THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR i mssss pi HI IBRARY nlVSRSlTYOF CALIFORNIA THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR AN HISTORICAL STUDY OF THE SOURCES, DEVELOPMENT, AND ANALOGIES OF THE LANGUAGE AND OF THE PRINCIPLES GOVERNING ITS USAGES ILLUSTRATED BY COPIOUS EXAMPLES FROM WRITERS OF ALL PERIODS SAMUEL RAMSEY G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS NEW YORK LONDON 37 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET 24 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND &t ^nichtrbotktr ^rws 1892 COPYRIGHT, 1892 BY SAMUEL RAMSEY Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by Ubc Knickerbocker press, TAcw V?orfe G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS PREFACE. MUCH of what is contained in the following pages was first written for purposes of private instruction, and without any view to publication ; but as one chapter was added after another, it began to be thought that some portions might interest a larger class of readers. There are many persons who would be glad to know more about the English language than can be gained from the formal routine of the public schools, who, nevertheless, are unable to procure and read the great number of valuable works on the subject that have issued from the press within a period of fifty years. Such persons are in a position to appreciate a work taking a somewhat wider view than the common text-books, and presenting some of the more familiar results of modern philology. There are two classes for whom this book is not intended. The first are those who are already familiar with all the results of past labors, and who, therefore, can find nothing here to add to their present ample stores of knowledge, there being no claim to original discovery or invention. The second class are those who neither know or care anything about the history or philology of their native tongue. Between these extremes is the large and important class who already know something and desire to know more. There was a fable of the Rabbins that the first pair of blacksmith's tongs were made during the six days of cre- ation, because, without such primordial instrumentality, no tool could ever have been fashioned. I cannot but think that many have unconsciously imbibed a somewhat similar belief in regard to English grammar. It may not be distinctly taught, but everything tends to impress the learner with a iv Preface. vague idea that the rules laid down in his manual were ordained " in the beginning," and have remained unchanged and unchangeable ever since, and that in the fulness of time the English language was made in obedience to them. The reader of these pages will have an opportunity to become acquainted with the opposite doctrine that language, so far as we are acquainted with it, is a human product, subject like others to evolution and mutation as liable to change as the forms of our garments or our dwellings, and that the office of grammar is not to go before and decree what men shall say, but to follow after and describe what they do say. S. R. ERRATA. Page 19, line 23, for acres, read races. " " " " for Higdon, read Trevisa. 21 " iS,f0r ne spe, read nes fe. " 63 " 6, for extradition, raz</ extrajudicial. " 65 " ZZ,f or puine, raz</ puine. 71 " 4, for ac-ia, read at-ia. 73 4i t forfam t read far. " 76 29, yi?r /zV, like, read ling. " 134 " 2$, for fuss, read Fuss. " 181 " 22,f0rt's,read/'s. " 2 39 " 3 2 > Note, There was also a pural, cildra, or cildru. " 242 " 29 if, for fit, gis, tit5, read fet, ges, teS. " 2 93>f or t* 16 initial pa, rm^/-everywhere pa. " 294, line 22, for preceded, r^dt^did not precede. " 324 " 20, for ipsi, readipse. " 347 " 21, for Ir J^, read\\se. " " " 22, /0r Venir j^, r^a^ Venire. " 359 " Zif or grafen, razd' grave. " 364 " 28,y<9r sow, read saw. " 375 " i8,for wollede and shullede, read wolde and sceolde. " 412 " 2g,for levdeyr, read levy r. " 428 " 29, /-<?^/ 1 did not hear it. " 436 " 25, 28, y<?r ecrire, read ecrire. " 440 " 4, /c?r thries, r^d!</ thrice. " 445 " 1 9, /^ f and-e, r^^/ f und-e. " 21, for fanth-um, /-^</ f unth-ura. yi?r fand, r^^^/ fund-on. " " " 22,/^rfanth-uth, rw? funth-uth. /<?/ fund-e, r^</ fund-on. " " 23, /(?/- fanth-un, raz</ funth-un. for fand, r<?^/ fund-on. " 463 u 1 9, for lie, read like. 11 467 " 9, /<?r gesoth, read geseoth. " 480 22, for five, read lice. " 504 " *, f r CONTENTS. PART FIRST. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Chapter I. THE INSTABILITY OF LANGUAGE ..... 3 Chapter II. THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH 12 Chapter III. THE PROVINCE OF GRAMMAR ..... 43 Chapter IV. WORD-MAKING 53 Chapter V. THE ALPHABET ........ 94 Chapter VI. GRIMM'S LAW 132 Chapter VII. PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING ..... 138 PART SECOND. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Chapter I. PRELIMINARY 217 Chapter II. NOUNS 225 Chapter III. ADJECTIVES ......... 288 Chapter IV. PRONOUNS ......... 307 Chapter V. VERB AND THEIRS SEVERAL KINDS .... 343 Chapter VI. AUXILIARY VERBS 372 Chapter VII. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS 415 Chapter VIII. ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS . . 476 Chapter IX. SYNTAX ......... 506 Chapter X. SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG WRITERS . . . .552 INDEX 569 PART FIRST. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER I. THE INSTABILITY OF LANGUAGE. A LANGUAGE in common use is subject to continual change. Old words sink into disuse, or become altered in sound or signification ; and new ones are constructed or introduced. Two principal causes accelerate this transformation the commingling of diverse races, and a change of habits, ideas, and pursuits. The vocabulary of a simple pastoral people would entirely fail to meet the wants of modern civilization, with its attendant arts and sciences, while the loss of any art or body of ideas would be followed by the disuse of its peculiar terms. Several causes also contribute to retard change, among which are freedom from foreign influence ; political, religious, or literary bonds of union among the inhabitants of a considerable area ; and a continuance of the same mode of life. The sanctuaries of Jerusalem and Mecca, and the Olympic games at Elis brought together people of kindred blood and faith ; and such great works as the He- brew Bible, the poems of Homer, the Koran, and the author- ized German and English versions of the Bible have had a most powerful conservative influence on their respective languages. Dr. Schliemann found the Iliad and Odyssey still understood and appreciated by the villagers of Greece two thousand five hundred years after the text was settled by Pisistratus. 3 4 The English Language. Change seems to be spontaneous and inevitable, beyond all requirements of utility, as evidenced by the great variety of pronunciations found in dictionaries and in common use, and the frequent introduction of new words when the old ones are equally good. The change, in small, undeveloped communities, is sometimes surprisingly rapid. Waldeck, who labored as a missionary in Central America, completed a dictionary of one of the native languages in 1823. Re- turning to the same tribe after an absence of ten years, he found his dictionary already antiquated and useless. How this is brought about is very graphically shown by Robert Moffat, a missionary in Southern Africa. He says : " The purity and harmony of language are kept up by their pitches and public meetings, by their festivals and ceremonies, as well as by their songs and their constant intercourse. With the isolated villages of the desert it is far otherwise ; they have no such meetings ; they are compelled to travel, often to a great distance from their homes and native villages. On such occasions fathers and mothers, and all who can bear a burden, often set out for weeks at a time, and leave their children to the care of two or three infirm old people. The infant progeny, some of whom are beginning to lisp, while others can just master a whole sentence, and those still further advanced, romping and playing together, the children of nature, through the live-long day, become habitu- ated to a language of their own. The more voluble condescend to the less precocious ; and thus from this infant Babel proceeds a dialect of a host of mongrel words and phrases, joined together without rule, and in the course of one generation the entire character of the language is changed" 1 In some such way were produced the countless languages and dialects of the native American tribes. Even in Europe, where some kind of national literature is rarely wanting, the same tendency to separation has been at work with a force proportioned to the prevailing ignorance and disorganization. The early Celtic population of the British Islands became in time separated into five mutually unintelligible branches ; 1 Mttller's " Lectures on Language," vol. i. The Instability of Language. 5 the Basques in the adjoining provinces of France and Spain, numbering little more than half a million, have their mother tongue split into seven dialects ; and in Friesland the travel- ler encounters a different form of speech in every village. The gradual transformation of the English tongue may be illustrated by a series of selections reaching back to a time when the language becomes wholly unintelligible. The words which would not be used now, at least in the same sense, are distinguished by italics. DAVID HUME, 1761. " He promised that the present grandeur of Harold's family, which supported itself with difficulty under the jealousy and hatred of Edward, should receive new increase from a successor who would be so greatly beholden to him for his advancement." JOHN LOCKE, 1687. " If we will disbelieve everything because we cannot certainly know all things ; we shall do tnuchwhat as wisely as he who would not use his legs, but sit still and perish because he had no wings to fly." SIR PHILIP SIDNEY, 1580. " There were hills which garnished their proud heights with stately trees ; humble valleys whose base estate seemed comforted with the refreshing of silver rivers ; meadows enamelled with all sorts of eye-pleasing flowers ; thickets, which being lined with the most pleasing shade, were witnessed so to by the cheerful dispo- sition of many well-tuned birds ; each pasture stored with sheep, feeding with sober security, while the pretty lambs, with bleating oratory, craved the dam's comfort ; here a shepherd piping as though he would never be old ; there a young shepherdess knit- ting and withal singing ; and it seemed that her voice comforted her hands to work, and her hands kept time to her voice music." Although we are now too busy and business-like to indulge in a style of such knightly and dainty elaboration, it will be readily seen that the language itself has scarcely changed in three hundred years. 6 The English Language. SIR JOHN FORTESCUE, 1470. " It hath ben often seen in England that iij or ij theves for povertie hath sett upon vij or vj true men and robbed them al. But it hath not been seen in France that vij or viij theves have ben hardy to robbe iij or iv true men. Wherefore it is right seld that Frenchmen be hangyed for robberye, for that they have no hertys to do so terrible an acte. There be therefor mo men hangyed in England in a jwr for robberye and manslaughter than there & hangyd'vo. Fraunce for such cause of crime in vij yers" SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE, ABOUT 1370. " Theflrestes of that temple han alle here wrytynges, undre the date of the /0#/ that is clept Fenix ; and there is non but on in alle the world. And he comethe to brenne him self upon the awtere of the temple, at the zafc of j" hundred 3<?<?r J . for so longe he lyvethe. And at the jw Zeres ende, the prestes arrayen here awtere honestly and putten thereupon spices and sulphur vif and other thinges that wolen brenne lightly. And than the brid Fenix comethe and brennethe him self to ashes. And the first day next aftre, men fynden in the ashes a worm ; and the secunde day next a//>v, men funden a r*tf ^2^^ and perfyt ; and the thridde day next d//r*, he fleethe his ze/^y. And so there is no mo briddes of that kynde in #//<? the world, but it allone. And treuly that is a -r<?/ myracle of God. And men may well lykne that r>v/ unto God, be cause that there nys no God but on, and, also, that oure lord aroos fro dethe to lyve the thridde day." PROCLAMATION OF HENRY III., 1258. " Jfenr' thurl godes fultume King on Engleneloande. Lhoauerd on Yrloand'. Duk on Norm* on Aquitain' and eorl on Aniow. Send igretinge to alle hise halde ilarde and ileawede on Hunt- endon 1 sehir' that witen 3<? wel alle that we -willen and vnnen that, that vre radesmen alle other the moare dal of heom that beoth ichosen thurf> us and thurZ that loandes folk on vre kun- 1 This character (3) here represents a modification of the Anglo-Saxon g much in use from the twelfth to the fourteenth century, with a value varying from jf to gh, the latter no longer recognized in English. The Instability of Language. j eriche. habbeth idon and schullen don in the worthnesse of gode and on vre treowthe. for the freme' of the loande. thur~$, the besi^te of than to foreniseide redesmen, beo stedefcest and ilestinde in alle t hinge abut en cende." ' FROM THE "PETERBOROUGH CHRONICLE," 1150. " And te ear I of Angau ward ded, and his sune Henri toe to the rice. And te cuen of France to-dalde fra the king and sees com to the iunge eorl Henri, and he toe hire to wive, and Peitou mid hire. thafarde he mid micel far d into Engleland and m? castles and te kingferde agenes him mid micel mare ferd, thothwathere fuhtten he <?^/, oc fardon the arcebiscop and te wise men betwux heom, and makede that .ra^te that te king &?/<& z lauerd and king //te he /zz^dfe and #/ter his dai ware Henri, king." ^ELFRIC, ABOUT 980. " Gif hwelc man hcefth hund sce'apa, and him losath dn of thdm, hii, ne forldett he thd nigon and hundnigontig on thdm muntum, and gdeth and secth thcet dn the forwarth ? And */" &V gelimpeth that he hitfint, sothlice ic secge that he 1 swythor geblissath for //df//z */#z thonne ofer //fo nigon and hund nigontig the na ne losodon." MATTHEW xviii., 12-14. KING ALFRED, ABOUT 890. " That Edstland is swathe my eel, and /!&zr ^V/z swythe manig burh, and <? celcere by rig byth cyninge ; and thtzr bith swythe my eel 1 This is often called the oldest extant specimen of English as distinguished from Anglo-Saxon y but it probably represents nothing ever really spoken. Its exaggerated rusticity is the clumsy attempt of a court scribe to render a French original into the speech of the common people. In this and the following examples I have used the modern th instead of the single letter thorn (>). The passage may be read thus : Henry, through God's help, King in England, Lord in Ireland, Duke in Normandy, in Aquitain and Earl in Anjou, sends greeting to all his subjects, learned and lay, in Huntingdonshire. This know ye well all, that we will and grant that which our counsellors all or the more part of them that be chosen through us and through the landfolk of our kingdom, have done and shall do to the honor of God and our allegiance, for the good of the land, through the determination of the aforesaid counsellors, be established and obeyed in all things forever. 8 The English Language. huntg, and fiscath j and se cyning and thd Hcostan men drincath myran meolc and tha unsp<fdigan and thd thedwan drincath medo. Thar bith swathe mycel gewinn betweonan him ; and ne bith thcer nxnig edlo gebrowen mid Eastum, ac thcer bith medo genoh." * THE VENERABLE BEDE, 735. " Fore there neid-f&rae ncentg uuiurthet thonc-snottura, than him tharf sie to ymb-hycgganna, cer his hin-iongce hucet his gastce, godces ceththa yflas after deoth-dcege, darned uueorthce.'* * GNOMON, A.D. 680. " Nu sculun hergan Now we shall praise he/an ricas uard heaven's kingdom's ward, metudas macti the Creator's might, end his mod gidanc and his mind's thought uere uuldur fathur men's glorious Father ! sue he mtndra gihuas as of all wonders he eci drictin eternal Lord ; or astelidcs from the beginning He arist scop He first made elda barnum for earth's children heben till hrofe heaven for a roof ; haleg scepen holy Creator ! tha middum geard then mid-earth, mon cynnas uard mankind's ward, eci dryctin" s eternal Lord. 1 This Eastland is very large, and there are very many towns there, and kings over the several towns ; and there is very much honey and fishing there ; and the king and the richest men drink mares' milk, and the poor and the serfs drink mead. There is very great strife between them ; and there is no ale brewed there among the Esthonians, but there is mead enough. * Before the inevitable journey no one becomes More thought-prudent than he has need To ponder ere his hence-going What to his ghost, of good or of evil, After death-day, adjudged shall be. 3 This is reckoned the oldest literary Anglo-Saxon. The Instability of Language. 9 ULPHILAS, ABOUT A.D. 380. " Yah hairdyos wesun in thamma samin landa, thairhwakandans yah witandans wahtwom nahts ufaro hairdai seinai. Ith aggilus Frauyins anaqam ins, yah wulthus Frauyins biskain ins ; yah ohtedun agisa mikilamma. Yah qath du im sa aggilus, Ni ogeith ; unte sat ! spillo izwis faheid mikila, set wairthith allai mana- gein."* LUKE, ii., 8. Our English tongue has thus been traced step by step to a point where only a few particles remain unchanged. If now the German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish and Icelandic were followed in the same manner, all would be found to converge like meridians of longitude. Although the pole, to continue the comparison, may never be reached, the highest latitude thus far attained is the Moeso-Gothic of Ulphilas. These collectively form the Teutonic or Gothic subfamily of languages. Again, if the Armorican, Welsh, Cornish, Manx, Irish, and Gaelic were subjected to a like treatment, they would be found to point to a primitive, but inaccessible Celtic. Fortunately the French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Wallachian can be traced to a well-known source, designated by the ancient Romans as the Latin Tongue. We can go one step farther, and dis- cover that the Latin, Greek, Teutonic, Sclavonic, Lithu- 1 Ulfilas, a Goth and a zealous convert to Christianity, conducted a colony across the Danube about A. D. 376, and obtained a settlement for them in the Lower Moesia, the modern Bulgaria, whence they were sometimes called the Mceso-Goths. He translated for their use the Old and New Testaments, with the exception of the books of Samuel and Kings, which he omitted from a belief that his people were sufficiently inclined to war already. This great work, the first ever undertaken in their language, was preserved by the Visi- goths as a sacred palladium until the gth century, when it disappeared. About the end of the isth century, a part, containing nearly the whole of the four Gospels, was discovered in an abbey in Werden, whence it was afterwards taken to Prague. The Swedes captured it in 1648, and it is now preserved in the University Library of Upsala, under the name of the Codex Argenteus or Silver Book, the letters being of silver laid upon purple stained vellum. A fac- simile may be seen in Bosworth's "Gothic and Anglo-Saxon Gospels/' London, 1865. A great part of the Epistles were also discovered in a monastery in Lombardy in 1818. io The English Language. anian, Celtic, Old Persian, and the dialects of the Brahmanic nations of India lead to a single unknown original, whose oldest representative is the Sanskrit of the Vedas. This very large group, the most important of all in a literary point of view, has been variously designated as the Indo- Germanic, or Indo-European, but is now best known as the Aryan family of languages. No valuable results have been obtained by any attempt to trace its genealogy farther, or to combine it with other groups in a wider classification. Yet among the innumerable dialects spoken over the globe, several more or less distinct family groups have been dis- covered. It is unnecessary here to speak of more than one of these ; but that one ranking very high in the extent and importance of its literature. To it may be assigned the speech of the Babylonians, Syrians, Hebrews, Arabians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Ethiopians. The whole is known as the Semitic, or Shemitish, family, from a belief that the several peoples named were descended from a common ancestor named Sem or Shem. These people occupied a comparatively small area, and were distinguished by great tenacity and fixity of ideas and habits. Their languages have changed less rapidly, and so resemble each other more closely, than the Aryan ; and they have been of the greatest service in disclosing the general principles of language. When written, they have no vowels, as we understand vowels ; but their place is sometimes supplied by a system of marks called vowel points. As a general rule, the words are conceived to be derived from verbs, and from that particular form of the verb called the third person singular, masculine, perfect tense, as that is the simplest, or root form. It is generally composed of three consonants with two vowels between, the first a long a and the second a short a. There is indeed a considerable number of two- letter roots ; and there has been considerable difference of opinion as to whether the first class was developed from the second, or the latter abbreviated from the former. The verb has two tenses, but a full system of endings for the different persons. It has also a number of derivative forms The Instability of Language. 1 1 called conjugations, which bear to the original form some- what the same relation that set does to sit, lay to lie, or fell to fall. The declension of the noun, instead of being of a house, to a house, etc., is my house, thy house, etc. ; and the appended pronouns have been so far preserved that they furnish a clue to the meaning and origin of declension and conjugation in all other languages. The derivation of all words from certain root forms, which could generally be identified without difficulty, suggested to European scholars the idea of tracing any other language whatever to a com- paratively small number of roots. CHAPTER II. THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH. THE groundwork of English is the language of those Teutonic tribes who, in the fifth and sixth centuries, over- ran a great part of Britain. From the dreary sandflats and fens of Sleswick, Holstein, and Friesland, poured in succes- sion the Jutes, the Angles, and the Saxons. The first established themselves in the fertile fields of Kent, where their memory perished ; the second possessed the North and East, and gave their name to all England the land of the Angles ; the last founded the kingdoms of Essex, Wessex, and Sussex the East, West, and South Saxons. There were doubtless differences of speech among them, which will account in part for the variant dialects heard among the rural population of England. There are slight indications that the speech of the Angles was a little more like modern English than was that of the Saxons ; and the Kentish tongue sounded harsh and strange to Caxton after nearly a thousand years. As the invasion involved the almost total extinction or expulsion of the earlier inhabi- tants from the districts occupied, but few British or Roman words were adopted by the conquerors. A few great Roman works for which the strangers had no names, caused the retention of such words as street, port, Chester, wall, and mile ; the few British women reserved as household drudges taught their captors their homely names for crock and mug, lor maggot and spigot, for clout and cradle and bogle. Upon this foundation of Anglo-Saxon there was first laid a thin stratum of Latin by the Christian missionaries of the seventh century, words connected chiefly with religion and morals. The Sources of English. 1 3 Next followed the inroads and conquests of the Northmen and Danes, begun in the eighth century, and continued till within twenty-four years of the Norman Conquest. As these involved permanent settlements, and even a dynasty of Danish kings of England, for twenty-five years, their influence must have been very considerable. As these northern nations were closely allied to the earlier conquerors, especially to the Angles, upon whom they intruded them- selves, their respective dialects would naturally melt together and form an intermediate speech, smoothing down the special peculiarities of each. And so it is found that for several succeeding centuries, for which there are literary remains, the dialect of the North differed considerably from that of the Saxon South ; and something of that difference is observable in the common speech of the people to this day. The general effect of the Danish influence was to shorten and simplify words that were long or of difficult utterance, and dropping or shortening grammatical forms. These are the natural results of combining several dialects. The special results more particularly worth mentioning here were : 1. The vowel-system was simplified. Saxon abounded in compound vowels ae, ea, ei, ie, eo, ia, which were varied by accents placed on one or another of the vowels. Especial favorites were ea and eo, in which the sounds are supposed to have been kept separate. I cannot but think that these compound vowels added considerably to the labor and diffi- culty of speech. The reader may practise upon geolewearte, a nightingale, giving the letters any value he pleases that will make the word easy to pronounce. The Devonshire pronounciation of world, for example, weurld, and the keow of rural New York are probably genuine Saxon survivals. 2. The substitution of s for th comes instead of cometh is due to the North country. 3. The present pronouns of the third person are northern, and not the original Saxon words, as will be seen by the list presently to be given. The English Language. 4. Names of places ending in -by, a dwelling or settle- ment ; -wick, or -vick, an inlet ; -ey, or -ay, an island ; -holm, a small island ; -thwaite, a lot of ground ; -garth, an enclos- ure ; -ness, a cape ; -thorpe, village ; -toft, a field ; -with, a wood ; -wark, a fortress, are Scandinavian. Zell's maps of England and Scotland show 142 such names ; and these are known to be far from the whole. The following are a few words from the Lindisfarne Gos- pels, A.D. 950, which are nearer modern English than the Saxon of the same period : SAXON. axode breost bryd burh cymth deth duru eart com feor fixas hi hyra na mara se scalt seoc slsepth sunu synt ANGLIAN. ascade brest bird burug cymmes does dor art am farra fisces tha thaera noht mara the salt sek slepes sona aro MODERN. asked breast bird borough comes does door art am far fishes they their not more the salt sick sleeps son are The Angles seem to have been superior intellectually to the Saxons. In the seventh and eighth centuries they were the first of Teutonic peoples in learning and civilization. Their language had made the greatest advances towards modern simplicity of structure ; and the compositions of Caedmonand others were so highly esteemed that the Saxons of the South were fain afterwards to call their language The Sources of English. 15 English. Bede, the greatest scholar and most prolific writer of the age, and Alcuin, invited to enlighten the court of Charlemagne, were Angles of Northumberland. But the heathen Danes and Northmen destroyed their monasteries and burned their libraries ; and only fragments remain of their venerable literature. In the year 1066 the supremacy in England passed to the Normans. They were originally of the same northern stock that had kept England in tribulation two hundred and fifty years ; but they had been settled long enough in the north of France to acquire its language ; and in courtliness of manners and the arts of war they surpassed all other Teutonic peoples. Great as was the effect of this event, it was probably less, and less direct, than is generally sup- posed. French speech and manners were cultivated in England before the Conquest, and the Saxon language con- tinued long after it. Edward the Confessor had been brought up in Normandy, and he bestowed the highest places in the realm upon Norman favorites. Hume says of this reign : " The court of England was soon filled with Normans, who, being distinguished both by the favor of Edward, and by a de- gree of cultivation superior to that which was attained by the English in those ages, soon rendered their language, customs, and laws fashionable in the kingdom. The study of the French tongue became general among the people. The courtiers affected to imitate that nation in their dress, equipage, and entertainments ; even the lawyers employed a foreign language in their deeds and papers." On the other hand, the Conquest did not exterminate the Saxons, suppress their language, or abolish their customs. For a conquered people their situation might have been quite tolerable, if they had not risen in revolt against the Conqueror. The body of the Saxon people, always very greatly in the majority, were at least permitted to live, fol- low their usual occupations, and speak their mother tongue. The two languages were long kept distinct, as two streams 1 6 The English Language. confined in one channel will sometimes flow for a distance side by side, without mingling their waters, yet at last be- come inseparably mixed. The Saxon Chronicle was kept up till A.D. 1 1 54, and adopted only 14 foreign words in 88 years. The " Ormulum," written about the year 1200, is a metrical paraphrase of the Gospels, containing 20,000 lines. It was 130 years after the Conquest, yet the author admitted only five or six French words. Layamon's " Brut," written a few years later, is a metrical history of Britain, largely mythical, containing 32,200 lines. Although in the main a translation from the French, and so offering the greatest inducement to borrow foreign phrases, it has only 104 French words, not counting repetitions. That is at a rate of one to 309 lines. Scott's " Lady of the Lake " has a ratio 400 times as great, so that the flood of French words must have come into English long after the Conquest. Yet we see that the " Brut " had eleven times as large a propor- tion of foreign words as the earlier and more purely English poem. If we then pass to the versified " Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester," also a translation from the French, finished about 1295, we shall find the foreign words six times as numerous as in Layamon. Still they are sixty times less numerous than in modern English. And yet the close of the "Chronicle " comes almost to modern times. It is longer after the conquest than from the accession of Charles II. to the present time. Jerusalem had then been won and lost by successive crusades, and Marco Polo was telling Europe of the wonders of the farthest East. Nevertheless, the Norman Conquest and the relentless severity used in suppressing repeated insurrections influ- enced deeply the language and institutions of England. But the influence of the French was complicated with that of the Latin tongue. Latin was the language of the Church and of religion through all western Europe ; and as few laymen were educated, reading and writing were mostly the work of ecclesiastics, and in great part Latin. In England Gildas, who had seen the Saxon invasion, wrote a short history in Latin, and Bede, in the eighth century, composed forty- The Sources of English. 17 one separate treatises in that language. Almost everything of grave and solemn importance was written in Latin down to the fifteenth century. This continual use of Latin by the learned naturally prevented the cultivation of the native tongue. So long as Saxon and Norman remained ununited, Nor- man-French was the language of the king and his court, of the swarms of adventurers that came over seeking lucrative places in England of the only society that possessed power or influence and dictated the fashions. It was required to be employed in all schools, and thus made the only medium through which other learning could be acquired. The pro- ceedings in Parliament and the courts of justice, all public acts, charters, and documents from the Conquest to the thirty-sixth year of Edward III., a period of 296 years, were required to be in the same language. At that time Edward, having good reason for desiring to make one united people from the discordant races under his sceptre, had it enacted that for the future all pleadings in courts should be in Eng- lish, but the court records in Latin. Some think that these records had always been in Latin. However that may be, the records of the courts and the writs issued by them continued to be in Latin until the fourth year of George II. It had then become customary to attach to a writ a note in English to explain what it was about. Notwithstanding the statute of Edward III., the lawyers were so accustomed to their old Norman-French that they continued to employ it in making up their reports of cases adjudged ; and law reports were so written until the reign of Charles II. And thus it comes about that law books and proceedings are full of ob- solete French and barbarous Latin. Nothing shows better the small figure once made in English law by the English language than legal maxims those gems of juridical wisdom all compact, gathered by the industry, and polished by the wit of eight centuries. Out of 2,169 given in Bouvier's " Law Dictionary," 2,037 are ' m Latin 31 in French, and 101 in English. But, to return to the effects 01 the Conquest, the Saxon 1 8 The English Language. language was depressed as much as Norman-French was exalted. A great part of the native nobility and gentry per- ished either in the first shock of battle or in the repeated revolts and disturbances that followed ; or they were com- pelled to go into exile. Nearly all positions of honor, power, or profit were conferred upon Normans. The Saxons were crushed, despised, and impoverished by taxes, fines, and a sweeping confiscation of estates. To the exactions of the early Norman kings were added the arrogance and out- rages of the Norman barons. The " Anglo-Saxon Chronicle " gives the following graphic account of the state of things in the reign of Stephen. I preserve the quaint old phraseology so far as it can be made intelligible : " When the traitors understood that he was a mild man and good and soft and executed not no justice, then did they all wonders. They had made homage to him, and sworn oaths, and they no truth held not. All they were forsworn, and their troths forlost. For every mighty man made his castles and held against him, and filled the land full of castles. They tasked sorely the wretched men of the land with castle works. .When the castles were made, then filled they them with devils.nd evil men. Then took they the men that they weened had any goods, both by night and by day, men and women, and did them in prison after gold and silver, and pined them with unspeakable pining ; for there never were no martyrs so pined as they were. They hanged men up by the feet and smoked them with foul smoke. They hanged men by the thumbs, and others by the head, and hung corselets on their feet. They did knotted strings about their heads, and writhed them together that it went to the brains. They did them in prison wherein were adders, snakes, and paddocks, and killed them so. Some they put in the torment-house, that is in a chest that was short, narrow, and un-deep, and did sharp stones therein, and squeezed the man therein and brake all his limbs. In many of the castles were 'lof & grin ' that were rack-irons, that two or three men had enough to carry one, that was so made, that is fastened to abeam. And they did a sharp iron about the man's throat and neck, that he might not nowhitherwards, nor sit, nor lie, nor sleep, but bear all that iron. Many thousands they killed with hunger. The Sources of English. 19 " I can not nor I may not tell all the wonders that they did wretched men in this land. And that lasted the XIX winters while Stephen was king ; and ever it was worse and worse. They laid tributes on the towns every now and then and called it ten- serie. When the wretched men had not nothing more to give, then they reaved them and burned all the dwellings ; and well thou mightest fare all a day's fare and shouldest thou never find man abiding in a house, nor land tilled. Then was corn dear, and flesh and cheese and butter, for none was not in the land. Wretched men died of hunger. Some went on alms that erewhile were rich men, and some fled out of the land." No literature except a chronicle of horrors could thrive amid such surroundings. Accordingly with the exception of the above " Chronicle," the scanty remains of English litera- ture are chiefly a few homilies in prose and verse, without vigor of thought, elegance of expression, or elevation of sentiment. The wisdom and the long reign of Henry II., did much to advance England as a nation and prevent the oppression of one race by another. Thenceforward each generation saw the parting chasm closing up. Still in regard to language French had everything in its favor, and was almost as indis- pensable to a person of any ambitious aspirations as English now is to the native acres of India. Higdon, writing in the time of Richard II., shows the general eagerness to learn French : " Also gentlemen's children are taught to speak French from the time that they are rocked in their cradles, or able to play with a child's brooch ; and country people try to ape the gentry, and eagerly desire to speak French, so as to be taken more account of. This practice has lately somewhat changed. For John Cornewal, a teacher of Grammar, changed the instruction in the Grammar School from French to English ; and Richard Pencrych learned that way of teaching from him, and other men from Pencrych ; so that now, in the year of Our Lord one thousand three hundred and eighty-five, the ninth of the second king Richard after the conquest ; in all the Grammar Schools of En gland children leave French and construe and learn in English." 2O The English Language. All this time in the seclusion of the monasteries a con- siderable number of historical and other works, sometimes taking a very wide range, were written in Latin. Higdon himself wrote in that language, and the names of Geoffrey of Monmouth, Henry of Huntingdon, John of Salisbury, Mathew of Paris, Roger of Wendover, and William of Malmesbury may be instanced. About the year 1200 were written two poems, widely dif- ferent from each other, but far superior to anything of the kind since the early Anglican Caedmon, and both of great importance for the study of early English. A monk named Ormin composed a long poem on the Jewish and Christian re- ligions, and called it the " Ormulum," in imitation of his own name. He must have been a man of very strongly marked individuality, for he undertook not only to write in purely Saxon English, but also to write phonetically, by doubling the consonant after every short vowel. This was the last considerable work that made any attempt to exclude French. I give here a very short specimen. " & nu ice wile shaewenn 3uw summ-del wij>]> Godess hellpe Off J>att Judisskenn follkess lac ]>att Drihhtin wass full cvveme, & mikell hellpe to )>e follc, to laeredd & to laewedd, Biforenn fatt te Laferrd Crist was borenn her to marine." And now I will show you Something, with God's help Of that Jewish people's worship That to the Lord was very acceptable And much help to the people, To learned and to unlearned, Before that the Lord Christ Was born here a man. The other poem, entitled " The Brut," was by a priest named Lasamon (pronunciation uncertain, oftener written The Sources of English. 21 Layamon). It is a mythical history of Britain from the sack of Troy to King Athelstan. Brut is a descendant of ^Eneas, \vho after incredible adventures lands in Britain, to which he gives its name. The poem is an amplified translation of a Norman-French poem of the same name ; itself a transla- tion from the Latin original by Geoffrey of Monmouth. " pa 3et spaec Haengest : Lauerd ich wulle fin iwil : & don al mine dsede : Nu ic wulle biliue : & asfter mire dohter : & sefter ohte mo#nen : and J> u 3if me swa muchel lond : swa wule anes bule hude : feor from aelche castle : ***** Of J>ere hude he kaerf enne Jnvong : ne sfe J> wong noht swiSe braed : }>a al islit wes ]>e ]>ong : a-buten he bilaede : Then yet spoke Hengist : Lord, I will thy pleasure : And do all my deeds : Now I will quickly : And after my daughter : And after brave men : If thou give me so much land : As will a bull's hide : Far from each castle : ***** Of the hide he cut a thong : The thong was not very broad : When slit was all the thong ; And about it spread around : cnihten alre hendest. dri3e her & ouer-al. sefter Jrine raede. sende after mine wiue. J>e me is swa deore. fa bezste of mine cunne. to stonden a mire a3ere hod. aelches weies ouer-sprseden. amidden ane ualde. ***** swiSe smal & swifte long. buten swulc a twines f raed, he wes wunder ane long, muche del of londe." of all knights courtliest, do here and everywhere, after thy counsel, send after my wife, that to me is so dear, the best of my kinsmen, to stand in my holding, each way overspread, in midst of a wood. ***** very small and very long, but such as a thread of twine, it then was wondrous long, a mighty deal of ground. From this time onward translations and imitations of French works became more and more frequent, and have 22 The English Language. never once ceased to this day. In the thirteenth century French had become the literary language of Europe ; and nearly all that was worth reading for amusement was derived from that source. It is not from the Norman conquerors but from seven centuries of contact with French literature that we receive the greater part of the French words in our language. Mr. Kington Oliphant says of the period from 1 220 to 1303: " English was cast aside as something vulgar, and nearly every cultivated writer in our island betook himself to French or Latin ; our tongue almost lost its noble power of compounding, and parted with thousands of old words. A very few translations from French and Latin kept a feeble light burning during these baleful years. In Age III., 1280-1303, English writers transla- ted copiously from the French, though they gave birth to noth- ing original ; they thus stopped the decay of our fast perishing language, and French words in shoals were brought in to supply the place of the English lost." But it is not words alone that we have thus acquired. French examples have influenced our pronunciation, spell- ing, and grammatical and literary forms. The following are a few of the most easily distinguishable features due in whole or in part to French influence : 1. The prevalence of the hissing sound with which our language is reproached the sounds which we represent by sh, ch, and j, the sibilant sound of c, the almost universal ending of the plural in s, the verbal ending in s goes and speaks instead of goeth and speaketh. 2. The loss of the guttural sound represented in Saxon by //, and in later English by gh. 3. The loss of a very useful character j>, and the substitu- tion of two letters (tft) in its place. 4. Ownership expressed by of " the house of the planter," instead of " the planter's house." 5. Comparison of adjectives by more and most "the most beautiful," instead of Carlyle's " beautifullest." 6. The placing of the adjective after the noun, or giving Tfu Sources of English. 23 it a plural form sign manual, letters patent, courts martial, Knights Templars. 7. You instead of thou. 8. The union of a verb and noun drawbridge, cutpurse. They are not very numerous; and the latest coinages know-nothing, push-cart, grip-sack, do not make us wish them more plentiful. 9. The anomalous expressions ; " It is me" " That's him" 10. Rhyme and the modern system of versification. The earliest English poetry depended neither on rhyme, accent, nor measure, but on alliteration, that is, identity of initial sounds. This was natural with the Saxons and Scandinavi- ans, because, as a rule, all words were accented on the first syllable. In an old poem on the deluge, God says to Noah : dalles ther-inne, & ^alkes ful mony, 2?oth ^oskes & <5oures, & wel fcmnden penes ; For I schal ze/aken up a water to ze/asch alle the worlde." Two populations of kindred blood and a common worship, and occupying the same country, could not remain separate and hostile forever. Social and family ties began slowly to draw together Saxon and Norman. The wisdom and vigor of some of the Norman kings, the baseness and imbecility of others the generosity, bravery, and wrongs of Richard, the futile tyranny of John, the splendid victories of Crecy and Poictiers and the sight of two captive kings in London at once diverted the thoughts of men from the question of race, and taught them to sympathize, resist, and feel a com- mon pride together. It was during the fourteenth century that the varied population of England became one people, speaking one language, still easily understood by the intelli- gent reader. In this age of rapid transit and sudden revo- lution we are struck with the slowness of progress a few centuries ago. It was two hundred and ninety-seven years after the Conquest that Edward III., in his anger against France and desire to unite all his subjects against that nation, abolished the use of the French language in legal pleadings and public acts. Still time was necessary to give 24 The English Language. full effect to the law, and the oldest public document in English preserved in Rymer's " Federa" is twenty-three years later. We have seen, too, that English was not admitted into the schools until the reign of Richard II. What, then, was the character of this early English, and of what elements was it composed ? As the great body of the people were Anglo-Saxon, we may safely infer on a very general principle that they furnished the framework of the language. If a people whose principal intercourse is with each other have occasion to borrow words from a second people they will be chiefly names of things, especially of new things for which they could have no native names, just as we have picked up such words as caravan, indigo, chintz, manna, alkali, bamboo, gorilla, jalap, canoe, moccasin. Next they would adopt words expressing actions, especially pro- cesses unknown before, and lastly words expressive of qualities. The little words that express nothing by themselves, but are of wondrous convenience the, he, it, any, what, why, in, to, of, if, and, but, though, yet, the winged words that save labor, the articles and particles that express time, number, relations, and conditions there would be no need to borrow. People are satisfied with what they have already. Of the hundreds of words which our present English has borrowed from extra-European sources, all but three are names, or what grammarians call nouns. Of these three, two shampoo and tattoo are verbs, that is, express actions. The third taboo is an adjective, an expression of quality sacred or devoted to the gods. So of 600 French words found in " Robert of Gloucester," 386 are nouns, 140 verbs, 68 adjec- tives, and 6 of all other kinds. The last six are all made of nouns or nouns and particles ; and only two of them because and piecemeal are still in use. This will give a fair idea of the kind of words, grammatically, that were introduced from French and Latin. Another effect of commingling languages would take the form of loss and not of acquisition. A word, while still re- maining the same word, may have little appendages affixed to the beginning or the end, or it may undergo internal changes. The Sources of English. 25 boy boy-s ox ox-en sing sing-s child children love loved speak spoken This phenomenon is known by the general name of inflexion ; and some languages have much more of it than others. In some a word may have several hundred or even a thousand forms ; and in such cases a knowledge of them forms the greatest part of what is called grammar. English has now only remnants and traces of a system once much more extensive. Both Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French had in- flexional systems much more largely developed, but quite unlike and incapable of combining to any great extent. The greater part was dropped altogether. When people under- stand each other imperfectly they cannot preserve a multi- tude of niceties. The ear catches the essential part of the word, and gives little heed to the ever changing termination. This neglect was the more effective as the accent was gen- erally near the beginning of each word and the termination pronounced indistinctly. The colored race in this country when first emancipated afforded an amusing illustration of this. They could not be got to utter the parts of words that preceded or were far from the accent. Ascription, description, inscription, prescription, were all alike scription and nothing more. It is often questioned which is the best preserved part of a language, and, consequently, the best evidence of ancient relationship, the words or the grammatical forms. This question, I think, does not admit of a general and absolute answer. Much depends on circumstances. The principle might be presented in the form of a supposed case. If people of two races A and B, capable of friendly union, be placed together on an island, a mixed language will result. Suppose the people of A to outnumber those of B ten to one, but the intelligence of B to be ten times the greatest ; and further suppose them so far intermingled that the learned B's talk chiefly with the ignorant A's ; then the grammatical system of A will survive in a simplified form, and words will be bor- 26 The English Language. rowed from B, according to necessity or fancy. Much de- pends on the relative numbers brought into intimate contact. There are instances of small numbers belonging to ancient races, scattered among large populations, who retain more or less of their ancestral words, which they use according to the grammatical system of the country. The Armenians scattered through Asia Minor are said to use native words with a Turkish grammar. A German Jew will say to his wife : " Ich habe noch haiyom lo ge-ackalt. " " I have not eaten anything to-day yet." I distinguish the Hebrew por- tions by italics, but the structure of the sentence is purely German. A very interesting example is furnished by the gypsies, who have a considerable vocabulary of their own, but are too much scattered to maintain a grammatical ays- tern. In Spain their grammar is Spanish. All their verbs are of the first Spanish conjugation, which they follow in all its great extent and complexity. In England they adopt the very simple structure of the English language. The follow- ing is from a song of the English gypsies given by George Borrow : " We jaws to the drab-engro ker, Trin /ivrsevsorih there of drab we lels, And when to the swety back we ivels, We pens we '11 drab the baulo." We goes to the poison-master's house, Three pennyworth there of poison we buys, And when to the folks back we comes, We says we '11 poison the pig. Here are merely single gypsy words in a setting of pure English. The grammar is furnished by the majority ; the words by those who know most. And again, words are gathered by wide intercourse ; grammatical forrns are de- veloped by isolation. People who go round the world in sixty days will not wait to transform a single word into a thousand shapes. Having seen that the words adopted by the English were chiefly significant ones, representing things, actions, and The Sources of English. 2 7 qualities, we may next inquire, for what kind of things, qualities, and actions they found it necessary to borrow words from French and Latin these two being almost in- separably connected. The necessity arose from two causes the loss of native words, and the access of new objects and ideas. We may assume that any language, however limited and threadbare, can, by combining, recombining, and modifying its words, develop expressions for all human thoughts. Yet all cannot do this equally well. We know the unlimited copiousness of modern German ; and Anglo-Saxon, a sister tongue, might, under favorable circumstances, have become equally rich. There was a considerable literature before the Conquest, and, by compounding the native words, writers were able to say all that they had occasion for. They had especially an ample stock of words for representing the emotions and ethical ideas. I do not raise the question here whether those words would always commend themselves to our eyes or ears, but they served the purpose intended. But after the Conquest, literature ceased almost wholly. Only a very few cloistered monks read and wrote. Books and the language of books were forgotten. The great body of the Saxon people were in the condition of a low type of farm laborers ; and it is but a small part of a language that such people have occasion for. Marsh thinks that one half of the language had disappeared before the year 1300.' Successive literary specimens show an ever decreasing native vocabulary, deficiencies being supplied at will from French or Latin. But the condition of the Saxons left them at liberty to preserve a multitude of words belonging to every-day rustic life, which are still heard in every hamlet and rural district where the English tongue is spoken. The names for the family rela- tions and the domestic animals are Saxon. I give here some examples of a more miscellaneous character, merely to show 1 "A careful examination of several letters of Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Dic- tionary gives, in 2,000 words (including derivatives and compounds, but excluding orthographic variants), 535 which still exist as modern English words." Encyclopaedia Britannica, viii., 390. 28 The English Language. more distinctly the kind of words that serfs and rustic labor- ers were in a condition to preserve : land tree sickle to hew hill grass spade to delve dale hay rake to sow marsh fodder axe to reap field thistle hammer to mow meadow nettle nail to thrash sand bramble saw to winnow day briar loom to live loam thorn oats to bake dung fern wheat to brew furrow dike barley to watch ridge ditch straw to wed wood stile chaff to spin water harrow honey to weave well scythe wax to sew From the Norman-French and the early French romances and songs were naturally derived a multitude of words such as are used by the wealthy and governing classes, relating to government, law, war, hunting, dress, furniture, and amuse- ments. The following are a few of the words introduced before A.D. 1300 : amour conquer homage palfrey armor countess honor park arson court jest parlor ball crown jewel parliament banner dame judgment pavilion baron dress jugglery peerage battle duke lance prison castle empire madam ransom chamberlain enemy mantle renown champion ermine marshal rent chancellor falcon messenger sable charter galley miniver scarlet chess gentleman noble tower chivalry governor palace venison The Sources of English. 29 While the difference here exhibited is very general, we need not expect anything in language to be carried out con- sistently. Knighthood, the very crown and blossom of Nor- man Chivalry, is Saxon, while the flail with which the rustic thrashed his barley, was French-Latin. It has often been pointed out that, while the names of the domestic animals, ox, cow, calf, sheep, swine, are Saxon, their flesh, as an article of food, bears the French names, beef, veal, mutton, and pork, with the apparent implication that the Saxons merely raised their flocks and herds for others to eat. While that may be true in part, I do not think it the imme- diate or the principal reason. No doubt the Normans called the animals, whether alive or dead, by French names, and were most immediately interested in them when brought to the table, but what did the Saxons call them in that state ? If they had any special names, they were probably oxna-flcssc, nedt-flcesc, cealf-flcesc, sceop-fl&sc, swin-flcesc, in analogy with modern German ; but the men who knit together the bones and sinews of the present English gener- ally left out long Saxon compounds, not because they were Saxon, but because they were clumsy. Or if the Saxons had no distinctive terms for the flesh of the animals, the greater was the necessity for preserving the French names and restricting their meaning. We have here, as in so many instances, words of similar signification, but from different sources, preserved and assigned different duties. Did space permit, the condition of the two peoples might be outlined by naming their domestic surroundings. The Norman baron dwelt in a castle, " Hemmed in by battlement and fosse, And many a darksome tower" with its barbican and portcullis, its esplanade, court, chapel, stables, and offices. Its central strength was the donjon keep or dungeon, in which were the cellar and pantry, the parlors, chambers, and closets. The beds were surrounded with cur- tains, and the walls hung with tapestries. There the baron and his guests sat on chairs and dined at a table. 30 The English Language. The Saxon churl had still his house and home, hearth-stone, and roof-tree ; but they were unpretentious. The poor man's dwelling had but two apartments, the Scotch but and ben by-out and by-in. It had neither parlor nor chamber, cellar itor garret, closet nor recess, partition nor ceiling. It had not even a chimney ; its roof was of thatch, and its windows were without glass mere eyes, or openings for the wind. The householder might learn from the Norsemen to put up a loft under the roof, to be reached by a ladder. He had neither chair nor table, but sat on a bench, a stool, or a settle, and ate his meat from a board. Outside might be a wort-yard where potherbs grew the parent of the modern orchard, and near by were the barn, the byre, and the sty. As Latin was especially employed for the graver purposes of religion, philosophy, and diplomacy, the words taken directly from it, and not passed through a French filter, would naturally have a character of dignity all their own. Words like abstract, belligerent, conscience, desolate, eternal, formula, genius, hereditary, inviolate, jurist, lunar, millennium, nominalist, omniscient, perpetual, will sufficiently illustrate the character I refer to. It is observed, too, that when we have words from other sources for a number of individuals, we often have a Latin word that includes them all. Father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter, husband, wife, child, are English, but fain ily is Latin. The distinctive name of every well-known living thing, or weed of field or forest, has an English name, but creature, animal, beast, plant, and herb are Latin. So we run, walk, leap, hop, creep, swim, ride, sail, turn, wheel and reel and totter and fall in plain Eng- lish ; but every motion is Latin. From a great variety of other sources we have acquired a few words, sometimes in very roundabout ways ; thus the name of the muscadine grape of the South is traced back through French, Italian, Latin, and Persian to Sanskrit. These are relatively trifles, but it remains to speak of another source of English, as important as any yet men- tioned, and that is Greek. As the New Testament was written in Greek, a few words, such as alms, baptize, cate- The Sources of English. 31 chism, Christ, heretic, hermit, have followed the Gospel wherever preached. But with these scanty exceptions, Greek was almost unknown throughout the Middle Ages, outside of the ever-shrinking Byzantine empire. Learning had forsaken its ancient seats, and when Pope Paul, in the eighth century, sent Pepin a present of what books could be found in Italy, the collection consisted of a Latin gram- mar, a hymn-book, and the forged works attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite. But while all real learning was banished from the West, the successors of Mahomet, under the guidance of the Jews and Nestorians, were eagerly acquiring it in the East. While a French priest was cir- culating a letter purporting to have been addressed to mankind by Jesus Christ, and brought down by the archangel Michael, Al Maimun at Bagdad was trans- lating Euclid, measuring a degree on the meridian, and determining the obliquity of the ecliptic. The Arabs found useful and congenial employment in collecting and translating the writings of the best ages of Greek literature ; and it was through the schools of Seville, Cordova, and Granada that these works found their first entrance into western Europe. From Spain the revived learning spread to the free cities of Italy, and from them was slowly dis- seminated through Europe. Greek was first introduced into the University of Oxford in 1500, eight years after the discovery of America ; and it was still forty years later when the first professorship was established at Cambridge. But neither those early teachers nor the ancient Athenians could have imagined the wide application to which the Greek language was destined in naming the objects and operations of modern thought. They could not have foreseen the searching analysis that was to be applied to every substance and movement in nature, to every tissue and function disclosed by organic life, every process and product of art, every operation and aberration of the human mind. He who finds a new thing has a right to give it a new name; and the consumption of Greek in giving names to things remote from the daily thoughts of men is enormous. The 32 The English Language. words of Greek origin, including all those belonging to special subjects, probably outnumber those from any other source, and in English exceed those from all other sources. The exact number can only be approximated ; but the following is such approximation : Descriptive of the animal kingdom 72,000 Vegetable kingdom 13,000 Sciences connected with medicine 18,000 All other subjects, perhaps 10,000 Total ii 3,000 The practice of forming scientific terms from Greek is, no doubt, in part a matter of habit and fashion, but, aside from these frivolous reasons, no other source would serve so well. It is not because Greek is a learned tongue, or that the Greeks had the words we now use. They neither had the words nor any use for them. We make them to order, just as we might make such a word as switch-tender-stand, which is an excellent example of the kind of words we should make of native material long, inelegant, and cumbersome. Greek has the advantage of combining with extraordinary facility into pronounceable compounds. Its consonants and vowels are not gathered into solid, insoluble lumps, but very evenly distributed, and upon a page are almost equal in number. This, I think, is the foundation of its excellence. The languages of northern Europe abound in undistributed con- sonants, strz, ntzsch, Idschm, krzyz. Hence, in combining several words into a new compound, each part is apt to begin and end with consonants, and the result is such a word as Grundungsschwindeln. Compared with such an unwieldy leviathan the longest term in Greek is a plaything. Skoro- dopandokeutriartopolis ripples along as pleasantly as a sum- mer brook on a pebbly bed ; and the farrago of Aristophanes, that contains 169 letters, moves so trippingly on the tongue that one might dance to it. We may illustrate this modern use of Greek by the familiar word geography, from ge, earth, and graph, write ; literally earth-writing. We see at once The Sources of English. 33 that the word we actually use is much neater than its Saxon equivalent. It is next observed that between the parts an o is inserted, that belongs to neither. The privilege of inserting at pleasure a connecting vowel facilitates greatly the making of new compounds. In this way we form just as easily geology, geodesy, geognosy, geogeny, geometry, geonomy, geo- phagy, and about 140 others, easily distinguished, easily pronounced, and to the learned of all nations disclosing their meaning at sight. It is even an advantage that their structure is seen only by the learned. They are thus kept to the form and signification intended, and are not corrupted, frittered away, and applied to whatever might happen. Dinotherium is literally terrible beast ; but the English equivalent could not possibly be kept as the name of a particular animal. There are patriotic persons who lament the loss of every Saxon word, and deem it matter of deep regret that our language ever admitted foreign elements. I do not, to any great extent, share their grief. With words as with men, present usefulness and good qualities far outweigh ancestral pedigree. Sugar is not less sweet, nor is its name harsher to tongue or ear, because it is a stranger from Arabia. We cannot, indeed, be quite sure how a language would sound that we never actually heard ; but, so far as I can judge from its appearance, Saxon seems to have been a cumbrous affair. While in no case more facile than modern English, it was often far more unwieldy. Take a few examples of the more unmanageable words : daeghwamlican daily leorning-cnihtas pupils, scholars msegen-thrymnesse glory modstatholnesse fortitude onbesceawian oversee unanbindendlicum inseparable I do not question but that words of any desired power might be constructed in this way, if only made sufficiently 3 34 The English Language. long and unpronounceable. Russian and German show what can be accomplished with native material. Here are a single Russian word and half a dozen German : Bolotnoperemezhdayushchagosya Erschiitterungssphare Geschwindigkeitsmesser halbkreisformiges Grubenschienenbahnwarter Kriegsverpflichtungsamt Verwandtschaftsnamen The German comes as near as possible to making his word a sentence and his sentence a metaphysical disquisition. The German language is unquestionably an instrument of great power ; but its power is a little like that of the bow of Ulysses, which was chiefly famed for the difficulty of using it, and was not half so effective as a Winchester rifle. Eng- lish has been saved from such productions as those just exhibited, and been made what it is by a thousand years of living contact with other peoples and tongues. If it be said that Saxon words might have been simplified by time, as many of their modern representatives really are, I answer that such a change was no doubt possible, but would it have taken place without the constant presence and pres- sure of foreign models? No such simplification has taken place in Russian or German. And further our words of Saxon origin are easy because they are short, and we have given up making them into long combinations. Looking then merely to the past and present qualities of the English language, I cannot but regard the Norman conquest as a great blessing. The English language has profited by its multifarious acquisitions because it has transformed them all after its own image. All but a few of the simplest words have been recast, and are no longer Saxon, Norse, Welsh, French, Latin, or Greek, but English. Every language has a character of its own a scale of sounds, an accentuation, a rhythm and The Sources of English. 35 cadence, a set of beginnings and endings, and a whole mechanism of speech peculiar to itself so that a good ear may distinguish one language from another without knowing a word of them. If our words had been preserved in their native forms, we should have an unspeakable piebald jargon instead of the harmonious unity seen in the Bible and the works of Lord Macaulay. It is well that our fathers followed the example of the diligent bees, that gather the juices of every flower and combine them into a homogeneous whole, sweet, nutritious, and wholesome. Our words are often so transformed that their own mothers would not know them ; and the average English speaker can no more distinguish them according to origin than he can the children of the Saxon and the Norman. Here are 60 words from 24 different sources, and none but the scholar would know that they are not all equally native-born : barrel chest frolic muslin skunk basket cider giant myrtle slag bishop clinker ginger paper spigot block cradle girl peach squirrel blue crease gum pepper swindle bonnet dirt hemp queer talk boy dish hurricane rose tea brindled dog husband rum trowel candle dog-cheap jacket sable vampire carpenter elm kale sabre viper cedar fellow lamp sack vow cheese fog measles silk whiskey At present the disposition is to maintain foreign words with all their foreign peculiarities unimpaired, as if it were more important to preserve their original nationality than to make them good citizens. The only reason of any perceptible force is the desirability of preserving the pedigrees of words ; but that is a matter that interests only the small number who have no need of such aid. We can scarcely avoid believing that the outlandish words are sprinkled in, and their unfamiliar sounds imitated to display the elegant 36 The English Language. acquirements of the writer or speaker. Far the greater number are French, and so have the least possible harmony with English. Why should such expressions as denouement, couvre-pied, coup d'ceil, be forced upon the English reader or hearer ? They are unnecessary, and jar upon a sensitive ear like discords in music. They are the stock-in-trade of inferior writers, and especially female novelists. The writer of " Robert Elsmere " might have taught all she had to teach and more, without introducing similar uncouth expressions 1 80 times in one small volume. Several estimates have been made of the relative number of modern English words derived from different sources. In the last century George Hickes estimated on the narrow basis of the Lord's Prayer, that nine tenths of our words were still Saxon. Widely different was the conclusion of Sharon Turner, that the Norman were to the Saxon as four to six. Dean Trench computes that 60 per cent, are Saxon, 30 per cent. Latin, including those received through a French chan- nel, 5 per cent. Greek, and 5 scattering. M. Thommerel, by counting every word in the dictionaries of Robertson and Webster, obtained the result that of a sum total of 43,566 words, 29,853 were of Greek or Latin origin, 13, 230 Teutonic, and 483 from all other sources. These discordant computa- tions seem to overlook the fact that many words that may be conveniently called hybrids cannot properly be charged to any particular source. They are of three classes. The first and largest consists of compound words like penman, peacock, pyroligneous, aldehyde, the parts of which are taken from dif- ferent languages ; the words of the second are derived from proper names, as Cartesian, Flemish, dahlia ; and a few are of uncertain origin. Skeat's Etymological Dictionary contains a little over 13,000 words, as it excludes generally obsolete and local words, derivative forms, and the technical terms of the more unfamiliar sciences. A classification of its contents, omitting a few duplicate forms, will give a very fair idea of the sources of the words employed in general literature and conversation. They are : The Sources of English. 37 Anglo-Saxon and English 2,863 Low German 1 16 Dutch of the Low Countries 187 Scandinavian 688 High German, of all periods 221 Teutonic, indeterminate 90 Celtic languages 351 Latin 2,094 Latin through French 3,545 Latin through other channels 341 French, not traceable farther 129 Proven9al (cJiarade) i Italian 43 Spanish 25 Portuguese (cocoa, dodo, emu, yam) 4 Greek, adopted directly and indirectly ^388 Slavonic languages 14 Lithuanian (talk] i Hungarian (hussar, sabre, shako, tokay] 4 Turkish 14 Persian 77 Sanskrit 39 Hebrew 72 Syriac 8 Chaldee (raca, talmud, targum) 3 Arabic 107 Other Asiatic languages 53 Oceanean 5 African languages 24 American languages 46 Hybrid words 419 Unknown . 21 Total 12,993 But a great part of these words are rarely met with, being either obsolete or confined to some special art or science. The vocabulary of almost any single author would show a much larger native element. The proportion of words from each of the principal 38 The English Language. sources varies greatly, according to the subject and the mental habit and associations of each speaker. Country folk talk in Saxon of their farms, crops, and families ; ladies of "society" prefer a liberal seasoning of real or supposed French ; literary people and those who aim at being sarcas- tic use a great many words derived from Latin ; and scientific specialists abound in Greek. Several methods have been proposed for analyzing the styles of different writers, but chiefly with a view to showing the extent of the native element, without further distin- guishing the others. One method has been to select a pas- sage, arrange the several words as in a dictionary, and count each one once. It is objected to this plan that a word that occurs only once, and so has little effect on the general style, counts for as much as one repeated a hundred times. It has therefore been proposed as a second method to count each word as it stands on the page, making " the " perhaps equal 30, and " flocculent," I. The results of these two meth- ods would be very different. But the words of most fre- quent occurrence are little ones that by themselves suggest no idea ; and these are always native English and are always present, whatever the style may be. They are a constant element, and, if counted, disguise the actual differences of style. There is therefore a third resource, to count only the significant words those that represent things, actions, and qualities, including those secondary qualities that de- scribe actions and other qualities, as rapidly, slightly. To make this clearer let us take a sentence and italicize the significant words : " Many cabals were formed, loud complaints were uttered, and desperate resolutions taken ; but before they proceeded to extremi- ties they appointed some of their number to examine the powers in consequence of which the cardinal exercised acts of such high authority" ROBERTSON : " Charles V." Here are 40 words, of which just one half are insignifi- cant and such as have to be used by every one. Of the The Sources of English. 39 other 20 cabal is Hebrew; loud, high, uttered, and taken are native English, and the remainder derived from Latin, either directly or through a French medium. According to the second method of computation the native words are 60 per cent. ; by the third they are 20. The last method is the one adopted in the following table, which is calcu- lated on a basis of 200 significant words divided into two classes, native and foreign. Proper names are passed by altogether. The numbers give the percentage of native words. Kentish Sermon A.D., 1250, 92 ' Havelock the Dane " 1300, 87 Sir John Mandeville ' J356, 69 Chaucer, Prologue, Cant. Tales " 1390, 58 Wycliffe (Luke xx.) " 1389, 70 Tyndale (Luke xx.) " 1526, 63 Authorized Version (Luke xx.) " 1610, 64 Ghost's Story in Hamlet " 1600, 49 Bacon, Essay 29 " 1612, 30 Dryden (prose) " 1683, 29 Dr. Johnson " 1748, 24 Gibbon " 1776, 18 Hawthorne " 1853, 43 Macaulay (History) " 1848, 33 Dasent's Translation of the Gisli Saga. . " 1846, 81 The native English element underwent a pretty steady decline from the age of Edward the Confessor to the close of the last century, reaching the lowest point in the ponder- ous sentences of Gibbon, in some of which every significant word is Latin : " From such laudable arts did the valor of the Imperial troops receive a degree of firmness and docility unattainable by the impetu- ous and irregular passions of barbarians" In the present century there is a reaction against this mlemn, labored style and in favor of a freer use of native English. The result has been a style more crisp, fresh, and 40 The English Language. direct. The writer who, so far as I know, has carried this use of English furthest is Dr. Dasent, distinguished by his illustrations of Icelandic literature. As a contrast to the style of Gibbon I present a passage from his translation of Njal's Saga, introducing a famous chief and warrior Gunnar of Lithend : " He was a tall man in growth, and a strong man best skilled in arms of all men. He could cut or thrust or shoot if he chose as well with his left as with his right hand, and he smote so swiftly with his sword, that three seemed to flash through the air at once. He was the best shot with the bow of all men, and never missed his mark. He could leap more than his own height with all his war-gear, and as far backwards as forwards. He could swim like a seal, and there was no game in which it was any good for any one to strive with him ; and so it has been said that no man was his match. He was handsome of feature, and fair skinned. His nose was straight, and a little turned up at the end. He was blue-eyed and bright-eyed, and ruddy-cheeked. His hair thick, and of good hue, and hanging down in comely curls. The most courteous of men was he, of sturdy frame and strong will, bountiful and gentle^ a fast friend, but hard to please when making them." The simpler the ideas are, and the nearer to every-day life, the greater the share of English words that may be used. Sentences made up wholly of native words are common enough in conversation, but are rare in books, except in the Bible. See as examples Job xxxi., 21, 22 ; John i., 1-4. Sentences containing no native English words are still rarer. Here is an attempt at constructing one : " Injudiciously profuse eleemosynary aid, defeating benevolent intentions, frequently stimulates voluntary pauperism." The question how large a part of their native tongue most people know is answered by Professor Max Miiller in his usual clear and decisive manner : " A well educated person in England, who has been at a public school and at the university, who reads his Shakespeare, the The Sources of English. 41 Times, and all the books of Mudie's Library, seldom uses more than about 3,000 or 4,000 words in actual conversation. Accu- rate thinkers and close reasoners, who avoid vague and general expressions, and wait till they find the word that exactly fits their meaning, employ a larger stock ; and eloquent speakers may rise to a command of 10,000. The Hebrew Testament says all it has to say with 5,642 words ; Milton's works are built up with 8,000 ; and Shakespeare, who probably displayed a greater variety of expression than any writer in any language, produced all his plays with about 15,000 words." " Lectures on Language," lee. vii. This is not precisely saying how many words we know, but as eloquent speakers may only rise to the command of 10,000, it may be fairly presumed that common folk could not use so many if they would. The qualifications of his lowest class are so high, that most cultured Americans would certainly be limited to not more than 4,000 words. Very few of us have had the advantages enumerated. But approaching the ques- tion from another side, we find Webster's Dictionary edition of 1890 professing to contain over 1 1 8,000 words. Joining these two points, we should reach the remarkable conclusion that a moderately educated American is ac- quainted with less than -fa of his mother tongue, which is manifestly and widely erroneous. The term word is not used in the same sense by both authors. The Oxford pro- fessor is doubtless a better guide in this than the American lexicographer. The enormous number of words stated in the Dictionary gives a false impression. Some of these words are completely obsolete, others are still entirely foreign expressions, others again are restricted to particular arts or sciences, and form no part of the language of ordinary life or literature. Examples of these words which might prop- erly be omitted are : qa ira, bedagat, cackiri, caimacan, cous- cous, Davyt, dawm, dendrocolaptes, doand, couzeranite, Ich dien, ad quod damnum, (Zgrotat,pulmonibranchiate, angiomono- spermous. Many words are merely various spellings of the same. Many are repeated as nouns, adjectives, verbs transi- tive and verbs intransitive. Winter and water are each 42 The English Language. counted as three words. The obsolete dogly is made to do duty as two words, and the equally antiquated dorr as seven. Words are drawn out in long array by means of suffixes and combinations. The simple word delight counts for 16 ; 25 combinations are made with honey ; and water is an element in 203. Some of these combinations are such as well-water, well-borer, winter-apple, winter-wheat, which every one can make for himself ad libitum and ad infinitum. Most of these words may be very properly placed in the Dictionary, but their reiteration gives an undue air of immensity to the language. On 40 pages taken at random I find 2,741 words, of which 357 may be reckoned as obsolete, foreign, or tech- nical expressions. Of the remainder 1,635 are repetitions, derivatives, or compounds, that retain the primitive significa- tion, leaving 749 really distinct words. Then taking my own knowledge, as the only measure of the general intelligence that can be applied, I find 209 with which I am not ac- quainted, which is less than one third () of the primary words, or one eleventh (yV)> including the derivatives and compounds. The outcome of all which is that instead of knowing but an insignificant fraction of our language, we are more or less familiar with over five sixths ($) of the words and forms of words available for general literary purposes and daily use ; also that with the above limitations Webster's great Dictionary probably does not contain more than 30,000 independent words. CHAPTER III. THE PROVINCE OF GRAMMAR. ENGLISH grammar has long been defined as the art of speaking and writing the English language correctly. One of the text-books used in the public schools of this city calls it more ambitiously, " the science which teaches how to speak and write the English language correctly." The claim is a large one, and not to be conceded without inquiry. " Our language," says Professor Whitney, " like every other, is made up of words." Of these, Webster's Dictionary, edi- tion of 1890, professes to contain "an aggregate of upward of 118,000." One who knows all these thoroughly, or even 20,000 of the most necessary, and how to use them, possesses the art of speaking and writing the English language cor- rectly. The art should certainly include a knowledge of the words themselves. Let us see : we may select almost any word and inquire what the grammatical text-books have to tell us about it. We may take the word theatfe, and inquire its origin and history, its meaning, its form theatre or the- ater, its pronunciation theatre or thedtre. As a mere word, this is nearly all that we care to know about it. To all these questions, a good dictionary will furnish answers; a grammar will give none. From the grammatical text-books we may infer one point as probable that when we speak of more than one such establishment we should add an s. But that simple fact is known about as well by the street Arab as by the graduate of the highest schools. In justice, however, it must be conceded that when such a distinction is uniform, or nearly so, a considerable labor of search is saved by assuming it to hold good, and taking the chances. 43 44 The English Language. Unfortunately the assumption would fail us just where it is most needed in unfamiliar words, as anas, amaryllis, incubus, polyergus. No grammar will help us to distinguish the lum- bar region from the lumber region, or discriminate between the expressions, to differ from and to differ with, so that in nearly all cases of difficulty we must have recourse to the dictionary and not to the grammar. . If lion were the name of the male of a certain species of animal, and lioness were the female, and the same held good universally, it would be quite convenient, as on learning one form of the word we could readily infer the other. But this relation is of so rare occurrence, that a knowledge of it is of no practical value. Again, in Arabic for example, in words of more than one syllable the last never has the accent ; if the next to the last ends in a consonant or written long vowel, it is accented ; otherwise, the second from the last. Here the whole system of accentuation for the language may be expressed in a single sentence. Icelandic is still simpler in that respect, for there the first syllable is always accented, be the word long or short. But no such absolute rules obtain in English, where the accent of each word must be learned by itself. In short, ours is a language of exceptions and irregularities, in which the dictionary counts for every- thing, the grammar, almost nothing. But if, from the irreg- ularities of our language, grammatical rules are of narrower scope than in some others, we shall find that we have less use for them. It has been hinted above that plural names names of more than one have generally an s added to dis- tinguish them. There might well be other additions or changes corresponding to modifications in the meaning of words. In point of fact there are a few such in English. The orderly presentation of these changes in names gram- marians call declension ; in words expressing action of any kind, it is called conjugation ; and these comprise the larger part of grammar. Professor Max Miiller says rather abso- lutely, " What is grammar after all but declension and con- jugation ?" It is unquestionably true that they constitute the greatest part of all that is of immediate practical value. The Province of Grammar. 45 But some languages may be richer in varying forms and require more declension and conjugation than others. In English a name, or noun, as it is called, may assume four forms, thus : man men man's men's None present a fuller declension than this, and few are so complete. If boy had been selected instead of man, while by orthographic expedients four forms might have been pre- sented to the eye boy, boys, boys, and boys', to the ear there would have been but two. So in other languages some of what are theoretically different forms are no longer dis- tinguishable ; but, counting the full number, a Latin noun has 12 variations, a Greek 15, a Hebrew 26, while a Hunga- rian or Magyar, with its various affixes, admits of 1,154 com- binations. Or, if we take such a qualifying word as earthen, or English, which with us has only one form, its synonym in Latin might have 36, and in Greek 45 variations. Again an English verb never has more than 8 distinct forms, and sel- dom more than half that number in actual use. Of the entire system, as write, writest, writeth, writes, writing, wrote, wrotest, written, three are practically obsolete ; while far the greater number have in use only four forms, as sail, sails, sailing, sailed. In contrast with this scanty stock, the Spanish verb presents (theoretically) 120 variants ; the Latin 444; the Greek according to Kuehner's Grammar, 1,138, ac- cording to Professor Miiller the round sum of 1,300; the Hebrew 246; and the Arabic over 2,100; while Professor Whitney cites the Rev. T. Hurlbut as saying that he had ascertained by actual computation that an Algonkin verb admits of 17,000,000 variations. If then grammar be merely declension and conjugation, which is not far from the truth, it plays comparatively a very insignificant part in English. All the irregularities of our language are more than compen- sated by the extreme paucity of its grammatical forms. It is almost as grammarless as Chinese, in which no written word is ever varied by a single stroke or dot, and when 46 The English Language. spoken admits of only a change of tone. The weary hours and years spent by our youth in parsing English sentences according to forms borrowed from Greek and Latin are worse than wasted useless for the avowed purpose of learn- ing to speak and write, and leading to a misapprehension of what our language is. Professor Whitney, in his " Essen- tials of English Grammar " says, " Nor is the study of the grammar of one's native tongue by any means necessary in order to acquire correctness of speech. Most persons learn good English in the same way that they learn English at all namely, by hearing and reading." The same opinion is probably held now by all competent persons who have given the subject attention. We know, too, that many of the masterpieces of human literature, in languages incomparably more intricate than ours, are the work of men who had never heard of grammar as either a science or an art. All that is most prized in Greek literature was written before any book on grammar had been seen west of the Euphrates. Only two peoples of all the world, the Hindoos and the Greeks, originated the idea of analyzing their languages and codifying their peculiarities. The former had the priority in time, and the superiority in analytical acuteness. To learn to write and speak correctly was not the object of either. They could do that already ; but both wished to preserve unaltered their oldest and most revered writings. The Brahmin re- garded the hymns of the Veda as no mere human composi- tions, but only seen in vision and copied by the ancient Rishis. To him the correct pronunciation and accent of a syllable might determine his salvation. Hence immense labor was spent in observing and noting the form of every word and the recurrence of every change. In the fourth or fifth century before Christ, and long before the invasion of Alexander, the Hindoos had traced all the words of the Sanskrit to 1,706 roots, and determined the particles and affixes with which they were combined, and all the outlines of grammar as now understood. The thought of grammar had not yet occurred to the Greek. Plato, in his philosoph- ical speculations and with no view to correctness of style, The Province of Grammar. 47 divided words into nouns, onomata, and verbs, rhemata ; although we are left in the dark as to what each class con- tained. He was also acquainted with the distinction between vowels and consonants. Aristotle, for merely rhetorical pur- poses, added the classes of conjunctions and articles, but by the latter he meant pronouns and relatives. This is as far as Greek grammar advanced in its native country. But before Hindoo or Greek had made the analysis of his language the nations of Chaldea had compiled dictionaries and grammars for the more practical purpose of learning a language not their own. The great kingdoms of which we read in the Bible had been preceded by a cultivated people of wholly different speech a people devoted to science and literature, who had left behind them considerable writings, or rather printings. The speech of that early people was to those who came after what Latin was to Europe for so many ages, and text-books were prepared for learning it. Modern explorers find fragments of those ancient grammars among the ruins of the royal libraries of Sargon and Assur-bani-pal. 1 Early civilization had three chief, and perhaps independent, centres of development, China, Chaldea, and Egypt. The first two had but little influence on the rest of the world ; but Egypt, lying on the Mediterranean, the great highway of nations, was the mother of western science, whose cradle was rocked by the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies. In the new city of Alexandria men of all climes, from India to Spain, and from Mount Atlas to Norway, met and exchanged the products and ideas of their countries. The halls of the great Museum were, thronged with more than 10,000 students. The director, Demetrius tPhalereus, had orders to collect all the writings of the world for its libraries. The copies of the old Greek classics were found to 1 Sargon I. looms in the dim distance like the figures of Haroun Al-Raschid, Charlemagne, and Alfred. Assur-bani-pal is celebrated by Arrian and Nicolaus of Damascus as ' ' Sardanapalus, King, and son of Anacyndaraxes, who built two cities in one day, Anchialus and Tarsus." He was really the son of Essar-had- don and grandson of Sennacherib II. (Kings xix., 37), the prototype of Louis XIV., and among other things a munificent patron of learning. 48 The English Language. contain various readings. Out of these the scholars of the Museum undertook to publish critical editions. This neces- sitated a minute study of the text. Zenodotus, the first librarian, about B.C. 250, detected and pointed out the per- sonal pronouns and the singular, dual, and plural numbers. Nearly a century later Aristarchus discovered the preposi- tions. In all this there was no thought of developing an art to teach people how to use their mother-tongue. But when it became the fashion for the young Roman gentry to learn Greek, as the moderns do French, a necessity arose for systematic analysis. How could the 1,138 parts of the Greek verb be reconciled with the meagre ^/j/] of the Latin, unless they were tabulated and explained. This work was reserved for Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus, who came to Rome as a professor of Greek in the century before the Christian era. For convenience he reduced the sub- stance of his lectures to book form the earliest European treatise on grammar, and still extant. From this work the distinctions and terminology of the Greek language were afterwards, by translation and mistranslation, applied to the Latin. The Latin language was stretched upon the iron bedstead of the Greek, as the languages of modern Europe have long been racked on that of the Latin. The ideas of grammar were not applied to English until about the time of the Tudors, and then under the impression that every human dialect could be laced in the harness of the Latin. The first text-books used in the schools were written in that language, and designed, not so much to teach English as grammar in the abstract, as applicable alike to all. They of course taught only Latin. The most famous of these early grammars was that of William Lily, first printed in 1542 by express authority of Henry VIII., and long known as " King Henry's Grammar." Although called simply " A Grammar," and not the grammar of any particular language, it was not only written in, but related exclusively to, Latin. And when the same author subse- quently published a dense black-letter volume with the deceptive title of " Lilie's English Grammar," it was but a The Province of Grammar. 49 collection of the rules of the Latin strung on a thin thread of English text. The first really English grammar was claimed by William Bullokar, who published in 1586 "A Bref Grammar for English/' which he said was " the first Grammar for English that ever waz except my Grammar at large." Since that time there have been English grammars innumerable, not a few of them written in Latin, as those of John Wallis and Charles Cooper, in the time of William and Mary, and with rare exceptions ignoring the real source and character of the grammar of the language. Even so late as 1796 the greatly improved grammar of Thomas Coar, published in London, filled its pages with diagrams like the following: SINGULAR PLURAL NOM. a house NOM. houses GEN. of a house GEN. of houses DAT. to a house DAT. to houses Ace. a house Ace. houses Voc. O house Voc. O houses ABL. with a house ABL. with houses It would have been quite as easy and rational to have added a dozen more prepositions, or to have omitted the most of these, but that this was the scale recognized in Latin. Eminent men, not the authors of systematic treatises on grammar, have sometimes furnished valuable suggestions. Roger Bacon pointed out the folly of trying to explain words by reference to some remote language with which they had no connection. Locke expressed his conviction that all words, if they could be traced to their sources, would be found to have originally denoted visible objects,, their sensible qualities and actions. Following up this hint, John Home Tooke published in 1786 his famous " Epea Pteroenta," or " The Diversions of Purley," a work of singu- lar acuteness and ingenuity, designed to show that all our little words of scarcely perceptible signification if, and, but, although, etc. are the relics of once substantial nouns and verbs, and that their source is to be sought, not in 4 50 The English Language. Greek and Latin, but in the earlier forms of English and the closely allied languages. Although from rashness and imperfect knowledge, Home Tooke was often wrong in his derivations, and would be a very unsafe guide, still he pointed the way for all subsequent investigators. The first grammarians, as Dionysius, undertook to teach the signification, the spelling, and the pronunciation of words; but that has long since been turned over to lexi- cographers. This leads to consider again the distinction between the two classes of books. The dictionary treats of single words, and one at a time. When it has told us all it has to say of any word, as almanac, boom, yacht, we are not thereby helped to understand the next word that occurs. The grammar, on the other hand, deals with classes of facts or of words, and points out their distinctive agreements and differences. In the sentence " The swallow flies about catch- ing flies" the word flies occurs twice, presenting no differ- ence to the eye or the ear. The grammarian sees a difference in the meaning or application, and should at least try to discover whence came the s that is common to both. By vary- ing the above illustration we might say, " Two swallows fly in pursuit of one^fj/." The curious question would then be presented why the form that is singular for nouns is plural for verbs, and the reverse. Whatever result the grammarian might reach in this case would be equally appli- cable in thousands of others, and would be recognized as a general principle or rule. If the ed in march^ refers to the past, so it does in other words, and if its history and signifi- cance be discovered in one case, the discovery is equally good for all. Grammar then treats of everything relating to a language that can be reduced to general facts, principles, or rules. It has to deal chiefly with the various forms assumed by the same words. This is, in English, a very narrow field, but extremely rocky. Grammar, like botany or mineralogy, is a purely descrip- tive science. The duty of the grammarian is not to invent or create, but to state and classify the facts as he finds them. What is true of nothing else is true of language, that whatever The Province of Grammar. 5 1 is is right. Expressions may be intricate, awkward, incon- sistent with other expressions, difficult for the tongue or harsh to the ear, but so long as they are the unmistakable symbols of certain ideas, they answer their purpose. But there may be different and conflicting expressions for the same idea. One class of speakers say them is, while another say those are. The grammarian may indeed point out that the latter phrase is the most consistent with general usage, and is employed by the most careful speakers, and there- fore preferable ; but if the former were the sole recognized form, we should have to put up with it ; and it would be as absurd to object that it was ungrammatical as to accuse some wild-wood flower of being unbotanical. But it may be objected, " If grammar does not make rules for the government of language, and people can learn to speak and read without it, what is its use?" I readily admit that these considerations deprive it of a fictitious im- portance long attached to it, but it still retains a real value rarely thought of. That great body of knowledge known as learning is valuable indirectly rather than directly. By it are formed habits of calm, thoughtful observation and dis- crimination that modify the whole character of man. If a savage could be induced to give his attention for half an hour to the drawing of a circle, to the equality of its radii, its relation to the hexagon, the ratio of its inscribed and circumscribed squares, he would be a little less of a savage all his life after. All honest pursuit of knowledge has this humanizing effect. The world has more faith to-day in its men of science than in its princes, prelates, and states- men ; and yet a great part of science has no practical appli- cation. It requires but a small part of astronomy to find a ship's place at sea, or locate a boundary, and that small part is about all that touches his material interests. Minute examinations of protoplasm, of annelids and bacteria, are commended as science, even by men who would scout phi- lology as a waste of time upon " mere words." Yet if man is the highest of earthly creatures, and language his most dis- tinctive attribute, that too may merit some attention. Sir 52 The English Language. Samuel Baker thought he could distintinguish nine distinct caJls a language in embryo used by the baboons of Abyssinia ; and Dr. Charles A. Abbott claims to have found twenty-seven separate caws among the American crows. 1 The verification of these cries would be esteemed as a valuable contribution to natural history, even if we should never have occasion to converse with crows or baboons. A much higher interest attaches to the study of language. Like everything else in these days, it is the result of growth and development under conditions and laws that can be in part ascertained. Each word has a pedigree reaching back to the times of the paleolithic cave-dwellers. The philolo- gist may be compared to the geologist found poring over a gravel bank or a ridge of disjointed stones, who explains to the curious wayfarer that each pebble or block has a history of its own a part of the history of our planet. Not one of them is a native of this place, or has the form it once bore. They have been torn from their distant beds by successive convulsions or slow upheavals, rolled for ages in currents of water until their angles are worn off, borne across seas by drifting ice, or dragged snail-pace over the land by glaciers. Here, side by side, lie fragments of granite and quartz, with silurian slates and limestones, breccias, porphyry, and basalt. We can trace the track of some ; and were our knowledge complete we could find the distant source of each. From the mould overlying some, their coming must have been long ago. Somewhat similar is the position of language. It has been intimated already that the chief part of gram- mar is declension and conjugation, and that these in English are scanty. Indeed, our language offers but the scattered remains of an inflexional system. In this respect the inflec- tional systems of Latin and Greek, for example, might be likened to skeletons set up in a museum, bloodless and life- less, indeed, but with every bone and joint in its place. On the other hand, English presents only here and there a bone, so broken and worn as to be identified with difficulty and only by comparison with the appropriate skeleton. 1 Popular Science Monthly, vol. xxv., p. 475. CHAPTER IV. WORD MAKING. THE reading public, at least of this country, owe much to Professor Max Miiller. He has furnished them a great amount of philological information in a very attractive form, and he has given every one something that he can take exception to. Among others is the dictum that " No man ever invents an entirely new word." It is true, indeed, that the scholar, with a wealth of words, ancient and modern, will rarely contrive a new combination of sounds, which would necessarily be unintelligible. But pure invention comes of poverty rather than of riches, and those who have fewest words have the greatest temptation to invent. Little chil- dren often form new combinations, that become for a time household words, while a few obtain a wider circulation. The very illiterate are prone to do the same, and it is prob- able that many low words, like bamboozle, cavort, doggerel, splurge, scalliwag, and mulligrubs, originated in this way. Mormon, now familiar to the whole world, is an entirely fac- titious word. Persons with no lack of words occasionally amuse themselves by contriving new ones. Opodeldoc is an invention of Paracelsus, and Decandolle, the Swiss botanist, devised sepal to designate a division of the calix of a flower. The word quiz was introduced by the keeper of a Dublin theatre named Daly, on a bet that a new word of no mean- ing would become the town-talk in twenty-four hours. He gained the wager by setting boys to chalk the word upon walls. Van Helmont proposed two new words gas, to de- note a form of matter then attracting attention, and bias for a supposed influence of the stars. The world having use for 53 54 The English Language. the word gas, and not for its fellow, the former has had uni- versal acceptance, the latter total neglect. Darwin or Huxley could not find a clearer case of survival of the fittest. Still, with few exceptions, all the words we are likely to meet with are made up of modifications or combinations of previous words. Doubtless there was a time when all the words of our early ancestors were few and simple, each consisting of a single vowel a, i, o a vowel preceded by a single consonant do, be, go, no, say or a combination of the two, as ado, ego, era, In many languages the words are still chiefly made up of alternate consonants and vowels. In all the Polynesian tongues no syllable ends with a consonant, and two conso- nants never come together. The words are formed on the pattern of ta-bu, Ta-hi-ti, la-ve-na, Ho-no-lu-lu. In many of the native American languages this habit is quite observable. In 50 pages of the Hidatsa Dictionary of Dr. Matthews I find but 30 syllables that end with consonants. Many other languages show a dislike to certain consonantal endings. Every Chinese word is a single syllable, ending either with a vowel or a nasal. Greek admitted no final consonants except n, r, and s ; the French suppresses many in pronun- ciation ; and modern German discards the sounds of final b, d, g, v, and z. It is probable that wherever several conso- nants come together intervening vowels have been suppressed. In respect to signification, these earliest words were prob- ably nouns, adjectives, or verbs that is, they represented things, qualities, or actions indifferently as occasion might require. If we say that a man brings a saw&nd a jaw-horse to saw a load of wood, we employ the same word succes- sively as noun, adjective, and verb. In English, this free- and-easy way of playing at rights and lefts is very common and very convenient, as when we say a bean-pole and a pole- bean, a cart-horse and a horse-cart. In Chinese, which is the most primitive form of human speech, and therefore one of the most instructive, every word is of one syllable, and every syllable a word, unchangeable except in the tone of utter- ance ; and grammatical distinction is unknown. Thus ta, as Word Making. 55 a noun, is greatness ; as an adjective, great ; as a verb, to grow or be great ; and as an adverb, greatly. Of these primary Chinese monosyllables there are reckoned 450, and it is thought that no language has a much larger number of ultimate elements. These primitive syllables are often called roots, as many of them have produced abundant crops of derived words. We may get an idea of a root sufficient for our present pur- pose by taking such a series as corn-pel, d\s-pel, ex.-pel, im- pel, pro-pel, re-pel, and calling pel a root with the sense of drive. The other syllables in this instance are termed pre- fixes ; if they followed the root, they would be called suffixes. The root itself may undergo changes, as in com-//-sory, im- pul-s\vQ. As the same root may run through a large family of languages, it can sometime^ be traced in several thou- sand combinations. The same prefixes and suffixes may be attached to many different roots : thus zw-tend, z'#-spire, in- fliction. While the earliest words, no doubt, represented material visible things, their qualities and actions, one may see, by turning over the leaves of a dictionary, how they become freighted with secondary and figurative meanings. In this way all terms for abstract and immaterial things are ob- tained. The original meaning is often lost sight of, and the derived alone remains. Thus spirit once meant only breath in-spire and ex-pire, to breathe in and breathe out compre- hend was to grasp and hold together, and disgust was a bad taste in the mouth. At a very early period, too, a few roots must have assumed a pronominal character. They became hieroglyphic or short-hand expressions, denoting in them- selves neither things, qualities, nor actions. They were in signification such words as here, there, this, and that, accom- panied no doubt with the act of pointing with the finger. But while we should naturally expect our first ancestors to have busied themselves like Adam in giving " names to all cattle," it is remarkable to observe that the tendency of research in the most developed languages the Aryan and Shemitic is to show that the oldest words that can be 56 The English Language. reached represented, not things, but qualities and actions. Still we must remember on the other hand that the vedic hymns and the martial ode of Debprah are relatively little nearer the beginning of things than we are. I have said that Chinese retains the most primitive char- acter, consisting of single syllables, every one uttered sepa- rately as a child begins to read. Most other peoples think this too slow. Not content with learning to do a thing, they want to do it quickly and with little labor. Let us take a French sentence as an example " Tu as ce que il te faut" No Frenchman utters this as seven separate words. What he does say is something like, " Tua skeelt fo," and his whole language is similarly compressed. The motive is to so great an extent the saving of labor that laziness has been recog- nized as one of the chief factors in the production and con- fusion of tongues. Words that happen to be used often together come to be combined and pronounced as one. This is a gradual process in which we easily distinguish three steps. In brick house we have two distinct words, but brick has become an adjective descriptive of house ; in work-house two words are treated as one, but to show that they are not yet perfectly consolidated, a hyphen (-) is placed between them. The first part is uttered forcibly, the second lightly. The greater stress is called accent, and the two parts have but one that is, they are accented as one word. When we come to householder we are no longer notified that the parts were ever separate. Under which of the three forms we shall find any combination depends on length and frequency of use. Turnspit is written without, and turn-table with, a hyphen, because the English people have been much longer used to roasting meat on a spit than to turning railroad cars on a table. But laziness will not rest here. Compound words must next be shortened. The Danes have a pair that are very handy faster, a father's sister, and moster, a mother's sister. Comparable to these are the gaffer and gammer, for grand- father and grandmother, that used to be commonly heard in the West of England. To take a few more miscellaneous Word Making. 57 examples, the Portuguese coin moidore is moeda de ouro ; priest is reduced from presbuteros, bishop from episcopos, and alms from eleemosune. Our simple word which once had an / in it, and the Saxons commonly called it hwilc, which was itself an abbreviation, the fuller form being hwilic, what-like. If we go back to the fourth century we shall find that the Goths had a still fuller form, hweleiks. Our fathers in the days of the great Alfred, in praying for their " daily bread," took time to call it daeghwamlican hldf. Let us see what we have made of these two words. We will take the last first. We have thrown away the initial h, turned the Saxon long a according to our wont into a long 0, and now write the word loaf. From the more formidable looking word we have dropped the termination an, the g of daeg, a day, and hwam, meaning each. We have also reduced lie, like, to the now unmeaning ly. Taking these successive amputations in the order named, we should see the word as daeghwamlican, daeghwamlic, daehzvamlic, daelic, daely. These changes were not all made in a day. The tendency here illustrated is not exceptional. All languages that are at all developed are full of it. In fact that is what development means. The effect is sometimes curious. We will take as an example the French aujourd'hui, meaning now, to-day. First separate it into aujour d' hui ; next observe that au = a le = Latin ad ilium, that jour is from the Latin diurnus, that d' = de, and hui is Latin hodie = hoc die. Treated in this manner it can be stretched out into the very low Latin of ad ilium diurnum de hoc die. In like manner m$me is discovered to be a desiccated preparation of semetipsissimus. But such choice specimens are not confined to French. Old authors give an English phrase of the seventeenth century which they write muskiditti, meaning much good may it do you ; and Shakespeare has godigode'n for God give you a good even. The modern editions naturally give it quite incorrectly ; see " Romeo and Juliet," Act iii., Scene 2. But the masterpiece of all is the one most common. The final m of the house- maid's hourly Yesm is all that remains of the once dignified me a domina. 58 The English Language. Languages differ greatly in their aptitude for forming compound words. Chinese does not admit of them at all ; Spanish has few of native growth ; French has less ability to form them than English ; and this last has to a great extent lost the habit. There are three European languages Ger- man, Russian, and Greek that have almost unlimited capa- bility of forming new verbal combinations. Owing to the excess of consonants, German words are apt to be unwieldy, like Einwanderungsgesellschaft and Unabhdngichkeitserkla- rungen. In most instances each section begins and ends with consonants, and, in the language of working mechanics, the joints show. English labors under the same disadvantage, but to a still greater extent. Milk-maid may as well be deemed two words as one. It is not an indivisible whole, like the Greek derivations astronomy and geology. It is partly from this cause, and partly from the early acquired habit of adopting French, Latin, and Greek terms, that for the higher purposes of literature and science we rarely form a new word from native material. English, as we know it, is doubtless a very noble language ; but well it may be, for it has at command all the resources of at least three. Confined to the original Saxon, it would be very far from what it is. By long use and attrition, words quite diverse in their origin come to be written or pronounced alike. These homonyms, as they are called, are quite numerous. The fol- lowing, although less than a fiftieth part of them, will be sufficient to make their character intelligible : bay, i. Old French fai, Lat. badius, reddish brown. 2. Fr. bate, Lat. bacca^ a berry a kind of laurel tree. 3. Fr. bate, Lat. baia, an inlet of the sea. 4. Fr. abboyer, to bark. cleave, i. Anglo-Saxon cleofan, to split. 2. A.-S. clifian, to adhere. dock, i. Norse dockr, the tail to cut short. 2. A.-S. docce, a plant. 3. Old Dutch dokka, a place to lay ships. fell, i. The past tense of fall. 2. A.-S. fellan, to cut or knock down. Word Making. 59 3. A.-S. fel, fierce, destructive. 4. A.-S. fell, the skin. 5. Norse fjall, a mountain ridge. gill-, i. Norse gjolnar, the breathing organs in fishes. 2. Norse gil, a ravine. 3. Old Fr. gille, the fourth part of a pint. 4. Lat. Julia, also the ground ivy, nepeta glechoma. let-, i. A.-S. latan, to permit. 2. A.-S. lettan, to hinder. In languages having short words homonyms abound, and sometimes greatly embarrass the learner. In monosyllabic Chinese they are his principal difficulty. In words like wind-mill and horse-back the elements remain as complete and distinguishable as in Chinese ; but in such a word as un-kind-ness there are two parts that no longer exist as separate expressions. Most persons would surmise that the prefix un implied negation ; but many would be puzzled to assign a meaning to the suffix ness. Language is full of prefixes, suffixes, and interpolated syllables and letters that have no longer any independent life of their own, but cling like parasites to the more obviously significant parts of words. In un-sym-metr-ic-al-ly the main root of the word is metr, to which are attached two prefixes and three suffixes. The origin and meaning of some of these affixes can be traced, of some conjectured, and of others not even guessed. The following are the principal prefixes that occur in English : a-, i. Greek , without acephalous, amorphous. 2. Lat. a, shortened from ab, from, by, with amanuensis, avert. 3. Lat. ad, to ameliorate, astringent. 4. Lat. e for ex, from amend from emendare, through Old Fr. amender. 5. Gothic us, ur, Norse or, forth arise, awake. 6. A.-S. of, from adown ; A.-S. of dune, from the hill. 7. A.-S. and, over against, like Gr. avrl along. 8. A.-S. on, on, in, at afoot, aground, asleep. 9. A.-S. dn, one apace, apiece. 60 The English Language. 10. K.-S.ge, without any appreciable signification aware ; through gewaer, ywar oryewer, iwar, aware, 11. Norse at, to ado. 12. Fr. a, to achieve, from a chief, Lat. ad caput. 13. Fr. he, interjectional alas ; Fr. httas. 14. Dutch houd, hold avast, from houd vast, hold fast. 15. Dutch aan, to, towards aloof. 16. Arabic al, the apricot, introduced by the Portuguese. ab-, i. Lat. ab, from abjure, aberration. 2. Lat. ad, to abbreviate. abs-, Lat. abs, from abscond, abstract. ao, Lat. ad, to access, accommodate. ad-, i. Lat. ad admire, administer. 2. Lat. ab advance. The " d " is an interpolation of about the year 1500. The word was previously written avance, Fr. avancer, from Lat. ab ante. adv-, Lat. ab advantage. af-, Lat. ad affix, affidavit, affront. ag-, Lat. ad aggregate, aggravate. al-, i. Lat. ad alliteration, alluvium. 2. A.-S. eal, all alone, altogether, always. 3. Span, el, the alligator, i. e., el Jagarto. 4. Arab, al, the alcohol, algebra, alkali. am-, i. Lat. ad ammunition. 2. Lat. in ambush. 3. Lat. am, shortened from ambi, around amputate, to prune around. amb-, Lat. ambi ambient, ambition. ambi-, i. Lat. ambi ambiguous. 2. Lat. ambo, both ambidextrous. amphi-, Gr. aftfpi, around, on both sides amphitheatre. an-, i. Gr. av, Eng. un anarchy, anhydrous, anodyne. 2. Lat. ad annex, annul. ana-, Gr. ava, up, back again, reverse anatomy, anagram. ant-, Gr. avri, against antacid, antagonist. ante Lat. ante, before antedate, antediluvian. anti-, Gr. avri antidote, antichrist. ap-, i. Gr. fX7ro f from apanthropy, aphelion. 2. Lat. ad appeal, append. apo-, Gr. ano, apogee, apostate. Word Making. 61 ar-, as-, at-, aut-, auto-, be-, bene-, bi-, bin-, bis-, by-, cat-, cata-, circu-, circum-, cis-, CO-, col-, com-, comb-, con-, contra-, contro-, coun-, counter-, cu-, cur-, Lat. ad arrive, arrogant. Lat. ad ascend, assist. Arab, al assegay. Lat. ad attend, attest. A.-S. at, Eng. at atone, i. e., at one. Gr. avro?) self authentic. Gr. fxvro? autocrat, autograph. A.-S. be, a shortened form of bi, a prefix of very wide application. With verbs it intensifies or applies the action to some object, as in bedew, be- moan, benumb. With prepositions it has little force ; perhaps defines location more exactly, as in before, behind, beneath. Lat. bene, well benefit, benevolent. Gr. inij upon, over bishop from sniffKOTto'S. Lat. bi = dui, from duo, two biennium, bifurcated. Lat. binus, double binocular, binoxyde. Lat. bis, twice bissextile, bistort. Eng. by by-path, by-stander. Dan. by, a town by-law ; Dan. bylov, Icel. boejar log, local or municipal regulations. Gr. Kara, down, by, confronting catacoustics, cate- chise, catholic. Gr. Hard catalepsy, catastrophe. Lat. circum, around, about circuit, circulate. Lat. circum circumference, circumnavigate. Lat. cis, on this side cisalpine, cisatlantic. Lat. co, for con, a form of cum, with, together co- agulate. Lat. con = cum collateral, collocate. Lat. com = cum commingle, commotion. Lat. com combustion. Lat. con concatenation, concur. Lat. contra, against contradict, contravene. Lat. contro, against controvert. Lat. con council, counsellor. Fr. contre from Lat. contra countermand. Lat. con custom, from consuetudo. Lat. con curry, to work, or dress, i. e., hides, a horse, etc. NOTE. To curry favor is a corrup- 62 The English Language. tion of curry Fa-veil, that being an old English proper name for a horse. d-, Fr. de, of daffodil fieur d'asphodele. de-, i. Lat. de, down, from decapitate, degrade. 2. Fr. de, Old Fr. des, Lat. dis, asunder ; sometimes negative and oppositive, at other times intensive, or with a variety of meanings scarcely perceptible deform, defraud, desiccate, desolate, destroy. 3. Lat. dis defer, delay, deluge. demi-, Lat. dimidius, half demigod, demilune. des-, Fr. des, Lat. dis despatch, dessert. di-, i. Gr. dia, through, apart diaeresis, dioptric. 2. Gr. 6fe, twice diphthong, diptych, distich. 3. Lat. dis digress, dijudicate. 4. Lat. de, down distil. dia-, Gr. dia diameter, diaphanous. dif-, Lat. dis differ, diffuse. dis-, Lat. dis, often with an adversative signification dis- honor. dys-, Gr. 6v?j painful, difficult dyspepsia, dyspnoea. C-, i. Lat. e, out of evade, evolve, edict. 2. Fr. prosthetic, without meaning esquire, from Lat. scutum. 3. Du. ont, away elopement. CC-, Gr. KJ out of eccentric, ecstasy. ef-, Lat. ex, from, out of efflorescence, effrontery. el-, i. Gr. fry in ellipse. 2. Arab, al or el, the elixir, Arab, el iksir, the philoso- pher's stone. em-, i. Gr. v emphasis, empiric. 2. Fr. em, from Lat. in embroider, emboss. en-, i. Gr. ev encyclical, encyclopaedia, energy. 2. Fr. en, from Lat. in, negative = Eng. un enmity, endo-, Gr. svdov, within endogenous. enter-, Fr. entre, Lat. inter, among entertain. ento-, Gr. SVTOS, within entoblast, entozoon. ep-, Gr. snij upon ephemeral. epi-, Gr. en i epigram, epitaph. equ-, Lat. cequus equal, equanimity. CSO-, Gr. effGo, within esoteric. Word Making". i. eu-, ev-, ex-, exo-, extra-, for-, fore-, gain-, hemi-, hetero-, holo-, homo-, hyp-, hyper-, hypo-, i-, U-, im-, in-, inter-, intra-, intro-, iso-, juxta-, 1-, i. 2, mal-, i. Gr. ev, well, pleasantly eulogy, euphony. Gr. sv evangelist. Gr. e, from exodus, exotic. Lat. <?AT, out from exculpate, expel, expose. Gr. H%c&, outside exogenous. Lat. extra, beyond extraordinary, extradition. A.-S. for, only found as a prefix, with the sense of away from ; or it intensifies the verb. The com- pounds are : forbear, forbid, forfend, forget, for- give, forgo, forlet, forlorn, forsake, forswear. Fr. for, Lat. foris, outdoors forfeit. A.-S. for, as above forego, should have been forgo. A..-S.fore, before forebode, forewarn. Fr. for, Lat. foris foreclose, more correctly forclose. A.-S. gegn, against gainsay. Gr. rjfAi, half hemisphere. Gr.-erspoSj other heterodox, heterogeneous. Gr. o\o$, whole holocaust, holograph. Gr. oftos, alike homogeneous, homologous. Gr. vjtOj under hyp-hen under one. Gr. VTtsp, over, beyond hyperborean, hypertrophy. Gr. V7f6 hypogean, hyponitrous. Lat. in, negative ignominy, ignorance. Lat. in, in or into illuminate, illustrate. NOTE. In, prefixed to verbs, is usually equal to Eng. in, into, upon ; with adjectives = un. Lat. in, negative illegal, illiterate. Lat. in, with both significations implant, impure. Lat. in infuse, intemperate. A.-S. in inland, inlet. Lat. inter, between interlude, intercostal. Lat. intra, within intramural. Lat. intro, into introduce, introspection. Lat. in, as above irradiate, irrational. Gr. fo?, equal isometric, isothermal. Lat. juxta, near juxtaposition. A.-S. eal, all lone, contracted from alone i. e., all one. Arab, al, the lute. Fr. mal, Lat. male, ill malpractice, malversation. Ital. mala, bad malaria. 6 4 The English Language. mis-, mon-, mono-, multi-, n-, male-, Lat. male malediction, malevolence. me-, Gr. fat, half megrim, from hemicrania. medi-, Lat. medius, middle mediaeval. meso-, Gr. jusffo?, middle mesocarp, mesogastric. met-, Gr. ftsrai, with, after, altered metonomy, metempsy- chosis. meta-, Gr. jusra metaphor. mid-, i. A.-S. mid, middle midnight, midrib. 2. A.-S. mid, with midwife. A.-S. mis, wrong misdeed, mistake. Old. Fr. mes, Lat. minus, less, imperfect misalliance, miscount. Gr. jtovo?, single monarch, monandria. Gr. jtoroZ monogram, monomania. Lat. multi, many multiform, multiply. An n has been transferred to a few words, to which it did not originally belong, from a preceding an, as newt, for an ewt ; nugget, for an ingot. In the phrase for the nonce the n was the dative end- ing of the article for then ones. On the other hand, an n has been transferred to the preceding article from nadder, napron, nauger, norange, nouch, and numpire. 2. A.-S. ne, negative prefix naught, none. ne-, Lat. ne, negative nefarious, nescience. neg-, Lat. nee, negative neglect. neo-, Gr. VEO$, new neology, neozoic, non-, Lat. non, not nondescript, nonsense. ob-, Lat. ob, generally with the sense of against obdurate, obstruct, obloquy. OC-, Lat. ob occur, occasion. of-, Lat. ob offend. op-, Lat. ob oppose, opprobrium. or-, i. A. S. or, out of, away from ordeal, i. e., or-deal. 2. Du. over, over orlop. ortho-, Gr. opdot, right orthography, orthoclase. OUtr-, Fr. outre, Lat. ultra outrage, i. e., outr-age, not out- rage. palim-, Gr. noikiv, again palimpsest, palin-, Gr. noikiv palinode, palindrome. Word Making. pan-, panto-, par-, i. 2. 3- 4- para-, pan-, pea-, i. pel-, pen-, per-, peri-, pil-, pol-, poly-, por-, pos-, post-, prse-, prseter-, pre-, preter-, prim-, primo-, pro-, i pros-, proto-, pui-, pur-, Ram-, re-, red-, retro-, 5 Gr. itav, all panacea, panoply. Gr. Ttavro, crude form of not?, all pantomime. Gr. Ttapoc, alongside parallel, parhelion. Lat. parum, little paraffine. Ifr.par, ~Lai.per, through paramour, pardon. Fr. parer, to parry parasol, parachute. Gr. Ttapa paragraph, parameter. Lat. far, equal parity, parisyllable. Lat. pavo peacock. Du./^', a coat pea-jacket. Lat. per, through, thoroughly pellucid. Lat. pene, almost peninsula, penumbra. Lat. per perambulate, percolate, permutation. Gr. Ttspi, around perihelion, perimeter. Lat. per pilgrim. Lat./^r, or fort, towards pollute. Gr. TtoXvS, many polygon, polypus. Lat. for, or port portent. Lat. por, or port possess. Lat. potis, able possible. ~Lat.post, after postpone, postscript. Lat. prce, before praemunire. Lat. prater, past, beyond prseterist. Lat./?r, for pra preamble, prejudge. Lat. preter, for pratei preternatural. ~Lzt. primus, first primeval, primordial. Lat. primus primogeniture. Gr. Ttpo, before program, propyleum. Lat. pro, forward, forth, from procrastinate, pro- V gress. GrS&po?, towards proselyte, prosody. Gr. TtpaJTo? , first protosulphate, protozoic. Lat. post, after Fr. puine, Old Fr. puisne, Lat. post natus. Lat. per purlieu. Lat. pro purloin. Fr. rem, from Lat. re and in rampart. Lat. re or red back, again refund, relapse. Lat. re or red redolent, redemption. Lat. retro, backwards retrograde, retrospect. 66 The English Language. S-, Lat. se or sed, apart sure, from securus. SC-, Lat. se or j^/ secede, segregate. sed-, Lat. se or sed sedition. semi-, Lat. semi, half semiannual, semicircle, sempi-, Lat. semper, ever, forever sempiternal. sesqui-, Lat. sesqui, one and a half sesquisulphide. sim-, Lat. radical sim, single simplicity. simul-, Lat. simul, at the same time simultaneous. SO-, i. Lat. se, apart solve. 2. Lat. sub, under sojourn. Soli-, Lat. solus, alone soliloquy, solitary. SU-, Lat. sub suspect. sub-, Lat. sub subscribe, subterranean. Slibter-, Lat. subter, under subterfuge. SUC-, Lat. sub succumb, succor, suf-, Lat. sub suffer, suffuse. SUg-, Lat. sub suggest sup-, Lat. sub support, supposition. super-, Lat. super, over superfluous, supernatural. Supra-, Lat. supra, over, above supralapsarian. SUr-, i. Lat. sub surreptitious. 2. Lat. super surface, survive. 3. Fr. se, self surrender. SUS-, Lat. sub suspend, sustain. syl-, Gr. ffvr, with, together syllable, syllogism. sym-, Gr. ffw symmetry, sympathy. Syn-, Gr. 6w synchronous, synthesis. t-, i. A.-S. at, to or at twit A.-S. atwitan, to blame. 2. Eng. Saint tawdry. NOTE. Cheap, showy finery bought at the fair of St. Awdry, held on St. Awdry's day, Oct. i7th, in the Isle of Ely, and other places. tauto-, Gr. TO avro, the same tautology. to-, i. A.-S. to, to or for to-day, towards. 2. A.-S. to, intensive to-break. Judg. ix., 53, "And a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon Abimelech's head, and all to brake his skull," i. e., shattered it : formerly written, to-brake. tra-, Lat. trans, across, beyond trajectory, tramontane. trans-, Lat. trans transfer, transgress, transit. Word Making. 67 tres-, Old. Fr. tres, Lat. trans trespass. ultra-, Lat. ultra, beyond ultramontane. tin-, i. A.-S. un, a negative prefixed to adjectives untrue. 2. A.-S. un, reverses the action of verbs unbind, un- dress. 3. A.-S, on, in unless. 4. Goth, und, as far as unto. lit-, A.-S. ut,yte, out utmost. utt-, A.-S. ut uttermost. vice-, Lat. vice, in the place of viceroy, vice-president. with-, A.-S. with, away from, against withdraw, withstand. NOTE. In common use with has now usurped the place of mid, with, no longer found but in midwife. The terminal particles, or suffixes, are considerably more numerous, and present greater difficulties. Of a great part of them nothing further is known than that they change nouns into adjectives, or adjectives into nouns, verbs, or ad- verbs, etc. Although admitted to have been once separate, independent words, they are often reduced to single letters, which may have undergone several transformations. Parti- cles, quite distinct in their origin, assume the same form, while the same particle may appear under various forms. The termination il-is, of which the essential part is //, recurs in gent-/<?, gent-^r/, and gent-z/?