But how should (would or could) you know him ? " 
 
 BEN JONSON : "Every Man in His Humour."
 
 398 English Grammar. 
 
 "What should (could") Boston have known about the Parsonage 
 where the morals of Harvard youth were depleted along with 
 Harvard purses ; where wine ran freely from dusk till daybreak ? 
 * * * What should (could) Boston have known about it, even 
 though an Alderman had owned this palace of joy. * * * ? " 
 North Am. Review, Nov., 1888. 
 
 " the hospital fund is to be expended for the benefit of both in 
 such proportion as the post-surgeon shall (or may) deem just." 
 " Decision of Secretary of War," Apr. 29, 1889. 
 
 " His position should (or ought to) be raised to the dignity of a 
 profession." North Am. Review, March, 1889, p. 325. 
 
 XVIII. The following examples illustrate what I deem 
 the misuse of shall and should. 
 
 " Any one who will consider the structure of the following sen- 
 tences shall perceive this pictorial power of the Participle." 
 
 Prof. EARLE : " English Prose." 
 
 " A child learning to read and coming to the word inveigle 
 shall be told to call it inveegle, though the best usage at present 
 is to say invaygle." 
 
 EARLE'S "Philology of the English Tongue," 184. 
 
 " one may expect a well bred person should soon take the 
 hint." FIELDING : "Joseph Andrews." 
 
 " He was, indeed, one of the largest men you should see." Id. 
 
 " I had a sexton once, when I was a clerk, that should have 
 dug three graves while he was digging one." 
 
 FIELDING : "Tom Jones." 
 
 " Shall you run away to-day ? " 
 
 GEORGE ELIOT : " Mill on the Floss." 
 
 " Should you. be influenced by any feeling in regard to (i) sit- 
 ting down thirteen at a table ; (2) beginning a voyage on Friday," 
 etc. " Circular Inquiry by an American Society." 
 
 " I abated my pace, and looked about me for some side aisle 
 that should admit me into the innermost sanctuary of this green 
 cathedral." HAWTHORNE.
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 399 
 
 " If we could look into the hearts where we wish to be most 
 valued, what should you expect to see ? " Id. 
 
 Observe here the Hibernianism of inquiring what you 
 should see if we could look. 
 
 " Now as she had been mentioned by Mark several times 
 within a few preceding pages, it is not likely that this mode of 
 designating her * * * should have been used by him. 
 
 NORTON'S " Genuineness of the Gospels," Ixxvii. 
 
 " It should seem." 
 
 This is an absurd expression often met with even in the 
 most esteemed authors. What does it mean? We all un- 
 derstand the word seem in its two shades of meaning, 
 appearing and presenting a false appearance. Now a thing 
 either appears or does not appear ; and that might well be 
 an end of the matter. But in our great fondness for a dis- 
 play of modesty we sometimes say, hesitatingly : " It would 
 seem." This might consistently enough have a meaning, 
 which would be : " Granting certain conditions, it would 
 then seem." But that is not what people mean by the 
 phrase, but something like this : " I beg pardon ten thou- 
 sand times for venturing to intimate that possibly it seems." 
 Still, what is meant by, " It should seem," and wherein 
 does it differ from " It would seem " ? According to the 
 proper signification of the words the meaning should be : 
 " It ought to seem, but does not." Beyond that I am una- 
 ble to extract from it any semblance of sense. 
 
 The expressions animadverted upon in this section are 
 those of literary men and their ambitious imitators. They 
 reflect the stiff formalism of past ages, and not the thought 
 and speech oJf the active progressive part of mankind. Con- 
 sidering the extreme difficulty of maintaining so many 
 wavering lines of distinction, and the utter folly of saying, 
 for example, " I shall" and " You will" I cannot but think 
 that the language would be improved by using will exclu- 
 sively to express futurity, and shall as the expression of 
 authority. In closing this lengthy discussion of will and
 
 400 English Grammar. 
 
 shall, I cite one more example to show the futility of the 
 distinctions now recognized. 
 
 "He is anxious to have a cistern built that shall hold 100 
 hogsheads." 
 
 Would not every one be just as well off if it were permis- 
 sible to say, " will hold " ? For my part I welcome as a 
 normal and healthy advance the increasing use of will, of 
 which grammarians generally complain. 
 
 CAN. 
 
 The present tense of this verb was in Gothic : ik kann, 
 thii kant, is kann, weis kunnum, jus kunnuth, eis kunnun. 
 
 Past tense : ik kuntha, thu kunthes, is kuntha, wcis kunthe- 
 dum, Jus kuntheduth, eis kunthedun. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, present tense : ic can, thu canst, he can, we 
 cunnon, ge cunnon, heo cunnon. 
 
 Past tense : ic cu-the, thu cu-thest, he cu-the, we cu-thon, 
 ge cu-tlion, heo cu-tlion. 
 
 Observe that in Anglo-Saxon, as in the English of all 
 periods, the letter n has been dropped from the past tense, 
 although preserved in all the other Teutonic languages. To 
 compensate for the loss of the n the vowel was lengthened, 
 and at last became the ou in could, the / of which is a mere 
 blunder, from a supposed analogy with would and should. 
 This innovation dates from about the year 1450, although 
 couthe, couth, and kude occur much later. 
 
 The earliest signification was, to know. During the period 
 of transition it was used indifferently to express knowledge 
 and ability. Cunning is a derived verbal noun and verbal 
 adjective ; and the primary meaning of un-couth was merely 
 unknown, strange, like the Scotch un-co. The following 
 examples will illustrate the early use of the word, both as 
 to form and meaning : 
 
 " Ther-efter waex suythe micel uuerre betuyx the king & 
 Randolf eorl of Csestre noht for-thi th he ne iaf him al th he cuthe 
 axen him, alse he dide alle othre."
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 401 
 
 (Thereafter waxed very great war betwixt the king and Ran- 
 dolph earl of Chester, not because that he gave him not all that 
 he could ask of him, as he did to all others.) 
 
 "Saxon Chronicle," A.D. 1150. 
 
 " Ne was non so wis man in al his lond, 
 The kude vn-don this dremes bond." 
 
 GENESIS and EXODUS, 1250. 
 
 " And every statute couthe he pleyn by roote." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Prologue to Canterbury Tales." 
 
 " And thogh it happen sum of hem be fortune, to gon out, thei 
 conen no maner of langage but Ebrew." 
 
 SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE. 
 
 " And the wondriden, seyinge Hou kan this man lettris, sithen 
 he hath not lernyd ? " 
 
 WYCLIFFE : JOHN vii., 15. 
 
 " Ye ! blessed be alway a lewd man 
 That not but only his bileeve can" 
 
 (That is an unlearned man who knmvs only the creed.) 
 
 CHAUCER : " The Miller's Tale." 
 
 " For y can nou3t my crede y kare wel harde ; 
 For y can fynden no man that fully beleveth." 
 
 " The Ploughman's Crede." 
 
 MUST. 
 
 There was an old verb, mote, becoming obsolete even in 
 Saxon times, for the infinitive is not found. The meaning 
 was, to be able or at liberty to do a thing, hence closely 
 related in signification to can and may. It was much used 
 as a word of wishing or assent, like the Hebrew Amen " So 
 mote it be ! " To this was added a sense of obligation, as of 
 something that ought to be indeed, must be. The past 
 tense was moste, becoming the modern must. This is one 
 of three surviving words the others being durst and wist 
 that insert s in forming the past tense. This past tense, 
 must, becomes a secondary or derivative verb with a present 
 
 signification. It admits of no change of form. The ending 
 26
 
 402 English Grammar. 
 
 in st precludes the additional st of the second person singu- 
 lar. Must usually expresses a general, undefined necessity 
 or propriety, not, like shall, the authority of a superior. 
 
 " Here coraeth my mortal enemy, 
 Withoute faile he mot be deed or I ; 
 For eyther I mot slen him at the gappe, 
 Or he mot slee me." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Knight's Tale." 
 
 " Por. Do you confesse the bond ? 
 
 " Ant. I do. 
 
 " Por. Then must the Jew be merciful. 
 
 " yew. On what compulsion must I ? Tell me that." 
 
 " Merchant of Venice." 
 
 The question was too hard even for the subtlety of Portia. 
 
 Must is also used where the necessity is not of doing 
 anything, but of believing something on the evidence of 
 circumstances. 
 
 " allowing the supposed change to have been possible, it must 
 have met with great opposition ; it must have provoked much 
 discussion ; it must have been the result of much deliberation ; 
 there must have been a great deal written about it at the time ; it 
 must have been often referred to afterwards." 
 
 NORTON : " Genuineness of the Gospels." 
 
 LET. 
 
 From a Teutonic root lat y meaning to let alone, leave 
 undisturbed, is derived the adjective late, in the sense of late 
 gleanings, late education. As a verb the word took two 
 forms i, a primary strong verb, A.-S. latan, to allow, per- 
 mit, let anything go or do as it will ; 2, a secondary weak 
 verb, lettan, to make late, delay, hinder. Both verbs came 
 to have the same form in English. The second is now 
 obsolescent. An example of its former use is afforded by 
 Spenser, " Faerie Queene," Hi., 5. 
 
 " And all the while their malice they did whet, 
 With cruell threats his passage through the ford to let"
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 403 
 
 So too, 
 
 " he who now letteth will lei until he be taken out of the way." 
 
 2 THESS. ii., 7. 
 
 The other verb has had and still has a very extended use. 
 From the idea of letting anything have its own way came 
 naturally such expressions as to let go, let loose, let out ; and, 
 as most things left to themselves sink or fall to the ground, 
 we have to let down. The word was also quite commonly 
 used in the sense of to cause : 
 
 " Anon he let two cofres make, 
 Of o semblance and of o make." 
 
 GOWER. 
 
 Naturally enough let came to be used before any kind of 
 a verb expressing the action of the speaker or of a third per- 
 son. Let that is, permit me or him to do this or that. 
 Our language, like many others, was always deficient in a 
 separate form for directing a command or wish to any other 
 than the person spoken to ; so let with an infinitive of the 
 principal verb came to supply the place of an imperative of 
 the first and third persons. This is usually thought to be 
 rather modern, but it is as old as the " Ormulum," if not 
 older. Indeed, it follows unavoidably from the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 " Fylig me and Itzt deade bebyrigean hyra deadan." 
 (Follow me, and let the dead bury their dead.) 
 
 Although the form is that of a request for permission, 
 there is often no trace of such a meaning left, and let is 
 purely formal, with no distinctive signification. In the sub- 
 lime words " Let there be light" and " Let us make man in 
 our image" there is no request for permission. Occasion- 
 ally in poetry and poetic prose we meet with a more primitive 
 and forcible form of expression without let. 
 
 " Be thine the glory and be mine the shame." 
 " Succeed the verse or fail." KEATS. 
 
 " All eyes be muffled." Id. 
 " and now be the welkin split with vivats." 
 
 CARLYLE.
 
 404 English Grammar. 
 
 OUGHT. 
 
 The Gothic aigan, to possess, had an old past tense aih 
 used as a present ; and in like manner the past tense, dh, of 
 the A.-S. dgan, to possess, was used as a present. From this 
 a secondary past tense, dhte, was formed. As a became o in 
 English, and h at the end of a syllable was regularly replaced 
 by gh, the Middle English oughte two syllables is ac- 
 counted for as the past tense of owen, to possess. This in 
 turn was transformed into the modern ought. Out of the 
 frequent possession of things not paid for grew the meaning 
 of owing for, and from that again the general sense of obli- 
 gation. This sense was early attached to the word. 
 
 " we a"*>en thene sunnedei switheliche wel to wurthien." 
 (We owe to honor the Sunday exceedingly well.) 
 
 "Old English Homilies," A.D. 1200. 
 
 " all Chrestene men aZen to dai to noten." 
 (All Christian men owe to enjoy this day.) Id. 
 
 " 3e ancren owen this lutle laste stucchen reden to our wum- 
 men euriche wike enes." 
 
 (You nuns owe to read this last little piece to your women once 
 every week.) "Ancren Riwle," A.D. 1220. 
 
 " That forgotten was no thing 
 That owe to be done." 
 
 CHAUCER'S " Dream." 
 
 At the same time ought was employed as a past tense with 
 the modern sense of owed. 
 
 " Tweye dettours were to sum leenere ; oon oughte fyue hun- 
 dred pens, and an other fyfty." 
 
 WYCLIFFE : Trans. LUKE vii., 41. 
 
 " There was a certayne lender which had two detters ; the one 
 ought five hundred pence, and the other fifty." 
 
 TYNDALE'S version. 
 
 There seems to have been a confusion between the present 
 and past tenses, which resulted in the exclusive use of the 
 past to express duty or obligation.
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 405 
 
 " As every Servaunt owyth to have his Sustenaunce of hym that 
 he servyth, so owght the Pope to be susteyned by the Chirche." 
 
 SIR JOHN FORTESCUE : " Monarchic," Chap. vii. 
 Of cursing oweth ech gulty man to drede." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Prologue to C. T." 
 " And also rich in every thought 
 As he that all hath and ought nought." 
 
 CHAUCER'S " Dream," 1071. 
 
 Ought may be regarded now as a secondary growth 
 present in tense. The past is " ought to have" 
 
 The principal verb that follows ought is always preceded 
 by to. " We ought to obey the laws." In this respect ought 
 stands alone. 
 
 DO. 
 
 The earliest form in which we know this word is the San- 
 skrit dha, to set, put, or place, a meaning preserved in its 
 various migrations down to don and doff, to put on and to 
 put off, and the now obsolete dup and dout. This verb has 
 a persistent habit of being doubled, and its past tense, did, 
 is the only familiar instance of reduplication left in our lan- 
 guage. But in Sanskrit and Greek even the present tense 
 underwent reduplication dd-dha-mi and ri-^rj-^i. The mi 
 is the same word as our pronoun me. In Latin the redupli- 
 cation was limited to the perfect tenses con-did-i, I put 
 together, built. Here did-i is grammatically equivalent to 
 English, I did. 
 
 Do is not exclusively an auxiliary, as people do harvest 
 work, housework, plain sewing, etc. As an auxiliary its use 
 is now very extensive, and may seem to be quite modern, 
 but it is as old as King Alfred. First, it adds emphasis to 
 the main verb, and that is quite old. Jesus said to the 
 accused woman, John viii., 1 1 : 
 
 " do ga, and ne synga thu naefre ma." 
 (Do go, and sin thou not never more.) 
 
 If one were accused of never reading anything, he might 
 answer with some warmth : " Yes, I do read."
 
 406 English Grammar. 
 
 Second, it is used in asking questions. Macbeth Inquires 
 of Banquo : " Ride you this afternoone ? " The nearest 
 approach our modern speech could make " Do you ride 
 this afternoon ? " is much inferior in terseness. Yet I fear 
 the modern pedant would say, " Shall you ride," an expres- 
 sion that wrings the nerves like biting a gravel stone in a 
 pudding. 
 
 Third. Do is used with negative sentences. 
 
 They did not come according to agreement. 
 
 Yet the language was much better without the auxiliary in 
 such cases. 
 
 " Go not into the way of the Gentiles, and into any city of the 
 Samaritans enter ye not." 
 
 There are two early meanings of do to put and to cause 
 that are now found only in old books. In the following 
 from the "Lay of Havelok the Dane," A.D. 1300, do and 
 the last dede = put, place ; otherwise dede is merely em- 
 phatic. 
 
 " Ther-inne wanted nouct a nayl, 
 That euere he sholde ther-inne do" 
 
 " And in the castel dede him do, 
 Ther non ne micte him comen to." 
 
 " Grim dede maken a ful fayr bed, 
 Unclothed him and dede him ther-inne." 
 
 We still speak of doing up and doing away things. 
 
 " What helpeth that to don my blame away ? " 
 
 CHAUCER : " Troylus and Creseide." 
 
 In the three following examples, do means to cause : 
 
 " Unk schal i-tide harm and schonde, 
 3ef 3e doth grith-bruche on his londe." 
 (Harm and shame shall betide you two, 
 If ye cause peace-breaking in his land.) 
 
 " Owl and Nightingale," 1250.
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 407 
 
 " Now goo thou, syr Lucan, sayd the king, and do me to wyte 
 what bytokens that noyse in the felde." 
 
 Mallory's "Morte Darthur," 1469. 
 
 " Moreover, brethren, we do you to wit of the grace of God 
 bestowed on the churches of Macedonia." 2 COR. viii., i. 
 
 There is another word do, from A.-S. dugan, to avail, be 
 worth or fit, found in the expressions, " That will do" 
 " That will not do" A relic of the g survives in doughty, 
 a word that used to mean strong, valiant, but now expresses 
 rather more contempt than admiration. 
 
 " The gees, the hennes of the yerd, 
 Al he solde that ouct doucte, 
 That he euere selle moucte." 
 
 " Havelok." 
 
 It is not certain which of these two words ends the com- 
 mon greeting, " How do you do ? " 
 
 DARE. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, ic dear, thu dearst, he dear ; past tense, ic 
 dorst, etc. Primarily, as we all know, the word expressed 
 courage, daring. 
 
 " The folke wel wene, that thou for cowardise 
 Thee fainest sick, and that thou darst not rise." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Troylus and Creseide." 
 
 But on some undisputed assertion we often hear the re- 
 mark, " I dare-say that is so," which requires no courage at 
 all. The word has here degenerated into a mere form of 
 expression, and has no particular meaning. But the word 
 is not wholly an auxiliary. It is as it were just beginning 
 its downward course. It has also an active or transitive 
 meaning to defy. 
 
 " What, is Brutus sicke ? 
 And will he steale out of his wholesome bed 
 To dare the vile contagion of the Night ? " 
 
 "Julius Caesar, ii., i.
 
 408 English Grammar. 
 
 The word became divided, both as to form and significa- 
 tion. The auxiliary followed the old forms, and is now, / 
 dare, thou darest, he dare ; past tense, / durst, etc. For the 
 active verb new forms were developed : / dare, thou darest, 
 he dares ; past tense, I dared, etc ; and these always tend to 
 displace the old. 
 
 " This Midas knew, and durst communicate 
 To none but to his wife, his ears of state." 
 
 DRYDEN : " Wife of Bath's Tale." 
 " Camidius, wee 
 " Will fight with him by sea. 
 " Cleo. By sea, what else ? 
 " Cam. Why will my Lord do so ? 
 " Ant. For that he dares us too 't, 
 " Enob. So hath my Lord dard him to single fight." 
 
 " Anthony and Cleopatra," iii., 7. 
 
 HAVE. 
 
 This word primarily expresses possession ; and those who 
 hold that words never change assume the task of showing 
 property or possession in such an expression as " I have 
 never seen such grapes as you describe." What is it that I 
 have when I have lost all ? The following is probably as 
 good as any answer that can be given in support of such 
 possession : 
 
 "Jfave, of which had is the preterite form, expresses simply 
 present possession. * * * To express what the Romans 
 expressed by amavi, an inflection of amo, we use a verb have and 
 the perfect participle of another verb. The participle is an ex- 
 pression of completed action in the abstract loved. The only 
 real verb that we use in this instance is one that signifies posses- 
 sion. We say, I have have what ? possess what ? Possession 
 implies an object possessed ; and in this case it is that completed 
 action which is expressed in the abstract by the participle." 1 
 
 The idea of possessing a completed action in the abstract 
 is too " abstract " for my comprehension. It is more intan- 
 
 1 Richard Grant White: "Words and their Uses," p. 306: " Every-Day 
 English, "p. 434.
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 409 
 
 gible than the " incorporeal hereditaments " of the English 
 Law. Let us try to illustrate a single example on this 
 principle : 
 
 " I had forgotten to tell her that I had eaten no dinner." 
 This sentence then should mean : 
 
 " I was in possession of the past completed, action in the ab- 
 stract of forgetting (or forgetting in the abstract), the action 
 of telling that, at some still earlier period, I was in possession of 
 the past completed action of eating no dinner in the abstract." 
 
 In trying to take stock of these possessions I cannot quite 
 make out what my property is, nor whether I am thereby 
 richer or poorer, even if there be no flaw in the title. 
 
 The reader who has accompanied me thus far must be 
 already familiar with the view that language is not built up 
 in the manner of Euclid's Elements or a treatise on Alge- 
 bra. He has seen that it is a congeries of surviving popular 
 usages slowly developed, ever changing ; that its plains of 
 uniformity are everywhere seamed and scarred with fissures, 
 dykes, and all irregularities. If we but knew how these 
 irregularities arose we should understand them ; but that 
 knowledge is hard of attainment. We may be sure that " I 
 have loved " came into use by steps that seemed perfectly 
 natural, even if we should never discover them. We can 
 imagine such a starting-point as this : 
 
 " The boys liad roasted apples which they were eating." 
 
 Here had may express possession ; but the thing possessed 
 is " roasted apples," not the past completed action of roast- 
 ing in the abstract, for which boys would care very little. 
 Then people might have a great many other things, such as 
 " dressed skins," " embroidered robes," " thatched houses." 
 To the extent and form of such development there is no 
 limit, so common it is for the end to lose all sight of the 
 beginning. Grimm quotes a line in point from a hymn of 
 the fourth century, by St. Ambrose : 
 
 " quse extinctas habent lampadas." ' 
 1 " Deutsche Grammatik," iv., 154.
 
 4io English Grammar. 
 
 together with an Old High German translation : 
 
 " deo arslactu eigun leohtkar." 
 which may mean either 
 
 " who have extinguished lamps," 
 or 
 
 " who have extinguished their lamps." 
 
 Indeed, the Latin race had this form of expression time out 
 of mind, although they, of all people, had least need for such 
 extra contrivances. Plautus, in the second century B.C., 
 wrote : 
 
 " Vir me habet pessumis despicatum modis." 
 (The man has slighted me in the very worst way.) 
 
 " Casina," ii., 2, 15. 
 Again : 
 
 " docemur * * * auctoritate nutuque legum domitas habere 
 libidines." Cic. : " De Oratore," i., 43. 
 
 " Clodii animum perspectum habeo" 
 
 Cic. : " Epist ad Brutum," i., i. 
 " Omnes decumas ad aquam deportatas haberent." 
 
 Cic. : in " Verrem," ii., 3, 15. 
 
 " iste * * * bellum sacrilegum semper impiumque habiat in- 
 dicium. 
 
 Id., ii., 5, 72. 
 
 The Teutonic nations, whose verbs were lacking in distinc- 
 tions of time, borrowed this form of expression from their 
 Latin neighbors in the sixth and eighth centuries. Grimm 
 gives several early examples ' : " intfangan eigut " thou 
 hast received ; " haben gistriunit " I have gained. And now 
 such expressions as, ".I have written," "You have heard," 
 " He had bought land," are among the best established in 
 the language for expressing actions that are finished and past. 
 There is another use of have as an auxiliary that is not 
 quite so common have to as in : " The bridge being 
 carried away, he had to swim the river." Here have is not 
 
 1 " Deutsche Grammatik," iv., 150.
 
 Auxiliary Verbs, 411 
 
 quite so remote from the idea of possession the possession 
 of a duty or task to perform. This, too, is borrowed from 
 the Latins, but is post-classic. Riddle's Latin Lexicon cites 
 two passages from Tertullian, which I have not the means 
 of verifying : 
 
 " etiam Filius Dei mori habuit." 
 " si inimicos jubemur diligere, quern habemus odisse?" 
 
 In this last sentence the trenchant African Father was un- 
 consciously repeating Confucius. 
 
 The phrase had rather has been much disputed ; and some 
 even contend that it is sheer nonsense. That it has all the 
 sanction that can be derived from respectable usage will 
 scarcely be denied. On that point I shall cite only two 
 authorities, but they are of the greatest weight neither so 
 old as to be obsolete, nor so new as to be looked out of 
 countenance. 
 
 " I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that by 
 my voice I might teach others also, than ten thousand words in 
 an unknown tongue." i COR. xiv., 19. 
 
 " I had rather believe all the fables in the legend, and the 
 Talmud and the Alcoran than that this universal frame is without 
 a mind ; and therefore God never wrought miracle to convince 
 atheism, because his ordinary works convince it." 
 
 BACON : Essay xvi. 
 
 The phrase has the further high merit of being short, neat, 
 and universally understood. Those who call it nonsense 
 forget for the moment, what all know, that language is full 
 of idioms expressions that will not parse, will not fit them- 
 selves to grammatical rules the rules being primarily Latin. 
 Dreary and weary must the style be that can all be parsed. 
 Idioms are short, forcible, and great favorites with people 
 who would rather work or think than talk ; and they abound 
 in the best writers. Yet idioms are expressions that taken 
 literally are either absurd, or, what is worse, untrue. " There 
 is no water here" " All the lamps went out" The Dutch 
 say, " Dans maar op," where the English say, " Get out,"
 
 412 English Grammar. 
 
 which means Depart ; but all three phrases taken literally 
 are nonsensical " Dance more up," " Procure out," " From 
 part." 
 
 The Germans have a word, " lieb" adj. and adv., meaning 
 dear, beloved, gladly, with pleasure. The comparative is 
 lieber ; and it is the same word as the nearly obsolete Eng- 
 lish lief, which had also a comparative, liever. The Germans, 
 like us, hold some things dear, dearer, or most dear. " Ich 
 habe meinen Freund lieb, lieber, am liebsten" " So habe ich 
 es am liebsten " ; I have it lievest so. " So hdtte ich es lieber ; 
 I had that is, would have it liever so, would prefer it. A 
 similar usage was quite common in early English, in which 
 I had is to be construed : I would have, hold, esteem it. 
 
 " Fare leuer he hadde wende 
 And bidde ys meete." 
 (Far liever he had go 
 And beg his meat.) 
 
 ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, A.D. 1298. 
 
 " And saide they hadden sikirliche, 
 Leover steorve aperteliche, 
 Than thole soche wo and sorwe." 
 
 ALISAUNDRE, A.D. 1300. 
 
 " I hadde lever be dede or she had any dyseasse." 
 
 " Townley Mysteries," 1430. 
 
 The infinitive might be with or without the particle to 
 
 " He hadde lever to ben anhong 
 Than to be forsworn." 
 
 " Amel and Amiloun," A.D. 1330. 
 
 " I had levdeyr on a day to fight 
 Than alle my fathyrys lond." 
 
 Transl. of " Torrent of Portugal," 1370. 
 
 Better and several other words came to be used in imitation 
 of liever, which last has been completely displaced by rather, 
 comparative of rath, soon. 
 
 " Better he had to have be away." " Torrent."
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 413 
 
 As soon, as well, and best are employed in nearly the same 
 manner. 
 
 "Then you had as good make a point of first giving away your- 
 self." GOLDSMITH: "Good. Nat. Man." 
 
 "I fad as liefe haue heard the night-rauen." 
 
 SHAKES?.: " Much Ado," ii., 3. 
 
 " We had best return towards the boat." BULWER : " Rienzi." 
 
 Would rather may always be substituted for had rather. 
 Might rather would not have the same meaning. Would 
 and should do not go well with better. In one instance can 
 is admissible. " I can better afford" because can is especially 
 associated with afford. We may say might better, but it has 
 neither the sanction, the idiomatic force, nor the precise 
 meaning of had better. 
 
 BE. 
 
 This is one of the most remarkable words in the language. 
 It expresses no thing, action, quality, relation, or condition, 
 beyond that of bare existence. It is said to be wanting in 
 some languages ; and in some others it is sparingly employed. 
 It has more forms than any other English verb am, art, is, 
 are, was, wast, were, wert, be, being, been. No other has 
 more than eight. It alone has a separate form am for 
 the ist pers. sing. pres. and for the sing, of the past tense 
 was. It is the only verb that has a form wert found 
 only in the subjunctive, of which hereafter. 
 
 The substantive verb, as it is called, is derived from three 
 separate origins. Be, being, been, are from Sansk. bhu, to 
 grow, if indeed bhu, the earth, be not still earlier. From this 
 fertile source sprang the Greek phuo, to grow, and phuton, a 
 plant ; the Latin fui, I have been ; German bauen, to build 
 and to inhabit, bauer, a farmer; Icelandic bua, to build, 
 to dwell and to till the ground ; and English words so 
 diverse as physic, husband, neighbor, bower, boorish, and 
 by-law. From the Sansk. root as, to which some assign the 
 primary sense to breathe, and others, to dwell, come am,
 
 414 English Grammar. 
 
 art, are, is. Was, wast, etc., are from the Sansk. vas, to dwell. 
 The r is in all cases due to the common transformation 
 of s. 
 
 The auxilary is used to form the passive side of transitive 
 verbs, by being placed before their past participles. 
 
 ACTIVE PASSIVE 
 
 I love I am loved 
 
 we saw we were seen 
 
 you will meet you will be met 
 
 he has paid he has been paid 
 
 they have heard they had been heard. 
 
 The simple tenses of this verb are used with infinitives to 
 form a kind of future. " He is to sail" " They were to 
 arrive" It is thus used also with the infinitive forms of 
 itself. " There is to be an auction." " There was to have 
 been a wedding." " He is to be captain." It is only the 
 simple tenses that are so used.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 
 
 BY means of internal changes, appropriate terminations, 
 auxiliary verbs, particles, and even change of position, verbs 
 are enabled to represent actions under a great variety of 
 conditions. The orderly presentation of these modifications 
 is called conjugation. The word signifies joining or yoking 
 together, and is more especially applicable to the joining of 
 verbs with the pronouns that often accompany them. 
 
 I is joined with am 
 thou " " " art . 
 
 he " " " is 
 we " " " are 
 
 but the term is made to include many other combinations. 
 When one repeats the whole body of such combinations for 
 any particular verb, he is said to conjugate it. 
 
 The kinds of distinction made in conjugating are five. 
 
 1. The subject or person spoken of may be represented 
 either as acting or as acted upon. 
 
 George loves. George is loved. 
 
 In the former the verb is said to be active ; in the latter 
 passive. The not very apt term voice is used to express the 
 distinction, and the one form is said to be in the active voice 
 and the other in the passive voice. 
 
 2. A verb may be so used as to express an assertion out- 
 right, a question, a supposition a command, an entreaty, or 
 even in so general a way as to present no such particular 
 aspect. Distinctions of this kind are called moods or modes. 
 
 415
 
 41 6 English Grammar. 
 
 3. An action may be represented as going on now, as 
 performed some time ago, or expected hereafter. Such dis- 
 tinctions of time are called tenses. The word is from the 
 Old French tens, a degradation of the Lat. tempus, time. 
 
 4. The action may be represented as that of the speaker, 
 of the person spoken to, or of any one else. The one who 
 speaks is called the first person, the one addressed is the 
 second person, and the third person may be all the world 
 besides. This is the distinction of person. 
 
 5. But several persons may be spoken of together, many 
 may be addressed at once, and although usually only one 
 speaks, he may be so associated with others as to be merely 
 their mouthpiece. He may speak for or about any number 
 of whom he is one. Herein is the distinction of number, 
 the numbers we have to do with being two, the singular and 
 the plural. 
 
 A verb then, in addition to its essential meaning, which 
 distinguishes it from other verbs, needs to express the cir- 
 cumstances of Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, and Number. Three 
 of these present no difficulty, but grammarians have dis- 
 agreed, and are likely to disagree, about the numbers and 
 characters of the moods and tenses. Any one may make an 
 analysis of them satisfactory to himself, but no one has suc- 
 ceeded yet in satisfying every one else. We may begin 
 with the easiest and consider together Person and Number, 
 as they are inseparably connected. 
 
 PERSON AND NUMBER. 
 
 To any people having personal pronouns it would readily 
 occur to join them in some way with the verb, and say, for 
 example, / love, thou love, he love, we love, etc. It would do 
 just as well to put the pronoun after the verb and say, love 
 I, love thou, love he, love we. Now, however the pronoun be 
 placed, it and the verb are liable to become so united in 
 conversation as to be pronounced like one word witness, 
 I'm, you 're, we 77 and it is certain that if the pronoun be 
 placed last, it is apt to be clipped and obscured in hurried
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 417 
 
 speech till little or nothing of it may be left. And as it is 
 well known that compound words often preserve their parts 
 better than those parts are preserved singly, it may happen 
 in the course of ages that the independent pronouns in use 
 are no longer identifiable with the fragments attached to 
 verbs. Nay, people speaking a language every day may not 
 recognize the fragments as having any meaning, and when 
 they wish to be quite explicit, saying, thou love-st, he love-th, 
 do in effect say, thou love-thou, he love-he. The nature of 
 these suffixed pronominal relics was first learned from 
 Hebrew, in which they have been better preserved than in 
 the Aryan languages. But it is supposed that in the latter, 
 far away in the prehistoric ages, there were three pronouns, 
 ma, sa, ta corresponding to / or me, thou and he* They 
 have not survived in those forms, but many scattered facts 
 would be united and made consistent by the supposition. 
 As suffixes to verbs and modified into mi, si, ti, they are 
 common in Sanscrit and not unknown in Greek 8 ; yet in 
 both languages they are unlike the separate pronouns. A 
 plural ma -\- sa, or mi -f- si, I and thou, that is we, might be 
 formed. In point of fact it is formed in the oldest Sanskrit 
 in the compromise form of ma-si. In like manner an ending 
 ta-si, he and thou, that is ye, is said to have existed once, 
 but what is really formed now is -thas for the dual number, 
 and-/&* for the plural. Another ending, -anti, equivalent to 
 they, is well known, but of uncertain origin. If we join these 
 endings, by the help of a connecting vowel, to the simplest 
 form of a verb, we shall have a small part of a Sanskrit 
 conjugation. Let -vad = speak, then : 
 
 vad-a-mi I speak 
 
 vad-a-si thou speakest 
 
 vad-a-ti he speaks 
 
 vad-a-ma-si * we speak 
 
 vad-a-tha ye speak 
 
 vad-anti they speak 
 
 1 Whitney : " Language and the Study of Language," 266, 267. 
 * Ktihner's Greek Grammar. Verbs in fit. 
 8 In later Sanskrit it is mas or mah. 
 27
 
 4i 8. English Grammar. 
 
 There is a set of secondary terminations, somewhat further 
 pared down, employed in some of the moods and tenses. 
 Thus the imperfect prefixes a, as an augment and suffixes 
 the shorter endings 
 
 a-vad-a-m I spoke 
 
 a-vad-a-s thou spokest 
 
 a-vad-a-t he spoke 
 
 a-vad-a-ma we spoke 
 
 a-vad-a-ta ye spoke 
 
 a-vad-an they spoke. 
 
 The Latin scholar will recognize here the close resemblance 
 to terminations with which he is familiar : 
 
 leg-a-m leg-a-mus 
 
 leg-a-s leg-a-tis 
 
 leg-a-t leg-ant. 
 
 Old High German preserved the family likeness fairly well 
 but a process of obliteration has been everywhere going on. 
 We may take the word find and exhibit the personal endings 
 of Old High German, Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon : 
 
 o. H. G. o. s. A.-S. 
 
 {ist pers. find-u find-u find-e 
 
 zd pers. find-i-s find-i-s find-e-st 
 
 3d pers. find-i-t find-i-d find-e-th 
 
 ristpers. find-a-mes find-a-d find-a-th 
 
 PLUR. -j 2d pers. find-a-t find-a-d find-a-th 
 
 1 3d pers. find-ant find-a-d find-a-th 
 
 Six terminations have now been reduced to four, almost to 
 three, there being only a difference of connecting vowel 
 between findeth and findath ; and that will not last long. 
 The termination -st may appear as a novelty, but, although 
 not common, it occurs in the Gothic of the fourth cen- 
 tury. Its origin is conjectural. The Teutonic settlers in 
 the British Islands no doubt had marked differences of dia- 
 lect from the first, which have not yet disappeared. If we 
 select then the twelfth century, when materials are tolerably 
 abundant, we shall find among the mixed population of 
 Angles, Danes, and Northmen north of the Humber, in-
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 419 
 
 eluding the lowlands of Scotland, a marked simplicity in 
 their vowel and inflectional systems. They made no distinc- 
 tion of person or number in their verbs, adding es through- 
 out in the present tense and nothing in the past. In the 
 south of England the present tense was conjugated : 
 
 Ich find-e we find-e-th 
 
 thu find-e-st ye find-e-th 
 
 he find-e-th hi find-e-th 
 
 The intermediate district between the Humber and the 
 Thames differed somewhat from both ; and even its east 
 and west portions differed from each other. These last are 
 known to the students of English dialects as the East-Mid- 
 land and the West-Midland. The former conjugated the 
 singular after the southern model, the latter almost like 
 the northern, while they agreed in ending the plural in -en 
 throughout. We may place the three local conjugations 
 side by side, thus : 
 
 NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN 
 
 IST PERS. SING. 
 20 PERS. SING. 
 30 PERS. SING. 
 ALL PERS. PLU. 
 
 find-e-s 
 find-e-s 
 find-e-s 
 find-e-s 
 
 find-e 
 find-e-s (or st) 
 find-e-s (or th) 
 find-en 
 
 find-e 
 find-e-st 
 find-e-th 
 find-e-th 
 
 The plural termination -en began to encroach on the others 
 before the middle of the fourteenth century, was the pre- 
 vailing form for a hundred years or so, and then gradually 
 disappeared, leaving the bare verb. It is said that it may 
 still be heard in Lancashire. Spenser has it when it suits 
 his rhythm ; but then Spenser was not only a poet, but one 
 very fond of very old words. The termination of the 2d 
 pers. sing., whenever used, is that of the south st to 
 this day. There are four words, however art, ivert, wilt, 
 shalt, in which only t is added. The northern -es, generally 
 shortened to -s, is retained for the 3d pers. sing. ; but now 
 and then, on fit occasion, we may have recourse to the 
 southern -eth. Indeed, the conflict between these two little 
 endings may be said to have lasted six hundred years. 
 Professor Whitney says that " s as ending of the third
 
 420 English Grammar. 
 
 person of the verb is rare in Chaucer, and quite unknown 
 a little earlier." ' He possibly means that it was known 
 long before Chaucer's time, but had temporarily dis- 
 appeared ; yet that is not the most natural construction 
 to put upon his words. Dr. Morris, in the introduction to 
 his critical edition of Chaucer, says : " The singular in -es 
 or -is is not sanctioned by the best manuscripts. It is, 
 however, the ordinary inflection of the Verb in all Northern 
 dialects." The following examples from among many will 
 show the use of the verbal termination s, with or without a 
 connecting vowel, before the time of Chaucer, A.D. 1340 : 
 
 " Upsteigh til heven, sittes on right hand 
 Of God Fadir alle mightand." 
 
