D 21 Southern Branch of the University of California Los Angeles Form L 1 n F87 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below OCT 8 'WM^ S9 i OCT a? JUL 2 1931 * h 2 , 30 1962 Haw. DEC -2 13 6^ V 1 ** 8 'orni ].-!) 5m L2/2; FREEMAN 1 S HISTORICAL COURSE FOR SCHOOLS GENERAL S K E H H I S T O R Y EDWARD A. FREEMAN, D.C.L. Late Feilo-.K i-f Trini;\ ' i ford. ADAPTED FOR AMERICAN STUDENTS New Edition Revised, with Chronological Table, Maps, and Index NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY COPYRIGHT. 1876, BY HKNRY HOLT. TROW'S PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING Co. - i I-;HS, 105-313 Kast utA St., NKW YORK. PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. THE present edition has been thoroughly revised throughout. A Chronological Table, a full Index, and several Maps, illustrating historical Geography at different periods, have been added. In such a mass of names and dates it is impossible wholly to avoid slips both of the pen and .of the press. I have tried to correct all that I found in earlier editions; but I. fear that some may have escaped me. I shall be sincerely thankful to any one who will point out to me any that he may come across. SXMERLF.AZE, WELLS, April ^rd, 1876, PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. THE object of the present series is to put forth cleai and correct views of history in simple language, and in the smallest space and cheapest form in which it could be done. It is meant in the first place for schools; but it is often found that a book for schools proves useful for other readers as well, and it is hoped that this may be the case with the little books the first instalment of which is now given to the world. The present volume is meant to be introductory to the whole course. It is intended to give, as its name im- plies, a general sketch of the history of the civilized world, that is, of Europe and of the lands which J ve drawn their civilization from Europe. Its object is to trace out the general relations of different periods and different countries to one another, without going minutely into the affairs of any particular country, least of all into those of our own. This is an object of the first importance, for, without clear notions of iii PREFACE. general history, the history of particular countries cat never be rightly understood. This General Sketch will be followed by a series of special histories of par- ticular countries, which will take for granted the main principles laid down in the General Sketch. In this series it is hoped in time to take in short histories of all the chief countries of Europe and America, giving the results of the latest historical researches in as simple a form as may be. Those of England and Scotland will shortly follow the present introductory volume, and other authors are at work on other parts of the plan. The several members of the series will all be so far under the supervision of the Editor as to secure general ac- curacy of statement, and a general harmony of plan and sentiment But each book will be the original work of its own author, and each author will be responsible for his own treatment of the smaller details. For his own share of the vork the Editor has, besides the General Sketch, taken the histories of Rome and Switzerland. The others will be put into the hands of various writers, on whose know- ledge and skill he believes that he can rely. SOMERLKAZE, WELLS, 23, 1872. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGI ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS I CHAPTER II. GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES ..... l8 CHAPTER III. THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH 49 CHAPTER IV. THE HEATHEN EMPIRE 82 CHAPTER V. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE 98 CHAPTER VI. THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST IIS CHAPTER VII. TKE PRANKISH EMPIRE I3<3 CHAPTER VIII. THE SAXON EMPERORS 14$. t CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX M; THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS 154 CHAPTER X. GENERAL VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES .... 1 68 CHAPTER XI. THE SWABIAN EMPERORS 184 CHAPTER XII. THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE 209 CHAPTER XIII. THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN 244 CHAPTER XIV. THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE 293 CHAPTER XV. THE RISE OF RUSSIA 316 CHAPTER XVI. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 33inns of Britain ......... 55-54 Parthian Expedition and Death of Crassus .... 54-53 Civil War of Pompeius and Caesar ...... 49 Defeat of Pompeius at Pharsalos ....... 48 Perpetual T^jrtntnrship of Cfr*SfT ....... 45 Death of Caesar ............. 44 Second Civil War ............ 43 Battle of Philippi ............ 42 War between Caesar and Anton ius ....... 32 Battle of Aktion ............ 31 Title of Augustus taken by Caesar ....... 27 feeginn'flg of {fog RotOI" F-mpire ...... 27 Campaigns of Drusus and Tiberius in Germany . . . 11-9 A.D. Defeat of Varus by Arminius ..... , . . 9 Tiberius, Emperor ......... ... 14 Campaigns of Gcrmanicus ..... .... 15-ie Caligula, Emperor Claudius, Emperor Claudius in Britain CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xrtt A.D. Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Emperors 68-69 Revolt of Civilis , 69-7 O Destruction of Jerusalem 7O Vespasian, Emperor , 7O Domitian yg Titus 8 , Final Conquest of Britain by Agricola 84 Dacian War , 33 Nerva 9e Trajan 9a Hadrian H7 Antoninus Pius 133 Marcus Aurelius ...... 161 Commodus . . . . \ . . ~ t " t ] [ \ \ 13 O Septimius Severus . 193 Antoninus Caracalla 211 Alexander Severus 222 Sassanirl Dynasty in Pprda . . . . ... . . ggq Valerian 253 Gallienus 26O Kingdom of Palmyra 261 Claudius II 268 Defeats of the Goths by Claudius 269, 27O Aurelian, Emperor 27O Overthrow of the Kingdom of Palmyra 273 Diocletian, Emperor . . . .-- . Q84 Maximian, joint Emperor with Diocletian . . . 286 Abdications of Diocletian and Maximian . . . , . 3O5 Constantine the Great (sole Emperor) 323 Foundation of Constantinople 324. Council ot Nikaia 325 Constantius (sole Emperor) ....... . ^ . . . . 3SQ Campaigns of Julian in Gaul 856-360 Julian, Emperor 36O-363 I xviii CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.I). The Goths cross the Danube ... .... 376 Battle of Hadrianople 378 JThcodosius the Great (sole Emperor) . . . . . . 393 Arcadius and Honorius 395 Alaric in Italy 4O2 Stilicho defeats Alaric 4O3 Rome taken by Alaric 41O The Roman Legions leave Britain 410 Beginning of the Gothic Kingdom in Spain ana i"iaul 414 Settlement of the Vandals in Africa 429 English Conquest of Britain . . . . . . . . 44-9-547 Defeat of Attila at Chalons .. . 451 Majorian, Emperor in the West 457-461 Reunion of the Empires under Zeno 476 Odoacer governs Italy as Patrician 476 Reign of Theodoric in Italy 493-526 Justinian, Emperor 527-565 Chosroes or Nushirvan, King of Persia 531 Campaigns of Belisarius in Africa 534 Italy recovered by Belisarius and Narsfc .... 536-554 Lombard Settlements in Italy 568 Birth of Mahomet 569 Maurice, Emperor 582 Chosroes Parviz, King of Persia 59O Conversion of the English 597-681 Phokas, Emperor 6O2 Beginning of Mahomet's Mission 6O9 Heraclius, Emperor 61O Campaigns of Chosroes 611-615 Heraclius overthrows the Persian power .... 623-628 Death of Mahomet ; Abu-Bekr Caliph 632 Saracen Conquest of Syria 632-639 Saracen Conquest of Persia 632-651 Saracen Conquest of Egypt 638 Saracen Conquest of Africa 647-7O9 First Siege of Constantinople . . _ 673 Carthage taken by the Saracens . '" 698 Saracen Con ]uest of Spain 71O-713 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xi> 4.D. Second Siege of Constantinople . 716 Leo the Isaurian, Emperor 717 Iconoclast Controversy in Italy 728 Battle of Tours ; defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel 732 Constantine Kopronymos, Emperor .... 741-775 Pippin, King of the Franks ......... 753 End of the Ommiad Dynasty at Damascus .... Abd-al-rahman founds the Ommiad Dynasty in Spain . The Saracens driven out of Gaul Charles the Great overthrows the Lombard Kingdom Deposition of Constantine VI Charles the Great. Emperor of the West .... Ecgberht, King of the West-Saxons . . . . ; 8O2-837 Lewis the Pious, Emperor 814 Saracen Conquest of Crete 82f5 Saracen Conquest of Sicily 27-87*1 Treaty of Verdun 84O Alfred, King of the West-Saxons 871 The Macedonian Emperors in the East . . . 867-1O26 Paris besieged by the Northmen 885 Division of the Karolingian Empire . . . . . - rttrr Settlement of KolfinGaul 913 Edward the Elder, Lord of all Britain 924 ?- Great crowned Enope Otto the Second, Emperor ......... 972 Otto the Third, Emperor .......... 983 Mahometan Invasion of India ...... 1OO1-1O26 Danish Conquest of Jingland ...... 1O13-1O16 .Cn-ut, King of all England . 1 ^ . . . . 1017-loas Edward the Confessor ........... 1O49 Corrad II ..... .' King 1O24,* Emperor 1O27 End of the Ommiad Dynasty in Sp^in . . . . . loai Union of Burgundy wit-h HIP Fmpirp * In the case of the Weuern Emperors the first date is that of election and coronation as King or, in thjfcase of a King crowned in his father's life- time, his accession as sole King ; the second date is that of his coronation aj Emperor. w CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.D. Henrv III King 1O39, Emperor 1O46 Rise of the Seljuk Turks 1O3I Togrel Beg helps the Caliph Al Kayem against the Dilemites 1O55 Henry IV King 1O56, Emperor 1O84 Norman Conquest of Sicily 1O6O-1O9O Battle of Senlac 1O66 Battle of Manzikert 1O71 Revolt of the Saxons against Henry IV .... 1O73 Henry IV. at Canosa 1O77 Alfonso of Leon takes Toledo 1O84 Dynasty of the Almoravides in Spain 1O87 Division of the Seljuk Empire 1O92 Council of Clermont 1O95 The First Crusade . . . 1O96 Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders 1O99 Henry I., King of England . . . . . . 11OO-1135 Henry V king noa r E^mr mi Alfonso of Aragon takes Zaragoza 1118 John Komn^nos, Eastern Emperor .... 1118-114-3 The Concordat of Worms . . 1122 Norman Kingdom of Sicily - - , t - - ^ . 113O Lothar of Saxony . . . . King 1125, Kinperur 1133 Conrad III., King 1138 Manuel Komnenos, Eastern Emperor 1143 The Almohade Dynasty in Spain 1146 The Second Crusade 1147 Henry II. of England 1154 -FrpHprir TUrharnsisa . . , Kfog 1158. Emperor 1155 The Lombard League 1167 Conquest of Ireland 1171 Saladin overthrows the Fatimite Dynasty .... 1171 Manuel, Eastern Emperor, defeated by the Turks . . 1176 Philip Augustus, King of France 118C Peace of Constanz 1183 Saladin takes Jerusalem f . . . . . 1187 Henry VI King 11 9O, Emperor 1191 Conquest of Sicily by Henry VI 1194 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. x A.D. Battle of Alarcos 1195 John, King of England 1199 Alliance between the Crusaders and Venetians . . . 12O1 First Latin Siege and taking of Constantinople . . 12O3 Second Latin Conquest of Constantinople .... 12O4 Theodore Laskares, Emperor of Nikaia .... 12O4 Invasion of the Moguls under Tenghiz Khan . , . 12O6 Crusade apn.inst the Alhigpnspg . T . _ r fljftpff Battle of Tolosa 1212 James the Conqueror, King of Aragon . . . 1213-1276 Battle of Bouvines 1214 The Great Charter granted by John 1215 Henry III., King of England 1216-1272 Ferdinand III., King of Castile . . . . . 1217-1252 Frederick II King 1215, Emperor 122O John Vatatzes, Emperor of Nikaia 1222 Mogul Invasion of Persia 1222 Saint Lewis of France 1226 Frederick II. crowned King of Jerusalem .... 1228 The County of Toulouse joined to France .... 1229 Ferdinand III. unites Castile and Leon ' 123O The Teutonic Order conquers Prussia . . . 123O-126O Kingdom of Granada 1237 Rise of the Ottoman Turks 124O Battle of Lignitz 1241 Jerusalem taken by the Chorasmians ...... 1244 First Crusade of St. Lewis of France 1248 Death of Frederick II. Conrad IV., King . . . 125O End of the Swabiau Dynasty 1254 The Interregnum " 1254-1273 Manfred, King of Sicily 1258 End of the Bagdad Caliphate 1258 Michael Palaiologos, Eastern Emperor 1259 Recovery of Constantinople 1261 Battle of Evesham 1265 Dante born 1265 Conquest of Sicily by Charles of Anjou 1266 Gregory X., Pope 1271 xii CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.1X Edward I., King of England . 1272 Rudolf of Habsburg, King 1273-1293 The Sicilian Vespers 1282 Wales united to England 1282 Albert, Duke of Austria 1282 Genoese Defeat of the Pisans off Meloi la .... 1284 Acre taken by the Mahometans 1291 Beginning oEthe Swiss League 1291 Adolf, King 1292 Albert I., King 1299 Battle of Courtray 13O2 Boniface VIII., Pope 1294-13O3 Clement V., Pope 13OS Edward II., King of England 13O7 Popes at Avignon 13O9 Robert, King of Naples 13O9 Henry VII King 13O8, Emperor 1312 Lewis of Bavaria .... King 1314, Emperor 1328 Philip the Fair annexes Lyons to France .... 1314 Battle of Mortgarten 1315 Edward III., King of England 1327 Independence of Scotland 1328 First Passage of the Turks into Europe . . 134-1-1347 Lewis, King of Hungary 1342 Jane I., Queen of Naples 1343 Battle of Crecy 1343 Rienzi at Rome 1347 Dauphiny of Vienne becomes an appanage of France . 1349 Charles IV King 1346, Emperor 1355 The Golden Bull . ^ 1356 Battle of Poitiers 1356 Peace of Bretigny . 136O Philip of Valois, Duke of Burgundy 1361 Hadrianople taken by the Turks 1361 Battle of Najara 1366 Rise of Timour 1370 Return of the Popes to Rome 1376 Beginning of the Great Schism ... ... 1378 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xxiij A.D. Beginning of the War of Chioggia 1378 Timour conquers Persia 138O-I393 John the Great, King of Portugal 1385 Battle of Sempach 1386 Union of Poland and Lithuania 1386 Bajazet, Sultan of the Ottomans 1389 Gian Galeazzo Viscouti, Duke of Milan 1395 Victory of Bajazet at Nikopolis . 1396 The Union of Calmar 1397 Bajazet defeated by Timour at Angora 14O2 John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy 14O4 Death of Timour 14O5 Pisa becomes subject to Florence 14O6 Sicily united to Aragon 14O9 Council of Pisa 14O9 Sig-ismund ...... King, 141O, Emperor 1433 Henry V., King of England 1413 Battle of Agincourt . . . . . . . . . . . 1415 Council of Constanz 1415 John Huss burned 1415 Alfonso V., King of Aragon 1416 Jane II., Queen of Naples 1419 Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy 1419 Henry V. takes Rouen 1419 Treaty of Troyes 142O Amurath II., Sultan 1421 Siege of Constantinople 1422 Council of Basel 1431 Treaty of Arras 1435 Council of Florence 1439 Frederick III King 144O Emperor 1452 Battle of St. Jacob near Basel 1444 Battle of Varna 1444 Death of Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan . . 1447 Christian I., King of Denmark 1448 Constantine Palaiologos, Eastern Emperor .... 1448 Francesco Sforza Duke of Milan 1450 Mahomet II., Sultan 1451 ixiv CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.D. End of the Hundred Years' War 1453 The Turks take Constantinople 1453 Wars of York and Lancaster 1455-1483 John Huniades drives back the Turks from Belgrade . 1456 Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary ..... 1-458 Mahomet II. conquers the Empire of Trebizond . . 1461 Casimir IV., King of Poland, wins West Prussia from the Teutonic Knights 1466 Union of Castile and Aragon 1471 Ivan Vasilovich frees Russia from the Moguls . . . 1477 Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope 1483 Conquest of Granada 1492 Christopher Columbus discovers America .... 1492 Charles VIII. of France enters Italy 1494 Florence gets rid of the Medici ....... 1494 Pisa regains her liberty - 1494 Lewis XII. of France conquers the Duchy of Milan. 15OO Shah Ismael, first Sophi of Persia 15O1 Ferdinand of Spain and Sicily conquers Naples . . 15O4 League of Cambray 15O8 Maximilian I. takes the title of Emperor-elect . . . 15O8 agHenry VIII., King of England . . ,_.__ . . 15O9 Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League 15J1 Ferdinand conquers Navarre 1512 Battle of Ravenna 1512 The Medici return to Florence 1512 Selim the Inflexible, Sultan 1512 Germany divided into Circles 1512 Christian II., King of Denmark and Norway . . . 1513 Francis I., King of France 1515 Battle of Marignano 1515 ' Charles V., (I.) King of Spain 1516 Beginning of the Reformatioji 1517 Charles V. elected Emperor 1519 Ulrich Zwingli preaches at Zurich 1519 Christian II. of Denmark becomes King of Norway . 152O Mexico conquered by Hemando Cortez .... 1519-21 guleiman the Lawgiver, Sultan 152O CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xx A.D. Suleiman takes Belgrade ... 1521 War between Charles V. and Francis I. . . . . 1521 Luther before the Diet of Worms . 1521 Knights of St. John driven out of Rhodes .... 15223 Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden < 1523 Frederick L, King of Denmark and Norway . . . 1523 Battle of Pavia 1525 Foundation of the Duchy of Prussia 1525 Lewis II. of Hungary killed at the Battle of Mohacs 1526 Baber, Emperor of Hindostan 1326 Sack of Rome by the Imperialists 1527 The Medici driven out of Florence 1527 Peace of Cambray 1529 Diet of Speyer 1529 Sultan Suleiman besieges Vienna 1529 Charles V. crowned Emperor 153O Fall of Florence 153O Confession of Augsburg 153O The Portuguese colonize Brazil 1531 The Smalcaldic League 1531 Death of Zwingli 1531 Peru conquened by Francisco Pizarro .... 1532-1536 Ivan IV. (the Terrible), Czar of Russia 1533 Duke Charles of Savoy besieges Geneva .... 1534 The Society of Jesus founded by Ignatius Loyola . . 154O Mary, Queen of Scots 1542 Nizza besieged by the Turks 1543 Council of Trent 1545 Death of Luther 1546 Henry II. of France 1547 Edward VI. of England 1547 Henry II. of France seizes the Three Bishopricks. . * 1552 Mary, Queen of England 1553 The Fall of Sienna 1555 Abdication of Charles V. . , 1555 Peace of Augsburg 1555 Philip II. of Spain 15S6 Akbar, Emperor of Hindostan 1550 ucvi CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.D. Cosmo de' Medici, Duke of Florence, gets possession of Sienna 1557 Battles of St. Quentin and Gravelines 1557 The French take Calais 18 Elizabeth, Queen of England 18 ce of Cateau-Cambresis * . . 1559 Francis II. of France % 1559 Frederick II. of Denmark and Norway 1559 Charles IX. of France 156O Death of Gustavus Vasa 156O Religious Wars in France begin 1562 First French Settlement of Carolina 1562 Cyprus taken by the Turks 1571 Battle of Lepanto 1571 Massacre ol Saint Bartholomew i572 The Polish Crown becomes purely elective .... is 73 Henry III. of France 1574 Philip II. annexes Portugal to Spain 15to Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy 158O Union of the Seven Provinces 1581 Death of William the Silent 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh founds the Colony of Virginia . 1585 Mary of Scotland beheaded 1587 Philip II. sends the Armada against England . . . 1588 Christian IV. of Denmark and Norway 1588 Henry IV. of France 1589 End of the Dynasty of Ruric in Russia 1589 Philip III. of Spain 1598 Treaty of Lyons 16O1 James I. of England ? 16O3 Jehangir, Emperor of Hindostan 16O5 Lewis XIII. of France 161O Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain 161O Union of Prussia and Brandenburg 1611 Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden 1611 Beginning of the Romanoff Dynasty in Russia . . 1613 Beginning of the Thirty Years' War 1618 Philip IV. of Spain 1681 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xxvii A. P. Massacre of Amboyna 1623 Christian IV. of Denmark Head of the Protestant League 1625 Charles I. of England 1625 Shah Jehan, Emperor of Hindostan 1627 Gustavus Adolphus, Head of the Protestant League . 163O Battle of Liitzen 1632 Christina, Queen of Sw iden 1632 Ferdinand III., Emperor 1637 Beginning of the Dynasty of Braganza in Portugal . 1639 English Settlement at Madras 164O Lewis XIV. of France 164-3 War of Candia 164-5 Peace of Westphalia . . . . . . . . . . . 1648 Charlft; I. of England beheaded 1649 Oliver Cromwell, Protector of Eng'.and 1653 Prussia independent of Poland . . 1657 Death of Oliver Cromwell 1658 Leopold I. Emperor 1658 Aurungzebe, Emperor of Hindostan 1658 Peace of the Pyrenees 1659 Restoration of Charles II. of England 166O Treaties of Oliva and Copenhagen 166O Denmark becomes an absolute Monarchy .... 166O Charles II. sells Dunkirk to Lewis XIV 1663 War between England and the United Provinces 1664-1667 The Plague of London 1665 The Great Fire of London 1666 Lewis XIV. conquers Franche Comte and part of Flanders 1667 The Triple Alliance against Lewis XIV 1638 The Turks take Candia 1869 William III., Stadholder 1672 John Sobieski, King of Poland 1674 Peace of Nimwegen 1678-1679 Lewis XIV. seizes Strassburg 1681 Sweden becomes an absolute Monarchy ..... 1682 The Turks besiege Vienna 1683 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.D. Lewis XIV. revokes the Edict of Nantes .... 1685 James II. of England 1685 The Hungarian Crown becoir.es hereditary .... 1687 Lewis XIV. seizes Avignon 1688 William and Mary, King and Queen of England . . 1689 Peter the Great, sole Emperor of Russia .... 1689 Russian Conquest of Azof 1696 Peace of Ryswick 1697 Charles XII., Kin- of Sweden 1697 Augustus the Strong, King of Poland 1697 English Settlement at Calcutta 1698 Peace of Carlowitz 1699 Battle of Narva 17OO War of the Spanish Succession 17OO Frederick I., first King of Prussia *17O1 Anne, Queen of England 17 OS Stanislaus, Kiiig of Poland 17O4 Gibraltar taken by the English 17O4 Joseph I., Emperor 17O5 Union of England and Scotland 17O7 Beginning of the East India Company 17O8 Charlfes VI., Emperor 1711 Treaty of Utrecht 1713 Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy, King of Sicily . . . 1713 Frederick William I., King of Prussia 1714 George I. of England 1714 Lewis XV. of France 1715 War between Austria and Turkey 1715 The Turks win back Peloponnesos from Yenica . . 1715 Jacobite Rebellion in England 1715 Peace of Passarowitz ........ . . 1713 Death of Charles XII 1718 Quadruple Alliance against Spain 1718 Victor Amadeus II., King of Sardinia 172O The Pragmatic Sanction 1 720 Mahmoud I., Sultan 1730 War of the Polish Election 1733 Peace of Belgrade ............ i73* CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xxu A.D. Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary 174O Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia 174O Frederick conquers Silesia 174O War of the Austrian Succession ...'.. 1741-174& Charles VII., Emperor 1742 Francis I., Emperor . 174-5 Second Jacobite Rebellion 1745 Battle of Culloden 1746 William IV. Hereditary Stadholder 1747 The Seven Years' War .--... 1756 Suraj-ad-dowla takes Calcutta 1756 Battle of Plassey 1757 English Conquest of Canada 1759 George III. of England 176O The Family Compact 1761 Catharine II., Empress of Russia 1762 Russian conquest of Crim Tartary 1762 Peace of Paris 1763 Joseph II., Emperor 1765 Annexation of Lorraine to France 1766 Annexation of Corsica to France 1768 First Partition of Poland 1772 Abolition of the Society of Jesus ....... 1773 Peace of Kainardji 1774 Lewis XVI. of France 1774 Revolt of the American Colonies 1775 Declaration of Independence 1776 Independence of Ireland 1782 Convocation of States-General in France .... 1789 Constitution of the United States 1789 Selim III., Sultan 1789 Leopold II., Emperor 179O Francis II., Emperor 1793 National Convention m France 1792 Treaty of Jassy 1792 Wars of the French Revolution 1793-1815 Second Partition of Poland . 1793 Execution of Lewis XVI .... 1793 txx CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A. a Third Pirtitionof Poland 1795 Batavian Republic 1796 Paul, Emperor of Russia . 1796 Helvetic Republic . ' 1798 Battle of the Nile 1798 Union of Great Britain and Ireland 18OO Alexander, Emperor of Russia 18O1 Peace of Lunevill. 18O1 Peace of Amiens 18O2 Napoleon Buonaparte, Emperor of the Frgnrh . . 18O4 Buonaparte, King of Italy 18O5 Battle of Austerlitz 18O5 Peace of Pressburg 18O5 Battle of Trafalgar 18O5 Francis II. resigns the Imperial Crown ..... 18O6 Battle of Jena laoe Peace of Tilsit 18O7 Mahntoud II. Sultan 18O7 The Peninsular War begins 18O8 Battle of Wagram 18O9 Revolt of the Spanish Colonies in America . . . 181O French Invasion of Russia 1812 War between England and the United States . 1813-1815 Battle of Leipzig 1813 First Peace of Paris 1814. Abdication of Napoleon Buonaparte 1814 Congress of Vienna 1815 Return of Buonaparte. Battle of Waterloo . . . 1816 Second Peace of Paris 1815 The German Confederation 1815 Greek War of Independence 1821 Separation of Brazil from Portugal 1822 Charles X. of France 1824 Nicholas, Emperor of Russia 1825 Battle of Navarino 1827 War between Russia and Turkey 1828 French Revolution of July 183O Separation of Belgium from the Netherlands . . . 1830 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xxxk A.D. Insurrection in Central Italj 1831 Polish Revolution 1B31 Civil War in Spain 1833 Indeyendence of Egypt 1841 Tius IX., Pope 1846 War of the Sonderbund in Switzerland 1847 Frederick VII. of Denmark 1848 Second French Republic 1848 Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, President ..... 1848 First War of Independence in Italy 1848 War of Sleswick and Holbtein 1848 Swiss Federal Constitution 1848 Battle of Novara 1849 Victor Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia 1849 Fall of Rome and Venice 1849 French Republic destroyed by Louis Napoleon Buona- parte 18S1 Buonaparte calls himself Emperor 1852 The Crimean War 1854-1854 Alexander II., Emperor oi Russia 1855 Indian Mutiny 1857 Freedom of Lombardy 1859 Garibaldi frees Sicily and Naples . I860 Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy 1861 Secession War in America 1861 Polish Revolt . 1863 Battle of Konigsgratz 1866 Sleswick and Holstein joined to Prussia . ..... 1866 France declares war against Prussia 187O Battle of Sedan \ 87O Rome the Capital of Italy 187O William I. of Prussia, German Emperor . . . . 1871 Swendernf Paris 1O71 Peace of Frankfurt l71 GENERAL SKETCH OF HISTORY. CHAPTER I. ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. Oifferent nations of the world (\) difference between East and West (2) the Aryan nations (3) connexion among their languages (3) amount of progress made by them before tJieir dispersion (4) their advances in religion and government (5) the Semitic nations (6) their religious influence on the world (6) the Tu- ranian and other Non-Aryan nations (7) tJieir extent in Asia (7) traces of them in Europe (7) movements of the Aryans in Europe and Asia (8) geographical shape of Europe (9) the tliree great peninsulas (10) advance of the successive Aryan swarms (n) the Greeks and Italians (i 1, 12) the Celts (12) the Teutons (13) the Slaves and Lithuanians (14) later Turanian settlements in Europe; Hungarians and Tttrks (14) different degrees of importance among the Aryans of Europe (15) Rome the central point of all European History (i) Division of periods before and after the Roman Dominion (16). i. Different Aspects of History. The history of the various nations of mankind may be looked at in many and very different ways ; and the importance 2 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. [CHAP of different parts of history varies widely according to the way in "which they are looked at. One who wishes to trace out the history of religion, or of language, or of manners and customs, will often find as much that is useful for his purpose among savage nations, who have played no important part in the world, as among the most famous and civilized people. But researches of this sort cannot be put together into a continuous tale ; they are not history strictly so called. By history in the highest sense we understand the history of those nations which have really influenced one another, so that their whole story, from the beginning to our own time, forms one tale, of which, if we wholly leave out any part, we cannot rightly understand what fol- lows it Such a history as this is found only in the history of the chief nations of Europe, and of those nations of Asia and Africa which have had most to do with them. 2. Difference between East and West. Between the history of the East, as we may vaguely call it, that is chiefly the history of Asia and Africa, and the history of the Western world in Europe and America, the gap is in many ways wide. To take one point of difference among many, the his- tory of the East does not give the same political teaching as that of the West. It is in a much greater degree the history of a mere succession of empires and dynasties, and in a much less degree the history of the people. We shall therefore do right if we deal with the history of the West as our main subject, and treat of the history of the East only so far as it bears on the history of the West. For history in the highest sense, for the history of man in his highest political character, for the highest developements of art, Jitera- ture, and political freedom, we must look to that family of mankind to which we ourselves belong, and to that division of the world in which we oursflves dwell. The branch of history which is history in the I.] EAST AND WEST. 3 and truest sense is the history of the Aryan nations of Europe, and of those who have in later times gone forth from among them to carry the arts and languages of Europe into other continents. The history of these nations forms Western or European history, the history of Europe and of European Colonies. But here too we shall nnd some periods and countries of higher interest and importance than others. Still the whole from the earliest times to which we can trace it back, forms one connected story. No part is altogether void of interest in itself, none is altogether cut off from connexion with the general thread of continuous history. And with regard to particular times and places, this part of history reaches the highest degree of interest and importance that history can reach. It takes in the history of those times and places which most directly concern ourselves, and it takes in the history of those times and places which have had the deepest and most lasting influence on the world in general. It is then to the history of Europe, and of the Aryan nations in Europe and in European colonies elsewhere, that the present sketch, and the more de- tailed histories which are to follow it, will mainly be devoted. The history of other parts of the world, and of other families of the human race, will be dealt with only so far as those other nations and countries are brought into connexion with the long unbroken tale of European history. 3. The Aryan Nations. Some readers may perhaps by this time have asked what is to be under- stood by a word which has been already used more than once, namely, the Aryan nations. That is the name which is now generally used to express that division of the human race to which we ourselves be- long, that which takes in nearly all the present nations of Europe and several of the chief nations of Asia. The evidence of language shows that there was a time, a time of course long before the beginning of 4 ORIGIN OF THE NA TIONS. [CHAP recorded history, when the forefathers of all these nations were one people, speaking one language. Sanscrit, that is the ancient language of India, Persian^ Greek, Latin, English, and other tongues, many of which we shall soon have occasion to speak of, are really only dialects of one common speech. They show their common origin both by their grammatical forms, such as the endings of nouns and verbs and the like, and also in a way which is more easily understood by people in general, by their still having many of the commonest and most necessary words, those words without which no language can get on, essentially the same. Now many of the nations which now speak these languages have for ages been so far parted from one another that it is quite impossible that they can have borrowed these words, and still less these gram- matical forms, from one another. We can thus see that all these nations are really kinsfolk, that they once were only one nation, the different branches of which parted off from one another at a time long before written history begins. 4. Early State of the Aryan Nations. But what we know of the languages of the various Aryan nations tells us something more than this. By the nature of the words which are common to all or most of the kindred tongues, we can see what steps the forefathers of these various nations had already taken in the way of social life and regular government in the days before they parted asunder. And we can see that those steps were no small steps. Before there were such nations as Hindoos and Greeks and Ger- mans, while the common forefathers of all were still only one people, they had risen far indeed above the state of mere savages. They had already learned to build houses, to plough the ground, and to grind their corn in a mill. Tins is shown by the words for ploughing, building, and grinding being still nearly the same in all the kindred languages. It is i-asy for any- I.] THE EARLY ARYANS. 5 one to see that the word mill is the same as the Latin mo/a, and that the old word to ear that is, to plough the ground, which is sometimes used in the Old Testament, is the same as the Latin arare, which has the same meaning. But no one ought to fancy that the English word is derived from the Latin, or that we learned the use of the thing from any people who spoke Latin, because the same words are found also in many other of the kindred languages, even those which are spoken in countries which are furthest removed from one another. We see then that words of this kind and I have chosen only two out of many are regally fragments remaining from the old common lan- guage which was spoken by our common forefathers before they branched off and became different nations. It is therefore quite plain that the things themselves, the names of which have thus been kept in 30 many different languages for thousands of years, were already known to the Aryan people before they parted into different nations. And I need not say that people who build houses, plough the ground, and grind their corn, though they may still have very much to learn, are in a much higher state than the people in some parts of the world are in even now. 5. Early Aryan Religion and Government. But language again tells something more of the early Aryan people besides the progress which they had made in the merely mechanical arts. We find that the names for various family relations, for the different degrees of kindred and affinity, father, mother, brother, sister, and the like, are the same in all or most of the kindred tongues. We see then that, before the separation, the family life, the groundwork of all society and government, was already well un- derstood and fully established. And we see too that regular government itself had already begun ; for words meaning king orrulerz.ro. the same in languages so far distant from one another as Sanscrit, Latin, and 6 ORIGIN OF THE NA 77OA19. [CHAP. English. The Latin words rex, regtre, regnum, are the same as the Old-English riea, rixt'an, rice, words which have dropped out of the language, but which still re main ir the ending of such words as bishoprick, where the last syllable means government or possession. And we can also see that the Aryins before their dispersion had already something of a religion. For there is a common stock of words and tales common to most of the Aryan nations, many of which they cannot have borrowed from one another, and which point to an early reverence fof the great powers of the natural world. Thus the same name for the sky, or for the great God of the sky, appears in many of the kindred languages, as Dyaus in Sanscrit, Zeus in Greek, and the Old-English God Tiw, from whom we still call the third day of the week Tiwcsdag or Tuesday. And there are a number of stories about various Gods and heroes found among different Aryan nations, all of which seem to come from one common source. And we may go on and see that the first glimpses which we can get of the forms of government in the early days of the kindred nations show them to have been wonderfully like one another. Alike among the old Greeks, the old Italians, and the old Germans, there was a King or chief with limited power, there was a smaller Council of nobles or of old men, and a general Assembly of the whole people. Such was the old con- stitution of England, out of which the present consti- tution has grown step by step. But there is no reason to think that this was at all peculiar to England, or even peculiar to those nations who are most nearly akin to the English. There is every reason to believe that this form of government, in which every man had a place, though some had a greater place than others, was really one of the possessions which we have in common with the whole Aryan family. We see then that the common Aryan forefathers, in the times when they were still one people, times so long t] THE SEMITIC NATIONS. J ago that we cannot hope to give them any certain date had already made advances in civilization which placed them far above mere savages. They already had the family life ; they already had the beginnings of religion and government ; and they already knew most of those simple arts which are most needed for the comfort of human life. 6. The Semitic Nations. Such then were the^ original Aryans that one among the great families of mankind to which we ourselves belong, and that which has played the greatest part in the history of the world. Still the Aryan nations are only a small part among the nations of the earth. It is not needful for our purpose to speak at any length of the nations which are not Aryan ; but a few words must be given to the two great families which have always pretty well divided Europe and Asia with the Aryans, and with whom the history of the Aryans is constantly coming in contact. Next in importance to the Aryans we must place those that are called the Semitic nations, among which we have most to do with the Hebrews, the Phoenicians, and the Arabs. And in one point we must set them even above the Aryans ; for the three religions which have taught men that there is but on-e God the Jewish, the Christian, and the Mahometan have all come from among them. But those among the Semitic nations to whom this great truth was not known seem often to have fallen into lower forms of idolatry than the Aryans. Now the Semitic nations have, so to speak, kept much closer together than the Aryans have. They have always occupied a much smaller portion of the world than the Aryans, and they have kept much more in the* same part of the world. Their chief seats have always been in south-western Asia ; and, though they have spread themselves thence into distant parts of the world, in Asia, Africa, and even Europe, yet this has mainly been by settlements in comparatively late times, about whose history wt 8 ORIGIN OF THE NA TIONS. [CHAP. know-something. Their languages also have parted off much less from one another than the Aryan languages have ; the Semitic nations have thus always kept up more of the character of one family than the Aryans. 7. The Turanian Nations. The rest of Asia, which is not occupied either by Aryan or by Semitic people, is occupied by various nations whose tongues differ far more widely from one another than the Aryan tongues do. Still there is reason to believe that many of them at least were originally one people, and at all events it is convenient for our purposes to class together all those nations of Europe and Asia which are neither Aryan nor Semitic. The people of the greater part of Asia are commonly known as the Turanian nations. In the old Persian stories Turan, the land of darkness, is opposed to Iran or Aria, the land of light ; and it is from this Iran, the old name- of Persia, that it has been thought convenient to give the whole family the name of Aryans. And besides that large part of Asia which is still occupied by the Turanians, it is plain that in earlier times they occupied a large part of Europe also. But the Aryans have driven them out of nearly all Europe, except a few remnants in out-of-the-way corners, such as the Pins and Laps in the north. The Basques also on the borders of Spain and Gaul, whether akin to the Turanians or not, are at least neither Aryan nor Semitic, so that for our purpose they may all go together. Except these few remnants of the old races, all Europe has been Aryan since the beginning of written history, except when Senrtic or Turanian invaders have come in later times. But in Asia the nations which are neither Aryan nor Semitic, the Chinese, Mongols, Turks, and others, still far out- number the Aryan and Semitic nations put together. 8. The Aryan Dispersion. We have seen that there was a time. long before the beginning of recorded I. J THE ARYAN DISPERSION. 9 history, when the forefathers of the various Aryans dwelled together as one people, speaking one iitnguage. And the advances which they had made towards civilization show that they must have dwelled together for a long time, but a time whose length we cannot undertake to measure. Nor can we undertake to fix a date for the time of the great separation, when the families which had hitherto dwelled together parted off in different directions and became different nations, speaking tongues which are easily seen to be near akin to each other, but which gradually parted from one another so that different nations could no longer understand each other's speech. All that we caji say is that these are things which happened long before the beginnings of written history, but which are none the less certain because we learn them from another kind of proof. The various wandering bands must have parted off at long intervals, one by one, and it often happened that a band split off into two or more bands in the course of its wanderings. And in most cases they did not enter upon uninhabited lands, but upon lands in which men of other races were already dwelling. Among these they came as conquerors, and, for the most part, they drove them out of the best parts of the land into out-of-the-way corners. First of all, there are the two great divisions of the Eastern and the Western, the Asiatic and the European, Aryans, divisions which became altogether cut off from one" another in geographical position and in habits and feelings. From the old mother-land one great troop pressed to the south-east and became the forefathers of the Persians and Hindoos, driving the older inhabit- ants of India down to the south, into the land which is properly distinguished from Hindostan by the name of the Deccan. The other great troop pressed west- ward, and, sending off one swarm after another, formed the various Aryan nations of Europe. The order in which they came can be known only by their geo- 10 ORIGIN CF THE NATIONS. [CHAP. graphical position. The first waves of the migration must be those whom we find furthest to the West and furthest to the South. But, in order fully to take in the force of the evidence furnished by the geo- graphical position of the various Aryan nations in Europe, it is needful to say a few words as to the geographical aspect of the continent of Europe itself. 9. Geographical Shape of Europe. A glance at the map will show that, of the three continents which form the Old World, Europe, Asia, and Africa, the first two are far more closely joined to one another than either of them is to the third. Africa is a vast peninsula in our own day indeed it may be said to have become an island united to the other two by a very narrow isthmus. But Europe and Asia form one unbroken mass, and in some parts the boun- dary between the two is purely artificial. Some maps, for instance, make the Don the boundary ; others make it the Volga. The most northern and the most central parts of Europe and Asia form unbroken geographical wholes ; it is only the southern parts of the two con- tinents which are quite cut off from one another. And it is in these southern parts of each that the earliest recorded history, at all events the earliest recorded history of the Aryan nations, begins. Central Europe and central Asia form one great solid mass of nearly unbroken land. The southern parts of each continent, the lands below these central masses, con- sist of a series of peninsulas, running, in the case of Europe, into the great inland sea called the Meditcr- ranfan the sea which brings all three continents into connexion in the case of Asia into the Ocean itself. Europe thus consists of a great central plain, cut off by a nearly unbroken mountain range from a system of islands and peninsulas to the south, which is again balanced to the north by a sort of secondary system of islands and peninsulas, the Baltic being a I ] GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. IS kind of northern Mediterranean. We might almost say the same of Asia, as the mouths of the great rivers which run to the north form several peninsulas and inland seas. But then this part of the world has always been, so to speak, frozen up, and it never has played, nor ever can play, any part in history. TO. The three great European Peninsulas. We thus see that the southern part of Europe consists mainly of three great peninsulas, those of Spain, Italy, and what we may roughly call Greece. Of these, the two eastern peninsulas are purely Mediter- ranean, while Spain, from its position at one end of the Old World, could not help having one side to the Ocean. So Northern Europe may be said to consist of the two Scandinavian peninsulas and of the British Islands, which in a certain wav balance Spain, and which, in a general glance, seem peninsular rather than insular. Now of the three southern peninsulas, it will be seen at once that the eastern one has a character of its own. Though the nearest to Asia, it is in its geographical character the most thoroughly European. As Europe is, more than either of the other continents, a land of islands and peninsulas, so Greece and the countries near to it are, more than any other part of Europe, a. .and of islands and peninsulas. It is therefore hardly more than we should expect when we find that the recorded history of Europe begins in this eastern peninsula, that is to say, in Greece ; that for several ages the history of Europe is little more than a history of this and the neighbouring peninsula, that i. c to say, of Greece and Italy ; that the third peninsula, that of Spain, first appears in European history as a kind of appendage to the other two ; and that the historical importance of central and northern Europe belongs to a later time still. ii. The Aryan Settlement of Europe. The Greeks and Italians. This does not howevei 12 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. [CHAP, necessarily prove that the two peninsulas of Greece arid Italy were positively the first parts of Europe which received Aryan inhabitants. There can be no doubt, from the close likeness of the Greek and Latin languages, that the Aryan inhabitants of those two peninsulas branched off from the original stock as one swarm. They afterwards parted and became two nations, or rather two groups of many nations ; but the fact that the Greek and Latin languages agree so closely together shows that there was a time when the forefathers of the Greeks and the forefathers of the Italians had already parted off from the fore- fathers of the Hindoos and Germans, but had not yet parted off from one another. Now the time when they occupied these two peninsulas must have been long before the beginnings of recorded history, so that it is impossible to give any details of the way in which the land was conquered. Still it is not in the least likely that they found the land uninhabited. Tlvey may have found earlier inhabitants who were not Aryans,- as the Aryans certainly did in many other parts of Europe, or they may even have found Aryan settlers earlier than themselves. The exact relations be- tween the Greeks and the other ancient nations of south- eastern Europe are in some respects very hard to make out, and the little that can be said about it in such a sketch as this will be better said when we come to speak of Greece somewhat more particularly. But of the people whom the Italians found in the middle peninsula of the three, we must say something more. 12. The Italians and Celts. In the case of the Italians, we know a little more of the nations, both Aryan and otherwise, whom they seem to have found in their peninsul, In some parts they most likely found a non-Aryan people, and it can hardly be doubted that, if they entered their peninsula by land from the head of the Hadriatic Gulf, they <.] THE CELTS. 