/ and et-us furnishes repl-ete, discr-^, and secr-^/. The suffix is often joined to the radi- cal part of the word variously termed the stem, theme, or crude form by a connecting vowel, usually a, i, or o. Ge-0- metry and ge-0-logy are familiar examples ; but it is not always easy to determine whether the intervening vowel be- longs to the theme or the suffix, or is mere padding inter- posed between them. Several suffixes are often added, one after another. I will give here a few examples of the way in which affixes no longer living words are strung together around a significant root, reminding us of a magnet support- ing a pendulous series of iron tacks and filings. The last atom seems as capable as the first of attracting and holding others. In the Greek mythology there was a bevy of semi- 68 The English Language. divine blue-stockings called Muses. It was quite according to rule to add ik, or, as we should put it, ic, to this designa- tion, and thus make an adjective of, or relating to, the Muses our English word music. But in process of time the Italians, French, and others seem to have forgotten that mus-ic was an adjective, and to have taken it for the name of an art or branch of culture ; and in order to form an adjec- tive, added a/, making mus-ic-al. Next, the Germans, who make a great deal of music, added a third adjective ending, bringing the series up to mus-ik-al-isch ; and the requirements of their grammar may even induce them to say mus-ik-al- isch-er. Or we may select the syllable voc as a starting-point. In this form it is neither noun, adjective, verb, nor adverb, but, with some slight additions, may easily become either. First attach to it the syllable re, and it will become re-voc. If written revoke, to suit our peculiar views of spelling, it would now be a familiar word. Without such change, we may append the syllable bit ; but re-voc-bil would be too harsh without the cushion of a connecting vowel, and an a may be interposed. We have now re-voc-a-bil ; but again the habits of English spelling require us to write so much of the word re-voc-a-ble. Or at this point we might add the suffix tat, which we should be obliged to change to ty. At almost any stage of our progress the negative prefix in might have been added, which would entirely reverse the meaning of the word. But as n and r are rather difficult to utter together, the former letter is assimilated to the latter. The whole may be exhibited thus : ORIGINAL FORMS ENGLISH FORMS VOC re-voc revoke verb re-voc-a-bil re-voc-a-ble adjective ir-re-voc-a-bil ir-re-voc-a-ble adjective ir-re-voc-a-bil-i-tat ir-re-voc-a-bil-i-ty noun The following list exhibits the principal English suffixes, but by no means their entire number. The explanations given are not to be received as complete definitions, but as Word Making. 69 illustrating the central or original idea of each. There is scarcely a more important principle in the formation of language than this, that every word or usage is at first of very limited and obvious application, but may be gradually extended, by virtue of analogies, real and fanciful, to such a variety of cases, that it is difficult to see the principle that pervades them all. This may be made clearer by a familiar example. The word post is remotely derived from the Latin pono, to place or set, and has been used with the following significations : 1. A piece of timber, set upright, and immovable. 2. A place where persons or things are stationed, as a military post. 3. One of a series of stations for accommodating travellers, and receiving and delivering goods, letters, etc. 4. The person in charge of such a station. " He held the office of postmaster, or, as it was then called, of post, for several years." 5. A position of trust or profit. " For neither pension, post, nor place, Am I your humble debtor." BURNS. 6. A letter carrier. 7. The public establishment for carrying letters and parcels. 8. A kind of paper used for writing letters. 9. To fasten to a post or wall ; to post bills. 10. To expose to public reproach. 11. To assign to a station. 12. To transfer accounts to a ledger. 13. To inform, to keep one posted. 14. To put off, or delay. 15. To deposit letters in the post-office. 1 6. To travel with the public conveyance for letters. 17. To travel rapidly. 1 8. Rapidly adverb as to travel post or post-haste. Thus the word varies in meaning from immovable fixity 70 The English Language. to rapid motion. Now if the first and ninth significations were to go out of use, there would be nothing in the others to suggest the original idea of an upright piece of timber. In this way words may lose all trace of their original mean- ing. It is the same with suffixes, of which one of the most common and best understood is ly, which is most frequently attached to adjectives to form adverbs, thus : He was walking slow-/^, She sang sweet-/y. Originally the particle was, and meant, like ; and God-like arid god-/j/ are the same in origin, although now differ- entiated. Hence we may suppose that such words as god-ly, king-ly, lord-ly, knight-ly, were the earliest adjectives de- rived from nouns. The process was next extended to form adverbs from adjectives. Yet there are several words, as elderly, goodly, sickly, likely, lonely, that remain adjectives after the addition of ly. Comely and seemly are adjectives formed from verbs ; and ear-ly is a double adverbial form. Holy and silly are formed by the addition of y from ig, and not ly from like or lice. In short, we cannot reason with any certainty as to what a word must necessarily be. Such a proportion as : bring : brought : : sing : sought, has a very limited application in philology. LIST OF SUFFIXES. -able, Lat. bil-is, with connecting vowel a, adj. from verb teachable, capable of being taught. -EC, Gr. x-o?, Lat. c-us, with connecting vowel a, adj. from nouns. Syriac, elegiac, maniac. -ace, i. Lat. at-ium, nouns preface, palace, solace, space. 2. Lat. ax furnace. 3. Fr. ace and asse terrace, pinnace. -aceous, Lat. a-c-e-us, double adjectives arenaceous, cre- taceous. -acious, Lat. a-c-i-os-us, a double adj. form tenacious. -acity, Lat. a-c-i-tat-, turns the adj. into an abstract noun tenacity, loquacity, sagacity. Word Making. acle, -acular, -aculous, acy, -ad, -ada, -ade, -age, ago, -ain, -al, alia, -ality, -an, -ance, -ancy, -and, -andum, -anda, -ane, -aneous, -ant, -ar, -ard, Lat. a-cul-um, nouns from verbs miracle, oracle. Lat. a-cul-ar, adds an adj. termination oracular. Fr. acul-eux miraculous. Gr. ax-eia, Lat. ac-ia, abstract nouns from adjectives pharmacy, obstinacy. Gr. a*S, adoG, nouns dryad, monad, chiliad. Span, ada, past participle armada. Span, ado, past participle brocade. Fr. ade arcade, brigade, promenade. Fr. age from Lat. aticum savage, voyage, passage. Lat. ago, nouns from other nouns with the sense of like plumbago, like lead ; virago, like a man. Fr. ain. fr. Lat. a-n-us captain, fountain. Lat. a-l-is, adjectives from nouns, astral, vocal. Canal was originally an adjective of the same class. In nouns formed from verbs, like trial, proposal, refusal, al is a modern factitious ending. In bridal it stands for ale, once a common name for a feast. neuter plural of the preceding regalia. Lat. a-l-i-tat, a nominal added to an adjective ending formality, legality. Gr. a-v-oZ. and Lat. a-n-us, adj. from nouns or other adj. Augustan, orphan, human, veteran. It is often used to form adj. from names of countries. Persian, Roman, Russian. Lat. antia, made by adding the fern, termination a to the present participle abundantia. the same as ance elegancy, repugnancy. Lat. a-nd-us, ending of the future passive participle multiplicand, a number that is to be multiplied, the same as the preceding, plural of andum. the same as an in humane, mundane. Lat. a-n-e-us, a double adj. ending cutaneous. Lat. a-n-s, a-nt-is, ending of the present participle, one who (does) assistant, occupant. Lat. ar-is, adj. from nouns solar, secular. Fr. of Old High German origin, allied to the English hard drunkard, sluggard. 72 The English Language. -arious, Lat. ar-i-us, a double adj. ending gregarious. -arity, Lat. ar-i-tat, nouns from adj. similarity. -arium, the neuter of the preceding used as a noun aquarium. -ary, Lat. ar-i-us forms adj. ar-i-um, nouns military, sanctuary. -ast, Gr. affrrjS, nouns from verbs encomiast, enthusiast. -aster, Ital. astro, from Lat. is-ter in magt'ster, minister, a double comparative poetaster, pilaster. -astic, adds the adj. ending i-c to ast enthusiastic. -ate, i. Lat. a-t-us, ending of the past passive participle ornate, duplicate ; extended to nouns, as magis- trate ; used also as verbs circulate, tabulate. 2. a class of chemical salts nitrate, sulphate. -bility, Lat. bil-i-tat, abstract nouns flexibility. See able. -bund, Lat. bund-us moribund. -CC, A.-S. or early English s, adverbial once, twice, since. -cle, Lat. cul-us, diminutive nouns article, particle. -cule, the same as cle animalcule, reticule. -cund, Lat. c-und-us j adj. having a tendency to rubicund. -cy, Lat. tia and Gr. reia, nouns policy, potency, fancy. Some are formed in imitation of Fr. in cie from Lat. in tia chaplaincy, captaincy, conspiracy. -der, denoting the doer spider for spinther, the spinner. -do, i. Gr. dcav, nouns teredo. 2. Lat. do, nouns, torpedo, uredo. 3. Span. See ado. -dom, A.-S. ddm, judgment, authority kingdom, wisdom. -ed, This termination of the English past participle has been extended to a quite different class of expres- sions, as left-handed, quick-witted, and other adjectives denoting possession. -ee, i. Fr. /, /<?, a participle used as a noun, one who does, or to whom anything is done trustee, legatee, com- mittee. Grantor, one who grants ; grants?, one to whom anything is granted. 2. after names of peoples or countries, forms adjectives Bengalee, Parsee, Hindustanee ; written also Bengali, etc. -eel, an irregular formation, genteel, from Lat. gentilis. gentile, or gentle, belonging to one of the [first] families. Word Making. 73 -eer, -el, -en, ence, -ency, -end, endo, endous, ene, enger, ent, eous, i. 2. -er, i. 2. -ern, -esce, -escent, -escence, -ese, -esque, -ess, -et, -etta, -ette, -etto, -eur, -ey, -fare, mostly from the French ier and aire, a noun denoting profession or occupation muleteer, musketeer, mountaineer, volunteer. Heb. El, God, in early Scripture names Israel, Ariel. A.-S. el, diminutive kernel, laurel. A.-S. en, adjectives from names of materials earthen, leaden, wooden. Old Eng. en in verbs of causing fatten, harden, lengthen. Lat. entia, nouns from pres. part. patience, violence. same as the foregoing. see and. Lat. innuendo, i.e. by nodding or pointing. Lat. adds the ending ous to end tremendous, of a nature to be trembled at. Lat. e-n-us, adj. from nouns Damascene, terrene. Fr. ager messenger, passenger. Lat., see ant. Lat. e-us, adj. from nouns igneous, ligneous. A.-S. wis righteous from rihtwis. A.-S. ere, nouns from verbs lover, writer, robber. forms a class of secondary verbs, with no other spe- cial characteristic in common batter, clamber slumber, chatter, whisper, sputter. A.-S. ern, adjectives eastern, western, northern. Lat. ese-o, verbs denoting the beginning and progress of an action convalesce, deliquesce. a participial and adjective form of the preceding. the corresponding termination for a noun. Fr. is, ois, ais, from the Lat. ensis Chinese, Maltese. Fr. esque, equal to the Eng. ish Arabesque, pict- uresque. Gr. *?, tffffac, Lat. tssa, Fr. esse, feminines empress, heiress. Fr. et, diminutive bullet, pallet, pullet. Ital. etta, diminutive burletta. Fr., the same palette, lunette. Ital., the same cavetto, stiletto. Fr. equivalent to er and or or tor amateur. see y clayey, skyey. A.-S. farn, a journey welfare, homefare. 74 The English Language. -fer, Lat. fer-Oy bear, carry conifer, lucifer. -ferous, the preceding with ending ous added auriferous. -fic, Lat. fa, from fac-i-o, to make or do pacific, terrific. -fice, Lat. fic-i-um, a thing done or made artifice, edifice. -fill, A.-S. /#/, adj. from nouns fruitful, painful. -fy, Fr. fiery from Lat. fay fac-i-o fortify, solidify. -gerous, Lat. ger-o, to bear or carry, with ending ous added armigerous, lanigerous. -head, A.-S. had, state, rank, or condition Godhead. -hood, another form of the same childhood, knighthood. -ia, i. Lat. ia, a frequent ending of the names of coun- tries. 2. Lat. ia, neuter plural of adjectives regalia, pene- tralia. 3. Gr. ia. ambrosia, paronomasia. See_y. -ible, Latin i-bil-is. See able. -ic, i. Gr. IKO?, adjectives conic, graphic, logic. 2. Lat. i-c-uSy adj. from nouns historic, public much employed by chemists to form the names of cer- tain acids. -ice, i. Gr. irsia, Lat, itia, itiumy ities, nouns police, service, justice, malice, notice. -ician, Lat. a double adj. ending, formed of ic and an with connecting vowel ; chiefly used to denote a pro- fession, as musician, physician. -icious, Lat. double adjective ending. -icular, formed from ic, ul, and ar reticular. -iculate, Lat. composed of ic, the dim. ul, and ate ; at first properly a participle, but often used as a new verb. -iculation, a noun formed from iculate. -iculous, equivalent lo icular ridiculous. -id, i. Gr. sidr'fi ; see oid orchid. 2. Lat. id-us , adjective ending humid, rigid, solid. -ide, a primary chemical compound chloride, sulphide. -ile, Lat. i-l-is, like a-l-is, adjectives from nouns and verbs puerile, hostile, fragile, missile. -im, i. Heb. im, a masc. plur. ending of Scripture names of peoples, as Rodanim, Anakim. 2. Lat. im, in adverbial endings interim, verbatim. Word Making. 75 -ine, i. Gr. z-y-Os, adj. cedrine, petrine. 2. Lat. t'-n-us, adj. from nouns aquiline, canine. In this sense it terminates four chemical elements, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine. Also the medicinally active principle of certain plants, as quinine, santonine, morphine. -ing, i. A.-S. t'ng, added to the name of a person, like the Greek idr}?, distinguished his descendants ; ap- plied next to the people of a particular town or district. Towns and districts were also named from families. The names Billings, Isl-ing-ton, Wall-ing-ford, Wals-ing-ham, are relics of this usage. 2. A.-S. ing, forms nouns with something of the charac- ter of adjectives hearing, shilling, whiting. 3. A.-S. ung, verbal nouns morning, evening, building, wedding, writing, reckoning. 4. In modern English the ending of the present partici- ple which had already begun to supplant the participial endings a-nde, i-nde, by A.D. 1200. The verbal noun and the participle, originally quite separate, are now indistinguishable, friend andjfe#</are relics of the original participle. -ion, Lat. ion-is, forms abstract nouns from verbs ques- tion, contagion, derision, dominion, vision. -ious, Lat., a secondary adjective formation, mostly from adj. ax or ix audacious, sagacious. -isation, see ize. -ise, see ize. -ish, i. terminations of certain verbs from Fr. verbs in ir, and Lat. in ire banish, finish, polish, punish. 2. A.-S. fsc, forms, i, patronymics, as English, Spanish ; 2, adj. from nouns, bookish, sheepish, waspish ; 3, adj. from adj. greenish, sweetish. -isk, Gr. iffx-oS, IGK-^J iffx-i-ov, diminutive asterisk, basilisk. -ism, Gr. ztfju-oS, condition, characteristic, idiom, doctrine, barbarism, Gallicism, mesmerism, Methodism, -ist, Gr. i<JT-r)S anatomist, organist, florist, spiritualist. -ister, a double nominal ending barrister, chorister. 7 6 The English Language. -istic, combination of ist and ic linguistic, sophistic. -ite, i. Gr. trr)?, designates classes of persons anchorite, hypocrite. 2. in Scripture forms patronymics Edomite, Levite. 3. Lat. i-t-us a termination of the past participle, form- ing Eng. adj. contrite, erudite. 4. forms the names of certain salts nitrite, sulphite. 5. forms names of minerals Arragonite, calcite, selenite. -itious, Lat. i-t-i-us, an adj. added to a participial ending nutritious. -itis, Gr. in?, names for inflammatory diseases arthritis, pleuritis, meningitis. -ive, Lat. iv-us, adj. added to participial ending delusive. -ival, Lat. second adj. ending added to the preceding estival, festival. -ize, Gr. zCctf, a frequent termination of derivative verbs apologize, baptize, symbolize. There are many imitations, which some write with s and others with z, as humanize or humanise, patronize or patronise. -kin, Old Du. ken, diminutives gherkin, lambkin, catkin. -ledge, Norse leikr, game, play, occupation ; used like ness to form abstract nouns knowledge. -less, A.-S. leds, loose or free from stainless, painless ; not connected with, little, less, least. -let, Old Fr. /-<?/, a double diminutive chaplet, cutlet, brooklet. -ling, i. A.-S. l-ing, a double diminutive darling, duckling. 2. A.-S. /if, like darkling, sideling. -logy, Gr. Xoyos, word, speech, story, doctrine, often pre- ceded by a connecting vowel, o or / geology, meteorology. -long, a variant of ling 2. headlong, sidelong. -ly, A.-S. /if, like forms, i, adj. from nouns friendly, lovely, manly ; 2. adj. from other adj. goodly, elderly, sickly ; 3. adv. from adj., a very numer- ous class nobly. -mancy, Gr. fuwr/r, divination cheiromancy, necromancy. -menon, plural mena, Gr. participial ending phenomenon, appearing, that which appears ; prolegomena, prefatory remarks. Word Making. 77 -ment, -mony, -monious, -monial, -nal, -ness, -o, -ock, -oid, -or, -ory, ose, -ot, otic, our, ous, Pie, plicate, -red, -nc, -ry, -ship, -sis, -some, Lat. mentum, of participial origin, forms nouns from verbs fragment, segment, argument. Lat. mon-i-a, mon-i-um ceremony, matrimony. adds the adj. ending ous to the preceding. equivalent to monious. Lat. n-al-is, double adj. ending diurnal, paternal. A.--S. nesse, nes, nis, nys, Gothic nassus, forms abstract nouns from adjectives goodness, darkness, sweet- ness. Latin o, ablative folio, quarto, octavo. common ending of nouns and adj. from Italian or Spanish alto, solo, studio, embargo, negro. A.-S. uca, diminutives hillock, hummock. Gr. o-isdrjS, fr. eiSoZ, form, appearance spheroid, conoid, deltoid. Lat. or, added to the stem of the supine, and so al- ways preceded by s or / ; denotes the doer act- or, orator, inspector, assessor, confessor. Lat. orius, oria, orium, nouns and adj. formed from supines dilatory, victory, promontory, posses- sory. Lat. os-us, adj. jocose, lachrymose, morose. Gr. orr}$ and oyrrj? idiot, patriot, zealot. i-c added to the preceding. Fr. eur fr. Lat. or (see or) which is now restored in nearly all words except Saviour. Lat. us and os-us, adj. arduous, devious, pious. Lat.///V, fold triple, quadruple, multiple. ~Lz.\..plic-at-us, folded duplicate, triplicate. A.-S. raden, condition hatred, kindred ; originally kinrede or kinred. The first d is interpolated as it is in thunder, or the b in number. A.-S. rice, dominion, jurisdiction bishopric. ery or j, an act, trade or the collective body of those employed in it cavalry, cookery, surgery. A.-S. scipe from a verb signifying to shave or to shape and make, in any case denoting activity, duty, labor clerkship, friendship, horsemanship. Gr. fft?, primarily, the act of doing anything, second- arily, the thing done synopsis, thesis. A.-S. sum, Norse samr, Eng. same fulsome, irksome. The English Language. Ster, A.-S. es-tre, signified originally the doer or actor, but became restricted to females spinster, tapster. -Stress, a second feminine ending added to the preceding seamstress, songstress. -sy, an Anglicised form of sis heresy, hypocrisy. ter, Gr. T/7p, ending of some nouns crater, character. tery, Gr. rrjpiov, names of instruments cautery, psaltery. -th, A.-S. dh, equivalent in force to ty from the Lat. tat-s, forms abstract nouns from adjectives and verbs health, truth, worth, birth, stealth. After /, s, or gh, th becomes / theft, thirst, weight. It is used also to form the ordinal numbers after the third. Lat. t-r-ix, a feminine termination corresponding to t-or directrix, executrix. Lat. tu-d-o, a double suffix forming abstract nouns from adjectives, equivalent, therefore, to ness from A.-S. attitude, solitude, rectitude. Lat. tur-us, ending of the future participle future, adventure, sepulture. Lat. tat-s, abstract nouns from adj., equivalent to ness or tude equity, liberty, plenty. A.-S. tig, meaning ten twenty, thirty, forty. -tlble, Lat. u-bil-is, see able soluble, voluble. -ula, ule, ulum, Lat. diminutives nebula, pendulum. -ulent, Lat. u-lent-us, with the general sense of abounding in, corpulent, fraudulent, succulent, virulent. -ulous, Lat. ul-us, nearly the same in sense as the preceding garrulous, tremulous. -und, Lat. und-us jocund, rotund, rubicund. -ure, Lat. ur-a, added to past participles, forming nouns figure, nature, picture, structure. -uret, a term formerly used for a certain chemical com- pound cyanuret, sulphuret. See ide. -ward(s), A.-S. weard(es), denotes direction forward, upward. -way(s), A.-S. meaning road or direction always, straight- way. wise, A.-S. wise, manner likewise, otherwise. -y, i. Gr. la or ezor antipathy, astronomy, irony. 2. Gr. fiov mystery, trophy. trix, -tude, -ture, ty, i. 2. Word Making. 79 3. Lat. atus deputy. 4. Lat. turn ceremony, remedy, study. 5. Fr. ie from Lat. t'a, denotes condition, faculty, etc. misery, memory, modesty. 6. A.-S. ig y forms adj. from nouns horny, silvery, rainy, windy. There are many other words ending in y which prop- erly fall under neither of these heads. Thus the English language has an ample apparatus of prefixes and suffixes, by the aid of which, from almost any given word, a small family of derivations may be developed. We import the Latin word radix (stem radic\ for example, and from this we form : 1. radic-a/ n. radic-ation 2. radically 12. <?-radic ate 3. radic-alism 13. e-radic-ati0n 4. radic-ality 14. e-radic-ative 5. Tadic-a/ness 15. e-radic-able 6. radic-^/ 16. e-rad\c-ability 7. radic-/<? 17. ine-iadicable 8. radic-ule 18. ine-rad\c-ably 9. radic-ate 19. ir ra.dic.-ate 10. radic-anf 20. ir-radic-ation In forming compound words of any kind it is considered good usage to obtain all the parts from the same language. Words thus formed have a neatness and harmony that hybrids cannot always attain. Cablegram is an extremely harsh word compared with telegram. Incorruptibility is faultless, but incorruptibleness would be stiff and awkward. 1 1 We sometimes witness acrobatic feats of word-making, as in aldehyde, the first syllable of which is Arabic, the second, Latin, the third, Greek ; or the names of new towns, like Copperopolis and West Las Animas. The first founders of Cincinnati performed a greater exploit in calling their embryo city Losantiville. L was for Licking Creek, that entered on the other side of the river ; os, for mouth, anti, for opposite, and ville, for town. The first part was English, if anything ; the second, Latin ; the third, Greek ; the fourth, French. There is a practice growing up at present, especially among the learned in 8o The English Language. In the same way durability ', fatality, voracity, and valor are preferable to durableness, fatalness, voraciousness, and val- iantness. Still there are thousands of hybrid words fully established in use ; and practically some of them serve their purpose well. This is especially so where the heterogeneous part is merely a suffix. We are quite satisfied with tender- ness, although, had we been used to it, tenerity might have seemed a more elegant word. In regard to the largest class of suffixes, conformity to the rule indicated would be hope- less. We form adverbs by adding ly to adjectives, no matter from what source the latter are derived. But ly is Anglo-Saxon, while a great part of our adjectives are Latin. The corresponding adverbial terminations in Latin are e and iter ; of which we have not a single instance in our language. We must perforce say modestly and morally instead of modeste and moraliter. The most that can be said then is that, so far as practicable, words should be homogeneous. There is yet another mode of developing words, and that is by declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs. If in illustrating this I occasionally refer to languages remote and little known, it is not because they have always a special connection with English, but from a belief that the growth of language has been, in its essential features, everywhere the same, as resulting from approximately the same human faculties and wants. And as spoken language is never at rest, but continuously growing and decaying, like the trees of the wood, a particular phase of development wanting in one place may be found in another. The principal words in any language, and therefore the chief subjects of inflexion, are those that denote things, qualities, and actions : in other Germany, of fabricating words that shall be self-explaining, and tell their own story, however long it may take them. Thus Schleicher, in his " Compendium of Comparative Grammar," employs such words as ariogrcecoitalokeltische. But perhaps the most unwieldy combination, since Aristophanes constructed one of 169 letters, is azoc&boxylbcnzolmethadimelhylamidocarboxylbenzol, which may be found on page 393 of the " General Register zum Chemischen Centralblatt, " iSyo-'Si. This may be good in chemistry, but is bad in language. It is about on a par with calling a house a bricklimesandtimber, etc. , or naming an ox by enumerating every bone and tissue in his body. Word Making. 81 words, nouns, adjectives, and verbs. The pronouns, being substitutes for nouns, are here reckoned along with them. Inflexion does not change the class or meaning of a word, but only indicates a change of relation. If a certain word is a noun, it continues so ; and if it denotes a horse, it repre- sents that animal throughout, and no other. The same holds good of the adjective and verb. As has been said already, the inflexional system of English is meagre. The Latin words btpenni secatur may be rendered he is getting cut with an axe, in which each word of the original is represented by at least three. Roughly speaking, with an stands for the termination i, and he is for tur. These two terminations are not known as words in Latin. They are not even intelli- gible fragments with recognized meanings. They are mere forms of ending of which the Roman could give no more account than the average Englishman can of the n in blown. The principal transition type between such a form as he is cut and one of a single word, as secatur, is one that prevails very widely one in which the chief element, cut for example, stands unaltered, with as many suffixes as may be necessary appended one after another. These suffixes may be no longer in use as independent words ; but it is essential that they be readily recognized and their meaning perfectly understood. In that respect the compound will be some- what like our word fear-less-ness. This, which is called agglutination, or sticking together, is the characteristic of the language of nomads. It must be intelligible to many who seldom meet. It must consist of words like good-for- nothing that can be put together in an instant and under- stood at a glance. Nearly all the native languages westward from the Wall of China, and including in Europe Turkish, Finnish, Magyar, and Basque, are of this character, and have received the general appellation of Turanian, from a word signifying to roam, and indicative of the supposed original nomadic state of these peoples. The following example of agglutination has often been presented, in one form or other. In Turkish, sev means love ; not as a noun or verb, but the germ of either. With the suffix mek, it becomes sev-mek, to 82 The English Language. love. But a number of other suffixes might be interposed, forming a long series of derived verbs : 1. sev-mek, to love. 2. sev-me-mek, not to love. 3. sev-e-mek, to be able to love. 4. sev-e-me-mek, not to be able to love. 5. sev-dir-mek, to make to love. 6. sev-dir-me-mek, not to make to love. 7. sev-dir-e-me-mek, not to be able to make to love. 8. sev-ish-mek, to love one another. 9. sev-ish-dir-mek, to cause to love one another. 10. sev-ish-dir-me-mek, not to cause to love one another. 11. sev-ish-dir-e-me-mek, not to be able to cause to love one another. The series might be continued up to the number of thirty or more, in each of which the root holds its place and is un- changed, and all the suffixes are distinct and intelligible. Each one of the series becomes a new verb, to be conjugated throughout by person, number, mood, and time. Thus, if er be added to the primary root sev, it becomes sev-er, liter- ally loving. Next attach the pronoun ?';, and we have sev- er-im, loving /, or / love, thus : PRESENT. ' PAST. {ist person sever-im sever-di-m 2d person sever-sen sever-di-n 3d person sever sever-di 1 {ist person sever-iz sever-di-k (miz) 2d person sever-sez sever-di-niz 3d person sever-ler sever-di-ler These suffixes are not the personal pronouns, as found separate but evidently derived from the same originals. It 1 The absence of any suffix to the third person singular is a feature observed in languages having as little visible connection as Hebrew, Turkish, Hungarian, and the Basque of the Pyrenees. It is also a curious fact that substantially the same particle, di, d, or /, is used to form the past tense in Turkish, Magyar, and the Teutonic family of languages. Word Making. is very rarely that they are alike. The verbal suffixes resemble more closely the possessive pronouns attached to nouns. This will be made clearer by exhibiting first the Magyar pronouns alone, and next combined with nouns and verbs. engem me teged thee 6t, or olet him j minket ) ( benunket J titeket you oket them to en I nek-em to me te thou nek-ed to thee 6 he nek-i to him mi we nek-iink to us ti 6k you they nek-tek nek-ik to you to them us Nak, or nek, here = DEFINITE FORM. INDEFINITE FORM. kis-em my knife var-om var-ok I sow kis-ed thy knife var-od var-sz thou sowest kis-e his knife var-ja var he sows kis-iink our knife var-juk var-unk we sow kis-tek your knife var-jatok var-tok ye sow kis-ok their knife var-jak var-nak they sow In the Hungarian, or Magyar, another class of suffixes, corresponding to what we call prepositions, may be placed after these pronominal endings. Every suffix may assume two forms, as its vowel may be changed if necessary to har- monize it with the vowel of the leading element of the compound. We thus have : haz-am-ban haz-ad-an haz-a-nal haz-unk-ba hdz-atok-ra haz-ok-haz haz-am-bol hdz-ad-rol haz-a-tol hdz-unk-ig hdz-atok-e"rt in my house on thy house at his house into our house up to our house unto their house out of my house down from thy house away from his house as far as our house for your house 84 The English Language. hdz-ok-mal by means of their house haz-am-ma made into a house for me haz-ad-iil for use as thy house The list might be extended to several hundreds. If the first vowel were different an e, for example those that follow would also be different. This change of letters, by a kind of induction to use a phrase of the electricians through mere proximity to other letters is an important part of grammar to which it will be necessary to recur again. In the foregoing example there are two distinct classes of suffixes fragments of pronouns, and particles expressing such relations as for, in, by, with, etc. The Aryan languages use exclusively the latter class with their nouns, with the single exception of the modern Persian, in which pronominal suffixes are a late innovation derived from contact with Arabs. The Shemitic languages employ the former class. A Sanskrit noun is declined with three numbers singular, dual, and plural and eight cases the Nominative for the doer ; the Vocative for the person addressed ; Accusative, object of the action of a verb ; Instrumental for that with which anything is done ; Dative, the relation to or for ; Ablative, expressing the relation from ; Genitive, denoting possession, and Locative, the place where. Then deva, a god, is thus declined in the singular, dual, and plural : N. devas deva-u deva-s V. deva deva-u deva-s A. deva-m deva-u deva-n I. deve-na deva-bhyam deva-is D. deva-ya deva-bhyam deve-bhyas Ab. deva-t deva-bhyam deve-bhyas G. deva-sya deva-yos deva-nam L. deve deva-yos deve-shu It would be in vain now to inquire the meaning of all these endings when they were yet separate words, as they no doubt once were. In Magyar we have seen them pre- served with tolerable distinctness ; here they are considerably Word Making. 85 more reduced. A noun in Hebrew would be declined upon an entirely different principle, thus : Sus a horse sus-i my horse sus-cha thy horse (masc.) sus-ech thy horse (fern.) sus-o his horse sus-ah her horse sus-enu our horse sus-chem your horse (masc.) sus-chen your horse (fern.) sus-am their horse (masc.) sus-an their horse (fern.) sus-im horses sus-ai my horses sus-eicha thy horses (masc.) sus-ayich thy horses (fern.) sus-aiv his horses sus-eiha her horses sus-einu our horses sus-eichem your horses (masc.) sus-eichen your horses (fern.) sus-eihem their horses (masc.) sus-eihen their horses (fern.) As we have seen, the Turanian languages use both classes of suffixes with their nouns. All languages necessarily con- nect personal pronouns with their verbs ; although they may sometimes be so disguised as not to be apparent. The Shemitic languages have preserved the pronominal affixes better than most others, as will be seen by exhibiting, in Arabic and Hebrew: (i) the personal pronouns; (2) the prefixed, (3) the suffixed, fragments of the same ; (4) the perfect tense, (5) the imperfect, of the verb katal, to kill. The reader will not fail to observe how close is the resem- blance between these two sister languages. There are indi- cations that the Arabic is the elder of the two. It has a well preserved dual number, which has almost vanished already from the Hebrew of the Scriptures, being restricted to natural pairs, as the eyes and ears, and two or three words where its use cannot now be accounted for. The pronouns of the 1st and 2d persons are held to contain a prefixed demonstrative, an = here or there perhaps originally accom- panied by pointing. It is wanting in the 3d person, possibly because the 3d person was not generally present to be pointed at. The ancient Egyptian had it throughout, and the Arabic retains it in the 2d person, where it has been phonetically reduced to at in Hebrew. The final a in the 3d person singular has in Hebrew dwindled to a silent letter and at last disappeared. 86 The English Language. ARABIC. I ana a- -tu katal-tu a-ktul-u thou (mas.) anta t- -ta katal-ta ta-ktul-u thou (fern.) anti t- -ti-ina katal-ti ta-ktul-ina he huwa i- (y-) -a katal-a ia-ktul-u she hiya t- -at katal-at ta-ktul-u you two antuma t- J -ani ) ( -tuma j katal-tuma ta-ktul-ani they two (mas.) huma i-(y-) i-"- \ }-am f katal-a ia-ktul-ani they two (fern.) huna t- <-ata ) \ -am f katal-ata ta-ktul-ani we nahnu n- -na katal-na na-ktul-u you (mas.) antum t- j -turn ) ( -una J katal-tum ta-ktul-una you (fern.) antunna t- j -tunna ) (-na J katal-tunna ta-ktul-na they (mas.) j humu | ( hum f i- (y-) j-u ) ( -una J katal-u ia-ktul-una they (fern.) Jumna i- (y-) -na katal-na ia-ktul-na The fragments employed as affixes cannot all be deduced from the existing pronouns, but must have been derived from earlier forms. This is equally true of the suffixes of verbs in other languages. Words may also be developed by internal change, without the addition of anything. This is one of the leading charac- teristics of the Shemitic languages. Thus the Arabic makes from the same root : katala kattala katala aktala takattala takatala inkatala iktatala iktalla istaktala iktalla he killed he massacred he tried to kill he set on some one to kill he slew himself he pretended to be killed he got himself killed he committed suicide he set some one to kill for him Word Making. HEBREW. Anokhi, ani a- -ti katal-ti a-ktol attah, atta t- -ta katal-ta ti-ktol atti, at hu t i- (y-) -t, -i katal-t katal ti-ktl-i yi ktol hi t- -ah katl-ah ti-ktol anakhnu, anu ) nakhnu ) n- -nu katal-nu ni-ktol attem t- -tern, -u ktal-tem ti-ktl-u atten, attenah t- j -ten ) \ -nah \ ktal-ten ti-ktol-nah hem, hemmah i u katl-u yi-ktl-u hen, lien 71 ah t- -u, -nah katl-u ti-ktol-nah Each one of these now becomes a separate verb, to be con- jugated throughout. In respect to signification, we have in English a mere trace of this usage, in such pairs of words as drink and drench, fall and fell, lie and lay, rise and raise, sit and set. These couplets were more numerous in the earlier period of the language than now. Something apparently similar is one of the marked peculiarities of the Teutonic group of languages. It is the formation of what are commonly called the irregular verbs which foreigners must find one of the great difficulties of English. A few examples will show how hard it is to guess the past from the present, or the present from the past. eat sing bring slay fly seethe ate eaten sang brought slew sung brought slain flew flown sothe, sod sodden 88 The English Language. Again, we have : teach taught buy bought seek sought think work bring thought wrought brought where six entirely different presents have almost the same past tense. Although our language has little of declension and con- jugation now, yet it was not always so. In that earlier form known as Anglo-Saxon the inflexional system was fuller than in modern literary German, but less complete than in the still older Gothic. Thus the adjective blindh^ in Saxon the following declension : Singular MASC. FEM. NEUT. NOM. blind blind-u blind GEN. blind-es blind-re blind-es DAT. blind-um blind-re blind-um Accus. blind-ne blind-e blind ^ INSTR. blind-6 blind-e I NOM. blind-e blind-e blind-u GEN. blind-ra blind-ra blind-ra DAT. blind-um blind-um blind-um Accus. blind-e blind-e blind-u Plural The change that such a word has undergone consists of omitting the terminations entirely, and perhaps altering the pronunciation. How was this brought about ? Evidently to use all these various forms correctly requires care and the skill that comes of long and constant use. Such a type of language could be developed and maintained only in a closely united and isolated community. Immigration, con- quest, and the commingling of races would be fatal to it. Those who, without sufficient knowledge, should attempt to use these inflexions would blunder perpetually ; and their only safe course would be to drop them altogether. In this they would be determined somewhat by the place of the accent. Some languages, as the Hebrew, the Greek, and the Latin, reckon it from the end of the word ; Saxon and Word Making. 89 Icelandic from the beginning, while Sanskrit and Russian seem to have no preference. The accented syllables are longest and best preserved, while those farthest from the accent, like outlying provinces, are exposed to waste and destruction. Now as the Anglo-Saxon generally placed the accent near the beginning of each word, the terminal portions were readily worn off. It is known that this wasting process had begun long before the Norman conquest, especially in the north of England settled by the Angles and exposed to the inroads of the Picts and the Danes. And when long after the conquest Normans and Saxons united to form one people the inflexional system was fated to disappear. Every student must be struck with the amount of irregu- larity in all inflected languages. Turn to the imperfect active of the Latin verb and see how beautifully regular it is how easy to learn and to use. Why cannot all paradigms be as plain ? But as they are we encounter at every step either forms so worn down and altered as to be scarcely recogniza- ble, or forms obviously of different origins. The words first and second are not derived from one and two, nor are eleven and twelve constructed on the same pattern as thirteen and fourteen. Better and worse are not akin to good and bad. In such cases we must suppose the original native word to have been ousted by some intruder. Fortunately we know of at least two instances where that has been done. Within the memory of living men mariners very consistently called the right and left sides of the ship starboard and larboard, but as these were not easily distinguished in the tumult of a storm, port was arbitrarily substituted for the latter. Go and went are another mismatched pair. Go had once a past tense which is well preserved in the Scotch gaed ' : " Then I gaed hame at crowdie-time And soon I made me ready." BURNS: "Holy Fair." Scott, in the third canto of " Marmion," employs a form yode, which follows closely the A.-S. eode ; but as early as the time of Wycliffe and Chaucer, went had completely 90 The English Language. usurped the place of this old word. On the other hand, wend is now scarcely ever used seriously, so that we have only the present tense of the one and the past tense of the other. There is reason to believe that languages in their more primitive stages are less irregular that, as change is inces- sant, irregularity is a constantly growing quantity. In the Sanskrit verb we have found slight traces, and in Arabic and Hebrew considerable remains, of the personal pronouns. The same could not be detected in the languages of modern Europe. This point may be illustrated by two or three mis- cellaneous examples. The first shall be the three series of Sanskrit adverbs, viz., of time, place, and cause or source. The first series corresponds to our now, then, when, when ? always. adhuna tada yada kadi sarvada atra tatra yatra kutra sarvatra atah tatah yatah kutah sarvatah Yet notwithstanding this remarkable uniformity, one anom- aly has crept into each line. Again, the English personal pronouns, 1st, /, 2d, thou, 3d, he, she, or it, have no simi- larity ; and the plurals are not in the least like each other or like their singulars. It is quite otherwise in the language of the Dakota Indians : ish he ish-pi they n-ish thou n-ish-pi ye tn-ish I unk-ish we two m-ish-pi we They have a possessive pronoun from a different root, but equally regular in itself : tawa tawa-pi ni-tawa ni-tawa-pi mi-tawa unki-tawa mi-tawa-pi In the language of the Hidatsas, an allied tribe, these pronouns are : Word Making. 91 i he hi-do they d-i thou di-do ye m-i I mi-do we It is a curious fact that in many languages, the most diverse geographically and in character, the forms for the third person are simpler than any of the others. Finally there are words that are mere mistakes. Of these there are two kinds. One class, relating chiefly to animals and plants, are errors of fact ignorance of natural history. Toads do not sit on toad-stools any more than they carry jewels in their heads. The cuckoo does not expectorate cuckoo-spit, nor do the stars drop star-jelly. The other class are merely verbal errors, due to catching at the sound of strange words and turning them into something familiar in sound but different in sense. Thus there is a parish in Derbyshire called Sandy Acre originally Saint Diacre ; and in Oxfordshire there is Shotover Hill (French, Chateau vert], and ever-ready tradition tells how Robin Hood's lieutenant, Little John (so-called from his great stature), shot an arrow over it. The English sailors used to call the ship of war Bellerophon, Bully Ruffian ; as the soldiers pronounced the name of Surajah Dowlah, Sir Roger Dowley. I suspect that Cinderella's glass slipper is a mistake of a word, for a glass slipper is too absurd even for a nursery tale. But let us suppose that the story took its present form in France about the thirteenth century, when vair was a common name for gray fur or anything trimmed therewith. Suppose further the ill-used maiden had furred slippers des pantoufles de vair and that ages after, when the word was no longer in com- mon use, they were mistaken for des pantoufles de verre slippers of glass. Legends, mythology, and superstitions owe much to a misapprehension of words. The following are some of the principal English words originating in this manner : Alewives (from aloof , an Indian name for the fish) are not married, and confine themselves to cold water. 92 The English Language. " When the ground is bad and worn-out, the Indians used to put two or three of the fishes called Aloof es under or adjacent to each Corn Hill, where they had many a Crop double to what the Ground would have otherwise produced." Philos. Trans., London, 1700, xii., 1665. Belly-bone, or belly-bound, a variety of pear, Fr. belle et bonne. Benjamin, benzoin, a gum. Blue Peter, blue repeater, a marine signal flag. Charter House (Fr. Chartreuse], a Carthusian monastery in London converted into a charity school and asylum. Condog", a ridiculous word for concur, on the basis that a cur is a dog. Country-dance, for contra-dance. Cow-itch is a corruption of an Eastern word which as a word has no connection with either cow or itch. Crawfish is not a fish. Tracing backwards we have crawfish, crayfish. Fr. tcrevisse j Ger. Krebis or Krebs, a crab. Cudbear, a purple dye introduced by Dr. Cuthbert Gordon. Demijohn, Half John ; Fr. Dame Jeanne, Lady Jane ; said to be named after the place of its invention, Damaghan in Central Asia. Dear me, not a simple expression of self-love, but the Italian Dio mio, My God. Fiddle-wood, ^v.fidele, faithful, for its durability. Fistinut, pistachio nut ; Arab, fustak. Godown, Malay godong, a warehouse. Gooseberry, gorseberry, has no connection with geese. Hammercloth, a hybrid Dutch and English word meaning a covering cloth. Handsaw, heronshaw, " Hamlet," Act ii., Sc. 2. Isinglass, Dutch huizenblas, sturgeon's air-bladder. Jerusalem artichoke has no connection with the holy city Ital. girarsole, turning to the sun. John Dory, Fr.jaune doree, a gold-colored fish. Johnny-cake. Nothing but the cake is now known of this particular Johnny. The early settlers of Pennsylvania and Virginia used to prepare journey-cake to take with them when going a great distance. Word Making. 93 Maul-Stick, Ger. Mahlstock, is not a stick to maul with, but to support the hand in painting. Niger auger, low for Nicaragua logwood. Nightmare. The incubus here is not the female of the horse but A.-S. mara, oppression in sleep. No-cake, worse fare than Johnny-cake, only a kind of porridge, Indian nookhik. Rosemary, not a rose or specially pertaining to Mary, but rather ros marinus, sea dew. Rotten Row in London is not especially a scene of decay or decomposition, but a celebrated thoroughfare in Hyde Park, where people of wealth and fashion disport on foot and on horse- back. Long ago it was le route du roi, the king's route, or road. Saunders blue, Fr. cendres bleues, blue ashes. Shuttlecock, originally a piece of cork batted to and fro. Sirloin for surloin, a misspelling backed by a silly story that James I. conferred knighthood on a roast of beef. Summerset, somerset, somersault. Fr. soubresaut, soubresault, Ital. sopra salto, Lat. supra and saltus, a leap over. Sparrow-grass, asparagus. Stave's-acre, Gr. ffTaqnS aypia, wild grape. Tennant-saw for tenon-saw. Wormwood has nothing to do with either worms or wood. It is from the A.-S. iver-mod, the name of the plant absin- thium. Yellow-hammer is not a hammer, and in Europe is not even a woodpecker but a small bird, the yellow bunting. Ger. Gelb- ammer or Gold-ammer. CHAPTER V. THE ALPHABET. THE invention of an alphabet to represent the single sounds of vocal speech requires such a power of analysis that it is doubtful if it has ever been accomplished but once in the whole history of mankind, and then only by the labors of many ages and diverse peoples. Like everything great, it is the product of slow development and not of sudden crea- tion. The man who had no hint of an alphabet could not devise it ; and he who had once seen one could produce only an imitation. The first attempts at recording were undoubtedly pictures, and were confined to no race or country. Yet picture writ- ing and monumental markings had certain centres of special interest, of which the most important were Mexico, (includ- ing Central America), China, Babylon, and Egypt. The American art was cut off before maturity, the greater part of its monuments destroyed, and no key left to the myste- ries of the remainder. The three other systems yielded very notable results. The attempt to convey intelligence by pictures soon dis- closes the imperfections of the medium. It is bulky and la- borious requires too much time and space to say a little. This may be obviated in part by abridging and abbreviating. A few footprints may represent a journey ; a sword or a handful of arrows, war ; a ladder leaned against a wall, a siege ; or the head and horns of a deer may stand for the whole animal. Again, no picture tells its own story, but must be supplemented by other knowledge. The most per- fect painting of the Last Supper or the death of Socrates would be unintelligible to one who was not familiar with the story. Admitting that a wall and ladder may represent a 94 The Alphabet 95 siege, they cannot alone tell us what siege, and still less its cause, history, and results. For this purpose a secondary set of figures, often quite arbitrary in form, must be added as keys, headings, inscriptions, or letter-press ; and these latter may ultimately be so perfected as to dispense with the pic- tures altogether. Pictures, too, can represent only visible objects, and not abstract ideas. How can a picture be designed that will convey to every beholder the sentiment, " Love thy neigh- bor as thyself " ? A rude attempt is made to solve this problem by means of that exhaustless fancy that sees a figu- rative or symbolical meaning in everything a metaphorical likeness in things the most unlike. A pair of scales might indicate justice ; wisdom might be represented by the head of an owl ; cunning, by a fox ; and the act of forgetting, by a sieve that retains no water. Among the Egyptians an ostrich feather was the symbol of justice, from a belief that all the feathers of that bird are of equal length ; a bee was the emblem of royal authority, as bees were supposed to live under a perfect monarchy ; and a roll of papyrus aptly rep- resented knowledge. The Mexicans painted a serpent with head and tail joined for eternity, and also for the divine power ; while the plain practical Chinese drew a pair of clam shells for friendship, and for the conjunction and, a bunch of roots bound together. But there are cases where all such contrivances fail. For names, especially of foreign persons or places, mere sounds must be expressed. Every system of writing must perform this feat or utterly fail. So far as I am aware all attempts to do this have been essentially the same in principle, which is that of the rebus, so common in popular publications for the young. A group or series of objects is depicted whose united names give the required articulations. Such names as those of the Indian chiefs, Cornstalk, Black Hawk, Red Cloud, Sitting Bull, present no difficulty ; but it would some- times be necessary to use only parts of words, as it will generally be possible to find some word either beginning or ending with any desired sound. In this way the Mexicans 96 The English Language. expressed the name of their king Itzcoatl by an arrow pointed with obsidian, itstli, a water jar, comitl, and a symbol for water, atl. By combining the initial syllables, they formed the name required. The Chinese and Assyrians varied this method by combining the initial syllable of the first word with the final syllable of the last. Many peoples have claimed for their arts and institutions a divine origin or a fabulous antiquity ; and remote dates in general are to be accepted only as approximations. The Chinese assign a date of 2278 (2278 before the Christian era) to a rock inscription of one of their early kings record- ing the completion of an outlet for the floods of the Hoang-ho. However uncertain, the date is not in itself improbable. Like every other people, they began with rude outlines of objects, which have been altered and abbreviated so many times that little of the original likeness is left. An obvious resemblance can sometimes be traced in the oldest texts, which is lost in the modern characters, as. will be seen by a few examples : the sun H the moon m mountains / a dog / i a fish MH iK: a tree 1$ ^ a child a man F| the eye ran raj high 1 to shoot We have already seen that all languages began with monosyllables, and that the Chinese never advanced beyond that stage. This perpetual fixity is perhaps due to the fact that it was committed to writing in that primitive form, and so remains a conspicuous example of arrested development. Every word at first was a little picture, representing at once a visible object and a spoken monosyllable. As the language Three mountains piled upon each other with trees on the top. The Alphabet. 97 has no grammatical distinctions, the same figure, as noun, adjective, and verb, represented an object, its most conspic- uous quality, or its most characteristic action, as the case might require. By an extensive system of secondary and metaphorical significations, all the purposes of more artistic languages are attained in a manner that, though bald and stiff is perfectly intelligible. As the written characters are ideographic, like the signs in our almanacs and mathematical books, they convey their meaning directly in all parts of the empire, whatever may be the spoken dialect. The Chinese are so wedded to their system that they not only have never invented or adopted an alphabet, but they find it difficult to conceive how other nations can fill libraries with some two dozen letters not one of which means anything. But the number of pronounceable monosyllables is limited. Chinese has 450 some rate them as high as 500. Each spoken word therefore stands on an average for 100 quite separate ideas. The written characters far outnumber the uttered sounds ; and in discourse at all important or recon- dite the tongue must be aided by the hand and pencil. The Chinese grammarians divide their written words into the fol- lowing classes : First. There are 600 characters so pictorial as to need no explanation. Second. Characters that vary in meaning according to position, as the figure of the sun above or below a horizontal bar, distinguishing dawn from sunset. Third. There are some 700 compound characters originally made up of two or more. The fourth class numbers 372 which change their significa- tion when either the form or the sound is inverted. The fifth class comprises 600 that are used in metaphorical senses. But as all these elaborate devices must fail in the end, the Chinese had recourse to an ingenious system. They under- took to distribute all possible conceptions into 214 classes. Each of these divisions is distinguished by a character taken, with few exceptions, from the class first above mentioned. 7 98 The English Language. These characters, when so used, are called keys, and are not pronounced. They are combined with characters repre- senting the 450 monosyllabic sounds, and show in what sense these latter are to be understood. Thus the character to be pronounced fie, combined with the key-word muh, meaning wood or tree, to distinguish it from every other pe, is pro- nounced merely pe and not pe muh, and is then understood to mean a wooden spoon. The word ngo, united with 27 different keys, represents as many wholly dissimilar ideas, but still pronounced the same. In this way the written is vastly more copious and precise than the spoken language, which haa, as a substitute, a very inadequate system of tones that give it a sing-song character. About the year 39 contemporary with the preaching of Saint Paul in the West Buddhist missionaries from India first entered China, bringing with them the Devanagari alphabet and some of their religious books. Their teachings exerted a wide influence, and by the end of the fifth century it was computed that more than 5,000 of their books had been translated into Chinese. The foreign alphabet never superseded the native mode of writing, yet for certain pur- poses it was imitated. For expressing foreign names and unfamiliar words 36 characters were selected, representing the initial consonants of the language, and 38 others for the final sounds. One of the former followed by one of the latter will form a word beginning with the one and ending with the other. This system has been in use in dictionaries since the year 543. Intimate relations existed from an early period between China and Corea; and thither the Buddhist missionaries penetrated in the fourth century. As they were not there confronted with a system of writing so deeply rooted as in China, the Coreans, profiting by their example, constructed an ingenious and very simple alphabet of 27 letters, adapted to the sounds of their language. It is important to observe that this alphabet has not the slightest resem- blance to the one that suggested it, but rather reminds us of modern short-hand. All that an ingenious people require is The Alphabet. 99 to see and understand that vocal speech can be resolved into its elements and then represented by visible symbols. All European alphabets are unquestionably derivations of the earliest Phoenician, but the liveliest imagination cannot detect a resemblance in more than two or three of the letters used by us ; and that resemblance is wanting in the Hebrew and the Arabic, which are next of kin to the original. One set of symbols may be derived from another, and yet the two may look wholly unlike, as our stenographic and common printed characters. The Japanese learned Chinese through the medium of Corea. The sovereign of Japan, having learned that an art of writing was known there, sent an embassy in 285 and brought a Chinese professor with books and writing materials from Corea. Those apt and ingenuous islanders learned readily, and in later ages honored the memory of their teacher as of an apostle and tutelary saint. What they learned, however, was the Chinese language and mode of writing. Some centuries later, when intercourse with China became more common, discrepancies were discovered that had been at first unobserved. The language they had learned was getting obsolete. Their pronunciation was peculiar. The Chinese, for example, could pronounce no r ; the Japanese, no /. The one people employed many nasals; the other, none. Hence mutual understanding was not easy. At the same time, to express their own language in Chinese characters was impracticable. They were thus driven to attempt an analysis of their speech, and resolved it into 47 elementary syllables. They represented each by a single character Chinese much simplified, some of which were modified by diacritic points, making 73 in all. This syllabary was devised in the eighth century by a Buddhist priest, a native of Japan, who had spent many years in China, and was acquainted with the Devanagari character. He too became a justly canonized saint. His system is known by the name of Catacanna, and is really very simple and practical. Thus neither the Corean alphabet nor the Japanese syllabary was a purely original invention. Both ioo The English Language. were due to the influence of Buddhists acquainted with a real alphabet. What, then, and whence was this real alphabet the De- vanagari ? It is the especial alphabet of the Sanskrit lan- guage. The name signifies, pertaining to the city of the gods the holy city that is, Benares. It might therefore be called the Benares alphabet, to distinguish it from many others. It has contained at different times from 45 to 50 letters, which we may suppose to have represented perfectly the sounds of the spoken language : but its aspirated letters and duplicate series of consonants are difficult for a European to distinguish. It has not the slightest trace of having been derived from pictures or hieroglyphics. The oldest charac- ters, occurring on monuments and coins, are simple ; but, as now found in books the letters have the appearance of being devised to make reading and writing as difficult as possible. But as a means of preserving literary compositions they are not of great antiquity. We read in Exodus xxiv., 7, that Moses " took the book of the covenant and read in the audience of the people " ; and Job xix., 23, " Oh that my words were now written ! Oh that they were printed (?) in a book ; that they were graven with an iron pen, and with lead in the rock forever ! " It is clear that the authors of these passages were familiar with the art of writing, both lit- erary and monumental; but in all the 1,017 hymns of the Rig Veda, which may reach a date as low as 800, there is no allusion to writing or writing materials. The Greek historian Megasthenes, who, as minister of Seleucus Nicator, spent eight years at the court of Chandragupta, King of Ma- gadha or Behar, reported that the Indians were ignorant of letters, and preserved their laws by memory, but set up in- scribed milestones along their roads. Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander's fleet, declared that they wrote letters (fTrrffroAa?) on cotton well beaten together that is, on cot- ton paper ; but he also admitted that their laws were un- written. Unless there be a contradiction between two perfectly competent witnesses, the Indians, by the time of Alexander 327, had learned some art of writing, and used The Alphabet. 101 it for inscriptions but not for literary compositions. Such a state of things would be curiously paralleled by the case of our Teutonic ancestors who employed their runic characters for inscriptions, charms, and secret messages, but not to pre- serve their laws, songs, or sagas. The oldest extant speci- mens of writing in India are the rock and pillar inscriptions of King Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, and great patron of Buddhism, about 250. They are in two dif- ferent alphabets, the early Devanagari, written like ours from left to right ; the other, a Semitic alphabet, then in use in the northern provinces of India, and written from right to left. How the Devanagari came into existence alongside of the other cannot now be proved, but to suppose that it sprang into full-blown existence at once, without leaving a trace of development, is contrary to all analogy. It is more natural to suppose that it was an improvement on the hint furnished by an imported pattern. As has been already urged, such an imitation would not necessarily have much resemblance to the original. 1 In a canonical life of the Buddha, which must be old as 250, it is related how the young prince is sent to school and asks his teacher what writing he is to learn. The pedagogue enumerates 64 alpha- bets or styles of writing, and among them the Deva, or De- vanagari, which last is the one studied. It is thus a curious circumstance that, while the Brahmans imprecated the direst curses on one who should convey or acquire their doctrines through a written medium, Buddhists carried everywhere the knowledge of letters. A Buddhist book is the first in the remote East to mention writing as a part of education, and 1 A striking example of an elaborate system developed out of a mere hint is the syllabary invented in 1824 for the Cherokees by the half-breed Sequoia, otherwise called George Guest. He was in possession of English books, but had never learned to read them, and he devised a scheme of 84 characters, to represent all the single syllables of the language. In form they were as far as practicable imitations and modifications of the English capital letters and numerals. Nearly every syllable began with a single consonant and ended with a vowel ; and they were arranged in the manner of ba, be, bi, bo, bu. The scheme is still considered well adapted to the Cherokee, but is not equally suited to other Indian tongues. IO2 The English Language. a Buddhist prince leaves the earliest specimens of the art. Was there a Western impulse at the bottom of it all ? In view of the perplexing coincidences of Buddhism and Christianity, the question might be asked : Was it some stranger from Western Asia perchance some wandering Jew that first stirred the soul of Siddharta Gotama? and did Buddhism, after seven centuries, react upon the early types of Christianity ? Among the earliest seats of civilization was the rich allu- vial plain at the head of the Persian Gulf, where wheat and barley grew wild beneath the shade of the date-palm, and yielded the cultivator two-hundred-fold. Two distinct peo- ples occupied those sea marshes and river bottoms. The one was the so-called race of Shem, that overspread Arabia and all the plain of the 'two rivers the ancient Aram Naharaiim as far as the highlands of Assyria and the mountains of Armenia. But earlier than they were the people who bore the generic name of Accad, who seem to have descended from the mountains of Susiana, on the east. From the exhumed relics of their ancient cities, the language and character of this people are now known in part. Their language was allied in general structure to those of the Turks, Tartars, and Magyars ; and special affinities have been suggested between them and the Finns of Northern Europe. But structural resemblance of language, when of a low and simple type, does not prove affinity of blood, but only a particular stage of development. On those fertile plains were cities of the hoariest antiquity. There was that " Ur of the Chaldees," whence Abraham and doubtless other enterprising young men " moved west," seeking homes less crowded, and wider freedom. There were the Erech and Calneh of Genesis, and others less known, and, at a later date, the mightier Babylon, " the glory of the Chaldees' excellency.' From a date that can scarcely be guessed at, the Accad had a peculiar art of writing. The extant remains show mere traces of derivation from pictures or hieroglyphs, but in general the appearance is that of perfectly arbitrary The Alphabet. 103 marks. Specimens, regarded as especially archaic, exhibit combinations of straight strokes, but by far the most common are groups of six to a dozen slender isosceles triangles, like wedges or spear-points, whence the writing has received the name of cuneiform or arrow-headed. If there were any docu- ments of fragile material, they have perished, and only stone, burnt clay, and metal remain. From Babylon downward to the sea stone was scarce, and the use of brick universal. The singular expedient was adopted of impressing words upon plastic clay with the end of a slender three-sided stick. The clay was then dried and baked, usually in the form of bricks, tablets, or cylinders. Bricks were often printed on all sides ; a tablet might contain several hundred lines ; the cylinder had a projection at each end, by which it could be held and slowly turned as the reading progressed. As the writing material was bulky, space was economized by printing close. The characters, although very distinct, were sometimes so minute as to require a magnifying glass to read them ; and that such may have been used is evidenced by the quartz lens discovered by Layard in the ruins of Nineveh. In the last-named city, stone, especially alabaster, was largely used for records. The early and extensive use of this kind of writing is shown by the fact that Sargon the first of that name established a library which, from the catalogue, would seem to have been a public one, some say as early as 2000. The Assyrian kings declared their anxiety to make learning accessible to the people. The literature was varied, and, for that time, extensive, especially in astronomy, history, and poetry. As the Semitic race obtained the supremacy, the Ac- cadians disappeared as a distinct people, but their influence long remained. Their tablets were copied, commented on, and translated. Dictionaries and grammars were made for their language ; and it came to be studied as a dead and learned tongue, as Latin is now in Europe. The cuneiform characters doubtless originating as pictures at first represented things or ideas, and not mere sounds. They continued to do so in part in the hands of the Baby- lonians and Assyrians ; but at the same time they were em- 104 The English Language. ployed for the sounds of syllables, without regard to meaning. They were never used as an alphabet of single sounds. A word might be expressed either by a single character, or spelled by the combinations that formed its successive sylla- bles. To distinguish the former use, it was either preceded by an unpronounced character, like the Chinese keys, or followed by a grammatical termination. While Chinese and Japanese are written vertically downwards, and the lines succeed each other from right to left, the cuneiform was written from left to right. When the characters of Accad were adopted by the Shem- ites, the identities both of sound and sense could not be preserved. The learners might accept the signification, and express it by a word of their own, as when we write Ib. and pronounce it pound ; or they might adopt an opposite course. 1 In point of fact, they tried to do both the former in writing holographically, the latter in spelling. This was liable to cause misunderstanding, which was greatly increased by the circumstance that even in Accadian the same character gen- erally stood for several different words. The effect may be illustrated in this way : Suppose the Latin " anser," a goose, to be represented by a single hieroglyphic, which we adopted and pronounced sometimes answer and at other times goose. Suppose further that there were local pronunciations, such as anther and anker ; we should then have the two families of derivatives : a reply a fowl to reply a tailor's smoothing-iron a part of a flower a game of chance a measure of 10 gallons a simpleton a ship's anchor the source of nursery rhymes Hope If the original figure stood for other words besides anser, the number might be indefinitely increased. The first char- acter in the vocabulary of Sayce's Elementary Assyrian 1 I remember to have heard, when very young, old persons call the character &, eppershand, an expression to which they attached no meaning. Subsequent reflection led me to suppose that the term was et per se = and. The Alphabet. 105 Grammar, consisting of a single horizontal wedge, had in Accadian five phonetic values. When adopted into Assyrian it acquired thirteen more, and represented Assyria, heaven, the deep, a memorial, obedient, happy, to produce, to give, one, in, etc. Every transfer to another dialect swelled the num- ber, and helped to fill the Land of Shinar with a veritable " confusions of tongues." The Persians, before the time of Cyrus and Darius Hys- taspes, seem to have been ignorant of letters. The Zend Avesta lays great stress on the correct recitation of the liturgy, but never alludes to reading or writing. In adopt- ing the cuneiform, the Persians completely transformed it. The change was so thorough that it must have been made at once, and systematically. The redactor accepted little more than a mere hint. He retained the ultimate wedge- shaped element, but rejected the greater part of the groups, retaining only some forty or fifty. These he altered and simplified in form, and stripped of all their primary signifi- cance, so that, like our letters, they expressed only sounds. The sounds, however, as in Japanese, were syllables, and not letters. Still, as some syllables are only single vowels, and the vowels of others are fleeting and ill-defined, the new syllabary made a near approach to a real alphabet. That one with views so radical should have undertaken to work over material so unpromising, proves conclusively that no real alphabet was commonly known at that time 530 B.C. in Persia or Mesopotamia. The date of the founding of the Egyptian monarchy has been variously estimated Champollion-Figeac giving 5867, and Wilkinson 2330. These are near the extremes, but the computations" of twenty-five modern Egyptologists give a mean of 4180, from all which it results that Egypt has a fair claim to priority over all known establishments. A well- developed system of pictorial writing was in use there from the earliest known dates, and continued with little change to the second or third Christian century, the last word found written being the name of the Emperor Decius. The char- acters consisted mostly of the figures of men and animals 106 The English Language. in whole or in part celestial bodies, trees, plants, implements, and familiar objects. They became world-famous as the Egyptian hieroglyphics a word signifying sacred carvings, were used chiefly for monumental inscriptions, and re- tained their pictorial appearance to the last. They were in the possession of the priesthood, not so much because the hierarchy treasured or fostered learning as because in those ages all art and thought took a religious form, and so fell to the lot of the clergy. Few strangers ever penetrated the secret of their meaning ; and until the present century they were as much a mystery as the fountains of the Nile. About the time when they passed out of use, Horapollo, whose name, half Egyptian and half Greek, denoted one of mixed blood, wrote a little book, still extant, explaining one hun- dred and eighty of the hieroglyphs. The work was almost entirely misleading. It treated them solely as ideographs, embodying the most strained and fanciful ideas. As an example, he taught that 1,095, the number of days in three years, denoted mutism, because if a child did not speak within that time he was given up as dumb. Still, modern research has sustained some of his renderings. A few fanci- ful attempts were made at long intervals, but all on the same principle, although Clement of Alexandria and Porphyry had declared that they represented sounds as well as ideas. Zoega, in 1787, ventured the conjecture that the royal names occurring in inscriptions must be written phonetically. Thus the case stood when in 1799, during the French occupation of Egypt, a slab of basalt was found at Rosetta, bearing a triple inscription of some length in hieroglyphics, in the demotic character a kind of short-hand hieroglyphic and Greek, by means of which Dr. Young in 1818 effected the first breach in the hitherto impenetrable lines. The inscriptions were naturally assumed to be three versions of the same. Yet that did not avail much, for we might have, for example, the Lord's prayer in Chinese, and yet our famili- arity with the subject might not enable us to identify the sound or the sense of a single character. But in one part of the Greek text he found the name Ptolemaios, and in a corre- The Alphabet. 107 spending place of the hieroglyphic the enclosed group, which he assumed to be its equivalent. He next conjectured that this should be read from right to left. The upper right- hand character was presumed to stand for P, and the one beneath it for T, without a vowel between. The last, on the left, was supposed to be 5. Five characters remained to take the place somehow of seven Greek letters. This, which was only conjectural, was about all that was gained in twenty-two years from the famous Rosetta Stone. In 1822 an obelisk at Philae was discovered to bear a hieroglyphic and Greek in- scription, from which J. F. Champollion made out the name of Cleopatra, and confirmed in part, and in part corrected, the results obtained by Dr. Young. In the succeeding eight or ten years the names of several native and foreign princes were deciphered and a foundation prepared for reading the hieroglyphics. The Egyptian writing did not differ essentially from the Chinese or the Babylonian. Originating as pictures, the characters might be used in at least four different ways. We might draw a picture of a lion and intend to express by it either, I, the animal itself; or, 2, strength, courage, or roy- alty ; or, 3, the syllable li; or, 4, the letter /. So the hiero- glyphs were used as syllables, as single articulations, or as ideographs. These several usages were mixed together in the same document. One of the most important uses of the ideograph was exactly that of the Chinese " key." A cer- tain number of them, of which about one hundred have been ascertained, were employed to designate classes of things, and when so used were not pronounced. Thus a figure meant to suggest a pond, accompanied any word sig- nifying wafers, seas, lakes, rivers, canals, irrigation, cultiva- tion, etc. Signs so used have been called determinatives. They generally followed the word as otherwise expressed ; but any number of the letters or syllables might either precede io8 The English Language. or follow the determinative. They were even attached to holographs that seemed to need no explanation. A well executed figure of a goat might be followed by a symbol denoting an animal, an example followed by the artist who deemed it necessary to attach to his picture the words " This is a horse." As words are originally of one syllable, and in some lan- guages most of them continue so, symbols that represent words necessarily represent syllables ; and thus the transition to syllables is easy. Again, open syllables, if the vowels be indistinct, become mere single or double consonants. In Egyptian the vowels seem to have been little differentiated merely divided into three indistinct groups which might be roughly represented by the a in man, the i in machine, and u in rule. When there was no danger of a mistake they might be left unwritten. In this way an actual alphabet was reached, but never used as a separate mode of writing. The alphabetic remained inextricably mixed with all the other uses of hieroglyphs. The Egyptians wrote either vertically downwards, from left to right, or from right to left. The last was the most common. HIEROGLYPHIC. HIERATIC. HIEROGLYPHIC. HIERATIC. U-* ft A. 2 The Alphabet. 109 The mode of writing thus described was extremely labo- rious, was adapted to inscriptions on stone, and limited to grave and solemn subjects. Specimens have indeed been found written on papyrus ; but with the freer use of that material an abbreviated script was gradually introduced. This is known as the hieratic, is the one chiefly found on papyrus rolls, and is supposed to have been fairly in use about 2,000. The original pictures were here greatly abridged and simplified, as will be seen by a few examples (see opposite page). A second modification, called the demotic, by which the hieratic was still further simplified, came into use at a later date, and was employed for the secular purposes of the common people. While the nations of the East are carving arrow-heads, and the priests of Thebes executing miniatures of men and animals, somewhere in the midland between, as early as the tenth or eleventh century before our era, real alphabetic writing all at once appears. It is in possession of the Phoe- nicians and of the Hebrew-speaking peoples of Palestine. How, when, or where it originated is not yet established beyond a doubt, but we will first see what light the alphabet itself sheds on the question. It consists of twenty two let- ters all consonants each bearing the name of some object, whether they resemble those objects or not. The objects thus named must have been at least known and familiar. Seven are parts of the human body, and therefore common to all ages and countries. Aleph, an ox; gimel, a camel; hheth, a fence or hedge ; lamed, an ox-goad ; tsade, a sickle ; tan, a cross-mark branded on cattle, denote a settled agri- cultural and pastoral life. Beth, a house ; daleth, a door ; he, a window ; van, a nail ; samekh, a post, show a people who no longer dwelt in tents, but in fixed habitations. Mem, waters ; and nun, a fish, imply the presence of bodies of water sufficiently large to make fishing an object. There is no allusion to trade or navigation ; hence the alphabet probably did not originate among the Phoenicians after they became a seafaring people, distinct from the other inhabi- 1 10 The English Language. tants of Canaan. The other conditions might be satisfied by the coast of the Mediterranean, by Egypt, or by the Jor- dan and its lakes. The origin of this art of writing must be referred to a pretty early date. The books of Joshua and Judges ' rep- resent that Debir was called, before the conquest of Canaan, Kirjath-sepher, the City of the Book, or, as the Chaldee paraphrast renders it, the City of Records. The general belief of antiquity was that the art arose among the Phoenicians, who derived the idea from the Egyptians. Such was the opinion of Philo of Byblus, the most considerable Phoenician writer of whom any remains have reached us. The same belief was shared by Diodorus Siculus," Tacitus," and others. But here it will be safest to consider the Phoenicians as merely the best-known represen- tative of a family group of tribes, closely allied in tongue and lineage, dwelling between the Euphrates and the west- ern sea. The most that can be said against this view is its want of complete proof. Equal probability has not been adduced in favor of any other origin. Sometime about 1854 the French Academy of Inscrip- tions and Belles-Lettres proposed, as the subjects of two essays, the Origin and the Diffusion of the Phoenician Al- phabet. The first was undertaken by the distinguished Egyptologist, the Vicompte de Rouge, whose essay was read and accepted in 1859. The question of the Diffusion was discussed by Fr. Lenormant f whose long and elaborate report was not presented until 1872. These two essays are regarded as having settled, at least provisionally, the ques- tion of the origin of alphabetic writing. They agree in deriving the alphabet from the Egyptian hieratic. Their success cannot fairly be considered com- plete ; but then we are to bear in mind that one set of char- acters may be known to be derived from another, and yet show little resemblance. A few single characters may pre- 1 Joshua, xv., 15 ; Judges, i., n. 8 Hist., i., 69. * Annals, xi., 14. The Alphabet. in serve a striking resemblance to their parents, as in the case of the letter representing the sound of sh in ship, thus : Hieroglyphic (Shn$, a J.J.T Old Hebrew W bed of plants) ^^ Square Hebrew Hieratic ^L Demotic V/ Arabic Coptic Phoenician W ^ - . /, Russian (from Cop- tic) In Greek and old Latin inscriptions the character, as acquired from the Phoenicians, is found turned in various positions : M M S2E . In one it is still easily recognized as the Greek 2. It is sometimes found without the bottom stroke ^ In the continuous curve lines that distinguish hand- writing from inscriptions it becomes S, 5, 8, and by the atrophy of the upper loop we get the small s of our every- day writing, @f<*. But the family likeness is seldom pre- served so long and so well. M. Lenormant holds that the alphabet is derived from a rather old style of hieratic earlier than the XVIII dynasty, to which Lepsius assigned the date 1591, and the more recent Egyptologist Mariette 1703. This would place it during or before the invasion of the Hykshos, or Shepherds. That pastoral Shemitic tribes about that time entered Egypt from Canaan and dominated for a long period admits of no doubt, or that their rule made the memory of Shepherds " an abomination to the Egyptians." The latter identified these invaders with the inhabitants of Canaan. There is a very attractive hypothesis, advanced or cited approvingly by Ewald, Boetticher, Longerke, Renan, and Lenormant, that these Canaanites developed the alphabet during their stay in Egypt ; yet, however plausible, it is only conjecture. Be that as it may, among them it first comes to light ; and the examples of the Japanese and the Persians make it prob- 112 The English Language. ' able that the first idea was derived from some older system. They occupied the same vantage-ground as the last-named peoples. The foreign characters would not represent to them both the original sounds and significations. Unlike the natives, they were not withheld by any national pride, priesthood, or piety from handling them as best suited their own purposes. Like the Japanese and Persians, they disre- garded the meaning altogether, caring only for the sounds, and preserving at first something of the original forms. Part of the Egyptian characters already represented single articu- lations, while a larger part expressed syllables. The Canaan- ites were led to reject the latter by the peculiar circumstance that their language almost ignored vowel sounds, and re- garded them as too unstable to be expressed. With them ba, be, bi, bo, bu, were alike merely b ; and they wrote Leba- non, Ibnn. It is true that after a time certain consonants came to be associated with their respective groups of vowel sounds, and were sometimes used to show their location, for the sake of emphasis or distinction. As only single articulate sounds were to be expressed, but a small number of charac- ters were required. New names were given to the letters without any refer- ence to the old ones or to any principle of selection that we can discover. Perhaps some light may be thrown on the naming of letters by the Old Norse Runic alphabet in which the objects and order selected were : money, a bull, a thorn, the mouth of a river, riding, a boil, hail, need, ice, a year, the sun, the god of war, the birch, man, law, the yew tree. It is pretty clear that these names were not chosen because of their meaning but because they were convenient words of one syllable that could be woven into some kind of mne- monic jingle. When letters have once been imbedded in acrostic verses they continue to be learned and repeated in a particular order. There is reason to believe this was the case with the primitive alphabet from a very early period. Psalms in, 112, 119, Proverbs xxxi., 10 to the end, Lam. i., are acrostics in the Hebrew text, as are also Psalms 25, 34, 37, 145, and The Alphabet. 113 Lamentations ii., Hi., iv., although with some irregulari- ties. The alphabetical order of the letters, too, determined their value as numerals, and so formed the basis of that strangely fanciful system of rabbinical interpretation called gamatria, of which Rev. xiii., 18, is the most famous ex- ample. Several tablets in the British Museum from the Library of Assurbanipal the Sardanapalus of the Greeks give the Phoenician letters with their mystic numeral powers explained in cuneiform, thus showing that the alphabetic order was established before the fall of the Assyrian empire. Mariette has discovered acrostic hymns on the walls of Egyp- tian temples, but the order of the characters is wholly differ- ent from that of the Hebrew. The order of the letters does not seem to have been determined by any rational and con- sistent principle, yet, as the three grave mutes, B, G, D, are placed in one group and the three liquids, L, M, N, in another, it does not seem to have been left entirely to chance. The landmarks and outlines of an alphabet must be the work of a single hand. It would be left to successors only to distinguish the fainter shades of sound. The scheme must be in some measure complete before it can be of any use. An alphabet, like a parliamentary body, requires a quorum for the transaction of business. The forms of the earliest letters are learned from inscrip- tions on durable material, and from papyrus rolls found in ancient tombs in the dry climate of Egypt. The table given on page 114 exhibits some of the principal examples. The first column is the Egyptian hieratic, prior to the XVIII. dynasty, given by Fr. Lenormant as the basis of the Phoenician. The reader can form his own opinion as to the degree of likeness, and the probability of the derivation. No. 2 is a short inscription around the rim of a bronze patera, or dish, obtained in 1877 from a junk-dealer in the island of Cyprus. The inscription is a dedication of the ves- sel to the temple of Baal-Lebanon, in the neighborhood of Sidon. The giver styles himself a servant of King Hiram. If this prince could be proved to be the king of Tyre who The English Language. Names of Letters i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Aleph.... a < f f/ *r ^P A, A A s Beth 4 <3 & 9? ^ J ^^ & n Gimel ^ 1 A 7 A^lC <C i Daleth... * A ^ / o ^ <l -A P D T He ITT ^ g x A -x x* rt Uv ** 1 <\ ^ A A^ v 1 1 Vav ^ f 1 ^f 1 i <*\ f^ \ /* F 1 Zayin. . . . F I I ^ i V ^7 r.z T Kheth . . . H ^ # ^ B H n Teth ^ 9 ID Yod y " A y /,//> ^ H 3 Z T , t *V t* L c. + L Caph <^ 1 1 r J/ ^1 K K ^ Lamed. . . L t u ti z, ^ / L h Mem .... l *J 9 \*\J V } ^I/A M M to Nun 1 V L 5 L VI A/ * ^7 ; 7 / 7 / 1 A N j Samech . . ^ f ^ \ ty f H D Ayin , o o Ou) o O O y Pe -M ^ ^ L j n p n p j. " \J ' ' / 1 1 1 K Tsade s* r A A \ ^ 5? Koph.... &, <p f ? ^ ? Q Q p Resh 9 i ^ ^/ A ^ 4? P R R " Shin % w iv w w W /v\^ * S ^ Tav 6 t X f / t 1- T n The Alphabet. . 115 was the friend of David and Solomon, it would carry the in- scription back to the eleventh century before the Christian era, and would make it the oldest yet known. No. 3. The Moabite Stone. 1 This highly interesting monument first came to the knowledge of Europeans in 1868-9. It was then a piece of black basalt, about 3 ft. 10 in. X 2 ft. X 14 in., bearing an inscription of thirty-four lines on 1 The following is a translation of so much as remains of this important monument : ' ' I am Mesha the son of Chemosh . . . the Dibonite, King of Moab. My father reigned over Moab thirty years, and I reigned after my father ; and I have built this altar to Chemosh in the plain in ... because he has helped us in all our straits, and has caused me to see the downfall of all my enemies. Omri, King of Israel, arose and oppressed Moab many days, when Chemosh was angry against his land. And his son followed him and said like- wise : I will oppress Moab. He said this in my days ; and I have seen the downfall of him and of his house, and Israel is utterly undone forever. And Omri took, the . . . Medeba and placed a garrison therein . . . his son forty years. And Chemosh restored it in my days, and I built Baal-Meon and placed . . . therein ; and I ... Kirjathaim. Now the men of Gad had dwelt in the land from of old ; and the King of Israel built . and I fought against the fortress and took it, and devoted all that were therein to Chemosh and to Moab ; and I brought back the . . . before Chemosh in Kirjath. And I brought thither the men of Sharon [?] and the men of the East [?]. " And Chemosh said to me : Go take Nebo from Israel . . . went in the night and I fought against them from the morning light until mid-day, and I slew them all, seven thousand, as a sacrifice to Ashtar-Chemosh. And I took thence all that belonged to Jehovah and . . . them before Chemosh. "And the King of Israel built Jahaz and put a garrison therein in the war against me, but Chemosh drove him out before me. And I took two hundred men out of Moab, all of them chief men, and led them up against Jahaz and took it ... unto Dibon, and I built the defences of the city, and I built the gates and the towers thereof, and I built the King's house, and I made lodgings for men within the wall and storehouses for corn in the plain. And I said to all the people : Let each man make a cistern in his house. And I digged again the water courses digged by Israel for the plain ; and I built Aroer ; and I made the causeway over the Arnon ; and I built the mountain temple, that had been laid waste ; and I built Bezer, for . . . fifty of the men of Dibon, for all Dibon was obedient. And I ... the cattle that I brought into the land ; and I built . . . and the temple of Diblathaim and the temple of Baal-Meon ; and I brought thither . . . the land, and Horonaim, and I returned thither in ... and Chemosh said unto me : Go fight against Horonaim, and . . ." 1 1 6 The English Language. its principal face, and lying amidst the ruins of the ancient city of Dibon, east of the Dead Sea. Many efforts to obtain copies, impressions, or the stone itself, were made with vary- ing success, especially by Ch. Clermont Ganneau, a zealous young scholar attached to the French consulate at Jerusalem. These, with the high prices offered, excited the cupidity of the Bedouins and the local authorities, who quarrelled among themselves, and, by the alternate application of fire and cold water, broke the stone in pieces, and carried off the smaller fragments. Happily the larger pieces were event- ually secured, and are now in the Louvre in Paris; and, with the various imperfect copies that had been taken, give the greater part of the legend. It was found to be nearly pure Hebrew what Isaiah (xix., 18) calls "the language of Canaan " and by that Mesha mentioned 2 Kings, iii., 4, therefore about the date of 890. No. 4. Mr. Layard found in the ruins of Nimroud, the ancient Nineveh, sixteen bronze lions, evidently intended for a set of weights, and ranging from forty pounds to an ounce and a half. They were found to bear inscriptions in Phoeni- cian and Assyrian characters, and to be marked with the name of Shalmanassur IV., which fixes their age at about 825. These three agree in presenting an archaic style of the letters quite distinguishable from that of the next specimen. No. 5 is the inscription of Eshmunazar, discovered in January, 1855. Some natives then digging for buried treas- ure in the necropolis of old Sidon came upon a tomb con- taining a basaltic sarcophagus, in Egyptian style, bearing upon the cover a Phoenician inscription in twenty-two lines. This proved to be the grave of a king named Eshmunazar, son of Tabnith and grandson of Eshmunazar all otherwise unknown. Here was the first Phoenician inscription found in the mother country, and the most considerable yet found anywhere. According to a custom common in the East, the monarch prepares his own grave and writes his own epitaph. He says little that is of strictly historical interest, as he mentions no person or event that can be identified, yet, as The Alphabet. 117 he acknowledges to have received from the Lord of Kings adn mlckm, a term known to apply to the Persian monarch Dor and Joppa, in the plain of Sharon, it is presumable that he lived, died, and was buried between 538 and 334. Treasure-seeking in the East is as old as the Book of Job, and the unfortunate king, aware of that fact, and bereaved of all his sons, pours forth abundant curses against the grave-robber or treasure-seeker who should remove his coffin or violate the place of his rest, declaring that there is no treasure there. But vain are curses ; the sarcophagus is now in the Louvre in Paris, and when found had been already empty for unknown ages. No. 6 is Old Hebrew as found on engraved seals and trinkets of various dates before and after 600. The Gimel and Hheth are from ancient shekels, supposed to have been struck soon after the return from the captivity. Thus far all the specimens were written from right to left. No. 7. Early Greek. This is from various inscriptions dating from 616 downwards. The story repeated by Pliny (vii.-56) that Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phoenicia to Greece, and that eight others were afterwards invented by Palamedes and Simonides, is only an idle tale inconsistent with the facts. The Greeks at first naturally wrote from right to left, like their instructors ; next backwards and for- wards, like the movement of a plough, and hence called boustrophedon ; and at last only from left to right. The alphabet, like the language, of Greece was broken into several dialects, the most prolific of which was the Chalcid- ian, which was introduced into the Greek trading towns of the Italian coast, and became the parent of all the alphabets of Western Europe. No. 8. Old Latin. No. 9. Square Hebrew. This peculiar character came into use after the return from the captivity, together with the language to which it belonged Aramaic, or the language of the region north of Palestine, from the Mediterranean to the Tigris. Jewish tradition ascribes its introduction to Ezra. It is likely that it came into use later and gradually. The n8 The English Language. oldest known inscription in this character is of the date of 176. In adopting the alphabet the Greeks retained with little change the names and order of the letters ; and the order is still substantially that of all our text-books. HEBREW. GREEK. ENGLISH. HEBREW. GREEK. ENGLISH. Aleph Beth Alpha Beta A B Lamed Mem Lambda Mu L M Gimel Gamma Nun Nu N Daleth Delta D Samekh Xi He Vau Zain E psilon (Digamma) Zeta E F Ain Pe Tsade O mikron Pi O P Hheth Teth Eta Theta Koph Resh (Koppa) Ro Q R lod Caph Iota Kappa I K Shin Tau San, Sigma Tau S T Thus the arrangement of the letters now learned by every child is as old as the days of Jeremiah. The application of an Eastern alphabet to the radically different language of Hellas involved many changes. The Greeks, in altering the direction of their writing, turned also their letters round. The nations of Canaan had omitted all vowels, but inserted signs for a number of more or less for- cible breathings ; the Greeks considered the former indis- pensable, the latter almost useless. Hence they ingeniously turned Aleph into A, He into E, and Ain to O. Hheth was retained for a time as an h, but eventually transformed into a vowel, probably with the power of the Spanish ey. This left the alphabet without an H. Its place was poorly supplied by the spiritus asper, while the zero power of Aleph was represented by the spiritus lenis. For a time Vau kept its place and the power of our w. It obtained the name of Digamma, which referred to its form and not to its sound, but was at last abandoned altogether. Yod lost the semi- vocal power of y, and became the vowel i. The Shemitic alphabet had four letters, Zain, Tsade, Samekh and Shin, The Alphabet. 119 having sibilant or hissing sounds. The Greeks reduced the first two of these to one, having the form and place of Zain, the name of Zeta, and the power of dz. Samekh was trans- formed into H. Its original power was retained by a letter having the sound of Samekh and the place of Shin, while its Dorian name of San resembled the latter, and the Ionic Sigma is suggestive of the former. Teth became Theta. Koph, as a second k, was entirely superfluous, but it kept its place as a numeral, with the value of 90 and the name of Koppa. The Dorians, ever unwilling to learn or forget, retained it as a letter, and carried it into Italy. Five letters were added at the end of the alphabet. When or by whom T was introduced is unknown. It had probably nearly the sound of the French u or the German u. 0, with X and @, formed a triad of so-called aspirates, with the powers, ap- proximately, oip'h, k'h, fh, somewhat as in uphold, pack-horse, pot-hook. W, a quite unnecessary compound letter, is said to have been introduced by Epicharmus about 500. D. is a modification of O due to the need of distinguishing the long sounds of the vowel from the short. We are not to suppose that all these changes were effected at once, or that they obtained equal currency in all the discordant states of Greece. The Chalcidian alphabet, introduced into Cumae and some other Greek colonies in Italy, had certain peculiarities. The Gamma became a semicircle, open towards the right. Rho, which was liable to be mistaken for some forms of Pi, had a stroke added, giving it the form R. Sigma had three forms the old zigzag figure of four strokes, but turned half-way round ; second, the same with one of the strokes omitted ; and third a serpentine curve, somewhat like .S. To distin- guish Iota from Sigma, the former was reduced to a single vertical stroke. The figure X had been adopted to indicate the sound of kh. This character followed by s had been used for ks, and eventually retained that value when the s was omitted. Finally V-was used for kk, the same figure which survived in Greek as the representative of ps. The alphabet was brought into Italy while writing was still directed from right to left. The literary remains of all 1 20 The English Language. the Italian nations except the Romans have that direction. The application of letters to the Latin tongue necessitated still further changes. Zeta and Theta were entirely dropped. Gamma, written in the semicircular form, gradu- ually lost the sound of g, and acquired that of k, indicating that the two sounds were not clearly distinguished. At the same time Kappa became unnecessary, and was retained only in the peculiar word kalendce, and as an abbreviation for a few words and proper names otherwise written with C. After a time it was found necessary to restore the lost sound, when a heavy stroke was added to the lower ex- tremity of the semicircle, and it was assigned, as the letter G, to the place once occupied by Zeta. The Vau of the Phoenicians, soon dropped by the Greeks as a letter, was retained by the Latins for the sound of f. H was retained with the value of h, and not of ey. The short stem of Koppa was turned obliquely to the right, and it became Q, with the value of kw, a favorite combination in Latin, where it was followed by a superfluous u, or was itself a supernu- merary k. The Roman grammarians were not agreed as to which was the true explanation. U, written with the form of V, had as a vowel the long sound of u in rule, and a shorter sound, probably like the German u. The Latin alphabet ended with X as late as the time of Augustus, 1 when Y and Z were added in writing words borrowed from the Greek. The Romans, after a time, dropped the long Greek names of the letters, which were becoming more absurd and un- meaning at every step, and called them ah, bay, cay, day, etc., combining a single vowel with each consonant. Where the consonant represented a merely momentary sound, it was placed before the vowel ; one of continuous sound, as /, m, n, r, s, was put after the vowel." 1 Suetonius, Octav., 88. * I cannot but think that the lines of Juvenal " Unde habeas, quaerit nemo ; sedoportet habere. Hoc monstrant vetulae pueris repentibus assse : Hoc discunt omnes ante alpha et beta puellae." (SAT., xiv., 207) imply that in the second century the letters were still known by the Greek The Alphabet.' 121 Thus far we have been considering characters such as we should call capitals, distinguished by large size, straight lines, and angles, such as would be made by a chisel upon wood or stone. Writing with a pen or pencil tends to run in curves and link the letters together. Gradually there grew up, both in Greek and Latin, a style termed uncial a word of uncertain origin and meaning, which we owe to Saint Jerome. The characteristics of this style are, some- what reduced size, curved lines, and part of the letters extending above or below the others. Specimens of this style have been met with as old as the middle of the second century B.C., and it continued in use until the ninth century. The most celebrated specimens are certain old copies of the Scriptures, as the Vatican Manuscript, the Alexandrian Codex, and the Sinaitic Codex. But the uncial letters were only a transition to the minus- cules, which we familiarly call small letters. This kind of character, like all others, came into use gradually ; and capitals, uncials, and minuscules were long used together, according to the taste of the writer or the impulse of the moment. By the eighth century, when Latin was the prin- cipal written language throughout Europe, great confusion prevailed from local peculiarities of penmanship and spell- ing. Then Charlemagne, by an ordinance of the year 789, required the books of the Church to be revised and cor- rected. The result was a beautiful and regular minuscule style, which became the basis of the written and printed character of all Europeans and their descendants, except those of the Greek Church. The style of letters called italics, commonly used to express emphasis or antithesis, was introduced about the year 1500 by Aldus Manutius, a publisher of Venice, from whose press were issued the celebrated Aldine classics. Italics are employed in the Bible to render more intelligible names. On the other hand it is perfectly clear from Ausonius (Technopseg- nion 348, London ed., 1823) and Terentianus Maurus (De Litteris), that by the fourth century these had been completely displaced by the simpler appellations. 122 The English Language. the elliptical expressions of the original, and, occasion- ally, as in 2 Sam., xxi., 19, to give a more acceptable version. The nations of northern Europe, who possessed the runic characters, did not employ them for writing books, and no trace of them remains now in use except in Icelandic. On the other hand, the Romans carried their alphabet into Britain where it was learned by the Celtic inhabitants. The Saxons learned to read and write from the vanquished Britons. But during the five centuries of Roman dominion and Saxon invasion several differences of usage had grown up. The letters d, f, g, r, s, t, were not written and pro- nounced as on the Continent. C had exclusively the hard sound and, with the addition of w, rendered both k and q unnecessary. Z was not used. The sounds which we repre- sent by th in thin and by w were indicated by the runes thorn and wen, ]> and J? ; that of th in thine by a d crossed, $. After the Norman Conquest the Saxon peculiarities gradually disappeared. Wen was replaced by two z/s, whence its modern name of double-u. The stricken d gave place either to a plain d, or to the runic thorn, which continued to hold its place until the middle of the fifteenth century. Its loss a really serious one was probably due to the early printers, whose types made for Latin and continental languages had no representative for this peculiar English sound. The art of making books by machinery introduced disorder in two other instances. The old Saxon g, besides the sound in go had, in middle English, two others, one of which is now entirely lost to the language, leading to further confusion. Sometimes alone, and always when combined with h, it had the value of the German g in Burg ; at other times it had the sound nearly of our initial y. For these two sounds the Saxon form had been preserved. The printers having no types for this character took others that seemed nearest in ap- pearance, not in value. They selected y to represent th, and z for either g or th. Thus it comes about that the people of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are represented in old books as if they said zour for your, zou for you, and ye, The Alphabet. 123 yat, yem instead of the, that, them, whereas they really spoke much as we do. 1 Every language requires an alphabet adapted to its own special system of sounds. Such alphabet, to be perfect, should have a separate character for every single sound, or shade of sound worth distinguishing, while no character should represent more than one. The letters should be easy to distinguish, and in writing should be easy to make ; and, combined in words, they should present a neat and ele- gant appearance. It may be safely affirmed that all these requirements have never yet been met. Our own alphabet offers little ground for complaint in regard to the last three, but in respect of the first two is sadly at fault. It is both defective and redundant. Each of the vowels represents several sounds. Ears and speakers differ, but a considerable number are easily distinguished. A has distinct sounds in amaranth, far, fall, wander, fare, and fame. E is variously pronounced in met, meet, there, and perfect, while in such words as permit and suffer it has an obscure sound scarcely distinguishable from a very short u. I has three well defined sounds, in pin, pine, and pique, to which some add pirn, girl, and alienate. O has four distinct sounds, in dot, dome, done, do, and a fifth tolerably distinct in wolf, to which some add a sixth in form. U is variously heard in rust, rule, full, mule, busy, and burial, to which some add turn. Y differs in pyx, pyet, myrtle, plenty, and yet, and some say in hyrse. W is treated as interchangeably vowel or consonant. I am unable to perceive in it anything but the sound of u in rule pronounced with varying degrees of quickness and force. To my ear the difference between the short sound of a vowel 1 This curious spelling was retained in a few words in Scotland as long as the Scottish dialect was spoken. As an example, spulzie or spuilzie (Scott's " Wa- verley," chap. 48.) was pronounced spool-ye. The late Saxon character for g had, however, begun to be mistaken for z by the middle of the fourteenth century. 124 The English Language. and the prolongation induced by a succeeding r between then and there, or but and burn is only one of duration. I see no greater difference than between the s in sun and that in hiss, or the / in pale and in pull. At the same time I dis- tinguish two shades of the long i or y in fine and in fire in fiy and in try. There is a kind of personal equation in this matter, as I sometimes detect differences unperceived by many others, and still oftener fail to perceive distinctions generally recog- nized. C performs triple duty in case, cease, and chess, to which we may add its use in spacious and machine. F is pronounced differently in ^and of. G is said to be hard in get, and soft in gem. H is employed in producing six sounds or combinations in hair, share, chair, sphere, there, and thorn. L and N, when combined with i, as in salient and lenient, yield peculiar sounds that may be attributed either to the consonant or the vowel. Pis employed to produce two different sounds in periphery. S stands for two sounds in dose and rose, and combined with i it yields two others really simple sounds in mission and fusion, the former of which is also produced by sh. T performs fourfold duties in time, thin, thine, and nation. Z in azimuth differs from the same letter in azure. Our alphabet is further defective in having no single char- acters for the sounds which we represent by sh, by th, and by the z in azure. It is redundant in that c, q, and x are superfluous. In call and cell, c could be replaced by k and s. In chair the ch is indeed a compound, but it is wrongly compounded, the real elements being / and the sound which we usually express by sh. It is obvious that q might always be replaced by either k or kw, and x by ks or gs. J is not redundant, since we have nothing to take its place, but it is a malformation. It should be d, followed by some character having the value of the French /, or the zhivete of the Russians. The Alphabet. 125 A great number of anomalies, as ph, ew in sew, eau in beauty, are not defects of the alphabet, but irrational spelling. Speech is produced by a mechanism combining the lead- ing features of the reed organ and the bagpipe. The lungs are the reservoir from which the air is urged through the flexible trachea, or windpipe, by the muscles of the chest and abdomen. The larynx and mouth, with their great powers of modulation, roughly correspond to the chanter of the Highland pipes, and the nasal passages may represent the accompanying drones. On the upper extremity of the windpipe is placed the valved box called the larynx the special organ of voice. It is composed essentially of four cartilages, four ligamentous bands, the lid called the epiglottis, and an exceedingly delicate arrangement of mus- cular and other tissues, too intricate to be described here. The lowest cartilage, forming the base of the larynx, is called the cricoid, meaning ring-shaped. It is but little modi- fied from the rings that compose the trachea. It is con- siderably higher behind than in front. Upon this rests the thyroid, or shield-shaped cartilage, composed of two plates, united at an acute angle in front, so that a horizontal section would resemble the letter v. The angle makes a carinate projection in front, easily felt by the hand in the upper part of the throat, and is popularly called Adam's apple, from a conceit that the forbidden fruit not only stuck in the throat of our first parent, but still inheres in all his descendants. The thyroid forms the greater part of the front and lateral walls of the larynx, but its ends do not meet posteriorly. Each extremity has two projections, termed horns, the one extending upward, the other downward. The lower ones articulate with the cricoid, leaving between the two carti- lages an open space in front and considerable freedom of motion. Upon the posterior part of the upper edge of the cricoid, articulate two small bodies called the arytcnoid, or ladle-shaped cartilages. By means of their controlling nerves and muscles, they admit of great celerity and delicacy of movement. From the last-named cartilages to the angle of 126 The English Language. the thyroid extend two pairs of ligamentous bands, one pair at a little distance above the other. The lower are known as the inferior or true vocal cords. They serve the same purpose as the reed or tongue in an organ pipe, and are the immediate determinants of the tone or pitch of the voice. When they are quiescent, the space between them, called the glottis, rima glottidis, or chink of the glottis, forms a slender triangle, from the angle of the thyroid to the two arytenoid cartilages ; but when they are tightened in pro- ducing the higher notes, there remains but a mere seam, not wider than the thickness of writing paper. In elocutionists, and still more in accomplished singers, these cords are ad- justed with marvellous quickness and delicacy to produce the various tones. Without them there is no voice. In whispering they do not vibrate. That is breath made articu- late, but not vocal, and may be imitated without allowing any air to pass through the glottis. M. Deleau illustrated this by passing a current of air through the nose into the pharynx by means of a rubber tube. If then the mouth assumed the successive positions necessary for articulation, whispering was heard without any action of the lungs or larynx. If at the same time vocal sound was uttered, speech and whispering were heard simultaneously from the same mouth. A little above the true are the false vocal cords, which do no not approach closely, or in themselves produce sound. Between them and the true there is on each side a concavity known as a pocket or ventricle of the larynx Morgagms ventricles, which seem to augment the voice by reverberation, as sound is intensified by partial inclosure in the fiddle or the drum. The piercing cries of the howling monkeys are due to extensions of these ven- tricles. At the superior margin of the larynx, held erect as a sen- tinel by elastic ligaments, stands the cartilaginous valve or cover called the epiglottis, which falls like an automatic draw- bridge when anything is to be swallowed. Above the larynx, the pharynx extends about four inches toward the base of the skull. It is a muscular sac, serving The Alphabet. 127 somewhat the same purpose as the air reservoir in a forcing pump, as well as that of the reverberating pipe of a wind in- strument. It is the common meeting-place of seven passages the aesophagus and windpipe below, the mouth anteriorly, and at its upper part the nostrils and Eustachian tubes that lead to the ears. From its extent and situation, its muscular structure and power of distention and contraction, the phar- ynx is of prime importance in giving character and volume to the voice. Separating the cavity of the pharynx from the mouth is the pendent curtain known as the soft palate, or velum palati. It is terminated below by the heart-shaped point called the uvula (little grape), is movable in speaking and swallowing, and does not at any time form a perfect closure. It rises and sinks in passing from one vocal sound to another, and aids in closing the passage to the nostrils. The more accessible parts that contribute to articulate speech the lips, teeth, tongue, roof of the mouth, and nose need not be described. Some writers discuss with great particularity positions assumed by the several organs in speaking, and even en- deavor to teach in that way the pronunciation of remote and unknown languages. But such directions, although sound in principle, are apt, in practice, to become unintelligible as soon as they become necessary, for the reason that a great part of these positions are out of sight and unknown. The reader will readily admit that the different articulations do depend upon the movements and positions of the organs above enumerated ; and can illustrate this to himself by pronouncing leisurely and carefully syllables beginning or ending with 0, oo, p, b, f, v, m, t, d, n, k, I, r, s, and th, and watching the positions assumed, so far as they can be observed. If now the mouth be opened moderately wide, and the tongue allowed to lie flat, so that the passage for the voice shall be unobstructed, and a vocal sound be uttered, it will be that of the a in far, or as I should prefer to say in alarm or Alabama. This may be regarded as the fundamental sound 128 The English Language. of human speech. It is the first utterance of infants, and abounds in the most primitive languages. It occurs twice in the simplest or ground form of most Hebrew verbs, and in Sanskrit is employed about half as often as all other sounds together. Next pronounce the word stop, allowing the pres- sure of the breath to cease before parting the lips ; otherwise it will be pronounced, stop-ih. The lips will be firmly closed and all utterance cut off. A opens the mouth wide ; / closes it completely. It might seem at first sight that all possible articulate sounds must lie between these extremes, and might be arranged in a series. And as every space is infi- nitely divisible, if only the divisions be infinitesimal, there is theoretically no limit to the number of intermediate sounds. The greater the number, however, the less dis- tinguishable. The number really found in different lan- guages and dialects, and in local and personal peculiarities of utterance, is very great. Mr. A. J. Ellis has devised an alphabet which he thinks capable of representing the sounds of all known languages. It consists of 270 letters ; and the Standard Alphabet of Lepsius contains 172 besides the tones of the Chinese and the clicks of the Hottentots. But may there rrot be other closures of the outlet for the voice besides the one above described ? In point of fact there are in English two others, observable in pronouncing pit and pick. One free passage, therefore, is contrasted with three complete closures, and articulate sounds might be exhibited in three lines diverging from a point in common. Such an arrangement is by no means new, and has been veiy fully presented by Professor Whitney in his Sanskrit Grammar, and other publications, and in a manner not widely different from the following. The letters within brackets represent sounds not now in the English language. The diacritic marks attached to the vowels are those used in Webster's Dictionary. The prolongation of a vowel is not regarded as a difference of sound. The Alphabet. X 2 3 4 vocal * 5 e 6 y 7 . ni >g 8 voiceless h 9 vocal zh 10 voiceless sh ii vocal [gh] 12 voiceless [ch] 13 vocal g 14 voiceless k palatals a a e a 6 a u e W rl n z s dh th d t linguals vowels w semi- vowels m nasals breathing ) sibilants v ) > spirants mutes conso- > nants P ) labials Words that will illustrate the sounds represented in the several lines are : 1 alarm 2 let, care, not, awe 3 bane, bun, bone 4 bit, bird, bull 5 be, German iiber, rule 6 yet, ray, lay, way 7 onion, singing, nun, mum 8 heigh-ho 9 azure, ooze 10 hashish, sister 11 Arabic Ghizeh, thy, vow 12 German noch, thin, fife 13 grog, deed, babe 14 kick, tight, peep The u in mule and the i in fire have been omitted because both are composite sounds. The former = yu, and the latter is composed of the first vowels on the first and fifth lines. It will be seen that the sounds of u in bun and i in bird occupy the centre of the triangle of vowels. They are indis- tinct sounds that have been compared to the gray among colors. All short, unaccented vowels tend to degenerate into these obscure sounds. Observe what there is of vowel sound 9 130 The English Language. in the last syllables of circular, paper, pallor, pillar, or the second of atrophy, harmony. As this is the first instance where a classification has been necessary, it may be as well to remark once for all that in nearly every attempt to classify a number of things some will be found to have claims on more than one class. The claims may be so nearly equal that to locate them anywhere will be an arbitrary sacrifice of principle to convenience. The oldest and most familiar division of letters is into vowels and consonants, but then come the semi-vowels between. F is properly enough classed with the labials. It is produced by emitting the breath through the slight chink left in bringing together the lower lip and the upper teeth. It is therefore nearly as much due to the teeth as to the lips. So the nasals are not produced by the nose, but only with its assistance. Indeed, very few are formed without the combined action of two or more organs. R may be pronounced as a pure lingual when the tongue is raised and made to vibrate with the passing vocal breath but does not touch the teeth or palate. The vowels are uninterrupted emissions of voice. The passage varies in form with each, but is unobstructed. The experiments made by Helmholtz and Koenig with graduated tuning-forks show that the vowels, as uttered by the same voice, are separated by regular musical intervals. As pronounced in North Germany, Koenig found the num- ber of vibrations to be approximately : u o a e i 450 900 i, 800 3,600 7,200. It is interesting to note that the old grammarians of India regarded o as a union of a and u, and e as a combination of a and i. (See Comptes Rendus, April 25, 1870.) The term consonant signifies sounding along with, as if in- capable of utterance without vowels ; but the sibilants cer- tainly need none, and scarcely do the spirants, and / and r are in some languages treated as vowels. We might say, then, generally that consonants are the result of arresting or The Alphabet. 131 obstructing the voice or breath ; but in that case what should we say of h, which is voiceless, and in the formation of which the breath is neither stopped nor impeded ? Still, it is true of all other consonants, and they naturally divide themselves into those in which there is complete closure and those that require only various degrees of obstruction. This is there- fore a division into momentary and continuous sounds, the former of which are sometimes called explosives, and some- times mutes. They are further distinguished into those requiring the exercise of the voice and those produced by mere voiceless breath. The former are often termed sonants and the latter surds. Strong and weak would seem to be more expressive. This distinction, in the case of the mutes, is that with the weak the closure is made or broken instan- taneously without any accompanying vocal murmur, while an initial strong mute is preceded, and a final one followed, by a brief resonance of the voice in the closed cavity of the mouth and pharynx. The want of a uniform alphabet has long been felt by mis- sionaries, travellers, and all who have to deal with languages that differ widely from common European standards. Among many attempts at a uniform system of writing second in importance only to a universal language that of A. J. Ellis, called paleotype, and the Standard Alphabet of Professor Lepsius of Berlin, seem at present to be re- garded with most favor. The former is used to exhibit the pronunciation in the great dictionary now in progress under the auspices of the English Philological Society, and the latter is employed by the latest edition of the " Encyclo- paedia Britannica" in transliterating foreign names. Both are chargeable with excessive refinement and hair-splitting, and neither of them has been made at all intelligible to the general reader. For these reasons, and because neither of them has yet obtained, or is at all certain to obtain, general acceptance, I shall not try to introduce either in this place, although aware that it is very annoying for a reader to find his page filled with marks to which he has no key. CHAPTER VI. GRIMM'S LAW. WHEN languages closely related are compared, many words are found in all that are much alike, both in form and meaning, yet seldom quite the same. The following is a very simple example : ITALIAN SPANISH. PORTUGUESE. FRENCH. uomo hombre homem homme cavallo caballo cavallo cheval terra tierra terra terre mano mano mao main. No one of these is an imitation of another. They are the common offspring of the Latin homo, a man ; caballus, a pack-horse ; terra, the earth ; and manus, a hand. There is sometimes a kind of method observable in this diversity, Thus we have GERMAN. ENGLISH. GERMAN. ENGLISH. Dorn thorn Thier deer Ding dick thing thick theuer Thiir dear door dun thin Thai dale durch through Theil deal Daum thumb Thau dew. In these and a multitude of similar examples, d in either language corresponds to th in the other. A somewhat similar mode of comparison has been applied to the whole Aryan family of languages, and especially in 132 Grimms Law. 133 their treatment of the instantaneous, or mute, consonants of the three series ending in k, t, and /. (See page 128), To these correspond the sonants g, d, b. Each of these six may be aspirated ; but all the aspirates are seldom found in any one language. The complete series would stand thus : k kh g gh t th d dh p ph b bh in which kh would be pronounced somewhat as in bulkhead, gh as in big-horn, etc. Of the members now known, Sanskrit alone has all the twelve sounds, but makes comparatively little use of the lighter aspirates kh, th, ph, while the graver gh, dh, and bh occur very often. Ancient Greek had the lighter set, x> ^ Pi Latin and the other members generally were without any. As Sanskrit is the best preserved, we may suppose that the common mother tongue of all had these twelve consonants. If now words containing all of these were inherited by each of the descendants, what were they to do with them, when they had dropped or forgotten part of the constituent sounds. Their case would not be very unlike the problem of placing twelve guests in eight or nine single beds. In fact, they would often put two in a bed, and perhaps sometimes on the principle of first come first served. The Greek, the second best appointed, would use x f r ^ an d g^, S f r th and dh, and cp tor ph and bh. Latin, having no aspirates, replaced them imperfectly by h and f, and occasionally by d and b. As an illustration of the effect we may take a word, or rather words, very familiar to the Latin scholar do, dare, dedi, datum, and its real or apparent compounds, ab-do, ad-do, circum-do, con-do, sub-do, etc. In the simple word do signifies give ; in the compounds cited, put or place. To all appearance they are the same word, and have been generally so regarded ; but they are really different, and correspond to the Sanskrit da, give, and dha, place. The Greek, though unable to preserve them perfectly, could still keep them distinct as didomi and tithemi. 134 The English Language. We may now do as the Greeks did, reduce the twelve consonants to nine, bearing in mind that the aspirates, kk, th, ph, were comparatively little used in Sanskrit, while gh, dh, and bh were very common. We will also premise that Gothic will be cited as the oldest representative of a numerous secondary family, embracing Frisian, Norse, Ice- landic, Danish, Swedish, Dutch, Saxon, English. The gen- eral system of corresponding sounds may then be represented in tabular form. The first line gives the sounds as spoken by the ancient Hindoos, the second those uttered by the Greeks in derivatives from the same words, the third those of the Latin tongue, etc. This table exhibits in condensed form what is known as Grimm's Law, which may be further illustrated by tracing a few words through their principal transformations. Sanskrit kal, to cover or hide ; Greek kalia, a shelter ; Latin celare, to conceal ; Irish calla, a hood ; Anglo-Saxon helan, to hide ; English hell, hole, heal, hull. Sansk. tan, to stretch ; Gr. tein-ein, to stretch ; Lat. ten-uis, stretched thin; Ir. tan-aigh ; Goth, than-jan ; Eng. thin ; Old High German diinni ; Modern H. G. diinn. Sansk. pad, go ; Gr. pod-, Lat. ped, a foot ; Goth. fot-u ; A.-S. fdt ; Eng. foot ; O. H. G. Vuoss ; Mod. Ger. fuss. Sansk. gan, to generate ; Gr. gen-os, kind ; gen-esis, origin ; gyn-e, a woman; Lat. gen-itor ; Irish gean ; Welsh gen-i ; Goth, kwens, kwein-s, kwin-o, a woman ; Icel. kon-a ; A.-S. cwe"n ; Eng. queen and quean ; also Eng. kin, kin-dred, kin-d ; O. H. G. khind, a child ; Mod. H. G. Kin-d. Sansk. dant, a tooth ; Gr. o-dont ; Lat. dent ; Welsh dant ; Goth, tunth ; Lithuanian dantis ; Old Saxon, Dutch, Dan., Swed., tand ; Icel. tonn, for tannr = tand-r ; A.-S. tdth ; Eng. tooth ; H. G. zahn. Few words in Sanskrit begin with b ; few in Saxon and none in Gothic, with the corresponding/. Sansk. ghama, the earth ; Gr. cham-ai, Lat. humi, on the ground ; Rus. zemlia, land ; Lat. homo, Goth, guma, a man, a son of earth ; A.-S. bryd-guma, a bridegroom. Grimms Law. 135 T3 bfl bo bjo bJD o k (X -^ a 43 43 4-1 V> 45 'rt i i *~ 4- >^> 4-> -4-> 4" ^ 4-" 4* X CT "J _V _V - v< n '^-^ *~^ *"^ h/} DJD <? ^ * 43 & 43 43 43 43 CX M-T a. ^ 0- TD 4-> ^S " " " ^ *" e bX N N "S * bXI . . bJJ 44 v^- ao b/3 45 45 rt "1 .a 'S : e c 5 o w 45 g J * tyl t^l in i) S 5 * M .S ^ ^ 45 * C 4J rt - Jo O JJ *O T3 T3 -g T3 j O O O 136 The English Language. Sansk. dkran, to sound ; Gr. thren-os ; Goth, drun-yas ; Icel. dryn-ja ; A.-S. drdn ; Eng. drone. Sansk. bku, to exist ; Gr. e-phu, he was ; Lat. fu-i, I was ; Welsh bu ; Irish bi ; Lith. bu-ti, to be; Goth, bau-an, to dwell ; A.