 "Creed" of 1240. 
 " Hwat is that lict in ure dene ! 
 Ris up Grim, and loke wat it menes." 
 
 " Havelok the Dane," 1300. 
 " Lauerd, this is a mikel hete, 
 It greues vs it is sua grete." 
 
 " Cursor Mundi," 1320. 
 " Sain Jerom telles that fiften 
 Ferle takeninges sal be sen 
 Befor the day of dom." 
 
 " Homilies in Verse," 1330. 
 " For vnnethes es a child born fully 
 That it ne bygynnes to goule and cry ; 
 And by that cry men may knaw than 
 Whether it is man or woman. 
 For if it be a man, it says ' a, a,' 
 That the first letter es of the nam 
 Of our forme-fader Adam. 
 And if the child a woman be, 
 When it es born, it says ' e, e.' 
 E is the first letter and the hede 
 Of the name Eue that bygan our dede." 3 
 
 ROBERT ROLLE, 1340. 
 
 1 " Language and the Study of Language," 93. 
 1 Morris : " Specimens of Early English," vol. ii.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 421 
 
 Two things contributed to gain currency for the northern 
 termination intercourse with nations, especially the French, 
 who are without the sound of th and the requirements of 
 versification. The termination -th adds a syllable not added 
 by s, to all verbs except do, have, say, and those that end 
 with a sibilant ; and it is a convenience to be able at will to 
 use a shorter form. Hence the ending -s is much more fre- 
 quent in poetry than in prose of the sixteenth and seven- 
 teeth centuries. In the first part of Raleigh's " History," 
 written between 1603 and 1612, of 200 verbs (that is, verbs 
 that might take the ending -th or -s) only three end in -s, and 
 those in a poetical quotation. The author adopted -s him- 
 self before the end of his work. The " Meditationes Histori- 
 cae " of Philip Camerarius were translated into English by 
 John Molle and printed in London in 1621. Of 200 verbs 
 in the first part 185 end in -th, and 15 in -s. Of these 15, 9 are 
 found in the few verses of poetry quoted. A like sample 
 from Shakespeare's " Merchant of Venice " yields 57 in -th 
 and 143 in -s. What is still more conclusive for the influence 
 of poetry in the matter, I find in a sample from Spenser's 
 " Fairie Queene" (A.D. 1590) 86 ending in -th and 114 in -s ; 
 and of the 86, 54 are either doth or hath, in which th does not 
 add a syllable. The graver class of English writers were 
 slow to accept -s, even in the seventeenth century. It is rare 
 in Bacon and excluded altogether from the Bible. Sir 
 Thomas Browne's " Pseudoxia," A.D. 1658, has 159 verbs 
 ending in -th to 41 in -s. 
 
 The present arrangement of personal endings is : 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 I call we call 
 
 thou call-est you call 
 
 he call-s (or -eth) they call 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 I called we called 
 
 thou called-est you called 
 
 he called they called.
 
 422 English Grammar. 
 
 As ~est and -eth are scarcely used except in solemn poetry, 
 devotional exercises, and burlesque, for the general business 
 of life our verbs add but one personal ending, -s, with a con- 
 necting vowel e when necessary. This remote and unrecog- 
 nizable descendant of the primitive ta or ti is limited to the 
 present tense, third person, singular, and is not of the slight- 
 est use even there. It is well to know just how much, or if 
 you choose, how little, of personality is left. 
 
 The termination -est of the 2d pers. sing, is sometimes 
 omitted from the past tense in poetry. 
 
 " That morning, thou that slumbered not before 
 Nor slept, great Ocean ! laid thy waves to rest, 
 And hushed thy mighty minstrelsy. No breath 
 Thy deep composure stirred, no fin, no oar, 
 Like beauty newly dead, so calm, so still. 
 So lovely, thou, beneath the light that fell 
 From angel-chariots sentinelled on high, 
 Reposed and listened, and saw thy living change, 
 Thy dead arise." 
 
 POLLOCK'S " Course of Time." 
 
 THE TENSES OF VERBS. 
 
 Actions involve time as a condition, and the particular 
 time it is often important to show. One way of doing this, 
 when applicable, is always effective, and that is to give the 
 day, hour, and minute. When that can be done the form of 
 the verb is of no importance. " I see at this moment " ; " I see 
 on the fourteenth of last June at 2 h. 13 m. P.M. " ; "I see 
 without spectacles during these twenty years," are alike un- 
 mistakable, if such were the usage ; and there would be no 
 need to say : " I see" " I saw" " I have seen" Or, like the 
 Chinese, we might have an unchangeable verb, and an assort- 
 ment of adverbs meaning something like long ago, last year, 
 last month, yesterday, now, to-morrow, by and by, hereafter, 
 etc.,, which might be enlarged to any desired extent. These 
 expedients are precise, especially the first, but rather 
 unwieldy ; and so language has generally provided some
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 423 
 
 short easy way of indicating the time of an action relatively 
 to some other action, or to some point understood. When 
 we say " I see" and " I saw "; the former refers the act 
 of seeing to the time of speaking, the latter refers it to some 
 earlier time. But unless we call in aid some other words 
 that is all the distinction of time that our English verb 
 admits of. I see and I saw is the whole extent. But if addi- 
 tional words be used the distinctions of time may become 
 infinite in number and variety. This holds true of change 
 of form in words, whether called declension, conjugation, or 
 anything else. The inflections are never sufficient, and have 
 to be supplemented by auxiliary words. The auxiliary 
 words are sufficient to do without the inflections altogether, 
 but they are lengthy. Inflections are a short-hand method 
 of doing a few easy things. 
 
 Now the distinctions of time that various peoples have 
 woven into the texture of their languages may be very 
 unlike, and curiously unlike, what most persons would 
 expect. Ninety-nine in a hundred, who would think of the 
 matter at all, would think it too obvious to admit of any 
 difference of opinion that time is either past, present, or 
 future there can be no other. Of course the past and 
 future can be further subdivided if needful. But consider 
 for a moment what is meant by the present. Is it this 
 year ? Part of the year is past and part future : how much 
 of it is present ? Or is it this day ? Part of that too is 
 past and part future ; and so of this hour or minute. As 
 there is not an inch of the earth's surface that is not either 
 north or south of the equator, so all time is either past or 
 future. The present becomes a mathematical point or line, 
 without breadth ; having only position, and that an ever 
 shifting one. Moreover, it will be seen hereafter that our 
 Teutonic ancestors did not impress a threefold division 
 of time upon their language. 
 
 Besides representing an action as taking place before, 
 after, or during some other action, several further circum- 
 stances are also noted. It may be regarded as completed or 
 as still going on, as instantaneous or extending over a long
 
 424 English Grammar. 
 
 time. Again, an action may be ended once for all, or 
 repeated at intervals. We thus have a case of permutations 
 and combinations that may amount to a large aggregate num- 
 ber. Accordingly, grammarians are far from agreeing upon 
 the number of tenses recognizable in the English language. 
 Harris, one of the most learned and philosophical of them, 
 reckoned twelve. He first divided all action, or rather all 
 time, into present, past, and future ; next, each of these divi- 
 sions had a beginning, middle, and end, making nine subdi- 
 visions. The primary and secondary divisions made twelve. 
 The first, or main division was into present, past, and future 
 aorists 
 
 PRESENT I write scribo 
 
 PAST I wrote scripsi 
 
 FUTURE I shall write scribam 
 
 Each one was then divided into beginning, continuing, and 
 finishing the action. 
 
 I was going to write scripturus eram 
 
 I was writing scribebam 
 
 I had written scripseram 
 
 I am going to write scripturus sum 
 
 I am writing scribo, scribens sum 
 
 I have written scripsi 
 
 I shall be beginning to write scripturus ero 
 
 I shall be writing scribam, scribens ero 
 
 I shall have written scripsero 
 
 Here was a table laid out for the absolute divisions of time 
 without reference to the expressions that any given lan- 
 guage might have in use. If English, 1 Dutch, and Chinese 
 could not fill all the spaces, they might leave them empty. 
 A somewhat inferior arrangement of these twelve tenses 
 is given in a little book called " Outlines of English Gram- 
 mar," by C. P. Mason, Fellow cf University College, London, 
 which reached its tenth edition in 1883. Others again, like 
 
 1 " Hermes ; or, A Philosophical Inquiry Concerning Universal Grammar," 
 by James Harris, Esq. London, 1751.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 425 
 
 Lowth, Dalton, and Cobbett, still thinking of the meta- 
 physical division of time rather than the facts of language, 
 make three past, present, and future. Among those who 
 view the matter from the philological side, Dr. Latham and 
 Prof. Whitney admit only two real tenses, the present and 
 past, as we have separate and single terms for them see and 
 saw, write and wrote, smile and smiled. It is evident that 
 whatever disagreement there is relates only to the meaning 
 of the terms used, the one party intending an a priori divi- 
 sion of the time of actions, the other having in view expres- 
 sions of common English speech. A third division might 
 be made by enumerating the expressions that might be 
 readily met with distinguishing the time of actions, includ- 
 ing their commencement, continuance, termination, fre- 
 quency, and repetition. In that way considerably more 
 than twenty tenses might be counted up ; but there is no 
 precise limit to them, and every one has an equal right 
 to enumerate as many as he pleases. But far the greater 
 number of persons have reckoned them at six. For doing 
 this they have had the poorest of reasons that there are 
 six in Latin. If we had been nursed on Greek for the last 
 thousand years, we should undoubtedly have had seven ; if 
 Hebrew had been the language of the Church and the 
 schools, we should now have only two. For those six tenses 
 the Latin has six simple expressions, while we have only two. 
 Placing them in the order of time, they are as follows : 
 
 PLUPERFECT scripseram I had written 
 
 PERFECT scrips! I wrote 
 
 IMPERFECT scribebam I kept writing 
 
 PRESENT scribo I write 
 
 FUTURE-PERFECT scripsero I shall have written 
 
 FUTURE scribam I shall write 
 
 On this basis far the greater number have reckoned six 
 tenses in English, with the above names, or nearly the same, 
 In arranging them the grammarian usually places the pres- 
 ent first, then works backward to the pluperfect, next jumps 
 from the far away past to the future, and ends with the
 
 426 English Grammar. 
 
 future-perfect. This scheme has been so long and familiarly 
 known, and is so nearly equal in merit to any other yet pro- 
 posed, that little is to be gained by a change. Of course it 
 is obvious that only two of these tenses can be expressed in 
 a single word, which may be taken to be native and prime- 
 val. All the others may be regarded as later and artificial 
 combinations. Of these six then, real or supposed, I shall 
 offer a few remarks. 
 
 PRESENT. The ancestors of the Slavonic and Teutonic 
 nations seem to have had from the earliest times that we 
 know of only two distinct and developed tenses, correspon- 
 ding to the English, I write and I wrote. These have been 
 reckoned as Present and Past. None of them have a corre- 
 sponding form for the future. In time the Slavonic race 
 developed a future for the verb to be, by means of which 
 futures for the other verbs were formed, somewhat like, 
 will be writing ; consisting, however, of only two words. 
 By the aid of auxiliaries still preserved as separate words 
 many other temporal distinctions have from time to time 
 been added. 
 
 It is interesting to observe that the important and highly 
 developed Shemitic languages, as Arabic and Hebrew, have 
 only two tenses, commonly called the Past and the Future 
 with no Present. All Shemitic scholars are aware that the 
 terms do not fit well. Caspari says : 
 
 " The temporal forms of Arabic are two, with in a general way 
 the distinction, that the first indicates a completed, the second 
 an uncompleted action. * * * The names Preterit and Fu- 
 ture, by which they are usually distinguished, are given up, as 
 not corresponding accurately with their import." 1 
 
 But is not this the case also with the European lan- 
 guages ? The point of separation in both cases seems to me 
 to be not one of time, but the distinction between a thing 
 done, and one not yet done, between what is finished and 
 what is unfinished. Finished action or work is wholly in 
 the past ; what is unfinished is, in whole or in part future. 
 
 1 Arabic Grammar, book ii.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 427 
 
 Confining ourselves now to our own language, the distinc- 
 tion is best preserved in our two participles. If a house is 
 built, the work is ended. So long as we are building a 
 house, part of the work is past and part future, only the 
 point of separation between the two being present. But 
 when of two expressions one is wholly appropriated to the 
 past, the other must serve for both present and future. 
 So from the earliest times known our northern ancestors 
 had but a single fprm for both. Mere futurity is almost 
 invaribly thus expressed by Ulfilas. Such too was the rule 
 in Anglo-Saxon, although a rule gradually relaxed. The 
 address of the angel to Mary (Luke i., 31) translated from 
 the A.S. Gospels would read thus : 
 
 " Truly now thou conceivest, and bearest a son and namest his 
 name Healer. He is great, and called the son of the Highest ; 
 and the Lord God giveth him the seat of his father David. And he 
 reigntth in Jacob's house forever, and of his kingdom there is no 
 end." 
 
 The present is, and always has been one means for ex- 
 pressing the future. 
 
 " Alle other wommen I forsake, 
 And to an elf queen I me take, 
 By dale and eek by doune." 
 
 CHAUCER : " C. T.," 15,201. 
 " I drinke the aire before and returne 
 Or ere your pulse twice beate." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Tempest," v., i. 
 " Wring the black drop from your heart, 
 And to-morrow unites us no more to part 
 
 ******** 
 
 to-morrow we give to the slaughter and flame 
 The sons and the shrines of the Christian name." 
 
 BYRON : " Siege of Corinth." 
 
 " ' It was lucky for you, young man,' said Antony Vander 
 Heyden, that you happened to be knocked overboard to-day, as 
 to-morrow morning we start early on our return." 
 
 WASHINGTON IRVINP.
 
 428 English Grammar. 
 
 The present is more especially used in suppositions with 
 such words as whoever, whenever, when, until. 
 
 " Eat ye every one of his own vine, and every one of his 
 fig tree, and drink ye every one the waters of his own cistern ; 
 until I come and take you away to a land like your own." 
 
 ISAIAH xxxvi., 16. 
 
 In such cases an interpolated shall would be stiff and cum- 
 brous. 
 
 " Blessed are ye when men shall revile you and persecute 
 you, and say all manner of evil against you falsely." 
 
 MATT, v., n. 
 
 " We shall be obliged to hold our judgments suspended until 
 the general relations of the north-eastern Asiatic languages are 
 better settled." PROF. WHITNEY : " Language," etc. 
 
 " Every person specified * * * in the following section, 
 who has been since the fourth day of May, eighteen hundred 
 sixty-one, or who is hereafter disabled." 
 
 " If any person embraced within the provisions of sections 
 * * * has died since the fourth day of March, * * * or 
 hereafter dies" "U. S. Revised Statutes," 4,692, 4,702. 
 
 There are reckoned three forms of the present tense. 
 I write I do write I am writing 
 
 No particular term is needed to describe the first, which is 
 regarded as the original or normal form. The second is 
 called the emphatic, the third the progressive or continuous. 
 The second with do is used to reiterate or enforce a state- 
 ment, especially when doubted or disputed. It is also 
 necessary in interrogative and negative sentences '''Did 
 you see the fire ? " "I did see it" for we have abandoned 
 the much neater expressions: Saw you the fire? and I 
 saw it not. Do is not used with other auxiliaries nor gen- 
 erally with the verb to be. We may say : " I did have an 
 umbrella," but not, " I did be there." The difference 
 between the other two forms may be illustrated thus : 
 
 John//<yv the fiddle George is playing the fiddle
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 429 
 
 The first can play, and has been known at sundry times 
 to entertain himself and friends in that way, but has not 
 drawn a bow these six months. The other is playing at 
 this moment ; listen to him ! The simple expression, in 
 most instances, is not really a present in signification, but 
 represents a long-continued habit continued in the past 
 and expected in the future. No one says : " I build a 
 house" or " I write an article for a magazine ; " for these are 
 not continuous habits ; but one may say : " I build houses" 
 or " I am just now writing an article" This distinction is 
 confined chiefly to verbs that express some kind of activity, 
 employment, or habit, and does not apply to those that 
 represent perceptions or sensations. I see a column of 
 smoke rising, hear a steam whistle, feel chilly. I am listen- 
 ing to the music, but hear the alarm bell. 
 
 PAST or PRETERIT. This is the only other tense expres- 
 sible by a single word " The sun rose "; " The ship sailed" ; 
 "We all waited" Like the present, it has three forms 
 " The ship sailed, was sailing, or did sail" not differing 
 in respect of time. Several names have been applied to 
 this tense, no one of which is perfectly satisfactory. It 
 might be called simply the past, but that is not thought 
 sufficiently distinctive, as there are two other past tenses. 
 At one time it was common to speak of it as the imperfect ; 
 because it did not in itself contain a reference to any 
 other event, or to any particular time. But that name was 
 found objectionable because in use in the Greek and Latin 
 grammars to denote actions at once prolonged and past. 
 Those languages would translate by the imperfect " He 
 wrote six months " ; but not, " He wrote a poem." But the 
 English tense whatever we may call it does not maintain 
 this distinction. If, however, we wish to make prominent 
 the continuity of action, we employ the compound form. 
 He was writing, continued writing, etc. The prefix preter 
 or prceter (Latin prater, past, beyond) was sometimes 
 applied to all the past tenses, which were then called preter- 
 imperfect, preterperfect, preterpluperfect ; but for all ration- 
 al purposes, the prefix was unnecessary, and has been
 
 430 English Grammar. 
 
 generally abandoned. Finally the term preterit (Latin prce- 
 teritus, gone by) has been very generally applied to the 
 tense under consideration, not only in English, but in most 
 of the languages of Europe. The word has a feeble and 
 foreign sound, and literally means no more than past, but it 
 is widely recognized and understood. It is also unambigu- 
 ous, being employed solely as a grammatical term, for it 
 would be insufferably pedantic to speak of the preterit week 
 or preterit joys. Greek grammar is familiar with a tense 
 called the aorist, corresponding precisely to our simplest 
 past, and like it used in narrating past events. Aorist, then, 
 would have been the fittest term to adopt ; but that word 
 has never obtained currency among us for the reason that 
 our pattern and schoolmistress was not Greek but Latin. 
 The most appropriate name would be the narrative or 
 historical tense. Opening at a venture Hume's " History 
 of England," I find of 200 consecutive verbs, 180 of this 
 tense and 20 of the pluperfect. The reader can now have 
 his choice of names. 
 
 " I wrote a book " expresses action past and ended ; " I 
 wrote six months " is past, prolonged, and ended that is, my 
 labor on it is ended ; " I was writing " expresses action 
 continuous, past, but unfinished. All the tenses except the 
 present have these three distinctions. 
 
 PERFECT. What is called the perfect tense in English is 
 always formed by the aid of the auxiliary have. We have 
 already seen that have primarily signifies possession, but 
 that, in becoming an auxiliary, it passes insensibly into com- 
 binations in which possession is not thought of. The first 
 departure was undoubtedly a sentence like this : 
 
 I have trained horses, 
 
 which is ambiguous. If trained\>z associated with horses, it 
 is an adjective, and have, standing alone, retains its original 
 sense of possession. But if it be joined with have, the two 
 form one verb in the perfect tense. Introduce the word six, 
 and there is no longer ambiguity. The word trained must
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 431 
 
 be either before or after the six, which can only belong to 
 the noun. There are then the two distinct alternatives : 
 
 I have six trained horses ; 
 I have trained six horses. 
 
 This tense no more expresses a completed or finished 
 action than any other, if we include the two expressions : 
 
 The river has risen, and the river has been rising. 
 
 Completion or continuance depends on the participle em- 
 ployed. Yet, although the past participle generally denotes 
 completed action, it is sometimes used to denote what is 
 still going on. " I have lived here twenty years " is precisely 
 equivalent to " I have been living here twenty years." I have 
 been an " Odd Fellow ten years," " I have suffered from 
 headache all my life " are past and present, with a prospect 
 of futurity. 
 
 There is but one permanent characteristic of the perfect 
 tense. While it speaks of the past it is in some way con- 
 nected with the present. " I have hired a horse." The 
 implication is that I still have the animal have a hired 
 horse. Have here retains with us a trace of its original 
 present signification. This perfect connected with the 
 present may reach back to an illimitable past. " Matter 
 has existed from eternity " is good in grammar, however it 
 may be in philosophy. In general the subject or actor must 
 still exist, also the object or thing acted upon ; and the time, 
 if named, must always include the present. We do not say 
 of a deceased person that he has done this or that, but that 
 he did. Still to this there are exceptions. Of one lately 
 dead we sometimes say that he has left his family or affairs 
 in such or such a condition, and, for a longer period, that he 
 has left us his example. Of one who died leaving writings 
 or literary compositions we use the perfect tense, or even 
 the present, without regard to lapse of time. Homer has 
 described the descent of Odysseus into the infernal regions, 
 and exposes the demagogue in the character of Thersites.
 
 432 English Grammar. 
 
 By a kind of poetic figure we endow the author with per- 
 petual life ; " and by it he being dead yet speaketh." * 
 
 " A B has built a mill " is said only while both 
 
 builder and mill remain. But strangely enough we may say 
 that he has built twenty mills, though the greater part of 
 them may have perished, provided they be so scattered in 
 time as to form a kind of habit or business of life. The 
 series of structures may not yet have come to an end. 
 
 If the time be named, it must include the present. It 
 may be of any length this century, this year, this week, 
 to-day, but never last week or an hour ago. Foreigners are 
 slow to learn this distinction, and are apt to speak of what 
 has happened yesterday or last week. Even native writers 
 of great merit sometimes fall into this solecism. 
 
 " I make no doubt they have figured about these apartments in 
 days long past, when they have set off the charms of some peerless 
 family beauty." IRVING : " Bracebridge Hall." 
 
 A kind of perfect tense, formed of the past participle of 
 intransitive verbs with the verb to be, was formerly common, 
 especially about the beginning of the last century. To the 
 perfect was naturally added a pluperfect of the same type. 
 
 " I am in blood 
 
 Stept in so farre, that should I wade no more, 
 Returning were as tedious as go ore." 
 
 SHAKESP. : "Macbeth," iii., iv. 
 " They were got about two miles beyond Barnet." 
 
 FIELDING : "Tom Jones," 12, 14. 
 " The court was sat" ADDISON : Spectator. 
 " The horsemen are returned" Id. 
 
 This use of the verb to be is much less common now, and, 
 except with those who affect an antiquated style, is limited 
 to such words as come, gone, flown, fled, risen, fallen, that ex- 
 press change of place or condition. When we say " The 
 column is fallen " we do not think of its recent fall, but of its 
 present prostration. For this reason we say " Much rain has 
 
 1 Hebrews xi., 4.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 433 
 
 fallen" but not " Much rain is fallen" for as soon as fallen 
 it ceases to be rain. In short, the participle in such connec- 
 tion is used adjectively, and not as part of a verb. This is 
 made clear when both forms of expression come together. 
 
 " Ye have come too late but ye are come ! " 
 
 COLERIDGE : " Piccolomini," i., i. 
 
 This is equivalent to saying : 
 
 " You have come too late still you are here." 
 
 If we take " The boy is grown " for a perfect tense, we 
 must accept " The boy was grown" as a pluperfect. In 
 that case what tenses are, " The boy has been grown" and 
 " The boy had been grown " ? Such expressions are found. 
 
 " Amelia and her companions returned * * * laden with 
 trinkets as if they had been come from a fair." 
 
 FIELDING: " Amelia," vi., i. 
 
 If in the last example but one we substitute large for grown 
 the matter will become quite simple. 
 
 The perfect tense of all transitive verbs is to be formed 
 with have, and all others may be so formed. Except in the 
 passive of transitive verbs, which we have not yet reached, 
 be should be used only in representing a condition, not an 
 act. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. The word is intended to signify more than 
 perfect, but as perfect in grammar does not mean completed, 
 so pluperfect does not mean more than completed. Indeed 
 in value and usage there is no relation between the two, 
 except that in the one have retains its present reference, and 
 in the other had is past. The two never come together. 
 The pluperfect expresses an action or event not only past, 
 but prior to some other event also past ; but the latter is 
 represented by the preterit, not by the perfect. 
 
 " I had heard that before you came " not " before you have 
 come" 
 
 " Jacob Bunting, so was this gentleman called, had been for
 
 434 English Grammar. 
 
 many years in the King's service, in which he had risen to the 
 rank of corporal, and had saved and pinched together a small in- 
 dependence, upon which he now rented his cottage and enjoyed 
 his leisure." 
 
 BULWER : " Eugene Aram," i., i. 
 
 There are, as of all the tenses, the two forms, "/ had 
 written" and " I had been writing" with the usual difference 
 between the two participles. 
 
 FUTURE. It has been already observed that our language 
 never had at any known period a single word for the future, 
 and that Gothic and Anglo-Saxon habitually employed the 
 present in speaking of things to come. Yet both those 
 languages would on rare occasions, in order to show how 
 the future event was to be brought about, combine an 
 auxiliary with an infinitive, just as we do. Those auxiliaries 
 were oftenest will and shall, of which the first expressed 
 choice, voluntary determination, the second some external 
 controlling power or influence. These are the means com- 
 monly used by us to form future tenses. The difference 
 between will and shall, so far as I have been able to dis- 
 cern, has been given in treating of the auxiliaries ; but the 
 subject spreads out into ramifications so slender that the 
 distinction becomes scarcely perceptible, and is not con- 
 sistently maintained even by very careful writers. We saw 
 that for centuries shall was used almost to the exclusion of 
 will, except in expressing a mental resolution ; but that for 
 three or four hundred years will has been coming more and 
 more into use. Grammarians are apt to speak of this some- 
 what as a zealous clergyman would of the neglect of the 
 Sabbath ; but in the interest of simplicity and intelligibility 
 I am pleased to hear people say that things will, not that 
 they shall be done. Nearly all who claim to be authorities 
 would give the future tense of the verb to write substantially 
 in the following form : 
 
 I shall write We shall write 
 
 Thou wilt write You will write 
 
 He will write They will write.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 435 
 
 But this formula is scarcely ever adhered to throughout. 
 Except in prayer and solemn poetry, you will takes the 
 place of thou wilt. No reason but of the flimsiest kind can 
 be given to justify the retention of / shall along with you 
 will. And even our most conservative pedagogues will 
 allow us to say " We will " when we are very sure of any- 
 thing. Hence / will is looked on as a more positive assur- 
 ance than I shall. The strangest anomaly of all is the rule 
 that in making an assertion we are to say " You will" but in 
 asking a question, " Shall you ? " The reason assigned is as 
 strange as the rule namely, that we should shape the 
 question in imitation of the answer expected. 1 I am not 
 aware that a similar rule or reason is applied to anything 
 else in the world but the word shall. At page 392 I have 
 suggested a different origin for the anomaly, yet cannot pre- 
 tend to know the reasons which govern each one in his 
 choice of words. 
 
 Several other phrases that serve the purpose of a future 
 tense have been adopted from time to time. The oldest of 
 these, found already in the Gothic in the form of munan, to 
 think, remember, have a mind to, mean to, was not uncom- 
 mon in early English, forming a future, like will or shall, 
 
 " It is no boyte mercy to crave, 
 For if I do I man none have." 
 
 " Townley Mysteries." 
 
 This word passed out of use in English, or became merged 
 in the verb to mean. It survives in Scotland, but as early 
 as the times of Barbour and Gawin Douglas had taken the 
 meaning of must. 
 
 " And sen I maun zour erran rin 
 
 Sai sair against my will ; 
 I 'se mak a vow and keep it trow, 
 It shall be done for ill." 
 
 " Ballad of Gil Morrice." 
 
 " This may do maun do Sir, wie them wha 
 . Maun please the great folk for a wamefou." 
 
 1 Whitney, " Essentials of English Grammar," p. 120.
 
 436 English Grammar. 
 
 Another very old expression is formed by combining the 
 verb to be with an infinitive. We find such in Anglo- 
 Saxon : 
 
 '* Sende thone the thu to sendene eart" 
 (Send him whom thou art to send.) 
 
 EXOD. iv., 13. 
 
 " Se the to cumenne is sefter me vaes beforan me." 
 (He that is to come after me was before me.) 
 
 JOHN i., 15. 
 
 This is still good English, and we may expect any day to 
 hear that " there is to be a great wedding, and we all are to 
 be invited, and the Bishop is to officiate" and a great many 
 other things are to be. 
 
 " We are going to build a new church." A phrase of this 
 kind is now the most common expression for the immediate 
 future. " We shall build" is quite indefinite as to time, but 
 the other form promises prompt, or quite early, action. Ac- 
 cording to Kington Oliphant it first appeared in its present 
 form in the " Revelations of the Monk of Evesham," about 
 1470,' and so has been in use a little over four hundred 
 years. Phrases very similar are still older, and no doubt 
 took their origin from an actual going with intent to do 
 something. They seem to have come from the French, who 
 have the two corresponding expressions, 
 
 Je vats ecrire une lettre 
 (I go to write a letter) 
 and 
 
 Je wens cTecrire une lettre 
 
 (I come from writing a letter). 
 
 That is, I have just written one. We have not yet adopted 
 this last, nor quite naturalized the excellent Hibernianism : 
 " I '11 be afther writing." 
 
 " I have to write " is generally, but not necessarily, future. 
 In point of time it is like the original tense, that was both 
 present and future. It also embodies the idea of necessity 
 
 1 "New English," ii., 322.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 437 
 
 expressed by must. Lastly, there is the present tense used 
 as a future : 
 
 I will write I will be writing 
 
 I shall write I shall be writing 
 
 I am to write I am to be writing 
 
 I am going to write I am going to be writing 
 
 I have to write I have to be writing 
 
 How many future tenses are here ? one ? or two ? or 
 ten ? Reader, count for yourself. There are certainly ten 
 ways of expressing future action, all differing in form and 
 slightly in effect, except that between "I will" and "I 
 shall" there is no difference in value. But do they form 
 ten tenses ? or half the number ? or what number ? If we 
 call them ten and invent ten names for them, we shall not 
 understand our language the better, nor use it any better. 
 There are but two elements of difference difference of form 
 and difference of signification or application. But then two 
 questions arise how much difference in either is required to 
 make a grammatical distinction ? and what are we to do 
 when difference of form is united with identity of applica- 
 tion, or identity of form with diversity of application ? The 
 older grammarians attached most importance to the aggre- 
 gate value of whole phrases ; the latter dwell more on the 
 history and form of single words. But consistency is not 
 common with either is probably impossible. To implore 
 and to command " forgive us our trespasses," and " forward 
 march ! " represent attitudes of the speaker as opposite as 
 the poles, yet both verbs are said to be imperative, which 
 means commanding. How different is it to ask a question 
 and to make an assertion ; yet that difference is rarely made 
 a grammatical distinction. The imperative and the simpler 
 form of the infinitive are always alike, yet grammarians 
 make two different modes of sing in the following sentence : 
 " Please sing us that song I have often heard you sing" 
 Some go so far as to maintain that the last is not a verb at 
 all but a noun. Indeed the rules of English grammar are 
 not a consistent body of doctrine framed during the six days
 
 43 8 English Grammar. 
 
 of creation, and unchanged ever since, but a compromising 
 and inconsistent patchwork. It may well be doubted if any 
 two could state them alike beyond the merest outlines, 
 except in so far as they copied. It is a curious fact that 
 children of tender years have so often been taught, as their 
 life-guidance, a mass of stuff that they could not compre- 
 hend, and on which the learned could not agree. 
 
 FUTURE-PERFECT. The future-perfect represents a fu- 
 ture action preceding some other future action or event. It 
 was no doubt applied at first to actions expected to be com- 
 pleted or ended before a certain time, but when it is made 
 up with the continuing participle in -ing, as 
 
 By the end of June he will have been studying German six months, 
 
 the termination of the action is not implied. The simplest 
 form of this tense is like the following : 
 
 The sun will have set before we reach home. 
 
 " Before this time to-morrow I shall have gained a peerage or 
 Westminster Abbey." SOUTHEY : " Life of Nelson." 
 
 A sentence containing a future-perfect tense, when fully 
 expressed, consists of two parts. There is the principal or 
 direct part of the sentence, and a defining clause indicating 
 the time. In the example above, " The sun will have set " 
 is the main or direct statement ; " before we reach home," 
 the defining clause. The future-perfect should rarely, if 
 ever, be used in the latter, and may often be omitted in the 
 former. It is just as well to say : 
 
 The sun will set before we reach home. The defining 
 clause may not contain a verb, in which case there is no 
 question about the tense in that part. 
 
 We shall then have walked five miles. 
 
 Here the defining clause is reduced to the single word then. 
 The future-perfect is a cumbrous expression, to be 
 avoided whenever possible, which can be done in several 
 ways. 
 First. We may use the present tense :
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 439 
 
 " which may yet be established * * * when this com- 
 parison shall have been made with sufficient knowledge." 
 
 WHITNEY : " Language," etc. 
 
 " We shall be obliged to hold our judgments suspended until 
 the general relations of the north-eastern Asiatic languages are 
 better settled" Id. 
 
 In my judgment the latter example is much to be preferred. 
 
 " Until this transfer is effected, a guard of one officer and ten 
 enlisted men will be left at the post." 
 
 Hd. Qrs., Dept. of Dakota, April 8, 1891. 
 
 Second. The perfect tense may be used : 
 
 " The system of records * * * w in be commenced Janu- 
 ary, i, 1890. When an error or mistake is discovered. * * * 
 After the system has gone into operation the inspector of records 
 in the performance of his duty, will report whenever he ascer- 
 tains" etc. "Order of the War Depart., Nov. 2, 1889." 
 
 Third. We may use the future, as in example above : 
 " The sun will set " etc. 
 
 " I will not drink of the fruit of the vine, until the kingdom of 
 God shall come." LUKE xxii., 18. 
 
 Fourth. Sometimes, but rarely, we find the preterit : 
 
 "And to every male citizen, whether refugee or freedman as 
 aforesaid, there shall be assigned not more than forty acres of 
 such land, and the person to whom it was so assigned shall be 
 protected in the use and enjoyment of the land." 
 
 " U. S. Statutes," 15, 508. 
 
 The following short example illustrates various ways of 
 representing the same future event. It is the last part of 
 John xiii., 38 in successive versions : Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, 
 Wycliffe, Tyndale, and the authorized version, with which 
 the new revision is identical. 
 
 "Amen, amen, qitha thus, thei hana ni hrukeith unte thu mik 
 tf/tfz/foV kunnan thrim sintham." 
 
 (Transl.) Verily, verily, I say unto thee, the cock croweth not 
 until thou deniest knowing me three times.
 
 44-O English Grammar. 
 
 " Soth ic the secge, ne craweth se cocc, aer thti with-secgst me 
 thriwa." 
 
 (Transl.) In sooth I say to thee, the cock croweth not ere thou 
 deniest me thries. 
 
 " Treuli, treuli, I seie to thee, the koc schall not crowe till 
 thou schalt denye me thries." 
 
 " Verely, verely, I saye vnto thee, the cock shall not croive, till 
 thou have denyed me thryse." 
 
 " Verily, verily, I say unto thee, The cock shall not crow till 
 thou hast denied me thrice." 
 
 As both the perfect and the future are relatively late in 
 the Teutonic family of languages, we may well believe that 
 the future-perfect is the youngest of all the tenses. Yet 
 it is found as early as the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury in line 151 of the " Ormulum." 
 
 " & 3iff the33 all forwerrthenn itt, 
 Itt turrnethth hemm till sinne ; 
 & I shall hafenn addledd me 
 The Laferrd Cristess are." 
 (And if they all reject it, 
 It turneth to them for sin ; 
 And I shall have earned me 
 The Lord Christ's wrath.) 
 
 MOODS. 
 
 I have met with no satisfactory definition of mood or 
 mode in grammar, and am unable to give one. But before 
 attempting even an approximate account of the thing it 
 may be well to determine the name we shall call it by. The 
 word that has been most commonly and constantly used, 
 especially in England is mood, while late American writers 
 give the preference to mode. This seems to come from a 
 desire to distinguish it from the quite different word mood, 
 a state of the mind, with which it has no connection. The 
 grammatical term is derived from the Latin word modus, 
 measure or manner, from which we have many words 
 mode, moderate, modest, accommodate, and others. It occurs
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 441 
 
 in both forms, mood and mode, and as a grammatical term is 
 quite as technical and special as tense. In the form mode 
 the word is employed in logic to denote certain differences 
 among propositions, which is one reason for calling the 
 grammatical term mood. 
 
 The several moods are different ways in which the speaker 
 regards the action of which he speaks, as related to himself. 
 That will not make a definition, for it may be true of other 
 distinctions. Still it is true so far as it goes. Take first 
 the distinction of number ; second the distinction of person, 
 heretofore explained ; third, the distinction of tense or time; 
 fourth, the distinction of active and passive of acting and 
 being acted upon, then all other variations in the form and 
 construction of our verbs are distinctions of mood. The 
 speaker may regard the action as a fact within his knowledge. 
 
 The ship has sailed. 
 
 He may regard it as a thing unknown to him, but which he 
 
 desires to know : 
 
 Has the ship sailed '? 
 
 It may be uncertain and a condition on which something 
 else depends : 
 
 If the ship have sailed. 
 