13 already found a Celtic people in the northern part of it The Celts were the first wave of the Aryan migra- tion in central Europe, and we therefore find them further to the west than any other Aryan people. In historical times we find them in Gauf, in the British Islands, in parts of Spain and Italy, and in the border lands of Italy and Germany south of the Danube. Now it is not likely that they found any part of these lands quite uninhabited ; it is far more likely that they found aii earlier people dwelling in them, whom they slew or drove out. In Spain indeed and in Southern Gaul we know that they found an earlier people dwelling, because, as has been already said, there is a small district on each side of the Pyrenees where a non-Aryan tongue is- still spoken. The people who speak it, the Basques, are, we cannot doubt, remnants of the earlier people who inhabited Spain and Southern Gaul, and most likely other parts of Western Europe, before either the Celts or Italians came. And we can hardly doubt that the Italians found people of this race, perhaps in their peninsula itself, and at any rate on its borders. But the Italians never settled far to the west of their own peninsula ; the first Aryans who pushed their way into Western Europe as far as the Ocean were the Celts. But we must now mark that, as the Aryans pressed upon and slew or drove out the earlier people whom they found in the lands into which they came, so presently other Aryan swarms came pressing upon the first Aryans, and dispossessed or drove them out in like manner. Thus, in Western Europe, while the earlier inhabitants have been driven up by the Celts into very small corners indeed, the Celts themselves were in the end also driven up into corners, though not into quite such small corners. Thus, out of all the land where the Celts once dwelled, their languages, or which the British 01 Welsh, the Breton, and the Irish tongues still sur- vive, are now spoken onl^. in certain parts of Gaul, 14 ORIGIN OF THE NA TICNS. [CHAF Britain, and Ireland. This change is partly because as we shall see as we go on, a large part of the Celts were conquered by the Romans, and learned to speak their language. But it is also partly because another wave of Aryan settlement presently came into Western Europe, which pressed upon the Celts from the east, and drove them out of a great part of the land, just as they had driven the earlier people. And so in later times, other branches of the Aryan family.have pressed backwards and forwards, and have conquered and displaced other Aryan nations, just as much as those that were not Aryan. But there can be no doubt that the Celts were the first Aryans who made their way into the western lands of Spain, Gaul, and Britain, 13. The Teutons or Dutch. The second Aryan swarm in Western Europe, that which came after the Celts, is the one with whose history we are more concerned than with that of any other ; for it is the branch of the Aryan family to which we ourselves belong. These are the Teutons, the forefathers of the Germans and the English, and of the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians in Northern Europe. The Teutons do not appear in history till a much later time than the Celts, and then we find them lying immediately to the east of the Celts, chiefly in the land which is now called Germany. From this they spread themselves into many of the countries of Europe ; but in most cases they got lost among the earlier inhabitants, and learned, like them, tD speak the language of the Romans. The chief parts of Europe where Teutonic languages are now spoken are Germany, England, and Scan- dinavia. In Scandinavia we cannot doubt that the present Teutonic inhabitants were the first Aryan settlers ; for they found a Turanian people there, some of whom still remain, by the name of Laps and Fins, in the extreme north of Sweden and Norway iiui OD the eastern coast of the Baltic. But in most place* I.] THE TEUTONS AND SLAVES. 13 the Teutons, as the second wave, came into lands where other Aryan settlers had been before them. Sometimes they may have simply come in the wake of the Celts as they were pressing westward ; but, sometimes they found the Celts in the land and drove them out, as was specially the case in Britain. O f the first coming of the Teutons into Europe we can say nothing from written history, any more than of the first coming of the Celts. But many of their chief settlements, and among them the settle- ment in Britain, happened so late that we know a good deal about them. The true name of the Teutons is Theodisc or Dutch, from Theod, people, as one might say, "the people," as opposed to foreigners. The Germans still call themselves Deutschen in their own language, and not so long ago the word Dutch was still used in English in a sense at least as wide as this, and did not mean only the people to whom alone we now commonly give the name. 14. The Slaves and Lithuanians. The third wave of Aryan settlement in the central parts of Europe consisted of the Slaves and Lithuanians, whom for our purpose we may put together, It must not be thought that the word Slave, as the name of a people, comes from slave in its common sense of bondman. It is just the other way, for the word slave got the sense of bondman because of the great number of bondmen of Slavonic birth who were at one time spread over Europe. This third swarm forms the Aryan inhabitants of the central part of Eastern Europe, of Old Prussia and Lithuania, of Russia, Poland, Bohemia,, of parts of Hungary, and of a large part of the countries which are subject to the Turks. They thus lie to the east of the Teutons, who in after-times turned about and greatly enlarged their borders at their cost. And it is also among thes-e Slavonic people that we find the only instances in Europe of a Turanian people turning about and establishing themselves at the cost of Aryan 10 ORIGIN OF THE NA T1ONS. [CHAP. nations. One of these is the Hungarians or Magyar^ a people allied to the Fins, who pressed in as conquerors, and founded a kingdom which still lasts, and where the old Turanian tongue is still spoken. The other case is that of the Ottoman Turks, who still bear rule over many of the Greeks, Slaves, and other Aryan and Christian people in south-eastern Europe. And as we go on, we shall find other cases in eastern Europe of Turanian nations invading or ruling over Aryans ; but it is only the Hungarians and the Ottoman Turks who founded kingdoms which have lasted to our own time. The last Aryan people to be mentioned in this survey of Europe are the Lithuanians, whose language and his- tory are closely connected with those of the Slaves. They are the smallest, as the Slaves are the largest, of the great divisions of the Aryan settlers in Europe. But they are of great importance, because their lan- guage is in some sort the very oldest in Europe ; that is, it is the one which has undergone the least change from the common Aryan tongue from which all set out. But it is only in a very small part of Europe, on the south-east corner of the Baltic, that the Lithuanian tongue is still spoken. 15. Rome the Centre of European History. Such is a very short sketch of the settlement of the chief Aryan nations in Europe. The history of these nations forms European history. But, even among these Aiyan nations in Europe, some have played a much more important part than others. Thus the Lithuanians and Slaves have always lagged behind the other nations. Nor have the Celts played any great part in history, except when they have come under either Roman or Teutonic influences. The nations which have stood out foremost among aL 1 have been the Greeks, the Romans, and the Teutons. And among these it is the Romans who form the centre of the whole story. Rome alone founded a universal I.] ROME THE COMMON CENTRE. 17 Empire in which all earlier history loses itself, and out of which all later history grew. That Empire, at the time of its greatest extent, took in the whole of what was then the civilized world, that is to say, the countries round about the Mediterranean Sea, alike in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Roman Empire was formed by gradually bringing under its dominion all the countries within ttyose bounds which had already begun to have any history, those which we may call the states of the Old World. And /it was out of the breaking up of the great dominion of Rome that what we may call the states of the New Wurld, the kingdoms and nations of modern Europe, gradually took their rise. Thus through the whole of our sketch we must be ever thinking of Rome, ever looking to Rome, sometimes looking forward to it, sometimes looking back to it, but always having Rome in our mind as the centre of the whole story. In the former part of oiir sketch we have to deal with king- doms and nations which are one day to come under the power of Rome. In the latter part of our sketch we have to deal with kingdoms and nations, many of which actually formed part of the Roman dominion, and all of which have been brought, more or less fully, under Roman influences.^ In this way Rome will never pass out of our sight. 16. Division of Periods. We may thus say that the history of the civilized part of the world falls into three parts. There is the history of the states which were in being before the Roman dominion began, and out of whose union the Roman dominion was formed. Then there is the history of the Roman dominion itself. Lastly, there is the history of the states which arose out of the breaking up of the Roman dominion. But we shall have much more to say about th e states which grew up out of the breaking up of the Roman dominion than about the states which were brought together to form it. There are 18 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. [CHAP. two reasons for this. History which we can fully trust, history which was written down at or soon after the time when things happened, begins only a few hundred years before the Roman power came to its full growth. But a far longer time has passed since the days when the Roman dominion began to break in pieces. Thus the portion of trustworthy history which comes after the days of the Roman dominion is much longer than the portion which comes before it. And in these later times we have to deal with many great and famous states, among which are those which have grown into the chief powers of Europe in our own day. But in the earlier time, the time before the Roman dominion, we know very little of most of the European nations : the history of most of them may be said to begin at the time when the Romans began to conquer them. Of most of them therefore the little that we have to say will be best said when we come to speak of the Roman conquests. But there is one European country which has a history of its own before its conquest by the Romans, and a history longer and nobler than that of the Romans themselves. This country is Greece. Of Greece then, and of Greece alone, we must give a separate sketch in the next chapter, before we begin to trace the steps by which Rome won her universal dominion. CHAPTER II. GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. Connexion between the Greeks and Italians (i) their rela- tion to other neighbouring nations (i) their early advances over their kindred (i) meaning of the name Hellas (-^geographical character of the country (2) number of islands and peninsulas (2) consequent number of small states (2) early political superiority of Greece (3) relations between the Greeks and Phaeni' (4) extent of the Phoenician Colonies (4) extern IL] THE GREEKS. *, of the Greek Colonies (5) distinction between Greek* and Barbarians (6) relations of the Greeks to the kindred nations (6) relations among the cities of Greece (7) relations of the colonies to the mother cities (7) early constitutions of tJte Greek cities ; likeness of those to other Aryan nations (8) Kingship, Aristocracy ; Democracy (8) Tyranny '(9) Greek religion andmyth- ology(\o) the Homeric poems (i i) the Dorian migra- tion (\\) the Messenian wars (i i) reforms of So ton at Athens (n) growth of the Persians (12) thei* conquests of Lydia and the Greek cities of Asia (12) first Persian invasion of Greece; Battle of Marathon (13) second Persian invasion of Greece; Battles of Salamis, Plataia, and My kale ( 1 3) greatness of A thens (14) beginning of the Peloponnesian War (15) Athenian expedition to Sicily (15) Athens overcome by Sparta (15) the dominion of Sparta (16) the Peace of Antalkidas (16) rise of Thebes (17) rise of Mace- donia under Philip; his supremacy in Greece (18) conquests of Alexander the Great (19) effects of his conquests; spread of Greek civilization in Asia (20) the Successors of Alexander in Asia and Egypt (21) the later Kings of Macedonia and Epeiros (22) character of the later history of Greece (23) prevalence of Federal Governments in later Greece : Leagues of A chain, ^Etolia, and elsewhere (24) greatness of Sparta under Kleomenes (25) interference of Rome in Greek affairs (25) Summary (26). i. The Greek People. Whether the Greeks were the first Aryan people to settle in Europe or in Eastern Europe we cannot tell for certain. But we do know for certain that they were the first Aryan nation whose deeds were recorded in written history ; and there never was any nation whose deeds were more worthy to be recorded. For no nation ever did such great things, none ever made such great advances in every way so wholly by its own power and with so little help from any other people. Yet we must not look on the Greeks as a nation quite apart by them- selves. We have already seen that the Greek people ao GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAR were part of a great Aryan settlement which occupied both the two eastern peninsulas, and that the fore- fathers of the Greeks and the forefathers of ' the Italians must have kept together for a good while after they had parted company from the other branches of the Aryan family. And there is some reason to think that some of the other nations bordering near upon Greece, both in the eastern peninsula and in the western coast of Asia, in Illyria, Thrace, Phrygta, and Lydia, were not only Aryan, but were actually part of the same swarm as the Greeks and Italians. However this may be, i.t seems quite certain that most of the nations lying near Greece, as those in j>eirosand Macedonia, which lie to the north, those in Sicily and Southern Italy, and in some parts of the opposite coasts of Asia, were very closely akin to the Greeks, and spoke languages which came much nearer to Greek even than the languages of the rest of Italy. The people of all these countries seem to have had a power beyond all other people of adopting the Greek language and manners, and, so to speak, of making themselves Greeks. The Greeks seem, in fact, to have been one among several kindred nations which shot in advance of its kinsfolk, and which was therefore able in the end to become a teacher to the others. And one thing which helped the Greeks in thus putting themselves in advance of all their kinsfolk and neighbours was the nature of the land in which they settled. 2. Geographical Character of Greece. Any- one who turns to the map will see that the country which we call Greece, but which its own people have always called Hellas, is the southern part of the great eastern peninsula of Europe. But we must remember that, in the way of speaking of the Greeks themselves, the name Hellas did not mean merely the country which we now call Greece, but any country where Hellenes or Greeks lived. Thus there might be patches, so to speak, of Hellas anywhere ; and there were sucb n.] GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE. 21 patches of Hellas round a great part of the Mediter- ranean Sea, wherever Greek settlers had planted colonies. But the first aad truest Hellas, the mother- land of all Hellenes, was the land which we call Greece, with the islands -round about it. There alone the whole land was Greek, and none but Hellenes lived in it. It is, above all the rest of Europe, a land of islands and peninsulas ; and that was, no doubt, one main reason why it was the first part of Europe to stand forth as great and free in the eyes of the whole world. For in early times the sea-coast is always the part of a land which is first civilized, because it is the part which can most easily have trade and other dealings with other parts of the world. Thus, as Greece was the first part of Europe to be- come civilized, so the coasts and islands of Greece were both sooner and more highly civilized than the inland parts. Those inland parts are almost everywhere full of mountains and valleys, so that the different parts of the land, both on the sea-coast and in the inland parts, were very much cut Off from one another. Each valley or island or little peninsula had its own town, with its own little territory, forming, whenever it could, a separate government independent of all others, and with the right of making war and peace, just as if it had been a great kingdom. 3. Character of Grecian History. The geo- graphical nature of the land in this way settled the history of the Greek people. It is only in much later times that a great kingdom or commonwealth can come to have the same political and intellectual life as a small state consisting of one city. In an early state of things the single city is always in advance of the great kingdom, not always in wealth or in mere bodily comforts, but always in political freedom and in real sharpness of wit. Thus the Greeks, with their many small states, were the first people from whom we can learn any lessons in the art of politics, the 2 GREECf. AXD THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP art of ruling and persuading men according to law, The little commonwealths of Greece were the first states at once fr2e and civilized which the world ever saw. They were the first states which gave birth to great statesmen, orators, and generals who did great deeds, and to great historians who set down those great deeds in writing. It was in the Greek common- wealths, in short, that the political and intellectual life of the world began. But, for the very reason that trreir freedom came so early, they were not able to keep it so long as states in later times which have been equally free and of greater extent. 4. The Greeks and the Phoenicians. Whether the Greeks found any earlier inhabitants in the land which they made their own is a point on which we cannot be quite certain, but it is more likely that they did than that they did not. But it is certain that, when they began to spread themselves from the mainland into the islands, they found in the islands powerful rivals already settled. These were the Phoenicians, as the Greeks called them, who were a Semitic people, and who played a great part in both Grecian and Roman history. Their real name among themselves was Canaanites, and they dwelled on the coast of Palestine, at the east end of the Mediterranean Sea, especially in the great cities of Sidon, Tyre, and Arados or Arvad. They were a more really civilized people, and made a nearer approach to free govern- ment, than any other people who were not Aryans. They were especially given to trade and to everything which had to do with a seafaring life. They had thus begun to spread their trade, and to found colonies, over a large part of the Mediterranean coast, before the Greeks became of any note in the world. They had even made their way beyond what the Greeks called the Pillars of Herakles, that is, beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, and had sailed from the Mediter- ranean Sea into the Ocean. They had there founded .] GREEKS AND PIKENICIANS. 23 the city of Gades, which still keeps its name as Cadix* and they founded other colonies, both in Spain and on the north-west coast of Africa, of which the most famous was Carthage. They had also settlements in the islands of the ^Egsean Sea, as well as in the greater islands of Cyprus and Sicily ; and it was in these islands that they met the Greeks as enemies. But, even before the Greeks had begun to send out colonies, they had a good deal of trade with the Phoenicians. And, as the Phoenicians were the more early civilized of the two nations, the Greeks seem to have learned several things of them, and above all, the alphabet. The Greeks learned the letters which the Phoenicians used to write their own language, which was much the same as the Hebrew, and they adapted them, as well as they could, to the Greek language. And from the Greeks the alphabet gradually made its way to the Italians, and from them to the other nations of Europe, with such changes as each nation found needful for its own tongue. The Phoenicians did much in this way towards helping on the civilization of the Greeks : but there is no reason to believe that the Phoenicians, or any other people of Asia or Africa, founded any settle- ments in Greece itself after the Hellenes had once made the land their own. 5. Foundation of the Greek Colonies. From the mainland of Greece the Greek people gradually spread themselves over most of the neighbouring islands, and over a large part of the Mediterranean coast, especi- ally on the shores nearest to their own land. In fact, we may say that the Phoenicians and the Greeks between them planted colonies round the whole coast of the Mediterranean, save in two parts only. One cf these was Egypt on the south ; the other was Central and Northern Italy, where the native inhabitants were far too strong and brave to allow strangers to settle among them. The Greeks thus spread themselves over all the islands of the yEgsean Sea, over the coasts of 24 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHA* Macedonia and Thrace to the north and of Asia Minor to the east, as wel' as in the islands to the west ot Greece, Korkyra and the others which are known now as the Ionian Islands. A great part of this region be- rame fully as Greek as Greece itself, only even here, on some parts of the coast, the Greek possessions were not quite unbroken, but were simply a city here and there. And nowhere, except in Greece itself, did the Greek colonists get very far from the sea. Other colonies were gradually planted in Cyprus, in Sicily and Southern Italy, and on the coast of Illyria on the eastern side of the Hadriatic. And there was one part of the Mediter- ranean coast which was occupied by Greek colonies where we should rather have looked for Phoenicians ; that is, in the lands' west of Egypt, where several Greek cities arose, the chief of which was Kyrene. These were the only Greek settlements on the south coast of the Mediterranean. But some Greek colonies were planted as far east as the shores of the Euxine, and others as far west as the shores of Gaul and Northern Spain. One Greek colony in these parts which should be specially remembered was Massalia, now Marseille. This was the only great Greek city in the western part of the Mediterranean, and it was the head of several smaller settlements on the coasts of Gaul and Spain. In the southern part of Spain, and in the greater part of northern Africa, the Greeks could not settle, because there the Phoenicians had settled before them. And no Greek sailors were ever bold enough to pass the Pillars of Herakles and to plant colonies on the shores of the Ocean. 6. Greeks and Barbarians. We have thus seen the extent of country over which the Greek people spread themselves. There was their own old country and the islands nearest to it, where they alone occupied *,he whole land ; and there were also the more distant colonies, where Greek cities were planted here and there, on the coasts of lands which were occupier! by fl.l GREEKS AND BARBARIANS. 25 men of other nations, or, as the Greeks called them, Barbarians. This word Barbarians, in its first use among the Greeks, simply meant that the people so called were people whose language the Greeks did not understand. They called them Barbarians, even though their blood and speech were nearly akin to their own, if only the difference was so great that their speech was not understood. It followed that in most parts of the world it was easy to tell who were Greeks and who were Barbarians, but that along the northern frontier of Greece the line was less strongly drawn than elsewhere. Along that border the ruder tribes of the Greek nation, the ALtolians, Akarnanians, and others, lived alongside of other tribes who were not Greek, but who seem to have been closely allied to the Greeks. If you turn to the map, you will see along this northern border the lands of Macedonia, Epeiros, Thessaly. Macedonia was ruled by Greek Kings, but it was never reckoned to be part of Greece till quite late times. Thessaly, on the other hand, way always reckoned as part of Greece, though the people who gave it its name seem not to have been of purely Greek origin. In Epeiros again the same tribes are by some writers called Greeks and by others Bar- barians, and it was only in quite late times that Epeiros, like Macedonia, was allowed to be a Greek land. So, among the colonies, though all were planted among people whom the Greeks looked on as Bar- barians, yet it made a great practical difference whether the people among whom they were planted were originally akin to the Greeks or not. Thus, in many countries, as in the lands round the ./Egsean and also in Italy and Sicily, the Greeks settled among peonle who were really very near to them in blood and speech, and who gradually adopted the Greek language and manners. In this way both Sicily and Southern Italy became quite Greek countries, though in Sicily the Greeks had to keep up a long struggle against th< 26 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP, Phoenicians of Carthage, who also planted several colonies in that island. In Cyprus also the same struggle went or., and the island became partly Greek and partly Phoenician. But in those of the ^Egaean islands where the Phoenicians hud settled, the Greeks drove them out altogether. For there was no chance of the Phoenicians taking to Greek ways as the Italians and Sicilians did. 7. The Greek Commonwealths. Greece it- self, the land to the south of the doubtful lands like Macedonia and Epeiros, was the only land which was wholly and purely Greek, where there was no doubt as to the whole people being Greek, and where we find the oldest and most famous cities of the Greek name. Such, in the great peninsula called Peloponnesos, were Sparta and Argos, and, in early times, Mykene ; Corinth too on the Isthmus, and beyond the Isthmus, Megara, Athens, Thebes, and, in very early times, Orchomenos. Each Greek city, whenever it was strong enough, formed an independent state with its own little terri- tory ; but it often happened that a stronger city brought a weaker one more or less under its power. And in some parts of Greece several towns joined together in Leagues, each town managing its own affairs for itself, but the whole making war and peace as a single state. Thus in Peloponnesos, first Mykene, then Argos, and lastly Sparta, held the first place, each in turn contriving to get more or less power over a greater or smaller number of other cities. And it would seem that in very early times the Kings of Mykene had a certain power over all Peloponnesos and many of the islands. Still, even when a Greek city came more or less under the power of a stronger city, it did not wholly lose the character of a separate common- wealth. And when the cities of Old Greece began to send out colonies, those colonies became separate commonwealths also. Each colony came forth from some city in the mother country, and it often hap- n.] FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. 2? pened that a colony sent forth colonies of its own in turn. Each colony became an independent state, owing a certain respect to the mother city, but not being subject to it. And as the colonies were commonly planted where there was a rich country or a position good for trade, many of them became very flourishing and powerful. In the seventh and sixth centuries before Christ, many of the colonial cities, as Miletos in Asia, Sybaris in Italy, and Syracuse in Sicily, were among the most flourishing of all Greek cities, greater than most of the cities in Greece itself. But the colonies were for the most part not so well able to keep their freedom as the cities in Greece were. 8. Forms of Government. In the earliest days of Greece we find much the same form of government in the small Greek states 'which we find among all the Aryan nations of whose early condition we have any account. But both the Greeks and the Italians were unlike the Teutons and some of the other Aryan nations in one thing. That is because they were gathered together in cities from the very beginning, while some of the other nations were collections, not so much of cities as of tribes. Still the early form of government was much the same in both cases. Each tribe or city had its own King or chief, whose office was mostly confined to one family, for the Kings were commonly held to be of the blood of the Gods. The King was the chief leader both in peace and war ; but he could not do everything according to his own pleasure. For there was always a Council of elders or chief men, and also an Assembly of the whole people, or at least of all those who had the full rights of citizens. This kind of kingship lasted in Greece through the whole of the earliest times, through what are called the Heroic Ages, and in the neighbouring lands of Epeiros and Macedonia a kingship of much the same kind lasted on through nearly the whole of their history. But in Greece itself the kinglj 28 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP. power was gradually abolished in most of the cities, and they became commonwealths. At first these com- monwealths were aristocracies; that is to say, only men of certain families were allowed to fill public offices and to take part in the assemblies by which the city was governed. These privileged families were in most cases the descendants of the oldest inhabitants of the city, who o]id not choose to admit new-comers to the same full rights as themselves. Some of the Greek cities remained aristocracies till very late times ; but others soon became democracies; that is to say, all citizens were allowed to hold offices and to attend the assemblies. But it must be remembered that everyone who lived in a Greek city was not therefore a citizen. For in most parts of Greece there were many slaves ; and, if a man from one city went to live in another, even though the city in which he went to live was a democracy, neither he nor his children were made citizens as a matter of course. In a few cities the name King, in Greek Basileus, remained in use as the title of a magistrate, though one who no longer held the chief power. And in Sparta they always went on having Kings of the old royal house, two Kings at a time, who kept much power both in military and in religious matters, though they were no longer the chief rulers of the state. 9. The Tyrants. All the three chief forms of government, Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy, were held by the Greeks to be lawful ; but there was another kind of power which was always deemed un- lawful. This was Tyranny. It. sometimes happened, especially in cities where the nobles and the people were quarrelling as to whether the commonwealth should be aristocratic or democratic, that some man would snatch away the power from both and make himself Tyrant. That is to say, he would, perhaps with the good will of part of the people, seize the power, and much more than the power, of the old ii. J THE GREEK RELIGION. 2* Kings. The word Tyrant meant at first no more than that a man had got the power of a King in & city where there was no King by law. It did not necessarily mean that he used his power badly or cruelly ; though, as most of the Tyrants did so> the word came to have a worse meaning than it tiad at first. The time when most of the Tyrants reigned in Greece was in the seventh and sixth centuries before Christ ; and the most famous of them were Peisistratos and his sons, who ruled at Athens in the sixth century. In the colonies, and especially in Sicily. Tyrants went on rising and falling during almost the whole time of Grecian history. But in old Greece we do not heal much of them after the sons of Peisistratos were driven out, about the end of the sixth century, till quite the later times of Grecian history, when Tyrants again were common, but Tyrants of quite another kind. 10. The Greek Religion. The religion of the Greeks was one of those forms of mythology which have been already spoken of as growing up among most of the Aryan nations. All the powers of nature and all the acts of man's life were believed to be under the care of different deities, of different degrees of power. The head of all was Zeus, the God of the sky, and he is described as reigning on Mount Olympoi in Thessaly, where the Gods were believed to dwell, with his Council and his general Assembly, much like an early Greek King on earth. The art and literature of the Greeks, and indeed their government and their whole life, were closely bound up with their religion. The poets had from the beginning .many beautiful stories to tell about the Gods and about the Heroes, who were mostly said to be the children of the Gods. And, when the Greeks began to practise the arts, it was in honour of the Gods and Heroes that the noblest buildings and the most beautiful statues and pictures were made. 11. The Early History of Greece. Of the 30 GREECE AND THE GREEK CGL ONIZS. [CHAP earliest times of Grecian history we have no accounts written at the time ; we have to make out what we can from the traditions preserved by later writers, and from the notices of the poets. For composition in verse always goes before composition in prose, and the earliest Greek works that we have are those of the poets. The poems which go by the name of Homer, the Iliad and Odyssey, give us a picture of the state of things in the earliest days of Greece, and al- lusions and expressions in them also help us to some particular facts. But scholars no longer believe that the story of the war of Troy is a true history, though the tale most likely arose out of the settlements of the Greeks on the north-west coast of Asia. These settlements were among the earliest of the Greek colonies, the very earliest probably being the settle- ments in the southern islands of the ./Egsean, which Homer himself speaks of. These were made so early that it is vain to try to give them any exact date. Presently we get glimmerings, which seem to have been preserved partly by poets and partly by tradition, of a great movement by which the Dorians, a people of Northern Greece, came and conquered the Achaians in Peloponnesos and dwelled in their chief cities, Argos, Sparta, Corinth, and others. The other chief division of the Greek nations was the Ionian*, whose chief city was Athens, and who are said to have planted many colonies in Asia about the same time when the Dorians came into Peloponnesos. And when we get down to times to which we can give something more like exacUdates, we have remains of several poets which sometimes help us to particular facts. Thus there was a war in which Sparta conquered her neighbours of Mtssene, of which we learnt something from the poems of the minstrel Tyrtaios, who made songs to encourage the Spartan warriors. This was in the seventh cen- tury before Christ ; and in the next century, Solon, the famous lawgiver of Athens, made laws for his owu -u^ ii.] THE PERSIANS. 31 and first gave the mass of the people a share in the government, which wis the beginning of the famous democracy. Solon was also a poet, and we have some remains of his verses, which throw light on his political doings. So again, the poems of Theognis of Megara throw some light on the disputes between the nobles and the people in that city. But from frag- ments like these we can get no connected history, so that most of what we know of these days comes from later writers, who did not live near the time, and whose accounts therefore cannot be trusted in every detail. It is only when we come to the Persian Wars, in the beginning of the fifth century before Christ, that we begin to have really trustworthy accounts. For those times we have the history of Herodotos, who, though he did not himself live at the time, had seen and spoken with those who did. By this time the chief cities of Greece had settled down under their several forms of government, aristocratic or democratic. And most of the colonies had been founded, especially those in Italy and Sicily, which were at this time very flourishing, though many of them were under Tyrants. Greece had now pretty well put on the shape which she was to wear during the greatest times of her nistory, and she had now to bear the trial of a great foreign invasion and to come out all the stronger for it. 1 2. The Persians. The people of Persia, though they lived far away from the shores of the Mediterra- nean, in the further part of Asia beyond the great rivers Euphrates and Tigris, were much more nearly allied to the Greeks in blood and speech than most of the nations which lay between them. For they be- longed to the Eastern branch of the Aryan family, who had remained so long separate from their kinsfolk in Europe, and who now met them as enemies. The Persians first began to be of importance in the sixth century before Christ, when, under their King Cyrus, 32 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP they became a conquering people. He took Babylon, which at that time was the great power of Asia, and also conquered the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor. This conquest first brought the Persians across the Greeks, first in Asia and then in Europe. For the Greeks who were settled along the coast of Asia had been just before conquered by Crcesus, King of Lydia, the first foreign prince who ever bore rule over any Greeks ; and now, as being part of the dominions of Crcesus, they were conquered again by Cyrus. The Greek cities of Asia, which had, up to this time, been among the greatest cities of the Greek name, now lost their freedom and much of their greatness. And from this time various disputes arose between the Persian Kings and the Greeks in Europe. The Athenians had now driven out their Tyrants and had made their government more democratic. They were therefore full of life and energy, and they gave help to the Asiatic Greeks in an attempt to throw off the Persian yoke. Then the Persian King Darius wished to make the Athenians to take back Hippias, the son of Peisi- stratos, who had been their Tyrant At last Darius made up his mind to punish the Athenians and to bring the other Greeks under his power; and thus the wars between Greece and Persia began. 13. The Persian Wars. The first Persian expedition against Greece was sent by Darius in the year 490 B.C. A Persian fleet crossed the ^igajan, and landed an army in Attica. But, far smaller as their numbers were, the Athenians, under their general AliltiadeS) utterly defeated the invaders in the famous battle of Marathon. In this battle the Athenians had no help except a small force from their neighbours of Plataia, a small town on the Boeotian border, which was in close alliance with them. This was the firs'r of all the victories of the West over the East, the first battle which showed how skill and discipline can prevail over mere numbers. As such, it is II.] THE GROWTH OF ATHENS. 33 the most memorable battle in the history of the world. Ten years later, in 480 B.C., a much greater Persian expedition came under King Xerxh himself, the son of Darius. He came by land, and all the native kingdoms and Greek colonies on the north coast of the ^gaean, and even a large part of Greece itself, submitted to him. Some Greek cities indeed, especially Thebes, fought for the Barbarians against their countrymen. But Athens, Sparta, and several other Greek cities withstood the power of Xerxes, and in the end drove his vast fleet and army back again in utter defeat. In this year 480, were fought the battle of Tlurmopylai, where the Spartan King Leonidas was killed, and the seafight of Salamis, won chiefly by the Athenian fleet under Themistokles. After this Xerxes went back ; but in the next year his general Mardonios was defeated by the Spartans and other Greeks in the battle of Plataia. and the same day the Persians were also defeated bath by land and sea at Mykale, on the coast of Asia, These three battles, Salamis, Plataia, and Mykale, decided the war, and the Persians never again dared to invade Greece itself. But the war went on for several years longer before the Persians were driven out of various posts which they held north of the ^Egsean. Still, they were at last wholly driven out of Europe, and they were even obliged to withdraw for a time from the Greek cities of Asia. 14. The Growth of Athens. At the beginning of the Persian Wars, Sparta was generally looked up to as the chief state of Greece ; but, as Athens was much the stronger at sea, it was soon found that she was better able than Sparta to carry on the war against the Persians, and to recover and protect the islands and cities on the coasts. Most of these cities therefore joined in a League, of which Athens was the head, and which was set in order by the Athenian Aristcides, surnamed the fust. But, after a time, Aihens, instead of being merely the head, gradually became the 34 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP. mistress of the smaller states, and most of them became her subjects, paying tribute to her. Athens thus rose to a wonderful degree of power and splendour, beyond that of any of the other cities of Greece. The chief man at Athens at this time was Perikles, the greatest statesman of Greece, perhaps of the world, under whose influence the Athenian govern- ment became a still more perfect democracy. In his time Athens was adorned with the temples and other public buildings which the world has admired ever since. This was also the time of the great dramatic poets, ^schylus, Sophokles, Euripides, and Aristo- phanes. ^Eschylus had fought in all the great battles with the Persians. Euripides and Aristophanes were younger men who lived on through the next period. Oratory, which was so needful in a democratic state, began to be studied as an art, and so were the differ- ent forms of philosophy ; in fact, there never was a time when the human mind was brought so near to its highest pitch as in these few years of the greatest power and splendour of Athens. 15. The Peloponnesian War. But the great power of Athens raised the jealousy of many of the other Greek cities, and at last a war broke out between Athens and her allies on the one side, and Sparta and her allies on the other. This war, which began in the year 431 B.C. and lasted for twenty-nine years almost without stopping, was known as the Peloponnesian War, because it was waged by the Athenians against Sparta and her allies, among whom were the greater part of the cities of Peloponnesos, besides Thebes and some other cities in other parts of Greece. Of this war we know all the events in great detail, because we have the history of it from writers who lived at the time. The history of the greater part of the war was written by Thucydides, who was not only living at the time, but himself held a high command in the Athe- nian army. And the history of the latter years of n.] THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 35 the war was written by Xenophon, another Athenian writer, who also lived at the time. This war might be looked on as a war between lonians and Dorians, between democracy and oligarchy. For Athens was the chief of the Ionian and democratic states, and Sparta the chief of the Dorian and aristocratic states. But the two parties were never exactly divided either ao- cording to descent or according to forms of govern ment. It is perhaps more important to remark that Sparta had many free and willing allies, while Athens had but few such, so that she had to fight mainly with her own forces and those of allies who were really her subjects. During the first ten years of the war, down to the year 421, the two parties strove with nearly equal success, the Athenians being much the stronger by sea, and the Spartans and their allies by land. A peace was then made, but it was not very well kept ; so that Thucydides says that the years of peace ought to be reckoned as a part of the war. Then, in 415, the Athenians sent a fleet to attack the city of Syracuse in Sicily. The Syracusans got help from Sparta, and so the war began again ; but, after two years of fighting and siege, the Athenians were altogether defeated before Syracuse. The allies of Athens now began to revolt, and the war during the later years was carried on almost wholly on the coasts of Asia. The Persians now began to take a share in it, because they were eager to drive away the Athenians from those coasts, and to get back the Greek cities in Asia. But they did more in the way of giving, and sometimes only promising, money to the Spartans than by actually fighting. Several battles, chiefly by sea, were fought in these wars with varying success ; and it is wonderful to see how Athens regained her strength after her loss before Syracuse. At last, in the yeai 405, the Athenians \\ere defeated by the Spartan admiral Lysandros at Aigospotamos in the Hellespont Athens was now besieged, and in the next year she 36 GREECE AND THE GREEK COL ONIES. [CHA. had to surrender. She now lost all her dominion and her great naval power, and was obliged to become a member of the Spartan alliance. Her democratic government was also taken away, and an oligarchy of thirty men was set up under the protection of Sparta. But in the next year, 403, the oligarchy was put down, and Athens, though she did not get back her power, at least got back her freedom. 