-S. bed-n ; Eng. be ; Germ. bi-n. If we now take a somewhat narrower view of the subject, and confine ourselves a moment to the Teutonic sub-family, we shall find that it naturally falls into either two or three divisions, as we may regard them. High German ; Low German, Low Dutch or Platt Deutsch ; and Scandinavian. The Scandinavian branch comprises the Old Norse, as the pa-rent of the others, and the modern Icelandic, Danish, and Swedish. Their most marked peculiarities are a suffixed article and a reflexive form of the verb. The definite arti- cle is attached to the noun. Thus in Icelandic : madhr a man madhr-inn the man sonr a son sonr-inn the son vetr winter vetr-inn the winter hridh a storm hridh-in the storm holt a copsewood holt-itt the coppice The reflexive, or passive, form of the verb is made by appending a fragment of a pronoun signifying self Icel. gremja, to vex ; gremja-sk, to vex one's self, to be angry. In Danish nothing remains of the pronoun except the letter s. at give to give at give-s to be given at elske to love at elske-s to be loved at finde to find at finde-s to be found at faae to get at faae-s to be gotten at drive to drive at drive- s to be driven In other respects these languages belong to the Low Ger- man branch, and High German that is, the language of the interior, remote from the sea-coast, represented by the mod- ern literary German stands alone in the transmutation of sounds. This will be shown by exhibiting a few words in ist, Gothic; 2d, Danish; 3d, Swedish; 4th, Dutch; 5th, English ; 6th, German. Grimms Law. 137 I. 2. 3- 4- 5- 6. taihun ti tio tien ten zehn timr timmer timmer timmer timber Zimmer tindan tender tindra tender tinder ziinden tungo tunthus tunge tand tunga tand tong tand tongue tooth Zunge Zahn tvai to twa twee two zwei taikns tairan tegn taere tecken tara teeken tornen token tear Zeichen zerren threis thata thu thaursti than (Icel.) thrir " that " thu " thyrstr " thann (The sounds of th are wanting in all but Eng- lish and Icelandic. three that thou thirst than, then drei das Du Durst dann, denn thagks dags dails " thakkir dag (Dan.) deel dag del day deel thanks day deal Dank Tag Teil dal dal dal dal dale Thai dauhtar daur datter dor dotter d6rr dochter deur daughter door Tochter Tiire dragen dreiban drage drive draga drefva dreggen drijven drag drive tragen treiben It follows that of all the languages of this sub-family the literary German of to-day is the most remote from our own. The shifting of consonants is not confined to the initial sounds, as will be seen by the following additional exam- ples confined to the English and German. crib double stubble lead Krippe doppel Stoppel leiten ladder Leiter leaf Laub life Leben calf Kalb bridge ridge Briicke Rticken ship sweep water Schiff schweifen Wasser cat Katze malt Maltz salt Saltz earth Erde wether Widder give love geben Liebe CHAPTER VII. PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING. IT is not the intention here to show how all words should be written and spoken. For information on these points, as on many others, the reader is referred to the dictionaries ; but as our spelling is admitted to abound in anomalies it is my purpose to make these a little more intelligible, by show- ing how some of them arose. This chapter has been headed advisedly, Pronunciation and Spelling, thus giving the spoken word precedence over the written, contrary to what I suppose to be the popular judgment. Languages are spoken long before they are writ- ten. Very few are written yet to any considerable extent. Were it possible to take an account of the words spoken and written on any one day, I doubt not the former would outnumber the latter a hundred to one. Writing is to speech as a portrait to the living face an attempt to repre- sent and perpetuate a perishable original. A man may not look like his portrait, but in that case which is correct ? Our aim should be not to pronounce as we spell, but to spell as we pronounce. Pronunciation and spelling agree and are consistent when the same written signs no matter what they may be al- ways represent the same sounds. They disagree when the same characters are assigned to different sounds, or different characters by turns to the same sounds. The English c and g represent at least two unlike sounds each, while f, ff, gh t and ph are used for the same sound. Twelve different com- binations are put for the vowel sound heard in peel, and eleven 138 Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 39 for that in no. In though half the word is in the position of a representative without a constituency, and the g in gaol is a peculiar and solitary exception. There is not a single letter in our alphabet that always stands for the same sound. R comes the nearest to it ; but in regard to that letter there is considerable diversity both in theory and practice, and it seems in danger of being entirely lost. In looking for the cause of these divergences we observe that people do not all pronounce alike, even when brought up amid the same surroundings. Minute peculiarities of organization combine with diversities of tastes, associations, and pursuits to produce dialectic differences of localities, families, classes, and trades. Webster's Dictionary gives a list of 1,275 words in the pronunciation of which authorities are not agreed ; and the differences among these experts are sometimes quite considerable. Again, our ears agree about as little as our tongues. If a foreigner were to recite to a hundred persons a sentence of say twenty words in his native tongue and manner, to which all were strangers, and they were to take the words down from his dictation, they would undoubtedly make a hundred discordant reports. In the third place, with a system of writing like ours, persons left to their own unaided judgment will differ much in their application of letters to express sounds. In examining many letters from various parts of Europe and America some of them wonderfully spelled, I have had the curiosity to note in how many ways the same word would be written, and I have found 210 variant attempts to write the single word com- mutation, all in good faith and under circumstances to put the writers on their best behavior. Moreover, when words are once committed to writing they remain in that form to be read for centuries, while living speech moves away, leaving them behind like old water- marks, showing the former course of an ever-shifting stream. And this is the principal cause of the divergence between pronunciation and spelling. When Butler celebrates the linguistic acquirements of Hudibras he represents that his hero 140 The English Language. " made some think when he did gabble, Th' had heard three laborers of Babel, Or Cerberus himself pronounce A leash of languages at once." These now seem poor rhymes ; but when men said Bab-el and pronunce they were perfect. Finally, if a set of characters were invented expressly for one language of few and simple sounds, the adaptation might be perfect till the language changed. This temporary suc- cess was probably attained by the Devanagari and Arabic alphabets and the Japanese and Cherokee syllabaries. An Indian chief is said to have written a letter in the last-named characters the day he first saw them, so easy it is to learn a system at once simple and self-consistent. But a bor- rowed alphabet, like a borrowed coat, is very apt to be a misfit. Now to apply these general considerations to our mother tongue, we learn that in Saxon England considerable diver- sities of speech prevailed, whence probably originated the present rustic dialects. Among these, through the political ascendancy of Wessex and the learning and patriotic labors of King Alfred, West-Saxon attained a temporary suprem- acy and has been regarded as the typical Anglo-Saxon. The Angles and Saxons had come from the shores of the North Sea as unlettered pagans. The religion and civilization of the Mediterranean coasts were brought to them by Christian missionaries. Their runes and beechen tablets where ex- changed for Roman letters, parchment, pens, and ink. In adapting the new alphabet to their wants they rejected k, q, and z, and they did not distinguish j from i or v from u. They retained an old rune to represent the sound of th in thin, and crossed a d (i$) for the th in then, as the Romans had no way of expressing these sounds. They introduced w with the same power as at present. Setting aside minor distinctions of different writers, the Anglo-Saxon alphabet represented the following sounds : Pronunciation and Spelling. 141 A, as in hart ; never as in hate or hare ; d, as in hall, or as in far. B, as in babe. C, " " case ; never as in cease or cheese. D, " " deed. E, " " men ; /, as a in mane ; indistinct when final, but not silent. F, as nearly v as possible. G, as in go, not as in gin ; like y before e and /. H, " " home, when initial ; in the middle or end of a syllable, like the German or Scotch ch the lost sound of English. I, as in tin ; t, as in machine. L, M, N, as at present. O, d, as in Soho ' ! P, as in puppet, but rarely beginning native words. R, trilled, or fully sounded. S, as s, when double, or when preceded or followed by c, p, or t ; otherwise like z. T, as at present. U, like the vowels in cuckoo. W, as at present never silent. X, seldom used, and then as a monogram for hs, or an ana- gram for sc. Y, y, as the French u and the German ii. Th (a single character) acquired the two values of ih in thin and in thine. D = th in thy. The chief diphthongs were : ae = a in care ; a, the same prolonged. ail, aw, ow = ow in now. ie, the same as / followed by a faint e. ea, ea, eo, /<?, the vowels pronounced separately, with the prin- cipal stress on the first. As a scheme of sounds, this alphabet had one represented by h, now lost. On the other hand there is no indication of the sounds which we represent by J, ch, sh, oi, i in pine, u in mule, II in million, n in pinion, z in azure ; and we have 142 The English Language. many delicate distinctions which might be sought for in vain in the primitive language, at least at this distance of time. Some of the relations between pronunciation and spelling that strike us now as most characteristic are these : 1. Every letter was sounded, although e final, or following i, had a tendency to become indistinct and faint. Initial w was pronounced before r in such words as writan, to write ; zvreccan, to avenge ; so also c before , as in cnif, a knife ; cnedan, to knead. 2. An initial h, of which there is now no trace left, often preceded /, n, or r, as in hldf, bread, a loaf ; hltid, loud ; hnappian, to nap, to slumber ; hrdf, a roof. "Tha hnappodon hie ealle, and slepon." 1 SAXON GOSPELS. 3. Cw was written where we now put qu cwic, quick, alive ; cwealm, a qualm, sickness. 4. Our ancestors wrote Jnv where we absurdly write wh hwd, who ; hwcet, what ; hwczther, whether. From Saxon times to ours there has been incessant change now rapid, now slow, but always change. The general tendency of the change, as shown in the chapter on the formation of words, has been to shorten and simplify to make speech easier. It has been said that the words used by the older nations were a great deal too long. In these busy ages we have had to shorten many of them. Take the following as examples : andswarian aeghvvsether setspeornan aheardian to answer either to spurn to harden gegadrian cyning butan betweonan to gather a king but between beheafdian to behead hlaford 9 lord afhreowan nase-thyrel to rue nostril hlafdige * wif-man lady woman 1 Then they all napped and slept. 2 The derivation of these two interesting words is uncertain. The first part is clearly filaf, bread ; ord is probably a contraction for weard, a guard ; and dige may be allied to the Gothic digan, to knead, prepare bread. On this sup- position lady would have meant once, bread-maker, and lord bread-protector. Pronunciation and Spelling. 143 For ages spelling was quite irregular. The Saxon word to ask is found in the forms : ascian, ahsian, acsian, axian, acsigan, axigean. In the absence of all authoritative stand- ards, each writer made his own spelling as he went along. It was quite common to write the same word differently even in the same sentence. Some words had at least two pro- nunciations, and a still greater number of spellings a con- siderable convenience in versification. This fluctuating orthography continued till the sixteenth century, and has not yet entirely disappeared. Edmund Paston, writing to his wife in the year of the discovery of America, called her indifferently his wyve, ivyffe, ivyveffe, or wyffve; while the good dame subscribes herself with phonetic brevity : " Your yf, M. P." Personal names have been the most cruelly treated. The acts of their martyrdom test the power of believing. The editors of " Webster's Dictionary " assert that the name of Mainwaring is written 131 different ways in the family documents. But for the last three hundred years spelling has been becoming both more simple and more uniform. The uniformity at least has been greatly pro- moted by the printers, and the wide distribution of standard works precisely alike in every letter. There is no doubt much to be accomplished yet, for in addition to the varying pronunciation of many words, and the want of a constant agreement between the written and spoken language, there are many words Webster gives a list of 1,550 whose orthography is unsettled. In regard to changes in pronunciation and spelling, four cases may be distinguished : 1st. Both may remain unchanged. 2d. Pronunciation may hold its place, while the spelling changes. 3d. The opposite may take place. 4th. Both may change together, or in diverse directions. Of these the first two are very rare, the last two very common. Land was written and no doubt spoken fifteen centuries ago as it is now ; so too crisp, den, fox, hand, sand, timber, and winter have come down from our Saxon fathers 144 The English Language. with scarcely a shade of change. Under the second head, the Saxons pronounced door and drink as we do, but wrote them otherwise. As to the third, we find, for example, in a credo of the thirteenth century the word grace written as at the present time, but its pronunciation we would be apt to represent as grassy, also maiden (the Virgin) pronounced miden, and Pilate, Peelahty. The great body of the words do not remain the same, either to the eye or the ear. But before going further we must adopt for the nonce some system for representing spoken sounds. For the remainder of this chapter, therefore, the following characters, when placed in parentheses, will be used to indicate pronunciation, not as being highly consistent or scientific, but because they seem as little likely as any to be misunderstood. Mere pro- longation, or the time occupied in utterance, will not be distinguished into long and short when the sound is the same. aa, for the vowel in arm, parameter. a, as in man, fat. ae, " " care, fair, there, ai, " " fain, fane, aw, " " law, fall, thought. ch, " " church, dh, like th in this, that, ee, as in meet, receive. e, " " met. e, " person neither purson, parson, nor pairson. f, " " fluffy. g, " " grog, not gin. h, when alone, as in high, hill, but representing different sounds when combined, as in ch, dh, gh, kh, sh, th, zh. ii, as in fire, dry, aye. w, " fine, rhyme, i, " " tin. kh, the lost sound of English Scotch and German ch. gh : kh : : g : k. oa, the vowel in moan, loan, lone, lo, low, though, o, " " " not. oe, " " " girl, pearl, berth. Pronunciation and Spelling. 145 oi, as in toil, toy. ow, ' " house, owl, bough. r, distinctly sounded, not reduced to h, w, or nothing, sh, as in shallowish. th, " " thin, uu, " " rule, food, two, through. u, " " but, flood. , " " full, put, foot, ue, the French #, or the German '. yu, the u in mule, use, few. y, as in yoke ; when final and unaccented, as in penny, zh, like the s in pleasure, the z in azure. This is but a rough scale of sounds easily distinguished. Those who have made a life-study of orthoepy discover a great number of intermediate shades that elude the common sense and sometimes perplex the professional ear. The most laborious investigator, Mr. A. J. Ellis, thus recapitulates the results of analyses of long i, as represented by different authors : " Sheridan and Knowles Ai Haldeman a\ Walker and Melville Bell ai accented Melville Bell ahi unaccented Londoners aei Scotch e\, ei, Ei, a\, ahi Wilkins and Franklin ai Wallis and Smart aoi ' Now this being the sound of the personal pronoun, is heard every day, and constantly ; but after competent orthoepists have care- fully examined it, they are unable to agree as to its analysis." The meaning of the analysis is not important to our present purpose. The point to notice is the failure to agree as to the best way to " distinguish and divide A hair 'twixt south and south-west side." 1 Intended to represent twelve different pronunciations. 146 The English Language. The letters b, d, f, I, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, x have continued to represent the same sounds for a thousand years, with this qualification, that originally f was often v, a value that it now has only in of; that s once had the sound of z more frequently than now ; and that s and / now combine with h and i to express peculiar sounds. K, q, and z have remained unchanged since they came into the language, except in the termination que from the French. The vowels are the unstable elements. Many letters are retained in positions where they repre- sent no sounds. They are then called silent letters, and are analogous to the rudimentary organs known to comparative anatomy surviving traces of parts that once performed real duties. They could have become thus mute and inglorious only through decay and phonetic degradation. A final b has become silent after m in bomb, climb, comb, crumb, dumb, lamb, limb, jamb, numb, plumb, thumb, tomb, and womb. It is still sounded in corymb, dithyramb, and rhomb, from the Greek. Final e is silent in modern English except in a few words borrowed from the Greek. It is also silent when followed only by s, as in blades, hides, mines, except when preceded by a sibilant sound passes, wishes, watches, wages, foxes. This silent e arises in several ways, through degradation of some fuller sound, as a result of inflexion ; or it may be a part of the original word. In the earlier forms of the lan- guage it was always heard, as it still is in German. But the German poets omit it wherever such omission suits their verse, marking its place by a (') as is often done in English : " Heav'n never took a pleasure or a pride In starving stomachs." PETER PINDAR. But our early poets wrote the words in full, omitting the superfluous letters in reading. This practice can be dis- tinctly traced as far back as the thirteenth century. In the following specimen from that period the silent letters are italicized : Pronunciation and Spelling. 147 " If man him bithocte, Inderlik<? and ofte, Wu ard<? is te fore Fro bedde te flore, Wu reuful is te flitte Fro flore te pitte Fro pitte te pine That neure sal fine I wene non sinne Suld<? his herte winnen." The same usage is observable in the " Prisoner's Prayer " and Layamon's " Brut " assigned to the earlier part of the same century. The plural termination es was treated sub- stantially in the same manner as final e. Chaucer (end of the fourteenth century) made "wyves" rhyme with "live is." Mr. Ellis, from an examination of the prologue to the " Canterbury Tales," found final e pronounced before a conso- nant or at the end of a line 658 times, elided, principally before a vowel or h, 622 times. Es was fully pronounced 124 times, reduced to s 18 times. That is, the versification required these letters to be so treated. By the time when Spenser wrote the final e was mute, and only the ed of the past tense or participle was heard as a separate syllable. G and k before n in the same syllable are now silent, as in gnaw and know. G is in like manner silent before m. There was once a g in flail, hail, nail, rail, sail, tail, main, rain, wain, day, say, way, draw, law, saw, buy? and many others, where there is no longer a trace of it left even in writing. It is silent in sign, but heard in signature ; and similar pairs may be made of benign, benignant, paradigm, paradigmatic, etc. Seven words heir, herb, honest, honor, hostler, hour, and humor that come to us through the French, begin with silent h. It is not heard after ex, as in exhaust, exhort. In ck, one letter is as good as both, and k may generally be regarded as the intruder. 1 It is preserved in bought. 148 The English Language. In an earlier stage of the language there was an / in as, bag, each, suck, which, foumart, hawser, jasmine, and savage. It is written but not pronounced in balm, calm, qualm, calf, half, talk, walk, salmon, salve ; still sounded in film, helm, realm, whelm, solder, soldier, and talc. In the old word salver, a quack, it is silent, but heard in salver, a dish. Its position is insecure in haulm, solder, and soldier ; so that we have here a letter in all stages of decay. There are fading letters also in gimblct, handsel, castle, pestle, trestle, pumpkin, raspberry, rundlct, and others. M is silent only in mnemonics and allied words from the Greek juvj/jsr/, memory. The Greeks, although notably well supplied with vowels, admitted combinations of consonants that seem to us unpronounceable. In adopting Greek words we generally write a representation of all the letters and the aspirate, but sometimes have to leave part of them unspoken, of which an extreme example is phthisis. N is now silent in damn, hymn, kiln, 1 solemn. Initial/ is silent before n, s, and /, from the Greek pneu- monia, psalm, ptyalism. In ptarmigan from the Gaelic, it is intruded by mistake, but not pronounced. The suppression of r is seriously threatened, and some of us may live to see and not hear it. 5 is silent in aisle and island. It properly belongs in neither. Letters have often been intruded and after a time dropped. Aisle is from the French aile, from the Latin ala ; island \s from the Middle English Hand, A.-S. ig-land, in which ig alone means an island, like the Icelandic ey compare Aldern-rj/ Angles-^j, Guerns-^j', Orkn-^y, Rams-^y. The error arose from supposing the word indentical with isle^ a form ground down from the Latin insula. 7 is silent in many situations ; between g and a vowel guard, guess, guide, guy ; in the digraph ou, sounded as o, and the terminations^-/^ and que, imitated from the French. W\s now silent before r, as in wrack, wren, wring, wrong, wrung; although I was accustomed in youth to hear it 1 A.-S. cyln from the I .at. culina. Pronunciation and Spelling. 149 pronounced in such words. It is also silent before h in who, whole, whoop, and whore. The w was foisted upon the three latter words in the sixteenth century, and who is from A.-S. hwd. When final w follows a, it merely determines the sound of that letter, as in draw and law. After o it either forms a perfect diphthong, as in now, or is very faintly heard, as in know. Intruded letters that is, not belonging to the earlier forms of words are the converse of silent letters. In the latter case a part of the old is dropped, in the former some- thing foreign is added. When they arise without effort, while the organs of speech are changing from one articulating position to another, they are called excrescent. Such are the b after m and the d after n. B is excrescent in chamber, clamber, cucumber, limber, (of a cannon), number, lumber (the verb), remember, timber, assemble, bramble, dissemble, crumble, fumble, gamble, grumble, humble, mumble, nimble, ramble, resemble, rumble, stumble ; crumb, numb, thumb, limb (of a tree). The limb of the sun or of a sextant is from the Latin limbus, a border. Part of these are sounds introduced to round out words to goodlier proportions, and after a time abandoned. D is excrescent in tender, thunder, and yonder. Pis excrescent in swamp, and /is intruded m fault and vault, and c into scythe, through misunderstanding. We come next to sounds that have not ceased but changed. A, primarily (aa), then passing to (aw) on the one hand and (ae) on the other ; in time filling up the spaces between a and u, and between a and e, with two indeterminate series of intermediate sounds. The general tendency, still more marked in French than in English, is to narrow the aperture of the mouth, and utter what might not inaptly be called thin, slender, weak sounds. As these seem especially adapted to the female voice, the tendency is often called effeminacy. It comes under the more general head of economy of exertion, in short, laziness, the dry-nurse of language. One of the greatest changes has been the exten- sive reduction of a from (aa) to (ai), begun about the close of the sixteenth century, and brought to nearly its present 150 The English Language. point in the eighteenth century. So great a change could not have been effected suddenly. In passing from (aa) to (ai), the pronunciation must have been successively (a) and (ae), which almost entirely supplanted the original sound in the seventeenth century. In the middle of the sixteenth century ale was pronounced (aal), face (faas), able (aab'l), bake (baak) ; and we see what they have come to now. The several sounds now represented by a are exemplified by far, fan, fare, fane on the one hand, and wharf, fall on the other. Our dictionaries represent wharf as equivalent to whorf, which to my ear would be a faulty pronunciation. I should reckon the word intermediate between /#//" and hall. Ae was common in Anglo-Saxon with a range of sound iroTd fan to fare. In the thirteenth century it went out of use, being replaced by a and e. This digraph was reintroduced in the seventeenth century to represent the Latin ae and the Greek ai. It is found in no native English word, and has always the value of the long e of the period. Ai and ay == (ii), until the latter part of the sixteenth century, since which time the value (ai) has spread to all accented syllables except aye, meaning yes. In the termi- nations of captain, bargain, etc., it is obscure and = (i). The point of Shakespeare's pun (" Henry IV.," part i., act. 2, sc. 4.) depended on adopting a pronunciation then new. He did not, as some have supposed, call raisins (reezins), but reasons (raizins). The Scotch word plaid, which does not mean a kind of cloth, but a kind of garment, is incor- rectly pronounced plad in England and America. " If they hae twenty thousand blades And we twice ten times ten, Yet they hae but their tartan plaids And we are mail-clad men." SCOTT'S "Antiquary." Ao is never recognized as a genuine English combination, and is found representing a single sound only in gaol, extra- ordinary, and Pharaoh, the sound being different in each. The order of derivation of gaol is : Lat. cavea, a coop or Pronunciation and Spelling. 151 cage ; Low Lat. gabia, gabiola ; Old French gayole, gaole ; Eng. of the thirteenth century gayole and gayhol. The modern Fr. is gedle, from which the present pronunciation may have come. Jail has been used as an alternate form since the first part of the sixteenth century, taking the place of an earlier gail and gay I. Jay, the name of a bird, has passed through changes similar to those of jail. In extra- ordinary, two vowels that originally belonged to different syllables are now run together. The same is true of Pharaoh. Ail = (ow) up to the end of the sixteenth century, since which it has passed through various shades of transforma- tion, ending for the most part in (aw). There are exceptions, however. In aunt, avaunt, daunt, flaunt, gauge, gaunt, gaunt- let, haunch, haunt, jaundice, jaunt, jaunty, laugh, launce, launch, staunch, stauncheon, taunt, vaunt the u is not heard. The au in hautboy and hauteur still retains the French value (oa). Meerschaum, a recent German importation, is variously pronounced (mairshowm, meershawm, meershum). Aw was little used in early times, the preference being given to au. The value has always been the same as that of au, except that in modern times it is exclusively (aw). C in the Saxon period = k, as now in call, close, etc. By the twelfth century it began to = s before e and i. An Ave Maria of that period runs : " Moder of milce ' and Maiden Mari Help us at ure hending for thi merci." The combination ch was rare and late. There is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford a manuscript referred to the tenth century, containing a transliteration of parts of the Greek Scriptures into Anglo-Saxon letters. Ch occurs there with the value (kh), which it continued occasionally to represent until the loss of that sound. By the twelfth century, if not earlier, it had become also (ch), as in the ballad of " King Horn." The transformation of (k) to (ch) is one of the great changes of our language. Much the largest part of the 1 A.-S. milts, compassion. 152 The English Language. words containing the latter sound are from the French. The next greatest part are native, the result of imitation. The remainder are from the most various sources, as chert, chimpanzee, china, and chocolate words from the four quar- ters of the globe. In the Saxon words that have undergone this change, the c was followed by e, z, or y. The sound (ee), represented in most languages by i, is produced by raising the front part of the tongue close to the palate, leaving but a narrow seam for the emission of the voice. The effect upon a preceding consonant is like the injection of the semi- vowel y. In one form or other this palatalization is wide- spread in our language, and still more prevalent in some others, notably Icelandic. Icelandic bjalla pronounced byalla a bell djup dyuup deep gjald gyald payment Scotch heuk hyuuk a hook pock pyok a small bag Virginian card kyard garden gyarden Italian figlio filyo a son magno manyo great English few, dew, demure, enure, sure. The letter e in Anglo-Saxon must have produced some- what the same effect, as may be aptly shown by comparing a few Icelandic and Saxon words. Icelandic fjon A.-S. fe6n hate fjandi " feond fiend kjaptr ceaftas (Scotch) chafts kjosa " ceosan to choose kjuklingr " cicen chicken mjolk " meolc milk skjota " sceotan to shoot 41 skjalf " scylfe a shelf . " ceaf chaff " ceorl churl Pronunciation and Spelling. 153 Thus the palatalization of c resulted in ch, a change not at all confined to English. The Sanskrit cha andja are held to have been thus derived from ka and ga, and in Italian c, before e and i, is pronounced (ch). The change is the most sweeping in French, where the c of the Latin ca becomes regularly ch, pronounced (sh). Campus becomes champ canis chien caput chef castellum chateau causa " chose bucca becomes bouche furca fourche perca perche peccare pecher vacca " vache The transformation, supposed to have been accomplished before the eighth century, can only be understood as effected gradually and in the direction of (k), (kh), (ky), (ch), (sh). The influence of the Norman French was doubtless one of the principal causes of the similar change in English. The same palatalizing tendency transformed ci, si, and ti, when followed by a vowel and not accented into (sh) ancient, pension, action. But this process was not com- pleted till near the close of the seventeenth century. When c became ch, sc naturally followed as sch, from which c was after a time dropped, leaving sh, as now. When words containing ch are borrowed from French, and it is thought worth while to keep their foreign origin in view, the ch is pronounced (sh) as in chaise, charade, machine. In a few Saxon words ce or ci occurs twice, leaving the option to change either pair, or both, or neither. Of cicen we have made chicken ; of cicene we make kitchen; and from circe, or cirice, with the Icelandic kirkja, come the Scot- tish kirk, Chaucer's chirche and the modern church. In words derived from Greek, either directly or through the Latin, ch is very generally (k), but there are such excep- tions as chart, schism, schist. We are reminded at every step that human speech is not laid down once for all by the line and the square. What words will yield to any fashion or usage and what will escape no one can foresee. 154 The English Language. The palatalization of the c gave occasion for the doctrine, more prevalent in the last century than now, that it cannot end any English word. If in combination or inflexion it should come to be followed by e or i, how should it be pro- nounced ? If, like our Saxon ancestors, we were to write cwic instead of quick, ought we not also to write cwicer and cwicest ? as I saw a short time ago the people of the prov- ince of Quebec called Quebecers without knowing how to pronounce the word. Indeed the rule in question is still substantially in force. Words of one syllable, the most apt to add cr and est, as black, slack, thick, retain the k. The only monosyllables ending in c are arc, disc, fisc, lac, marc, ore, ploc, roc, sac, soc, talc, tic, and zinc, which scarcely admit of inflexion, and are not very often used. Finally, as a last resort, the k can be restored, as in rollicking and frolicking. E. The so-called short sounds of the vowels, a, e, i, o, have undergone little change in a thousand years, while the long values of the first three are the most unstable elements in the language. There has been a shifting of places among the first three vowels. There was originally a series of sounds represented by a, e, i, ai, now represented by ah, a, e, i. E then was originally like (ai) in pain, the short sound, as in pen, having been always the same. Doubling of the letter made no difference but to show its length. By the middle of the sixteenth century the sound began to be attenuated, and the, be, bee, me, we, he, she were among the first words to give way and be pronounced as at present. The prevailing value is now (ee), heard in all cases of the doubled e, of the single in an open syllable, or followed by a silent e, except a few words, as ere, e'er, there, were, where, containing the disturb- ing letter r. To these may be added most syllables contain- ing ea, ei, and ie a vast number of words in which (ai) has given place to the thinner, sharper sound (ee). Ea had been occasionally written by Chaucer without dif- fering in value from e ; but in the middle of the sixteenth century, when the single vowel was fast yielding to the new fashion, ea was adopted as an orthographical expedient to distinguish those words that still retained the sound of (ai). Pronunciation and Spelling. 155 It was thus set up as a fragile bulwark against the tide of innovation, only to be swept away in its turn in a wreck of fragments as various as beam, bread, break, dearth, and heart. But this took two hundred years, during which each succes- sive chronicler of the language recorded fresh encroach- ments. The Scotch and English colonists planted in Ireland by James I. carried with them their respective pronunciations of the end of the sixteenth century, and whoever listens to an intelligent Irishman fresh from the sod may haply hear some of the following illustrations of the Elizabethan era : preach Irish praich bold Irish bowld receive resaiv soul sowl mean main roll rowl supreme shupraim chair chiir The tendency to thin and palatal sounds was carried so far that before the middle of the eighteenth century many words had acquired the sound of (ee) from which custom has receded. A chair was commonly pronounced cheer ; a steak, steek ; great, greet ; and oblige, obleej ; some of which may perhaps still be heard from old persons. E has the sound of (ae) when followed by r in there, were, and a few others ; but (ee) is more common even in such situations as mere, sere, persevere. In syllables like ber, her, mer,per, ser, when accented, e has a delicate and peculiar sound that can best be learned from a lady born to the use of the English tongue. ^"hus perfect is neither par feet, r\or paerfect, nor purfect ; yet there are a few words in which the people of England pronounce er as ar, saying Darby, dark, sarjeant. It is a seventeenth-cen- tury usage which clings chiefly to a few local and aristocratic family names. Eau is from the French, and with two exceptions is still imperfectly assimilated to our language and retains the value (oa). The exceptions are beaufin, a variety of apple, pro- nounced biffin, and beauty. The first word has been treated as French names of fruits now are by our nurserymen and 156 The English Language. farmers. Beauty has long been domiciled among us, from Old French and must have been called byowty, a pronuncia- tion that I heard from old people in my childhood. Tyn- dale and Sir Thomas More wrote bewty, which fixes its pronunciation for the first part of the sixteenth century. Ei was in use as early as the thirteenth century, and for more than three hundred years represented (ii). The sound then began to pass into (ae'ee), somewhat as we should pro- nounce they, in attempting to give each vowel distinctly. Next the second vowel was slurred over entirely, and tow- ard the close of the seventeenth century deceive, receive, conceit, either, heifer, leisure, purveigh, seize were all pro- nounced with the sound (ai). So late as 1704, Dr. John Jones could declare (perhaps rashly) that ei never repre- sented what is now its value in seize. The eighteenth cen- tury made the digraph what it is now prevailingly (ee). Still it represents the various shades in heifer, heir, feign, forfeit, height, deceive. Thus in less than two hundred years a single pronunciation is split into six. Herbert Spencer's doctrine of the differentiation of the homogeneous finds nowhere apter illustrations than in language. To the question which is preferable, iither or eether, it may be answered that there is no principle on which it can be decided. The former was once the only pronunciation ; the latter is now the prevalent one ; but which may fall to the lot of any word is as much a matter of chance as cases of snake-bite or hydrophobia. The party of (ii) has a respectable following in height, sleight, heighho, and a number of late importations from the Greek, as kaleidopJione, ophi- cleide, pleiocene, and pleistocene. Still the natural tendency of the language is towards (ee). We might indeed com- promise, as Dr. Johnson, when asked whether he would say eether or iither, is related to have answered, " Naither, Sir." Eo is a combination of vowels inherited from the Anglo- Saxon, in which they were pronounced separately, with a little more stress on the one than the other. When the accent was on the first the tendency was to become merely Pronunciation and Spelling. 157 e ; if on the second, to become yo. Eo occurs in George, leopard, people, and in the rare or obsolete words feod, feoff, jeopardy, and yeoman, with five different values. It is also found in the termination eon in bludgeon, pigeon, surgeon, etc., where it degenerates into the common obscure (#). The e, however, may be considered as serving no other purpose than to give the value of j to g. People comes to us from the Latin populus, through the Old French pueple. The English spellings are imitations. Poeple occurs in the " Vision of Piers Plowman," and Chaucer wrote peple, peeple, and poe- ple. Whichever vowel was placed first, the two were equiva- lent to e alone, which was the general value of eo in Middle English. Yeoman is a word of obscure origin, variously written, but most frequently yeman. " A lytle boy among them asked, What meaned that gallow-tre ? They sayde to hange a good yeman, Called Wyllyam of Cloudesle." ' Jeopardy is from the Old French jcu parti, a game of chance in which the chances were equal, which was therefore risky on both sides spelling and pronunciation various like the last. Feoff is likewise Old French, with similar uncer- tainty of spelling, but always spoken fef. Feod is perhaps remotely from the Icelandic/?VMtf/, a heritable estate. The dictionaries give the absurd pronunciation feud, which suits the Low Latin and French forms of the word. Leopard is of course Latin. A consistent pronunciation of these two words would have been /"/-#</ and le"-o-pard, but would be too much labor. Eu and Eiv. In most instances we find one original sound dividing into several, but here are two sounds coalescing into one. In the fourteenth century there were two classes of words, respectively of Saxon and French origin, but written alike, indifferently with eu, ue, ew, ewe, the sound of the former class being that heard in certain rural pro- nunciations in New England, as keozv, teown, neow ; the 1 " Adam Bell, dim of the Clough and William of Cloudeslee." "158 The English Language. latter (ue). During the sixteenth century the distinction became forgotten and unheeded ; and now, with two or three exceptions, we call them all (yu). But as we can no longer utter that sound after r, we say run and thruu. Shew is now pronounced (shoa), and in this country is generally and consistently written show. Shrew is now pronounced (shruu), although the readers of Shakespeare will recall the lines : " Hor. Now go thy ways ; thou hast tam'd a curst shrew. Luc. 'T is a wonder, by your leave, she will be tam'd so." " Taming of the Shrew." Sewer was, until lately, often written and pronounced shore. Compare Shore-ditch, London. Strew is regular in pronunciation. It is recent ; the older forms, straw and strow, running back side by side to Saxon times. Sew stands alone in the perfect antagonism between the written and the spoken word. Ewe may be construed as ew with the addition of a final silent e, which applies equally to all such words as tie, toe, rue, dye, etc. Ey. What has been said of ei applies equally to ey ; as * and y were used interchangeably from the middle of the thirteenth to the end of the sixteenth century. Ey has passed through the same transitions as ei, eye being a solitary relic of the oldest usage, sley, convey, obey, abeyance of the seventeenth-century pronunciation, and key (Irish kay) the later attenuation. As a termination ey is equivalent to y and fluctuates between (ai) and (ee), as in alley, valley, pulley. F has always had the same pronunciation in English, except in the modern of = (ov). G, initial before everything but e, i, and y was always g, as at present ; before these vowels it was (y) until the sound passed gradually into the modern (j). Often in the middle, and always at the end of words, except after n, it was (gh) not easily distinguished from (kh). In modern usage the primary sound (g) has gained on the others, and we have Pronunciation and Spelling. 159 get, gild, give instead of jet, jild, jive. This is not actual etymology, but only an indication of the change in the value of the letters. G combines with a preceding n and with a following h (which see below). Judgement is now almost uni- versally written judgment. Abridgment and lodgment are also common, a violation of general usage poorly compen- sated by the economy of a single letter. But the practice is not new. Sir J. Finett wrote in 1656: " At the furthest end of the town eastward, the ambassador's house was appointed, but not yet lodgable" King James's Bible, Ed. 1613 and Shakespeare, Ed. 1623, have the full form judgement. Many words which in Saxon began with g are now written with y, as yard, yell, year, young, the sound having never changed. H represents a jerked emission of voiceless breath, the organs of speech being generally, but not necessarily, in the position for uttering the succeeding sound. This has always been its character at the beginning of a syllable. Uncombined it ends no English word except a few exclama- tions. It combines with c, g, p, s, and t to represent a variety of sounds, all of which except the first are simple, and should be expressed by single letters. H is pronounced with some difficulty before or after a consonant, although the Saxons seem to have found it easy enough before /, n, and r ; and the escape of a little breath after consonants produced the Sanskrit and Greek aspirates. The present Irish occasionally aspirate perfectly. I remember to have listened with wonder when a child to a travelling Hibernian (modern tramp) who thus set forth his own erudition : " I was once in the cap'haacity of a t'haicher, an' I cud t'haich aanything that iver was t'haicht be man Haibra, Aljaibra, Matthamaatics, or aanything at haal." What is called Cockneyism originates in the slight diffi- culty of uttering two successive vowels, or an h after a 160 The English Language. consonant. One who should try to say " a ass and an horse" would be very liable to say " a hass and an *orse." In the middle and end of syllables, in Saxon, h was (kh). As ^was (gh), the two became confused. In the " Ormu- lum," referred to the beginning of the thirteenth century, the two are used, generally with the above distinction. After that time the g began to take the place of both. A further advance was made by writing the two letters together. " Kityghtes in her conisantes, clad for the nones." " Piers Plowman." Layamon in 1205 had written cnihten, and Robert of Gloucester in 1300, knigtes. Gh then always represented (gh) or (kh), a sound that waxed ever fainter until by the close of the sixteenth century it had vanished entirely from the speech of the most polished society in the South of England. It lingered long in the North, and in Scotland and Ireland, where it was still common within the memory of living men, and perhaps may yet be heard in secluded valleys. Since English organs are now too dainty for the sound, the spelling gh has become the special opprobrium of our orthography, and gives rise to a number of futile substitutes. If a German teacher were to require a class of American youths to say nicht, some would pronounce it nikt, a part would answer nisht, while the greater number would content themselves with nit. So of ninety-four words and their derivatives containing gh, the digraph = p in hic- cough ; k in hough and lough ; g in aghast, burgher, ghastly, ghost, gherkin, ghoul, nylghau ; f in chough, dough, cough, draught, enough, laugh, rough, slough, sough, tough, and trough ; and is silent in seventy-three. This digraph, when not beginning a syllable, follows only i or u. 1 The i may be preceded by a or e ; the u must follow a or o. The loss of the sound is to be regretted. The Germans, Spaniards, and Russians do not find it difficult or inelegant. I, who heard it every day for twenty years, can testify to the emphatic 1 Burgher is an exception. Pronunciation and Spelling. 161 strength it imparts. How feeble and foisonless must be the speech that does not distinguish the might of nations or of the Deity from the -mite of old cheese ! I. The primary sounds represented by i are heard in pippin and pierce. The former, called the short sound, has held its place from the earliest times ; the latter is now never represented by / in English, except in a few words of foreign origin, as magazine. Yet that was the long sound until the sixteenth century. It is held by the most competent author- ity that Chaucer and Gower, and all before them pronounced even the pronoun / as (ee). The change took place in the sixteenth century, and doubtless spread gradually from word to word. Shakespeare (edition of 1623) treated /, aye, and eye as identical in Juliet's frantic outburst on the reported suicide of Romeo: " Hath Romeo slaine himselfe ? say thou but /, And that bare vowell / shall poyson more Than the death darting eye of cockatrice, I am not I, if there be such an /." The long sound at present expressed by i is clearly a diphthong, but its elements are not so clear. Two sounds may be distinguished in fire and in fine. The first = ai, that is (aa'ee) run together very rapidly ; the second is more doubtful, but to my ear is nearest the rapid utterance of (u'ee). There are a series of intermediate sounds represented by i, ranging from (i) to (u), firth, girl, squirrel, birth, first, bird. An unaccented i between a consonant and a following vowel has a palatalizing effect, becoming equal to initial y, or even transforming the consonant. Examples are labial, radiant, ruffian, region, retaliate, abstemious, opinion, incipient, interior, envious. The d in soldier is converted intoy, and the sound of sh is produced in spcciotis, revulsion, potion, anxious, etc. the order of transformation being (see'us), (s'yus), (shus). Ie. The Saxons pronounced this digraph nearly as we do in the words mischief and mischievous. In the fourteenth ii 1 62 The English Language. and fifteenth centuries it was used for the sound (ai), of which we have relics in the Irish thaif for thief, and belaive for believe. Again I may repeat that the essential point is not that the people of those ages pronounced these letters differently from us ; but that they pronounced certain words differently, no matter how they might be written, which was a quite secondary consideration. The following examples will illustrate the pronunciation and writing of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries : FIFTEENTH SEVENTEENTH Written Pronounced Written Pronounced beleve belaiv believe beleev bere bair bier beer brefe braif brief breef chefe chaif chief cheef fende faind fiend feend frende fraind, frend friend freend lege laij liege leej pece pais piece pees priest praist priest preest sege saij siege seej thefe thaif thief theef The change to (ee) took place in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries, which is still the prevailing value of ie, but proved not to be permanent for the two words friend and sieve. Friend and fiend, correlative in their origin, kept together from Saxon times till the seventeenth century as freend and feend, fraind and faind, freend and feend ; and at last parted company. Ie was generally used in the middle ages as a termination, where we now write y, or ey. leu is French and equal to (yuu) lew is a more anglicized form of the preceding, found only in view and its compounds. J has always the same sound, with the single exception that it is (y) in the Hebrew phrase Hallelujah. It is not found in any word of known Saxon origin. It came into the language from the French when Saxons and Pronunciation and Spelling. 163 Normans began to unite into one people. It probably had from the first the same sound as now, although it has ceased to have that value in French. Although not fojund in the extant remains of Anglo-Saxon, jar, to be discordant, jaw, jerk, jingle, jolt, and jowl, occur early in English, and are not traceable to any other source. L must have been always essentially the same. In utter- ing the sound the tip of the tongue touches the front part of the palate, while the voice passes on each side, slightly vibrating the edges. The sound is thus like a vowel in being continuous through an aperture of a certain conforma- tion, and like a consonant in that the voice is obstructed. In Sanskrit /, like r, was treated as either a vowel or a consonant, but possibly with a distinction between the vowel and consonant values. Owing to this vocal character, / and r, with final silent e, may follow an instantaneous consonant, as in simple and centre. The final e in such words serves no purpose, and would be no better if placed before the / or r, as the pronunciation is really simpl and sentr. In uttering one articulate sound the anticipation of others immediately following often modifies the first. This phe- nomenon has played a large and important part in determin- ing the forms of words, and will be adverted to again in treating of the numbers of nouns. If then an / follows an a, there is generally a tendency to modify the a into (aw), as ball, call, fall, salt, balsam. This is carried to such an ex- tent as completely to suppress the / in chalk, talk, walk. On the other hand, when followed by i and another vowel, the / is palatalized by anticipation, as in salient, valiant, million, postilion. In French and the Spanish of Mexico the palatalization, which is somewhat differently indicated, leaves no perceptible trace of the /, and travailler and tor- tillas are heard as tra-va-yai and tor-tee-yas. N. Besides its plain sound in noon, n is subject to two modifications : the one when it is followed by (g) or (k), the other when followed by / or e and another vowel. We have examples of the former in ink, cincture, cinque, minx, ring, and finger. If the (g) or (k) be in the same syllable with the 164 The English Language. , the latter is always modified. When they are in different syllables, the result is less uniform. If the syllable begin- ning with (g) or (k) has the accent, the n remains unaltered ; if the syllable ending in n be accented, the n is generally modified ; but there are a number of exceptions, among which are ancony, penguin, concrete. The n remains unaf- fected in the prefixes en, in, un, and generally in con and syn. It may be questioned whether the n itself is ever (ng) or if the sound always requires both letters. If all the words were like sing and singer, there would be a showing for the latter alternative ; but in a word like languid pronounced lang-gwid the n alone in the first syllable expresses the full sound. N in accented syllables, followed by i or e and another vowel, is palatalized, as in Albanian, opinion. The alphabet of the Sanskrit has four 's, two of which are the palatalized and the n before k, thus recognizing them as distinct sounds. In Spanish the palatalized / and n are counted as distinct letters ; the former written //, and the latter ;/. The mark, called tilde over the n is said by the Spanish Academy to have been originally a second n. O is used at present to represent at least five vowel sounds, easily distinguished in cold, hot, wonder, wolf, who. Exces- sive refinement enlarges the number considerably. Mr. A. J. Ellis makes fifteen heard in English alone. The first and second of the above five are the most liable to division, the first into three, heard in no, know, which is supposed to fade away into (uu), and thirdly a sound allied to (aw) fawm for form. One of the distinctions between speech at present in England and the United States is the growing tendency in the former country to assimilate long o to (aw), especially before r, and say glawry, ^mpa^vrtant, memawrial. So humorists represent gentlemen of the Dundreary type as saying dorg or dawg for dog, and prefacing their oracular utterances with Aw ! where an American would use O ! if anything. It is possible that this English sound may be the original, and that the present fashion, like many other fashions, is a Pronunciation and Spelling. 165 reversion to an earlier form. In that case the long and short 0's would have been once an exact pair, differing only in duration. To this point I shall advert again. Such a sup- position is strengthened, among other evidence, by the spell- ing of the word land. Henry III. writes it loand ; before his time it was written, as now, land, but afterwards for more than a century it was usually written lond. All would be reconciled by supposing it pronounced for several ages lawnd. So. many words were written sometimes with an a and sometimes with o. Many words once pronounced with the full long sound of o have fallen away, generally towards u ; such are do, who, shoe, two. " And lay an apple upon hys head, And go syxe score paces hym/rt?, And I my selfe with a brode arow Shall cleave that apple in two." 1 One, which is now pronounced wun, was generally written oon, but pronounced (oan), a sound still retained in alone, atone, and only (when not called urily). " None save only a little foot-page Crept forth at a window of stone : And he had two armes when he came in, And he went back with one." 3 Oa. As o is intermediate between a and u, and liable to oscillate between these two extremes. When it was thought necessary to distinguish the long sound of <?, it was some- times written oo, which I observe first in Sir John Mande- ville, middle of the fourteenth century. In two hundred years that had declined sensibly towards u, when a further distinction was adopted. Words that were tending towards u were written with oo, and oa was chosen to represent and preserve the long sound of o, a distinction that has been well 1 " Adam Bell, Clem of the Clough and William of Cloudeslee." * " Old Robin of Portingale," Percy's " Reliques," page 209. 1 66 The English Language. maintained. Oa is uniform except in broad, which is perhaps the persistence of the older sound of o. Its occurrence in the proclamation of Henry III. is temporary and exceptional. Oe. As already remarked, I have preferred to treat the e in doe, foe, roe, sloe, toe as a silent final e, indicating the length of the preceding vowel. Shoe was formerly pronounced shoa : " For though a widewe hadde but oo schoo, So pleasaunt was his In prindpio, Yet wolde he haue a ferthing or he wente." CHAUCER. A few words derived from the Latin are at the present time generally written with az, as fcetid, foetus. Oeu. Manoeuvre is a word adopted from the French in the present century. Oi is the most perfect of diphthongs, both vowels retain- ing their earliest sounds. It came into our language from the French, and Mr. Ellis is of opinion that it must have been at first nearly (uu'ee). By the middle of the sixteenth century, however, it had acquired its present sound. In the seventeenth century, when slender sounds were in fashion, oi took the sound of (zY) in many words ; and we still occa- sionally hear laboring people say biil,piizin,piint,jiint, which we complacently regard as vulgarisms. They are merely old-fashioned. The diphthong oi is a prolonged, distinct sound which cannot be fully preserved except under the protection of the accent. Otherwise it is liable to fall away into some indis- tinct sound, as in av<?zrdupois, conn^sseur, tortoise, porp<?zse. Patois, soiree, and some others are still treated as foreign words. Oo, as already observed, was first introduced to mark the long sound of o, as in go. When o in many words was fast declining towards u, oa was introduced to secure the old sound, and oo was left to indicate the downward tendency. It now represents only sounds that are also indicated by u; and good, rude ; foot, put ; blood, bud are perfect pairs. Pronunciation and Spelling. 167 Ou is a form first employed about the close of the thir- teenth century, when it = (uu), as in French. The design seems to have been to fix and define that sound when u itself showed a tendency to become (ue). It was next em- ployed to express the sound of o in soul, in which some think they hear both vowels a distinct o, followed by a very faint (u). That value of ou which is now the most com- mon in loud, doubt, out, came into use in the sixteenth century, when a large number of words changed their vowel sounds from (uu) to (ow). Ow represents three sounds, in cow, flow, and knowledge. The first may be considered its normal power ; the third is a single exception. In the earlier ages of English, ow = ou, and represented the same sounds. Palsgrave, writing in 1530, compared the French ou to the vowel sound in " a cowe, a mowe, a sowe " that is, a cow, a hay-mow, a sow which would make these kuu, muu, suu, as in Lowland Scotch. The transition, word by word, from (uu) to (ow) went on through the whole of the sixteenth century, and in the seventeenth the last of (uu) disappeared. At the same time there were a large class of words, chiefly from A.-S. dw and 6w, that have always had the sound (oa), and the boy who bent a bow to shoot a crow " might belong to any age. Oy = oi. P, in our language, when not combined with h, appears to have been always and everywhere the same. Ph = f except in Stephen, and generally in nephew in England. It is used chiefly in words derived from the Greek, where it is now believed to have had the" value of ph in uphold. The Romans who were accustomed to hear Greek as a living tongue did not render tp by their f, but always by ph. On the other hand, the Greeks had no other means for expressing the f in Roman names. Ph is also employed in the same manner in transliterating Semitic words, as ephod, seraph, naphtha, sapphire. P is silent before ph. 1 68 The English Language. Q is inseparably followed by , and = ku, or rather kw. Let the tongue be pressed against the palate so as to pre- vent the utterance of sound ; the release of that contact and consequent issue of the voice is initial k. W, or (uu) is formed by protruding the lips and narrowing their aperture. These positions of the tongue and lips may be assumed at the same time ; the result when the voice is released is ku ; if there be instant transition to another vowel, it will be kw, followed by that other vowel. Qu in European alphabets is always derived from the Latin ; hence the Greek and Russian have nothing equivalent. Our Saxon ancestors employed in its place cw, which dispensed with an unneces- sary letter. Even in Saxon times qu began to creep in, and now there is not a cw in our language. R has overtaxed the discriminating powers of orthoepists, who are far from agreed as to its varieties, or the manner of their production. Ben Jonson, 1640, says: " R is the Dog's letter, and hurreth in the sound the tongue striking the inner palate, with a trembling about the teeth. It is sounded firmer in the beginning of words, and more liquid in the middle and ends, as in rarer, viper." Exception may be taken to the words which I have italicized ; but the fact remains that two and a half centuries ago, as now, initial r was pronounced more distinctly than the medial or final. The point of the tongue is brought near to the anterior part of the palate, without touching, and vibrates slightly under the passing vocal breath. With most persons there is no vibration, and consequently no r at all. Mr. Ellis says : " In English at the present day r has at least two sounds, the first, when preceding a vowel, is a scarcely perceptible trill with the tip of the tongue, which in Scotland, and with some English speakers, as always in Italy, becomes a clear and strong trill. * * * The second English r is always final or precedes a consonant. It is a vocal murmur differ- ing very slightly from (u). * * * After (a, aw, u) the effect is rather to lengthen the preceding vowel than to pro- duce a distinct diphthong. Thus farther, lord, scarcely differ from father, laud, * * * That a distinction is made, Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 69 by more perhaps than are aware of it, is certain, but it is also certain that in the mouths of by far the greater number of speakers in the South of England, the absorption of the r is as complete as the absorption of the / in talk, walk, psalm, where it has also left its mark on the preceding vowel." This may be taken to be the present state of the case in England ; and many in this country are entirely incapable of uttering the sound of r except after a pause or a con- sonant. As it is, or was, the most sonorous of the consonants, its disappearance, like that of (kh), is a further weakening of the language much to be deplored. Of course, like all phonetic degradation, it is economy, or parsimony, of exer- tion. But parsimony in speech does not differ in principle from parsimony in food, clothing, or in any application of labor or material. The first object is to do the work re- quired, and do it well, and next to retrench needless ex- penditure. But retrenchment may be carried so far as to render the product worthless. So language may be trimmed down until it becomes weak and feckless, unfit for the work of strong, manly speech. As r is so nearly allied to the vowels, it has generally the effect of prolonging or modifying a preceding vowel, which will be perceived by comparing fan with far fin with fir fane " fare bolt " borne pen " per lost " born feet " fear bulk " burn fine " fire house " hour It will be observed that after a long vowel or diphthong, a short faint sound of u is interpolated. R is apt to change places with an adjacent vowel, being sometimes before and sometimes after it. In older speci- mens of the language we find arn for ran girdle for griddle brid bird kers " cress brunt " burnt fersh " fresh gers " grass 1 70 The English Language. In consequence of its vowel character, r final after certain consonants, however written, is pronounced without an intervening vowel, or with a scarcely perceptible vocal glide. Compare : sombre somber sombr sundry sunder sundr offer offr eagre eager eagr whisper whispr centre center centr The same is true, even to a greater extent, of /, as in stubble, sickle, idle, eagle, shuffle, maple, whistle, brittle, driz- zle. Among the spelling reforms undertaken by Dr. Web- ster was the substitution of the ending er for re after b and /. This particular reform was not one of his happiest inspirations, as in either case the e is not pronounced ; as the same rule is not applied to /, and both immediate and remote etymology is disregarded in center, meter, and theater, the three words specially cited in illustration. The English, French, Latin, Greek, and the English derived adjectives of these words are : centre centre centrum kentron central metre metre metrum metron metrical theatre theatre theatrum theatron theatrical the r in each case following the t. The change is not generally adopted in England, nor universally in this country. The Greeks always, and the Norsemen and our Saxon ancestors often, indicated an aspiration or sound of Ji before r at the beginning of a word. It has been customary in transliterating Greek to write h after the aspirated r, and for the other two languages either to do the same or omit the h altogether. I find no difficulty in pronouncing Ji before r, but great difficulty in pronouncing it after; and I venture the opinion Pronunciation and Spelling. 171 that the three peoples named understood themselves and wrote as they spoke, and that the Greeks, for example, did not say Rhode and Arrhias, but Hrode and Arhrias. S, alone or combined with h, represents the four sounds heard in sister, rose, fashion, and pleasure. The first two have been the same from the earliest times ; the other two came into use in the seventeenth century. (Sh) had previously been represented by sch> as it still is in German. That century was filled with disorders and civil wars, political and religious. It saw the acces- sion and expulsion of the House of Stuart, of which one king perished on the scaffold and another was driven with his sons forever from the inheritance of his fathers. It saw London twice desolated by plague and once by fire, a parliament turned out-of-doors by armed force, a commonwealth established and overthrown. It witnessed the rebellions of Montrose and Monmouth, the landing of a second William the Conqueror, and the fruit- less attempt of James to array the Irish against England and Scotland. So many great events had never before been crowded into a single century ; and the constant popular ferment had its effect upon the language of the people. The changes were so great that in many instances usage has receded from the extreme water-marks of that period. Among these were the sound of (sh), once heard in consume, pursue, sew, suit, supreme, but now met with only occasionally in Scotland and Ireland. There is an illustrative anecdote of a Scotch shopkeeper, who, worn out of patience, replied to a higgling customer : " Weel, weel, just shoot [suit] yersel, an' Al shoot mysel." To tell concisely the sound that s represents in each instance is very difficult. We are reminded again that usage is unconscious of any rule or principle, and that the systematizer can at best give but a semblance of regularity to the chaos of flying atoms. However, s initial is always (s) ; also when immediately before or after a weak consonant f, h, k,p, t, th in thin whiffs, goshawk, skips, speaks, starts, faiths ; in the prefix mis and the terminations ss and us 172 The English Language. mislay, darkness, circus, genius, famous. It is generally so in the prefix dis ; but usage is not quite uniform. I have been accustomed to except only disaster, discern, disease, dismal, dissolve. Even in these few the dis is not always from the same original. To these may be added, 1st, final as, except as, whereas, has, was, and a few foreign plurals; 2d, yes; 3d, final is, except is and his. Final s in all other connec- tions is generally (z) ; in a few words from the French it is silent. A following e sometimes preserves the sound of (s), which would otherwise be (z), as in asperse, expense. The final e does not generally save the (s) after a vowel lose, dispose, please, fuse, amuse (all verbs), but has that effect in base, dose, geese, lease, loose. We have thus a distinction, often but not always observed, that nouns or adjectives present a weak consonant where corresponding verbs have the strong. WEAK STRONG advice advise bath bathe belief believe brass braze calf calve close close device devise grass graze WEAK STRONG house house life live loss lose mouse mouse price prize rise rise thief thieve use use S = (sh) when preceded by a consonant and followed by ion, the i palatalizing the combination, as in diversion, expul- sion, mission, passion ; also when thus followed by a palatal- ized u sugar, censure, tonsure, sensual, fissure, pressure, impressure, sure, sumach ; and in the words nauseate, nause- ous, osseous, where the e following s has the palatalizing effect. When the termination sion, sure, etc., is preceded by an accented vowel, the s is (zh) instead of (sh) cohesion, contusion, explosion, disclosure, exposure, measure, pleasure, treasure. It has also the same value in combinations that are similar though not identical as crosier, osier, hosier, brasier, ambrosia, elysian, scission, abscission. Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 73 T when not modified by the following letter must have been always (t). But when a palatal vowel (u) or, what is the same thing, the semivowel y or (yu) follows, there is a tendency to palatalize the /, like c and s in the same situa- tion, to (sh). It never becomes (zh). This palatalization must have taken place as early as the fourteenth century, since Chaucer wrote indifferently discrecioun, discressioun, and discretions.. In regard to the termination ture, usage and opinion both differ, varying all the way from (naichuur) to (naitr). The first extreme is heard only from pedants on exhibition, the second from rustics. The admissible means are (naichur) and (naityur) of which I should prefer the latter ; but would say (temperatyuur) and (sepultyuur). From a want of suitable single characters, th is now in use for (th) and (dh) in thin and thine. This spelling superseded the Saxon thorn and crossed d in the fourteenth century. U and V are originally the same letter. From the Greek transcription of Roman names, it seems to have had in Latin the three values (uu, v, w). The first of these seems to have been the uniform Saxon sound, varied only by its greater or less duration. The Conquest, and prolonged intercourse with France introduced a great number of French words in which u was (ue). Out of these grew our present (yu), the vowel heard in use, unity, mule, pure. There are only three words in the language having this value of u that do not come to us through the French or the Latin. Of these hue and puke are native English, and emu, of unknown origin, was introduced into Europe by the Portuguese. It was when the long u had come generally to signify (ue) that the digraph ou was introduced to distinguish and pre- serve (uu). The change from (ue) to (yu) may be referred to the seventeenth century. U has now the six values, (yu) in mule, (uu) in rule, (u) in put, (u) in but, (i) in busy, and (w) in anguish, (u) and (i) may be termed the vanishing points to which all indistinct vocal sounds tend, for which compare the last syllables of ocean, further, kingdom, simpleton, captious, and the first 1 74 The English Language. syllables of perform, hirsute, congratulation. Even when not recognized as a separate vowel sound, it probably exists as a kind of residual product in many languages, and in my opinion is more frequent in French than in English, (u) has probably existed time out of mind along side of (uu), they being respectively the short and the long of the vowel, (ue) has gone entirely out of use in English. Persons in this country who try to learn German are apt to mistake it for (u) or (i). A trace of short (ue) remains in bury and busy, written in A.-S. with y, in early, middle, and modern English with u, but probably always with nearly the same sound, (u) was not recognized by orthoepists as an English sound until the middle of the seventeenth century, when it extended to many places now occupied by (u). V, as a consonant, seems to have been from a very early period always the same. There was originally only one form for u and v ; and when two simultaneous forms came into use in the twelfth or thirteenth century, it was not to dis- tinguish the vowel from the consonant. With some irregu- larity v was written at the beginning of a word, and u everywhere else. This usage continued into the seventeenth century, and was followed in King James's Bible. Sam Weller is a type of a class who find it difficult to pronounce an initial v. When I was young, there was in the neighbor- hood a man of that class from the old country whom the boys used to banter to say rapidly, " Veal, wine, vinegar, very good victuals, I vow." When thoroughly roused, the old man would run off in a string : " Yes, I can say ' weal, wine, winegar, wery good wit ties, I wow,' as fas' as any of ye." It can be little better than a superstition that prevents any word from ending with the letter v. The avoidance of cer- tain endings is curious. No word in English ends with /, except the names of a few foreign animals ; none in j, q, or v. Few native words end in o, still fewer in u, and none in a. As u is the last of the independent vowels, w being never used alone, and y only as the equivalent of i, this may be a Pronunciation and Spelling. 175 proper place to remark on the distinction of long and short vowels. In languages having simple scales of sounds the distinction might be merely one of duration, the sounds remaining the same, like musical notes differing only in time ; but in English the long and the short of any vowel are entirely different sounds. This will be seen by placing them in pairs, the long below the short. hat met bit not us hate mete bite note use Of most of our vowel sounds exact pairs cannot be made, unless by taking accented and unaccented syllables, as in notorious, in which we may call the first o short and the second long. The following are nearer making pairs, although as generally heard they are only approximations : LONG SHORT far fat mare met pane pa(ternal) fall folly LONG SHORT feel fill file fi(duciary) foal fo(ment) rule full but W. If the lips be protruded and brought near together, the vocal sound that can be produced is (uu), usually repre- sented by oo. If the lips be brought a little closer still, and if, on the instant that the voice issues, the organs of speech move to another position, the initial and instantaneous sound heard is w as a consonant. It has no perceptible duration, but is a mere starting-point, like/ in part. In our language it must be followed by a vowel. It is certainly possible, but not easy, to pronounce r after it, on ac- count of the vocal character of that letter. L is still more difficult. Wh has been the subject of much dispute. In my judg- ment it is (hw). Bearing in mind that h is not a vocal sound but a mere breathing, try this experiment. Pronounce sep- arately, with intervals between, h oo en ; then diminish the 1 76 The English Language. intervals until they disappear, and you will have a fair approximation to when. Next try the order, oo h en. Thirdly, place the lips in the position of w, and say when slowly and carefully. You will find that there is first the voiceless breathing, which ceases the instant the vocal w, or (uu), is reached ; that passes instantly into e, followed by n. To speak of wh as a simple but peculiar consonant partaking of the properties of w and h seems to me little better than to call it a univocal compound of sound and silence. As a vowel w = (uu), and as such it occurs alone in Welsh, but never in English, where it is always preceded by a, e, or o. After a it merely indicates one sound of that vowel. After e, omitting the exceptions cited under that letter, it is (uu). I thus construe ewe. The last letter is final silent e ; the first gives the palatal sound expressed by y, leaving w = (uu). Latin and the languages derived from it are without the letter w, but have the sound, which most of them express, as in English, by u, as in the Latin anguis, Italian guado, Spanish igual, English languish, assuage. There is a pronunciation remarked on in England as pecul- iarly American, which culminates in, but is not confined to, the word whole. It consists in making the o " long " in sound but short in time, and dwelling upon the / as if it were doubled, thus differing from hole in making the o shorter and doubling the /. The word then insensibly becomes hull. It ought to differ from hole only in having the o longer. A still worse pronunciation is appearing among some of those who insist on speaking as they spell, in trying to make the w audible. This produces a most uncouth and barbarous vocable for sake of a written letter that is no part of the original word. In all the equivalents except the English the w is wanting. It appears to have crept in from some local dialect about the year 1500, and attached itself to a number of words in the manner of the cockney h. In some words, as whole, whore, and whoop, it has been retained in the writ- ten but not in the spoken language. One and once present the w to the ear but not to the eye ; and from hoot and hot, Pronunciation and Spelling. 177 hoary and holy, it has disappeared altogether. As to wholly, which Walker very justly thought should be written wholely to correspond with solely, I have always been accustomed so to pronounce it. X is a compound equivalent to ks or gs. It begins no English word, and is followed only by c, ch, h, /, q, s, t, or a vowel. It is (ks) when final, when accented, or when fol- lowed by any of the consonants named except h. As x = ks, the element s becomes (sh) in situations where a single s would undergo the same change anxious, fluxion. Y originated, as we have f seen, among the Greeks, with whom it probably had nearly the value of (ue), which is peculiarly liable to pass into (ii, i), When the Romans be- gan to study Greek as a polite language, they distinguished this letter from all their own vowels by introducing it as a new character ; and the French and Spaniards still call it the Greek i. As a vowel its various shades of sound have ranged between the extremes i and u. The sound (ue) is one that the English early sought to avoid. It seems to have disap- peared in the thirteenth century, to have returned again with the influx of French words in the fourteenth, written u or eu, only to disappear and become unpronounceable in the seventeenth. In Scotland, at least near the Border, floor may perhaps still be called (fluer), but farther north will be found various substitutes as (fluur, flyuur, fleer). But when the sound first died out it parted company forever with the letter y, which then became indistinguishable from i. " I schal ryse, and I schal go to my fadir, and I schal seie to him, Fadir, I have synned agens heuene, and bifore thee ; Now I am not worthi to be clepid thi sone, make me as oon of thi hyrid men." LUKE xv., 18, by WYCLIFFE. Gradually custom assigned y to certain places and i to others, so that they are never interchangeable. F" is a vowel equal to i except when initial, in which latter case it has always the force of a consonant, and is to (ee) as w to (uu). 1 78 The English Language. PRINCIPLES OF SPELLING. 1. Every word of considerable length can easily be divided into a number of parts, as cir-cum-loc-u-to-ry. Each of these parts is called a syllable, from a Greek original signifying taken together, and consists of a single vowel sound, together with such letters as are pronounced along with it, without the aid of any other vowel sound. It may be a single vowel alone, or a vowel sound represented by several written char- acters, preceded or followed by consonants, or even by vowel characters not sounded. A, an, no, now, stone, view, thieves, are examples. 2. An open syllable is one ending with a vowel, one that ends with a consonant is called a closed syllable. Under the head of word-making I have shown reasons for believing that all syllables were originally open, and that a closed syl- lable is the remnant of a dissyllable that has lost the last vowel. 3. Our language, like many others, has a decided prefer- ence still only a preference for open syllables. Any Eng- lish-speaking person seeing for the first time the words carat, pater, would naturally divide them ca-rat, pa-ter, and not as they should be, car-at, pat-er. 4. The tendency is to give a prolonged, slender sound to the vowel of an open syllable. To this there are many exceptions and limitations. A final a is always short, hence the article a is never what is called long. / and a end no native English word, unless they can be said to do so when standing alone. 5. The vowel of a closed syllable is preferably short. It is uniformly so only when a single vowel is followed by a single consonant. The vowels of closed syllables are pro- longed in a great variety of ways, many of which are mere contrivances for showing that the vowel sound is long. Of these the first in rank is the silent final e, which makes the difference of bat and bate, bit and bite. Then combinations of vowels, whether pronounced in whole or only in part, are generally, but not universally, long. There are also a few instances where i and o followed by two, or even three, con- sonants are long bind, blind, behind, find, grind, hind, kind, Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 79 mind, wind, pint, bolt, colt, dolt, jolt, molt, bold, cold, fold, gold, hold, mold, old, sold, told, wold, fort, port. Finally i followed by gk silent is long sigh, fight, lights. The lengthening of the i is a compensation for the loss of gh. 6. The termination ed of verbs is written in full, however pronounced, as in landed, stamped, hushed, snuffed, sighed. There are, as usual, a few exceptions. We write heard, not heared, and laid, paid, said, and sometimes staid instead of layed, payed, sayed, and stayed. Made, shortened from maked, is disguised almost beyond recognition. When a verb already ends with an e, one e is omitted live, lived, smile, smiled. One e is also omitted with the termination er, and generally before ing. It is retained in dyeing, singeing, swingeing, tingeing, to distinguish them from dying, singing, swinging, tinging, and in hoeing corn, shoeing horses, and toeing a mark. In general, a silent final e is dropped be- fore all suffixes beginning with a vowel : Fine, fined, finer, finery, finest, fining, finish, finable j bride, bridal; guide, guidance; plume, plumage; grieve, grievance; move, movable ; force, forcible ; ice, icy ; true, truism. 7. A silent final e is generally retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant, or when necessary to preserve the sound of the original word peaceful, peaceable, change- able, courageous, mortgageor. It is sometimes omitted when it immediately follows the main vowel due, duly, duty, and, contrary to the soundest analogy in such words as judgment and lodgment. Truly, like truth and trust, is consistent, being older than the present spelling of true. Wisdom is not from the modern word wise. It is Saxon unchanged. 8. Any monosyllable or accented final syllable, having a single vowel and closed by a single consonant, doubles that consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel : Fit, fitted, fitter, fittest, fitting. Red, redden, redder, reddest, reddish. Rid, riddance, ridder. pi g, Pigged, pigging, piggery, piggish. Confer, conferred, conferree, conferrer, conf errant, conferring. i8o The English Language. If the consonant were not doubled, the preference for open syllables would cause the first line of this example to be read : fit, fi-ted, fi-ter, fi-test, fi-ting. 9. When the last syllable is not accented usage ceases to be uniform. a. The termination ly in civilly, morally, etc., is not a doubling of the last letter, but the same ly as in comely. b. Final c adds a k, and g a second g, to preserve the hard sound before suffixes beginning with e, i, or y. c. As an accent on the last syllable causes a doubling, so if a word consists of two nearly equal syllables, the final consonant is doubled hob-nobbing, kid-napping. This is the only reason that can be assigned for doubling the/ in wor- shipper, as is most frequently done. If such words as hard- ship, flag-ship, war-ship, could admit of these terminations, the last letter would probably be doubled. It remains single in filliped, galloped, and walloped. We can only sug- gest that lip and lop are elements of less volume than ship. d. The following list contains most of the words of two syllables that are written sometimes with and sometimes without doubling the last letter before the suffixes ed, er, est, ing, ish, ist : anvil cudgel hatchel pencil snivel apparel dial hovel peril stencil barrel dishevel jewel pistol swivel bevel dowel kennel pommel tassel bias drivel kernel postil teasel bowel duel label pupil tinsel brothel enamel laurel quarrel tonsil bushel equal level ravel towel cancel flannel libel revel trammel carol focus marshal rival travel cavil fuel marvel rowel trowel channel funnel medal sandal tunnel chapel gambol metal shovel vial chisel gravel model shrivel victual counsel grovel panel sibyl crenel- handsel parcel signal Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 8 1 Dishevel and enamel, although trisyllables, having the accent on the second syllable, follow the analogy of dissyl- lables. Of the whole number 76 end in / and 2 in s, letters very apt to be doubled at the end of words. More- over a single s is liable to be pronounced as z. Other suf- fixes, not originally English, often follow the analogy of the original words from which these are derived, but not with entire regularity. Perry in England and Webster in America are the principal advocates of the single letter. In this country probably the majority follow them in most instances, while the opposite practice prevails in England ; but no one seems to be entirely uniform and consistent. 10. Trisyllables of similar endings, accented on the first syllable, and having a consequent secondary accent on the last, should, according to the widest analogy, double the last letter, but only a few of them, as handicap, manumit, ricochet, having the second accent well marked, do so in- variably. Reason and analogy are allowed to count for little. A few are variously spelled by different writers, of which carburet, sulphuret, pedicel, sentinel, and hospital, need no special remark. Parallel scarcely ever doubles the final letter for no other visible reason than to avoid four z's. Bishop Hall has even unparallelable. Most authors write compromised and benefited. As mere English words there is no reason for the difference. One may possibly be found in their derivation from the Fr. compromettre and bienfait. 11. A word ending with a doubled consonant, other than /, retains both letters before suffixes, ebb-ing, add-ed, odd-ly, stiff-ness, embarrass-ment. Usage is not uniform in regard to a doubled / before a consonant : dull-ness dul-ness enthrall-ment enthral-ment enroll-ment enrol-ment thrall-dom thral-dom full-ness ful-ness skill-ful skil-ful fulfill-ment fulfil-ment will-ful wil-ful install-ment instal-ment The shorter form prevails in England ; the longer among those Americans who accept Webster as an authority, 1 82 The English Language. holding that two /'s are necessary to preserve the sound after a and o. Full and fill are especially liable to be cur- tailed. In general full retains both /'s in compound words as full-blown, full-sailed, but is liable to drop one before consonantal suffixes. Some write fulfill and others fulfil. but no one writes fullfill. 12. Words ending in a doubled consonant generally retain it when they are lengthened by prefixes. boss emboss sell undersell buff rebuff tell foretell fall befall thrall enthrall roll enroll staff tipstaff It is the practice in England, and to some extent in America, to omit the last / in such cases, especially in distil and instil. Many words compounded with all, well, and mass omit the last of the two consonants : almighty, almost, alone, already, also, although, altogether, always, withal, where- withal, welcome, welfare, Candlemas, Christmas, Lammas, Michaelmas. All compounds of which full is the last part drop the last /, artful, hopeful, etc. We also write until, not untill. Mas is really a shortening, but the reason of the others is that the old spellings were al, ful, til, and wel, and the compound words were formed before the adoption of the modern spellings of all, full, till, and well. 13. Some combinations of letters are avoided. A, i,j, k, u, v, x, and y are never doubled, and w and h only in glow- worm, slow-worm, with-hold, and a few imperfect combina- tions not yet fairly consolidated into words rough-hew, high-heeled, etc. Q never occurs without being followed by u. /never precedes the closely allied letters/ and y. Some combinations are preserved that cannot be pronounced in full as phthisic, giaour, caoutchouc, but then we skip the hard parts. 14. Up to the fifteenth century i and y were used indis- criminately, and there are a few remains of their tenancy in common, in which we sometimes meet with the one and Pronunciation and Spelling. 183 sometimes the other hythe or hithe, tryst or trist, gyves or gives, mystery or mistery? syllabub or sillabub, cypher or cipher all old words except the last, and seldom met with. Y retains sole possession in scythe and byre. At present this letter has its position defined with more than usual regu- larity. a. As a consonant it is the first letter of a word, or of a part elsewhere independent be-yond, hal-yard, steel-yard. b. As a vowel it is final, with or without a preceding e, and takes the place of a number of terminations, Latin ius, ia, turn, as, as in amatory, controversy, estuary, civility ; Fr. and Eng. e, ee, i, ie, in ditty, dainty, majesty, cony ; A.-S. ic and ig in homely, happy. As a final too it is a diminutive express- ing affection, chicky, birdy, kitty, pussy, Bobby, returning to ie in Annie, Jennie, Nellie. c. Y forms a digraph or a diphthong after a, e, o, and rarely u, in any part of a word defraying, abeyance, employ, buying. d. It is vjery common as a vowel in words derived from the Greek symbol, amethyst, baryta. e. The following words, although not of Greek origin, are written with y from having passed through, or from being supposed to be in some way connected with, that language beryl, gypsey, gypsum, hyssop, lachrymal, lymph, papyrus, syca- mine, sylvan. f. The spelling of dye and lye serve to distinguish them from die and lie. The y in rye has remained since Saxon times. g. The y in nylgau and typhoon is due to the whim of those who transliterated these Eastern words into European characters. h. Words of more than one syllable, ending in y without another vowel before it, change it to i before suffixes begin- ning with a, e, or a consonant, but retain it before i to avoid the doubling of that letter holy, holier, holiest ; carry, car- 1 Meaning an art, trade, dramatic performance, from Lat. minisierium, and erroneously supposed to be the same as the Greek mystery, an esoteric or secret doctrine. 184 The English Language. riage, carries, carried, carrier, carrying ; bury, burial. In the few words of one syllable usage is much at sea. Verbs fol- low the analogy of dissyllables try, tries, tried, trial, trying. Nouns from these verbs, denoting the doer, admit of both forms crier and cryer, drier and dryer, flier and flyer, pliers and plyers with a preference in this country for i. Other nouns are regular. The adjectives shy, sly, spry, and wry retain the^ throughout. On the other hand, monosyllables in ie necessarily change the i into y before i, die, dies, died, dying. 15. There are now about 1,000 adjectives in the language ending in -able or -idle, and a very few in -eble, -oble and -uble. The primary meaning in this class is capability of undergo- ing some action. Movable, fordable, fusible signify suscepti- ble of being moved, forded, or fused. They are either from Latin verbal adjectives in -abilis, -ebilis, -ibilis, -obilis, -ubilis, or imitations of such. To the question which vowel to use the following is an answer in part. a. The termination when applied to words not derived directly or indirectly from Latin is -able answer-able, bear- able, drink-able, eat-able, fore know-able, unquench-able. As this implies a knowledge of Latin it is rather a reason than a rule of practice. b. Words, from whatever source, that have been long and commonly used in the language take -able agree-able, bail- able, comfort-able, service-able, unconquer-able. This leaves room for doubt and irregularity, as it is a question of degree how long and how much a word has been in use. Some are written in two ways, as add-able and add-ible, convers-able and convers-ible, refer-able and referr-ible, the first forms following a direct English, and the latter an indirect Latin, analogy. In a few instances there are two different words from the same source defend-able and defens-ible. c. When a Latin original is kept in view, the verbal ad- jectives in -abilis and -ibilis, if there be any, are followed. Latin verbs are divided into four classes according to the last letter of the essential part of the word. If that be a, the derived adjective ends in -abilis ; if anything else, in Pronunciation and Spelling. 185 -ibilis. If there be no such Latin adjective, then the Eng- lish one follows the characteristic of the verb. About two thirds of the entire class end in -able. 1 6. There are a number of words ending in -nee and -nt, preceded by a or e, and there is sometimes an uncertainty which of the two should be used. These terminations be- long properly to Latin participles and verbal nouns, and come to us either directly or through the French. If the characteristic of the Latin verb be a, the result is -ance and -ant, the first of which makes a noun, the second an adjective. Thus from the Latin abund-a-re, to abound, are formed : Latin, abundantia English, abundance abundant-s abundant So verbs whose characteristics are e or / yield forms that are regular : sil-e-re silence, silent sal-i-re salience, salient conven-i-re convenience, convenient The still greater number characterized by consonants ought regularly to furnish -ence and -ent : string-'-re stringence, stringent solv-'-re solvency, solvent resid-'-re residence, resident but usage, formerly very unsettled, is still by no means con- sistent. We have from consonant verbs affiance, affiant, ascendant, defendant, attendance, attendant, repentance, re- pentant, and many others. This irregularity is due to the passage of these words through the French language. A few words have both forms, as confidence, confident, and con- fidant ; dependence, dependent, and dependant. In such cases the form in -ant is treated as a noun, and that in -ent as an adjective. 17. A number of verbs ending in -ize are formed either from or in imitation of Greek verbs in -izo. Agonize, baptize, 1 86 The English Language. dogmatize, ostracize, syllogize, are examples of those from similar Greek words. Eulogize, analyze, paralyze, are from Greek originals not ending in -izo. Civilize, detonize,judaize, mesmerize, naturalize, realize, spiritualize, are various imita- tions. The manner of writing these words has never been uniform. We generally find catechise and exorcise, although from Greek originals in -izo. In this country the greater part are written with -ize ; the following are the principal exceptions, of which only two are from the Greek : advertise comprise divertise misprise advise criticise emprise premise affranchise compromise enfranchise reprise apprise demise enterprise revise catechise despise exercise supervise chastise devise exorcise surmise circumcise disguise improvise surprise In England the tendency is to write them all with -ise. 1 8. Words introduced into the language from any source are treated for a time as strangers, and allowed to retain something of their foreign look and sound. This is particu- larly true of the Italian terms relating to music and painting and the French phrases used by people of fashion. Although these foreign features are gradually effaced by long and common use, they are still one of the two principal causes of the discordance between pronunciation and spelling, of which asthma, bayou, Bootes, Canaanite, catsup, chapeau, cognac, corps, ret, schorl, are examples. When a word comes through one language, from another, it is sometimes a question which of the two should deter- mine its form. The largest element in our language is Latin, that has reached us through a transforming French medium. In general the French is followed, especially in England ; but in this country there is sometimes a disposi- tion to revert to the earlier type. One class o'f more than a hundred words begin with French en or Latin in, like enclose, or inclose, enquire or inquire. They seem to be the sport of chance, yet in most instances a preference is shown for one Pronunciation and Spelling. 187 form rather than the other, favoring e in England, and in this country inclining to i. There is another class with numerous imitations, the origi- nal members of which ended in Latin in -or, changed to -eur in French, adopted into English as -our, and now in America reverting to the orginal -or. FRENCH ENGLISH AMERICAN candeur candour candor coleur colour color doleur dolour dolor erreur errour error facteur factour factor faveur favour favor ferveur fervour fervor honneur honour honor odeur odour odor 19. In all cases of doubt consult the dictionaries. If they be hopelessly at variance, the only resource left to the stu- dent is to observe the spelling of the best recent writers, and exercise his own judgment. ACCENT. In a word of more than one syllable some one is uttered more forcibly than the others. That additional force or stress is what is here called accent. It is much more marked in some languages than in others. In those that are faintly accented the words and syllables ripple along in what seems to us a lazy droning fashion without spirit or force. It matters not how long the words may be, as the oral speech seems scarcely divisible into words, but to be drawn along before us like the successive links of a chain, or a string of uniform beads. On the other hand, our language is very strongly accented, and seems to foreigners irregular, jerky, sputtering, and quarrelsome. We think that the strength of our lan- guage, as the emphasis of earnest speech, is laid on the accented syllables. 1 88 The English Language. In many languages the accent is always near the end of the word, in others near the beginning, while a few, like ours, seem to distribute it with a show of impartiality. All attempts to assign rules for the place of the accent in Eng- lish only serve to render the subject hopelessly intricate and confused. Still some leading tendencies may be discovered, and where the confusion is inextricable the cause of that confusion may be found. The principal cause is the compo- site character of the language. There is first what may be called the native element either Anglo-Saxon in origin, or developed in English at an early period. About the pro- nunciation of this portion all are agreed. Then there are the multitude of words from Greek, Latin, and foreign languages, altogether strange at first to the body of the people. Let us then in the first place see if we can discover any principle regulating the accent in the native part of the lan- guage. I remark in passing that the place of the accent is usually denoted in English books by the mark (') thus ty'rant, embit'ter, require' ; that its place is reckoned from the last, or ultimate, syllable ; that the one next to the last is called the penultimate, or, for shortness, penult ; the sec- ond from the last, antepenult, and the one before that,/raz#- tepenultimate. Beginning then with native words of two syllables, as the simplest, we readily discover three tenden- cies, quite independent, and sometimes competing with each other. The first is to accent the principal syllable, where there is much disparity. It could scarcely be otherwise. Awake, at hirst, bestride must be accented on the second syllable, if at all, and stranger, proudly, on the first. The second tendency is to accent the first syllable, if there be no marked inequality. Thus pairs of syllables that are mere variants of each other, as hob-nob, criss-cross, hodge-podge, hum-drum, pic-nic, see-saw, are all accented on the first sylla- ble. So are chaffinch, chilblain, distaff, daylight, foresight, larboard, starboard, lukewarm, mermaid, nothing, onslaught, and many others, in which the second syllable by itself requires the most effort to articulate. I have before me a list of the principal independent native dissyllables in the Pronunciation and Spelling. 1 89 language, amounting to 955, of which 763 are accented on the first syllable. If the derivatives formed by the suffixes ed, er, es, esf, ish, ist, ly, etc., were counted, several thousands would be added to the list of penultimate accents, and not one to the ultimate. As it is, of the 192 words accented on the last syllable, 104 are made with the weak prefixes a and be abide, become, etc. The third tendency is to accent verbs on the last syllable. This will be best shown by contrasting nouns and verbs in which the first syllable is the same : fore'-foot fore-go' out'-break out-bid' fore'-ground fore-know' out'-come out-do' fore'-hand fore-arm' out'-let out-go' fore'-head fore-cast' out'-look out-grow' fore'-land fore-show' out'-house out-live' fore'man fore-stall' out'-law out-run' fore'-sight fore-tell' out'-works out-wit' This last tendency sufficiently accounts for our meeting with words of foreign origin, like contract, which when used as nouns are accented on the first syllable, and on the last when they are verbs. The final accents are nearly all due to weak prefixes or the use of the words as verbs. Passing next to native English trisyllables, I find in Skeat's Dictionary 125. The number in the largest American dic- tionaries is much greater by including those formed by adding suffixes, which have the effect, as before, of throw- ing the accent back towards the beginning. Of the 125, inasmuch, insomuch, and upsidedown may be left out, as being phrases rather than words. There would then remain 58 accented on the first syllable, 22 on the second, and 42 on the last. Of this last division, 36 are verbs ; overworn, overwrought, and unaneled are participles, with ultimate accent because of their verbal character. The remaining three words, overhead, overmuch, and overivise, have the character of composite phrases. There is not a noun in the list of 42. Of the 22 accented on the middle syllable, 10 are verbs, 7 have the weak first syllables a-, be-, to-. The other 5, like almighty, already, are as easily explained, with 190 The English Language* the exception, perhaps, of newfangled. There is but one noun in the class. Of the 58 accented on the first or ante- penultimate syllable, there is but one verb caterwaul, in which the balance is nearly even between the first and last. By general analogy, it should be ultimate. That an excess of volume in the first syllable is not essential, will be evident from such words as alderman, bedridden, didapper, emberdays, forefather, godmother, honeycomb, indwelling, offscouring. The tendencies of English pronunciation then are such that, of words of three nearly equal syllables, all verbs would be accented on the last syllable and all the others on the first. Of native words of more than three syllables, those accented on the first are about three times as numerous as those accented on the second, and these latter bear the same ratio to those having the accent on the third, while ultimate accent is limited to a very small number of verbs. This tendency to accent the first syllable produces some curious results, both in native and adopted words. The following are found in the dictionaries accented on the first syllable : almainrivets caterpillar-catcher ganglionary alveolary disciplinableness lachrymatory bluestockingness disputableness mainpernable calculatory excellency calipercompasses explicableness In very long words, or words having two syllables of con- siderable volume with a faint one between them, there is a secondary accent, or even two or more, besides the principal one hy'drocyan'ic, im' mate' rial' ity. Besides the three tendencies above described, there is a fourth, affecting words from learned and foreign languages. So long as they are used only by scholars and specialists, there is an effort to keep up their foreign pronunciation. But they gradually percolate through the masses, who naturally tend to assimilate them to their native speech. In this way there may be two pronunciations current at the same time. There is a drug much used in the South and Pronunciation and Spelling. 191 West that fashionable people call kin-een' , but which the dictionaries and common folks call qui'nine or quin'ine. So scholars say abdo'men and opponent, but the majority are strongly inclined to say ab'domen and opponent. The battle is fought over every dubious word separately, with victory in the long run generally with the majority. It is obvious that the result, even when reached, must be very irregular. Words that have been long in common use are accented like original English. Armor, equal, rapid, prophet are accented on the first syllable because that is the general habit ; attend, impend, combine are accented on the last, for the double rea- son that they are verbs and the last syllable is the heaviest. The English tendency to accent the first syllable has sub- stituted an antepenult accent for a penult in many words, and in others the change is in progress, there being one pronunciation by scholars and another by people in general. ora'tor or'ator lyce'um ly'ceum sena'tor sen'ator anemo'ne anem'one cica'trix cic'atrix elegi'ac ele'giac abdo'men ab'domen eurocly'don euroc'lydon minis'ter minister charac'ter char'acter pletho'ra pleth'ora dysen'tery dys'entery cogno'men cog'nomen panthe'on pan'theon muse'um mu'seum thea'tre the'atre umbili'cus umbil'icus An example of this gradual naturalization is furnished by a group of very recent botanical terms ending in phyllum or phyllous Greek <pv\\ov, a leaf, about which the authorities are much at variance : adenophyllous epiphyllous microphyllous anthophyllous exophyllous monophyllous aphyllous gamophyllous myriaphyllous caryophyllum heptaphyllous pentaphyllous coleophyllous heterophyllous podophyllum decaphyllous hypophyllous polyphyllous endecaphyllous hexaphyllous rhizophyllous endophyllous macrophyllous tetraphyllous, etc. 192 The English Language. From the double / near the termination they ought all to have the penult accent, but probably more people say caryoph'yllum than caryophyl'lum. As most words derived from Greek and Latin have lost the final syllable in the process of adoption, the original accent is often displaced by that means. The accentuation is then left to be determined chiefly by the last two sylla- bles. When they have sufficient volume and weight, if we may use such an expression, they retain the accent on the penult, as in effulgence, embrasure, indulgence, inconclusive, superstructure, hermeneutic, pazdobaptism, otherwise it will be drawn towards the beginning of the word. Elaborate rules are sometimes given for determining the place of the accent, which are well exemplified by the terminal analysis of Greek, Latin, and Scripture proper names given by Walker and Worcester. The latter gives 558 divisions, or rules, exhibit- ing no principle, useless for reference, and impossible to re- member. Sixty of the classes contain each only one word. It was of such wasted labor that Dr. Latham said : " The voice of a ruler of rules is a sound to flee from." A native word, no matter how long, \\ViQcaterpillarcatcker, retains all its original syllables unbroken, so that it is in- stantly recognized ; but a word from Latin, Greek, or Hebrew is often taken to pieces and put together again in a quite different manner, and that too generally for the purpose of moving the accent towards the beginning. From kalendiz and grapho, a hybrid word, kal-en-dog 'raph-er was once made, the most important syllable of which was dog, that did not appear in the original. This practice is very common. Ab melech anti phrasis anti strophe anthropo phago carni voro A-&V'-e-lech aiWzjM'-ra-sis an-ftV-tro-phe an-thro-j^/z'-a-gi car-wzV-o-rous equa anima e-qua-mW-i-ty di pteron dip'-t&ca. grandi loquor gran-aW -o-quent Jeho shaphat Je-/w,rA'-a-phat therme metron ther-TW/w'-e-ter The accented syllable of such compound words therefore is made up of the last letters of the first part and the first letters of the second. Pronunciation and Spelling. 193 ENGLISH AND AMERICAN USAGES. There are at present a few points of difference between the spellings current in England and in this country, which, although not uniform, are tolerably well maintained. Web- ster's Dictionary, and those who follow its guidance, diverge the most widely from English usage, while some of the dif- ferences are due to changes now in progress in the older country. The points in question may be each illustrated by two words as well as by many. English ise, American ize, dogmatise dogmatize ostracise ostracize x " rf connexion connection u < inflexion inflection " our " ^r ardour ardor < u < favour favor " / " // enrolment enrollment " " " " fulfil fulfill < 77 < 7 traveller traveler " " " " jewellery jewelry In regard to the first it does not appear on what principle one should write baptize with z, and dogmatise with s, since both are from Greek verbs ending in izo. If verbs so de- rived were written with z and all the others with s, it would be intelligible. The second pair of words are from the Latin connexio and inflexio ; and in regard to all words so derived the English practice is correct. Those in our are so written to show that they come from the Latin or, through the French eur ; but English usage is not uniform on this point. Richardson, like most others, gives the preference to errour, but in the authorities he cites it occurs five times as err our and four times as error. Skeat (1884) writes error and says that the spelling has been changed to make it more like the Latin ; and that is just what we in America are doing with that whole class of words. Jewellery and jewelry are the most divergent, but the American form follows the analogy of chivalry, rivalry, devilry, chapelry, 194 The English Language. and, what is more to the point, revelry, for I suppose no Englishman writes revellery. The aim of educated Ameri- cans is to make the language more simple, consistent, and easy to use. It is a question how far Americans are under obliga- tion to adopt new forms of expression originating in Eng- land, or even to retain old ones. We are generally prone enough to imitate, even in things so little deserving of imita- tion as the ever-changing styles of arranging our clothing, hair, and beards ; and there are even Anglomaniacs who assert that no amount or unanimity of mere American usage can render a word or expression legitimate. But from be- fore the dawn of history families have been separating, send- ing out colonizing swarms eastward and westward to conquer and settle strange lands ; and these in their new homes have developed new languages, laws, and institutions, and new types of character. In this way have been formed all the languages spoken on the globe. It is the way of all the world, and the fear of criticasters will not alter it. Our ancestors brought, with the language and laws, the general physical and spiritual make-up of English and Scottish men and women of the useful classes, and were for a time a mere appendage to the parent country. We rightfully inherit all that was prior to the separation. Whatever date may be assigned for that event, it is clear that by this time we have emerged from the state of marsupial nutrition. If the highest European culture is rarely or never reached in this country, there are probably more persons in America who can appreciate and enjoy good English than in all the British Islands. Whatever commends itself to our judg- ment and taste, and is suited to our wants, should be wel- comed, from whatever source it may emanate ; all else can be left to those to whose different circumstances it may be adapted. It is not apparent why the example of an English writer should be more binding upon us than the decision of an English judge. Deserving of careful and respectful consideration both may be, but obligatory they are not. Pronunciation and Spelling. 195 ANOMALIES OF PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING. After all that can be said in the way of general principles, tendencies, or rules, there is still outstanding a considerable amount of irregularity, especially in proper names, that can only be treated item by item. Some are words written according to pronunciations long abandoned, and others are foreign importations not yet assimilated. We should natu- rally look in the dictionaries for them, but as no one will make a general search, a very inadequate idea will be formed of the amount of the irregularity. Some would not be found by seeking, and of others the treatment is very unsatisfac- tory. Webster gives Da-el', and Worcester De-el' , as the pronunciation of Dalzell ; and Webster has the following : " Strath'-spey, n. [Denominated from the county of Strath- spey, in Scotland, as having been first used there]." On this last example, I remark, first, that, as given, it is nearly un- pronounceable ; secondly, that it is incorrect ; and thirdly, that Strathspey is not a county, but merely the valley of the river Spey, extending through or into Elgin, Banff, and Inverness shires. Strath, like glen, signifies merely a valley, and prefixed to the local name is never accented. There are more than a dozen such in Scotland. The th is pro- nounced before vowels, as, Strathallan, Stratfi-aven, Strath- earn, but is not heard before consonants in Strathbogie, Strathdon, Strathmore, Strathspey. The ey in Spey is nearly but not quite the ay in day. It is the Spanish ey in rey, which may be attained by sounding both vowels separately. I omit here the Italian terms learned as a part of educa- tion in music and painting, and also the numerous French phrases daily met with and involving the whole subject of French pronunciation, to be learned only from a living teacher. It will be necessary here to add a little to the notation on page 144. A smaller type or a curved mark will denote the short, faint, obscure sound of the vowels a, e, i, o, u. Ob- scure e is equal to a faint /, and the others incline to the obscure neutral u. 196 The English Language. There are a considerable number of Greek words in which a final e is sounded diastole, epitome, strophe hyperbole, syn- cope, and others. There are also a few from the Latin dele, finale, optime, rationale, secale, vice, etc. The termination es in English = s after f, k, p, t, th, = s or ez in all other cases, in Spanish words = es ; but in words that retain an original Greek or Latin form it is commonly, though not with entire correctness, pronounced eez. Words containing any form of the Greek GOOV, an animal, separate the vowels epi-zo-ot-ic, not ep-i-zoot-ic. The abbreviation cor. in the following list denotes a pro- nunciation correct but not common. accompt, pron. account. aches, aiks. aggerate,gg = j. Aino, iino, a man of the Kurile Islands. aisle, HI. answer, w silent. apophthegm, ap-5-thetn. assoilzie, as-soil'-ye, to ab- solve. asthma, as'-ma or az'-ma. avoirdupois, voir = vtir. , aye. bagnio, ban'-yo. balmoral, bal-mor'-al. bass, bais. bayou, bii'-uu. beaufin, bif'-in. bechamel, besh'-a-mel, a kind of broth. beguine, beg'-in, a nun of a certain order. bijou, bl-zhuu'. boatswain, boa'-sm. Bootes, Bo-o'-teez. bowls, bowls, a game. English. brevier, bre-veer, a size of type. Canaanite. caoutchouc, kuu'-chuuk. cap-er-cail-zie, * = y. cascalho, kas-kal-yo, gravel. catechise. cateran,lcai-ter-an, or kait-r^n, a Highland outlaw. caviare, ka-veer', ka-vee-ar'. cento, chento, medley of verses, challis, shal'-ly, a fine woollen fabric, chamber, chapeau, shap-o. charpie, sharp-y, picked lint. choir, kwiir. chose, shoaz, a legal term. chough, chuf. Christ, chute, shuut. cicerone, chee-che'-ro'-ny. cicesbeo, chee-ches-bai'-o. cinchona, cor. sin-choa'-na. cinquecento, chink-wai-chent- o, abbreviation of (A.D.) 1500. Pronunciation and Spelling. 197 circuit, cult = cut. cocagne, kok-ain',LubberlancL COgnac, koan-yak, brandy. colander, kul'-en-der. colewort, kol-ard, Southern U. S. colonel, kur-nel. color, kul'-ur. comptroller, comp = con. concetto, kon-chet'-o, a con- ceit. conch, konk. concierge, kon-sarj', a janitor. conduit, kon'-dit. condyle, kon-dil. consigne, kon-seen', a coun- tersign. conversazione, kon-ver-sat- see-o'-nai. COquina, ko-kee-na, a cockle. Cordillera, kor-deel-yai'-ra. corps, koar. cortege, kor-taizh. Cortes, Kor'-tes, Spanish par- liament. cotillon, ko-til'-yun. counterfeit, feit = fit. coyote, koi-oa'-tai, prairie wolf. creux, kru, cor. krti, intaglio. cuirass, kwee'-ras. cuish, kwis, and kwish, armor for the thigh. cupboard, kub'-urd. Curasao, kuu-ra-so', name of a cordial. Cymric, kim'-rik. Welsh. 5y pres, see prai, a legal term. Czar, cor. tsar. Czarina, cor. tsar-ee'-na. dengue, deng'-gai, a rheumatic fever. disciple, would be better ac- cented on the first syllable, discompt, dis-kownt'. does, duz. door, floor, etc. eclegm, and many others, with g silent before m ; all Greek. enfeoff, en-fef, a legal term. English, e = i. estramacon, es-tram'-a-son, a small sword, a sax. extraordinary, aor = or. eyas, //'-as, an unfledged hawk. fa9ade, c = s. feod, fyuud, a legal term. ferrule, fer'-il. fiord, or fjord, fyoard, a nar- row inlet of the sea. flysch, fbVsh, a certain series of rocks. forehead, for'-ed foreign, for'-m. forfeit, for'-flt. fuchsia, commonly fyuu'- shee-a, cor. fuux'-ee-a, from which fuchsine. fyst, fs, a little dog. South. U.S. gaberlunzie, gab-er-luun'-ye, a beggar's wallet gaol, jail. gaucho, gow'-cho, a native of the pampas. gauge, gaij. geyser, g/V'-ser. giaour, jowr. 198 The English Language. glamour, cor. glam'-ur. In the 35th chapter of the Gret- tis Saga it is related how Grettir fought with and over- came the ghost of an un- believing heathen named Glam. The hero never re- covered from the effects of the contest, but ever after saw ghosts at night, and it become a common saying that Glam had cast a glamour over any one who saw what was not to be seen. This was written about A.D. 1300. groschen, gro'-shen, a small German coin. guanaco, gwa-naa'-ko, a species of llama. guano, gwaa'-no. guava, gwaa'-va. guerdon, ger-don, a reward. guerillero, ger-eel-yai'-ro. guinea. guitar, gee-tar'. gunwale, gun'-el. halfpenny, hap'-eny or hai-' pen-y. halser, haw'-sr han't, hant, or haint. hautboy, hoa'-boy. Hawaiian, hawii-yan, cor. Haa-waa-ee-yan. heather, hedh-er. heifer, hef-er. hiccough. hidalgo-, ee-dal'-go. hornito, or-nee'-to. hough, hok. housewife, huz'-if. humor, yuu-mtir. hussy, huz-y. imbroglio, im-broal'-yoa. improvisatore, final e sound- ed. improvisatrice, -tree-chy. indict, in-d//t. intaglio, in-tal'-yoa, engrav- ing cut in, as of a seal. ipecacuanha, cor. ip-ai-kak- uu-an-ya. iron, i-urn. island, isle, s silent. isocheim, '-so-kzVm. isosceles, w-sos'-el-eez. jaquima, ha-kee'-ma, a head- stall for breaking horses, West. U. S. jarl, yarl, Norse for earl. judgment, etc.,g =J before m. keelson, kel-sSn, the interior counterpart of a ship's keel. kilo, kee'-lo, contraction for kilogram. knowledge, knowl = nol. kreutzer, kroit-zer, a Ger.coin. lammergeyer, -g-er. laugh, laf. lazzarone, lad-zar-oa'-ny, a ragamuffin. leeward, luu-ard. ley = lye. Leyden, hV-den. lieutenant, liv-. Eng. Limoges-ware, lim-oazh- llano, lyaa'-no, a grassy plain. lot'o, name of a game. Lucchese, Luk'-keez, people of Lucca. machairodus, Ma-kii'-ro-dus, a fossil animal allied to the bear. Pronunciation and Spelling. 199 machine, ma-sheen', macigno, ma-cheen'-yoa. magazine, -zeen. maguey, ma-gwai, great Mex. aloe. Magyar, mad'-yar. Maharajah, ma-ha-raa'-jah, a prince of India. mahout, ma-howt', an ele- phant driver. maleic, mai-lee'-ik, a form of malic acid. manada, ma-naa'-da, a herd of mares. manoeuvre, ma-nuu'-ver. mantua-maker, tua = tu. maraschino, ma-ras-kee'-no, a cherry cordial. marine. marline, mar'-lin. mascagnin, mas-kan'-yin, name of a mineral, mate, maa'-tai, Paraguay tea. matico, ma-tee'-ko, a medici- nal plant of Peru. meerschaum, mair'-showm, likely to become meer'-shum or mur-shum. mesa, mes'-a, an elevated plain, West. U. S. mesne, meen, a legal term. mesquite, mes-kee'-tai, or mes-keet', a species of tree, also of grass, Texas. a cross be- mestino, -tee-no mestizo, -tee-zo tween a Creole and an Indian. mezzorilievo, med-zoa-ree- lee-ai'-voa. mezzotinto, med-zoa-tint'-oa. mirage, mee-raazh'. mise, meez, a legal term. misle, mizl, a fine rain. mistle, mizl, a fine rain. mochila, moa-chee'-la, a sad- dle-flap, West. U. S. monte, mon'-tai, name of a game. morne, mor-nai, a term in heraldry. mortgagor, mor-ga-jor'. mosquito, muezzin, mwed-zin, one who calls to prayer among the Moslems. muscle, mus-H. nephew, Eng. nev'-yuu. neve, nai-vai, upper part of a glacier. nowed, nuud, knotted. Her- aldry. oboe, oa'-boa-ee, a wind in- strument. often, soften, etc., / silent. Oglio, olla, oal'-ya, a stew, lit. a pot. olla podrida, poa-dree-da. pachisi, pa-chee'-zy, an Indian game. pali, paa'-lee, an ancient Hin- doo language. pall-mall, pel-mel. paradigm, g silent. paradis, -dee, a wet dock. parapegm, g silent, an ancient form of placard. parasceve, pa-ra-see'-vee, the eve of the Jewish Sabbath. paraselene, final e sounded, a mock moon. 2OO The English Language. parliament, a silent. patois, pat'-wa, a dialect or brogue. peirameter, \ . _, peirastic, j-ei--i. peso, pai'-so, a Spanish dollar. petate, pai-taa'-tai, a palm mat. petit, pet-y. Pharaoh, aoh = o. phlegm, g silent. phosphenes, fos'-fee-nez, the lights seen under pressure on the eyeball. pibroch, cor. pee'-brukh, the war-tune of a Highland clan. picarisque, ) picturesque, f que == ' pico, pee-ko, a mountain peak. pise, pee'-zai, a wall of rammed earth, pita, pee'-ta, fibre of the Mex. aloe. playa, plaa-zha, the sea-shore. plaza, plaa-tha, a public square. pluries, pluu'-ri-eez, many times. poe, poa'-ee, root of the taro plant. polemarch, pol'-em-ark, Athe- nian minister of war. police, po-lees'. pomegranate, pome = pum. porpoise, portoise, tortoise, poise, toise = pus, tiz or tis. pose, poa-zai, attitude. Her- aldry. pozzulana, pod-zuu-laa'-na, a hydraulic cement. precis, prai-see, an abstract. projet, proa-zhai, a scheme or plan. provost, proa-voa, title of an officer. pueblo, pweb'-lo, a Span.- Amer. village. puisne, pyuu-ny, cor. pwee- nai. pulque, puul'-kai, a Mexican drink. quaich, cor. kwaikh, a wooden drinking cup. quay, kee. queue, kyuu. quipu, kee'-puu, a knotted cord to remember by. realm, relm. reata, rai-aa'-ta, a lasso, Cali- fornia. rei, e as in there, / as in ma- chine, a Portuguese coin. reiter, r/V-ter, Ger. a horse- man. rendezvous, ran-dai-vuu. resume, rai-zuu-mai, a sum- ming up. rilievo, ree-lee-ai'-vo, relief in engraving. rodeo, roa-dai'-o, a gathering of cattle, Western U. S. sacrifice, ce = z. sauerkraut, au = ow. Schiedam, skee'-dam. schism, sizm. schlich, shlik, a pulverized ore. schnapps. schorl, a mineral. schottische. schreight, skreet, a fish. SCirrhous, skir'-us, a hard cancerous growth. Pronunciation and Spelling. 201 lio, sai-ral'-yo. serai, sai-raa'-ee, an Eastern palace or lodging. Scrape, sai-raa'-pai, a Mexican blanket or shawl. seven-night, sen'-n/Vt. sew and shew. sheol, shee-oal, the old Hebrew place of departed spirits. shiite, a Mahometan sectary. sierra, see-er-a, a mountain range. siesta, see-, a nap at noon. signora, Senora, see-nyoa- ra, sai-nyoa-ra. soften, / silent. soiree, swa-rai, an evening entertainment. spa, spaa, a medicinal spring. spahi, spaa'-hee, a Turkish trooper. sprechery, sprek-er-y, cor. sprekh, miscellaneous plun- der. spuilzie, spuul-ye, spoil, plun- der. Stiacciato, stee-ach-aa'-to, a very low relief in sculp- ture. stomacace, sto-mak'-a-see, a foul breath. Stone, 14 Ibs., called in Eng- land stun. Storge, stor'-jee, parental af- fection. sugar, shuu'-gar. Tagliacotian, Tal-ya-koa'- she-an, Tagliacozzi's opera- tion. tailzie, tail-ye, a Scotch deed of entail. tazza, tat-sa, a kind of vase. terzarima, ter-tsa-ree'-ma, a kind of versification. thaler, taa'-ler, a German dollar. threepence, thrip'-ens. tongue, tung. tortilla, tor-tee-ya, a griddle- cake. travail, trav'-el. treenail, tren-el, a wooden pin in ship-building. tuyere, tweer, the blast-nozzle in a furnace. two-pence, tup-ens. urao, uu-raa'-o, natron. vaquero, va-kai'-ro, a cow- boy. verdigris, ver-di-grees. vice, v//'-see. victuals, vit-als. vicuna, vee-kuun-ya, a species of llama. vidame, vee-dam', a feudal dignitary. vide, v"-dee, see. viscount, vii-kownt, a title of nobility. visne, veen, vicinity. vomito, vo-mee'-to, malignant yellow fever. waistcoat, commonly wes-kut. weigelia, wii-jeel-ya, name of a flowering shrub. who, huu. women, o = i. yacht, yot. zollverein, tsoal-fer-/m, an agreement among the Ger- man states in regard to cus- toms duties. 2O2 The English Language. This list will give an idea of the extent and character of these anomalies. No class of words present greater irregularities than do proper names. The following list contains a good number of those met with in Great Britain and the United States, the pronunciation of which is liable to be mistaken. They may be presumed to be English, Scotch, or Irish, unless marked Am. In a few instances an English and an Ameri- can pronunciation are distinguished. To avoid repetition it may be observed that in England the termination -borough is usually heard as -bro y -ham as -am, or rather -um, for the vowel is very obscure, that stone, in any situation, is stun, and that ell does not control the accent Par'nell, not Par-nell'. Names having no other peculiarities than these are omitted. Aberdeen, Ae-ber-deen. Abergavenny, Ae-ber-gen'-ny. Abernethy, Ae-ber-neth'-y. Albuquerque, Al-buu-ker'-ky. Annesley, Anz'-ly. Ascough, Ask'-yuu. Bagehot, Baj'-ut. Balguy, Baw'-gy. Barham, Bar'-am. Beaconsfield, Bek'-onz-. Beall, Bel. Am. Beauchamp, Beech'-am. Beauclerc, ) Boa . klair ^ Beauclerk, ) Bedel, Bid! Beham, Bai'-am. Belknap, Bel'-nap. Am. Belvoir, Bee'-ver. Berkeley, Bark-ly. Betham, Beth'-am. Bethune, Bee'-ton. Bewick, Byuu'-ik. Bicester, Bis-ter. Blw. Bligh, ) Blythe, f Blount, Blunt. Boisseau, Bushel. Am. low. Boleyn, B^l'-en. Bolingbroke, Bol'-ing-bruuk. Boscawen, Bos'-ka-wen. Bourke, Burk. Bourne, Burn. Bowdoin, Boa-din. Am. Bowles, Boalz. Bowring, Bow-ring. Brougham, Bruum. Broune, Bruun. Buchan, Buk'-an,cor.Bukh-an. Bur'nett. Bury, Ber-y. Calderon, Cal'dron. Castlereagh, Kasl'-rai. Cavendish, Kon'-dish. Charteris, Charterz. Chisholm, Chiz-um. Cholmeley, Cholmondeley, ) [ Chum-ly. Pronunciation and Spelling. 203 Cirencester, Sis'-is-ter. Clanric arde. Clough, Kluf. Cluverius, Klev'-erz. Am. Cockburn, Koa-burn. Coggeshall, Kogz-all. Coke, Kuuk. Colquhoun, Kuu-huun. Compton, Kum-ton Conyngham, Kun'-ing-am. Coutts, Kuuts. Cowper, Kuu-per. Creighton, Krai-tSn. Crichton, KnV-ton. Dalhousie, Dal-huu-zy. Dalzell, Dal-yel'. Dampier, Dam '-peer. Daviess, Dai'-vis. Am. Derby, Dar'-by. Derwent, Dar'-went. Des Vaux, Dai'-voa. Devereux, Dev'-er-uu. Dillwyn, Dil'-un. Douce, Dows. Duchesne, Eng. Duu-kaan, Am. Duu-shan. Dumaresque, Dim'-er-ik. Du Plat, Duu Plaa'. Duyckink, Dii'-kink. Eachard, Ech'-ard. Eadmer, Ed'-mer. Elgin, not Eljin. Eyre, Aer. Falconer, ) Fawk . ner Faulkner, ) Farquhar, Far'-kwar, or Far'-hwar. Fiennes, Fee-enz'. Fildes, Feel'-dez. Foljambe, Ful'-jam. Forbes, For'-bis. Scotch. Freind, Frend. Frelinghuysen, Freling-h-zen. Froude, Fruud. Gayarre, Gii-ar'-ai. Geoghegan, Gai'-gan. Gifford, Jif'-urd. Gill, not Jill Gill'ott, not Jil-. Glamis, Glaamz. Gleig, Gleg. Gould, Goald. Gower, Goar, Grosvener, Groav-ner. Hague, ) Hai Haigh, ) Halstead, Hoisted. Hansard. Harcourt, Har-kut. Hardinge, Harding. Haughton, Haw-ton. Hem'ans. Herries, Har-is. Herthford, Har'furd. Hobart, Hub-ert. Holmes, Hoamz. Am. Holyoke, Hoal'-yoak. Am. Hotham, Huthm. Hough, Huf. Houghton, Hoa-tun. Am. Houston, Hyuus-ton. " Hoveden, Huv-den. Huger, Yuu'-jee. Am. Hughes, Hyuuz. Ingelow, In'-je-loa. Ingraham, Ing'-gram. Iz'ard. Am. Jacobi, Jl-koa'-by. Johnstone, Jon'-s6n. 2O4 The English Language. Jervaulx,) Jar ,_ vis Jervis, ) Kearney, Kar'-nee. Am. Keightley, Keet-ly. Keill, Keel. Keith, Keeth. Kennaird'. Kennard'. Kerr, Kar. Kirkaldy, Kir-kaw'-dy. Knollys, Noal'-iz. Laing, Lang. Layard, Laird. Leathes, Leeths. Leavitt, Lev-it. Leconfield, Lek'-on-field. Ledyard, Lej-urd. Lefevre, Le-fai-vur. Legare, Le-gree". Am. Leicester, Les-ter. Leigh, Lee. Leighton, Lai-tun. Leland, Lel'-and, or Lee'-land. Leveson-Gower, Luu-sSn- goar. Lewes, Luu-is. Leyden, Lw'-den. Lid'dell. Lindsay, Lin'-zy. Ling'ard. Lockhart, Lok'-art. Lough, Luf. Lovat, Luv'-at. Lucado, Luk-a-duu'. Am. low. Mackay, Mak-y. Mahon, Mai-6n. Mainwaring, Man'-er-ing. Majoribanks, Marsh-banks. Marion, Mar'-ee-o"n. Mather, Madh'-er. Am. McKenzie, cor. M5k-en'-ye. McLeod, Mak-lowd'. Meagher, Mar. Irish. Meigs, Megz. Am. Melbourne, -burn. Menzies, Men-yeez. Meredith, Mere = merry. Mereweather, Mere = merry. Meux, Myuuz. Millais, Mil-ai. Milnes, Milz. Molyneux, Mol-in-yuuks'. Monck, Munk. Monckton, Munk-ton. Monmouth, Mon'-muth. Monson, Mun-son. Montefiore, Mon-tai-fee-oa'-ry. Montgomery, Mun-gum'-ry. Moray, Mur'-ai. Moultrie, Muu-tree, now Moal-tree. Am. Mowbray, Moa'-bry. Murchison, as written. Ogilvie, Oa'-gil-vy. Olmstead, Um'-sted. Am. O'Shaughnessy, Oa-Shaw'- nes-y. Ouless, Uu'-les. Ouseley, Uuz'-ly. Outram, Uut'-ram. Paget, Paj'-it. Palmerston, Paam'-er-stun, Pole, Puul. Polk, Poak. Am. Ponsonby, Pun-son-by, Punz- by. Pontefract, Pom-fret. Pouleston, Pil'-stun. Powlett, Poa'-let. Pronunciation and Spelling. 