 It may be uncertain depending on another uncertainty : 
 
 If the wind be fair, the ship may sail. 
 It may be a thing wished for : 
 
 O that the ship would sail. 
 The speaker may command the action : 
 
 Sail the ship. 
 He may treat it as an adjective or quality : 
 
 He preferred a sailing ship to a steamer ; 
 or as an entity or thing : 
 
 Contrary winds delayed the sailing of the ship. 
 
 Or he may strip the action of all these and show it in primi- 
 tive nakedness : 
 
 A freshening breeze soon made the ship sail.
 
 442 English Grammar. 
 
 These may not be generally called moods, but they illus- 
 trate the kind of distinctions to which the term is applicable. 
 There is no precise limit to their number. One authority 
 very justly says : " As the whole order of the variation of 
 words in the conjugation of a verb is merely arbitrary, those 
 who invent them may arrange them into what order they 
 please and call them by what names they may think most 
 proper. But, however they may vary the names or external 
 arrangement, this does not affect the things themselves." 
 That is, such examples as those above given exist in our 
 language and are beyond individual control ; but any one 
 may classify them as he pleases. The same writer suggests 
 as names of moods : Declarative or Indicative, the Potential, 
 the Elective, the Determinative, the Compulsive, the Obliga- 
 tive, the Subjunctive, the Optative, the Imperative, the Re- 
 quisitive, the Precative, the Interrogative, and the Vocative ; 1 
 and perhaps ingenuity could double even that number. I 
 am not aware that any one has seriously worked out a gram- 
 mar with anything like so many moods. For practical 
 purposes I shall confine myself to the number now acknowl- 
 edged by the most learned expositors of the English lan- 
 guage. Those are the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Im- 
 perative, the Infinitive, and Participle, admitting at the same 
 time that both the number and the names are quite arbitrary 
 and might easily have been very different. 
 
 .INDICATIVE. This includes all simple direct assertions : 
 <r The sun shines " / " The day was warm " ; " They marched 
 all night." The presence of the negative not makes no 
 grammatical difference anywhere, beyond requiring the use 
 of do with an infinitive form in all cases except with the 
 verbs to be, to have, and the auxiliaries. " The sun did not 
 shine " / " The day was not warm " ; " They did not march 
 all night." But this change of arrangement is not held to 
 alter mood, tense, person, or number. Under the indicative 
 are included direct questions, which in like manner require 
 the auxiliary do " Does the sun shine ? " Observe that, in 
 assertions, the subject or agent is placed first, the verb next, 
 
 1 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2d ed., article " Grammar."
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 443 
 
 but that in questions the order is reversed. " The day is 
 warm." " Is the day warm ? " But when an auxiliary is 
 used, that alone is placed before the subject. This is one 
 reason why some of the most profound grammarians hold 
 the auxiliary in such case to be the real verb ; another is 
 that it alone is inflected for person, number, mood, and 
 tense. There are two ways of regarding a complex ex- 
 pression. It may be taken collectively as a whole, or word 
 by word. Language here finds a parallel in algebra, where 
 
 the complex expression ^ (L _ ^-V _|_ ^ may be taken 
 
 and handled as a unit, or regard may be had to the value of 
 each single character. The first method is preferable for 
 some purposes, the second for others. 
 
 The indicative is used not only when the speaker expresses 
 his own convictions, but also when he represents the thoughts 
 and words of others, whether correct or incorrect. " Who 
 do men say that the Son of man /"*** " But who say 
 ye that I am ? " ' 
 
 A supposition given as the ground of some other proposi- 
 tion takes an indicative when the supposition is regarded as 
 a fact and not a matter of doubt. 
 
 "If thou accountedst it shame, lay it on me." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Taming of the Shrew," iv., 3. 
 " If there is a class who, in contempt of its follies and disgust 
 at its corruptions, have contracted towards Religion a repugnance 
 which makes them overlook the fundamental verity contained in 
 it ; so too, is there a class offended to such a degree by the de- 
 structive criticisms men of science make on the religious tenets 
 they regard as essential, that they have acquired a strong preju- 
 dice against Science in general." 
 
 HERBERT SPENCER : " First Principles," Chapter i. 
 
 The above examples are introduced by the dubitative 
 word if, but suppositions may be introduced by many other 
 words, such as unless, though, whether, whoever, suppose. 
 
 1 Matt, xvi., 13-16, Revised Version.
 
 444 English Grammar. 
 
 " Shall we say then that whether it consists of an infinitely divisi- 
 ble element or of ultimate units incapable of further division, its 
 parts are everywhere in actual contact ? " 
 
 SPENCER'S " First Principles," Chap. iii. 
 
 The doctrine that suppositions take the indicative only 
 when admitted as facts is more applicable to the language as 
 it was than as it now is ; for this mood is a growing and ex- 
 tending one, not limited now to certainties, but used in say- 
 ing many things that were formerly expressed otherwise. 
 
 " If it is the first cause, the conclusion is reached. If it is 
 not the first cause, then by implication there must be a cause be- 
 hind it ; which thus becomes the real cause of the effect." 
 
 SPENCER'S " First Principles," Chap. ii. 
 
 The writer does not take these two opposite suppositions to 
 be both true, but both in doubt ; and had he lived a century 
 earlier would probably have written be instead of is. 
 
 In regard to forms, the indicative can scarcely be said to 
 have any determined by the mood ; certainly none unless it 
 be in the anomalous verb to be. Its variations are deter- 
 mined by person, number, and tense ; not by mood ; and of 
 these variations it preserves by far the largest remains. Of 
 every verb always excepting the verb to be there is one 
 simplest form, as, for example, go. This might be called the 
 ground form, but it is found alike in all moods, not including 
 the participle, unless changed for person, number, or tense. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. Statements, assertions, predications, as 
 they are variously called, are not all put forth as positive 
 facts ; but many of them are uttered hesitatingly as being 
 suppositions, conditioned, or conditional. From the earliest 
 ages that we know of certain forms of the verb have been 
 assigned to these timid hesitating utterances. But as the hesi- 
 tancy is of all degrees, and due to a great variety of causes, 
 it has been found difficult or impossible to keep these dubi- 
 tative forms of the verb clearly distinguished in form and 
 application. In Sanskrit they are in a state of great confu- 
 sion ; in Greek it is doubtful whether the difference between 
 subjunctive and optative be one of mood or of tense ; Latin
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 
 
 445 
 
 has but one of these doubtful divisions, but the student 
 knows that it covers a wide field, whose boundaries are hard 
 to trace. In English it is the central difficulty of the lan- 
 guage not the less difficult that only vestiges of it remain. 
 It is often impossible to tell at present whether a verb in a 
 given case be indicative or subjunctive. It rarely has a 
 separate or special form of its own. That this was not so in 
 the earlier ages of the language will appear on comparing the 
 Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and English of the verb find. 
 
 i PERS. SING. 
 
 FLU. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE 
 
 finth-a find-e 
 
 finth-is find-est 
 
 finth-ith find-eth 
 
 finth-am find-ath 
 
 finth-ith find-ath 
 
 finth-and 
 
 find-ath 
 
 find 
 
 find-est 
 
 find-s 
 
 find 
 
 find 
 
 find 
 
 PRETERIT INDICATIVE. 
 
 i PERS. SING. 
 
 fanth 
 
 fand 
 
 found 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 fanst 
 
 fand-e 
 
 found-est 
 
 3 
 
 f( 
 
 fanth 
 
 fand 
 
 found 
 
 i 
 
 PLU. 
 
 fanth-um 
 
 fand 
 
 found 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 fanth-uth 
 
 fund-e 
 
 found 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 fanth-un 
 
 fand 
 
 found 
 
 PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 1 PERS. SING. finth-au 
 
 2 " " finth-ais 
 
 3 " " finth-ai 
 
 1 " PLU. finth-aima 
 
 2 " " finth-aith 
 
 3 " " finth-aina 
 
 PRETERIT SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 1 PER. SING, funth-jau ) 
 
 2 " " funth-eis Hunde 
 
 3 " " funth-i ) 
 i " PLU. funth-eima } 
 
 a " " funth-eith L fund-en 
 3 " " funth-eina 
 
 found
 
 446 English Grammar. 
 
 The reader will not fail to notice the lengthening of the 
 subjunctive vowels in Gothic, a feature common to that 
 language, Greek, and Sanskrit. On this peculiarity Professor 
 Ernst Curtius remarks : 
 
 " The lengthening of the sound between the root and the per- 
 sonal ending naturally and meaningly distinguishes the hesitating 
 and conditional statement from the unconditional." ' 
 
 It will also be seen by the Anglo-Saxon column that in 
 course of five or six hundred years the six original forms 
 had become reduced to two ; and that in another equal 
 period there remained in English only one. Moreover, in 
 the perterit tense that one is derived from the plural of the 
 past indicative, never from the singular. In English, with 
 one exception, the preterit subjunctive is identical with 
 the preterit indicative. But in that exceptional instance, in 
 which there are separate forms for singular and plural in the 
 past indicative, the past subjunctive adopts the plural. We 
 say : / zvas, he was, we were, they were, but if I were, if he 
 were, if they were. The second person singular is excep- 
 tional and peculiar, and offers the sole example in the lan- 
 guage of a form found only in the subjunctive. Indie, thou 
 wast, subj. if thou wert, which also is allied to the plurals. 
 
 In point of form the subjunctive is the perfection of sim- 
 plicity ; the intricacy is all in using it. The first peculiarity 
 that I shall mention is a shifting verschiebung as the Ger- 
 mans call it of the tenses. The present is not so much a 
 present as a future ; what has been called the preterit is 
 present in effect ; and what is pluperfect in form is simply 
 past or preterit in its application. In the following illus- 
 tration let the words, yesterday, etc., show the real time. 
 
 Before yesterday Yesterday To-day To-morrow 
 
 Ind. It had rained It rained It rains It will rain 
 
 Sub. If it had rained If it rained If it rain 
 
 These expressions may be further expanded. 
 
 If it had rained yesterday, there would be less dust now. 
 
 If it rained now we should get wet. 
 
 If it rain to-morrow, we will stay indoors. 
 
 1 " History of Greece," Chap, i.
 
 77ie Conjugation of Verbs. 447 
 
 It is not necessary to say : " If it should rain " ; for, " If 
 it rain," serves the purpose quite as well ; and it would be 
 impossible to say whether the longer expression were in- 
 dicative or subjunctive. Expressions like : " If he shall," 
 " If it shall," are admissible, and often met with ; but I can- 
 not think of a case where they are necessary. On the other 
 hand, "If he will" does serve a useful purpose, as: "We 
 will give him an equal share in the venture, if he will accept 
 it." But in such case will retains its sense of the volition 
 " if he be willing to accept it." Then turning the sentence 
 and stretching the analogy, we still retain the will, saying ; 
 " We will give him an equal share with ourselves, if that 
 will please him." Stretching the analogy still farther and 
 beyond the limit of intelligent volition, we go on to say such 
 things as this : " Immerse these eggs in melted paraffine, 
 and see if that will preserve them." In fact we employ 
 the word wherever there is a desirable purpose of doubtful 
 attainment. We cannot be sure in such cases whether will 
 is indicative or subjunctive. 
 
 I have said that in the subjunctive the tense that is pres- 
 ent in form is generally future in its reference, but even the 
 apparently past but really present tense is often shifted so 
 far that its reference is future. We may inquire of one 
 going out in a boat : " What would you do if a storm 
 
 arose ? " 
 
 " To turn the rein were sin and shame, 
 
 To fight -were deadly peril ; 
 What would you do now, Roland Cheyne, 
 Were ye Glenallan's Earl ? " 
 
 SCOTT : " The Antiquary," Chap. 40. 
 
 It would be more in accordance with modern usage to 
 say in the above samples ; " should arise " and " would be " ; 
 but such a change would not alter mood, tense, or sense. 
 It would be merely substituting a compound verbal expres- 
 sion for a simple one. In complex verbal expressions it is 
 only the auxiliary that is varied to distinguish mood, tense, 
 person, or number. Of these have and be are followed by 
 the participle ; the others take the infinitive. 
 
 I will sing, thou didst sing, they might sing.
 
 448 English Grammar. 
 
 I am surprised ; thou mightest have been surprised ; they will be 
 surprised. 
 
 This circumstance goes to confirm the view of those who 
 hold that, so far as grammar goes, the auxiliary is, in these 
 cases, the real verb. It is also inconsistent with the exist- 
 ence of a separate mood that used to be called the potential ; 
 that is the mood which expressed possibilities. It was made 
 by the aid of several auxiliaries may, can, and sometimes 
 must, will, and shall. It was never claimed that " I shall 
 write " belonged to this mood. That was called future in- 
 dicative ; but " I should write " was so claimed. In a pre- 
 tentious grammar now before me that is called the past tense 
 of the potential mode ; but it is not a past tense, in fact, 
 and never relates to past time. 
 
 "If I &z</pen, ink, and paper, I should write now." 
 
 Had is here the past subjunctive of have, should is the 
 same of shall, but, as already shown, past subjunctives refer 
 to the present or the future. May was held to be the typi- 
 cal sign of the potential mood, but might is the past sub- 
 junctive oi-may. If, then, "I may write" were present 
 potential, "I might write" would be the subjunctive mood 
 of the potential mood, which I suppose no one claims. 
 
 The field occupied by the subjunctive is so large and ir- 
 regular that it is difficult to define its limits or designate its 
 several portions. The problem is complicated by the fact 
 that such occupancy is only a kind of tenancy in common, 
 there are so many cases in which some other mood might be 
 put in its place. In the examples which are now to follow 
 I shall give under each subdivision those that contain a sub- 
 junctive, and then per contra others of the same character, 
 except that a different mood is used. 
 
 The subjunctive is used in expressing suppositions and 
 results depending on supposed conditions. A conditional 
 sentence may be roughly defined as a sentence whereof one 
 half is a condition on which the other half depends. Take 
 this as a typical example :
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 449 
 
 " If Mr. Serious, the clergyman, calls, say I am gone to the 
 great meeting at Exeter Hall." BULWER : " Money," 3, 2. 
 
 The call by Mr. Serious is the condition on which the answer 
 depends. If he call, he is to be answered as directed ; if he 
 call not, there can be no answer. Such a supposition, while 
 still retaining the same words, may take three different forms 
 grammatically, thus : If it rains, If it rain, If it rained (or 
 should rain). The first is indicative present, and admits the 
 supposition as correct. The second is subjunctive present, 
 with usually a future reference, and indicates a mental atti- 
 tude of unbiassed uncertainty. The third is preterit subjunc- 
 tive, but never referring to past time, and means that the 
 supposition is untenable. The words might indeed be 
 preterit indicative. That is only to be determined by the 
 sense of the context. These three kinds of suppositions 
 may be further illustrated by adding to each, in brackets, 
 the remainder of a suitable sentence. 
 
 If it rains (or is raining) [as you say it is, we had better stay 
 in]. 
 
 If it rain [to-morrow, which we have no means of knowing, it 
 will be bad for the meeting in the grove]. 
 
 If it rained (or were raining) [the dust would not be flying, as 
 you see it is]. 
 
 The second is very generally followed by a future in the 
 apodosis, and the third by the same mood and tense which 
 is in the protasis. 
 
 Again I may remind the reader that writers and speakers 
 have been unable or unwilling to adhere to any precise rule 
 on the subject. 
 
 " It is one of the best bonds, bothe of chastity and obedience 
 in the wife, if she think her husband wise, which she will never 
 do if she find\mn. jealous." BACON : " Essay" viii. 
 
 " she deserts thee not if thou 
 Dismiss not her, when most thou needst her nigh." 
 
 " Paradise Lost," 8, 563.
 
 450 English Grammar. 
 
 " But if no faithless action stain 
 Thy love and constant word, 
 I '11 make thee famous by my pen, 
 And glorious by my sword." 
 
 MARQUIS OF MONTROSE. 
 " If solitude succeed to grief, 
 Release from pain is slight relief." 
 
 BYRON : " Giaour." 
 
 " If it were done, when 't is done then 't were well 
 It were done quickly." SHAKES?.: " Macbeth," i, 7. 
 
 " If it were so, 
 There now would be no Venice." 
 
 BYRON : " The Two Foscari." 
 
 " Were matter thus absolutely solid, it would be what it is not 
 absolutely incompressible." 
 
 SPENCER : " First Principles," Chap. iii. 
 
 And, generally written an, and having the value of if, was 
 quite common in Middle English. 
 
 " Now well were I an it so were." 
 
 " Townley Mysteries." 
 
 Hence it was said : 
 
 " If ifs and an's were pots and pans, 
 There 'd be no need of tinkers." 
 
 It is now confined to poetry and some provincial dialects. 
 
 "An 'f were not for thy hoary beard, 
 Such hand as Marmion's had not spared 
 To cleave the Douglas dead." 
 
 SCOTT : " Marmion," Canto 6. 
 
 If is often omitted, especially in poetry, before have, be, 
 and the auxiliaries. The verb is then placed before its sub- 
 ject. 
 
 " were I quiet earth, 
 That were no evil." 
 
 BYROX : " Cain."
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 451 
 
 " Society, friendship, and love, 
 
 Divinely bestowed upon man ; 
 O, had I the wings of a dove, 
 
 How soon would I taste you again ! " 
 
 COWPER : " Selkirk." 
 
 " And should my youth, as youth is apt, I know, 
 
 Some harshness show, 
 All vain asperities, I, day by day, 
 Would wear away." 
 
 SOUTHEY : " Holly Tree." 
 
 Although the most common, if is not the only word used 
 to introduce a supposition. There are many others, among 
 which are, although, unless, except, provided, admit, grant, sup- 
 pose, so, whether. Many of these may also take the conjunc- 
 tion that after them. Sometimes there is no special formula. 
 The choice between indicative and subjunctive depends 
 essentially on the question whether we conceive ourselve 
 to be dealing with a fact or with a supposed possibility. 
 
 " Though he heap up silver as the clay, and prepare raiment as 
 the dust." JOB xxvii., 16. 
 
 " And oft though Wisdom wake, Suspicion sleeps 
 At Wisdom's gate." 
 
 " Paradise Lost," iii., 686. 
 
 " And he said, Whether they be come out for peace take them 
 alive ; or whether they be come out for war, take them alive." 
 
 i KINGS xx., 1 8. 
 
 " Whether he spin poor couplets into plays, 
 Or damn the dead with purgatorial praise, 
 His style in youth or age is still the same." 
 
 BYRON : " English Bards." 
 
 " Whether this be or be not implied." 
 
 J. S. MILL : " Logic," Chap. 8. 
 
 " The soul which hath touched any such * * * shall not 
 eat of the holy things, unless he wash his flesh with water." 
 
 LEVIT. xxii., 6.
 
 452 English Grammar. 
 
 " The events * * * must be very imperfectly understood 
 unless the plot of the preceding acts be well understood." 
 
 MACAULAY : " Hist, of Eng.," Chap. i. 
 
 " Except thou take away the blind and the lame, thou shalt not 
 come in hither." 2 SAMUEL v., 6. 
 
 " And this will I venture my poor gentleman-like carcase to 
 perform, provided there be no treason practised upon us." 
 
 BEN JONSON : " Every Man in his Hum.," iv., 5. 
 
 " Suppose 't were Portius, could you blame my choice ? " 
 
 ADDISON : " Cato," i., 6. 
 
 " Or suppose Bishop Philpotts requested it of him as a favor." 
 
 LEIGH HUNT : " Table Talk." 
 
 " Perhaps it had been better to stand by mere Prussian and 
 German merit, native to the soil." 
 
 CARLYLE : " Fred'k the Great." 
 
 " So I were out of prison and kept Sheepe, 
 I should be as merry as the day is long." 
 
 SHAKESP.: " King John," iv., 2. 
 
 " Why (Cosine) were thou Regent of the world, 
 It were a shame to let this land by lease." 
 
 SHAKESP.: " Richard II.," ii., 2. 
 
 " Be it scroll or be it book, 
 Into it, knight, thou must not look." 
 
 SCOTT. 
 
 But per contra. 
 
 (> If thou more murmur 'st, I will rend an Oake 
 And peg thee in his knotty entrailes." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Tempest," i., 2. 
 
 "And //thou loiter est longer, all will fall away." 
 
 COLERIDGE: " Piccol.," i., 10. 
 
 " Oh ! if your tears are given to care, 
 If real woe disturbs your peace, 
 Come to my bosom." THOMAS MOORE. 
 
 " I suppose you would aim at him best of all if he was out of 
 sight.' SHERIDAN : " Rivals," v., 2.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 453 
 
 " Dr. Marshall Hall * * * remarked that // the foot of a 
 frog -was pinched, the animal withdrew the limb." 
 
 London Quarterly, Jany., 1855. 
 
 " The business of the pension office would be seriously imped- 
 ed, even if the health of the clerks was not impaired." 
 
 "Report of Postmaster General, Nov. 27, 1889." 
 
 " Except thou hadst hasted and come to meet me, surely there 
 had been no man left to Nabal by the morning light." 
 
 i SAM. xxv., 34. 
 
 " Unless thou hadst spoken, surely then in the morning the 
 people had gone up every one from following his brother." 
 
 2 SAM. ii., 27. 
 
 "Thogh with their high wrongs I am strook to the quick, 
 Yet, with my nobler reason, gainst my furie, 
 Do I take part." 
 
 SHAKESP.: " Tempest," v., i. 
 
 "Tho* no Exchecquer it commands, 'tis wealth, 
 And tho' it wears no ribband, 'fis renown." 
 
 YOUNG : " Night Thoughts," vi., 337. 
 
 " Alike in ignorance, his reason such, 
 Whether he thinks too little or too much." 
 
 POPE : " Essay on Man," ii., n. 
 
 " Whether thy muse most lamentably tells 
 What merry sounds proceed from Oxford bells, 
 Or, still in bells delighting, finds a friend 
 In every chime that jingles from Ostend." 
 
 BYRON : " English Bards." 
 
 " The mere delight in combining ideas suffices them ; provided 
 the deductions are logical, they seem almost indifferent to their 
 truth." G. LEWES.' 
 
 Indicative and subjunctive may be found in the same 
 sentence. 
 
 " Whether it be owing to such poetical associations * * * 
 or whether there is, as it were, a sympathetic revival." 
 
 IRVING : " Braceb ridge Hall." 
 
 1 Quoted from Matzner.
 
 454 English Grammar. 
 
 The subjunctive is found with indefinite pronouns and 
 adverbs of time, place, and manner whoever, whatever, 
 wherever, whenever, however, etc. when there is an element 
 of uncertainty or conjecture in the clause. 
 
 " If thou pardon whosoever pray, 
 More sinnes for this forgiueness prosper may." 
 
 SHAKESP.: " Richard II.," v., 3. 
 
 "But he that troubleth you shall bear his judgment, whosoever 
 he be" GAL. v., 10. 
 
 " Drede ay God where so thou be" 
 
 " Townley Mysteries." 
 
 " He hath always 3 wifes with him, where that ever he be" 
 
 SIR JOHN MAUNDEVILLE. 
 
 " Howe'er the world go, I '11 make sure for one." 
 
 MARLOWE : " Jew of Malta," i., i. 
 
 " Whatsoever plague, whatsoever sickness there be" 
 
 2 KINGS viii., 37. 
 
 Closely related to these examples are indefinite designa- 
 tions of time, after which the subjunctive was formerly used 
 much more than it is now. 
 
 " Now quiet Soule, depart when Heauen please." 
 
 SHAKES?.: i " Henry VI.," iii., 2. 
 
 " Why, at any time when it please you, I shall be ready to dis- 
 course to you all I know." 
 
 BEN JONSON : " Every Man in his Humour." 
 
 " before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice." MATT. 
 xxvi., 34. 
 
 " Ere thou goe, give up thy Staffe." 
 
 SHAKESP.: 2 " Henry VI.," ii., 3. 
 
 " I saw, alas ! some dread event impend, 
 Ere to the main this morning sun descend" 
 
 POPE : " Rape of the Lock," i. 
 
 " What billows, what gales is she fated to prove, 
 Ere she sleep in the lee of the land that I love ! " 
 
 TOM MOORE.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 455 
 
 " The tree will wither long before \\.fall." 
 
 BYRON : " Childe Harold," in., 32. 
 
 Per contra. 
 
 " Therefore thou art inexcusable, O man, whosoever thou art 
 that judgest." ROMANS ii., i. 
 
 " The Lord thy God is with thee whithersoever thou #/." 
 
 JOSHUA i., 9. 
 
 " Who ere helps thee, 't is thou that must help me." 
 
 SHAKESP. : i " Henry VI.," i., 2. 
 
 " Who euer wins, on that side shall I lose." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " King John," ii., i. 
 
 " Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things 
 are honest, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are 
 lovely, whatsoever things are of good report * * * think on these 
 things." PHIL, iv., 8. 
 
 A considerable number of adjectival expressions, like it 
 is good, well, better, fitting, desirable enough, hard, sad, take 
 after the conjunction that, a subjunctive. 
 
 " It is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth." 
 
 LAM. iii., 27. 
 
 This could have been as well expressed : 
 
 " It is good for a man to bear the yoke in his youth," 
 
 which is a much more common form of expression. The 
 subjunctive here takes the place of an infinitive. The last 
 half of the sentence might be regarded collectively as a sub- 
 stantive ; and the whole might take this form : 
 
 Bearing the yoke in his youth is good for a man. 
 
 Hence this use of the subjunctive might be said to be as a 
 substitute for substantive clauses. 
 
 " it is better that thou succour us out of the city." 
 
 2 SAM. xviii., 3. 
 
 " is it fit this souldier keepe his oath ? " 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Henry V.," iv., 7.
 
 456 English Grammar. 
 
 " Therefore 't is meet Achilles meet not Hector." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Troyl. and Cressida." 
 
 " In such a time as this it is not meet 
 That every nice offence should meet his Comment." 
 
 " Julius Caesar," iv., 2. 
 
 " 'T is better that the Enemie seeke vs." 
 
 Id., iv., 3. 
 
 " 'T is necessary that be looked into." 
 
 MARLOWE : " Jew of Malta," i., 2. 
 
 The subjunctive is largely used to express indirectly the 
 effect of causing or preventing. Here is an example of the 
 direct way of expressing it. " And he straitly charged them 
 to tell no man." Mark v., 43 ; and here an example of the 
 indirect : " I charge you * * * that ye stir not up nor 
 awake my love till he please." Canticles ii., 7. The words 
 of causing and preventing are many and various, including 
 among others : cause, command, provide, see, take care, beseech, 
 entreat, exhort, forbid ; to which maybe added any words 
 of hindering or fearing followed by lest. In the expressions 
 now under consideration the verb is usually followed by that 
 or lest, but that is sometimes omitted for sake of brevity. 
 
 " he spake and commanded that they should heat the furnace." 
 
 DANIEL iii., 19. 
 
 " He commandeth * * * that they return from iniquity." 
 
 JOB xxxvi., TO. 
 
 " Beware tJiat thoufass not such a place." 
 
 2 KINGS ii., 9. 
 
 "Beware lest Hezekiah persuade you." ISAIAH xxxvi., 18. 
 
 " Then give me leave, that I may turne the key, 
 That no one enter, till my tale be done." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Richard II.," iv., 3. 
 
 The subjunctive is used to express very earnest wish or 
 desire : 
 
 " O that I were as in months past, as in the days when God 
 preserved me." JOB xxix., 3.
 
 TTte Conjugation of Verbs. 457 
 
 " In the morning thou shalt say, Would God it were even ! and 
 in the even thou shalt say, Would God it were morning ! " 
 
 DEUT. xxviii., 67. 
 
 " Oh, that I were a Mockerie King of Snow, 
 Standing before the Sunne of Bullingbrooke, 
 To melt my selfe away in Water-drops." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Richard II.," iv., i. 
 
 " Would thou wert cleane enough 
 To spit upon." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Timon of Athens." 
 
 Per contra. 
 
 " I wish from the bottom of my heart, this unnatural struggle 
 was over." COOPER : " Spy," i. 
 
 The subjunctive mood is becoming less used than for- 
 merly, and may in time pass away entirely, like so much of 
 the inflectional system that once belonged to the language. 
 As an illustration of the change that is going on, I observe 
 that the recent revisers of the New Testament have turned 
 23 subjunctives into indicatives in the Epistle to the Romans 
 alone, omitting the considerable number not easily distin- 
 guished. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. The imperative is so named from its fre- 
 quent use in direct commands. But, as the form of expres- 
 sion is the same, the name is extended to requests and 
 prayers, even the most humble " Forgive me, I implore." 
 As to its form, it is in English, merely the ground-form of 
 the verb. Hence Dr. Latham, Dr. Morris, and others main- 
 tain that it is not properly a mood, as it has no peculiar 
 form to itself. The imperative addressed to a single person 
 is very generally, but not universally, the shortest and 
 simplest form that the verb can assume. The Latin impera- 
 tives, ij es, die, fac, fer, are familiar examples. Although 
 reduced to its lowest terms in modern English, the impera- 
 tive had once a goodly array of endings for the first, second, 
 and third persons, singular, dual, and plural numbers ; and 
 it furnishes one of the best examples of the gradual dis- 
 appearance of inflections.
 
 458 
 
 English Grammar. 
 
 SANSKRIT 
 
 I vad-ani 
 
 Sing. \ 2 vad-a Xey-s leg-e parl-e qith 
 
 ( 3 vad-a-tu Xsy-s-TKi leg-i-to 
 
 LATIN FRENCH GOTHIC SAXON ENGLISH 
 
 \ 
 
 secg-e 
 
 ( i vad-ava 
 
 Dual < 2 vad-a-tam Xey-E-rov 
 ( 3 vad-a-tam \E.y--TK>Y 
 
 qith-aits 
 
 !say 
 
 ( i vad-ama parl-ons qith-am 
 
 Plur. -\ 2 vad-a-ta hey-s-rs leg-i-te parl-ez qith-ith secg-ath 
 ( 3 vad-antu hey-ov-rcav leg-unto / 
 
 The plural form of the imperative, ending in -ath, -etk, or 
 ith for the vowel was quite unstable continued down to 
 within a dozen years of the discovery of America. 
 
 " Ne taketh of my word no displeasaunce, 
 Thinketh that ye ben set in governynges 
 Of lordes' doughtres * * * 
 
 Kepeth wel tho that ye undertake. 
 
 ***** 
 
 And taketh keep of that that I schal sayn." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Tale of the Doctor of Phisik." 
 
 As inflections gradually disappeared, so far as clearness of 
 expression is concerned, their places were effectually filled 
 by the auxiliary let and constant recourse to pronouns. The 
 former supplied all that was peculiar in the imperative mood ; 
 the latter distinguished person and number. There was no 
 loss of intelligibility, but there was a loss of brevity, and 
 consequently of force. We now use let with the first and 
 third persons of both numbers. " Let me die the death of 
 the righteous," said the eastern seer. 
 
 " Let my boy bishop fret his fill." 
 
 SCOTT : " Marmion." 
 
 We have already seen that let originally meant permit, a 
 meaning which it often has yet in various degrees. Its re- 
 duction from an independent verb to a mere sign of a mood 
 began in Anglo-Saxon ; but it was used as an auxiliary
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 459 
 
 sparingly before the fifteenth century. Considered by itself, 
 and apart from the verb that follows it, the auxiliary let is 
 imperative. 
 
 In the once familiar words, " Thy kingdom come" of 
 what mood is come ? That is a question I cannot answer ; 
 but I can adduce a few facts that may contribute to a better 
 understanding of it. 
 
 First. Authorities are not agreed. Most writers on 
 English Grammar, who have noticed the point at all, hold 
 that verbs so situated are imperative ; but the most learned 
 think otherwise. Matzner regards them as subjunctive; 
 Professor Whitney calls them optative subjunctives? 
 
 Second. As naming is not intended to change their form, 
 position, or force, for the practical purpose of speaking and 
 writing good English, it is not of the slightest importance 
 what they are called. 
 
 Third. They do not result from dropping may, still less 
 from an elision of let. In the particular instance given, we 
 might, indeed, say : " May thy kingdom come " ; or, " Let 
 thy kingdom come " ; but it will be shown presently that 
 such expressions do not originate in that way. Moreover, 
 in many instances such an explanation would be inad- 
 missible, thus : 
 
 " ' Submit we then to force,' said Clare." 
 
 SCOTT : " Marmion," vi., 32. 
 
 This is not an apocopated substitute for " May submit 
 we," still less for " Let submit we " ; and there are hundreds 
 of such examples to be found. 
 
 Owing to the great scarcity of verbal forms in English, the 
 simple ground-form of the verb is extensively used. It is 
 the form alike of the subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and 
 in part of the indicative. The form, therefore, decides 
 nothing, but all agree substantially that in the phrases under 
 consideration the verb is either subjunctive or imperative. 
 But in the earlier ages of the language there were forms that 
 
 1 " Essentials of English Grammar," page 233.
 
 460 English Grammar. 
 
 could be distinguished. Anglo-Saxon had two forms of the 
 imperative, as we have seen, one for the singular and one for 
 the plural ; but both were limited to the second person. We 
 can suppose that these, for want of others, might have been 
 extended to the first and third persons; but were they? 
 The subjunctive had also separate forms for the singular and 
 the plural. In the singular the two moods were often alike, 
 and therefore ambiguous ; in the plural they were always 
 unlike. Now, in the class of phrases in question the verb 
 always agreed with forms of the subjunctive known to exist ; 
 they never agreed with known imperative forms where the 
 two moods differed. So far, then, as they were distinguish- 
 able they were subjunctive. Shortened, indistinguishable 
 forms, however, were often used ; for the old language was 
 written with great irregularity. A common substitute for 
 the first person plural imperative was uton, utan, utun, which 
 must be construed as a plural subjunctive. It was used pre- 
 cisely as we now use " let us" and was followed by an infin- 
 itive, such as gan, wyrcan, seglian let us go, make, sail, etc. 
 The third person plural was the subjunctive ending in -in, 
 -en, or -on. The following examples will show how the places 
 of the imperatives of the first and third persons were sup- 
 plied in the earlier ages, and also that the general use of let 
 is comparatively modern. It is not necessary to introduce 
 the Gothic, which also employed the subjunctive as a sub- 
 stitute for the imperative, even when there was no percep- 
 tible need. The examples are from the Anglo-Saxon Gospels, 
 followed by the versions of Wycliffe and Tyndale and the 
 authorized version. 
 
 Uton wyrcan her threo earthung-stowa, 
 
 Make we here thre tabernaclis, 
 
 Let vs make iij tabernacles, 
 
 Let us make three tabernacles. MARK ix., 5. 
 
 Utonfaran to Bethleem, 
 
 Passe we ouer til to Bedleem, 
 
 Let vs goo even vnto Bethleem, 
 
 Let us now go even unto Bethlehem. LUKE ii., 15.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 461 
 
 Fleon thonne to rmintum tha the in ludea-lande synt, 
 Thanne thei that be in Judee, fie to mounteynes, 
 Then let them whych be in Jury, flye into the mountaynes, 
 Then let them which be in Judeayfor into the mountains. 
 
 MATT, xxiv., 16. 
 
 hig hlyston him, 
 
 heere thei hem, 
 
 left them heare them, 
 
 let them hear them. LUKE xvi., 29. 
 
 S$ he on rode dhangen, 
 
 Be he crucified, 
 
 Lett him be crucified, 
 
 Z^/him be crucified. MATT, xxvii., 21. 
 
 The subjunctive was even used for the second person 
 imperative. 
 
 Nellonge vesan svylce ledse liceteras. 
 Be not, as the hypocrites. MATT, vi., 16. 
 " Ne sweregen ge." (Swear ye not.) Laws of King Alfred. 
 
 The same mode of expression continued while the old 
 terminations were becoming more and more indistinct, sur- 
 vived all distinctions of form, and may be found in the 
 poetry of the present century. 
 
 Sceawie we thes uncothe msen ur 3efon. 
 Look we at these strange men, our foes. 
 
 Old Eng. Homily, A.D. 1150. 
 
 " Nu fusen we horn to ; 
 & staercliche heom leggen on ; 
 & wraken wunderliche 
 
 ure cun & ure riche, 
 & wreken thene muchele scome." 
 
 " Now go we for them ; 
 And stoutly them lay on ; 
 And wondrously avenge 
 
 Our kin and our kingdom, 
 And avenge the mickle shame." 
 
 LAVAMON, 1205.
 
 462 English Grammar. 
 
 " Ne lipne no wif to hire were ; ne were to his wyue. 
 Beo vor him seolue vych man, the hwile he beoth alyue." 
 (Trust no wife to her man, nor man unto his wife. 
 Be each man for himself, the while he is alive.) 
 
 "A Moral Ode," 1250. 
 
 tl ffe that is Lord fortune be thy stereV' 
 
 CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." 
 
 "Laud we the Gods * * * 
 
 Publish we this Peace 
 To all our Subjects. Set we forward." 
 
 SHAKESP.: " Cymbeline," v., 5. 
 
 " No man eat fruit of thee hereafter for ever." 
 
 MARK xi., 14. 
 
 " and now be the welkin split with vivats." 
 
 CARLYLE : " French Revolution," viii., 12. 
 
 But while it is evident enough that the verb in such ex- 
 pressions was originally subjunctive, and is not a remnant 
 left by dropping may or let, it is not equally clear that it is 
 still subjunctive. There are who adhere to various modifi- 
 cations of the doctrine that words never change. Horne 
 Tooke held that such little words as and, but, lest, since, 
 though, yet, were originally verbs, and still are verbs. Dr. 
 Latham inclines to call him, them, and whom dative cases, 
 because they once were such, 1 while he admits that in 
 present use the case is generally what is called accusative 
 or objective. But few will go such lengths. The form is 
 too simple and common to distinguish the mood ; and the 
 construction is precisely that of an imperative, if we had one 
 applicable to the first and third persons. Probably most 
 persons who give the point a thought believe that they are 
 using imperatives, and intend to do so by extending them 
 beyond their earlier limits, a thing that in one way or other 
 is done with words every day. If an ardent orator exclaims, 
 " Perish the thought ! " intending to use an imperative 
 mood, may it not be imperative ? The sum of the matter 
 
 1 " English Language," p. 290.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 463 
 
 is that the origin is subjunctive, the construction imperative 
 the form indistinguishable, the name unimportant. 
 