1 6. The Dominion of Sparta. At this time, at the end of the fifth century before Christ, Sparta. was more than ever the greatest power of Greece. From this time Athens has no longer any claim to be looked on as holding the first place. But she still remained one of the greatest among the Grecian cities, and, as her political power grew less, she became more and more the acknowledged chief in all kinds of literature and philosophy. Her loss of power, which left Sparta for a while without a rival, presently led to great changes. New powers began to come to the front. We shall, first of all, see the foremost place in Greece held for a while by Thebes, the chief city of Bceotia, which had always been reckoned one of the greater cities of Greece, but which in the Pelopon- nesian war had played only a secondary part as one of the allies of Sparta. We shall next see the power over all Greece fall into the hands of a state which had hitherto not been reckoned to be Greek at all, through the victories of the great Macedonian Kings, Philip and Alexander. But for a while the Spartans ha i it all their own way. No state in Greece could stand up against them; the government of most of the cities passed into the hands of men who were ready to do whatever the Spartans told them, and in many cities there even were Spartan governors and garrisons. A few years after the end of the Pelopon- nesian war, the Spartans made war upon Persia, and their King A^esilaos waged several successful cam- paigns in Asia Minor. But by this time several of the II.] THE RISE OF THEBES. 3) Greek cities had got jealous and weary of the Spartan power, and the Persian King Artaxerxes, against whom the Spartans were fighting, was naturally glad to help them with both money and ships. So in the year 394 Agesilaos had to come back to withstand a confederacy formed against Sparta by Athens, Argos, Corinth, and Thebes. Several battles were fought ; and, though the Spartans commonly had the victory, yet it was shown that the Theban soldiers were able to do great things. In the former part of this war the Persian King sent his great Phoenician fleet to help the Athenians j'but afterwards he was persuaded to change sides, and in 387 a peace was made, called the Peace of Antalkidas, by which the Greek cities of Asia were given up to Persia, and those of Europe were declared to be every one independent. But in truth the power of Sparta now became greater than ever, and the Spartans domineered and interfered with the other cities even more than before. Among other things, they treach- erously seized the Kadmeia or citadel of Thebes, and put a Spartan garrison in it. They also put down a confederacy which the city of Olynthos was making among the Greek cities on the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, and thus took away what might have been a great check to the growing power of the Macedonian Kings. 17. The Rise of Thebes. It was when the power of Sparta was at its very highest that it was over- thrown. The Thebans, who had shown in the former war that they were nearly as good soldiers as the Spartans themselves, now rose against them. In 379 the Spartans were driven out of Thebes ; a democratic government was set up, and Thebes under two great citizens, Pelopidas and Epameinondas, became for a while the chief power of Greece. The Spartans were defeated in 371, the first time they had ever been defeated in a pitched battle, at Leuktra in Bceotia. After this Epameinondas invaded Peloponnesos 3* GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES, [ciu.* several times. He greatly weakened the power of Sparta by restoring the independence of Messtne*, which the Spartans had long ago conquered, and by persuad- ing the Arkadians to join in a League and to found Megalopolis or the Great City, near the Spartan frontier. During the first part of this war the Athenians took part with Thebes, and in the latter part with Sparta , and in the course of it they won back a great deal of their power by sea, and again got many of the islands and maritime cities to become their allies. At last, in 362, Epameinondas was killed at Mantineia in a battle against the Spartans and Athenians, and after his death, as there was no one left in Thebes fit to take his place, the power of the city gradually died out. 18. The Rise of Macedonia. We have already seen that, though the Macedonians seem to have been closely allied to the Greeks, and though the Macedonian Kings were acknowledged to be of Greek descent, yet Macedonia had hitherto not been reckoned as a Greek state. Its Kings had not taken much share in Greek affairs, but several of them had done much to strengthen their kingdom against the neighbouring Barbarians, and also to bring in Greek arts and civilization among their own people. Just at this time there arose in Macedonia a King called Philip, the son of Amyntas, who did much greater things than any of the Kings who had gone before him. His great object was, not exactly to conquer Greece or make it part of his own kingdom, but rather to get Macedonia acknowledged as a Greek state, and, as such, to win for it the same kind of supremacy over the other Greek states which had been held at different times by Mykene, Argos, Sparta, Athens, and Thebes. He artfully contrived to mix himself up with Grecian affairs, and to persuade many of the Grecian states to look upon him as theii deliverer, and as the champion of the god Apollon. The temple of Delphi had been plundered by th n.J ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 39 Phokians, and Philip put himself forward as the avenger of this crime, and g^t himself admitted as a member of the Ampkiktionic Council, the great religious assembly of Greece, which looked after the affairs of the Delphian Temple. This was much the same as formally acknowledging Macedonia to be a Greek state. Philip also conquered the Greek city of Olynthos in the neighbourhood of his own kingdom, and made the peninsula called Chalkidike, which runs out as it were with three fingers into the ^Egaean, part of Macedonia. This he would hardly have been able to do if the Spartans had not already destroyed the great Greek alliance which the Olynthians had begun to make in those parts. Philip was several times at war with Athens, and it was during these wars that the great orator Demosthenes made himself famous by the speeches which he made to stir up his country- men to act vigorously. Philip's last war was against Athens and Thebes together, and in 338 he gained a victory over them at Chaironeia in Boeotia, from which the overthrow of Grecian freedom may be dated. After this, all the Greeks, except the Spartans, were partly persuaded, partly compelled, to hold a synod at Corinth, where Philip was elected captain-general of all Greece, to make war on Persia and avenge the old invasions of Greece by Darius and Xerxes. But, while he was making ready for a great expedition into Asia, he was murdered in the year 336 by one of his own subjects. 19. Alexander the Great. Philip was suc- ceeded by his son Alexander, known as Alexander the Great. He was presently acknowledged as the leader of Greece against the Persians, as his father had been. Thebes however, where Philip had put a Macedonian garrison, now revolted, but it was taken and destroyed by Alexander. In the next year, 334, Alexander set out on his great expedition, and he nevei came back to Europe. In the course of six years he altogether 40 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP. subdued the Persian Empire, fightir g three famous battles, at the river Granikos in Asia Minor in 334, at /ssffs, near the borders of Cilicia and Syria, in 333, and at Arbela or Gaugame/a in Assyria in 331. In these last two battles the Persian King Darius was present, and was utterly defeated. Between the last two battles Alexander beseiged and took Tyre, and received the submission of Egypt, where he founded the famous city which has ever since borne his name, Alexandria. Soon after the battle of Gaugamela Da- rius was murdered by some of his own officers, and Alexander now looked upon himself as King of Persia. He afterwards set out, half exploring, half conquering, as far as the river Hyphasis in northern India, beyond which his soldiers refused to follow him. At last he died at Babylon in 323, having made greater conquests than were ever made by any European prince before him or after him. And there was no conqueror whose conquests were more important, and in a certain sense more lasting ; for, though his great empire broke in pieces almost at once, yet the effects of his career have remained to all time. 20. Effects of the Conquests of Alexander. The conquests of Alexander, though they were won so quickly, and though a large part of them were soon lost again, made a great and lasting change through- out a large part of the world. Both he and those who came after him were great builders of cities ir Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and as fr.r as their conquests reached. In each of these cities was placed a Greek or Macedonian colony, and in the western part of Asia most of these cities lived and flourished, and some of them, like Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in Syria, soon took their place among the greatest cities in the world. The Greek language became the tongue of all government and literature throughout many countries where the people were not Greek by birth. It was thus at the very moment that Greece began to lose V 7>a*. DOMINIONS OF ALEXA 4 mnr*lvxixrs cn^K * latfaeA as Loligl R & HIS SUCCESSORS E. 50 from Greenwich Flak A See.N.Y. ' II.] TKE SUCCESSORS OF ALE}.' 'NDER. 45 her political freedom that she made, as it were, an in- tellectual conquest of a large part of the world. And though, in the cities and lands which in this way became partially Bd'lenized, there was neither the political freedom nor the original genius of the great statesmen and writers of old Greece, yet mere learn- ing and science flourished as they had never flourished before. The Greek tongue became the common speech of the civilized world, the speech which men of different nations used in speaking to one another, much as they use French now. The Greek colonies had done much to spread the Greek language and manners over a large part of the world. The Mace- donian conquests now did still more ; but they did not, as the old colonies had done, carry also Greek freedom with them. 21. The Successors of Alexander. The great empire of Alexander did not hold together even in name for more than a few years after his death. He left no one in the Macedonian royal family who was at all fit to take his place, and his dominions were gradually divided among his generals, who after a little while took the title of Kings. Thus arose the kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt, and that of the descendants of Seleukos in the East, which gradually shrank up into the kingdom of Syria. In the countries beyond the Tigris the Macedonian power gradually died out ; but various states arose in Asia Minor, which were not strictly Greek, but which had a greater or less tinge of Greek cultivation. Such were the kingdom of Pergamos and the League of the cities of Lykia. These arose in countries which had been fully subdued by Alexander, and which won their independence only because the descendants of Seleukos could not keep their great dominions to- gether. But Alexander's conquests had been made so fast that some parts even of Western Asia were not fully subdued. Thus out of the fragments of the 42 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAF Persian Empire several kingdoms arose, like those of Pontos and Bithynia, which were ruled by native Kings, but which also affected something of Greek civilization. And some real Greek states still con- trived to keep their independence on or near the coast of Asia, as the city of Byzantion, the island of Rhodes, and the city of Herakleia, which last was sometimes a commonwealth and sometimes under Tyrants. Of many of these states we shall hear again as they came one by one under the power of Rome. But we are now more concerned with what happened in Macedonia and in Greece itself. 22. The later Macedonian Kings. The death of Alexander was followed by a time of great con- fusion in Macedonia and Greece. Even while Alexander was away in Asia, the Spartans, undei their king Algis, had tried to throw off the Mace- donian yoke, but in vain. After Alexander's death another attempt was made by several of the Greek states, especially the Athenians, who were again stirred up by Demosthenes, and ihcstotians. These last were a people of western Greece, the least civilized of all the Greek states, but which now began to rise to great importance. This was called the Lamian War. In the end the Athenians had to yield, and they were obliged by the Macedonian general Antipatros to change their constitution, making it much less democra- tic than before, and depriving many of the citizens of their votes. For many years there was the greatest confusion in Macedonia and Greece and all the neighbouring countries. And things were made worse by an attack from an enemy with whom the Greeks had never before had anything to do. Greece and Macedonia were invaded by the Gar.ls. By these we need not understand people from Gaul itself, but some of those Celtic tribes which were still in the east of Europe. After doing much mischief in those parts the Gauls crossed over into Asia, and there II.] THE LATER MACEDONIAN KINGS. 43 founded a state of their own which was called Galatia, and, as they too began to learn something of Greek civilization, Gallo-gnecia. Meanwhile Kings were being constantly set up and overthrown in Macedonia, and each of them tried to get as much power and influence as he could in Greece itself. At this time too Epeiros, a country which had hitherto been of very little importance, became a powerful state under its King Pyrrhos, who at one time obtained possession of Macedonia. He also waged wars in Italy and Sicily, which will be spoken of in the next chapter, and he had a great deal to do with the affairs of Peloponnesos, where he was at last killed in besieging Argos, in 272. From this time things became rather more settled ; a second time of freedom, if not of greatness, began in Greece, and a regular dynasty of Kings fixed itself in Macedonia. The old royal family was quite extinct, and the second set of Mace- donian Kings were the descendants of Antigonos, one of the most famous of Alexander's generals. His son Demetrios, surnamed Poliorketts or the Besieger, got possession of the crown of Macedonia in 294. Both he and his son Antigonos Gonatas were driven out more than once, but in the end Antigonos contrived to keep the Macedonian crown, and to hand it on to his descendants, who held it till Mace- donia was conquered by Rome. 23. The later History of Greece. The last days of Grecian history, before the country came alto- gether under the power of the Romans, are in seve- ral ways very unlike times which went before them. The states which are most important in these times are not the same as those which were most important in the old days of the Persian and Pelopon- nesian Wars. First ot all we must remember that Macedonia and Epeiros must now be reckoned as Greek states, and that a large part of Greece, especially in the north, was now subject to the Mace *4 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAH donian Kings, or at least altogether under their influence. And, among the states of Greece itself, the division of power was very different from what it had been in earlier times. In the days which we have now come to neither Athens nor Thebes was of any great account, and, though Sparta was of great importance during part of the time, yet its greatness was only, as we may say, by fits and starts. We may say that the chief powers of Greece now were Mace- donia, Achaia, ^Ltolia, and Sparta. Achaia and ^Etolia are states of which but little is heard in Grecian history since the heroic times, and the strength which they had now chiefly came from a cause which must be explained a little more at length. 24. The Achaian and ./Etolian Leagues. What chiefly distinguishes this part of Grecian history from earlier times is that we have now but little to do with single cities, but with cities and tribes bound together so as to make states of much greater size. With the exception of Sparta, the Greek states which play the greatest part at this time were joined together in Leagues, so as to form what is called a /VY//VY/,' Government, such as there is now in Switzerland and in the United States of America. That is to say, several cities agreed together to give up a part of the power which naturally belonged to each city separately to an Assembly or Council or body of magistrates in which all had a share. In a government of this kind the central power commonly deals with all matters which concern the League as a whole, while each city still acts much as it pleases in its own internal affairs. There had been several Leagues of this kind in Greece from the beginning, but they were chiefly among the smaller and less famous parts of the Greek nation, and they did not play any great part in Grecian affairs. The only one which was of much note in earlier times was the League of Boeotia, and that could hardly be with any truth called a League, for Thebes was so it.] THE ACHAIAN LEAGUE. 45 much stronger than the other Boeotian cities as to be practically mistress of all of them. But now the Federal states of Greece come to be of special impor- tance, because it was found that, as long as the cities stood one by one, they had no hope of keeping their freedom against the Macedonian Kings, and that their only chance of doing so was by several cities acting together in matters of peace and war as if they were one city. The greatest of these Leagues was that of Achaia, which began with the ten small Achaian cities on the south side of the Corinthian Gulf. These cities had been joined to- gether in a League in early times, but in the times of the Macedonian power they had gradually fallen asunder, and in the days of Antigonos Gonatas several of them were in the hands of Tyrants, who reigned under Macedonian protection. This was the case with many other cities of Greece also, and it was the great object of the League, as it grew and strength- ened, to set free these cities and to join them on to its own body. It was about the year 280 that the old Achaian towns began to draw together again, the chief leader in this work being Markos of Keryneia. About thirty years after, in 251, the League began to extend itself by admitting the city of Sikyon as a member of its body. Sikyon had just been ' set free by Aratos, who now became the leading man in the League, and, under his administration and that of Philopoimen, who followed him, the League took in one city after another, Corinth, Megalopolis, Argos, and others, at first only with their own good will, but afterwards sometimes by force. At last all the cities of Peloponnesos and some cities beyond the Isthmus became members of the League. The ^Etolian League on the other side of the Corinthian Gulf did not bear so good a character as the Achaian, though its form of government was much the same. For the \ therefore, as we have already seen, able to found many colonies here, some of which flourished so greatly in early times that the country was known as Great Greece. But at the time when history begins, all Italy in the older sense (that is, not reckoning Liguria and Cisalpine Gaul), except Etruria, was inhabited by people whom we may specially call Italians. These, as we have already said., belonged to the same Aryan swarm as the Greeks, and the common forefathers of both must have stayed together after they had parted off from the forefathers of the Celts, Teutons, and others. The greater part of Italy was occupied by tribes sprung from this one swarm, some of whom however were more closely allied to the Greeks than others. But all may be looked on as coming nearer to the Greeks than to any other branch of the Aryan family. But long before history begins, the Greeks and the Italians had parted off into distinct nations, and the Italians had also parted oif into distinct nations among them- selves. 3. The Latin and Oscan Races. We thus set- that, setting aside the Etruscans and the Greeks who settled in later times, all the other nations of ancient Italy were allied to one another, and all were more remotely allied to the Greeks. But they had parted far more widely among themselves than the different tribes of the Greek nation ever did. The Italian nations fall naturally into two great groups, which we may call roughly'the Oscans, lying to the north-east, and the Latins, lying to the south-west. Of these the Latins were those who were more nearly allied to the Greeks. The Siculi or Sikels especially, in southern Italy and in Sicily, to which islandthey gave theirnarne, and some other of the tribes in the south, seem to have been as near to the Greeks, and to have been as easily Hellenized, as their neighbours in Epeiros and on the coast of Asia. The Oscan tribes, Sabines, Umbrians, and others, were much less nearly akin to the Greeks, 52 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP and presently the Oscan races began to press south- ward at the expense both of the Latins and Greek colo- nies. It was these Oscans of the south, the Samnites, Lucanians, and others, whose incursions gradually destroyed the greatness and freedom of the Greek colonies in Italy. 4. Language, Religion, and Government. Our knowledge of all the ancient nations of Italy, except the Romans, is very scanty, but it would seem that the differences between the Latin and Oscan races answered rather to the differences between the Greeks and their most nearly allied neighbours than to the differences of Dorians and lonians among the Greeks themselves. Still they always had much in common in language, religion, and government. The old languages of Italy all gradually gave way to the Latin, and we have only a few fragments remaining of any of them. And of their religion, even of that of the Latins, we know very little, because, when the Greeks and Romans came to have dealings with one another, they began to call each other's Gods by the names of those among their own Gods which seemed most like them. Thus the Greek Zeus and the Latin Jiipiter got confounded, and the other Gods in the like sort. But one thing we can see, that none of the Italian nations had so many stories to tell about their Gods as the Greeks had. As for their government, we can see the same elements as among the Greeks and other Aryans, the King or other chief, the nobles, and the ordinary freemen. In fact, owing, as we have already said, to the nature of the country, the common form of government in ancient Italy was much the same as that common in the ruder parts of Greece, several kindred districts or small towns joining together in a League. Of these Leagues the most famous in history was that of the Samnites, an inland people ol the Oscan stock, and that of the thirty cities of thf Latins on the west coast south of the Tiber. in.] ORIGIN OF ROME. 53 5. The Origin of Rome. But there was one Latin city which was destined to be mighty and famous above ajl, and to become the mistress of Latium, of Italy, and of the world. This was the town of Romt on the Tiber. There were all manner of traditions in ancient times, and all manner of conjectures have been made by ingenious men in later days, as to the origin of this greatest of all cities. Into these we cannot go now. The story most generally believed by the Romans themselves was that Rome was founded by Romulus, a son or descendant of ^Eneas (in Greek Aineias), one of the Trojan heroes who was said to have escaped after the taking of Troy, and to have taken refuge in Italy. But Romulus or Romus is merely one of those names which were made up because people fancied that every city and nation must have taken its name from some man. The tales about the foundation of Rome, and about its early Kings, are mere legends which cannot be trusted. There can be little doubt that Rome began as a border town of the Latins, on the march or frontier, both of the Etruscans beyond the Tiber, and of the Subines in the moun- tains. The first Rome was a settlement on the hill by the Tiber called the Palatine, held by the Latin tribe of the Ramiics or Romans. This settlement on the Palatine and other settlements on the neighbour- ing hills gradually joined into one city. Of these the first and chief was the Sabine settlement of the Titienses on the Capitoline hill. The beginning of the growth of Rome was when the Latin Ramnes and the Sabine Titienses made a league together, so that their people gradually became two tribes in one city, instead of two distinct cities. This was the beginning of the way in which Rome became the greatest of all cities, namely by constantly granting its citizenship both to its allies and to its conquered enemies. Step by step, the people of Latium, of Italy, and of the whole civilized world, all became Romans, This b4 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHA?. is what ically distinguishes the Roman history from al! othev history, and it is what made the power of Rome so great and lasting. 6. The Roman Kings. There can be no doubt that Rome, like the Greek cities, was at first governed by Kings, who ruled by the help of a Senate and an Assembly of the People. But the Roman Kings, unlike those in Greece, were not hereditary, nor were they even chosen from any particular family. It is said, and it is not at all unlikely, that the old rule was to choose the King in turn from the two tribes of the Ramnes and Titienses. The legend gives us the names of seven Kings, and it is most likely that the two or three last names on the list are those of real persons. These are the dynasty of the Tarquinii, about whom there have been many opinions, but who most likely were Etruscans, and who seem to have adorned Rome with buildings and works of Etruscan art. At all events they greatly extended the power of Rome, so that she became the greatest of all Latin cities. The last King, Lucius Tarquinius, called Superbus or the Proud, is said to have acted as a cruel tyrant, and to have had no regard foi the laws of the Kings who had gone before him. He was therefore driven out with his family, and the Romans now said they would have no more Kings, and they ever after hated the very name of King. This is said to have happened B.C. 510, about the same time when the Tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos, was driven out of Athens. There can be no doubt that the driving out of the Kings ot Rome is a real event, but, as we have no accounts of it written at the time, or foi ages after, we cannot be certain as to the detail? of the story, or as to the exact time when it happened. 7. The Roman Commonwealth The Roman history is, for want of contemporary accounts, ver) uncertain for a long time after the driving out of the HI.] THE KINGS AND THE CONSULS. 55 Kings. Much of what commonly passes for Roman history is really made up of legends, which are often most beautiful as legends, but which still are not history. Much of it also comes from what is much worse than legends, namely, mere inventions in honour of Rome or of some particular Roman family. It is not till two hundred years and more after the Kings that we come to history of which we can fully trust the details. Still we can make out some- thing, both as to the internal constitution of Rome and as to the steps by which she made her way to the headship of Italy. The chief thing to be remembered is that Rome was a city bearing rule over other cities The government of the Roman commonwealth was the government of a city ; and so it always remained, even after Rome had come to be the head of Italy, and even of the world. When the Kings were driven out, the powers which had belonged to the Kings were entrusted to two magistrates, who were at first called Prtztors and afterwards Consuls, and who were chosen for one year only. The Senate and the Assembly of the People went on much as they had done under the Kings, but, soon after the Kings were driven out, there began to be great dissensions within the Roman Commonwealth. For there was a very old division of the Roman people into Patricians and Plebeians or Commons, of whom the Patricians for a long lime kept all the chief powers of the state in their own hands. Most likely the Patricians were the descendants of the arst citizens, and the Plebeians were the descendants of allies or subjects who had been afterwards admitted to the franchise. This division must have begun in the time of the Kings, as* it began to be of great impor- tance very soon after they were driven out. At first the Consuls and other magistrates were chosen from among the Patricians or old citizens only, though the Plebeians voted in choosing them. There were long disputes between the two orders, as the privileges 56 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP. of the Patricians were felt to be very oppressive, and gradually the Plebeians obtained the right to be chosen to the consulship and other high dignities. The first plebeian Consul was Lucius Sextius in B.C. 366, about the time when Epameinondas was warring in Peloponnesus. After this the two orders were gradu- ally reconciled, and many of the greatest men in the later history of Rome were Plebeians. 8. Wars of Rome with her Neighbours. At the time when the kingly government of Rome came to an end, she was strong enough to make a treaty with Carthage, in which she contracts, not only on her own behalf, but also on that of all the Latin cities of the coast as her subjects or dependent allies. But she seems to have lost a good deal of her power after the Kings were driven out Her chief enemies were the Etruscans on the one side of her, and the various Oscan nations, especially those called the ^Zquians and Volsdans, on the other. With the Latin cities she was for a long time in close alliance, Rome, as a single city, being one party to the treaty, and the other Latin cities, as a League, being the other party. About B.C. 396 Rome greatly extended her power by the conquest of Veii, the nearest of the great Etruscan cities. This was taken by Marcus Furius Camillas, who was then Dictator ; that is, he received, for six months only, greater powers than the Consuls them- selves, as was often done in times of special danger and difficulty. But soon after this the Roman power received a great check, for in B.C. 390 the Romans were defeated at the river Allia by the Gauls, who, it will be remembered, held most of the northern part of what is now called Italy. They were now pressing southward, and invaded Etruria. The city of Rome itself was taken, but the Gauls were soon either driven out or paid to go away, and it is wonderful how soon Rome got dver this great blow. And from this time the Roman history becomes somewhat more trust III.] ITALIAN WARS OF ROME. 57 worthy, for we at all events have the lists of the Consuls and other magistrates, though there is stiL much falsehood and exaggeration in our accounts of their actions. The Romans had still to withstand several invasions of the Gauls, and they had many wars with their neighbours, in which, on the whole, they went on increasing their territory, and ever and anon admitting those whom they conquered to their own citizenship. 9. The Roman Conquest of Italy. At last, about B.C. 343, there began a series of greater wars in Italy, in which the Romans may truly be said to have been fighting for the dominion of the whole land. And in the space of about sixty years they gradually won it. The Samnites, a nation of the race which we have roughly called Oscan, were now the chief people in the South of Italy : they were a brave and stout people, quite able to contend with the Romans on equal terms. The first war with the Samnites did not last long, and it was followed in 340 by a war between Rome and her old allies the Latins. The Latins wished for a more complete union with Rome, and for one of the Consuls fo be always a Latin ; but to this the Romans would not agree. The end of the war was that the Latin League was broken up and the cities were merged in the Roman state one by one. Then, in 326, came a second Samnite War, which lasted eighteen years, and a third lasted from 298 to 290. In these two latter wars the Samnites were helped by the Etruscans and Gauls, but all were gradually subdued, and by the year 282 Rome was pretty well mistress of all Italy, except some of the Greek cities in the South. 10. The Italian States under Rome. The con- dition of the Italian states under the Roman dominion was very various, but we may say that the free people of Italy now formed three main classes, Romans^ Latins, and Italians. Many of the allied and con- 58 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP. querecl states were altogether merged in Rome at a very early time ; their people became Romans, and formed tribes in the Roman Assembly. Rome, in the end, gradually admitted all the people of Italy to her own citizenship. But, till an Italian city which was subject to Rome received the Roman citizenship, its people had no voice at all in the general government, in choosing the magistrates, or in matters of peace and war. And, after such a city received the Roman citizenship, the only way in which its citizens could influence such matters was by themselves going to Rome and giving their votes in the Roman Assembly. This should be carefully borne in mind throughout, as it was the natural consequence of the Roman govern- ment always being the government of a city. Among the states whose people did not at once become Romans, some had the Latin franchise, as it was called, the franchise which was at first given to the cities of Latium and afterwards to others in different parts. This did not give full Roman citizenship, but it made it much easier to obtain it. Lastly, the Italians or Allies kept their independent constitutions in all internal matters, but they had to follow the lead of Rome in all matters of peace and war. Thus it was that the Roman dominion in Italy was a dominion of a city over cities. ii. The War with Pyrrhos. We now come to the beginning of the wars of the Romans with the nations cut of Italy, beginning with one in which they had to fight for their newly-won dominion in Italy itself. Soon after the Roman power had reached into South- ern Italy, the people of the Greek city of Taras or Tarentum contrived to offend the Romans, and they then asked Pyrrhos, King of Epeiros, to come and help them as the champion of a Greek city threatened by Barbarians. Pyrrhos came over in 281, and the Romans had now to try their strength against a way of fighting quite different from their own, and that under in.] WAR WITH PYRRHOS. 59 the most famous warrior of the age. Pyrrhos was joined by some of the lately conquered nations in Southern Italy, who were glad of a chance of throw- ing off the Roman yoke. He defeated the Romans in two battles, but with so much loss on his own side that he was glad to make a truce and to go over into Sicily, where some of the Greek cities had asked him to help them against the Carthaginians. In 276 he came back to Italy, but in the next year he was defeated at Beneventum and left Italy altogether. In the next few years the small part of Italy which still held out against Rome was subdued. 12. Carthage. Rome was now mistress of Italy, and she soon began to be entangled in wars beyond its boundaries. The greatest power besides Rome in the western Mediterranean lands was the city of Car- thage on the north coast of Africa. This, as we have already said, was a Phoenician city, one of the colonies of the older Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon. Carthage, like Rome, was a city bearing rule over other cities ; for she had gained a certain headship over the other Phoenician cities in Africa, much as Rome had over the Latin and other cities in Italy. And besides the kindred Phoenician cities, Carthage bore rule also over many of the native tribes whom the Phoenician settlers found in Africa. And, unlike Rome up to this time, she had, as trading cities and countries always strive to have, large dominions be- yond the sea. Carthage at this time bore rule over the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, and she had also large possessions in Sicily. But in Sicily a constant warfare was kept up between the Phoenician and the Greek settlements, in which the Tyrants who at dif- ferent times reigned in Syracuse specially distinguished themselves. Such were Gclon, who reigned at the time of the Persian War, ' Dionysios, who reigned at the time of the war between Sparta and Thebes, and Agathokles, who lived in the time of Pyrrhos. Af 60 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP. Tyrants in their own city, these men did many evi!> things ; still they deserve some honour as champions of the Greek nation against the Phoenicians. Sicily thus became the great battle-field between the Aryan and Semitic races, and it became so still more after the Romans stepped in. The wars between Rome and Carthage also bring out one great point of dif- ference between the two cities. For, while the Romans waged their wars by the hands of their o\vn citizens and allies, the wars of Carthage were mainly carried on by barbarian mercenaries, that is, soldiers serving simply for pay, whom they hired both in Africa and in Gaul and Spain. A state which does this can never hold up for good against one which uses native armies ; and it is a sign of the great wealth and power of Carthage, helped still more by a few very great men who appeared among her citizens, that Carthage could hold up so long as she did. Carthage had indeed one other great advantage, namely that, as a trading city, she was very strong by sea, while the Romans had as yet had hardly anything to do with naval affairs. Thus Carthage and Rome were the two great states of the West, and it could hardly fail but that war should spring up between them about something. And it was the more likely, as the island of Sicily lay between them, where' the Greek cities which were threatened by Carthage were closely connected with the Greek subjects of Rome in Southern Italy. 13. The First Punic War. A cause of quarrel was soon found in the disputes among the different towns in Sicily. Rome, as the head of Italy, under- took to protect the Mamertines, a body of Campanian mercenaries who had seized the town of Mcssene on the strait. Their enemies were Hierdn King of Syra- cuse for those who were formerly called Tyrants now called themselves Kings and Carthage. Thus arose the first Punic War, so called from the Latin in.] THE PUNIC WARS. 61 form of the name Phoenician. This war went on be tween Carthage and Rome for twenty-four years, beginning in R.c. 264, and Hieron had soon to change the Carthaginian alliance for the Roman. During so long a time the two great cities contended with very varied success, the war being chiefly carried on in and about Sicily, though at one time the Roman Consul Marcus Atilius Regulus, who is one of the most famous heroes of Roman legend, carried the wat into Africa. For a long time the Carthaginians had greatly the advantage at sea; but gradually the Romans came to be their match at their own weapons, and at last a great naval victory was won by the Consul Caius Lutatius Catulus, which made the Carthaginians ask for peace, "he First Punic War ended in B,C. 241. 14. Beginning of the Roman Provinces. This victory over the Carthaginians was the beginning of a new state of things, and gave Rome quite a new class of subjects. For, when peace was made, Car- thage had to give up her possessions in Sicily, and the island, except the part which belonged to Hieron, became a Roman province. This was the beginning of the Roman Provinces, that is the dominions of Rome out of Italy. Their condition was much worse than that of the Italian allies, for the provinces were ruled by Roman governors, and had to pay tribute to Rome. The Provincials in fact were mere subjects, while the Italians, though dependent allies, were still allies. Though they were bound to serve in the Roman armies and to follow Rome in all matters of war and peace, they still kept their own consti- tutions and no Roman governors were sent to rule them. 15. The Second Punic or Hannibalian War. Twenty-three years passed between the end of the first Punic War and the beginning of the second. But in the meanwhile the Romans got possession, rathe? 62 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP. unfairly, of the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, which Carthage had kept by the peace. On the other hand a Carthaginian dominion was growing up in Spain under Hamilcar Barkas, one of the greatest men that Carthage ever reared, his son-in-law Hasdrubal, and his son Hannibal, the greatest man of all, and one ol the greatest generals that the world ever saw. Another quarrel arose between Carthage and Rome, whi-n Hannibal took the Spanish town of Saguntnm, which the Romans claimed as an ally. War began in 218, and Hannibal carried it on by invading Italy by land. This was one of the most famous enterprises in all history. Never was Rome so near destruction as in the war with Hannibal. He crossed the Alps and defeated the Romans in four battles, the greatest of which was that of Cannce in B.C. 216. Many of the Italian allies revolted against Rome, and the war went on in Italy till B.C. 203. By that time the Romans had taken Syracuse, which, after Hieron's death, had for- saken their alliance, so that all Sicily was now a Roman province. They had also, while Hannibal was in Italy, conquered the Carthaginian possessions in Spain. Lastly, the Roman general who had been so successful in Spain, Publius Cornelius Scipio, crossed over into Africa, so that Hannibal had to leave Italy and go back to defend Carthage itself. He was de- feated by Scipio in the battle of Zama in B.O. 202. Peace was now made, by which Carthage gave up all her possessions out of Africa, and bound herself not to make war without the consent of the Romans. That is to say, Carthage now became a dependent ally of Rome. The Semitic races could no longer dispute the dominion of the Mediterranean lands with the Aryans. 16. The Third Punic War. The last war with Carthage began about fifty years after the second. The Carthaginians were always at variance with their neighbour Massinissa King of Numidia, who had o.. THE MEDITERRANEAN LANDS at the beginning of the SECOND PUNIC WAR Roman Pos. & Allies | Carthagenian do. I Macedonian do. I Free Greek States [ Syrian Possessions [ Egyptian do. Longitude E. 10 from Greenwich PiskiSee.N.Y HI.J CONQUEST OF CARTHAGE. 63 been a useful ally of Rome in the former war. The Romans always favoured Massinissa, and in B.C. 149 war broke out again between Rome and Carthage. Three years later Carthage was taken by the younger Scipio, Publius Cornelius Scipio jEmilianus ; the city was destroyed; part of its territory was given to Massinissa, and part became the Roman province of Africa. This is an example of the way in which Rome advanced step by step. By the first Punic war Carthage lost territory, but it remained quite independent. The Second made it a dependent ally of Rome, but left it free in its internal government. The Third destroyed the city and made the country a province. It is perhaps hardly needful to say that Africa, as the name of a Roman province, does not mean the whole continent, but only the immediate territory of Carthage. 17. The First Macedonian War. We see the same way of advancing step by step in the next great conquest made by Rome, which was going on at the same time as the Punic Wars. This was the conquest of Macedonia and Greece. Many things were beginning to bring the Romans and the Greeks together, and, when any people began to have any- thing to do with Rome, however friendly their deal- ings might be at first, it always ended in the other nation being sooner or later swallowed up in the Roman dominion. The Romans already had Greek subjects in Italy and Sicily. They were now begin- ning to know something of the language and literature of Greece, and to imitate them in writings of their own. For it is about this time that the Roman literature which we now have begins. The Romans now began to have dealings with the Greeks in Greece itself ; but their first dealings were quite friendly. A war broke out with Illyria in B.C. 229, which ended in the island of Korkyra and the cities of Apollonia and Epidamnos submitting to Rome. These were 64 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHA Greek cities on the Illyrian coast, and they welcomed the Romans as deliverers. But Rome had now got possessions on the Greek side of the .^Egajan, and the conquest of those lands had really begun. In 215 Philip King of Macedonia made a league with Han- nibal, and in 213 the First Macedonian War began, while the second Punic War was still going on. In this war Philip was helped by the leagues of Achaia, Akarnania, and pdros, while Rome found allies in the League of stolia, in Attalos King of Pergattws in Asia, and Nabis Tyrant of Sparta. Since the fall of Kleomenes, Sparta had been in a state of great confusion, and she had had several wars with the Achaians, in which Philopoimin^ the last great general of Greece, greatly distinguished himself. Peace was at last made in 205, and some changes of frontier were made ; but the chief result of the war was that Rome had now begun steadily to interfere in Greek and Macedonian affairs. 18. The Second Macedonian War. The first war with Macedonia, like the first war with Carthage, did not affect the position of that king- dom, or of any other of the Greek states, as inde- pendent powers. The Second Macedonian War, which began in B.C. 200, marks another stage in the progress of conquest. The Romans now stepped in to help the Athenians, who were their allies, and who had been attacked by Phiiip. The ^Etolians took the Roman side from the beginning, and the Achaians joined them in 198. In 197 the war was ended by the defeat of Philip at Kynosktphalt in Thessaly, and the next year, 196, the Roman Consul Titus Qitinctius Flamininus proclaimed the liberty of all those parts of Greece which had been under his power. Philip thus lost a large part of his territory, and had to become a dependent ally of Rome. And from this time we may count the Greeks allies at Rome, though nominally free, as practically dependent L] THE MACEDONIAN WARS. 65 19. The Conquest of JEtolia. The yEtolians now invited the Seleukid King Antiochos the Great to cross over from Asia and attack the Romans in Greece. He crossed over in 192, and several Greek states joined him, but the Achaians held steadily to Rome. In 191 Antiochos was defeated at Thennopylai by the Consul Manius Acilius Glabrio, and his allies the ^Etolians were presently, in 189, obliged to become a Roman dependency, being the first within the borders of Greece itself. Rome also took the islands of Za- kynthos and Kephallenia, and the Achaian League was extended over all Peloponnesos. Rome was now really mistress of Greece, and Grecian history from this time consists mainly of her dealings with the states which had practically become her subjects. 