205 Prideaux, Prid'-o. Pugh(e), Pyuu. Pulteney, Pult-ny. Raleigh, Raw-ly. Rantoul, Ran'-tuul. Am. Reay, Rai. Rives, Reevz. Am. Rolleston, Roal'-stun. Romilly, Rom'-il-y. Rothschild, cor. Roat-sheelt. Rouse, Ruus. Ruthven, Riv-en. Saint Clair, Sink-ler. Saint John, Sin'-jin. Saint Leger, Sil'-in-jer. Salisbury, Sawlz'-ber-y. Sandys, Sand-iz. Savile, Sav'-il. Schenck, Skenk. Am. Schurz, Shuurts. " Schuyler, Sk/V-ler. " Sewall, Suu'-al. Seward, Suu'-ard. Am. Seymour, See-mur. Sneyd, Sneed. Somers, Sum-erz. Sothern, Sudh'-ern. Southey, Sow-dhy. Stanhope, Stan'-6p. Strachan, Strawn. Stuyvesant, St/V'-ve-sant. Am. Tad'ema. Taliaferro, Tul-i-ver. Am. Tallmadge, TaT-mij. Tighe, T//. Tilghman, Til'-man. Am. Timberlake, Tim-lik. " Tirrwhit, Tir'-it. Tollemache, Tol-mash. Trafalgar, Traf-al-gar'. Trenholm, Tren'-um. Troughton, Trow'-ton. Tuomey, Tuu-my. Urquhart, Urk'-ert. Vaughan, Vawn. Vaux, Vawks. Villiers, Villers. Waldegrave, Wal'-graiv. Walmesley, Wamz-ly. Walsingham, Wal-si-kum. Warwick, War'-ik. Wellesley, Welz'-ly. Wemyss, Weemz. Wolesley,) Wal , Woolsey, ) Worcester, "WW-ter. Wrottesley, Rots'-ly. Wycliffe, Wik'-lif. Wykeham, Wik'-am. Wythe, With. Yonge, Yung. PHONETIC SPELLING. The foregoing examples will have prepared us to appre- ciate the advantages of phonetic writing that is, of any system in which the relation between the audible sound and the visible symbol is always the same. No doubt there have been such modes of writing, at least temporarily, until the spoken language changed. The language of the Spanish 206 The English Language. Academy is now so far regular that the reader is never at a loss except for the place of the accent, if left unmarked. So German presents but little difficulty, and is now under- going a pretty vigorous pruning of redundant material. The present English pronunciation and spelling are probably the most discordant ever known, and many have been the efforts to harmonize them. The first attempt of which we have any knowledge was the Ormulum, a metrical paraphrase of the Scripture lessons of the Church, written by a priest named Ormin, about the year 1200. His phonetic system was limited to the doubling of the consonant after a short vowel, as we write summer instead of sumer ; but to this he attached great importance, imitating the author of the Apocalypse in anxiety for the purity of his text. " & whase wilenn shall thiss boc Efft otherr sithe writenn, Himm bidde ice thatt het write rihht Swa sum thiss boc himm tsechethth, All thwerrt ut affterr thatt itt iss Uppo thiss firrste bisne ; Withth all swillc rime alls herr iss sett, Withth all se fele wordess ; & tatt he loke wel thatt he An bocstaff write twiggess, Eggwhser thser itt uppo this boc Iss writenn o thatt wise." The object of the principal reformers has been more comprehensive to devise either a universal alphabet or a universal language. Conspicuous among them was John Wilkins, Bishop of Ripon, one of the founders of the Royal Society, who in 1668 published a small folio with the title, "An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language." The work showed much ability, acuteness, and industry, and was thought by the Brothers Chambers worth republishing ; but no one has thought it worthy of adoption. About 1854 many "Alphabetic Conferences" of learned men were held in London under the presidency of the Cheva- Pronunciation and Spelling. 207 Her Bunsen, the Prussian Ambassador, for the purpose of devising a system of written characters capable of represent- ing all human utterances. It is sufficient here to say that these laudable efforts were unsuccessful. Prof. Max Mtiller then undertook a universal Missionary Alphabet, which also has not met with general acceptance. The next in order was Lepsius' " Standard Alphabet," which was published for the second time in London in 1863, and which has been adopted in some works for representing foreign names. In 1867 Prof. Alexander Melville Bell published his " Visible Speech or Universal Alphabetics," the first attempt, so far as I am aware, to reduce the sounds and signs of language to a scientific system. The arrangement, the forms, and even the names of the characters are designed to correspond with the various positions of the organs of speech. A letter, instead of being called Alpha or A, may be named " High- Back Wide Round." The total number of characters, with similar names, exhibited on page 37 of the work, is 129. Wonderful results are said to have been accomplished by this system, in enabling adepts to reproduce at sight the most strange and difficult kinds and combinations of sounds ; but it seems to me that most persons would be utterly una- ble to learn it, that it would be unwieldy, and that either the printed or the manuscript character recommended would present to the eye a most uninviting page. Lastly, there is the palaeotypeof Mr. A. J. Ellis, comprising 267 letters, and 36 additional guides to pronunciation, in all 303. It is no wonder that he was unable to apply an apparatus so cumber- some to the very purpose for which it seems more especially to have been invented. The inventor frankly admits its unfitness for general use. Mr. Ellis is also the author of a much simpler system which he calls " Glossic," in which none but the letters in common use are employed. It fails to show any nice distinctions of sound. The following is an example : " Glosik reiting iz akweird in dhi proases ov glosik reeding. Eni wun hoo kan reed glosik kan reit eni werd az wel az hee kan 208 The English Language. speek it, and dhi proper moad ov specking iz lernt bei reeding glosik bucks. But oaing too its pikeu'lier konstruk'shen, glosik speling iz imee'dietli intel'ijibl, widhou't a kee too eni nomik reader. Hens a glosik reiter'kan komeu'nikait widh aul reederz, whedher glosik aur noraik, and haz dhairfoar noa need too bikum a nomik reiter. But hee 'kan bikum *wun, if serkemstensez ren- der it dezei'rabl, wedh les trubl than thoaz hoo hav not lernt glosik." This specimen contains 455 letters and u dots that have no perceptible use 466 in all. In our common spelling there would be 472 letters. The saving therefore would be about 3^ per cent., a point of some importance, as one of the arguments insisted upon is the great economy of time from omitting the silent letters. And were it not for the dots this would probably be the simplest plan yet proposed. Its poverty is seen in the employment of the same letter e for a, e, i, 0, and u in " word" " render," and " circum- stances" There are also various schemes, more or less known in England and America, that use the common alphabet as a basis, and supplement its deficiencies with additional letters. In opposition to any kind of spelling reform, one Ameri- can critic has written at considerable length, arguing, rather inconsistently, that the present system presents no difficulty, and that, even if it did, it is not desirable that it should be easy. A more weighty defence of our anomalous spelling, is that the origin and history of words are treasured in its antiquated forms. But this argument, sound though it be, has less weight than might be supposed. In general, it ap- plies only to words that retain an Italian or a French form, or have come pretty directly from Greek or Latin. For nearly all words of Teutonic, Slavic, Asiatic, African or American origin, the spelling is no guide ; for, in not a few, like bride- groom, woman and hiccough, it is a blunder, and misleading. Again, many words have passed through several languages, and the spelling reveals only one stage in their progress. What reader of the morning papers sees, or cares to see, that his comb and pifc/ier, "his bottle and cards, his pantaloons Pronunciation and Spelling. 209 and galoches are Greek, his lemons and gherkins Persian, or that the sugar that mollifies the rancor of his coffee has come from the far Sanskrit, through Persian, Arabic, Span- ish, and French, and is like none of its ancestors? Etymol- ogy is not illustrated by writing move, shove, drove, nor does the spelling teach the common reader anything of the history of such forms as taught, thought, and bought. Nearly all that etymology would lose by a reform would be a few silent letters in words from the Greek. It is only words whose spelling is regular that carry their etymology on their face. Again the great body of readers neither know nor care any- thing about etymology. They are willing to take their words at their present face value, without questioning whence they came. Not one in ten thousand of those who think them- selves educated can tell without a dictionary the derivation of words not of Greek or Latin origin ; and the relative number of Greek and Latin scholars is becoming less every year. But while the desirability of phonetic writing does not admit of a reasonable doubt, there are reasons for believing that its attainment is not at hand. In the first place, man- kind are averse to radical changes. Their greatest reforms are at best, not from bad to good, but from bad to something not quite so bad. The new departures and radical reforms so often clamored for, are generally but a reversion to some shallow expedient that has been tried a hundred times, and found wanting. The multitude has often been called fickle and fond of change ; but their mobility is on hinges and not on wheels oscillating backward and forward between points that are near together. Were the ground at once clear and fertile, how pleasant to plant, and watch the growth ! Were the human mind a blank, how easy to write upon it ! But we are like the medieval monks, who, in order to pen their saintly homilies, had to erase painfully, odes of Tibullus and hymns to the heathen gods. And the erasure was never complete. With all but mere children it is not learning but unlearning that is the rub. I believe that no people having a religion embodied in sacred books ever accepted a new one. Christianity and Buddhism were both driven from 2io The English Language. their native places to seek converts among races of men who had no Bibles, Vedas, or Puranas. Just as little are bodies of men inclined to change their languages or modes of writing them. We have seen that the Egyptians kept up their hieroglyphic systems until the times of the Roman Empire, although the civilized nations around them had been using neat and convenient alphabets for ages ; that the ancient races of Mesopotamia never abandoned their arrow- head writing ; and that the Chinese still persist in the use of their excessively difficult character. There is therefore an almost insuperable difficulty in the general conservatism of mankind. In the second place, those who have any voice or influence in the matter are not generally conscious of suffering any inconvenience, and so have no direct motive for change. Those who can read and write do so with little difficulty, and those who cannot may be counted out. Reading, in- deed, presents no difficulty, except in new and strange words and names, and is learned by children without much labor. As to writing, we have seen that the saving in time and space would probably not exceed three or four per cent. ; and it is by no means certain that any system would be on the whole easier than the present. It might be thought that phonetic writing would at least save us from the mortification of mis- spelling, but when we think of Mr. Ellis' " serkemstensez," it is not clear that even that would be diminished. It may be said that each one should spell as he pronounces that is, express his peculiarities of utterance in his own peculiar way; but that would be the utter confusion of the fifteenth century, which might be brought about without any radical reform. With so little to attract them, every person at all advanced in years, all who are busy, and all who have much to do with books would rather keep on as they are than learn anything very different. Besides, the world is now full of books, whose pages seem to us fair and familiar and smiling as the face of a friend. The ability to read them and make literal extracts must be kept up for a hundred years, no matter what system prevails. We cannot afford either to Pronunciation and Spelling. 211 destroy or transform our literature ; and were the transfor- mation considerable, our favorite authors would be no more lovely than a mother's face in a paper mask. To impose a radically different spelling or pronunciation upon the author- ized version of the Scriptures, would be a more serious shock to the piety of those who speak the English tongue than all the assaults of the unbeliever. A third consideration that has much weight with me is, that a thing may be highly desirable and yet so difficult as to be impracticable. Now to represent to the eye all the sounds of our vastly copious and heterogeneous language would not be easy, even with the zealous co-operation of everybody. With some languages it would be easy. Span- ish is very regular, but its sounds are few and simple. There are Polynesian tongues built up of only about twenty different syllables, all of the simplest kind. We have seen that Japanese has but 73 syllables in all, and Cherokee 85, while English, counting names of persons and places, con- tains more than 9,000. Among them are such syllables as frounced, glimpsed, knurled, smoothed, sixths, twelfths, shrives, thoughts, thwarts. A still greater difficulty is found in the fleeting, uncertain character of some of the sounds. No two persons ever agree throughout as to what they are. People differ in hearing and in utterance, and in their attempts to represent what they hear and utter. We have seen that Mr. Ellis, who has doubtless given the subject more attention than any other person ever did, writes werd for word, and agrees with our American lexicographers in representing the familiar word what as whot. To my indi- vidual judgment this is a bad rendering. The vowel is neither the a in hat nor the o in hot, but something between ; and of the two I should think the former the best approximation. The guesses at the intermediate sounds heard in such words as girl and pearl strike some on one side and some on the other, and mislead by a show of precision. No ap- proach to precision is possible without adding considerably to our alphabet. It now consists of 26 letters, but q and x add nothing to its compass, so that it is no better than 24. 212 The English Language. Webster admits 43 simple sounds, to which the diphthongs oi and ow might be added. This would certainly not be too many, and yet would almost double the present number. He who will invent 19 new letters that shall harmonize per- fectly in style with those already in use, and add nothing to the trouble of either reading or writing, will have gained an idea of one of the difficulties to be overcome. The great caravan routes of the East may be traced across the deserts by the lines of bleaching bones, and the path- way of human progress is strewn with the mortuary remains of schemes for the sudden improvement of the lot of man. Healthy progress is slow and noiseless, as the growth of the forest and the herbage is not by thunder and proclamation. " The kingdom of heaven cometh not with observation," but, " as if a man should cast seed into the ground ; and should sleep and rise night and day, and the seed should spring, and grow up, he knoweth not how." (Luke xvii. 20. Mark iv. 26.) The treasures of the mind are gathered slowly atom by atom ; and our 26 letters are the imperceptible growth of 5,000 years. We might take a lesson from the Spaniards and the Germans and reduce the chaos of our dictionary by numerous reforms, singly so small as to shock no prejudices. Just what these reforms should be I am in no better position to say than any one else. I may, how- ever, suggest a few, merely to show that some improvement is possible without making either reading or writing in the least degree more difficult. i. We might omit all those letters that in the present state of the language have no influence on the pronunciation. This would give, for example : beuty for beauty ful for full lam " lamb kil " kiln spek " speck peple " people giv " give salmist " psalmist puf " puff diarea " diarrhoea agregate " aggregate demene " demesne eg " egg depo " depot rime " rhyme buz " buzz seze " seize Pronunciation and Spelling. 2 1 3 A good part of the reforms of this character would be merely a return to an earlier and simpler spelling. It may be objected here that this would sometimes destroy the distinction between words that sound alike but are written differently, as wright, write, right, and rite. The objection is sound in principle, but its force may be considerably weakened. The above is the best example of the kind and is often adduced, but as the gh has an influence on the pro- nunciation, the four words would be reduced to two, not to one ; and the effect would be offset by all pairs of words now written alike but pronounced differently. Aye, yes and aye, ever ; bass, in music and bass, a fish ; the bow of an archer and the bow of a ship are examples. Moreover, as words are addressed to the ear much oftener than to the eye, the present ambiguity would be but little increased. The following sentence too will show how little danger there is of misunderstanding even an extreme case, which is not in the least helped by the present spelling. "I had just tied my bay horse to a bay tree and seated myself in the recess of the bay window, when presently I heard the hounds bay on the other side of the bay, where they had brought a deer to bay" 2. We might confine g to what is commonly called its hard sound, and write a/z'// of brandy instead of a. gill. 3. Substitute f for ph, as is done in Italian and Spanish ; also lor gh wherever the pronunciation is/". 4. Confine s to its sharp hissing sound and let z represent its value in muse. 5. Relieve q of all its present duties and turn them over to k. Some other use might be found for this spare letter, and it has even been suggested that it be put for the n in finger. 6. Regulate the duties of a, e, ea, ee, ei, and ie so that no one of them should conflict with another. 7. Do the same for o, oo, ou, and u. 8. Gaining courage as we advance, we might relegate to k a part of the work of c, and to s another part, so as to let it 214 The English Language. stand for the English and Spanish ch in church, or the Ital- ian c in cielo. 9. Restore the two characters used for th in thin and thine until the middle of the fourteenth century. 10. Restore the long s of the last century with the value of sh, and let z be differentiated thus, size, azure. We might still have x left for whatever might be needed. Some idea of the results may be gathered from the fol- lowing few examples ; fosforus for phosphorus kac for catch jinjer ' ginger cure " church laf " laugh flem " phlegm use, a noun sizm " schism uze, " verb flud " flood kwik for quick muve " move sak ' sacque duv " dove cu " chew It is not to be supposed that all these changes could be introduced at once and made successful. Those that would arouse the least opposition should be tried first, until the idea of eternal unchangeableness be overcome. Any influ- ential publication might introduce some of the least startling almost without criticism. The old and new spellings might subsist side by side until one supplanted the other, as there are now hundreds of words, like gaol and jail, pedlar and peddler, jewellery and jewelry, having two or more spellings. To try to carry through an entire revolution at once would ensure defeat ; and it is better to undertake little and suc- ceed, than to attempt much and fail. Professional politicians are especially familiar with the strengths and weaknesses of masses of men, and they are wiser in their generation than the children of light. They suit their wares to the market. They never seriously undertake any reform wide-reaching and deep, well knowing that to do so would arouse an oppo- sition somewhere that would cover them with defeat if not with ridicule. PART SECOND. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY. WRITERS on English grammar have occupied themselves chiefly with two questions : 1st. What various forms does any English word assume? 2d. What form is to be used in any given instance ? The answer to the first has been commonly called Etymol- ogy, that to the second Syntax. The first application of words was doubtless to material, visible, tangible things ; but from such words men have had to select, as each one best could, under the influence of fanciful and misleading analogies, terms to express all the con- ceptions of the mind. The selections have not always been happy ; and grammarians have been no more successful than others. Thus the sounds of speech have been called hard, soft, broad, slender, round, full, empty, thick, thin, flat, fat, sticky words aptly descriptive of butternuts and building materials, but vocal sounds might as well have been called blue, alkaline, or rhombohedral. So, too, a class of words have been labelled as adjectives meaning thrown to that is, words or things thrown to some other words or things. A second important class have been designated zsverbs that is, merely words. The title of a third class is prepositions meaning placed before as if all words except the last were not placed before some others. So etymology properly signi- 217 2i8 English Grammar. fies the science of the derivation of words, and is so employed by a class of scholars, but in the majority of English Gram- mars has the peculiar signification given above. This point may be illustrated by supposing an etymologist and a gram- marian to give their respective views of the word daughter. ETYMOL. A native word occurring in Middle English as dohter, doghter, daughter, douhter, dowter, of which the plurals dohtren, dehtren, and degter are found ; from Anglo-Saxon dohtor, pi. doh- tor, dohtra, dohtru, and ddhter ; Dutch, dochter ; IceL, ddttir ; Swed., dotler j Dan. dotter and datter ; Goth., dauhtar ; Old High German, tohter j Mod. H. G., tochter ; Rus., dock ; Greek, dvyactrjp $ Sansk., duhtri. Lassen and Curtius suppose the ety- mology to be Sansk., duh or dhugh, to milk the milker and so allied to the English dug. GRAM. A common noun, feminine gender, singular number. Syntax is primarily a military term, signifying the proper arrangement of troops, on the march or in the field. It is not inaptly applied to the marshalling of words, but should include the order in which they are placed, a point that receives little attention in works on English grammar. Grammatical etymology and syntax might very well have been denoted by the words analysis and synthesis, that is, separating or sorting, and putting together ; for they are not unlike the operations of the printer, who at one time picks to pieces a page of types, putting each in its proper compartment, and again re-collects and combines them into a story or sermon. But when words are once fairly estab- lished in use we are generally obliged to take them as they are, whether they be admirably adapted to their pur- pose or not. All this pre-supposes that some words admit of differences of form, as eagle, eagles ; swift, swifter, swiftest ; come, came, coming, with corresponding differences of use. In this re- spect languages differ greatly, ranging from Chinese, in which every word remains invariably the same, to Arabic, in which a word may assume some two thousand forms. English is very poor in grammatical forms, so that only a person of the Preliminary. 2 1 9 most acute analytical genius would ever think of searching for them and arranging them systematically, without previ- ously seeing some similar analysis. But a language that should present the following among other forms might easily suggest the idea of reducing them to a system : ama-ba-m ama-re-m ama-ba-s ama-re-s ama-ba-t ama-re-t ama-ba-mus ama-re-mus ama-ba-tis ama-re-tis ama-ba-nt ama-re-nt Interest would be increased by finding another set having no resemblance to the former, as : serv-us serv-um serv-i serv-orum serv-o serv-is serv-e serv-os It might easily be observed that each of these sets of forms, or something like them, was common to hundreds of words, that the one set was peculiar to words denoting some kind of action, and that the other characterized names of things. Whenever so much should be observed, the grammatical analysis of the language would be fairly begun. Yet the Romans, who had these very forms, seem never to have undertaken such analysis until obliged to compare them with another system of forms equally extensive but different in every detail. Here is, perhaps, the fittest place for a few general con- siderations, which should never be lost sight of in any study relating to language. A language is not made once for all according to a set of pre-existing rules. Taken at any particular time, it is the work of untold generations who have made, unmade, and altered words and phrases, according to their wants, con- venience, tastes, and whims, provided always that there was a general tacit consent among the speakers. Some rude 22O English Grammar. uniformity would always result from the imitative nature of man and his readiness to acquiesce in things as they are, from the common character and circumstances of any people, and the necessity for being mutually understood ; but we may as well abandon the idea that any language was ever wholly regular, systematic, and consistent. On this point, however, there are great differences, the most primitive tongues being apparently the most regular. Every word or combination of words must have been once used for the first time, and by a single person. If no one liked the expression, it died there and then ; if it took the popular fancy, it was like the seed that fell upon good ground and multiplied a hundred-fold. Thousands of such words have now gone round the world. Grave authors have related, that Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville, used a new word, starvation, in a speech in the House of Commons. It seemed to those who heard it so strange and barbarous that they gave him the nickname of Starvation Dundas, but the word has lived. Not only do words and phrases spread till they are heard from millions of mouths, but they spread to applications and meanings not dreamed of by the first introducers. No doubt each innovator sees, or fancies, an analogy with some previous usage, but the ramifications become so numerous and diverse that the point of departure is often wholly lost sight of. A perfect exposition would trace the expression step by step like the genealogy of a family. If this can seldom be done, it still remains as the ideal to be aimed at. Rules of speech are an after-thought, an attempt to arrange a body of material already existing. Some of this material is apt to defy all but the most arbitrary classification. If one should come into possession of an old and vast pawn- broker's shop and depository of second-hand goods, he might find it desirable to put articles of the same kind together. He might find it easy to separate watches and firearms, but a piece of a meteorite, the urim and thummim with which the Book of Mormon was deciphered, and Barnum's Feejee mermaid might well give him pause. Or Prelim inary. 221 if one should undertake to classify the occupations of a great city, there would be a considerable residuum to be marked " uncertain," " various," or " all others." Precisely this difficulty confronts the grammarian. He too has his irreducible remainder, which, instead of labelling as above, he usually calls " adjective pronouns," " conjunctions," or more frequently " adverbs," throwing together words as dis- similar as twice, where, very, yesterday, yes, and amen. At the same time an entire class of words is generally made up of two monosyllables of quite dissimilar origin, but used precisely like another class of words, so that they do not properly form a class either by their origin or their use. There are certain purposes which every language must fulfil or fail entirely. It must be able to name, or in some way distinguish things. It must have the power to desig- nate their various actions to tell whether they run, fly, swim, strike, bite, or scream. It is necessary to be able to show whether an action is going on now or ceased some time ago. In using such words as man, bear, killed, there must be some way of indicating which of the two killed the other. There must be some way of denoting number, at the very least the difference between one and many. Of things that are at all connected, a mode of expressing the sim- pler relations is necessary of telling, for example, whether an animal is in or under or behind a tree. If not indispen- sable, it is at least highly desirable to be able to distinguish the qualities of things, and say whether they are big, little, black, red, hard, or sour. Lastly, contrivances are needed shortening many of the first expressions, or substituting others like yes and no that have the brevity of algebraic symbols. Now, although this is substantially the work to be done by every language, their ways of doing it are in- finitely varied in detail. The variety is so great that there can scarcely be said to be any natural system from which the others are deviations. There is nothing more natural than that two words closely connected in their application should be placed together. If one has to speak of a black horse, a number of other words ought not to intervene 222 English Grammar. between black and horse ; yet this obvious requirement is habitually disregarded. I have even met with instances where two parts of the same word were separated by the distance of half a page ; and if a principle so self-evident in its propriety is neglected, we need not expect any other to be faithfully followed. As every one has an equal right to invent and alter words and their uses, so long as imitators can be found, and all work without concert, and generally with little knowledge, the result is a large amount of irregu- larity and confusion ; and the irregularities of any one people are quite unlike those of their neighbors. It follows that there cannot be a science of grammar of universal application. All that is possible is an exhibition of the usages of some one language, or of a few compared together. If every word had one invariable form, grammar would be limited to the order of the words, and we should be spared a great deal of labor. That is nearly, but not quite, the condition of the English. Yet, however full and elaborate the forms of any language may be, they would be easy to handle if they were complete, regular, and consistent. It is the irregularities and deficiencies that make the trouble and make the grammars. There are professions that thrive on the errors of mankind. The priest lives by our sins, the doctor by our vices, and the lawyer by our quarrels. So the grammarian is maintained by the absurdities of our speech. When we speak of several things, we generally add s to the name of one boys, horses, houses, trees, birds. Nothing could be simpler. Yet, although that expedient will serve for by far the greater number of the names met with in our literature, the small remainder form their plurals in more than sixty different ways, besides those that do not dis- tinguish the plural from the singular in any way. He who will faithfully try to unravel these and similar complications will not be likely to say that English is a grammarless language. If the principal part of grammar has relation to the various forms that words may assume, it is first necessary to learn what those forms are. But as the variations are not the Preliminary. 223 same for all words, and some have none such as now, and, before, yonder, all the words in a language are divided into classes on the basis of these grammatical distinctions. The words of these several classes are frequently called PARTS OF SPEECH. Between these, speaking roughly, there will generally be found not only differences of form, but also differences in the kind of meaning conveyed. As to the number and character of these classes, or parts of speech, authorities are far from being agreed. I here abbreviate a passage from Tooke's " Diversions of Purley," the most acute, though not the most accurate, work on the subject. " H. I thought I had laid down in the beginning the principles upon which we were to proceed in our inquiry into the manner of signification of words. " B. Which do you mean ? " H. The same which Mr. Locke employs in his inquiry into the Force of words : viz. The two great purposes of speech. " B. And to what distribution do they lead you ? " H. i. To words necessary for the communication of our Thoughts. And 2. To Abbreviations employed for the sake of despatch. " B. And how many do you reckon of each ? And what are they? * * * " H. In English, and in all Languages, there are only two sorts of words which are necessary for the communication of our thoughts. "B. And they are? " H. i. Noun, and 2. Verb. " B. These are the common names. *\ * * " H. * * * And I use them according to their common acceptation. " B. But you have not all this while informed me how many parts of speech you intend to lay down. " H. That shall be as you please. Either Two, or Twenty, or more." These parts of speech have been variously estimated from three to ten, but the greater number of grammarians have reckoned either eight or nine, while differing considerably 224 English Grammar. as to the elements that make up either number. I propose to treat of seven namely, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction. It has been very com- mon to make a class of the two little words the and an (abbreviated into a), but I shall include them in the sub- division called adjective pronouns. Still more frequently have oh, ah, umph, pshaw, and the like been marshalled among the parts of speech. If it be too severe a judgment to say that they are no better than the cries of animals, expressive of feeling and not of thought the mere raw material from which words might be made, still they are at their best independent of all rules and principles of gram- mar, and need not be investigated. Yet, if any one chooses to erect these two little groups, or a dozen others, into separate classes, he has a perfect right to do so. CHAPTER II. NOUNS. A NOUN is merely a name, and might as well have been called so. The word is Old French, introduced in the four- teenth century, when all learning was supposed to be either French or Latin. The first names must have been those of things that could be seen, felt, or otherwise perceived by the senses, as the ground, trees, beasts, rivers, the sun and moon. But gradually names were given to a vast number of merely imaginary entities spirits of the air, the earth, and the waters, to the relations of things, and conceptions of the mind. For the human mind has a strange and marked ten- dency to treat its creations as real things, and express by names such abstractions as whiteness, difference, proximity, futurity, age, freedom, forget fulness. The question has some- times been raised : Of what kind were the first words ever used ? There is a tendency among philologists to answer in favor of verbs words expressive of action, for the reason that in Hebrew or Arabic and in Sanskrit most words can be traced to simple forms termed roots, the most direct out- growth of which is verbs. But it should be remembered that those languages are already, in their oldest monuments, highly developed, and not perceptibly nearer the beginnings of things than we are. It is among very rude and primitive tribes that we should be most likely to find the earliest forms of language and the arts, and they are quite apt to use the same words as nouns, verbs, or anything else. Professor Whitney says that the great Malayo-Polynesian family of languages have scarcely any grammatical distinctions, and nothing that can properly be called a verb ; that their so-called 15 225 226 English Grammar. verbs are only a special use of their nouns. 1 If this broad fact were clearly established it would be much more conclu- sive in favor of nouns than Shemitic and Aryan philology can be in favor of verbs. It is said that the language of Ancient Egypt, as recovered from the monuments, was with- out distinction into parts of speech, and the same is to some extent true of English. Very many English words are used indifferently as two parts of speech ; and not a few are alternately nouns, adjectives, or verbs, as calm, light, slight, level, plane, square, salt. Now if one were to see snow for the first time, and coin a word to represent roughly the gen- eral phenomenon, what would probably be the principal element in his complex conception the substance, coldness, whiteness, or the act of falling ? There is one thing that, being a daily necessity of organic life, must have been famil- iar to the first speaking men ; and yet it presents to the senses neither color, taste, nor smell, and usually little sound or movement. It is difficult to conceive that our early ancestors had no name for water until they adopted one from some previous abstract word expressive of action. The same may be said of many other things. Again, to name any object from a characteristic property or action implies comparison of several things possessing that characteristic, generalizing them and abstracting that special feature. Sup- pose a naturalist of the Stone age to observe a conspkuous action in ten different animals, for none of which he had yet any name. Let us suppose too that his first step is to invent a verb to denote this action, and from this verb he forms a noun or name. If he then applies this name to the whole ten perhaps mammals, birds, and insects they would be to him but a single species, with a single name. But it is well known that the language and habits of primitive peo- ples are the very reverse ; they abound in particular names and trivial distinctions, but are wanting in general terms. The Delawares had ten names for various ages and stages of bearhood, but none for a bear in general. Or if our old naturalist should confine his carefully elaborated name to 1 " Language and the Study of Language," p. 338. Nouns. 22 7 one animal, what was he to do with the other nine ? Are we to suppose him guilty of the labor of studying ten ani- mals to find a name for one ? I conclude rather that the earliest uses of speech must have been to distinguish one thing from another, as the first linguistic exercise of Adam is represented to have been in giving " names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field." Nouns have been divided into classes on several different principles, quite independent of each other. They need not all be enumerated. One division is into concrete and abstract nouns. The former relate to what are regarded as substan- tial entities, the latter to their properties and relations, or to mental conceptions. Man, ox, sparrow, stone, house, water, air, gas, comet are concrete nouns ; joy, fever, solemnity, sin- gularity, whiteness, solidity are abstract. Concrete things might often remain if many of the abstract conceptions were not, but the abstract can seldom be without the concrete. When a man suffers pain and disappointment, he would not perish by their removal, but they would certainly cease on his death. This possibility of separate existence is in gen- eral the distinction. A fiddle and cornet may exist quite independent of each other, and without emitting any sounds ; and, indeed, we cannot but suppose that they might remain entire if all the rest of the universe were annihilated. But let two players sound them, the sounds would be abstract, the concrete things being the players, the instruments, and the conducting air. The harmony or discord of the notes would be an abstraction of the second degree. A great amount of confused and inaccurate thought and speech would be avoided by habitually bearing in mind this distinction. Nouns are divided into common and proper, the term proper being used in its original sense of pertaining to some one in particular. A common name applies alike to a whole species or class, a proper name to an individual. Man is a term for millions, Rurel Vantarel distinguishes a single per- son. Proper names are not confined to human beings, but extended to domesticated animals, countries, towns, lakes, rivers, mountains, ships, books, periodicals, stars and groups 228 English Grammar. of stars, and in former ages to swords and battle-axes. When the same name has been given to several who are spoken of collectively, it is treated as a common noun, as when we speak of the C&sars, the Ptolemies, the four Georges, the four Maries, the two Carolinas. Collective nouns include a number of individuals under one designation, treating them sometimes as one, at other times as many. Examples are mankind, the army, the regiment, the meeting, the mob, the convention, society. Nouns have four attributes which are exclusively the sub- ject of grammar, and they are GENDER, NUMBER, CASE, and PERSON. GENDER. Gender is based on the distinction of male and female, but does not always adhere to it, in some languages spreading out in the most capricious manner. But let us see what the distinction means. We might say in Latin : Ille equus albus Yonder white horse Ilia equa alba Yonder white mare Observe that in English the names of the animals in the two sentences are entirely different, the other words precisely alike. In Latin all the corresponding words are identical, but their endings are changed. And if one should continue to speak of the two animals in Latin, a large part of the words directly relating to them would differ in the same manner. Now it is this modification of the associated words that constitutes the distinction of gender. Mere difference of names would not do it. If it went no farther than the names, boy and girl would be no more a grammatical distinc- tion than boy and man. We have seen that in English the gender does not change the descriptive words. What then does it amount to ? Answer : We have a few words yet that bind us to the observance of this distinction. If two little words and their variant forms five monosyllables in all she, her, hers, it, its were dropped, gender would be thereby wiped from the language. Nouns. 229 Most of the languages spoken in the world are without this distinction of gender. It is limited to the two leading fami- lies the Aryan and Shemitic and a few African tongues allied to the latter ; and Professor Lepsius regarded it as a marked evidence of mental superiority. To distinguish by special names the sexes of the larger animals is natural enough, but how the distinction came to be forced upon other words not names is difficult to discover. We can see, however, that an additional vowel sound was often added to female names, and in some way became attached to other words used in speaking of them. Moreover, words expres- sive of qualities were very generally regarded as names ; and some grammarians to this day call such words nouns. They divide nouns into nouns substantive and nouns adjective. The former are looked on as representing substantial enti- ties, the latter as something added or thrown in ; and the elaborately inflected languages, from Arabic and Sanskrit down, give nouns and adjectives the same endings. But when animals had been divided into males and females, what was to be done with the rocks and clouds, trees and bushes ? Why, they were divided also, for, along with a tendency to treat mental conceptions as things, primitive men had the strange habit of regarding inanimate things as having life, feeling, and intelligence. Some were called male or female from some real or fancied characteristic, and some because the endings of their names resembled those of the one or the other class. At this point the case rested with the Shemitic peoples, but the Aryans went a step farther. They divided their male names into two portions, and set aside a part as neither male nor female. They thus had three genders, now for several ages known as masculine, feminine, and neuter. The idea was excellent, but not carried out in a way to be of any benefit, for the female names seem to have been left un- divided, and the others so imperfectly distributed as to leave still a large number of inanimate things masculine, while in some languages many male and female beings are made neuter. In the grammar of our Saxon fathers a woman was 230 English Grammar. masculine, and our German brethren call a stick and a stone masculine, a body of horsemen feminine, and a horse, a woman, and a girl neuter. Other races of men, though they have words distinctive of age, sex, and condition, do not make them the ground of similar differences in other words. Some of the American Indians have systems in some degree analogous, but much more extensive. Prof. J. W. Powell says that in Indian tongues genders are usually and primarily classifications into animate and inanimate. The animate may be again divided into male and female ; but this is rarely done. Objects are classified according to their attributes, or supposed constitution. Thus there are ani- mate and inanimate, of which one or both may be divided into the standing, the sitting, and the lying, or into the watery, the mushy, the earthy, the stony, the woody, and the fleshy. All this may be expressed by pronouns, often compound, incorporated into the body of the verb. Some- times these pronouns are separated into their elements and distributed in different parts of the verb. "A Ponca Indian, in saying that a man killed a rabbit, would have to say the man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case, purposely, killed, by shooting an arrow, the rabbit, he, the one, animate, sitting, objective case." The distinction of gender, as originally established by the ancestors of the Aryan races, has not remained everywhere unchanged. The Persians have abandoned it altogether, the languages of Southern Europe have dropped the third or neuter gender, and the English have discarded it from all words used as adjectives, retaining it only in the singular of the personal pronoun of the third person. In Danish and Swedish the masculine and feminine have been merged in one, in contradistinction to the neuter, making thus an ani- mate and an inanimate gender ; but the division of words does not always coincide with the distinction of things, and, as in English, the personal pronouns bear witness to a for- mer threefold division. With us the interrogative and rela- tive pronouns make a still different discrimination : who is used for rational beings and which for all else. Nouns. 231 English stands entirely alone in making gender a rational and intelligible distinction. Males are masculine ; females, feminine ; and inanimate things, neuter. Most birds and small animals, including the very young of all species, even the human, are generally treated as neuter, the sex either not being known or not thought worth distinguishing. Sometimes however a gender is arbitrarily assigned. " Go to the ant, thou sluggard, consider her ways and be wise." PROV. vi., 6. " Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward the south ? " JOB xxxix., 26.' At other times even the most considerable animals are spoken of as if they were sexless. "The hare sleeps with its eyes open." BARBAULD. " The leopard in its chace of prey spares neither man nor beast." BLAIR'S " Rhetoric." " It is the war-horse that carries grandeur in its idea." Id. " If a man shall steal an ox or a sheep, and kill it or sell //, he shall restore," etc. EXOD. xxii., i. Here, as in many other cases, we experience the want of another pronoun that, like / and thou, would have no refer- ence to gender. By a kind of make-believe we speak of the sun as mascu- line, the moon and ships as feminine. Sometimes, but very rarely, except in scientific discussions, we treat them as neuter. The reason of the following instance is quite obvious : " When Cleopatra fled, Antony pursued her in a five-oared galley ; and coming alongside of her ship, entered it without being seen by her" GOLDSMITH'S " Rome." 1 Quotations from Scripture, unless otherwise indicated, will be from the common authorized version. It will be often cited for the twofold reason that it is, or ought to be, familiarly known, and that in point of language it is the most important and generally admired of English classics. Shakespeare was ig- norant, careless, and inconsistent, but the translators of the Bible were scholars, who did their work with scrupulous care. The spelling of the later editions has been modernized, and when it is deemed necessary to give the exact version of the translators it will be cited as King James's Bible. 232 English Grammar. By a still further exercise of fancy the earth, countries, cities, the Church, religion, the virtues, and some other idealized conceptions are spoken of as if feminine. A considerable number of words necessarily relate to male or female beings, but do not show which. Such are friend, neighbor, cousin, servant, tenant, informant, artist, teacher, elephant, bear, eagle, elk. It sometimes becomes necessary to employ a pronoun, when a gender, if unknown, has to be as- sumed for the nonce, or we must use the awkward expression, " he or she," or " he, she, or they," which so often increases the tedious wordiness of statute law. In all such cases we experience the want of a pronoun of the common gender that is, including both masculine and feminine. Names of males and females of the same species are dis- tinguished in several different ways. 1. Quite distinct words are used, as : brother sister husband wife hart roe ram ewe In the present composite state of the language the two words may be of quite diverse origins, as earl and countess, bachelor and maid. Many terms are restricted to one or the other sex, as clown, judge, knave, knight, satyr, squire, trib- une, amazon, dowager, milliner, virago, witch. 2. Feminines were anciently made by adding the termina- tion -ster, which continued till the end of the seventeenth century, when it began to give place to the Norman-French -ess. Not one of these early feminines now remains with its mediaeval signification. Spinster may still be met with, but only as a legal designation of an unmarried woman, or in burlesque, and not as meaning a woman who spins. Songster is no longer understood as feminine, but requires for that purpose a second termination, making songster-ess shortened songstress. So seamster is made into the double feminine seamstress. Huckster and tapster have long ceased to be thought feminine ; deemster, even as a masculine, is confined to the Isle of Man ; and Baxter and Webster, in- stead of denoting a female baker and weaver, figure merely Nouns. 233 as family names. When the meaning of the termination -ster had been forgotten, and it was only remembered as marking the doer of something, a number of imitations sprang up, such as hackster, roadster, rhymester, teamster, and finally a derogatory sense was attached to such words, dab- ster, gamester, punster, trickster, whipster. 3. In the oldest English -en was a common feminine termination, masculine fox, feminine fixen ; in the modern form, vixen is the sole survivor in English. Carlin, feminine of carl, may be found in Scotch. " There were five carlins in the South That fell upon a scheme, To sen' a lad to Lunnon toun, To bring them tidings hame." BURNS. Allied to this form are two or three feminines in -ine, from the German -inn landgravine, margravine. 4. Masculines in -tor, taken directly from Latin, form feminines by dropping out the o, and adding -ix. administrator administratrix executor executrix testator testatrix 5. Far the greatest number of feminines are made by adding to the masculine -ess, from the French -esse and -ice Latin -issa and -ix. If the word can be easily pronounced with this termination, it usually undergoes no change, as lion, lioness ; otherwise it is shortened or modified in some one of a number of ways. abbot abbess dauphin dauphiness actor actress deacon deaconess adulterer adultress duke duchess arbiter arbitress elector electress benefactor benefactress emperor empress caterer cateress founder foundress chanter chantress giant giantess conductor conductress governor governess 234 English Grammar. heir heiress negro negress hunter huntress master mistress host hostess tiger tigress instructor instructress tyrant tyranness Jew Jewess votary votress marquis marchioness Duke and duchess were much more alike in their French forms, due and duc-esse. Master and mistress were maister and maisteress. Marquis and marchioness are both from Low Latin marchio, a prefect of the marches, or borders, but they have undergone different degrees of modification. As usual, what appears the most irregular is the least changed. So tyranness is from an older form of the word than tyrant. If we had occasion now to form a feminine noun from a mascu- line, we should do it by adding -ess. All other modes are either obsolete or still foreign too old or too new. Hero and heroine are from the Greek, and as independent of landgrave and landgravine as two languages of the same general family can be. A few words from the south of Europe take feminines in a signor, signora ; sultan, sultana. Czarina seems to be a Polish formation ; the Russian is Tsaritsa. Widower from widow is entirely anomalous. Lastly, sex is distinguished by adding some descriptive noun or pronoun. man-servant maid-servant male child female child ram-lamb ewe-lamb cock-sparrow hen-sparrow peacock peahen he-goat she-goat bridegroom tom-cat The Elizabethan writers employed many more of these feminine forms than we deem necessary. Such were cham- pioness, butler ess, vassaless, waggoness, warriouress. It may Nouns. 235 well be doubted if there are not still too many. In a multi- tude of instances it is not necessary to distinguish whether the relation referred to is held by a man or a woman. NUMBER. A noun may represent one thing, or several, and generally, but not always, shows which is intended. If I say : " Cook the shad for dinner," it is left uncertain how many I want. A noun signifying one thing is said to be singular, or in the singular number ; if more than one, it is called plural. The distinction might have been carried farther. Several old languages, among which were Arabic, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Greek, and Gothic, had forms for two, called the dual number. But it seems to have been everywhere either a new form never fully established or else, what is more likely, an old one dying out by the time we see it. Its forms are nowhere so fully developed as those of the plural, which in turn is generally more scanty than the singular. Hebrew has little more than a trace of the dual, which is confined to things that belong in pairs, such as eyes, ears, hands, tongs. Ancient Greek carried the distinction into all classes of in- flected words, but gave the option of using the plural in all cases, while modern Greek drops the dual altogether: The Gothic of the fourth century had but scanty remains of the dual, and when we next get sight of the Teutonic languages it is found only in the personal pronouns of the first and second persons forms for we two and you two in Old High German, Saxon, and Norse. From two of these even that scanty remnant has disappeared, and is now to be found only in Iceland. Some Polynesian languages are said to have separate forms for a number three. Some words are always singular because they express ideas that scarcely admit of duplication. Such are anni- hilation, chaos, eternity, omniscience ; also some arts and sciences, as eloquence, oratory, poetry, astronomy, pharmacy, dialling. Names of substances, or kinds of material, con- 236 English Grammar. sidered merely as such, are mostly singular, as gold, silver, zinc, granite, tar, asphalt, gypsum, hemp, flax, wool. Of many of these the plural is sometimes used for articles made of such material, or different varieties or specimens irons, tins, brasses, marbles, parchments, slates. But when a substance is rare and not yet made into familiar articles bearing its name, it remains singular, as atropia, phosphorus, lanthanum, zeolite. On the other hand some nouns are always plural in form. A considerable class, denoting arts, sciences, and pursuits, end in -ics acoustics, hermeneutics, mathematics, optics, poli- tics, physics. These were primarily Greek adjectives: thus, physics meant physical facts or principles ; hydraulics, prin- ciples and devices relating to water-pipes. Of this class, arithmetic, logic, and rhetoric have remained singular. A few nouns are plural as denoting things composed of pairs of similar parts, as trowsers, breeches, scissors, pincers, tongs. Finally there are nouns that are used only, or almost exclusively in the plural form for no obvious reason ashes, gallows, news, lees, shorts (a kind of meal), dregs, molasses, suds, some of which may be more particularly referred to hereafter. Some words are the same in the singular and plural sheep, swine, deer, fish, and the names of several species of deer and fish a shoal of mackerel, a dozen perch, a herd of fallow deer, of red deer, or elk. By far the greatest number of English nouns form their plurals by adding s to the singular ; and now for several cen- turies none have been formed in any other way ; yet we have introduced from abroad a great variety having the forms prescribed by the several languages from which they are taken. The Anglo-Saxon had several plural endings as, n, or an, a, o, and u. After the Norman Conquest these became reduced first to es, en, and e, next to es and en, and finally to es or s. The termination es continued for a long time to form a separate syllable, as has been shown at page 147. " The knight-^ all in their arm-<?j went." HAWES' " Pastime of Pleasure," 1554. Nouns. 237 Occasional instances are found down to the middle of the seventeenth century. " Can by their pains and ach-es find All turns and changes of the wind." BUTLER'S " Hudibras." At present if a noun ends with a sibilant sound, that is s, sh, z, zh, an e is interposed between the final consonant and the s of the plural, to make the word pronounceable : circus circus-es morass morass-es fox fox-es dish dish-es bench bench-es chintz chintz-es When the singular ends with a silent e, it is not necessary to put in another : lease lease-s piece piece-s breeze breeze-s bridge bridge-s crevasse crevasse-s A few native words ending in the sound of /"change it to v in the plural. They are calf, half, staff, wharf, elf, self, shelf, leaf, sheaf, thief, knife, life, wife, loaf, wolf. An e always intervenes between the v and the s of the plural, not for sake of pronunciation, but from the habit of the language not to write a v without a vowel after it. We sometimes meet with hooves, prooves, dwarves, turves, etc., but they are not reckoned good English now. In earlier stages of the lan- guage words like the above were written with /"throughout, but the/" was pronounced like v. The singular has retained the old spelling, the plural the pronunciation. In dove, glove, grave, helve, love, nave, reeve, stave, wave, the original spelling of the singular has been overcome. The plural of staff, when it means a set of executive officers, is staffs. Wharfs may sometimes be met with, but rarely in America. Beef is French from Latin, and means originally a bull, ox, or cow : "A herd of beeves, fair oxen and fair kine." MILTON. 238 English Grammar. In this sense it is seldom used. Its plural is beeves, in imita- tion of Middle English. Different qualities or varieties of the flesh of cattle would undoubtedly be called beefs. Nouns that end in the single vowel y have their plurals in -ies berries, daisies, lilies. If the y be preceded by another vowel, the mere addition of s is sufficient days, journeys, boys, guys. U after q is a consonant, the two being equal to kw hence colloquies, obsequies. The termination -ies is con- formable to the original form of the singular, which is in most instances from a French ending -ie. This form of the singular, once very common, continued to be used occa- sionally down to the time of Milton. " Now storming furie rose, And clamour such as heard in heaven till now Was never." " Paradise Lost." Some nouns ending in o add es, and others only s, and the distinction is far from uniform. The principle or habit roughly followed seems to be to add es to words that have been long and familiarly used in the language, and s to those that are comparatively new and strange, and especially to words imported from Italian and Spanish ; thus the plural of the familiar word negro is negroes, but that of the recent word negrito is negritos. Bilboes, calicoes, cargoes, echoes, gambadoes, grottoes, heroes, potatoes, torpedoes, tyroes, -vetoes, volcanoes. Albinos, bambinos, cameos, cantos, drongos, embryos, folios, halos, hidalgos, intaglios, pianos, pongos, pueblos, ridottos, salvos, solos, sombreros, studios. Although no really English word ends with i, yet several of quite foreign origin are met with in English books. Of these, alkali has become so fully naturalized as to have a recognized plural, alkalies. Rabbi is in a transition state, and just at this time admits of rabbies and rabbis. The following rare words add only s: agouti, ai, coati, maki, maori, moholi, mufti, peri, sat, saki, sofi, vari. A very few foreign words ending in u also form plurals in s emu, gnu, mitu, quipu. Nouns. 239 Particles are sometimes treated for the moment as nouns, and then they admit of plurals formed on the general principles. We read of the "pros and cons " of a question, and the counting of the "ayes and noes" in which the uncertainty recurs as to the plurals of words ending in o. The letters of the alphabet are designated in several ways, one of which is to spell their names. That, however, is applicable to only a few, whereas they may all be conven- iently called so many as, &'s, c's, x's. Vestiges still remain of the old Saxon plural in an or en, of which the most familiarly known is oxen, the only one that has retained its original place unchanged in universal usage, the only change in a thousand years being from an to en. Brethren and children are not so well preserved. The Anglo-Saxon plural of brother was like the singular, brothor, but brothers taken collectively, even if not more than two in number, were usually designated by a collective term, gebrothru, like the modern High German Gcbriider. " And dha dha tyn leorning-cnihtas gebulgon widh dha twegen gebrodhru." MATT, xx., 24. The A.-S. dative case singular for brother was brether ; and in the long period of confusion between written Saxon and written English, the several forms and significations seem to have become intermixed. The final outcome was brothers for the children of the same natural parents, and brethren for persons bound together by some solemn or mystic obligation. Of the two, brethren is the oldest, and occurs in the " Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester," in the form bretheren, toward the close of the thirteenth century. Its age is no doubt the reason why it is employed exclusively in the Bible. In Anglo-Saxon child and children were alike did : " and he [Herod] a sende dha and of sloh ealle dha cild dhe in Bethleem waeron." MATT, ii., 16. In the period of transition a plural childer was developed, which Robert de Brunne wrote childir in the beginning of 240 English Grammar. the fourteenth century. This plural has lingered in localities till the present day, and is often heard from natives of Ireland. By the end of the century en had been added, making a double plural, already shortened into children. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there were the simi- lar double plurals calvern, lambern, eyren. Doughtren and sistren were as common as brethren, and perhaps the latter of the two may still be heard in devotional meetings among the long-leaved pines fanned by the soft winds of the South. Chickens and kittens are not double plurals. The en is a diminutive, and not a plural termination a little cock, a little cat. Hose and pease are primarily singular, of which the old plurals were hosen and peasen. " Then these men were bound in their coats, their hosen, and their hats, and their other garments, and were cast into the midst of the burning fiery furnace." DANIEL in., 12. " Next twenty yeomen, two and two, In hosen black and jerkins blue." SCOTT'S " Marmion," canto i. " All men might well dispraise My wit and enterprise, If I esteemed a pease Above a pearl of price." LORD SURREY, 1540. " Tickle treasure, abhorred of reason, Dangerous to deal with, vain, of none avail, Costly in keeping, past not worth two Reason, Slipper in sliding, as an eeles tail." Id. It is the singulars of nouns that are used as adjectives, hence pease is singular in the following examples : " Racket and Coppinger, as the story tells, got into a pease-cart and harangued the people." DRYDEN'S " Religio Laid." " Pease-porridge hot, pease-porridge cold, Pease-porridge in the pot, and nine days old." Nouns. 241 The s in the word pease is not plural but inherent, it being from the Latin pisum. When the plural termination en had almost entirely disappeared, it began to be thought that pease was the same in both numbers, and next that it was exclusively plural, of which the singular must be pea ; and now for all practical purposes we have/m and/mj or pease, the last of which is fast disappearing. At the present moment hose is the same in both numbers, but is not certain to remain so. A few years ago, when I was one day look- ing for stockings, the gentlemanly vender held up an elegant specimen and declared it to be a very fine hoe. Grilse and grouse are like hose. A class of words, originally adjectives, but used indiffer- ently as adjectives or nouns, are in the same situation, Siamese, Japanese, Portuguese. Milton, who was familiar with the singulars hose and pease, wrote " The barren plains Of Sericana, where Chineses drive With sails and wind their cany waggons light." " Paradise Lost," iii., 437. On the other hand Americans, long familiar with the black- eyed pea, and now learning to wear a " hoe " on each " limb," have made the world acquainted with the " Heathen Chinee." Cherry is a product similar to pea. The final s of cherries, or cherris the Old French cerise, Latin cerasus was mis- taken for a sign of plurality, and the singular assumed to be cherri. Cheesen and housen may still be heard in some districts of England. The Scotch een and shoon Chaucer's eyen and Shake- speare's shooen are relics of the termination en. Jack Cade charges his followers : " We will not leave one Lord, one Gentleman ; Spare none but such as go in clouted shooen" 2 "Henry VI.," 4,2, 178. 16 242 English Grammar. At first sight the proportion seems correct ; swine : sow : : kyne : cow, but it is only plausible. Swine is a modern form of the Anglo-Saxon swin, which was the same in the singular and plural, while sow A.-S. su was a different word, as Schwein and Sau are in modern German. The singular of cow was cii, the plural ky, well preserved in the Scotch kye. " When new ca'd kye rout at the stake, And pownies reek in sheuch an' brake." BURNS. In kine an unnecessary n is added, as if to make kyen. It is therefore a double plural, while swine is not a plural at all. We have just seen that the plural of the Anglo-Saxon cii was ky, and of this once common method of forming the plural, by merely changing a vowel, several familiar ex- amples still survive. They are : foot feet man men goose geese louse lice tooth teeth mouse mice The last two have suffered under French influence, having been originally Ms, pi. lys ; miis, pi. m$s, precisely as in the case of cii, ky. It is readily seen that the difference between the singular and the plural was at first the same in each instance. The ample sound of the singular was reduced to what we may call a thin or slender one in the plural. It remains to discover the principle that governed this modifi- cation. It can scarcely be gathered from the Anglo-Saxon, which, like the present English, shows in these words only a change of vowel. f6t fit mann menn gos gis lus lys t&8 titS mus mys There is reason to believe that in all the Aryan languages the plural was once generally made by the addition of as, which in course of time coalesced in various ways with the preceding elements, became altered, or even completely lost. Nouns. 243 In Latin we become accustomed early to the fact that when a word gains in length it often loses in breadth, and that the addition of a syllable in many instances has the effect of rendering the vowel of the original more slender. It is observed, too, that in some languages the vowels of succes- sive syllables are required to harmonize according to some peculiar classifications of sounds, and if they do not this originally the one is changed to suit the other. This is especially the case in the Magyar. In the remains of the Gothic we find masculine and feminine nouns lengthened in the plural, and ending in s, the main part of the word re- maining unchanged. In this it is followed by the Dutch : voet, a foot voet-en, feet tand, tooth tand-en, teeth In the Norse, the most outlying of the Low German part of the family, the terminal s becomes r a phenomenon called rhotacism and in the words under consideration the vowel of the root is changed, as in Saxon and English, without any further addition than doubling a final s. Yet this lan- guage affords abundant examples of the modification of a vowel by a syllable following as b(5c, book ; back-r, books. A followed by a syllable containing u was changed to o of which the declension of hjarta, the heart, will be a sufficient example : PLURAL SINGULAR NOM. hjort-u All cases hjarta GEN. hjart-na DAT. hjort-ura Ace. hjort-u A clearer light is yielded by the Old High German, in which occur such forms as : kelb-ir calves hels-ir necks pelk-i skins enst-i favors This is well maintained by the Modern High German : 244 English Grammar. Fuss Fiiss-e Mann Mann-er Gans Gans-e Laus Laus-e Zahn Zahn-e Maus Maus-e Indeed we have examples in still living English : brother brethren cat kitten child children cock chicken There is no doubt then that such forms as feet and teeth are due to the influence of terminal syllables that had dis- appeared before the era of Saxon literature. A considerable number of nouns, adopted from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, and Italian, retain the plurals of the original tongues, while there is yet a constant tendency to assimilate them to English forms. Hence a considerable number of them are used either with the original or an Eng- lish plural, according to individual taste, the only principle approximately followed being that the English ending s is apt to be given to words that have been long and familiarly used, while those that may still be considered the property of the learned more frequently retain a foreign dress. The Greek and Latin words that find their way into our literature are very numerous, and present examples of most of the plural forms of those languages. It would require a con- siderable volume in itself to exhibit all such Greek and Latin nouns ; the object here is merely to present examples that will give the English reader some idea how he comes to meet with so many strange ways of forming the plural. He will observe that the body of the plural often appears to be lengthened in some way, but that is because an original ele- ment has been crowded out of the singular. Most of the Greek words have suffered from the assumption often quite groundless that they have reached us through a Latin medium. Many of them too take forms, either in the singular, in the plural, or both, that are neither Latin nor Greek, but may be regarded as English. Thus we may have the Greek forms orchis, ore/tides, or the English forms orchid, orchids. It is well to preserve this distinction, and not get such pairs of words mismatched. Wherever the Nouns. 245 singular is formed at variance with Greek or Latin usage, I think it should be treated as English. Unfortunately the form of the singular is sometimes such that it might belong to either of two languages. Still worse there are many words rarely or never used in both numbers, and if we attempt to supply the missing one according to analogy, we may find ourselves at variance with some one who has adopted a different form. The whole subject is in a very confused and unsettled state, and lexicographers would ren- der a valuable service by determining, as far as possible, the plurals of doubtful nouns, instead of giving only those that are already well known. I shall divide these nouns into three classes : (i) Latin ; (2) Greek ; (3) Greek Latinized or Anglicized. The letter s after a plural will indicate that it is also formed by adding that letter. This addition of s is a practice on the increase, and is objectionable chiefly when a word already contains a repetition of that sound. Censuses, susurruses, synizesises contain altogether too much sibilation. Latin Nouns. 1st. Singular -#, plural -a : alga algae facula faculae antenna antennae formula formulae, s catena catenae nebula nebulae corona coronae vertebra vertebrae 2d. Singular -us, -er, -ir, plural -i : alumnus alumni puer pueri cactus, cacti, s liber libri calculus calculi centumvir centumviri, s focus . foci, s decemvir decemviri, s radius radii triumvir triumviri, s 3d. Singular and plural -us mostly from verbs : afflatus crepitus hiatus singultus apparatus, s excursus ictus sinus, s census, s fetus, s inflatus conatus gradus meatus, s 246 English Grammar. 4th. Singular -us, plural -era : genus onus opus viscus 5th. Lepus, lepores. 6th. Corpus, corpora. 7th. Crus, crura. 8th. Grus, grues. 9th. Incus, incudes. loth. Singular -urn, plural -a often originally adjectives or participles : amentum datum medium, s addendum emporium, s menstruum, s candelabrum flagellum ovum cilium frustum spectrum erratum infusorium speculum cranium labium stratum, s congeries facies sanies series soboles nth. Singular and plural alike, ~es colluvies lues manes ingluvies 1 2th. Singular -es, plural -ites : antistes antistites termes 1 3th. Singular -ies, plural -ietes : aries arietes paries I4th. Singular stapes, plural, stapedes. 1 5th. Singular -is, plural -es : sordes species superficies termites parietes avis classis naris piscis axis amanuensis natis unguis canis fascis oasis vectis caulis ignis orbis vermis 1 6th. Singular lapis, plural lapides. i/th. Glis, glires; vis, vires. 1 8th. Lis, lites ; quiris, quirites. I9th. Anas, anates ; penas, penates. Nouns. 247 20th. Singular -o, plural -ines albugo albugines imago imagines virgo virgines 2 1 st. Singular -o, plural -ones . comedo septentrio caligo virago testudo turio caligines viragines testudines vibrio 22d. Gustos, custodes. 23d. Os, the mouth, pi. ora. 24th. Os, a bone, pi. ossa. 25th. Singular -x, plural -ces : Apex, appendix, s, aruspex, calx, carex, cicatrix, codex, cortex, crux, directrix, falx, faux, frutex, helix, matrix, nux, radix, rectrix, varix, vertex, vortex, s. 26th. Singular -x, plural -ges : rex, interrex, remex, the plural of which last is remiges. 27th. Sors, sortes. 28th. Singular -men, plural -mina : Cognomen, culmen, dictamen, foramen, gravamen, legumen, prsenomen, putamen, tegmen, tormen. 29th. Add -es to the singular anser, lar, passer, ren. 3Oth. Venter, ventres ; accipiter, accipitres. 3 1 st. Singular -r, or -re, plural -ria, mostly adjectives, of which the En'glish in -ar and Latin in -aria are the most common talaria. 32d. Singular in -/ or -le, plural lia, like the preceding : Bacchinalia, crealia, lupercalia, memorabilia, marginalia, quin- quinalia, regalia, saturnalia, semipedalia. 33d. Singular -ne, plural -nia, like the foregoing insigne, insignia. 34th. Singular, -or, plural -ores, and therefore like 2Qth, but in English books chiefly used in the plural, classifying birds and insects according to their habits. fossores, diggers grallatores, waders insessores, roosters scansores, climbers 248 English Grammar. 35th. Femur, femora. 36th. Glans, glandes ; f rons, frondes. 37th. Frons, f rentes ; quadrans, quadrantes ; vagans, va- gantes. 38th. Ruminans, ruminantia. 39th. Caput, capita. 4Oth. Hyems, hyemes. Greek Nouns that Retain the Greek Forms. 1st. Singular -ma, plural -mata : aroma enchondroma plasma asthma exanthema programma atheroma glaucoma regma bema gyroma rhizoma blastema lemma, s sarcoma carcinoma magma, s steatoma dogma, s melasma zeugma drama, s miasma, s zygoma enema, s neuroma enigma, s pedioma A considerable number are so far Anglicized as sometimes to drop the a of the singular, as miasm for miasma, and a still greater number, like aneurism, paradigm, problem, use the shorter form exclusively. 2d. Singular -on, plural -a : aphelion epiploon paralipomenon (apocryphon) etymon, s parhelion automaton, s ganglion, s phenomenon, s criterion, s liriodendron, s phytozoon entozoon lithobiblion prolegomenon eozoon lithodendron, s propylon epizoon noumenon rhododendron, s 3d. Singular -on, plural -ones : antichthon autochthon telamon 4th. Singular -as, plural -ades : dipsas dryas (hyas) hyades monas (pleias) pleiades. Nouns. 249 5th. Singular -as, plural -antes : atlas, s anabas 6th. Singular -is, plural ides : amaryllis cantharis glottis proboscis (anteris) caryatis hesperis parotis aphis chrysalis lepis pyramis apsis ephemeris nereis raphis oscaris epinyctis orchis 7th. Herpes, herpetes ; magnes, magnetes ; litotes, lito- tetes. 8th. Cacoethes, cacoethea. 9th. Singular -os, plural -ea : epos (epea) bathos (bathea) meros pathos (pathea). loth. Singular -os, plural -otes : Rhinoceros rhinocerotes, s megaceros monoceros. nth. Singular -ys, plural -yes : Erinys, didelphys, helamys, lagomys, pterichthys. 1 2th. Singular -s, plural -thes : Dinornis, enthelmins, epiornis, ichthyornis, megalornis. 1 3th. Singular -s, plural -es : Cyclops, elops, myops, nyctalops, ops, seps, thrips. 1 4th. Singular -x, plural -ces : Climax, donax, dropax, hyrax, labrax, narthex, pinax, spadix. 1 5th. Singular -x, plural ges : Apterix, archseopterix, coccyx, larynx, meninx, pharynx, salpinx. Greek Nouns, Latinized or Anglicized. The greater number of Greek nouns have become so thoroughly at home in the language that we seldom think of their being Greek. Apology, baptism, creosote, dynasty, euphony, hydrogen, iodine, lexicon, myth, nomad, octagon, panic, skeleton, telescope, are examples. To any of this large 250 English Grammar. class that admit of plurality, we merely add s in the same manner as if they were native words. A considerable number take a Latin form in the plural. Some of these have a form in the singular, identical with a Latin termination ; some change the termination of the sin- gular to conform to the Latin; and others have a Greek ending in the singular and Latin plurals. Thus -os and -ous are changed to -us in the singular, and, so far as I am aware, have their plurals in -i. On becomes um, with plural in a ; ai becomes a ; and eis, es. This Latinizing and Anglicizing has been carried out in a very haphazard way. This is well shown by the names compounded with odons, a tooth, or pous, a foot, for which the following are various substitutes. anodon mylodon bradypus melampode chsetodon pleurodont gasteropod platypod diphyodont prionodon heteropod platypus gyrodus pycnodont hexapod polypus labyrinthodont rhizodont lagopus rhizopod machairodus toxodon macropod mastodon antipode macropus megalodon apode megalapode Most of these words are scarcely to be found in the plural. Polypus is a word in common use with the Latin and English plurals polypi and polypuses. The most consistent course would be to give the plural in i to all that end in us, and treat the others as English. In that case our kindred on the other side of the globe would have only three syllables. 1st. Singular -a, plural -<#, not numerous : cotyla, or cotyle glama parusia epiphora lyssa synalepha exedra ozena trachea exorhiza paronychia trichina 2d. Singular -e, plural -ce the greater part of these either do not admit of plurals or take -s : Anagoge, apocope, apotome, diacope, diastole, epitrope, glene, hyperbole, metope, paraselene, parembole, pericope, perone, ploce, raphe, systole. Nouns. 251 3d. Singular -es, plural -<z : Cerastes, ascetes, Hermes, kolpodes, mycetes, sorites, thera- peutes, troglodytes. 4th. Singular -is, plural -es a very numerous class : Acropolis, anaesthesis, analysis, antithesis, aphairesis, apodosis, crisis, diagnosis, emphasis, enarthrosis, epanadiplosis, epiphysis, exegesis, hypostasis, hypothesis, mantis, metamorphosis, metemp- sychosis, phasis, prognosis, prytanis, symphasis, synthesis. Hebrew Nouns. Words from the Hebrew are few, and drawn mostly from the Bible. The masculine plural ends in -im ; cherubim, ser- aphim, teraphim, purim, urim, and thummim. Feminines end in -oth ; behemoth, mazzaroth, sabbaoth, and Succoth-Be- noth. The dual number ends in -aim, but is found only in proper names, as Mizraim for Egypt that is, the " two dis- tricts," of Upper and Lower Egypt ; Diblathaim, the two Diblahs. The form cherubims in the Bible is a double plural. French Nouns. Nouns still retaining a French character occur so often both in literature and conversation that it is desirable to know something of the principles on which their plurals are formed. As in English, the plurals generally end in s ; but when the singular ends in a sibilant s, x, or z it is not necessary to add another. fils, a son, plural fils choix, a choice, choix nez, the nose, nez Nouns ending in au, eau, eu, or a?u, add not merely s, but x, Esquimau, plural Esquimaux. bandeau feu rondeau beau, s flambeau tableau bureau, s morceau trousseau chapeau plateau voeu chateau radeau 252 English Grammar. There is of course a general tendency to assimilate all these words to the English usage. Bureau is the oftenest used, and perhaps the most unsettled. It is oftener written with s than with x. The United States statutes, and the acts of the executive government generally, give bureaus, but the Adjutant-General of the Army, one of the fountain- heads of ancestral etiquette, writes bureaux. Six nouns ending in -ou add -x in the plural. bijou, a jewel genou, the knee caillou, a pebble hibou, an owl chou, a cabbage joujou, a plaything Other nouns in -ou take s. Twenty-one nouns change -al to -aux. amiral fanal mineral animal g^n^ral quintal arsenal hopital rival canal madrigal signal capital mal total cheval mar^chal tribunal cristal metal vassal The others merely add s. Eleven change the singular termination -ail to -aux. The others generally take s. ail, garlic bail, a lease sous-bail, underlease corail, coral travail, work email, enamel van tail, a folding door soupirail, a vent Betail, an animal of the cattle kind, has a plural bestiaux. Nouns of one syllable ending in -ant or -ent add s gant, a glove, plural, gants ; dent, a tooth, dents. Those of more than one syllable generally omit the / enfant, a child, enfans. Italian Nouns. The Italian nouns met with in English books form their plurals mostly in a very simple and regular manner. Mascu- Nouns. 253 lines, whatever their terminations may be, change the final vowel of the singular to i in the plural. profeta a prophet profeti padre a father padri fratello a brother fratelli zio an uncle zii desio desire desii When the final vowel is preceded by an unaccented /, a second / is not added tempio, a temple, plural, tempi. There are also the following irregularities : hue an ox buoi Dio God dei and dii uomo man uomini All masculines ending in -ca t and most of more than one syllable ending in -co add h after the c in the plural, to pre- serve the sound. duca a duke duchi monarca a monarch monarchi banco a bank banchi imbarco amico medico embarcation a friend aphysician imbarqui amici medici Those ending in -go, except some words of more than two syllables, in which the g follows a vowel, insert an h in the plural for the same reason. sugo sugar sughi luogo a place luoghi Feminines in a change it to e in the plural. casa a house case strada a street strade Those ending in e or o, change it to i in the plural. madre a mother madri nube a cloud nubi mano a hand mani 254 English Grammar. Nouns ending in an accented vowel, and feminines in -ie, are alike in the singular and plural, except moglie, a woman of which the plural is moglL There are as usual some exceptions, but they are not likely to fall in the way of one whose reading is confined to English books. Compound Nouns. A great number of English nouns are formed by uniting two or more into one. The closeness of the union varies in every degree. Codfish, cowslip, and shepherd we scarcely think of as compounds ; dairy-farm and dead-reckoning are held together by feeble and transitory ties. The general principle is that the last element is the essential one, and all that precedes it is only descriptive, and of the nature of an adjective. A cart-horse is a horse, and a horse-cart is a cart, the first syllable in each instance serving as an adjective. And as adjectives in our language do not express number, the sign of plurality is added only to the last part. Thus we have cart-horses and horse-carts ; and those who speak of handsful and spoonsful are ignorant of the best established principles of the language. It matters not that the first element may represent a great number. A hundred cows grazing in a field may make it a ^w-pasture, but never a cows-pasture ; and a team of twenty oxen is only an 0.*r-team. Three or more nouns may be combined into one. Dog- tooth-spar is a spar, or crystalline mineral, that is not only shaped like a tooth, but like the tooth of a dog : still the plural would never be dogs-teeth-vpzx. The principle here laid down is fundamental and general, but subject to some real or apparent exceptions. In arms- length, beadsman, bondsman, gownsman, headsman, oars-man, swordsman, etc., the s is not plural but possessive, and the plurals are regularly formed. When the elements of a com- pound are so combined as to show in any way which is the essential one, that is the one to take the sign of plurality. A brother-in-law is not a law, but a brother in, by, or accord- Nouns. 255 ing to law, and the plural is brothers-in-law, just as the plural of a barrel of flour is barrels of flour, and not barrel of flours. The hyphen joining the two parts does not affect their rela- tion to each other. A few expressions have the noun before the adjective, in imitation of the French, cousin-german, falcon-gentil. The plurals are cousins-german, falcons-gentil, formerly written entirely in the French manner, with an s added to each part. Chaucer, in the " Tale of Melibeus," wrote cousins-germans ; and letters-patents occurs in a state paper dated July 25, 1400, preserved in Rymer's " Federa." Some compounds, survivals from the Middle Ages, still add s to both parts. Knights bachelors Knights companions bannerets Knights hospitallers banneret Knights grand crosses Knights commanders Knights Templars o Knights j It is not uncommon to hear people speak of a well-known benevolent organization as the knight templars ; and the War Department, in a circular of September 27, 1886, and several newspapers of the period, called the order knights templar, whether from ignorance or with intent to improve the language, I do not know. Nothing, however, is better established in our literature than the form Knights Templars, etc., for which the general reader may consult Burke's " Book of Knighthood," the works of Sir Walter Scott, and the recent and respectable authority of the Encyclopedia Britannica, article " Knighthood." The formation of such double plurals is not confined to the orders of knighthood. We also read of the "Lords Marchers," "the Lords High Admirals," "the Lords Jus- tices" "the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury." We might reconcile these expressions with our ideas of propriety by supposing the words, " who are," to be understood be- tween the plural words. We might suppose the gentlemen last indicated to be primarily and essentially Lords, who, for the time being, are Commissioners of the Treasury. But this will probably not hold good throughout ; and the 256 English Grammar. learner has to be often reminded that language is full of inconsistencies. On the other hand, we may suppose that the " Lord Chancellors," the " Lord Lieutenants," and the " Lord Mayors " are not necessarily Lords in their own right. The " Lord" is only a part of the title. Some titles made up of two or more words illustrate the general principle that the leading word is the noun, and alone takes the sign of plurality. There are Envoys Extra- ordinary, Ministers Plenipotentiary, and Consuls General. General was primarily an adjective, but in time certain gen- eral officers dropped their distinctive titles, were called merely generals, and so the word came to be sometimes an adjective and sometimes a noun. I have before me a book entitled "Opinions of the Attorneys General" ; and Post- masters General, Adjutants General, Paymasters General, are pretty well established both by official and common usage ; yet there are occasional dissenting voices. The American Medical Association, in a memorial to Congress, in 1874, speaks of Surgeon Generals ; and " Inspector Generals " occurs in an act of Congress dated March 19, 1862. When signifying a military officer of a certain grade, gen- eral is a noun, and the class is differentiated into brigadier generals, major generals, etc. ; for a major general is a general and not a major. But, unfortunately, the major is an un- stable element in the compound, for sergeant-majors (the expression is a bad one) are sergeants and not majors ; and drum-majors are neither majors nor drums. The British Army Regulations recognize Sergeant Majors, Drum Majors, Bugle Majors, and Trumpet Majors ; and in the American armies I have met with jife-majors that were quite plain fifers. There are a great number of appellations, each consisting of two or more words, the plurals of which are in an unsettled and unsatisfactory state. The principle above laid down, however sound, is not followed consistently. Moreover, It is not always obvious which word of a number is the essential one ; but we can generally analyze an expression and dis- cover what would accord with the fundamental analogies of Nouns. 257 the language. It may save the reader some trouble to restate the principle that applies here. The essential name or noun alone bears the mark of plurality. It is regularly placed last, and all qualifying or descriptive words precede it. In the further discussion of this subject, all examples marked as quotations are taken from printed books or publi- cations, and when important the sources will be given. The opinions of writers upon grammar are very conflicting, and but little importance is attached to them, as they are gener- ally mere individual judgments given without the support of any reason or principle. Still, so far as I have been able to glean, the majority agree with what here follows relative to compounds of which one part is an individual proper name. In our modern life we may treat the name of a person as consisting of two parts Thomas Osborne. It is common to call the first of these the Christian name, and the other the surname. But the expressions are very ill chosen. Our Hebrew friend, Moses Rosengarten, cannot properly be said to have a Christian name ; and surname ought to mean a name super-added a nickname like Longshanks, or Red- beard. More properly, the second name is the family name, the first the personal name. Our personal names are largely borrowed from the Jews ; our system of naming from the Romans. Our family name, corresponding to the Latin nomen and cognomen united, is the principal name. We speak of Bacon, Shakespeare, Milton, Newton, Wash- ington ; not Francis, William, John, Isaac, or George. These latter would be as good as no names at all, little more distinctive than the pronouns he and they. The personal names of even distinguished men are seldom heard, and many persons could not tell those of Descartes, Goethe, and Wordsworth. According, therefore, to the soundest analogy, the family name is to be placed last, and should bear the s of plurality. If any other word makes such a claim, it should be required to show its grounds of title. If there were two cousins bearing in common the name Mary Brent, I think it would be proper to speak of them as the 258 English Grammar. two Mary Brents, and not the two Maries Brent. The last is the essential name, to which the other stands related as an adjective. This holds good where both personal and family names agree. Suppose now we have Mary Brent and Sarah Brent, can we unite them into a plural ? Only imperfectly, and by ellipsis, Mary and Sarah Brent. Mary and Sarah Brents would be no better than a two-story and a three-story houses. Or let there be Mary Brent and Mary Barnet ; then, although I cannot prove the position, I think the Maries Brent and Barnet would not be good, but we should name each in full. " Yestreen the queen had four Maries, To-night she has but three. There were Mary Seatoun and Mary Beatoun, And Mary Carmichael and me." Sometimes the first part of a composite designation is not a personal name but merely a designation of rank, office, position, or occupation, as King, Duke, Lord, Judge, Doc- tor, Professor ; or it may be a mere title of courtesy, in itself signifying nothing : Sir, Mr., Mrs., Miss. Let w and x represent terms belonging to these two classes respec- tively. Again the several persons may have the same or different names. There are then four possible combinations : ist, w . a -j- b + c zd, w .a + a + # = ' . Z a 3d, x . a + b -\- c 4th, x ,a-\- a + a = x .30 I do not press the circumstance that in the second and fourth cases the family name naturally becomes plural. The reasons bearing upon the subject do not apply equally to these four cases. Case ist. The title may be repeated with each name. " lord Livingston, lord Boyd, lord Herris." ROBERTSON : " Hist, of Scotland." This is always safe and correct, and is preferred by those who wish to be both courteous and exact. As the title is significant it is sometimes the most important part, the names being added merely by way of explanation. Nouns. 259 " The two potent earls, Edwin and Morcar, had fled to London." HUME : " Hist, of England." " All this was managed by three or four aspiring bishops, Maxwell, Sidserfe, Whitford, and Bannantine." Bp. BURNET : " Hist." This is perhaps the starting-point of the usage, and is aided by the circumstance that feudal nobles were lords of certain estates. "the bishop of Orkney, the earls of Rothes and Casilis, lord Fleming, lord Seton, the Prior of St. Andrews. ROBERTSON : " Hist." But the general practice is now to make the first factor plural. " Drs. Whitcot, Cudworth, Wilkins, More, and Worthington." Bp. BURNET. This can be reconciled with the analogies of the language only by assuming the title to be the essential part, to which the name is subordinate. The only permissible alternatives are wa -f- wb -\- we and 3 w (a -\- b -J- c\ Case 2d. The most eminent writers on grammar, including Matzner and Dr. Priestley, agree that the mark of plurality should be attached to the name and not to the title. Dr. Priestley says : " When a name has a title prefixed, as Doctor, Miss, Master, etc., the plural affects only the latter of the two words; as the two Doctor Nettletons, the two Miss Thompsons " ; and Goldsmith mentions : " The two Doctor Thomsons," following the example of Shakespeare's " three Doctor Faustuses " in the " Merry Wives," v., 5. " Whence hapless Monsieur much complains at Paris Of wrongs from Duchesses and Lady Maries." POPE'S " Dunciad," book ii., i., 135. Dr. Latham gives the great weight of his authority in favor of " the two King Williams." " English Language," p. 399. It must be admitted that the opposite mode of expres- sion is quite as common. Carlyle speaks of the " Kings 260 English Grammar. John " (" Life of Frederick the Great," book ii., chap, xi.) ; but Carlyle is a writer often to be admired, but seldom to be imitated. We also read of " Dukes Hamilton " and " Lords Grey." Case 3d. The title is trivial, never the principal word, and therefore ought not to bear the mark of plurality. There may be an illustrious king, a great general, an eminent judge ; but we never meet with a great Sir, an eminent Mr., or an illustrious Mrs. The only unquestionable course is to give each title and name in full. No cultivated Eng- lishman would say : Sirs W'illiam and Robert, or Sirs Wil- liam Graham and Robert Sands. " Sir Edward Parry, Sir James Ross, Sir John Rickardson, Sir George Back." Edinb. Review, Oct., 1853. But a few years ago the daily papers of Washington filled columns with matter like the following : " Sirs James R. F. Appleby, John C. Athey, J. H. Barbarin, H. C. Craig, W. B. Easton." The editors probably did not feel called upon to re-write the matter sent to them for publication. Strictly speaking, Mr., or Mister, has no plural. The sub- stitute, Messrs., or Messieurs, remains French with no per- ceptible tendency to become English. Messrs. Box, Cox, Fox, & Co. is a concession to the hurry and urgency of trade, but is felt not to belong to a high type of speech. If we must have a common title for all men, in which case it ceases to mean anything, it is a pity that it could not be English, either native or adopted. Mrs. is in a still worse plight than Mr. It is unfortunately- pronounced Missis, and we do not often hear of Missises. In English publications we find Mesdames, which, as a word, has no connection with Mistress. It is not even the plural of Madam, but of Madame. In collecting " Society " no- tices for several years in the city of Washington, I have met with the word only once, and then applied to strangers and foreigners. It is habitually said that Mrs. A, Mrs. B, and Nouns. 261 Mrs. C, were present. So there is a depth of bad taste that we have not yet sunk to. If the people of London refuse to say "Sirs," those of Washington avoid " Mesdames," and so may call the matter even. But then we often encounter in " Society " the Misses Hop, Skip, and Jump, or other young ladies of equal distinction. I should prefer to allow each a repetition of the title, in the same manner as the matrons just mentioned. Still worse than any of the examples here given, is the case where an adjective is reduced to a mere fragment, and then treated as the principal word and made plural. " They were as follows : Revs. R. Johnson, Dr. Faunce, Hez. Swem, T. Cutwater, G. W. McCullough," etc. Reverend and honorable are adjectives, and properly have no plural forms. Case 4th. If there were two knights or baronets, each bearing the name of William Thompson, I do not think that any correct speaker would call them the Sirs William Thompson, or the Sir Williams Thompson. The point is in- susceptible of proof ; I can only express my own decided preference for the Sir William Thompsons. We cannot as in other cases repeat the title with each name, as there is only one name. " if hee were twenty Sir John Falstoffs he shall not abuse Rob- ert Shallow, Esquire." " Merry Wives of Windsor." " May there not be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science ? " Dr. WATTS. " 2nd July. I went from Wotton to Godstone (the residence of Sir John Evelyn), where was also Sir John Evelyn of Wilts, when I took leave of both Sir Johns and their ladies." " Evelyn's Diary," 1649. The genius of a language is best preserved by the rural gentry and yeomanry, who live remote from foreign influ- ence. On revisiting the home of my childhood after an ab- sence of twenty-seven years, I met on the road and accosted an old neighbor. He looked up a moment and said : " It 262 English Grammar. is one of the Mister Rarnseys, is it not?" The reader may think this poor authority ; I think it the very highest. And what else should he have said ? There is no plural of Mister in use ; and an intelligent farmer, guiltless of aping French fashions, is not to be held to say Messieurs. " Both the Mr. Bludyers of Mincing Lane have settled their fortunes on Fanny Bludyer's little boy." THACKERAY : " Vanity Fair." After what has been said under Case 3d, we may con- clude that the wives of two brothers named Brown may properly be called the Mrs. Browns. But the young ladies give more trouble. We are continually meeting with such groups as, " Misses Ada Bond, Bruden, Coleman, Aiken, Cox, Henning, Morsell." " Misses Schmidt," " the Misses Baker," and " the Misses Grouse." When one tells us of " Mrs. Con- dit Smith and the Misses Condit Smith," and another of " Mrs. and the Misses Preston," or " Misses and Mrs. John- son," the identity of sound is at least confusing. Although this way of designating young ladies is not the only one, it has been for a good many years the most common. Miss is a contraction or corruption of Mistress, which last was applied to women irrespective of age or domestic rela- tions down to the time of Addison. The earliest use of Miss, so far as I am aware, occurs in " Evelyn's Diary " under date of January 9, 1662. " In this * * * acted the fair and famous comedian called Roxalana, from the part she performed ; and I think it was the last, she being taken to be the Earl of Oxford's Miss (as at this time they began to call lewd women)." The word continued to be used occasionally as a disreputable term down to the present century ; and in early life I sev- eral times heard it so employed. It appears as a title dec- orating Miss Prue in Congreve's " Love for Love" in 1695. When applied to more than one person it does not appear to have been pluralized at first. Goldsmith makes us acquainted with "the Miss Flam- boroughs " and " the Miss Wrinkles " in the " Vicar of Nouns. 263 Wakefield," and "the Miss Hoggs" in "She Stoops to Conquer." " The two Miss Montagues," " Miss Charlotte and Miss Patty Montague," appear in Richardson's " Clarissa Harlowe," in 1748. " Mrs. Maplesone and the Miss Maplesones, * * * the two Miss Crumptons. * * * The four Miss Willises." DICKENS : " Sketches." "What tricks Theodore and I used to play on our Miss Wilsons." CHARLOTTE BRONTE : " Jane Eyre." " Don't you remember the two Miss Scratchleys ? * * * I wish you could have seen the faces of the two Miss Blackbrooks. * * * Lady Mcbeth and (2) Miss Mcbeths." THACKERAY : " Vanity Fair." " She would naturally desire that the Miss Guests should behave kindly to this cousin." GEORGE ELIOT : "Mill on the Floss." " Tell me about the Miss Leyburns." " The two Miss Bate- sons."" Robert Elsmere." It is scarcely necessary to say that I prefer the style of these last quotations. Some expressions borrowed unchanged from more inflected languages add the sign of plurality to both parts : SINGULAR PLURAL compos mentis compotes mentium ignis fatuus ignes fatui latus rectum latera recta Others are foreign phrases analogous to the English brother- in-law. Lusus nature, a sport of nature, is the same in both numbers, because the letters of lusus are so. aide-de-camp aides-de-camp chevar-de-frise chevaux-de-frise fleur-de-lis fleurs-de-lis Cheval-de-frise is literally a horse of Friesland, and obviously the plural is not horses of Frieslands. But when the expres- sion ceases to be true to the original, and becomes a mere English phrase, an s should be added only at the end. 264 English Grammar. flower-de-luce flower-de-luces aid-de-camp aid-de-camps " Nine hundred Pater nosters every day, And thrice nine hundred Aves she was wont to say." SPENSER'S " Faerie Queene." Some words are plural only in appearance, as if by a kind of mimicry. The following are the principal : Arras, a kind of tapestry made at Arras in France. Cypers, fine muslin named from Cyprus. Dolichos, name of a leguminous plant. Guills, the corn marigold. Gules, the red color in heraldry. Nems, an animal like the ichneumon. Psoas, a muscle in the loin. Quickens, dog-grass. Sanhedrim has the appearance of a Hebrew plural, but is really a Greek singular. Schnapps, spirituous liquor, especially gin. Summons, not plural of a singular summon, but from an old legal French term semonse. Thrips, an insect destructive to vines. W^OOS, a kind of sea-weed. If words like these mimic plurality, there are others that may be said to mimic humanity. Compounds whose last part is man, meaning a human being, change it to -men in the plural. Such are horseman, leman, seaman, yeoman, woman, Welshman; but others, having altogether the same appear- ance, are not so formed. The principal words that have the semblance of being compounds of man are : ataman dolmen Ottoman brahman dragoman shaman cayman hetman Turcoman desman Mussulman all of which add s dollman norman, a short wooden bar But, as it is extremely rare to find anything in language consistent throughout, while the plural of Northman is Nouns. 265 Northmen, that of Norman essentially the same word is Normans. The probable reason is that the latter reached us not as a native Teutonic but as a French word. There are also expressions often used as nouns, but which are so only by a kind of mimicry. They occur chiefly in accounts of legal or religious proceedings, and have oftenest the appearance of being Latin nouns, but those I refer to are never nominative singulars, and so do not admit of Latin plurality. When used as plurals they are to be taken as single phrases, and s added, as if they -were English words. aborigine, ab origine Kyrie quid nunc aegrotat levari facias qui tarn alias magnificat quorum alibi mandamus quota ave memento quo warranto benedicite miserere rebus capias mittimus recipe certiorari nunc dimittis retraxit credo omnibus scire facias de profundis omnium sederunt dirige pater noster subpoena fiat pluries supersedeas fieri facias postea Te Deum gaudeamus praecipe veni Spiritus habeas corpus proemunire venire facias ignoramus procedendo venite inspexhnus propaganda These are conspicuous words in certain formulas, and so have gained currency as their names. A few nouns remain with peculiarities that do not admit of classification. Acquaintance. One person with whom we are intimate is an acquaintance ; two or more are acquaintances ; but, again, the collective body of such are our acquaintance. " And they sought him among their kinsfolk and acquaintance." LUKE ii., 44. 266 English Grammar. Alms. Originally and properly singular ; Greek, fAOffvrrf} ecclesiastical Latin, eleemosyna ; A.-S., celmcesse, in three syllables. Robert of Gloucester, A.D. 1303, wrote it almesse, still three syllables. Next the final syllable was dropped. Wycliffe, Sir Thomas More, and the Bible of 1513 make it almes. Lastly the e was elided and the original six syllables reduced to one. The most familiar evidence that the word is properly singular is the passage, Acts iii., 3, where the lame man asks " an alms " of Peter and John. Steele also in the beginning of the last century spoke of " a plentiful alms." The many compound words, too, in which alms serves as an adjective alms-basket, alms-deed, alms- house show that the word is properly singular ; still it is now treated oftenest as a plural. Aloes. Is the word singular or plural ? two syllables or three ? In any case the word has been applied to two entirely different things. First there is lignaloes, which I know only as a rendering of the Hebrew ahalim in the proph- ecy of Balaam, Num. xxiv., 6, although the same article is mentioned, Psalm xlv., 9 (Hebrew text), Prov. vii., 17, and Canticles iv., 14, where our version has merely aloes. In the four passages of the Hebrew text the word is twice mascu- line and twice feminine, but always plural. As the Greeks heard the word spoken by Phoenician traders J they picked it up as aloe, and they and the Romans treated it as a sin- gular. The name lignaloes is the Latin lignum-aloes wood of the aloe- slightly anglicized. The last part of the name is not plural but a Greek singular genitive ; and I suspect that this unusual Latin form may have led to the treatment of the word in English as a plural in short that like several others it is a plural through mistake. The article denoted by the name is a sweet-smelling Indian wood, allied to san- dal-wood, still an article of commerce under the name of eagle-wood, and the resin obtained from the same. Botanists call the tree agallochum, or aquilaria. This is the only aloes 1 Bochart long ago observed (Phaleg, ii., 31) that all the names of spices among the Greeks were Shemitic and received from the Phoenicians. Compare Gen. xxxvii., 25. Nouns. 267 known to Scripture, and has no connection with medicinal aloes. The name is most correctly pronounced as three syllables, as in the metrical version of the Psalms used in the Church of Scotland. " Of cassia, myrrh and aloes A smell thy garments had." PSALM xlv. The drug known as aloes is the dried juice of several species of large tropical plants. How the name came to be transferred from the one vegetable product to the other is not clear. Possibly the dried juice of the plant had a re- semblance to the resin of the tree. Our Saxon forefathers adopted the word as a plural under the form alewan. "And Nichodemus * * * brohte wyrt-gemang and alewan" JOHN xiii., 39. Through all changes the word has kept the plural form in English, but it is used as singular or plural almost indif- ferently. Lexicographers incline to treat it as singular, while medical men generally use it as a plural. Amends has had the plural form since the early part of the fourteenth century, but is used with a singular verb. Bellows A.-S. baelg, baelig, bylig, belg, a bag, the belly : used in the plural, bean-belgas, for bean-pods ; spelled bely by Chaucer, of which the plural was belies. The present form is clearly plural like tongs, pincers, and other implements com- posed of corresponding halves ; yet it is generally treated as singular. " flattery is the bellows bl<nvs up sin." SHAKES?.: "Pericles," i., 2. " They watched the laboring bellows, And as its panting ceased." LONGFELLOW. Breeches a double plural. A.-S. brdc, plural br/c, like the plurals of book, foot, goose, tooth, etc., or rather of their A.-S. originals. Middle English plural breke or breche. 268 English Grammar. When men began to forget that breche or breech was plural they added es. Cattle Middle English catel and chatel, identical with the old French catel and chatel, derived remotely from the Latin caput, the head, through capitalis, capitate, pi. capitalia, capi- tal. At first property of any kind, but chiefly domestic animals. Of the two forms one became cattle, expressing plurality in the form of a singular, and the other became chattel, oftenest used in the plural. Cloth signified originally either a garment or the material from which it might be made. We have now an old plural, clothes a very unusual form meaning garments, and a new plural, cloths, for material not made up. Coal. As an article of common use it is mostly called coal in America and coals in England. Die, from Old French det, later de", pi. dez, des. Chaucer has a plural dys, but some copies give dees, which is etymo- logically more correct, and is the form used by " Piers Plow- man." Shakespeare makes the singular dye and the plural dice (" Winter's Tale," i., 2, 133). Bulwer Lytton, in " Pel- ham," wrote one dice, an example not to be recommended. What is curious about this word is that its compounds and derivatives are made from the plural dice, and not from the singular die dice-box, dice-player. " There is such dicing-houses also, they say, as had not been wont to be, where young gentlemen dice away their thrift, and where dicing is there are other follies also." Bp. LATIMER : Sermon v., before King Edward. The probable reason is the necessity for distinguishing the three words, dying, dyeing and dicing. Die, as an instrument for stamping, has the plural dies. Eaves A.-S. efese, edge or brink, is etymologically singu- lar ; and so, like alms, plural through mistake. As the/" was sounded like v, one of the first changes was to substitute the latter. It was still a singular with the plural written eveses by Robert Manning, otherwise called Robert de Brunne, I337> and " Piers Plowman," 1362. After that time eves was Nouns. 269 mistaken for a plural without a singular. The original form is shown by the compounds, which are made with eaves and not eave eaves-board, eaves-dropper. Folk a common collective word for an indefinite number of persons, for the community in general. Used with a plural verb. In England it is more common to say folk are, and in America folks are ; but the usage is not uniform in either country. Here folk seems rather affected, and folks is no novelty in England. " Yet merry folks who want by chance A pair to make a country dance, Call the old house-keeper and get her To fill a place for want of better." SWIFT : " Stella's Birth Day." " Necessity and a little common sense produced all the com- mon arts, which the plain folks who practised them were not idle enough to record." WALPOLE'S " Anecdotes of Painting," chap. 5. Gallows strictly plural of a singular gallow, in use down to the middle of the sixteenth century. Kington Oliphant ("New English," chap. 2) quotes, "4 payre of galowys" from the early part of the fifteenth century. This instru- ment of execution was next called simply the gallows, and on the supposition that the name was singular a duplicate plural, gallowses, was formed. " The fear of gallowses and ropes Before their eyes might reconcile Their animosities a while." " Hudibras," part in., ii., 716. I have also met with gallowses in the Spectator, but have mislaid the reference. All the extant compounds are made with gallows none with gallow. Genius has a Latin pluralgenn for the creatures of Eastern fable and story, and English geniuses for persons of rare mental gifts. Horse. We use horse for one animal, horses for several, and again horse for a body of cavalry or troops on horseback. 270 English Grammar. Horse and foot, a phrase that came into use in the early part of the seventeenth century, may be an abbreviation for horsemen and footmen. The collective singular, horse, is not generally applied to animals without riders, yet Byron's " Mazeppa " was met by " A thousand horse, and none to ride." Index has a Latin plural, indices, for the characters that distinguish algebraic powers and roots, and the English indexes, when the word is employed otherwise. Madam, Fr. Madame, ma dame, Latin mea domina, Eng. my lady. At present no other plural is in use than Mesdames, which is sadly out of tune with our mother tongue. As Madam is no longer pure French, I think Madams not only permissible but preferable. Means Old French meien, Mod. Fr. moyen, Latin me- dium from medius, middle ; used as a noun or an adjective in reference to a point between extremes, as mean time, mean annual temperature, a safe mean between extremes. It next gets the sense of an intermediate agency by the aid of which anything is done. " The virtuous conversation of Christians was a mean to work the conversion of the heathen." HOOKER. But in this sense it generally takes the plural form. The word occurs thirty-two times in the Bible, but always as means. It takes singular or plural verbs and pronouns indifferently. "By this means thou shalt have no part on this side the river." EZRA iv., 16. "By these means, the queen had collected an army twenty thousand strong." HUME'S " Hist, of England," chap. xxi. Memorandum has two plurals, Lat. and Eng. memoranda and memorandums. A useful distinction is sometimes made by confining the former to a number of notes taken collec- tively, and the latter to notes that are separate and inde- pendent. For example : " He shewed me a paper containing Nouns. 271 memoranda relating to," etc. " He drew from his pocket a number of memorandums" Mister a thin and meagre degradation of Master, sup- posed to be formed in imitation of Mistress, which latter is from maister-ess. It is rarely, if at all, met with in the plural, for which the French Messieurs is commonly used. Mister is bad, Madam worse, but Mesdames and Messieurs, set among English words, are utterly execrable. Molasses. The older form melasses was more correct, being a regular plural of the Fr. melasse, from the Portu- guese melac.0. The word is a true plural, and was formerly so used : " The molasses will find their own outlets." BECKFORD'S "Account of Jamaica," 1790, vol. ii., p. 79. See also Encyclopedia Britannica, Art. " Sugar." It is now very commonly treated as a singular. News and tidings, plurals in form construed as singulars. Odds, meaning odd things, came into use about A.D. 1 500. It soon took the sense of difference or inequality, and in a hundred years began to be used as a singular : " I cannot speake Any beginning to this peevish oddes" " Othello," ii., iii., 185. and is now treated indifferently as singular or plural. Penny has two plurals. Six coins of that denomination are six pennies ; their value is sixpence, which admits of a plural of the second order, in a handful of silver sixpences. Pox, the only plural in x, standing tor pocks, the plural of pock, meaning the disease now commonly called small-pox. " Yes, I have known a lady sick of the small pocks, only to keep her from pit-holes, take cold, strike them in again, kick up her heels, and vanish." BEAUM. & FLETCH., " Fair Maid of the Inn." That pock is the true singular appears from its use as an adjective in pock-mark, pock-pitted, etc. ; yet pox is now used entirely as a singular. 272 English Grammar. Pulse. There are two quite different words. The one now in common use is from the Lat. pulsus, a stroke, a beat- ing, a throbbing. Curiously enough, it was often mistaken for a plural about the beginning of th'e present century, when doctors were wont to say : " Your pulse are weak to-day." The other word is rarely met with, but is an old collective term for peas, or, if any one prefer, pease, singular in form but construed as a plural. " And Barzillai the Gileadite of Rogelim brought beds, and basins, and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and flour, and parched corn, and beans, and lentiles, and parched pulse" 2 SAM. xvii., 28. Riches Fr. richesse, richness, wealth an original singu- lar, converted into a plural through misapprehension as early as Chaucer's time. Sixpence see penny. Summons from Old Fr. semonse, a warning, is, and always was, a singular, although it has the appearance of a plural. Twelvemonth, a curious singular form for the plural twelve months. Like it but more reduced is fortnight for fourteen nights. Wages, from the singular wage, payment, used mostly in the plural form since the beginning of the fourteenth century. " The wages of labor, however, are much higher in North America than in any part of England." SMITH'S " Wealth of Nations." The old singular is often seen in these days in compound words in news-articles relating to wage-workers. After the plural forms have been ascertained, many ques- tions arise as to whether certain words are to be treated as singular or plural. If the form alone were conclusive there could be no question ; but singular nouns are often treated as plurals, and plural nouns as singular. The distinction depends in part on the form of the word, and partly on the Nouns. 273 nature of the thing or aggregate signified ; and we need not expect strict consistency in adjusting conflicting claims. Cattle, singular in form, is always treated as plural, while game, meaning wild animals hunted for food or amusement, however numerous, is singular. So is stock, which is nearly equivalent to cattle. Poultry, birds domesticated for eco- nomic reasons, and craft, a marine term, are either singular or plural. Nouns singular in form, denoting collective bodies of per- sons, are sometimes treated as singular, and at other times as plural. The only rational principle of distinction applica- ble here is, that when the aggregate acts as a unified body it is singular ; where the action or passion is individual the whole is to be treated as plural. This may be made clearer by a few examples, and first by three that I deem incorrect. " The prisoners taken in this action had their right foot cut off." HUME : " Hist, of England," chap. iv. The amputation could apply to the prisoners only as indi- viduals, and they must have had more than one right foot among them. " The circle of men was talking indiscriminately to both." " Robert Elsmere." Better, were talking. " There was a score of candles sparkling round the mantle- piece."" Vanity Fair." It was the individual candles that sparkled. We may properly say that a mob crosses a bridge, advances upon the city, fills and obstructs the streets ; but the mob shout, throw stones, and break into stores, for these are the acts of individuals, those of a collective mass. So a political party is singular in favoring or opposing a public measure, but plural in voting. We may say that an army marches at daybreak, and encamps on the bank of a river ; but we never say that it eats breakfast, puts on its shoes, or washes its face. Again a class of persons is generally plural ; an organized body, acting as such, is singular. 18 274 English Grammar. The clergy are exempt from military duty. The Senate is in session. Branches of science whose names end in -ics acoustics, hydrostatics, mathematics, optics, therapeutics are treated as singular. " Physics regulates more completely our social life than does his acquaintance with surrounding bodies regulate that of the savage." HERBERT SPENCER. A proper name, plural in form, is correctly used as a singular. " The Three Sisters (name of a brig) was spoken off Cape Hatteras." " ' The Hundred Wives ' is to be acted to-night." " ' English Bards and Scotch Reviewers ' is more bitter than witty." The national designation of this country, covering, as it now does, forty-four commonwealths, is sometimes used as a singular, and sometimes as a plural. Unquestionably it was regarded at first as plural. It is plural in the Constitu- tion, in President Washington's proclamation of April 22, 1793, and in the letters of " Pacificus " and " Helvidius " (Hamilton and Madison) ; but lately it is beginning to be used as a singular. The name is treated as a singular in the treaty with Corea, ratified May 22, 1882 ; in Elaine's reply to Gladstone in the North American Review for January, 1890, and in the article " United States," written for the Encyclopedia Britannica by Prof. Johnston. The change thus begun is as much political as grammatical. In the early days of the Republic the plurality of origin was kept more before men's minds than the unity of result. They emphasized the pluribus of the common motto rather than the unum ; but since 1865 there has been a greater feeling of nationality. Numbers expressing value, magnitude, distance, etc., and not individual entities, are properly treated as singular; yet usage, which is much divided, inclines to plurality. It will be readily seen how harsh and strained the following ex- amples are as plurals. Nouns. 275 Two hours are not long to wait. Forty degrees below zero are extremely cold. Seven feet are a great height for a man. Ten dollars are too much for these boots. The best writers very generally speak of a sum of money as a singular unit. " 6oo,oool, which was enough to procure a peace." BP. BURNET. " A thousand a year was thought a large revenue for a barris- ter." MACAULAY : " Hist.," chap. iii. " Moreover this forty millions does not * * * represent the whole amount to be expended under the Government bill." ARTHUR J. BALFOUR. But how little this is adhered to will be seen by three in- stances Sumner's " History of American Currency," and the reports of the Secretary of the Treasury and the Direc- tor of the Mint for 1889. The first treats a sum of money, stated in figures or words, as plural ; in the second it is seven- teen times plural and six times singular, in the last seventeen times plural and five times singular. The distinction does not seem to depend upon any principle. A case belongs here that involves the question of what is a plurality. Authorities usually give two definitions as if they were synonymous, which they are not, viz., " more than one," and " two or more." Now i comes under the first, but not under the second. Is it then singular or plural ? The short-hand style of trade adopts \\ cents, which is not according to sound analogy. One and a half loaves is equiv- alent to a whole and a half loaves, which certainly would not be good. The correct expression is a loaf and a half = a whole loaf and a half loaf, which would then be plural. THE CASES OF NOUNS. Number and gender are inherent and permanent. So long as they live, three men never become more or less than three ; nor do they ever change their gender and become women. But their relations to other persons and things may 276 English Grammar. change at any time, and to an indefinite extent. If I say, " The man is riding a bay horse," the man is the principal thing spoken of, and he is represented as doing something. But if I say, " The mans horse has run away," the horse becomes the chief actor, and the man is named only on account of his relation of ownership to the animal. Rela- tions between things may be expressed in several ways, of which four are quite common. First, as in this instance, a change in or addition to the word. Second, by little words whose office is to express the relations of one thing to others. Such are, of, to, by, from, with, which, from being very often placed before nouns, are called prepositions that is, placings-before. Third. Another class of relations are expressed by such words as my, your, his, etc. Fourth. Certain relations are expressed by words repre- senting action of some kind. In " The dog chased a wolf," and " A wolf chased the dog," the relation of pursuer and pursued is reversed. The first and third of these modes usually express but a small number of relations ; the fourth is limited to the one general relation of the actor and the thing acted upon, un- less we take into account the meaning of every separate verb. The second is co-extensive with the number of prepo- sitions. Although there is not entire agreement as to the definition of case, it is very generally limited to the first above model. I shall use the term to denote a modification in the form of a noun or pronoun to express a relation, not anything inher- ent in the subject of the noun or pronoun. The lively fancy of the Greeks represented that form of the noun which denoted the doer as standing upright, and all the others as falling away from it at varying angles of declination or " declension," These slanting forms they called ptoseis, or fallings. It was a foolish whim, as ground- less as it was useless. In the Greek word for a woman the essential part \s gunaik, but that form which represents her Nouns. 