 INFINITIVE. In point of form the infinitive is the simple, 
 unchanged root-form of the verb. The term " infinitive 
 mood " only denotes the particular relation of the verb to 
 the other words in the sentence. It is called infinitive when 
 it follows an auxiliary (except ought] bid, make, need and 
 verbs of perception, like see, hear, feel they may come, they 
 made him promise, they bade him run, you need not fear, 
 we saw the moon rise, heard the owls hoot, and felt the night 
 winds blow . We may be allowed for the present to call this the 
 primary infinitive. When preceded by the little word to we 
 may in like manner call it the secondary infinitive. Neither 
 of them has any connection with infinity. The primary in- 
 finitive was once much more extensively used than now. 
 The number of words that it may follow is decreasing. 
 Formerly it might be found after beg, begin, behoove, boot, 
 cJtarge, cause, command, deign, desire, forbid, force, go, intend, 
 lie, entreat, persuade, pray, set, teach, and wish. A few words 
 are in the transition state dare, need, please and are fol- 
 lowed sometimes by the primary and sometimes by the 
 secondary infinitive. Naturally the primitive is used oftener 
 in poetry than in prose. 
 
 Philologists are much inclined to call the infinitive a verbal 
 noun, not so much because it is now a noun which it is only 
 exceptionally as because they hold that it was once a noun 
 " lang syne Lord kens how lang." It has been found that 
 Sanskrit in its earlier stages had about a dozen ways of form- 
 ing words expressing the action of verbs, but having in some 
 of their relations the effect of nouns. In course of time only 
 one of them survived, ending in -tu or -turn, and correspond- 
 ing to the Latin supines with the same terminations. Nouns 
 expressing the actions of verbs were formed in a variety of 
 ways in Greek and Latin, several of which have come over 
 into English, often in a mutilated form. Thus we have from 
 Greek anatomy, analy-jw, baptise, apha-sta, cycloped-z#, 
 poe-.?// from Latin iav-or, cens-us, comple-fwn, conjecture, 
 But such words are nouns and nothing else,
 
 464 English Grammar. 
 
 either in the original languages or in English. Latin had, 
 indeed, two real hybrids, half noun and half verb ; and it 
 will be seen presently that we have words of this mixed 
 character. The Greek and Latin infinitives were employed 
 as nouns only exceptionally, as we sometimes speak of the 
 ups and downs, the whereabouts, the why, and the sweet by 
 and by. There are no considerable classes of constant verbal 
 nouns native to English. There are a very few scattered 
 ones, like birth, stealth, speech, which are exclusively nouns, 
 and perform no duty as verbs. This may be made clearer 
 by comparing believe and belief : 
 
 Some still believe in witchcraft, but we do not share their 
 belief. 
 
 The former is wholly a verb, the latter a noun, and neither 
 can be used in place of the other. Yet there might be words 
 partly both nouns on the left side and verbs on the right. 
 Are infinitives of that class ? Nouns have certain grammati- 
 cal characteristics. They may be limited by preceding ad- 
 jectives or pronouns, affected by prepositions or transitive 
 verbs, or they may take the plural form. None of this is 
 true of infinitives, but all applies to a class of verbal nouns 
 ending in -ing, presently to be considered. Contrast earn, 
 or to earn, with earning. 
 
 " They live upon the scanty earnings of the shop." 
 
 We do not make a plural of earn, or to earn, nor place before 
 it either of the three words that immediately precede earn- 
 ings. There is only one preposition, to, that can precede an 
 infinitive. It is then either abortive and undeveloped, or 
 almost entirely atrophied on one side, while its activity on 
 the other, the verbal side, is unimpaired : 
 
 " They were unable to conceal him" 
 
 If, notwithstanding these marked differences between the 
 infinitive and all other nouns, any one still chooses to call it 
 a noun, there is probably no court that will grant an injunc- 
 tion to restrain him. Infinitives are indeed used as nouns, 
 but only exceptionally, and as almost any other words might
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 465 
 
 be. The primary is the rarest, and is now confined to poetry, 
 and following such words as rather, better, best : 
 
 " Better dwell in the midst of alarms 
 Than reign in this horrible place." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 The secondary infinitive used as a noun is more common : 
 
 " For to me to live is Christ, and to die is gain. * * * Never- 
 theless to abide in the flesh is more needful for you." 
 
 PHIL, i., 21. 
 
 " To dye, to sleepe, 
 To sleepe, perchance to Dreame : I there 's the rub." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Hamlet." 
 
 Of this infinitive with to Professor Earle says : 
 
 " here we perceive that an opportunity offers itself to explain 
 philologically one of the most peculiar of the phenomena of the 
 English language. That which we call the English infinitive 
 verb, such as to live, to die, is quite a modern thing, and is charac- 
 teristic of English as opposed to Saxon. The question, in pres- 
 ence of such a new phenomenon, is naturally raised Whence 
 this form of the infinitive verb ? We did not borrow it, for it is 
 not French nor Latin ; we did not inherit it, for it is not Saxon. 
 How did it rise, and what gave occasion to it ? " 
 
 These remarks are not applied, or applicable, to cases in 
 which to is still significant and equivalent to unto, for, for 
 the purpose of, etc. Such a form of expression is common to 
 Latin and the languages derived from it, and to all the Teu- 
 tonic tongues. The transition, which appears to Professor 
 Earle so remarkable, to phrases in which to is a mere dumb 
 sign, as in the words of Saint Paul and of Hamlet quoted 
 above, seems to me easy and natural only a single illustra- 
 tion of that extension of words and phrases which is going 
 on all the time. It seems too to have been begun at a very 
 early period. At least one example can be found in the 
 scanty remains of Gothic literature. The sons of Zebedee 
 had asked Jesus to promise them the foremost positions in
 
 466 English Grammar. 
 
 the expected new kingdom. The conclusion of his reply, as 
 rendered by Ulfilas, was : 
 
 " Ith thata du sitan af taihswon meinai uiththau af hleidumein 
 nist mein du giban" 
 
 (But that to sit on my right hand or on my left is not mine to 
 give.} MARK x., 40. 
 
 In the fourth century, then, to sit could be used so com- 
 pletely as a noun in the nominative case that it might take 
 the pronoun that before it, a greater liberty than English 
 admits of now. This may have been due to Greek influence. 
 This secondary infinitive was well preserved in the Norse or 
 Icelandic. The following passage is from the so-called Elder 
 Edda (Havamdl 152), date uncertain : 
 
 " That kann ek it niunda, 
 ef mik nauthr um stendr. 
 at biarga fari minu d floti." 
 (This ninth thing I know, 
 When dangers surround me, 
 To keep my course safely at sea. 1 ) 
 
 Two more examples, taken from Egils Saga (thirteenth 
 century), may suffice a : 
 
 " Var that sithr hans at Hsa drdegiss." 
 (It was his habit to rise early.) Page 4. 
 
 " That thotti fodur meinum sigr, at deyia i konungdomi med 
 saemd." 
 
 (To die a king, with honor, seemed to my father a victory.) 
 
 Page 8. 
 
 If, then, a source for the secondary infinitive be wanted, 
 we may naturally look to the Scandinavian settlements in 
 the north and east of England. 
 
 In the Teutonic tongues the infinitives originally ended 
 in -an. In the Gothic this was invariable. In A.-S. it often 
 took the form -on, and it had a vestige of inflection as a 
 
 1 Saemundar Edda. Paderborn, 1876. 
 8 Egils Saga. Havnise, MDCCCIX.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 467 
 
 noun a dative singular ending in -nne, always preceded 
 by to. 
 
 " Ac hwi ferde ge to seonne ? " 
 (But what went ye to see ?) 
 
 LUKE vii., 25. 
 
 This might be otherwise expressed : for the purpose of 
 seeing. 
 
 "manega witegan and rihtwise gewilnudon tha thing to geseonne 
 the ge gesoth." 
 
 (many prophets and righteous men have desired to see those 
 things that ye see.) MATT, xiii., 17. 
 
 " Hit is sceame to tellane, ac hit thuhte him nan sceame to 
 donne" 
 
 (It is a shame to tell, but it seemed no shame to him to do.) 
 
 Peterborough Chronicle. 
 
 The secondary infinitive is here equal to in and a verbal 
 noun in telling, in doing. In the case of Peter Pindar's 
 razors, which were good to sell, not to cut, the usefulness 
 was for selling and not for cutting. There is no doubt that 
 the to was once significant, and meant what we now usually 
 express by to or for ; but that meaning gradually faded out, 
 so that now it seldom has any that is appreciable. It has 
 become a mere earmark of the infinitive mood, and another 
 preposition is sometimes placed before it as if itself were 
 
 none. 
 
 " But what went ye out/<?r to see 1 " 
 
 MATT, xi., 8. 
 
 The terminations -an, -on, -enn, -enne, began to be clipped 
 off so early as the twelfth century, the sliding scale being 
 sing-an, sing-en, sing-e, sing. The old endings may be said 
 to have fairly disappeared by the middle of the fifteenth 
 century, to be only rarely seen again in the affected archaism 
 of poetry. 
 
 " No longer can she now her shrieks command ; 
 And hardly she forbears, through awful fear, 
 To rushen forth, and with presumptuous hand, 
 To stay harsh justice in his mid career." 
 
 SHENSTONE : " Schoolmistress."
 
 468 English Grammar. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. In the infinitive mood the verb is shaded 
 off into a noun ; in the participle it becomes an adjective. 
 We have two participles in English, but could find use for 
 several more. Greek has ten or more, which are among the 
 beauties of that wonderful language. We supply the defect 
 in part by such composite phrases as having written, having 
 been written, being on the point of writing, having been intend- 
 ing to write, for the purpose of writing, with the intention of 
 writing. 
 
 Our first participle always ends in -ing ; the second gen- 
 erally ending in -en or -ed, takes the various forms exhibited 
 on pages 353-367. The two are contrasted in three ways. 
 The first relates to the present, the second to the past ; the 
 first is active, the second passive ; the first expresses what is 
 going on and unfinished, the second what is ended. It is 
 common to call them the present participle and the past 
 participle. 
 
 In most of the Aryan languages the present participle 
 originally ended in -nt or -nd, often somewhat disguised by 
 additional terminations indicating number, gender, and case. 
 In this respect early English was no exception. 
 
 " they ben shapen into briddes, 
 Swimm<?#</ upon the wawe amiddes, 
 And whon she sigh her lord \\vend, 
 In likeness of a bird swimmend." 
 
 GOWER : " Ceix and Alcaeon." 
 
 The termination -nd in time gave place to -ng, one of the 
 most considerable grammatical changes in our language since 
 the Norman Conquest. This took place from 1200 to 1400; 
 the successive steps were -ande or -ende, -inde, -inge, -ing. 
 Chaucer used both forms ; oftenest -ing. The change came 
 from the South, and the old form survived long in Scotland. 
 
 " With dowbyll clethyng frome the cald, 
 Eito^and drynka/w? quhen thay wald." 
 
 SIR DAVID LINDESAY. 
 
 Before offering any explanation of this change, I wish to 
 call attention to four grammatically different uses of the
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 469 
 
 verbals ending in -ing. In running water and singing birds 
 they are adjectives, as such are placed before the nouns 
 which they accompany, and they express no action. In 
 "The birds are singing, the stars are shining" they are true 
 participles, expressing actions as verbs, but holding the place 
 of adjectives in the sentence quite as much as if we 
 should say : " The birds are beautiful ; the stars are bright." 
 Again, in the expressions, " philosophical writings, a hall for 
 dancing" we have nouns which admit of the plural form. 
 Lastly, there is a usage more difficult to classify. 
 
 He escaped by breaking a window. 
 
 The true participle is a hybrid between a verb and adjective, 
 but this is half a verb and half a noun. Like a noun it takes 
 a preposition by before it ; or may take a possessive pro- 
 noun, and, like a verb, it is followed by the object a window. 
 It is Janus-faced, a noun on the one side and a verb on the 
 other. Such a word is called in Latin Grammar a gerund. It 
 differs from a verbal noun in taking an object after it. The 
 preposition before it is not a constant or essential char- 
 acteristic. 
 
 He escaped by the opening of a window. 
 
 Here opening is only a verbal noun. It may be preceded by 
 the article or a pronoun, and it takes no object after it. Its 
 place may be taken by a word that makes no pretence to 
 being a verb, when there happens to be one suitable. 
 
 " I waive the quantum o' the sin, 
 The hazard of concealing" 
 
 BURNS. 
 
 Nothing but the requirements of rhyme prevents concealment 
 from doing quite as well. 
 
 Of these four tolerably distinct uses of the so-called par- 
 ticiple the first two present no difficulty. The other two 
 were not originally participles ; the only question is whether 
 they had one or two separate origins. To go no farther 
 back, the Anglo-Saxon had a class of nouns derived from 
 verbs and ending in -ung less frequently -ing. A few of
 
 47 English Grammar. 
 
 them have reached our time almost unchanged, such as 
 cleansing, earning, fasting, fostering, fighting, greeting, learn- 
 ing. In time the endings of all that survived of them were 
 reduced to -ing, and it became the practice to form one from 
 every verb as occasion required. We have here one source 
 of verbals in -ing employed as nouns. We have also seen 
 that the infinitive, ending in -an, -enne, -en was sometimes 
 used as a noun ; yet, if it were from a transitive verb, it was 
 still a verb on one side. 
 
 " and me nam rapes and caste in to him for to dra^en him ut 
 of thisse putte. Ah his licome wes se swithe feble, thet he ne 
 mihte itholie the herdness of the rapes, tha sende me clathes ut 
 of thes Kinges huse for to bi-winden the rapes." 
 
 (And they took ropes and threw them in to him for to draw him 
 out of this pit. But his body was so very feeble that he could 
 not bear the hardness of the ropes ; then they sent cloths out of 
 the King's house for to bewind the ropes.} 
 
 " Old English Homily," A.D. 1200. 
 
 This again shows how a gerundial use might have arisen. 
 There were thus the verbal noun ending in -ing, and the in- 
 finitive in -en, which might easily be mistaken for each other. 
 We hear the two sounds assimilated every day. Professor 
 Earle says that in the fifteenth century the terminations -yn 
 and -yng were often interchanged ; and he cites a passage 
 from the preface to Caxton's " Game of Chess," A.D. 1474 : 
 
 " Beseeching of them that this litel werke shal see here or rede 
 to haue me for excused for the rude & symple makyng and 
 reducyn into our englisshe." 
 
 The victory at last remained with -ing, an evidence of care 
 like that of the worthy, casing Griff /w^ who brings chick/w^r 
 to Bostfftg*. 
 
 The participle had begun to adopt the -ing as early as 
 Layamon, about 1204 ; and so it comes to pass that in our 
 time we have three classes of words originally distinct, 
 melted into one. It is not always possible now to say to 
 which group a given word is most nearly related. The diffi- 
 culty is not lessened by the circumstance that experts are
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 471 
 
 not agreed. Some of the combinations, a few examples of 
 which here follow, are curious, and their analysis is more 
 difficult and uncertain than important. 
 
 There was a large sum of money owing to him. 
 " how shall I reconcile your temper with having made so 
 strange a choice ? " 
 
 COLLEY GIBBER : " Careless Husband." 
 
 Kington Oliphant cites from the " Lives of the Norths " : 
 
 " he feared the being made infamous " ; 
 and from Miss Burney's " Cecilia " he quotes : 
 
 " there was no avoiding asking him" 
 
 " the whig party were in possession of bestowing all places both 
 of the state and of literature." 
 
 HUME : " Hist of Eng.," i., ix. 
 
 These examples, I think, are all of a gerundial character, 
 but, as they stand, are not good models for imitation. 
 
 The second participle, called indifferently the past parti- 
 ciple and the passive participle, has pretty well escaped 
 entangling combinations except in forming the compound 
 tenses, which have been considered already, page 353. It 
 may be used as an adjective hewn timber, ploughed land, 
 printed documents, or as a pure participle the field is 
 ploughed. Out of its use as an adjective have grown a swarm 
 of imitations left-handed, blue-eyed, quick-witted, weak-kneed, 
 four-wheeled, which some treat as participles from verbs 
 that never existed. I regard them as rather strained im- 
 itations of such words as saddled, booted, gowned, crowned, 
 plumed, that is, furnished with saddle, boots, gown, etc. 
 This participle is never a noun except as any adjective may 
 occasionally be used as such. If we say, " the afflicted" 
 " the vanquished" we still oftener speak of the old and the 
 young, the rich and \.\\e poor. 
 
 Participles are used to form clauses that are but loosely 
 hung on the main thread of our discourse. 
 
 " Not long after the Spanish general, conceiving that his royal 
 captive was sufficiently humbled, expressed his willingness that he 
 should return, if he inclined, to his own palace." PRESCOTT.
 
 472 English Grammar. 
 
 These attendant clauses are sometimes still further de- 
 tached. 
 
 " And supper being ended, the devil having put it into the heart of 
 Judas Iscariot, Simon's son, to betray him * * * he riseth 
 from supper." JOHN xiii., 2. 
 
 When the subject of the participle is thus entirely different 
 from the main subject or actor in the sentence, the partici- 
 pial clause is sometimes called the case absolute. These 
 participial clauses appear to be imitations of the Latin, in 
 which they are very common. 
 
 THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Thus far I have treated only of the active side of verbs ; 
 but when the action takes effect upon any person or thing 
 there is a passive side and the order of statement may be 
 reversed. If the Indian kills a deer, then also a deer is 
 killed by the Indian. The passive voice consists of some 
 form of the verb to be placed before the passive participle. 
 The verb admits of all the variation of which it is anywhere 
 susceptible, but the participle remains always unchanged. 
 Take every form of the verb to be and place after it a pas- 
 sive participle and you have a complete conjugation of the 
 passive voice. 
 
 We have not participles enough, and are put to very awk- 
 ward shifts for want of them. The passive participle repre- 
 sents everything as done and finished. It admits of no de- 
 grees and no progress. We can say that the house is built, 
 which means that it is up at least, and approximately fin- 
 ished ; but we have no corresponding expression to show 
 that it is in progress. To meet this want there have been 
 two kinds of make-shifts. The most persistent of these has 
 been the verbal noun ending in -ing, preceded by on or in 
 (ultimately the same word), by a, an abbreviation of them, 
 or even with these suppressed. 
 
 " Forty and six years was this temple in building." 
 
 JOHN ii., 20.
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 473 
 
 " the longsuffering of God waited in the days of Noah while the 
 ark was a building." i PETER iii., 20. 
 
 " and therefore sent Critheis to Smyrna, which was then build- 
 ing" Encycl. Britan., 2 d edition. "Homer." 
 
 Of these three the first is practically out of use, the second 
 is rarely met with now, while the third is not uncommon. 
 They all have the same radical defect. They do not distin- 
 guish between active and passive, between subject and 
 object, between the actor and the thing acted upon. It was 
 probably the consciousness of this ambiguity that gave rise 
 to the expressions of which " The house was being built" is a 
 type. According to Mr. Kington Oliphant this form of ex- 
 pression came into common use about 17/0, although he 
 cites two examples more than 300 years older. 1 How many 
 examples escaped notice we cannot say, but so much is clear, 
 that the expression has been in the language more than 400 
 years. Many worthy persons, whose tastes were formed long 
 ago, have protested against the supposed novelty in a style 
 that is more forcible than their reasoning. The most emi- 
 nent is Cardinal Newman, who in a letter, published with his 
 permission by Professor Earle, says : " I know nothing of 
 the history of the language, and I cannot tell whether all this 
 will stand, but this I do know that, rationally or irrationally, 
 I have an undying, never-dying hatred to ' is being] what- 
 ever arguments are brought in its favor. At the same time 
 I fully grant that it is so convenient in the present state of 
 the language that I will not pledge myself I have never been 
 guilty of using it." * Richard Grant White of New York has 
 written at greater length, but to about the same effect. Now 
 I do not agree with Cardinal Newman as to the convenience 
 of the expression : "The house is being built." It seems to 
 me quite inconvenient, inelegant, clumsy, and one that 
 would be used only by a person who could think of no other 
 to suit his purpose. Indeed, it admits of greater awkward- 
 ness than I have ever seen represented. If we say, " is being 
 
 1 " Old and Middle English," 337. " New English," vol. i., 273. 
 3 Earle's " Philology of the English Tongue," 583.
 
 474 English Grammar. 
 
 built," we may also say, " has been being built, or even, " The 
 house being being built, the family went away for the sum- 
 mer." Any one who will invent a better phrase will deserve 
 public gratitude. Yet, bad as it is, it serves the purpose. It 
 shows that the house is in progress, and that it is not the 
 builder but the thing to be built. Let us now consider the 
 alternatives offered. Lieut. Chas. C. Rogers, U. S. Navy, 
 reporting on the progress of the Panama Canal in 1887, 
 wrote, " a bridge is now building across the valley." It is 
 not a mere quibble to object that it was the workmen who 
 were building, and not the bridge. The meaning would no 
 doubt be understood in this particular case, but hundreds 
 might lead to the widest misapprehension. Ruskin in his 
 " Pre-Raphaelitism " says : 
 
 " the fishwomen were being blown about." 
 This is unmistakable ; but had he said : 
 
 " the fishwomen were blowing about," 
 
 we should be at liberty to understand that they were exer- 
 cising their own wind-powers rather than that they were the 
 sport of the elements. So, if one should say that " Mrs. 
 Jenkins was scolding" we should naturally suppose her the 
 actor on the scene, and not the victim of lingual castigation. 
 Or again, if one should rush into a village exclaiming : 
 
 " Help, good friends, for God's sake help ! the Cardinal is 
 robbing on the other side of the river," 
 
 I doubt not that in such a case even Cardinal Newman 
 would rather be represented as being robbed. 
 
 If the a, that is now generally omitted, be restored, the 
 case is not thereby materially mended. The difference be- 
 tween active and passive is not distinguished. In the Gospel 
 of John we read that in the darkest days of Christianity, 
 
 " Simon Peter saith unto them, I go a fishing" 
 
 Paraphrased into the language of modern times, that 
 would be : 
 
 " It is all over with us now, and, as for me, I am going back to 
 work at the old trade."
 
 The Conjugation of Verbs. 475 
 
 And in a compilation that is generally very pure English we 
 
 read of a 
 
 " Little Baby Bunting, 
 Whose daddy went a hunting, 
 To catch a rabbit for its skin, 
 To wrap the Baby Bunting in." 
 
 Whatever the difference in dignity, both the despondent 
 apostle and the parent of Bunting intended to catch and 
 not to be caught. But the rabbit was a party in interest, 
 albeit a passive one ; and when it left its lair in the morning, 
 it too went a hunting. Moreover, the sound is often a suffi- 
 cient objection. 
 
 " Billy Patterson is a assaulting in the street," 
 
 is both ambiguous and cacophonous. The same twofold 
 objection would lie against in. 
 
 That matter is in inquiring into. 
 
 Where several words intervene between is and being the 
 substitution of the older expressions would often be very 
 inelegant as well as ambiguous. 
 
 The boys were in a row the whole length of the hall examining. 
 
 In short, expressions like " is being built" serve the purpose 
 completely ; the others are often still more inelegant, and 
 never fully serve the purpose. 
 
 English, having no original reflexive pronoun, has no 
 middle voice. Still, by a number of contrivances, we can 
 attain that end substantially. We can use the pronouns 
 myself , yourself , etc., after transitive verbs: " I hurt myself" 
 " You deceive yourself" " He built himself a house." More 
 subtle and liable to escape notice is the formation of a kind 
 of middle voice by using get as an auxiliary : " I got up," 
 tired," "They^w/ married," " He got elected."
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 THE remaining parts of speech are much less subject to 
 grammatical requirements than those already considered. 
 Most adverbs admit of a change of form to express degree : 
 " He ran. fast and faster." Very many reach a similar result 
 by the help of more and most, while a considerable num- 
 ber are invariable, and none of them require a change 
 of form in other words. Prepositions are themselves un- 
 changeable, but necessitate a change of case, so far as that 
 is possible, in nouns and pronouns that follow them. Con- 
 junctions neither undergo nor cause change. 
 
 These three parts of speech are so shaded into each other 
 that it is sometimes difficult to say in a given instance to 
 which class a word belongs ; and still oftener the same word 
 is used in one or the other way as occasion may require. 
 The class of adverbs is large ; the two others very small. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 The term adverb means added to a verb, as the most fre- 
 quent use is to describe the manner, intensity, or circum- 
 stances of the action represented by the verb. But, as 
 usually happens, from that starting-point it spreads till it 
 reaches the adjective as well. I have expressed the belief 
 that the foundation of language is the names of things, that 
 is, of whatever we can think of, but things have their quali- 
 ties and activities, and if names or nouns be the primary 
 formation, adjectives and verbs are a secondary deposit. 
 And continuing the geological figure, we may call adverbs 
 a tertiary stratum, and represent the arrangement thus : 
 
 476
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 477 
 
 ADVERBS ADVERBS 
 
 ADJECTIVES VERBS 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 There is even a fourth layer of adverbs superimposed 
 upon these. 
 
 Adverbs are so heterogeneous and derived from so many 
 sources that it has sometimes been said that all words tend 
 to become adverbs. The class is the final resting-place of 
 waifs and strays the depository of the odds and ends of 
 language. But on entering this class words lose more or 
 less of their individuality and significance. Sometimes they 
 are used without any meaning; oftener they give a mere 
 shade or piquancy to the sentence ; and he who would write 
 well should use them sparingly. We read that : 
 
 " There was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job." 
 
 The first word is required by the habit of the languge, but 
 adds nothing to the statement. So we may hear one say : 
 
 " Well, now then, what are you going to do about it ? " 
 
 It would be a good exercise of acuteness to tell the force of 
 each of the first three words. 
 
 An approximate but only approximate definition of 
 adverbs would be that they are words accompanying verbs, 
 adjectives, or even other adverbs, and expressing place, 
 time, number, order of succession, manner, or degree here, 
 then, twice, thirdly, unawares, very. But although this may 
 include some 99 per cent, of adverbs, there are others that, 
 likejj/m and amen, defy classification ; for words refused admit- 
 tance anywhere else are usually taken in among the adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs may be variously classified upon a variety of prin- 
 ciples that have no relation to each other. They may be 
 divided, as above, according to signification ; or they may be 
 divided with reference to their derivation ; or into those that 
 do and those that do not admit of a difference of degree ; 
 or again into simple, compound, and adverbial phrases not yet 
 condensed into single words. The same word may belong
 
 478 English Grammar. 
 
 to two or more classes ; and may be at one time an adverb, 
 at another a preposition, a conjunction, or something else. 
 Although it is nearly certain that every existing adverb is 
 a modification or a derivative of some other word, yet a few 
 have held their present places so long that the student of 
 English may, for his purposes, call them primitive or original. 
 They are : 
 
 aft forth off so 
 
 after in oft, or often soon 
 
 as less on too 
 
 ere lief out up 
 
 erst not over well 
 
 ever now seldom yet 
 
 When a word is by turns adverb and preposition, sometimes 
 with a slight difference of form, as of and off, to and too, 
 it is sometimes impossible, and never important, to determine 
 which part it played first. A large number are derived in 
 various ways from nouns a few without any change, as east, 
 west, north, south, home, while, yesterday. The greatest part 
 of those derived from nouns are formed by prefixing a, 
 which stands for an original on, reduced first to in, and then 
 to a. The present meaning of the prefix is on, to, or towards. 
 Many are made from other parts of speech by imitation. 
 About 1 20 adverbs formed in this manner are still available 
 for use, and an almost equal number have become obsolete. 
 Of those remaining aboard, adrift, afloat, afoot, aground, alive, 
 aloft, ashore, aside, asleep, astern, awry, are familiar examples. 
 
 In several the prefix a has not the same origin or force. 
 It is from off and of in 
 
 adown ' afresh anew anight s 
 
 afar akin anigh a'clock, or o'clock 
 
 1 In adown a is off and down or dune is a hill. " Dale and down " for val- 
 ley and hill is common in old ballads. 
 
 '' The lady sat on castil \va' , 
 
 Beheld baith dale and doun, 
 And there she saw Gill Morice' head 
 Cum trailing to the toun."
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 479 
 
 In a few it is the French a from Latin ad. 
 
 alamode, alamort, apart. 
 
 The a in alike and aware is a phonetic degradation of A.-S. 
 prefix ge without any precise meaning so common in early 
 English and in German. 
 
 Along, in the direction of the length, contains a relic of 
 the A.-S. and = out, forth, away. 1 End-/^^ is a better pre- 
 served form of the same. 
 
 Amuck, Malayan, is probably understood by most read- 
 ers as two words, the article a and an Eastern word, muck ; 
 but it is a single adjective frenzied, furious used ad- 
 verbially. 
 
 A few are formed with the prefix be originally the same 
 as by. 
 
 bechance before beforehand 
 
 behind below beneath 
 
 besides betimes between 
 
 Several adverbs originated as genitive cases of nouns, pro- 
 nouns, or adjective pronouns. None of these now remain in 
 general use and entirely unaltered except needs. 
 
 "They must needs be borne, because they cannot go." 
 
 JEREMIAH x., 5. 
 
 Several genitive cases, like days, for of the day, in the day 
 time ; nights, at night, in the night time, have gone out of use. 
 
 " Heo wolden feden thone king, dates and nihtes" 
 (They were willing to feed the king day and night.) 
 
 LAYAMON. 
 
 The following are either derivatives or imitations of geni- 
 tives : 
 
 always 
 
 forwards 
 
 outwards 
 
 twice 
 
 anights 
 
 hence 
 
 since 
 
 unawares 
 
 backwards 
 
 nowadays 
 
 sometimes 
 
 upwards 
 
 besides 
 
 noways 
 
 thence 
 
 whence 
 
 betimes 
 
 once 
 
 thrice 
 
 
 eftsoons 
 
 onwards 
 
 towards 
 
 
 1 A different word from the old preposition along owing to.
 
 480 English Grammar. 
 
 We have scarcely a trace left of a class of feminine geni- 
 tives that ended in -linga, -lunga, darkling, flailing, headlong, 
 sidelong. Like other old words, they have been best pre- 
 served in Scotland. Burns has two, to which he adds the 
 genitive s, in " Halloween." 
 
 " Rab stowlins pried her bonnie mou 
 
 Fu' cozie in the neuk for 't." 
 " An darklins graipit for the bauks, 
 And in the blue clew throws then.*' 
 
 Of old dative cases in -um or -om we have at least one in 
 good use seldom from an adjective seld, rare. Whilom is 
 nearly obsolete. 
 
 Adverbs are also formed by prefixing various prepositions 
 to nouns. 
 
 aboveboard indeed perforce 
 
 abovedeck instead perhaps 
 
 aforetime overhead to-day 
 
 alongshore overland together 
 
 alongside peradventure to-morrow 
 
 beforehand perchance to-night 
 
 Much the greatest number of adverbs are formed from ad- 
 jectives by adding -ly A.-S. -lice like brave-ly, cool-ly, earn- 
 est-ly. If the adjective already end in -ly costly, deadly, 
 early, goodly, holy, jolly, lordly, silly, a second -ly is not added. 
 A considerable number of adjectives may be used adverb- 
 ially without change. With some it is left optional to add 
 or omit -ly. We my say: " He spoke very loud" or, " He 
 spoke very loudly." We add -ly more regularly than our an- 
 cestors did a few centuries ago. Naturally the poets omit it 
 oftener than prose writers, partly from the requirements 
 of verse, and partly through their fondness for antiquated 
 style. The following are examples of adjectives oftenest 
 employed adverbially without change : 
 
 aghast fain little naked crooked 
 
 better fast less parallel sheer 
 
 best full least plump zigzag 
 
 clean hollow long straight low 
 empty
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 481 
 
 A few of those that frequently omit -ly have a somewhat 
 different meaning when it is added. 
 
 clear full open wrong 
 
 dark high short quite is another form 
 
 deep late still for quit 
 
 fair near wild 
 
 Many adjectives expressing native country, source, mate- 
 rial, shape, and essential character, do not admit of being 
 used adverbially in any way. Swedish, fossil, carbonaceous, 
 metallic, alkaline, sandy, fibrous, oval, triangular, meteoric, 
 stellar. 
 
 Adverbs are also formed from pronouns. There is a 
 tolerably regular series from the same radical sources that 
 give us he, that, this, and who. 
 
 he here hither hence 
 
 that then there thither thence the 1 
 
 this thus 
 
 who when where whither whence why how 
 
 From a part of these still other adverbs are developed, 
 such as henceforth, thereat, thenceforward, however, where- 
 upon. 
 
 Some adjective pronouns are employed without change 
 as adverbs all, any, either, neither, some, whether, yonder. 
 
 Others again are combined with almost any kind of words 
 to form adverbs almost, alone, already, also, altogether, 
 always, anyhow, anyway, anywhere, anywhither, anywise, 
 everywhere, otherwise, sometimes, somewhere. 
 
 From the numeral one we have alone, anon, once, only; 
 from other numerals, twice, thrice, secondly, thirdly, etc. 
 
 Quite a number of adverbs are formed by adding ward, 
 expressive of direction, to nouns, adverbs or prepositions. 
 
 1 In the phrase: "The more the .merrier." A.-S. thy, an instrumental 
 case singular of the pronoun. 
 
 " For thy appease your grief e and heavie plight." 
 
 SPENSER, "Fairie Queene^" ii., i, 14.
 
 482 English Grammar. 
 
 Sometimes s is added in imitation of a genitive case : 
 
 afterward-s 
 
 hellward 
 
 northward 
 
 toward-s 
 
 backward-s 
 downward-s 
 
 hitherward 
 homeward-s 
 
 onward-s 
 outward 
 
 upward-s 
 westward 
 
 eastward 
 
 inward 
 
 seaward 
 
 whitherward 
 
 for\vard-s 
 
 landward 
 
 southward 
 
 
 heavenward leeward thitherward 
 
 Alias, alibi, impromptu, tandem, are Latin adverbs used 
 sometimes as adverbs and sometimes as nouns. 
 
 Apart and very come from the Latin, through the medium 
 of French. The a is a reduction of the Latin ad. 
 
 Askance has a long history, from an old Teutonic word 
 meaning slanting, through Italian and French to English, 
 picking up on its way the prefix a, originally Latin ad, too. 
 
 Along, A.-S. andlong ; the and meaning upto, unto, 
 against. Endlong is a different form of the same word. 
 The long in headlong and sidelong is a different word and 
 identical with ling in darkling, and has nothing to do with 
 length. 
 
 " and loo ! in a greet bire al the droue went heedlynge in to the 
 see." 
 
 WYCLIFFE : transl. MATT. viii. 32. 
 
 Blindfold may be regarded as a past participle, with 
 corrupt pronunciation, of an old blindfell, to fell or strike 
 blind. " Ancren Riwle," A.D. 1210. 
 
 Helter-skelter, higglety-pigglety, hurly-burly, hurry-skurry, 
 zig-zag, although some of them are now old and widespread, 
 are such words as people make out of nothing on the 
 instant. 
 
 Hodge-podge, or hotchpot, is traced to old French pot 
 and hocher, to shake or stir. In such impromptu creations 
 the second half is a mere repetition of the first, with usually 
 a change of the first consonant or vowel. 
 
 Pell-mell : Old French pelle melle ; mixed with a shovel. 
 
 Piece-meal the first part French, the last A.-S., both 
 meaning piece. The sense of the compound is piece by 
 piece. Mealh the relic of a Saxon dative case mizlum
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 483 
 
 that has lost the dative termination. It was formerly 
 joined to other words than piece. Chaucer has stoundemele, 
 hour after hour, and flockmel, flock after flock ; and Shake- 
 speare : 
 
 " O that I had her heere, to tear her Limb-meale" 
 
 "Cymbeline," n., 4. 
 
 Topsy-turvy is an old word of doubtful origin. 
 Upside-down was formerly up-so-down. 
 
 "and sodenly the kinge thoughte the whele torned vp-soo-doune" 
 
 " Morte Darthur," A.D. 1469. 
 
 " wher sche ligteth not a lanterne, and turneth vpsodoun the 
 hous, and seketh diligently, til sche fynde." 
 
 WYCLIFFE : Luke xv., 8. 
 
 " and he turnyde vpsadoun the bordis of chaungeris, and the 
 chaiers of men sellynge culueris." Id. : Matt, xxi., 12. 
 
 Evermore, nevermore, everywhere else, inasmuch, nevertheless, 
 nowadays, outright, contrariwise, are examples of compound 
 adverbs. Indeed, if we have regard to signification and not 
 form, any combination of words, however long, expressing 
 time, manner, or degree, may be regarded as an adverbial 
 phrase. The words in the following parentheses have the 
 effect of adverbs : 
 
 And (when) we moved (at the captain's beck), 
 We moved (like men in sleep). 
 
 The root of the negative is the letter n followed by a short 
 vowel to make it pronounceable. Sanskrit and Gypsy, na ; 
 Gothic, O. H. G., Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, ni ; Latin, French, 
 M. H. G., Russian, A.-S., ne. The English no, as a direct 
 negative, is the modern form of A.-S. nd (d becoming regu- 
 larly o), formed by prefixing the negative n to d, ever, the 
 equivalent of the modern aye. In all the earlier forms of 
 English it was very common to indicate negation by pre- 
 fixing this n, especially to verbs : 
 
 "^Ves hit #awiht longe." 
 (It is not no whit long.) 
 
 LAYAMON.
 
 484 English Grammar. 
 
 fleuere swich another as is she." 
 (Was not never such another as is she.) 
 
 CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." 
 