20. The Third Macedonian War. The Third Macedonian War, waged with Perseus the son of Philip, began in 171. Most of the Greek states were now on the Macedonian side, for it had become plain that Rome was much more dangerous than Macedonia. But the Achaians remained allies of Rome, though they were from this time treated with great insolence. The war ended with the victory of Lucius &milius Paullus at Pydna in 168. The Macedonian kingdom was now cut up into four commonwealths, all dependencies of Rome. Epeiros was subdued and most of its cities destroyed. 21. Final Conquest of Macedonia and Greece. The Fourth Macedonian War happened at exactly the same time as the Third Punic War, in 149. The Macedonians rose under one Andriskos, who called himself Philip, and gave himself out as the son of Perseus. He was successful for a time, but he was overthrown in 148, and Macedonia, after so many stages, at last became a Roman province. There were also many disputes between Rome and Achaia, which now grew into a war, and in 146 the Achaians were defeated by Lucius Mummius, and Corwth was 66 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP. destroyed in the same year as Carthage. The League was dissolved for a while, and the Achaian cities became formally dependent on Rome, But Athens and several other Greek cities and islands still re- mained nominally independent The history of these times was written by Polybios, a leading man in therus, who reigned from 193 to 211, and his sons called themselves Antoninus, though it does not seem that they were descended from, or even adopted by, any of the Emperors of that name. Under Severus the government became still more military than it had been before. He was succeeded by his wicked son Antoninus, who was commonly called Caratalla Long. East 10 from Groeuwic i 20 THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT v The Roman Dominions at the Death of Cwsan The Empire under Trajan ( Flak & See.N., f nr.l THE TYRANTS. gf And, after he was murdered in 217, two Syrian youths, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, who were said to be Caracalla's sons, were set up in succession, who both took the names of Aurelius and Antoninus. Of these Elagabalus was one of the worst, and Alexandei one of the best, of the Emperors. In the time of Caracalla the old distinctions of Romans, Latins, Italians, and Provincials were quite wiped out. Ro- man citizenship was now given to all the free inhabi- tants of the Empire, so that a man in Britain or Greece or anywhere else called himself a Roman, as in the East men have done ever since. It therefore hap- pened that many of the best and bravest Emperors, especially towards the end of this time, were what would before have been called Barbarians. That word now meant those who were altogether outside the Empire. Many of the best of these later Emperors came from Iliyria. Decius, Claudius, Aurdian, and others, brave and wise men who rose by their merits, followed one another in swift succession, and had much fighting with the different enemies of Rome. At last one of the greatest of their number made a complete change' in the constitution of the Empire, which we must presently speak of. 9. The Tyrants. While Emperors were thus set up and put down by the soldiers, it often happened that there were several Emperors or claimants of the Empire at once ; that is to say, the armies in different parts of the Empire had each set up its own general to be Emperor. And towards the end of this period it often happened that one of these pretenders con- trived to keep some pan of the Empire for several years, so that there were Emperors reigning in Gaul or Britain or some other province or provinces only. But these local Emperors must not be mistaken for national, rulers of the provinces where they reigned ; they claimed to be Roman Emperors, and they o* course aimed at getting the whole Empire, if they 00 THE HEATHEN EMPIRE. [CHAP could. Sometimes the reigning Emperor found il convenient to acknowledge them as colleagues ; if they were unsuccessful, they were called Tyrants. As in old Greece a Tyrant had meant a man who unlaw- fully seized on kingly power in a commonwealth, so now it meant a man who called himself Emperor, but who was held not to have a lawful right to the title In the time of Gallienus, who reigned from 260 to 268, the whole Empire was split to pieces among various pretenders of this kind. One of these should be specially noticed, because it is the only case among all these divisions of anything like a real national state being founded. This was at Palmyra in Syria, where one Odenathus was acknowledged as Emperor, and after him his wife Zcncbia, one of the most won- derful women in history, reigned as Queen of the East. But this new kingdom was put down by Aurelian, one of the ablest of the Illyrian Emperors, in 271. 10. Wars with the Persians and Germans. We have seen that a new state of things begins after the reign of Trajan, for from that time the Romans had to fight, not as in former times to make new conquests, but to keep what they had got already. The wars went on along the Eastern frontier, with the Parthians as long as their power lasted, and after that with a new enemy who stepped into their place. These were the real old Persians, who had been kept in bondage ever since the time of Alexander, but who rose up about the year 226 and founded a new Persian kingdom. Their first king was Ardeshir or Artaxerxes, whose descend- ants, called the SassaniJcB, ruled over Persia more than four hundred years. Many of the Emperors had to wage war with the Persians, and among them Alexander Severus and Valerian, the father of Gallienus, who reigned from 253 to 260. He was taken prisoner by the Persians, and died in captivity. At a later time the Romans gained territory from the Persians and then lost it again, and so things went on for somr iv.] THE GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 91 ages ; Rome and Persia were always fighthg and making small conquests from one another, but, till a much later time, neither dealt any real blow at the main strength of the other. But the wars which the Romans had to wage in the West were of quite another kind. They have a more special interest for us, because they were wars with our own kinsfolk, and they also mark one of the greatest stages in the history of the world. For it was now that the race came to the front which was to take the place which had been held, first by the Greeks and then by the Romans, as the leading race of the world. From the time of Marcus Aurelius onwards the Teutonic nations began really to threaten the Empire. The chief business of the Roman armies now was to drive the Germans back ; and, if they made any conquests, it was now merely winning back lands which had been lost. We now first hear of the famous nation of the Goths, a people whose speech was very nearly akin to our own, and also of the Franks, whose name has in later history been more famous still. The great Illyrian Emperors had much to do in fighting both with the Persians and with the Goths and other Teutonic people. And Claudius, who reigned before Aurelian from 268 to 270, won a great victory over the Goths, who for some time afterwards kept more quiet. But Aurelian thought it wise to give up Trajan's province of Dacia, so that the Danube again became the boundary. We now come to a time of great changes in the internal state of the Empire. ii. The Growth of Christianity. All this while, almost from the very beginning of the Empire, a new religion had been growing up in the world. Our Lord Jesus Christ was born in the reign of Augustus and was crucified in the reigr. of Tiberius. Ever since that time Christianity had been gradually preached in most parts of the Empire, and the Christians were now a large and important body. The Christians were often cruelly persecuted, but it should be carefully 93 THE HEATH5N EMPIRE. 'CHAP, noticed that, as a rule, it was not the worst Emperors who most persecuted them. The truth is 'hat the heathen religion of ancient Rome was looked on as part of the constitution of the state. Oiher Gods might be worshipped, if only the old Gods did not lose their worship ; but a religion which taught that the Gods of Rome and of all other nations were alike false, and which strove to win over all mankind to that belief, was looked on as dangerous to the Empire. Those Emperors therefore who were most zealous to keep up the old laws and customs of Rome were com- monly the most anxious to put down the new faith, and we therefore find that the Christians really suffered most under good and reforming princes like Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. Still the Church constantly advanced and made converts, for men had now but little real faith in the old Gods, and their worship was mainly kept up as a matter of state policy. And Christianity also had no small influence even on those who did not accept it as a religion. A higher standard of morals and higher notions of the divine nature became common even among the heathens, and many a philosopher who professed to hate and despise Christianity was a better man for Christianity having been preached. At last it became plain that a deadly struggle must come between the old faith and the new. Those who held that the greatness and glory of Rome were bound up with the worship of the old Gods of Rome saw that the time was come when a stand must be made. The Christians were now grown so powei- ful that several of the later Emperors, especially Dcciu* and Valerian, looked on them as dangerous to the state, and severe persecutions went on during their reigns. After that time, there was a lull ; the Christians were not molested for a long time, and their doctrine spread among all classes of people everywhere. At last, at the time which we have now reached, among many important changes, came the last and greatest persecution. iv. 1 DIOCLETIAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 93 12. Diocletian and his Successors. During this time the notion of the Roman Commonwealth.) the forms of which had been so carefully kept up under the earlier Emperors, had almost wholly died out. The Empire had become a military monarchy, in which the power of the prince rested mainly on the support of his soldiers. And another change gradually hap- pened. All the inhabitants of the Empire were now equally Romans, and the Emperors had to move about wherever the needs of constant warfare called them. Italy therefore ceased to be any longer distinguished from the rest of the Empire, and even the importance of Rome itself, as the centre of the Empire, was greatly lessened. These great changes, which had already taken place in fact, were now formally acknowledged. In the year 284 the Empire fell to Diocletian, another of the able Illyrians of whom so many had risen to the throne. He began quite a new order of things. There were to be two Emperors, with the title of Augustus, reigning as colleagues, with two Ccesars under them. Speaking roughly, this fourfold division answered to Italy itself and the neighbouring countries, the Western provinces (Gaul, Spain, and Britain), the Greek, and the Oriental provinces. Many of the forms of royalty which had been unheard of before were now brought into use, though even now no Roman prince dared to take the title of King, and the Senate and Consuls still went on in name. But Rome was now quite forsaken as a dwelling-place of the Emperors, who found it better to live near the frontiers, whence they could keep watch against the Persians, Germans, and othei enemies of the Empire. Thus Diocletian and his col- league Maximian lived respectively at Nikomedeia in Asia and at Milan, while one of the Ccesars was com- monly placed in daul or Britain, at Tritr or at York. In 303 Diocletian abdicated, and made his col- league Maximian abdicate also. But towards the end of their reign they put forth a series of cruel edicts 94 TJ/K HEATHEN EMPIRE. [CHAT. against the Chiistians, and the heaviest of all the per- secutions now took place. But the Church lived through all attempts to destroy it, and its greatest worldly success followed soon after this great perse- cution. The system of August! with Caesars under them was not regularly kept up for any long time, A series of civil wars followed, till at last the whole Empire was joined together again in the hands of Constantine called the Great. He began to reign at York in 306 ; after that he reigned at Trier, till he obtained the whole Empire in 3 23 and kept it till 1 is death in 337. He was the first Emperor who acknowledged himself a Christian, and other important changes were made in his time, which will be spoken of in the next chapter. 13. Summary. We have thus gone through the history of heathen Rome both under the Common- wealth and under the Empire. It began as a single city ; it gradually gained the dominion, first over Italy, and then over all the lands round the Mediterranean Sea, and it gradually admitted its subjects and allies to its own citizenship. When the government of a single city became quite unable to act as the govern- ment of the whole civilized world, all power gradually came into the hands of one man, and the practical holding of all power by one man gradually changed the state into an avowed monarchy. Then, when all the inhabitants of the Empire were alike Romans, the city of Rome became, as it were, lost in the Roman Empire, and other cities began to be seats of government. At the same time new enemies, namely our own kinsfolk, were beginning to threaten the Empire, and a new religion, that which we ourselves believe, was begin- ning to supplant the old religion of Rome. We have thus come to a time of very great and speedy change, and to the first beginnings of the stSte of things which still goes on in modern Europe. There is in some things a greater change between the first Emperors and the Emperors after Constantine than there was between the old Kings of Rome and the first Emperors. v.] THE EARL V CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 95 CHAPTER V. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. ffL'fory of Constantine ; his changes in the government of the Empire (i) he fixes his capital at Constantinople or Neiv Rome (i) re/ens of Constantius and Julian (l) establishment of Christianity; disputes and Coun- cils in the Church (2} forms assumed by Christianity in different parts of the Empire (2) revival of paganism unaer Julian; its final extinction (2) Teu- tonic settlements within the Empire (3) movements of the. Goths ; defeat and death of Valens (4) reigns of Thfodosius and his sons (4) Rome taken by Alaric (4) -foundation of the Gothic kingdom in Spain (4) invasion of Attila (5) later Emperors in the West ; the two Empires nominally reunited; rule of Odoacer in Italy (5) settlements of the Burgundians and Franks in Gaul; reign and conquests of Chlodwig (6) settlement of the Vandals in Africa (7) reign of Theodoric in Italy (7) intermixture of Romans and Teutons ; origin of the Romance nations (8) growth of the Romance languages (9) distinctions of High and Low Dutch (10) the English conquest of Britain; its differences from the other Teutonic settlements (n). i. Constantine and his Family. The changes which were wrought by Constantine made him one of th; most famous of all the Emperors. He was the son of Constantius, who had reigned under Diocletian and Maximian in Britain, Spain, and Gaul, and who, though not a Christian himself, had, out of justice and hu- manity, done what he could to protect the Christians. Constantine himself for a long time did the same. He protected the Christians, but he did not profess their religion till the last civil war in 323, which gave him possession of the whole Empire. He presently made a change which had a great effect upon the later history of the Empire. Rome, as we have seen, had 96 THE EARL Y CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAT ceased to be the usual dwelling-place of the Emperors. Constantine now fixed the capital of the Empire in the old Greek city of Byzantion on the Bosporus,, which he greatly enlarged and called New Rome, but which has ever since been better known as Constanti- nople or the City of Constantine. From this time, what- ever changes and divisions there were, Constantinople remained the capital of the whole Empire when it was united, and of the Eastern part when it was divided. The chief power was thus placed in a city which was Christian from what we may call its new birth, and which had none of the heathen associations of the Old Rome. And, as Constantinople was in its origin a Greek city, it soon again became, though it was the capital of the Roman Empire, a city more Greek than Roman, and it gradually took the place of Antioch and Alexandria as the chief seat of Greek culture and learn- ing. Constantine too in his new capital was able to set more fully in order the despotic system of govern- ment which had been brought in by Diocletian. From this time, though the Senate and the Con- suls still went on, we may look on the Empire as being an absolute monarchy in form as well as in fact. And moreover Constantine not only reigned longer than any Emperor since Augustus, but he established his power so firmly that the Empire lasted in his family as long as any of his family were left. But they were mostly cut off by their own kinsfolk. Con- stantine divided his dominions among his three sons, but at last, in 353, the Empire was again united in his son Constantiits, who reigned at Constantinople till 361. There were several revolts and rival Emperors in his time, as well as many disputes in the Church, and unsuccessful wars with the Germans and Persians. But his cousin Julian, who was Ccesar under him in the West, drove the Germans out of Gaul, and thus made himself a great name. At last his soldiers proclaimec 1 him Augustus, and, as Constantius died soon after v.] ESTABLISHMENT OF CHRISTIANITY. \fj Julian got possession of the whole Empire without much trouble. But his reign did not last long, as io 363 he died in war against the Peisians, and the family of Constantine ended with him. 2. The Establishment of Christianity. When Constantine embraced Christianity, the long struggle between the Church and the power of heathen Rome came to an end. The Church conquered the Empire. Not only did the Empire become Christian, but Christianity became in a special way the religion of the Empire. Christianity has hardly anywhere taken firm and lasting root, except in those countries which either formed part of the Roman Empire or learned their religion and civilization from it, and from this time the history of the Church and of the Empire go together. Constantine, as was often done at that time, put off his baptism till just before his death. Yet he acted throughout as the chief ruler ot the Church ; and when Arius, a priest of Alexandria, put forth new doctrines as to the more mysterious points of Christian belief, it was by the Emperor's authority that a Council of Bishops was gathered to- gether at Nikaia in Bithynia in 325. This is com- monly called the Council of Nice, and here the Nicene Creed was drawn up. This was the first of what are called the General Councils of the Church, several of which were held in this and the next century. For men were at this time constantly disputing about the deepest doctrines of the Christian religion, and each heresy, that is. each new and strange kind of teaching, commonly called for a Council to settle the dispute. The truth is that the despotic system of the Empire had so thoroughly crushed men's minds in all political matters that it was only on points of religion that there was any free play of thought at all. Moreover, while Christianity is essentially the religion of the Roman Empire, different forms of Christianity took their firmest root in different parts of the Empire, accord- 9 3 THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAI ing to the character and turn of mind of the people. Thus in the West, where Latin was spoken, men thought les? about subtle points of doctrine ; but we shall see that, before long, Rome again became the ruling and Imperial city in ecclesiastical matters, as she had once been in temporal dominion. Mean- while, in the Greek-speaking provinces men's minds were more given to hard questions of doctrine. As the Greeks had in old times produced so many subtle philosophers, so they now produced equally subtle divines. And in the further East, in Syria and Egypt, in the lands which had never thoroughly be* come either Greek or Roman, men fell off into doc- trines which both Greeks and Latins thought heretical. This was the only way that was left to them of assert- ing their national independence. Thus the whole Empire gradually embraced Christianity ; but Chris- tianity took different shapes in different parts, and there were long disputings on various points of doc- trine, and of course men did not become Christians of any kind all at once. Many still clave to the old heathen worship, especially what we may call the two ends of mankind, that is to say, the philosophers who trusted in their own wisdom, and the rude peasantry in the country-places. For Christianity was every- where preached first in the towns ; hence it came that the word paganus, which at first simply meant a coun- tryman, came to mean a pagan or heathen or worship- per of false Gods. Still, from the time that Constan- tine professed himself a Christian, Christianity grew and paganism went back, though it cannot be doubted that the spread of Christianity was greatly hindered by the endless disputes in the Church. Constantius favoured the Arians, and, after his death, paganism got a new start for a moment. Fo: Julian, though he had been brought up as Christian, and though in hia own life he was one of the best of all the Emper jrs, fell back again to the worship of the old Gods. Bui v.] THE TEUTONIC INVASIONS. 99 all the Emperors after him were Christians, and by the end of the fourth century after Christ, the Christians weie, to say the least, the great majority in most parts of the Empire. Under the Emperors Gratian and T/ieodostus, who reigned between them from 367 to 395, the public profession of paganism was quite put an end to. 3. The Teutonic Invasions. We have now come to the time when the nations of our own race began to make their way into the Empire. We have seen that the different German tribes had been most dangerous enemies of Rome ever since the time of Augustus, and that many of the most valiant Em- perors had much ado to defend the Empire against them. So it was still ; Constantine and Julian had to fight hard against the Germans, and so had Valentiniaii, the next Emperor but one after Julian. But in all these wars, though the Germans were constantly driven back, yet they grew stronger and stronger, while the Romans grew weaker and weaker. Some of the Germans made their way into the Empire in arms : others took service in the Roman armies, and often received grants of land as their reward. In both ways they learned, something of Roman civilization and Roman military discipline, without losing anything of their own strength and courage. Presently it became not uncommon for a Gothic or other Teutonic chief to be at once King of his own people and to bear some title as a Roman general or magistrate. In such cases he and his people served the Emperors or fought against them, pretty much as they thought good, or according as they were well or ill treated. And at the same time they learned something ot the religion of Rome, so that most of the Teutonic nations became Christians, before they settled in the Empire c*r very soon after. But it was for the most part in v(s Arian form that they embraced Christianity. Thus ve find Barbarians, who for the most part however were loo THE EARL Y CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAP Christians., settled within the Empire ; and before lon & they began to occupy whole provinces. We have now come to the time when the Teutonic settlements and conquests become the most important facts in history. It often happens that the migrations and victories of one nation are caused by some other nation pressing upon it. And so it happened now. The movements of the Teutonic nations into the Roman Empire which had already begun was greatly hastened and strengthened by the pressure of Tura- nian tribes who were pushing their way from the East. The chief of these were the HUILS, who had been them- selves driven out of China in the extreme east of Asia, and who were now making their way into Europe. Though the Huns did not themselves enter the Em- pire till long afterwards, and though they never actually settled within it at any time, yet this migra- tion of theirs had a most important effect on the state of the Empire, by the stir which it caused among the Teutonic nations. 4. The Goths. The first Teutonic people whom the Huns met were the Goths, who had lately formed a great kingdom in the land north of the Danube, which had been Trajan's province of Dacia, but from which the Romans had withdrawn under Aurelian. They were beginning to become Christians of the Arian sect, under the teaching of a Bishop named Wiiljila or Ulfilas, whose translation of the Scriptures into the Gothic tongue is the oldest Teutonic writing that we have. The Huns now came upon them like a storm ; some of the Goths submitted to the new in- vaders, while others were allowed to cross the Danube and settle within the Empire. This was in 376. The first Valcntinian was now dead : the reigning Emperors were his brother Valens in the East and his sonj (./rattan and Valentinian in the West. The Goths were so ill-treated by the officers of Valens that they took to arms; a "Ddttle was long lit near V.J THE GOTHS. 101 in 378, in which Valens was killed. After this the Goths were never driven out of the Empire, though many of them took service in the Roman armies. But strangely enough, when the Goths came to found lasting kingdom, it was not in the eastern part of the Empire into which they had first passed, but quite away in the West. This was a most wretched time for the Empire ; for, besides the movements of the Barbarians, various Emperors or Tyrants rose and fell in different provinces, especially in Gaul and Britain. Things went on a little better during the reign of 7'heodosius, who is called the Great, and who reigned, first as a colleague of the sons of Valentinian, and after- wards alone, from 379 to 395. Theodosius is famous for the penance to which he submitted at the hands , of Saint Ambrose, the Archbishop of Milan, who re- fused him admittance to the church till he had repented of a massacre which he had ordered among the tur- bulent people of Tfiessalonica. Theodosius was the last Emperor who reigned over the whole Empire before it was divided and dismembered ; as soon as he died it began to fall in pieces. He left two sons, of whom Honorins reigned in the West, and Arcadius in the East. The West-Goths, under their famous king Alaric, presently revolted, and, though they were kept in check for a while by the Roman general Stilicho, at last, in 410, they took and sacked Rome, which had never been taken by a foreign enemy since the time of Brennus the Gaul. Alaric died soon after, and the next Gothic King Athaulf \\\a.&e a treaty with the Empire and passed into Gaul and Spain. German tribes of all kinds were now pressing into Gaul, and from Gaul into Spain, and rival Emperors were rising and falling. Athaulf went in name as a Roman officer 10 restore the province of Spain to the Empire. In reality this was the beginning of an independent Gothic kingdom in Spain arid southern Gaul, and the way in which this kingdom began is a good example 102 THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CMAP of the way in which the Roman Empire, its laws an tinople, and, when the Empire was divided, Constan- tinople always remained the capital of the Eastern part. Meanwhile the Goths, franks, and other Teutonic nations pressed into the Empire, and out of their settlements the Romance nations of modern Europe arose. The invasion of the Huns was driven back bj n.] THE ENGLISH IN BRITAIN in the united powers of Romans and Teutons. The series of Emperors in the West came to an end, and the Empire was nominally reunited, Theodoric the Goth reigning in Italy. Meanwhile the Low-Dutch tribes, the Angles and Saxons, were settling in Britain, and making the beginning of the English nation. CHAPTER VI. THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. Continuation of the Roman Empire at Constantinople (l) condition of the Eastern Church (i) reign oj Justinian, his legislation and buildings (2) exploits of Belisarius and Narsfa; recovery of Africa and Italy (2) Lombard conquest of Italy ; relations oj Rome and Venice to the Empire (2) wars with tht Turks and Avars (3) greatness of Persia under tlit two Chosroes j Persian victories of Heraclius (3) rise of the Saracens ; preaching- of Mahomet j spread of his religion (4) the first Caliphs; their wars with the Empire ; conquests of Syria and Egypt ; sieges of Con- stantinople (5) Saracen conquests in Africa, Spain, and Southern Caul (5) Saracen conquest of Persia, breaking up of the Saracenic dominion; position of (hi later Caltphs'(6) the I saurian Emperors; dispute about images ; decline of the Imperial power tn Italy (7) advance of the Lombards in Italy (8) the Merwings in Gaul; they are succeeded by the Karlings (8) Pippin invited into Italy ; he becomes Patrician of Rome (8) Charles the Great conquers the Lombards ; his election as Emperor (8, 9) Summary (10). i. The Roman Emperors at Constanti- nople. The succession of Roman Emperors thus came to an end in the West, but the Empire still went on at Constantinople. The Emperors who reigned there still claimed to be sovereigns of the whole Empire, though they had no real power weot of the Hadriatic H2 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. [CHAP The parts of the Empire which were really under the : i dominion were chiefly those which either were originally Greek, or where the Greek language and civilization had been spread by the conquests of Alexander. That is, they raled over the lands which I have before spoken of as the Greek and the Oriental provinces. Still, it must be borne in mind that these Emperors were strictly Roman Emperors. The Imperial succession went on without any break ; the laws and titles of Rome were kept up, and, though Greek was the language which was mos* spoken, yet Latin remained for a long time the officia. language, that which was used in drawing up laws and public documents of all kinds. There is no need to say much about the Emperors who reigned at Con stantinople between the death of Theodosius the Great and the nominal reunion of the Empire in 476 Their time was mainly taken up with wars with the IVrsians, in which the Romans generally got the worst, with the invasion of Attila and his Huns, and with ecclesiastical disputes within the Empire. The people of the Oriental provinces especially, who had never thoroughly become either Greek or Roman, were con- stantly putting forth or adopting doctrines which the Catholic Church, both of the Old and of the New Rome, looked on as heretical. Several Councils of the Church were held during this time, and this was the time of some of the most famous of the Greek Fathers^ especially the great preacher Saint John Chrysostom, that is, the Goldenmonth, who was Patriarch of Con- stantinople. The Patriarchs of Constantinople or New Rome were the chief Bishops in the East, but, as the Emperors were always at hand, they never won anything like the same power which the Bishops of the Old Rome won in the West. Thus, though the history of the Eastern Empire is largely a history of ecclesias- tical disputes, yet we never find there the same kind ol disputes between Church and State, between thtj VI.] RECOVERY OF ITALY AND AFRICA. 113 ecclesiastical and the temporal powers, which make up so great a part of Western history. 2. The Recovery of Italy and Africa. As the claims of the Emperors who reigned at Con stantinople to rule over all the dominions of their predecessors were never forgotten, so they were put forward whenever there was any chance ot making them good. And soon after the Emperors came to an end in the West, the Emperors at Constantinople had several opportunities of meddling in Western affairs. The Franks were too powerful and too far off for the Emperors to have any chance of winning back Gaul ; so they were commonly held to be friends of the Empire, and in 510 Chlodwig himself was made Roman Consul for the year. With Italy the Emperors had much more to do. We have seen that both Odoacer and Theodoric entered Italy with a nominal com- mission from the Emperor Zeno, which at least kept up the memory of the claims of the Emperors to rule in Italy. As long as Theodoric lived, there was no hope of anything more than this ; but after his death the power of the Goths in Italy declined. So did also that of the Vandals in Africa, and the reigning Emperor now began to think that it would be possible to make both countries again really, as well as nomin- ally, parts of the Empire. This Emperor was Justinian, who reigned from 527 to 565, and was one of the most famous of all the Emperors. He was famous for his buildings, especially for the great church of Saint Sophia at Constantinople, and still more for putting the laws of Rome into the shape of a regular code. Thus was formed that complete system of Roman law, called the Civil Law, which has formed the groundwork of the law of the greater part of Europe. Justinian was also famous for the greaf conquests made in his reign, though he had not much to do with making them himself. His general Bdisarius was perhaps the greatest commander thai n 4 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE LAST. [CHAP ever lived, as he did the greatest things with the smallest means. He did something to check the Persians, who were now very powerful under a great King called Chosroes or Nushirvan. In 534 Belisarius put an end to the Vandal kingdom in Africa, and the next year, being then Consul, he landed in Sicily, and a long war between the Romans and Goths went on under Belisarius and his successor Narses, till, in 553, the whole of Italy was recovered to the Empire. Meanwhile the southern part of Spain was also recovered from the West-Goths, so that Justinian reigned both in the Old and in the New Rome, and the Roman dominion again stretched from the Ocean to the Euphrates. It would have been far wiser if Justinian had left the West alone, and had given his whole mind to defending his Eastern dominions against the Persians and against the various enemies who were always attacking the Empire from the north. While his great generals were conquering Italy, the Slavonic tribes ravaged the Illyrian and Thracian pro- vinces at pleasure. In fact these great conquests were really a source of weakness rather than of strength. Still it is not wonderful that Justinian, as Roman Emperor, could not withstand the temptation, and he most likely thought it his duty, to recover as many of the old provinces of the Empire as he could. But, after all, it was only for a very few years that the Emperors were able to keep the whole of Italy. Three years after Justinian's death, in 568, a Teutonic people called the Lombards began to pour into Italy, and they presently conquered the whole North and some parts of the South. Still a large part of Italy, in- cluding Rome and Ravenna, most part of the South, and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, remain- ed to the Empire. Venice also, a state which began to spring up in the fifth century, when men fled for fear of the Huns and sought shelter in the small islands of the Hadriatic, also kept up itb connexion wit) the to THE EMPIRE UNDER JUSTINIAN ;LODK. w. o Longitude vi.] WARS WITH THE PERSIANS. in Empire, but its connexion gradually became one rather of alliance than of subjection. 3. "Wars with the Persians. We thus see that, at the end of the sixth century, the Empire, though so large a part of it had fallen away, still took in the greater part of the countries round the Medi- terranean Sea, and still kept all the greatest cities of Europe, Asia, and Africa. But it was threatened on all sides, not only by the Lombards in the West but by the Slavonic and Turanian nations who were pressing in from the North in the countries by the Danube, and still more by the Persians in the East. It was in the reign of Justinian that we first began to hear of the Turks. That name does not mean those particular Turks who made their way into the Empire long afterwards, and who hold Constantinople still. The Turks with whom we have now to do belonged to other branches of the great Turkish race, a. race which is perhaps the most widely spread of all the Turanian races of Asia, and of the different branches of which we shall often hear again. Another Tura- nian people, the Avars, also appear on the borders of the Empire at this time, and several Emperors, especially Maurice, \v\\o reigned from 582 to 602, had much ado to defend their northern frontier against them. Meanwhile the Persians were at the height of their power ; and, under another Ckosroes, a grandson of Chosroes called Nushirvan, they bade fair to subdue all the Eastern provinces of the Empire. Between the years 611 and 615 the Persian armies overran the whole of Syria, Egypt, and Asia, reaching to the Hellespont, and encamping at Chalkedon within sight of Constantinople. The Empire was then ruled by Heraclius, one of the greatest names in the whole list of Roman Emperors. He had been Exarch or Governor of Africa, and had risen to the throne by destroying Phocas, who had rebelled and murdered the Emperor Maurice. For a while he seemed to d ii6 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. [CHA* nothing to stop the Persian invasions ; but at last he arose ; he restored the old discipline of the Roman armies, and in a series of great campaigns, from 620 to 628, he altogether broke the Persian power, and won back all that Chosroes had conquered. But, while the Romans and Persians were thus dis- puting for the dominion of Asia, the Empire was again cut short in the West, for the Gothic Kings now won back the Roman province in Spain ; and it was presently cut short in the East in a far more terrible way. For a power was now arising which was to overthrow the Persians and Goths altogether, and to strike a deadly blow at the power of Rome. 4. Rise of the Saracens. We now come to the rise of a great Semitic power, the only Semitic power which has played any great part in history since the time of the great dominion of Carthage. For it must not be forgotten that the Persians, though so widely cut off from their Western brethren, were just as much Aryans as the Italians, Greeks, or Teutons We also come to the rise of a new religion, the last of the three great religions which have come out from among the Semitic nations, and all of which taught men that there is but one God, and bade them to keep from the worship of idols. First came Judaism, then Christianity, and now the religion of Mahomet. Mahomet was an Arab of Mecca, the holy city of Arabia, where he was born in 569. He gave himself out for a prophet, and taught that, though both the Jewish and the Christian religion were sent from God, yet he had himself received a revelation more perfect than either. In his own country there can be no doubt that Mahomet was a great reformer. He swept away the idolatry of the Arabs ; he greatly reformed their laws and manners, and gathered their scattered tribes into one nation. In his early days he had to bear niurh persecution ; but, as he grew powerful, he began to teach that his new religion was to be forced vi.] THE PERSIANS AND SARACENS. n upon all men by the sword. So the Arabs, or Saracens as they are also called, as soon as they had embraced the faith of Mahomet, held it to be their duty to spiead their faith everywhere, which in fact meant to conqnei the whole world. They everywhere gave men the choice of three things, Koran, tribute, or sword; that is, they called on all men either to believe in Mahomet and to accept the Koran, a book which contained his revelations, to submit to the Saracens and pay tribute, or else to fight against them if they could. By these means the religion of Mahomet was spread over a large part of Asia and Africa, and we shall see that it made its way into Europe also. As Christianity became the religion of the Empire and of the nations which learned their civilization from either the Old or the New Rome, so Mahometanism became the religion of the Arabs, and of those nations who were conquered by them or learned their civilization from them. We may call it the religion of the East, as fai as we have to do with the East, just as Christianity is the religion of the West. It has spread at different times as far as from Spain to India. The people of all the countries which were conquered by the Saracens and other Mahometan powers had either to embrace the Mahometan religion or else to buy the right to practise their own, whether Christian or heathen, by the payment of tribute. 5. Wars between the Saracens and Romans. As soon as all Arabia had been joined together under the authority of Mahomet, he and his followers began to spread their power over the neigh- bouring countries ; that is, of course, mainly over the dominions of Rome and Persia. Mahomet himself died in 632, before any serious attack was made upon either, and he was succeeded in his power by rulers called his Caliphs or Successors, the first of whom was his father-in- law Abu-Bekr. The Caliphs were at once spiritual and temporal rulers, much the same as if in n8 THE ROMAN EMPIRE LV THE EAST. [CHAB Christendom the same man had been Pope and Em- peror at once. Under the first two Caliphs Abu-Bekr and Omar, the Roman provinces of Syria and Egypt were conquered between the years 632 and 639. Now it should be remembered that these two were the provinces in which Greek and Roman civilization had never thoroughly taken root, where the mass of the people still kept their old languages, and where men were always falling away into forms of belief which were counted heretical according to the faith both of the Old and New Rome. In these provinces there- fore men may well have deemed that they had little to lose by a change of rulers. It followed then that, though the Saracens had to fight several hard battles against the Roman armies in Syria, yet they met with no general resistance from the whole people, and in Egypt they met with no resistance at all. The great cities of Antioch and Alexandria, as well as Jerusalem, were thus lost to the Empire. But in the lands on this side of Mount Tauros, where the influence of Greek culture and Roman law was more deep and abiding, the Saracens never gained any lasting footing. They often invaded the country, and twice, in 673 and 716, they besieged Constantinople itself, but they made no abiding conquests. In Africa too, which had been far more thoroughly Romanized than Syria and Egypt, they met with a long resistance. Their invasions began in 647, but Carthage was not taken nil 698, and the whole country was not fully subdued nil 709. From no part of the Empire have all traces either of the Roman dominion or of the Teutonic settlement of the Vandals been so utterly swept away as /rom Africa. From Africa in 7 10 the Saracens crossed into Spain, and in about three years they subdued tne whole land, except where the Christians still held out in the mountain fastnesses of the North. They conquered also a small part of Gaul, namely the pro- vince of Narbonne or Septimania. But this was the n. J EXTENT OF THE CALIPHATE. 119 end of their conquests in Western Europe. In 732 they were defeated in the great battle of Tours by the Frank Charles Martd, of whom we shall presently hear again. In 755 they were altogether driven out of Gaul, but it took more than seven hundred years more to drive them out of the whole of Spain. 6. The Saracen Conquests in the East. The Saracens thus lopped off the Eastern and Southern provinces of the Empire, so that the Romans no longer held anything in Africa, nor any- thing in Asia beyond Mount Tauros. Meanwhile they were pressing on with equal vigour against the other great empire of Persia. In about nineteen years, from 632 to 651, the whole kingdom of Persia vas conquered, and the native dynasty of the Sas- wnides, which had reigned in Persia since the time of Arfaxerxes, came to an end. Persia now gradually became a Mahometan country. The Saracens thence pressed northwards and eastwards into Sind, the most western part of India, and into the Turkish lands beyond the Oxus. For a short time the whole of this vast dominion held together, and a single Caliph was obeyed in Spain and in Sind. But, before long, disputes and civil wars arose among the Saracens themselves, as to the right succession of the Caliphate, and in 755 their empire was divided, and was never joined together again. Spain was lost, and in the East the Turkish tribes were pressing into the Saracenic empire, very much in the same way in which the Teutonic tribes had pressed into the Empire of Rome. The governors of the different provinces gradually made themselves independent, and various dynasties, chiefly Turkish, arose, whose obedience to the Caliph became quite nominal. Various sects also arose among the Mahometans, just as they arose among the Christians, and each sect looked on the others as heretics. There were opposition Caliphs in Spain and in Egypt; but those who gave themselves out as the orthodox fot lao THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. [CHAP. lowers of Mahomet always looked up to the Caliph who reigned at Bagdad. So the Caliphs may be looked on as keeping something like the power of a Pope after they had lost the power of an Emperor. 