277 as being or doing anything is gune, a wider departure than the most prostrate of the fallen cases. The Romans trans- lated literally the ptoseis of the Greeks, and called them casus, fallings, our modern cases ; but they applied the name equally to what the latter supposed to stand upright. They called it the casus rectus, upright case, and the others casus obliqui, oblique or slanting. To their practical minds the terms denoted merely certain variations in the forms of words. There have been persons capable of arguing that what stood upright could not be falling, and that therefore what Cicero called the casus rectus was not a case at all. I am not sure that this race of subtle dialecticians is extinct yet. We come next to the question, how many cases we should reckon. To answer this the definition above given requires to be further guarded. If it should so happen that any word had two case forms that might be used interchange- ably throughout, having no difference of signification, we might properly say that there was but one case variously expressed. Again, if a certain noun had but one form to express two relations, while other nouns in the language had two forms, we should conclude that the exceptional word had two of its cases alike. It is difficult to find apt examples in English, although they are abundant in other languages, but the following will give an approximate idea. " Moses' law " and " Moses's law " are the same thing, while " sheep's wool " may mean the wool of one sheep or of several. Moreover, if the same case form be used through- out the language for three different relations, that will not make three cases, but only one ; and it matters not that its place is taken by three in some other language. What is called the ablative case in Latin expresses the place where anything is, the instrumentality with which a thing is done, and the source from which anything is obtained ; still it is only one case, and is uninfluenced by the circumstance that in Sanskrit there are three separate cases for these purposes. Hence the absurdity, so long persisted in, of assigning to English nouns precisely the cases claimed for Latin. If an 278 English Grammar. algebraic expression may be permitted, to make n cases there must be n forms with at least n corresponding func- tions. It will not matter that in some particular words a part of what are supposed to have been once separate forms have become indistinguishable. If they be preserved in some other words of the same class, they are to be recognized. In the following examples " The man is waiting, A dog bit the man, Man ! wait a moment, That is the track of a man, I gave the letter to the man, The horse was stopped by the man, Go with the man, It was taken from the man," the word man remains unchanged, and any noun in the language would yield a like result. How many cases then are here exhibited ? I think there is only one, and as it is used in so many different relations, I shall call it the common case. The term common has often been used for an an- alogous purpose in reference to the gender of mice, spar- rows, and the like, not easily distinguishable. There is one other form, that seen in the sentence, " This is the mans house," and as this always expresses possession or ownership, I shall call it by the usual name of the possessive case. Although most grammarians have recognized at least three distinctions, there is no novelty in thus limiting them to two. The same thing has been done by Ben Jonson, Charles Butler (1633), Fowle ("True English Grammar"), Web- ber, Jamieson (Rhetoric), Priestley, Ash, Bicknell, Dalton, Hyde, Clarke (London, 1853), Webster (" Imperial Grammar," 1831), Latham, Maetzner, and, at one time, by Lindley Murray. For reasons similar to those exhibited in the chapter on Word-Making, it is now generally held that case endings were originally separate words pronouns, prepositions, etc., that they became by frequent repetition closely associated with nouns, that by rapid and careless utterance they gradually lost part of their articulate sounds and ceased to be recognizable as separate words. Nay, they became in time so far reduced that often they were not distinguishable from each other, and in many instances not a vestige of them was left. But at their best, as known to us, they have Nouns. 2 79 generally failed to indicate all the relations required to be expressed. The Hebrew language has eleven terminations for nouns, which I think might, without overstraining the term, be called case endings, and Magyar has twenty-four ; but both have recourse to separate words to express many relations. Latin has six cases, but employs besides forty- three prepositions. Often the prepositions render the case endings unnecessary. In languages as we now know them, separate words can often do all the work ; case endings never can. But where the latter are competent, they are the .neatest, " The parson's house " is in that respect better than " The house of the parson," two syllables shorter. Cases may thus become matter of taste rather than necessity of ornament than use. They will be prized by the scholar who cultivates elegance, not by the illiterate who need great plainness. So there is a constant tendency to lose case end- ings. The illustration (p. 280) of their gradual decrease within the Aryan family of languages will be of interest. The Sanskrit alone appears to have all the cases complete ; yet that apparent completeness is deceptive. But few words have separate forms for all the cases in the singular, and none have them in the dual and plural. Moreover, if it were possible to go back a thousand years farther into the dawn of time, we might find that the extant Sanskrit had lost a number of cases before it came within the range of vision. No noun in any of these languages, except in the almost un- inflected English and French classes, has all the forms to which it is theoretically entitled. One case, the vocative, is especially defective. When it differs from the nominative it is shorter adapted to shouts and exclamations. It is never found but in the singular. In Latin it is confined to the singulars of a not very large class of words ; and in Russian to a few archaic terms of the Church service. We see here how the number of cases has dwindled till Italian, Spanish, and French nouns have no trace of them. In English the accusative or objective case is found only in the seven mono- syllables me, thee, him, her, us, them, and whom ; and in order to follow the analogy of these pronouns a majority of 280 English Grammar. . 1 sf 'rt M H w 6 u w ^en CJ M >-) o E U en O <U (A O S5 2 JjJ C en i ^M <J <U *y U <U M 5S O 5 <u "2 !* % o S S s E 'C C 6 5 nJ O <OJ <u u O X o en 6 en en o O3 < <" ,<e <C * 03 <C u en M en H O w; ^ en en en * i O <d 1C 1C 45 Xn k U! i } f Ji ^^~ (Si 43 3 o r< ^ O O *i ^ IS Q fc k te 1 Jj en s i D H 2 3 JpJ *+3 C C n e B a M *U O <U 1> <D > > > > > > S o 3 rt 'rt a r^ . *^i ^ r^i ^ ^ ^ 3 [3 rG J3 O O ,C U o id IS (J M rt cj rt 3 13 *^3 H S S S S S 1 en 9 r D 2 aj rt nS s a <o u K r^ r^ r^ r^ M rl<i rM S* '% '% ? 'ft ^ '?. '1 U en a B ^ en 1 rf rt rt O <cj <cj ds V rt ci rt 3 ci ctf nJ a M G C C C3 C a o a Accus H en 2 (( < M Q < IB H O u H Nouns. 281 writers on grammar assign an objective case to all nouns by a kind of legal fiction. In confining the distinction of cases, however, to those for which there are distinct forms, we should have the countenance of the French, Spaniards, and Italians, who do not attribute cases to their nouns merely because pronouns have them. Moreover, when English writers treat of the Anglo-Saxon stage of our language, they assign only two numbers to nouns, although the personal pronouns had three ; and we never speak of the number, gender, or case of adjectives because nouns are thus dis- tinguished. If then nouns have two case forms, one denoting posses- sion, and the other used in common in all other relations, this distinction may, and does, hold good for both the singu- lar and the plural. We have already seen the various forms of the common case, and it remains only to consider the possessive in both numbers. In Anglo-Saxon the most dis- tinctive, and one of the most common endings of the posses- sive singular was -es, and gradually all the other forms gave way to this one, so that there is not now a noun in the language that forms its possessive on any other pattern. At the same time a considerable number of nouns had plurals in -as ; and, as we have seen, all but a very few eventually adopted that style. The common plural, therefore, and pos- sessive singular were a good deal alike ; and in the very lax spelling that prevailed up to the age of Elizabeth, and even later, both were indiscriminately made with -es, -is, -ys, and -s alone. All through the sixteenth century the declension of an English noun was : Sing. garden Plur. gardenes gardenes gardenes except that instead of -es, there might be -is, -ys, or -*-. When the common case ended with a hissing sound the ear could seldom distinguish -es or -is from his, and that crept into use as a fifth form of the possessive. This form is quite old, being found a number of times in the second manuscript of Layamon's " Brut," second half of the thirteenth century : 282 English Grammar. "he was Vther his sone." " his brode sweord he vt droh and vppe Colgrim his helm smot." It continued in use down to the eighteenth century, chiefly with sibilants : " Hercules his club," " Orpheus his lyre," " Ulysses his dog," " Phalaris his bull." It was even believed that his was the original, of which the shorter forms were only corruptions. In the I35th Spectator Addison undertook to tell what he knew about English, which seems to have been but little ; and he says of the possessive s : "I might here observe that the same single letter on many occasions does the office of a whole word and expresses the his and her of our forefathers." In the absence of direct evidence, it would be a strange derivation to suppose s a substitute for her ; and the same reasoning would derive it from their in " children's play." Even admitting these to be blundering imitations of his, the question remains : Is not his formed from he by adding a possessive s ? The truth is that throughout the Aryan family s, with or without modifying vowels, is one of the most common possessive endings. In Versification it is convenient to be able to vary the length of a word by adding or omitting a syllable. The omission is the most common, and syllables already feebly pronounced are the victims. Our early poets wrote in full, and trusted to the ear and intelligence of the reader to leave some letters and syllables unpronounced. The rhythm might require " landes," for example, to be read in one place as two syllables, and in another as one. At length writers fell upon the expedient of omitting silent letters and marking their place with the sign ( ' ) which now occurs so often in our poetry. " But I must leave the proofs to those who 've seen 'em." BYRON. At the beginning of the seventeenth century these abbre- viations were employed, but not especially to denote the Nouns. 283 possessive case, but rather more frequently for other pur- poses : " and for the rest o' th' fleet." SHAKESP. : "Tempest." "Your Son 's my Father's friend." " Cymbeline." " Loves Labour 's Lost." " thou hast pared thy wit o' both sides, and left nothing i' th' middle. " Lear." The following examples from Sir Walter Raleigh will show how the plural and the possessive singular were expressed in prose : " the last of Jehu's house " ; " Zachariahs death " ; " Uzziah's life " ; " Uzziah his reign " ; " Menahem his Raigne " ; " the Painters wives Island " ; " Jesus the son of Sirach his book " ; " Cato his family " ; " The Scipio's marched into Thessaly " ; " The ingratitude of Rome to the two Scipio's " ; " Sibyls verses " ; " in Ahaz time " ; " Ahaz his fourteenth year " ; " Apolloes priests " ; " the three Ara- bia's " ; " then were the negro's not men." This way of ex- pressing the plurals of words ending in vowels continued for a long time. Sir Thomas Browne, in his " Pseudodoxia " (1650), speaks of " Several sorts of torpedo's " ; " Hyaena's " etc., of " feathers brought from the Molucca's " ; of " Halo's " and " Hydra's." A single sentence relative to the standards of the Twelve Tribes will illustrate his manner of expressing the possessive singular : " But Abenezra and others, beside the colours of the field, do set down other charges, in Reubens the form of a man or man- drake, in that of Judah a Lyon, in Ephraims an Ox, in Dan's the figure of an Aigle." I have observed but one other instance of the modern possessive in the whole work. The wits of Queen Anne's time wrote of " extraordinary genio's " (Tatler, l/io); "Voluptuous concerts of Venus's and Adonis's (Censor, April 20, 1/15); and of the" Hilpa's and Nilpa's that lived before the flood " (Spectator, No. 609). 284 English Grammar. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1780 may be read: " Vesuvius does not exhibit any lava's irregularly crystal- ized, and forming what are vulgarly called Giants Cause- ways." Let the reader here observe the word Giants. The last instance of this kind that I shall cite is from Gordon's " History of American Independence " (London, 1788) : " It was projected and brought on by Messrs. Otis's, father and son." Thus it took two hundred years to settle the single point, that Johns should mean belonging to John, and should mean nothing else. When a word ends with any sound of s, the addition of another will sometimes produce an excessive and unpleasant hissing. Most readers will agree with me that " Moses's serpent " " and Caucasus's hard rock " (Spectator, Nos. 14 and 6 1 1), Ulysses's shipwreck and righteousness's sake, are far too sibilant ; but there is a wide diversity of opinion as to the proper limit. Usage differs ; and in such a case usage is the law. The Bible has " Moses' hands," " Jesus' disciple," for " righteousness' sake," " asking no questions for conscience' sake " ; the Spectator (135) speaks of " Hudi- bras doggrel expressions," and " St. James* Garden Hill Church." In Oliphant's " New English " we find such phrases as " Stubbes' remarks," " Erasmus Greek Testa- ment," " Ellis' Letters," and " Monkbarns' lykewake." On the other hand I have met with " Jesus's " in two quite respectable and very recent publications. Out of the chaos we may deduce the following general conclusions : 1. As 's is now the sign of the possessive, presumption is always in its favor, until a reason can be shown for its omis- sion. That reason can only be that too many sibilants are difficult to utter or unpleasant to hear. 2. The longer the word the more cumbersome the addition is felt to be. 3. Add the 'j to all words of one syllable. " The vera topmost tow'ring height O Miss's bonnet." BURNS. Nouns. 285 " Binding his foal unto the vine, and his ass's colt unto the choice vine." BIBLE. 4. To words of more than one syllable do not add 'j, if it would make three sibilants close together. 5. In no case add 's to words of more than three syllables, so as to make Semiramis's or Telemachus's. 6. Most words of two syllables, not having two sibilants near the end, will bear the addition of 's Thomas, Morris, Ellis, Peters, Sickles. If the last syllable be accented it will bear the addition Hortense, Delmas, Dundas, Fordyce, Laplace, Maclise, Pelouze. If the last syllable be of considerable vol- ume, but unaccented Greatrakes, Helmholtz, Leibnitz, Monk- barns the 's will generally be omitted. 7. Words of three syllables will rarely bear 's, unless the last have a principal or secondary accent Boniface, Espi- nasse, Halifax, Palafox. 8. The termination will often be added to words that end in -ce or -x when it would be omitted if the terminal sound were represented by s. 9. The above principles apply when both the possessor and the thing possessed are named ; but if only the former, the termination is added or the expression changed This is Carrothers* house, whose is that ? It is Quackenbos's. Compound terms form their plurals by adding s to the principal part, but their possessives by adding it to the last part plural, sons-in-law, possessive, son-in-law s. This is admissible even when the expression is of considerable length, as, the postmaster of Columbia, South Carolina s son. When that becomes too unwieldy, the only resource, as in many other cases, is to change the expression. When to a first noun a second, meaning the same person or thing, is added, as if to make identification sure, both should have the possessive sign. "A small and old spaniel, which had been Don pose's, his father's." BYRON. When several different persons or things sustain the pos- sessive relation, it should be shown equally for all. 286 English Grammar. " For honour's, pride's, religion's, virtue's sake." Id. But conflicting and less correct examples are not wanting. Captain Smith called Pocahontas " the Kings daughter of Virginia" We also read : " The king's daughter of the south shall come to the king of the north to make an agreement." DANIEL xi., 6. " I left the parcel at Mr. Johnson's the bookseller." Crombie's Grammar. " The psalms are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people." LINDLEY MURRAY. " And Otway, Radcliffe, Schiller, Shakespeare's art Had stamped her image in me." "Childe Harold," iv., 18. Yet when two or more names are closely associated, as in a business firm, they require but one possessive sign Call at Smith & Ward 's office. A substitute for the possessive case may be formed with the preposition of. His father s house and the house of his father are the same in fact but not the same grammatically. The latter is not a case or we should with equal reason have as many cases as we can find prepositions. The possessive case is commonly, not invariably, used in speaking of human beings, the preposition when we speak of inanimate things the boys skates, the judge s carriage, the bend of the river, the shade of the oak. The two forms are used of animals with almost equal frequency. Thus far I have spoken only of the possessive singular. The plural baffled the ingenuity of grammarians for a con- siderable time. Where the plural did not end in s there was little difficulty ; men's work and children's play afforded an easy solution. But when the plural was formed by affix- ing an s, it was not deemed desirable to add another. John Wallis suggested "the Lord's House" and "the Common's House " for the two Houses of Parliament, explaining that these were intended as abbreviations for " the Lords s House " and the Commons's House" ; but the absurdity of these forms, which were precisely like singulars, prevented their general acceptance. Yet something of the kind may be met with Nouns. 287 occasionally. Thus an article on the cuckoo, in the Philo- sophical Transactions for 1788, speaks of the eggs "found in Titlark's nests " ; yet in general usage and in treatises on grammar the plural was left without distinction of case. Gordon's " History of American Independence," above cited, has the following : " They retired from their own to neighbours houses. * * * The troops began landing under cover of the ships cannons. * * * It was with no small indignation that the people beheld the representatives chamber, court-house and Faneuil-hall occu- pied by troops." The "British Grammar" (1784) says that the plural in s has no genitive ; and a " Grammar of the English Tongue," by Thomas Coar, so late as 1796, has still no way of distin- guishing the genitive case. Yet it is certain that before the last-named date the present method of distinguishing the possessive plural, by putting (') after the s had been devised. The earliest instances I have met with are two passages in the Gentleman s Magazine for January, 1788 : " I should be very glad of some of your correspondents' opinion." " and consequently instead of being circulated through all the learned part of Europe, must be confined to the perusal of feeble amateurs, or ladies' maids." If the common plural ends with s, place an apostrophe (') after it sartors' rights ; if the plural does not end in s, add V freemen's rights. PERSON. The distinction of person is threefold. The first person is the speaker ; the second the person spoken to ; the third any one else. The distinction is better shown by the personal pronouns, to which the reader is referred. All nouns are of the third person, except when associated with the pronoun of the first person or are appellations of persons directly addressed. CHAPTER III. ADJECTIVES. THE name, from the Latin adjectivus, added or thrown to, gives no idea of the nature and use of the words so desig- nated ; but, being well established, it has become a conven- ient term. We may suppose that the first generations of speaking men began by distinguishing things animals, trees, plants, and the conspicuous actions of some. They might next observe qualities in which one differed from another. Animals were large or small, swift or slow ; grass was green, while some blossoms were white and others red ; some fruits were sweet, more were sour, and a few bitter. Whether derived from the more essential parts of speech or wholly original sounds we cannot possibly know, but the former is the more natural supposition. These words are of only secondary importance. While we can scarcely express any meaning without nouns and verbs, much may be said without mentioning qualities, good or bad. The first chapter of Matthew contains 474 words, of which, at the utmost, only five quite as properly only three are adjectives. If that be thought an extreme case, in the first twenty-two verses of John's Gospel 393 words there is only one adjective, and that a monosyllable. Again, if I utter the word horse, some conception or picture of the animal rises at once in the active mind of the hearer ; but if I say tall, no mental picture is formed, for the word may be applied equally to grass, a man, a tree, or a steeple to one thing, or to many. We have often seen already that every usage in language begins at a certain point, from which it spreads, and that in 288 Adjectives. 289 its diffusion the point of departure is apt to be lost sight of. Words expressing no quality, but relations of time, place, origin, order daily, annual, recent, adjacent, distant, Irish, foremost, central, hindmost are used with nouns, like the primitive adjectives, and are classified with them. As adjec- tives have so little independent existence, they are pecul- iarly apt to be derived from words of other classes. In this respect they may be distinguished somewhat in the following manner : 1. Primary adjectives, native, or of foreign origin, which are not obviously traceable to any other words acute, bold, cruel, deaf, early, free, good, hard, idle, etc. 2. Adjectives derived from nouns. a. From nouns, mostly English, by adding the native suffixes, -ed, -en, -fast, -ful, -ish, -less, -ly, -some, -ward, -y or -ey horned, ragged, tented, earthen, leaden, wooden, earth- fast, shamefast, steadfast, shameful, tearful, truth/ill, child- ish, English, waspish, fatherless, homeless, shoeless, godly, motherly, shapely, handsome, toilsome, homeward, wayward, windward, clayey, sandy, stony, woody. NOTE. Adjectives in -ed seem to be formed in imitation of participles. A man who has learned is a learned man, and one who has been armed, or furnished with arms, is an armed man. Next, a beast furnished by nature with horns is a horned beast, and finally we have such words as long- haired, four-footed, left-handed, tongue-tied, evidently not participles of any verbs. It is impossible to draw the line accurately between adjectives and participles, but we can come near it by calling those adjectives that cannot be traced to verbs. The ending -some has no connection with the adjective- pronoun some, but is related to same, expressing identity or likeness : German langsam, Scotch langsome, slow ; Ice- landic frith-samr, peaceful. b. Adjectives formed from nouns by means of suffixes, changed or unchanged, from French, Latin, or Greek -able or -ible, -aceous, -al, -alian, -an, -ar, -arian, -ary, -ate, -eel, -eous, ese, -esque, -tan, -ic, -//, -He, ine, -ive, -le, -lent, -oid, -ory, 19 290 English Grammar. -ose, -ous marketable, peaceable, contemptible, responsible, amylaceous, sebaceous, moral, mortal, radical, bacchanalian, Episcopalian, diocesan, Franciscan, columnar, ocular, parlia- mentarian, vegetarian, Trinitarian, Unitarian, military, tribu- tary, ovate, palmate, genteel, igneous, vitreous, Chinese, Maltese, picturesque, Romanesque, Christian, Darwinian, Parisian, angelic, volcanic, civil, gentile, hostile, servile, canine, feminine, sanguine, festive, plaintive, gentle, corpulent, turbulent, fungoid, pithecoid, sphenoid, mandatory, migratory, globose, operose, varicose, disastrous, necessitous. NOTE. The ending -arian is really a double adjective ending. Although we have not the simple forms trinitary and vegetary, unitary is met with, and parliamentary is quite common. The same is true of -alian, and there are several other double endings, as in merit-ori-ous,paradox-ic-al, sym metr-ic-al. 3. Adjectives are formed upon other adjectives old-en, hard-y, clean-ly, good-ly, kind-ly, dark-some, lone-some, weari- some, whole-some, robust-ioiis. This last word is not com- mendable, but is sanctioned by " Hamlet," and Benton's " Thirty Years in the Senate." 4. Adjectives are made from verbs by adding -able, -ant, -ary, -astic, -ate, -atory, -bund, -ent, -ible, -tie, -ite, -ive, -ory, -uble blamable, pardonable, jubilant, rampant, intercalary, sedentary, drastic, spastic, considerate, moderate, derogatory, migratory, moribund, dependent, deficient, pertinent, fusible, legible, ductile, facile, pensile, erudite, recondite, cursive, mis- sive, persuasive, accessory, promissory, soluble, voluble. NOTE. Those that end in -ant, -ent, -ate, and -ite are modifi- cations of participles. 5. A few are formed from adverbs and prepositions, such as aftermost, anterior, contrary, exterior, former, foremost, further, hinder, inferior, inner, interior, nether, outer or utter, prior, superior, thorough, upper. 6. Nearly every verb in the language furnishes two parti- ciples that may be used as adjectives running water, a graven image, a ploughed field. Adjectives. 291 7. Some adverbs, especially those ending in ward back- ward, forvvard, downward, homeward may be used as adjectives. 8. The greater number of adjectives may have their sig- nification reversed by prefixing the negative dis-, un-, in-, or non-, thus nearly doubling their number. 9. Expressions having the force of adjectives are formed by combining two or more words water-proof, star-spangled rock-ribbed, pepper-and-salt-colored. There is no limit to the descriptive phrases that may be made in this way, and some are of considerable length, as much-to-be-lamented, never-to-be- forgotten. They are equally adjective phrases whether the parts be united by hyphens or not. The German language is capable of using descriptions containing a dozen words or more in the manner of adjectives ; but in English such com- binations have a burlesque appearance : " and there With an I-turn-the-crank-of-the- Universe air, And a tone which, at least to my fancy, appears To be not so much entering as boxing your ears." JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL. 10. Lastly almost any noun may, without alteration, be used as an adjective a stone wall, a gold watch, an iron chain. Two or more nouns may be used together for this purpose a bear-skin cap, a birch-bark canoe. In the office of the Register of the Treasury in Washington is a paper, pertaining to accounts of the Garfield Memorial Hospital in which is an item of a " hand hole cover bolt. Each word except the last serves as an adjective to the one that follows. Thus our language has an unlimited power of producing a class of words that careful persons use but sparingly. When- ever it becomes necessary to employ several adjectives, variety of expression can be secured by drawing from the various sources here enumerated. 29 2 English Grammar. The adjective is often equivalent to the genitive or pos- sessive case, denoting possession or derivation : a mother's love maternal affection cares of a household domestic cares the armies of France the French armies the election of a President the Presidential election In most languages adjectives have the same apparatus as nouns of terminations to denote gender, number, and case. It is not easy to see any sufficient reason for this. We are left to conjecture that, being used mostly along with nouns, the terminations of the one class were extended to the other, as (speaking metaphorically) electricity or magnetism is im- parted by induction, or as high-colored flowers impart some- thing of their bright dyes to pale ones. This machinery, wanting in English, renders adjectives more available for use in the place of nouns. The only trace we have of this declension is the plural forms of a few when used as nouns : 1. National, tribal, or partisan designations Greeks, Romans, Spartans, Italians, Americans, Christians, Ma- hometans, Arians, Socinians, Puritans, Republicans, Stoics, vegetarians. NOTE. If the word end with a sibilant, s is not added. 2. Various designations of classes of persons ancients, 'moderns, innocents, mortals, natives, nobles, sages, criminals, heathens, pagans, blacks, whites. To these may be added a number used as nouns only in what is called the comparative degree of which hereafter betters, elders, inferiors, superiors, seniors, juniors. 3. Collective terms for various pursuits, studies, or branches of science ethics, acoustics, metaphysics, mne- monics, hydrostatics, quadratics, politics. 4. Terms descriptive of large classes or groups of things combustibles, eatables, goods, narcotics, opiates, sudorifics, bitters, woollens, greens, canonicals, vitals. The reader who cares to see how an adjective may be spread out according to number, gender, and case, can glance at the following Sanskrit declension : Adjectives. SINGULAR 293 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. VOCATIVE papa pape papa NOMINATIVE papas papa papam ACCUSATIVE papam papam papam INSTRUMENTAL papena papaya papena DATIVE papaya papayai papaya ABLATIVE papat papayas papat GENITIVE papasya papayas papasya LOCATIVE pipe papayam pap6 DUAL Voc. papau pape" pape NOM. papau pape". pape Ace. papau pape" pape INST. papabhyam papabhyam papabhyam DAT. papabhyam papabhyam papabhyam ABL. papabhyam papabhyam papabhyam GEN. papayos papayos papayos Loc. papayos papayos papayos PLURAL Voc. papas papas papani NOM. papas papas papani Ace. papan papas papani INST. papais papabhis papais DAT. papebhyas papabhyas papebhyas ABL. papebhyas papabhyas papebhyas GEN. papanam papanam papanam Loc. papeshu papasu papeshu All that we have as the equivalent of this array is the small unchanging word bad. It will be observed too that while there are seventy-two distinctions in the combinations of number, gender, and case, there are only twenty-six separate forms ; and this holds good of all inflected languages. They never have forms enough to go round. From an inflectional table of seventy-two places we are not to sup- 294 English Grammar. pose that the change to one simple monosyllable was made at a single step ; but to attempt to trace the gradual wear- ing down would be too tedious. Only one intermediate point shall be noticed. Our Anglo-Saxon fathers declined the adjective good thus : SINGULAR Masculine. Feminine. Neuter NOM. goda g6de gode GEN. godan godan godan DAT. godan g6dan godan Ace. godan godan gode PLURAL NOM. gddan gddan g6dan GEN. g6dena g6dena g6dena DAT. gddum godum godum Ace. g6dan godan godan The seventy-two places are here reduced to twenty-four, and the forms that are to occupy them are only five. In the Sanskrit example the inflectional forms were thirty-six per cent, of those theoretically required, in the Saxon less than twenty-one. The Saxon declension took another pattern, slightly fuller when the definite article preceded the adjective. Although our adjectives dispense with distinctions of gender, number, and case, they need and have distinctions of a different kind. As they primarily express qualities it is often necessary to show which of two or more possess a quality in the highest degree. One man may be strong, another strong-er, and yet another the strong-est of the three. These distinctions are called degrees. The first is called the positive, the second the comparative, and the last the super- lative. The orderly exhibition of these three degrees is called comparison. When an adjective ends with e, one vowel can be dropped. Adjectives. 295 free free-r free-st white white-r white-st able able-r able-st It is not meant to indicate here whether it is the last letter of the positive or the first of the suffix that is omitted. It is a point of no practical importance, but the earlier usages of the language countenance the division given here. All adjectives of one syllable are compared in this man- ner; also dissyllables with ultimate accent, or whose last syllable has no other vowel than a final y or a final e preceded by /. The final y of course becomes /'. genteel genteel-er genteel-est complete complete-r complete-st gentle gentle-r gentle-st worthy worthi-er worthi-est All other adjectives may take these terminations so long as the result is easy for the tongue and pleasing to the ear, which in all such cases is the ultimate test. More than a law, it is the reason of the law. Soberest and honester will do very well, but soberer and honestest are inadmissible. Writers of the present day are far from agreed as to what words admit of this comparison, and our ancestors indulged in still greater latitude. Such words as fitting-est, cunning- est, certain-er, tender-er, faithfull-est, de light full-est, wonder- full-est, may be found in authors of the highest repute ; and the readers of Carlyle will recall his favorite word of praise, beautifullest. When these terminations would render the word unwieldy, substitutes are found in the adverbs, more and most, in imitation of the French : eloquent more eloquent most eloquent The use of -er and -est may be called the native or Anglo- Saxon comparison, and has a pedigree longer than any princely house. In Sanskrit there were two regular modes of comparison. One added -lyas for the comparative and 296 English Grammar. -ishta for the superlative : the other added -tara and -tama. We may call the first the old comparison. In the oldest remains it was unfrequent and on the decrease. The latter and more common we may call the new comparison. All the other Aryan families exhibit remains of these termina- tions more or less fragmentary and mismatched. The Zend is said to have had them nearly as in Sanskrit ; but of that I do not know. Greek retains representatives of both systems : kalos kail-ion kall-isto-s leptos lepto-tero-s lepto-tato-s In the last a / is found in the place of m, the original com- mon to both languages having probably been mt. Latin did not preserve these suffixes so well ; and retained the old comparative and new superlative in a much altered con- dition. viridis virid-ius virid-issimus longus long-ius long-issimus Here I take the termination -ius, or rather -ios to be more primitive than -tor, as an earlier s is well known to be often converted into a later r. I can only conjecture the ss of the superlative to have taken the place of t, a substitution of which there are many examples. The superlative termina- tion is rather better preserved in such forms as opt-imu-s, ult-imu-s, from which, however, one / has still been dropped. As representatives of the Slavonic branch Russian and Polish are almost entirely without separate terminations for the superlative, but form comparatives on the older pattern, the former adding ai-ishii aishii, or merely shii, and the latter jejszy, which are nearly the same to the ear. There are only four Russian superlatives : COMP. SUPERL. velikii (great) bol-shii velicha-ishii malwi (little) men-shii mal-aishii vwisokii (high) vis-shii vwisocha-ishii nizkii (low) niz-shii nizha-ishii Adjectives. 297 in which the endings are clearly the same, and the superla- tives are developed from the comparatives. All other superlatives are made by placing vsakh (of all) before the positive. Lithuanian has only a comparative formed on the older pattern. The Irish, the best preserved of the Celtic stock, has a comparative ending in -nws, and no separate superlative. Coming now to our own more immediate kindred, the Goths distinguished the comparative by adding -is or -os, according to the other elements with which they were asso- ciated. This termination was evidently akin to the Sanskrit -lyas and the Latin -is in mag-is. When a termination was added to denote number, gender, etc., s became z. The Sansk. superlative -ish-ta was represented in Gothic by -is-ta or -os-ta ; and here the s held its place by the help of the t Hence an adjective ran thus : COMP. SUPERL. blind-s (blind) blind-oz-a blind-os-ta haugh-s (high) haugh-iz-a haugh-is-ta Now the tendency called rhotacism turned the z into r in all the other Teutonic languages ; and that is how we come to say blind-er, blind-est instead of blind-ez, blind-est. Grimm, Bopp, and others hold that the superlative is always formed by adding to the comparative, and conse- quently is later in time, and that, if in any language one of the two is wanting, it is the superlative. Putting these fragmentary hints together, we may, from the mere comparison of adjectives, infer that the Aryans of Europe left their ancestral homes on the streams that supply the Caspian at different times ; that the Celts and Lithua- nians set out before the comparison in -tara and -tama had come into common use, or any form for the superlative ; that the Slavic emigration came next ; and that our Teutonic ancestors learned only the pattern that was falling into dis- use when the literature of India began. What we call the ancient Greeks, then, seem to be comparatively late arrivals, while our brethren of Tipperary belong to the oldest branch 298 English Grammar. of the family, and those who had conquered and colonized India before Solomon sent forth his navies for algum-trees, ivory, apes, and peacocks, are the youngest. The terminations -tara and -tama have reached Western Europe in connection with pronouns and prepositions rather than adjectives of quality. Bopp holds that -tama is a contraction from -tara-ma on the general principle that the superlative is always a further development of the compara- tive. It is held with still more confidence that -tara signifies of two, and -tama, of several. Thus from the Sanskrit inter- rogative ka were formed ka-tara-s, which of the two ? and ka-tama-s, which of several ? In like manner, from the rela- tive^ were made ya-tara-s, and ya-tama-s, and so of several others. Taking ka, ka-tara-s, ka-tama-s as an example of all words formed in this manner, I observe that k is represented in Greek by k, p, in Latin by c, qu, in Gothic and Anglo- Saxon by h, hw, in English by h, wh. We have then, cor- responding to the Sansk. ka-tara-s, Gr. Tro-rspo-?, which of the two ? Sansk. e-ka-tara-s, Gr. f-xd-repo-S, each of the two ; Lat. uter (initial wanting); Lith. ka-tra-s ; Russ. ko-torw-i, which ; Goth, hwa-thar ; A.-S. hwae-ther ; Eng. whether : "The governor answered and said unto them, Whether of the twain will ye that I release unto you?" MATT, xxvii., 21. There are many other words in the different European languages formed by affixing these terminations to pronouns, prepositions, or adverbs, and all including the idea of duality. We may instance in English either, neither, other, dexter, sinister. Interior, exterior, ulterior are double comparatives. Extreme Lat. extremus adds a superlative to a compara- tive ending, and is an apt illustration of Bopp's conjecture cited above. When Addison wrote of " the sea's extremest borders" he probably did not know that he had heaped three terminations together. In words like ul-tima-te there is a relic of the ancient -tama, or at least of the latter part of it, that comes to us through the Latin ; but there -are many traces of it not thus borrowed. These further strengthen the supposition that the superlative -ma was a separate element. The Gothic Adjectives. 299 -*#, first or foremost, afte-ma, last ; and Anglo-Saxon had: for-ma fore-most nithe-ma neth-most or nether- hinde-ma hind-most most inne-ma in-most ufe-ma up-most, upper-most mide-ma mid-most ute-ma ut-most A double superlative ending -st was added while Anglo- Saxon was yet in use, which gradually led to the belief that these words were made up by adding the adverb most. Even triple endings are not wanting : " and behold we are in Kadesh, a city in the ut-ter-mo-st of thy borders." NUM. xx., 16. A few adjectives are marked by certain irregularities of comparison. Especially are there a number of superlatives made by adding most and originating in the misapprehension just noticed. aft after aftermost far farther farthest fore further furthest, furthermost fore former foremost, first hind hinder hindmost late later, latter latest, last The irregularity of farther and farthest is the inserting of th in imitation of further and furthest. A few comparatives and superlatives have nouns, prepo- sitions, or adverbs as their positives. in inner inmost, innermost out outer, utter utmost, uttermost, outermost up upper uppermost stern sternmost head headmost top topmost north northmost south southmost, etc., etc. Some are made up from fragments of different adjectives, d&good, better, best, bad, worse, worst ; but it will be well to treat these and remaining irregularities singly. 300 English Grammar. Bad a word of rather uncertain origin. It stands quite alone, and the comparative and superlative, worse and worst, are from a different source. Worse is one of the most per- plexing words in our language, the doubt being whether it is a positive, a comparative, or a double comparative. The most plausible explanation is that it is originally and strictly a positive, from a Teutonic root wars, to distort, throw into confusion, from which was made the Gothic comparative wairs-iz-a, and the corresponding Old High German wirs-ir-o. If this be so, one sibilant had dropped out before the Norman Conquest, and the Anglo-Saxon adjective had become wear, wyr-se, wyr-st. A comparative, however, formed by means of s is very unusual. Less is the only other example of which I am aware. To confuse the matter still more, comparatives like wer, werre, warre, waur came into use in England, and still more in Scotland, as Scandinavian influence assimilated the s of worse to r. " The world is much war than it was woont." SPENSER. A comparative wors-er came into use in the sixteenth century : " A dreadful quiet felt, and worser far Than arms, a sullen interval of war." DRYDEN. But it can scarcely have been based upon any philological reason. Evil from the earliest times both noun and adjective ; in the latter use equal to bad, and borrowing the same com- parative and superlative. It has also been used as an adverb. " The same dealt subtilly with our kindred, and evil entreated our fathers." ACTS vii., 19. But that part of its duty is now transferred to ill. Evil is now almost exclusively used as a noun. Good The comp. and superl., better and best, are from a different root, bat, meaning good. The Goth, was bat-iz-a for the comp., superl. bat-is-ta. Our best is obviously a shorten- ing of bet-est. Adjectives. 301 111 a duplicate and Scandinavian form of evil, due to the settlement of the Danes. Little a lengthened form of A.-S. lyt, still to be met with in England as a dialectic form ; from a root lut, to stoop or be low ; compare Eng. lout and Scot. lout. The comp. and superl. are from a root las, to be feeble. The A.-S. Ices and last, shortened forms for Ices-sa and Ices-ast, in which the sa is by assimilation for ra. A double comparative is common : " The more my prayer the lesser is my grace." " Midsummer Night's Dream," act ii. " The greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night." GENESIS. A regular superlative littlest is sometimes met with : " Where love is great, the littlest doubts are fear."" Hamlet," iii., 2. (Late edition.) Many from an Aryan root mag, to prevail or be great, spring a large family of kindred words. Sometimes the sound of n was intruded, making mank or mang, at others -el was added, as in the case of little, and again the guttural was softened into ch. Among the best-known members of this family are: Gr. meg-as, meg-al-e, meg-a ; Lat. mag-nus, mag-us, mag-is-ter ; Goth, manag-s ; O. H. Ger. manac ; A.-S. manig ; Eng. many ; I eel. magn, main strength, margr, many, mik-ill, large, mjok, much ; A.-S. md, more, mag-an, may, mag-en, main, myc-el, great, many, much ; Scot, mae, mair, maist , mickle or muckle ; Middle Eng. muck-el ; TLng.mag-ic, majes-ty, mag-is-trate, maj-or, main, may, many, much, more, most, and even Mr. Many is applied to numbers, and much to quantity. Anglo-Saxon and English until the seventeenth century had correspondingly separate comparatives : " Many mo unto the nombre of ten thousande and moo." CAXTON, cited by MAETZNER. Alexander Gill, a grammarian of 1619, gave the two com- parisons thus : many mo most much more most 302 English Grammar. Since that time mo has gone wholly out of use. A or an is often put after many : " Of gallant Gordons many a one, And many a stubborn Highlandman And many a rugged border clan, With Huntley and with Home." SCOTT : " Marmion," canto vi. This curious idiom dates from the beginning of the thir- teenth century. The many sometimes regarded as a noun is from a derivative form, A.-S. menigeo, a throng, a multi- tude ; but that it is not equivalent to a noun will be seen by comparing it with multitude : a great many men : a great multitude of men. Together with few, it rather belongs to the large hybrid class of adjective pronouns. Much See many. Near Originally, and in its form, this is a comparative : A.-S. Adj. neah nearra nyhst Adv. neah near, nyr nehst When the comparative was mistaken for a positive in the fifteenth century, the redundant forms near-er and near-est were added ; but the old superlative is still preserved in next. Nigh A variant form from A.-S. neah, used adverbially. Nether a comp. for which no positive remains ; A.-S. comp. nith-er-a, superl. nithe-ma, nithe-me-sta. The last is a double superlative. The Scotch say neth-most, but the English sometimes attach an additional syllable : " The neth-er-most chamber was five cubits broad." i KINGS vi., 6. This is formed on the common but false analogy of adding the adverb most. Old has two models of comparison, an earlier old, elder, eldest, and a later, old, older, oldest. The vowel change in the former is similar to that in men, feet, etc. This is the only remaining example of such change in adjectives, but Adjectives. 303 formerly it applied to broad, long, strong, and others, and has left a trace in eld, breadth, length, and strength. Elder and eldest are now archaic forms, confined to persons. An antique structure is not the eldest but the oldest house in town. They do not imply great age, but only priority in age. The eldest may be the senior of a group of children ; the oldest is more likely to be the senior in a conclave of aged men. It would be unusual now to place than after elder. But these are modern distinctions, and even now not strictly observed. " I have * * * a son * * * some years elder than this." SHAKESP. " With us are both the gray-headed and very aged men, much elder than thy father." JOB xv., 10. Longfellow speaks of " the elder days of art," and the " faded fancies of an elder world " ; but then poets write in the oldest dialect that people will put up with. Rather Of the full comparison, rath, rath-er, rath-est soon or early, etc. only the second term remains, and that has lost an initial h, and is used only as an adverb. Although grammarians reckon only three degrees of quality, they might with almost equal propriety have in- cluded a fourth, making the full comparison : green-ish green green-er green-est Several other shades are expressed by the aid of such words as slightly, somewhat, rather, very, highly, sadly, or exceedingly. Some adjectives, chiefly derived from nouns, do not admit of comparison. They are : I. Adjectives that denote material, origin, source, author- ship, time, place, constitution : alcoholic diluvial annual rhombic. calcareous oceanic vernal oval woollen solar stellar volcanic American Parisian daily hourly subterranean lamellar metallic fluid atmospheric alluvial Mosaic Cartesian terraqueous circular gaseous crystalline 304 English Grammar. 2. Words that in themselves express an extreme degree : empty, void, eternal, infinite, perfect, perpetual, universal. 3. A miscellaneous class of adjectives, mostly expressing relations rather than qualities : baptismal, false, filial, lawful, natural, parental, royal, true. Thus far the double comparatives and superlatives that have been noticed are single words that do not always openly betray their cumulative character. Duplicate or trip- licate expressions, like more superior, most handsomest, are not according to the present usage of the language, but down to the seventeenth century such redundancy was com- mon enough. " Most dennest flesh of briddes." " Piers Plowman," 8992. " These poore informall women, are no more But instruments of some more mightier member That sets them on." " Meas. for Meas.," act v. " more fairer then fair, beautifull then beautious." " Love's Labor 's Lost," act iv. " This was the most unkindest cut of all." " Julius Caesar," ii., 2. " After the most straitest sect of our religion I lived a Pharisee." ACTS xxvi., 5. The last point that I shall consider here, touching adjec- tives, is the question whether in speaking of two things that are good in different degrees, we ought to say " the better of the two," or " the best of the two," or may properly say either. The particular adjective used makes no differ- ence. Expressions like " the better of the two " are so com- mon, at least in literary English, that there remains no question of their admissibility. Still I think that plain intelligent people, who are neither finical nor coarse, are more apt, in their conversation, to say " the best of the two." And the spoken language of such people is generally truer, purer, more idiomatic English than what they write with the help of stilts, spectacles, dictionary, and grammar. If languages were more amenable to reason than they are, the question might be analyzed in the manner follow- Adjectives. 305 ing; The comparative treats of two, quite apart from and in a manner contrasted with, each other, of which the one exceeds the other. The superlative treats of a group, aggre- gate, or class, and singles out one as the leader, who must always be a member of the class. There is no contrast. The oldest member of the senate is not contrasted in any way with the other senators. Ranged in a line according to age some one must be at one extremity of the line, and some one else at the other, but all are alike parts of the continuous line. The question then resolves itself into this : Can a group, aggregate, or class that is, for purposes of speech consist of only two ? If it can, then one may be the best of the two. Indeed, if I mistake not, there are some cases in which we would nearly all use the superlative. Most persons would be apt to say : " The first half of the day was rainy, but the last half was quite clear." Yet there are but two halves. To say the former half and the latter half would be stiff, pedantic, and redolent of a bad quality of midnight oil. Or in speaking of the arrival of two per- sons, with a short interval between, should we say the first comer and the last comer, or the former comer and the latter comer ? To say the first and the second would be shirking the question, as second is neither comparative nor superlative. Or would it improve the matter to say the former and the second? Or again, in speaking of two en- gaged in a race, are they respectively the foremost and the hindmost, or the former and the hinder ? While I admit that the written language shows a prefer- ence for the comparative, as applied to two, yet the super- lative is also used, and, I think, with more logical consist- ency. Sir John Mandeville, speaking of two brothers, says, " So that his eldest sone was chosen aftre him, Melchemader ; the whiche his brother leet sle prevely." " Hadde tuo sones * * * of which the eldest hight Algarsif." CHAUCER : " C. T.," 10,343. " I would haue put my wealth into Donation. And the best halfe should haue return' d to him." SHAKESP. : " Timon," iii., 2. 306 English Grammar. "Your eldest Doughters haue foredone themselves." " Lear," v., 3. In this instance the comparison is between two parties, the eldest sisters on one side and the youngest on the other. " The question is not whether a good Indian or a bad English- man be most happy, but which state is most desirable." JOHNSON : " Life of Sir F. Drake." So, numerous examples, from the beginning of the thir- teenth century to the present time, might be found ; but let the following suffice. " Tha answerede the other, [Hengist] that wes the aldesie brother." LAYAMON. " One of the greatest questions of moral philosophy : whether the enjoying of outward things, or the contemning of them be the greatest" BACON : "Advancement of Learning." " Master Simon and the general, who have become great cronies. As the former is the youngest by many years," etc. IRVING : " Bracebridge Hall." " I rather apprehend that the latter would be the likeliest of the two to speak the fitting word." HAWTHORNE : " Blithedale Romance," xvi. "many women would have deemed you the worthier conquest of the two, you are certainly much the handsomest man. Id., xxvi. "the swiftest runner of the two." " the strongest person of the two." "the likeliest interpretation of the two." "which could run the fastest of the two." WILKIE COLLINS : " Man and Wife." "These two sections do not progress at the same rate. The smallest in area is still the smallest in population, but it is gaining fast upon the other." North Am. Review^ Jan., 1889. CHAPTER IV. PRONOUNS. WE now come upon a distinction that goes deep into the structure of language. It is the distinction between words that, even standing alone, are significant, or suggestive, and words that by themselves express nothing. If the word rose be uttered, it calls up in the mind a tolerably distinct image. So does, in a less degree, the word red ; and if we join the two, making red rose, the mental image is complete. Again, in the words -mother comes, nothing is wanting to a complete statement of fact. On the other hand, we may take nine words that may properly enough come together, yet if there should ever be any, even the, and no meaning is expressed, or remotely hinted at. No number or combination of such words could tell anything. They are the mere pins and couplings of discourse. The most substantial of them are like the a, b, c of the algebraist, that must have new values assigned every time they are used, having none of their own. Chief among them is the capital /, which is at one time, /, Alexander IL, Tsar of all the Russias ; and at another, /, little Johnny Tims. It has been made pretty clear already that I regard the subject of discourse to be things, their qualities and actions, expressed by nouns, adjectives, and verbs. This enumeration requires an addition, more apparent than real. A quality that characterizes a thing is called an adjective, but when it describes an action it is called an adverb. Fierce and fiercely express the same characteristic. The difference is merely grammatical. Adjectives used as adverbs, with or without the addition of -ly, belong to the division of self-significant 307 308 English Grammar. words. I shall distinguish these two great divisions as independent and dependent words, observing, however, that no classification can be carried out strictly. It seems prob- able that all were originally self-significant, but that in the lapse of ages many have gradually lost their individuality and become mere attendants on the more substantial words, indicating their relations and conditions. And this process is constantly going on, and examples may be found illus- trating every stage in its progress. To trace these words to their independent sources was the task which John Home Tooke assumed in his " Diversions of Purley " ; but, owing to the imperfect knowledge of his time, his success was very in- complete. He merely showed others in what direction to look. Among the most important of these words that have no individuality now are the Pronouns. The name means stand- ing for or representing nouns ; and there is no possible noun for which some of them may not be used. Hence a pronoun has been termed a name for everything. Associated with them are some words which, not in signification, but in grammatical use, partake of the character of adjectives. They sometimes take the place of nouns, and sometimes accompany them. But here, as we might expect, there is an insensible gradation from words that never go with nouns to others never found without them. Those that partake of the adjective character are sometimes called adjective pro- nouns, and sometimes pronominal adjectives. I shall use the former appellation, and include under it a larger number than is usual. Pronouns are commonly grouped under several subdivi- sions, not always the same, or including the same words. It will be sufficient here to designate them as Personal, Inter- rogative, Relative, Adjective, and Indefinite Pronouns. These subdivisions are all very small, except the fourth, which is very large indeed, unlimited. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. These generally represent nouns, and do not, like adjec- tives, accompany them. They are three in number, with Pronouns. 309 their respective inflections and combinations. They are called personal because they introduce a distinction of the speaker, the person spoken to, and a third, who is neither. They are /, thou, he, and their variations. / tell you that he is at home. While nouns have only two forms to indicate case, personal pronouns have three, Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. The last also serves the purpose of a Dative, for which there is now no separate form. All have two numbers, singular and plural. In old books remains of a dual may be found. The first and second persons have no distinction of gender in any Aryan tongue. The third has separate forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter. The Pronoun of the First Person. The pronoun of the first person is thus declined : SINGULAR PLURAL NOMINATIVE I we POSSESSIVE mine ours OBJECTIVE me us It is evident that these can scarcely be inflectional modifi- cations of a single original, but are rather water-worn chips from several quarries, but how many ultimate sources, all inaccessible, it were hard to determine. Bopp supposes four, ah, ak or ag, ma, as and ve. There cannot be less than the first and second of these ; but the number is uncer- tain, and to us here unimportant. These personal pronouns are similarly worn down and irregular in all Aryan languages, and are as inexplicable in the earliest literary monuments as in the latest. The h, k, or g is an essential part of the singular nominative, and has kept its place in most of the allied languages. Its disappearance from literary English is comparatively recent, and traces of it may still be found in rustic dialects. The following are some of the principal forms assumed by this pronoun : Sing. Nom. Sansk. ah-am ; Gr. ey-ouv , ey-aa ; Lat. eg-o ; Old High German ih ; Mod. H. Ger. ich ; Goth, ik ; Norse 3io English Grammar. and Icelandic ek,jak, eg,jeg; Swedish // Dan. /<?/ Old- and Anglo-Sax, ic ; English (A. D. 1000 to 1600) ih, ihe, ic, ice, ich, ych, uch, 'ch, y, I. Sing. Pos. Sansk. ma-ma; Gr. fyov, pov$ Lat. mei, or wanting; Goth, meina ; High Ger., Norse, Old Sax. A.-S. min ; Eng. mine, myn, -mi, my. Sing. Obj. Sansk. mdm, md; Gr. eju, )ii ; Lat. me ; Goth, and Norse mik ; H. G. mich; A.-S. mec, me ; Eng. me, mee. Plur. Nom. Sansk. v ay-am ; Gr. ap/MS, fast? ; Lat. nos ; Goth, veis ; H. G. wir ; Norse ver ; A.-S. and Eng. we, wee. Plur. Pos. Sansk. as-md-kam ; Gr. awecov, rfp&v $ Lat. nostri, or wanting ; Goth, unsara ; H. Ger. unser ; A.-S. and O. S. ztor, z/;v / Norse wz>, z/^r / Eng. ure, ur, hure, our, ourn, ours. Plur. Obj. Sansk. as-md-n, nas ; Gr. /i/ief, 7/urf; Lat. <?j/ Goth. w^w, j/ O. H. G. unsih ; Mod. H. G. .?/ Norse <?jj/ O. S. us ; A.-S. ^JzV, ^f/ Eng. us. Sanskrit and Greek had a dual number, we two, etc. We two and you two were preserved in all the early Teutonic languages as relics of a dual number, once probably of wide extent. The A.-S. was wet, we two ; uncer, of us two ; unc, to or for us two ; unc, or uncit, us two. These forms sur- vived till the last half of the thirteenth century. " Unk schal i-tide harm and chonde." (Harm and shame shall betide us twain.} "Owl and Nightingale," A. D. 1250. " Whi neltu fleon into the bare, And schewi whether unker beo Of bri3ter heowe, of vairur bleo ? " (Why won't you fly into the clear, And show whether of us two be Of brighter hue, of fairer blue ? ) Id. Me and us follow old datives in form and accusatives in signification ; and the same is true of thee, you, him, her, them. In such expressions as give me, tell us, like him, the dative signification is preserved. It is not uncommon now to say Pronouns. 311 that in such cases to is understood ; but that is misleading. It is true that in modern speech we may, and often do, insert to; but it was not so from the beginning. There is no original to dropped. In methinks, it seems to me, me is dative in sense, and thinks is impersonal, from thyncan, to seem ; quite a different word from thencan, to think. The two parts were sometimes written separately : " Al hali kirk, as thine me, May by this schippe takened be." (All holy Church, as thinketh me, May by this ship betokened be.) " Cursor Mundi," A. D. 1320. As methinks dies out, expressions arise, like thinks I to myself, that never had grammatical or any other consistency. Languages are full of such. But to return. There are expressions like the following: " Woe is me, for I am undone." ISAIAH vi., 5. " Wei is thee" COVERDALE'S Bible. " Woe is us that we weren born." " Havelok, the Dane." This dative pronoun was often used without any visible need : "leape me ouer this Stoole, and runne away." SHAKESP. : " Henry VI.," part ii., 2, i. Shakespeare makes this usage the basis of some of his interminable punning : " Petr. Knocke, I say. " Gru. Knocke, sir ? Whom should I knocke ? Is there any man ha's rebus'd your worship ? " Petr. Villaine, I say, knocke me heere soundly. " Gru. Knocke you heere, sir ? Why, sir ? What am I, sir, that I should knocke you heere, sir ? "Petr. Villaine, I say, knocke me at this gate, and rap me well, or I '11 knocke your knave's pate. * " Hor. How, now ; what 's the matter ? * * * 312 English Grammar. " Gru. * * * He bid me knocke him, and rap him soundly, sir. Well, was it fit for a servant to use his master so ? " " Taming of the Shrew," i., 2. It was probably due to French influence that the Saxon ic became early English ich (pronounced like modern itch). This ich often united with the following word making icham, I am ; ichabbe and ichave, I have ; icholle and ichulle, I will ; ichot, I wot, etc. Next the / was dropped, leaving cham, chulle, etc. When Edgar, in " King Lear," is personating a Kentish fool, he says : " Chill not let go, zir, Without vurther 'casion." A shrinking from self-assertion, a real or assumed modesty, sometimes leads to an avoidance of the obtrusive /. So kings and editors say we the speaker hiding his personality in the collective body of the government or of the editorial staff. Such, I opine, is the source of what may be called the pronoun not of majesty, but of modesty. But the editors carry it out the most consistently. They say, ourselves, where a monarch would say ourself. There is a curious anomaly, that seems also due to French influence, in the phrase it is me. The Saxons rendered Matt, xiv., 27, ic hyt eom, I it am. Wycliffe, following the original tongues, wrote briefly / am. Tyndale expressed the same by, it is Y, and is as usual closely followed by the authorized version. The " Harrowing of Hell," A.D. 1280, agrees with the Saxon ich it am. Those who wish to be precise now follow the Scripture and say it is I ; but nine- teen persons in twenty imitate the French, cest moi, it is me; and bad as that is it is likely to prevail. Not only so, but, it is him, that is them, are pretty sure to follow the French c'est lui. Better would it have been to keep to the analogies of our mother tongue, / am it, thou art it, I am he, John ix., 9. German version, Ich bin es. " Who koude ryme in English properly His martirdom ; for sothe it am noght /." CHAUCER : " Knight's Tale." Pronouns. 3 1 3 The Pronoun of the Second Person. SINGULAR NOMINATIVE thou POSSESSIVE thine OBJECTIVE thee It has been thought that these forms may be all from one original, and that y may result from a softening of th. Singular Nom. Sansk. tvam ; Gr. av$ Lat. tu ; Goth. thu ; A.-S. thu ; Eng. thou. Sing. Pos. Sansk. tava, te ; Gr. GOV ; Lat. tut, or wanting; Goth, theina ; A.-S. thin ; Eng. thin, thine, thy. Sing. Obj. Sansk. tvdm, tva ; Gr. GS ; Lat. te; Goth, thik ; A.-S. the ; Eng. the, thee. Plur. Nom. Sansk. yu-yam ; Gr. v-pjASS, v-j*iS; Lat. m?/ Goth, yu-s ; A.-S. ge ; Eng. ye, you. Plur. Pos. Sansk. yu-shma-kam ; Gr.v-fjjufGov, v-pajv ,- Lat. vestri, or wanting; Goth, iz-vara ; A.-S. eower ; Eng. your. Plur. Obj. Sansk. yushmdn, vas ; Gr. v-jta$; Lat. WJ/ Goth, izvis ; A.-S. edwic, edw ; Eng. j<?#. The singular of this pronoun has gone almost out of use, being now confined to prayer and a serious style of poetry ; as religion and poetry cling to what is old. The same cause that prevents many from blurting out / do thus and so, leads them to find some substitute for thou ; and several devices have been adopted. The English, French, and Dutch say you, the Germans and Danes they, the Italians she and her, the Spaniards your worship, and the Swedes the master. So thou came to express great familiarity, or inferiority in the person addressed, or both. Away back in the times of the Plantagenets thou and ye were signs of an assumed difference in dignity. Robert de Brunne A.D. 1303 gives a long conversation between a husband and wife, in which she addresses her lord as ye ; and he accepts the homage by saying thou to her. That was in the age of chivalry and before the present Women's Rights agitation. To thou a person was often an insult, that might lead to consequences. In " Blind Harry the Minstrel " young Wallace says thou to an 314 English Grammar. Englishman, \yho indignantly retorts : " Quham thowis thou, Scot ? " So Sir Edward Coke showed the insolence of office and the malignity of the man when he addressed Raleigh from the Bench : " All that Lord Cobham did was at thy instigation, thou viper ! for I thou thee thou traitor ! " At length, in the middle of the seventeenth century, the Quakers protested against this and other sinful vanities. Charles Fox wrote in 1648 : " When the Lord sent me forth into the world, I was required to thee and thou all men and women, without any respect to rich or poor, great or small. But, ah ! the rage that then was in priests, magistrates, and people of all sorts, but especially in priests and professors ; for though thou to a single person, was according to their own learning, their accidence, and their gram- mar rules, they could not bear it." Thirteen years later he wrote : " The book called the ' Battle-door ' came forth, written to show that, in all languages, thou and thee is the proper and usual speech to a single person, and you to more than one. This was set forth in examples taken from the Scriptures, and out of books of teaching in about thirty languages. When the book was fin- ished, some of the copies were presented to the king and his council, to the bishops of Canterbury, and to the two universities, one apiece. The king said it was proper language for all nations ; and the Bishop of London being asked what he thought of it, was so at a stand that he could not tell what to say ; for it did so inform and convince people that few afterwards were so rug- ged toward us for saying thou and thee to a single person, which before they were exceeding fierce against us for." As a matter of grammar nothing could be more correct, but correctness alone is not a thing to win acceptance. At the present time we do not thou any one, and there is no longer any ground for a difference or peculiarity of address. But strangely enough the Quakers, who used to say thou art, and might now with a clear conscience say you are, really say Pronouns. 315 thee is, an absurdity in speech that has no justification. It is one of a few rather harmless oddities unworthy of a body of people in many respects so estimable. Thou, like the pronoun of the first person, had formerly a dual number, the cases of which were in A. -S.,git, incer, inc, incit. " Either of ow havith his stunde to speokene, ne nis incker nothres tale to schunien in his time." (Either of you hath his turn to speak, nor isn't neither of you two to shun talk in his time.) "The Soul's Ward," A.D., 1210. The last appearance of this dual was in the " Lay of Have- lok," A.D. 1300, by which time it had become confounded with the dual of the first person. " Gripeth ether unker a god tree." (Grip either of you two a good tree.) The distinction between the Nom. ye and the Obj. you is preserved in the older English writers. It is well maintained in the Bible throughout. " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you." JOB xii., 2. At present ye is properly used only to impart solemnity and grandeur to poetry, as in the following from Coleridge. " Ye living flowers that skirt the eternal frost ! Ye wild goats sporting round the eagle's nest ! Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain storm ! Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds ! Ye signs and wonders of the element ! Utter forth God, and fill the hills with praise." But poets are apt to think that they have a license to defy both rhyme and reason, and finding that ye, used legitimately as a nominative, serves a good purpose, think to attain the same by using it as an objective, whereby nothing is gained. 316 English Grammar. "A south-west blow Q^yee." SHAKESP. : "Tempest." "I fearer not, I know ye." BYRON. "Bethink^, before ye make answer." LONGFELLOW. In the last example " Bethink you " would have made better English and better poetry. The Pronoun of the Third Person. This is the only word in the language now that expresses the distinction of gender ; and it does so only in the singu- lar number. It is declined thus : SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. NOM. he she it Poss. his hers its OBJECT. him her it PLURAL, ALL GENDERS. NOMINATIVE, they ; POSSESSIVE, theirs ; OBJECTIVE, them. This is not so strictly a personal pronoun as the other two. Its connection with what are called demonstrative pronouns is evident. The singular is from the same root with here, hither, hence ; and the plural is similarly akin to the, this, that, these, those, then, there, thither, thence, thus and an obso- lete thy. Its genealogy has been wonderfully preserved. Sansk., sa, sa, tat. Gr., 6) 77, TO, where o represents regularly a Sansk. a, and the aspirate replaces a Sansk. and Lat. s. Homer uses this word indifferently as a demonstrative, an article, or a per- sonal pronoun, unconscious of any difference. Goth., sa, so, that-a. Anglo-Saxon had three pronouns corresponding to our he, this, and that, each having three genders and four cases, two of them having occasional traces of a fifth case, the In- strumental, denoting that with which anything is done. I shall call them here Nos. i, 2, and 3. Pronouns. 317 No. i. NOM. GEN. DAT. Ace us. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. he heo hit his hire his heom, him hire heom, him hine hi, heo, hig hit PLURAL, ALL GENDERS. NOM. hi, hie, hig GEN. hira, heora DAT. heom, him Accus. hi, hie, heo, hig Observe that the neuter singular is hit, and its genitive or possessive his. No. 2 is the demonstrative pronoun that. NOM. GEN. DAT. Ace. INSTR. NOM. tha SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. seo thaere thaere tha se thaes tham thone thy thaere PLURAL, ALL GENDERS. GEN. thara DAT. tham No. 3. The demonstrative this. NOM. GEN. DAT. Accus. INSTR. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. thes theos thisses thisse thissum thisne thys thisse thas PLURAL, ALL GENDERS. NOM. and Ace. thas GEN. thissa, thisse-ra Neuter. thaet thaes tham thset thy Ace. tha. Neuter. this thisses thissum this thys DAT. thissum 318 English Grammar. Nos. 2 and 3 are obviously from the same source, but were already distinct in the times of our Anglo-Saxon an- cestors. No. 3 is supposed to have been formed by com- bining the two roots of No. 2, while the latter was oftenest used for what is now commonly called the article the, and is its source. Between the Norman Conquest and the age of Elizabeth great confusion prevailed in the use of these pronouns, and they assumed more shapes than can be easily imagined. When they settled down, like ale that has passed its fer- mentation, it was found that No. 2 and No. 3 had lost all distinction of gender and case ; that No. I had lost the feminine singular nominative and all its plurals, and taken those of No. 2, which in turn had helped itself from No. 3. And so the last-named plural became split into these and those, similarly to the differentiations than and then, bind and bend, band and bond. Of No. 2 nothing remains in its original place but the neuter singular that. In this inter- necine war of words, lasting five hundred years, the main tide of fight ebbed and flowed between the Anglo-Scan- dinavian dialect of York and Northumberland on the one side and the Saxon of Southern England on the other. The northern dialect had for the modern she, they, their, them, sco or scho, thai, thair, thaim, while the southern long re- tained the older heo, hie, or hi, here, hire, or heore, and hem. The older forms are still to be found in Spenser ; but he professed to use an archaic style. The nominatives were the first to be exchanged. Along with the Nom. she we still retain the more original her, and it is quite common to find in old authors they associated with her and hem. " The fader his doughters and her husbandes Loued fulle wele, and had hem leef and dere ; Tyme and tyme he yafe hem with his handes Of his goode passingly, and they such chere Hym made, and were of so pleasaunt manere, That he ne wist how to be better at ese, They coude him so well cheresshe and plese." OCCLEVE, A.D. 1420. Pronouns. 3 1 9 The colloquial 'em is an abbreviation of hem, not of them. " Summon 'em, Assemble 'em j I will come forth and shew Myself among 'em" TH. SOUTHERN. From No. I are formed he, it, his, her, him, its. Here, hence, etc., from the same source, have become allied in meaning to No. 3. One evidence of the great age of No. I is that it has lost all trace of a demonstrative or adjective meaning, and has become a mere abstract, colorless pronoun. From No. 2 we have she, they, their, them, that, and the adverbs there, then, etc. ; from No. 3 this, these, those. It may be noticed that hit has lost its initial h and become it, thus obscuring its connection with he. The accusatives of the pronouns are lost, and their places are taken by datives. One step is made towards understanding why her is two cases. The final t of it, that, and what is a sign of the neuter gender, and corresponds to the terminal consonant in Sansk., tat, yat ; Lat., id, quid, quod, illud, istud. The instrumental or ablative cases of Nos. 2 and 3 are entirely lost ; but why, the corresponding case of the inter- rogative pronoun, is still in use. " And thy ilcan geare sende Aethelwulf cyning Aelfred his sunne to Rome." (And in that same year King Ethelwulf sent Alfred his son to Rome.) " Ac thaes wundredan men, na forthi thaet hit mare wundor wsere, ac forthi thaet hit wses ungewunelic." (But men wondered at this, not for this that it was more won- der, but for this that it was uncommon.) 'S " Homily on the Loaves and the Fishes." "For thy great Mammon fayrely he besought." " For thy the first did in the forepart sit." " Faerie Queene," book ii. We still have a representative of this old word in such phrases as the sooner the better, the longer here the later there. 320 English Grammar. " I love not man the less but Nature more." In these instances the differs from the so-called article, and is equivalent to the Latin eo in eo magis, eo melius, by so much more, better, etc. The forms with a superadded s ours, yours, theirs, hers its are relatively modern. Of these its is the youngest, not used by Spenser or recognized in the grammars of Ben Jonson and Alexander Gill. Until well into the seven, teenth century his was still in common use. " Learning hath his infancy when it is beginning, and almost childish ; then his youth, when it is luxuriant and juvenile then his strength of years, when it is solid and reduced ; and lastly his old age." BACON : " Essay," 58. Spenser sometimes has her : " For every substance is conditioned To chaunge her hew, and sundry forms to don, Meet for her temper and complexion." " Faerie Queene," iii., 6, 38. The Bible avoids the new word by means of his and thereof " the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind ; " the laver and his foot " ; "a cubit shall be the length thereof, and a cubit the breadth thereof" In King James's Bible, Leviticus xxv., 5 reads thus : " That which groweth of it owne accord of thy haruest, thou shalt not reape, neither gather the grapes of thy Vine vndressed ; for it is a yeare of rest vnto the land." There was an opportunity for a precisely similar expres- sion in Acts xii., 10 : " they came unto the iron gate that leadeth unto the city ; which opened to them of his own accord." This is curiously like a passage in the " Faerie Queene," book ii., canto 2 : " they came unto an yron dore, Which to them opened of his own accord." Pronouns. 321 The coincidence, however, becomes less striking when we find that both are imitations of Tyndale. Hit or it as a possessive, although not very common, is less exceptional than one might suppose. " hit is demed euer-more, For hit dede3 of dethe duren there 3et." (it is doomed evermore, For its deeds of death endure there yet.) " Alliterative Poems," 1360. " and that there thou leave it, (Without more mercy) to it owne protection." SHAKES?. : " Winter's Tale," 2, 3. " It hath it originall from much griefe." " Henry IV.," i, 3. " Of // owne fall."" Timon," act 2. " The Coarse they follow, did with desperate hand Fore do it owne life." " Hamlet," 5, i. " Of it owne colour and mooues with // owne organs." " Ant. and Cleop.," 2, 7. " The Hedge Sparrow fed the Cuckoo so long that it 's had it head bit off by it young." " Lear," i, 4. Rare instances of this kind are to be found down to the time of Addison and Steele. " unless a young wood spring up from // roots." Spectator \ No. 584. It was not uncommon in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to write it's instead of its ; and that is the form sanctioned by the authors of the Constitution of the United States, art. i., sec. 10, par. 2. He and she being the principal signs of gender in the language are employed as adjectives to denote the sex, especially of animals : " behold an ^-goat came from the west on the face of the whole earth." " And there came forth two she-bears out of the wood and tare forty and two children of them.' 322 English Grammar. There is a careless usage, not at all to be commended, of employing a personal pronoun as a noun, admitting of adjectives and adjective pronouns. " I have seen more eloquence in a look from one of these despicable creatures, than in the eye of the fairest she I ever saw." Spectator ; No. 6n. The English language is not rich in pronouns, and there are few careful writers or speakers who have not felt the want of more. One of these wants is a pronoun of the third person, as destitute of number and gender as who or which. Our Saxon fathers, like the Germans, used man as a pro- noun, just as the French use on, which is a residual of homme, a man. The Germans have Man sagt, just as the French have on dit, where our modern phrase is they say, people say, or it is said. In earlier stages of our language man often became mon, men, or me. "for with pouerte and with wa schal mon wele buggen." (for with poverty and with woe shall any one buy bliss.) "Wooing of our Lord," A.D., 1210. " For me hi halt lothlich and fule." (For folk hold it loathsome and foul.) "Owl and Nightingale," 1250. Shakespeare often uses a as a substitute for he, she, etc. "You '11 nere be friends with him, a kild your sister." " Who ere a was a shew'd a mounting minde." " Loves Labour 's Lost," 4, i. At present we employ a number of substitutes for a com- mon pronoun, of which the principal are we, you, they, and one, in such sentences as : We are likely to have frost to-night. You cannot expect the wisdom of age from one so young. They say that gold has been found on Mill Brook. Here the pronouns do not refer to any particular persons. Pronouns. 323 But the greatest need for a common pronoun is in re- ferring back to some indefinite person already mentioned. Take a sentence like the following. If the purchaser of a house should find a hidden treasure in it, would it belong to him ? Obviously the purchaser might be a woman or a corporation, in which case him would be inapplicable. Hence arise such inelegant verbosities as he or she, to him, her, or them, or either of them. In such cases Addison would have used a plural pronoun, although referring only to a singular. Some one finds a handkerchief and goes about " asking everybody if they had dropped it." And again : " I do not think any one to blame for taking care of their health." Spectator, No. 25. So also Hume: "As he had now reached the twenty-third year of his age, it was natural to think of choosing him a queen ; and each party was ambitious of having him receive one from their hand." In the stricter language of the present day these sentences would be incorrect. It is often used indefinitely, and apparently without mean- ing or necessity. 77 is a pity that so many young persons are growing up without acquiring the means of earning a living. What does it represent here ? What is a pity ? Why, it is the fact or state of things described. It is all over with him. Query. What is all over with him ? Ans. Everything in this world is over with him. He is dead. // is raining. It is going to snow. We do not imagine any particular thing that is raining or going to snow. It is merely a habit of language that has become a necessity. The ancient Romans appeared to say such things in single words pluit, ningit but the appear- ance was deceptive. The final t is the equivalent of our it. English has no separate reflexive pronoun that is, one placed after the verb when the actor and the person or thing 324 English Grammar. acted on are the same. The word suicide may be divided into two parts sui-cide of which the first is the Latin reflexive pronoun and the second the verb to strike or kill self-killing. The slayer and the slain are one. Sanskrit had no true re- flexive pronoun, but employed a noun instead. It had, however, an emphatic or intensive pronoun, sva-yam, of which the first half is the essential part, when it was in- tended to mark out a person very prominently. This sva became the Greek oi, e, and the Latin sui, se. It found its way into most of the Teutonic tongues, but was wanting in Anglo-Saxon from an early period, and consequently in English. Everywhere it is without the nominative ; for when one betrays himself, this little word represents him, not as the betrayer, but as the betrayed. It is represented in modern High German by sich, in Dutch by zich, and in Danish and Swedish by sig. Our substitute for this word is self, always combined with the personal pronouns. This compound performs double duty, as will be readily under- stood by one who knows the difference between the Lat. se and ipsi. If I say I fell and hurt myself, the word is used reflexively, the action coming back upon the actor. But in the sentence, I saw it myself, the word corresponds to ipse and reinforces the nominative /. The true reflexive pronoun, where found, is confined to the third person, and has no distinction of number or gender. The want of the reflexive deprives us of a very convenient adjective pronoun that might have been derived from it. In place of our single word his, Latin has illius, istius, ipsius, hujus, ejus, and suus, all somewhat different, the last being reflexive. It is some compensation, however, that with our slender stock we are able to distinguish between his and hers, which would have puzzled Cicero and Quintilian, with all their wealth of words. The absence of a reflexive is also one reason why our lan- guage has never developed a passive voice for any of its verbs. French, Spanish, and Italian make their verbs reflex- ive and then passive by preposing or appending the pronoun se. The characteristic of the Latin passive is r, which is held Pronouns. 325 to be the initial letter of the same se, changed to r, as so often occurs. The Russian language does the same by ap- pending to the verb sya, an abbreviation of the pronoun sebya compare the Sanskrit sva govarit, he says ; gova- ritsya, it is said. So the Norse or Icelandic forms a reflexive by adding sk, a shortening of sik frelsa, to free ; frelsask, to escape. Myself, yourself, etc., are everywhere made by combining a personal or a possessive pronoun with the emphatic ele- ment self. The origin of this word is uncertain. Clearly it is the same with the Gothic silba or selba, possibly made up of the se, just considered, and lib, or liba, having the sense of life or living body. It has also been a matter of question whether the word should be reckoned a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, or an adverb, a question of really little import- ance as words pass insensibly from one class to another. It is a noun when used singly or preceded by an adjective. " Selfvs> an eloquent advocate." MACLIN. " personal identity can by us be placed in nothing but conscious- ness (which is that alone which makes what we call self)" LOCKE : " Human Understanding." " Agis who saw Even Sparta's self to servile avarice sunk." THOMPSON. " The ministers for the purpose hurried thence Me, and thy crying selfe." SHAKESPEARE : " Tempest." Self is an adjective when it precedes a noun. " In all service and execution, he showed the self boldness and courage that Hannibal did." NORTH'S " Plutarch." " Love did us both with one self arrow strike." It is an adverb when it precedes an adjective. " The j^" same authors do affirm." HOLLAND'S " Plinie." " In the .y^same day entered Noah, and Shem, and Ham, and Japheth." GEN. vii., 13. 326 English Grammar. It is a pronoun only in combination with pronouns. The set/was long written separately from the personal pronoun, and began to be joined to it in the fourteenth century. During the five hundred years when English underwent its greatest changes these compound pronouns took a great variety of forms, among which were : me sylf, my selve, us seolf, us self, ourself, ouszelves, you self, he seolf, hemself, himselven, their self es, their selves, them selfe, themselfe. Out of this confusion emerged a compromise like most com- promises inconsistent, but for the present fairly well estab- lished. SINGULAR PLURAL ist person, myself ourselves 2d person, thyself, yourself yourselves ( himself \ 3d person, < herself V themselves ( itself ) Five of these forms, being those of the ist and 2d persons, unite a possessive pronoun with self, as with a noun. Himself and themselves attach the second part to what is now called the objective, formerly a dative case. This may be due in part to an imitation of French expressions like lui m$me. Her- self and itself are ambiguous, but may be considered as formed on the model of himself. The prevailing construc- tion then of self is as a noun preceded by an adjective or a possessive. The two exceptions would be overcome by rendering the expressions still more emphatic. We might say : his own great self, not him own great self ; their wise selves, not them wise selves. The admission of a plural makes self 'a noun and not an adjective. We also admit of whose self and ones self. No- body ventures on whomself ; and although oneself is met with, it is against the analogy and prevailing usage of the language. Kings and their representatives alone employ the peculiar form ourself. Pronouns. 327 There is no separate objective case, but a possessive is formed by substituting own for self or selves, in which case the pronominal part is always possessive my own, his own, their own. This own, is a past participle of owe, 1 to possess, for which we now use exclusively the strengthened form own. THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. The root of the interrogative pronoun is in Sanskrit ka, which becomes in Greek HO and no ; Latin, quo ; Goth, and A.-S., kva; Eng., wha and who. The distinction of gender began to fail in Gothic ; Saxon and English do not distin- guish between masculine and feminine. T is throughout a sign of the neuter. The A.-S. declension was : MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER. NOM. hwa hwset GEN. hwaes hwaes DAT. hwdm hwam Accus. hwone hwaet INSTR. hwy hwy Of these forms we have now entirely dropped the Accus. hwone, and all the others have been more or less changed or disguised. We place the w before, but still pronounce it after the h. For hwd we write who and say hu, although I have many a time heard it pronounced hwo ; and in the straths and glens of Scotland it is still called hwa. For hwas we write whose, disguising its possessive character by adding e after s, and we call it hooz. As usual with pro- nouns, we substitute the dative for the accusative, write whom and pronounce it hoom. These are never used as adjectives with nouns, and they apply only to persons. What from kwcet without a noun retains its neuter char- acter, but used adjectively is applicable to either persons or things. " What light is that ? " " or what king, going to war against another king," etc. 1 The sense of indebtedness comes from the possession of a thing not paid for. 328 English Grammar. The instrumental hwy, by what, or by what means, becomes the adverb why. From the interrogative we have two derivative pronouns, whether and which, also the adverbs how, when, where, whither, whence. Whether, having the old dual termination er, is which of the two. Which was originally formed by adding He, like, to the instrumental hwy, or hwi, and was thus equivalent to the Latin qualis, of what kind. It be- came in A.-S. hwilc or hwelc ; and in the course of its trans- formation h and w changed places, / was dropped out, and c became ch. The ancient word may perhaps still be heard in Scotland. " Whilk cause is the best I cannot say." SCOTT. Which has but one form for all occasions, is either singu- lar or plural, and is used with or without a noun. While who implies no knowledge of the person inquired about, which refers to the undetermined member of an aggregate known collectively. " and he said, I have an errand to thee, O captain. And Jehu said, Unto which of all of us ? And he said, To thee, O captain." 2 KINGS ix., 5. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Interrogative pronouns may pass imperceptibly into a usage in which there is no trace of an interrogation. In conversing about a picture, for example, the very same words in the same order may occur in several sentences, shading off from a distinct question to no question at all : Who painted it } I wish to know who painted it. I do not know -who painted it. Here is the son of the artist -who painted it. In the last example who is said to be a relative pronoun and to relate to the preceding noun, artist, which is called the antecedent that which goes before. Who, what, which Pronouns. 329 were interrogatives before they were relatives, and began to assume the latter character in the twelfth century. There were, however, other and older relatives. The nature of a relative pronoun can be made clearer by a few examples than by any definition : 1. " There was a man in our town And he was wondrous wise." Here are two distinct statements connected by and, two subjects, man and he, and the verb was repeated. 2. " There was a man in our town Who was wondrous wise." In this instance, as in most, who = and he. 3. " There was a wondrous wise man in our town." Only one proposition, subject, and verb. Many relative clauses, but not all, can be put into the first form, but if we had sufficient adjective power, all could be expressed in the third. " He was the only candidate who was accepted," is not the same as " He was the only candidate, and he was accepted." It is equivalent to " He was the only candidate accepted" Again : " There was no one there who could swim," cannot be put into the form : " There was no one there, and he could swim " ; but we might say : " There was no one there able to swim." But relative clauses, put into the form of adjectives, would sometimes be lengthy and cumbrous, and placed after the noun, and so contrary to the genius of the language. The 330 English Grammar. Germans have a habit of making up long adjective phrases, which may be illustrated by a close translation of Apart of a sentence from Friedrich Schlegel, combining the parts of each phrase by hyphens : " The harmonious majesty of the opposite-standing Magdalen, whose consummate beauty in the toward-thc-beholder-turned feat- ures, is strikingly like to the Dresden Madonna, reminds us of the sweet harmony of the in-eternal-beatilude-blessed spirits, which in the magic tones of earthly music," and so on to the end of the sentence, that is, of the page. Now if we had this habit, we might dispense at will with relative pronouns, although it is not clear that our style would be thereby improved. Thus instead of saying : " There are still traces of the canal which was cut by Xerxes across Mount Athos," we could say : " There still are traces of the by-Xerxes-across-Mount-Athos-eut canal." Relative pronouns save us from such lumbering expressions, and, with the help of a second verb, dexterously turn a sen- tence into a new direption, from which it may be again deflected into a third. What and which as relatives differ a little from the same words as interrogatives. By a kind of poetic license which takes the possessive whose, " that sweet bird whose music was a storm." SHELLEY. " The sunken glen whose sunless shrubs must weep." BYRON. What has the peculiarity of being both antecedent and rela- tive equal to that which. Which and what are sometimes used with nouns, but oftenest without. " What books he wished, he read : What sage to hear, he heard ; what scenes to see, He saw." POLLOCK'S " Course of Time." Pronouns. 331 The quaint old phrase, what time, meaning at that time when, is found only in poetry : " What time the mighty moon was gathering light, Love paced the thymy plots of Paradise." TENNYSON. Which was often preceded by the : " In the which ye also walked sometime." COL. in., 7. More curious was the practice of requiring the three words the which that to make a single relative pronoun. " And the monstre answerde him, and seyde, he was a dedly creature, suche as God hadde formed, and dwelled in the des- ertes, in purchasynge his sustynance ; and besoughte the here- myte, that he wolde preye God for him, the whiche that cam from hevene for to saven all mankynde, and was born of a mayden, and suffred passioun and dethe (as we well knowen)." Sir JOHN MANDEVILLE. It has been already said that the interrogatives were not employed as relatives until the twelfth century. What and which came first, and Dr. Morris assures us that who was not so used until the fourteenth, nor common before the six- teenth. This priority of which explains its occurrence in old books where we should now use who. There are probably persons still living who can remember the first sentence of the Lord's Prayer neither an error nor an exception. "But Paul said, I am a man which am a Jew of Tarsus." ACTS xxi., 39. The older relatives were : first, an indeclinable the ; second, the pronoun of the third person distinguished (page 329) as No. 2, se, seo, thaet ; third, these latter combined with the ; fourth, swa, equal to so or as. In the Saxon Chronicle King Henry acts "be thaere rede the him abuton waeron." (by their rede that were about him.) " Man waes fram Gode asend thces nama waes Johannes." (There was a man sent from God whose name was John.) JOHN i., 6. 33 2 English Grammar. " Ne geseah naefre nan man God, buton se ancenneda Sunu hit cythde, se ys on hys Faeder bearme." (Not saw never no man God, unless the only begotten Son manifested it, who is in his Father's bosom.) JOHN i., 18. " He toe the recless & te blod, & 3ede upp to thatt allterr, Thatt was withthinnenn wa3herifft." (He took the incense and the blood, And went up to that altar, That was within the veil.) "Ormulum," 1200. In the "Lives of the Saints" (1295) occurs, " thulke hous as he was inne ibore," (the same house which he was born in) ; and Bishop Bonner (1538) complains of Hooper for mis- quoting him making him say : " the same as was hanged," instead of, "the same that was hanged." As was then beginning to go out of fashion. Still it sometimes found a place in literature as late as the age of Queen Anne. " he marches up and attacks their main body, but are opposed again by a party of men as lay,".etc. Tatler, 1709. Steele, in the Spectator, with the ignorance of English philology so common in that age, presents the " Humble Petition of Who and Which against the upstart Jack Sprat, That, now trying to supplant them." The truth was, they were supplanting That. Perhaps he was not acquainted with the English Psalter of 1380. " Blesse thou, my soule, to the Lord ! and wile thou not forSete all the Seldingus of him. That hath mercy to alle thi wickednessis ; that helith alle thin infirmyties. That a3en-bieth fro deth thi lif ; that crowneth thee in mercy and mercy-doingis. That fulfilleth in goode thingus thy deseyr." Pronouns. 333 In all ages of the English tongue that has been the standard relative of the body of the people, and to this day which is stiff and formal, suggestive of the student's lamp or the pedagogue's birch. Here is an excellent example : " This is the cock that crew in the morn, Unto the farmer sowing his corn, That met the priest with his pen and ink-horn, That married the man so tattered and torn, That kissed the maiden all forlorn, That milked the cow with the crumpled horn, That tossed the dog, that worried the cat, That killed the rat, that ate the malt, Ttiatlzy in the house, that Jack built." This familiar word occurs here eleven times ; and to replace it by which and zvho would destroy the rippling rhythm that has delighted the young ears of so many generations. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. If all be included that may with propriety be placed in this class, it becomes a very large one. Its limits are as usual rather arbitrary ; for its members are not used exclu- sively as adjectives, nor are they the only ones so employed. Several of those already treated of are often associated with nouns in the manner of adjectives. Indeed, who is the only pronoun never associated with a noun. The pronouns of the first and second persons are never adjectives. When followed by nouns, the former is the leading word to which the latter is added. It is not the pronoun that is set to help . out the noun. But the words of the present class are habitually, and some of them exclusively, employed with nouns. I shall include two groups not very generally treated as adjective pronouns, and shall make five sub- divisions. I. What are commonly called demonstrative pronouns, as if the speaker pointed with the finger at the thing spoken of. They are three in number this, with its plural these; that, with its plural those; and yon w yonder. The first two 334 English Grammar. have been spoken of under the head of the pronoun of the third person. Strictly, this refers to what is near the speaker ; that, to what is near the hearer ; and yon to something remote from both. The words are applied also to ideas, opinions, actions, sayings, etc. When two things have just been named in contrast, the first is referred to as that, the last as this. " What conscience dictates to be done, Or warns me not to do, This, teach me more than hell to shun, That, more than heaven pursue." POPE. Often we refer to something we are going to say as this, and to what we have just said as that. " Never break a bridge you yourself -may have to cross : re- member that" " Store this among your treasures of wisdom : If you cannot keep your own secret, do not expect another to do it." Like the Latin iste, this is sometimes employed to impart a shade of contempt : " There will be no end of such fantastical writers as this Mr. Harris, who takes fustian for philosophy." TOOKE'S " Diversions of Purley." " this kind, this due degree Of blindness, weakness, heaven bestows on thee." POPE : " Essay on Man," i., 233. On the other hand that is used to magnify : " When languishing with love-sick eyes, That great, that charming man you see." ADDISON : " Rosamond," ii., 6. " There Charles confronted the High Court of Justice with that placid courage which has half redeemed his fame." MACAULAY : " Warren Hastings." Yon is now out of use in prose, and rare in poetry. The later form yonder is frequent in prose as an adverb of place : Pronoims. 335 "And they too have a voice, yon piles of snow." COLERIDGE'S " Hymn." " Near yonder copse, where once a garden smiled." GOLDSMITH'S " Deserted Village." Like many other old genuine words, yon is more common in Scotland : " There 's auld Rob Morris that wins vs\yon glen, He 's the king o' guid fellows, the wale o' auld men." BURNS. II. Two little words that have not much in common are usually made into a class by themselves and called Articles. They are an, abbreviated to a before a consonant sound, and the, to which Dr. Latham would add no. An is the Saxon numeral dn, one, fairly well preserved, and, as remarked, sometimes drops the n. " I have caught a fox," and " I have caught one fox," state precisely the same fact ; but the latter carries an implication that there was some thought of catching more than one, and thus lays stress on the number. It is very clear then why an or a precedes only a singular noun. Down to the close of the last century the final n was com- monly retained before the sound of h ; and we read of an house, an high day, an hen, an hog, an heap. At present the practice is to drop it before all consonant sounds, including h,y, and w ; excepting, however, words beginning with h and accented on the second syllable. In such cases the h is scarcely heard. The adjective pronoun no is merely the negative of the preceding. One of the forms taken by the first numeral in the middle ages was o : " Anon he let two cofres make, Of o semblance and o make." GOWER. Adding to this the n of the negative particle ne, makes the compound no. A fuller form is none, but now slightly differ- ent grammatically. Formerly none, like an, was used before a vowel. 336 English Grammar. " He maketh the devices of the people of none effect." PSALM xxxiii., 10. but such a distinction is no longer observed. The is from the same source as that. Our Saxon ances- tors occasionally employed an indeclinable form the, but oftener the pronoun se, sea, thcet, varied in gender, number, and case to suit the noun to which it was applied. An, or a, no, and the are thus weakened substitutes for one, no one, and that or those. An does not indicate any particular one, while the relates to something so well understood that its identity is not likely to be mistaken. " I hear a dog barking "; " I hear the dog barking." The first may be any dog ; the second is a particular animal well understood between us. " There was a man with a monkey here yesterday." " There is the man with the monkey again." Having once seen and spoken of him he is now familiar. III. My, thy, her, our, your, their, are called possessive pro- nouns, as distinguished from the possessive cases of the per- sonal pronouns. They are of course originally the same. My and thy are shortened forms of mine and thine, in the same manner as a is a clipped an. The Bible says " mine house," " thine head." The possessive pronouns that end in r are original, and their former places have been taken by forms with an added s. fits remains the same for both pur- poses, as it does not readily admit of a second s. Its is now almost exclusively used as an adjective pronoun. Speaking of a bird we might say : " That is its nest " ; we should scarcely ever say : " That nest is its " ; yet that is the way in which Shakespeare used the word : " Each following day Became the next dayes master, till the last Made former Wonders it's" " Henry VIII.," i, x. Pronouns. 337 The words of this and the preceding subdivision are used only before nouns. We may say, " This is our house," but not, " This house is our' IV. Numerals. Words denoting number are commonly classed among adjectives, but with a misgiving that their position is insecure, like that of the bats among the birds and beasts. They express no quality or characteristic, ad- mit of no degrees of comparison, and, like pronouns, are " names for everything." It is not necessary to give a series of numerals, as they are equally well known to everybody. They offer an ex- ample of forms remarkably well preserved in the main, yet occasionally suffering great changes, as will be seen by the table on page 338, of the first twelve in several languages of the Aryan family. The first column is a conjectural original from which all the others may be supposed to be derived. The Sanskrit and Gypsy words for one are evidently not from the source common to all the others. The s or cs, added to several of the first numerals, is an inflectional termination, and no part of the original words. The same is true of final r, or the doubled consonant, in Norse or Icelandic. The d in the Russian od-in is excrescent. Two, three, and six a multiple of two and three are the numbers best preserved. Whether or not this has any con- nection with the mystic character often attributed to the number three I cannot say. The cipher 3 is still the same in Sanskrit and in European books. Eleven and twelve are generally one-ten, two-ten ; but are constructed on a different principle in Lithuanian and the Teutonic dialects. This is most readily seen in Gothic. Bopp is no doubt correct in his conjecture that the -/if is akin to the English leave, left. The line of thought would thus be ten-and-one-left, ten-and-tzvo-left, shortened to one- left, two-left. In third, thirteen, and thirty r has changed places, as it often does, with the adjacent vowel. 338 English Grammar. jj e V O V o O a 4J M 1 1 seven .3 '3 g c V U 13 1 c O d 1 s 4> d ' bfl | e " '' 1u M-c o 3 BB c rg -0 5 'at *o I/) d .> S a C Zi V 1> I H c IH M T S 3 d 'S 1 1 2, m I 3 -rt 1 3 i 3 U i 3 '3 U) "I o IM S WJ C 3 -S rt S3 3 '5 3 'd >; c V eu z t/1 M ^ a 4) 3 g S U s g 3 5 1 1 f g IS ^ ^ trP .S O oO i S 6 O 1 novem o V u T (3 3 U 1 13 d H U M "CO 5? a 2- co ^ Q. h ^ ^ i: CO *a co a CO a X CO <0 O * o CO d -co ' I- k -w l> h k X ^ co J 3 O <0 K> r~ ij <0 "CO "O -co tco <0 d d Z Ji a 1 M T) O d 1 d jj O >, to 43 U osem > d V d -3 o > d tJO M o d 12 H d o d d "d u L^ u d u o 'o (3 4j3 '53 T O d 1 K d M %>M j3 d < 1 d (3 <D 1 CO *d u 13 &, B i c eu 5 e 3 1 d V ,8 o ^3 a -O GYPSY. Jj 4) "3 C d V u d a 'c u 3 3 0) Ji u T '3 o *| O 2 M V O <u s SANSKRIT. 1 1 d u. 1 d u Si 1 1 1 d i H a eka-dasha d 1 3 1 S d d e! e 1 d C 3 1 d Is M 1 1 H ,2 d nava 1 13 d 3 Pronouns. 339 The ty in twenty, thirty, forty, is allied to the Gothic tigjus, a modified form of taihun, ten. Our native tongue has no numeral larger than thousand ; million, billion, etc., are of Latin origin. The numerals here considered, whether great or small, are called cardinal numbers, from the Latin cardo, or better cardin, a hinge, because on them depend and turn several other series in which number is the chief element. Of these derived series there are three, one of which properly belongs here first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. They are called ordinals, because they show only the order of succession or arrangement. It will be seen at once that first and second are not derivations of one and two. First is a superlative from fore, and second is from the Latin sequor, to follow. The second derivative series single, double, triple, quadru- ple are adjectives, and need not be further considered here, The third are adverbs -once, twice, thrice, etc. There are many other words, nouns and adjectives, in- volving the consideration of number, such as hexagon, pen- tagonal, dodecahedron, but they do not belong here. V. Miscellaneous adjective pronouns : all either ilk same any else latter several both enough many some certain every neither such divers few only sundry each former other Most of these are used either with nouns or without, but every and sundry accompany either other adjective pronouns or nouns. Only never occurs alone as a pronoun, but it may precede or follow either noun or pronoun. When joined with a noun enough generally follows it. Certain is now scarcely ever used alone, but formerly was less confined : " But before that certain came from James, he did eat with the Gentiles." GAL. ii., 12. The same is true of divers, now nearly obsolete : 34-O English Grammar. " for divers of them came from far." MARK via., 3. " The Gospel is everywhere one, though it be preached of divers." TYNDALE. Ilk, when met with at all, is without a noun. It meant the same. It is used now only rarely and half in jest. A man is said to be of that ilk when his name and that of his home are the same, as Kinloch of Kinloch. MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. Any, every, no, and some, united with body, one, and thing, yield twelve pronouns used as nouns anybody, everybody, etc. There are also ought and its negative nought equiva- lents of anything and nothing. It is not uncommon now to prefer the spelling aught and naught, on the ground that they represent the A.-S. dwiht and ndwiht, and that such was the prevalent spelling for some centuries after the lan- guage had become what we should now recognize as English. But, on the other hand, A.-S. d is most commonly represented by o in the language of our time, thus : an one cald cold ham home ar ore crdw crow mal mole ath oath dran drone mar more bald bold laid fold na no ban bone gd go ra roe bat boat gdt goat sla sloe Moreover, ought is spelled with o in the very careful or- thography of the " Ormulum," A.D. 1200, and in the " Proverbs of Hending," about a century later. Nought occurs in the Bible thirty-six times and naught three times, but always with the distinction that the former has the meaning of nothing, and the latter of bad or worthless. " Ye have sold yourselves for nought, and ye shall be redeemed without money." ISA. lii., 3. " The situation of this city is pleasant, as my lord seeth ; but the water is naught, and the ground barren." 2 KINGS ii., 19. Pronouns. 341 " It is naught, it is naught, saith the buyer ; but when he is gone his way, then he boasteth." PROV. xx.,i4. Pronouns are nearly all native words ; the exceptions being certain, divers, several, and a few of the numerals. Many of the foregoing words are not universally regarded as pronouns. Indeed, I am not aware that all have ever been so grouped before. If, as I believe, words are all the time undergoing changes, so slow that it may take centuries to make the change clear and conspicuous, there must be many in an intermediate and doubtful state, so that it is easier to say what they were, or what they will be, than to determine what they are. I hope that to loan is not good English yet, although very common, but I have little doubt that within a hundred years loan will completely displace lend. " Nebuzar-adan the captain of the guard carried away certain of the poor of the land * * * } e f t certain of the poor of the land for vinedressers and for husbandmen." JEREMIAH lii. Nothing could be left more uncertain than who the respective poor persons were. Certain is here precisely equivalent to some ; and the word must have sunk gradually from the sense of certitude, as an adjective, to that of entire indefiniteness as a pronoun. There are no doubt words now losing their individuality, and sinking into the condition of being "names for everything." As an example of this kind, Professor Earle instances the word thing. There is certainly no object now in nature or art, to which it is more appro- priate than to another. Originally it signified a public assembly bearing some analogy to a town meeting. We may read of such Things in the old Norse Sagas, and find vestiges of them in the name of Thingvalla, in Iceland, and the Tynwald, in the Isle of Man. But among our Saxon ancestors, even before the Conquest, it had obtained a wider range of indefiniteness than it has now. Another of these half pronominal words is body, not only in the compounds anybody, nobody, etc., but also alone. 34 2 English Grammar. Like who, it is confined to persons. It is more generally used by the Scotch than by the rest of our kindred. If the following example were translated into Latin, a body would be everywhere represented by a pronoun. " Gin a body meet a body Comin' through the rye, Gin a body kiss a body, Need a body cry ? " CHAPTER V. VERBS AND THEIR SEVERAL KINDS. VERBS express actions. It is true that after many thousand years of growth and decay, we can find a few verbs that do not readily suggest to us any form of bodily or mental activity. Such are forget, neglect, lose, omit, lie, sleep ; but nearly all such words can be traced back to more active ancestors. We shall hereafter find reason to believe that to be the most colorless and inexpressive of all verbs once conveyed the idea of doing something. Professor Whitney says of the remotest accessible verbal roots of the Aryan tongues, " that they are limited in signification to a single class of ideas, the physical or sensual, the phenomenal, out of which the intellectual and moral develop themselves." 1 That is, every verb at first denoted the perceptible action of some material body. So we shall most readily reach a clear idea by taking action to be the essential characteristic of a verb ; and we need not be surprised to find, what is found everywhere else, that some of the farthest developments lose sight of the original conception. It is often said that the essence of a verb is to assert or declare, but this seems to me a less permanent and essential feature than the other. We can find hundreds of assertions without verbs, and verbs that assert nothing. A snatch from an old song of the Buccaneers of the Spanish Main ran : " Up with the black flag, down with the blue ; Fire on the main-top, fire on the bow, Fire on the gun-deck, fire down below." 1 " Language and the Study of Language," page 265. 343 344 English Grammar. These spirited lines make no assertion, but suggest a good deal of action. So questions and many other expressions do not assert. " Oh ! that the desert were my dwelling-place, With one fair spirit for my minister." BYRON'S " Childe Harold." This is the expression of a wish without any verb of wish- ing, were being the only one present, which does not assert that anything is or was or will be. In the sentence, The rose is red, the adjective red is a more important part of the assertion than the verb is. Many languages are without a word signifying merely to be, to exist ; and others, like the Hebrew and Arabic, use it very sparingly. " Every beast of the forest is mine, and the cattle upon a thousand hills" is a very large assertion, but the only verb in it is a European interpolation. There is a passage well known to the friends of temperance and prohibition, that in the original is with- out a verb : "Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath contentions? who hath babbling ? who hath wounds without cause ? who hath redness of eyes ? " They that tarry long at the wine." The essential idea of a verb is sometimes put into the form of a noun. Some of these are grammatically mere nouns like stealth, flattery, forgiveness, emulation, blandish- ment. Although derived from verbs, they are not verbs in any sense, and may be summarily dismissed. There is one, however, ending in -ing, so directly formed from the verb that it may be regarded as almost a part of it at least a true verbal noun : " the writings, of the Fathers "; " from the rising of the sun unto forgoing down of the same." What is very commonly called the infinitive of the verb, to run, to ride, to speak, is often equivalent to a verbal noun, as will be easily seen in the familiar quotation, " To err is human, to forgive divine." Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 345 " for to will is present with me ; but to perform that which is good I find not." There are thus two verbal nouns. Again the verbal idea may assume the form of an ad- jective, or of a word partaking in various degrees of the adjective character. Solicitous, from solicit, responsive, from respond, are mere adjectives, and not verbal forms ; but our language has two real hybrids. The first invariably ends in ing, and being an adjective admits of no plural " a running stream," " the lark was singing," " the birds are singing," " the girls were singing ' Old Folks at Home,' " In the first of these examples running has the effect only of an adjective ; in the others singing has all the force of a verb. This form is called a participle, as partaking of the characters of the verb and the adjective. It will be seen at once that this parti- ciple is identical in form with the verbal noun in -ing. Of this more will be said hereafter. Let it suffice for the present that, so far as form goes, the noun is the original and the participle a mistaken imitation. There is another participle whose ending is not uniform, but is in a majority of instances -ed roasted chestnuts, painted ceilings, frozen lakes, bound volumes. Of these two participles the first is connected with the actor or doer, represents the action as in progress, going on, and consequently incomplete ; the sec- ond connects the action with the person or thing acted upon, and represents it as finished. The first is commonly said to be present and active, the latter past, or perfect and passive. Perfect, in grammar, signifies completed action, and passive suffering or undergoing. In " The boy is stoning the robins," the actor is put forward and made conspicuous ; but if we say, " The robins are stoned by the boy," promi- nence is given to the sufferers. This is the difference be- tween the active and the passive forms of verbs. Besides the two simple participles, there are several compound parti- cipial expressions, such as, being writing, being about to write, having been writing, having written, having been written, etc. To the number and variety of these there is no precise limit. 346 English Grammar. Verbs are divided into several classes upon a variety of grounds quite independent of each other, sometimes from their meaning and sometimes with sole reference to their forms. And first, as to signification. The leading distinc- tion is between verbs expressing actions which begin and end with the actor and those that directly involve another. The actor is called in grammatical language the subject ; the person or thing he acts upon, the object. In the sentence, " The hunter killed a bear," the hunter is subject and the bear object. To sleep, to smile, to shudder, to yawn, and many others take no object. Those that take an object are called transitive a word that means passing over. When a bad boy pelts a homeless cat, the act of pelting is conceived of as passing from the little barbarian to the friendless ani- mal. But when the young savage lies down and sleeps, these actions are confined to himself, and do not pass over to another. Verbs that thus have no object are called intransitive. Transitive verbs have an active and a passive side ; intransitives have only the forms of the active. A great number of verbs generally intransitive may, by one or another contrivance, be used transitively. One may walk, run, or sit a horse, fly a kite, or sweat coin. The Lord rained bread from heaven (Exod. xvi., 4), and a tree may snow its fragrant blossoms on the ground. While a few verbs remain exclusively transitive or intransitive, the greater number may be either. A few verbs originally single have, by a change of vowel, been split into pairs, each pair con- taining usually a transitive and an intransitive. brood breed rise raise deem doom sit set fall fell stoop steep lie lay drink drench Besides the direct, verbs often have an indirect object, to or for whom a thing is done. Sing me a song. Tell him the story. Show Ada the pictures. It is sometimes said that the little word to is understood before the words here italicized ; but what are we to understand by its being Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 347 so understood ? In languages that have a considerable supply of cases, one is chiefly set apart for the indirect object. The above words would have been in the dative case, so long as we had one, but without any to. Now, when that case is lost we often indicate the same relation by to, that we may avoid ambiguity. In the usual expressions there is not an original to omitted ; but in the amended phrases a particle is inserted. Some languages abound in verbs whose action returns upon the actor, as the boomerang is fabled to do. These are called reflexive, or backward-turning verbs. Such are the probable originals of the Sanskrit and Greek middle voice, and of all passive forms. With the help of well-preserved pronouns, the Italian, Spanish, and French employ a great number of reflexive expressions. Dar a far qualche cosa To undertake something Intenderw della pittura To understand painting Ribellaro To rebel Se lo ban comido los mosquitos The mosquitoes have eaten him up Ir se To go away Venir se To come away Se promener To take a walk Se servir To make use of S' enrhumer To take cold English has no reflexive forms, for reasons suggested under the head of personal pronouns. It is true that one can do but few things to others that he cannot do to himself ; he can hurt, deceive, or give himself away, but we have few words to express what one can do only to himself. Be- think, betake, and behave make up the list. The last is some- times used as an intransitive, but the older and prevailing usage is reflexive : " thou behaued'st thy selfe, as if thou hadst beene in thine owne Slaughter-house." SHAKESP. : 2 " Henry VI.," iv., 3. In the Bible it is reflexive twelve times, and four times intransitive. 348 English Grammar. There is an old word, hight, now scarcely used in serious speech, which, when signifying to be called or named, has all the force of a passive : " This grizy beast (which Lyon hight by name.) " " Midsummer Night's Dream," v., 140. " Ne liuing man like words did neuer heare, As she to me deliuered all that night ; And at her parting said shee Queene of Faeries hight" SPENSER : " Faerie Queene," i., 9. There are verbs that have no real subject, that express actions performed by nobody. These are called impersonal verbs. For form's sake they have generally an apparent subject, it, but the it does not denote anything in particular: It had rained all night. May it please the Honorable Court, we shall first undertake to prove, etc. This it is often repeated and expanded into a long phrase, of which the essential part is that form of the verb which is a verbal noun. I shall here enclose the phrase subject in a parenthesis, and italicize the verbal noun : " O it offends mee to the Soule, (to see a robustious Pery-wig-pated Fellow tear a Passion to tatters to verie ragges). SHAKESP. : " Hamlet." The impersonal form of expression was once much more common than it is now. Verbs that can dispense with even the formal subject it are confined to the archaic language of poetry : " Theresa's form Methinks 1 it glides before me now, Between me and yon chestnut bough." BYRON: "Mazeppa." " And ambling palfrey when, at need, Him listed ease his battle steed," SCOTT'S "Marmion," canto i. 1 Here me is a survival of the dative case, and thinks from A.-S. thincan, to seem, not the same word as thencan, to think. The meaning therefore is : // seems to me. Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 349 There is no precise limit to the number of verbs that may occasionally be used impersonally. Lastly, there are a few verbs that in the course of ages have fallen so low as to lose their independence entirely, and become slaves of other verbs. They are called auxiliary or helping verbs. They are can, let, may, must, shall, and will, which are never allowed to go without the conscious presence of some more substantial verb. Be, dare, do, and have are on the downward road, and have lost their inde- pendence in part, and there is at present an effort to reduce help in the same manner. Thus we can, as usual, see the process in all its stages from shall at one end of the scale to help at the other. The division of verbs according to their forms is a much more extensive subject than that depending on their signifi- cations. A hundred years ago the good Lindley Murray could divide all verbs into regular, irregular, and defective. As the defectives, so far as they went, were necessarily either regular or irregular, there were essentially but two kinds. The regulars added -d or -ed to indicate that the action was past ; the others did not. The distinction was not profound or particularly useful, but it had the merit of being very easy to perceive and remember. To make the point clearer, we may revert to what was said (page 345) of participles, that one of them, expressing the effect of an action past and completed, very often ended in -ed. There is also an active form of the verb, referring to past action, and called the past, imperfect, or preterit tense, which also often ends in -ed. plant he plant-ed it was plant-ed plough he plough-ed it was plough-ed urge he urge-d it was urge-d These are perfect specimens that have not been worn down, like had for have-d. The verb undergoes no change except the addition, and the past tense and past participle are alike. But there is a class of verbs that differ very essentially from these. In the best specimens there is an interior change of 350 English Grammar. vowel, nothing is added except to the participle, and the preterit and participle are unlike. sing he sang it was sung begin he began it was begun fly he flew it had flow-n We saw in the chapter on word-making that the inflec- tional system of the Shemitic nations was carried out largely by vowel changes. This resource was familiar to the Hindoos, not altogether unknown to the Greeks and Romans, and has been largely employed by the Teutonic nations from times of which there is no memory. To indicate that an action is past and finished, one obvious way would be to repeat the verb, as if one should say run-run he, meaning he ran, or has run. But as the most constant tendency of language is to shorten cumbrous compounds, this would after a time become ru-run he. It would then be exactly analogous to the Latin cu-curr-it, he or it ran. In Sanskrit the practice was, as in the last example, to diminish the first half of the compound by omitting the final consonant, and substituting where possible a fainter vowel, and to double or strengthen the vowel of the last part. budh know bu-bodh-a he knew m lead ni-nay-a he lead tan stretch ta-tan-a he stretched So the Latin has : pedo pe-ped-it morde-o mo-mord-it pend-o pe-pend-it curr-o cu-curr-it tend-o te-tend-it sponde-o spo-pond-it tund-o tu-tud-it parc-o pe-perc-it In Greek the first part of the doubled verb dwindled to the faintest form that the initial consonant could assume, and a faint <?. graph-o ge-graph-a thall-o te-thel-a deir-o de-dark-a phraz-o pe-phrak-a Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 351 The Gothic, in repeating, or as it is called reduplicating, the verb, preserves a greater part than any of the sister languages. slep-an to sleep sai-zlep I slept gret-an to weep gai-grot I wept hait-a lo call hai-hait I called hlaup-an to run hlai-laup I ran skaid-an to separate skai-skaid I separated Yet although once so common, there are now only two words in the language that show distinct traces of reduplica- tion did and hight, and of these the last is absolete. But as the first half of the doubled verb slowly disappears, some part of the force of its vowel is apt to be transferred and added to that of the second part ; and thus a vowel change is effected. Dr. Morris gives a list of twenty-seven English verbs whose past tenses, he thinks, have very evidently been affected by reduplication. He cites held, the past tense of hold, as a particular illustration Goth, hai-hald, O. H. Ger. hialt (for hei-halt) Mod. H. G. hielt, A.