 We still have a few words, mostly adverbs, formed in that 
 way neither, never, nay, n-one, nor. No, meaning not any, is 
 an abbreviation of n-one, analogous to the Latin non, formed 
 in the same manner : 
 
 " Give none offense, neither to the Jews nor to the Gentiles." 
 
 i COR. x., 32. 
 
 Not is an abbreviation of nought or naught, A.-S., ndwiht 
 no whit. The simple negatives combine again with other 
 words to form complex negatives nevertheless, notwithstand- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 Nay is an equivalent for no, made with the Norse ei or ey 
 (pronounced aye), allied to the Greek aez, ever. Formerly 
 there was a slight difference of usage between the two. Nay 
 was common, no emphatic. No was also the answer when 
 the question contained a negative : 
 
 Is it raining ? Nay. 
 Is it not raining ? No. 
 
 Sir Thomas More berated Tyndale with coarse malignity 
 for not observing this useless distinction, and in doing so 
 made a blunder himself. 
 
 A somewhat similar distinction was observed between yea 
 and yes. The former was a simple affirmative, the latter an 
 emphatic declaration, often further reinforced by an oath. 
 It has been conjectured that yes is shortened from A.-S. 
 gea sy yea, so be it. Although no as a direct negative occurs 
 thirty-two times in the Bible, yes has not been admitted. 
 Yea and nay are nearly obsolete, and only met with in the 
 parliamentary expression to vote by yeas and nays ; but even 
 in that case the voter does not say yea or nay, but aye or no. 
 
 Yes, no, and amen are usually classed among adverbs be- 
 cause there is nowhere else to put them ; but they are in 
 effect sentences abridged.
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions > and Conjunctions. 485 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 If our purpose were to give a learner his first idea of a 
 preposition, we might say that it is a word which expresses 
 the relation of one thing to another in respect of place or 
 position. We might go on to illustrate by saying : 
 
 " The house stands upon rising ground. There is a lawn before 
 the door, a veranda along one side of the house, behind it an apple 
 orchard bending under the weight of its ruddy fruit. Below the 
 orchard the river flows between rocky banks, and beyond it rises a 
 steep woody hill. A little up the stream there is a bridge across 
 it, so high that boats can pass beneath it." 
 
 We might next explain, what is so very common, that a 
 device found to serve well for one purpose is apt to be 
 applied to many others. So many other relations besides 
 those of place are expressed by prepositions. Thus there 
 are relations of time before noon ; between dawn and sun- 
 rise ; during the eclipse ; after the Revolution. Before 
 frost, before rain, after taking the oath, are but slight 
 modifications of the same. Prepositions also express cause, 
 instrumentality, manner, and purpose. 
 
 The house was struck by lightning, 
 It was all through love of fame, 
 They fled/^r fear of discovery, 
 The letter was sealed with wax, 
 She prayed with zeal and fervor, 
 They were working for an education. 
 
 Prepositions thus take a variety of secondary meanings. 
 Through has not the same signification in : 
 
 I was walking through a wood, and 
 
 They betrayed him through envy. 
 
 So one may walk with a lady, with difficulty, with a limp, 
 
 with a cane, with a sprained ankle. 
 
 A few prepositions may be regarded as original : 
 at for over up 
 
 by from through with 
 
 ere in or on under
 
 486 English Grammar. 
 
 but by far the greater number are derivatives or compounds. 
 Some are formed by prefixing a, as explained under adverbs, 
 about, above, against, along, among, around, athwart. Still 
 more are made with be, a reduced form of by, before, behind, 
 below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond. 
 
 Prepositions, whether consisting of single words, or com- 
 pounds like the above, are mostly native, but a few of Latin 
 origin are to be met with per, as so much per ton ; versus ; 
 sine, or its French derivative sans ; plus, minus. 
 
 Phrases made up of several words, of which the last is 
 usually a preposition, often have constructively the effect 
 of prepositions because of, with reference to, in consequence 
 of. To the formation of these there is no limit. 
 
 Simple prepositions are also united into compounds 
 into, upon, within. 
 
 A number of words used as prepositions are verbs, us- 
 ually in the form of participles, but a few have taken that 
 of imperatives during, pending, passing, regarding, respect- 
 ing, touching, notwithstanding, save, except. 
 
 A few of the prepositions have peculiarities of formation 
 or use that will justify short remarks. 
 
 A, in the expression " ten cents a peck," is no doubt 
 generally regarded as an article ; and perhaps so it is, for 
 doubtless the speaker generally intends an article. But it 
 was not so originally. It was the same as the a in a-foot, 
 a-shore, and represented on. The n was retained before a 
 vowel, of which there is a relic in the old scriptural word 
 anon. In " ten cents a peck " there is not an omission of a 
 preposition, but in " ten cents for a peck " there is an inter- 
 polation of for. 
 
 " Thrywa on gear." Thrice a year. 
 
 " An halpenny on day." A halfpenny a day. 1 
 
 After af-ter, is a comparative of af = of. 
 But be-utan on the outside, without, is adverb, prep- 
 osition, and conjunction ; but in modern speech the uses 
 
 1 Morris, "Outlines of English Accidence," page 195.
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions, 487 
 
 are so inextricably mixed that it is often impossible to 
 distinguish the two latter. In older writers it is found as a 
 preposition with the sense of without. 
 
 or drinke she dressed her to lie. 
 In a darke corner of the hous alone." 
 
 CHAUCER : "Troylus and Criseide." 
 
 Mr. Home Tooke has collected thirty-four passages from 
 Gawin Douglas in which but, with this prepositional mean- 
 ing, occurs alongside of the conjunction but. Allan Ramsay 
 says : 
 
 " I 'd tak my Katie but a gown, 
 Barefooted in her little coatie." 
 
 The adverbial force of but is only, and is an outgrowth of 
 the conjunction with a negative before it. 
 
 " If they kill us, we shall but die." 
 
 2 KINGS vii., 4. 
 
 More fully: "we shall not but die" that is, "we shall not 
 (fare any worse) but we shall die." Most frequently it is a 
 conjunction ; and when it has the force of a preposition it is 
 equal to except ; but the uncertainty of how much has been 
 left out, and consequently what part of speech it is, may 
 account for its rarely taking an objective case after it. 
 
 " He seide vnto tham alle that purueied suld it be 
 That in alle the lond suld be no kyng bot he." 
 
 ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER. 
 
 " Away went Gilpin, who but he 1 " 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 By. The primary meaning in Saxon and English is along 
 side of, whence it widens out to express accompaniment, 
 active agency, and many other shades of signification. The 
 " Century Dictionary " enumerates nineteen. In Gothic, it 
 had signified about, concerning. This meaning it also had in 
 Anglo-Saxon :
 
 488 English Grammar. 
 
 "he rehte him of Moyse and of eallum haligum gewritum, 
 the be him awritene waeron." 
 
 (He told them from Moses and from all the Scriptures what 
 had been written about him.} 
 
 LUKE xxiv., 27. 
 
 " Thou hast spoken evil words by the queen." 
 
 Fox. 
 
 It then glided into the sense of against something bad 
 about one of which we have a curious instance in 
 I Cor. iv., 4 : 
 
 " For I know nothing by myself, yet am I not thereby 
 justified." 
 
 The revised version has : " I know nothing against myself." 
 
 Another peculiar expression is to do well or ill by a person, 
 instead of to or for. This does not seem to be a good usage. 
 
 During. Dure was formerly equivalent to the present 
 endure to last or continue. The gradual transformation of 
 such a word into a preposition may be better seen in the 
 similar word pending: I "while the trial is pending" '/ 2, the 
 case absolute form, " the trial pending "; then, 3 " pending 
 the trial." 
 
 Like, originally an adjective, is not generally reckoned a 
 preposition, but it has all the effect of one, and is followed 
 by me, us, him, them, etc. So long as our language had 
 cases, like was followed by the dative ; and when they dis- 
 appeared to was sometimes inserted to supply the supposed 
 want of a case ending. But to is no more necessary, and 
 hardly more common after like, than after give or tell. 
 
 Near, another adjective generally used as an adverb or a 
 preposition. It is really a comparative of neah, from which 
 we have the modern nigh. 
 
 Nigh and near are used both with and without the un- 
 necessary to. 
 
 Of, so far as its form is concerned, is but little changed 
 from the Gothic af, and not at all from A.-S. of, the primary 
 meaning of which was from, off from, away from. We retain 
 the original sense only in speaking of the material of or from
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 489 
 
 which anything is made, or the source from which it comes. 
 As equivalent to by, expressing agency, it is common in the 
 Bible, but no longer in use. 
 
 " All their works they do to be seen of men." 
 
 MATT, xxiii., 5. 
 
 Speaking of its present range of use, Professor Earle says : 
 
 " Probably it occurs as often as all the other prepositions put 
 together. It is a characteristic feature of the stage of the language 
 which we call by distinction English, as opposed to Saxon. And 
 this character, like so many characters really distinctive of the 
 modern language, is French. Nine times out of ten that of is 
 used in English, it represents the French de. It is the French 
 preposition in a Saxon mask * * * The common and current 
 of, which is so profusely sprinkled over every page, is French in 
 its inward essence. Numerous as are the places in which this 
 preposition now occurs, it is less rife than it was. In the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries the language teemed with it. It recurred 
 and re-recurred to satiety. This Frenchism is now much abated." * 
 
 The following examples from Shakespeare will illustrate 
 these " Frenchisms " : 
 
 " I go of message from the queen to France." 
 " I like not of this flight of Edwards." 
 " I am your husband if you like of me." 
 " Sight may distinguish of colours." 
 
 Since. The Saxons had an adverb and preposition sith, 
 meaning after, since, which managed to steal down the ages 
 into the English Bible : 
 
 " sith thou hast not hated blood, even blood shall pursue 
 thee." 
 
 This sith was sometimes followed by a dative case of the 
 demonstrative pronoun, making sith tham. This became 
 reduced in time to siththen, or sit/ten. To this again was 
 added an s, in imitation of a genitive case sithens. Next 
 
 1 " Philology of the English Tongue," 523.
 
 4QO English Grammar. 
 
 th was dropped out and the remainder appeared as sins or 
 sens. Since followed as a mere change of spelling to keep 
 the word from being pronounced sinz. 
 
 Till is the Scandinavian for to, and therefore naturally 
 belongs to the Northumbrian dialect and to Scotland. Bar- 
 bour and Sir David Lyndesay use to and till interchange- 
 ably. The former has " to win and till occupy," and 
 
 "He ran on feet always hym by, 
 Till he in-till the wod wes gane. 
 Than said he till hym-self allane." 
 
 The latter in describing the last Judgment makes the angel 
 proclaim : 
 
 " Ryse, dede folk, cum to Jugement." 
 Then 
 
 " The one to plesour salbe led." 
 " The one tyll euerlastyng glore." 
 
 The two words have still the same meaning, but not the same 
 extent of application. Till is restricted to duration of time. 
 One may walk till noon, but not till town. 
 
 Towards was sometimes divided into two parts and a 
 word placed between. This kind of infixation is extremely 
 common in some North American dialects, as the Dacotah, 
 but is rare in English. There are several instances in the 
 Bible, as 
 
 "the exceeding greatness of his power to us-ward" 
 
 EPHES. i., 19. 
 
 Unto and until are doubled prepositions. Un for Gothic 
 and old Saxon und, is not found in A.-S. in either form, yet 
 found its way into English. The meaning is to, so that un- 
 to = to to. 
 
 With. There were two prepositions in A.-S. and early 
 English, mid, with and with, against, 
 
 " Se the nys mid me, he is ongen me." 
 (He that is n't with me, he is against me.) 
 
 MATT, xii., 30.
 
 Adverbs', Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 491 
 
 "Nu leofemen for godes liefe witeth eow with thes deofles." 
 Now, dear men, for God's love, guard yourselves against these 
 devils. " Old English Homily." 
 
 Mid is entirely out of use as a separate word, remaining only 
 as a prefix in midwife. The distinction between the two 
 words is well shown in a passage of the " Saxon Chronicle": 
 
 " And him come to-gaenes Willelm eorl of Albamar the the king 
 hadde beteht Euorwic & to other seuez men mid faen men and 
 fuhten widhim. & flemden the king aet the Standard." 
 
 (And William Earl of Albemarle, to whom the king had entrust- 
 ed York, and two other loyal men came against him with a few 
 men, and fought against him and put the king to flight at the 
 Standard.) 
 
 With has now usurped the whole duty of mid and lost 
 most of its own. It has its original meaning as a prefix in 
 wzV/zhold and wz'Mstand, and in such expressions as to fight, 
 strive, quarrel, or go to law with. 
 
 If English nouns had distinctions of case those that follow 
 prepositions would be in the objective, as they are indeed 
 held to be by most authorities. It must be admitted, how- 
 ever, that the objective is precisely like the nominative. The 
 effect of the preposition is only seen when it is followed by 
 a personal, interrogative, or relative pronoun, before me, 
 after us, for him, from them, with whom. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 A conjunction is a word that conjoins or connects. Con- 
 junctions so often connect sentences, or what may readily be 
 developed into sentences, that it has sometimes been held 
 that they invariably have that office. Mr. Harris, the author 
 of " Hermes," and Dr. Latham are probably the most emi- 
 nent advocates of that view. The latter says, " there are 
 always two propositions where there is one conjunction " l ; 
 but the statement, I think, requires limitation. But be that 
 as it may, they unite into a continuous whole what would 
 
 1 " English Language," chap. 26.
 
 492 English Grammar. 
 
 otherwise be scattered shreds of discourse, not only connect- 
 ing the parts but showing their relation to each other ; that 
 some ideas agree with and support each other ; that some 
 are opposites ; that one is to another as cause or effect ; that 
 they are really consistent, though apparently inconsistent ; 
 or they carry with them many other implications. 
 
 Conjunctions unite two or more distinct sentences into 
 one, as in the following quotations in which all the parts are 
 fully expressed. 
 
 " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with 
 you." JOB xii., 2. 
 
 " The wind comes from the desert, but there is no sound in 
 thy leaves." OSSIAN. 
 
 " Though the fields of our battles were dark and silent, our 
 fame is in the four gray stones." Id. 
 
 " The time of the event was accurately ascertained, and the 
 family hung in trembling suspense, as the minister of heaven 
 cast the horoscope of the infant." 
 
 PRESCOTT : " Conq. of Mex.," i., 4. 
 
 Here, although everything is expressed in full, one member 
 of a sentence repeats nothing contained in another. But 
 where the simpler conjunctions are used there is generally 
 something common to two or more members, which is ex- 
 pressed only in one. 
 
 " Houses are built to live in, and not to look on." 
 
 BACON : " Essay," 45. 
 
 If the second member were fully expressed it would be 
 "houses are not built to look on." 
 
 Thus what is identical in the two members is suppressed in 
 one of them. Nearly the whole is sometimes suppressed on 
 account of identity, there being only one little word different. 
 
 The ship was driven to and fro. 
 
 This, if expanded into two propositions, would be : 
 The ship was driven to and (the ship was driven) fro.
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 493 
 
 When the subject or object is two individuals, acting or 
 acted upon together and united by and, the sentence cannot 
 always be decomposed into two propositions without com- 
 pletely recasting it. 
 
 " This dog and man at first were friends." 
 If this were developed into : 
 
 This dog at first were friends, 
 and 
 
 This man at first were friends, 
 
 it would be very like nonsense. The same might be said of 
 
 She mixed wine and oil together. 
 
 The mother and daughter embraced each other. 
 
 It is evident then that and does not always connect separate 
 propositions. 
 
 Much may be said without conjunctions ; and primitive 
 peoples employ few. If we used none, our discourse would 
 be like a dry-stone wall, without mortar to cement the pieces. 
 Such is the style of the poems attributed to Ossian. 
 
 " I stood in the darkness of my strength. Toscar drew his 
 sword at my side. The foe came on like a whirlwind. The 
 mingled sound of death arose. Man took man ; shield met 
 shield ; steel mixed its beams with steel ; darts hiss through air ; 
 swords on broken bucklers bound. Like the sound of an aged 
 grove when a thousand ghosts break the trees by night, such was 
 the din of arms. But Uthal fell beneath my sword ; the sons of 
 Berathon fled." l 
 
 There are only three words that the English student need 
 regard as primitive and exclusively conjunctions. The re- 
 mainder have been adopted or modified from other known 
 parts of speech, especially pronouns, prepositions, and ad- 
 verbs. From pronouns, we have either, neither, or, nor, 
 hence, however, than, that, then, therefore, wherefore, whence, 
 whereas, whether, why. Many words are sometimes pronouns 
 or adverbs, and sometimes conjunctions ; and it is not 
 
 1 Perhaps not quite accurate, quoted from memory after fifty years.
 
 494 English Grammar. 
 
 always possible to tell in a given instance which they are. 
 The general test of a conjunction is that it unites two 
 propositions or phrases without being a part of either. 
 
 We called (but) there was no answer. 
 
 The propositions are complete in themselves, and but adds 
 nothing to either ; but it shows a relation between the two 
 a relation we may say of disappointment. The conjunction 
 is not necessarily placed between the related propositions. 
 
 (Although} we called, there was no answer. 
 
 A conjunction differs from a relative pronoun or adverb, 
 which also connects propositions, in this that the relative 
 belongs to one of the propositions, and the conjunction 
 does not. 
 
 This is Mr. A. B. who is the secretary of our society. 
 This is Mr. A. B. (and) he is the secretary of our society. 
 
 Some conjunctions are apt to go in pairs, the principal of 
 which are 
 
 as as as so both and 
 
 if then either or neither nor 
 
 whether or though yet 
 
 One member of the pair can generally be dispensed with. 
 It is a question, fortunately not an important one, whether 
 one of these pairs is one conjunction or two. We have 
 seen that adverbial and prepositional phrases may be made 
 up of two or more words, and the same is true of conjunc- 
 tions. We have such compound expressions as, and yet, if 
 however, as soon as, inasmuch as, now therefore, on the other 
 hand. Of however many words such an expression may 
 consist, it performs the work of a single conjunction, and so 
 does one of the pairs under consideration. 
 
 Grammarians have often divided conjunctions into a 
 number of classes, according to the relations which they 
 express or imply, Copulatives, Disjunctives, Concessives, 
 Continuatives, Illatives, etc., which classification seems to 
 me to serve no useful purpose. A conjunction not only
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 495 
 
 connects but indicates the character of the connection. It 
 expresses a relation ; and to tell what that relation is 
 pertains to lexicography rather than to grammar. 
 
 I will now remark briefly on a few of the conjunctions, in 
 regard either to their formation or use. 
 
 Also, originally and literally all so, just so, exactly so, in 
 the very same manner. Compare the Saxon and common 
 version of Matt, xxi., 30 : 
 
 " Tha cwseth he eal swa to tham 6thrum." 
 (And he came to the second and said likewise?) 
 
 It is used to tack on something additional, the main 
 statement having gone before. 
 
 Although all though does not differ in meaning from 
 though, one of our most primitive conjunctions. It admits 
 the foregoing proposition, but prepares to deny the con- 
 sequences expected to follow. It is often followed by still 
 or yet as a correlative. 
 
 " Although the fig-tree shall not blossom, neither shall fruit be 
 in the vines, * * * yet I will rejoice in the Lord." HAB. iii., 
 
 And joins only things that are grammatically alike and 
 equivalent. It unites nouns, including their substitutes, 
 pronouns, or adjectives, verbs, adverbs, or prepositions, but 
 it does not unite members of these different classes. More- 
 over it is the only conjunction that unites parts which can- 
 not be construed as separate propositions. 
 
 Because is by cause, and the earlier and fuller expression 
 was by the cause that 
 
 " And by the cause that they sholde ryse 
 Eerly for to seen the grete fight 
 Vn to her reste wen ten they at night." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Knight's Tale." 
 
 But. The origin of this word as a preposition has been 
 already shown. As a conjunction it introduces something
 
 496 English Grammar. 
 
 opposite to, or at least different from, what has been said. 
 But here is a distinction between opposition and difference. 
 The Greeks expressed the former by a\\a and the latter by 
 <? ; and the barbarian Goths had five words for all of which 
 we have only but. 
 
 Eke is scarcely used as a conjunction, and, like several 
 others, never goes alone in prose, but follows and : 
 
 " And when he rood men might his bridel heere 
 Gyngle in a whistlyng wynd so cleere, 
 And eek as lowde as doth the chapel belle." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Prolog, to C. T." 
 
 " A train-band captain eke was he, 
 Of famous London town." 
 
 COWPER : " John Gilpin." 
 
 The conjunction is the same word as the verb eke, which is 
 but little used, and oftenest in such expressions as to eke 
 out a scanty meal. In Scotland they eke garments, pieces 
 of cloth, and broken threads. 
 
 Except is shortened from excepting. 
 
 "It was a fine April morning, excepting that it had snowed 
 hard the night before." SCOTT : " Black Dwarf," chap. i. 
 
 This is in turn a mere translation of the native English, out- 
 taking, or out-taken, which first occurs in the " Cursor Mundi " 
 about 1290. 
 
 " And ye, my mooder, my souerayn plesance 
 Ouer alle thing, out-taken crist on lofte." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." 
 
 Save succeeded to the place of out-take : 
 
 " Thei ben fulle resonable * * * sa f that thei worschipen 
 an ox for here god." MANDEVILLE. 
 
 Like all or most prepositions adopted as conjunctions, except 
 was originally and properly followed by that. It was for- 
 merly much used as a conjunction :
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 497 
 
 " Slack not thy riding except I bid thee." 
 
 2 KINGS iv., 24. 
 
 It is so used sixty-six times in the Bible, and unless only 
 eight times. At present the prevailing, and I think better, 
 practice is to use unless exclusively as a conjunction and 
 except as a preposition. 
 
 For is the same word as the preposition for. It is an 
 abbreviation originating in A.-S. "for tham the" meaning 
 for the reason that. The that continued long to be used : 
 
 "and so death passed upon all men/<7r that all have sinned." 
 
 ROM. v., 12. 
 
 " Famed Beauclerc called, for that he loved 
 The minstrel, and his lay approved." 
 
 If. Home Tooke's plausible conjecture that this word 
 formerly sometimes written gif\s the imperative of give, 
 proves to be ill founded, as the Gothic, Old High German, 
 Old Saxon, and Icelandic are without g, and the primary 
 meaning of the word is not to give but to doubt, Icel. if, 
 uncertainty, efa, to doubt. Moreover the g can be account- 
 ed for. The Gothic equivalent was iba or ibai, but to this 
 was sometimes prefixed yah, and, making yabai, and if; not 
 that it was written with y but rather with J. Passing into 
 Old Frisian and Anglo-Saxon the word took the formjefor 
 gef,g alternating between the sounds of our g and y. If 
 introduces a proposition as more or less doubtful, connected 
 with another in such wise that if the first holds good, so does 
 the second ; if the first fail, the second will fail with it. 
 
 Now, as an adverb = at this time ; and as a conjunction 
 retains something of the same meaning. We employ it when 
 we have cleared our ground, stated our premises, and are 
 ready to bring forward our conclusion, or make an important 
 advance in a continuous argument. Joseph, after briefly 
 reciting certain facts, sums up : 
 
 " So now it was not you that sent me hither, but God." 
 
 GEN. xlv., 7.
 
 498 English Grammar. 
 
 and the eloquent author of the Epistle to the Hebrews pre- 
 pares to conclude a long argument by saying : 
 
 " Now, of the things that have been spoken this is the sum." 
 
 A presidential proclamation is prefaced by a statement 
 headed by the word, " Whereas," and prepares for real busi- 
 ness with, "Now therefore" Now is also employed in de- 
 bate to show that an opponent has omitted an important 
 point. 
 
 " In Matt, xxiii., 35, we have the following passage * * * : 
 ' That upon you may come all the righteous blood shed upon the 
 earth, from the blood of righteous Abel unto the blood of Zacharias, 
 son of Barachias, whom ye slew between the temple and the altar.' 
 Now two Zachariases are recorded in history as having been thus 
 slain." GREGG : " Creed of Christendom," chap. 8. 
 
 Lest is not a shortening of least, but is in part from less. 
 It is an abbreviation of A.-S. " thy Ices the" the less for this 
 reason that in which thy is the instrumental case of the 
 demonstrative pronoun = for this = for this reason and 
 the a relative pronoun : 
 
 " Ic hine ondraede the Ices the he cume and ofslea thas mothra 
 mid heora cildum." 
 
 (I dread him lest he come and slay the mother with her children.) 
 
 GEN. xxxii., n. 
 
 The first part of the expression was early dropped, leaving 
 less the, which gradually shrunk to les the, leste, lest. 
 
 " Hii habbeth of oure londe al thane north ende, and we beoth 
 adrad sore leste he habbe nou more." 
 
 (He has of our land all the north end, and we be sore adread 
 lest he now have more.) LAYAMON. 
 
 Or is an abbreviation of other ; nor is the same with the 
 negative n prefixed. 
 
 Since like as, inasmuch as, whereas, because, for, introdu- 
 ces a reason for some act or belief. Like other conjunctions 
 originally prepositions it was formerly followed by that.
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions, 499 
 
 " How else ! since that the heart's unbiassed instinct 
 Impelled me to the daring deed." 
 
 COLERIDGE : " Piccol." iv., 4. 
 
 Still and yet as adverbs express continuance of time, often 
 conveying a hint that the time is felt to be rather long. As 
 conjunctions they are introduced in showing that arguments, 
 actions, good or bad, successes, or failures have failed to 
 produce the effect expected, and that some person or thing 
 continues unchanged. You may some time present a topic 
 dear to your heart, with the demonstrative clearness of 
 Euclid, and as much eloquence as you can work in, and then 
 be answered somewhat in this style : 
 
 " I admit that you have stated your side of the case very 
 forcibly ; and if there were no other considerations it would 
 look quite plausible. I don't pretend to argue the subject just 
 now ; still I cannot but believe that," etc., etc., etc. 
 
 And that is all you get for your pains. 
 
 Than and then are variations of the same word. The 
 first is the most primitive in form, the second in signification. 
 Shakespeare and earlier writers make no consistent distinc- 
 tion between the two. Than is used in comparing two 
 things or classes ; and we are to remember that the com- 
 parative degree is dual, referring only to two. Hence if we 
 say " gold is heavier " and go no farther, we do in effect say 
 that of two things gold is the heavier. We may afterwards 
 add, " then silver," or " than silver." Then is employed in 
 drawing a sudden conclusion from something said or done. 
 
 Bru. " You are my true and honorable Wife, 
 As deere to me as are the ruddy droppes 
 That visit my sad heart." 
 
 Por. " If this were true, then should I know this secret." 
 SHAKESP. : "Julius Caesar," act ii. 
 
 An example vastly inferior in dignity, but more apposite, is 
 afforded by the very simple lines :
 
 500 English Grammar. 
 
 1 ' What is your fortune, my pretty maid ? ' 
 ' My face is my fortune, Sir,' she said. 
 ' Then, I '11 not have you, my pretty maid.' " 
 
 That, originally a demonstrative pronoun, not only be- 
 came one of the most common of conjunctions, but helped 
 to make many others. Prepositions after, before, besides, 
 since, till, notwitJistanding became conjunctions by being 
 set before that, and retaining their places when it had 
 disappeared. 
 
 " Now after that men han visited the holy places, thanne will 
 thei turnen toward Jerusalem." MANDEVILLE. 
 
 In like manner that was formerly placed and is now omitted, 
 after if, because, lest, though, while, and other words that 
 never were prepositions. 
 
 One of Home Tooke's acutest conjectures has reference 
 to the use of that as a conjunction. 
 
 " B. * * * Has the Conjunction THAT, any the smallest 
 correspondence or similarity of signification with THAT, the 
 Article or Pronoun ? 
 
 " H. In my opinion the word THAT (call it as you please, either 
 Article or Pronoun, or Conjunction) retains always one and the 
 same signification. Unnoticed abbreviation in construction and 
 difference of position have caused this appearance of fluctuation ; 
 and misled the grammarians of all languages, both ancient and 
 modern, for in all they make the same mistake. Pray, answer 
 me a question. Is it not strange and improper that we should, 
 without any reason or necessity, employ in English the same 
 word for two different meanings and purposes ? 
 
 "B. I think it wrong : and I see no reason for it, but many 
 reasons against it. 
 
 " H. Well ! Then is it not more strange that this same impro- 
 priety, in this same case, should run through ALL languages ? 
 And that they should ALL use an Article without any reason, 
 unnecessarily, and improperly, for this same Conjunction with 
 which it has, as you say, no correspondence nor similarity of 
 signification ? 
 
 "* * * Examine any languages you please and see whether
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 501 
 
 they also, as well as the English, have not a supposed Conjunction 
 which they employ as we do thai j and which is the same word 
 as their supposed Article or Pronoun. Does not this look as if there 
 was some reason for employing the Article in this manner ? 
 
 " B. The appearances, I own, are strongly in favour of your 
 opinion. But how shall we find out what that connection is ? 
 
 " H. Suppose we examine some instances ; and, still keeping 
 the same signification of the sentences, try whether we cannot, 
 by a resolution of their construction, discover what we want. 
 
 " Example. ' I wish you to believe THAT I would not wilfully 
 hurt a fly.' 
 
 " Resolution. ' I would not wilfully hurt a fly ; I wish you to 
 believe that [assertion].' " 
 
 This view has the powerful support of Bopp, so far as the 
 German language is concerned ; but both writers have neg- 
 lected to give any actual examples illustrating the trans- 
 formation of the second of the above forms into the first. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that many languages form this 
 conjunction from a pronoun ; but then pronouns are a fruit- 
 ful source of adverbs and conjunctions generally. This 
 adoption is not confined to the Aryan languages, but is 
 found also in Hebrew, and, according to Gesenius, in Ara- 
 maic and Ethiopic. Hebrew has two relative (not demon- 
 strative) pronouns chi and asher which also do duty for 
 the conjunction that. The Hebrew scholar scarcely needs to 
 be reminded of the oft-repeated formula : 
 
 " vaiiare Elohim chi tob." 
 (And God saw that [it was] good.) 
 
 For the similar use of asher we may instance 2 Sam. xi., 20 : 
 
 " y'da'tem eth asher yoru meal hakhomah." 
 (Ye know that they shoot from the wall.) 
 
 To show the use of this conjunction by a single example 
 from several Aryan languages I select the Greek, Latin, 
 Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, English, Russian, and German versions 
 of the first part of Matt, v., 17 :
 
 502 English Grammar. 
 
 ff voftiffrfTK on rjkQov KaraXvGai rov VOJA.OV 
 Ne existimate me venisse ut dissolvam legem. 
 Ne hugyaith ei qemyau gatairan witoth. 
 Nelle ge we" nan that ic come towurpan tha ae. 
 Think not that I am come to destroy the law. 
 Ne dumaite chto Ya prished parushit zakon. 
 Ihr sollt nicht wahnen, dass ich gekommen bin das Gesetz * * * 
 aufzulosen. 
 
 Still, the dictum that the pronoun corresponding to the 
 English that becomes a conjunction in ALL is stated too 
 broadly. In the first place it fails entirely in Arabic, Irish, 
 and Magyar, and probably in many other languages equally 
 unknown to Mr. Home Tooke and the present writer. In 
 the second place the conjunction is not from the demonstra- 
 tive but from the relative pronoun. 
 
 There were in Sanskrit three pronouns which, divested of 
 all irregularities and reduced to their simplest terms, were 
 interrog. ka, demonst. ta, and relat. ya ; or adding a letter 
 that was an almost invariable part, kad, tad, and yad. Now 
 of the relative yad only doubtful traces are left in any 
 Western branch of the great Aryan family, and never as 
 a pronoun. Relatives had to be borrowed. The Latin, the 
 Slavonic, and, it is asserted on good authority, the Lithu- 
 anian used the interrogative as a relative ; the Teutonic 
 branch alone preferred the demonstrative, but at a com- 
 paratively late date adopted the interrogative also. Hence 
 it is that we can say : " the man that laughs," and " the man 
 who laughs " ; but the latter is not older than the Reforma- 
 tion. But the Teutonic tongues had yet another relative, an 
 indeclinable particle, perhaps remotely derived from a de- 
 monstrative. In Gothic it was ei, which we have seen used 
 as a conjunction. It was generally connected with its ante- 
 cedent ik-ei, I who, thu-ei, thou who, thata-ei, that which. 
 Now this thata-ei, usually shortened to thatei, was the com- 
 mon Gothic conjunction = that. Icelandic had two such 
 particles, ancient es, modern er, and sem, both of which were 
 relatives and conjunctions. Anglo-Saxon had also two inde-
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 503 
 
 clinable relatives, as and the (see page 328). This particular 
 as is probably akin to the particle ei, and es or er just cited 
 a relative pronoun turned relative conjunction. The was no 
 doubt originally a demonstrative pronoun, but known to us 
 as an indeclinable relative : 
 
 "Wrecce men sturven of hungear, sume ieden on aelmes the 
 waren sum wile rice men." 
 
 (Wretched men starved of hunger, some went to beggary who 
 some time were rich men.) " Saxon Chronicle." 
 
 We also find it as a conjunction : 
 
 " Mid almyhtyes godes luue, vte we vs werie, 
 With theos wrecche worldes luue, the heo vs ne derye." ' 
 (With Almighty God's love, let us guard ourselves 
 Against this wretched world's love, that it harm us not.) 
 
 Next we find this particle connected with the true demon- 
 strative, which for sake of distinction I shall here render this 
 -for tham the, vith tham the, cer tham the, after tham the* 
 These phrases may be rendered : for this, that i. e., for this 
 reason, that ; contrary to this, that. One step farther and 
 we find this relative the and the neuter singular of the 
 demonstrative, that, mistaken for each other for thy t/uzt, 
 thurh that that. In some such way, through ignorance and 
 carelessness, that came to take the place of the indeclinable 
 relative and conjunction. 
 
 How this relative pronoun became a conjunction at first I 
 do not know ; but a possible manner of transition may be 
 made more conceivable by an example or two from other 
 languages, where the relative occurs, as an adverb = how, or 
 as a conjunction = that. 
 
 " Docebat etiam * * * ut omni tempore totius Gallise 
 principatum ^Edui tenuissent." 
 
 1 Morris's " Specimens of Early English," i., 216. 
 1 Matzner's " Englische Grammatik," Hi., 427.
 
 504 English Grammar. 
 
 (He also explained * * * how (or thaf) the JEdluans had 
 always held the leadership of all Gaul.) 
 
 CAESAR : " Bel. Gal.," i., 43. 
 
 " v'atta higgadta haiiom eth asfar-a.siiha.h itti tobah." 
 (And thou hast showed this day how that thou hast dealt well 
 with me.) i SAM. xxiv., 18. 
 
 Unless was formerly written onles or onlesse that is, on less. 
 Home Took says that Tyndale was one of the first to write 
 this word with u and that the great importance and merit of 
 his works gave currency to the corruption. The meaning 
 seems to be, " on a less condition " " on easier terms," the 
 event referred to will not take place. The phrase requires 
 than to complete it. 
 
 " But that may not be upon lesse than wee now falle toward 
 hevene fro the erthe." MANDEVILLE. 
 
 The on was sometimes omitted 
 
 " I xal him down dynge 
 Lesse than he at my byddynge 
 Be buxom to min honde." 
 
 " Townley Mysteries," A.D. 1430. 
 
 " Gif he 
 
 Commyttis any tresoun, suld he not de ; 
 Less than his prince of grete humanite 
 Perdoun his fault for his long trew service ? " 
 
 GAWIN DOUGLAS. 
 
 Than was changed to that. 
 
 " I xal forfare, ffor to grete synnys that I have do, 
 Less that my lord God sumdel spare." 
 
 " Townley Mysteries." 
 
 Lastly, as in so many other cases, that was omitted. 
 
 Why, originally the instrumental case of who, as a conjunc- 
 tion begins a reply. If the answer be not ready at hand, it 
 expresses doubt and hesitation ; oftener it expresses indig- 
 nant surprise.
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 505 
 
 " Why, in that elder day, to be a Roman 
 Was greater than a King." 
 
 Miss MITFORD. 
 
 Many years ago, during the excitement over the capture and 
 return of the slave Burns, Theodore Parker in one of his 
 addresses, burst forth indignantly with : 
 
 " Why, his countrymen were bishops of Hippo and Carthage."
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 ALL agree that the second important part of grammar is 
 SYNTAX. The word means literally placing together in 
 order. The Greek Syntaxis was primarily a military term, 
 and related to the placing of men and different bodies of 
 troops preparatory to a battle. But when the term is 
 transferred to the marshalling of words, that part which 
 relates to placing them is in a great measure lost sight of. 
 The reason is easily understood when we reflect that our 
 grammar is an inheritance from the Greeks and Romans 
 whose words were as mutable as Proteus, and assumed as 
 many disguises. The question with them was not where to 
 place their words, but what forms to give them. And although 
 the forms of English words are few and seldom mistakable, 
 and their relations to each other determined largely by posi- 
 tion, grammarians have almost entirely ignored these facts, 
 and under the head of Syntax have treated of the forms 
 and not the placing of the words. 
 
 The difference between Greek and Latin on the one side 
 and English on the other, how imperious were the demands 
 of form with them, and how important position is to us, will 
 be seen by a single example : 
 
 Hie venator juvenis ilium ursum nigrum occidit. 
 This young hunter killed that black bear. 
 
 There are seven words in each version, and to change the 
 form of one in the Latin or the position of any but one in 
 the English would alter or impair the sense. The Latin 
 words might be arranged 5,040 different ways, while the 
 
 506
 
 Syntax. 507 
 
 English would admit of only one change. We might say, 
 " The hunter young," but every one would recognize that 
 as belonging rather to the style of poetry than of plain 
 prose. A greater freedom of arrangement then is practised 
 by the poet than by the prose-writer. It is a part of what 
 is called poetic license, and has no other limit than the 
 necessity of being intelligible, which limit is perhaps some- 
 times passed. But he who speaks or writes English prose 
 must pursue a straight and narrow path compared with one 
 whose words may assume a thousand forms, or be arranged 
 in a thousand different ways. Still we may find that there 
 are compensating advantages, and that the principles of our 
 language forbid our doing only those things that would be 
 of no advantage. 
 