7. The Loss of Italy. The descendants of Heraclius went on reigning till about the end of the seventh century. Then came a time of confusion, till at last, in 718, the Empire fell to a valiant man named Leo, a native of Jsauria, whose descendants reigned after him till the beginning of the ninth century. The second siege of Constantinople by the Saracens was then going on, and it was mainly owing to his valour and wisdom that the invaders were beaten back. This defeat of the Saracens by Leo is really one of the greatest events in the world's history ; for, if Constan- tinople had been taken by the Mahometans before the nations of Western Europe had at all grown up, it would seem as if the Christian religion and European civilization must have been swept away from the earth. But, if Leo thus secured the Empire towards the East, his dealing in religious matters did much to weaken its power in the West Though Spain and Africa had been lost, the Emperors still kept Rome and all that part of Italy which was not conquered by the Lom- bards, as well as all the great islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, The Italian possessions of the Empire were ruled by an Exarch or governor, who lived, not at Rome but at Ravenna. Thus, as neither the Emperor nor his deputy lived at Rome, the power of the Popes or Bishops of Rome grew greater and greater. At last, during the reign of Leo, another religious dispute broke out, about the worship or reverence paid to images and pictures in churches. This worship Leo held to be idolatrous, and so did his son Constantine, called Kopronymos, who succeeded him and reigned from 741 to 775, and who also was a valiant warrior against the Saracens. The party who thought with them were called Iconoclasts or breakers EARLY CALIPHS 20 Longitude East SOfron Benwich 40 Fisk 4 See, N. Y *!.] THE LOSS OF ITALY. 121 of images, and there were constant disputes about this matter in the Eastern Church all through the eighth and part of the ninth century. But in Italy, when the Emperors tried to put away the worship and even the use of images, men everywhere withstood them, the Popes Gregory the Second and Gregory the Third taking the lead against them. The result was that the Emperors lost all real power in Rome. But they kept Southern Italy for a long time afterwards, and even at Rome their authority was acknowledged in name down to the end of the eighth century. We must now see how even its formal acknowledgment came to an end. 8. The Franks in Italy. Meanwhile the Lom- bards were extending their dominion in Italy. Under their Kings Liudprand and Astolf' they took Ravenna and more than once threatened Rome. There was no hope of any help coming from the Emperors at Constantinople ; so the Popes and the Roman people sought for help in quite a new quarter, namely at the hands of Pippin the King of the Franks. The Franks had now long been the ruling people of Germany and Gaul. The descendants of Chlodwig, the German King and Roman Consul, went on reigning, though their dominions were often divided into several small kingdoms, and in the south of Gaul, especially in Aquitaine, they had but little real power. These descendants of Chlodwig, the Mentrings or Moro- unngians as they were called, were one of the worst dynasties that ever reigned ; few parts of history are more full of crimes, public and private, than the accounts of the early Prankish Kings. Latterly they became weak as well as wicked, and all real power passed into the hands of the Karlings, who governed by the title of Mayors of the Palace. They carne from the Eastern, the most German, part of the Frankish dominions, and their rise to power was almost like another German conquest of GauL One of these 122 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. [CHAP Mayors was Karl cr Charles, called Martrt or the Hammer, who won the great victory over the Saracens at Tours in 732. He was succeeded by his son Pit fin, who in 753 was chosen King of the Franks, the Merowingian King Chilpcric being deposed, for it was thought foolish that the title of King should belong to one man and the kingly power to another. Thus began the dynasty of the Karlings, the sons oj Charles, the second Frankish dynasty in Germany and Gaul. Of their doings in Germany and Gaul we shall speak presently ; we have now to do with them in Italy. King Pippin came at the prayer of Pope Stephen the Third, and saved Rome from the Lom- bards and won back from them the Exarchate, that is the country about Ravenna, which they had conquered. He became the virtual sovereign of Rome, but, as it was still not thought right wholly to throw away the authority of the Emperors, he was called, not King or Emperor, but Patrician. That word had quite changed its meaning since it had meant the highest class of the Roman people ; it was now used rather vaguely, and it sometimes meant the governor of a province ; this last must have been the sense in which they used it now. Pippin's son, Karl or Charles the Great, altogether conquered the Lombard kingdom in 774. He then called himself King oj the franks and Lombards and Patrician of the Romans. As such, he was ruler of all Italy, except the part in the south which the Emperors still kept. The Franks were thus the head people in all Western Christendom. 9. Charles elected Emperor. But a greater honour still was in store for the Franks and their King. In 797, the Emperor Constantine the Sixth, the grandson of Constantine Kopronymos, was de- posed by his mother Eirene, who put out his eyes and reigned in his stead. This gave the Pope and the people of Rome a good excuse for throwing off the authority of the Emperors at Constantinople altogether. ri.] CHARLES THE GREAT. 123 They now said that a woman could not be Caesar and Augustus, and that the Old Rome had as good a right to choose the Emperor as the New. So in the year 800 the Romans of the Old Rome chose their Patrician Charles to be Emperor, and he was crowned by Pope Zis, and Charles. Lothar was Em- peror, and, as such, he reigned in Italy, and he was meant to have at least a nominal supremacy over his brothers. For his own kingdom he took Italy and a long narrow strip of territory reaching from the Mediterranean to the Northern Ocean, and taking ir EUROPE under CHARLES THE GREAT Eastern Empire Western Empire Western Caliphate Eastern Caliphate I 10 Longitude East f rot vir.] THE PRANKISH KINGDOMS. 129 what is now Provence at one end and Holland at the other. Part of his kingdom spoke German and part Romance. To the east of him his brother Lewis, who is called tJie German, reigned over a purely German kingdom, the lands between the Rhine and the Elbe. Charles reigned in Gaul to the West of Lothar. On Lothar's death Italy passed to his son the Emperor Lewis the Second, while a second Lothar reigned in the borderland of Germany and Gaul. From having been the kingdom of two Lothars, this land was called Lotharingia, and part of it still keeps the name in the form of Lothringen or Lorraine. Just in the same way Charles's kingdom was at first called Karolingia, only the one name has gone out of use, while the other has lived on. But the different king- doms which were now formed had no regular names. All the different Kings were' Kings of tJie Franks, much as in earlier times there had been several Emperors at once. There now came a time of great confusion, during which the different kingdoms were split up and joined together again in various ways. But there was still always one King who was Emperor, though he soon lost all real power over the others. And all the Kings were of the house of the Karlings, save only in the Burgundian land between the Rhone, the Saone, and the Alps, where Kings of other houses reigned, and which was called the Kingdom of Bur- gundy or Aries. At last, in 884, all the Frankish kingdoms except Burgundy were joined together under the Emperor Charles the Fat. But in 887 all his kingdoms agreed to depose him, and each king- dom chose a King of its own. And the kingdoms which were now formed began to answer more nearly to real divisions of nations and language than had hitherto been the case. Thus from this time the Eastern and Western Franks were never a.gain united, and the word Franda henceforth has two meanings. Eastern or Teutonic Franda was the old Frankish land 1 30 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAI> in Germany, forming part of the Eastern Kingdom. Western or Latin Francia was the land between the Loire and the Seine, where men spoke Romance and not German, and which formed part of the Western Kingdom. Between them lay Lotharirigia, the border land, taking in modern Belgium. This had no longer a King of its own, but it was often disputed between the Eastern and Western Kings, the Kings of Germany and Karolingia. In South-eastern Gaul the Burgun- dian Kingdom went on, sometimes forming one kingdom, sometimes two. And in Italy, during the first half of the tenth century, there were several rival Kings, some of whom got to be crowned Emperors. But they had no power out of Italy, and not much in it. And it must be remembered that all this time Southern Italy still belonged to the Eastern Emperors, and that Sicily had been conquered by the Saracens. 5. The End of the Karlings in Germany.- After the division in 887 the Eastern or German Kingdom still stayed for a while in the family of Charles the Great. For the East-Franks chose as their King Arnulf, who was a Karling, though not by lawful descent. But the Western Franks in Karolingia chose Odo, Count of Paris, who had been very valiant in defending his city against an attack of the North- men, of whom we shall hear presently. But King Arnulf was the head King, and King Odo of Paris did Iwmage to him for his crown ; that is, he became his man, and promised to be faithful to him. Arnulf afterwards went to Rome and was crowned Emperor But the German crown did not stay long among the Karlings. The line oT Arnulf died out in his son Lewis, called the Child, and then the Eastern King- dom fell to men of other families, connected with the Karlings only in the female line or not at all. From this time the Kingdom of Germany went on as a separate kingdom, but we shall soon see that it had a great deal to do with the other kingdoms which arose V EUROPE at the end of the NINTH CENTURY gitudc East 15 from Greenwich m.] BEGINNING OF FRANCE. \y out of the breaking up of the Prankish Empire. And it had much to do in other ways with the Slavonic and Turanian people to the East, and in the end it greatly extended itself at the cost of its Slavonic neighbours. 6. Beginning of the Kingdom of France. A."ter the election of Odo of Paris to the Western Kingdom, there followed a hundred years of shift- ing to and fro between his new family and the old family of the Karlings. Sometimes there was a King of one house and sometimes of the other. The Karlings still spoke German, and, when they held the .dngdom, their capital was Laon, in its north-eastern corner. The family of Odo were called Dukes of the French, and they spoke French, as we may now call the Romance speech of Northern Gaul, and their capital ,vas Paris, Their Duchy, the Duchy of France that s, Western or Latin Francia was, even when its Oukes were not Kings, the most powerful state north of the Loire. But whichever family held the crown. .he Kings had very little power south of the Loire. ^or, in these times of confusion, the Dukes and Counts, vho at first were only governors of the different >rovinces, both in the Eastern and Western King- loins, had grown up into hereditary princes, paying a nerely nominal homage to the King, whether he eigned at Laon or Paris. The princes north of the ^oire, the Counts of Flanders, the Dukes of the \ormans (of whom we shall say more presently), he native princes of Britanny, and the Dukes of burgundy, were often at war with the Kings, and with >ne another. These Dukes of Burgundy held the orthern part of Burgundy, that of which Dijon is le capital ; this did not form part of the Kingdom f Burgundy, but of the Western Kingdom or Karol- igia. South of the Loire, where men spoke, not 'rench but Provencal, the Dukes of Aquitaine and , and the Counts of Toulouse and Barcelona 132 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP had hardly anything to do with the Kings at all The most famous among the Karolingian King! at Laon was Lewis the Fourth, called From-beyond-sea, because he had been brought up by his uncle King /Ethelstzn in England. He had much striving with Ilu;h the Great, Duke of the French, the nephew of King Odo, who refused the crown more than once, but who never had any scruple about rebelling against the King. But on the death of the last Karolingian King at Laon, Lewis the Fifth, Hugh Capet, the son of Hugh the Great, was chosen King in 987. This was the real beginning of the modern Kingdom of France. The Duke of the French was now King oj the French. Paris became the capital of the King- dom, and, as the Kings of the French got hold of the lands of their vassals and neighbours bit by bit, the name of France was gradually spread, as it is now, over the greater part of Gaul. 7. The English in Britain. We have thus seen how the kingdoms and nations of Germany, Italy, Burgundy, and France were formed by the breaking up of the great Frank ish Empire. Mean- while the English nation was growing up in the Isle of Britain, which formed no part of the Empire, and which men spoke often of as a world of itself. We have already seen how the three Low-Dutch tribes, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, settled in Britain, how they drove the Britons or Welsh into the western part of the Island, and how, as they gradually became one people, the whole nation was called Angles or English. They formed a great number of principalities in Britain, among the chief of which were the Kingdom of the Jutes in Kent, the oldest of all, the Kingdom of the West-Saxons, which began in what is now Hampshire and gradually spread over all South- western Britain, the Kingdom of the Mercians in the middle of England, and the Kingdom of the North- umbrians, which, sometimes under one King, some THE ENGLISH IN BRITAIN. 133 times under two, stretched fromthe Humberto the Firth of Forth. The Kingdoms of the South-Faxons, East' Saxons, and East- Angles should also be noticed, but they were less powerful than the other four. All these kingdoms had much fighting with one another, as well as with the Britons or Welsh to the west of them and with the other Celtic tribes of the Pitts and Scots to the north beyond the Forth. Sometimes one of theii Kings gained a certain authority over the other king- doms ; he was then called a Brefrvalda or Widder 0} Britain. As we have already said, the English re- mained heathens for about one hundred and fifty years after their first settlement in Britain. Then, in 597, Pope Gregory the Great sent over Augustine, who converted the Kentish King jEthelberht, who was then Bretwalda ; so Kent was the first Christian kingdom among the English. Gradually all the English kingdoms were converted, some by missionaries from Kent or straight from Rome, some by the Scots, who were already Christians, but none, it would seem, by the Welsh. And presently the English began themselves to send missionaries to convert those of their kinsfolk in their old land who were still heathens. One of them, Winfrith or Bo?iiface, in the time of Pippin, was called the Apostle of Germany. This was quite another way of being converted from that of the Goths and Franks who embraced Christianity while they were pressing into the Empire. But, even after they became Christians, the English still went on making conquests from the Welsh, and also carrying on wars among themselves. During the seventh and eighth centuries the three great kingdoms of the West- Saxons, Mercians, and Northumbrians were ever striving for the mastery. Sometimes one had the upper hand and sometimes the other ; but at the beginning of the ninth century the different English kingdoms began to be more closely united together, and they had also a common enemy from without to withstand. 34 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP. 8. The Northmen. We have already spoken of the Aryan people in Northern Europe, called the Northmen or Scandinavians. These were a Teutonic people, whose speech is more nearly akin to the Low- Dutch than to the High. They had settled in the great peninsula to the north-east of the Baltic, where they were gradually making their way against the Turanian inhabitants, the Fins and Laps, and they hid also occupied the peninsula called the Cimbrie. Chersentsos or Jutland, which is divided from Saxony by the river Eider. In these peninsulas and the neighbouring islands they gradually formed three king- doms, those of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The Danes in the southern peninsula had often to yield more or less of submission to Charles the Great and his successors. But the Northmen of the northern peninsula never submitted to the Empire, and^ indeed the Swedes had for a long time to come but little to do with the general affairs of Europe. They had enough to do in striving with their own Turanian neighbours, and in conquests toward the East, where they came to bear rule over the Slavonic land of Russia. But the Western Scandinavians, the Danes and the Norwegians who were more specially called Northmen, began, towards the end of the eighth cen- tury, to be fearful scourges both to Britain and to all the coasts of the Empire. Even while Charles the Great lived, they had begun to sail about and plunder in various parts ; and after he was dead, and when the Empire began to break in pieces, they were able to ravage almost wherever they pleased. After a while they began, not only to plunder, but to make settle- ments, both in Gaul and in Britain. They also settled in Iceland, in the Orkneys and in the other islands near Scotland, in the northern part of Scotland itself, and in the towns on the east coast of Ireland. But we have most to do with their settlements in England and in Northern Gaul. For through their settlement in vii.] FORMATION OF ENGLAND. 135 Gaul a new power in Europe arose, and, what we should hardly have looked for, their settlements in England had a great deal to do with the making of the different English kingdoms in Britain into one. 9. Formation of the Kingdom of England. We have seen that, up to the end of the eighth century, the chief power among the English in Britain was always passing from one of the English kingdoms to another. But at the beginning of the ninth century it came permanently into the hands of Wcssex. This was under Ecgberht, who was King of the West-Saxons from 802 to 837. He was a friend of Charles the Great, with whom he had taken shelter when he was banished from his own country. It was no doubt the friendship and example of Charles which set him upon doing in Britain much the same as Charles had done in Germany. Ecgberht gradually brought all the other English kingdoms and the Welsh both of Cornwall and of what we call Wales, into more or less of subjection to his own kingdom of the West- Saxons. Other Kings went on reigning, but they were his men and he was their lord, like the Emperor among the Kings and princes on the mainland. Thus .1 great step was taken towards joining all the English in Britain into one kingdom. But the Scots beyond the Forth and the Northern Welsh in Cumberland and thereabouts remained independent, so that Ecgberht was still far from being master of the whole island, and presently the Danish invasion seemed likely to shatter the newly founded West-Saxon power altogether. King sElfred or Alfred, the grandson of Ecgberht and the most famous of all our ancient Kings, who began to reign in 871, had much fighting with the Danes. The northern part of England was conquered by them, and Danish Kings and Earls reigned at York. Presently they invaded Wessex, whence they were driven out by Alfred in 878. But he found it needful to make a treaty with the Danish 136 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP King Guthrum, by which Guthrum was allowed to hold all the eastern part of England, on condition of becoming King Alfred's man and also becoming a Christian. For the Danes were still heathens, as the English were when they first entered Britain, and they seem to have taken special delight in destroying the churches and monasteries. The Kings who came after Alfred, his son Edward and his grandsons /Ethelstan and Edmund, had much fighting with the Danes in Britain. But at last they were able to bring all the Teutonic people in Britain, both English and Danish, into one kingdom ; so they were called Kings of the English and not merely Kings of the West-Saxons. And all the princes of the Welsh and of the Scots also became their men, so that they were Lords of all Britain. Sometimes, as being lords of the other world where the Roman Emperors had no power, they were called Emperors of Britain, or in Greek Basileus, in imitation of the Emperors of the East. It was King Edward who first received the homage of all Britain in 924. But it was not till a long time after that the Danes in the North of England were thoroughly subdued. But these settlements of the Danes, by breaking up the other English kingdoms and by mak- ing Englishmen everywhere ready to join against the invaders, really did much to help the West-Saxon Kings in winning the lordship of the whole island. 10. Foundation of the Duchy of Normandy. The Danes and other Northmen also made many invasions of Gaul through the whole latter half of the ninth century. They more than once sailed up the Seine and besieged Paris. There was one specially famous siege of Paris in 885, when Count Odo did great things in withstanding the Northmen, in reward of which he was before long, as we have seen, elected King. Soon after this the Northmen began to rr.jke settlements in Gaul as they did in Britain, and one of their settlements rose to great importance. Thia VH.] BEGINNING OF NORAfANDY. ij> was the settlement made at Rouen by a chief named Rolf, or in Latin Rollo. This was in 913, when Charles the Simple, who was King of the West-Franks he was of the House of the Karlings and reigned at Laon and Robert, Duke of the French, who was brother of King Odo and was afterwards King him- self, granted the land at the mouth of the Seine to Roif. For this he became King Charles's man, and he served his lord much more faithfully than ever the Dukes of the French did. Rolf was baptized, as Guthrum had been, and the Northmen who settled in Gaul gradually became Christians and learned to speak French. Their name was softened into Nor- mans, and their land was called Normandy, and their prince the Duke of the Normans. The Dukes of the Normans of the House of Rolf became the most powerful princes in Northern Gaul, and we shall presently hear of them in England. ii. Summary. Thus, in the course of the ninth and tenth centuries the great Prankish Empire broke in pieces ; the Kingdom of France arose in Gaul ; the Kingdom of England grew up in Britain ; the Danes and Northmen settled both in Britain and in Gaul, and their settlement in Gaul grew into the Duchy of Nor- mandy. During this time the Romance languages had hardly begun to be written, but men were finding out that they were distinct languages from Latin. Books on the Continent were still wholly written in Latin. Thus Eginhard, the Secretary of Charles the Great, wrote the Life of his master, and there were other good writers of history in all the Prankish kingdoms. But the English Chronicle began to be put together in England in these times, so that we have, what no other people in Western Christendom has, our ancestral history written in our own tongue from th* beginning. 138 THE SAXON EMPERORS. [CHxr CHAPTER VIII. THE SAXON EMPERORS. The King iom of Germany ; dealings with the Magvars and Slaves (\)the Saxon Kings ; -victories of Henry the Fowler and Otto the Great over the Magyars (2) Otto the great crowned Emperor ; relations between the Empire and the German Kingdom (2, 3) the later Saxon Emperors (3) disputes between the Eastern and Western Churches (4) the Macedonian Emperors in the East ; their victories over the Saracens (4) Slavonic settlements in the Eastern Empire ; wars with the Russians and Bulgarians (5) greatness of England under Edgar (6) Danish invasions of England; reign of Cunt in Englana (6) greatness of the Scandinavian nations ; great dominion of Cnut j effects of the Scan- dinavian settlements in Gaul ami Russia (6, 7) con- version of the Scandinavians and Russians to Chris- tianity (7) Summary (8). i. The German Kingdom. The division of 887 separated for ever the Kingdoms of the East and West Franks, those which answer to Germany and France. But the Kingdoms of Italy and Buigundy were, after a while, once more united with Germany. But this was not just yet. The Kings of the East-Franks, the Eastern Kings as they were called, were the head Kings, but as yet they only held their own land, the Teutonic Kingdom or Germany. They had much ado to defend themselves against the inroads of the Danes, to defend and extend their border against the Slave? to the north-east, and to drive back some new and fearful enemies who had begun to show themselves to the south-east. These were the Magyars or Hun- garians, of whom we have already spoken, who were pressing into Central Europe, and who, wherever they came, did as much mischief by land as the Northmen trill.] THE GERMAN KINGDOM. 135 did by sea. They were still heathens, but in the end, before the tenth century was out, they became Chris- tians, and settled down into a regular and powerful Christian kingdom. They have held their place among the kingdoms of Europe ever since, and their land is still called the Kingdom of Hungary. But, before the Hungarians had thus settled down among Christian nations, the German Kings had to fight many battles against them to keep them out of their own dominions. As a safeguard against the Hun- garian invasions they founded a Mark or border-state under a chief called a Markgraf or Marquess ; this was called the Eastern Mark, Ostmark or Oesterreich. This grew into the Duchy of Austria, the Dukes of which have, oddly enough, for a long time past been also Kings of Hungary. To the north of Hungary several Slavonic states grew up during this time into Christian dukedoms and kingdoms, especially those of Poland and Bohemia ; but the Wends on the south of the Baltic remained heathens for a long time, and the Prussians to the east of them for a longer time still. Thus the Kingdom of Germany was the central state of Europe, and it had to do with all parts of Europe, East, West, North, and South. And it was soon to rise to greater things still. 2. The Saxon Kings. The dynasty which had most to do with raising the German Kingdom to greatness was that of the Saxons, whose Duke, Henry, was elected King in 918. He did much to make his kingdom flourishing and powerful, and he had to wage many wars against the Magyars, especially by the foundation of towns. He was succeeded in 936 by his son Otto, called the Great. He finally defeated the Magyars in a great battle in 954. He had also much to do with the affairs of the Western Kingdom, and he often stepped in to help the Karolingian King Lewis, who was his brother-in tew, against his enemies in France and Normandy. But he is most famou? 4Q THE SAXON EMPERORS. [CHAP for again uniting the Roman Empire to the German Kingdom. Since Arnulf no Emperor had been gene- rally acknowledged, though some of the Kings of Italy had been crowned Emperors at Rome. In truth, Italy, during the whole half of the tenth century, was alto- gether torn in pieces by the struggles of rival Kin^a and wicked Popes. In 951 Otto was invited into Italy, and he made the King Berengar become his man. In 962 he was again called on by the Pope and the Italians to deliver them from Berengar altogether. So he entered Italy a second time, and was crowned Emperor at Rome, by the Pope John the Twelfth^ one of the worst of all the Popes. 3. The Restoration of the Empire. The coronation of Otto the Great as Emperor put the Western Empire on quite a new footing. Hitherto the Empire had had no special connexion with any one of the several kingdoms which had arisen out of the break-up of the dominion of Charles the Great The Imperial crown had been sometimes held by one King, and sometimes by another, and very often there had been no Emperor at all. But now Germany had, under the Saxon Kings, become so much the greatest of all the Frankish kingdoms that it was able to join the Empire to itself. The change was in truth a restoration of the Empire in a more regular shape after a time of confusion. From this time the Empire was always held by a German king. As long as the Empire lasted, the rule was that whoever was chosen King in Germany had a right to be crowned King oj Italy 'at Milan, and to be crowned Emperor at Rome. There was not always an Emperor, because some of the German Kings never got to Rome to be crowned Emperors ; but there always was either an Emperor or a King who alone had the right to be crowned Emperor. Thus the Kingdom of Italy was again united with the Kingdom of Germany. But both Burgundy and Karolingia or the Western Kingdom viii.] RESTORA TION OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 141 still remained cut off from the Empire, Burgundy fol a while and Karolingia for ever. Still the Emperors kept a good deal of influence in Burgundy, and in the Western Kingdom too as long as any of the Karlings reigned at Laon. But when the Kingdom of Franct was finally established, when the long line of Kings of the French of the blood of Hugh Capet began to reign at Paris, France left off having anything to do with the Empire at all Otto the Great died in 972, and after him reigned his son Otto the Second till 983. He had wars with the Danes, whose King Harold, called .Blaatandor Bluetooth, he forced to become a Christian, and also with the Eastern Emperors in Southern Italy. Then came Otto the Third from 983 to 1002. He was called the Wonder of tlie World. His great wish was to make Rome again the head of the world and to reign there again, like one of the old Emperors. But he died young, and his plans were all cut short. Then came Henry the Second, a descendant of Henry the First, but not of Otto the Great, who was the last Saxon Emperor. He died in 1024. 4. The Eastern Empire. It is now time to say something of what had happened in the East since the election of Charles the Great in the West. The Eastern Empire, as I before said, was now chiefly confined to the Greek-speaking parts of Europe and Asia. And, after the Eastern and Western Empires were separated, disputes gradually arose between the Eastern and Western Churches. They differed on some points both of doctrine and ceremony, but the real ground of quarrel was chiefly because the Eastern Church would never admit the claims of the Bishops of Rome. The Iconoclast controversy went on during a great part of the ninth century, but in the end the worshippers of images gained the day. After Eirene there were several Emperors of different families, some of whom were weak men, while others ruled well and fought manfully against the Saracens, At last, in thf f4* THE SAXON EMPERORS. [CHAf latter pait of the ninth century, a dynasty arose undef which the Eastern Empire won back a great deal of its former power. This was the Basiiian or Macedonian dynasty, the first Emperor of which, Basil the First or the Macedonian, began to reign in 867. He was a law-giver, and under him the Byzantine dominions in Italy were greatly increased. But the time when the Eastern Empire reached its greatest amount of power after the final division was from 963 to 1025. Three Emperors, one after the other, Nikephoros Phokas, John Tzimiskes, and Basil the Second, won back many of the provinces which had been lost The Saracens, as we have already seen, were now cut up into many small states, and, though the Caliphs went on, they could no longer meet the Emperors on equal terms. Nikephoros won back Crete, and both he and John Tzimiskes, who murdered him and reigned in his stead, waged wars in the East, won back Antioch and other cities which had been taken by the Saracens in their first conquests, and again carried the Roman frontier to the Euphrates. 5. The Slavonic Invasions. We said at the beginning that the Slavonic nations were the last of the great Aryan swarms which had pressed into Europe, and that which had played the least part in the general affairs of the world. As yet we have not heard much of them, except so far as the German Kings had greatly extended their dominion to the West at their expense. But we have now reached a very important period in their history, chiefly with regard to their dealings with the Eastern Empire. For a long time past various nations had been pressing into the northern parts of the Byzantine dominions, and the Emperors had constant wars to wage against enemies on their northern as well as on their eastern frontier. Some of them settled within the Empire, while others simply invaded and ravaged its provinces. Some of these invaders and settlers were Turanians mi.] THE MACEDONIAN EMPERORS. 143 out many of them belonged to the race of the Slaves, who play a part in the history of the Eastern Empire something like that which the Teutonic people played in the West. That is to say, they were half conquerors, half disciples. Many of the north-western provinces of the Empire were settled by Slavonic tribes, who have grown into the people of Servia, Dalmatia, and the other lands now bordering on Hungary, Austria, and Turkey. They also made large settlements in Macedonia and Greece, but from some of these they were afterwards driven out. It is even said that the Macedonian Emperors themselves were really of Sla- vonic descent. The Russians, also a Slavonic people, though their princes were of Scandinavian descent, made several inroads into the Eastern Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries, and even attacked Con- stantinople by sea. But they were finally defeated by the Emperor John Tzimiskes in 973. Another great enemy was the Bulgarians, a people originally Tura- nian, but who learnt to speak a Slavonic language, and who were so mixed up with their Slavonic neigh- bours and subjects, that they may pass as one of the Slavonic nations. They founded a kingdom in the north-western part of the Empire, and they were for a long time a great thorn in the sides of the Emperors. With these Bulgarians the Emperors had many wars, till in the end their kingdom was altogether destroyed by Basil the Second, who was called the flayer of the Bulgarians, when the Roman frontier was again car- ried to the Danube. All these invaders and settlers gradually became Christians, getting their Christianity from the Eastern Church, as the Teutons and Western Slaves got theirs from the Western Church. But the Popes and the Patriarchs of Constantinople had long disputes about the obedience of the Bulgarians. It was under Basil the Second, whose sister Theophant married the Western Emperor Otto the Second, that the separate Eastern Empire was at the greatest height 144 THE SAXON EMPERORS. [CHAC of its p>wer, but after his death it greatly fell back again. 6. England and the Danes. England had a good deal to do with the Western Empire during the time of the Saxon Emperors. The daughters of Edward the Elder were married to the chief princes of Europe, and one of them named Eadgyth or Edith was the first wife of Otto the Great. It marks the central position of the German Kingdom that its kings made marriages with England at one end and with Constantinople at the other. Under Edgar, who reigned from 959 to 975, England was at the height of its power, but in the reign of his son sEthelrcd the inroads of the Danes and Northmen began again. At one time, in 994, England was attacked at once by Olaf King of the Northmen and by Sweden or Sweyn King of the Danes. Olaf was persuaded to become a Christian and to make peace with England ; so he went home to Norway and began to bring in Chris- tianity there. Swegen was the son of that King Harold who had been overcome by Otto the Second ; he had been baptized in his childhood, but had fallen back into heathenism. The war with Swegen went on till at last, in 1013, ^Ethelred was driven out and Swegen was acknowledged King all over England. This was quite another kind of conquest from mere plundering inroads, and even from settlements in parts of the country, like that of Guthrum or that of Rolf in Gaul. A King of all Denmark came against England to make himself King over all England also. Swegen died very soon and ^Ethelred did not live long after The war then went on between Cnut or Canute the son of Swegen and Edmund the son of ^Ethelred. At last, in 1017, Cnut became King over all England ; he inherited the crown of his native country Denmark, and he also won Norway and part of Sweden. He was thus lord of all Northern Europe, and was by far the most powerful prince of his time vin.] DOMINION OF CNUT. 145 Though he came into England by force, he ruled well and won the love of the people j but after his death in 1035 the bad government of his sons disgusted th English with the Danish rule, and in 1042 they again chose a native King in the person of Edward the SOB of ^thelred. 7. Greatness of the Scandinavians. The time when Cnut reigned in England was the time when the Danes and the Northmen were at the height of their power. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were all powerful kingdoms ; England was under a Danish King, and princes of Scandinavian descent ruled both in Normandy and in Russia. But wherever the North- men settled, though they always put a new life into the lands which they made their own, they showed a wonderful power of adapting themselves to the people among whom they settled, and of taking to their manners and language. Thus Cnut, when he reigned in England, became quite an Englishman, and the Northmen who settled in Gaul became quite French, and those who settled in Russia became quite Slavonic. In this way the original lands of the Northmen really lost in strength and importance, and became of less account in Europe than they otherwise might have been. For the best life of Scandinavia went away into other lands to give a new life to them. About the end of the tenth and beginning of the eleventh centuries, all the Northern nations, except the Prus- sians and Lithuanians, gradually became Christians. The Scandinavians, like the other Teutonic nations, got their Christianity from the West ; but the Russians, like the Bulgarians and the other nations who had to do with the Eastern Empire, got their Christianity from Constantinople and became part of the Eastern Church. To this day they are the only one among the great nations of Europe which remains in the com- munion of the East, having nothing to do either with the Bishop of Rome or with the Reformed Churches. 146 THE FRANCON1AN EMPERORS. [CHAP 8. Summary. Thus, in the ninth century and the beginning of the tenth, the German kingdom ad vanced, and was again united with the Roman Empire, The Eastern Empire won back much of its power, and drove back its Slavonic invaders. The Danet conquered England, and trie Scandinavian people generally were at the height of their power. The chief historians of this period were the German writers who recorded the deeds of the Ottos. In England learning had got back from what it was at an earlier time. In Gaul men had already found out that the Roman, or the spoken tongue of the people, had grown into a different language from the written Latin. But we have no French writings as yet CHAPTER IX. THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. Succession of Kings, Conrad, Henry the Third, Henry the Fourth, Henry the Fifth (i) dealings of henry the Third with the Popes (^disputes between Henry the Fourth and Gregory the Seventh (i) continued dis- putes between the Popes and Henry the Fifth (i) causes of the growth of Papal power (2) designs of Gregory t]ie Seventh; disputes about invest ures and the marriage of the clergy (2) growth of the Duchy of Normandy (3) reign of William the Conqueror ; his claims on the crown of England favoured by the Pope (3) election of Harold of England: 'invasion nf Harold of Norway ; Norman invasion and conquc\t of England (3) effects of the Norman Conquest of England; use of the French language; closer connex- ion of England with other lands (4) relations between France and Normandy (5) effects of the Norman Conquest on France ; greatness of Henry the Second in England (5) advance of the Christians in Spain; growth of the kingdom of Arragon (6) Norman Conquest of Sicily ; fouiulation and growth of the king- IX. J HENRY TtlE THIRD. 14? dom (7) decline of the Eastern Empire (8) growth of the Turks ; their dealings with the Caliphs (8) divisions of the Caliphate (8) wars between the Turki and the Eastern Empire; conquests of the Turks in Asia Minor (8) revival of the Empire under the. Komnidan Emperors * decay of the Turkish power (8) - causes of the Cnusades (8, 9) the Crusade preached by Peter the Hermit and Urban the Second (9) First Crusade ; taking of Jerusalem (9) effects of tht Crusades (9) Summary (ro). i. Succession of Kings. On the death of Henry the Second, Conrad, a descendant of a daugh- ter of Otto the Great, was chosen King. He was the first of the Franconian Empercrs. They are so called as coming from the Eastern or Teutonic Francia, which, to distinguish it from Latin Francia or France, is commonly called Franconia. He was crowned Emperor in 1027 and reigned till 1039. The chief event of his reign was that in 1032 the Kingdom of Burgundy was united to the Empire on the death of its last King Rtidolf. Thus three out of the four Prankish Kingdoms were again joined together, France alone, as we must now call it, standing aloof. Conrad's son Henry the Third was one of the greatest of all the Emperors. He was crowned King both of Germany and of Burgundy in his father's lifetime. This was often done in those days, in order to make the succes- sion certain, and to avoid the dangers of an interregnum or time when there is no King. Henry was called into Italy in much the same way as Otto the Great had been ; for there were great disputes at Rome, where three candidates at once all claimed the Popedom. King Henry came into Italy in 1046 and deposed them all. He then gave the Popedom to several German Bishops one after the other, and they ruled the Church far better than the Romans had done. He was himself crowned Emperor in the same year He did much to restore order and religion both in I 4 8 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [CHAF Germany and in Italy, and he maintained the authority of the Empire better than had been done for a long time. He was a close ally of the English King Edward, whose half-sister Gunhild, the daughter of Cnut, was his first wife. On his death in 1056 he was succeeded by his son Henry the Fourth, who was only six years old when his father died, but who had been already crowned King. His childhood and youth was a time of great confusion, and, as he grew up, he ruled at first very ill, and his oppression drove the Saxons to revolt in 1073. About the same time there arose long dis- putes between the Emperors and the Popes, which tore Germany and Italy in pieces. At one time Pope Greg' ory the Seventh, the famous Hildebrand, professed to depose the King, and in the beginning of 1077 Henry had to come and crave pardon of Gregory. In the same year the Saxons, and others in Germany who were discontented, chose Rudolf Duke of Swabia King instead of Henry. Rudolf was killed in 1080, but, during nearly all the rest of his reign, Henry had to struggle with one enemy after another, among them his own son Conrad, and afterwards his other son Henry, whom he had crowned King in 1099. Henry himself had driven Gregory out of Rome in 1085, and he had been crowned Emperor by Clement the Third, whom he had himself appointed Pope. At last he died in n 06, while still at war with his son King Henry, who now reigned alone. Henry the Fifth had nearly the same disputes with the Popes which his father had had, but he was regularly crowned Emperor at Rome in 1 1 1 1. He married Matilda, the daughter of our King Henry the First, but he had no son, and the Franconian dynasty came to an end at his death in 1125. 2. Growth of the Papal Power. The power of the Popes, which has just been mentioned, and their disputes with the Emperors, must be spoken of a little more fully. From the time of Constantine onwards IX] Ti'fE POPES AND THE EMPERORS, 149 the divisions of the Empire and the constant absence of the Emperors from Rome had greatly increased the power of the Popes. They had not, like the Patriarchs of Constantinople, a superior always at hand. Charles the Great had fully asserted the Imperial power over the Church, but, after his Empire broke up, the power of the Popes grew again. It was checked only by their own wickedness and their divisions among them- selves, which Kings like Otto the Great and Henry the Third had to step in and put an end to. Things were very different now from what they had been in the old times, when the whole or nearly the whole of the Church was contained within the bounds of the Empire. First of all, there were now two rival Empe- rors and two rival Churches, and the Empire and the Church of the East in no way acknowledged either the Emperor or the Bishop of the Old Rome. And even in the West, part of the Empire, namely the Kingdom of France, had cut itself off from the main body, while new Christian kingdoms like England, Hungary, and Denmark had risen up beyond the Empire. In this state of things the Bishops of Rome, who were looked up to by so many kingdoms as the chief Bishops of the West, could hardly remain so submissive to the Emperors as they had been when the Emperors were the only Christian princes. The Popes had not as yet any distinct temporal dominion, such as they had in after times ; still they were no longer mere subjects of the Emperor, as they had been under Constantine and Justinian and Charles the Great. In truth, it was to this undefined position that the Popes owed much ol their power. And now Gregory the Seventh, the great- est of all the Popes, set himself to work to set up the ecclesiastical power as superior to the temporal. To this end he laid down two main rules, one that the clergy might not marry, the other that no temporal prince should bestow any ecclesiastical benefice, as was then commonly done in Germany, England, and ISO THE FRANCOMAN EMPERORS, [CHAP, most parts of Europe. Hence began the long quarrel between Gregory and Henry the Fourth, and between many Popes and Emperors after them. And we may mark that the quarrel between the Popes and the Emperors was one in which good men might and did take either side. A good Emperor like Henry the Third did much good by clearing away unworthy dis- putants, and giving to the Church a succession ol worthy rulers. But the same power in the hands of a bad prince led to the sale of bishopricks for money and to many other abuses. The great evil was that Popes like Gregory the Seventh, who were really anxious for the purity of the Church, acted too much as if the Church were made up only of the clergy, and strove to make the clergy, with themselves at their head, into quite a separate body from other men. It is hard to say which party won in the end. We may perhaps say that the Popes succeeded in overthrowing the power of the Emperors, but that they had them- selves to yield in the end to the power of other temporal princes. 