-S. heold, which, by allowing the stress to fall upon the first of the two vowels, gradually sank into held. The Doctor even goes so far as to hold that : " All strong verbs in the Aryan languages origi- nally formed their perfect tense by reduplication." Another way to mark an action as past was to prefix a particle originally a, perhaps meaning then. This prefix, called an augment, was especially common in Sanskrit and Greek, but unknown elsewhere among Aryan languages. A third method was, as shown above, to change the root vowel of the verb, and we need not undertake to determine how far that was the result of reduplication. Lastly a particle might be added at the end of the verb. The last two are the methods employed in English. The orderly presentation of all the forms that a verb can assume is usually called its conjugation. The word signifies literally yo king-together, that is uniting the verb with the various words and particles that modify its application. Those that follow the same pattern are said to be of the 35 2 English Grammar. same conjugation. Hence it would seem at first sight that English has just two conjugations. But these two contain so many varieties that the term so applied would cover a much wider and less defined area than it does in Greek or Latin. On the other hand, to apply that term to each variety would make an indefinite number a dozen or twenty conjugations. For the present I shall speak of them as two classes, premising, however, that none of the names thus far found for these classes and their subdivisions have proved entirely satisfactory. Grimm and the German phi- lologists called those that change the vowel strong verbs, and those that add -d or -ed, weak ; but the nature of the weak- ness or strength is not very apparent. It often happens that when a word loses a letter or syllable in one part, a vowel or consonant is inserted in another. The syllable thus increased is said to be strengthened, and the forms that contain such syllables are called strong forms, while others, unchanged, or reduced in volume, are known as weak forms. Let there be a word find the i as in fin and let this word, through some unknown witchcraft, be changed into found, it would take but a moderate stretch of fancy to call the former a weak and the latter a strong form. Or, let lip be a root or simplest possible form of a word signifying to anoint, limp, leip, leiph, loiph, might be called strengthened forrrls of the same. In this sense the terms strong and weak are quite common in philology, yet I suspect that verbs were first classified as strong and weak for reasons still more recondite and fanciful. The same two classes of verbs have been called by some the old and the new conjugations, but as both are equally found in the oldest literary monument of the Teutonic nations the Gospels of Ulfilas it does not ap- pear at first sight how the one can be proved to be older than the other. The truth is both these distinctions have to seek their justification by going far beyond the bounds of the English tongue. As nothing analogous to the addition of -ed is found in any but one branch of the Aryan family, it is assumed to have arisen among our Gothic or Teutonic ancestors after their separation from the other branches, and Verbs and TTieir Several Kinds. 353 therefore later than forms that are common to all. In the present English the past tense is not always stronger than the present in the sense above explained : bite bit shoot shot slide slid fall fell This, however, is due to successive changes. As regards the past or passive participle the common ter- mination in Sanskrit was -ana, in Goth., O. H. Ger., and Old Saxon, -an, to which terminations for number, gender, and case might be added. The Norse changed this to -in, the other Teutonic tongues to -en, in which form it still survives in English in spok-en, wov-en, driv-en, and a few others. From some words e has been pressed out blown, drawn, flown, hewn, born from others the entire en has been dropped burst, flung, fought, spun. Past participles of both classes often had the particle go- prefixed in Gothic and Old High German, ge- in A.-S. and Modern H. G., in which last it is still very common : ge-geben given ge-schrieben written This particle was prefixed to both nouns and verbs. In many instances it had no perceptible significance ; in others it seemed to add the idea of completeness or collectiveness. Grimm conjectured that it was allied to the Latin cum or con. In A.-S. it came to be pronounced^- and then, through the gradations y- and i-, passed from the living speech of men, leaving only a single vestige in e-nough, Ger. ge-nug. Although never used now but in burlesque or drollery, it was once quite common : " The wrathful winter preaching on a-pace, With blustering blastes had &\ybared the treen." " Mirror for Magistrates," A.D. 1563. " But come thou goddess fair and free, In heaven ycleped Euphrocyne." MILTON. 354 English Grammar. More expressive terms might have been found for the two great divisions of verbs. Botanists employ two words that would very nearly express the distinction. They are endogenous, growing internally, and exogenous, growing ex- ternally. I would suggest endotropic and epithetic as express- ing exactly the ideas of internal change and external addition. They may be thought rather lengthy, and for the rest I shall use the words strong and weak, not because they are appropriate but because they are short and pretty generally known. The strong verbs are among the most original, characteris- tic, and expressive words in the language. All but one or two are indigenous. Rive is Scandinavian, but had gained a residence before the thirteenth century ; plead came from the Norman-French but a little later, and many do not consider it a strong verb. All the others are natives ; all are primary that is, not derived from any other known words ; and all are monosyllables, or the verbal part is such, with an added prefix, like a-, be-, for-, fore-, over-, under-, or with-. Their most constant characteristic is that the vowel sound in the past tense differs from that of the present, and they never add -d or its substitue -t to either the past tense or participle. Their number has been decreasing for a thousand years. These relics of hoary eld succumb one by one to the rule of an encroaching majority, relinquish the change of vowel and accept an added -ed, as the Chinese did the pig-tail. It will be seen by the lists given below that, out of 1 18, forms in -ed are encroaching upon 29, and that 69 have gone over bodily to the other class. In a very correct sense these so-called strong verbs are of all words the weakest. Secondary verbs, those derived from other verbs or from nouns, and all verbs acquired from external sources, take -ed that is, belong to the weak class, except a few that have passed from the weak to the strong class in relatively modern times. Even if it were possible it would require too much space to show the causes that produced all the varying forms of these verbs, but I may indicate one or two lines of transfor- mation ; and doubtless there was an intelligible cause for Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 355 nearly every change. The past participle is seen to differ very often, but not always, from the past tense. Now we may go back to the Anglo-Saxon, and take sing-an, to sing, as a sample of a considerable class. The first person singu- lar and all the plural of the present indicative, the whole present subjunctive, the imperative, infinitive, and present participle have the same vowel, i. In the past tense the first and third persons singular were sang, the second person singular sung-e, and all the plural sung-on. The past parti- ciple was sung-en, following the plural and not the singular of the past tense. Of 184 verbs found in the remains of Saxon literature with sufficient fulness of their several parts, the vowel of the first person singular past is like that of the present in only one instance, and that a doubtful variant. In a similar doubtful instance the participle follows the singular past. In all other cases the past tense is peculiar. In 47 the participle follows the present tense ; in 27 others there is only a difference in the length of the vowel. In 52 the par- ticiple follows the plural of the past tense, and in 57 others it deviates only by having o instead of u. The participle had o or u in 99 words more than half, and always had the termination -en. Long i in the present takes long a in the past with only one exception, and of 58 words having i in the present 50 have a in the past. It will be seen by the list presented below how persistently this a held its place against the pressure of o and u. Like most old usages, it held its ground best in Scotland, of which an old comic song, " The Auld Wife wi' the Wee Pickle Tow," affords an excellent example : " She sat an' she gral an' she fiat an' she flang, She chochert, she byochert, she wrigglet, she wrang." While the u of the past plural is thus supplanting the a of the singular, some hold that we ought to say : he sang, and they sung ; but such a distinction is not generally observed now nor sustained by the usage of the past two centuries. The Bible uses the two forms interchangeably, having sang English Grammar. nine times as a plural and sung three times. Chaucer writes song (modern sung} indifferently as singular or plural. So Dryden : " War, he sung, is toil and trouble, Honour but an empty bubble." " Alexander's Feast." The following list contains nearly all that can now be reckoned as strong verbs, including some that hold their places by a very insecure tenure. The word has been ad- mitted when either the past tense or past participle is strong in usage that is, at all recent. When a verb is found both single and with a prefix, as hold and behold, only one is given. Forms in italics are obsolete ; those in small capitals are Saxon, given to show that the word once had family connections : PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE I abide abode abidden, abode 1 2 awake awoke, awaked awaked 3 bake book, baked baken, baked* 4 be been 5 bear bare, bore born, borne s 6 beat bet, beat beaten * 7 begin began begun 8 bid bade, bid bidden, bid 9 bind band, bound bounden, bound 1 " Eumenes could not have abidden." RALEIGH'S "Hist, of the World." 5 " Behold a cake was baken on the coals." i KINGS xix., 6. " A firlot of good cakes my Elspa beuk, And a good ham is hingin in the nook." ALLAN RAMSAY'S " Gentle Shepherd," ii., 4. * " And Solomon thad threescore and ten thousand that bare burdens." i KINGS v., 15. 4 " Persand the sabill barmkyn nocturnall, Bet down the skyes clowdy mantill wall. " GAWIN DOUGLAS, A.D. 1513. Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 357 PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE 10 bite bate, bote, bit bitten, bit * 11 bleed bled bled 1 12 blow blew blown 13 break brake, broke broken* 14 breed bred bred 15 chide chode, chid chidden, chid * 1 6 choose chose chosen 1 7 cleave (adhere) cleaved, clave cleaved * 1 8 cleave (split) clave, clove, cleft cloven, cleaved, cleft* 19 climb clamb, clomb, climbed clotnben, climbed T 20 cling dang, clung clung 21 come came comen, come 8 22 crow crew crowed 23 CWETHAN qUOth GE-CWETHEN 1 " His Bodi was Boiled, for wraththe he hot his lippes." " Piers the Plowman," 1362. " Yet there the steel stayd not, but inly bate" SPENSER'S " Faerie Queene," ii., 5-7. 8 Bleed, breed, feed, lead, meet, plead, and read are not generally reckoned among strong verbs because they were not so anciently ; but now they have the two essentials that they change the vowel and add nothing. 3 ' ' And all the people of the land went into the house of Baal, and brake it down." 2 KINGS xi., 18. 4 " Jacob was wroth and chode with Laban." 5 " he smote iill his hand clave to the sword. " 2 SAM. xxiii., 10. " their tongue cleaved to the roof of their mouth." JOB xxix., io. "if any blot hath cleaved to mine hands." JOB. xxxi., 7. ' "Abraham * * * clave the wood for the burnt offering." GEN. xxii., 3. T ' ' For hit clam vche a clyffe cubites fyftene, Ouer the hy3est hylle." "Alliterative Poems," A.D. 1360. " We forded the river and clomb the high hill ; Never our steeds for a day stood still." BYRON'S " Siege of Corinth." 8 " The day is comen of her departyng." CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." 358 English Grammar. PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE 24 dig digged, dug digged, dug ' 25 do did done 26 draw drew drawn 27 drink drank drunken, drunk 28 drive drove, drove driven * 29 eat ate eaten 30 fall fell fallen 31 feed fed fed 32 fight fought foughten, fought * 33 find fand, found founden, found * 34 fling flang, flung flung 6 35 fly flew flown 36 forsake forsook forsaken 37 freeze froze frozen 38 get gat, got gotten, got* 39 give gave given 40 gnaw gnew, gnawed gnawn, gnawed T 1 Dug is modern. Digged occurs thirty-seven times in the Bible, but dug never. 8 " And he drave out the inhabitants of the mountain." JUDGES i., 19. 3 " on the foughten field Michael and his angels prevalent Encamping." " Paradise Lost," vi., 410. 4 " And he shal han Custance in manage, And certein gold, I not what (juantitie, And herto founden suffisant seurtie." CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." ' ' Donald Caird finds orra things Whar Allan Gregor fand the tangs." Scotch Song. 5 " To tell how Maggie lap and Jiang, A supple jade she was and strang." " Tarn o' Shanter." 6 " And David gat him a name when he returned from smiting the Syrians in the valley of salt." 2 SAM. viii., 13. 7 " he laye downe to slepe, for to put ye commaundement, which so gnew and freated his conscience, out of mind." TYNDALE : " Prologue to the Book of Jonah." "stark spoyl'd with the Staggers, begnawne with the Bots." SHAKESP. : " Taming of the Shrew," iii., 2. Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 359 PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE 41 go 42 grafen 43 grind gaed, yode S ro ft graved ground gone 1 graven, graved * ground 44 grow 45 king* han g 46 heave 47 help grew hang, hung, hanged hove, heaved holp, helped grown hung, hanged s heaved * holpen, helped * 1 ' ' Then I gaed hame a crowdie-time And soon I made me ready." BURNS. " Thair scrippes, quer thai rade or yode Tham failed neuer o drince ne fode." " Cursor Mundi," 1320. * " Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image." 3 ' ' Nae mair by Babel's streams we '11 weep To think upon our Zion, And king our fiddles up to sleep, Like baby-clouts a-drying." BURNS : " Ordination." There are here two verbs, an original and a derivative. The original had in A.-S. a shortened form, htfn, to hang, ic hd, thu he"hst, he he"hth, I hang, etc. The past tense was king, participle hangen, from which the lineal descendant is our hung. It was intransitive, so that we should consistently say : " His hair hangs loose " ; " The fruit hung thick on the trees " ; " The sword had hung there for years." At an early age, it is said in the year 1137, and in the North of England, a transitive verb was developed, like set from sit, and raise from rise, which took the form hang, hanged, hanged. The Bible adheres to these later forms, even where we should not do so now. It has only hanged, and never hung ; but the sense is always transitive. " We hanged our harps upon the willows." PSA. 137. "If he be not borne to bee hang'd our case is miserable." SHAKESP. : " Tempest," i., i. In modern times we have got the two verbs intermixed. We would not say : " He hanged liis hat on a peg," but " He hung." We reserve hanged for death by hanging. ' ' He was hung " would be incorrect on any ground. * ' ' the icy island hove in sight Like a city lost at sea. " H. MILNOR CLAPP. 5 " Sir Robert never holpe to make this legge." SHAKESP. : " King John," i., i. " He hath holpen his servant Israel in remembrance of his mercy." LUKE i., 45- 360 English Grammar. PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE 48 hew hewed hewn, hewed 49 hide hid hidden 50 hold held holden, held * 51 know knew known 52 lade lod, laded loden, laden 4 53 lead lod, led led 3 54 He lay lien, lain 55 meet met met 56 melt malt, melted molten, melted 4 57 mow mew, mowed mown, mowed 6 58 plead pleaded, pled pleaded, pled 59 read read read 60 ride rade, rode ridden ' 61 ring rang rungen, rung 62 rinne, rin t run ran ronnen, run T 63 rise rase, rose risen " 64 rive rove, rived riven* 65 rot rotted rotted, rotten 66 see saw seen 67 seeth sod, seethed sodden, seethen 10 68 shake shook shaken 1 " I have long holden my peace." ISA. xlii., 14. s " Loaden " was sanctioned by the writers of the Spectator. 3 " bi biholding upon ymagis or upon such peinting, his witt schal be dressid & lad forth evener & more sabili." REGINALD PECOCK. 4 " And the metalle be the hete of the fire malt" CAPGRAVE. 6 " Mew " a Yorkshire word. 8 See 41. 1 "som fresh othe, that is not stale, but will rin round in the mouth." ROGER ASCHAM. 8 ' ' And Southron rase and coost their claes, Behind him in a raw, man." BURNS. 9 " And with his sword she rove her to the heart." CHAUCER : " Legend of Dido." 10 "Jacob sod pottage, and Esau came from the field and he was faint." GEN. xxv., 29. Verbs and TJieir Several Kinds. 361 PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE 6g shape shope, shaped shapen, shaped l 70 shave shaved shaven, shaved 71 shear shar, shore, sheared shorn, sheared " 72 shine shone, shined shone, shined 73 shoot shot shotten, shot' 74 show showed shown 75 shrink shrank, shrunk shrunken, shrunk 76 shrive shrove, shrived shriven 77 sing sang, sung sung 78 sink sank sunken, sunk 79 sit sate, sat sitten, sat 4 80 slay slew slain 8 1 slide slod, slid slidden, slid* 82 sling slang, slung slung * 83 slink slank, slunk slunk, 84 smite smat, smote smitten 7 85 sow sew, sowed sown 8 1 " God, that shape both se and sand, Saue Edward King of Ingland." LAWRENCE MINOT : " Political Songs of 1352." s ' ' And with no craft of combes brode They might his hore lockes shode, And she ne wolde not be shore" GOWER : " Confessio." The original past tense was lost before the year 1300. 3 " And shotten ageyns him with shot." " Piers Plowman." 4 ' ' Beneath its shade, the place of state, On oaken settle Marmion sate" SCOTT. " After these grants the parliament was dissolved, which had sitten near two years and a half." HUME : " History of England," chap. xxii. * " In hys goynge out of hys schyp a slod wy th hys o voot & styckede in the sond." JOHN OF TREVISA, 1387. 6 ' ' And David put his hand in his bag, and took thence a stone and slang it." i SAM. xvii., 49. 7 " The sarazins he smatte, That his blod hatte." " Ballad of King Horn." 8 " The pt. t. now in use is sowed, but the correct form is sew ; the like is true for the verb to mow." SKEAT'S " Etymological Dictionary." 362 English Grammar. PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE 86 speak spake, spoke spoken 87 speed speeded, sped speeded, sped * 88 spin span, spun spun" 89 spring sprang, sprung sprung 90 stand stood stonden, standen, stood 91 steal stal, stole stolen 3 92 stick sticked, stack, stuck sticked, stuck 4 93 sting stang, stung stongen, stung 6 94 stink stank, stunk stunk 95 strew strewed strewn 96 stride strode stridden 97 strike strack, strake, struck stroken, stricken, struck 8 98 string strang, strung strung 99 strive strove striven 1 Originally a weak verb and derived from the noun speed. 3 " She, them saluting there, by them sate still, Beholding how the thrids of life they span." SPENSER : " Faerie Queene," iv., 2. 3 " Bot stall abak 3ond in hys regioun far Behind the circulat warld of Jupiter." GAWIN DOUGLAS. 4 " Then he stac up the stange3 sloped the welle3." " Alliterative Poems," 1360. " The sowdan and the cristen everichone Ben al taken and stiked at the bord." CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." Two verbs became confused at an early age ; an early English steken, stak, stoken, to pierce, and a weak A.-S. stician, sticode, to adhere. See under 81. 5 " And therwithal he blent and cried A ! As though he stongen were unto the herte." CHAUCER : " The Knightes Tale." ' " Then Jocky strack and Jenny strack Till the sweat did blind their een." " Scottish Song of Harvest." " And fearing lest they should fall into the quicksands, strake sail, and so were driven." ACTS xxvii., 17. " How like a Deere, stroken by many princes, Dost thou heere lye ? " SHAKESP : " Julius Caesar," Act iii. Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 363 PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE joo swell 101 swear swal, swelled sware, swore swollen, swelled 1 sworn " 102 swim swam swum 103 swing 104 take 105 tear 1 06 thrive swang, swung took tare, tore throve swung taken torn 8 thriven 107 throw 1 08 tread threw trod thrown trodden 109 wash no wax in wear wesh, wiish, washed wex, wox, waxed ware, wore washen, washed* waxen, waxed * worn* 112 weave wove woven 113 WESAN 114 win was wan, won Ger. ge-wesen wonnen, won T 1 " And aither a 3 en other swal And let that vule mod ut al." (And each against the other swelled, And let out all its evil temper.) " Owl and Nightingale," 1250. ' And they rose up betimes in the morning and sware one to another. GEN. xxvi., 31. 3 " And there came forth two she bears out of the wood and tare forty and two children of them." 2 KINGS ii., 24. 4 " the blod that bohte, the water that te world wesh. of sake and of sunne." " The Wooing of Our Lord," 1210. Wush is Scotch, sometimes pronounced weesh, 5 ' ' Hunger wex in land chanaan. " Genesis and Exodus," 1250. " Anon ther sprong vp flour and gras, Where as the drope falle was And wax anonal medwe-grene." GOWER : " Confessio." And it came to pass that when the children of Israel were waxen strong, that they put the Canaanites to tribute." JOSHUA xvii., 13. 6 " There met him out of the city a man which had devils long time, and ware no clothes." LUKE viii., 27. 7 " So that the king in such manere suluer wan ynou." ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, 1298. 364 English Grammar. PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE 115 wind wand, wond, wound wonden, wound 116 wring wrang, wrung wrung 1 117 wit or wot wist wist 118 write wrat, wrote written* When there -is a surviving participle in -en and a more modern one, the former is apt to sink into a mere adjective, and the verbal character is left to the latter. Such retired participles are bounden, cloven, drunken, hewn, molten, mown, rotten, sodden, shapen, shaven, shrunken, stricken, sunken, swollen, washen. I have omitted the Scotch formula " not proven," which seems to be gaining favor now along with other absurdities. Prove is a Latin word, and has no claim to a participle in -en. I do not know what the corresponding past tense would be. It has been already remarked that the strong verbs are a small and diminishing class. There are few accessions. Dr. Latham goes so far as to say : " Many strong verbs become weak, whilst no weak verb ever becomes strong." " English Language," p. 333. This assertion is too absolute. In the present state of the language I think the following, once weak, have the essen- tial features of strong verbs : bleed feed read speed breed hide rot stick cleave (adhere) lead show string dig plead sow strive 1 " They called the porter to counsell, And wrang his necke in two, And caste hym in a depe dungeon, And toke hys keys hym fro." " Adam Bell, Clym of the Clough," etc. ' " And, her before, the vile Enchanter sate, Figuring straunge characters of his art : With living blood he those characters wrate" SPENSER : " Faerie Queene," iii., 12. Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 365 It is irrelevant to say that a few centuries ago these were all weak verbs and therefore are so still. The question is not what they were, but what they are. At the same time, language used by a whole people never is or was self-con- sistant, and scattered examples are to be found of strong verbs used as weak, and weak as strong, notwithstanding the prevailing usage. There are persons, not without edu- cation, especially in the southern part of the United States, who habitually say : " I seen it," and " I done so." Contrari- wise it has been but too common to use the past tense, like fell, hid, drove, shook, took, stole, wrote, instead of the appro- priate participles. There is a good deal of that in Shakes- peare, but much more in the age of Queen Anne. The Spectator abounds with such truncated forms as rid and writ doing double duty as rode, wrote, ridden and written. The principal strong verbs that have become weak are the following : ache bequeath bereave betide bow braid brew brook burn burst carve cast chew creep dare delve dive dread fare float flow fold fret glide glow gripe knead laugh leap let lie lock lose low mete mourn owe quail reek row rue scathe shed shove sigh sleep slit smoke span spew sprout spurn starve step suck sup sweat sweep tease thrash throng tow wade walk weep weigh well wheeze wink wreak writhe yell yield With all their irregularities the strong verbs have two points that are constant. They form the past tense by 366 English Grammar. internal change, and they never add -d or -t to it. On the other hand the so-called weak have two equally constant features. The past tense and past participle are always alike, and always end in -d or its weaker representative -/. These characteristics are not quite the opposites of each other, yet the difference between the best preserver? examples of each is very apparent : sing sang sung employ employ-ed employ-ed The one changes the vowel and adds nothing ; the other adds ~ed and changes nothing. In the one the past tense and participle differ ; in the other they are identical. What then is this -ed that is added to the weak verbs ? To avoid prolixity, let it suffice to say that it is now held to be the past auxiliary verb did, so that / employ-ed is as good as to say / employ did, or / did employ. Apd, as every one knows, we say so now when very positive, and always use do or did when we deny, forbid, or ask a question. But this did has been so worn down in all modern Teutonic languages that it would probably never have been recognized but that happily it has been better preserved in the Gothic. Even there it is only in the dual and plural that it remains tolerably unbroken. The singular and plural of the Gothir haban, to have, were : SINGULAR, PAST PLURAL, PAST ist Person habai-da habai-ded-um 2d Person habai-de-s habai-ded-uths 3d Person habai-da habai-ded-un The last d is lost from the singular. The further ter- minations are personal endings. And as this did is itself a reduplication of do, if Dr. Morris is correct in supposing that the same thing has taken place in the history of all strong verbs, it follows that every simple past tense is a more or less remote result of reduplication. What is here said, however, applies only to the past tense, and not at all to the participle. If they are alike now it is because the verb has been worn down to the form of the participle. Verbs and TTieir Several Kinds. 367 The termination of the participle is a suffix that in Sanskrit assumed the form -ta, in Greek * and Latin the corresponding form -to, in Gothic -da, in Anglo-Saxon -od, -ad, -ed, -d, -f. To these were added other suffixes distinguishing number, gender, and case, according to the inflectional system of each language. The termination -ed has suffered so much wear and under- gone such a variety of modifications that it is not always easily recognized. This process of attrition was in full activity long before the Norman Conquest, and Anglo-Saxon Grammars give numerous rules under which the usual ter- minations -ode, -ede become -de, and -te or -d and -t, and let- ters are altered or suppressed in the radical portions of verbs, rules which all depend upon the more general natural principle of avoiding difficult combinations of sounds. But instead of discussing ancient abbreviations, let us consider those of the present. Although -ed may be regarded as the termination of the past tense and past participle, it is never found in full force except when appended to verbs that end in -d or -t, and not after all of them. In most cases writing and pronunciation are at variance. We write exalt-ed We read exalt-ed surround-ed surround-ed support-ed " " support-ed " " absorb-ed " " absorbd " " begg-ed " " begd " " fill-ed " " fild " " disarm-ed " " disarmd " " display-ed " " displaid When the verb ends with a light or surd mute consonant, -ed is pronounced as /. puff-ed puft hiss-ed hist look-ed lookt quench-ed quensht stopp-ed stopt preach-ed preacht To verbs ending in e a second e is not added. 1 Found in what are now reckoned as verbal adjectives SEXTOS, etc. 368 English Grammar. The less obvious modifications will be best understood after exhibiting a list of the verbs in which they are found. The very peculiar and important group of auxiliary verbs will be reserved for particular consideration in the next chapter. Where two forms are given in the following list the one in most common use is placed first. bend bent lay laid bereave bereaved, bereft lean leaned, leant beseech besought leap leaped, leapt beset beset learn learned, learnt bet bet leave left blend blended, blent lend lent bless blessed, blest let let bring brought light lighted, lit build built light lighted, lit burn burned, burnt lose lost burst burst make made buy bought mean meant cast cast pay paid catch caught pen penned, pent clothe clothed, clad put put cost cost quit quit, quitted creep crept rend rent cut cut rid rid deal dealt say said dream dreamed, dreamt seek sought dwell dwelt sell sold feel felt send sent flee fled set set gild gilded, gilt shed shed gird girt, girded shoe shod have had shut shut hear heard sleep slept hit hit slit slit hurt hurt smell smelled, smelt keep kept spell spelled, spelt kneel knelt spend spent knit knit, knitted spill spilt Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 369 spit spit tell told split split think thought spread spread thrust thrust stay stayed, staid weep wept sweat sweated, sweat wend went sweep swept wet wet teach taught work worked, wrought These words have the primitive monosyllabic character of the strong verbs. Sixty-three of the seventy-eight are native Saxon, and all the others have been long naturalized in the language. Build, cast, hit, split, and thrust are Scandinavian, due to intercourse with the Norsemen and Danes. Cut, hurt, and put were received by the Saxons from the Britons. Keep, pen, and spend came from the Latin so long ago that they found a place in Saxon literature. Catch, bet, cost, and quit were received from the French before the year 1400. It is only old words that are so deeply modified. Changes were much more rapid in ages when words were not fixed, and in a manner fossilized by habits of writing and printing. The process was no doubt always a natural one, and ap- peared quite so to the several speakers, however strange some of the changes may seem to us. Let us see if the present confusion cannot be somewhat reduced. The seeming irregularity of laid y paid, said, and staid is only one of spelling. Had and made are shortened from fcavedand maked, which are found in old authors. While -ed is fully written and pronounced only after d or t, there is a tendency even there to reduce it to mere -d or -t, in which case it becomes unpronounceable. So long as the termination was -de or -te it could be sounded, but when all final e 's were dropped from oral speech, -dde or -tie passed quickly into mere t. Especially was this so when a final -d was preceded by /, n, or r. We thus account in some degree for bent, blent, built, gilt, girt, lent, rent, sent, spent, went. A slight modification of the same usage produced blest, burnt, dwelt, pent, smelt, spelt, and spilt. 370 English Grammar. When the vowel of the verb is long, it is sometimes short- ened in adding -d or -/. In such cases -d is added after r or a vowel ; otherwise it is -t, to suit which s takes a sharp sound and v becomes/ bereft, crept, dealt, dreamt, felt, fled, heard, kept, knelt, leant, leapt, left, lost, meant, shod, slept, swept, wept. But change of vowel is the leading characteristic of the strong verbs, and there are a considerable number partaking of the characteristics of both. Such hybridity is of three kinds. The same verb may have strong and weak forms, as showed and shown ; or the same form may both change the vowel and add d, as sold and told ; or there may be forms, like fed and led, that can be construed either way. Such verbs may with nearly equal propriety be placed in either class. When a verb already ends in d or t, and does not add an- other, it only remains for it to shorten the vowel, if long. Regarding merely present form, light, lit is in precisely the same position as bite, bit, only that it has reached it by a different process. To light might have been placed among strong verbs, if lit were a well-established form. If the verb ending in d or t have already a short vowel, there is no change to be made, and it remains the same throughout beset, bet, burst, cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, knit, let, put, quit, rid, set, shed, shut, slit, spit, split, spread, sweat, thrust, wet. Eight have augh or ough in the past tense. The gh was fully sounded until modern times, and was developed from a consonant closely allied. The verbal part of beseech is the same as to seek, and the ch, like that in teach, is due to French influence. We have then : Anglo-Saxon bring-an brohte to bring bycg-an b6hte to buy se'c-an s6hte to seek tsec-an tsehte to teach thenc-an th6hte to think wyrc-an worhte to work Verbs and Their Several Kinds. 371 In the more modern wrought r has changed places with the vowel, as it often does. Catch is a French word, and, when introduced, no doubt took a preterit in imitation of such words as se'can and t&can. Clothe is an English verb developed from the A.-S. cldth, cloth, and is found in early authors in the forms clathen, clethen, clot ken. From the first of these clad is formed by gradually suppressing th. There remain only sell and tell with their past tenses sold and told. Of these I can only say that they are veritable hybrids that, from the time of the Saxons, have shared equally in the characteristics of the strong and the weak verbs. CHAPTER VI. AUXILIARY VERBS. WE come now to the contrivances by which verbs repre- sent not only actions, but also many of their attendant cir- cumstances. In our language these modifications are only to a small extent embodied in the verbs themselves. They are mostly indicated by a host of little attendant words. Chief among these are certain verbs that have in various de- grees lost the power of expressing anything when alone, and have become mere servile attendants upon others. May, will, shall, can, must, let, and ought are always attached to other verbs, and are called auxiliaries, or helping verbs. But then dare, do, have, and be also afford indispensable help when not employed on their own account. Besides their use as auxiliaries, most of these verbs have something pecul- iar and exceptional in their formation. At present must admits of no change of form under any circumstances. All the others have special, though obsolescent, forms for the second person singular. Ought has no other variation than that. May, shall, can, dare, and ought do not add s to form the third person singular, for the reason that in their origin they are past tenses of earlier verbs, and past tenses admit of no variation for person or number, except for the second person singular. All but must, ought, and let have separate forms for the past tense as now in use, combining the characteristics of the strong and weak verbs : may might dare durst will would do did shall should have had can could Be is quite peculiar. 372 Auxiliary Verbs. 373 MAY. This word is from a root Magh, which accounts for the gh in the past tense might. The meaning is to be able, power- ful, mighty. From this source are derived a large number of words in several languages, among which are might, main, magnate, magnitude, magnificent, magistrate, master, mistress, miss, maid, maxim, mayor, major, megatherium. Gothic had for the present tense ic mag, past tense ic mahta ; A-S., ic mcEg and ic mihte. Throughout both languages, and English down to the sixteenth century, the word was equiva- lent to our can. Jesus having asked the sons of Zebedee if they were able to partake of the cup and the baptism soon to be presented to him, their answer was, in the Gothic version, " Magu "/ in A-S., " Wyt magon "/ in the English of Wycliffe, " We mowen." Indeed the usual word for can in that early English translation is, in the singular, may, plural mowe, mowen, or mown. This use of may will further appear from the following examples : " And thus he fleeth as fast as ever he may" CHAUCER : " Knight's Tale." " ye woot yourself sche may not wedde two At oones. That is to say, she may nought have bothe." Id. " be my feth sayd the doughete doglas agayn, I wyll let that hontyng yf that I may" " Ancient Ballad of Chevy Chase." A trace of this usage lingers here and there in the Bible. So great was the ferocity of the maniac, or maniacs, that lodged in the tombs of Gadara, " that no man might pass by that way." The revised version substitutes could. All idea of power has now departed from the word, and left it to express : 1st, permission ; 2d, supposed possibility ; 3d, a somewhat varying sense, always containing an unde- termined element. " May I open the window a little ? You may" This may be taken at present as the primary meaning of the word. The secondary may be found in such sentences 374- English Grammar. as : " It may rain before night "; " He may recover yet "; " I may draw a prize in the lottery." Mrs. Toodles thought that she might yet have a daughter ; and that daughter might grow up, and might marry a man named Thompson, who might write his name with a /, in which event a particular old door-plate would just suit. In short, a thing that may happen is one that is looked upon as not absolutely impossible. In the third class of cases no doubt is felt but that some- thing will occur ; it is only its precise character or extent that is uncertain : " The past is safe, whatever the future may be." " Notice ! To all whom it may concern." Here it is not questioned that there is to be a future, or that some will be concerned ; the details alone are indeter- minate : " and it shall be its duty to make arrangements, * * * And for the purpose of defraying the expenses of said joint com- mittee, and of carrying out the arrangements which it may make, three thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary." U. S. Statutes, 25, 980. In such connections shall is sometimes used instead of may ; but the fundamental meaning of shall is widely differ- ent, and there is an inconvenience in having two words of the same length with an uncertainty which of them ought to be employed. WILL and SHALL. These two words are so interlaced in usage that they can best be considered together. If has been often said that no Englishman ever mistakes will and shall. I think it would be much nearer the truth to say that none ever used these two words consistently throughout. Another wise saw, put forth quite as often and as confi- dently, is to the effect that the prevailing error lies in putting will in the place of shall. So too I think that the great Auxiliary Verbs. 375 abuse is the undue frequency of shall. I scarcely open a book or paper without finding it sprinkled with shaft's, as if they had been dispensed from a pepper-box. Grammarians tell a merry tale of a mythical Frenchman who fell into the water and exclaimed : " I will be drowned ; no one shall help me "; yet whatever error there is in this sentence can be found equally with many who are not Frenchmen. " I will be ill, will be very ill, if I cannot hear you are better before I go." RICHARDSON : " Clarissa Harlowe." " However small a society may be if it is a human one jealousy shall creep in." CHARLES READE : " Never too Late to Mend," ch. lii. " there is no creature loves me, and if I die, no soule shall pittie me." SHAKESP. : Richard II., v., 2. In regard to form, it is only necessary to say that would and should are obtained by successive reductions of the older forms wollede and shullede. Of these two important auxiliaries will has been much the best preserved and most consistently employed. The original meaning, so far as we need inquire, is voluntary choice, intention, or consent. It expresses generally not a mere idle wish, but a resolution taken with the consciousness of power to give it effect. But such a resolution is likely to be carried out, and to announce it is to predict the event. It thus naturally passes into an expression of the future ; and in good English is to this day the most positive declaration of a future event certain to take place. " I view it as a student of political economy ; and * * * apply to it the principles which I know will have their way, no matter how formidable the attempt to defeat their operation." ' As will expresses a determination of the mind, and every one ought to know his own mind best, it is naturally asso- ciated with the first person. This has at some periods been the usage in a very marked degree, while at other times / 1 North Amer. Rev., February, 1889. The italics are the author's. 376 English Grammar. will has been intentionally avoided. Notwithstanding the great prevalence of shall in the Bible, / shall is of rare occur- rence, as will be seen hereafter. Will, in Gothic, and generally in Anglo-Saxon, expressed volition, not futurity. There was always an element of free action. It is very rare to find in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels future action indicated by will. Shall is still more rare. The probable reason is that an archaic style is chosen for religious writings ; for before pure Saxon ceased to be writ- ten will was employed to express the future ; but it was the future of free, unconstrained action, and generally took the form of " / will." In translating the following passage from ^Elfric's " Homily on the Good Shepherd " I shall mark the word by italics. " Wherefore I will require the sheep at your hands, and I make you depart from the fold, and I will rid my flock of you. I my- self will gather my sheep that were scattered, and I will keep them in rich pasture : those that were lost will I seek and lead back ; those that were lamed I heal ; the weak I will strengthen, and restrain the strong." Observe that the present is twice used without any aux- iliary for the future, as was the common usage at a still earlier date. Elsewhere the expression is " / will" never / shall; and the idea to be conveyed is that of voluntary resolve to be carried out in the future. So will has con- tinued to express volition and futurity combined in all possible proportions, like a parallelogram divided into two triangles, the one end being occupied exclusively by the one and the opposite extremity by the other : Volition Futurity Often in the Bible it has no reference to the future, but ex- presses purpose or willingness. Auxiliary Verbs. 377 " And behold there came a leper and worshipped him, saying, Lord, if thou wilt, thou canst make me clean. And Jesus put forth his hand and touched him, saying, I will ; be thou clean." "' I will " obviously means in this case, " I am willing," and it will be seen that it is not an auxiliary verb. As an independent verb it formerly expressed a desire, and even a command. " I will that thou give me by and by in a charger the head of John the Baptist." MATT, vi., 24. " And with that word she gave him kisse ; And prayed him rise and saide she woulde His welfare." CHAUCER'S " Dream," 650. But would, expressive of desire, was also used as if it were a present of secondary growth. " Sorrow would sollace, and mine Age would ease." SHAKESP. : " Henry VI.," part ii., ii., 3. " I would thou wert cold or hot." REV. iii., 15. " His legions he committed unto Cn. Octavius whom he willed to meet him there by land." " He willed them to consider what they had deserved." SIR WALTER RALEIGH. This modern past tense, willed, is still preserved where the verb is independent and employed in a peculiar sense " He willed the farm to his youngest son." Indeed one will may be auxiliary to another " I will will the dwelling- house to you." Even as an auxiliary will had at times scarcely a trace of futurity. " Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life." It was not the future action, but the then present unwilling- ness, of the Jews that was reprehended. We have seen, however, that will was an auxiliary, expressing futurity, with more or less of voluntary choice, long before the Norman 378 English Grammar. Conquest. It has continued so to the present day, but has sometimes had a hard fight to hold its own against shall. I here introduce a very few illustrations out of many to show how nearly the very early usage agreed with the very modern, giving a close translation where the original might be unintelligible to the general reader " He will make a judgment day with his chosen." " Homily on Easter," A.D. 1200. " Now I will give him peace, And let him speak with me. I will not slay nor hang him, What he asketh I will do. Hostages I will have, Of his highest men." LAYAMON, 1205. " Be a child never so dear, Naughty tricks it will learn, Beat it sometimes ; Might it have all its will, Willy nilly it will spoil, And become a fool." " Tell never thy foeman Thy loss or thy shame, Thy care or thy woe ; He will strive, if he may, By night and by day, Of one to make two." " Proverbs of Hending," 1307. " But I swear now truly that sin will I hinder." "Piers the Plowman," 1362. Shall forms in several respects a contrast to will. The latter has a participle, willing, serving as an adjective and an infinitive. St. Paul could say, " to will is present with me " ; but shalling, or to shall, has scarcely been heard within a thousand years. Thus will has still a trace of in- dependence, but shall is reduced to complete servitude. Auxiliary Verbs. 379 Will started from a germ of free volition ; it was automatic, originating in the conscious choice of the actor. Shall ex- pressed an external compulsion, authority, necessity, or obligation. And, strange to say, an American writer of our time, in advocating a larger use of shall, has insisted that there is quite too much exercise of the will among us, as if it were not becoming a free people to act voluntarily, rather than from constraint. For the meaning of shall it is not necessary to seek farther than the Teutonic root, skal, to owe a debt. The practice of requiring a pecuniary compensation for offences led to a widespread confusion of the distinct ideas of crime and debt. Whichever had the priority, both were embodied in this word. It is not ennobled by its pedigree. As relics of the criminal side there remain the German Schuld, a crime, schuldig, guilty, and Unschuld, innocence. There were in Gothic three shades of meaning easily distinguished. First, to owe a debt : GOTH. " ains skalda skatte fimf hunda, ith anthar fimf tiguns." A.-S. " an sceolde fif hund penega, and other fiftig." ENG. "the one owed fat hundred pence, and the other fifty." LUKE vii., 41. GOTH. " Whan filu skalt frauyin meinamma ? " A.-S. " Hu mycel scealt thu minum hlaforde ? " ENG. " How much owest thou unto my lord ? " LUKE xvi., 5. From the same source were derived the words for debt and debtor. Second : It had the indefinite sense of obligation which we express by ought and should. Goth. " Yah yus skuluth izwis misso thwahan fotuns." A.-S. " Ge sceolen eac thwean selc others fet." ENG. " Ye also ought to wash one another's feet." JOHN xiii., 14. Third, and closely allied, is the sense of the inevitable which we usually express by must : 380 English Gram-mar. Goth. " Yains skal wahsyan, ith ik minznan." ENG. " He must increase, but I must decrease." JOHN iii., 30. It is the verb employed in such passages as : "Wist ye not that I musfbe about my Father's business?" " I must preach the gospel in other cities also." " The Son of Man must suffer many things." " It was meet that we should make merry." Beyond this the word gradually loses its distinctive char- acter and passes insensibly and in a few instances into little more, that we can see, than a mere sign of future time : " Seimon, skal thus wha qithan." " Simon, I have somewhat to say unto thee." LUKE vii., 40. " Wha skuli thata barn wairthan ? " " What manner of child shall this be " LUKE i., 66. " Whadre sa skuli gaggan ? " " Whither will he go ? " JOHN vii., 35. In Anglo-Saxon shall had nearly the same shades of meaning as in Gothic, starting from the idea of a debt grow- ing out of either a contract or a crime. It expressed also the idea of rightfully belonging or pertaining. And as that right- fulness was often declared or even established by royal or other authority, it grew to be the regular formula for ex- pressing such authority in short, a phrase of enactment. " Gif se thuma bith of aslegen, tham sceal xxx scill. to bote." " If the thumb be chopped off, 30 shillings shall the compen- sation therefor" not shall be. " Laws of King Alfred." " Thys Godspel sceal on Cilda Maesse Dseg." " This Gospel shall on Childermas Day." " Alfred's Gospels." " Thissynt tha domas the thu him settan scealt." " These are the judgments which thou shall set them." " Alfred's Decrees." As mere signs of future time wzY/and shall are exceptional both in Gothic and Saxon, both of which were generally con- Auxiliary Verbs. 381 tent with the present tense. Still both words came in time to be used to form a future previously wanting : with this difference, however, that our Saxon, and still more our Anglish, ancestors favored will in preference to shall more than the other branches of the Teutonic stock. For a long time the distinction was very strongly marked, will express- ing free volition and shall authority, compulsion, obliga- tion. Here is an example from A. D. 1200, with modern- ized spelling, in which the distinction is well preserved : "And left all that they should to, and did what they would"* " I will teach them I can be either, if I shall [must], healer of body or soul." From the same. Authority, Threatening. " ye sinned as long as ye lived, and ye shall burn as long as I live." "Old English Homily," A. D. 1150. Authority of Law. " On whom the lot falleth He shall go from the land. The five shall remain, The sixth shall go forth, Away from his people." LAYAMON. Necessity. " for fare leuer he hadde wende, And bidde ys mete, 3ef he schulde in a strange land." ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, 1298. This is like the example given by Professor Earle, who heard an English yeoman remark, on setting up a land- mark : " There, that one '11 stand for twenty years, if he should" meaning, if there be need for it. Desire and Necessity. " He who will have full power, shall first take heed that he have power over his own temper.*' "King Alfred's Boethius." 1 Morris : " Specimens of Early English," i., 213. * 382 English Grammar. But shall gained ground rapidly, and by the middle of the fourteenth century had become the common sign of the future, and confined will almost entirely to the expression of desire or intention. Thenceforward the latter kept slowly and irregularly regaining and enlarging its original domain until the end of the eighteenth century. At present two tendencies are visible, that of some to revert to the use of shall, of others to extend still further the use of will, which latter seems to me the normal trend of the English language. In a published extract from a letter of President Harrison to Mr. Elaine the writer says three times " I will" but nowhere " I shall" This is only one of many instances ; and one who should accuse the President of not knowing his mother tongue must be unaware that languages are moving, chan- ging things, that, as in that instance, a movement may be in one direction for five hundred years, and one may be at the head or tail of it. Here follow some of the exploits of shall in the heyday of its power, when it aspired to universal dominion in the language : " And so dide they before him, that weren his Auncestres : and so shulle thei that comen aftre him." SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE, 1356. " If the Kyng be poer, he schal of necessity make his Gyfts and Rewards by Assignements, for which he schal have but little thanke." SIR JOHN FORTESCUE, 1480. "Loo ! myn herte swete, this ylle dyet shuld make you pale & wan." "The Nut-Brown Maid," 1500. Sir Thomas More declares six times in one sentence that Christ shall presently do certain things. " Whosoever will practise physike, not having these aforesaid sciences shall kill more than he shall save." "Breviary of Health," 1575. " Or if they aborce not, yet they shall be deliuered with great paine, and the birth shall be very weake and sickly, so that it shall dye streight ; or if it dye not by and by, it shall prove but very slenderly." tt Birth of Mankind," 1604. Auxiliary Verbs. 383 " Cassia. I will aske him for my Place againe, he shall tell me I am a drunkard." "Othello," ii., 3. In the majority of instances Shakespeare's shall expresses merely futurity ; yet it is sometimes a word of authority : " Sicin. It is a minde that shall remain a poison where it is, not poyson any further. " Corio. Shall remaine ? " Hear you this Triton of the Minnowes ? Marke you His abso- lute Shall? " " Coriolanus," iii., i. " Mar. He must be buried with his brethren. " Titus' Sons. And shall, or him we will accompany. " Titus. And shall! What villaine was it spake that word ? " " Titus Andronicus," i., 2. " He must be told on 't, and he shall." " Winter's Tale," i., 2. We thus see that shall is an imperious word, and much stronger than must. "These stars arise in the 16 degree of Taurus ; but in the lati- tude 50, they ascend in the eleventh degree of the same, that is 5 dayes sooner ; so shall it be summer unto London before it be unto Toledo." SIR THOMAS BROWNE'S " Pseudodoxia." " an unskilful author shall run these metaphors so absurdly into one another that there shall \>Q no simile." Spectator, No. 595. " One man shall ask how you do * * * another shall beg a pinch of snuff." Id., April 29, 1715. If the last two examples are, as they seem to be, due to affectation of an antiquated style, what are we to think of the following, committed to print in the year of grace 1884? " You shall see a lovely bright creature, with all the external evidences of culture * * * so long as she is silent ; but let her open her pretty lips, and she shall pierce your ear with a mean, thin, nasal, rasping tone." * 1 " Every-Day English," by Richard Grant White, page 93. 384 English Grammar. Shall pierce ? " Hear you this Triton of the Minnowes ? " It has not been my lot to hear anything of the kind from " lovely bright creatures." The varying prevalence of will and shall may be roughly shown, as in the following table, by taking one hundred con- secutive future tenses in any author, and showing how many are made with these auxiliaries respectively. In regard to versions of the Scriptures, in order to have a broader basis I have taken the whole four Gospels, and have omitted the forms would and should, taking only the direct will and shall. Will, when not an auxiliary, has been excluded throughout. WILL. SHALL. I WILL. I SHALL. Layamon A.D. 1205 72 28 31 3 Robert of Gloucester 1298 53 42 6 9 Robert Manning i33 40 60 Dan Michel 1340 36 6 4 5 Sir John Mandeville i35 6 35 65 12 Gospels by Wycliffe 1389 23 1,506 5 114 Reginald Pecock 1449 i? 83 Sir John Fortescue 1470 3 1 6 9 William Tyndale 1528 4i 59 Gospels by Tyndale 236 964 97 24 Sir Thomas More !53 2 42 58 6 6 Nicholas Udall 1553 57 43 2 9 Sir Philip Sidney 1580 48 52 3 5 Bacon's " Advancement of Learning " 1605 60 40 12 12 Authorized Gospels 1611 244 962 94 II John Locke 1687 77 23 8 Samuel Johnson 175 70 30 i 19 Edmund Burke 1780 64 36 3 J 9 The Federalist 1788 76 24 3 3 George Washington 83 17 3 12 The fate of " / will" under which may be included " we will" has been curious. At first the obvious propriety of each one's knowing and declaring his own will was admitted. After a time, that form of expression for a mere future was Auxiliary Verbs. 385 swept away by the flood-tide of shall. By the fifteenth cen- tury people began again to see the logical consistency of saying " / will "; but three hundred years later the excessive and affected modesty of modern times forbade any one to assert his own will, except under extraordinary circum- stances, and so we generally say " / shall." By using this expression I seem to shirk all responsibility, and pretend that some external force or influence constrains me. We are now prepared to consider the frequency of shall in the Bible. It has been attributed to the authoritative character of the utterances. That is no doubt true to a cer- tain extent, precisely as it is true of the " Statutes of New York" or the "Articles of War"; but very little searching of the Scriptures will satisfy any one that this principle does not cover the whole ground. Shall is properly used only by one in authority ; but in the Bible it is in the mouths of all alike. The servant of him who owned the barren fig-tree says : " Lord, let it alone this year also, till I shall dig about it, and dung it : and if it bear fruit, well : and if not, then after that thou shalt cut it down." LUKE xiii., 8. A modern servant would not say to his master, "You shall cut it down," but " You can" Again, one having authority does not command or threaten anything at variance with his own character and sentiments. " For many shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ ; and shall deceive many. * * * For nation shall rise against nation and kingdom against kingdom, and there shall be famines and pestilences, and earthquakes in divers places. " All these are the beginning of sorrows. " Then shall they deliver you up to be afflicted, and shall kill you ; and ye shall be hated of all nations for my name's sake. " And then shall many be offended, and shall betray one another, and shall hate one another. " And many false prophets shall arise and shall deceive many." MATT, xxiv., 511. It would be inconsistent with all ideas ever entertained of Jesus to think these calamities and wrongs ordered, intended 386 English Grammar. or desired by him, or to look on the words as any other than a most sorrowful prediction. Evidently shall was merely an expression of futurity. Very generally, but not always as consistently, will, in the Bible, expressed volition. The distinction is sometimes finely preserved : Voluntary Future : " I will arise and go to my father, and will say unto him," etc. LUKE xv., 18. Involuntary future : " But now he is dead, wherefore should I fast ? Can I bring him back again ? I shall go to him, but he shall not return to me." 2 SAMUEL xii., 23. Will and shall : " And Barak said unto her, If thou wilt go with me, then I will go ; but if thou wilt not go with me, then I will not go. " And she said, I will surely go with thee : notwithstanding the journey that thou takest shall not be for thine honor ; for the Lord shall sell Sisera into the hand of a woman." JUDGES iv., 8, 9. This prevailing use of shall to express the future can be, to some extent, accounted for. The first translation of the Scriptures into what people of the present day could recog- nize as English was that begun by Wycliffe, 1360, and finished by Purvey about 1390. It was at a time when the use of shall was at its height ; and we have seen that in that version shall was to will as 65 to I. As Wycliffe was in his time a heretic, and as the later translations were made by Protestants, this one must naturally have had considera- ble influence on that of Tyndale, which was next in order of time. That, too, was made while the use of shall was pre- ponderant, as will be seen by our table. Tyndale's transla- tion was so happy in its selection of pure English, and in rendering for the first time the original texts into the ver- nacular, that it has done more to preserve our mother tongue than the work of any other man ; and if it were read in our churches to-day, it would sound to most hearers perfectly familiar. All succeeding translators and editors have made but little change. King James's translators were instructed Auxiliary Verbs. 387 to deviate from the former editions as little as the duty of faithful translation would permit. With that religious instinct that clings to the old, the recent revisers of the text took special pains to preserve the antique phraseology ; so that the English-speaking Protestant everywhere has before him a style of speech that is three hundred and fifty years old. The next point to be presented is that writers are not generally consistent in using will and shall, and often employ them alternately merely to vary the expression. In the fol- lowing examples I shall place the two on opposite sides of the page, and the reader can amuse himself in finding reasons for the distinction. " Where shall he go ? " JOHN vii., 35, according to the Gothic. " Also there is a pond, the water there hath wonderwork- ing ; for though a whole host stood by the pond and turned the face thitherward, the water would draw them violently tow- ard the pond and wet all her clothes ; " This charge woll alway be gret ; and so inestimable gret, that in some yere a gret Lords " The Time will come (thus did he follow it) " We foreknow that the Sunne will rise and that after the winter " Where will he go ? " A nglo- Saxon. so should horses be drawn in the same wise." JOHN OF TREVISA. Lyvelood schall not suffice to beere it." SIR JOHN FORTESCUE. The Time shall come that foule Sinne gathering head, Shall break into corruption." SHAKESP. : 2 " Henry iv.,'* iii., i. the spring shall come." RALEIGH. 3 88 English Grammar. " Neither shall it be needful it will be enough to relate " to set down apart the several etc. Id. authorities * * * " A metaphysician will bring an alchemist, on the contrary, ploughing and gardening imme- shall reduce divinity to the diately to abstract notions, maxims of his laboratory." LOCKE " On the Understand- ing." " Howbeit when he, the spirit for he shall not speak of him- of truth is come, he will guide self ; but whatsoever he shall you into all truth : hear, that shall he speak." and he will show you things to JOHN xvi., 13. come " And he will shew you a " And he shall shew you" a large upper room furnished." large upper room furnished." MATT, xiv., 15. LUKE xxii., 12. " If any author shall trans- if any literary anecdote * * * mit a summary of his works, be communicated to us, we will we shall willingly receive it ; carefully insert it." JOHNSON. " This will be a busy ses- shall you prepare for it ? " sion ; BULWER LYTTON, in " Pel- ham." " Will you recognize your " Shall you lack clothes, or a kinsman if he passes in this roof to shelter you between this crowd ? " point and the grave ? " HAWTHORNE. " Shall you be late ? Will he be late, Cousin Hortense ? " CHARLOTTE BRONTE, in " Shirley." " He will talk to you of a which you shall not under- host of matters stand." PROF. WHITNEY. " Rose said very decidedly Lady Charlotte said she would she should be in town for the have an evening specially for winter. her." " Robert Elsmere." Auxiliary Verbs. 389 " Three fourths of all money the remaining one fourth shall thus secured will be added to be distributed," etc. the * * * the hospital fund ; " Decision of the Sec'y of War," Nov. 14, 1888. The regulations of the Military School at Fort Leaven- worth, issued by the War Department, March 27, 1888, convey the behests of authority by the use of 90 shalls and 15 wills. No distinction between them is maintained, and the latter seem to be employed merely to vary the expression. Such examples might be multiplied to any extent. Hence one is surprised to find Professor Earle saying : " that large numbers of our English-speaking fellow subjects cannot seize the distinction between shall, should and will, would. Here is a distinction which is unerringly observed by the most rustic people in the purely English counties, while the most care- fully educated persons who have grown up on Keltic soil cannot seize it. This Kelticism is by no means rare in Sir Walter Scott's works. 1 It would have been a real gratification to have the distinc- tion stated by one so competent, and to learn whether it is known to any besides " the most rustic people." We are now prepared to ask, and in part to answer, the question : When are will and shall respectively to be used ? I shall lay down no rule or definition for things so vagrant. One might as well undertake to define geometrically the figure of Celebes. I shall start from fixed points that are safe from dispute, and try to develop thence the use of the words. Owing to the modesty or sensitiveness that shrinks from saying " I " and " thou," the first and second persons are not what they would be were there no disturbing influ- ence, and therefore are not proper to begin with. The third person, especially if not a person at all, but a mere idea or a thing inanimate, may be spoken of without fear or favor, in undistorted words. One further general remark is proper : 1 " Philology of the English Tongue," 239. 390 English Grammar. the choice of the auxiliary never depends on the circum- stance that the subject is singular or plural. I. Although will expressed originally an act of volition, in the present age, when no conditions are expressed or implied, and all disturbing influences are eliminated, it is the normal and explicit expression of futurity. Presump- tion is in favor of will, and any other claimant for its place should be required to show title. Of course there may be periphrastic substitutes, but they do not grammatically take its place. To-morrow will (not shall) be Friday. There will be an occultation of Mars on the 2oth. There will be a light crop of peaches this year. The ipth term of the series will be 39. The insurance will expire to-morrow. In these sentences will is imponderable, without color, taste, or smell to offend even a morbid sensibility. It is precisely equal to -bo in the Latin, ama-bo, or -ai in the French aimer-ai. II. Shall is a word of authority and command. It ex- presses no sense of duty. Thou shalt and thou shalt not are the language of law-givers and commanders. Shall is found 231 times in the Constitution of the United States and Amendments, and will only three times, and then is used indirectly. III. Shall is properly used only by the power that can enforce it. I have no right to say that a felon shall be hanged. I may have a conviction that he ought to be, or a belief that he will be, but it is for the court to say that he shall. IV. Hence shall is a harsh word, and at best requires a deal of sweetening. So, instead of saying " You shall," persons in authority are now much in the habit of saying " You will please," do such a thing, as if venturing a pre- diction that you will be pleased to do it of your own free will and accord. But words, however chosen, soon come to mean just what they are used for, and the " will please " is Auxiliary Verbs. 391 but the glove that thinly covers, without concealing, the hand of power. Let us not be churlish, however, but thank- ful that princes and potentates are willing to take pains to make the exercise of their authority as little offensive as possible ; but for ourselves, let us never utter the word shall when we can find a better. V. You shall ! Bearing in mind that shall belongs only to him who can and will enforce it, if I say : " You shall stay home," that is equivalent to saying: "I will exercise sufficient power and care to make you stay." Although we sometimes meet at the present time with the expression, "You shall" it seems to be only an affected imitation of past ages ; and perhaps no one will seriously justify it as the proper language of the nineteenth century, except where one intends compulsion or grants a request. If one asks me for the loan of my boat, he is not offended at my saying " You shall have it " that is, " I will take all needful means to see that you get it." VI. What is the difference, if any, between " I will" and "I shall" ? Assigning to will its lowest power, that of mere futurity, nothing can be more natural than to say " I will" I have a better opportunity of foreseeing my own actions than those of any one else ; and if desire, determina- tion, or consent be included, I alone have immediate knowl- edge. Hence " I will" is held to be more explicit than " I shall" and generally to contain a tinge of volition. But, what is " I shall" ? Remembering that shall expresses com- pulsion emanating from the speaker, if the natural sense of the words be regarded, they mean, " I will compel myself" But it is only the unwilling who need compulsion ; and if unwilling, whence comes the motive power to compel ? The expression, like several others, is an absurdity. But in habitual phrases the meaning of words is little thought of ; and there is a general impression that " I shall " is less ex- plicit and self-asserting hence more modest than " I will" The distinction is not one of grammar but of politeness. Otherwise there is no difference in effect between them. The old maxim that will promises and shall only predicts is good 392 English Grammar. neither in law nor morals, and would avail one little who should seek its cover to evade an engagement. As has been already noticed, there seems to be a tendency to return to the more frank and direct phrase, " I will" ; and perhaps persons now young may live to see it for the third time the prevailing expression. VII. In any assertion or command the authority is the speaker; but in questions the person addressed is the au- thority appealed to. It is for him to answer whether a thing is, or will, or shall be. If I ask " Shall /" or " Shall he do this work?" it is in effect asking whether you will compel or require one or other of us to do it. So far is clear ; but if I say " Shall you do this work ? " then I ask whether you will compel yourself to do it, and reach the same absur- dity as in "I shall" but without even the excuse of politeness. As shall subordinates the person to whom it is applied, in saying " I shall" I affect an appearance of belittling myself, but " Shall you ? " if it has any meaning, belittles you. It is to my ear one of the most harsh and unpleasant expressions consistent with the Decalogue. What are we to say then ? Say almost anything else " Will you f" Do you intend? ex- pect ? or a dozen other things. Especially you can say : " Are you going to do this ? " The phrase, like many others, is indeed a French one ; but it was domiciled in the language before the discovery of America, and so has had time to become what is called naturalized, and is the prevailing expression of plain, honest folks. It is doubtful if any one ever says " Shall you ? " without a consciousness of putting on an extra touch of style. Still " Shall you ? " has been used occasionally for at least sixty years by writers other- wise respectable. Some excuse may be found in the circum- stance that " Will you ? " is a common form of request or appeal. If I say " Will you go to the meeting to-night," I shall be generally understood to ask it as a favor, or urge it as a duty. Such an objection does not always apply, as there are many cases where it is evident that no request or appeal is intended. The proper idiomatic expression, how- ever, is: "Are you going to the meeting to-night? " Auxiliary Verbs. 393 VIII. Will is used in stating the condition on which something desirable is to be attained ; shall is used where the result is indifferent or undesirable. The form of the result is governed by the principles applicable to the simple future. " If this will serve your purpose, you are welcome to it." " If he will accept these terms that will end all difficulty." " If he shall persist in his opposition, the case will be hope- less." " Whoever shall now compare the country round Rome with the country round Edinburgh, will be able to form some judg- ment," etc. MACAULAY : " Hist, of Eng.," chap. i. The distinction is not a constant one, but is better pre- served between would and should. IX. In stating conditions, shall is often used unneces- sarily, because, as will be seen hereafter, the present tense may be extensively used as a future. " When the city shall attain (or shall have attained) a popula- tion of 100,000, new sources of supply will be required." It would serve every useful purpose to say : " When the city attains" etc. " When I find evidences of a deposit of copper." This fragment of an incomplete sentence may be either present or future, and may be finished in either of two ways : " I always make a note of it," or, " I will let you know." These endings determine the time, and leave no uncertainty. So a great many expressions would be improved by shorten- ing, thus : Whoever shall find Whoever finds Although he shall take every precaution Although he take If it shall rain before night If it rain 394 English Grammar. This excessive use of shall belongs to a harsh, stiff, ungrace- ful style. X. We foresee, expect, hope, fear, believe, think, that a thing will be ; demand, order, require, provide, that it shall be. Thus thought, perception, feeling, is followed by will; the intentional exercise of power or authority over another, by shall. The distinction is sometimes very fine, if not invisible. " In the cathedral glass the surface is rendered wavy and un- even, so that the transmission of light shall be correspondingly irregular." Shall shows the intention in making the surface wavy and uneven. " it is possible, without a single arbitrary conjecture, to con- struct a continuous narrative which shall simply follow the indications of our authorities without doing violence to them in any instance." " Encycl. Brit.," xiii., 663. XI. Poets, following the examples of the Middle Ages, use shall where it would not be admissible in prose : " But ne'er shall Hassan's Age repose Along the brink at twilight's close ; And here no more shall human voice Be heard to rage, regret, rejoice. ******* To-morrow's night shall be more dark." BYRON : " The Giaour." XII. There is a curious use of will which may be con- sidered provincial. It does not point to the future, but indicates a cautious conjecture. It used to be common in Scotland : " Ye '11 be frae E'nbro I reckon." That is : " I venture to guess that you are from Edinburgh." It is very common in Spanish, and is sometimes, but not often, met with in English literature. " Hence there is much plausibility in the view that the first speech-signs will have been of this phonetic form." " Encycl. Brit.," xviii., 770. Auxiliary Verbs. 395 XIII. Would and should do not always follow closely will and shall, either as past tenses or subjunctives. They retain more of the values of five hundred years ago. Some sentences consist of two parts a condition stated, and some- thing following naturally as a consequence : " If ye love me, keep my commandments." The first part is often called the protasis ; and the second the apodosis. These terms are more strictly applicable when the condition is a mere supposition, not assumed to be true. Then would and should, in the apodosis, preserve the distinction observed between will and .$ > &2//when these latter form future tenses. I should (or would), you would, he would. If the sky were to fall I should (or would), you would, he would have a chance to catch larks. XIV. But in the protasis, would is used when the con- dition is a thing desired or requested ; should, when it is a mere supposition of something undesirable or indifferent. If you would give me a little help and encouragment, I think I should succeed. If it would rain gently all night, it would revive the crops greatly. If the wind would only moderate a little, etc. If this rumor should prove to be true, you would lose heavily. If you should see Mr. S. you might ask him when he is to sail. XV. Should no longer serves as the past tense of shall, but would is still an expression of past time. It is rather old, and not very common, but may be used of actions that were repeated from time to time as a habit. " He would sit silent for hours " that is, he often sat so. " His listless length at noontide would he stretch And pore upon the brook that babbles by. " Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn, Mutt'ring his wayward fancies, he would rove." GRAY'S "Elegy." 396 English Grammar. In times when shall was everywhere, it was employed in this way: " And therewithalle his body sholde sterte, And with the sterte alle sodeynliche awake, And swiche a tremour fele aboute his hearte, That of the fere his body sholden quake : And therewithal he sholde a noyse make." CHAUCER : " Troylus and Creseyde." Would followed by not is also sometimes a past tense, and expresses strongly an action of the will. A pressing invitation was sent to him, but he would not come. Otherwise than here shown would and should do not indi- cate past time. In applying them to the past we have to say would have and should have. XVI. Should occurs as the equivalent of ought, retaining the old sense of duty or obligation. He should send the boy to school. Here it is not a past tense, nor a subjunctive. It may be regarded as a secondary growth from shall, just as ought, originally a past tense of owe, has become practically a new verb. This is the only sense in which should has any defi- nite meaning. In other cases it only increases the doubt and uncertainty of a supposition. XVII. The lines that separate Shall from May, Will, Can, and Ought are devious and indistinct. Suppose a per- son were to say " I shall come to-morrow," and I am to give, not the precise words but the substance of that prom- ise, grammarians would be pretty well agreed that I ought to say " He said that he should come to-morrow," not that he would. It would follow consistently, and would per- haps be conceded, that if the first speaker had said " will" I might say would. But suppose, further, that I remember only the substance of the promise, and not the precise words, ought I then to use should or would? Or if a third person Auxiliary Verbs. 397 were to ask me the character of the reply, which would be the most proper for him to say? " Did he say he should come ? " or " Did he say he would come ? " I am of opinion that in thus giving the purport of anything said or written, we are not bound to preserve the identity of a single word. There are places where eggs are sold by the hundred else- where generally by the dozen. Now, if a poulterer should come to the door and offer to sell " half a hundred " eggs, I think the servant who interviewed him would be sustained in a court of justice, and in the court of conscience, in re- porting the number either as " fifty " or as " four dozen and two." So I think I ought not to be censured for taking my own way and saying " would." The following selected sentences will illustrate further the obscure limbo that surrounds Shall. In each instance I place in parentheses the auxiliary that is nearly or quite equivalent : " Considering the thing to be accomplished, it will seem likely that the men intended successfully to resist the influence of such a system should be endowed with little natural sense of beauty, and thus rendered dead to the temptation it presented." RUSKIN : " Pre-Raphaelitism." The meaning is doubtful ; would or ought would be intel- ligible. " the necessity of joining expressions of the most exemplary humility * * * with such assertions of Divine authority as should (or would) secure acceptance for the epistle itself in the sacred canon." RUSKIN : " Sheepfolds." " it may by and by give the world an encyclopaedic dictionary of literature, in which the chief of our standard authors shall (or will) be thoroughly treated." New York Ev. Post, June 5, 1889. " But what should (can) this mean." WYCHERLY'S " Country Girl." " But how should (would or could) you know him ? " BEN JONSON : "Every Man in His Humour." 398 English Grammar. "What should (could") Boston have known about the Parsonage where the morals of Harvard youth were depleted along with Harvard purses ; where wine ran freely from dusk till daybreak ? * * * What should (could) Boston have known about it, even though an Alderman had owned this palace of joy. * * * ? " North Am. Review, Nov., 1888. " the hospital fund is to be expended for the benefit of both in such proportion as the post-surgeon shall (or may) deem just." " Decision of Secretary of War," Apr. 29, 1889. " His position should (or ought to) be raised to the dignity of a profession." North Am. Review, March, 1889, p. 325. XVIII. The following examples illustrate what I deem the misuse of shall and should. " Any one who will consider the structure of the following sen- tences shall perceive this pictorial power of the Participle." Prof. EARLE : " English Prose." " A child learning to read and coming to the word inveigle shall be told to call it inveegle, though the best usage at present is to say invaygle." EARLE'S "Philology of the English Tongue," 184. " one may expect a well bred person should soon take the hint." FIELDING : "Joseph Andrews." " He was, indeed, one of the largest men you should see." Id. " I had a sexton once, when I was a clerk, that should have dug three graves while he was digging one." FIELDING : "Tom Jones." " Shall you run away to-day ? " GEORGE ELIOT : " Mill on the Floss." " Should you. be influenced by any feeling in regard to (i) sit- ting down thirteen at a table ; (2) beginning a voyage on Friday," etc. " Circular Inquiry by an American Society." " I abated my pace, and looked about me for some side aisle that should admit me into the innermost sanctuary of this green cathedral." HAWTHORNE. Auxiliary Verbs. 399 " If we could look into the hearts where we wish to be most valued, what should you expect to see ? " Id. Observe here the Hibernianism of inquiring what you should see if we could look. " Now as she had been mentioned by Mark several times within a few preceding pages, it is not likely that this mode of designating her * * * should have been used by him. NORTON'S " Genuineness of the Gospels," Ixxvii. " It should seem." This is an absurd expression often met with even in the most esteemed authors. What does it mean? We all un- derstand the word seem in its two shades of meaning, appearing and presenting a false appearance. Now a thing either appears or does not appear ; and that might well be an end of the matter. But in our great fondness for a dis- play of modesty we sometimes say, hesitatingly : " It would seem." This might consistently enough have a meaning, which would be : " Granting certain conditions, it would then seem." But that is not what people mean by the phrase, but something like this : " I beg pardon ten thou- sand times for venturing to intimate that possibly it seems." Still, what is meant by, " It should seem," and wherein does it differ from " It would seem " ? According to the proper signification of the words the meaning should be : " It ought to seem, but does not." Beyond that I am una- ble to extract from it any semblance of sense. The expressions animadverted upon in this section are those of literary men and their ambitious imitators. They reflect the stiff formalism of past ages, and not the thought and speech oJf the active progressive part of mankind. Con- sidering the extreme difficulty of maintaining so many wavering lines of distinction, and the utter folly of saying, for example, " I shall" and " You will" I cannot but think that the language would be improved by using will exclu- sively to express futurity, and shall as the expression of authority. In closing this lengthy discussion of will and 400 English Grammar. shall, I cite one more example to show the futility of the distinctions now recognized. "He is anxious to have a cistern built that shall hold 100 hogsheads." Would not every one be just as well off if it were permis- sible to say, " will hold " ? For my part I welcome as a normal and healthy advance the increasing use of will, of which grammarians generally complain. CAN. The present tense of this verb was in Gothic : ik kann, thii kant, is kann, weis kunnum, jus kunnuth, eis kunnun. Past tense : ik kuntha, thu kunthes, is kuntha, wcis kunthe- dum, Jus kuntheduth, eis kunthedun. Anglo-Saxon, present tense : ic can, thu canst, he can, we cunnon, ge cunnon, heo cunnon. Past tense : ic cu-the, thu cu-thest, he cu-the, we cu-thon, ge cu-tlion, heo cu-tlion. Observe that in Anglo-Saxon, as in the English of all periods, the letter n has been dropped from the past tense, although preserved in all the other Teutonic languages. To compensate for the loss of the n the vowel was lengthened, and at last became the ou in could, the / of which is a mere blunder, from a supposed analogy with would and should. This innovation dates from about the year 1450, although couthe, couth, and kude occur much later. The earliest signification was, to know. During the period of transition it was used indifferently to express knowledge and ability. Cunning is a derived verbal noun and verbal adjective ; and the primary meaning of un-couth was merely unknown, strange, like the Scotch un-co. The following examples will illustrate the early use of the word, both as to form and meaning : " Ther-efter waex suythe micel uuerre betuyx the king & Randolf eorl of Csestre noht for-thi th he ne iaf him al th he cuthe axen him, alse he dide alle othre." Auxiliary Verbs. 401 (Thereafter waxed very great war betwixt the king and Ran- dolph earl of Chester, not because that he gave him not all that he could ask of him, as he did to all others.) "Saxon Chronicle," A.D. 1150. " Ne was non so wis man in al his lond, The kude vn-don this dremes bond." GENESIS and EXODUS, 1250. " And every statute couthe he pleyn by roote." CHAUCER : " Prologue to Canterbury Tales." " And thogh it happen sum of hem be fortune, to gon out, thei conen no maner of langage but Ebrew." SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE. " And the wondriden, seyinge Hou kan this man lettris, sithen he hath not lernyd ? " WYCLIFFE : JOHN vii., 15. " Ye ! blessed be alway a lewd man That not but only his bileeve can" (That is an unlearned man who knmvs only the creed.) CHAUCER : " The Miller's Tale." " For y can nou3t my crede y kare wel harde ; For y can fynden no man that fully beleveth." " The Ploughman's Crede." MUST. There was an old verb, mote, becoming obsolete even in Saxon times, for the infinitive is not found. The meaning was, to be able or at liberty to do a thing, hence closely related in signification to can and may. It was much used as a word of wishing or assent, like the Hebrew Amen " So mote it be ! " To this was added a sense of obligation, as of something that ought to be indeed, must be. The past tense was moste, becoming the modern must. This is one of three surviving words the others being durst and wist that insert s in forming the past tense. This past tense, must, becomes a secondary or derivative verb with a present signification. It admits of no change of form. The ending 26 402 English Grammar. in st precludes the additional st of the second person singu- lar. Must usually expresses a general, undefined necessity or propriety, not, like shall, the authority of a superior. " Here coraeth my mortal enemy, Withoute faile he mot be deed or I ; For eyther I mot slen him at the gappe, Or he mot slee me." CHAUCER : " Knight's Tale." " Por. Do you confesse the bond ? " Ant. I do. " Por. Then must the Jew be merciful. " yew. On what compulsion must I ? Tell me that." " Merchant of Venice." The question was too hard even for the subtlety of Portia. Must is also used where the necessity is not of doing anything, but of believing something on the evidence of circumstances. " allowing the supposed change to have been possible, it must have met with great opposition ; it must have provoked much discussion ; it must have been the result of much deliberation ; there must have been a great deal written about it at the time ; it must have been often referred to afterwards." NORTON : " Genuineness of the Gospels." LET. From a Teutonic root lat y meaning to let alone, leave undisturbed, is derived the adjective late, in the sense of late gleanings, late education. As a verb the word took two forms i, a primary strong verb, A.-S. latan, to allow, per- mit, let anything go or do as it will ; 2, a secondary weak verb, lettan, to make late, delay, hinder. Both verbs came to have the same form in English. The second is now obsolescent. An example of its former use is afforded by Spenser, " Faerie Queene," Hi., 5. " And all the while their malice they did whet, With cruell threats his passage through the ford to let" Auxiliary Verbs. 403 So too, " he who now letteth will lei until he be taken out of the way." 2 THESS. ii., 7. The other verb has had and still has a very extended use. From the idea of letting anything have its own way came naturally such expressions as to let go, let loose, let out ; and, as most things left to themselves sink or fall to the ground, we have to let down. The word was also quite commonly used in the sense of to cause : " Anon he let two cofres make, Of o semblance and of o make." GOWER. Naturally enough let came to be used before any kind of a verb expressing the action of the speaker or of a third per- son. Let that is, permit me or him to do this or that. Our language, like many others, was always deficient in a separate form for directing a command or wish to any other than the person spoken to ; so let with an infinitive of the principal verb came to supply the place of an imperative of the first and third persons. This is usually thought to be rather modern, but it is as old as the " Ormulum," if not older. Indeed, it follows unavoidably from the Anglo-Saxon. " Fylig me and Itzt deade bebyrigean hyra deadan." (Follow me, and let the dead bury their dead.) Although the form is that of a request for permission, there is often no trace of such a meaning left, and let is purely formal, with no distinctive signification. In the sub- lime words " Let there be light" and " Let us make man in our image" there is no request for permission. Occasion- ally in poetry and poetic prose we meet with a more primitive and forcible form of expression without let. " Be thine the glory and be mine the shame." " Succeed the verse or fail." KEATS. " All eyes be muffled." Id. " and now be the welkin split with vivats." CARLYLE. 404 English Grammar. OUGHT. The Gothic aigan, to possess, had an old past tense aih used as a present ; and in like manner the past tense, dh, of the A.-S. dgan, to possess, was used as a present. From this a secondary past tense, dhte, was formed. As a became o in English, and h at the end of a syllable was regularly replaced by gh, the Middle English oughte two syllables is ac- counted for as the past tense of owen, to possess. This in turn was transformed into the modern ought. Out of the frequent possession of things not paid for grew the meaning of owing for, and from that again the general sense of obli- gation. This sense was early attached to the word. " we a"*>en thene sunnedei switheliche wel to wurthien." (We owe to honor the Sunday exceedingly well.) "Old English Homilies," A.D. 1200. " all Chrestene men aZen to dai to noten." (All Christian men owe to enjoy this day.) Id. " 3e ancren owen this lutle laste stucchen reden to our wum- men euriche wike enes." (You nuns owe to read this last little piece to your women once every week.) "Ancren Riwle," A.D. 1220. " That forgotten was no thing That owe to be done." CHAUCER'S " Dream." At the same time ought was employed as a past tense with the modern sense of owed. " Tweye dettours were to sum leenere ; oon oughte fyue hun- dred pens, and an other fyfty." WYCLIFFE : Trans. LUKE vii., 41. " There was a certayne lender which had two detters ; the one ought five hundred pence, and the other fifty." TYNDALE'S version. There seems to have been a confusion between the present and past tenses, which resulted in the exclusive use of the past to express duty or obligation. Auxiliary Verbs. 405 " As every Servaunt owyth to have his Sustenaunce of hym that he servyth, so owght the Pope to be susteyned by the Chirche." SIR JOHN FORTESCUE : " Monarchic," Chap. vii. Of cursing oweth ech gulty man to drede." CHAUCER : " Prologue to C. T." " And also rich in every thought As he that all hath and ought nought." CHAUCER'S " Dream," 1071. Ought may be regarded now as a secondary growth present in tense. The past is " ought to have" The principal verb that follows ought is always preceded by to. " We ought to obey the laws." In this respect ought stands alone. DO. The earliest form in which we know this word is the San- skrit dha, to set, put, or place, a meaning preserved in its various migrations down to don and doff, to put on and to put off, and the now obsolete dup and dout. This verb has a persistent habit of being doubled, and its past tense, did, is the only familiar instance of reduplication left in our lan- guage. But in Sanskrit and Greek even the present tense underwent reduplication dd-dha-mi and ri-^rj-^i. The mi is the same word as our pronoun me. In Latin the redupli- cation was limited to the perfect tenses con-did-i, I put together, built. Here did-i is grammatically equivalent to English, I did. Do is not exclusively an auxiliary, as people do harvest work, housework, plain sewing, etc. As an auxiliary its use is now very extensive, and may seem to be quite modern, but it is as old as King Alfred. First, it adds emphasis to the main verb, and that is quite old. Jesus said to the accused woman, John viii., 1 1 : " do ga, and ne synga thu naefre ma." (Do go, and sin thou not never more.) If one were accused of never reading anything, he might answer with some warmth : " Yes, I do read." 406 English Grammar. Second, it is used in asking questions. Macbeth Inquires of Banquo : " Ride you this afternoone ? " The nearest approach our modern speech could make " Do you ride this afternoon ? " is much inferior in terseness. Yet I fear the modern pedant would say, " Shall you ride," an expres- sion that wrings the nerves like biting a gravel stone in a pudding. Third. Do is used with negative sentences. They did not come according to agreement. Yet the language was much better without the auxiliary in such cases. " Go not into the way of the Gentiles, and into any city of the Samaritans enter ye not." There are two early meanings of do to put and to cause that are now found only in old books. In the following from the "Lay of Havelok the Dane," A.D. 1300, do and the last dede = put, place ; otherwise dede is merely em- phatic. " Ther-inne wanted nouct a nayl, That euere he sholde ther-inne do" " And in the castel dede him do, Ther non ne micte him comen to." " Grim dede maken a ful fayr bed, Unclothed him and dede him ther-inne." We still speak of doing up and doing away things. " What helpeth that to don my blame away ? " CHAUCER : " Troylus and Creseide." In the three following examples, do means to cause : " Unk schal i-tide harm and schonde, 3ef 3e doth grith-bruche on his londe." (Harm and shame shall betide you two, If ye cause peace-breaking in his land.) " Owl and Nightingale," 1250. Auxiliary Verbs. 407 " Now goo thou, syr Lucan, sayd the king, and do me to wyte what bytokens that noyse in the felde." Mallory's "Morte Darthur," 1469. " Moreover, brethren, we do you to wit of the grace of God bestowed on the churches of Macedonia." 2 COR. viii., i. There is another word do, from A.-S. dugan, to avail, be worth or fit, found in the expressions, " That will do" " That will not do" A relic of the g survives in doughty, a word that used to mean strong, valiant, but now expresses rather more contempt than admiration. " The gees, the hennes of the yerd, Al he solde that ouct doucte, That he euere selle moucte." " Havelok." It is not certain which of these two words ends the com- mon greeting, " How do you do ? " DARE. Anglo-Saxon, ic dear, thu dearst, he dear ; past tense, ic dorst, etc. Primarily, as we all know, the word expressed courage, daring. " The folke wel wene, that thou for cowardise Thee fainest sick, and that thou darst not rise." CHAUCER : " Troylus and Creseide." But on some undisputed assertion we often hear the re- mark, " I dare-say that is so," which requires no courage at all. The word has here degenerated into a mere form of expression, and has no particular meaning. But the word is not wholly an auxiliary. It is as it were just beginning its downward course. It has also an active or transitive meaning to defy. " What, is Brutus sicke ? And will he steale out of his wholesome bed To dare the vile contagion of the Night ? " "Julius Caesar, ii., i. 408 English Grammar. The word became divided, both as to form and significa- tion. The auxiliary followed the old forms, and is now, / dare, thou darest, he dare ; past tense, / durst, etc. For the active verb new forms were developed : / dare, thou darest, he dares ; past tense, I dared, etc ; and these always tend to displace the old. " This Midas knew, and durst communicate To none but to his wife, his ears of state." DRYDEN : " Wife of Bath's Tale." " Camidius, wee " Will fight with him by sea. " Cleo. By sea, what else ? " Cam. Why will my Lord do so ? " Ant. For that he dares us too 't, " Enob. So hath my Lord dard him to single fight." " Anthony and Cleopatra," iii., 7. HAVE. This word primarily expresses possession ; and those who hold that words never change assume the task of showing property or possession in such an expression as " I have never seen such grapes as you describe." What is it that I have when I have lost all ? The following is probably as good as any answer that can be given in support of such possession : "Jfave, of which had is the preterite form, expresses simply present possession. * * * To express what the Romans expressed by amavi, an inflection of amo, we use a verb have and the perfect participle of another verb. The participle is an ex- pression of completed action in the abstract loved. The only real verb that we use in this instance is one that signifies posses- sion. We say, I have have what ? possess what ? Possession implies an object possessed ; and in this case it is that completed action which is expressed in the abstract by the participle." 1 The idea of possessing a completed action in the abstract is too " abstract " for my comprehension. It is more intan- 1 Richard Grant White: "Words and their Uses," p. 306: " Every-Day English, "p. 434. Auxiliary Verbs. 409 gible than the " incorporeal hereditaments " of the English Law. Let us try to illustrate a single example on this principle : " I had forgotten to tell her that I had eaten no dinner." This sentence then should mean : " I was in possession of the past completed, action in the ab- stract of forgetting (or forgetting in the abstract), the action of telling that, at some still earlier period, I was in possession of the past completed action of eating no dinner in the abstract." In trying to take stock of these possessions I cannot quite make out what my property is, nor whether I am thereby richer or poorer, even if there be no flaw in the title. The reader who has accompanied me thus far must be already familiar with the view that language is not built up in the manner of Euclid's Elements or a treatise on Alge- bra. He has seen that it is a congeries of surviving popular usages slowly developed, ever changing ; that its plains of uniformity are everywhere seamed and scarred with fissures, dykes, and all irregularities. If we but knew how these irregularities arose we should understand them ; but that knowledge is hard of attainment. We may be sure that " I have loved " came into use by steps that seemed perfectly natural, even if we should never discover them. We can imagine such a starting-point as this : " The boys liad roasted apples which they were eating." Here had may express possession ; but the thing possessed is " roasted apples," not the past completed action of roast- ing in the abstract, for which boys would care very little. Then people might have a great many other things, such as " dressed skins," " embroidered robes," " thatched houses." To the extent and form of such development there is no limit, so common it is for the end to lose all sight of the beginning. Grimm quotes a line in point from a hymn of the fourth century, by St. Ambrose : " quse extinctas habent lampadas." ' 1 " Deutsche Grammatik," iv., 154. 4io English Grammar. together with an Old High German translation : " deo arslactu eigun leohtkar." which may mean either " who have extinguished lamps," or " who have extinguished their lamps." Indeed, the Latin race had this form of expression time out of mind, although they, of all people, had least need for such extra contrivances. Plautus, in the second century B.C., wrote : " Vir me habet pessumis despicatum modis." (The man has slighted me in the very worst way.) " Casina," ii., 2, 15. Again : " docemur * * * auctoritate nutuque legum domitas habere libidines." Cic. : " De Oratore," i., 43. " Clodii animum perspectum habeo" Cic. : " Epist ad Brutum," i., i. " Omnes decumas ad aquam deportatas haberent." Cic. : in " Verrem," ii., 3, 15. " iste * * * bellum sacrilegum semper impiumque habiat in- dicium. Id., ii., 5, 72. The Teutonic nations, whose verbs were lacking in distinc- tions of time, borrowed this form of expression from their Latin neighbors in the sixth and eighth centuries. Grimm gives several early examples ' : " intfangan eigut " thou hast received ; " haben gistriunit " I have gained. And now such expressions as, ".I have written," "You have heard," " He had bought land," are among the best established in the language for expressing actions that are finished and past. There is another use of have as an auxiliary that is not quite so common have to as in : " The bridge being carried away, he had to swim the river." Here have is not 1 " Deutsche Grammatik," iv., 150. Auxiliary Verbs, 411 quite so remote from the idea of possession the possession of a duty or task to perform. This, too, is borrowed from the Latins, but is post-classic. Riddle's Latin Lexicon cites two passages from Tertullian, which I have not the means of verifying : " etiam Filius Dei mori habuit." " si inimicos jubemur diligere, quern habemus odisse?" In this last sentence the trenchant African Father was un- consciously repeating Confucius. The phrase had rather has been much disputed ; and some even contend that it is sheer nonsense. That it has all the sanction that can be derived from respectable usage will scarcely be denied. On that point I shall cite only two authorities, but they are of the greatest weight neither so old as to be obsolete, nor so new as to be looked out of countenance. " I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that by my voice I might teach others also, than ten thousand words in an unknown tongue." i COR. xiv., 19. " I had rather believe all the fables in the legend, and the Talmud and the Alcoran than that this universal frame is without a mind ; and therefore God never wrought miracle to convince atheism, because his ordinary works convince it." BACON : Essay xvi. The phrase has the further high merit of being short, neat, and universally understood. Those who call it nonsense forget for the moment, what all know, that language is full of idioms expressions that will not parse, will not fit them- selves to grammatical rules the rules being primarily Latin. Dreary and weary must the style be that can all be parsed. Idioms are short, forcible, and great favorites with people who would rather work or think than talk ; and they abound in the best writers. Yet idioms are expressions that taken literally are either absurd, or, what is worse, untrue. " There is no water here" " All the lamps went out" The Dutch say, " Dans maar op," where the English say, " Get out," 412 English Grammar. which means Depart ; but all three phrases taken literally are nonsensical " Dance more up," " Procure out," " From part." The Germans have a word, " lieb" adj. and adv., meaning dear, beloved, gladly, with pleasure. The comparative is lieber ; and it is the same word as the nearly obsolete Eng- lish lief, which had also a comparative, liever. The Germans, like us, hold some things dear, dearer, or most dear. " Ich habe meinen Freund lieb, lieber, am liebsten" " So habe ich es am liebsten " ; I have it lievest so. " So hdtte ich es lieber ; I had that is, would have it liever so, would prefer it. A similar usage was quite common in early English, in which I had is to be construed : I would have, hold, esteem it. " Fare leuer he hadde wende And bidde ys meete." (Far liever he had go And beg his meat.) ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, A.D. 1298. " And saide they hadden sikirliche, Leover steorve aperteliche, Than thole soche wo and sorwe." ALISAUNDRE, A.D. 1300. " I hadde lever be dede or she had any dyseasse." " Townley Mysteries," 1430. The infinitive might be with or without the particle to " He hadde lever to ben anhong Than to be forsworn." " Amel and Amiloun," A.D. 1330. " I had levdeyr on a day to fight Than alle my fathyrys lond." Transl. of " Torrent of Portugal," 1370. Better and several other words came to be used in imitation of liever, which last has been completely displaced by rather, comparative of rath, soon. " Better he had to have be away." " Torrent." Auxiliary Verbs. 413 As soon, as well, and best are employed in nearly the same manner. "Then you had as good make a point of first giving away your- self." GOLDSMITH: "Good. Nat. Man." "I fad as liefe haue heard the night-rauen." SHAKES?.: " Much Ado," ii., 3. " We had best return towards the boat." BULWER : " Rienzi." Would rather may always be substituted for had rather. Might rather would not have the same meaning. Would and should do not go well with better. In one instance can is admissible. " I can better afford" because can is especially associated with afford. We may say might better, but it has neither the sanction, the idiomatic force, nor the precise meaning of had better. BE. This is one of the most remarkable words in the language. It expresses no thing, action, quality, relation, or condition, beyond that of bare existence. It is said to be wanting in some languages ; and in some others it is sparingly employed. It has more forms than any other English verb am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert, be, being, been. No other has more than eight. It alone has a separate form am for the ist pers. sing. pres. and for the sing, of the past tense was. It is the only verb that has a form wert found only in the subjunctive, of which hereafter. The substantive verb, as it is called, is derived from three separate origins. Be, being, been, are from Sansk. bhu, to grow, if indeed bhu, the earth, be not still earlier. From this fertile source sprang the Greek phuo, to grow, and phuton, a plant ; the Latin fui, I have been ; German bauen, to build and to inhabit, bauer, a farmer; Icelandic bua, to build, to dwell and to till the ground ; and English words so diverse as physic, husband, neighbor, bower, boorish, and by-law. From the Sansk. root as, to which some assign the primary sense to breathe, and others, to dwell, come am, 414 English Grammar. art, are, is. Was, wast, etc., are from the Sansk. vas, to dwell. The r is in all cases due to the common transformation of s. The auxilary is used to form the passive side of transitive verbs, by being placed before their past participles. ACTIVE PASSIVE I love I am loved we saw we were seen you will meet you will be met he has paid he has been paid they have heard they had been heard. The simple tenses of this verb are used with infinitives to form a kind of future. " He is to sail" " They were to arrive" It is thus used also with the infinitive forms of itself. " There is to be an auction." " There was to have been a wedding." " He is to be captain." It is only the simple tenses that are so used. CHAPTER VII. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. BY means of internal changes, appropriate terminations, auxiliary verbs, particles, and even change of position, verbs are enabled to represent actions under a great variety of conditions. The orderly presentation of these modifications is called conjugation. The word signifies joining or yoking together, and is more especially applicable to the joining of verbs with the pronouns that often accompany them. I is joined with am thou " " " art . he " " " is we " " " are but the term is made to include many other combinations. When one repeats the whole body of such combinations for any particular verb, he is said to conjugate it. The kinds of distinction made in conjugating are five. 1. The subject or person spoken of may be represented either as acting or as acted upon. George loves. George is loved. In the former the verb is said to be active ; in the latter passive. The not very apt term voice is used to express the distinction, and the one form is said to be in the active voice and the other in the passive voice. 2. A verb may be so used as to express an assertion out- right, a question, a supposition a command, an entreaty, or even in so general a way as to present no such particular aspect. Distinctions of this kind are called moods or modes. 415 41 6 English Grammar. 3. An action may be represented as going on now, as performed some time ago, or expected hereafter. Such dis- tinctions of time are called tenses. The word is from the Old French tens, a degradation of the Lat. tempus, time. 4. The action may be represented as that of the speaker, of the person spoken to, or of any one else. The one who speaks is called the first person, the one addressed is the second person, and the third person may be all the world besides. This is the distinction of person. 5. But several persons may be spoken of together, many may be addressed at once, and although usually only one speaks, he may be so associated with others as to be merely their mouthpiece. He may speak for or about any number of whom he is one. Herein is the distinction of number, the numbers we have to do with being two, the singular and the plural. A verb then, in addition to its essential meaning, which distinguishes it from other verbs, needs to express the cir- cumstances of Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, and Number. Three of these present no difficulty, but grammarians have dis- agreed, and are likely to disagree, about the numbers and characters of the moods and tenses. Any one may make an analysis of them satisfactory to himself, but no one has suc- ceeded yet in satisfying every one else. We may begin with the easiest and consider together Person and Number, as they are inseparably connected. PERSON AND NUMBER. To any people having personal pronouns it would readily occur to join them in some way with the verb, and say, for example, / love, thou love, he love, we love, etc. It would do just as well to put the pronoun after the verb and say, love I, love thou, love he, love we. Now, however the pronoun be placed, it and the verb are liable to become so united in conversation as to be pronounced like one word witness, I'm, you 're, we 77 and it is certain that if the pronoun be placed last, it is apt to be clipped and obscured in hurried The Conjugation of Verbs. 417 speech till little or nothing of it may be left. And as it is well known that compound words often preserve their parts better than those parts are preserved singly, it may happen in the course of ages that the independent pronouns in use are no longer identifiable with the fragments attached to verbs. Nay, people speaking a language every day may not recognize the fragments as having any meaning, and when they wish to be quite explicit, saying, thou love-st, he love-th, do in effect say, thou love-thou, he love-he. The nature of these suffixed pronominal relics was first learned from Hebrew, in which they have been better preserved than in the Aryan languages. But it is supposed that in the latter, far away in the prehistoric ages, there were three pronouns, ma, sa, ta corresponding to / or me, thou and he* They have not survived in those forms, but many scattered facts would be united and made consistent by the supposition. As suffixes to verbs and modified into mi, si, ti, they are common in Sanscrit and not unknown in Greek 8 ; yet in both languages they are unlike the separate pronouns. A plural ma -\- sa, or mi -f- si, I and thou, that is we, might be formed. In point of fact it is formed in the oldest Sanskrit in the compromise form of ma-si. In like manner an ending ta-si, he and thou, that is ye, is said to have existed once, but what is really formed now is -thas for the dual number, and-/&* for the plural. Another ending, -anti, equivalent to they, is well known, but of uncertain origin. If we join these endings, by the help of a connecting vowel, to the simplest form of a verb, we shall have a small part of a Sanskrit conjugation. Let -vad = speak, then : vad-a-mi I speak vad-a-si thou speakest vad-a-ti he speaks vad-a-ma-si * we speak vad-a-tha ye speak vad-anti they speak 1 Whitney : " Language and the Study of Language," 266, 267. * Ktihner's Greek Grammar. Verbs in fit. 8 In later Sanskrit it is mas or mah. 27 4i 8. English Grammar. There is a set of secondary terminations, somewhat further pared down, employed in some of the moods and tenses. Thus the imperfect prefixes a, as an augment and suffixes the shorter endings a-vad-a-m I spoke a-vad-a-s thou spokest a-vad-a-t he spoke a-vad-a-ma we spoke a-vad-a-ta ye spoke a-vad-an they spoke. The Latin scholar will recognize here the close resemblance to terminations with which he is familiar : leg-a-m leg-a-mus leg-a-s leg-a-tis leg-a-t leg-ant. Old High German preserved the family likeness fairly well but a process of obliteration has been everywhere going on. We may take the word find and exhibit the personal endings of Old High German, Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon : o. H. G. o. s. A.-S. {ist pers. find-u find-u find-e zd pers. find-i-s find-i-s find-e-st 3d pers. find-i-t find-i-d find-e-th ristpers. find-a-mes find-a-d find-a-th PLUR. -j 2d pers. find-a-t find-a-d find-a-th 1 3d pers. find-ant find-a-d find-a-th Six terminations have now been reduced to four, almost to three, there being only a difference of connecting vowel between findeth and findath ; and that will not last long. The termination -st may appear as a novelty, but, although not common, it occurs in the Gothic of the fourth cen- tury. Its origin is conjectural. The Teutonic settlers in the British Islands no doubt had marked differences of dia- lect from the first, which have not yet disappeared. If we select then the twelfth century, when materials are tolerably abundant, we shall find among the mixed population of Angles, Danes, and Northmen north of the Humber, in- The Conjugation of Verbs. 419 eluding the lowlands of Scotland, a marked simplicity in their vowel and inflectional systems. They made no distinc- tion of person or number in their verbs, adding es through- out in the present tense and nothing in the past. In the south of England the present tense was conjugated : Ich find-e we find-e-th thu find-e-st ye find-e-th he find-e-th hi find-e-th The intermediate district between the Humber and the Thames differed somewhat from both ; and even its east and west portions differed from each other. These last are known to the students of English dialects as the East-Mid- land and the West-Midland. The former conjugated the singular after the southern model, the latter almost like the northern, while they agreed in ending the plural in -en throughout. We may place the three local conjugations side by side, thus : NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN IST PERS. SING. 20 PERS. SING. 30 PERS. SING. ALL PERS. PLU. find-e-s find-e-s find-e-s find-e-s find-e find-e-s (or st) find-e-s (or th) find-en find-e find-e-st find-e-th find-e-th The plural termination -en began to encroach on the others before the middle of the fourteenth century, was the pre- vailing form for a hundred years or so, and then gradually disappeared, leaving the bare verb. It is said that it may still be heard in Lancashire. Spenser has it when it suits his rhythm ; but then Spenser was not only a poet, but one very fond of very old words. The termination of the 2d pers. sing., whenever used, is that of the south st to this day. There are four words, however art, ivert, wilt, shalt, in which only t is added. The northern -es, generally shortened to -s, is retained for the 3d pers. sing. ; but now and then, on fit occasion, we may have recourse to the southern -eth. Indeed, the conflict between these two little endings may be said to have lasted six hundred years. Professor Whitney says that " s as ending of the third 420 English Grammar. person of the verb is rare in Chaucer, and quite unknown a little earlier." ' He possibly means that it was known long before Chaucer's time, but had temporarily dis- appeared ; yet that is not the most natural construction to put upon his words. Dr. Morris, in the introduction to his critical edition of Chaucer, says : " The singular in -es or -is is not sanctioned by the best manuscripts. It is, however, the ordinary inflection of the Verb in all Northern dialects." The following examples from among many will show the use of the verbal termination s, with or without a connecting vowel, before the time of Chaucer, A.D. 1340 : " Upsteigh til heven, sittes on right hand Of God Fadir alle mightand." "Creed" of 1240. " Hwat is that lict in ure dene ! Ris up Grim, and loke wat it menes." " Havelok the Dane," 1300. " Lauerd, this is a mikel hete, It greues vs it is sua grete." " Cursor Mundi," 1320. " Sain Jerom telles that fiften Ferle takeninges sal be sen Befor the day of dom." " Homilies in Verse," 1330. " For vnnethes es a child born fully That it ne bygynnes to goule and cry ; And by that cry men may knaw than Whether it is man or woman. For if it be a man, it says ' a, a,' That the first letter es of the nam Of our forme-fader Adam. And if the child a woman be, When it es born, it says ' e, e.' E is the first letter and the hede Of the name Eue that bygan our dede." 3 ROBERT ROLLE, 1340. 1 " Language and the Study of Language," 93. 1 Morris : " Specimens of Early English," vol. ii. The Conjugation of Verbs. 421 Two things contributed to gain currency for the northern termination intercourse with nations, especially the French, who are without the sound of th and the requirements of versification. The termination -th adds a syllable not added by s, to all verbs except do, have, say, and those that end with a sibilant ; and it is a convenience to be able at will to use a shorter form. Hence the ending -s is much more fre- quent in poetry than in prose of the sixteenth and seven- teeth centuries. In the first part of Raleigh's " History," written between 1603 and 1612, of 200 verbs (that is, verbs that might take the ending -th or -s) only three end in -s, and those in a poetical quotation. The author adopted -s him- self before the end of his work. The " Meditationes Histori- cae " of Philip Camerarius were translated into English by John Molle and printed in London in 1621. Of 200 verbs in the first part 185 end in -th, and 15 in -s. Of these 15, 9 are found in the few verses of poetry quoted. A like sample from Shakespeare's " Merchant of Venice " yields 57 in -th and 143 in -s. What is still more conclusive for the influence of poetry in the matter, I find in a sample from Spenser's " Fairie Queene" (A.D. 1590) 86 ending in -th and 114 in -s ; and of the 86, 54 are either doth or hath, in which th does not add a syllable. The graver class of English writers were slow to accept -s, even in the seventeenth century. It is rare in Bacon and excluded altogether from the Bible. Sir Thomas Browne's " Pseudoxia," A.D. 1658, has 159 verbs ending in -th to 41 in -s. The present arrangement of personal endings is : PRESENT TENSE. I call we call thou call-est you call he call-s (or -eth) they call PAST TENSE. I called we called thou called-est you called he called they called. 422 English Grammar. As ~est and -eth are scarcely used except in solemn poetry, devotional exercises, and burlesque, for the general business of life our verbs add but one personal ending, -s, with a con- necting vowel e when necessary. This remote and unrecog- nizable descendant of the primitive ta or ti is limited to the present tense, third person, singular, and is not of the slight- est use even there. It is well to know just how much, or if you choose, how little, of personality is left. The termination -est of the 2d pers. sing, is sometimes omitted from the past tense in poetry. " That morning, thou that slumbered not before Nor slept, great Ocean ! laid thy waves to rest, And hushed thy mighty minstrelsy. No breath Thy deep composure stirred, no fin, no oar, Like beauty newly dead, so calm, so still. So lovely, thou, beneath the light that fell From angel-chariots sentinelled on high, Reposed and listened, and saw thy living change, Thy dead arise." POLLOCK'S " Course of Time." THE TENSES OF VERBS. Actions involve time as a condition, and the particular time it is often important to show. One way of doing this, when applicable, is always effective, and that is to give the day, hour, and minute. When that can be done the form of the verb is of no importance. " I see at this moment " ; " I see on the fourteenth of last June at 2 h. 13 m. P.M. " ; "I see without spectacles during these twenty years," are alike un- mistakable, if such were the usage ; and there would be no need to say : " I see" " I saw" " I have seen" Or, like the Chinese, we might have an unchangeable verb, and an assort- ment of adverbs meaning something like long ago, last year, last month, yesterday, now, to-morrow, by and by, hereafter, etc.,, which might be enlarged to any desired extent. These expedients are precise, especially the first, but rather unwieldy ; and so language has generally provided some The Conjugation of Verbs. 423 short easy way of indicating the time of an action relatively to some other action, or to some point understood. When we say " I see" and " I saw "; the former refers the act of seeing to the time of speaking, the latter refers it to some earlier time. But unless we call in aid some other words that is all the distinction of time that our English verb admits of. I see and I saw is the whole extent. But if addi- tional words be used the distinctions of time may become infinite in number and variety. This holds true of change of form in words, whether called declension, conjugation, or anything else. The inflections are never sufficient, and have to be supplemented by auxiliary words. The auxiliary words are sufficient to do without the inflections altogether, but they are lengthy. Inflections are a short-hand method of doing a few easy things. Now the distinctions of time that various peoples have woven into the texture of their languages may be very unlike, and curiously unlike, what most persons would expect. Ninety-nine in a hundred, who would think of the matter at all, would think it too obvious to admit of any difference of opinion that time is either past, present, or future there can be no other. Of course the past and future can be further subdivided if needful. But consider for a moment what is meant by the present. Is it this year ? Part of the year is past and part future : how much of it is present ? Or is it this day ? Part of that too is past and part future ; and so of this hour or minute. As there is not an inch of the earth's surface that is not either north or south of the equator, so all time is either past or future. The present becomes a mathematical point or line, without breadth ; having only position, and that an ever shifting one. Moreover, it will be seen hereafter that our Teutonic ancestors did not impress a threefold division of time upon their language. Besides representing an action as taking place before, after, or during some other action, several further circum- stances are also noted. It may be regarded as completed or as still going on, as instantaneous or extending over a long 424 English Grammar. time. Again, an action may be ended once for all, or repeated at intervals. We thus have a case of permutations and combinations that may amount to a large aggregate num- ber. Accordingly, grammarians are far from agreeing upon the number of tenses recognizable in the English language. Harris, one of the most learned and philosophical of them, reckoned twelve. He first divided all action, or rather all time, into present, past, and future ; next, each of these divi- sions had a beginning, middle, and end, making nine subdi- visions. The primary and secondary divisions made twelve. The first, or main division was into present, past, and future aorists PRESENT I write scribo PAST I wrote scripsi FUTURE I shall write scribam Each one was then divided into beginning, continuing, and finishing the action. I was going to write scripturus eram I was writing scribebam I had written scripseram I am going to write scripturus sum I am writing scribo, scribens sum I have written scripsi I shall be beginning to write scripturus ero I shall be writing scribam, scribens ero I shall have written scripsero Here was a table laid out for the absolute divisions of time without reference to the expressions that any given lan- guage might have in use. If English, 1 Dutch, and Chinese could not fill all the spaces, they might leave them empty. A somewhat inferior arrangement of these twelve tenses is given in a little book called " Outlines of English Gram- mar," by C. P. Mason, Fellow cf University College, London, which reached its tenth edition in 1883. Others again, like 1 " Hermes ; or, A Philosophical Inquiry Concerning Universal Grammar," by James Harris, Esq. London, 1751. The Conjugation of Verbs. 425 Lowth, Dalton, and Cobbett, still thinking of the meta- physical division of time rather than the facts of language, make three past, present, and future. Among those who view the matter from the philological side, Dr. Latham and Prof. Whitney admit only two real tenses, the present and past, as we have separate and single terms for them see and saw, write and wrote, smile and smiled. It is evident that whatever disagreement there is relates only to the meaning of the terms used, the one party intending an a priori divi- sion of the time of actions, the other having in view expres- sions of common English speech. A third division might be made by enumerating the expressions that might be readily met with distinguishing the time of actions, includ- ing their commencement, continuance, termination, fre- quency, and repetition. In that way considerably more than twenty tenses might be counted up ; but there is no precise limit to them, and every one has an equal right to enumerate as many as he pleases. But far the greater number of persons have reckoned them at six. For doing this they have had the poorest of reasons that there are six in Latin. If we had been nursed on Greek for the last thousand years, we should undoubtedly have had seven ; if Hebrew had been the language of the Church and the schools, we should now have only two. For those six tenses the Latin has six simple expressions, while we have only two. Placing them in the order of time, they are as follows : PLUPERFECT scripseram I had written PERFECT scrips! I wrote IMPERFECT scribebam I kept writing PRESENT scribo I write FUTURE-PERFECT scripsero I shall have written FUTURE scribam I shall write On this basis far the greater number have reckoned six tenses in English, with the above names, or nearly the same, In arranging them the grammarian usually places the pres- ent first, then works backward to the pluperfect, next jumps from the far away past to the future, and ends with the 426 English Grammar. future-perfect. This scheme has been so long and familiarly known, and is so nearly equal in merit to any other yet pro- posed, that little is to be gained by a change. Of course it is obvious that only two of these tenses can be expressed in a single word, which may be taken to be native and prime- val. All the others may be regarded as later and artificial combinations. Of these six then, real or supposed, I shall offer a few remarks. PRESENT. The ancestors of the Slavonic and Teutonic nations seem to have had from the earliest times that we know of only two distinct and developed tenses, correspon- ding to the English, I write and I wrote. These have been reckoned as Present and Past. None of them have a corre- sponding form for the future. In time the Slavonic race developed a future for the verb to be, by means of which futures for the other verbs were formed, somewhat like, will be writing ; consisting, however, of only two words. By the aid of auxiliaries still preserved as separate words many other temporal distinctions have from time to time been added. It is interesting to observe that the important and highly developed Shemitic languages, as Arabic and Hebrew, have only two tenses, commonly called the Past and the Future with no Present. All Shemitic scholars are aware that the terms do not fit well. Caspari says : " The temporal forms of Arabic are two, with in a general way the distinction, that the first indicates a completed, the second an uncompleted action. * * * The names Preterit and Fu- ture, by which they are usually distinguished, are given up, as not corresponding accurately with their import." 1 But is not this the case also with the European lan- guages ? The point of separation in both cases seems to me to be not one of time, but the distinction between a thing done, and one not yet done, between what is finished and what is unfinished. Finished action or work is wholly in the past ; what is unfinished is, in whole or in part future. 1 Arabic Grammar, book ii. The Conjugation of Verbs. 