 Of that part of syntax that prescribes the forms that 
 words shall bear in certain connections, much is necessarily 
 taught under the head of Etymology in exhibiting the 
 forms themselves. Nearly all that I have deemed proper to 
 say on that subject has been already said. Much of the re- 
 mainder that is usually presented as syntax consists merely 
 of names and definitions for various arrangements of words, 
 which no one is much the wiser for knowing. What remains 
 to be said on what are called " Concord and Government " 
 will be introduced when required in the general discussion 
 on the selection and placing of words. It is hoped that the 
 young and ingenious reader will find interest and advantage 
 in following a line of thought somewhat different from that 
 of the common text-books. 
 
 No one will question the importance of selecting appro- 
 priate words ; but the equal importance of arrangement will 
 be seen by dislocating the words of a sentence, thus : 
 
 " Whoever makes not this one kind of easy argument to de- 
 ceive the physical elements of some back sciences should learn 
 more the use of intending to be sent." " Mill's Logic." 
 
 Whatever might be done if the language were Latin, it is 
 doubtful if any one could restore sense to a long English 
 sentence thus dismembered. But be the language what it
 
 508 English Grammar. 
 
 may, it is clear that such dismemberment adds to the diffi- 
 culty of understanding. 
 
 There is only one fundamental principle governing the 
 location of words, which is, that words which limit, explain, 
 or complement each other should be placed near together. 
 It is equally applicable to all languages, but not equally 
 imperative. It is not strictly followed by any that I am 
 acquainted with. Suppose we had occasion to speak of an 
 " opening rose," but instead of placing the two words to- 
 gether, we should interpose thirty or forty other words, 
 relating to various matters, it would then require considera- 
 ble mental effort to disentangle the idea of an " opening rose." 
 Now this kind of displacement is of frequent occurrence. 
 
 " Inventas aut qui vitam excoluere per artes." 
 
 vi., 663. 
 
 The first and last words are more closely connected in ex- 
 pressing the import of the line than any others in it. 
 Again, in the line of Propertius : 
 
 " Nee levis in verbis est medicina meis." 
 
 levis belongs with medicina, and verbis with meis. Of two 
 closely connected words it may matter little which comes 
 first or last ; but it helps the understanding greatly to find 
 them together. I have before me a sentence from an Eng- 
 lish author who has had a wide popularity for more than a 
 century ; and in that sentence a verb and its immediate ob- 
 ject are separated by ninety-four words. A private pension 
 act of the Fifty-first Congress directs the Secretary of the 
 Interior " to place on the pension roll, at the rate of fifteen 
 dollars per month, * * * subject to the provisions and 
 limitations of the pension laws." In good composition 
 nothing more than a comma would intervene between 
 "month" and "subject"; but in reality there are eighty- 
 two words. The Germans have probably carried to a 
 greater degree of perfection than any other people the art of 
 putting asunder things nearly related. They will not only 
 separate words closely connected, but, like the American
 
 Syntax. 509 
 
 Indians, they will cut a word in two, and put a long discus- 
 sion between the parts. 
 
 " He (i) had several older brothers ; and was, (2) since the pos- 
 sessions of the family an inheritance for the oldest formed, and 
 he himself sorely against the custom and the tradition of his race, 
 through great learning-fondness and a decided inclination to a 
 quiet contemplative life devoted, for the diplomatic service (4) 
 through the persuasion of his mother, a beautiful, gentle, sickly 
 lady, who in the solitude of the ancestral castle of Tissow the 
 most brilliant gifts with which she upon a far grander theatre had 
 shine can, unused or almost unused, go-to-waste let must destined 
 become (3)." 
 
 The thread of the story runs through the italicized passages 
 in the order of the numbers. The labor of sifting out the 
 essential atoms and putting them together is as real to the 
 German as it would be to us, although long use has made 
 him less conscious of it. 
 
 There are three peculiar words in our language, yes, no, 
 and amen. Each of them is a symbol that stands for a sen- 
 tence, and is incapable of combining with other words to 
 form one. They are holophrasts, and not parts of speech in 
 the same sense as other words are. 
 
 With the exception of these three, no other word expresses 
 a complete meaning when standing alone. A verb used im- 
 peratively come, halt comes the nearest to it ; but there 
 must be some one to " come " or " halt " ; and, if the com- 
 mand were given in full, a noun or pronoun would accom- 
 pany the verb. A sufficient number of words put together 
 to express a complete meaning make a sentence. Our 
 speech and writing are made up of sentences. Of these 
 there are several kinds. They may be divided into classes 
 in various ways on a variety of different principles. One 
 obvious way of dividing them is into Declarative, Interroga- 
 tive, and Imperative. 
 
 " Ireland is an island," makes a statement as of a fact. 
 
 " When will the moon be full ? " asks a question. 
 
 " Open the window," gives a command.
 
 510 English Grammar. 
 
 The last two forms might indeed be dispensed with, and we 
 might say : 
 
 I desire to know when the moon will be full. 
 I desire you to open the window. 
 
 thus making all sentences declarative, as by far the greater 
 part are. It is with them that we shall be chiefly occupied. 
 Every complete sentence contains at least two elements. 
 One of the simplest possible sentences is, 
 
 Bears hibernate. 
 
 Something is mentioned " bears " and something is told 
 about them that they " hibernate " ; and these two ele- 
 ments are indispensable. The first is called the subject 
 the thing spoken about ; the second is called the predicate 
 the thing declared or said. The subject is generally a 
 noun, but it may be a pronoun, or indeed it may be any 
 word or set of words that can be used as a noun for the oc- 
 casion. The predicate, limited to a single word, is always a 
 verb, expressing an action or condition limited to the sub- 
 ject and not affecting any other person or thing. Of such 
 verbs fall, sit, sleep, walk, laugh, sneeze are examples. But 
 the greater number of verbs express actions affecting some 
 second person or thing catch, hold, lift, make, fasten, etc. 
 What is thus acted upon is called the object. A third class 
 of verbs do not express an action exercised upon anything, 
 and yet require to be supplemented by some other words in 
 order to make sense. Verbs that in any way signify to be, 
 become, seem or be called are of this class, and grammarians 
 are pleased to call them by the awful title of " Verbs of In- 
 complete Predication." In such cases the verb is called a 
 copula a mere coupling, or connecting link ; and the supple- 
 mentary words are regarded as the predicate, or thing as- 
 serted. Judged, then, by the part they play in sentences, 
 verbs are of three kinds first, those that tell their own story; 
 second, those that express an action upon something ; and 
 third, those that connect somewhat in the manner of the 
 algebraic signs = <.
 
 Syntax. 511 
 
 The verb can be recognized by its meaning, whatever its 
 grammatical form, or however it may be placed ; but the 
 subject and object may be mistaken for each other. To 
 obviate this, a method that has prevailed very widely, is to 
 attach to one or both certain prefixes or suffixes that would 
 distinguish them wherever they might be placed. In prac- 
 tice this method had the serious drawback that it was seldom 
 carried out thoroughly, and a multitude of words were left 
 indistinguishable. Moreover, in a very long sentence, as we 
 have seen, words might be separated far from their partners, 
 and the reader or hearer would have to retain them in mind 
 and keep on the outlook for other words to fit them. 
 We have almost wholly abandoned that method, retaining it 
 only in the case of a few pronouns. We rely upon the 
 position of the words, the normal order being Subject, Verb, 
 Object. This order is sometimes departed from in legal 
 documents, poetry, and the Bible, all formed upon archaic 
 patterns. 
 
 " God and his son except, 
 Created thing naught feared he." MILTON. 
 
 Where words are few and simple any order agreed upon 
 and understood serves perfectly well ; but in long and intri- 
 cate sentences the order of arrangement may become im- 
 portant. Is there any natural principle determining the best 
 order? Herbert Spencer, in an essay on the philosophy of 
 style, lays down two leading principles. The first is that the 
 best arrangement is that which requires the least effort on 
 the part of the reader or hearer in order to understand and 
 appreciate it. This principle is beyond dispute, but it does 
 not go very far. The second, which is more questionable, is 
 that details and circumstances should precede the essential 
 words. The philosophical author seems to think that when 
 the word horse, for example, is seen or heard, there is formed 
 in the mind a picture of the animal, complete in every way, 
 of a certain age, size, color, and attitude, grazing, standing 
 in a stable, or otherwise employed. When any of these cir- 
 cumstances are afterwards given, the chances are largely that
 
 512 English Grammar. 
 
 the preconceived picture turns out to be incorrect, and has 
 to be erased, as it were, and a new one formed. This process 
 has to be repeated as each new feature is added, and the 
 successive corrections involve mental labor. It is argued 
 that if the details were given first no picture would be 
 formed until the mind was in possession of all the materials. 
 To all this I am unable to assent. I am not conscious of 
 forming, on hearing names, mental images that require such 
 continued erasure or alteration. For ought that I can see, 
 they may be but faint and colorless outlines that are rendered 
 more distinct and definite by each successive touch. On the 
 other hand, to gather up and carry forward a multitude of 
 details without knowing what is to be done with them 
 involves considerable mental effort. Let us suppose a 
 sentence like the following, which is one of the simplest of 
 the kind : 
 
 " All the dismal winter night, through the dark and dripping 
 woods, while the north wind sobbed and moaned, shaking the 
 icicles from the leafless branches, and in mournful chorus howled 
 the wolves and whooped the owls from their hiding in the hollow 
 trees, tramped and floundered, fell and rose, ever pressing 
 toward the Pontic Sea, the cold and hungry, ragged, footsore, 
 fugitive Jew." 
 
 Sentences constructed in this manner might be well cal- 
 culated to excite attention at first, to see what was coming ; 
 but weariness would soon overcome curiosity ; and, if per- 
 sisted in, they would be resented as a rhetorical trick. 
 Indeed, Mr. Spencer, with characteristic candor admits that 
 in very long sentences such would be the effect. But then 
 a principle or rule is of little value if it fails where most 
 needed. 
 
 But, whatever may be theoretically best, the rule of prece- 
 dence in English is as stated : 
 
 Subject Verb Object 
 
 or at least the first two. But few sentences are confined 
 to two or three words. These may become centres of
 
 Syntax. 513 
 
 development to be expanded in an indefinite number of 
 ways. In treating of them, we may begin with the subject, 
 and much that is to be said of it applies equally to the 
 object. 
 
 The subject may be either a noun or a pronoun, and it is 
 always in the nominative case when it admits of such a dis- 
 tinction, which, however, is only shown in a few pronouns. 
 
 There may be several subjects, not merely a multitude of 
 individuals represented by a single word, and therefore 
 grammatically single, but two or more nouns or pronouns. 
 We may say not only, " Children love play," but also, 
 " Boys and girls love play." 
 
 " Then went up Moses and Aaron and Nadab and Abihu and 
 seventy of the elders of Israel." 
 
 The other members of the sentence may be equally com- 
 posite. 
 
 A noun, whether subject or object, may be accompanied 
 by an adjective, or by other words serving the same pur- 
 pose. Instead of the unqualified statement, " Boys throw 
 stones," we may say, " Bad boys throw stones." When an 
 adjective is thus put directly along with a noun, it is said by 
 grammarians to be used attributively. If placed alone at 
 the other end of the sentence, after a verb of being, seeming, 
 or becoming the boys are bad it would be the predicate, 
 or be used predicatively. In the first case the quality is 
 tacitly assumed ; in the second, expressly declared. The 
 normal place of the adjective is before the noun in English, 
 but after it in the languages of the Latin stock. In some 
 imitations of Latin and French, and often in poetry, it is 
 placed after the noun. A noun may have several adjectives 
 attached to it, in which case the one that is most essential, 
 permanent, and inherent is placed nearest. 
 
 A poor old man came to the door. 
 
 His age is a more permanent, essential, characteristic than 
 his poverty. But if he were "a poor old colored man," 
 his color would stick to him closer than either age or penury. 
 
 33
 
 514 English Grammar. 
 
 Professor McGuffey, of Virginia, used to illustrate this 
 point by the difference between " an old cocked hat " and 
 " a cocked old hat." The first was from the day of its mak- 
 ing a hat of the special kind known as a cocked hat, which 
 had become old. The other was an old hat of any kind, 
 that through accident or rough usage had been knocked into 
 a cocked hat. It is upon the same principle that adjective 
 pronouns a, an, the, this, some, any, several, being applica- 
 ble always and to everything, are placed farther from the 
 noun than any real adjective. 
 
 A curious instance of misplacement is afforded by a private 
 act of the Fifty-first Congress, which alleges that Milo Miner 
 had " four only sons." It is not uncommon to have only 
 four sons, but the circumstance of having a number of only 
 sons perhaps merited preservation in permanent form as a 
 part of the law of the land. 
 
 A great number of words may be used as eithqr nouns, 
 adjectives, or verbs. Participles especially partake of the 
 adjective character, and the same is true of the possessive 
 case of nouns. The dignity of a senator is the same as 
 senatorial dignity. A long series of words may be used 
 adjectively before a single noun. An act of Congress, dated 
 August 1 8, 1890, specifies 
 
 " one light rapid fire, rapid twist six-pounder breech-loading 
 field gun." 
 
 Here are ten words, placed as adjectives before the word 
 "gun" and three of them are nouns, while " twist " is am- 
 biguous, but probably a noun. Obviously some of these 
 words belong together in pairs, as " rapid-fire," " rapid- 
 twist," " breech-loading," " field-gun " ; so that the ideas to 
 be expressed are less than the number of words. But on 
 the other hand any adjective may be preceded by an adverb, 
 or even by more than one. 
 
 A very well informed man told the story. 
 
 In languages where the adjectives admit of full inflection 
 they are required to agree with the nouns to which they be-
 
 Syntax. 5 1 5 
 
 long in number, gender, and case ; but in English there are 
 only two words that admit of such distinction namely, this 
 and that, which have the plurals these and those. Adjectives 
 may be further limited or defined by being connected with 
 nouns or equivalent expressions by means of prepositions 
 suitable for building, unfit for severe service, unable to walk. 
 While any number of single adjectives may be placed before 
 the noun which they qualify, these adjective phrases are put 
 after it. We do not say : " An unable to walk man," but 
 " A man unable to walk." Similar qualifying expressions 
 may be introduced in any part of a sentence after either a 
 noun, an adjective, or a verb a man with a basket and a 
 fishing-rod. The Indian rode without saddle or bridle. In 
 either case the qualifying phrase is put after the word 
 qualified. 
 
 Thus far I have spoken only of adjective expressions 
 closely and immediately connected with the subject or ob- 
 ject ; but there are others thrown in parenthetically in the 
 manner of passing remarks, and usually pointed off by 
 commas. 
 
 " Yet man, ignorant of the constitution of the dust upon which he 
 treads, has ventured to speculate on the nature of God." 
 
 "His spirit, mean in adversity, violent and inhuman in prosperity, 
 sank under the load of public abhorrence." 
 
 Words and phrases thus loosely connected with subject or 
 object, are said to be in apposition, with it, which means 
 placed near, not joined to it. Either nouns, adjectives, or 
 adjective phrases may stand in apposition with the subject 
 or the object, and may either precede or follow, or be placed 
 at some distance while other words intervene. 
 
 " Now therefore I, Benjamin Harrison, President of the United 
 States of America, do issue this my proclamation." 
 
 The subject of the sentence is " I." 
 
 " Stretching far away at their feet, were seen noble forests of 
 oak, sycamore, and cedar."
 
 516 English Grammar. 
 
 " Who is this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars of 
 smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankincense, with all powders of 
 the merchant ? " 
 
 " A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse ; a spring shut up, 
 a fountain sealed" 
 
 In this last passage from Canticles the natural order of sub- 
 ject, copula, and predicate would be : 
 
 " My sister, my spouse, is a garden enclosed, a spring shut up, a 
 fountain sealed" 
 
 The very next sentence unfolds an exuberance of explan- 
 atory terms in apposition : 
 
 " Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant 
 fruits ; camphire with spikenard, spikenard and saffron ; calamus 
 and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense ; myrrh and aloes, 
 with all the chief spices." 
 
 One example more will show how far appositive phrases 
 may be extended. 
 
 " Herculean strength and a stentorian voice, 
 Of wit a fund, of words a countless choice ; 
 In learning rather various than profound, 
 In truth intrepid, in religion sound ; 
 A trembling form and a distorted sight, 
 Yet firm in judgment, and of genius bright : 
 Deep tinged with melancholy's blackest shade, 
 And, though prepared to die, of death afraid ; 
 To more than merited his kindness kind, 
 And, though of manners rough, yet friendly mind ; 
 Such Johnson was, of whom with justice vain, 
 O when shall England see his like again ? " 
 
 When the subject is a pronoun it does not take adjectives 
 directly, or attributatively, but may have adjectives or ad- 
 jective phrases in apposition. 
 
 Thus far none of the explanatory words or phrases con- 
 sidered have contained verbs ; but there may be illustrative 
 clauses containing both subject and verb, thus having with-
 
 Syntax. 517 
 
 in themselves the essentials of sentences. There may thus 
 be subordinate sentences contained in or attached to prin- 
 cipal sentences. They may be attached to subject, verb, or 
 object, but always by means of conjunctions, or pronominal 
 or adverbial relatives words closely related in character. 
 
 " The events which I propose to relate form only a single act of 
 a great and eventful drama." 
 
 " While the German princes who reigned at Paris, Toledo, Aries, 
 and Ravenna, listened with reverence to the instructions of bishops, 
 adored the relics of martyrs, and took part eagerly in disputes touch- 
 ing the Nicene theology, the rulers of Wessex and Mercia were still 
 performing savage rites in the temples of Thor and Woden." 
 
 " The Church has many times been compared to the ark of 
 which we read in the Book of Genesis" 
 
 There are even such subordinate sentences enclosing others 
 still more subordinate. 
 
 " We read in our Saxon chronicles of tyrants, who (when at 
 the height of greatness,) were smitten with remorse * * * and 
 who sought to atone for their offences by cruel penances and incessant 
 prayers." 
 
 The dependent sentence may thus be much longer than the 
 principal one. 
 
 While the grammatical subject is usually a single word 
 noun or pronoun the logical subject, that which we are 
 called upon to think of, is the aggregate represented by that 
 noun or pronoun together with all the adjectives, adjective 
 phrases, and dependent sentences attached thereto. The 
 same may be said of the object. The verb may in like man- 
 ner be expanded so as to include logically all the circum- 
 stances of time, manner, cause, and purpose. Thus the 
 whole sentence, however long, crystallizes around the three 
 points of Subject, Verb, and Predicate, or Object. 
 
 While the central point of the subject or object is 
 generally a noun or pronoun ; yet it sometimes takes the 
 form of a phrase, clause, or dependent sentence.
 
 518 English Grammar. 
 
 " That I have tane away this old man's Daughter, 
 It is most true." 
 
 The first line is here the real subject. 
 
 He found that during his absence a pack of ragamuffins had 
 entered and robbed his garden, and broken down his fruit-trees, 
 vines, and flowers. 
 
 In this example " He " is the subject, " found " the verb, and 
 all the rest object. 
 
 As in the above quotation from " Othello," the little pro- 
 noun " it " is often made to figure as the grammatical sub- 
 ject ; " // is most true." But " it " in this case can stand for 
 nothing but the previous line, which has no need of such a 
 representative. This it belongs to the habit of the language, 
 but really performs no more duty than he in such a sentence 
 as: 
 
 The watchman he fell asleep. 
 
 Nearly all that has been said of the subject of a sentence 
 applies equally to the predicate after a verb of being, or 
 the object after a transitive verb : yet there are some points 
 of difference. 
 
 Where case can be distinguished verbs of being, becoming, 
 seeming, etc., take the same case before and after them ; 
 transitive verbs require the objective. Instances of devia- 
 tion will be noticed when we come to treat of the syntax of 
 pronouns. The noun or pronoun which is the nucleus of 
 the object is placed as near as possible to the beginning, so 
 as to be in close proximity to the verb on which it depends. 
 We may say : 
 
 Descended from an old baronial family who had lived on the 
 ancestral estate three hundred years, Sir Thomas was elected, etc. 
 
 But we may not say: 
 
 They elected, descended from an old baronial family who had 
 lived on the ancestral estate three hundred years, Sir Thomas. 
 
 This latter construction is common in German, only that an 
 article, an or the, would be placed before " descended."
 
 Syntax. 519 
 
 The superfluous " it " has no place in the object. The 
 equally superfluous " there " is also excluded. 
 
 There is great scarcity of water in Wyoming. 
 They found great scarcity of water in Wyoming. 
 
 A reason for the use of these redundant particles can be 
 conjectured. The verb to be has nearly the effect of the 
 sign of quality =, and like it requires a term on each side. 
 Let us substitute the sign. I = very cold. There = about 
 500 men. These are complete equations, so far as mere 
 form goes, but, = very cold ; = about 500 men, show their 
 incompleteness too plainly. 
 
 Besides the direct object of a verb there may often be an 
 indirect one, viz., the person to, for, or on behalf of whom 
 an action is performed. 
 
 A B is building me a house. 
 
 He is not building me; he is building a house; but the 
 house is for me. The to or for often placed before the 
 indirect object belongs to the class of "modern improve- 
 ments," not really necessary, but occasioned by the dis- 
 appearance of case-endings. When we were able to distin- 
 guish cases such indirect object was in the dative. The 
 distinction is still sufficiently shown by position, as the in- 
 direct object without a preposition is placed before the 
 direct. 
 
 Sing me a song ; not, Sing a song me. 
 
 But if a preposition is used the order is reversed. 
 Send it to him ; not, Send to him it. 
 
 A few verbs have the appearance of having two direct 
 objects. We may take teach as an example. One may 
 teach boys, or he may teach Latin. So then when he 
 teaches boys Latin, which is the direct and which the 
 indirect object? That may be determined by position. 
 We teach boys Latin, but never Latin boys. In reality the 
 word is used in two different senses. In the sentence : " We
 
 520 English Grammar. 
 
 teach boys," teach = instruct ; it has not that value in the 
 sentence: " We teach Latin." The words pay and forgive 
 may be disposed of in the same manner. Ask is somewhat 
 different, as we do not ask to or for, but of or from a person 
 and for a thing. The indirect object here never was a 
 dative ; and the Saxon verb governed two accusatives. 
 
 " ne ndn ne dorste of tham dsege, hyne nan thing mare acsian." 
 (nor no one durst not from that day ask him no thing more.) 
 
 MATT, xxii., 46. 
 
 In usage ask is now assimilated to the others just con- 
 sidered. We may easily determine which is the direct 
 object by trying the collocation : " I asked a question him." 
 The indirect object need not necessarily be a person. 
 
 Verbs are modified by adverbs, hence all expressions and 
 clauses that limit, define, or describe the actions represented 
 by verbs have an adverbial character, especially those that 
 express cause, purpose, time, manner, or instrumentality. 
 The placing of adverbial expressions is a subject of great 
 extent and of considerable importance and difficulty. Only 
 an outline can be given here. 
 
 Beginning with the simplest class, intransitive verbs quali- 
 fied by simple adverbs, we find that, while adjectives regu- 
 larly precede nouns, adverbs generally follow verbs. 
 
 run away 
 sit down 
 run aground 
 go ahead 
 
 fall off 
 climb up 
 draw out 
 fall behind 
 
 turn round 
 cry out 
 keep aloof 
 sit up 
 
 In these and similar expressions the adverb is to be placed 
 after the verb and nowhere else. They have become almost 
 an integral part of the verb. There are no unquestionable 
 adverbs, except those derived from the interrogative pro- 
 noun, that are imperatively required to be placed before 
 verbs. A very few adverbs of time, or that express difficulty, 
 generally come before the verb when it consists of a single 
 word : 
 
 Almost, erst, ever, never, hardly, rarely, scarcely, seldom.
 
 Syntax. 521 
 
 But when the verbal expression is composite, they may, and 
 generally do, follow the auxiliary ; and it is to be remem- 
 bered that, grammatically, the auxiliary is the verb. 
 
 When the verb is present or preterit active that is, con- 
 sists of a single word, there are a number of adverbs that 
 never precede it. The following are a few examples : 
 
 Apart, asleep, astray, aloud, lengthwise, late, near, nigh, pitapat 
 straight, together, upside down. 
 
 The negative not has the peculiarity of always following an 
 auxiliary or the verb to be, or to have. 
 
 Such adverbs of time as long ago, now, then, often, sometimes 
 yesterday, to-morrow, by and by, are homeless wanderers, 
 having no fixed place in the sentence. 
 
 By far the greatest number of adverbs in the language are 
 formed from adjectives by adding ly, and express the manner 
 of doing something. Their proper place, which, it must be 
 admitted, is not very well assured, is after the verb, or at 
 least after an auxiliary. To place them before the verb 
 would often be perfectly barbarous. 
 
 He well acts He unintelligibly speaks 
 
 They insolently behaved He too long stayed 
 They wastefully live He fashionably dresses. 
 
 I conclude then that the normal place of the adverb is 
 after the verb. Of course there are exceptions, and we are 
 not to expect consistency ; but such is according to the 
 genius and fundamental analogies of the language. 
 
 There are two places in a sentence where adverbs are not 
 appropriate. One is between a transitive verb and its ob- 
 ject. If the object be a noun, adverbs expressing the direc- 
 tion of motion, and forming almost a part of the verb, may 
 be placed either before or after such noun. 
 
 He cut down the tree ; or, He cut the tree down. 
 He called back the boy ; or, He called the boy back. 
 
 When, however, a preposition precedes the noun object, an 
 adverb or adverbial phrase may come between that and the
 
 522 English Grammar. 
 
 verb. But when the object is a pronoun, no adverb is al- 
 lowed between it and the verb : 
 
 They sent him away ; not They sent away him. 
 
 The other unsuitable place is between an infinitive and 
 to preceding. In modern English to has become so closely 
 associated with the verb as to be considered a part of it. If 
 you ask any one whether there is any verb corresponding to 
 the noun collision, he will probably tell you that there is, 
 and that it is to collide. That is the usual way of mention- 
 ing any verb. So closely have they become united that I 
 can think of no justification for putting them asunder. I 
 have met with but few instances of the separation in books ; 
 but within a few years newspapers, magazines, speeches all 
 documents of the day and hour abound with expressions 
 somewhat like the following : 
 
 They were expected to immediately return. 
 He promised to to-morrow call and settle. 
 The trade was expected to immensely increase. 
 
 A passage with this grammatical feature occurs in one of 
 Miss Burney's novels written about the time of the Ameri- 
 can revolution, and " Childe Harold " has at least one ; but 
 then the arrangement of words in poetry is privileged. 
 
 " To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, 
 To slowly trace the forest's shady scene." 
 
 So they are to be found in the writings of Herbert Spen- 
 cer, and probably in some other works with which I am not 
 familiar ; but happily they are still rare in books of any 
 literary merit. The following are genuine and recent : 
 
 " For the champion of a great cause [Parnell] to repeatedly and 
 with deliberation place himself in a position rendering certain his 
 removal," etc. 
 
 " The great reduction in recent years in the price of copper 
 * * * led to such a general extension of the uses of that metal, 
 as to finally not only absorb any surplus stock, but also," etc.
 
 Syntax. 523 
 
 " a proper care for human life should inspire every member of 
 Congress with a determination to, as soon as possible, remedy the 
 condition of affairs now existing." 
 
 It is very curious to observe how rapidly such a fashion 
 will overspread the world in the manner of a rinderpest or 
 a potato-blight. A votary of the fashion, with more ambi- 
 tion than judgment, gets the following imitation put into 
 print : 
 
 " There has been some mortality among the cattle * * * due 
 to principally overcrowded ranges." 
 
 Leaving adverbial expressions consisting of single words 
 and turning to clauses of some length, there is one that de- 
 serves particular attention. It is sometimes called the Case 
 Absolute, but might more properly be called the Absolute 
 Clause. It introduces something that has no expressed con- 
 nection with the rest of the sentence ; but a relation of time, 
 cause, or occasion is left to be understood. 
 
 Mrs. Fauntleroy having paid the fine and costs, Simpkins was 
 released. 
 
 The relation is one of cause. 
 
 The gate being open, the cattle entered and destroyed the corn. 
 
 Here the relation is one of occasion or opportunity. 
 
 The essential parts of the clause are a subject different 
 from that of the principal sentence, accompanied by a parti- 
 ciple instead of a verb. Where there are sufficient distinc- 
 tions of case the subject and participle are in some one of 
 the so-called oblique cases. In Sanskrit it was the locative, 
 employed with the sense of at, during, or upon. In Greek, 
 the case absolute was the genitive ; in Latin, where it was 
 extremely common, it was the ablative ; in Anglo-Saxon, the 
 dative ; in English it is the nominative or common case, 
 there being no other choice except the possessive. 
 
 It would be practically impossible, and useless even if 
 practicable, to name, describe, explain, and justify every 
 form of expression employed to set forth all the circum-
 
 524 English Grammar. 
 
 stances of time, place, cause, manner, instrumentality, and 
 effect. We have seen that when a sentence consists of only 
 two or three words, they must be placed in a certain order, 
 and that when single words are added to these there are 
 appropriate places for them. But when the additional matter 
 amounts to long clauses and even sentences, the arrangement 
 of such material is left very much to the judgment and taste 
 of the writer. We have merely found that there are two 
 places, at least according to my judgment, from which they 
 are generally to be excluded. The essential words of the 
 sentence preserve their relative places. By marking them 
 in italics we can show where the secondary matter is distrib- 
 uted or accumulated. It may precede or follow them, be 
 interposed between them, or spread around them. 
 
 " Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar, 
 Pontius Pilate being governor of Judea, and Herod being tetrarch 
 of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of Iturea and of the 
 region of Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene, 
 Annas and Caiaphas being the high priests, the word of God came 
 to John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness." 
 
 4< The Bishops edified all who approached them by the firmness 
 and cheerfulness with which they endured confinement, by the 
 modesty and meekness with which they received the applause and 
 blessings of the whole nation, and by the loyal attachment which 
 they professed for the persecutor who sought their destruction." 
 
 " Even Powell, whose character for honesty stood high, had 
 bornea.part'v<\ some proceedings which it is impossible to defend." 
 
 A good deal is often placed between the auxiliary and 
 participle in a compound tense. 
 
 " He had, in the great case of Sir Edward Hales, with some 
 hesitation, it is true, and after some delay, concurred with the 
 majority of the bench." 
 
 I do not think, however, that this is the best arrangement 
 possible. 
 
 If there be one leading principle above all others to be 
 seen in the structure of English sentences, it is that of keep- 
 ing the essential words, or at the very least two of them,
 
 Syntax. 525 
 
 near together, so that their relations to each other may be 
 seen in an instant, without waiting for the end of a long 
 discourse. It is true that the outlying circumstances are in 
 danger of not receiving full attention, but then they are less 
 important, sometimes not important at all. Alike in accenting 
 our words and framing our sentences, our instinct is to make 
 sure of the main point, even at the sacrifice of some of the 
 accessories. But this practical bent of the language has 
 been interfered with by the Latin training of the schools. 
 The Latin sentence, like the Latin pronunciation, rested on 
 principles different from ours. The simplest of Latin sen- 
 tences were constructed somewhat like the following from 
 Livy : 
 
 " Carthaginiense s eo anno argentum in stipendium impositum 
 primum advexerunt" 
 
 " Consul, per Charopum Epiroten certior factus, quos saltus 
 cum exercitu insedisset rex, et ipse, quum Corcyrae hibernasset, 
 vere prime in continentem transvectus, ad hostem ducere pergit" 
 
 Latin preserved the integrity of its sentences, by placing 
 the principal words at the extremities, reminding us of 
 structures that have both sides faced with solid masonry, 
 and the space between filled up with earth and rubble. Sen- 
 tences constructed on this principle would be laborious to 
 follow, but in classic Latin they were generally short. The 
 sentences of Sallust, the most rhetorical of all the Roman 
 writers, average only twenty-eight words. We are not to 
 understand that all Latin sentences are precisely like those 
 above, or that all English sentences ought to follow a 
 definite model, thus producing a sameness that would be 
 tiresome. The variety is alike endless in both languages; 
 but the leading characteristics can be detected under nearly 
 all disguises. 
 
 The maxim that no sentence should end in small or 
 unimportant words is doubtless an outgrowth of Latin 
 teaching, and its general application to English is impos- 
 sible. It has contributed, however, to the bad habit of 
 crowding one phrase or clause inside of another, to which is
 
 526 English Grammar. 
 
 due in turn most of the ambiguity and bad composition we 
 meet with. 
 
 Arrangement is more important than concord or govern- 
 ment. We rarely misunderstand any one because of violation 
 of common rules of grammar. If the proper words be 
 chosen and properly placed, a wrong number, gender, or 
 case will seldom be a fatal defect. If an Indian says : 
 
 " Me see white man shoot injun yesday," 
 
 his meaning is as unmistakable as if clothed in the choicest 
 language of the schools. But the adverb of time is the only 
 word that can be moved from its place without impairing 
 or destroying the sense. I do not claim that strange or 
 uncouth forms should be encouraged, but only that some 
 offences against correct speech are more heinous than others. 
 We meet every day with sentences that are either ambiguous, 
 nonsensical, or ungraceful solely because their words are 
 misplaced. There was once said to be in the old Columbian 
 Museum in Boston a bottle partly filled with wine and bear- 
 ing this inscription : 
 
 " This is the wine that Green drank and the bottle that was 
 executed for highway robbery." 
 
 Such an inscription is not beyond the bounds of possibility, 
 or even of probability. There is little more than a displace- 
 ment of the words, " and the bottle." So I have read of 
 a Dutch village of 500 houses on the Hudson or the 
 Mohawk containing 2,000 inhabitants, all with their gable 
 ends turned towards the street. It is frankly admitted that 
 these two examples, although found in print, may have 
 gained something by re-editing ; the following are taken at 
 first hand, but their respective and respectable authors may 
 not be ambitious to have their names made public : 
 
 " The five young ministers of the Reformed Presbyterian 
 church, who had been on trial before Pittsburg presbytery 
 * * * were yesterday suspended and prohibited from 
 exercising their ministerial office until they repent by a vote of 
 twenty-five to forty."
 
 Syntax. 527 
 
 Repenting by a vote of twenty-five to forty is an odd 
 kind of penitence ; possibly it would be more sincere if they 
 should repent by a vote of forty to twenty-five. 
 
 " Mr. Struble said that * * * he rose to speak on the 
 question of public buildings as represented by the unfinished 
 calendar of the House, upon which were thirty-five bills passed 
 by the committee of the whole on May 29, no one of which had 
 been permitted to be considered by the Speaker of the House." 
 
 It may be a pity if the Speaker be not permitted to con- 
 sider bills ; but how would it be if the bills had not " been 
 permitted by the Speaker of the House to be considered." 
 The latter is what was intended. 
 
 "Two police saw Collins take money from the bar. Upon 
 searching him they found coins marked for the purpose of de- 
 tecting the thief in his pocket." 
 
 A dangerous man was Collins if he carried a thief in his 
 pocket. 
 
 " Dr. Ramon de la Sota, a Spanish physician who has given 
 much attention to the subject, states that he is frequently called 
 upon to treat Spanish ladies, who do not themselves smoke for 
 irritation of the throat." 
 
 The report fails to state what these ladies do smoke for. 
 
 " It is the business of the physiologists to trace our sensations 
 to their material organs, not ours." 
 
 The italics are not in the original. But if I were to go on I 
 might be tempted to expose grammatical " wickedness in 
 high places," and so may as well stop here. 
 
 Adverbial clauses expressive of time and place have no 
 special position, but may be put wherever they will least 
 obstruct the other parts of the sentence. It is very common 
 to place them either at the beginning or the end. Adjective 
 clauses describing the subject or the object should be placed 
 near those terms ; and clauses defining the action of the 
 verb are very often placed after the object, especially if it 
 has no following of its own.
 
 528 English Grammar. 
 
 He wrote ten letters within the space of a single week, and 
 with his right arm in a sling. 
 
 It would not be : 
 
 He wrote within a single week, and with his right arm in a 
 sling, ten letters. 
 
 The adverbial clauses might be placed at the beginning, or 
 one at each extremity. But this is only a hint of a general 
 principle, and not a rule that will hold good in all cases. 
 Indeed there are few such. 
 
 Relative clauses should follow as closely as possible the 
 words which are the antecedents ; otherwise it may be un- 
 certain what they relate to. 
 
 On the steamer yesterday I met with Judge Crocker, the 
 father of our friend George Crocker, who married Mabel Evans, 
 the owner of the cutlery works on Silver Creek, who was going 
 to Boston to visit a sick sister. 
 
 This sentence leaves it uncertain who was going to Boston, 
 or which of the three persons named owned the cutlery 
 works. The construction favors Mrs. Crocker, who was 
 probably neither the proprietor nor the visitor in the case. 
 The principle of placing the relative next to its antecedent, 
 sometimes comes in the way of the placing of an adverbial 
 clause after the object. 
 
 They hired Warren, who had worked in the factory fifteen 
 years, for $70 a month. 
 
 The meaning is that they hired Warren for $70 a month, he 
 having worked in the factory fifteen years. In writing, 
 punctuation sheds a feeble and wavering light on the 
 meaning, but for the spoken language even that guidance 
 is wanting. 
 
 The difficulty of making a lucid, unambiguous arrange- 
 ment is a real one, and may be illustrated in this manner. 
 Let A, one of the essential elements of a sentence, require 
 to be modified by the three clauses, b, c, d. If they could 
 be arranged thus - <CI^ all would be easy. But as we can- 
 
 ^^^^
 
 Syntax. 529 
 
 not say three things at once, we are compelled to take them 
 one at a time, 4.^.^/ and the danger is that d may appear 
 to apply, not to A, but to b or c. 
 