3. The Norman Conquest of England. We have already seen how in 987 the dynasty of the Karlings in the West came to an end, and how Hugh, the Duke of the French, became King of the French. Meanwhile the duchy which had been founded by Rolf had grown up into great power and prosperity, and Normandy reckoned among the chief states of Western Euorpe. And Normandy became greater still under its famous Duke William, who subdued England, and who is therefore known as William the Conqueror. It was now that Britain, which had hitherto been looked on as another world, began to have much more to do with the general affairs of Europe. King Ed- ward, the last King of the English of the old West- Saxon dynasty, was, through his mother, a kinsman of Duke William, and it would seem that at one time of his life he made Duke William some kind oi tX.J THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 151 promise that, as he had no children ; he should succeed him on the throne of England. But, however this may be, when King Edward died in 1066, the English people, as there was no one in the royal family fit to reign, gave the Crown to Earl Harold, who was then the greatest man in the land. Duke William however put forth his claim, and, though he found no one to help him in England, he made most people in other lands believe that he had the right on his side. Espe- cially he persuaded Hildebrand, who was not yet Pope, but who already had great influence at Rome, to take his part. So Pope Alexander the Second declared in his favour, and blessed his undertaking. This was the way in which the Popes seized every opportunity to extend their power both within the Empire and in other parts of the world. William was thus able to invade England, at the head not only of his own Nor- mans, but of men from all parts, who were taught to look on the enterprise as a holy war. England was just at this time attacked by Harold ffardrada, King of the Northmen, so that her King Harold had to fight against two foes at once. He defeated Harold of Norway, but was himself defeated and slain by Duke vVilliam in the famous battle of Senlac or Hastings. Duke William was crowned King at Christmas 1066, but the English still withstood him in many places, and it took him about four years to get full possession of the whole kingdom. He gradually found means to give all the greatest estates and highest offices in Eng- land to Normans and other strangers, and he handed on the English Crown to his descendants, by whom it has been held ever since. 4. Effects of the Norman Conquest of England. The establishment of Duke William and his followers in Normandy brought about some very great changes both in England and in the rest of Europe. The English were not killed or turned out as they hat x themselves done by the Welsh, and the) '52 THE FRANCON1AN EMPERORS, [CHAP. kept their own laws and language ; yet for a long time all the chief men in the land were of Norman or othef foreign descent. But it is wonderful in how short a time the Normans in England became good English- men. This was partly perhaps because Normans and English were, after all, near kinsfolk, only the English had kept their own tongue, while the Normans had learned to speak French. French remained for a long time the fashionable language in England, and though, in the end, English became once more the speech of all men in the land, yet in the meanwhile it became greatly changed, and a great many French words crept in. Many new ideas came in with the Nor- mans, which gradually made great changes in English laws and manners. The power of the Kings became much greater than it had been before, and William made the whole kingdom far more truly one than it had been up to his time. Since his days no one has ever thought of dividing it. The Norman Conquest also caused far more intercourse than there had been before between England and other nations. Learning flourished more, the art of building greatly advanced, and many reforms were made in the Church ; but it must not be forgotten that England from this time was brought much more under the power of the Popes. 5. Relations between England and France- Before the Norman Conquest, England and France^ meaning thereby the new Kingdom of Paris, had hardly anything to do with one another. J!ut France and Normandy often were enemies. Ever since Paris became the capital, the Kings of the French had felt themselves hemmed in by the Dukes at Rouen. And now that the same man was Duke of the Normans and King of the English, the Norman Dukes became still more powerful in Gaul, and were still more dan- gerous neighbours to their lords the Kings of the French. The King at Paris was in truth shut in on every side by his own vassals, the great Dukes and IX.] ENGLAND AND FRANCE, 153 Counts, over whom he had no real authority. Just at the time when the Empire was strongest undei Henry the Third, the Kingdom of France was weakest under Henry the First, the third of the Parisian Kings. From this time there was a distinct rivalry, which we shall constantly come across, between the Kings of the French and the Kings of the English, who were also Dukes of the Normans. This rivalry has gone on almost ever since, and we shall constantly meet with it in one shape or another ; and this rivalry had the further effect of keeping up the old connexion be- tween England and Germany, both of them being rivals of France. I have already mentioned that Henry the First of England, the son of William and the third of the Norman Kings, gave his daughter in mar- riage to the Emperor Henry the Fifth. King Henry of England, who reigned from noo to 1135, was born in England, and he married Edith or Matilda, the daughter of Malcolm King of Scots. Her mother Margaret was the granddaughter of King Edmund Ironside, so that Henry's children had some English blood in them. In 1154 Henry, the son of Henry the First's daughter, the Empress Matilda, by her second husband Geoffrey Count of Anjou, came to the Crown of England. The pedigree in this case should be carefully remembered, because with Henry the Second began the Angevin Kings of England, who were neither Norman nor English, except in the female line. Henry presently married Eleanor the heiress of Aquitaine ; he thus was master of the greater part of Northern and Western Gaul, holding of the King of the French far greater possessions than the King held himself. Here is quite a new state of things, in which the same man not only held both England and Nor- mandy, but had by far the greatest power in all Gaul. We shall presently see what came of these changes. 6. Wars with the Mahometans in Spain. The time of the Franconian Emperors is also memor 54 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [CHAF able as the time when the great struggle between the Christian and Mahometan nations began to spread itself over a much wider field. All this while wars had been going on with the Saracens in all those parts of Europe and Western Asia where they had settled. The Christians of Spain, as I have already said, had always kept their independence in the mountainous lands in the north, and the conquests of Charles the Great had been a further check to the advance of the Saracens. As the Western Empire began to be divided, the Western Caliphate grew stronger. The time of the greatest power of the Mahometans in Spain was in the reign of Abd-al-rahman the Third, from 912 to 961. The Christian kingdoms however still main- tained their independence, and in 1031 the Western Caliphate came to an end, and the Saracen dominion in Spain was cut up into several small states. The Christians were now able to advance, and in 1084 Alfonso the Sixth, who had united the two kingdoms of Leon and Castile, won back the old capital of Toledo, and was near making himself master of the whole of Spain. The Mahometans in Spain had now to call in their fellow-believers in Africa to their help. Thus arose the Moorish dynasty of the Almoravides in Southern Spain, which put a check for the while to the advance of the Christians. But in 1118, Alfonso of Aragon recovered Zaragoza, that is Casar- Augusta, the chief city of Eastern Spain, and from that time the kingdom of Aragon also began to grow in importance. 7. Foundation of the Kingdom of Sicily. Meanwhile the Christians were also gaining ground on the Mahometans in the great islands of the Medi- terranean. I have said how the Emperor Nikephoros won back Crete for the Eastern Empire, and in the beginning of the eleventh century Sardinia was won back by the people of the Tuscan commonwealth ol Pisa. Soon afterwards, Norman adventurers began to press into the South, and to make conquests at th IX.] SPAIN AND SICILY. 155 expense both of the Saracens and of the Eastern Emperors. Under the famous Robei-t Wiscard, they conquered nearly all the lands which the Eastern Emperors still kept in Italy. They then crossed into Sidfy'm 1062, and founded a county which, in 1130, under its third Count Roger the Second, became a king- dom. Thus began the Kingdom of Sicily, where at first French-speaking Kings leigned over Arabic- speaking Mahometans and Greek-speaking Christians. All three languages gradually died out, but for a time all nations and religions flourished under the Norman Kings. King Roger afterwards won the Norman possessions in Italy, and the little that was left to the Eastern Emperors. Thus the Kingdom of Sicily took in, not only the island, but all the southern part of the Italian peninsula. 8. The Eastern Empire. We must now look to the affairs of the Eastern Empire in Asia, and the more so because its danger at this time led to the most famous of all the wars between Christians and Mahometans, namely to the Crusades or Holy Wars. These were the wars which the Christians waged to win back the Holy Land, and especially the tomb oi our Lord at Jerusalem, from their Mahometan posses- sors. After the death of Basil the Second, the Eastern Empire, which, under the Macedonian Emperors, had again become so powerful both in Europe and Asia, began once more to fall back. As a new European enemy had arisen against it in the Normans of Sicily, so a new and terrible enemy arose against it in Asia. These were the Turks of the house of Seljuk. We may now look on the chief dominion of Asia as being finally handed over from the Saracens to the Turks. 1'his change of power in Asia brought about two memorable results. First, it was the cause of the heaviest blow which the Eastern Empire had under- gone since the time of the first Caliphs. Secondly, it was the cause of the Crusades which were waged *5 6 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP, by men from Western Europe. In the course of the tenth century, the Eastern Caliphate may be looked on as coming to an end as a political power. A third Caliphate arose in Egypt, and the Caliphs of Bagdad gradually fell under the control of their own mercenaries and ministers, much as the Mero- wingian Kings of the Franks had fallen under the control of the Austrasian Mayors. Meanwhile several Turkish dynasties arose in Persia, and the Mahometan conquest of India began. At last, in 1055, the Caliph Al Kayem asked help of Togrel Beg, the chief of the Seljuk Turks, much as the Popes had in- vited Pippin and Charles the Great into Italy. The Caliphs were now left in free possession of Bagdad, but a great Turkish power now arose, which soon took iu all Western Asia. War soon arose between this new power and the Eastern Roman Empire. In 1071, at the battle of Manzikert, the Turks, under their Sultan Alp Arslan, gained a great victory over the Romans, and the Emperor Romanes was taken pri- soner, as Valerian had long ago been by Sapor. The result of this was that the Eastern Emperors lost, not only all that had been won back under the Macedo- nian Emperors, but nearly all their possessions in Asia. The dominions of the Seljuk Turks now reached to the Hellespont Palestine meanwhile was conquered and conquered again by the different Mahometan powers, and both the Eastern Christians and the pilgrims from Europe who went to pray at Jerusalem were far worse treated than they had been in the days of the first Saracens. Meanwhile a new dynasty arose in the Eastern Empire under Alexios Komnenos, a wise prince, whose family kept the throne for about a hundred years, and produced some of the best rulers and bravest warriors among the Byzantine Emperors. Again, in 1092, the Seljuk power, like other Eastern states, was divided. One line of Sultans reigned in Asia Minor, having their capital at Nikaia, and, as ix. J THE CRUSADES. 157 they ruled over lands which had been woi. from the Empire, they called themselves Sultans of Rome. Thus everything favoured a common enterprise on the part of the Christians. The Mahometans were divided ; the Eastern Empire was recovering itself, and men in the West were stirred up by pilgrims who told of all that the Christians suffered in the East Thus the nations of the West were moved to a great general enterprise to deliver their brethren and the Holy Places from the power of the infidels. 9. The Beginning of the Crusades. The duty of going to deliver the Holy Places was first preached by Peter, a hermit of Amiens, though several Popes and Emperors, Gregory the Seventh among them, had already dreamed of such an undertaking. The cause was now zealously taken up by Pope Urban the Second, who in 1095 held a Council at Clermont in Auvergne, at which the Holy War was decreed. This war was called a Crusade, because men put a cross on their shoulders to show that they were going to fight in a holy war. Neither the Emperor Henry nor any of the Kings of the West took any part in the Crusade, but many of the smaller princes and a vast number of private men set forth on the pilgrimage. Most of those who went on the First Crusade were French- speaking people, from which it has come that the Eastern nations have ever since called all the people of Western Europe Franks. The Crusaders passed through Asia Minor into Palestine, and at last, in 1099, they took Jerusalem. They founded several Christian principalities in Palestine and Syria, of which the head was the Kingdom of Jerusalem, of which Godfrey of Boulogne, Duke of Lower Lotharingia, that is of JSrabant in the modern kingdom of Belgium, was the first King. The Crusaders kept Jerusalem for somewhat less than a hundred years ; and, though the kingdom was constantly helped by new Crusaders from Europe, ft had much ado to hold its ground <5S THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [CHAI against the various Mahometan powers. Meanwhile, as the power of the Turks had been so much weak ened by the coming of the Crusaders, the Komneniau Emperors were able to win back a large part of Asia Minor, all the Euxine and yEgaean coasts, and the Sultans of Rome were driven back into the inland parts, and had their capital at Ikonion, instead of at Nikaia. The effects of the Crusades were very im- portant in every way. Eastern and Western Chris- tians were brought across one another and across the Mahometans ; and, though they commonly met one another as enemies, yet they came to know one another better, and to learn of each other. Both the Saracens and the Romans of the East had much to teach the Western nations in many branches of art and learning. But still more important than this was the general stirring up of men's minds which followed on such great events. From the time of the Crusades a great revival of thought and learning of every kind began throughout Europe. to. Summary. The time of the Franconian Em- perors was thus a time of very important changes. The great struggle between the Popes and the Emperors began. The Turkish power began. The Crusades began. The Norman Conquest of England took plnre. The Christians began to gain ground again in Spain. It was the time when the chief states of modern Europe began to form themselves, and when the litera- ture of the Romance languages began. It was also a time when we find many good historical writers in England, Germany, and Normandy. And it was a time of great splendour in building, especially in building churches. But they were still built in the round-arched or Romanesque style ; the use of \hz pointed arch, and what is commonly called the Gothic s'y\, did not com* in till near the end of the twelfth century. Long. TV. Long. E. * Ulnputed portion on the French court appears in light porpli 10 from Greenwich JFisk * See,N.T sombination of red and bluv the French and English colors. x.] VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 159 CHAPTER X. GENERAL VIEW OF THE MIDD1 E AGES. t'fo Middle Ages ; unimi of Roman and Teutonic tlement* (l) the Church and the Empire ; how affected by thi Teutonic settlements (2) ideal powers of the Emperor and the Pope ; the theory only imperfectly carried out (2) changes following on the transfer of the Empire to the German Kings (2) study of the Roman Law (2) the Western Empire becomes German and the Eastern Empire becomes Greek (3) condition of tlie various countries of Europe; extension of the German Kingdom to the East (3) the old Teutonic constitu- tion; three orders of men, nobles, freemen, and slaves (4) mixture of Roman and Teutonie ideas (4) origin of fief s ; Roman grant's of land for military service; Teutonic custom of companionship to a personal Lord (5) distinction of allodial and feudal tenures ; change of allodial holdings into feudal (5) effects of the feudal tenures; growth of the class of serfs (6) introduction of representative assemblies ; growth nf the power of the feudal princes (6) comparison of the political state of England, Germany, and France (7) Kings com- monly chosen out of a single family (S) origin of the Electors of the Empire (8) the Crown of France be- comes strictly hereditary (8) uncertainty of succession in the Eastern Empire (S) spread of Christianity over nearly all Europe (9) division between the Eastern and the Western Chiirches (9) growth of the power of the Popes ; tendency of the clergy to act as a distinct class (9) temporal powers of the clergy ; special greatness of the German Prelates (10) distinction between regular and secular clergy ( 1 1 ) various orders of monks ; the military orders (u) learning in (he West chiefly in the hands of the clergy j contrast in the East (12) Greek becomes the language of the East- ern Empire ; continued use of Latin in the West (12) early Teutonic literature ; growth of the Romanct languages (12) revival of learning in the twelfth cen- 160 VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. [CHAP. tury (\TL) position of the towns in ancient Greece and Italy ; their decline under the Teutonic invasions (13) destruction of Roman towns in Britain (13) growth of the towns in Germany; greatness of the Hanseatic League (13) greatness of the cities in Italy (13) Summary (14). 1. General Survey of Europe. We have now reached a point at which it will be well to stop and look at the general state of things among the European nations. All the things which distinguish what are called the Middle Ages, alike from what we are used to in modern Europe and from the old days of heathen Greece and Rome, have now fully come in. The settlement of the Teutonic nations within the Roman Empire had gradually brought about a state of things in which we may see both Roman and Teutonic elements, but in which the two had, as we may say, so joined together as to make a third thing different from either. 2. The Church and the Empire. The two great powers in Western Europe were the Church and the Empire. Both of them lived on through the set- tlements of the German nations, and both in a manner drew new powers from the change of things. Men believed more than ever that Rome was the lawful and natural centre of the world. For it was held that there were of divine right two Vicars of God upon earth, the Roman Emperor his Vicar in temporal things, and the Roman Bishop his Vicar in spiritual things. This belief did not interfere with the existence either of separate commonwealths and principalities or of national Churches. But it was held that the Roman Emperor, who was called Lord of the World, was of right the head of all temporal states, and that the Roman Bishop, the Pope, was of right the head of all Churches. Now this theory was never carried out, if only because so large a part of Christendom, all the Churches and nations of the East, refused to acknow K.] THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. 161 ledge either the Emperor or the Bishop of the Old Rome. But it was mnch more nearly carried out in the case of the Roman Bishop than it was in the case of the Roman Emperor. For the Popes did really make themselves spiritual heads of the whole West, while the temporal head ship of the Emperors was never acknowledged by a large part even of the West. But the continued belief which men still had in the Roman Empire as a living thing is not only most re- markable in itself, but it had a most important effect on the history of the world. Still it is plain that the Roman Empire could not really be the same thing as it had been before the Teutonic nations came into the Roman dominions. . Even during the short time that the whole Empire of Charles the Great stayed together, it made a great difference that the Emperor was a German King, living for the most part in Ger- many, and not at Rome or anywhere in Italy. And afterwards the utter cutting off of France and Spain from the Empire did much to take away from its character as a universal monarchy, and to make the Emperors more like common Kings over a particular nation. They were still Kings of Italy and Burgundy as well as of Germany, but most things were now tending to make the Empire more and more German and less and less Roman. On the other hand, as this was the time of a great new birth of learning, men had begun, among other things, to study the Civil Law, the old law of Rome, as it was put together by the Emperor Justinian. This study naturally led men to a respect for the Imperial power, and thus helped to give the claims of the Emperors a new source of strength. We shall see presently the effects of these different tendencies when we come to the history of the Emperors during the twelfth and thirteenth cen- turies. 3. The Nations of Europe. Nearly all the nations of Modern Europe had now come into being 1 6* VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. [CHAP. We may even say that the two Empires themselves had begun to answer to two of those nations. For the Eastern Empire had, through the conquests of the Turks, come to answer pretty nearly to those parts of Europe and of the coasts of Asia where Greek was the prevailing language. That is to say, the Roman Empire of the East might be said, speaking roughly, to have become a Greek state. And, speaking still more roughly, it might even be said that the Roman Empire of the West had become a German state. For Ger- many was now the heart and centre of the Empire, though the possession of the Kingdoms of Italy and Burgundy of course gave the Emperors many Romance-speaking subjects. Southern Italy, it will be remembered, now formed part of the Kingdom of Sicily. To the west of Germany and Burgundy, beyond the Rhone, the Saone, and the Maes, lay the Kingdom of France, the lands held by the King of the French and his vassals. In the Spanish peninsula the Christian states of Castile and Leon, Navarre, Aragon, and Portugal, were all growing up, and were gradually driving the Mahometans into the southern part called Andalusia. These countries had now so little to do with the Empire that more than one of the Kings of Castile took the title of Emperor, as being the chief princes in their own peninsula, just as the West-Saxon Kings had done the like, as being the chief princes in their own island. It was only towards the East, where Germany bordered on the Slavonic nations, that the Empire had much chance of extending itself. The Wends, the Slavonic people slong the south coast of the Baltic, in Mecklenburg and Pomerania and the other lands beyond the Elbe, gradually became Chris- tians and were joined on to Germany, and the Low- Dutch language gradually displaced the Slavonic. Bohemia became a dependent st^fe, but it kept its own Dukes who afterwards became Kings. So in the other chief Slavonic country, that of Poland, the Dukes x.] THE NATIONS OF EUROPE. 163 and Kings had sometimes to submit to the Empeiors,, but in the end Poland gradually became quite inde- pendent, while Bohemia became more and more closely joined on to the Empire. We may say nearly the same of the Kingdom of the Magyars in Hungary. To the east of Poland and Hungary, Lithuania, where the people were still heathens, and Russia, where they belonged to the Eastern Church, had very little to do with Western Europe. In Northern Europe, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were distinct kingdoms. Swe- den and Norway had, from their position, very little to do with the rest of Europe, except so far as the Orkneys and the other islands oft" Scotland were still closely connected with Norway. But Denmark was a very important power, and its Kings made large conquests in various parts of the coasts of the Baltic. England, as we have said, had become thoroughly welded into one kingdom under the Norman Kings. Scotland was a distinct kingdom, but its Kings were held to be the men of the English Kings. And, during the time with which we are now concerned, came the beginnings of the English Conquest of Ireland. We thus see that most of the European states which still exist had already come into being. From this point therefore we may, for the most part, leave the internal affairs of each country to be dealt with in its own special History. But we must still go on with our sketch of those events which affected the history of the nations in general, and this will be a good point to say some- thing about the state of government, religion, and other matters during what are called the Middle Ages. 4. Changes in the Old Teutonic Constitu- tion. We saw at the very beginning of this book that all the Aryan nations set out, as far as we can see, with very much the same kind of government. There was a King or chief as the leader, there was a smaller Council of nobles or old men, and there was a general Assembly of the whole people. This was the form o/ 1 64 VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. [CIIAF. government of the Teutonic nations at the time when they began to settle within the Roman Empire. There were commonly three classes of men in the state, the nobles, the common freemen, and the stoves. And men became slaves in two ways, either by being made prisoners of war or by being condemned to slavery for some crime. And it was also usual, especially in war- time, for men to attach themselves to the service of some particular leader, to become his companions or his men, who were bound to be faithful to him and who looked to share such rewards as he had to give them. This we may call the old Teutonic Constitution, as being at first common to all the Teutonic nations. But our own forefathers, when they settled in Britain, swept away all Roman institutions more utterly than was done in any part of the mainland. Scandinavia too never came under the Roman power at all. It was therefore in Britain and Scandinavia that this old constitution lasted longest on a great scale. In those parts of the mainland which had always belonged to the Empire things went on somewhat differently. As we have already said, Roman and Teutonic institutions influenced one another. As the Roman Empire be- came something quite different when it began to be held by German Kings, so the Teutonic Constitution was greatly changed by the Roman laws and institu- tions which were already established. The cities, for instance, kept up something of their Roman constitu- tions ; and, as men learned something of the Roman Law, they began to attribute to the Teutonic Kings something of the great powers of the Roman Emperors. And of course they did this all the more after the Frankish Kings had actually become Roman Em- perors. And one institution arose out of the mixture of Ronidji and Teutonic ideas which has had a most important influence on the world ever since. 5. Origin of Fiefs. It had been very commoa under the Roman government to grant lands on coo- X.] FEUDAL TENURES. 165 dition of military service. But such lands weie held of the Roman Commonwealth or of the Emperor as its head, and their holding did not create any particular personal relation between one man and another. But when this Roman custom was combined with the Teutonic custom of men following a chief as their personal lord, a peculiar relation arose out of the union of the two. The lord granted lands to his wan or vassal, on condition of his being faithful to him and doing him service in war. The land so granted was called a feudum, fief, or fee; and land held in this way was said to be held by a feudal tenure. Land which was a man's very own, which was not held of any lord but was subject only to the laws of the state, reigns of Jenghiz and his descendants (17) invasion of Central Europe by Batou Khan; subjection of Russia (17) overthrow of the Caliphate and of the Seljuk Turks (17) Summary (18). i. Origin of the Guelfs and Ghibelins. On the death of Henry the Fifth in 1125, Lothar, Duke of Saxony, was elected King, and in 1133 ne was crowned Emperor. He submitted more readily to the Popes than most Emperors did, and Pope Inno- cent the Second even gave out that he became his man at his coronation. But on Lothar's death the Impe- rial Crown passed to one of the greatest families which ever held it, that of the Hohcnstaufen or Dukes of Swabia. The first King of that house was Conrad the Third, who reigned as King from 1138 to 1152, but who was never crowned Emperor. He was the son of a daughter of the Emperor Henry the Fourth, so that the Swabian dynasty did in a manner continue the line of the Franconian Emperors. It might also be said to continue then in their policy ; for the Emperors of this family had fully as much to do in disputing with the Popes as the Franconiao Emperors had done. This however did not begin xi. i FREDERICK: BARBAROSSA. m in the time of King Conrad, though the two names of Guclf and Ghibelin, which presently became so famous in Italy, began during his reign in Germany. For Conrad had several wars with the Saxons and others who disliked his election, and in one of the sieges the war-cry of the rebels was Welf, after their leader, Welf, brother of Duke Henry of Saxony, while the King's men shouted Waibling, the name of a village where their leader, Duke Frederick of Swabia, the King's brother, had been brought up. These names, written in an Italian fashion, became Guelfs and Ghi- belins : the Guelfs meaning those who supported the Popes, and the Ghibelins those who supported the Emperors. King Conrad went on the second Crusade to the Holy Land, in which he did not gain much success ; and it is a thing to be noted that he made a league with Manuel, the Emperor of the East, against Roger King of Sicily, who was making himself dan- gerous to both Empires. 2. Reign of Frederick Barbarossa. But the reign of Conrad was of little importance compared with that of his nephew and successor Frederick, who, from his red beard, is commonly known as Frederick Barbarossa. He was chosen King in 1152 ; he was crowned Emperor in 1155, and reigned till 1190. The greater part of his reign was taken up with the affairs and wars of Italy. The Italian cities, as has been already said, had grown up into nearly indepen- dent commonwealths. They often had wars with one another, and, just as in old Greece, the smaller cities often complained of the oppression of the greater. Thus the great city of Milan sought to bring Como,Lodi, and others of the smaller cities under its power, and the smaller cities in their turn prayed the Emperor to come to their help. Some of the cities, as Pavia, which had been the capital in the Lombard times, and the great seafaring commonwealth of Pisa, were always strong on the side of the Emperors. But, gradually, most o/ l?8 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP the cities of Northern Italy found that it was their interest to join together to defend their independence against the Imperial power. Thus was formed the Lombard League, with which Frederick had long wars, which will be best spoken of in the special History of Italy. But, besides the cities, the Western Emperors had other enemies to strive against in Italy. Popes and Emperors never could agree ; disputes arose be- tween Frederick and Pope Hadrian the Fourth, who had crowned him. When Hadrian died in 1159, a fiercer dispute broke out ; for the Popedom was claimed by two candidates, Victor and Alexander. The Emperor took the side of Victor ; therefore the cities which were against him naturally took the other side, and Frederick had to strive against all who fol- lowed Pope Alexander. The Kings of Sicily too, William the Good and William the Bad, were his enemies ; and the Emperor Manuel Komnenos, who dreamed of winning back Italy for the Eastern Empire, also gave help to the revolted cities. The end was that the Emperor had to make peace with both the Pope and the cities, and in 1183 the rights of the cities were acknowledged in a treaty or law of the Empire, passed at Constanz or Constance in Swabia, Besides his wars in Italy, the Emperor Frederick had also to strive in Germany with Henry the Lion, who was Duke of Saxony and Bavaria at once, and who married Matilda, daughter of Henry the Second of England. Duke Henry lost the greater part of his dominions, and the great duchy of Saxony was broken up. In the las'" years of his reign, Frederick went on the third Crusade, and died on the way. 3. Union of Sicily with the Empire. Fred- erick was succeeded by his son Henry the Sixth, who had already been chosen King, and who in the next year, 1191, was crowned Emperor. The chief event of his reign was the conquest of the Kingdom of Sicily, which he claimed in right of his wife C instance, the xi.] FREDERICK THE SECOND. 179 daughter of the first King William. He died in 1197, leaving his son Frederick a young child. But he had already been chosen King in Germany, and he suc- ceeded as hereditary King in Sicily. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily thus came to an end, except so far as it was continued in Frederick, who was descended from the Norman Kings through his mother. 4. Reign of Frederick the Second. On the death of the Emperor Henry, the election of young Frederick seems to have been quite forgotten, and the crown was disputed between his uncle Philip oj Swctbia and Otto of Saxony, the son of Henry the Lion. Both Kings were crowned, and, after the death of Philip, Otto was crowned Emperor in 1209. But presently young Frederick was again chosen, and in 1220 he was crowned Emperor, and reigned thirty years till his death in 1250. This Frederick the Second, who joined together so many crowns, was called the Wonder of the World. And he well deserved the name, for perhaps no King that ever reigned had greater natural gifts, and in thought and learning he was far above the age in which he lived. In his own Kingdom of Sicily he could do pretty much as he pleased, and it flourished wonderfully in his time. But in Germany and Italy he had constantly to struggle against enemies of all kinds. In Germany he had to win the support of the princes by granting them privileges which did much to undermine the royal power, and on the other hand he showed no favour to the rising power of the cities. In Italy he had endless strivings with one Pope after another, with Innocent the Third, Honorius the Third, Gregory the Ninth, and Innocent the Fourth ; as well as with the Guelfic cities, which withstood him much as they had withstood his grandfather. He was more than once excommunicated by the Popes, and in 1245 Pope Innocent the Fourth held a Council at Lyons, in which he professed to depose the Emperor. More than one King was chosen in opposition to him rSo THE SWAB I AN EMPERORS. [CHAP. in Germany, just as had been done in the time of Henry the Fourth, and there were civil wars all his time, both in Germany and in Italy, while a great part of the Kingdom of Burgundy was beginning to slip away from the Empire altogether. On Frederick's death, his son Conrad, who had been chosen King in Ger- many in 1237, and who of course succeeded his father in the hereditary Kingdom of Sicily, was reckoned as King by the Ghibelins in Germany and Italy. But he died in 1254, and he was never crowned Emperor. With him ended the line of Swabia as Emperors and as Kings of Germany and Italy. Moreover, from the death of Frederick the Second, we may look on the power of the Empire, as the great leading state of Europe and the centre of all European history, as coming to an end. 5. England and France. While the Swabian Emperors reigned in Germany and Italy, the Angevin Kings reigned in England. They began with Henry the Second, the grandson of Henry the First through his daughter the Empress Matilda. Now came the time when England was part of the dominions of a prince whose greatest power lay on the Continent The dominions which Henry held through his father, his mother, and his wife, took up nearly the whole of Western Gaul, and he held the mouths of the great rivers Seine, Loire, and Garonne. Thus it came that in England both the native English and the Norman settlers were brought under the rule of a King who was not really either Norman or English. Thus too it came that in France the King was more than ever shut tip in his own dominions, when nearly the whole coast was held by a prince who was Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine and King of England all at once. Thus there began in England a more distinct rule of foreigners over all the natives of the land of whatever race, and in France 'the rivalry between the King and his great vassal is more marked than ever. In France XI.] ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 181 King Lewis the Sixth, who reigned from 1 108 to 1 137, had done something to strengthen the royal authority and he had also favoured the growth of the towns His son Lewis the Seventh was often at variance with King Henry of England, but no very great changes happened while they lived. It was quite different in the time of their sons. Lewis died in 1180, and was succeeded by his son Philip, called Philip Augustus; and Henry died in 1189, and was succeeded by his son Richard, called Cceur-de-Lion or the Lion-Heart, These two Kings joined in a Crusade, of which we we shall say more presently ; but enmity went on during the whole of their reigns, and things came to a head in the time of imgjohn of England, who suc- ceeded on the death of his brother Richard in 1199. John was lawfully chosen King according to English law, and it does not seem that any party in England thought of raising any one else to the throne. But a party in Richard's foreign dominions wished to have for their Duke young Arthur, the son of John's elder brother Geoffrey, whose mother was Constance, the heiress of Britanny. John got Arthur into his power, and he was commonly believed to have murdered him. This of course raised great indignation everywhere, and Philip took advantage of it to cause a sentence to be passed by the peers of his kingdom, by which John was declared to have forfeited all the fiefs which he held of the Crown of France. By way of carrying out this sentence, Philip conquered, with very little trouble, all continental Normandy and the other possessions of John in Northern Gaul. But the Duchy of Aquitairu and the Norman Islands were still kept by the Kings of England. From this time England became the most important part of the King of England's domi- nions, and all the natives of England, whether of Old- English or of Norman descent, began to draw together as countrymen to withstand the strangers whom the Angvin Kings were constantly bringing into the land IJ$2 TIIF. SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP Meanwhile John contrived to quarrel both with Pope Innocent and with his own subjects: and in 1214 Philip won the battle of Bouvines m Flanders over the English forces, together with those of the Emperor Otto, who was John's nephew, being the son of his sister Matilda. In this battle the French got the better of three Teutonic nations, Germans, English, and Flemings all together. In 1216, the Barons of England who had revolted against John offered the crown to Lewis the eldest son of Philip of France. He came over to England ; but as John died before long, the supporters of Lewis gradually left him, and Henry the Third, the young son of John, was acknow- ledged King. Two things strike us in this part of the story. On the one hand, it seems strange that the Normans in Normandy, who had had such long wars with the French, should have allowed themselves to be conquered by Philip almost without making any resistance. On the other hand, it seems strange that the Barons of England, whether we call them Nor- mans or Englishmen, should have offered the crown of England to the eldest son of the King of the French. The truth is that John was felt to be really neither a Norman Duke nor an English King, and men most likely thought that, if they were to have a foreign ruler, Lewis would be better than John. 6. Saint Lewis. After the death of Philip, his son Lewis the Eighth, who had failed to get the crown of England, reigned for a few years in France, from 1223 to 1226. Then came his son Lewis the Ninth, called Saint Lewis, and most rightly so called, for he was perhaps the best King that ever reigned, unless it were our own Alfred. The only evil was that his per- sonal goodness helped greatly to increase the power of the Crown, and so, in the end, to make the Kings of France absolute rulers. And in the like sort it helped greatly to increase the power of France among other nations. While Saint Lewis reigned in France, XL] INTERNAL AFFAIRS OF ENGLAND. i8j the Third reigned in England from 1216 to 1272 Henry made some attempts to get back his possessions in France; but in 1259 peace was made, by which Henry kept nothing except his possessions in the South. In Saint Lewis's time also, but while he was still young and under the rule of his mother Blanche of Castile, the dominions of the Counts of Toulouse. were added to the royal possessions by a treaty made in 1229. Thus the Kings of the French, instead of being cooped up in Paris and Orleans, as they had been up to the time of Philip Augustus, had the more part of their kingdom in their own hands. Their dominions now reached to the Mediterranean Sea, and they had havens on all the three seas, the Medi- terranean, the Ocean, and the Channel. And, though Provence and the other great fiefs of the Kingdom of Burgundy were not joined to France for a long time to come, still from this time they began to have a con- nexion with France. The French Kings began to meddle with their affairs in a manner which paved the way for their conquest at a later time. Generally, just as the German Kingdom was getting weaker, and was now in truth splitting to pieces, the French King- dom was getting stronger and more united ; and from this time France was always reckoned amongst the foremost powers of Europe. 7. The Internal Affairs of England. The internal and consticutional affairs of England will be spoken of more at large in the special history of Eng- land. But a few words must be given to them, as they are closely connected with the general course of European affairs. The thirteenth century was a time of great changes, a time, so to speak, of beginnings and endings, throughout the world. As both Empires practically came to an end, as the Kingdom of France, in anything like its later extent and importance, may be said to have begun, so now the Constitution oj England began to put on the shape which it has kept 184 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP ever since. Under John and Henry the Third we se how the fondness of the Angevin Kings for foreigners of all kinds drove the natives of England, whether of English or Norman descent, to join together against the strangers. The whole nation joined together to force King John in 1215 to grant the Great Charter, by which all the old rights and good laws which he had broken were confirmed. This Great Charter the Kings who followed had to confirm over and over again, because they were always trying to break it ; and it has been the groundwork of English freedom ever since. So again, in the time of Henry the Third, the King's misgovernment and his favour to foreigners again drove the Barons and the whole people to rise against him. And, though the Popes again took the side of the King and excommunicated all who rose against him, yet we again find the whole English nation, nobles, clergy, and people, acting firmly to- gether. In this war against Henry the Third the great leader was Simon of Montfort, the son of another Simon of whom we shall hear presently. He was, oddly enough, a Frenchman by birth, but he in- herited the earldom of Leicester through his mother ; and when he came to England, he threw in his lot with his new country, and did in everything as a good Englishman. It was by him that the Great Council of the Nation, which was now called by the French name of Parliament, was made to take the form which it has borne ever since. Some kind of National Assembly was found in every part of Western Europe. But in most countries the Assembly consisted of Estates ; that is, representatives of the different classes of freemen in the nation. These, in most countries, were counted as three, Nobles, Clergy, and Commons, the Commons generally being only the citizens of the towns. This kind of constitution was set up in France by Philip tfu Fair, the grandson of Saint Lewis. The States came together in each country ta ti.l THE CONQUEST OF IRELAND. 