427 Confining ourselves now to our own language, the distinc- tion is best preserved in our two participles. If a house is built, the work is ended. So long as we are building a house, part of the work is past and part future, only the point of separation between the two being present. But when of two expressions one is wholly appropriated to the past, the other must serve for both present and future. So from the earliest times known our northern ancestors had but a single fprm for both. Mere futurity is almost invaribly thus expressed by Ulfilas. Such too was the rule in Anglo-Saxon, although a rule gradually relaxed. The address of the angel to Mary (Luke i., 31) translated from the A.S. Gospels would read thus : " Truly now thou conceivest, and bearest a son and namest his name Healer. He is great, and called the son of the Highest ; and the Lord God giveth him the seat of his father David. And he reigntth in Jacob's house forever, and of his kingdom there is no end." The present is, and always has been one means for ex- pressing the future. " Alle other wommen I forsake, And to an elf queen I me take, By dale and eek by doune." CHAUCER : " C. T.," 15,201. " I drinke the aire before and returne Or ere your pulse twice beate." SHAKESP. : " Tempest," v., i. " Wring the black drop from your heart, And to-morrow unites us no more to part ******** to-morrow we give to the slaughter and flame The sons and the shrines of the Christian name." BYRON : " Siege of Corinth." " ' It was lucky for you, young man,' said Antony Vander Heyden, that you happened to be knocked overboard to-day, as to-morrow morning we start early on our return." WASHINGTON IRVINP. 428 English Grammar. The present is more especially used in suppositions with such words as whoever, whenever, when, until. " Eat ye every one of his own vine, and every one of his fig tree, and drink ye every one the waters of his own cistern ; until I come and take you away to a land like your own." ISAIAH xxxvi., 16. In such cases an interpolated shall would be stiff and cum- brous. " Blessed are ye when men shall revile you and persecute you, and say all manner of evil against you falsely." MATT, v., n. " We shall be obliged to hold our judgments suspended until the general relations of the north-eastern Asiatic languages are better settled." PROF. WHITNEY : " Language," etc. " Every person specified * * * in the following section, who has been since the fourth day of May, eighteen hundred sixty-one, or who is hereafter disabled." " If any person embraced within the provisions of sections * * * has died since the fourth day of March, * * * or hereafter dies" "U. S. Revised Statutes," 4,692, 4,702. There are reckoned three forms of the present tense. I write I do write I am writing No particular term is needed to describe the first, which is regarded as the original or normal form. The second is called the emphatic, the third the progressive or continuous. The second with do is used to reiterate or enforce a state- ment, especially when doubted or disputed. It is also necessary in interrogative and negative sentences '''Did you see the fire ? " "I did see it" for we have abandoned the much neater expressions: Saw you the fire? and I saw it not. Do is not used with other auxiliaries nor gen- erally with the verb to be. We may say : " I did have an umbrella," but not, " I did be there." The difference between the other two forms may be illustrated thus : John//<yv the fiddle George is playing the fiddle The Conjugation of Verbs. 429 The first can play, and has been known at sundry times to entertain himself and friends in that way, but has not drawn a bow these six months. The other is playing at this moment ; listen to him ! The simple expression, in most instances, is not really a present in signification, but represents a long-continued habit continued in the past and expected in the future. No one says : " I build a house" or " I write an article for a magazine ; " for these are not continuous habits ; but one may say : " I build houses" or " I am just now writing an article" This distinction is confined chiefly to verbs that express some kind of activity, employment, or habit, and does not apply to those that represent perceptions or sensations. I see a column of smoke rising, hear a steam whistle, feel chilly. I am listen- ing to the music, but hear the alarm bell. PAST or PRETERIT. This is the only other tense expres- sible by a single word " The sun rose "; " The ship sailed" ; "We all waited" Like the present, it has three forms " The ship sailed, was sailing, or did sail" not differing in respect of time. Several names have been applied to this tense, no one of which is perfectly satisfactory. It might be called simply the past, but that is not thought sufficiently distinctive, as there are two other past tenses. At one time it was common to speak of it as the imperfect ; because it did not in itself contain a reference to any other event, or to any particular time. But that name was found objectionable because in use in the Greek and Latin grammars to denote actions at once prolonged and past. Those languages would translate by the imperfect " He wrote six months " ; but not, " He wrote a poem." But the English tense whatever we may call it does not maintain this distinction. If, however, we wish to make prominent the continuity of action, we employ the compound form. He was writing, continued writing, etc. The prefix preter or prceter (Latin prater, past, beyond) was sometimes applied to all the past tenses, which were then called preter- imperfect, preterperfect, preterpluperfect ; but for all ration- al purposes, the prefix was unnecessary, and has been 430 English Grammar. generally abandoned. Finally the term preterit (Latin prce- teritus, gone by) has been very generally applied to the tense under consideration, not only in English, but in most of the languages of Europe. The word has a feeble and foreign sound, and literally means no more than past, but it is widely recognized and understood. It is also unambigu- ous, being employed solely as a grammatical term, for it would be insufferably pedantic to speak of the preterit week or preterit joys. Greek grammar is familiar with a tense called the aorist, corresponding precisely to our simplest past, and like it used in narrating past events. Aorist, then, would have been the fittest term to adopt ; but that word has never obtained currency among us for the reason that our pattern and schoolmistress was not Greek but Latin. The most appropriate name would be the narrative or historical tense. Opening at a venture Hume's " History of England," I find of 200 consecutive verbs, 180 of this tense and 20 of the pluperfect. The reader can now have his choice of names. " I wrote a book " expresses action past and ended ; " I wrote six months " is past, prolonged, and ended that is, my labor on it is ended ; " I was writing " expresses action continuous, past, but unfinished. All the tenses except the present have these three distinctions. PERFECT. What is called the perfect tense in English is always formed by the aid of the auxiliary have. We have already seen that have primarily signifies possession, but that, in becoming an auxiliary, it passes insensibly into com- binations in which possession is not thought of. The first departure was undoubtedly a sentence like this : I have trained horses, which is ambiguous. If trained\>z associated with horses, it is an adjective, and have, standing alone, retains its original sense of possession. But if it be joined with have, the two form one verb in the perfect tense. Introduce the word six, and there is no longer ambiguity. The word trained must The Conjugation of Verbs. 431 be either before or after the six, which can only belong to the noun. There are then the two distinct alternatives : I have six trained horses ; I have trained six horses. This tense no more expresses a completed or finished action than any other, if we include the two expressions : The river has risen, and the river has been rising. Completion or continuance depends on the participle em- ployed. Yet, although the past participle generally denotes completed action, it is sometimes used to denote what is still going on. " I have lived here twenty years " is precisely equivalent to " I have been living here twenty years." I have been an " Odd Fellow ten years," " I have suffered from headache all my life " are past and present, with a prospect of futurity. There is but one permanent characteristic of the perfect tense. While it speaks of the past it is in some way con- nected with the present. " I have hired a horse." The implication is that I still have the animal have a hired horse. Have here retains with us a trace of its original present signification. This perfect connected with the present may reach back to an illimitable past. " Matter has existed from eternity " is good in grammar, however it may be in philosophy. In general the subject or actor must still exist, also the object or thing acted upon ; and the time, if named, must always include the present. We do not say of a deceased person that he has done this or that, but that he did. Still to this there are exceptions. Of one lately dead we sometimes say that he has left his family or affairs in such or such a condition, and, for a longer period, that he has left us his example. Of one who died leaving writings or literary compositions we use the perfect tense, or even the present, without regard to lapse of time. Homer has described the descent of Odysseus into the infernal regions, and exposes the demagogue in the character of Thersites. 432 English Grammar. By a kind of poetic figure we endow the author with per- petual life ; " and by it he being dead yet speaketh." * " A B has built a mill " is said only while both builder and mill remain. But strangely enough we may say that he has built twenty mills, though the greater part of them may have perished, provided they be so scattered in time as to form a kind of habit or business of life. The series of structures may not yet have come to an end. If the time be named, it must include the present. It may be of any length this century, this year, this week, to-day, but never last week or an hour ago. Foreigners are slow to learn this distinction, and are apt to speak of what has happened yesterday or last week. Even native writers of great merit sometimes fall into this solecism. " I make no doubt they have figured about these apartments in days long past, when they have set off the charms of some peerless family beauty." IRVING : " Bracebridge Hall." A kind of perfect tense, formed of the past participle of intransitive verbs with the verb to be, was formerly common, especially about the beginning of the last century. To the perfect was naturally added a pluperfect of the same type. " I am in blood Stept in so farre, that should I wade no more, Returning were as tedious as go ore." SHAKESP. : "Macbeth," iii., iv. " They were got about two miles beyond Barnet." FIELDING : "Tom Jones," 12, 14. " The court was sat" ADDISON : Spectator. " The horsemen are returned" Id. This use of the verb to be is much less common now, and, except with those who affect an antiquated style, is limited to such words as come, gone, flown, fled, risen, fallen, that ex- press change of place or condition. When we say " The column is fallen " we do not think of its recent fall, but of its present prostration. For this reason we say " Much rain has 1 Hebrews xi., 4. The Conjugation of Verbs. 433 fallen" but not " Much rain is fallen" for as soon as fallen it ceases to be rain. In short, the participle in such connec- tion is used adjectively, and not as part of a verb. This is made clear when both forms of expression come together. " Ye have come too late but ye are come ! " COLERIDGE : " Piccolomini," i., i. This is equivalent to saying : " You have come too late still you are here." If we take " The boy is grown " for a perfect tense, we must accept " The boy was grown" as a pluperfect. In that case what tenses are, " The boy has been grown" and " The boy had been grown " ? Such expressions are found. " Amelia and her companions returned * * * laden with trinkets as if they had been come from a fair." FIELDING: " Amelia," vi., i. If in the last example but one we substitute large for grown the matter will become quite simple. The perfect tense of all transitive verbs is to be formed with have, and all others may be so formed. Except in the passive of transitive verbs, which we have not yet reached, be should be used only in representing a condition, not an act. PLUPERFECT. The word is intended to signify more than perfect, but as perfect in grammar does not mean completed, so pluperfect does not mean more than completed. Indeed in value and usage there is no relation between the two, except that in the one have retains its present reference, and in the other had is past. The two never come together. The pluperfect expresses an action or event not only past, but prior to some other event also past ; but the latter is represented by the preterit, not by the perfect. " I had heard that before you came " not " before you have come" " Jacob Bunting, so was this gentleman called, had been for 434 English Grammar. many years in the King's service, in which he had risen to the rank of corporal, and had saved and pinched together a small in- dependence, upon which he now rented his cottage and enjoyed his leisure." BULWER : " Eugene Aram," i., i. There are, as of all the tenses, the two forms, "/ had written" and " I had been writing" with the usual difference between the two participles. FUTURE. It has been already observed that our language never had at any known period a single word for the future, and that Gothic and Anglo-Saxon habitually employed the present in speaking of things to come. Yet both those languages would on rare occasions, in order to show how the future event was to be brought about, combine an auxiliary with an infinitive, just as we do. Those auxiliaries were oftenest will and shall, of which the first expressed choice, voluntary determination, the second some external controlling power or influence. These are the means com- monly used by us to form future tenses. The difference between will and shall, so far as I have been able to dis- cern, has been given in treating of the auxiliaries ; but the subject spreads out into ramifications so slender that the distinction becomes scarcely perceptible, and is not con- sistently maintained even by very careful writers. We saw that for centuries shall was used almost to the exclusion of will, except in expressing a mental resolution ; but that for three or four hundred years will has been coming more and more into use. Grammarians are apt to speak of this some- what as a zealous clergyman would of the neglect of the Sabbath ; but in the interest of simplicity and intelligibility I am pleased to hear people say that things will, not that they shall be done. Nearly all who claim to be authorities would give the future tense of the verb to write substantially in the following form : I shall write We shall write Thou wilt write You will write He will write They will write. The Conjugation of Verbs. 435 But this formula is scarcely ever adhered to throughout. Except in prayer and solemn poetry, you will takes the place of thou wilt. No reason but of the flimsiest kind can be given to justify the retention of / shall along with you will. And even our most conservative pedagogues will allow us to say " We will " when we are very sure of any- thing. Hence / will is looked on as a more positive assur- ance than I shall. The strangest anomaly of all is the rule that in making an assertion we are to say " You will" but in asking a question, " Shall you ? " The reason assigned is as strange as the rule namely, that we should shape the question in imitation of the answer expected. 1 I am not aware that a similar rule or reason is applied to anything else in the world but the word shall. At page 392 I have suggested a different origin for the anomaly, yet cannot pre- tend to know the reasons which govern each one in his choice of words. Several other phrases that serve the purpose of a future tense have been adopted from time to time. The oldest of these, found already in the Gothic in the form of munan, to think, remember, have a mind to, mean to, was not uncom- mon in early English, forming a future, like will or shall, " It is no boyte mercy to crave, For if I do I man none have." " Townley Mysteries." This word passed out of use in English, or became merged in the verb to mean. It survives in Scotland, but as early as the times of Barbour and Gawin Douglas had taken the meaning of must. " And sen I maun zour erran rin Sai sair against my will ; I 'se mak a vow and keep it trow, It shall be done for ill." " Ballad of Gil Morrice." " This may do maun do Sir, wie them wha . Maun please the great folk for a wamefou." 1 Whitney, " Essentials of English Grammar," p. 120. 436 English Grammar. Another very old expression is formed by combining the verb to be with an infinitive. We find such in Anglo- Saxon : '* Sende thone the thu to sendene eart" (Send him whom thou art to send.) EXOD. iv., 13. " Se the to cumenne is sefter me vaes beforan me." (He that is to come after me was before me.) JOHN i., 15. This is still good English, and we may expect any day to hear that " there is to be a great wedding, and we all are to be invited, and the Bishop is to officiate" and a great many other things are to be. " We are going to build a new church." A phrase of this kind is now the most common expression for the immediate future. " We shall build" is quite indefinite as to time, but the other form promises prompt, or quite early, action. Ac- cording to Kington Oliphant it first appeared in its present form in the " Revelations of the Monk of Evesham," about 1470,' and so has been in use a little over four hundred years. Phrases very similar are still older, and no doubt took their origin from an actual going with intent to do something. They seem to have come from the French, who have the two corresponding expressions, Je vats ecrire une lettre (I go to write a letter) and Je wens cTecrire une lettre (I come from writing a letter). That is, I have just written one. We have not yet adopted this last, nor quite naturalized the excellent Hibernianism : " I '11 be afther writing." " I have to write " is generally, but not necessarily, future. In point of time it is like the original tense, that was both present and future. It also embodies the idea of necessity 1 "New English," ii., 322. The Conjugation of Verbs. 437 expressed by must. Lastly, there is the present tense used as a future : I will write I will be writing I shall write I shall be writing I am to write I am to be writing I am going to write I am going to be writing I have to write I have to be writing How many future tenses are here ? one ? or two ? or ten ? Reader, count for yourself. There are certainly ten ways of expressing future action, all differing in form and slightly in effect, except that between "I will" and "I shall" there is no difference in value. But do they form ten tenses ? or half the number ? or what number ? If we call them ten and invent ten names for them, we shall not understand our language the better, nor use it any better. There are but two elements of difference difference of form and difference of signification or application. But then two questions arise how much difference in either is required to make a grammatical distinction ? and what are we to do when difference of form is united with identity of applica- tion, or identity of form with diversity of application ? The older grammarians attached most importance to the aggre- gate value of whole phrases ; the latter dwell more on the history and form of single words. But consistency is not common with either is probably impossible. To implore and to command " forgive us our trespasses," and " forward march ! " represent attitudes of the speaker as opposite as the poles, yet both verbs are said to be imperative, which means commanding. How different is it to ask a question and to make an assertion ; yet that difference is rarely made a grammatical distinction. The imperative and the simpler form of the infinitive are always alike, yet grammarians make two different modes of sing in the following sentence : " Please sing us that song I have often heard you sing" Some go so far as to maintain that the last is not a verb at all but a noun. Indeed the rules of English grammar are not a consistent body of doctrine framed during the six days 43 8 English Grammar. of creation, and unchanged ever since, but a compromising and inconsistent patchwork. It may well be doubted if any two could state them alike beyond the merest outlines, except in so far as they copied. It is a curious fact that children of tender years have so often been taught, as their life-guidance, a mass of stuff that they could not compre- hend, and on which the learned could not agree. FUTURE-PERFECT. The future-perfect represents a fu- ture action preceding some other future action or event. It was no doubt applied at first to actions expected to be com- pleted or ended before a certain time, but when it is made up with the continuing participle in -ing, as By the end of June he will have been studying German six months, the termination of the action is not implied. The simplest form of this tense is like the following : The sun will have set before we reach home. " Before this time to-morrow I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey." SOUTHEY : " Life of Nelson." A sentence containing a future-perfect tense, when fully expressed, consists of two parts. There is the principal or direct part of the sentence, and a defining clause indicating the time. In the example above, " The sun will have set " is the main or direct statement ; " before we reach home," the defining clause. The future-perfect should rarely, if ever, be used in the latter, and may often be omitted in the former. It is just as well to say : The sun will set before we reach home. The defining clause may not contain a verb, in which case there is no question about the tense in that part. We shall then have walked five miles. Here the defining clause is reduced to the single word then. The future-perfect is a cumbrous expression, to be avoided whenever possible, which can be done in several ways. First. We may use the present tense : The Conjugation of Verbs. 439 " which may yet be established * * * when this com- parison shall have been made with sufficient knowledge." WHITNEY : " Language," etc. " We shall be obliged to hold our judgments suspended until the general relations of the north-eastern Asiatic languages are better settled" Id. In my judgment the latter example is much to be preferred. " Until this transfer is effected, a guard of one officer and ten enlisted men will be left at the post." Hd. Qrs., Dept. of Dakota, April 8, 1891. Second. The perfect tense may be used : " The system of records * * * w in be commenced Janu- ary, i, 1890. When an error or mistake is discovered. * * * After the system has gone into operation the inspector of records in the performance of his duty, will report whenever he ascer- tains" etc. "Order of the War Depart., Nov. 2, 1889." Third. We may use the future, as in example above : " The sun will set " etc. " I will not drink of the fruit of the vine, until the kingdom of God shall come." LUKE xxii., 18. Fourth. Sometimes, but rarely, we find the preterit : "And to every male citizen, whether refugee or freedman as aforesaid, there shall be assigned not more than forty acres of such land, and the person to whom it was so assigned shall be protected in the use and enjoyment of the land." " U. S. Statutes," 15, 508. The following short example illustrates various ways of representing the same future event. It is the last part of John xiii., 38 in successive versions : Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Wycliffe, Tyndale, and the authorized version, with which the new revision is identical. "Amen, amen, qitha thus, thei hana ni hrukeith unte thu mik tf/tfz/foV kunnan thrim sintham." (Transl.) Verily, verily, I say unto thee, the cock croweth not until thou deniest knowing me three times. 44-O English Grammar. " Soth ic the secge, ne craweth se cocc, aer thti with-secgst me thriwa." (Transl.) In sooth I say to thee, the cock croweth not ere thou deniest me thries. " Treuli, treuli, I seie to thee, the koc schall not crowe till thou schalt denye me thries." " Verely, verely, I saye vnto thee, the cock shall not croive, till thou have denyed me thryse." " Verily, verily, I say unto thee, The cock shall not crow till thou hast denied me thrice." As both the perfect and the future are relatively late in the Teutonic family of languages, we may well believe that the future-perfect is the youngest of all the tenses. Yet it is found as early as the beginning of the thirteenth cen- tury in line 151 of the " Ormulum." " & 3iff the33 all forwerrthenn itt, Itt turrnethth hemm till sinne ; & I shall hafenn addledd me The Laferrd Cristess are." (And if they all reject it, It turneth to them for sin ; And I shall have earned me The Lord Christ's wrath.) MOODS. I have met with no satisfactory definition of mood or mode in grammar, and am unable to give one. But before attempting even an approximate account of the thing it may be well to determine the name we shall call it by. The word that has been most commonly and constantly used, especially in England is mood, while late American writers give the preference to mode. This seems to come from a desire to distinguish it from the quite different word mood, a state of the mind, with which it has no connection. The grammatical term is derived from the Latin word modus, measure or manner, from which we have many words mode, moderate, modest, accommodate, and others. It occurs The Conjugation of Verbs. 441 in both forms, mood and mode, and as a grammatical term is quite as technical and special as tense. In the form mode the word is employed in logic to denote certain differences among propositions, which is one reason for calling the grammatical term mood. The several moods are different ways in which the speaker regards the action of which he speaks, as related to himself. That will not make a definition, for it may be true of other distinctions. Still it is true so far as it goes. Take first the distinction of number ; second the distinction of person, heretofore explained ; third, the distinction of tense or time; fourth, the distinction of active and passive of acting and being acted upon, then all other variations in the form and construction of our verbs are distinctions of mood. The speaker may regard the action as a fact within his knowledge. The ship has sailed. He may regard it as a thing unknown to him, but which he desires to know : Has the ship sailed '? It may be uncertain and a condition on which something else depends : If the ship have sailed. It may be uncertain depending on another uncertainty : If the wind be fair, the ship may sail. It may be a thing wished for : O that the ship would sail. The speaker may command the action : Sail the ship. He may treat it as an adjective or quality : He preferred a sailing ship to a steamer ; or as an entity or thing : Contrary winds delayed the sailing of the ship. Or he may strip the action of all these and show it in primi- tive nakedness : A freshening breeze soon made the ship sail. 442 English Grammar. These may not be generally called moods, but they illus- trate the kind of distinctions to which the term is applicable. There is no precise limit to their number. One authority very justly says : " As the whole order of the variation of words in the conjugation of a verb is merely arbitrary, those who invent them may arrange them into what order they please and call them by what names they may think most proper. But, however they may vary the names or external arrangement, this does not affect the things themselves." That is, such examples as those above given exist in our language and are beyond individual control ; but any one may classify them as he pleases. The same writer suggests as names of moods : Declarative or Indicative, the Potential, the Elective, the Determinative, the Compulsive, the Obliga- tive, the Subjunctive, the Optative, the Imperative, the Re- quisitive, the Precative, the Interrogative, and the Vocative ; 1 and perhaps ingenuity could double even that number. I am not aware that any one has seriously worked out a gram- mar with anything like so many moods. For practical purposes I shall confine myself to the number now acknowl- edged by the most learned expositors of the English lan- guage. Those are the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Im- perative, the Infinitive, and Participle, admitting at the same time that both the number and the names are quite arbitrary and might easily have been very different. .INDICATIVE. This includes all simple direct assertions : <r The sun shines " / " The day was warm " ; " They marched all night." The presence of the negative not makes no grammatical difference anywhere, beyond requiring the use of do with an infinitive form in all cases except with the verbs to be, to have, and the auxiliaries. " The sun did not shine " / " The day was not warm " ; " They did not march all night." But this change of arrangement is not held to alter mood, tense, person, or number. Under the indicative are included direct questions, which in like manner require the auxiliary do " Does the sun shine ? " Observe that, in assertions, the subject or agent is placed first, the verb next, 1 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2d ed., article " Grammar." The Conjugation of Verbs. 443 but that in questions the order is reversed. " The day is warm." " Is the day warm ? " But when an auxiliary is used, that alone is placed before the subject. This is one reason why some of the most profound grammarians hold the auxiliary in such case to be the real verb ; another is that it alone is inflected for person, number, mood, and tense. There are two ways of regarding a complex ex- pression. It may be taken collectively as a whole, or word by word. Language here finds a parallel in algebra, where the complex expression ^ (L _ ^-V _|_ ^ may be taken and handled as a unit, or regard may be had to the value of each single character. The first method is preferable for some purposes, the second for others. The indicative is used not only when the speaker expresses his own convictions, but also when he represents the thoughts and words of others, whether correct or incorrect. " Who do men say that the Son of man /"*** " But who say ye that I am ? " ' A supposition given as the ground of some other proposi- tion takes an indicative when the supposition is regarded as a fact and not a matter of doubt. "If thou accountedst it shame, lay it on me." SHAKESP. : " Taming of the Shrew," iv., 3. " If there is a class who, in contempt of its follies and disgust at its corruptions, have contracted towards Religion a repugnance which makes them overlook the fundamental verity contained in it ; so too, is there a class offended to such a degree by the de- structive criticisms men of science make on the religious tenets they regard as essential, that they have acquired a strong preju- dice against Science in general." HERBERT SPENCER : " First Principles," Chapter i. The above examples are introduced by the dubitative word if, but suppositions may be introduced by many other words, such as unless, though, whether, whoever, suppose. 1 Matt, xvi., 13-16, Revised Version. 444 English Grammar. " Shall we say then that whether it consists of an infinitely divisi- ble element or of ultimate units incapable of further division, its parts are everywhere in actual contact ? " SPENCER'S " First Principles," Chap. iii. The doctrine that suppositions take the indicative only when admitted as facts is more applicable to the language as it was than as it now is ; for this mood is a growing and ex- tending one, not limited now to certainties, but used in say- ing many things that were formerly expressed otherwise. " If it is the first cause, the conclusion is reached. If it is not the first cause, then by implication there must be a cause be- hind it ; which thus becomes the real cause of the effect." SPENCER'S " First Principles," Chap. ii. The writer does not take these two opposite suppositions to be both true, but both in doubt ; and had he lived a century earlier would probably have written be instead of is. In regard to forms, the indicative can scarcely be said to have any determined by the mood ; certainly none unless it be in the anomalous verb to be. Its variations are deter- mined by person, number, and tense ; not by mood ; and of these variations it preserves by far the largest remains. Of every verb always excepting the verb to be there is one simplest form, as, for example, go. This might be called the ground form, but it is found alike in all moods, not including the participle, unless changed for person, number, or tense. SUBJUNCTIVE. Statements, assertions, predications, as they are variously called, are not all put forth as positive facts ; but many of them are uttered hesitatingly as being suppositions, conditioned, or conditional. From the earliest ages that we know of certain forms of the verb have been assigned to these timid hesitating utterances. But as the hesi- tancy is of all degrees, and due to a great variety of causes, it has been found difficult or impossible to keep these dubi- tative forms of the verb clearly distinguished in form and application. In Sanskrit they are in a state of great confu- sion ; in Greek it is doubtful whether the difference between subjunctive and optative be one of mood or of tense ; Latin The Conjugation of Verbs. 445 has but one of these doubtful divisions, but the student knows that it covers a wide field, whose boundaries are hard to trace. In English it is the central difficulty of the lan- guage not the less difficult that only vestiges of it remain. It is often impossible to tell at present whether a verb in a given case be indicative or subjunctive. It rarely has a separate or special form of its own. That this was not so in the earlier ages of the language will appear on comparing the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and English of the verb find. i PERS. SING. FLU. PRESENT INDICATIVE finth-a find-e finth-is find-est finth-ith find-eth finth-am find-ath finth-ith find-ath finth-and find-ath find find-est find-s find find find PRETERIT INDICATIVE. i PERS. SING. fanth fand found 2 fanst fand-e found-est 3 f( fanth fand found i PLU. fanth-um fand found 2 fanth-uth fund-e found 3 H fanth-un fand found PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE. 1 PERS. SING. finth-au 2 " " finth-ais 3 " " finth-ai 1 " PLU. finth-aima 2 " " finth-aith 3 " " finth-aina PRETERIT SUBJUNCTIVE. 1 PER. SING, funth-jau ) 2 " " funth-eis Hunde 3 " " funth-i ) i " PLU. funth-eima } a " " funth-eith L fund-en 3 " " funth-eina found 446 English Grammar. The reader will not fail to notice the lengthening of the subjunctive vowels in Gothic, a feature common to that language, Greek, and Sanskrit. On this peculiarity Professor Ernst Curtius remarks : " The lengthening of the sound between the root and the per- sonal ending naturally and meaningly distinguishes the hesitating and conditional statement from the unconditional." ' It will also be seen by the Anglo-Saxon column that in course of five or six hundred years the six original forms had become reduced to two ; and that in another equal period there remained in English only one. Moreover, in the perterit tense that one is derived from the plural of the past indicative, never from the singular. In English, with one exception, the preterit subjunctive is identical with the preterit indicative. But in that exceptional instance, in which there are separate forms for singular and plural in the past indicative, the past subjunctive adopts the plural. We say : / zvas, he was, we were, they were, but if I were, if he were, if they were. The second person singular is excep- tional and peculiar, and offers the sole example in the lan- guage of a form found only in the subjunctive. Indie, thou wast, subj. if thou wert, which also is allied to the plurals. In point of form the subjunctive is the perfection of sim- plicity ; the intricacy is all in using it. The first peculiarity that I shall mention is a shifting verschiebung as the Ger- mans call it of the tenses. The present is not so much a present as a future ; what has been called the preterit is present in effect ; and what is pluperfect in form is simply past or preterit in its application. In the following illus- tration let the words, yesterday, etc., show the real time. Before yesterday Yesterday To-day To-morrow Ind. It had rained It rained It rains It will rain Sub. If it had rained If it rained If it rain These expressions may be further expanded. If it had rained yesterday, there would be less dust now. If it rained now we should get wet. If it rain to-morrow, we will stay indoors. 1 " History of Greece," Chap, i. 77ie Conjugation of Verbs. 447 It is not necessary to say : " If it should rain " ; for, " If it rain," serves the purpose quite as well ; and it would be impossible to say whether the longer expression were in- dicative or subjunctive. Expressions like : " If he shall," " If it shall," are admissible, and often met with ; but I can- not think of a case where they are necessary. On the other hand, "If he will" does serve a useful purpose, as: "We will give him an equal share in the venture, if he will accept it." But in such case will retains its sense of the volition " if he be willing to accept it." Then turning the sentence and stretching the analogy, we still retain the will, saying ; " We will give him an equal share with ourselves, if that will please him." Stretching the analogy still farther and beyond the limit of intelligent volition, we go on to say such things as this : " Immerse these eggs in melted paraffine, and see if that will preserve them." In fact we employ the word wherever there is a desirable purpose of doubtful attainment. We cannot be sure in such cases whether will is indicative or subjunctive. I have said that in the subjunctive the tense that is pres- ent in form is generally future in its reference, but even the apparently past but really present tense is often shifted so far that its reference is future. We may inquire of one going out in a boat : " What would you do if a storm arose ? " " To turn the rein were sin and shame, To fight -were deadly peril ; What would you do now, Roland Cheyne, Were ye Glenallan's Earl ? " SCOTT : " The Antiquary," Chap. 40. It would be more in accordance with modern usage to say in the above samples ; " should arise " and " would be " ; but such a change would not alter mood, tense, or sense. It would be merely substituting a compound verbal expres- sion for a simple one. In complex verbal expressions it is only the auxiliary that is varied to distinguish mood, tense, person, or number. Of these have and be are followed by the participle ; the others take the infinitive. I will sing, thou didst sing, they might sing. 448 English Grammar. I am surprised ; thou mightest have been surprised ; they will be surprised. This circumstance goes to confirm the view of those who hold that, so far as grammar goes, the auxiliary is, in these cases, the real verb. It is also inconsistent with the exist- ence of a separate mood that used to be called the potential ; that is the mood which expressed possibilities. It was made by the aid of several auxiliaries may, can, and sometimes must, will, and shall. It was never claimed that " I shall write " belonged to this mood. That was called future in- dicative ; but " I should write " was so claimed. In a pre- tentious grammar now before me that is called the past tense of the potential mode ; but it is not a past tense, in fact, and never relates to past time. "If I &z</pen, ink, and paper, I should write now." Had is here the past subjunctive of have, should is the same of shall, but, as already shown, past subjunctives refer to the present or the future. May was held to be the typi- cal sign of the potential mood, but might is the past sub- junctive oi-may. If, then, "I may write" were present potential, "I might write" would be the subjunctive mood of the potential mood, which I suppose no one claims. The field occupied by the subjunctive is so large and ir- regular that it is difficult to define its limits or designate its several portions. The problem is complicated by the fact that such occupancy is only a kind of tenancy in common, there are so many cases in which some other mood might be put in its place. In the examples which are now to follow I shall give under each subdivision those that contain a sub- junctive, and then per contra others of the same character, except that a different mood is used. The subjunctive is used in expressing suppositions and results depending on supposed conditions. A conditional sentence may be roughly defined as a sentence whereof one half is a condition on which the other half depends. Take this as a typical example : The Conjugation of Verbs. 449 " If Mr. Serious, the clergyman, calls, say I am gone to the great meeting at Exeter Hall." BULWER : " Money," 3, 2. The call by Mr. Serious is the condition on which the answer depends. If he call, he is to be answered as directed ; if he call not, there can be no answer. Such a supposition, while still retaining the same words, may take three different forms grammatically, thus : If it rains, If it rain, If it rained (or should rain). The first is indicative present, and admits the supposition as correct. The second is subjunctive present, with usually a future reference, and indicates a mental atti- tude of unbiassed uncertainty. The third is preterit subjunc- tive, but never referring to past time, and means that the supposition is untenable. The words might indeed be preterit indicative. That is only to be determined by the sense of the context. These three kinds of suppositions may be further illustrated by adding to each, in brackets, the remainder of a suitable sentence. If it rains (or is raining) [as you say it is, we had better stay in]. If it rain [to-morrow, which we have no means of knowing, it will be bad for the meeting in the grove]. If it rained (or were raining) [the dust would not be flying, as you see it is]. The second is very generally followed by a future in the apodosis, and the third by the same mood and tense which is in the protasis. Again I may remind the reader that writers and speakers have been unable or unwilling to adhere to any precise rule on the subject. " It is one of the best bonds, bothe of chastity and obedience in the wife, if she think her husband wise, which she will never do if she find\mn. jealous." BACON : " Essay" viii. " she deserts thee not if thou Dismiss not her, when most thou needst her nigh." " Paradise Lost," 8, 563. 450 English Grammar. " But if no faithless action stain Thy love and constant word, I '11 make thee famous by my pen, And glorious by my sword." MARQUIS OF MONTROSE. " If solitude succeed to grief, Release from pain is slight relief." BYRON : " Giaour." " If it were done, when 't is done then 't were well It were done quickly." SHAKES?.: " Macbeth," i, 7. " If it were so, There now would be no Venice." BYRON : " The Two Foscari." " Were matter thus absolutely solid, it would be what it is not absolutely incompressible." SPENCER : " First Principles," Chap. iii. And, generally written an, and having the value of if, was quite common in Middle English. " Now well were I an it so were." " Townley Mysteries." Hence it was said : " If ifs and an's were pots and pans, There 'd be no need of tinkers." It is now confined to poetry and some provincial dialects. "An 'f were not for thy hoary beard, Such hand as Marmion's had not spared To cleave the Douglas dead." SCOTT : " Marmion," Canto 6. If is often omitted, especially in poetry, before have, be, and the auxiliaries. The verb is then placed before its sub- ject. " were I quiet earth, That were no evil." BYROX : " Cain." The Conjugation of Verbs. 451 " Society, friendship, and love, Divinely bestowed upon man ; O, had I the wings of a dove, How soon would I taste you again ! " COWPER : " Selkirk." " And should my youth, as youth is apt, I know, Some harshness show, All vain asperities, I, day by day, Would wear away." SOUTHEY : " Holly Tree." Although the most common, if is not the only word used to introduce a supposition. There are many others, among which are, although, unless, except, provided, admit, grant, sup- pose, so, whether. Many of these may also take the conjunc- tion that after them. Sometimes there is no special formula. The choice between indicative and subjunctive depends essentially on the question whether we conceive ourselve to be dealing with a fact or with a supposed possibility. " Though he heap up silver as the clay, and prepare raiment as the dust." JOB xxvii., 16. " And oft though Wisdom wake, Suspicion sleeps At Wisdom's gate." " Paradise Lost," iii., 686. " And he said, Whether they be come out for peace take them alive ; or whether they be come out for war, take them alive." i KINGS xx., 1 8. " Whether he spin poor couplets into plays, Or damn the dead with purgatorial praise, His style in youth or age is still the same." BYRON : " English Bards." " Whether this be or be not implied." J. S. MILL : " Logic," Chap. 8. " The soul which hath touched any such * * * shall not eat of the holy things, unless he wash his flesh with water." LEVIT. xxii., 6. 452 English Grammar. " The events * * * must be very imperfectly understood unless the plot of the preceding acts be well understood." MACAULAY : " Hist, of Eng.," Chap. i. " Except thou take away the blind and the lame, thou shalt not come in hither." 2 SAMUEL v., 6. " And this will I venture my poor gentleman-like carcase to perform, provided there be no treason practised upon us." BEN JONSON : " Every Man in his Hum.," iv., 5. " Suppose 't were Portius, could you blame my choice ? " ADDISON : " Cato," i., 6. " Or suppose Bishop Philpotts requested it of him as a favor." LEIGH HUNT : " Table Talk." " Perhaps it had been better to stand by mere Prussian and German merit, native to the soil." CARLYLE : " Fred'k the Great." " So I were out of prison and kept Sheepe, I should be as merry as the day is long." SHAKESP.: " King John," iv., 2. " Why (Cosine) were thou Regent of the world, It were a shame to let this land by lease." SHAKESP.: " Richard II.," ii., 2. " Be it scroll or be it book, Into it, knight, thou must not look." SCOTT. But per contra. (> If thou more murmur 'st, I will rend an Oake And peg thee in his knotty entrailes." SHAKESP. : " Tempest," i., 2. "And //thou loiter est longer, all will fall away." COLERIDGE: " Piccol.," i., 10. " Oh ! if your tears are given to care, If real woe disturbs your peace, Come to my bosom." THOMAS MOORE. " I suppose you would aim at him best of all if he was out of sight.' SHERIDAN : " Rivals," v., 2. The Conjugation of Verbs. 453 " Dr. Marshall Hall * * * remarked that // the foot of a frog -was pinched, the animal withdrew the limb." London Quarterly, Jany., 1855. " The business of the pension office would be seriously imped- ed, even if the health of the clerks was not impaired." "Report of Postmaster General, Nov. 27, 1889." " Except thou hadst hasted and come to meet me, surely there had been no man left to Nabal by the morning light." i SAM. xxv., 34. " Unless thou hadst spoken, surely then in the morning the people had gone up every one from following his brother." 2 SAM. ii., 27. "Thogh with their high wrongs I am strook to the quick, Yet, with my nobler reason, gainst my furie, Do I take part." SHAKESP.: " Tempest," v., i. "Tho* no Exchecquer it commands, 'tis wealth, And tho' it wears no ribband, 'fis renown." YOUNG : " Night Thoughts," vi., 337. " Alike in ignorance, his reason such, Whether he thinks too little or too much." POPE : " Essay on Man," ii., n. " Whether thy muse most lamentably tells What merry sounds proceed from Oxford bells, Or, still in bells delighting, finds a friend In every chime that jingles from Ostend." BYRON : " English Bards." " The mere delight in combining ideas suffices them ; provided the deductions are logical, they seem almost indifferent to their truth." G. LEWES.' Indicative and subjunctive may be found in the same sentence. " Whether it be owing to such poetical associations * * * or whether there is, as it were, a sympathetic revival." IRVING : " Braceb ridge Hall." 1 Quoted from Matzner. 454 English Grammar. The subjunctive is found with indefinite pronouns and adverbs of time, place, and manner whoever, whatever, wherever, whenever, however, etc. when there is an element of uncertainty or conjecture in the clause. " If thou pardon whosoever pray, More sinnes for this forgiueness prosper may." SHAKESP.: " Richard II.," v., 3. "But he that troubleth you shall bear his judgment, whosoever he be" GAL. v., 10. " Drede ay God where so thou be" " Townley Mysteries." " He hath always 3 wifes with him, where that ever he be" SIR JOHN MAUNDEVILLE. " Howe'er the world go, I '11 make sure for one." MARLOWE : " Jew of Malta," i., i. " Whatsoever plague, whatsoever sickness there be" 2 KINGS viii., 37. Closely related to these examples are indefinite designa- tions of time, after which the subjunctive was formerly used much more than it is now. " Now quiet Soule, depart when Heauen please." SHAKES?.: i " Henry VI.," iii., 2. " Why, at any time when it please you, I shall be ready to dis- course to you all I know." BEN JONSON : " Every Man in his Humour." " before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice." MATT. xxvi., 34. " Ere thou goe, give up thy Staffe." SHAKESP.: 2 " Henry VI.," ii., 3. " I saw, alas ! some dread event impend, Ere to the main this morning sun descend" POPE : " Rape of the Lock," i. " What billows, what gales is she fated to prove, Ere she sleep in the lee of the land that I love ! " TOM MOORE. The Conjugation of Verbs. 455 " The tree will wither long before \\.fall." BYRON : " Childe Harold," in., 32. Per contra. " Therefore thou art inexcusable, O man, whosoever thou art that judgest." ROMANS ii., i. " The Lord thy God is with thee whithersoever thou #/." JOSHUA i., 9. " Who ere helps thee, 't is thou that must help me." SHAKESP. : i " Henry VI.," i., 2. " Who euer wins, on that side shall I lose." SHAKESP. : " King John," ii., i. " Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report * * * think on these things." PHIL, iv., 8. A considerable number of adjectival expressions, like it is good, well, better, fitting, desirable enough, hard, sad, take after the conjunction that, a subjunctive. " It is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth." LAM. iii., 27. This could have been as well expressed : " It is good for a man to bear the yoke in his youth," which is a much more common form of expression. The subjunctive here takes the place of an infinitive. The last half of the sentence might be regarded collectively as a sub- stantive ; and the whole might take this form : Bearing the yoke in his youth is good for a man. Hence this use of the subjunctive might be said to be as a substitute for substantive clauses. " it is better that thou succour us out of the city." 2 SAM. xviii., 3. " is it fit this souldier keepe his oath ? " SHAKESP. : " Henry V.," iv., 7. 456 English Grammar. " Therefore 't is meet Achilles meet not Hector." SHAKESP. : " Troyl. and Cressida." " In such a time as this it is not meet That every nice offence should meet his Comment." " Julius Caesar," iv., 2. " 'T is better that the Enemie seeke vs." Id., iv., 3. " 'T is necessary that be looked into." MARLOWE : " Jew of Malta," i., 2. The subjunctive is largely used to express indirectly the effect of causing or preventing. Here is an example of the direct way of expressing it. " And he straitly charged them to tell no man." Mark v., 43 ; and here an example of the indirect : " I charge you * * * that ye stir not up nor awake my love till he please." Canticles ii., 7. The words of causing and preventing are many and various, including among others : cause, command, provide, see, take care, beseech, entreat, exhort, forbid ; to which maybe added any words of hindering or fearing followed by lest. In the expressions now under consideration the verb is usually followed by that or lest, but that is sometimes omitted for sake of brevity. " he spake and commanded that they should heat the furnace." DANIEL iii., 19. " He commandeth * * * that they return from iniquity." JOB xxxvi., TO. " Beware tJiat thoufass not such a place." 2 KINGS ii., 9. "Beware lest Hezekiah persuade you." ISAIAH xxxvi., 18. " Then give me leave, that I may turne the key, That no one enter, till my tale be done." SHAKESP. : " Richard II.," iv., 3. The subjunctive is used to express very earnest wish or desire : " O that I were as in months past, as in the days when God preserved me." JOB xxix., 3. TTte Conjugation of Verbs. 457 " In the morning thou shalt say, Would God it were even ! and in the even thou shalt say, Would God it were morning ! " DEUT. xxviii., 67. " Oh, that I were a Mockerie King of Snow, Standing before the Sunne of Bullingbrooke, To melt my selfe away in Water-drops." SHAKESP. : " Richard II.," iv., i. " Would thou wert cleane enough To spit upon." SHAKESP. : " Timon of Athens." Per contra. " I wish from the bottom of my heart, this unnatural struggle was over." COOPER : " Spy," i. The subjunctive mood is becoming less used than for- merly, and may in time pass away entirely, like so much of the inflectional system that once belonged to the language. As an illustration of the change that is going on, I observe that the recent revisers of the New Testament have turned 23 subjunctives into indicatives in the Epistle to the Romans alone, omitting the considerable number not easily distin- guished. IMPERATIVE. The imperative is so named from its fre- quent use in direct commands. But, as the form of expres- sion is the same, the name is extended to requests and prayers, even the most humble " Forgive me, I implore." As to its form, it is in English, merely the ground-form of the verb. Hence Dr. Latham, Dr. Morris, and others main- tain that it is not properly a mood, as it has no peculiar form to itself. The imperative addressed to a single person is very generally, but not universally, the shortest and simplest form that the verb can assume. The Latin impera- tives, ij es, die, fac, fer, are familiar examples. Although reduced to its lowest terms in modern English, the impera- tive had once a goodly array of endings for the first, second, and third persons, singular, dual, and plural numbers ; and it furnishes one of the best examples of the gradual dis- appearance of inflections. 458 English Grammar. SANSKRIT I vad-ani Sing. \ 2 vad-a Xey-s leg-e parl-e qith ( 3 vad-a-tu Xsy-s-TKi leg-i-to LATIN FRENCH GOTHIC SAXON ENGLISH \ secg-e ( i vad-ava Dual < 2 vad-a-tam Xey-E-rov ( 3 vad-a-tam \E.y--TK>Y qith-aits !say ( i vad-ama parl-ons qith-am Plur. -\ 2 vad-a-ta hey-s-rs leg-i-te parl-ez qith-ith secg-ath ( 3 vad-antu hey-ov-rcav leg-unto / The plural form of the imperative, ending in -ath, -etk, or ith for the vowel was quite unstable continued down to within a dozen years of the discovery of America. " Ne taketh of my word no displeasaunce, Thinketh that ye ben set in governynges Of lordes' doughtres * * * Kepeth wel tho that ye undertake. ***** And taketh keep of that that I schal sayn." CHAUCER : " Tale of the Doctor of Phisik." As inflections gradually disappeared, so far as clearness of expression is concerned, their places were effectually filled by the auxiliary let and constant recourse to pronouns. The former supplied all that was peculiar in the imperative mood ; the latter distinguished person and number. There was no loss of intelligibility, but there was a loss of brevity, and consequently of force. We now use let with the first and third persons of both numbers. " Let me die the death of the righteous," said the eastern seer. " Let my boy bishop fret his fill." SCOTT : " Marmion." We have already seen that let originally meant permit, a meaning which it often has yet in various degrees. Its re- duction from an independent verb to a mere sign of a mood began in Anglo-Saxon ; but it was used as an auxiliary The Conjugation of Verbs. 459 sparingly before the fifteenth century. Considered by itself, and apart from the verb that follows it, the auxiliary let is imperative. In the once familiar words, " Thy kingdom come" of what mood is come ? That is a question I cannot answer ; but I can adduce a few facts that may contribute to a better understanding of it. First. Authorities are not agreed. Most writers on English Grammar, who have noticed the point at all, hold that verbs so situated are imperative ; but the most learned think otherwise. Matzner regards them as subjunctive; Professor Whitney calls them optative subjunctives? Second. As naming is not intended to change their form, position, or force, for the practical purpose of speaking and writing good English, it is not of the slightest importance what they are called. Third. They do not result from dropping may, still less from an elision of let. In the particular instance given, we might, indeed, say : " May thy kingdom come " ; or, " Let thy kingdom come " ; but it will be shown presently that such expressions do not originate in that way. Moreover, in many instances such an explanation would be inad- missible, thus : " ' Submit we then to force,' said Clare." SCOTT : " Marmion," vi., 32. This is not an apocopated substitute for " May submit we," still less for " Let submit we " ; and there are hundreds of such examples to be found. Owing to the great scarcity of verbal forms in English, the simple ground-form of the verb is extensively used. It is the form alike of the subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and in part of the indicative. The form, therefore, decides nothing, but all agree substantially that in the phrases under consideration the verb is either subjunctive or imperative. But in the earlier ages of the language there were forms that 1 " Essentials of English Grammar," page 233. 460 English Grammar. could be distinguished. Anglo-Saxon had two forms of the imperative, as we have seen, one for the singular and one for the plural ; but both were limited to the second person. We can suppose that these, for want of others, might have been extended to the first and third persons; but were they? The subjunctive had also separate forms for the singular and the plural. In the singular the two moods were often alike, and therefore ambiguous ; in the plural they were always unlike. Now, in the class of phrases in question the verb always agreed with forms of the subjunctive known to exist ; they never agreed with known imperative forms where the two moods differed. So far, then, as they were distinguish- able they were subjunctive. Shortened, indistinguishable forms, however, were often used ; for the old language was written with great irregularity. A common substitute for the first person plural imperative was uton, utan, utun, which must be construed as a plural subjunctive. It was used pre- cisely as we now use " let us" and was followed by an infin- itive, such as gan, wyrcan, seglian let us go, make, sail, etc. The third person plural was the subjunctive ending in -in, -en, or -on. The following examples will show how the places of the imperatives of the first and third persons were sup- plied in the earlier ages, and also that the general use of let is comparatively modern. It is not necessary to introduce the Gothic, which also employed the subjunctive as a sub- stitute for the imperative, even when there was no percep- tible need. The examples are from the Anglo-Saxon Gospels, followed by the versions of Wycliffe and Tyndale and the authorized version. Uton wyrcan her threo earthung-stowa, Make we here thre tabernaclis, Let vs make iij tabernacles, Let us make three tabernacles. MARK ix., 5. Utonfaran to Bethleem, Passe we ouer til to Bedleem, Let vs goo even vnto Bethleem, Let us now go even unto Bethlehem. LUKE ii., 15. The Conjugation of Verbs. 461 Fleon thonne to rmintum tha the in ludea-lande synt, Thanne thei that be in Judee, fie to mounteynes, Then let them whych be in Jury, flye into the mountaynes, Then let them which be in Judeayfor into the mountains. MATT, xxiv., 16. hig hlyston him, heere thei hem, left them heare them, let them hear them. LUKE xvi., 29. S$ he on rode dhangen, Be he crucified, Lett him be crucified, Z^/him be crucified. MATT, xxvii., 21. The subjunctive was even used for the second person imperative. Nellonge vesan svylce ledse liceteras. Be not, as the hypocrites. MATT, vi., 16. " Ne sweregen ge." (Swear ye not.) Laws of King Alfred. The same mode of expression continued while the old terminations were becoming more and more indistinct, sur- vived all distinctions of form, and may be found in the poetry of the present century. Sceawie we thes uncothe msen ur 3efon. Look we at these strange men, our foes. Old Eng. Homily, A.D. 1150. " Nu fusen we horn to ; & staercliche heom leggen on ; & wraken wunderliche ure cun & ure riche, & wreken thene muchele scome." " Now go we for them ; And stoutly them lay on ; And wondrously avenge Our kin and our kingdom, And avenge the mickle shame." LAVAMON, 1205. 462 English Grammar. " Ne lipne no wif to hire were ; ne were to his wyue. Beo vor him seolue vych man, the hwile he beoth alyue." (Trust no wife to her man, nor man unto his wife. Be each man for himself, the while he is alive.) "A Moral Ode," 1250. tl ffe that is Lord fortune be thy stereV' CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." "Laud we the Gods * * * Publish we this Peace To all our Subjects. Set we forward." SHAKESP.: " Cymbeline," v., 5. " No man eat fruit of thee hereafter for ever." MARK xi., 14. " and now be the welkin split with vivats." CARLYLE : " French Revolution," viii., 12. But while it is evident enough that the verb in such ex- pressions was originally subjunctive, and is not a remnant left by dropping may or let, it is not equally clear that it is still subjunctive. There are who adhere to various modifi- cations of the doctrine that words never change. Horne Tooke held that such little words as and, but, lest, since, though, yet, were originally verbs, and still are verbs. Dr. Latham inclines to call him, them, and whom dative cases, because they once were such, 1 while he admits that in present use the case is generally what is called accusative or objective. But few will go such lengths. The form is too simple and common to distinguish the mood ; and the construction is precisely that of an imperative, if we had one applicable to the first and third persons. Probably most persons who give the point a thought believe that they are using imperatives, and intend to do so by extending them beyond their earlier limits, a thing that in one way or other is done with words every day. If an ardent orator exclaims, " Perish the thought ! " intending to use an imperative mood, may it not be imperative ? The sum of the matter 1 " English Language," p. 290. The Conjugation of Verbs. 463 is that the origin is subjunctive, the construction imperative the form indistinguishable, the name unimportant. INFINITIVE. In point of form the infinitive is the simple, unchanged root-form of the verb. The term " infinitive mood " only denotes the particular relation of the verb to the other words in the sentence. It is called infinitive when it follows an auxiliary (except ought] bid, make, need and verbs of perception, like see, hear, feel they may come, they made him promise, they bade him run, you need not fear, we saw the moon rise, heard the owls hoot, and felt the night winds blow . We may be allowed for the present to call this the primary infinitive. When preceded by the little word to we may in like manner call it the secondary infinitive. Neither of them has any connection with infinity. The primary in- finitive was once much more extensively used than now. The number of words that it may follow is decreasing. Formerly it might be found after beg, begin, behoove, boot, cJtarge, cause, command, deign, desire, forbid, force, go, intend, lie, entreat, persuade, pray, set, teach, and wish. A few words are in the transition state dare, need, please and are fol- lowed sometimes by the primary and sometimes by the secondary infinitive. Naturally the primitive is used oftener in poetry than in prose. Philologists are much inclined to call the infinitive a verbal noun, not so much because it is now a noun which it is only exceptionally as because they hold that it was once a noun " lang syne Lord kens how lang." It has been found that Sanskrit in its earlier stages had about a dozen ways of form- ing words expressing the action of verbs, but having in some of their relations the effect of nouns. In course of time only one of them survived, ending in -tu or -turn, and correspond- ing to the Latin supines with the same terminations. Nouns expressing the actions of verbs were formed in a variety of ways in Greek and Latin, several of which have come over into English, often in a mutilated form. Thus we have from Greek anatomy, analy-jw, baptise, apha-sta, cycloped-z#, poe-.?// from Latin iav-or, cens-us, comple-fwn, conjecture, But such words are nouns and nothing else, 464 English Grammar. either in the original languages or in English. Latin had, indeed, two real hybrids, half noun and half verb ; and it will be seen presently that we have words of this mixed character. The Greek and Latin infinitives were employed as nouns only exceptionally, as we sometimes speak of the ups and downs, the whereabouts, the why, and the sweet by and by. There are no considerable classes of constant verbal nouns native to English. There are a very few scattered ones, like birth, stealth, speech, which are exclusively nouns, and perform no duty as verbs. This may be made clearer by comparing believe and belief : Some still believe in witchcraft, but we do not share their belief. The former is wholly a verb, the latter a noun, and neither can be used in place of the other. Yet there might be words partly both nouns on the left side and verbs on the right. Are infinitives of that class ? Nouns have certain grammati- cal characteristics. They may be limited by preceding ad- jectives or pronouns, affected by prepositions or transitive verbs, or they may take the plural form. None of this is true of infinitives, but all applies to a class of verbal nouns ending in -ing, presently to be considered. Contrast earn, or to earn, with earning. " They live upon the scanty earnings of the shop." We do not make a plural of earn, or to earn, nor place before it either of the three words that immediately precede earn- ings. There is only one preposition, to, that can precede an infinitive. It is then either abortive and undeveloped, or almost entirely atrophied on one side, while its activity on the other, the verbal side, is unimpaired : " They were unable to conceal him" If, notwithstanding these marked differences between the infinitive and all other nouns, any one still chooses to call it a noun, there is probably no court that will grant an injunc- tion to restrain him. Infinitives are indeed used as nouns, but only exceptionally, and as almost any other words might The Conjugation of Verbs. 465 be. The primary is the rarest, and is now confined to poetry, and following such words as rather, better, best : " Better dwell in the midst of alarms Than reign in this horrible place." COWPER. The secondary infinitive used as a noun is more common : " For to me to live is Christ, and to die is gain. * * * Never- theless to abide in the flesh is more needful for you." PHIL, i., 21. " To dye, to sleepe, To sleepe, perchance to Dreame : I there 's the rub." SHAKESP. : " Hamlet." Of this infinitive with to Professor Earle says : " here we perceive that an opportunity offers itself to explain philologically one of the most peculiar of the phenomena of the English language. That which we call the English infinitive verb, such as to live, to die, is quite a modern thing, and is charac- teristic of English as opposed to Saxon. The question, in pres- ence of such a new phenomenon, is naturally raised Whence this form of the infinitive verb ? We did not borrow it, for it is not French nor Latin ; we did not inherit it, for it is not Saxon. How did it rise, and what gave occasion to it ? " These remarks are not applied, or applicable, to cases in which to is still significant and equivalent to unto, for, for the purpose of, etc. Such a form of expression is common to Latin and the languages derived from it, and to all the Teu- tonic tongues. The transition, which appears to Professor Earle so remarkable, to phrases in which to is a mere dumb sign, as in the words of Saint Paul and of Hamlet quoted above, seems to me easy and natural only a single illustra- tion of that extension of words and phrases which is going on all the time. It seems too to have been begun at a very early period. At least one example can be found in the scanty remains of Gothic literature. The sons of Zebedee had asked Jesus to promise them the foremost positions in 466 English Grammar. the expected new kingdom. The conclusion of his reply, as rendered by Ulfilas, was : " Ith thata du sitan af taihswon meinai uiththau af hleidumein nist mein du giban" (But that to sit on my right hand or on my left is not mine to give.} MARK x., 40. In the fourth century, then, to sit could be used so com- pletely as a noun in the nominative case that it might take the pronoun that before it, a greater liberty than English admits of now. This may have been due to Greek influence. This secondary infinitive was well preserved in the Norse or Icelandic. The following passage is from the so-called Elder Edda (Havamdl 152), date uncertain : " That kann ek it niunda, ef mik nauthr um stendr. at biarga fari minu d floti." (This ninth thing I know, When dangers surround me, To keep my course safely at sea. 1 ) Two more examples, taken from Egils Saga (thirteenth century), may suffice a : " Var that sithr hans at Hsa drdegiss." (It was his habit to rise early.) Page 4. " That thotti fodur meinum sigr, at deyia i konungdomi med saemd." (To die a king, with honor, seemed to my father a victory.) Page 8. If, then, a source for the secondary infinitive be wanted, we may naturally look to the Scandinavian settlements in the north and east of England. In the Teutonic tongues the infinitives originally ended in -an. In the Gothic this was invariable. In A.-S. it often took the form -on, and it had a vestige of inflection as a 1 Saemundar Edda. Paderborn, 1876. 8 Egils Saga. Havnise, MDCCCIX. The Conjugation of Verbs. 467 noun a dative singular ending in -nne, always preceded by to. " Ac hwi ferde ge to seonne ? " (But what went ye to see ?) LUKE vii., 25. This might be otherwise expressed : for the purpose of seeing. "manega witegan and rihtwise gewilnudon tha thing to geseonne the ge gesoth." (many prophets and righteous men have desired to see those things that ye see.) MATT, xiii., 17. " Hit is sceame to tellane, ac hit thuhte him nan sceame to donne" (It is a shame to tell, but it seemed no shame to him to do.) Peterborough Chronicle. The secondary infinitive is here equal to in and a verbal noun in telling, in doing. In the case of Peter Pindar's razors, which were good to sell, not to cut, the usefulness was for selling and not for cutting. There is no doubt that the to was once significant, and meant what we now usually express by to or for ; but that meaning gradually faded out, so that now it seldom has any that is appreciable. It has become a mere earmark of the infinitive mood, and another preposition is sometimes placed before it as if itself were none. " But what went ye out/<?r to see 1 " MATT, xi., 8. The terminations -an, -on, -enn, -enne, began to be clipped off so early as the twelfth century, the sliding scale being sing-an, sing-en, sing-e, sing. The old endings may be said to have fairly disappeared by the middle of the fifteenth century, to be only rarely seen again in the affected archaism of poetry. " No longer can she now her shrieks command ; And hardly she forbears, through awful fear, To rushen forth, and with presumptuous hand, To stay harsh justice in his mid career." SHENSTONE : " Schoolmistress." 468 English Grammar. PARTICIPLES. In the infinitive mood the verb is shaded off into a noun ; in the participle it becomes an adjective. We have two participles in English, but could find use for several more. Greek has ten or more, which are among the beauties of that wonderful language. We supply the defect in part by such composite phrases as having written, having been written, being on the point of writing, having been intend- ing to write, for the purpose of writing, with the intention of writing. Our first participle always ends in -ing ; the second gen- erally ending in -en or -ed, takes the various forms exhibited on pages 353-367. The two are contrasted in three ways. The first relates to the present, the second to the past ; the first is active, the second passive ; the first expresses what is going on and unfinished, the second what is ended. It is common to call them the present participle and the past participle. In most of the Aryan languages the present participle originally ended in -nt or -nd, often somewhat disguised by additional terminations indicating number, gender, and case. In this respect early English was no exception. " they ben shapen into briddes, Swimm<?#</ upon the wawe amiddes, And whon she sigh her lord \\vend, In likeness of a bird swimmend." GOWER : " Ceix and Alcaeon." The termination -nd in time gave place to -ng, one of the most considerable grammatical changes in our language since the Norman Conquest. This took place from 1200 to 1400; the successive steps were -ande or -ende, -inde, -inge, -ing. Chaucer used both forms ; oftenest -ing. The change came from the South, and the old form survived long in Scotland. " With dowbyll clethyng frome the cald, Eito^and drynka/w? quhen thay wald." SIR DAVID LINDESAY. Before offering any explanation of this change, I wish to call attention to four grammatically different uses of the The Conjugation of Verbs. 469 verbals ending in -ing. In running water and singing birds they are adjectives, as such are placed before the nouns which they accompany, and they express no action. In "The birds are singing, the stars are shining" they are true participles, expressing actions as verbs, but holding the place of adjectives in the sentence quite as much as if we should say : " The birds are beautiful ; the stars are bright." Again, in the expressions, " philosophical writings, a hall for dancing" we have nouns which admit of the plural form. Lastly, there is a usage more difficult to classify. He escaped by breaking a window. The true participle is a hybrid between a verb and adjective, but this is half a verb and half a noun. Like a noun it takes a preposition by before it ; or may take a possessive pro- noun, and, like a verb, it is followed by the object a window. It is Janus-faced, a noun on the one side and a verb on the other. Such a word is called in Latin Grammar a gerund. It differs from a verbal noun in taking an object after it. The preposition before it is not a constant or essential char- acteristic. He escaped by the opening of a window. Here opening is only a verbal noun. It may be preceded by the article or a pronoun, and it takes no object after it. Its place may be taken by a word that makes no pretence to being a verb, when there happens to be one suitable. " I waive the quantum o' the sin, The hazard of concealing" BURNS. Nothing but the requirements of rhyme prevents concealment from doing quite as well. Of these four tolerably distinct uses of the so-called par- ticiple the first two present no difficulty. The other two were not originally participles ; the only question is whether they had one or two separate origins. To go no farther back, the Anglo-Saxon had a class of nouns derived from verbs and ending in -ung less frequently -ing. A few of 47 English Grammar. them have reached our time almost unchanged, such as cleansing, earning, fasting, fostering, fighting, greeting, learn- ing. In time the endings of all that survived of them were reduced to -ing, and it became the practice to form one from every verb as occasion required. We have here one source of verbals in -ing employed as nouns. We have also seen that the infinitive, ending in -an, -enne, -en was sometimes used as a noun ; yet, if it were from a transitive verb, it was still a verb on one side. " and me nam rapes and caste in to him for to dra^en him ut of thisse putte. Ah his licome wes se swithe feble, thet he ne mihte itholie the herdness of the rapes, tha sende me clathes ut of thes Kinges huse for to bi-winden the rapes." (And they took ropes and threw them in to him for to draw him out of this pit. But his body was so very feeble that he could not bear the hardness of the ropes ; then they sent cloths out of the King's house for to bewind the ropes.} " Old English Homily," A.D. 1200. This again shows how a gerundial use might have arisen. There were thus the verbal noun ending in -ing, and the in- finitive in -en, which might easily be mistaken for each other. We hear the two sounds assimilated every day. Professor Earle says that in the fifteenth century the terminations -yn and -yng were often interchanged ; and he cites a passage from the preface to Caxton's " Game of Chess," A.D. 1474 : " Beseeching of them that this litel werke shal see here or rede to haue me for excused for the rude & symple makyng and reducyn into our englisshe." The victory at last remained with -ing, an evidence of care like that of the worthy, casing Griff /w^ who brings chick/w^r to Bostfftg*. The participle had begun to adopt the -ing as early as Layamon, about 1204 ; and so it comes to pass that in our time we have three classes of words originally distinct, melted into one. It is not always possible now to say to which group a given word is most nearly related. The diffi- culty is not lessened by the circumstance that experts are The Conjugation of Verbs. 471 not agreed. Some of the combinations, a few examples of which here follow, are curious, and their analysis is more difficult and uncertain than important. There was a large sum of money owing to him. " how shall I reconcile your temper with having made so strange a choice ? " COLLEY GIBBER : " Careless Husband." Kington Oliphant cites from the " Lives of the Norths " : " he feared the being made infamous " ; and from Miss Burney's " Cecilia " he quotes : " there was no avoiding asking him" " the whig party were in possession of bestowing all places both of the state and of literature." HUME : " Hist of Eng.," i., ix. These examples, I think, are all of a gerundial character, but, as they stand, are not good models for imitation. The second participle, called indifferently the past parti- ciple and the passive participle, has pretty well escaped entangling combinations except in forming the compound tenses, which have been considered already, page 353. It may be used as an adjective hewn timber, ploughed land, printed documents, or as a pure participle the field is ploughed. Out of its use as an adjective have grown a swarm of imitations left-handed, blue-eyed, quick-witted, weak-kneed, four-wheeled, which some treat as participles from verbs that never existed. I regard them as rather strained im- itations of such words as saddled, booted, gowned, crowned, plumed, that is, furnished with saddle, boots, gown, etc. This participle is never a noun except as any adjective may occasionally be used as such. If we say, " the afflicted" " the vanquished" we still oftener speak of the old and the young, the rich and \.\\e poor. Participles are used to form clauses that are but loosely hung on the main thread of our discourse. " Not long after the Spanish general, conceiving that his royal captive was sufficiently humbled, expressed his willingness that he should return, if he inclined, to his own palace." PRESCOTT. 472 English Grammar. These attendant clauses are sometimes still further de- tached. " And supper being ended, the devil having put it into the heart of Judas Iscariot, Simon's son, to betray him * * * he riseth from supper." JOHN xiii., 2. When the subject of the participle is thus entirely different from the main subject or actor in the sentence, the partici- pial clause is sometimes called the case absolute. These participial clauses appear to be imitations of the Latin, in which they are very common. THE PASSIVE VOICE. Thus far I have treated only of the active side of verbs ; but when the action takes effect upon any person or thing there is a passive side and the order of statement may be reversed. If the Indian kills a deer, then also a deer is killed by the Indian. The passive voice consists of some form of the verb to be placed before the passive participle. The verb admits of all the variation of which it is anywhere susceptible, but the participle remains always unchanged. Take every form of the verb to be and place after it a pas- sive participle and you have a complete conjugation of the passive voice. We have not participles enough, and are put to very awk- ward shifts for want of them. The passive participle repre- sents everything as done and finished. It admits of no de- grees and no progress. We can say that the house is built, which means that it is up at least, and approximately fin- ished ; but we have no corresponding expression to show that it is in progress. To meet this want there have been two kinds of make-shifts. The most persistent of these has been the verbal noun ending in -ing, preceded by on or in (ultimately the same word), by a, an abbreviation of them, or even with these suppressed. " Forty and six years was this temple in building." JOHN ii., 20. The Conjugation of Verbs. 473 " the longsuffering of God waited in the days of Noah while the ark was a building." i PETER iii., 20. " and therefore sent Critheis to Smyrna, which was then build- ing" Encycl. Britan., 2 d edition. "Homer." Of these three the first is practically out of use, the second is rarely met with now, while the third is not uncommon. They all have the same radical defect. They do not distin- guish between active and passive, between subject and object, between the actor and the thing acted upon. It was probably the consciousness of this ambiguity that gave rise to the expressions of which " The house was being built" is a type. According to Mr. Kington Oliphant this form of ex- pression came into common use about 17/0, although he cites two examples more than 300 years older. 1 How many examples escaped notice we cannot say, but so much is clear, that the expression has been in the language more than 400 years. Many worthy persons, whose tastes were formed long ago, have protested against the supposed novelty in a style that is more forcible than their reasoning. The most emi- nent is Cardinal Newman, who in a letter, published with his permission by Professor Earle, says : " I know nothing of the history of the language, and I cannot tell whether all this will stand, but this I do know that, rationally or irrationally, I have an undying, never-dying hatred to ' is being] what- ever arguments are brought in its favor. At the same time I fully grant that it is so convenient in the present state of the language that I will not pledge myself I have never been guilty of using it." * Richard Grant White of New York has written at greater length, but to about the same effect. Now I do not agree with Cardinal Newman as to the convenience of the expression : "The house is being built." It seems to me quite inconvenient, inelegant, clumsy, and one that would be used only by a person who could think of no other to suit his purpose. Indeed, it admits of greater awkward- ness than I have ever seen represented. If we say, " is being 1 " Old and Middle English," 337. " New English," vol. i., 273. 3 Earle's " Philology of the English Tongue," 583. 474 English Grammar. built," we may also say, " has been being built, or even, " The house being being built, the family went away for the sum- mer." Any one who will invent a better phrase will deserve public gratitude. Yet, bad as it is, it serves the purpose. It shows that the house is in progress, and that it is not the builder but the thing to be built. Let us now consider the alternatives offered. Lieut. Chas. C. Rogers, U. S. Navy, reporting on the progress of the Panama Canal in 1887, wrote, " a bridge is now building across the valley." It is not a mere quibble to object that it was the workmen who were building, and not the bridge. The meaning would no doubt be understood in this particular case, but hundreds might lead to the widest misapprehension. Ruskin in his " Pre-Raphaelitism " says : " the fishwomen were being blown about." This is unmistakable ; but had he said : " the fishwomen were blowing about," we should be at liberty to understand that they were exer- cising their own wind-powers rather than that they were the sport of the elements. So, if one should say that " Mrs. Jenkins was scolding" we should naturally suppose her the actor on the scene, and not the victim of lingual castigation. Or again, if one should rush into a village exclaiming : " Help, good friends, for God's sake help ! the Cardinal is robbing on the other side of the river," I doubt not that in such a case even Cardinal Newman would rather be represented as being robbed. If the a, that is now generally omitted, be restored, the case is not thereby materially mended. The difference be- tween active and passive is not distinguished. In the Gospel of John we read that in the darkest days of Christianity, " Simon Peter saith unto them, I go a fishing" Paraphrased into the language of modern times, that would be : " It is all over with us now, and, as for me, I am going back to work at the old trade." The Conjugation of Verbs. 475 And in a compilation that is generally very pure English we read of a " Little Baby Bunting, Whose daddy went a hunting, To catch a rabbit for its skin, To wrap the Baby Bunting in." Whatever the difference in dignity, both the despondent apostle and the parent of Bunting intended to catch and not to be caught. But the rabbit was a party in interest, albeit a passive one ; and when it left its lair in the morning, it too went a hunting. Moreover, the sound is often a suffi- cient objection. " Billy Patterson is a assaulting in the street," is both ambiguous and cacophonous. The same twofold objection would lie against in. That matter is in inquiring into. Where several words intervene between is and being the substitution of the older expressions would often be very inelegant as well as ambiguous. The boys were in a row the whole length of the hall examining. In short, expressions like " is being built" serve the purpose completely ; the others are often still more inelegant, and never fully serve the purpose. English, having no original reflexive pronoun, has no middle voice. Still, by a number of contrivances, we can attain that end substantially. We can use the pronouns myself , yourself , etc., after transitive verbs: " I hurt myself" " You deceive yourself" " He built himself a house." More subtle and liable to escape notice is the formation of a kind of middle voice by using get as an auxiliary : " I got up," tired," "They^w/ married," " He got elected." CHAPTER VIII. ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS. THE remaining parts of speech are much less subject to grammatical requirements than those already considered. Most adverbs admit of a change of form to express degree : " He ran. fast and faster." Very many reach a similar result by the help of more and most, while a considerable num- ber are invariable, and none of them require a change of form in other words. Prepositions are themselves un- changeable, but necessitate a change of case, so far as that is possible, in nouns and pronouns that follow them. Con- junctions neither undergo nor cause change. These three parts of speech are so shaded into each other that it is sometimes difficult to say in a given instance to which class a word belongs ; and still oftener the same word is used in one or the other way as occasion may require. The class of adverbs is large ; the two others very small. ADVERBS. The term adverb means added to a verb, as the most fre- quent use is to describe the manner, intensity, or circum- stances of the action represented by the verb. But, as usually happens, from that starting-point it spreads till it reaches the adjective as well. I have expressed the belief that the foundation of language is the names of things, that is, of whatever we can think of, but things have their quali- ties and activities, and if names or nouns be the primary formation, adjectives and verbs are a secondary deposit. And continuing the geological figure, we may call adverbs a tertiary stratum, and represent the arrangement thus : 476 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 477 ADVERBS ADVERBS ADJECTIVES VERBS NOUNS. There is even a fourth layer of adverbs superimposed upon these. Adverbs are so heterogeneous and derived from so many sources that it has sometimes been said that all words tend to become adverbs. The class is the final resting-place of waifs and strays the depository of the odds and ends of language. But on entering this class words lose more or less of their individuality and significance. Sometimes they are used without any meaning; oftener they give a mere shade or piquancy to the sentence ; and he who would write well should use them sparingly. We read that : " There was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job." The first word is required by the habit of the languge, but adds nothing to the statement. So we may hear one say : " Well, now then, what are you going to do about it ? " It would be a good exercise of acuteness to tell the force of each of the first three words. An approximate but only approximate definition of adverbs would be that they are words accompanying verbs, adjectives, or even other adverbs, and expressing place, time, number, order of succession, manner, or degree here, then, twice, thirdly, unawares, very. But although this may include some 99 per cent, of adverbs, there are others that, likejj/m and amen, defy classification ; for words refused admit- tance anywhere else are usually taken in among the adverbs. Adverbs may be variously classified upon a variety of prin- ciples that have no relation to each other. They may be divided, as above, according to signification ; or they may be divided with reference to their derivation ; or into those that do and those that do not admit of a difference of degree ; or again into simple, compound, and adverbial phrases not yet condensed into single words. The same word may belong 478 English Grammar. to two or more classes ; and may be at one time an adverb, at another a preposition, a conjunction, or something else. Although it is nearly certain that every existing adverb is a modification or a derivative of some other word, yet a few have held their present places so long that the student of English may, for his purposes, call them primitive or original. They are : aft forth off so after in oft, or often soon as less on too ere lief out up erst not over well ever now seldom yet When a word is by turns adverb and preposition, sometimes with a slight difference of form, as of and off, to and too, it is sometimes impossible, and never important, to determine which part it played first. A large number are derived in various ways from nouns a few without any change, as east, west, north, south, home, while, yesterday. The greatest part of those derived from nouns are formed by prefixing a, which stands for an original on, reduced first to in, and then to a. The present meaning of the prefix is on, to, or towards. Many are made from other parts of speech by imitation. About 1 20 adverbs formed in this manner are still available for use, and an almost equal number have become obsolete. Of those remaining aboard, adrift, afloat, afoot, aground, alive, aloft, ashore, aside, asleep, astern, awry, are familiar examples. In several the prefix a has not the same origin or force. It is from off and of in adown ' afresh anew anight s afar akin anigh a'clock, or o'clock 1 In adown a is off and down or dune is a hill. " Dale and down " for val- ley and hill is common in old ballads. '' The lady sat on castil \va' , Beheld baith dale and doun, And there she saw Gill Morice' head Cum trailing to the toun." Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 479 In a few it is the French a from Latin ad. alamode, alamort, apart. The a in alike and aware is a phonetic degradation of A.-S. prefix ge without any precise meaning so common in early English and in German. Along, in the direction of the length, contains a relic of the A.-S. and = out, forth, away. 1 End-/^^ is a better pre- served form of the same. Amuck, Malayan, is probably understood by most read- ers as two words, the article a and an Eastern word, muck ; but it is a single adjective frenzied, furious used ad- verbially. A few are formed with the prefix be originally the same as by. bechance before beforehand behind below beneath besides betimes between Several adverbs originated as genitive cases of nouns, pro- nouns, or adjective pronouns. None of these now remain in general use and entirely unaltered except needs. "They must needs be borne, because they cannot go." JEREMIAH x., 5. Several genitive cases, like days, for of the day, in the day time ; nights, at night, in the night time, have gone out of use. " Heo wolden feden thone king, dates and nihtes" (They were willing to feed the king day and night.) LAYAMON. The following are either derivatives or imitations of geni- tives : always forwards outwards twice anights hence since unawares backwards nowadays sometimes upwards besides noways thence whence betimes once thrice eftsoons onwards towards 1 A different word from the old preposition along owing to. 480 English Grammar. We have scarcely a trace left of a class of feminine geni- tives that ended in -linga, -lunga, darkling, flailing, headlong, sidelong. Like other old words, they have been best pre- served in Scotland. Burns has two, to which he adds the genitive s, in " Halloween." " Rab stowlins pried her bonnie mou Fu' cozie in the neuk for 't." " An darklins graipit for the bauks, And in the blue clew throws then.*' Of old dative cases in -um or -om we have at least one in good use seldom from an adjective seld, rare. Whilom is nearly obsolete. Adverbs are also formed by prefixing various prepositions to nouns. aboveboard indeed perforce abovedeck instead perhaps aforetime overhead to-day alongshore overland together alongside peradventure to-morrow beforehand perchance to-night Much the greatest number of adverbs are formed from ad- jectives by adding -ly A.-S. -lice like brave-ly, cool-ly, earn- est-ly. If the adjective already end in -ly costly, deadly, early, goodly, holy, jolly, lordly, silly, a second -ly is not added. A considerable number of adjectives may be used adverb- ially without change. With some it is left optional to add or omit -ly. We my say: " He spoke very loud" or, " He spoke very loudly." We add -ly more regularly than our an- cestors did a few centuries ago. Naturally the poets omit it oftener than prose writers, partly from the requirements of verse, and partly through their fondness for antiquated style. The following are examples of adjectives oftenest employed adverbially without change : aghast fain little naked crooked better fast less parallel sheer best full least plump zigzag clean hollow long straight low empty Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 481 A few of those that frequently omit -ly have a somewhat different meaning when it is added. clear full open wrong dark high short quite is another form deep late still for quit fair near wild Many adjectives expressing native country, source, mate- rial, shape, and essential character, do not admit of being used adverbially in any way. Swedish, fossil, carbonaceous, metallic, alkaline, sandy, fibrous, oval, triangular, meteoric, stellar. Adverbs are also formed from pronouns. There is a tolerably regular series from the same radical sources that give us he, that, this, and who. he here hither hence that then there thither thence the 1 this thus who when where whither whence why how From a part of these still other adverbs are developed, such as henceforth, thereat, thenceforward, however, where- upon. Some adjective pronouns are employed without change as adverbs all, any, either, neither, some, whether, yonder. Others again are combined with almost any kind of words to form adverbs almost, alone, already, also, altogether, always, anyhow, anyway, anywhere, anywhither, anywise, everywhere, otherwise, sometimes, somewhere. From the numeral one we have alone, anon, once, only; from other numerals, twice, thrice, secondly, thirdly, etc. Quite a number of adverbs are formed by adding ward, expressive of direction, to nouns, adverbs or prepositions. 1 In the phrase: "The more the .merrier." A.-S. thy, an instrumental case singular of the pronoun. " For thy appease your grief e and heavie plight." SPENSER, "Fairie Queene^" ii., i, 14. 482 English Grammar. Sometimes s is added in imitation of a genitive case : afterward-s hellward northward toward-s backward-s downward-s hitherward homeward-s onward-s outward upward-s westward eastward inward seaward whitherward for\vard-s landward southward heavenward leeward thitherward Alias, alibi, impromptu, tandem, are Latin adverbs used sometimes as adverbs and sometimes as nouns. Apart and very come from the Latin, through the medium of French. The a is a reduction of the Latin ad. Askance has a long history, from an old Teutonic word meaning slanting, through Italian and French to English, picking up on its way the prefix a, originally Latin ad, too. Along, A.-S. andlong ; the and meaning upto, unto, against. Endlong is a different form of the same word. The long in headlong and sidelong is a different word and identical with ling in darkling, and has nothing to do with length. " and loo ! in a greet bire al the droue went heedlynge in to the see." WYCLIFFE : transl. MATT. viii. 32. Blindfold may be regarded as a past participle, with corrupt pronunciation, of an old blindfell, to fell or strike blind. " Ancren Riwle," A.D. 1210. Helter-skelter, higglety-pigglety, hurly-burly, hurry-skurry, zig-zag, although some of them are now old and widespread, are such words as people make out of nothing on the instant. Hodge-podge, or hotchpot, is traced to old French pot and hocher, to shake or stir. In such impromptu creations the second half is a mere repetition of the first, with usually a change of the first consonant or vowel. Pell-mell : Old French pelle melle ; mixed with a shovel. Piece-meal the first part French, the last A.-S., both meaning piece. The sense of the compound is piece by piece. Mealh the relic of a Saxon dative case mizlum Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 483 that has lost the dative termination. It was formerly joined to other words than piece. Chaucer has stoundemele, hour after hour, and flockmel, flock after flock ; and Shake- speare : " O that I had her heere, to tear her Limb-meale" "Cymbeline," n., 4. Topsy-turvy is an old word of doubtful origin. Upside-down was formerly up-so-down. "and sodenly the kinge thoughte the whele torned vp-soo-doune" " Morte Darthur," A.D. 1469. " wher sche ligteth not a lanterne, and turneth vpsodoun the hous, and seketh diligently, til sche fynde." WYCLIFFE : Luke xv., 8. " and he turnyde vpsadoun the bordis of chaungeris, and the chaiers of men sellynge culueris." Id. : Matt, xxi., 12. Evermore, nevermore, everywhere else, inasmuch, nevertheless, nowadays, outright, contrariwise, are examples of compound adverbs. Indeed, if we have regard to signification and not form, any combination of words, however long, expressing time, manner, or degree, may be regarded as an adverbial phrase. The words in the following parentheses have the effect of adverbs : And (when) we moved (at the captain's beck), We moved (like men in sleep). The root of the negative is the letter n followed by a short vowel to make it pronounceable. Sanskrit and Gypsy, na ; Gothic, O. H. G., Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, ni ; Latin, French, M. H. G., Russian, A.-S., ne. The English no, as a direct negative, is the modern form of A.-S. nd (d becoming regu- larly o), formed by prefixing the negative n to d, ever, the equivalent of the modern aye. In all the earlier forms of English it was very common to indicate negation by pre- fixing this n, especially to verbs : "^Ves hit #awiht longe." (It is not no whit long.) LAYAMON. 484 English Grammar. fleuere swich another as is she." (Was not never such another as is she.) CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." We still have a few words, mostly adverbs, formed in that way neither, never, nay, n-one, nor. No, meaning not any, is an abbreviation of n-one, analogous to the Latin non, formed in the same manner : " Give none offense, neither to the Jews nor to the Gentiles." i COR. x., 32. Not is an abbreviation of nought or naught, A.-S., ndwiht no whit. The simple negatives combine again with other words to form complex negatives nevertheless, notwithstand- ing, etc. Nay is an equivalent for no, made with the Norse ei or ey (pronounced aye), allied to the Greek aez, ever. Formerly there was a slight difference of usage between the two. Nay was common, no emphatic. No was also the answer when the question contained a negative : Is it raining ? Nay. Is it not raining ? No. Sir Thomas More berated Tyndale with coarse malignity for not observing this useless distinction, and in doing so made a blunder himself. A somewhat similar distinction was observed between yea and yes. The former was a simple affirmative, the latter an emphatic declaration, often further reinforced by an oath. It has been conjectured that yes is shortened from A.-S. gea sy yea, so be it. Although no as a direct negative occurs thirty-two times in the Bible, yes has not been admitted. Yea and nay are nearly obsolete, and only met with in the parliamentary expression to vote by yeas and nays ; but even in that case the voter does not say yea or nay, but aye or no. Yes, no, and amen are usually classed among adverbs be- cause there is nowhere else to put them ; but they are in effect sentences abridged. Adverbs, Prepositions > and Conjunctions. 485 PREPOSITIONS. If our purpose were to give a learner his first idea of a preposition, we might say that it is a word which expresses the relation of one thing to another in respect of place or position. We might go on to illustrate by saying : " The house stands upon rising ground. There is a lawn before the door, a veranda along one side of the house, behind it an apple orchard bending under the weight of its ruddy fruit. Below the orchard the river flows between rocky banks, and beyond it rises a steep woody hill. A little up the stream there is a bridge across it, so high that boats can pass beneath it." We might next explain, what is so very common, that a device found to serve well for one purpose is apt to be applied to many others. So many other relations besides those of place are expressed by prepositions. Thus there are relations of time before noon ; between dawn and sun- rise ; during the eclipse ; after the Revolution. Before frost, before rain, after taking the oath, are but slight modifications of the same. Prepositions also express cause, instrumentality, manner, and purpose. The house was struck by lightning, It was all through love of fame, They fled/^r fear of discovery, The letter was sealed with wax, She prayed with zeal and fervor, They were working for an education. Prepositions thus take a variety of secondary meanings. Through has not the same signification in : I was walking through a wood, and They betrayed him through envy. So one may walk with a lady, with difficulty, with a limp, with a cane, with a sprained ankle. A few prepositions may be regarded as original : at for over up by from through with ere in or on under 486 English Grammar. but by far the greater number are derivatives or compounds. Some are formed by prefixing a, as explained under adverbs, about, above, against, along, among, around, athwart. Still more are made with be, a reduced form of by, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond. Prepositions, whether consisting of single words, or com- pounds like the above, are mostly native, but a few of Latin origin are to be met with per, as so much per ton ; versus ; sine, or its French derivative sans ; plus, minus. Phrases made up of several words, of which the last is usually a preposition, often have constructively the effect of prepositions because of, with reference to, in consequence of. To the formation of these there is no limit. Simple prepositions are also united into compounds into, upon, within. A number of words used as prepositions are verbs, us- ually in the form of participles, but a few have taken that of imperatives during, pending, passing, regarding, respect- ing, touching, notwithstanding, save, except. A few of the prepositions have peculiarities of formation or use that will justify short remarks. A, in the expression " ten cents a peck," is no doubt generally regarded as an article ; and perhaps so it is, for doubtless the speaker generally intends an article. But it was not so originally. It was the same as the a in a-foot, a-shore, and represented on. The n was retained before a vowel, of which there is a relic in the old scriptural word anon. In " ten cents a peck " there is not an omission of a preposition, but in " ten cents for a peck " there is an inter- polation of for. " Thrywa on gear." Thrice a year. " An halpenny on day." A halfpenny a day. 1 After af-ter, is a comparative of af = of. But be-utan on the outside, without, is adverb, prep- osition, and conjunction ; but in modern speech the uses 1 Morris, "Outlines of English Accidence," page 195. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions, 487 are so inextricably mixed that it is often impossible to distinguish the two latter. In older writers it is found as a preposition with the sense of without. or drinke she dressed her to lie. In a darke corner of the hous alone." CHAUCER : "Troylus and Criseide." Mr. Home Tooke has collected thirty-four passages from Gawin Douglas in which but, with this prepositional mean- ing, occurs alongside of the conjunction but. Allan Ramsay says : " I 'd tak my Katie but a gown, Barefooted in her little coatie." The adverbial force of but is only, and is an outgrowth of the conjunction with a negative before it. " If they kill us, we shall but die." 2 KINGS vii., 4. More fully: "we shall not but die" that is, "we shall not (fare any worse) but we shall die." Most frequently it is a conjunction ; and when it has the force of a preposition it is equal to except ; but the uncertainty of how much has been left out, and consequently what part of speech it is, may account for its rarely taking an objective case after it. " He seide vnto tham alle that purueied suld it be That in alle the lond suld be no kyng bot he." ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER. " Away went Gilpin, who but he 1 " COWPER. By. The primary meaning in Saxon and English is along side of, whence it widens out to express accompaniment, active agency, and many other shades of signification. The " Century Dictionary " enumerates nineteen. In Gothic, it had signified about, concerning. This meaning it also had in Anglo-Saxon : 488 English Grammar. "he rehte him of Moyse and of eallum haligum gewritum, the be him awritene waeron." (He told them from Moses and from all the Scriptures what had been written about him.} LUKE xxiv., 27. " Thou hast spoken evil words by the queen." Fox. It then glided into the sense of against something bad about one of which we have a curious instance in I Cor. iv., 4 : " For I know nothing by myself, yet am I not thereby justified." The revised version has : " I know nothing against myself." Another peculiar expression is to do well or ill by a person, instead of to or for. This does not seem to be a good usage. During. Dure was formerly equivalent to the present endure to last or continue. The gradual transformation of such a word into a preposition may be better seen in the similar word pending: I "while the trial is pending" '/ 2, the case absolute form, " the trial pending "; then, 3 " pending the trial." Like, originally an adjective, is not generally reckoned a preposition, but it has all the effect of one, and is followed by me, us, him, them, etc. So long as our language had cases, like was followed by the dative ; and when they dis- appeared to was sometimes inserted to supply the supposed want of a case ending. But to is no more necessary, and hardly more common after like, than after give or tell. Near, another adjective generally used as an adverb or a preposition. It is really a comparative of neah, from which we have the modern nigh. Nigh and near are used both with and without the un- necessary to. Of, so far as its form is concerned, is but little changed from the Gothic af, and not at all from A.-S. of, the primary meaning of which was from, off from, away from. We retain the original sense only in speaking of the material of or from Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 489 which anything is made, or the source from which it comes. As equivalent to by, expressing agency, it is common in the Bible, but no longer in use. " All their works they do to be seen of men." MATT, xxiii., 5. Speaking of its present range of use, Professor Earle says : " Probably it occurs as often as all the other prepositions put together. It is a characteristic feature of the stage of the language which we call by distinction English, as opposed to Saxon. And this character, like so many characters really distinctive of the modern language, is French. Nine times out of ten that of is used in English, it represents the French de. It is the French preposition in a Saxon mask * * * The common and current of, which is so profusely sprinkled over every page, is French in its inward essence. Numerous as are the places in which this preposition now occurs, it is less rife than it was. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the language teemed with it. It recurred and re-recurred to satiety. This Frenchism is now much abated." * The following examples from Shakespeare will illustrate these " Frenchisms " : " I go of message from the queen to France." " I like not of this flight of Edwards." " I am your husband if you like of me." " Sight may distinguish of colours." Since. The Saxons had an adverb and preposition sith, meaning after, since, which managed to steal down the ages into the English Bible : " sith thou hast not hated blood, even blood shall pursue thee." This sith was sometimes followed by a dative case of the demonstrative pronoun, making sith tham. This became reduced in time to siththen, or sit/ten. To this again was added an s, in imitation of a genitive case sithens. Next 1 " Philology of the English Tongue," 523. 4QO English Grammar. th was dropped out and the remainder appeared as sins or sens. Since followed as a mere change of spelling to keep the word from being pronounced sinz. Till is the Scandinavian for to, and therefore naturally belongs to the Northumbrian dialect and to Scotland. Bar- bour and Sir David Lyndesay use to and till interchange- ably. The former has " to win and till occupy," and "He ran on feet always hym by, Till he in-till the wod wes gane. Than said he till hym-self allane." The latter in describing the last Judgment makes the angel proclaim : " Ryse, dede folk, cum to Jugement." Then " The one to plesour salbe led." " The one tyll euerlastyng glore." The two words have still the same meaning, but not the same extent of application. Till is restricted to duration of time. One may walk till noon, but not till town. Towards was sometimes divided into two parts and a word placed between. This kind of infixation is extremely common in some North American dialects, as the Dacotah, but is rare in English. There are several instances in the Bible, as "the exceeding greatness of his power to us-ward" EPHES. i., 19. Unto and until are doubled prepositions. Un for Gothic and old Saxon und, is not found in A.-S. in either form, yet found its way into English. The meaning is to, so that un- to = to to. With. There were two prepositions in A.-S. and early English, mid, with and with, against, " Se the nys mid me, he is ongen me." (He that is n't with me, he is against me.) MATT, xii., 30. Adverbs', Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 491 "Nu leofemen for godes liefe witeth eow with thes deofles." Now, dear men, for God's love, guard yourselves against these devils. " Old English Homily." Mid is entirely out of use as a separate word, remaining only as a prefix in midwife. The distinction between the two words is well shown in a passage of the " Saxon Chronicle": " And him come to-gaenes Willelm eorl of Albamar the the king hadde beteht Euorwic & to other seuez men mid faen men and fuhten widhim. & flemden the king aet the Standard." (And William Earl of Albemarle, to whom the king had entrust- ed York, and two other loyal men came against him with a few men, and fought against him and put the king to flight at the Standard.) With has now usurped the whole duty of mid and lost most of its own. It has its original meaning as a prefix in wzV/zhold and wz'Mstand, and in such expressions as to fight, strive, quarrel, or go to law with. If English nouns had distinctions of case those that follow prepositions would be in the objective, as they are indeed held to be by most authorities. It must be admitted, how- ever, that the objective is precisely like the nominative. The effect of the preposition is only seen when it is followed by a personal, interrogative, or relative pronoun, before me, after us, for him, from them, with whom. CONJUNCTIONS. A conjunction is a word that conjoins or connects. Con- junctions so often connect sentences, or what may readily be developed into sentences, that it has sometimes been held that they invariably have that office. Mr. Harris, the author of " Hermes," and Dr. Latham are probably the most emi- nent advocates of that view. The latter says, " there are always two propositions where there is one conjunction " l ; but the statement, I think, requires limitation. But be that as it may, they unite into a continuous whole what would 1 " English Language," chap. 26. 492 English Grammar. otherwise be scattered shreds of discourse, not only connect- ing the parts but showing their relation to each other ; that some ideas agree with and support each other ; that some are opposites ; that one is to another as cause or effect ; that they are really consistent, though apparently inconsistent ; or they carry with them many other implications. Conjunctions unite two or more distinct sentences into one, as in the following quotations in which all the parts are fully expressed. " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you." JOB xii., 2. " The wind comes from the desert, but there is no sound in thy leaves." OSSIAN. " Though the fields of our battles were dark and silent, our fame is in the four gray stones." Id. " The time of the event was accurately ascertained, and the family hung in trembling suspense, as the minister of heaven cast the horoscope of the infant." PRESCOTT : " Conq. of Mex.," i., 4. Here, although everything is expressed in full, one member of a sentence repeats nothing contained in another. But where the simpler conjunctions are used there is generally something common to two or more members, which is ex- pressed only in one. " Houses are built to live in, and not to look on." BACON : " Essay," 45. If the second member were fully expressed it would be "houses are not built to look on." Thus what is identical in the two members is suppressed in one of them. Nearly the whole is sometimes suppressed on account of identity, there being only one little word different. The ship was driven to and fro. This, if expanded into two propositions, would be : The ship was driven to and (the ship was driven) fro. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 493 When the subject or object is two individuals, acting or acted upon together and united by and, the sentence cannot always be decomposed into two propositions without com- pletely recasting it. " This dog and man at first were friends." If this were developed into : This dog at first were friends, and This man at first were friends, it would be very like nonsense. The same might be said of She mixed wine and oil together. The mother and daughter embraced each other. It is evident then that and does not always connect separate propositions. Much may be said without conjunctions ; and primitive peoples employ few. If we used none, our discourse would be like a dry-stone wall, without mortar to cement the pieces. Such is the style of the poems attributed to Ossian. " I stood in the darkness of my strength. Toscar drew his sword at my side. The foe came on like a whirlwind. The mingled sound of death arose. Man took man ; shield met shield ; steel mixed its beams with steel ; darts hiss through air ; swords on broken bucklers bound. Like the sound of an aged grove when a thousand ghosts break the trees by night, such was the din of arms. But Uthal fell beneath my sword ; the sons of Berathon fled." l There are only three words that the English student need regard as primitive and exclusively conjunctions. The re- mainder have been adopted or modified from other known parts of speech, especially pronouns, prepositions, and ad- verbs. From pronouns, we have either, neither, or, nor, hence, however, than, that, then, therefore, wherefore, whence, whereas, whether, why. Many words are sometimes pronouns or adverbs, and sometimes conjunctions ; and it is not 1 Perhaps not quite accurate, quoted from memory after fifty years. 494 English Grammar. always possible to tell in a given instance which they are. The general test of a conjunction is that it unites two propositions or phrases without being a part of either. We called (but) there was no answer. The propositions are complete in themselves, and but adds nothing to either ; but it shows a relation between the two a relation we may say of disappointment. The conjunction is not necessarily placed between the related propositions. (Although} we called, there was no answer. A conjunction differs from a relative pronoun or adverb, which also connects propositions, in this that the relative belongs to one of the propositions, and the conjunction does not. This is Mr. A. B. who is the secretary of our society. This is Mr. A. B. (and) he is the secretary of our society. Some conjunctions are apt to go in pairs, the principal of which are as as as so both and if then either or neither nor whether or though yet One member of the pair can generally be dispensed with. It is a question, fortunately not an important one, whether one of these pairs is one conjunction or two. We have seen that adverbial and prepositional phrases may be made up of two or more words, and the same is true of conjunc- tions. We have such compound expressions as, and yet, if however, as soon as, inasmuch as, now therefore, on the other hand. Of however many words such an expression may consist, it performs the work of a single conjunction, and so does one of the pairs under consideration. Grammarians have often divided conjunctions into a number of classes, according to the relations which they express or imply, Copulatives, Disjunctives, Concessives, Continuatives, Illatives, etc., which classification seems to me to serve no useful purpose. A conjunction not only Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 495 connects but indicates the character of the connection. It expresses a relation ; and to tell what that relation is pertains to lexicography rather than to grammar. I will now remark briefly on a few of the conjunctions, in regard either to their formation or use. Also, originally and literally all so, just so, exactly so, in the very same manner. Compare the Saxon and common version of Matt, xxi., 30 : " Tha cwseth he eal swa to tham 6thrum." (And he came to the second and said likewise?) It is used to tack on something additional, the main statement having gone before. Although all though does not differ in meaning from though, one of our most primitive conjunctions. It admits the foregoing proposition, but prepares to deny the con- sequences expected to follow. It is often followed by still or yet as a correlative. " Although the fig-tree shall not blossom, neither shall fruit be in the vines, * * * yet I will rejoice in the Lord." HAB. iii., And joins only things that are grammatically alike and equivalent. It unites nouns, including their substitutes, pronouns, or adjectives, verbs, adverbs, or prepositions, but it does not unite members of these different classes. More- over it is the only conjunction that unites parts which can- not be construed as separate propositions. Because is by cause, and the earlier and fuller expression was by the cause that " And by the cause that they sholde ryse Eerly for to seen the grete fight Vn to her reste wen ten they at night." CHAUCER : " Knight's Tale." But. The origin of this word as a preposition has been already shown. As a conjunction it introduces something 496 English Grammar. opposite to, or at least different from, what has been said. But here is a distinction between opposition and difference. The Greeks expressed the former by a\\a and the latter by <? ; and the barbarian Goths had five words for all of which we have only but. Eke is scarcely used as a conjunction, and, like several others, never goes alone in prose, but follows and : " And when he rood men might his bridel heere Gyngle in a whistlyng wynd so cleere, And eek as lowde as doth the chapel belle." CHAUCER : " Prolog, to C. T." " A train-band captain eke was he, Of famous London town." COWPER : " John Gilpin." The conjunction is the same word as the verb eke, which is but little used, and oftenest in such expressions as to eke out a scanty meal. In Scotland they eke garments, pieces of cloth, and broken threads. Except is shortened from excepting. "It was a fine April morning, excepting that it had snowed hard the night before." SCOTT : " Black Dwarf," chap. i. This is in turn a mere translation of the native English, out- taking, or out-taken, which first occurs in the " Cursor Mundi " about 1290. " And ye, my mooder, my souerayn plesance Ouer alle thing, out-taken crist on lofte." CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." Save succeeded to the place of out-take : " Thei ben fulle resonable * * * sa f that thei worschipen an ox for here god." MANDEVILLE. Like all or most prepositions adopted as conjunctions, except was originally and properly followed by that. It was for- merly much used as a conjunction : Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 497 " Slack not thy riding except I bid thee." 2 KINGS iv., 24. It is so used sixty-six times in the Bible, and unless only eight times. At present the prevailing, and I think better, practice is to use unless exclusively as a conjunction and except as a preposition. For is the same word as the preposition for. It is an abbreviation originating in A.-S. "for tham the" meaning for the reason that. The that continued long to be used : "and so death passed upon all men/<7r that all have sinned." ROM. v., 12. " Famed Beauclerc called, for that he loved The minstrel, and his lay approved." If. Home Tooke's plausible conjecture that this word formerly sometimes written gif\s the imperative of give, proves to be ill founded, as the Gothic, Old High German, Old Saxon, and Icelandic are without g, and the primary meaning of the word is not to give but to doubt, Icel. if, uncertainty, efa, to doubt. Moreover the g can be account- ed for. The Gothic equivalent was iba or ibai, but to this was sometimes prefixed yah, and, making yabai, and if; not that it was written with y but rather with J. Passing into Old Frisian and Anglo-Saxon the word took the formjefor gef,g alternating between the sounds of our g and y. If introduces a proposition as more or less doubtful, connected with another in such wise that if the first holds good, so does the second ; if the first fail, the second will fail with it. Now, as an adverb = at this time ; and as a conjunction retains something of the same meaning. We employ it when we have cleared our ground, stated our premises, and are ready to bring forward our conclusion, or make an important advance in a continuous argument. Joseph, after briefly reciting certain facts, sums up : " So now it was not you that sent me hither, but God." GEN. xlv., 7. 498 English Grammar. and the eloquent author of the Epistle to the Hebrews pre- pares to conclude a long argument by saying : " Now, of the things that have been spoken this is the sum." A presidential proclamation is prefaced by a statement headed by the word, " Whereas," and prepares for real busi- ness with, "Now therefore" Now is also employed in de- bate to show that an opponent has omitted an important point. " In Matt, xxiii., 35, we have the following passage * * * : ' That upon you may come all the righteous blood shed upon the earth, from the blood of righteous Abel unto the blood of Zacharias, son of Barachias, whom ye slew between the temple and the altar.' Now two Zachariases are recorded in history as having been thus slain." GREGG : " Creed of Christendom," chap. 8. Lest is not a shortening of least, but is in part from less. It is an abbreviation of A.-S. " thy Ices the" the less for this reason that in which thy is the instrumental case of the demonstrative pronoun = for this = for this reason and the a relative pronoun : " Ic hine ondraede the Ices the he cume and ofslea thas mothra mid heora cildum." (I dread him lest he come and slay the mother with her children.) GEN. xxxii., n. The first part of the expression was early dropped, leaving less the, which gradually shrunk to les the, leste, lest. " Hii habbeth of oure londe al thane north ende, and we beoth adrad sore leste he habbe nou more." (He has of our land all the north end, and we be sore adread lest he now have more.) LAYAMON. Or is an abbreviation of other ; nor is the same with the negative n prefixed. Since like as, inasmuch as, whereas, because, for, introdu- ces a reason for some act or belief. Like other conjunctions originally prepositions it was formerly followed by that. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions, 499 " How else ! since that the heart's unbiassed instinct Impelled me to the daring deed." COLERIDGE : " Piccol." iv., 4. Still and yet as adverbs express continuance of time, often conveying a hint that the time is felt to be rather long. As conjunctions they are introduced in showing that arguments, actions, good or bad, successes, or failures have failed to produce the effect expected, and that some person or thing continues unchanged. You may some time present a topic dear to your heart, with the demonstrative clearness of Euclid, and as much eloquence as you can work in, and then be answered somewhat in this style : " I admit that you have stated your side of the case very forcibly ; and if there were no other considerations it would look quite plausible. I don't pretend to argue the subject just now ; still I cannot but believe that," etc., etc., etc. And that is all you get for your pains. Than and then are variations of the same word. The first is the most primitive in form, the second in signification. Shakespeare and earlier writers make no consistent distinc- tion between the two. Than is used in comparing two things or classes ; and we are to remember that the com- parative degree is dual, referring only to two. Hence if we say " gold is heavier " and go no farther, we do in effect say that of two things gold is the heavier. We may afterwards add, " then silver," or " than silver." Then is employed in drawing a sudden conclusion from something said or done. Bru. " You are my true and honorable Wife, As deere to me as are the ruddy droppes That visit my sad heart." Por. " If this were true, then should I know this secret." SHAKESP. : "Julius Caesar," act ii. An example vastly inferior in dignity, but more apposite, is afforded by the very simple lines : 500 English Grammar. 