 The misplacing of only is a frequent source of ambiguity. 
 In careful writing the word limited is preceded by only or 
 followed by alone. While this is the general distinction it 
 is not always adhered to. 
 
 " She was accounted inferior to the Queen only in dignity." 
 
 PRESCOTT. 
 
 That is, she was inferior in no other respect. Either only 
 ought to follow " inferior " or be replaced by alone. Profes- 
 sor Earle quotes from Clarendon's History : 
 
 " He was a man of few words except in hunting and hawking, 
 in which he only knew how to behave himself." 
 
 and suggests that " modern usage would require the he and 
 the only to change places. I do not see how that would 
 mend the matter ; for if " only he knew how to behave him- 
 self," it follows that no one else did ; whereas the meaning 
 of the noble author no doubt was that " it was only in hunt- 
 ing and hawking that he knew how to behave himself." 
 
 There is no patent method of escaping this difficulty ; but 
 time, care, judgment and good taste will surmount it ; and 
 in the next chapter I purpose to offer a few practical sug- 
 gestions on this and other points. 
 
 Thus far we have considered only affirmative sentences, 
 those that assert that something is or was or will be. A few 
 words may now be said about those that contain a negation. 
 A negative character may be given to any kind of sentence. 
 The common negative in the present stage of the language 
 is not, a shortened form of nought or naught. The negation 
 resides in the letter n, and is present equally in no, nor, never 
 neither, and the compounds of no. No, as an adjective pro- 
 noun, is the negative of o=one ; and bears the same relation 
 to none that my does to mine. In virtue of its adjective 
 quality its place is before a noun. Not, being an adverb, 
 naturally follows a verb. 
 
 34
 
 530 English Grammar. 
 
 " Go not into the way of the Gentiles, and into any city of the 
 Samaritans, enter ye not" MATT, x., 5. 
 
 The departure from this form of expression has not im- 
 proved the language. At present not follows only the aux- 
 iliaries and the verbs be and have. Where there is no natu- 
 ral necessity for any auxiliary, do is used pro forma to pre- 
 cede not. One of the evidences that let is not yet fully 
 converted into an auxiliary is its relation to this negative. 
 We no longer say : " Let not" but feel required to say : " Do 
 not let" 
 
 When applied to any other part of speech than a verb not 
 infinitive not has priority of position. 
 
 Not having provided myself with a pass, I was refused admit- 
 tance. 
 
 He bought a copy of Marlowe, second-hand, but not soiled or 
 worn. 
 
 It may be said then that not follows a finite verb to which 
 it applies, but precedes anything else. But the association 
 of not with other parts of speech is often a mere artificial 
 arrangement of words, while it logically follows the verb. 
 
 Not justice, but mercy, is the prayer of mortals, 
 may as well be written : 
 
 The prayer of mortals is not justice, but mercy. 
 The poets sometimes indulge in strange dislocations : 
 
 " For not to have been dipped in Lethe's lake 
 Could save the son of Thetis from to die." 
 
 Not belongs between " could " and " save " ; " to have been 
 dipped " = immersion, and " to die " = death. 
 
 Among our inheritances from the Latin is the doctrine 
 that two negatives make an affirmative. It is not self-evi- 
 dent that reiterated denial amounts to affirmation or that 
 refusal oft repeated is consent. Such a grammatical canon 
 was unknown to the Greeks, and is not recognized by the
 
 Syntax. 531 
 
 Spaniards. It is modern in English, and entirely due to 
 Latin and French influences. Our Saxon and early English 
 ancestors were profusely liberal in their use of negatives. 
 
 " They can not seen in that non auntag6 
 Ne in non other way saue mareage"." 
 
 CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." 
 
 " He is fre of hors that rcer ade on." 
 
 " Proverbs of Hending." 
 
 " nas tid ne tyme ni ne wurth that god ne send gode maenn his 
 folc forte 3elathie to his rice." 
 
 (There has not been tide nor time, nor will not be that God 
 sendeth not good men for to bid his folk to his kingdom.) 
 
 " Old English Homily." 
 
 " By innocence I sweare and by my youth, 
 I have one heart, one bosome, and one truth, 
 And that no woman has, nor never none 
 Shall mistris be of it saue I alone." 
 
 SHAKES?.: "Twelfe Night," iii., i. 
 
 This redundant negation began to disappear from careful 
 prose about the end of the fifteenth century, and the process 
 of pruning is not yet quite complete. 
 
 The Latin doctrine of the negative was that it not merely 
 negatived a proposition, but reversed it. It was like the 
 military movement of about-face, which, when repeated, led 
 to the point of starting. It resembled the continued mul- 
 tiplication of a negative quantity, in which all the odd terms 
 are negative and all the even ones positive. Hence the 
 small boy's frequent plea : 
 
 I did n't do nuthin to nobody, 
 
 is negative as intended. 
 
 Many words contain a negation in themselves unjust, in- 
 sincere, disobedient, child/ess, naked, empty. When one of 
 these words is used with a separate negative, it amounts to 
 a double negation. Not unsuccessful = successful. But, 
 when between an idea and its opposite there is a consider-
 
 532 English Grammar. 
 
 able range of intermediate degrees, the negation of one term 
 is not the affirmation of the opposite. The* bottle is not 
 empty, is not equivalent to The bottle is full. So to say that 
 it is not improbable is by no means the same as to say that 
 it is probable, as the chances may be equal. Double nega- 
 tives of this kind are much used as a sort of guarded, half- 
 way affirmations. Hence the dictum that two negatives 
 make an affirmative requires to be taken with some grains of 
 allowance. 
 
 There is a case of repetition of the negative the propriety 
 of which has never been decided. There are only opinions 
 for and against it. 
 
 " He shall not cry, nor lift up, nor cause his voice to be heard 
 in the street." ISAIAH xlii., 2. 
 
 Some now think that the sentence would be improved by 
 having only one negative, and substituting or for each nor. 
 Similar sentences may be found in which the first negative 
 is no, never, or neither. The above sentence from Isaiah has 
 been influenced by the phraseology of the Hebrew original, 
 of which it is a very close and faithful translation the nega- 
 tive being there repeated, and by a doctrine of the English 
 verb different from that which is now beginning to appear. 
 On the question whether or or nor be preferable in such 
 sentence the following points may be presented. 
 
 1. In the earlier ages of the language when negatives were 
 thrown around as if they cost nothing, nor would unques- 
 tionably have had the preference. 
 
 2. At present it would be useless to cite examples or 
 authorities, as plenty could be found on each side. 
 
 3. The meaning is the same either way. 
 
 He has not eaten nor slept since Friday at noon. 
 He has not eaten or slept since Friday at noon. 
 
 These two lines state the same fact, and in ways equally 
 unmistakable. The only question is whether or not there 
 is a superfluous negative in the first.
 
 Syntax. 533 
 
 4. In signification and effect, nor is not equivalent to or -j- 
 not, but to and -\- not. It does not introduce an alternative 
 but an addition. " He has not eaten nor drunk " does not 
 mean " He has not eaten, or he has not drunk, but " He has 
 not eaten, and he has not drunk. 
 
 5. Not is generally placed immediately after a verb to 
 which it applies in modern English oftenest an auxiliary. 
 Its influence is co-extensive with that of the verb which it 
 affects, governs, or controls, and within that domain there is 
 no need of another negative. It is only necessary to ascer- 
 tain the limits to which the force of the verb extends. 
 
 I cannot nor will consent to the proposal. 
 
 Here can does not control will, and therefore a second 
 negative is necessary. Cannot or will would be ambiguous 
 or unmeaning. 
 
 I have said that the above example from Isaiah has been 
 influenced by the wording of the Hebrew. Now we may 
 take one in which or is employed instead of nor. 
 
 " Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any 
 likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or in the earth 
 beneath, or in the waters under the earth." 
 
 For this difference two reasons can be assigned, first, that 
 the negative is not repeated in the Hebrew, and second, that 
 the whole, as far as the word anything is governed by the 
 verb make, which is controlled by not. Yet we are not to 
 expect such a distinction to be consistently observed. Let 
 us take as another example Matthew x., 9. 
 
 " Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses ; nor 
 scrip for your journey, neither two coats, neither shoes, nor yet 
 staves." 
 
 Here the negative is repeated, although, according to the 
 principle I have stated, it is not necessary, as " provide " 
 governs to the last word. The negative is repeated in the 
 Greek original. Admirable then as the English Bible is, it
 
 534 English Grammar. 
 
 is influenced somewhat by foreign idiom in its use of the 
 vernacular. 
 
 In the following sentences nor or some equivalent word is 
 necessary. 
 
 " Blame not thy clime, nor chide the distant sun." 
 " If she sent to a hundred lawyers, not one nor all of them 
 could alter the law." 
 
 " My hair is gray, but not with years, 
 Nor grew it white in a single night." 
 
 In the following nor is not required, for the reason that 
 the verb to which the first negative applies covers the whole 
 sentence. 
 
 " Call not thy friends, nor thy brethren, neither thy kinsmen, 
 nor thy rich neighbors." 
 
 " I am not ugly nor old, 
 Nor a villanous scold." 
 
 When not applies to any other word than a verb, it in like 
 manner affects that particular word as far as its action or 
 influence extends. 
 
 No, neither, never are equivalent to not any, not either, not 
 ever. The separation or union of the parts does not affect 
 the force or extent of the negation. 
 
 " Heav'n whose high walls fear no assault or siege, 
 Or ambush from the deep." MILTON. 
 
 No = not any ; hence fear no = fear not any. 
 
 "With no great love for learning or the learn'd." 
 
 BYRON : " Don Juan." 
 
 " There was no manifestation of disgust or pity, or indignation 
 or sorrow." DICKENS. 
 
 " I never saw her either read a book or occupy herself with 
 needlework." MARRYAT : " Peter Simple." 
 
 " And never more saw I or horse or rider." 
 
 COLERIDGE : " Piccolomini." 
 
 " I have neither age, person or character, to found dislike on." 
 
 SHERIDAN: "Rivals."
 
 Syntax. 535 
 
 " Often had William of Deloraine 
 Rode through the battle's bloody plain, 
 And trampled down the warriors slain, 
 And neither known remorse or awe." 
 
 SCOTT. 
 
 Neither is oftener than any of the others followed by nor, 
 so that many seem to think that it has a peculiar and pre- 
 scriptive right to a negative attendant ; but really it has, if 
 possible, less claim than any of the others. Neither = not 
 either = not any one of the two. It negatives two things 
 considered one at a time. The supposed necessary bond 
 between neither and nor depends upon contrasting them 
 with the correlation either * * * or, a. false proportion : 
 Neither : nor : : either : or. 
 
 We have not found either peace or plenty in this unhappy Ireland 
 is precisely the same as, 
 
 We have found neither peace or plenty, etc. 
 
 The latter seems strange because it is unusual. 
 
 Neither is often made to alternate with nor in the Bible, 
 merely to give variety of expression. 
 
 The employment of nor in the place of neither 
 
 " Nor in sheet nor in shroud we wound him," 
 
 is probably due to a mistaken idea that they are only two 
 forms of the same word. 
 
 There is a kind of double negative, not uncommon, which 
 seems often unnecessary, if not silly. 
 
 There is no telling what he might not do. A more prac- 
 tical question would seem to be, " What he might do." 
 
 All sentences thus far considered have affirmed or denied, 
 but others remain which make no assertion. They are direct 
 questions and direct commands, or interrogative and im- 
 perative sentences, of which only a few words need be said. 
 
 Interrogative sentences, considered grammatically, are 
 naturally divisible into two classes. The first aim direct at 
 the central point of the fact under inquiry the verb by 
 which that fact can be stated.
 
 536 English Grammar. 
 
 Have you written a letter to the Governor ? 
 
 The answer is expected to be equally short and direct, and,' 
 if affirmative, to take very nearly one of three forms. " I 
 have written to him," " I have," or " Yes." If the answer be 
 negative, not is placed after " have," or " No " is substituted 
 for " Yes." 
 
 The verb, being the point in question, is regularly the first 
 and interrogative word, but in the composite tenses it is only 
 the auxiliary that is placed first, and the rest of the verbal 
 expression may be at some distance. 
 
 Have you ever, in all your intercourse with the world, found a 
 man perfectly contented with his lot ? 
 
 The simple verbs take do as a formal auxiliary, for in the 
 present state of the language have and be are the only single 
 verbs that ask questions. 
 
 The second class of interrogatories never bring the main 
 fact in question, but only some circumstance. Referring to 
 the first example above, the fact of writing would be taken 
 for granted ; but it might be asked, " Who wrote ? What 
 or to whom, when, where, how or why did you write?" 
 These interrogative words, consisting of the interrogative 
 pronoun and its derived adverbs, are placed first in the sen- 
 tence. Questions of this class do not admit of the general 
 and direct answer yes or no, but only of a special answer 
 going to the particular point of the inquiry. 
 
 Instead of asking a question of any kind, one may some- 
 times effect the same purpose by expressing a desire for 
 information. 
 
 I should like to know if you have written to the Governor. 
 
 But a substitute of this kind is not really an interrogatory. 
 An imperative sentence is a direct command. As such it 
 must be addressed to some one present, or who can be 
 reached by voice, letter, or other direct means. It would be 
 no better than a repetition to say that the subject of the 
 verb is the second person that is, the person addressed. 
 
 " Repine not at thy lot."
 
 Syntax. 537 
 
 The form of the verb is the shortest and simplest that can 
 be used. In point of fact, it is like the infinitive, but only 
 for the reason that that too is reduced to its lowest terms. 
 In languages that admit of such apocopation the imperative 
 is shorter than the infinitive. It is without variation for 
 person, number, or tense. 
 
 The subject of an imperative verb is seldom expressed, 
 but when it is it follows the verb : 
 
 " When I rear my hand do you the same." 
 
 SHAKESPEARE : " Tempest," ii., i. 
 
 When a noun is placed before the verb it is as an exclama- 
 tion or a call to ensure attention. 
 
 " Tigress, begone ! " 
 
 ADDISON : " Rosamond." 
 
 Expressions like : " The Lord forgive you," have been con- 
 sidered, page 458. 
 
 Something like imperatives of the first and third persons 
 are obtained by the help of let. 
 
 " Let us stand by each other." 
 
 " He trusted in the Lord that he would deliver him, let him 
 deliver him." PSA. xxii., 8. 
 
 In point of form it is a command to some ideal second person 
 to permit something to be done, and sometimes is such 
 command : 
 
 Stop the car and let me get out. 
 
 Very often it is a mere exhortation, or wish, and unfortu- 
 nately the words do not show the distinction. It was 
 otherwise when fashion sanctioned " Go we " for " Let us 
 go," and " Come they " for " Let them come." Our lan- 
 guage is now very largely dependent upon auxiliary words ; 
 but in many cases, and notably in negative, interrogative, 
 and imperative sentences it has been weakened by an ex- 
 cessive use of them. 
 
 There are two substitutes for an imperative mood. The 
 first of these is by the use of shall. 
 
 " Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image."
 
 538 English Grammar. 
 
 Two things show that shalt is not imperative. It is preceded 
 by its nominative thou, and has the personal ending -/. It is 
 therefore indicative, and makes an assertion. Shall expresses 
 not duty or obligation, but authority. To say that you 
 shall do this or that is not saying that you ought, but that 
 you are required by an authority able and willing to enforce 
 its behests. Grammatically shall cannot be made into an 
 imperative, or an infinitive either. 
 
 The effect of an imperative may also be attained in a mild 
 way by expressing a desire that the thing required be done. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS POINTS OF SYNTAX. 
 
 Dr. Latham observes that the only adjective that governs 
 a case is the word like. Like is not an ellipsis for like to, 
 the to being a modern innovation, a part of the general ten- 
 dency to use a multitude of auxiliary words. Like governs 
 a dative case in most languages that have one ; and earlier 
 English was no exception. 
 
 " Sothlice hwam telle ic thas cneorysse gelice ? " 
 (Truly whom call I this generation like ?) 
 
 MATT, xi., 16. 
 
 " Ther nas no kni3t him ilik"" King Horn." 
 But worth also governs a case. 
 
 " There 's bucks and raes on Bilhope braes, 
 
 There 's herd in Shortwood Shaw ; 
 But a lily-white doe in the garden goes ; 
 She 's fairly worth them a' " 
 
 " Bride of Lammermoor." 
 
 I have long held that like, when it expresses a direct rela- 
 tion, is a preposition ; and I find that now I am supported 
 by the authority of Professor Earle and the great Dictionary 
 of the Philological Society. But if like be sometimes a 
 preposition, so also is worth. 
 
 What is generally regarded as grammar concerns chiefly 
 pronouns and verbs. As the personal pronouns have pre-
 
 Syntax. 539 
 
 served the distinctions of number, gender, and case, they 
 have to agree with the nouns which they represent in num- 
 ber and gender, so far as they are capable of distinguishing 
 the latter ; verbs of which they are the subjects must agree 
 with them in number ; and when they are the objects of 
 verbs or follow prepositions they are required to be in the 
 objective case. 
 
 What is called the ethical dative, which is neither sub- 
 ject nor object, is now rare. When it has any meaning it is 
 equivalent to the modern phrase : " for my sake," " to oblige 
 me," etc. When, in " Henry VI.," Duke Humphrey says, 
 
 " leape me over this stoole and runne away." 
 his meaning might be thiis expressed : 
 
 Oblige me by leaping over this stool and running away. 
 
 The reflexive pronoun being a comparatively modern 
 formation, the simple personal pronoun is often used in its 
 place by old authors and by poets. 
 
 " I made me great works ; I builded me houses ; I planted me 
 vineyards ; I made me gardens." ECCL. ii., 4. 
 
 " He sate him down at a pillar's base, 
 And pass'd his hand athwart his face." 
 
 BYRON. 
 
 The combinations with self are extremely confused. In 
 the first place they are made to serve two purposes that 
 have no connection or resemblance. They are emphatic, 
 and they are reflexive. In the two following sentences 
 himself performs entirely different offices." 
 
 " But he himself went a day's journey into the wilderness." 
 " He that is swift of foot shall not deliver himself" 
 
 In the second place part of them are formed with objective 
 cases of the personal pronouns, part with possessives, and a 
 part (herself and itself} are uncertain. Moreover it is not 
 always clear whether they are nouns or pronouns. Now a 
 noun is of the third person, unless directly addressed, or in 
 apposition with a pronoun of the first or second person.
 
 540 English Grammar. 
 
 There is then a chance that myself may be of the third per- 
 son, and accordingly Dr. Latham says : 
 
 " When myself or thyself stands alone, the verb is in the third 
 person myself is (not am) weak, thyself is (not art) weak. 
 
 But that is at variance with authoritative usage. 
 
 " And that thyself shalt now sen." 1 
 
 " Richard Creur de Lion." 
 " So shall thy judgment be ; thyself hast decided it." 
 
 i KINGS xx., 40. 
 
 " by examining of whom thyself mayest take knowledge of these 
 things." ACTS xxiv., 8. 
 
 "Myself am Naples." SHAKESP. : "Tempest," i., 2. 
 " Which way I fly is hell ; myself am hell." 
 
 MILTON : " P. L.," iv., 75. 
 
 The pronouns this, that, and yonder once pointed out ob- 
 jects different in place or differently related to the speaker or 
 the person spoken to. 
 
 This dog (of mine), that horse (of yours), yonder tower (on 
 the hill). 
 
 But yonder has almost gone out of use, except as an adverb 
 of place, and that has to perform double duty. This and 
 that are, or rather have been, also used of things not before 
 the eyes, but before the mind. Two things having been 
 named a moment before, we may refer to them as this and 
 that. All argument to determine which shall be called this 
 and which that was cut short by the rule of Latin grammar, 
 which applied this to the one last named and that to the 
 other 
 
 " Behold ! if fortune, or a mistress, frowns, 
 Some plunge in business, others shave their crowns. 
 To ease the soul of one oppressive weight, 
 This quits an empire, that embroils a state." POPE. 
 
 The words were also used without reference to things 
 specifically named, but with the general sense of " one or the 
 other " : 
 
 1 Quoted by Matzner.
 
 Syntax. 541 
 
 " As when two scales are charged with doubtful loads, 
 
 From side to side the trembling balance nods ; 
 ****** 
 
 Till poised aloft, the resting beam suspends 
 
 Each equal weight, nor this, nor that, descends." 
 
 POPE'S " Iliad." 
 
 When the things contrasted were quite evident, this kind 
 of antithesis was very neat and effective ; but if clumsily 
 handled a hearer might be left at a loss to know which was 
 this and which was that. It is perhaps for some such reason 
 that this use of the demonstratives, once so common, has 
 been almost abandoned. We now employ the former and 
 the latter for a similar purpose ; but, when not liable to mis- 
 take, they lack the terseness of this and that, and when there 
 is any doubt as to their application they are in no respect 
 better than the shorter words. Boswell relates of Dr. John- 
 son that he avoided the use of " the former " and " the latter," 
 because they put people to the trouble of tracing backwards 
 to find what they refer to. 
 
 It might well seem that there could be no excuse for not 
 knowing when to use the singular and when the plural of this 
 and that, but experience proves that it is possible to err even 
 here, and that the subject is really not so simple as it seems. 
 But few nouns that include a plural number under a singular 
 term admit of these or those. We might say : 
 
 The company were invited. 
 The mob were breaking into the jail. 
 
 but it would not be admissible to say : " these company," 
 " these class," " those mob," " those army." Yet such 
 examples are to be found : 
 
 " When you and those poore number saued with you 
 Hung on our driuing boate." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Twelfe Night," ii., 2. 
 
 " These kind of sufferings." BP. SHERLOCK. 
 
 This last is the most common form of the error. Yet there 
 are a few, a very few, singular nouns that may be preceded
 
 54 2 English Grammar. 
 
 by these or those. We may safely reckon on people, gentry, 
 cavalry, infantry, cattle, poultry, vermin. I do not think that 
 we can include the aristocracy, nobility, clergy, society, yeo- 
 manry, peasantry, artillery, militia, nor do I think that any 
 well defined distinction exists. 
 
 The personal pronominal forms that express possession 
 are, at the present day, so far as syntax is concerned, divisi- 
 ble into two classes, of shorter and longer forms : 
 
 my mine his his 
 
 our ours her hers 
 
 thy thine its its 
 
 your yours their theirs 
 
 His and its are the same for both. Now the shorter are 
 always employed with nouns, the longer without. In the 
 present state of the language the former are adjectives, the 
 latter are not. They are therefore possessive cases of the 
 personal pronouns. Neither alone are equal to the possessive 
 cases of nouns, with which they may be thus compared : 
 
 This is Mrs. Ashton's carriage. This is her carriage. 
 It is Mrs. Ashton's. It is hers. 
 
 The possessive of the noun may be used with or without a 
 noun following, which can only be done by the two pronomi- 
 nal forms supplementing each other. 
 
 What is called the double possessive is found both in 
 nouns and pronouns. 
 
 He was riding a horse of the Doctor's. 
 
 The explanation that has been usually given is that this 
 means a horse of (from or out of) the Doctor's horses. This 
 is seen more clearly in the Spanish : 
 
 " Un pintor celeb re of reef a un cuadro de los suyos." 
 
 Whether such an explanation be good or not, the double 
 genitive is a well-established form of expression, and is some- 
 times convenient to distinguish between a picture of my 
 friend and a picture of my friend's.
 
 Syntax. 543 
 
 Each and every express plurality under a singular form, 
 and both require singular verbs. They equally represent 
 aggregates, considered one by one. Each marks the separa- 
 tion into units more distinctly than every does. Either may 
 be followed by one or by a noun ; but every cannot go alone: 
 
 " Sweare his thought ouer 
 By each particular- Starre in Heaven." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Winters Tale," i., 2. 
 
 " The prayers of priests and people were every moment inter- 
 rupted hy their sobs. CARLYLE : " Fr. Revol.," I., i., i. 
 
 Each and every, although singular, are, sometimes, associ- 
 ated with plural nouns or pronouns, either needlessly or 
 to indicate that the units are thought of one by one : 
 
 " Good husbands, let us every one go home." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Merry Wives," v., 5. 
 " Kind uncle, woe -were we each one, 
 If harm should hap to Brother John." 
 
 SCOTT : "Marmion," i., 22. 
 
 " They suspect each other" is equivalent to they each suspect 
 the other. Taken any way the expression is anomalous, and 
 makes no intelligible distinction between subject and object. 
 Omit they, and each suspects the other is plain enough. 
 
 Either and both are dual in signification, but while both 
 means the two, either is only one of the two : 
 
 You may have either sister, but not both. 
 
 Either being confined to two, " Either he or his father or 
 his brother " would be incorrect ; so also is " either one' of 
 the ten." Either is incorrectly but not unfrequently used 
 for each : 
 
 " The chief officers of either army were present." 
 
 THACKERAY : " Henry Esmond," ii., 4. 
 
 " In the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the river, 
 was there the tree of life." REV. xxii., 2.
 
 544 English Grammar. 
 
 Some and any apply equally to any number. They have 
 this curious distinction that some is affirmative, any inter- 
 rogative or negative : 
 
 I never had any talent for music ; do you think that my daugh- 
 ter has any ? Yes, she certainly has some. 
 
 The interrogative and relative pronouns, which are to a 
 great extent the same words, are especially liable to become 
 the victims of misunderstanding. To say 
 
 Whom did you say you saw at the ball ? 
 is correct, but, 
 
 Whom did you say was at the ball ? 
 
 is incorrect. In the first question whom is the object oisaw, 
 in the second it is the subject of was. In neither case does it 
 depend upon say, although that is the word that occasions 
 the confusion. 
 
 " Whom do men say that I, the Son of man, am ? " 
 
 MATT, xvi., 14. 
 
 Of course the Revised Version has Who, but in other re- 
 spects I do not think the passage improved. This confusion 
 of cases is very common, in unstudied speech more common 
 than correct discrimination. So foreign to our habits of 
 thought is the idea of case, except the possessive, that 
 although only four words in the language have any, we 
 habitually blunder about them : 
 
 " Who can he take after ? " " Who the devil is he talking to ? " 
 
 SHERIDAN : " Rivals." 
 " How ? thy wife ? 
 I Sir : whom I thanke heauen is an honest woman." 
 
 SHAKESP.: " Measure for Measure," ii., i. 
 
 The presence of the conjunction than helps to confuse the 
 mind as to the case of the relative. Very many persons 
 would see nothing incorrect in 
 
 He is five years older than me ;
 
 Syntax. 545 
 
 yet than has no effect upon case, and the real meaning is 
 
 He is five years older than / am. 
 This confusion of case is especially frequent : 
 
 " Belial came last, than whom a spirit more lewd 
 Fell not from heaven." 
 
 MILTON : "Paradise Lost," i., 491. 
 " Accepted Howard, than whom knight 
 Was never dubbed more bold in fight." 
 
 This confusion is most frequent when the relative and 
 antecedent are of different cases, and one of them is sup- 
 pressed. The other is then left to perform the part of both, 
 and cannot be in two cases at once. What is the only word 
 that can be both subject and object. 
 
 He whom I accuse has entered 
 
 is complete ; but if either " he " or " whom " were omitted 
 the hiatus would lead to confusion. 
 
 "Him I accuse 
 The City Ports by this hath entered." 
 
 SHAKESP. : " Coriolanus," v., 5. 
 
 " Better to leaue vndone, then by our deed 
 Acquire too high a Fame, when him we serues away." 
 
 " Antony and Cleopatra," iii., i. 
 
 " Edward * * * at length drew a pocket pistol, and threaten- 
 ing to shoot whomsoever dared to stop him." 
 
 SCOTT i " Waverley," xxx. 
 
 " The original papers, together with the scarlet letter itself 
 * * * are still in my possession, and shall be freely exhibited 
 to whomsoever, induced by the great interest of the narrative, may 
 desire a sight of them." HAWTHORNE. 
 
 When .two words in a sentence, alike capable of being 
 antecedent, are followed by a relative, it should refer to the 
 second. In 
 
 The father of the boys of whom we were speaking, 
 
 35
 
 546 English Grammar. 
 
 whom is to be understood as relating to boys ; but if one of 
 the nouns cannot correctly be the antecedent, the relative is 
 to be understood as referring to the other. 
 
 The father of these boys, who was drowned last year. 
 
 Here the antecedent must be father. 
 
 When one or more nouns and a personal pronoun, mean- 
 ing the same person, come together, the pronoun is the 
 leading word, and determines the number, gender, and 
 person. 
 
 " I, Benjamin Harrison, President of the United States, do issue 
 this my proclamation." 
 
 " Thou James of Douglas wert the man." 
 
 But when two nouns or pronouns stand as subject and 
 predicate, a relative following agrees with the last. 
 
 // was an orphan girl who had gathered them with her own 
 hands. 
 
 King, Lords, and Commons are zform of Government which 
 is believed by the English people to be the best suited to their 
 present wants. 
 
 " I am the man that hath seen affliction by the rod of his 
 wrath." LAM. iii., r. 
 
 The errors and mistakes connected with the use of the 
 pronouns probably outnumber all others in the language ; 
 and for this two reasons may be at least conjectured. The 
 simplest is that they alone trouble us with their cases. The 
 other and deeper reason is connected with their great irregu- 
 larity. Both are, I think, due to their being little words 
 with no tangible or permanent meanings of their own, ex- 
 pressing only ever-changing relations, flitting, flickering 
 about, applicable to everything by turns, and constantly 
 liable to have their old forms and meanings forgotten and 
 intermixed. Innumerable examples might be furnished of 
 the confusion that prevails in the use of pronouns, but I 
 shall instance only one in addition to those already given. 
 It is one to which writers and speakers of all grades have
 
 Syntax. 547 
 
 been prone for three hundred years, and more, from Bishop 
 Latimer to Mr. Gladstone : 
 
 "This is, perhaps, the truth of all others, most harmoniously 
 re-echoed by every philosopher of every school." 
 
 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON. 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh furnishes a quaint form of this sole- 
 cism, when he says that Richard III. was the most heartless 
 tyrant " of all that forewent him" If long and wide usage 
 and illustrious names can legitimize an absurdity, this must 
 be very nearly standard English. Still it is not universal. 
 
 A verb agrees with its subject or nominative in number 
 and person so far as it is capable of distinguishing these ; 
 but that is really to a very small extent. For most practical 
 purposes a verb has but two forms, and as often only one. 
 The present tense has one form for the third person singular 
 and one for all other purposes ; the past tense is alike 
 throughout. All singular pronouns and singular nouns, 
 even when they represent numbers acting together as uni- 
 ties, are followed by singular verbs. When the subject is 
 plural so also is the verb. Several nominatives united by 
 and or shown in any other way to join alike in the action of 
 the verb require a plural. 
 
 The teacher #</his wife and three children were crossing the field. 
 
 There is here a grammatical equality and community in the 
 action, which is wanting in 
 
 The teacher, with his wife and three children was crossing the field. 
 
 This latter is equivalent to 
 
 The teacher was crossing the field with his wife and three children. 
 
 That was the manner of his crossing. The other persons 
 were only an accompaniment. 
 
 When several persons are designated with the understand- 
 ing that only one is to act, but it is left undetermined which 
 one, the verb is singular. 
 
 John or James or Thomas or Mary is sure to be at home.
 
 548 English Grammar. 
 
 If the alternate subjects be all singular or all plural, the 
 number of the verb obviously must agree ; but if one be 
 singular and another plural, the verb cannot agree with 
 both. 
 
 The strikers or the company has (or have) to give way. 
 
 As a matter of convenience, and to make an end of strife, it 
 is tacitly accepted that the verb shall agree with the last ; 
 and it looks least incongruous when that is the plural. 
 
 A verb, not imperative or infinitive, is always of the third 
 person unless its nominative be a pronoun of the first or 
 second person. In a dependent sentence whose subject is 
 a relative, that relative, and consequently its verb, should 
 agree with the antecedent in number and person. 
 
 I who stand here saw those things ; 
 not 
 
 I who stands. 
 
 When several nominatives differing in person are united 
 under one verb, the first preference is given to the first 
 person, the next to the second. We is any aggregate that 
 includes the speaker, you is any that excludes the speaker 
 but includes the person spoken to. 
 
 When two or more nominatives to be taken as alterna- 
 tives differ in person or number, the verb should agree with 
 the one nearest to it. This is a point on which authorities 
 do not agree. Of these two sentences : 
 
 They or I am in error, 
 They or I are in error, 
 
 some prefer the one and some the other. The following 
 considerations are in favor of the first. Either sentence is 
 elliptical, being in full : 
 
 They are in error, or I am in error. 
 Supplying the necessary words the two will read, 
 
 They are or I am in error. 
 They, or I am, are in error.
 
 Syntax. 549 
 
 The second absurdly thrusts " / am " between They and its 
 verb. All such sentences are extremely awkward, and had 
 better be avoided altogether. We are under no obligation 
 to write inelegantly, merely to show our preference for one 
 barbarism over another. The presence of either would 
 make no difference, as it would merely supplement or. 
 
 A verb, transitive or intransitive, is often followed by a 
 word of kindred meaning, as its real or apparent object. To 
 tell a tale, to sing a song, to run a race, to throw a throw, to 
 play plays, to live a virtuous life, to die a violent death, to 
 smile a ghastly smile, are examples. Such expressions 
 might be so arranged in a series that while in the first the 
 noun would be unquestionably the object of the verb, in the 
 last no action on the object is thought of. When Balaam 
 prayed : 
 
 " Let me die the death of the righteous," 
 
 he could not have supposed that his dying would have any 
 effect upon the " death of the righteous." He merely 
 desired that he might die as righteous men die. The words 
 " the death of the righteous," in form the object of the verb, 
 are in signification an adverbial clause, expressive of manner 
 and not substance. 
 
 There are yet others of the same form in which the noun 
 is still farther from being the object of the verb. 
 
 " I sit a queen, and am no widow." REV. xviii., 7. 
 
 Queen cannot be the object of sit. The meaning bears no 
 analogy to that of sitting a spirited horse. Queen is really in 
 apposition with /, and would be nominative if we had such 
 a separate case. It is so in the Greek and in the Latin 
 version of Beza. A more lucid rendering would be 
 
 I sit as a queen ; 
 
 and we might amend in the same manner all sentences like 
 He walked forth a free man. 
 
 The so-called substantive verb to be has the same case 
 before and after it. To this there are apparent exceptions :
 
 550 English Grammar. 
 
 These books are John's. 
 
 The sentence is elliptical, and if filled up would be either : 
 These books are John's books, or, These are John's books. 
 Is that you, John ? Yes, it is me. 
 
 If this be correct, it is still contrary to general analogy, and 
 sets all rule and reason at defiance. It is very common but 
 not yet quite classical English. 
 
 All passive verbs in English are made with the help of the 
 verb to be, and take the same case after as before them : 
 
 He was elected governor. They were appointed commissioners. 
 
 As nouns have no distinctive case except the possessive, the 
 fact is not of much practical importance, but it helps to 
 illustrate the construction of the infinitive. 
 The infinitive is used in four different ways : 
 
 a. It follows the auxiliaries and a few other verbs incorrectly 
 employed in the same manner. 
 
 b. It follows a number of verbs and adjectives that pre- 
 sent a probability of something. Seem, hope, fear, promise, 
 threaten, able, willing, and apt are examples : 
 
 She seemed to recover. He promised to pay. 
 
 c. Many verbs in English, and still more in other languages, 
 expressing the action of the senses, of power or intelligence, 
 are followed by an infinitive expressing the action of another 
 person. The word representing the second person (or thing,) 
 at once the object of the first verb and the subject of the 
 second, is in the objective case, if there be any such case 
 distinguishable : 
 
 " Then Esther bade them return Mordecai this answer." 
 
 " If thou puttest me to use the carnal weapon it will be worse for 
 you." 
 
 "He * * * led the way to the pavilion, loudly ordering the 
 banquet to be spread" 
 
 "Imagine this to be the palace of your pleasure." 
 
 " I hope he takes me to be flesh and blood."
 
 Syntax. 551 
 
 Several infinitives may follow each other : 
 She persuaded him to pretend to agree to do as they required. 
 
 The verb preceding the infinitive may be passive. The 
 subject of the infinitive then becomes nominative. 
 
 They bade me stand up. I was bidden stand up. 
 If they were retained, it would be transformed into by them : 
 
 " Some were heard to curse the shrine 
 Where others knelt to pray." 
 
 d. The infinitive is used, but not very frequently, as a 
 verbal noun : 
 
 " If all the yeare were playing holidaies, 
 To sport would be as tedious as to worke." 
 
 SHAKESP. : i " Henry IV.," i., 2.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG WRITERS. 
 
 IT is with more than usual diffidence that I add a closing 
 chapter for the benefit of young and inexperienced writers, 
 giving some words of counsel beyond the mere details of 
 grammar. What follows is not intended to instruct those 
 who are already accomplished and elegant writers. Nor is it 
 intended to teach any one how to become an eminent and 
 successful author in any department of literature ; the pur- 
 pose is the more modest one of helping the unskilful to tell 
 a plain matter in a plain and effective way. There are a 
 great number of persons who sometime in their lives, and 
 perhaps often, have occasion to write something of sufficient 
 importance to be worth writing well ; and it is to these that 
 I address myself. For sake of brevity the principles and 
 illustrations will be put in the form of direct address to the 
 reader. 
 
 I. The idea which the reader has of the writer, or the 
 hearer's opinion of the speaker, is of the first importance. If 
 the speaker or writer be thought insincere, or to be hypo- 
 critically urging his own interest, his words are vain. There 
 is somewhere in the economy of the human mind a kind of 
 cut-off, capable, when called into action, of excluding all 
 impressions. When that valve is closed cherubic wisdom 
 could not find an entrance. Though your eloquence drop 
 as the rain it will run off as from the back of a tortoise. 
 Valuable above all the arts of rhetoric will be a general belief 
 that you are too upright to deceive and too careful and 
 clear-headed to be deceived that in all probability what you 
 have to say is true, and truth worth listening to. Such a 
 
 552
 
 Suggestions to Young Writers. 553 
 
 reputation cannot be acquired and maintained without 
 deserving it. 
 