185 grant money to the King, and to demand such changes in the laws or other reforms as might be needed. But in France the States never met regularly, but only when it suited the King's purposes, or Avhen he could not help calling them together. In England, on the other hand, Parliaments went on far more regularly, so that people have never been without a national Assembly of some kind from the very beginning of things till now. And in England the Parliament took the particular form of an assembly with Two Houses. The Earls, Bishops, and other great men, grew into the House of Lords, and the House of Commons was gradu- ally formed out of the representatives of the people in general. First of all, the freeholders of each county were called on to send some of the knights of that county to represent them, and at last, when Earl Simon held a Parliament in 1265, he called on the cities and boroughs to send each two of their citizens or burgesses. Earl Simon was killed that same year in the battle of Evesham, but the system of representation which he had brought in was before long firmly estab- lished under King Edward the First. B. The Conquest of Ireland. During this time many things happened between the English Kings and their vassals the Kings of Scots and Princes of Wales, which will be better told in the History of England. But it must be mentioned here that it was in the reign of Henry the Second that the English do- minion in Ireland began. At the very beginning of his reign, in 1155, King Henry got a bull that is, a writing sealed with the Pope's bulla or seal from Pope Hadrian the Fourth, who was an Englishman and the only Englishman that ever was Pope, giving him leave to conquer Ireland : thus had the Popes taken upon themselves to dispose of kingdoms. But it was not till 1169 that some nobles and other private adventurers went over into Ireland under pretence of helping a banished Irish king called Dermot Twe 186 THE SWAB 7 AN EMPERORS. [CHAP years afterwards King Henry went over himself to receive the homage of the whole country. From iha\ time the Kings of England always claimed to be Lords of Ireland, and the city of Dublin and a greater or less part of the island was always under the English power. But it was not for many ages that English Kings really got possession of all Ireland, and cruel wars long went on between the English settlers and the native Irish. 9. The Loss of Jerusalem. A large part of the history of this time might come under the general head of Crusades. The first Crusades or Holy Wars had been undertaken to win back the Holy Sepulchre from the infidels ; but after a while both the name and the thing began to be greatly abused, and Cru- sades were preached against an)' one with whom the Popes were at enmity. The First Crusade, as we have already seen, led to the establishment of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1099. The chief strength of the kingdom lay in the two orders of military monks, the Templars and the Hospitallers or Knights of Saint John, and many warriors from all parts of Christendom went to serve for a while in the Holy Land as a good work. Still the Kings of Jeru- salem had much ado to keep their little kingdom from the attacks of the neighbouring Mahometan powers, and several new Crusades had to be made to help them, some of which were led by the greatest princes in Europe. Thus in 1147 the Second Crusade was preached by Saint Bernard, one of the holiest men of the time, and who is called the last of the Fathers oj the Church. Conrad King of the Romans and Lewis the Seventh, King of the French, both went on this Crusade, but they were not able to do any great tilings. And there soon arose a power in Egypt which became more dangerous to the Christians of the East than any of the other Mahometan powers had been. We have seen there had been for some time a separate line of Caliphs in Egypt ; these were called the Fati .] THE CRUSADES. 187 mitts, as they profess to be the descendants of Ali and Fatima, the daughter of Mahomet. But in 1171 their power was put down by Joseph surnamed Saladin, who brought back Egypt under the spiritual power of the Caliph of Bagdad, much as if the Eastern Church had been brought under the power of the Bishops of Rome. Saladin became the greatest Mahometan prince of his time, and in 1187 he took Jerusalem and drove the Christians out of the greater part of the kingdom. Thus far all the Crusades since the First had been waged for the purpose of defending the Christian possession of Jerusalem. We have now again to come to Crusades which were waged, as the First had been, to win back the Holy City from the Infidels, as well as to save the small fragment of the kingdom which was left. 10. The Later Crusades in Palestine. The loss of Jerusalem roused the spirit of all Western Christendom. King Henry of England took the cross ; but he died two years later, without ever setting out for the Holy Land. But in 1189 the Emperor Frederick set out by land, but was drowned on the way; and in 1190 Philip King of the French and his great vassal Richard, the new King of the English, went to the Holy Land by sea. King Richard did many great exploits ; but the princes quarrelled among themselves, so that Jerusalem was not won back ; but some parts of Palestine were still left to the Christians, and they were allowed to make pilgrimages to Jeru- salem. Of the Third Crusade we shall have to speak by itself, as it did nothing for the Holy Land at all. But in 1228 the Emperor Frederick the Second, who claimed to be King of Jerusalem in right of his wife, notwithstanding the opposition of Pope Gregory the. Ninth, really went to the Holy Land, and won Jeru- salem by a treaty with the Egyptian Sultan Kamel, and was crowned King there. He was the last Christian King who really reigned at Jerusalem. For in 1 244 iSS THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHA?. the Holy City was again lost by the Christians, being taken by the Mahometan C/iorasmians, and it has never been won back again. The Popes, instead of helping the Emperor to win back his kingdom, were always excommunicating him and preaching Crusades against him. The Christians however still kept some small parts of the kingdom, and in 1248 Saint Lewis, the King of the French, set out on a Crusade ; but, instead of going straight to Palestine, he first attacked Egypt, as being the best way of winning the Holy Land. But he was taken prisoner in Egypt; and, though he did afterwards reach Palestine, yet he could not win back Jerusalem. At last he came back to France in 1254, having done little or nothing for the common cause, but having shown his own courage and good- ness in a wonderful way. In 1270 he set out on another Cnisade ; but this time he began by besieging 7'iinis, and died there. In 1270 Edward the son of King Henry of England, afterwards the great King Edward the First, went on another Crusade, and did something to stop the final overthrow of the Christians in Palestine, though even he could not win back Jeru- salem. At last, in 1291, Acre, the last town which the Christians held in the Holy Land, was taken by the Mahometans, and the Christian Kingdom of Jeru- salem came altogether to an end. But the Emperors called themselves Kings of Jerusalem as well as of Germany, and the same vain title has been borne and disputed about by several other European sovereigns. ii. The Latin Conquest of Constantinople. No one perhaps would have expected that the Eastern Empire, the great bulwark of Christendom against the Saracens and Turks, and which the first Crusaders had professed to go forth to defend, would be actually overthrown by a crusading army. We have seen that the Komnenian Emperors, following in the wake of the first Crusaders, were able to win back t large part of the Byzantine dominions in Asia. Th XL] LATIN CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. iSf two Emperors who reigned after Alexios,y^# and Manuel, were both great warriors. John, who reigned from mS to 1143, did much really to restore the strength of the Empire ; but Manuel, who reigned from 1143 to 1180, was rather a bold knight-errant than either a good ruler or a great general. He had to contend with many enemies both in Europe and in Asia. In his time Greece was several times ravaged by the fleets of the Kings of Sicily ; he had to wage wars with Hungary, and at last he was defeated in a great battle against the Turks in 1176. After his time the Eastern Empire again began to decline ; there were many internal revol ution s ; Emperors were set up and put down ; the Bulgarians revolted, and a separate Emperor set himself up in the isle of Cyprus. At last, in 1 201, several Western princes, among the chief of whom were Baldwin Count of Flanders and Boniface. Marquess of Montferrat in Italy, were setting out on a Crusade, and they came to Venice to ask for ships to take them to the Holy Land. Venice, it will be re- membered, had never been part of the Western Empire, but had always kept on its nominal allegiance to the Emperors of the East, till it had gradually be- come quite independent, as it was now. The three Italian cities, Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were now the greatest naval powers in Europe. The Doge or Dukt 01 Venice, Henry Dandolo, agreed to let the Crusaders have ships and to go with them himself; only the Crusaders were to conquer for the Venetians the town of Zara in Dalmatia, to which they laid claim. Pope Innocent protested against this, as being no part of the business of a Crusade. Yet they not only took Zara, but agreed to help Alexios Angelas, the son of an Em peror of the East who had been deposed, in getting back the Empire. This they actually did in 1203. But, as the Romans or Greeks (whichever we are to call them) of Constantinople presently revolted, and slew the Emperors who had been put in by the 190 THE SIVABIJN EMPERORS. [CHA Crusaders, the Crusaders in 1204 again took the city ; and the Roman Empire of the East may now be said to have come to an end. 12. The Later Greek Empire. When the Crusaders had taken Constantinople, they went on to deal with the whole Eastern Empire as their own. They set up Count Baldwin as Emperor of Constanti- nople, and they divided among themselves as much oi the Empire as they could get This was the begin- ning of what was called the Latin Empire of Constan- tinople : the word Latin being now often used, as opposed to Greek, to mean all those who admitted the supremacy of the Roman Church and who used Latin as their religious and official language. Among the Latin powers which now won settlements in the East, the Venetians got possession of many of the islands and important points of the coast, which was the beginning of their great Eastern dominion. Some of the Venetian and other Latin possessions were never won back by the Greeks, but, on the other hand, the Latins were far from conquering the whole Empire. The Greeks maintained their independence in Epeiros and at Nikaia and Trapezous or Trebizond in Asia ; in both these latter cities Greek princes reigned with the title of Emperor. Thus the Eastern Empire was cut up into a crowd of small principali- ties, Greek and Frank (the meaning of this last word in the East has already been explained), Despots of Epeiros, Dukes of Athens, Princes of Achaia, and what not ; the Latin Emperors at Constantinople , being supposed to be lords over all the Frank settlers. But, as the Emperors who reigned at Nikaia, Theoaore Laskares and John Vatatzes, were very wise and good princes, the Empire of Nikaia, which professed to be the true continuation of the Roman Empire at Con- stantinople, grew and flourished; and in 1261 the Emperor M ; chacl Palaiologos won back Constantinople, and the Empire of the East in some sort began agaiiv XL] CRUSADES AGAINST THE ALBIGENSES. i 9 j But it never won back its old power, for, besides the provinces which were held by the Mahometans and the new dominions of the Venetians, some of the Greek and Frank princes still went on reigning, and were independent of the Greek Emperor at Constan- tinople. The Empire of Trebizond especially outlived the restored Empire of Constantinople. In truth this restored Empire of Constantinople was little more than the most powerful of several Greek states which went on from this time till they were all swallowed up by the Turks. Still the Emperors of Constantinople always called themselves Emperors of the Romans, and professed to continue the old Roman succession. From this time the Eastern Empire became more strictly hereditary than it had been of old, and the crown remained with very little interruption in the family of Palaiologos, till the Empire was finally destroyed by the Ottoman Turks. 13. Crusades against the Albigenses. We have just seen how a Crusade, which was meant to be a war for the defence of Christendom against the unbelievers, could be turned into an attack made by one body of Christians against another. But when the Fourth Crusade was turned about into an attack on Zara and Constantinople, Pope Innocent at least did what he could to hinder such a falling away from the original design of a Crusade. Yet, before long, Inno- cent himself caused a Crusade to be preached, no longer against Mahometans, but against Christians who were looked on as heretics. In the South of Gaul, both in those parts which were fiefs of the King of the French and in those which were held of the Em- perors as Kings of Burgundy, many men had fallen away into doctrines which both the Eastern and the Western Churches condemned. Those who held these doctrines were commonly called Albigenses, from the city of Albi. The chief princes in those parts were the Counts of Toulouse and the ' Counts 6 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHA*. the monstrous tales which the Pope and the King got up against them, as if they had cast aside all religion and morals altogether. It was no doubt the wealth of the knights which Philip wished to seize ; so the order was suppressed throughout Europe, and in France many of its members were cruelly put to death. The next Pope, John the Twenty-second, had, as we before said, great disputes with the Emperor Lewis, and he was also thought to have gone wrong in some hard points of theology. This is one of many things which show how much men's minds were now stirred on the subject of religion, as we shall presently see. The Popes did not finally go back to Rome till 1376, in the time of Gregory the Eleventh; and, when he died two years afterwards, there was a double election. Urban the Sixth, an Italian, was the first chosen, and afterwards Robert of Geneva, who called himself Clement the Seventh. So the Church was divided. Urban lived at Rome and Clement at Avignon, and some nations followed one and some the other ; France of course took the side of the Pope at Avignon, and England therefore took that of the Pope at Rome. There were thus two opposition Popes, for, when Urban and Clement died, their several parties chose others to succeed them ; and this state of things went on till men got weary of their disputes, and tried to settle them in another way. 4. The General Councils. Ever since the time of Constantine, General Councils, that is meetings of Bishops and divines from all parts, had been summoned, first by the Emperors and afterwards by the Popes, whenever there were matters to be dis- cussed concerning the whole Church. Such Councils were always held to have greater authority than the Popes. But of course, after the separation of East and West, they could not really represent the whole Church, but only the Western part of it So now a srries of XII.] THE GENERAL COUNCILS. 207 Councils were held to settle the affairs of the Church, especially the disputes between the Popes. The first was held at Pisa in 1402. This Council deposed both the Popes and chose a third, Alexander the Fifth, who was succeeded by John tJie Twenty-third. But as the other two, Benedict the Thirteenth and Gregory the Twelfth, would not give in, this only made three Popes instead of two. At last in 1415 another Council was held at Constanz, chiefly by the help of King Sieg- mund, who worked very hard to bring about the peace of the Church. This Council deposed all the three Popes, and very rightly ; for John the Twenty- third, whether he were rightly chosen or not, deserved to be deposed, for his wickedness reminded men of the old times of John the Twelfth. The Council then elected Martin the Fifth, who was acknowledged everywhere as the true Pope. But the Council did some other things which were less to its credit The religious controversies at the time, and the abuses of the Papal dominion, had led everywhere to much thought on religious matters and to the putting forth of many new doctrines. In England John Wickliffe, a doctor of Oxford, had written against many things in the received belief and practice of the times, especially against the Begging Friars, that is the Franciscans and Dominicans, who professed to live upon alms. He made many followers, and his opinions spread, especially in Bohemia. Two of the chief Bohemian preachers, John Huss and Jerome of Prague, were brought be- fore the Council and were burned, to the great shame of King Siegmund, who had plighted his word for the safety of Huss. The followers of Huss- in Bohemia now rebelled, and a fearful civil war followed. In 1431 there was another Council held at Basel, which professed to depose Pope Eugenius the Fourth, and which lasted from 1431 to 1439. This Council, had its decrees taken effect, would have greatly lessened the powers of the Popes and increased those of the 208 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAF Bishops and the national Churches, bringing things in short more to the state in which they were in early times. But the Council of Basel gradually fell into discredit, and it died out. The Popes never liked these Councils which were held in places north of the Alps, like Basel and Constanz ; and meanwhile Pope Eugenius held a Council of his own in Italy, first at ferrara and then at Florence, where in 1439 another nominal reconciliation with the Eastern Church was made. This was because the Eastern Empire was just then at its last gasp, and was glad to get help from the West on any terms. For the rest of this century the Popes must be looked on as little more than Italian princes, and we will speak of them again aa such. 5. The Revival of Learning in Italy. During all this time we may look on Italy as being in some sort the central nation of Europe. It had indeed no kind of political power over other nations, for the power of the Emperors was gone, and this time, when the Popes were so much away in Gaul, was.just the time when they were less Italian, and had less power both in Italy and elsewhere, than at any time before or after. And Italy, cut up as it was into many principalities and commonwealths, was in no state to bear rule over other nations. Still it might be called the centre of Europe, as being the country which had more to do with the rest of the world than any other one country. It was the country to which others looked up as being at the head in arts, learning, and commerce, and it was the country too where, just as in old Greece, there was the greatest political life among the many small states. But of course, as in old Greece also, this was bought at the cost of constant wars between the different cities and of many disturbances within them. The two nations which had been the most civilized in Europe, the Greeks in the East and the Saracens in the West, were now falling before the Turks >ud th xii. J THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 209 Spanisn Christians. The Italians in some sort took their place. Ever since the twelfth century there had been a great movement of men's minds in the way of learning, and this turned more and more towards the study of the ancient Latin writers, and after a while the Greek also. And studies of this kind also had an important political effect. Thus men in the twelfth century began to study the old Roman Law, and this study disposed them much in favour of the Swabian Emperors. So again, somewhat later, the study of the old Latin poets, and what they said about the old Caesars, led men to welcome Henry the Seventh and the Emperors who came after him. The great poet Dante Alighieri was strong on the Imperial side, both in his poems and in his prose writings, and he re- proaches King Albert for staying away from Italy and not taking heed to the garden of the Empire. But, on the other hand, the study of the ancient republican writers, and the praises which they give to the killeis of tyrants, several times stirred up men in the fifteenth century to conspiracies against the Popes and other princes. Towards the end of the time with which we have to do printing was invented ; and though it was not invented in Italy but in Germany, by Gutenbur% at Mainz, yet it was in Italy, where there were more learned men and writers than elsewhere, that it was for a long while of the most importance. Gunpowder too, an invention as important in war as printing was in peace, gradually came into use in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It quite changed the manner of warfare ; the old style of armour and the old style of fortification, both of which had in Italy been carried to such perfection that men could not be wounded, and castles could not be taken, by any arms then known, now became of little use, and a new order of things in warfare began. 6. The Commonwealths of Italy. Mean- while the political state of Italy greatly changed. The 210 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAP. separate cities, which had in the twelfth century beer independent commonwealths, were gradually grouped together into larger states. Sometimes the lord or tyrant of one city got possession of several cities, so as to form a large continuous dominion. In such cases a ruler generally tried to give some show of law- fulness to his power by getting the Pope or the Emperor to invest him with his dominions as a fief, and to give him the title of Duke or Marquess as an hereditary prince. Thus, in the course of the thir- teenth century, the chief power at Milan gradually came into the hands of the family of the Visconti. Then, in 1395, Gian-Galeazzo Visconti, who was Lora of Milan and held Pavia and other cities of Lombardy, bought a charter from King Wenceslaus making him Duke of Milan. The Dukes of Milan, through the wealth and industry of the cities over which they ruled, became far richer and more'powerful than many princes who had much wider dominions, but, now that their dominions were made hereditary, they were laid open to the usual disputes and wars as to the right of succession to the duchy. When Fitippo-Maria, the last of the Viseonti, died in 1447, the Milanese tried to set their ancient commonwealth up again. But they were obliged to admit Francesco Sforza, the son-in-law of the late Duke, as his successor. He was one of a class of men of whom there were then many in Italy, mercenary generals who went about with bands of soldiers, hiring themselves out to fight for any prince or commonwealth that would pay them. It was by the help of such leaders that most of the princes and commonwealths of Italy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries waged their wars. Thus there was a new dynasty at Milan, that of the Sforza. Meanwhile, as some of the cities of Northern Italy thus fell under the power of the Dukes of Milan, so others came under the power of the commonwealth of Venice. For it was in Italy at this time just as it was lorg before in old EUROPE towards the end of the FOURTEENTH CENTURY xii. ] THE STA TE OF ITAL K 211 Greece ; one city bore rule over another. Venice, 33 we have seen, had gained the first position in the world as a maritime power, holding large possessions in the East. But in the fifteenth century she was tempted to become a land power also, and she won a large dominion over the cities in the north-east of Italy. The government of Venice had by this time grown into a narrow oligarchy. The chief power was in the hands of the noble families, quite shutting out the people and leaving very little power to the Doge. But, though Venice was an oligarchy, yet it was a prudent and moderate oligarchy, which never failed to supply wise statesmen and brave commanders by sea. For the fleets of Venice were always manned by her own citizens and subjects, though by land mercenary troops were commonly used. Genoa also remained a republic, and kept up a great deal of her old maritime power. At one time, in 1379, she seemed almost on the point of conquering Venice. But at Genoa, un- like Venice, there were constant internal revolutions, and the city had several times to submit to the Dukes of Milan and the Kings of France. The other great maritime commonwealth, Pisa, lost nearly all her power after a sea-fight with the Genoese in 1284, and at last in 1406 Pisa became subject to Florence. This last commonwealth, which had not been prominent in the twelfth century, gradually became, in the course of the thirteenth century, one of the chief states of Italy. As Venice was the greatest example in later times of an aristocratic commonwealth, so Florence was the greatest example of a democracy. In this way the two in some sort answer to Sparta and Athens in the old Greek times. At Florence the old nobles were quite put down in 1292, but, in the course of the fifteenth century, a kind of new nobility gradually arose. Among these, one familyin particular, thatof the Medici^ gradually rose to have the chief power in the state, though without disturbing the forms of the common- ti2 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CIIA?, wealth, or taking any particular title to themselves. Such were Cosmo de 1 Medici, called the Father of his Country, and his grandson Lorenzo. Their power was of a different kind from that of the lords or tyrants, either in old Greece or in other cities of Italy. Nor was it such a power as that of Perikles at Athens, for it passed on from father to son. It was more like the power of Augustus and the other Roman Emperors who respected the forms of the commonwealth. On the whole, Florence, though the greatest and most famous democratic state in later times, was by no means so pure and regular a democracy as Athens was. Still there was no part of Europe where there was so much life, political, intellectual, and commercial. Dante, the greatest of all Italian poets, was born at Florence in 1265, and died in banishment in 1321. Many other of the chief artists and men of letters also belonged to Florence ; the commerce of the city was famous, and its bankers lent money to Kings in England and elsewhere. And in the time of the Medici there was no city in Italy where greater en- couragement was given to the men who were engaged in reviving the old Greek and Roman learning. 7. Rome and the Popes. Rome meanwhile, forsaken as the city was for so long both by the Emperors and by the Popes, quite lost its old place in Italy, and did not begin to win it back again till the affairs of the Popes became more settled after the Council of Constanz. Tne Romans never forgot the old greatness of their city, and, as men's minds were constantly falling back on old times, one Cola di Rienzi in 1347 set up again for a short time what he called the Good State, and ruled himself by the title of Tribune. So again, after the Popes came back to Rome, there were one or two conspiracies to set up the old com- monwealth ; but from the Council of Constanz onward? we may look on the Popes as undoubted temporal princes of Rome. They were gradually able to biing xii.] ROME AND THE POPES. 213 under their power all that part of Italy, stretching from one sea to the other, over which they professed to have rights by the grants of various Kings and Emperors. The latter Popes of the fifteenth century must be looked on as little more than Italian princes, and many of them were among the very worst of the Italian princes. Some of them, like Nicolas the Fifth^ did some good in the way of encouraging learning; and Pius the Second, who reigned from 1458 to 1464, and who is famous as a writer by his former name of Jncas Silvius, tried, like Gregory the Tenth, to get the Christian princes to join in a Crusade for the deliver- ance of the East. But Sixtus the Fourth and Innocent the Eighth were among the worst of the Popes, men who thought of nothing except increasing their temporal power and advancing their own families. 8. The Two Sicilies. The Two Sicilies mean- while remained divided. The Kingdom of Sicily on the mainland, often called the Kingdom of Naples, was in extent the greatest state in Italy, and some of its Kings, especially Robert, who reigned from 1309 to 1343, played an important part in Italian affairs. But it shows how much greater was the life of the separate cities, even when they were not under a free government, when we see how this large kingdom lagged behind the rest of Italy, and how, even in political power, it was not more than on a level with the principalities and commonwealths of Northern Italy which were not above half its size. This Kingdom of Sicily was much torn in pieces by civil wars arising out of disputed successions to the Crown. Two bad Queens, Joanna tfo First (1343 to 1382) and Joanna the Second (1419 to 1435), caused much confusion by their different marriages* and adoptions of successors. During the greater part of the fifteenth century the crown was disputed between a branch of the House of Aragon, who for the most part kept possession, and the Dukes of Anjou, a branch of the royal house of France, who 214 77/3? DECLINE OF THE EM PI PL. [CHAP ever and anon tried to make their own claims good. At last the claims of the Angevin princes passed to the Kings of France themselves, and then many important events followed. Meanwhile in the Island of Sicily the other branch of the house of Aragon went on reigning. The first King Frederick, who established the independence of the island, ruled bravely and wisely, but after him the island kingdom became of no account at all. At last Sicily became united to the Kingdom of Aragon, another step towards the great events of the next period. 9. England, France, and Scotland. A great part of the history of the lands beyond the Alps during this time is taken up by the long wars between England and France. These had now become thoroughly na- tional wars, and before long they grew into attempts at a complete conquest of France on the part of England. And the wars between England and France are a good deal mixed up with the wars of the English Kings with Scotland, and even with Wales. For, when England and France became constant national enemies, it was the natural policy of the French Kings to raise up enemies to their rivals within their own island. It was the object of Edward trie First, like that of his namesake Edward the Elder in old times, to join all Britain, as far as might be, under one dominion. That part of Wales which still kept its own princes was joined on in 1282. Wales was never again separated from England ; but once or twice, when there were revolts in Wales, those who were discontented with the English rule tried to get help from France. How Scotland was for a moment united with England, how, after the death of Edward the First, it was again separated under its King Robert Bruce, how in 1328 Scotland was acknowledged by England as an independent kingdom, but how constant rivalries and wars went on between the two kingdoms in or e island, must be told more fully in our Histories of England XH.] ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND SCOTLAND. 215 and Scotland. The point to be borne in mind now is that, from this time, we find a steady alliance between France and Scotland against England. This began as early as the time of Edward the First. In the long wars of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we now and then find French troops serving in Scotland, while the Scots soon learned to take service in France, and in the later wars we find them serving against the English in every battle. Through this close connexion with France, Scotland came to hold a higher place in Europe than she could otherwise have had from her size and position. 10. Wars between England and France. During the reigns of Edward the First and of his son Edward the Second, who reigned from 1307 to 1327, the rivalry between England and France did not lead to any great war. Philip the Fair got possession of the Duchy of Aquitaine in the year 1294, but he had soon to give it up again. It was in the reign of Edward the Third, from 1327 to 1377, that the great war began which the French writers call the Hundred Years' War. It was something like the Peloponnesian War in Greece in old times ; for, though there was not actual fighting going on for the whole time, yet there was no firm or lasting peace between the two countries for more than a hundred years. Edward the Third pro- fessed to have a claim to the Crown of France through his mother Isabel, who was a daughter of Philip the Fair. But the French held that no right to the Crown could pass through a woman. And Edward might very likely not have pressed his claim, had not the French King, Philip of Valois, driven him into war by his attempts to get possession of Aquitaine. A long war followed, which was famous for the taking of Calais and for the great victories of the English at Crecy in 1346 and at Poitiers in 1356. Edward, as was natural, was an ally of the Emperor Lewis and of the Flemish cities, which wert now beginning to rise zi<5 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAP. into great importance, though they never won the same complete independence as those of Italy. The feudal superiority over Flanders belonged to France ; the Flemings were therefore better pleased when King Edward took the title of King of France, so that they might seem to be fighting for, and not against, their over- lord. As King Edward was an ally of the Emperor Lewis, it came about that King John of Bohemia took the French side, so that he and his son Charles, who had just been chosen King of the Romans, were both at Crecy, and King John was killed there. At Poitiers another King John, the French King himself, was taken prisoner, and, as David King of Scots, the son of Robert Bruce, was taken prisoner in 1346, there were two cap- tive Kings in England at once. This first part of the war with France was ended by the Peace of Bretigny in 1360, by which Edward gave up his claim to the Crown of France, but kept his possessions in Aquitaine, together with Calais and some other small districts, and that no longer as a vassal of the French King, but as an independent sovereign. Edward then granted his dominions in the south to his son Edward, called the Black Prince, who ruled at Bourdeaux as Prince of Aquitaine. Before long the Peace of Bre- tigny was broken by the French King Charles the Fifth, and, before the end of the reign of Edward the Third, the English had lost nearly all their possessions in Aquitaine except the cities of Bourdeaux and Bayonne. The cities commonly stuck to the English rule, under which they were less meddled with, while the nobles were mostly for a union with France. After the peace was broken. King Edward again took up his title of King of France, which was borne by all the Kings of England down to the year 1800. Then came a time which was neither war nor peace. Many truces were made, and now and then there was some little fighting, but it was not until the reign of Henry the Fifth in England that the war began again on 3 JCII.J THE HUNDRED YEARS WA'K. 217 great scale. He took advantage of the dissensions by which France was torn in pieces during the reign ol the weak, or rather mad, King Charles the Sixth. He won the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, took Rouen in 1419, and in 1420 concluded the Treaty of Troy es, by which Henry was to succeed to the crown of France on the death of Charles, and the crowns of England and France were to be ever after united. Both Charles and Henry died in 1422, but a large part of France refused to acknowledge the treaty; so, after their deaths, the war went on between Charles the Seiienth, who reigned at Bourges, and John Duke of Bedford, who was Regent of France for his nephew Henry the Sixth. Now comes the great story of the waking up of France under the famous Maid of Orleans, Joan of Arc. She came from the borders of Lorraine, but she was called the Maid of Orleans, because she relieved that city when it was besieged by the English. By her means Charles the Seventh was crowned at Rheims, the old crowning-place of the French Kings, in 1429. He thus got the start of his English rival, who had not yet been crowned, but who was now crowned at Paris in 1431. The war now went on for a long time, and, after the death of the Duke of Bedford, it was for the most part badly managed on the English side. The English were gradually driven out, not only from France, but from Aquitaine also, till at last, in 1453, Bourdeaux and Bayonne were finally taken by the French, and the English kept nothing on the continent except the territory of Calais. The Hundred Years' War was now over. The Kings of England still kept on their claim to the Crown of France, and they now and then professed to make attempts to recover it. But, though there were for a long time many wars between England and France and long enmity between the two nations, the notion of conquering France was never again seriously taken up after the time of Henrj the Sixth. 2i8 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. ii. The Growth of France. The long wars of the English were a great check to the growth of the Kingdom of France, yet it was growing all this time, both by uniting the territories of the great vassals to the Crown and by annexations at the expense of its neighbours. These were of course mainly made at the expense of the Empire ; but, as Aquitaine had become an independent state by the Tieaty of Bre- tigny, its conquest also may be looked on rather as a foreign conquest than as the union of a great fief to the Crown. And it was during this time that the French Kings began the process which has gone on ever since, that of joining the states which made up the Kingdom of Burgundy one by one to the Kingdom of France. Even before this they had taken the little County of Venaissin, but that had been given up to the Popes. But now they began in earnest. In 1314,. Philip the Fair took advantage of the disputes which the citizens of the Imperial city of Lyons had with their Arch- bishops, and annexed the city to his own dominions. In 1349, in the thick of the English wars, the last of the princes of Vienne on the Rhone, who from their arms bore the title of Dauphin or Dolphin, sold his domi- nions to Charles the eldest son of King John of France, and from this time it became the rule that the eldest son of the King of France bore the title of Dauphin. The County of Provence also, though not part of the Kingdom of France, was, from the time of Charles of Anjou onwards, held by French princes. And so it came about that, somewhat after our present time, in 1481, Lewis the Eleventh, the son of Charles the Seventh, was able to add Provence also to France. The French Kings also more than once got hold of the County of Burgundy or Franche Comte, of which Dole is the capital. But this they were not able per- manently to keep till long afterwards. Still, before the end of the fifteenth century, the acquisition of Provence, Lyons, and the Dauphiny of Vienne had Ml.] GROWTH OF PRANCE. 219 given the French Kings a good half of the Burgun. dian kingdom. The only princes of any great powet left in that part of the world were the Counts, after- wards Dukes, of Savoy, who ruled on both sides of thi Lake of Geneva, and who had also possessions in the north-west corner of Italy. In other parts of the Empire also, even where the French Kings did not make conquests, they were winning influence. To the north of their own dominions they often had wars with the stout people of the Flemish cities, over whom they sometimes won victories, but by whom they were sometimes defeated. The battle of Courtray in the time of Philip the Fair is famous as the first great victory north of the Alps won by townsmen over nobles. On the whole, notwithstanding the long wars with England, the kingdom of France had greatly grown in power and in extent in the times between the middle of the thirteenth century and the middle of the fifteenth. 12. Beginning of the Swiss League. While the three kingdoms which belonged to the Empire were thus getting weaker and more divided, and while the kingdom of France to the west of them was growing stronger and stronger, two new powers gradually arose in what we may call the border-land of all these king- doms. One of these lasted but a short time, but the other has lived on to our own day. These are the Duchy of Burgundy and the League of the Swiss Cantons. This last began among three small mountain districts on vne borders of Germany, Burgundy, and Italy, called Uri, Schivyz, and Unterwalden. They were German- speaking members of the Empire, and there was nothing to distinguish them from other German- speaking members of the Empire, except that they had kept far more of the freedom of the old times than most other lands had. Like many other districts and cities of the Empire, they joined together in a League for mutual defence. This they had doubtlesi 220 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAP, done from earlier times, but the first written document of their union belongs to the year 1291. The Counts of Habsburg, who had now become Dukes of Austria, and who had estates within the three lands themselves, were now very dangerous neighbours, and the Con- federates had to keep close together in order to guard their freedom. This they made safe by the battle of Morgarten, which they won over Duke Leopold oj Austria in 1315. Presently several of the neigh- bouring cities, Luzern, Zurich, and Bern, joined their alliance, as also did the smaller towns of Zug and Glarus ; so that in the course of the fourteenth century they formed a league of eight states. Its name was the Old League of ffigh Germany, and its members were called the Eidgenossen or Confede- rates ; but the name of the Canton of Schwyz gradually spread over the whole League, and they came to be commonly called Swiss and their country Switzerland. But it is only in quite late times that those names have come into formal use. Such a league was of course much dreaded by the neighbouring nobles, but it was for a long time favoured by the Emperors. The three lands had been specially loyal to the Swabian Emperors, and they were no less favoured by Henry the Seventh and Lewis of Bavaria. Charles the Fourth was their enemy, but they were again favoured by his son Siegmund. But the Dukes of Austria were their constant enemies, and therefore, when the Em- pire passed into the Austrian House, the Confederates had to be on their guard against the power which had hitherto been friendly. But they did not throw off their allegiance to the Empire, and, during all the time of uhich we speak, the Confederates remained a purely German body, although some parts of their territory, including Bern, which was the most powerful member of the League, lay within the bounds of the Kingdom of Burgundy. The Confederates had to wage several nars for the defence of their freedom, as when in 1386 XII. 1 THE SWISS LEAGUE. 221 they won the battle of Sempacli over another Duke Leopold of Austria and a great confederacy of the nobles, and when in 1444 they were attacked by the Dauphin Lewis, afterwards Lewis flie Eleventh. They had also some disputes and even civil wars among them- selves ; but on the whole the League steadily ad- vanced and made many alliances with its neighbours. And these commonwealths also, like those of old Greece and of Italy, conquered, or sometimes bought, various towns and districts, which they held as their subjects. Thus, by the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury the Confederates had grown into a new power in Europe, and one which was getting more and more independent of the Empire. But they in no sort formed a nation, because all the members of the League were still purely German. They were simply one of many German Leagues, which circumstances allowed to become more independent than the others, and, as it turned out, to survive them. We must now speak of the other power which was growing up mean- while in the border-lands, and with which the Con^ federates presently had a great deal to do. 13. The Dukds of Burgundy. It must be al- ways borne in mind that the name Burgundy has several meanings. Thus, besides the Kingdom of Burgundy, which, in the times of which we are now speaking, quite fell to pieces and was almost forgotten, there was the Duchy of Burgundy, which was a rief of the Crown of France, and the County of Burgundy, which was part of the Kingdom, and therefore a fief of the Empire. A power now began to arise, which took in more than one of these Burgundies, and which seemed not unlikely to bring back the old times when there was a Middle Kingdom of Burgundy or of Lotharingia lying between Germany, Italy, and France. This came about in this way. The French Duchy of Bur- gundy fell in to the Crown in 1361, and Philip the son of King John of France became the first of a new Z22 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAI. line of Dukes, that of Valois. He married Margartt the heiress of Flanders, and thus united two of the greatest fiefs of the Crown of France. Of these two, Flanders, where the great cities were always quarrel- ling with the Counts, was almost an independent state. After Philip there reigned three Dukes of his family, John the Fearless from 1404 to 1419, Philip t/u Good from 1419 to 1467, and Charles the Boldjrow 1467 to 1477. All these Dukes, as French princes, played a great part in the affairs of France. They also were always winning in all kinds of ways, by marriage, by purchase, or by conquest, large territories within the Empire, including the greater part of the Netherlands or Lent) Countries, taking in nearly all both of the present Kingdom of the Netherlands and the present Kingdom of Belgium, besides much which has now gone to France. They thus were vassals at once of the Emperor and of the King of France, and they weie really more powerful than either of their lords. For their position as a border power gave them great advantages, and their possession of the great cities of the Low Countries, turbulent as their citizens often were, made them the richest princes in Europe. Duke John the Fearless was murdered by the Dauphin Charles, afterwards Charles the Seventh, and this threw his son Duke Philip into the arms of the Eng- lish. Philip supported the English in France for a long time, and, after he forsook their side at the Treaty of Arras in 1435, the English power in France fell away very fast Duke Philip reigned very prudently, and increased the power of his Duchy in every way. But under his son, Charles the Bold, his great power fell to pieces. There was a constant rivalry between him and Lewis the Eleventh. He also kept all the world in alarm by endlessly planning one scheme after another, and by annexing such of the territories of his neighbours as he could get hold of. One great object of his was to annex the Duchy of Lorraine, that is th xii.] THE DUKES OF BURGUNDY. 