1 ' What is your fortune, my pretty maid ? ' ' My face is my fortune, Sir,' she said. ' Then, I '11 not have you, my pretty maid.' " That, originally a demonstrative pronoun, not only be- came one of the most common of conjunctions, but helped to make many others. Prepositions after, before, besides, since, till, notwitJistanding became conjunctions by being set before that, and retaining their places when it had disappeared. " Now after that men han visited the holy places, thanne will thei turnen toward Jerusalem." MANDEVILLE. In like manner that was formerly placed and is now omitted, after if, because, lest, though, while, and other words that never were prepositions. One of Home Tooke's acutest conjectures has reference to the use of that as a conjunction. " B. * * * Has the Conjunction THAT, any the smallest correspondence or similarity of signification with THAT, the Article or Pronoun ? " H. In my opinion the word THAT (call it as you please, either Article or Pronoun, or Conjunction) retains always one and the same signification. Unnoticed abbreviation in construction and difference of position have caused this appearance of fluctuation ; and misled the grammarians of all languages, both ancient and modern, for in all they make the same mistake. Pray, answer me a question. Is it not strange and improper that we should, without any reason or necessity, employ in English the same word for two different meanings and purposes ? "B. I think it wrong : and I see no reason for it, but many reasons against it. " H. Well ! Then is it not more strange that this same impro- priety, in this same case, should run through ALL languages ? And that they should ALL use an Article without any reason, unnecessarily, and improperly, for this same Conjunction with which it has, as you say, no correspondence nor similarity of signification ? "* * * Examine any languages you please and see whether Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 501 they also, as well as the English, have not a supposed Conjunction which they employ as we do thai j and which is the same word as their supposed Article or Pronoun. Does not this look as if there was some reason for employing the Article in this manner ? " B. The appearances, I own, are strongly in favour of your opinion. But how shall we find out what that connection is ? " H. Suppose we examine some instances ; and, still keeping the same signification of the sentences, try whether we cannot, by a resolution of their construction, discover what we want. " Example. ' I wish you to believe THAT I would not wilfully hurt a fly.' " Resolution. ' I would not wilfully hurt a fly ; I wish you to believe that [assertion].' " This view has the powerful support of Bopp, so far as the German language is concerned ; but both writers have neg- lected to give any actual examples illustrating the trans- formation of the second of the above forms into the first. It is an interesting fact that many languages form this conjunction from a pronoun ; but then pronouns are a fruit- ful source of adverbs and conjunctions generally. This adoption is not confined to the Aryan languages, but is found also in Hebrew, and, according to Gesenius, in Ara- maic and Ethiopic. Hebrew has two relative (not demon- strative) pronouns chi and asher which also do duty for the conjunction that. The Hebrew scholar scarcely needs to be reminded of the oft-repeated formula : " vaiiare Elohim chi tob." (And God saw that [it was] good.) For the similar use of asher we may instance 2 Sam. xi., 20 : " y'da'tem eth asher yoru meal hakhomah." (Ye know that they shoot from the wall.) To show the use of this conjunction by a single example from several Aryan languages I select the Greek, Latin, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, English, Russian, and German versions of the first part of Matt, v., 17 : 502 English Grammar. ff voftiffrfTK on rjkQov KaraXvGai rov VOJA.OV Ne existimate me venisse ut dissolvam legem. Ne hugyaith ei qemyau gatairan witoth. Nelle ge we" nan that ic come towurpan tha ae. Think not that I am come to destroy the law. Ne dumaite chto Ya prished parushit zakon. Ihr sollt nicht wahnen, dass ich gekommen bin das Gesetz * * * aufzulosen. Still, the dictum that the pronoun corresponding to the English that becomes a conjunction in ALL is stated too broadly. In the first place it fails entirely in Arabic, Irish, and Magyar, and probably in many other languages equally unknown to Mr. Home Tooke and the present writer. In the second place the conjunction is not from the demonstra- tive but from the relative pronoun. There were in Sanskrit three pronouns which, divested of all irregularities and reduced to their simplest terms, were interrog. ka, demonst. ta, and relat. ya ; or adding a letter that was an almost invariable part, kad, tad, and yad. Now of the relative yad only doubtful traces are left in any Western branch of the great Aryan family, and never as a pronoun. Relatives had to be borrowed. The Latin, the Slavonic, and, it is asserted on good authority, the Lithu- anian used the interrogative as a relative ; the Teutonic branch alone preferred the demonstrative, but at a com- paratively late date adopted the interrogative also. Hence it is that we can say : " the man that laughs," and " the man who laughs " ; but the latter is not older than the Reforma- tion. But the Teutonic tongues had yet another relative, an indeclinable particle, perhaps remotely derived from a de- monstrative. In Gothic it was ei, which we have seen used as a conjunction. It was generally connected with its ante- cedent ik-ei, I who, thu-ei, thou who, thata-ei, that which. Now this thata-ei, usually shortened to thatei, was the com- mon Gothic conjunction = that. Icelandic had two such particles, ancient es, modern er, and sem, both of which were relatives and conjunctions. Anglo-Saxon had also two inde- Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 503 clinable relatives, as and the (see page 328). This particular as is probably akin to the particle ei, and es or er just cited a relative pronoun turned relative conjunction. The was no doubt originally a demonstrative pronoun, but known to us as an indeclinable relative : "Wrecce men sturven of hungear, sume ieden on aelmes the waren sum wile rice men." (Wretched men starved of hunger, some went to beggary who some time were rich men.) " Saxon Chronicle." We also find it as a conjunction : " Mid almyhtyes godes luue, vte we vs werie, With theos wrecche worldes luue, the heo vs ne derye." ' (With Almighty God's love, let us guard ourselves Against this wretched world's love, that it harm us not.) Next we find this particle connected with the true demon- strative, which for sake of distinction I shall here render this -for tham the, vith tham the, cer tham the, after tham the* These phrases may be rendered : for this, that i. e., for this reason, that ; contrary to this, that. One step farther and we find this relative the and the neuter singular of the demonstrative, that, mistaken for each other for thy t/uzt, thurh that that. In some such way, through ignorance and carelessness, that came to take the place of the indeclinable relative and conjunction. How this relative pronoun became a conjunction at first I do not know ; but a possible manner of transition may be made more conceivable by an example or two from other languages, where the relative occurs, as an adverb = how, or as a conjunction = that. " Docebat etiam * * * ut omni tempore totius Gallise principatum ^Edui tenuissent." 1 Morris's " Specimens of Early English," i., 216. 1 Matzner's " Englische Grammatik," Hi., 427. 504 English Grammar. (He also explained * * * how (or thaf) the JEdluans had always held the leadership of all Gaul.) CAESAR : " Bel. Gal.," i., 43. " v'atta higgadta haiiom eth asfar-a.siiha.h itti tobah." (And thou hast showed this day how that thou hast dealt well with me.) i SAM. xxiv., 18. Unless was formerly written onles or onlesse that is, on less. Home Took says that Tyndale was one of the first to write this word with u and that the great importance and merit of his works gave currency to the corruption. The meaning seems to be, " on a less condition " " on easier terms," the event referred to will not take place. The phrase requires than to complete it. " But that may not be upon lesse than wee now falle toward hevene fro the erthe." MANDEVILLE. The on was sometimes omitted " I xal him down dynge Lesse than he at my byddynge Be buxom to min honde." " Townley Mysteries," A.D. 1430. " Gif he Commyttis any tresoun, suld he not de ; Less than his prince of grete humanite Perdoun his fault for his long trew service ? " GAWIN DOUGLAS. Than was changed to that. " I xal forfare, ffor to grete synnys that I have do, Less that my lord God sumdel spare." " Townley Mysteries." Lastly, as in so many other cases, that was omitted. Why, originally the instrumental case of who, as a conjunc- tion begins a reply. If the answer be not ready at hand, it expresses doubt and hesitation ; oftener it expresses indig- nant surprise. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 505 " Why, in that elder day, to be a Roman Was greater than a King." Miss MITFORD. Many years ago, during the excitement over the capture and return of the slave Burns, Theodore Parker in one of his addresses, burst forth indignantly with : " Why, his countrymen were bishops of Hippo and Carthage." CHAPTER IX. SYNTAX. ALL agree that the second important part of grammar is SYNTAX. The word means literally placing together in order. The Greek Syntaxis was primarily a military term, and related to the placing of men and different bodies of troops preparatory to a battle. But when the term is transferred to the marshalling of words, that part which relates to placing them is in a great measure lost sight of. The reason is easily understood when we reflect that our grammar is an inheritance from the Greeks and Romans whose words were as mutable as Proteus, and assumed as many disguises. The question with them was not where to place their words, but what forms to give them. And although the forms of English words are few and seldom mistakable, and their relations to each other determined largely by posi- tion, grammarians have almost entirely ignored these facts, and under the head of Syntax have treated of the forms and not the placing of the words. The difference between Greek and Latin on the one side and English on the other, how imperious were the demands of form with them, and how important position is to us, will be seen by a single example : Hie venator juvenis ilium ursum nigrum occidit. This young hunter killed that black bear. There are seven words in each version, and to change the form of one in the Latin or the position of any but one in the English would alter or impair the sense. The Latin words might be arranged 5,040 different ways, while the 506 Syntax. 507 English would admit of only one change. We might say, " The hunter young," but every one would recognize that as belonging rather to the style of poetry than of plain prose. A greater freedom of arrangement then is practised by the poet than by the prose-writer. It is a part of what is called poetic license, and has no other limit than the necessity of being intelligible, which limit is perhaps some- times passed. But he who speaks or writes English prose must pursue a straight and narrow path compared with one whose words may assume a thousand forms, or be arranged in a thousand different ways. Still we may find that there are compensating advantages, and that the principles of our language forbid our doing only those things that would be of no advantage. Of that part of syntax that prescribes the forms that words shall bear in certain connections, much is necessarily taught under the head of Etymology in exhibiting the forms themselves. Nearly all that I have deemed proper to say on that subject has been already said. Much of the re- mainder that is usually presented as syntax consists merely of names and definitions for various arrangements of words, which no one is much the wiser for knowing. What remains to be said on what are called " Concord and Government " will be introduced when required in the general discussion on the selection and placing of words. It is hoped that the young and ingenious reader will find interest and advantage in following a line of thought somewhat different from that of the common text-books. No one will question the importance of selecting appro- priate words ; but the equal importance of arrangement will be seen by dislocating the words of a sentence, thus : " Whoever makes not this one kind of easy argument to de- ceive the physical elements of some back sciences should learn more the use of intending to be sent." " Mill's Logic." Whatever might be done if the language were Latin, it is doubtful if any one could restore sense to a long English sentence thus dismembered. But be the language what it 508 English Grammar. may, it is clear that such dismemberment adds to the diffi- culty of understanding. There is only one fundamental principle governing the location of words, which is, that words which limit, explain, or complement each other should be placed near together. It is equally applicable to all languages, but not equally imperative. It is not strictly followed by any that I am acquainted with. Suppose we had occasion to speak of an " opening rose," but instead of placing the two words to- gether, we should interpose thirty or forty other words, relating to various matters, it would then require considera- ble mental effort to disentangle the idea of an " opening rose." Now this kind of displacement is of frequent occurrence. " Inventas aut qui vitam excoluere per artes." vi., 663. The first and last words are more closely connected in ex- pressing the import of the line than any others in it. Again, in the line of Propertius : " Nee levis in verbis est medicina meis." levis belongs with medicina, and verbis with meis. Of two closely connected words it may matter little which comes first or last ; but it helps the understanding greatly to find them together. I have before me a sentence from an Eng- lish author who has had a wide popularity for more than a century ; and in that sentence a verb and its immediate ob- ject are separated by ninety-four words. A private pension act of the Fifty-first Congress directs the Secretary of the Interior " to place on the pension roll, at the rate of fifteen dollars per month, * * * subject to the provisions and limitations of the pension laws." In good composition nothing more than a comma would intervene between "month" and "subject"; but in reality there are eighty- two words. The Germans have probably carried to a greater degree of perfection than any other people the art of putting asunder things nearly related. They will not only separate words closely connected, but, like the American Syntax. 509 Indians, they will cut a word in two, and put a long discus- sion between the parts. " He (i) had several older brothers ; and was, (2) since the pos- sessions of the family an inheritance for the oldest formed, and he himself sorely against the custom and the tradition of his race, through great learning-fondness and a decided inclination to a quiet contemplative life devoted, for the diplomatic service (4) through the persuasion of his mother, a beautiful, gentle, sickly lady, who in the solitude of the ancestral castle of Tissow the most brilliant gifts with which she upon a far grander theatre had shine can, unused or almost unused, go-to-waste let must destined become (3)." The thread of the story runs through the italicized passages in the order of the numbers. The labor of sifting out the essential atoms and putting them together is as real to the German as it would be to us, although long use has made him less conscious of it. There are three peculiar words in our language, yes, no, and amen. Each of them is a symbol that stands for a sen- tence, and is incapable of combining with other words to form one. They are holophrasts, and not parts of speech in the same sense as other words are. With the exception of these three, no other word expresses a complete meaning when standing alone. A verb used im- peratively come, halt comes the nearest to it ; but there must be some one to " come " or " halt " ; and, if the com- mand were given in full, a noun or pronoun would accom- pany the verb. A sufficient number of words put together to express a complete meaning make a sentence. Our speech and writing are made up of sentences. Of these there are several kinds. They may be divided into classes in various ways on a variety of different principles. One obvious way of dividing them is into Declarative, Interroga- tive, and Imperative. " Ireland is an island," makes a statement as of a fact. " When will the moon be full ? " asks a question. " Open the window," gives a command. 510 English Grammar. The last two forms might indeed be dispensed with, and we might say : I desire to know when the moon will be full. I desire you to open the window. thus making all sentences declarative, as by far the greater part are. It is with them that we shall be chiefly occupied. Every complete sentence contains at least two elements. One of the simplest possible sentences is, Bears hibernate. Something is mentioned " bears " and something is told about them that they " hibernate " ; and these two ele- ments are indispensable. The first is called the subject the thing spoken about ; the second is called the predicate the thing declared or said. The subject is generally a noun, but it may be a pronoun, or indeed it may be any word or set of words that can be used as a noun for the oc- casion. The predicate, limited to a single word, is always a verb, expressing an action or condition limited to the sub- ject and not affecting any other person or thing. Of such verbs fall, sit, sleep, walk, laugh, sneeze are examples. But the greater number of verbs express actions affecting some second person or thing catch, hold, lift, make, fasten, etc. What is thus acted upon is called the object. A third class of verbs do not express an action exercised upon anything, and yet require to be supplemented by some other words in order to make sense. Verbs that in any way signify to be, become, seem or be called are of this class, and grammarians are pleased to call them by the awful title of " Verbs of In- complete Predication." In such cases the verb is called a copula a mere coupling, or connecting link ; and the supple- mentary words are regarded as the predicate, or thing as- serted. Judged, then, by the part they play in sentences, verbs are of three kinds first, those that tell their own story; second, those that express an action upon something ; and third, those that connect somewhat in the manner of the algebraic signs = <. Syntax. 511 The verb can be recognized by its meaning, whatever its grammatical form, or however it may be placed ; but the subject and object may be mistaken for each other. To obviate this, a method that has prevailed very widely, is to attach to one or both certain prefixes or suffixes that would distinguish them wherever they might be placed. In prac- tice this method had the serious drawback that it was seldom carried out thoroughly, and a multitude of words were left indistinguishable. Moreover, in a very long sentence, as we have seen, words might be separated far from their partners, and the reader or hearer would have to retain them in mind and keep on the outlook for other words to fit them. We have almost wholly abandoned that method, retaining it only in the case of a few pronouns. We rely upon the position of the words, the normal order being Subject, Verb, Object. This order is sometimes departed from in legal documents, poetry, and the Bible, all formed upon archaic patterns. " God and his son except, Created thing naught feared he." MILTON. Where words are few and simple any order agreed upon and understood serves perfectly well ; but in long and intri- cate sentences the order of arrangement may become im- portant. Is there any natural principle determining the best order? Herbert Spencer, in an essay on the philosophy of style, lays down two leading principles. The first is that the best arrangement is that which requires the least effort on the part of the reader or hearer in order to understand and appreciate it. This principle is beyond dispute, but it does not go very far. The second, which is more questionable, is that details and circumstances should precede the essential words. The philosophical author seems to think that when the word horse, for example, is seen or heard, there is formed in the mind a picture of the animal, complete in every way, of a certain age, size, color, and attitude, grazing, standing in a stable, or otherwise employed. When any of these cir- cumstances are afterwards given, the chances are largely that 512 English Grammar. the preconceived picture turns out to be incorrect, and has to be erased, as it were, and a new one formed. This process has to be repeated as each new feature is added, and the successive corrections involve mental labor. It is argued that if the details were given first no picture would be formed until the mind was in possession of all the materials. To all this I am unable to assent. I am not conscious of forming, on hearing names, mental images that require such continued erasure or alteration. For ought that I can see, they may be but faint and colorless outlines that are rendered more distinct and definite by each successive touch. On the other hand, to gather up and carry forward a multitude of details without knowing what is to be done with them involves considerable mental effort. Let us suppose a sentence like the following, which is one of the simplest of the kind : " All the dismal winter night, through the dark and dripping woods, while the north wind sobbed and moaned, shaking the icicles from the leafless branches, and in mournful chorus howled the wolves and whooped the owls from their hiding in the hollow trees, tramped and floundered, fell and rose, ever pressing toward the Pontic Sea, the cold and hungry, ragged, footsore, fugitive Jew." Sentences constructed in this manner might be well cal- culated to excite attention at first, to see what was coming ; but weariness would soon overcome curiosity ; and, if per- sisted in, they would be resented as a rhetorical trick. Indeed, Mr. Spencer, with characteristic candor admits that in very long sentences such would be the effect. But then a principle or rule is of little value if it fails where most needed. But, whatever may be theoretically best, the rule of prece- dence in English is as stated : Subject Verb Object or at least the first two. But few sentences are confined to two or three words. These may become centres of Syntax. 513 development to be expanded in an indefinite number of ways. In treating of them, we may begin with the subject, and much that is to be said of it applies equally to the object. The subject may be either a noun or a pronoun, and it is always in the nominative case when it admits of such a dis- tinction, which, however, is only shown in a few pronouns. There may be several subjects, not merely a multitude of individuals represented by a single word, and therefore grammatically single, but two or more nouns or pronouns. We may say not only, " Children love play," but also, " Boys and girls love play." " Then went up Moses and Aaron and Nadab and Abihu and seventy of the elders of Israel." The other members of the sentence may be equally com- posite. A noun, whether subject or object, may be accompanied by an adjective, or by other words serving the same pur- pose. Instead of the unqualified statement, " Boys throw stones," we may say, " Bad boys throw stones." When an adjective is thus put directly along with a noun, it is said by grammarians to be used attributively. If placed alone at the other end of the sentence, after a verb of being, seeming, or becoming the boys are bad it would be the predicate, or be used predicatively. In the first case the quality is tacitly assumed ; in the second, expressly declared. The normal place of the adjective is before the noun in English, but after it in the languages of the Latin stock. In some imitations of Latin and French, and often in poetry, it is placed after the noun. A noun may have several adjectives attached to it, in which case the one that is most essential, permanent, and inherent is placed nearest. A poor old man came to the door. His age is a more permanent, essential, characteristic than his poverty. But if he were "a poor old colored man," his color would stick to him closer than either age or penury. 33 514 English Grammar. Professor McGuffey, of Virginia, used to illustrate this point by the difference between " an old cocked hat " and " a cocked old hat." The first was from the day of its mak- ing a hat of the special kind known as a cocked hat, which had become old. The other was an old hat of any kind, that through accident or rough usage had been knocked into a cocked hat. It is upon the same principle that adjective pronouns a, an, the, this, some, any, several, being applica- ble always and to everything, are placed farther from the noun than any real adjective. A curious instance of misplacement is afforded by a private act of the Fifty-first Congress, which alleges that Milo Miner had " four only sons." It is not uncommon to have only four sons, but the circumstance of having a number of only sons perhaps merited preservation in permanent form as a part of the law of the land. A great number of words may be used as eithqr nouns, adjectives, or verbs. Participles especially partake of the adjective character, and the same is true of the possessive case of nouns. The dignity of a senator is the same as senatorial dignity. A long series of words may be used adjectively before a single noun. An act of Congress, dated August 1 8, 1890, specifies " one light rapid fire, rapid twist six-pounder breech-loading field gun." Here are ten words, placed as adjectives before the word "gun" and three of them are nouns, while " twist " is am- biguous, but probably a noun. Obviously some of these words belong together in pairs, as " rapid-fire," " rapid- twist," " breech-loading," " field-gun " ; so that the ideas to be expressed are less than the number of words. But on the other hand any adjective may be preceded by an adverb, or even by more than one. A very well informed man told the story. In languages where the adjectives admit of full inflection they are required to agree with the nouns to which they be- Syntax. 5 1 5 long in number, gender, and case ; but in English there are only two words that admit of such distinction namely, this and that, which have the plurals these and those. Adjectives may be further limited or defined by being connected with nouns or equivalent expressions by means of prepositions suitable for building, unfit for severe service, unable to walk. While any number of single adjectives may be placed before the noun which they qualify, these adjective phrases are put after it. We do not say : " An unable to walk man," but " A man unable to walk." Similar qualifying expressions may be introduced in any part of a sentence after either a noun, an adjective, or a verb a man with a basket and a fishing-rod. The Indian rode without saddle or bridle. In either case the qualifying phrase is put after the word qualified. Thus far I have spoken only of adjective expressions closely and immediately connected with the subject or ob- ject ; but there are others thrown in parenthetically in the manner of passing remarks, and usually pointed off by commas. " Yet man, ignorant of the constitution of the dust upon which he treads, has ventured to speculate on the nature of God." "His spirit, mean in adversity, violent and inhuman in prosperity, sank under the load of public abhorrence." Words and phrases thus loosely connected with subject or object, are said to be in apposition, with it, which means placed near, not joined to it. Either nouns, adjectives, or adjective phrases may stand in apposition with the subject or the object, and may either precede or follow, or be placed at some distance while other words intervene. " Now therefore I, Benjamin Harrison, President of the United States of America, do issue this my proclamation." The subject of the sentence is " I." " Stretching far away at their feet, were seen noble forests of oak, sycamore, and cedar." 516 English Grammar. " Who is this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars of smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankincense, with all powders of the merchant ? " " A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse ; a spring shut up, a fountain sealed" In this last passage from Canticles the natural order of sub- ject, copula, and predicate would be : " My sister, my spouse, is a garden enclosed, a spring shut up, a fountain sealed" The very next sentence unfolds an exuberance of explan- atory terms in apposition : " Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits ; camphire with spikenard, spikenard and saffron ; calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense ; myrrh and aloes, with all the chief spices." One example more will show how far appositive phrases may be extended. " Herculean strength and a stentorian voice, Of wit a fund, of words a countless choice ; In learning rather various than profound, In truth intrepid, in religion sound ; A trembling form and a distorted sight, Yet firm in judgment, and of genius bright : Deep tinged with melancholy's blackest shade, And, though prepared to die, of death afraid ; To more than merited his kindness kind, And, though of manners rough, yet friendly mind ; Such Johnson was, of whom with justice vain, O when shall England see his like again ? " When the subject is a pronoun it does not take adjectives directly, or attributatively, but may have adjectives or ad- jective phrases in apposition. Thus far none of the explanatory words or phrases con- sidered have contained verbs ; but there may be illustrative clauses containing both subject and verb, thus having with- Syntax. 517 in themselves the essentials of sentences. There may thus be subordinate sentences contained in or attached to prin- cipal sentences. They may be attached to subject, verb, or object, but always by means of conjunctions, or pronominal or adverbial relatives words closely related in character. " The events which I propose to relate form only a single act of a great and eventful drama." " While the German princes who reigned at Paris, Toledo, Aries, and Ravenna, listened with reverence to the instructions of bishops, adored the relics of martyrs, and took part eagerly in disputes touch- ing the Nicene theology, the rulers of Wessex and Mercia were still performing savage rites in the temples of Thor and Woden." " The Church has many times been compared to the ark of which we read in the Book of Genesis" There are even such subordinate sentences enclosing others still more subordinate. " We read in our Saxon chronicles of tyrants, who (when at the height of greatness,) were smitten with remorse * * * and who sought to atone for their offences by cruel penances and incessant prayers." The dependent sentence may thus be much longer than the principal one. While the grammatical subject is usually a single word noun or pronoun the logical subject, that which we are called upon to think of, is the aggregate represented by that noun or pronoun together with all the adjectives, adjective phrases, and dependent sentences attached thereto. The same may be said of the object. The verb may in like man- ner be expanded so as to include logically all the circum- stances of time, manner, cause, and purpose. Thus the whole sentence, however long, crystallizes around the three points of Subject, Verb, and Predicate, or Object. While the central point of the subject or object is generally a noun or pronoun ; yet it sometimes takes the form of a phrase, clause, or dependent sentence. 518 English Grammar. " That I have tane away this old man's Daughter, It is most true." The first line is here the real subject. He found that during his absence a pack of ragamuffins had entered and robbed his garden, and broken down his fruit-trees, vines, and flowers. In this example " He " is the subject, " found " the verb, and all the rest object. As in the above quotation from " Othello," the little pro- noun " it " is often made to figure as the grammatical sub- ject ; " // is most true." But " it " in this case can stand for nothing but the previous line, which has no need of such a representative. This it belongs to the habit of the language, but really performs no more duty than he in such a sentence as: The watchman he fell asleep. Nearly all that has been said of the subject of a sentence applies equally to the predicate after a verb of being, or the object after a transitive verb : yet there are some points of difference. Where case can be distinguished verbs of being, becoming, seeming, etc., take the same case before and after them ; transitive verbs require the objective. Instances of devia- tion will be noticed when we come to treat of the syntax of pronouns. The noun or pronoun which is the nucleus of the object is placed as near as possible to the beginning, so as to be in close proximity to the verb on which it depends. We may say : Descended from an old baronial family who had lived on the ancestral estate three hundred years, Sir Thomas was elected, etc. But we may not say: They elected, descended from an old baronial family who had lived on the ancestral estate three hundred years, Sir Thomas. This latter construction is common in German, only that an article, an or the, would be placed before " descended." Syntax. 519 The superfluous " it " has no place in the object. The equally superfluous " there " is also excluded. There is great scarcity of water in Wyoming. They found great scarcity of water in Wyoming. A reason for the use of these redundant particles can be conjectured. The verb to be has nearly the effect of the sign of quality =, and like it requires a term on each side. Let us substitute the sign. I = very cold. There = about 500 men. These are complete equations, so far as mere form goes, but, = very cold ; = about 500 men, show their incompleteness too plainly. Besides the direct object of a verb there may often be an indirect one, viz., the person to, for, or on behalf of whom an action is performed. A B is building me a house. He is not building me; he is building a house; but the house is for me. The to or for often placed before the indirect object belongs to the class of "modern improve- ments," not really necessary, but occasioned by the dis- appearance of case-endings. When we were able to distin- guish cases such indirect object was in the dative. The distinction is still sufficiently shown by position, as the in- direct object without a preposition is placed before the direct. Sing me a song ; not, Sing a song me. But if a preposition is used the order is reversed. Send it to him ; not, Send to him it. A few verbs have the appearance of having two direct objects. We may take teach as an example. One may teach boys, or he may teach Latin. So then when he teaches boys Latin, which is the direct and which the indirect object? That may be determined by position. We teach boys Latin, but never Latin boys. In reality the word is used in two different senses. In the sentence : " We 520 English Grammar. teach boys," teach = instruct ; it has not that value in the sentence: " We teach Latin." The words pay and forgive may be disposed of in the same manner. Ask is somewhat different, as we do not ask to or for, but of or from a person and for a thing. The indirect object here never was a dative ; and the Saxon verb governed two accusatives. " ne ndn ne dorste of tham dsege, hyne nan thing mare acsian." (nor no one durst not from that day ask him no thing more.) MATT, xxii., 46. In usage ask is now assimilated to the others just con- sidered. We may easily determine which is the direct object by trying the collocation : " I asked a question him." The indirect object need not necessarily be a person. Verbs are modified by adverbs, hence all expressions and clauses that limit, define, or describe the actions represented by verbs have an adverbial character, especially those that express cause, purpose, time, manner, or instrumentality. The placing of adverbial expressions is a subject of great extent and of considerable importance and difficulty. Only an outline can be given here. Beginning with the simplest class, intransitive verbs quali- fied by simple adverbs, we find that, while adjectives regu- larly precede nouns, adverbs generally follow verbs. run away sit down run aground go ahead fall off climb up draw out fall behind turn round cry out keep aloof sit up In these and similar expressions the adverb is to be placed after the verb and nowhere else. They have become almost an integral part of the verb. There are no unquestionable adverbs, except those derived from the interrogative pro- noun, that are imperatively required to be placed before verbs. A very few adverbs of time, or that express difficulty, generally come before the verb when it consists of a single word : Almost, erst, ever, never, hardly, rarely, scarcely, seldom. Syntax. 521 But when the verbal expression is composite, they may, and generally do, follow the auxiliary ; and it is to be remem- bered that, grammatically, the auxiliary is the verb. When the verb is present or preterit active that is, con- sists of a single word, there are a number of adverbs that never precede it. The following are a few examples : Apart, asleep, astray, aloud, lengthwise, late, near, nigh, pitapat straight, together, upside down. The negative not has the peculiarity of always following an auxiliary or the verb to be, or to have. Such adverbs of time as long ago, now, then, often, sometimes yesterday, to-morrow, by and by, are homeless wanderers, having no fixed place in the sentence. By far the greatest number of adverbs in the language are formed from adjectives by adding ly, and express the manner of doing something. Their proper place, which, it must be admitted, is not very well assured, is after the verb, or at least after an auxiliary. To place them before the verb would often be perfectly barbarous. He well acts He unintelligibly speaks They insolently behaved He too long stayed They wastefully live He fashionably dresses. I conclude then that the normal place of the adverb is after the verb. Of course there are exceptions, and we are not to expect consistency ; but such is according to the genius and fundamental analogies of the language. There are two places in a sentence where adverbs are not appropriate. One is between a transitive verb and its ob- ject. If the object be a noun, adverbs expressing the direc- tion of motion, and forming almost a part of the verb, may be placed either before or after such noun. He cut down the tree ; or, He cut the tree down. He called back the boy ; or, He called the boy back. When, however, a preposition precedes the noun object, an adverb or adverbial phrase may come between that and the 522 English Grammar. verb. But when the object is a pronoun, no adverb is al- lowed between it and the verb : They sent him away ; not They sent away him. The other unsuitable place is between an infinitive and to preceding. In modern English to has become so closely associated with the verb as to be considered a part of it. If you ask any one whether there is any verb corresponding to the noun collision, he will probably tell you that there is, and that it is to collide. That is the usual way of mention- ing any verb. So closely have they become united that I can think of no justification for putting them asunder. I have met with but few instances of the separation in books ; but within a few years newspapers, magazines, speeches all documents of the day and hour abound with expressions somewhat like the following : They were expected to immediately return. He promised to to-morrow call and settle. The trade was expected to immensely increase. A passage with this grammatical feature occurs in one of Miss Burney's novels written about the time of the Ameri- can revolution, and " Childe Harold " has at least one ; but then the arrangement of words in poetry is privileged. " To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, To slowly trace the forest's shady scene." So they are to be found in the writings of Herbert Spen- cer, and probably in some other works with which I am not familiar ; but happily they are still rare in books of any literary merit. The following are genuine and recent : " For the champion of a great cause [Parnell] to repeatedly and with deliberation place himself in a position rendering certain his removal," etc. " The great reduction in recent years in the price of copper * * * led to such a general extension of the uses of that metal, as to finally not only absorb any surplus stock, but also," etc. Syntax. 523 " a proper care for human life should inspire every member of Congress with a determination to, as soon as possible, remedy the condition of affairs now existing." It is very curious to observe how rapidly such a fashion will overspread the world in the manner of a rinderpest or a potato-blight. A votary of the fashion, with more ambi- tion than judgment, gets the following imitation put into print : " There has been some mortality among the cattle * * * due to principally overcrowded ranges." Leaving adverbial expressions consisting of single words and turning to clauses of some length, there is one that de- serves particular attention. It is sometimes called the Case Absolute, but might more properly be called the Absolute Clause. It introduces something that has no expressed con- nection with the rest of the sentence ; but a relation of time, cause, or occasion is left to be understood. Mrs. Fauntleroy having paid the fine and costs, Simpkins was released. The relation is one of cause. The gate being open, the cattle entered and destroyed the corn. Here the relation is one of occasion or opportunity. The essential parts of the clause are a subject different from that of the principal sentence, accompanied by a parti- ciple instead of a verb. Where there are sufficient distinc- tions of case the subject and participle are in some one of the so-called oblique cases. In Sanskrit it was the locative, employed with the sense of at, during, or upon. In Greek, the case absolute was the genitive ; in Latin, where it was extremely common, it was the ablative ; in Anglo-Saxon, the dative ; in English it is the nominative or common case, there being no other choice except the possessive. It would be practically impossible, and useless even if practicable, to name, describe, explain, and justify every form of expression employed to set forth all the circum- 524 English Grammar. stances of time, place, cause, manner, instrumentality, and effect. We have seen that when a sentence consists of only two or three words, they must be placed in a certain order, and that when single words are added to these there are appropriate places for them. But when the additional matter amounts to long clauses and even sentences, the arrangement of such material is left very much to the judgment and taste of the writer. We have merely found that there are two places, at least according to my judgment, from which they are generally to be excluded. The essential words of the sentence preserve their relative places. By marking them in italics we can show where the secondary matter is distrib- uted or accumulated. It may precede or follow them, be interposed between them, or spread around them. " Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of Iturea and of the region of Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene, Annas and Caiaphas being the high priests, the word of God came to John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness." 4< The Bishops edified all who approached them by the firmness and cheerfulness with which they endured confinement, by the modesty and meekness with which they received the applause and blessings of the whole nation, and by the loyal attachment which they professed for the persecutor who sought their destruction." " Even Powell, whose character for honesty stood high, had bornea.part'v<\ some proceedings which it is impossible to defend." A good deal is often placed between the auxiliary and participle in a compound tense. " He had, in the great case of Sir Edward Hales, with some hesitation, it is true, and after some delay, concurred with the majority of the bench." I do not think, however, that this is the best arrangement possible. If there be one leading principle above all others to be seen in the structure of English sentences, it is that of keep- ing the essential words, or at the very least two of them, Syntax. 525 near together, so that their relations to each other may be seen in an instant, without waiting for the end of a long discourse. It is true that the outlying circumstances are in danger of not receiving full attention, but then they are less important, sometimes not important at all. Alike in accenting our words and framing our sentences, our instinct is to make sure of the main point, even at the sacrifice of some of the accessories. But this practical bent of the language has been interfered with by the Latin training of the schools. The Latin sentence, like the Latin pronunciation, rested on principles different from ours. The simplest of Latin sen- tences were constructed somewhat like the following from Livy : " Carthaginiense s eo anno argentum in stipendium impositum primum advexerunt" " Consul, per Charopum Epiroten certior factus, quos saltus cum exercitu insedisset rex, et ipse, quum Corcyrae hibernasset, vere prime in continentem transvectus, ad hostem ducere pergit" Latin preserved the integrity of its sentences, by placing the principal words at the extremities, reminding us of structures that have both sides faced with solid masonry, and the space between filled up with earth and rubble. Sen- tences constructed on this principle would be laborious to follow, but in classic Latin they were generally short. The sentences of Sallust, the most rhetorical of all the Roman writers, average only twenty-eight words. We are not to understand that all Latin sentences are precisely like those above, or that all English sentences ought to follow a definite model, thus producing a sameness that would be tiresome. The variety is alike endless in both languages; but the leading characteristics can be detected under nearly all disguises. The maxim that no sentence should end in small or unimportant words is doubtless an outgrowth of Latin teaching, and its general application to English is impos- sible. It has contributed, however, to the bad habit of crowding one phrase or clause inside of another, to which is 526 English Grammar. due in turn most of the ambiguity and bad composition we meet with. Arrangement is more important than concord or govern- ment. We rarely misunderstand any one because of violation of common rules of grammar. If the proper words be chosen and properly placed, a wrong number, gender, or case will seldom be a fatal defect. If an Indian says : " Me see white man shoot injun yesday," his meaning is as unmistakable as if clothed in the choicest language of the schools. But the adverb of time is the only word that can be moved from its place without impairing or destroying the sense. I do not claim that strange or uncouth forms should be encouraged, but only that some offences against correct speech are more heinous than others. We meet every day with sentences that are either ambiguous, nonsensical, or ungraceful solely because their words are misplaced. There was once said to be in the old Columbian Museum in Boston a bottle partly filled with wine and bear- ing this inscription : " This is the wine that Green drank and the bottle that was executed for highway robbery." Such an inscription is not beyond the bounds of possibility, or even of probability. There is little more than a displace- ment of the words, " and the bottle." So I have read of a Dutch village of 500 houses on the Hudson or the Mohawk containing 2,000 inhabitants, all with their gable ends turned towards the street. It is frankly admitted that these two examples, although found in print, may have gained something by re-editing ; the following are taken at first hand, but their respective and respectable authors may not be ambitious to have their names made public : " The five young ministers of the Reformed Presbyterian church, who had been on trial before Pittsburg presbytery * * * were yesterday suspended and prohibited from exercising their ministerial office until they repent by a vote of twenty-five to forty." Syntax. 527 Repenting by a vote of twenty-five to forty is an odd kind of penitence ; possibly it would be more sincere if they should repent by a vote of forty to twenty-five. " Mr. Struble said that * * * he rose to speak on the question of public buildings as represented by the unfinished calendar of the House, upon which were thirty-five bills passed by the committee of the whole on May 29, no one of which had been permitted to be considered by the Speaker of the House." It may be a pity if the Speaker be not permitted to con- sider bills ; but how would it be if the bills had not " been permitted by the Speaker of the House to be considered." The latter is what was intended. "Two police saw Collins take money from the bar. Upon searching him they found coins marked for the purpose of de- tecting the thief in his pocket." A dangerous man was Collins if he carried a thief in his pocket. " Dr. Ramon de la Sota, a Spanish physician who has given much attention to the subject, states that he is frequently called upon to treat Spanish ladies, who do not themselves smoke for irritation of the throat." The report fails to state what these ladies do smoke for. " It is the business of the physiologists to trace our sensations to their material organs, not ours." The italics are not in the original. But if I were to go on I might be tempted to expose grammatical " wickedness in high places," and so may as well stop here. Adverbial clauses expressive of time and place have no special position, but may be put wherever they will least obstruct the other parts of the sentence. It is very common to place them either at the beginning or the end. Adjective clauses describing the subject or the object should be placed near those terms ; and clauses defining the action of the verb are very often placed after the object, especially if it has no following of its own. 528 English Grammar. He wrote ten letters within the space of a single week, and with his right arm in a sling. It would not be : He wrote within a single week, and with his right arm in a sling, ten letters. The adverbial clauses might be placed at the beginning, or one at each extremity. But this is only a hint of a general principle, and not a rule that will hold good in all cases. Indeed there are few such. Relative clauses should follow as closely as possible the words which are the antecedents ; otherwise it may be un- certain what they relate to. On the steamer yesterday I met with Judge Crocker, the father of our friend George Crocker, who married Mabel Evans, the owner of the cutlery works on Silver Creek, who was going to Boston to visit a sick sister. This sentence leaves it uncertain who was going to Boston, or which of the three persons named owned the cutlery works. The construction favors Mrs. Crocker, who was probably neither the proprietor nor the visitor in the case. The principle of placing the relative next to its antecedent, sometimes comes in the way of the placing of an adverbial clause after the object. They hired Warren, who had worked in the factory fifteen years, for $70 a month. The meaning is that they hired Warren for $70 a month, he having worked in the factory fifteen years. In writing, punctuation sheds a feeble and wavering light on the meaning, but for the spoken language even that guidance is wanting. The difficulty of making a lucid, unambiguous arrange- ment is a real one, and may be illustrated in this manner. Let A, one of the essential elements of a sentence, require to be modified by the three clauses, b, c, d. If they could be arranged thus - <CI^ all would be easy. But as we can- ^^^^ Syntax. 529 not say three things at once, we are compelled to take them one at a time, 4.^.^/ and the danger is that d may appear to apply, not to A, but to b or c. The misplacing of only is a frequent source of ambiguity. In careful writing the word limited is preceded by only or followed by alone. While this is the general distinction it is not always adhered to. " She was accounted inferior to the Queen only in dignity." PRESCOTT. That is, she was inferior in no other respect. Either only ought to follow " inferior " or be replaced by alone. Profes- sor Earle quotes from Clarendon's History : " He was a man of few words except in hunting and hawking, in which he only knew how to behave himself." and suggests that " modern usage would require the he and the only to change places. I do not see how that would mend the matter ; for if " only he knew how to behave him- self," it follows that no one else did ; whereas the meaning of the noble author no doubt was that " it was only in hunt- ing and hawking that he knew how to behave himself." There is no patent method of escaping this difficulty ; but time, care, judgment and good taste will surmount it ; and in the next chapter I purpose to offer a few practical sug- gestions on this and other points. Thus far we have considered only affirmative sentences, those that assert that something is or was or will be. A few words may now be said about those that contain a negation. A negative character may be given to any kind of sentence. The common negative in the present stage of the language is not, a shortened form of nought or naught. The negation resides in the letter n, and is present equally in no, nor, never neither, and the compounds of no. No, as an adjective pro- noun, is the negative of o=one ; and bears the same relation to none that my does to mine. In virtue of its adjective quality its place is before a noun. Not, being an adverb, naturally follows a verb. 34 530 English Grammar. " Go not into the way of the Gentiles, and into any city of the Samaritans, enter ye not" MATT, x., 5. The departure from this form of expression has not im- proved the language. At present not follows only the aux- iliaries and the verbs be and have. Where there is no natu- ral necessity for any auxiliary, do is used pro forma to pre- cede not. One of the evidences that let is not yet fully converted into an auxiliary is its relation to this negative. We no longer say : " Let not" but feel required to say : " Do not let" When applied to any other part of speech than a verb not infinitive not has priority of position. Not having provided myself with a pass, I was refused admit- tance. He bought a copy of Marlowe, second-hand, but not soiled or worn. It may be said then that not follows a finite verb to which it applies, but precedes anything else. But the association of not with other parts of speech is often a mere artificial arrangement of words, while it logically follows the verb. Not justice, but mercy, is the prayer of mortals, may as well be written : The prayer of mortals is not justice, but mercy. The poets sometimes indulge in strange dislocations : " For not to have been dipped in Lethe's lake Could save the son of Thetis from to die." Not belongs between " could " and " save " ; " to have been dipped " = immersion, and " to die " = death. Among our inheritances from the Latin is the doctrine that two negatives make an affirmative. It is not self-evi- dent that reiterated denial amounts to affirmation or that refusal oft repeated is consent. Such a grammatical canon was unknown to the Greeks, and is not recognized by the Syntax. 531 Spaniards. It is modern in English, and entirely due to Latin and French influences. Our Saxon and early English ancestors were profusely liberal in their use of negatives. " They can not seen in that non auntag6 Ne in non other way saue mareage"." CHAUCER : " Man of Lawes Tale." " He is fre of hors that rcer ade on." " Proverbs of Hending." " nas tid ne tyme ni ne wurth that god ne send gode maenn his folc forte 3elathie to his rice." (There has not been tide nor time, nor will not be that God sendeth not good men for to bid his folk to his kingdom.) " Old English Homily." " By innocence I sweare and by my youth, I have one heart, one bosome, and one truth, And that no woman has, nor never none Shall mistris be of it saue I alone." SHAKES?.: "Twelfe Night," iii., i. This redundant negation began to disappear from careful prose about the end of the fifteenth century, and the process of pruning is not yet quite complete. The Latin doctrine of the negative was that it not merely negatived a proposition, but reversed it. It was like the military movement of about-face, which, when repeated, led to the point of starting. It resembled the continued mul- tiplication of a negative quantity, in which all the odd terms are negative and all the even ones positive. Hence the small boy's frequent plea : I did n't do nuthin to nobody, is negative as intended. Many words contain a negation in themselves unjust, in- sincere, disobedient, child/ess, naked, empty. When one of these words is used with a separate negative, it amounts to a double negation. Not unsuccessful = successful. But, when between an idea and its opposite there is a consider- 532 English Grammar. able range of intermediate degrees, the negation of one term is not the affirmation of the opposite. The* bottle is not empty, is not equivalent to The bottle is full. So to say that it is not improbable is by no means the same as to say that it is probable, as the chances may be equal. Double nega- tives of this kind are much used as a sort of guarded, half- way affirmations. Hence the dictum that two negatives make an affirmative requires to be taken with some grains of allowance. There is a case of repetition of the negative the propriety of which has never been decided. There are only opinions for and against it. " He shall not cry, nor lift up, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street." ISAIAH xlii., 2. Some now think that the sentence would be improved by having only one negative, and substituting or for each nor. Similar sentences may be found in which the first negative is no, never, or neither. The above sentence from Isaiah has been influenced by the phraseology of the Hebrew original, of which it is a very close and faithful translation the nega- tive being there repeated, and by a doctrine of the English verb different from that which is now beginning to appear. On the question whether or or nor be preferable in such sentence the following points may be presented. 1. In the earlier ages of the language when negatives were thrown around as if they cost nothing, nor would unques- tionably have had the preference. 2. At present it would be useless to cite examples or authorities, as plenty could be found on each side. 3. The meaning is the same either way. He has not eaten nor slept since Friday at noon. He has not eaten or slept since Friday at noon. These two lines state the same fact, and in ways equally unmistakable. The only question is whether or not there is a superfluous negative in the first. Syntax. 533 4. In signification and effect, nor is not equivalent to or -j- not, but to and -\- not. It does not introduce an alternative but an addition. " He has not eaten nor drunk " does not mean " He has not eaten, or he has not drunk, but " He has not eaten, and he has not drunk. 5. Not is generally placed immediately after a verb to which it applies in modern English oftenest an auxiliary. Its influence is co-extensive with that of the verb which it affects, governs, or controls, and within that domain there is no need of another negative. It is only necessary to ascer- tain the limits to which the force of the verb extends. I cannot nor will consent to the proposal. Here can does not control will, and therefore a second negative is necessary. Cannot or will would be ambiguous or unmeaning. I have said that the above example from Isaiah has been influenced by the wording of the Hebrew. Now we may take one in which or is employed instead of nor. " Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the earth." For this difference two reasons can be assigned, first, that the negative is not repeated in the Hebrew, and second, that the whole, as far as the word anything is governed by the verb make, which is controlled by not. Yet we are not to expect such a distinction to be consistently observed. Let us take as another example Matthew x., 9. " Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses ; nor scrip for your journey, neither two coats, neither shoes, nor yet staves." Here the negative is repeated, although, according to the principle I have stated, it is not necessary, as " provide " governs to the last word. The negative is repeated in the Greek original. Admirable then as the English Bible is, it 534 English Grammar. is influenced somewhat by foreign idiom in its use of the vernacular. In the following sentences nor or some equivalent word is necessary. " Blame not thy clime, nor chide the distant sun." " If she sent to a hundred lawyers, not one nor all of them could alter the law." " My hair is gray, but not with years, Nor grew it white in a single night." In the following nor is not required, for the reason that the verb to which the first negative applies covers the whole sentence. " Call not thy friends, nor thy brethren, neither thy kinsmen, nor thy rich neighbors." " I am not ugly nor old, Nor a villanous scold." When not applies to any other word than a verb, it in like manner affects that particular word as far as its action or influence extends. No, neither, never are equivalent to not any, not either, not ever. The separation or union of the parts does not affect the force or extent of the negation. " Heav'n whose high walls fear no assault or siege, Or ambush from the deep." MILTON. No = not any ; hence fear no = fear not any. "With no great love for learning or the learn'd." BYRON : " Don Juan." " There was no manifestation of disgust or pity, or indignation or sorrow." DICKENS. " I never saw her either read a book or occupy herself with needlework." MARRYAT : " Peter Simple." " And never more saw I or horse or rider." COLERIDGE : " Piccolomini." " I have neither age, person or character, to found dislike on." SHERIDAN: "Rivals." Syntax. 535 " Often had William of Deloraine Rode through the battle's bloody plain, And trampled down the warriors slain, And neither known remorse or awe." SCOTT. Neither is oftener than any of the others followed by nor, so that many seem to think that it has a peculiar and pre- scriptive right to a negative attendant ; but really it has, if possible, less claim than any of the others. Neither = not either = not any one of the two. It negatives two things considered one at a time. The supposed necessary bond between neither and nor depends upon contrasting them with the correlation either * * * or, a. false proportion : Neither : nor : : either : or. We have not found either peace or plenty in this unhappy Ireland is precisely the same as, We have found neither peace or plenty, etc. The latter seems strange because it is unusual. Neither is often made to alternate with nor in the Bible, merely to give variety of expression. The employment of nor in the place of neither " Nor in sheet nor in shroud we wound him," is probably due to a mistaken idea that they are only two forms of the same word. There is a kind of double negative, not uncommon, which seems often unnecessary, if not silly. There is no telling what he might not do. A more prac- tical question would seem to be, " What he might do." All sentences thus far considered have affirmed or denied, but others remain which make no assertion. They are direct questions and direct commands, or interrogative and im- perative sentences, of which only a few words need be said. Interrogative sentences, considered grammatically, are naturally divisible into two classes. The first aim direct at the central point of the fact under inquiry the verb by which that fact can be stated. 536 English Grammar. Have you written a letter to the Governor ? The answer is expected to be equally short and direct, and,' if affirmative, to take very nearly one of three forms. " I have written to him," " I have," or " Yes." If the answer be negative, not is placed after " have," or " No " is substituted for " Yes." The verb, being the point in question, is regularly the first and interrogative word, but in the composite tenses it is only the auxiliary that is placed first, and the rest of the verbal expression may be at some distance. Have you ever, in all your intercourse with the world, found a man perfectly contented with his lot ? The simple verbs take do as a formal auxiliary, for in the present state of the language have and be are the only single verbs that ask questions. The second class of interrogatories never bring the main fact in question, but only some circumstance. Referring to the first example above, the fact of writing would be taken for granted ; but it might be asked, " Who wrote ? What or to whom, when, where, how or why did you write?" These interrogative words, consisting of the interrogative pronoun and its derived adverbs, are placed first in the sen- tence. Questions of this class do not admit of the general and direct answer yes or no, but only of a special answer going to the particular point of the inquiry. Instead of asking a question of any kind, one may some- times effect the same purpose by expressing a desire for information. I should like to know if you have written to the Governor. But a substitute of this kind is not really an interrogatory. An imperative sentence is a direct command. As such it must be addressed to some one present, or who can be reached by voice, letter, or other direct means. It would be no better than a repetition to say that the subject of the verb is the second person that is, the person addressed. " Repine not at thy lot." Syntax. 537 The form of the verb is the shortest and simplest that can be used. In point of fact, it is like the infinitive, but only for the reason that that too is reduced to its lowest terms. In languages that admit of such apocopation the imperative is shorter than the infinitive. It is without variation for person, number, or tense. The subject of an imperative verb is seldom expressed, but when it is it follows the verb : " When I rear my hand do you the same." SHAKESPEARE : " Tempest," ii., i. When a noun is placed before the verb it is as an exclama- tion or a call to ensure attention. " Tigress, begone ! " ADDISON : " Rosamond." Expressions like : " The Lord forgive you," have been con- sidered, page 458. Something like imperatives of the first and third persons are obtained by the help of let. " Let us stand by each other." " He trusted in the Lord that he would deliver him, let him deliver him." PSA. xxii., 8. In point of form it is a command to some ideal second person to permit something to be done, and sometimes is such command : Stop the car and let me get out. Very often it is a mere exhortation, or wish, and unfortu- nately the words do not show the distinction. It was otherwise when fashion sanctioned " Go we " for " Let us go," and " Come they " for " Let them come." Our lan- guage is now very largely dependent upon auxiliary words ; but in many cases, and notably in negative, interrogative, and imperative sentences it has been weakened by an ex- cessive use of them. There are two substitutes for an imperative mood. The first of these is by the use of shall. " Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image." 538 English Grammar. Two things show that shalt is not imperative. It is preceded by its nominative thou, and has the personal ending -/. It is therefore indicative, and makes an assertion. Shall expresses not duty or obligation, but authority. To say that you shall do this or that is not saying that you ought, but that you are required by an authority able and willing to enforce its behests. Grammatically shall cannot be made into an imperative, or an infinitive either. The effect of an imperative may also be attained in a mild way by expressing a desire that the thing required be done. MISCELLANEOUS POINTS OF SYNTAX. Dr. Latham observes that the only adjective that governs a case is the word like. Like is not an ellipsis for like to, the to being a modern innovation, a part of the general ten- dency to use a multitude of auxiliary words. Like governs a dative case in most languages that have one ; and earlier English was no exception. " Sothlice hwam telle ic thas cneorysse gelice ? " (Truly whom call I this generation like ?) MATT, xi., 16. " Ther nas no kni3t him ilik"" King Horn." But worth also governs a case. " There 's bucks and raes on Bilhope braes, There 's herd in Shortwood Shaw ; But a lily-white doe in the garden goes ; She 's fairly worth them a' " " Bride of Lammermoor." I have long held that like, when it expresses a direct rela- tion, is a preposition ; and I find that now I am supported by the authority of Professor Earle and the great Dictionary of the Philological Society. But if like be sometimes a preposition, so also is worth. What is generally regarded as grammar concerns chiefly pronouns and verbs. As the personal pronouns have pre- Syntax. 539 served the distinctions of number, gender, and case, they have to agree with the nouns which they represent in num- ber and gender, so far as they are capable of distinguishing the latter ; verbs of which they are the subjects must agree with them in number ; and when they are the objects of verbs or follow prepositions they are required to be in the objective case. What is called the ethical dative, which is neither sub- ject nor object, is now rare. When it has any meaning it is equivalent to the modern phrase : " for my sake," " to oblige me," etc. When, in " Henry VI.," Duke Humphrey says, " leape me over this stoole and runne away." his meaning might be thiis expressed : Oblige me by leaping over this stool and running away. The reflexive pronoun being a comparatively modern formation, the simple personal pronoun is often used in its place by old authors and by poets. " I made me great works ; I builded me houses ; I planted me vineyards ; I made me gardens." ECCL. ii., 4. " He sate him down at a pillar's base, And pass'd his hand athwart his face." BYRON. The combinations with self are extremely confused. In the first place they are made to serve two purposes that have no connection or resemblance. They are emphatic, and they are reflexive. In the two following sentences himself performs entirely different offices." " But he himself went a day's journey into the wilderness." " He that is swift of foot shall not deliver himself" In the second place part of them are formed with objective cases of the personal pronouns, part with possessives, and a part (herself and itself} are uncertain. Moreover it is not always clear whether they are nouns or pronouns. Now a noun is of the third person, unless directly addressed, or in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second person. 540 English Grammar. There is then a chance that myself may be of the third per- son, and accordingly Dr. Latham says : " When myself or thyself stands alone, the verb is in the third person myself is (not am) weak, thyself is (not art) weak. But that is at variance with authoritative usage. " And that thyself shalt now sen." 1 " Richard Creur de Lion." " So shall thy judgment be ; thyself hast decided it." i KINGS xx., 40. " by examining of whom thyself mayest take knowledge of these things." ACTS xxiv., 8. "Myself am Naples." SHAKESP. : "Tempest," i., 2. " Which way I fly is hell ; myself am hell." MILTON : " P. L.," iv., 75. The pronouns this, that, and yonder once pointed out ob- jects different in place or differently related to the speaker or the person spoken to. This dog (of mine), that horse (of yours), yonder tower (on the hill). But yonder has almost gone out of use, except as an adverb of place, and that has to perform double duty. This and that are, or rather have been, also used of things not before the eyes, but before the mind. Two things having been named a moment before, we may refer to them as this and that. All argument to determine which shall be called this and which that was cut short by the rule of Latin grammar, which applied this to the one last named and that to the other " Behold ! if fortune, or a mistress, frowns, Some plunge in business, others shave their crowns. To ease the soul of one oppressive weight, This quits an empire, that embroils a state." POPE. The words were also used without reference to things specifically named, but with the general sense of " one or the other " : 1 Quoted by Matzner. Syntax. 541 " As when two scales are charged with doubtful loads, From side to side the trembling balance nods ; ****** Till poised aloft, the resting beam suspends Each equal weight, nor this, nor that, descends." POPE'S " Iliad." When the things contrasted were quite evident, this kind of antithesis was very neat and effective ; but if clumsily handled a hearer might be left at a loss to know which was this and which was that. It is perhaps for some such reason that this use of the demonstratives, once so common, has been almost abandoned. We now employ the former and the latter for a similar purpose ; but, when not liable to mis- take, they lack the terseness of this and that, and when there is any doubt as to their application they are in no respect better than the shorter words. Boswell relates of Dr. John- son that he avoided the use of " the former " and " the latter," because they put people to the trouble of tracing backwards to find what they refer to. It might well seem that there could be no excuse for not knowing when to use the singular and when the plural of this and that, but experience proves that it is possible to err even here, and that the subject is really not so simple as it seems. But few nouns that include a plural number under a singular term admit of these or those. We might say : The company were invited. The mob were breaking into the jail. but it would not be admissible to say : " these company," " these class," " those mob," " those army." Yet such examples are to be found : " When you and those poore number saued with you Hung on our driuing boate." SHAKESP. : " Twelfe Night," ii., 2. " These kind of sufferings." BP. SHERLOCK. This last is the most common form of the error. Yet there are a few, a very few, singular nouns that may be preceded 54 2 English Grammar. by these or those. We may safely reckon on people, gentry, cavalry, infantry, cattle, poultry, vermin. I do not think that we can include the aristocracy, nobility, clergy, society, yeo- manry, peasantry, artillery, militia, nor do I think that any well defined distinction exists. The personal pronominal forms that express possession are, at the present day, so far as syntax is concerned, divisi- ble into two classes, of shorter and longer forms : my mine his his our ours her hers thy thine its its your yours their theirs His and its are the same for both. Now the shorter are always employed with nouns, the longer without. In the present state of the language the former are adjectives, the latter are not. They are therefore possessive cases of the personal pronouns. Neither alone are equal to the possessive cases of nouns, with which they may be thus compared : This is Mrs. Ashton's carriage. This is her carriage. It is Mrs. Ashton's. It is hers. The possessive of the noun may be used with or without a noun following, which can only be done by the two pronomi- nal forms supplementing each other. What is called the double possessive is found both in nouns and pronouns. He was riding a horse of the Doctor's. The explanation that has been usually given is that this means a horse of (from or out of) the Doctor's horses. This is seen more clearly in the Spanish : " Un pintor celeb re of reef a un cuadro de los suyos." Whether such an explanation be good or not, the double genitive is a well-established form of expression, and is some- times convenient to distinguish between a picture of my friend and a picture of my friend's. Syntax. 543 Each and every express plurality under a singular form, and both require singular verbs. They equally represent aggregates, considered one by one. Each marks the separa- tion into units more distinctly than every does. Either may be followed by one or by a noun ; but every cannot go alone: " Sweare his thought ouer By each particular- Starre in Heaven." SHAKESP. : " Winters Tale," i., 2. " The prayers of priests and people were every moment inter- rupted hy their sobs. CARLYLE : " Fr. Revol.," I., i., i. Each and every, although singular, are, sometimes, associ- ated with plural nouns or pronouns, either needlessly or to indicate that the units are thought of one by one : " Good husbands, let us every one go home." SHAKESP. : " Merry Wives," v., 5. " Kind uncle, woe -were we each one, If harm should hap to Brother John." SCOTT : "Marmion," i., 22. " They suspect each other" is equivalent to they each suspect the other. Taken any way the expression is anomalous, and makes no intelligible distinction between subject and object. Omit they, and each suspects the other is plain enough. Either and both are dual in signification, but while both means the two, either is only one of the two : You may have either sister, but not both. Either being confined to two, " Either he or his father or his brother " would be incorrect ; so also is " either one' of the ten." Either is incorrectly but not unfrequently used for each : " The chief officers of either army were present." THACKERAY : " Henry Esmond," ii., 4. " In the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the river, was there the tree of life." REV. xxii., 2. 544 English Grammar. Some and any apply equally to any number. They have this curious distinction that some is affirmative, any inter- rogative or negative : I never had any talent for music ; do you think that my daugh- ter has any ? Yes, she certainly has some. The interrogative and relative pronouns, which are to a great extent the same words, are especially liable to become the victims of misunderstanding. To say Whom did you say you saw at the ball ? is correct, but, Whom did you say was at the ball ? is incorrect. In the first question whom is the object oisaw, in the second it is the subject of was. In neither case does it depend upon say, although that is the word that occasions the confusion. " Whom do men say that I, the Son of man, am ? " MATT, xvi., 14. Of course the Revised Version has Who, but in other re- spects I do not think the passage improved. This confusion of cases is very common, in unstudied speech more common than correct discrimination. So foreign to our habits of thought is the idea of case, except the possessive, that although only four words in the language have any, we habitually blunder about them : " Who can he take after ? " " Who the devil is he talking to ? " SHERIDAN : " Rivals." " How ? thy wife ? I Sir : whom I thanke heauen is an honest woman." SHAKESP.: " Measure for Measure," ii., i. The presence of the conjunction than helps to confuse the mind as to the case of the relative. Very many persons would see nothing incorrect in He is five years older than me ; Syntax. 545 yet than has no effect upon case, and the real meaning is He is five years older than / am. This confusion of case is especially frequent : " Belial came last, than whom a spirit more lewd Fell not from heaven." MILTON : "Paradise Lost," i., 491. " Accepted Howard, than whom knight Was never dubbed more bold in fight." This confusion is most frequent when the relative and antecedent are of different cases, and one of them is sup- pressed. The other is then left to perform the part of both, and cannot be in two cases at once. What is the only word that can be both subject and object. He whom I accuse has entered is complete ; but if either " he " or " whom " were omitted the hiatus would lead to confusion. "Him I accuse The City Ports by this hath entered." SHAKESP. : " Coriolanus," v., 5. " Better to leaue vndone, then by our deed Acquire too high a Fame, when him we serues away." " Antony and Cleopatra," iii., i. " Edward * * * at length drew a pocket pistol, and threaten- ing to shoot whomsoever dared to stop him." SCOTT i " Waverley," xxx. " The original papers, together with the scarlet letter itself * * * are still in my possession, and shall be freely exhibited to whomsoever, induced by the great interest of the narrative, may desire a sight of them." HAWTHORNE. When .two words in a sentence, alike capable of being antecedent, are followed by a relative, it should refer to the second. In The father of the boys of whom we were speaking, 35 546 English Grammar. whom is to be understood as relating to boys ; but if one of the nouns cannot correctly be the antecedent, the relative is to be understood as referring to the other. The father of these boys, who was drowned last year. Here the antecedent must be father. When one or more nouns and a personal pronoun, mean- ing the same person, come together, the pronoun is the leading word, and determines the number, gender, and person. " I, Benjamin Harrison, President of the United States, do issue this my proclamation." " Thou James of Douglas wert the man." But when two nouns or pronouns stand as subject and predicate, a relative following agrees with the last. // was an orphan girl who had gathered them with her own hands. King, Lords, and Commons are zform of Government which is believed by the English people to be the best suited to their present wants. " I am the man that hath seen affliction by the rod of his wrath." LAM. iii., r. The errors and mistakes connected with the use of the pronouns probably outnumber all others in the language ; and for this two reasons may be at least conjectured. The simplest is that they alone trouble us with their cases. The other and deeper reason is connected with their great irregu- larity. Both are, I think, due to their being little words with no tangible or permanent meanings of their own, ex- pressing only ever-changing relations, flitting, flickering about, applicable to everything by turns, and constantly liable to have their old forms and meanings forgotten and intermixed. Innumerable examples might be furnished of the confusion that prevails in the use of pronouns, but I shall instance only one in addition to those already given. It is one to which writers and speakers of all grades have Syntax. 547 been prone for three hundred years, and more, from Bishop Latimer to Mr. Gladstone : "This is, perhaps, the truth of all others, most harmoniously re-echoed by every philosopher of every school." SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON. Sir Walter Raleigh furnishes a quaint form of this sole- cism, when he says that Richard III. was the most heartless tyrant " of all that forewent him" If long and wide usage and illustrious names can legitimize an absurdity, this must be very nearly standard English. Still it is not universal. A verb agrees with its subject or nominative in number and person so far as it is capable of distinguishing these ; but that is really to a very small extent. For most practical purposes a verb has but two forms, and as often only one. The present tense has one form for the third person singular and one for all other purposes ; the past tense is alike throughout. All singular pronouns and singular nouns, even when they represent numbers acting together as uni- ties, are followed by singular verbs. When the subject is plural so also is the verb. Several nominatives united by and or shown in any other way to join alike in the action of the verb require a plural. The teacher #</his wife and three children were crossing the field. There is here a grammatical equality and community in the action, which is wanting in The teacher, with his wife and three children was crossing the field. This latter is equivalent to The teacher was crossing the field with his wife and three children. That was the manner of his crossing. The other persons were only an accompaniment. When several persons are designated with the understand- ing that only one is to act, but it is left undetermined which one, the verb is singular. John or James or Thomas or Mary is sure to be at home. 548 English Grammar. If the alternate subjects be all singular or all plural, the number of the verb obviously must agree ; but if one be singular and another plural, the verb cannot agree with both. The strikers or the company has (or have) to give way. As a matter of convenience, and to make an end of strife, it is tacitly accepted that the verb shall agree with the last ; and it looks least incongruous when that is the plural. A verb, not imperative or infinitive, is always of the third person unless its nominative be a pronoun of the first or second person. In a dependent sentence whose subject is a relative, that relative, and consequently its verb, should agree with the antecedent in number and person. I who stand here saw those things ; not I who stands. When several nominatives differing in person are united under one verb, the first preference is given to the first person, the next to the second. We is any aggregate that includes the speaker, you is any that excludes the speaker but includes the person spoken to. When two or more nominatives to be taken as alterna- tives differ in person or number, the verb should agree with the one nearest to it. This is a point on which authorities do not agree. Of these two sentences : They or I am in error, They or I are in error, some prefer the one and some the other. The following considerations are in favor of the first. Either sentence is elliptical, being in full : They are in error, or I am in error. Supplying the necessary words the two will read, They are or I am in error. They, or I am, are in error. Syntax. 549 The second absurdly thrusts " / am " between They and its verb. All such sentences are extremely awkward, and had better be avoided altogether. We are under no obligation to write inelegantly, merely to show our preference for one barbarism over another. The presence of either would make no difference, as it would merely supplement or. A verb, transitive or intransitive, is often followed by a word of kindred meaning, as its real or apparent object. To tell a tale, to sing a song, to run a race, to throw a throw, to play plays, to live a virtuous life, to die a violent death, to smile a ghastly smile, are examples. Such expressions might be so arranged in a series that while in the first the noun would be unquestionably the object of the verb, in the last no action on the object is thought of. When Balaam prayed : " Let me die the death of the righteous," he could not have supposed that his dying would have any effect upon the " death of the righteous." He merely desired that he might die as righteous men die. The words " the death of the righteous," in form the object of the verb, are in signification an adverbial clause, expressive of manner and not substance. There are yet others of the same form in which the noun is still farther from being the object of the verb. " I sit a queen, and am no widow." REV. xviii., 7. Queen cannot be the object of sit. The meaning bears no analogy to that of sitting a spirited horse. Queen is really in apposition with /, and would be nominative if we had such a separate case. It is so in the Greek and in the Latin version of Beza. A more lucid rendering would be I sit as a queen ; and we might amend in the same manner all sentences like He walked forth a free man. The so-called substantive verb to be has the same case before and after it. To this there are apparent exceptions : 550 English Grammar. These books are John's. The sentence is elliptical, and if filled up would be either : These books are John's books, or, These are John's books. Is that you, John ? Yes, it is me. If this be correct, it is still contrary to general analogy, and sets all rule and reason at defiance. It is very common but not yet quite classical English. All passive verbs in English are made with the help of the verb to be, and take the same case after as before them : He was elected governor. They were appointed commissioners. As nouns have no distinctive case except the possessive, the fact is not of much practical importance, but it helps to illustrate the construction of the infinitive. The infinitive is used in four different ways : a. It follows the auxiliaries and a few other verbs incorrectly employed in the same manner. b. It follows a number of verbs and adjectives that pre- sent a probability of something. Seem, hope, fear, promise, threaten, able, willing, and apt are examples : She seemed to recover. He promised to pay. c. Many verbs in English, and still more in other languages, expressing the action of the senses, of power or intelligence, are followed by an infinitive expressing the action of another person. The word representing the second person (or thing,) at once the object of the first verb and the subject of the second, is in the objective case, if there be any such case distinguishable : " Then Esther bade them return Mordecai this answer." " If thou puttest me to use the carnal weapon it will be worse for you." "He * * * led the way to the pavilion, loudly ordering the banquet to be spread" "Imagine this to be the palace of your pleasure." " I hope he takes me to be flesh and blood." Syntax. 551 Several infinitives may follow each other : She persuaded him to pretend to agree to do as they required. The verb preceding the infinitive may be passive. The subject of the infinitive then becomes nominative. They bade me stand up. I was bidden stand up. If they were retained, it would be transformed into by them : " Some were heard to curse the shrine Where others knelt to pray." d. The infinitive is used, but not very frequently, as a verbal noun : " If all the yeare were playing holidaies, To sport would be as tedious as to worke." SHAKESP. : i " Henry IV.," i., 2. CHAPTER X. SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG WRITERS. IT is with more than usual diffidence that I add a closing chapter for the benefit of young and inexperienced writers, giving some words of counsel beyond the mere details of grammar. What follows is not intended to instruct those who are already accomplished and elegant writers. Nor is it intended to teach any one how to become an eminent and successful author in any department of literature ; the pur- pose is the more modest one of helping the unskilful to tell a plain matter in a plain and effective way. There are a great number of persons who sometime in their lives, and perhaps often, have occasion to write something of sufficient importance to be worth writing well ; and it is to these that I address myself. For sake of brevity the principles and illustrations will be put in the form of direct address to the reader. I. The idea which the reader has of the writer, or the hearer's opinion of the speaker, is of the first importance. If the speaker or writer be thought insincere, or to be hypo- critically urging his own interest, his words are vain. There is somewhere in the economy of the human mind a kind of cut-off, capable, when called into action, of excluding all impressions. When that valve is closed cherubic wisdom could not find an entrance. Though your eloquence drop as the rain it will run off as from the back of a tortoise. Valuable above all the arts of rhetoric will be a general belief that you are too upright to deceive and too careful and clear-headed to be deceived that in all probability what you have to say is true, and truth worth listening to. Such a 552 Suggestions to Young Writers. 553 reputation cannot be acquired and maintained without deserving it. II. It is well to know the subject you are to write about, and know it thoroughly. There is a great advantage in knowing more of a subject than any one else does ; and that is often possible enough if it be a small one and somewhat personal to yourself. But when a large field is to be covered informa- tion must be collected ; and that is often a work of great labor. A laborious German author has said that he has sometimes condensed into a parenthetic clause the results of a month's search. Still such labor is generally well bestowed. Spare no pains to get at the facts, and make sure that they are facts. It is humiliating, and may be disastrous, to find in the crisis for which you are preparing that your facts turn out to be fictions. In collecting facts that are beyond your own knowledge, and not of public notoriety, write each one down plainly on a slip of paper, carefully adding the source (book, page, etc.) from which it was obtained. All slips bearing upon the same point should be put together into an envelope, also plainly marked. Such envelopes can be ar- ranged alphabetically. If this plan be well carried out, all the information you can ever collect may be arranged so that you can lay your hand in a minute upon all that' you have on any required point. Every subject touches upon the boundaries of many others, and it is often necessary to reconnoitre the borders of these adjacent territories. Hence the importance of wide and general knowledge having its central point in the busi- ness in which you are especially interested. A clergyman who was a diligent student once said to me that he kept one foot of his compasses on the Bible, and with the other swept over everything within reasonable distance. Patiently hear, diligently seek for, and judge with judicial fairness every adverse fact and argument, so that you may not be disarmed by sudden objections. In doing this you will probably find that upon subjects in which the public are not actively interested their ideas are very crude and imper- fect, and that in reference to others in which they take an 554 English Grammar. active part many of the arguments, assertions, and catch- words that pass from mouth to mouth on both sides, and are borne about by every wind that blows, are without value. Dr. Franklin had a way of applying one of the principal methods of algebra to social and political questions. He arranged on opposite sides all the facts and arguments for and against any proposition, and then proceeded to cancel all that seemed to be worthless or to balance each other ; and he formed his judgment upon the remainder. If the subject to be treated involves a succession of dates, labor will be saved by arranging these on a separate slip. When you are ready to write, the necessary memorandums can be picked out and arranged in the order in which they are to be used. It will be a great advantage in writing to have all the material either ready in your mind or conveniently placed before you. III. Having collected the necessary material, and weeded out all that is irrelevant, the next point is to consider well the bearing of each fact upon the others and upon the propo- sition which you wish to establish. In doing this it is best to be thoroughly honest with yourself. In giving your facts to the public you may perhaps choose to present them ,in a sort of dress parade each one of course a real soldier and not a dummy in clothes but for your own purposes it is better to view them in the undress of the arena with- out a tag of ornament on them. You will thus come to have a distinct bird's-eye view of the subject as a whole. In order to write effectively you must write clearly ; and for that clear thinking is indispensable. An artist, an archi- tect, or machinist has his whole subject so clear in his mental view as to see at once the effect that would follow a change in any of the parts. I have seen a chess-player lie down upon a sofa with his face to the wall and play against one a little less expert, and win the game without once seeing the board from beginning to end. He must have maintained throughout a mental picture showing the position of every piece, and seen the effect of every move, and the perfect accuracy of his conceptions was proved by the result. This Suggestions to Young Writers. 555 is an ideal of clear thinking on a special subject, but an ideal to be aspired towards in all. I feel shy of a doctrine that is unthinkable, of an action that cannot be mentally repre- sented. It will be a useful exercise to practise upon the various questions that may arise, not only rinding answers to them, but tracing with all possible accuracy the steps by which results are brought about, and the principles on which they depend. I give four questions in illustration, which are at your service until better occur to you. 1. If the money in a country amount to $10 per capita, and in ten years steadily advance till it reach $20, and then in other ten years recede to $10, it will pass twice over the ratio of $15. What will be the difference in effect upon public prosperity and feeling between the ascending and the descending ratio of $15 ? 2. Gresham, in the reign of Elizabeth, showed that bad money drives out good ; and now it is found that the Euro- pean rat drives out the Australian rat ; do the two phe- nomena depend on the same principle ? 3. Why is there a limit to the size of animals? 4. Illustrate the principle of the syllogism to the eye by a diagram. Here is the fittest place to point out a useful distinction between a question of fact and one of propriety or expedi- ency. A question of fact is comparatively simple. An assertion put forth as an existing fact is true, or it is not true, or it differs from the truth by a measurable quantity. If it is true that J. Wilkes Booth assassinated President Lincoln, there is nothing in the universe of the least validity to disprove it. But a question of advisability has generally two good sides. It depends upon the effects of a proposed action ; but those effects are multifarious, some favorable and others unfavorable, and few of them definitely ascer- tainable. A tariff or currency question is an equation involving an indefinite number of unknown quantities. Hence it is best to give priority to the ascertainment of facts, partly because it is comparatively simple and partly because the facts may help to determine the expediency, 556 English Grammar. but no considerations of expediency of profit or loss can make or unmake a fact. IV. Having mastered a subject in its details and as a whole it is next to be considered in what order you will pre- sent it. There is generally some one preferable to all others. If much depend upon dates, a chronological order will proba- bly be best. But this is only a single exemplification of a broader principle that when one thing is necessary to the understanding of another the explanatory one should come first. The reason is that it is useless to present what the reader is not prepared to understand. You must divine as best you can what he already knows and thinks, begin at that point and lead him on step by step. If an unbridged gap intervene your words will be wasted. It is better to go back a little and recapitulate briefly and clearly what most people know already than run the risk of losing connection. Many a fine discourse has been as water spilt on the sand because it connected with nothing in the mind of the hearer. I once heard Professor Pierce of Harvard deliver a public lec- ture in which he repeatedly alluded in a passing careless way to the great advantages derived from the method of polar s, just as if every one were perfectly familiar with it ; whereas it is not likely that one in ten had ever heard of polars before. Hence in addressing a mixed audience it is better to aim a little below the average intelligence, occasionally adding something to satisfy the better class of minds. We are some- times vexed by worthy people who out of extreme politeness assume that we know everything already, and that it is only necessary to allude delicately to a point here and there by way of refreshing our memories. The essential kernel of a book, a review, or newspaper article can often be stated in a single sentence, of which all the rest is only evidence and amplification. The reader should never be left at a loss to know what that essential point is. But we often read articles or hear addresses every sentence of which, taken alone, is passably good, while we are sadly puzzled to know what the whole is about. Such want of point is a fatal defect. Suggestions to Young Writers. 557 In unfolding a subject step by step it will naturally and without any special effort fall into a succession of short divisions called paragraphs, each one of which will be seen to present a consideration, argument, or little group of closely connected facts easily distinguished from those of any other similar division. The paragraph is a great feature in modern authorship, and is in the interest of that clearness and dis- tinctness so much prized by an active practical people. The most valuable facts lose their force if they get mixed up criss-cross-wise. V. The language or choice of words to be employed is of very great importance. Habitual reading of the best books and associating with the best accessible company will with- out any particular effort on your part supply a stock of words sufficient for most purposes. One who aspires higher may go through a large dictionary and mark unfamiliar words that seem likely to be valuable acquisitions, and afterwards go over, or even copy out, the words marked. Idiomatic expressions can be got from people who live far from cities, old books, and the by-ways of literature. Words should be appropriate to the subject, and, as far as possible, familiar to the persons addressed. Every considera- ble field of human endeavor has its own vocabulary, and if you know a subject well you know its appropriate terms, yet many of these are to be addressed only to experts. In relating to sailors your experience at sea use nautical phrases liberally, but not in telling the same thing to farmers. Do not address long Latin words to children or wheel-barrow men, and never shoot over the heads of an auditory, making a noise in the air and hitting nothing. Generally speaking it is not well to use two words where one is enough, or a long word where a short one will serve the purpose. Yet one long word may be preferable to several short ones. A succession of monosyllables is not elegant, and we tire of a threadbare diction as readily as of one overloaded with orna- ment. If phosphomolybdic be the one word that expresses your meaning, that is the one to use, no matter for its length. Let all your words be English, sound reliable English, and 558 English Grammar. nothing but English ; and when you speak of a spade call it by its name, and when you mean hyperasthesia, say so. A good deal has been said of late years about writing and speaking vigorous Anglo-Saxon, sometimes, perhaps, by persons who would not know Anglo-Saxon if they saw it. The clamor for it sometimes amounts to that is of the nature of a reaction against a style that long ago grew to be an abuse. But a reaction against anything extreme is itself apt to be an extreme. In the second chapter of this work I have spoken of the several sources of English, and of the limited capabilities of any of the elements alone. Not only do we speak a mixed language, but almost every sentence is mixed ; and we cannot speak without using words drawn from several sources. Our language is like a river formed by the confluence of four main streams and many subsidiary rills. The first is the Anglo-Saxon element, most of which is alike familiar to all, and without which scarcely a sentence can be uttered ; yet it has not words for a fourth part of the ideas of the nineteenth century. It is more especially the property of the unlearned. The second is the stream of classical words introduced through the medium of the French before A.D. 1500. Wherever necessary, they have been so far modified in spelling, pronunciation, or meaning, as to become a har- monious part of the language. They have never percolated downward to any great extent below the intelligent indus- trious classes. Thirdly, there is the direct Latin contribution connected with the revival of learning in Europe, and dating roughly from 1500 to 1800. During the latter two thirds of that period a Latin diction so completely dominated litera- ture as to provoke a reaction. The words being pronounced according to English analogies offer no offence to the ear. They are more especially the property of literary persons. Lastly, there are the Greek terms appropriated by science, which have increased with amazing rapidity since the middle of last century. The greater part of them are known only to scientific specialists. Whoever knows any one of the four parts as enumerated is presumably familiar with those that precede. All are equally proper in their places.. ., ; Suggestions to Young Writers. 559 It often happens that we have words of kindred meaning from two or three different sources, thus : SAXON FRENCH LATIN begin commence initiate * care anxiety solicitude deal traffic negotiate earn deserve merit feud enmity hostility greedy covetous mercenary harm damage detriment ill-timed unseasonable inopportune kernel core nucleus lessen diminish extenuate mirth drollery jocularity needy poor indigent open frank ingenuous plight condition predicament quicken revive reanimate scold blame abjurgate twit reproach reprehend These triple lines, where they exist unbroken, afford a valuable and much needed variety of expression ; but in a majority of instances there are not more than two, or even one. Still, this is not the only source of variety. We some- times find several words nearly synonymous where two of these lines are wanting. Adjacent, adjoining, contiguous, conterminous. Translucent, transparent, transpicuous, diaphanous. When the reign of Latinity was at its highest, it was not uncommon to meet with sentences in which every significant word was in some way derived from that language. " A citizen of Ancyra had prepared for his own use a purple gar- ment; and this indiscreet action, which, under the reign of Con- stantius, would have been considered a capital offense, was reported to Julian by the officious importunity of a private enemy" GIBBON. 1 American "inaugurate." 560 English Grammar. This was the diction of the schools, and was sometimes far outdone. In this country those who received what was thought a careful education fifty or sixty years ago were taught to employ, both in speaking and writing, as many and as long words of Latin origin as it was possible to crowd together. Their speech was full of euphemisms like these : Instead of drunkard, say, a gentleman who habitually in- dulges in the immoderate use of alcoholic stimulants. Scold : a lady who permits herself to employ vituperative language, or to apply epithets. Pot : a domestic utensil adapted to culinary uses. And Dr. Johnson's idea of a network was " anything reticulated or decussated at equal distances with interstices between the intersections" Many worthy people became seemingly incapable of speak- ing in any other way. It is not to be wondered at that a reaction and demand for Anglo-Saxon set in, or that it was sometimes extreme and misjudged. So completely had Latinity overmastered all minds that those who were most anxious for Anglo-Saxon knew no Saxon words in which to ask for it. The following sentence is not without a touch of unintentional humor on that account. " But the coinage of anglicised words of Latin origin is still too abundant, and either overload the language by their superfluity or enfeeble it by dilution, and by distinctions without differences." It is, however, of no practical importance from what source our words are derived, so long as they are well understood and their sound is in harmony with the general tone and cadence of the language. VI. Sentences should be neither so short as to appear abrupt and jerky, so long as to tire the reader, or so intricate that he will lose his way in their windings. They are too various to admit of rules ; but in every sentence a distinct and clear idea should be clearly expressed. These require- ments are best appreciated when they have been neglected. Here are two faulty sentences from the North American Re- view, on which it is scarcely necessary to make any comment. Suggestions to Young Writers. 561 " The final proof of song or personality is a sort of matured, accreted, superb, evoluted, almost divine, impalpable diffuseness and atmosphere or invisible magnetism, dissolving and embracing all, and not any special achievement of passion, pride, metrical form, epigram, plot, thought, or what is called beauty." No- vember, 1890. " Even if man was all that he might be, woman would still have wanted a profession, because a cause appeals to latent chivalry, and because the sense of personality has been weakened by the slow growth of causes." February, 1891. Neither of these would be made any clearer by giving the context. Before the year 1500 English had become a well devel- oped, lucid, pleasant medium of communication. I give in illustration a few sentences from Caxton's " History of Troy," date of 1471, merely modernizing some of the spell- ing, as that is not a point of importance here. " Then prayed the Greeks that they might set the horse of brass within the temple of Pallas, for the restitution of the Pal- ladium, to the end that the goddess Pallas might be to them agreeable in their return. And as the king Priam answered not thereto, ^Eneas and Antenor said to him that it should be well done, and that it should be honor to the city ; howbeit the king Priam accorded it with evil will. Then the Greeks received the gold and silver and the wheat that was promised to them, and sent and put it into their ships. After these things they went all in manner of procession and in devotion with their priests, and began with strength of cords to draw the horse of brass into the city. And for as much as by the gate it might not enter into the city, it was so great, therefore they brake the wall of the city in length and height in such wise as it entered within the town ; and the Trojans received it with great joy." It was this style slightly modified that was employed for the successive translations of the Bible from Tyndale to King James, which deserve more than Chaucer to be called "the well of English undefiled." It is toward this early type that the last half of the nineteenth century is now re- 36 562 English Grammar. turning. An exact imitation is no longer possible or de- sirable ; but its straightforward clearness is an admirable corrective of turgidity, bombast, and obscurity. Those who make and manipulate laws have a superstition that whatever they have to say must all be said in one sen- tence, however many pages it may fill. It is also felt that all contingencies and misconceptions must be guarded against by provisos, repetitions, and explanations. Hence legal documents are wordy, wearisome, and obscure, and in short the worst of all human compositions. To illustrate this labyrinthic character of legal language, I quote about one third of a sentence describing the boundaries of Rock Creek Park at Washington. It would not be any clearer if the other two thirds were added. If any one can understand it I bow to his superior intelligence. " The initial point begins on the north of the Blagden Mills road at a point where it is intersected by the west line of i6th street extended ; thence it runs north, following the line of i6th street extended until intersected by a line running from east to west, which line will cut off from the northeastern part of the park, as mapped out on the first trial map and included between the straight lines of the said trial maps, as many acres as the present boundary lines will include in the projection beyond the west of the straight lines in said trial map." Latin had already been the language of law and diplo- macy for many generations before the beginning of that ascendancy which it attained in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries. Legal Latin then infected the Latin of the schools with its own endless wordiness and trivial pro- visos, and in time infected English prose, just as the same causes have made the literary language of Germany what it now is. The writings of some of the great lights of Eng- lish literature are not much more lively reading than a deed in entail or an indictment for manslaughter. Milton wrote sentences of three or four hundred words, and I venture to introduce one of the more moderate here as an example to be avoided : Suggestions to Young Writers. 563 " And for the usual method of teaching arts, I deem it to be an old errour of universities, not yet well recovered from the scho- lastic grossness of barbarous ages, that instead of beginning with arts most easy, (and those be such as are most obvious to the sense,) they present their young immatriculated novices at first coming with the most intellective abstractions of logic and meta- physics ; so that they having but newly left those grammatic flats and shallows where they stuck unreasonably to learn a few words with lamentable construction, and now on the sudden transported under another climate to be tossed and turmoiled with their unballasted wits in fathomless and unquiet depths of controversy, do for the most part grow into hatred and contempt of learning, mocked and deluded all this while with ragged notions and bab- blements, while they expected worthy and delightful knowledge ; till poverty or youthful years call them importunately their several ways, and hasten them with the sway of friends either to an ambitious and mercenary, or ignorantly zealous divinity ; some allured to the trade of law, grounding their purposes not on the prudent and heavenly contemplation of justice and equity, which was never taught them, but on the promising and pleasing thoughts of litigious terms, fat contentions, an'd flowing fees ; others betake them to state affairs, with souls so unprincipled in virtue and true generous breeding, that flattery and courtships and tyrannous aphorisms appear to them the highest points of wisdom ; instilling their barren hearts with conscientious slavery ; if, as I rather think, it be not feigned." " Of Education." In vol. ii. of Milton's prose works, edited by Symmons, may be found at page 339, in certain articles of agreement, the beginning of a sentence of 910 words, covering two whole pages and part of two others. Milton, although a conspicu- ous example of this style, was no exception. The combination of law and Latin was thus developing a language of the learned, not in sympathy with the body of the people or fit for any of the purposes of active life. Fortunately it was not permitted to continue as a literary standard. It was first effectively met by the pioneers of the newspaper press. The journalist does not sit in a well stocked library meditating theses for the entertainment of scholars. He has to write on the spur of the moment, often 564 English Grammar. without preparation or revision, about the events and the questions of the day in a way to interest and inform the body of the people. His excellences and his shortcomings grow out of those conditions. Hence it is in no small degree due to such literary hacks as L' Estrange and Defoe, and their imitators, that there is now in English a literature that can be read and a people who are pleased to read it. The long sentence with its endless convolutions was the first to give way, and people were content for more than a century to accept Latin and its derivatives in any quantity, if only put up in small packages, but latterly there has been an increasing demand for short and simple native words. In words and in sentences it is safe now to use a good deal of freedom, being careful only to avoid all extremes on the one hand and on the other a tiresome monotony. VII. An idiom is a figure of speech become so familiar by long use, that it is no longer regarded as a figure, but as a literal truth. Yet it is like any figure in this, that if its words be taken in their primary literal meaning it is either untrue or nonsense. He fell in with a batch of old salts spinning yarns. " One half the prayers with Jove acceptance find, The other half he whistles down the wind." The boundary between idiom and slang has never been established, or between either and metaphor. They are slang when too low or coarse. To be an idiom an expression must be perfectly established and understood. It should be shorter than any literal equivalent, and is then apt and forcible. Idiomatic. The fire has gone out. Literal. The process of combustion has ceased. One who attempted to avoid idioms would be insufferably stiff and tedious. While idioms should be so old as to be familiar to every- body, metaphors and similes are best when perfectly new. They are not only entirely proper but they may be an Suggestions to Young Writers. 565 admirable help when they are apt, fit well in the connection in which they are placed and occur naturally in your way of thinking of your subject. They are not to be hunted down and dragged in by force. Anecdotes, if well managed, are of great use in oral ad- dresses, but have little value in writing. It is not because they are idle and empty-headed that stump orators indulge so much in stories. In reading a book you may lay it aside when tired and resume it again at leisure, but a speech must be heard through at a sitting. If it be an intellectual pem- mican of fact and argument, the mind soon tires in the effort to take in and digest materials so solid : and a little fun thrown in here and there gives a needful rest, and acts like a recess for a school of children. You of course understand that stories and figures of speech are embellishments that serve only for relief or' amusement, and that no amount of them can prove anything. VIII. Some things are to be avoided with conscientious care. Among them are all slang and low, coarse or unclean expressions, all puns, playing upon the sound of words, and paltering in a double sense. As Artemus Ward said, they are not funny ; they edify no one and please no one who has any claim to be pleased. Avoid also all those phrases that are continually starting up like weeds and are in every- body's mouth, enjoying a nine days' popularity. Quotations of apt phrases and lines of poetry should be admitted spar- ingly. As a rule employ no French or other foreign words. To many good people they are unintelligible or unpronounce- able ; and unless your knowledge be very accurate there is a chance of their being incorrect. They are in bad taste and wholly out of tune ; and moreover the chances are a thou- sand to one that there are words enough in English to tell more than you know. Do not clothe little thoughts in big words. The effect is less disagreeable when the words seem unequal to the weight of sense they have to bear. Do not " inaugurate " a new style of shearing your " phenomenal" poodle. Moreover, great things may be said simply. When very young I read these words in a book that was then old : 566 English Grammar. " And he that sat upon the throne said, Behold I make all things new." A fifth-grade newspaper would now express it thus : And the occupant of the celestial divan announced his deter- mination of immediately inaugurating an essentially novel regime. Two words, " inaugurate " and " regime," would be indis- pensable. If the Anglo-Saxon reformers sometimes let their zeal carry them a little too far, what a debt of grati- tude is due them for raising a protest against such verbiage ! Another thing to be avoided is unnecessary arithmetical figures. In the present age there is a craze for statistics, even if they point nowhere. There is a popular saying that figures do not lie ; but those who are better informed are aware that they are mercenary troops that fight with equal readiness on either side of any dispute. The possible com- binations of numbers are infinite, and some of them may be made to seem to favor any proposition whatever. Hence a cautious man will always distrust your figures except the few that he knows already, and those he need not be told. You will sometimes see a public man stand up in a crowded hall and read page after page of exports and imports of the past twenty years, and the guessed values of farms, buildings, and live stock in 44 States, of all of which not a grain sticks in the memory of any one. The audience sit wearily thinking of something else, and go away with a tired feeling of hav- ing heard of something vacant and vast. The figures may or may not be misleading; they are certain not to be remembered. In writing it is sometimes necessary to introduce numeri- cal statements ; but then they should be few and presented with all possible clearness. If your point be to prove the rapid growth of Porkopolis, it will be sufficient to show that the number of pigs killed there has steadily risen in ten years from 53 to 53,000,000; you can then afford to dispense with the statistics of beer and several other things. Suggestions to Young Writers. 567 Nouns and verbs are the bones and muscles of language, that give it form and strength. Adjectives should be em- ployed sparingly and with discretion. Adjectives that describe sandy, calcareous, white, liquid, circular, fibrous, are of course to be used wherever necessary ; but it is better not to be profuse with those that are intended merely to depreciate or to raise admiration. They give an inflated appearance, and are a great source of weakness. The same is true of adverbs derived from adjectives. So, too, pronouns need to be han- dled with great care. They are a lazy makeshift contrivance to save the labor of naming things. The greatest source of ambiguity and uncertainty in common conversation is the continual repetition of he, she, it, they, this, that, the other, when people will not take the trouble to name what they are talking about. The following is a sentence from a sermon preached by Archbishop Tillotson before the king and queen : " Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, and think that their reputation obscures them, and that their commendable qualities do stand in their light ; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shin- ing of their virtues may not scorch them." Even ill-sounding words and combinations are objectiona- ble. They can be detected by reading aloud carefully and distinctly ; and the faculty of detecting faults will improve by use. Whatever sounds badly is not well written. Some words like deprecatory, peremptorily, speculative-ness, are ca- cophonous however they may be placed ; but a much com- moner fault is the recurrence of similar sounds that do not well go together because the laws cause, some come from home, a single glass, he ran on in an unintelligible harangue. Roofless is well enough, but shingleless would be bad ; skill- less and tailless are not much better, and there is altogether too much sibillation in successlessness. In general it is not desirable to have the same word occur twice in a sentence, or end two successive short sentences. It is even worth while to take some little pains to have a word ending with a 568 English Grammar. vowel followed by one beginning with a consonant, and to have consonants followed by vowels. IX. The naturalist Buff on is credited with saying that the style is the man, the plain English of which seems to be that every one has a way of expressing his thoughts as dis- tinctive of the individual as his voice or features. While it should be the constant aim to correct all errors and remedy all defects, no effort should be made to form a style by imi- tation. The habitual and appreciative reading of good authors will influence your style without your thinking of it. Having a stock of words acquired by reading and having mastered your subject as a whole and in its details, tell your story in your own words and in your own way without any thought about style or fine writing. If time be allowed you, lay aside your manuscript until you have in a manner for- gotten it and can see it with something like the eyes of a stranger. Then go over it carefully, strike out every word that can be spared, change every word and every sentence that can be changed for the better, and leave the rest unal- tered. INDEX. Absolute clauses, 523. Accent, 187. " in Arabic and Icelandic, 44. Acrostics in the Bible, 112. Adjective clauses, 515. " pronouns, 333. Adjectives, 288, 513. comparison of, 294. declension of, 293. formation of, 289. " plural, 292. Adverbial clauses, 520. Adverbs, 476. Agglutination, 8l. Alexandrian Museum and Library, 47. Alphabet, defects of our, 123. first appearance of, 109. modifications of, in Eng- land, 122. table of, 129. the, among the Greeksy 118. " in Italy, 119. what it should be, 123. Alphabetic writing, 94. Alphabets of Lepsius and Ellis, 128, I3i- Analysis of the Dictionary, 36. Anglian element in English, 14. Anomalies of pronunciation and spell- ing, 195. Anticipating sounds that are to follow, 163. Apposition, 515. Articles, 335. Articulate sounds, 127. Aspirates, 159. Aspiration, 159, 170. Assimilation of foreign materials, 34. Auxiliary the real verb, 474, 521. Auxiliary verbs, 372. Be, 413. Best or better of the two, 30x4. Bilingual inscriptions, 106. Buddhist missionaries, 98. Can, 400. Cases of nouns, 275. Celtic element in English, 12. Cherokee syllabary, 101. Children as language-makers, 4. Chinese writing, 96. Classification, 222. Cockneyism, 159. Codex Argenteus, 9. Compounding words, 56. Compound tenses, 430. Condition of England under the Nor- mans, 18. Conjugation, 415. Conjugations, 351. Corean alphabet, 98. Cuneiform writing, 103. Cyprus patera, the, 113. Dare, 407. Declension in Sanskrit and Hebrew, 84. Demonstrative pronouns, 333. Derivatives, 79. Devanagari, 100. Development by inflectional endings, 8p. by internal changes, 86. Do, 405. Early English grammars, 48. Egyptian hieroglyphics, 105. Ending -eth changed to -es, 420. English and American usages, 193. Eshmunazar, inscription of, 116. Foreign words in different authors, 39. Forms of the letters, 112. French eagerly learned, 19. French element in English, 15. " plurals, 251. Fundamental sound in language, 127. Gender, 228. Gothic, 9. 509 570 Index. Grammar, a descriptive science, 50. ' ' and Lexicography compared , 43- beginnings of, 46. divisions of, 217. Max Miiller's idea of, 44. not indispensable, 46. What does it teach ? 43, 50. Greek element in English, 30. plurals, 248. Grimm's Law, 132. Have, 408. Hebrew plurals, 251. " square letters, 117. Hieratic writing, 108. Homonyms, 58. Hybrid words, 79. Imperative mood, 457. Inconsistency of our spelling, 138. Indicative mood, 442. Infinitive " 463. " with to< 463, 465. Inflection, extent of, in other lan- guages, 45. Instability of language, 3. Interrogative pronoun, 327. Irish pronunciation, 155. " Is being," 473. Italian plurals, 252. Italics, 121. Japan, introduction of writing into, 99. Language, changes of, 4. families of, 9. of animals, 52. what it must be capable of, 221. Latin, books written in, 16, 20. " plurals, 245. Law Latin, 17. Layamon, 20. Laziness a factor in word-making, 56. Legal French, 17. " maxims, 17. Let, 402. Letters, intruded, 149. " small, invention of, 121. " that preserve their sounds, 146. Like, used as a preposition, 488. Loss of inflections, 24. May, 373. Mexican picture writing, 96. Moabite stone, the, 113. Moods, 440. Must, 401. Names of the letters, 109. " " in Italy, 120. Negative, double, 530. the, 483. Nimroud weights, 116. Norman Conquest, 15. Nouns, 225. " factitious, 265. of aggregation, 541. " that mimic humanity, 264. " " " plurality, 264. Number, 235. Numerals, 337. Obelisk of Philse, 107. Object, 510. " indirect, 519. Order of the letters, 112. " of words, 511, 524. Organs of speech, 125. Ormulum, the, 20. Ought, 404. Palatalization, 152. Participle, past, 468, 471. present, 468. Participles, 468. Parts of speech, 224. Passive voice, 472. Person and number of verbs, 416. Persons of nouns, 287. Phonetic pictures, 95. " spelling, 205. Picture writing, 94. Plural of compound nouns, 254. Plurals, irregular, 239. ' ' of foreign words, 244. " peculiar, 265. Possessive pronouns, 336. Predicate, 510. Prefixes, 59. Prepositions, 485. Pronoun of the first person, 309. " second person, 313. " " " third person, 316. Pronouns, 307. " classes of, 308. " personal, 308. " syntax of, 439. Pronunciation, and spelling, when they agree, 138. often unsettled, 139. precedes spelling, 138. Protasis and apodosis, 395. Rebus a step towards writing, 95. Reduplication, 350. Reflexive pronoun, 323, 539. Relative pronouns, 328. Index. 57 Rhotacism, 243. Roots, 55. Rosetta Stone, the, 106. Runic alphabet, 112. Saxon element in English, 12. Scandinavian element in English, . &tf, 539- Sentence, the, 509. Sentences, affirmative, 509-529. different kinds of, 509. imperative, 536. interrogative, 535. negative, 529. Shemitic alphabet, 109. Shortening of words, 142. Silent letters, 146. Silver Book, the, 9. Sounds in Anglo-Saxon, 140. Sounds, scale of, represented, 144. Sources of English, 12. Spelling formerly unsettled, 143. " phonetic, 205. " principles of, 178. " proposed reforms in, 212. Strong verbs, 351. Subject, 510, 513. " grammatical, 517. " logical, 517. Subjunctive mood, 444. Suffixes, 70. Symbolism, 95. Syntax, 506. Tenses, 422. Termination -ed, 366. Ulphilas, his translations of Scripture, 9- Uncial letters, 121. Unstable letters, 148. Verbal nouns, 463. Verbs, 343. " impersonal, 348. intransitive, 346. reflexive, 347. " syntax of, 520, 547. " transitive, 346. Vowels, 130. Vowel shifting, 154. Vowels, influence of one upon another, 83- Vowel sounds grow thinner, 154. Weights, set of, from Nimroud, 116. WzY/and shall, 377. Words at first monosyllabic, 54. " borrowed, of what kind, 24, 27. " invention of, 53. ' ' primitive end in vowels, 54. " that are mistakes, 91. Worth, as a preposition, 538. THE END. UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 690 241 5