 II. It is well to know the subject you are to write about, and 
 know it thoroughly. There is a great advantage in knowing 
 more of a subject than any one else does ; and that is often 
 possible enough if it be a small one and somewhat personal 
 to yourself. But when a large field is to be covered informa- 
 tion must be collected ; and that is often a work of great 
 labor. A laborious German author has said that he has 
 sometimes condensed into a parenthetic clause the results of 
 a month's search. Still such labor is generally well bestowed. 
 Spare no pains to get at the facts, and make sure that they 
 are facts. It is humiliating, and may be disastrous, to find 
 in the crisis for which you are preparing that your facts turn 
 out to be fictions. In collecting facts that are beyond your 
 own knowledge, and not of public notoriety, write each one 
 down plainly on a slip of paper, carefully adding the source 
 (book, page, etc.) from which it was obtained. All slips 
 bearing upon the same point should be put together into an 
 envelope, also plainly marked. Such envelopes can be ar- 
 ranged alphabetically. If this plan be well carried out, all 
 the information you can ever collect may be arranged so 
 that you can lay your hand in a minute upon all that' you 
 have on any required point. 
 
 Every subject touches upon the boundaries of many 
 others, and it is often necessary to reconnoitre the borders 
 of these adjacent territories. Hence the importance of wide 
 and general knowledge having its central point in the busi- 
 ness in which you are especially interested. A clergyman 
 who was a diligent student once said to me that he kept one 
 foot of his compasses on the Bible, and with the other swept 
 over everything within reasonable distance. 
 
 Patiently hear, diligently seek for, and judge with judicial 
 fairness every adverse fact and argument, so that you may 
 not be disarmed by sudden objections. In doing this you 
 will probably find that upon subjects in which the public are 
 not actively interested their ideas are very crude and imper- 
 fect, and that in reference to others in which they take an
 
 554 English Grammar. 
 
 active part many of the arguments, assertions, and catch- 
 words that pass from mouth to mouth on both sides, and are 
 borne about by every wind that blows, are without value. 
 Dr. Franklin had a way of applying one of the principal 
 methods of algebra to social and political questions. He 
 arranged on opposite sides all the facts and arguments for 
 and against any proposition, and then proceeded to cancel 
 all that seemed to be worthless or to balance each other ; 
 and he formed his judgment upon the remainder. If the 
 subject to be treated involves a succession of dates, labor 
 will be saved by arranging these on a separate slip. When 
 you are ready to write, the necessary memorandums can be 
 picked out and arranged in the order in which they are to be 
 used. It will be a great advantage in writing to have all the 
 material either ready in your mind or conveniently placed 
 before you. 
 
 III. Having collected the necessary material, and weeded 
 out all that is irrelevant, the next point is to consider well 
 the bearing of each fact upon the others and upon the propo- 
 sition which you wish to establish. In doing this it is best 
 to be thoroughly honest with yourself. In giving your facts 
 to the public you may perhaps choose to present them 
 ,in a sort of dress parade each one of course a real soldier 
 and not a dummy in clothes but for your own purposes 
 it is better to view them in the undress of the arena with- 
 out a tag of ornament on them. You will thus come to 
 have a distinct bird's-eye view of the subject as a whole. 
 
 In order to write effectively you must write clearly ; and 
 for that clear thinking is indispensable. An artist, an archi- 
 tect, or machinist has his whole subject so clear in his mental 
 view as to see at once the effect that would follow a change 
 in any of the parts. I have seen a chess-player lie down 
 upon a sofa with his face to the wall and play against one a 
 little less expert, and win the game without once seeing the 
 board from beginning to end. He must have maintained 
 throughout a mental picture showing the position of every 
 piece, and seen the effect of every move, and the perfect 
 accuracy of his conceptions was proved by the result. This
 
 Suggestions to Young Writers. 555 
 
 is an ideal of clear thinking on a special subject, but an ideal 
 to be aspired towards in all. I feel shy of a doctrine that is 
 unthinkable, of an action that cannot be mentally repre- 
 sented. It will be a useful exercise to practise upon the 
 various questions that may arise, not only rinding answers 
 to them, but tracing with all possible accuracy the steps by 
 which results are brought about, and the principles on which 
 they depend. I give four questions in illustration, which 
 are at your service until better occur to you. 
 
 1. If the money in a country amount to $10 per capita, 
 and in ten years steadily advance till it reach $20, and then 
 in other ten years recede to $10, it will pass twice over the 
 ratio of $15. What will be the difference in effect upon 
 public prosperity and feeling between the ascending and the 
 descending ratio of $15 ? 
 
 2. Gresham, in the reign of Elizabeth, showed that bad 
 money drives out good ; and now it is found that the Euro- 
 pean rat drives out the Australian rat ; do the two phe- 
 nomena depend on the same principle ? 
 
 3. Why is there a limit to the size of animals? 
 
 4. Illustrate the principle of the syllogism to the eye by a 
 diagram. 
 
 Here is the fittest place to point out a useful distinction 
 between a question of fact and one of propriety or expedi- 
 ency. A question of fact is comparatively simple. An 
 assertion put forth as an existing fact is true, or it is not 
 true, or it differs from the truth by a measurable quantity. 
 If it is true that J. Wilkes Booth assassinated President 
 Lincoln, there is nothing in the universe of the least validity 
 to disprove it. But a question of advisability has generally 
 two good sides. It depends upon the effects of a proposed 
 action ; but those effects are multifarious, some favorable 
 and others unfavorable, and few of them definitely ascer- 
 tainable. A tariff or currency question is an equation 
 involving an indefinite number of unknown quantities. 
 Hence it is best to give priority to the ascertainment of 
 facts, partly because it is comparatively simple and partly 
 because the facts may help to determine the expediency,
 
 556 English Grammar. 
 
 but no considerations of expediency of profit or loss can 
 make or unmake a fact. 
 
 IV. Having mastered a subject in its details and as a 
 whole it is next to be considered in what order you will pre- 
 sent it. There is generally some one preferable to all others. 
 If much depend upon dates, a chronological order will proba- 
 bly be best. But this is only a single exemplification of a 
 broader principle that when one thing is necessary to the 
 understanding of another the explanatory one should come 
 first. The reason is that it is useless to present what the 
 reader is not prepared to understand. You must divine as 
 best you can what he already knows and thinks, begin at 
 that point and lead him on step by step. If an unbridged 
 gap intervene your words will be wasted. It is better to go 
 back a little and recapitulate briefly and clearly what most 
 people know already than run the risk of losing connection. 
 Many a fine discourse has been as water spilt on the sand 
 because it connected with nothing in the mind of the hearer. 
 I once heard Professor Pierce of Harvard deliver a public lec- 
 ture in which he repeatedly alluded in a passing careless way to 
 the great advantages derived from the method of polar s, just 
 as if every one were perfectly familiar with it ; whereas it is 
 not likely that one in ten had ever heard of polars before. 
 Hence in addressing a mixed audience it is better to aim 
 a little below the average intelligence, occasionally adding 
 something to satisfy the better class of minds. We are some- 
 times vexed by worthy people who out of extreme politeness 
 assume that we know everything already, and that it is only 
 necessary to allude delicately to a point here and there by 
 way of refreshing our memories. 
 
 The essential kernel of a book, a review, or newspaper 
 article can often be stated in a single sentence, of which all 
 the rest is only evidence and amplification. The reader 
 should never be left at a loss to know what that essential 
 point is. But we often read articles or hear addresses every 
 sentence of which, taken alone, is passably good, while we 
 are sadly puzzled to know what the whole is about. Such 
 want of point is a fatal defect.
 
 Suggestions to Young Writers. 557 
 
 In unfolding a subject step by step it will naturally and 
 without any special effort fall into a succession of short 
 divisions called paragraphs, each one of which will be seen to 
 present a consideration, argument, or little group of closely 
 connected facts easily distinguished from those of any other 
 similar division. The paragraph is a great feature in modern 
 authorship, and is in the interest of that clearness and dis- 
 tinctness so much prized by an active practical people. The 
 most valuable facts lose their force if they get mixed up 
 criss-cross-wise. 
 
 V. The language or choice of words to be employed is of 
 very great importance. Habitual reading of the best books 
 and associating with the best accessible company will with- 
 out any particular effort on your part supply a stock of words 
 sufficient for most purposes. One who aspires higher may 
 go through a large dictionary and mark unfamiliar words 
 that seem likely to be valuable acquisitions, and afterwards 
 go over, or even copy out, the words marked. Idiomatic 
 expressions can be got from people who live far from cities, 
 old books, and the by-ways of literature. 
 
 Words should be appropriate to the subject, and, as far as 
 possible, familiar to the persons addressed. Every considera- 
 ble field of human endeavor has its own vocabulary, and if 
 you know a subject well you know its appropriate terms, 
 yet many of these are to be addressed only to experts. In 
 relating to sailors your experience at sea use nautical phrases 
 liberally, but not in telling the same thing to farmers. Do 
 not address long Latin words to children or wheel-barrow 
 men, and never shoot over the heads of an auditory, making 
 a noise in the air and hitting nothing. Generally speaking 
 it is not well to use two words where one is enough, or a 
 long word where a short one will serve the purpose. Yet 
 one long word may be preferable to several short ones. A 
 succession of monosyllables is not elegant, and we tire of a 
 threadbare diction as readily as of one overloaded with orna- 
 ment. If phosphomolybdic be the one word that expresses 
 your meaning, that is the one to use, no matter for its length. 
 Let all your words be English, sound reliable English, and
 
 558 English Grammar. 
 
 nothing but English ; and when you speak of a spade call it 
 by its name, and when you mean hyperasthesia, say so. 
 
 A good deal has been said of late years about writing and 
 speaking vigorous Anglo-Saxon, sometimes, perhaps, by 
 persons who would not know Anglo-Saxon if they saw it. 
 The clamor for it sometimes amounts to that is of the 
 nature of a reaction against a style that long ago grew to be 
 an abuse. But a reaction against anything extreme is itself 
 apt to be an extreme. In the second chapter of this work 
 I have spoken of the several sources of English, and of the 
 limited capabilities of any of the elements alone. Not only 
 do we speak a mixed language, but almost every sentence is 
 mixed ; and we cannot speak without using words drawn from 
 several sources. Our language is like a river formed by the 
 confluence of four main streams and many subsidiary rills. 
 The first is the Anglo-Saxon element, most of which is alike 
 familiar to all, and without which scarcely a sentence can be 
 uttered ; yet it has not words for a fourth part of the ideas 
 of the nineteenth century. It is more especially the property 
 of the unlearned. The second is the stream of classical words 
 introduced through the medium of the French before A.D. 
 1500. Wherever necessary, they have been so far modified 
 in spelling, pronunciation, or meaning, as to become a har- 
 monious part of the language. They have never percolated 
 downward to any great extent below the intelligent indus- 
 trious classes. Thirdly, there is the direct Latin contribution 
 connected with the revival of learning in Europe, and dating 
 roughly from 1500 to 1800. During the latter two thirds of 
 that period a Latin diction so completely dominated litera- 
 ture as to provoke a reaction. The words being pronounced 
 according to English analogies offer no offence to the ear. 
 They are more especially the property of literary persons. 
 Lastly, there are the Greek terms appropriated by science, 
 which have increased with amazing rapidity since the middle 
 of last century. The greater part of them are known only 
 to scientific specialists. Whoever knows any one of the 
 four parts as enumerated is presumably familiar with those 
 that precede. All are equally proper in their places.. ., ;
 
 Suggestions to Young Writers. 559 
 
 It often happens that we have words of kindred meaning 
 from two or three different sources, thus : 
 
 SAXON FRENCH LATIN 
 
 begin commence initiate * 
 
 care anxiety solicitude 
 
 deal traffic negotiate 
 
 earn deserve merit 
 
 feud enmity hostility 
 
 greedy covetous mercenary 
 
 harm damage detriment 
 
 ill-timed unseasonable inopportune 
 
 kernel core nucleus 
 
 lessen diminish extenuate 
 
 mirth drollery jocularity 
 
 needy poor indigent 
 
 open frank ingenuous 
 
 plight condition predicament 
 
 quicken revive reanimate 
 
 scold blame abjurgate 
 
 twit reproach reprehend 
 
 These triple lines, where they exist unbroken, afford a 
 valuable and much needed variety of expression ; but in a 
 majority of instances there are not more than two, or even 
 one. Still, this is not the only source of variety. We some- 
 times find several words nearly synonymous where two of 
 these lines are wanting. 
 
 Adjacent, adjoining, contiguous, conterminous. 
 Translucent, transparent, transpicuous, diaphanous. 
 
 When the reign of Latinity was at its highest, it was not 
 uncommon to meet with sentences in which every significant 
 word was in some way derived from that language. 
 
 " A citizen of Ancyra had prepared for his own use a purple gar- 
 ment; and this indiscreet action, which, under the reign of Con- 
 stantius, would have been considered a capital offense, was reported 
 to Julian by the officious importunity of a private enemy" 
 
 GIBBON. 
 
 1 American "inaugurate."
 
 560 English Grammar. 
 
 This was the diction of the schools, and was sometimes 
 far outdone. In this country those who received what was 
 thought a careful education fifty or sixty years ago were 
 taught to employ, both in speaking and writing, as many 
 and as long words of Latin origin as it was possible to crowd 
 together. Their speech was full of euphemisms like these : 
 
 Instead of drunkard, say, a gentleman who habitually in- 
 dulges in the immoderate use of alcoholic stimulants. 
 
 Scold : a lady who permits herself to employ vituperative 
 language, or to apply epithets. 
 
 Pot : a domestic utensil adapted to culinary uses. And 
 Dr. Johnson's idea of a network was " anything reticulated 
 or decussated at equal distances with interstices between the 
 intersections" 
 
 Many worthy people became seemingly incapable of speak- 
 ing in any other way. It is not to be wondered at that 
 a reaction and demand for Anglo-Saxon set in, or that it 
 was sometimes extreme and misjudged. So completely had 
 Latinity overmastered all minds that those who were most 
 anxious for Anglo-Saxon knew no Saxon words in which to 
 ask for it. The following sentence is not without a touch 
 of unintentional humor on that account. 
 
 " But the coinage of anglicised words of Latin origin is still too 
 abundant, and either overload the language by their superfluity 
 or enfeeble it by dilution, and by distinctions without differences." 
 
 It is, however, of no practical importance from what source 
 our words are derived, so long as they are well understood 
 and their sound is in harmony with the general tone and 
 cadence of the language. 
 
 VI. Sentences should be neither so short as to appear 
 abrupt and jerky, so long as to tire the reader, or so intricate 
 that he will lose his way in their windings. They are too 
 various to admit of rules ; but in every sentence a distinct 
 and clear idea should be clearly expressed. These require- 
 ments are best appreciated when they have been neglected. 
 Here are two faulty sentences from the North American Re- 
 view, on which it is scarcely necessary to make any comment.
 
 Suggestions to Young Writers. 561 
 
 " The final proof of song or personality is a sort of matured, 
 accreted, superb, evoluted, almost divine, impalpable diffuseness 
 and atmosphere or invisible magnetism, dissolving and embracing 
 all, and not any special achievement of passion, pride, metrical 
 form, epigram, plot, thought, or what is called beauty." No- 
 vember, 1890. 
 
 " Even if man was all that he might be, woman would still 
 have wanted a profession, because a cause appeals to latent 
 chivalry, and because the sense of personality has been weakened 
 by the slow growth of causes." February, 1891. 
 
 Neither of these would be made any clearer by giving the 
 context. 
 
 Before the year 1500 English had become a well devel- 
 oped, lucid, pleasant medium of communication. I give in 
 illustration a few sentences from Caxton's " History of 
 Troy," date of 1471, merely modernizing some of the spell- 
 ing, as that is not a point of importance here. 
 
 " Then prayed the Greeks that they might set the horse of 
 brass within the temple of Pallas, for the restitution of the Pal- 
 ladium, to the end that the goddess Pallas might be to them 
 agreeable in their return. And as the king Priam answered not 
 thereto, ^Eneas and Antenor said to him that it should be well 
 done, and that it should be honor to the city ; howbeit the king 
 Priam accorded it with evil will. Then the Greeks received the 
 gold and silver and the wheat that was promised to them, and 
 sent and put it into their ships. After these things they went all 
 in manner of procession and in devotion with their priests, and 
 began with strength of cords to draw the horse of brass into the 
 city. And for as much as by the gate it might not enter into the 
 city, it was so great, therefore they brake the wall of the city in 
 length and height in such wise as it entered within the town ; and 
 the Trojans received it with great joy." 
 
 It was this style slightly modified that was employed for 
 the successive translations of the Bible from Tyndale to 
 King James, which deserve more than Chaucer to be called 
 "the well of English undefiled." It is toward this early 
 
 type that the last half of the nineteenth century is now re- 
 36
 
 562 English Grammar. 
 
 turning. An exact imitation is no longer possible or de- 
 sirable ; but its straightforward clearness is an admirable 
 corrective of turgidity, bombast, and obscurity. 
 
 Those who make and manipulate laws have a superstition 
 that whatever they have to say must all be said in one sen- 
 tence, however many pages it may fill. It is also felt that 
 all contingencies and misconceptions must be guarded 
 against by provisos, repetitions, and explanations. Hence 
 legal documents are wordy, wearisome, and obscure, and in 
 short the worst of all human compositions. To illustrate 
 this labyrinthic character of legal language, I quote about 
 one third of a sentence describing the boundaries of Rock 
 Creek Park at Washington. It would not be any clearer if 
 the other two thirds were added. If any one can understand 
 it I bow to his superior intelligence. 
 
 " The initial point begins on the north of the Blagden Mills 
 road at a point where it is intersected by the west line of i6th 
 street extended ; thence it runs north, following the line of i6th 
 street extended until intersected by a line running from east to 
 west, which line will cut off from the northeastern part of the 
 park, as mapped out on the first trial map and included between 
 the straight lines of the said trial maps, as many acres as the 
 present boundary lines will include in the projection beyond the 
 west of the straight lines in said trial map." 
 
 Latin had already been the language of law and diplo- 
 macy for many generations before the beginning of that 
 ascendancy which it attained in the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth centuries. Legal Latin then infected the Latin of 
 the schools with its own endless wordiness and trivial pro- 
 visos, and in time infected English prose, just as the same 
 causes have made the literary language of Germany what it 
 now is. The writings of some of the great lights of Eng- 
 lish literature are not much more lively reading than a deed 
 in entail or an indictment for manslaughter. Milton wrote 
 sentences of three or four hundred words, and I venture to 
 introduce one of the more moderate here as an example to 
 be avoided :
 
 Suggestions to Young Writers. 563 
 
 " And for the usual method of teaching arts, I deem it to be an 
 old errour of universities, not yet well recovered from the scho- 
 lastic grossness of barbarous ages, that instead of beginning with 
 arts most easy, (and those be such as are most obvious to the 
 sense,) they present their young immatriculated novices at first 
 coming with the most intellective abstractions of logic and meta- 
 physics ; so that they having but newly left those grammatic flats 
 and shallows where they stuck unreasonably to learn a few words 
 with lamentable construction, and now on the sudden transported 
 under another climate to be tossed and turmoiled with their 
 unballasted wits in fathomless and unquiet depths of controversy, 
 do for the most part grow into hatred and contempt of learning, 
 mocked and deluded all this while with ragged notions and bab- 
 blements, while they expected worthy and delightful knowledge ; 
 till poverty or youthful years call them importunately their 
 several ways, and hasten them with the sway of friends either to an 
 ambitious and mercenary, or ignorantly zealous divinity ; some 
 allured to the trade of law, grounding their purposes not on the 
 prudent and heavenly contemplation of justice and equity, which 
 was never taught them, but on the promising and pleasing 
 thoughts of litigious terms, fat contentions, an'd flowing fees ; 
 others betake them to state affairs, with souls so unprincipled in 
 virtue and true generous breeding, that flattery and courtships 
 and tyrannous aphorisms appear to them the highest points of 
 wisdom ; instilling their barren hearts with conscientious slavery ; 
 if, as I rather think, it be not feigned." " Of Education." 
 
 In vol. ii. of Milton's prose works, edited by Symmons, may 
 be found at page 339, in certain articles of agreement, the 
 beginning of a sentence of 910 words, covering two whole 
 pages and part of two others. Milton, although a conspicu- 
 ous example of this style, was no exception. 
 
 The combination of law and Latin was thus developing 
 a language of the learned, not in sympathy with the body 
 of the people or fit for any of the purposes of active life. 
 Fortunately it was not permitted to continue as a literary 
 standard. It was first effectively met by the pioneers of the 
 newspaper press. The journalist does not sit in a well 
 stocked library meditating theses for the entertainment of 
 scholars. He has to write on the spur of the moment, often
 
 564 English Grammar. 
 
 without preparation or revision, about the events and the 
 questions of the day in a way to interest and inform the 
 body of the people. His excellences and his shortcomings 
 grow out of those conditions. Hence it is in no small 
 degree due to such literary hacks as L' Estrange and Defoe, 
 and their imitators, that there is now in English a literature 
 that can be read and a people who are pleased to read it. 
 
 The long sentence with its endless convolutions was the 
 first to give way, and people were content for more than a 
 century to accept Latin and its derivatives in any quantity, 
 if only put up in small packages, but latterly there has been 
 an increasing demand for short and simple native words. In 
 words and in sentences it is safe now to use a good deal of 
 freedom, being careful only to avoid all extremes on the 
 one hand and on the other a tiresome monotony. 
 
 VII. An idiom is a figure of speech become so familiar by 
 long use, that it is no longer regarded as a figure, but as a 
 literal truth. Yet it is like any figure in this, that if its 
 words be taken in their primary literal meaning it is either 
 untrue or nonsense. 
 
 He fell in with a batch of old salts spinning yarns. 
 " One half the prayers with Jove acceptance find, 
 The other half he whistles down the wind." 
 
 The boundary between idiom and slang has never been 
 established, or between either and metaphor. They are 
 slang when too low or coarse. To be an idiom an expression 
 must be perfectly established and understood. It should be 
 shorter than any literal equivalent, and is then apt and 
 forcible. 
 
 Idiomatic. The fire has gone out. 
 
 Literal. The process of combustion has ceased. 
 
 One who attempted to avoid idioms would be insufferably 
 stiff and tedious. 
 
 While idioms should be so old as to be familiar to every- 
 body, metaphors and similes are best when perfectly new. 
 They are not only entirely proper but they may be an
 
 Suggestions to Young Writers. 565 
 
 admirable help when they are apt, fit well in the connection 
 in which they are placed and occur naturally in your way of 
 thinking of your subject. They are not to be hunted down 
 and dragged in by force. 
 
 Anecdotes, if well managed, are of great use in oral ad- 
 dresses, but have little value in writing. It is not because they 
 are idle and empty-headed that stump orators indulge so much 
 in stories. In reading a book you may lay it aside when 
 tired and resume it again at leisure, but a speech must be 
 heard through at a sitting. If it be an intellectual pem- 
 mican of fact and argument, the mind soon tires in the 
 effort to take in and digest materials so solid : and a little fun 
 thrown in here and there gives a needful rest, and acts like a 
 recess for a school of children. You of course understand 
 that stories and figures of speech are embellishments that 
 serve only for relief or' amusement, and that no amount of 
 them can prove anything. 
 
 VIII. Some things are to be avoided with conscientious 
 care. Among them are all slang and low, coarse or unclean 
 expressions, all puns, playing upon the sound of words, and 
 paltering in a double sense. As Artemus Ward said, they 
 are not funny ; they edify no one and please no one who 
 has any claim to be pleased. Avoid also all those phrases 
 that are continually starting up like weeds and are in every- 
 body's mouth, enjoying a nine days' popularity. Quotations 
 of apt phrases and lines of poetry should be admitted spar- 
 ingly. As a rule employ no French or other foreign words. 
 To many good people they are unintelligible or unpronounce- 
 able ; and unless your knowledge be very accurate there is 
 a chance of their being incorrect. They are in bad taste and 
 wholly out of tune ; and moreover the chances are a thou- 
 sand to one that there are words enough in English to tell 
 more than you know. Do not clothe little thoughts in big 
 words. The effect is less disagreeable when the words seem 
 unequal to the weight of sense they have to bear. Do not 
 " inaugurate " a new style of shearing your " phenomenal" 
 poodle. Moreover, great things may be said simply. When 
 very young I read these words in a book that was then old :
 
 566 English Grammar. 
 
 " And he that sat upon the throne said, Behold I make all 
 things new." 
 
 A fifth-grade newspaper would now express it thus : 
 
 And the occupant of the celestial divan announced his deter- 
 mination of immediately inaugurating an essentially novel 
 regime. 
 
 Two words, " inaugurate " and " regime," would be indis- 
 pensable. If the Anglo-Saxon reformers sometimes let 
 their zeal carry them a little too far, what a debt of grati- 
 tude is due them for raising a protest against such verbiage ! 
 
 Another thing to be avoided is unnecessary arithmetical 
 figures. In the present age there is a craze for statistics, 
 even if they point nowhere. There is a popular saying that 
 figures do not lie ; but those who are better informed are 
 aware that they are mercenary troops that fight with equal 
 readiness on either side of any dispute. The possible com- 
 binations of numbers are infinite, and some of them may be 
 made to seem to favor any proposition whatever. Hence a 
 cautious man will always distrust your figures except the few 
 that he knows already, and those he need not be told. You 
 will sometimes see a public man stand up in a crowded hall 
 and read page after page of exports and imports of the past 
 twenty years, and the guessed values of farms, buildings, and 
 live stock in 44 States, of all of which not a grain sticks in 
 the memory of any one. The audience sit wearily thinking 
 of something else, and go away with a tired feeling of hav- 
 ing heard of something vacant and vast. The figures may 
 or may not be misleading; they are certain not to be 
 remembered. 
 
 In writing it is sometimes necessary to introduce numeri- 
 cal statements ; but then they should be few and presented 
 with all possible clearness. If your point be to prove the 
 rapid growth of Porkopolis, it will be sufficient to show that 
 the number of pigs killed there has steadily risen in ten years 
 from 53 to 53,000,000; you can then afford to dispense with 
 the statistics of beer and several other things.
 
 Suggestions to Young Writers. 567 
 
 Nouns and verbs are the bones and muscles of language, 
 that give it form and strength. Adjectives should be em- 
 ployed sparingly and with discretion. Adjectives that describe 
 sandy, calcareous, white, liquid, circular, fibrous, are of 
 course to be used wherever necessary ; but it is better not to 
 be profuse with those that are intended merely to depreciate 
 or to raise admiration. They give an inflated appearance, and 
 are a great source of weakness. The same is true of adverbs 
 derived from adjectives. So, too, pronouns need to be han- 
 dled with great care. They are a lazy makeshift contrivance 
 to save the labor of naming things. The greatest source of 
 ambiguity and uncertainty in common conversation is the 
 continual repetition of he, she, it, they, this, that, the other, 
 when people will not take the trouble to name what they are 
 talking about. The following is a sentence from a sermon 
 preached by Archbishop Tillotson before the king and 
 queen : 
 
 " Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, 
 and think that their reputation obscures them, and that their 
 commendable qualities do stand in their light ; and therefore they 
 do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shin- 
 ing of their virtues may not scorch them." 
 
 Even ill-sounding words and combinations are objectiona- 
 ble. They can be detected by reading aloud carefully and 
 distinctly ; and the faculty of detecting faults will improve 
 by use. Whatever sounds badly is not well written. Some 
 words like deprecatory, peremptorily, speculative-ness, are ca- 
 cophonous however they may be placed ; but a much com- 
 moner fault is the recurrence of similar sounds that do not 
 well go together because the laws cause, some come from 
 home, a single glass, he ran on in an unintelligible harangue. 
 Roofless is well enough, but shingleless would be bad ; skill- 
 less and tailless are not much better, and there is altogether 
 too much sibillation in successlessness. In general it is not 
 desirable to have the same word occur twice in a sentence, 
 or end two successive short sentences. It is even worth 
 while to take some little pains to have a word ending with a
 
 568 English Grammar. 
 
 vowel followed by one beginning with a consonant, and to 
 have consonants followed by vowels. 
 
 IX. The naturalist Buff on is credited with saying that 
 the style is the man, the plain English of which seems to be 
 that every one has a way of expressing his thoughts as dis- 
 tinctive of the individual as his voice or features. While 
 it should be the constant aim to correct all errors and remedy 
 all defects, no effort should be made to form a style by imi- 
 tation. The habitual and appreciative reading of good 
 authors will influence your style without your thinking of it. 
 Having a stock of words acquired by reading and having 
 mastered your subject as a whole and in its details, tell your 
 story in your own words and in your own way without any 
 thought about style or fine writing. If time be allowed you, 
 lay aside your manuscript until you have in a manner for- 
 gotten it and can see it with something like the eyes of a 
 stranger. Then go over it carefully, strike out every word 
 that can be spared, change every word and every sentence 
 that can be changed for the better, and leave the rest unal- 
 tered.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Absolute clauses, 523. 
 Accent, 187. 
 
 " in Arabic and Icelandic, 44. 
 Acrostics in the Bible, 112. 
 Adjective clauses, 515. 
 
 " pronouns, 333. 
 Adjectives, 288, 513. 
 
 comparison of, 294. 
 declension of, 293. 
 formation of, 289. 
 " plural, 292. 
 
 Adverbial clauses, 520. 
 Adverbs, 476. 
 Agglutination, 8l. 
 
 Alexandrian Museum and Library, 47. 
 Alphabet, defects of our, 123. 
 
 first appearance of, 109. 
 modifications of, in Eng- 
 land, 122. 
 table of, 129. 
 the, among the Greeksy 118. 
 
 " in Italy, 119. 
 what it should be, 123. 
 Alphabetic writing, 94. 
 Alphabets of Lepsius and Ellis, 128, 
 
 I3i- 
 
 Analysis of the Dictionary, 36. 
 
 Anglian element in English, 14. 
 
 Anomalies of pronunciation and spell- 
 ing, 195. 
 
 Anticipating sounds that are to follow, 
 163. 
 
 Apposition, 515. 
 
 Articles, 335. 
 
 Articulate sounds, 127. 
 
 Aspirates, 159. 
 
 Aspiration, 159, 170. 
 
 Assimilation of foreign materials, 34. 
 
 Auxiliary the real verb, 474, 521. 
 
 Auxiliary verbs, 372. 
 
 Be, 413. 
 
 Best or better of the two, 30x4. 
 Bilingual inscriptions, 106. 
 Buddhist missionaries, 98. 
 
 Can, 400. 
 
 Cases of nouns, 275. 
 Celtic element in English, 12. 
 Cherokee syllabary, 101. 
 Children as language-makers, 4. 
 Chinese writing, 96. 
 Classification, 222. 
 Cockneyism, 159. 
 Codex Argenteus, 9. 
 Compounding words, 56. 
 Compound tenses, 430. 
 Condition of England under the Nor- 
 mans, 18. 
 Conjugation, 415. 
 Conjugations, 351. 
 Corean alphabet, 98. 
 Cuneiform writing, 103. 
 Cyprus patera, the, 113. 
 
 Dare, 407. 
 
 Declension in Sanskrit and Hebrew, 
 
 84. 
 
 Demonstrative pronouns, 333. 
 Derivatives, 79. 
 Devanagari, 100. 
 Development by inflectional endings, 
 
 8p. 
 
 by internal changes, 86. 
 Do, 405. 
 
 Early English grammars, 48. 
 Egyptian hieroglyphics, 105. 
 Ending -eth changed to -es, 420. 
 English and American usages, 193. 
 Eshmunazar, inscription of, 116. 
 
 Foreign words in different authors, 39. 
 Forms of the letters, 112. 
 French eagerly learned, 19. 
 French element in English, 15. 
 
 " plurals, 251. 
 Fundamental sound in language, 127. 
 
 Gender, 228. 
 Gothic, 9. 
 
 509
 
 570 
 
 Index. 
 
 Grammar, a descriptive science, 50. 
 ' ' and Lexicography compared , 
 
 43- 
 
 beginnings of, 46. 
 divisions of, 217. 
 Max Miiller's idea of, 44. 
 not indispensable, 46. 
 What does it teach ? 43, 50. 
 Greek element in English, 30. 
 
 plurals, 248. 
 Grimm's Law, 132. 
 
 Have, 408. 
 
 Hebrew plurals, 251. 
 
 " square letters, 117. 
 Hieratic writing, 108. 
 Homonyms, 58. 
 Hybrid words, 79. 
 
 Imperative mood, 457. 
 Inconsistency of our spelling, 138. 
 Indicative mood, 442. 
 Infinitive " 463. 
 
 " with to< 463, 465. 
 Inflection, extent of, in other lan- 
 guages, 45. 
 
 Instability of language, 3. 
 Interrogative pronoun, 327. 
 Irish pronunciation, 155. 
 " Is being," 473. 
 Italian plurals, 252. 
 Italics, 121. 
 
 Japan, introduction of writing into, 99. 
 
 Language, changes of, 4. 
 families of, 9. 
 of animals, 52. 
 what it must be capable 
 of, 221. 
 Latin, books written in, 16, 20. 
 
 " plurals, 245. 
 Law Latin, 17. 
 Layamon, 20. 
 
 Laziness a factor in word-making, 56. 
 Legal French, 17. 
 " maxims, 17. 
 Let, 402. 
 Letters, intruded, 149. 
 
 " small, invention of, 121. 
 " that preserve their sounds, 
 146. 
 
 Like, used as a preposition, 488. 
 Loss of inflections, 24. 
 
 May, 373. 
 
 Mexican picture writing, 96. 
 
 Moabite stone, the, 113. 
 
 Moods, 440. 
 
 Must, 401. 
 
 Names of the letters, 109. 
 
 " " in Italy, 120. 
 Negative, double, 530. 
 
 the, 483. 
 
 Nimroud weights, 116. 
 Norman Conquest, 15. 
 Nouns, 225. 
 
 " factitious, 265. 
 
 of aggregation, 541. 
 " that mimic humanity, 264. 
 " " " plurality, 264. 
 Number, 235. 
 Numerals, 337. 
 
 Obelisk of Philse, 107. 
 Object, 510. 
 
 " indirect, 519. 
 Order of the letters, 112. 
 " of words, 511, 524. 
 Organs of speech, 125. 
 Ormulum, the, 20. 
 Ought, 404. 
 
 Palatalization, 152. 
 Participle, past, 468, 471. 
 
 present, 468. 
 Participles, 468. 
 Parts of speech, 224. 
 Passive voice, 472. 
 Person and number of verbs, 416. 
 Persons of nouns, 287. 
 Phonetic pictures, 95. 
 " spelling, 205. 
 Picture writing, 94. 
 Plural of compound nouns, 254. 
 Plurals, irregular, 239. 
 
 ' ' of foreign words, 244. 
 " peculiar, 265. 
 Possessive pronouns, 336. 
 Predicate, 510. 
 Prefixes, 59. 
 Prepositions, 485. 
 Pronoun of the first person, 309. 
 
 " second person, 313. 
 " " " third person, 316. 
 Pronouns, 307. 
 
 " classes of, 308. 
 " personal, 308. 
 " syntax of, 439. 
 Pronunciation, and spelling, when 
 
 they agree, 138. 
 often unsettled, 139. 
 precedes spelling, 138. 
 Protasis and apodosis, 395. 
 
 Rebus a step towards writing, 95. 
 Reduplication, 350. 
 Reflexive pronoun, 323, 539. 
 Relative pronouns, 328.
 
 Index. 
 
 57 
 
 Rhotacism, 243. 
 Roots, 55. 
 
 Rosetta Stone, the, 106. 
 Runic alphabet, 112. 
 
 Saxon element in English, 12. 
 Scandinavian element in English, 
 
 . &tf, 539- 
 Sentence, the, 509. 
 Sentences, affirmative, 509-529. 
 
 different kinds of, 509. 
 imperative, 536. 
 interrogative, 535. 
 negative, 529. 
 Shemitic alphabet, 109. 
 Shortening of words, 142. 
 Silent letters, 146. 
 Silver Book, the, 9. 
 Sounds in Anglo-Saxon, 140. 
 Sounds, scale of, represented, 144. 
 Sources of English, 12. 
 Spelling formerly unsettled, 143. 
 " phonetic, 205. 
 " principles of, 178. 
 " proposed reforms in, 212. 
 Strong verbs, 351. 
 Subject, 510, 513. 
 
 " grammatical, 517. 
 " logical, 517. 
 Subjunctive mood, 444. 
 Suffixes, 70. 
 
 Symbolism, 95. 
 Syntax, 506. 
 
 Tenses, 422. 
 Termination -ed, 366. 
 
 Ulphilas, his translations of Scripture, 
 
 9- 
 
 Uncial letters, 121. 
 Unstable letters, 148. 
 
 Verbal nouns, 463. 
 Verbs, 343. 
 
 " impersonal, 348. 
 intransitive, 346. 
 reflexive, 347. 
 
 " syntax of, 520, 547. 
 
 " transitive, 346. 
 Vowels, 130. 
 Vowel shifting, 154. 
 Vowels, influence of one upon another, 
 
 83- 
 Vowel sounds grow thinner, 154. 
 
 Weights, set of, from Nimroud, 116. 
 WzY/and shall, 377. 
 Words at first monosyllabic, 54. 
 
 " borrowed, of what kind, 24, 27. 
 
 " invention of, 53. 
 
 ' ' primitive end in vowels, 54. 
 
 " that are mistakes, 91. 
 Worth, as a preposition, 538. 
 
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