223 southern part of the old Lotharingia, the capital oi which is Nancy. This would have joined his domi- nions in the Netherlands with the Duchy and County of Burgundy. But he also dreamed of getting Provence, and of making himself King of all the lands which had 2ver formed part of any of the old Burgundian and Lotharingian kingdoms. In this way he got into dis- putes with the cities on the Rhine, with Duke Siegmuna of Austria, and lastly with the Confederates. And the King of France, of course, took care to stir up all his enemies against him. A war now followed between Duke Charles and the Confederates, which was carried on in the dominions of the Duke of Savoy north of the Lake of Geneva. Charles was overthrown in two great battles at Granson and at Murten or Morat in 1476. At last he was defeated and killed in 1477 in a third battle at Nancy, whither the Confederates had gone to help Rene Duke of Lorraine to win back his Duchy from Charles. This war had two great results. The great power of the Dukes of Burgundy was broken up. Charles' daughter Mary kept his dominions in the Low Countries and, after a while, got back the County of Burgundy. But the Duchy of Burgundy was joined to the Crown of France, and the scheme of a great power lying between Germany and France came to an end. On the other hand, the great victories of the Confederates raised their reputation to the highest pitch. They now began to take a part in general European affairs, and to count as a distinct power. They also now began to win dominions in the Romance- speaking lands to the west and south of them. But then successes did much to corrupt them ; the Swiss, as they now began to be called, were such good soldiers that all the princes of Europe, especially the Kings of France, were glad to have them in their armies, and thus began the practice of serving for hire, which was the disgrace of the Swiss League tiM quite lately. 22 4 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CMAF. 14. The Eastern Empire. Rise of the Otto- mans. While the Western Empire was quite chang- ing its character, sinking into a German Kingdom, or rather into a Confederation of German States, the Eastern Empire, which had now become practically Greek, came to an end altogether. After the Greeks had won back Constantinople from the Latins in 1260, their dominion, under the last dynasty of the Palaiologoi, was but a shadow of the old Empire. Yet, as had so often happened before, there was for a while a time of revival, and the Emperors of Constantinople, Emperors of the Romans as they still called themselves, were able to join on to their dominions many of the little states, joth Greek and Frank, which had sprung up at the time of the Latin Conquest. During these last days of the Eastern Empire there was more inter- course than before between the Greeks and the Western nations, especially the Venetians and Genoese. And, whenever the Greeks were in any trouble, their Emperors always made a show of putting an end to the division between the Eastern and Western Churches. But schemes of this sort never really took root, as the Greeks were fully determined never to admit the authority of the Pope. These applications for Western help were commonly made when the Eastern Emperors were hard pressed by an enemy which seemed likely to swallow up, not only the Eastern Empire but ail Christendom. These were the Ottoman Turks, so railed from their early leader Othman. They arose in the middle of the thirteenth century, being first heard of about 1240. This branch of the Turks produced a succession of greater rulers than any other Eastern dynasty, and their power has lasted till our own time. They gradually swallowed up the provinces of the Empire in Asia, and most of the other powers, Chris- tian and Mahometan, in those parts, and Turkish pirates began to ravage the coasts of Europe. Aboul 1343 they got a firmer footing in Europe during some xii.] THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 225 of the dissensions within the Empire, and they were never again driven out. In 1361 their Sultan Morad or Amurath took Hadrianople, which became the Ottoman capital What remained of the Eastern Empire was now altogether hemmed in ; all was lost, except Constantinople itself and a: small territory round it, and some outlying possessions, chiefly in Pelopon- nsos. Meanwhile the Turks were spreading them- selves to the north, and were overcoming the Slavonic lands which had learned their Christianity from the Eastern Empire, Servia, Bulgaria, and other states in those parts. This brought them into contact with Hungary, and thus led to wars of which we shall speak presently. The successes of the Turks were largely owing to their taking a tribute of children from their Christian subjects, the strongest and bravest of whom were brought up as soldiers, and formed a well-dis- ciplined body of" infantry which overcame all enemies. These were called Janissaries or Neu> Soldiers. Dur- ing the reign of Bajazet, surnamed the Thunderbolt, who reigned from 1389 to 1402, things seemed as if the Eastern Empire and all the Christian states of South-eastern Europe were about to be destroyed at once. But they gained a respite in a strange way from the appearance of a new Mahometan power in Asia. 15. Rise of Timour. The great Mogul Empire which had been founded by Jenghiz had long ago fallen to pieces ; but dynasties rising out of it reigned for a long time in Persia, and for a still longer time held Russia in bondage. In the latter half of the fourteenth century a prince called Timour arose in Central Asia, whose descendants are commonly spoken of as the Moguls, but who seems in truth to have been Turkish rather than Mongolian. He was a Mahometan of the Shiah sect, those who hold the divine right of All the son-in-law of Mahomet, and who look, not only on all the Ommiad and Abbasside Caliphs, but 226 THE DECLINE OP THE EMPIRE. [CHAP on the first three Caliphs, Abou Bekr, Omar, and Othman, as usurpers. They had always existed as a religious sect, but most of the great Mahometan nations were Sonnitcs or orthodox Mahometans, who look on all the first four Caliphs as lawful successors of Mahomet. Timour therefore made religious zeal an excuse for attacking the whole world, whether Chris- tians, heathens, or such Mahometans as he looked on as heretics. At last he came into Western Asia to attack the Ottoman Sultan Bajazet, whom in his letters he addressed as the Casar of Rome. Bajazet was utterly defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Angora in 1402 ; but Timour never crossed into Europe. He died in 1405, and his great dominion, like other great dominions of the kind, broke in pieces. 1 6. The Fall of Constantinople The little that was left of the Eastern Empire got a breathing space through the overthrow of Bajazet by Timour. A civil war arose among his sons, and the Ottoman monarchy was not again united till 1421 under Sultan Amurath the Second. He besieged Constantinople in 1422, but the Empire still dragged on a feeble existence till the accession of his son Mahomet the Second, called the Conqueror, in 1451. All the Ottoman Sultans hitherto had been great warriors, and, according to the Eastern standard, wise rulers. Mahomet was perhaps the greatest of them all. He presently besieged Constan- tinople : the last Emperor of the East, Constantine Palaiologos, made another of those reconciliations with the Western Church of which we have already heard ; but he gained no real help from the West except a few volunteers, who came chiefly from Venice and Genoa. The great siege of Constantinople began, one of the first great sieges in which cannon, which had been gradually coming into use in war for about a hundred years, played a great part. The Emperor did all that man could do in such a strait, but at last, on May the agth, 1453 Constantinople was taken by storm. Con- xn.] FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 227 stantine died sword in hand, and the Roman Empire of the East came to an end. Constantinople now became the capital of the Ottoman Empire, and Jus- tinian's great church of Saint Sophia became a Maho- metan mosque. In a few years Mahomet conquered Peloponnesos and the greater part of Greece, and in 1461 he conquered the Greek Empire of Trebizond, which thus outlived that of Constantinople. He had thus got possession of nearly the whole mainland which had belonged to the Eastern Empire at any time since the first Saracen conquest. But the Vene- tians still kept several points on the mainland, besides Crete and Corfu and some smaller islands. Some of the other islands were still kept by Latin princes, and Rhodes was held by the Knights of Saint John. Cyprus too remained a Latin kingdom, though before long the Venetians gained that also. Mahomet went on to plan the invasion of Western Europe, and the Turks actually took Otranto in Southern Italy ; but the West was delivered by the death of Mahomet in 1481, for his successor Bajazet the Second was not a conqueror like his father. 17. The Spanish Kingdoms. The two ends of Europe, the Scandinavian and the Spanish penin- sulas, played a less important part in general history during this time than they did either before or after. Their history is chiefly confined to dealings within their own bounds. In Spain the Saracens or Moors were now shut up in the one kingdom of Granada, and, though there were often wars between them and their neighbours of Castile, yet the Spanish history of this time is much more taken up with wars and disputes among the several Christian kingdoms. The history of Castile is connected with, that of England, because the Black Prince, Edward, Prince of Wales and Aqui- taine, was persuaded in 1366 to lead an army into Spain to restore King Pedro or Peter, surnamed the Crue? t who had been driven out by his brothei 228 THE DECLINE OS THE EMPIRE. [CHAP Henry of Trastamara. In this war Edward won his third great battle of Najara or Navarete, and restored Peter, who was however before long killed by Henry. Aragon again was closely connected with the Two Sicilies. The island kingdom was united to Aragon in 1409, and Alfonso the Fifth, who was King from 1416 to 1458, was, during part of that time, in posses- sion of Naples. But, as he was succeeded in Naples by his natural son Ferdinand and in Aragon by his brother John, the two kingdoms were again separated for a while, and the crown of Naples was all the while disputed by the Angevin princes. At one time, in 1467, the war was carried into Spain by John, Duke of Calabria, son of Rene, Count of Provence and. Duke of Anjou, who called himself King of Sicily. This John came to help the Catalans, who were in revolt against John of Aragon. John had also wars with Lewis of France for the possession of the border county of Roussillon, which changed hands several times between the two crowns. Portugal meanwhile was doing great things. Under John the Great, who reigned from 1385 to 1433, the Portuguese began to take revenge for the long possession of Spain by the Saracens of Africa by conquests in Africa itself. And at the same time, under the Infant or prince Don Henry, they began a course of navigation and discovery along the western coast of Africa and among the islands of the Atlantic, which went on during the whole of the fifteenth cen- tury. At last the great discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1486 opened for Portugal a yet wider dominion in India and other parts of the East. In this work of exploring, conquering, and colonizing distant parts of the world, other nations soon followed, but :!: was the Portuguese who first showed the way. Meanwhile a change took place in the Spanish penin- sula, which led to great changes in Europe generally. This came about through the marriage in 1471 of Isabella Queen of Castile with Ferdinand the Infant oj xii.] NORTHERN EUROPE. 22* Aragon, who soon after succeeded to tne Aragonesc crown. The Crowns of Aragon and Castile were ever afterwards, except for a very short time, held together. In 1481 the Catholic Kings, as Ferdinand and Isabella \vere called, began a war with Granada, whose King had invaded the Castilian territory. In 1492 they took Granada itself and united the kingdom to Castile. The Mahometan dominion in Spain, which had lasted through so many ages, was now at an end, and the recovery of Granada might almost seem to make up in Christendom for the loss of Constantinople at the other end of Europe. Spain, as the united dominions of Ferdinand and Isabella were commonly called, soon became the greatest power in Europe. 18. Northern Europe. In the Scandinavian peninsulas, the power of Denmark gradually sank in the course of the thirteenth century. Towards the end of the fourteenth, in 1397, the three kingdoms were united by the famous Union of Calmar, under Margaret Queen of Nonvay and daughter of Waldemar the Third King of Denmark. This union, with some interruptions, went on through the fifteenth century. In 1448, under Christian the First, the House of Oldenburg began to reign, which has gone on in Denmark till our own time, and which held Norway also within the present century. During all this time the Northern kingdoms had many wars with the League of the Hanse Towns, and the shifting relations began between the Kings of Denmark and the Duchies of Sleswick and Holstein which have gone on till our own days, Sleswick, the land north of the Eyder, was the southern part of Denmark, which had become a separate Duchy, but which was not a fief of the Em- pire. Its people were partly Danish and partly Low- Dutch. Holstein, on the other hand, that part of Saxony which lay between the Elbe and the Eyder, always was a fief of the Empire, and its people were wholly Low-Dutch. 230 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAIV 19. Russia and Poland. Great changes took place in the lands to the east of the Baltic during this period. The Lithuanians, the last Aryan people in Europe to accept Christianity, were converted towards the end of the fourteenth century. Their Duke fagdlon married Hedwig Queen of Poland in 1386, and was baptized and brought about the conversion of his people. He was the founder of the dynasty of Kings of Poland of the house of Jagellon. The union of Poland and Lithuania under one sovereign formed one of the greatest states in Europe. The dominions of the Jagellons stretched far to the east and south, taking in a large part of Russia and reach- ing to the new conquests of the Ottoman Turks.- And in 1466 Casimir the Fourth finally got the better of the Teutonic Knights, annexing the western part of Prussia to Poland, and so cutting Prussia off from Germany. Russia meanwhile, while cut short by the Poles and Lithuanians to the west, was held in bond- age by the Moguls to the east. But, after Moscow became the capital in 1328, Russia began to recover itself somewhat, and at last, in 1477, Ivan Vasilovitz completely freed the country from the Mogul supre- macy. Still Russia was altogether hemmed in, and it had no means of taking any part in European affairs for some time to come. 20. Hungary and the Turks. Meanwhile Hungary shifted about from one dynasty to another. Towards the end of the thirteenth century the Hun- garian crown passed by marriage into a branch of the Angevin house of Sicily. The greatest King of this line was Lewis, who reigned from 1342 to 1382, and who was also King of Poland. He was the father of Hedwig who married Jagellon. Her sister Mary married Siegmund, who was afterwards Emperor, and who also became King of Hungary. In his time the Turks became dangerous to Hungary, and both Hungary and Poland soon became special bulwarks of Hi.] POLAND AND HUNGARY. 2;^ Christendom by land, as the commonwealth of Venice was by sea. In 1396 King Siegmund and a large body of Western allies were overthrown by Sultan Eajazet at Nikopolis. In the next century a famous captain, John Huniades, Waiwode or prince of Trans* silvania, greatly distinguished himself against the Turks ; but in 1444 Wladislaus the son of Jagellon, who was King both of Hungary and Poland, after driving back Sultan Amurath for a while, was defeated and slain by him at Vartta. After this John Huniades was regent, and in 14*56 he drove back Sultan Mahomet from Belgrade. His son Matthias Corvinus was King from 1458 to 1490. He did much to civilize his kingdom, and valiantly kept off the Turks, while on the other side he won great victories over the House of Austria, who were striving to get the kingdom of Hungary into their own hands. 21. Language, Science, and Art. The pro- gress of learning has been already spoken of with regard to Italy, as it was there that it had most effect on the political history of the country. But men's minds were at work in other parts of the world also. Men were eager after knowledge in many ways. Many of the Universities in different countries were now of great importance, and in England Colleges began to be founded in them. History was in most countries still written in Latin. In the thirteenth century there were good writers of history in Eng- land, especially Matthew Paris, who spoke out boldly against both the Pope and the King. But in England the writing of history went down a good deal in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. There was, on the other hand, a series of historical writers in French from the thirteenth century onwards, and in the four- teenth and fifteenth we learn much about the different stages of the Hundred Years' War from the French- speaking writers frriuartand Monstrelet. In England the English tongue had in the fourteenth century. again 2 3 2 TlfE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHA* quite driven French out of use, except for some legal and formal purposes. And now lived such poets aj Geoffrey Chauter, whose works did much towards fixing the standard of the English language. There were many divines and thinkers in various ways, some of whom, as we have already seen, began, especially in England and in Bohemia, to teach doctrines different from those which were commonly received in the Church. And the general stirring of men's minds led some into speculations about the natural equality of mankind which led to revolts of the peasants both in France and England in the course of the fourteenth century. The people called Lollards in England, the followers of Wickliffe, often mixed up the religious and the social movement together. But in England villainage was on the whole dying out, while in many other countries it was getting harder and harder. In war, up to the invention of gunpowder, the knights and gentlemen who fought on horseback still despised all other troops, though the Scots, the Swiss, the Flemings at Courtray, and the English archers at Crecy, all showed what a good infantry could do. These cen- turies also, the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth, were the ages when architecture reached its height in Europe, and when the finest churches and castles were built. But it was only towards the end of this period, as times grew quieter and law grew stronger, that we find many great houses strictly so called, except within the walls of the cities. 22. Summary. During this time then the Em- pire of the West dwindled into insignificance, and the Empire of the East was destroyed altogether. A great Mahometan power was settled in the East of Europe, while the last Mahometan kingdom was overthrown in the West Spain became a great power. In ftaly learning revived, but the freedom of the cities was in most cases destroyed, and the corruptions of the fopedom grew greater and greater. England ax\<\ Fratici xn.j SUMMARY. 233 waged a long war, in which France was nearly con- quered, but she gained in the end, and won a large increase of territory both from England and from other powers. The Swiss League and the Duchy 0} Burgundy became important powers, but the advance of the latter was cut short. The three Scandinavian kingdoms were united, though not very firmly. Poland became a great power, and Russia laid the foundation of her greatness by throwing off the yoke of the Moguls. The defence of Christendom against the Turks, though endlessly talked about by Popes and Emperors, really fell in the main on Poland, Hungary, and Venice. 214 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP. CHAPTER XIII. THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. Characteristics of modern Europe ; formation of tht existing powers and nations (i) progress of arts and inventions ; falling back of political freedom (i) increase of the royal power; introduction oj standing armies (i) all Western Europe now Christian (2) chief causes of the Reformation of Religion; practical abuses; the po-wer of the Popes ; disputes on points of Mixology (2) different forms taken by the Reformation in different cvuutries ; the Reformation, as a rule, accepted by the Teutonic nations and refused by the Romance (3) no real toleration on either side (3) names given to the different parties (3) growth of the power of Spain ; acquisition of various kingdoms by conquest and marriage (4) succession of Charles the First of Spain; his e-lection as the Emperor Charles the Fifth; the Austrian Kings in Spain (4) reign of Philip the Second; annexation of Portugal (5) reigns of Philip the Third and Fourth; wars with France and toss of territory ; persecution and expul- sion of the Moriscos (5) rivalry of France and Spain in Italy (6) conquest of Naples by Charles the Eighth (6) conquest of Milan by Lewis the Twelfth, and of Naples by Ferdinand (7) League of Cambray against Venice; the Holy League; restoration of the Medici at Florence (7) rivalry of Charles and Francis ; battle of Marignano ; captivity of Francis At Pavia (8) sack of Rome; peace between Char Us Kill.] THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. 235 and Francis j coronation of Charles (8) dominion of Charles throughoitt Italy ; subjugation of Florence (9) Wars of Venice -with the Turks ; loss of Cyprus f battle of Lepanto (9) the Popes ; their purely -worldly policy at the beginning of the period (10) improve- ment under the later Popes ; Council of Trent; foundation of the Jesuits (10) reign of Maximilian (n) the Emperors after Charles the Fifth; the Empire becomes purely German (n) beginning of the Reformation in Germany ; preachmg of Luther (12) religious wars and persecutions ; invasion of the Turks (12) groivth of France j annexation of Brittany (13) reign of Francis the First; Henry of England takes Boulogne (13) reign of Henry the Second; seizure of the Theee Bishoprics ; Peace oj CAteau-Cambresis (13) tlie Reformation in France ; teaching of Calvin (14) persecutions and civil wars in France ; reign of Henry the Fourth (14) revolt of the Netherlands against Spain; William the Silent (15) -formation of the Republic of the United Pro- vinces (16) growth of the Swiss Confederation ; the Reformation under Zwingliand Farel(if} conquests of Bern from Savoy ; Savoy loses in Burgundy and gains in Italy (17) civil wars in England ; reign of Henry the Eighth (17) the Reformation in England; Henry throws off the Papal power; religious changes under Edward (18) restoration of the Pope's power under Mary; final settlement under Elizabeth (18) relations between England and Scot- land; reign of Mary in Scotland ( 1 9) war between Elizabeth and Philip (19) union of England and Scotland under James ; civil wars of England (19) -final separation of Denmark and Sweden under \ Gustavus Vasa (20) the Reformation in Denmark and Sweden ; advance of Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus (20) greatness of Poland ; humiliation cj- the Teutonic Order ; foundation of the Duchy of Prussia; its union with Brandenburg (21) disputes about Livonia (21) groivth of Russia; accession of *36 THE GREATNESS OF SPA Iff. [CHA*. the house of Romanoff ; the Polish crown becomes Purely elective (21) beginning of the modern kingdom of Persia (22) reigns of Selim the Inflexible and Suleiman the Lawgiver ; Turkish conquests in Hungiry (22) conquest of Cyprus and battle of Lepanto (22) disputes in Bohemia ; t/ie Elector Palatine chosen King ; beginning of the Thirty Years' War (23) career of Gustavus Adolphus (23} interference and advance of France (23) Peace of Westphalia; degradation of the Empire; acquisitions of Sweden and France (24) continued war between France and Spain; Peace of the Pyrenees (24) European colonies and settlements ; different kind* of settlements (25) Portuguese settlements in Africa and India (25) discovery of America (26) Spanish settlements in America (27) French, English, and Dutch settlements in America (28) progress o) learning, art, and science ; use of the national languages (29) Summary (30). i. Characteristics of Modern Europe We are now gradually passing into a new state of things. Nearly ah the nations and powers of Europe which now remain have been already formed \ the indepen- dent states are fewer and larger than before, and things are beginning to be in many ways more like what they are now than they have been hitherto. The great advance of learning and science in the fifteenth century altogether changed the face of the world, and three great inventions, printing, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass, were now fully in use and gave a wholly new character to all matters both of war and peace. The general stirring of men's minds, and the spirit of thought and enterprise which began to be abroad, took various forms. It led to the great changes in religion which are spoken of as the Re- formation, and it led to the discovery of new lands beyond the sea, and to the establishment of colonies by the chief European nations in distant parts of the Xlii.] CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN EUROPE. 237 world. In all matters of intellectual progress, and in all the arts of ordinary life, the time to which we have now come is a time of wonderful advance. But, for a Jong time after the beginning of what we may call modern history, political freedom did not go forward, but rather fell back. It was a time of much deeper and more far-seeing policy than earlier times, and it was a time when governments grew stronger, when laws could be more regularly carried out, and when much of the turbulence and disorder of earlier times came to aft end. But it was also a time when, in most parts of Europe, Kings contrived to get all power into their own hands ; it was a time of wars which Kings waged for their own purposes, and in which the nations which they governed had very little interest. To wage these wars they had to keep standing armies, that is, armies of soldiers who are always under arms and who always receive pay. A standing army need not be an army of mere mercenaries, like those which served in Italy for any prince or commonwealth that would hire them. Still, where there are standing armies, things are very different from what they are when a lord calls on his vassals, or when a commonwealth calls on its citizens, to fight when they are wanted to fight and then to go home again. A standing army makes the government which employs it far stronger ; and it was by means of these standing armies that the Kings in most parts of Europe were able to overthrow those free institutions of earlier times which many countries have only quite lately won back again. But the main outward difference between these times and the times that went before them is that the old ideas of the Church and the Empire now passed away for ever. The Eastern Empire was gone ; the Western Empire survived in name only. The Emperors were ofcen very powerful princes, but it was not by reason of their being Em- perors that they were so. We have now very largely to deal, not so much with nations, or even with particular 238 THE GREA TNE^S OF SPA/A [CHAI-, states, as with collections of states and nations in th hands of particular families. And we now come to that great revolution in religion by which the Churches of Western Europe have ever since been still more widely divided among themselves than in former times the whole Western Church was from the Eastern. The Eastern Church meanwhile remained for a long time as it were hidden, as most of the nations which belonged to it were in bondage to the Turks. It is only in later times that the Eastern Church has again become politically important, as being the religion of the great Empire of Russia. 2. Causes of the Reformation. At the be- ginning of the sixteenth century we may say that the whole of Western Europe was in communion with the Western Church. And, though all men did not think exactly alike as to the authority of the Pope or Bishop of Rome, yet all looked on him as being at least the head Bishop of the whole Church. There was no nation in the West which was not Christian. The Lithuanians had been converted, and the Moors in Spain had been conquered. If there were any heathens left anywhere, it would be a. few Laps in the extreme North. Nor was there any Christian nation in the West which refused submission to the See of Rome. The Albi- genses had been put down long ago, and the revolt of the followers of John Huss in Bohemia had, after much hard fighting, been put down also. There had all along been religious discontents among particular men, and both in England and elsewhere many men had been burned as heretics. Still no whole nation had as yet set up any new ecclesiastical system for itself. But early in the sixteenth century there began to be a much greater stir about religious matters in most parts of Western Europe. This was owing, partly to the general stir in men's minds caused by the revival of learning, and partly to the exceeding wickedness of the Popes of those times. There were Bin.] CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION. 2 . three things at which men were specially offended. First there were many practical abuses in the Church which could have been done away with without either casting off the authority of the Pope or making any changes in doctrine. Many of these things the Coun- cils of the fifteenth century, at Constanz, Basel, and elsewhere, honestly tried to mend; but the Popes always stood in the way. The Popes themselves in after days tried to mend many things, but not till it was too late. Secondly, the authority of the Popes was itself felt to be a great grievance, partly because it was often so badly used, but also because, even when it was well used, it interfered with the rights both of civil governors and of national Churches. The truth is that the power of the Bishops of Rome had grown up from the same causes as the power of the Emperors of Rome, that is, because Rome was the head city of the world. And now men were beginning to be dis- contented with the power of the Popes through the same causes which had made the power of the Em- perors die away. That is to say, Christendom was split up into separate nations and kingdoms, and Rome no longer kept its place as the centre of all. But, as the power of the Popes was held to be a matter of religious belief, it was not so easy to get rid of it as it was to get rid of the power of the Emperors. Lastly, besides all this, many men held that not a few of the doctrines which were believed, and of the ceremonies which were practised, in the Church were wrong in themselves, and had no ground in Scripture or in the practice of the first Christians. Disputes arose about the Mass or sacrament of the Lord's Supper, about the use of images and the practice of praying to saints, about the state of men after death, about the necessity of confessing sins to a priest, about the laws which forbade the clergy to marry, and about the practice of saying the Church service in Latin now that Latin was nowhere the tongue commonly under a 4 o THE GREATNESS OF SPAM. [CHA* stood. Some of these disputes were about pointi \vhich the Popes might have yielded without giving up their general system, and which indeed they have sometimes yielded in distant parts of the world. Bui others were about points of doctrine strictly so called, which those who held the received belief to be true could not give up so easily. Thus the early part of the sixteenth century was a time, above all others, of religious controversies, and these controversies led to the most important events, both religious and political. 3. The Reformation in different Countries. The end of all these disputes was that a large part of Western Europe gradually became separated from the communion of the See of Rome. This gradual change is commonly called the Reformation. And, as in old times, Christianity took different forms in the Latin, the Greek, and the Eastern provinces of the Empire, so nearly the same thing happened now. Allowing for a good many exceptions, it may be said that the Teutonic nations accepted the new teaching, while the Romance nations clave to the See of Rome. And there were great differences in the way in which the Reformation arose and was carried out in different countries. In some countries the change arose among the people and was rather forced upon the govern- ments, while in others it was chiefly the work of Kings and rulers. And change went much further in some countries than in others. In some countries quite new forms of worship and Church government were set up, while in others men cast off the authority of the Pope and changed what they thought wrong in doctrine and practice, but let the general order of the Church go on much as it did before. The extremes each way might be seen in England; for, of all the countriei which made any reformation at all, England changed the least and Scotland the most. And in Ireland the great mass of the people have always with- stood all change, partly tio doubt because their Kin.] THE REFORMATION. 24! English rulers tried to force it upon them. And, though the stirring of men's minds, and the habit of thinking for themselves which led to the Reformation, did in the end lead men in most countries to see that they ought not to persecute each other for differ- ences in religion, yet they did not find this out for a long time. For a long time men on both sides held it to be a crime to allow any kind of worship except that which they themselves thought right Thus the Reformation gave rise to civil wars wherever the two parties were nearly equally balanced, and to persecu- tions wherever one side was much stronger than the other. Those who clave to the old teaching thought it their duty to hinder the spread of the new, and those who adopted the new teaching thought it their duty to hinder the practice of the old. It was only in a few- cases, where neither side was strong enough to do much mischief to the other, that the old and new worship went on for any time side by side. Those who accepted the Reformation were commonly called Protestant or Reformed, two names which at first had different meanings, but which are now commonly used without much distinction. Those who clave to the Popes called themselves Catholics, as claiming to be the whole and only true Church. The other side called them in contempt Papists and Romanists. Perhaps it is safest to use the name Roman Catholics, a name which is not very consistent with itself, but which avoids disputes either way, and which in Eng- land is the name known to the law. 4. Growth of the power of Spain in Eu- rope. Charles the Fifth. From the latter part of the fifteenth century onwards the power of Spain grew fast, and during the greater part of the sixteenth century we may fairly call it the greatest power in Europe. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella had united Aragon and Castile ; they had conquered Granada, and, after Isabella's death in 1504, Ferdinand, 24 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP. in 1512, conquered nearly all the Kingdom o Navarre, that is all south of the Pyrenees. The whole peninsula, except Portugal, was thus joined together. Ferdinand also held Sardinia and the island of Sicily, and in 1501, by wars which we must speak of presently, he also got possession of the continental kingdom of Naples. Isabella was succeeded in Cas- tile by her daughter Joanna, who had married Philip cf Austria. He was the son of Mary of Burgundy the daughter of Charles the Bold, and of Maximilian the son of the Emperor Frederick, who was chosen King of the Romans in his father's lifetime. Each chain in this pedigree ought to be remembered, be- cause each marriage brought with it some fresh domi- nion, and so helped to build up the great fabric of the Spanish power. Mary, after her father's death, kept the Low Countries and the County of Burgundy, while Lewis of France seized the Duchy. Her son Philip was thus sovereign of the Low Countries. By his marriage with Joanna came the strange union of those distant provinces with the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Thus Charles, the son of Philip and Joanna, succeeded to all the possessions of the Houses of Castile, Aragon, and Burgundy. In 1516 he suc- ceeded one grandfather Ferdinand in his Spanish domi- nions, and in 1519, on the death of his other grand- father Maximilian, he was elected to the Empire. In Spain he was Charles the First, but, as he was the fifth Emperor of the name, he is always spoken of in history as Charles the Fifth. Thus the Emperor was again the greatest prince in Europe ; but this was not because he was Emperor, but because of his dominions in Spain and the Netherlands. Charles could hardly be said to belong to any nation in particular, but in the male line he came of the House of Austria, and the Kings of Spain of his dynasty are called the Aits* tnan Kings. He also obtained possession of the County of Burgundy and of the Duchy of Milan, and EUROPE under CHARLES the FIFTH 10 Longitude 20 from Greenwich Fisk t, See, N. T. vin j Sl/CCSSOXS Of CHARLES THE FiFTH. 24^ all these dominions he gave up to his son Philip n 5. Successors of Charles the Fifth. Aftes Charles the Fifth came three Kings of Spain called Philip. Philip the Second reigned from 1556 to 1598. He was a most bigoted Catholic, yet almost the first act of his reign was a war with the Pope, Paul the Fourth, in his character of a temporal prince. In Philip's time began the war in the Netherlands by which the northern provinces threw off the Spanish yoke, of which we shall speak more presently. It was lie also who sent the famous Armada against England in 15^8, and he also interfered largely in the affairs of France. On the other hand, in 1571 his fleet, in alliance with that of the Commonwealth of Venice, won the sea-fight of Lepanto the ancient Naupaktos in the Corinthian Gulf over the Turks. This was the first great check which their power met with. In 1580 he got possession of the Kingdom of Portugal, ?o that the whole Spanish peninsula was for a while joined together under one ruler. As long as Philip lived, Spain outwardly kept its place as the leading power of Europe ; but under the two following Kings, Philip the Third, who reigned from 1598 to 1621, and Philip the Fourth, from 1621 to 1665, the Spanish power greatl/ decayed. The war in the Netherlands went on till the independence of the seven northern provinces was acknowledged, and in 1639 tne P rtu guese threw off the Spanish yoke, and set up the dynasty of Braganza, which has reigned in Portugal to our own times. In the reign of Philip the Fourth theie was a long war with France, which was ended in 1659 by giving up to France part of the Spanish dominions at the two ends of Gaul, Roussillon and part of Artois* The Spanish dominions were thus lessened in various places, though Spain still kept her distant possessions of the Two Sicilies, Milan, the County of Burgundy, and the Southern Netherlands. In its internal govern 244 THE GREATNESS isf SPAIN. [CHAP. merit, Spain was, during all this time, the most despotic and intolerant country in Europe. The old liberties of Castile were overthrown by Charles the Fifth, and those of Aragon by Philip the Second. Nowhere were Jews and heretics of all kinds more cruelly persecuted, so that in Spain the Reformation made no progress The Moors too, who, at the conquest of Granada, had been promised the free exercise of their religion, were shamefully oppressed. A revolt under Philip the Second was put down with great cruelty, and at last under Philip the Third, the remnant of them, called Moriscos, was driven out of the country. This was a great loss to Spain, as the Moors were a sharp-witted and hard-working people, and the provinces where they lived were the most flourishing parts of the peninsula. 6. French Invasion of Italy. During the first half of the sixteenth century, no part of Europe is brought more constantly before our notice than Italy. But this is no longer a sign of the greatness of Italy, but of its decay. Italy had now become the battle-field on which most of the princes of Europe fought out their quarrels. During all this time there was a long rivalry between France and Spain, which was in some sort a continuation of the dispute between the Houses of Anjou and Aragon for the kingdom of Sicily, as that was a continuation of the older dis- pute between Guelfs and Ghibelins. But now that the two sides were represented by the great kingdoms of France and Spain, the quarrel was carried out on a much greater scale, and, between the two, Italy was lorn to pieces and utterly trampled under foot. What the Italians called the invasion of the Barbarians began in 1494, when Charles the Eighth of France took it into his head that he had a right to the King- dom of Naples. In two years he marched all through Italy, conquered the kingdom with very little trouble and, as soon as his back was turned, lost it again. Great confusion -,>as caused throughout Italy bj xiii.J THE LEAGUE OF C A MB KAY. 24? Charles' march, and one result of it was that th Florentines were able to get rid of the Medici, and that Pisa was able to throw off the yoke of Florence, and remained independent till 1509. Presently, when the next King of France, Lewis the Twelfth, again set up a claim to the Kingdom of Naples and also to the Duchy of Milan, Ferdinand did not scruple to make a treaty by which Naples was to be divided between the two Kings of France and Aragon. Lewis won the Duchy of Milan in 1499, but, before the division of Naples was fully carried out, he and Ferdinand quar- relled over their spoil ; and the end of it was, that in 1504 Ferdinand got possession of the whole kingdom, and was thus King of the 2wo Sicilies. In these wars the Spanish infantry won a renown which they long kept. 7. The League of Cambray. Spain had thus gained a footing on the mainland of Italy, and Ferdi- nand now went on to meddle still more with its affairs. In 1508 he and Lewis of France, the reigning Pope Julius the Second, and the Emperor-elect Maxi- milian, al-l joined together in a league, called the League of Cambray, to despoil the commonwealth of Venice. For each of these princes pretended that some part of its territories rightly belonged to himself. Venice now seemed on the point of ruin, when again the spoilers quarrelled among themselves, but this time it did not happen as it had done in the case of Naples. For Venice got back nearly all that she had lost, though the commonwealth was never again so power- ful after this war as it had been before. The cause of the division among the enemies of Venice was that Pope Julius, when he had got all that he himself wanted from the republic, made what he called the Holy League to drive the Barbarians out of Italy. To this end he joined with Ferdinand against Lewis. In 1512 the French defeated the Spaniards in a great battle at Ravenna, but Pope Julius leagued himsel/ 24 6 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHJUL with the Swiss, and by their meanr the French were altogether driven out of Italy. Florence had all along been in alliance with France, and, now that the French were driven out, the commonwealth was obliged tc receive the Medici again. Milan also went back to its own Dukes of the House of Sforza. Lewis and Ferdinand both died before long, Lewis in 1515, and Ferdinand in 1516. 8. Wars of Charles and Francis in Italy. Lewis and Ferdinand were succeeded by two young Kings whose rivalry led to more wars. Lewis was succeeded in France by Francis the First, and Ferdi- nand, as we have seen, by his grandson Charles. Both Charles and Francis sought for the Empire on the death of Charles' other grandfather Maximilian in 1519, when Charles was elected. Thus the rivalry between France and Spain was yet further height- ened by the personal rivalry between the two Kings. Francis had by far the most compact and united king- dom ; but Charles united the power of Spain, the wealth of the Netherlands, and the dignity of the Empire. But before Charles began to reign cither in Spain or in the Empire, Francis had begun his reign by another invasion of Italy. He had first to over- come an army of Swiss in the battle of Marignat.o in 1515, and he presently won back the Duchy of Milan. Then in 1521 Pope Leo the Tenth, who was of the House of the Medici, joined with the Emperor, and another tne Lutheran religion was established in Den- mark ; but after his death there were disputes about the succession to the Crown, and wars with the city of Liibeck. Under Frederick the Second, who reigned from 1559 to 1588, the free people of Ditmarschen, who had all this time kept on their old freedom at that end of Germany just as the Forest Cantons did at the other end, and who had more than once defeated the Counts of Holstein and Kings of Denmark, were at at last conquered. His son Christian the Fourth reigned from 1588 to 1648, and we shall hear of him again. 21. Russia and Poland. In Poland and Lithuania the descendants of Jagellon went on reign- ing till nearly the end of the sixteenth century. Under them Poland was at the height of its power, and it formed one of the greatest states of Europe, Its territory now stretched far to the east, and took in large countries which had once been part of Russia, and which have since become part of Russia again. In the course of the sixteenth century, when the Russian power began to rise again, parts of these terri- tories were won back again, and from that time the Polish frontier has commonly gone back. But before this, as we have seen, the Teutonic Order was greatly humbled in 1466, when the Knights had to give up the western part of Prussia to Poland, and to hold the eastern part as a fief of the Polish Crown, This led to a further change in 1525. The Grand-Master Ai2)ert of Brandenburg had become a Lutheran. By a 266 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP treaty with Sigfsmund the First of Poland, the Teutonic order was abolished as a sovereign power, and Alber became hereditary Duke of Prussia, holding his duchy, which took in East Prussia only, as a fief of Poland. After a few generations the Duchy of Prussia and the Mark or Electorate of Brandenburg were, in 1611, joined together. Thus began the power of the House o( HoJienzollern as sovereigns of Brandenburg and Prussia, which has gone on so greatly growing to our own times. In 1657, under Frederick William the First, who was called the Great Elector, the Duchy of Prussia became independent of the Crown of Poland, just as the Duchy of Aquitaine three hundred years before be- came independent of the Crown of France. In 1701, to go on some way beyond our present time, the Great Elector's son Frederick took the title of King of Prussia instead of Duke. Thus the Electors of Bran- denburg, besides their possessions in Germany, held the Duchy or Kingdom of Prussia, which was cut off from their Electorate by that part of Prussia which had been given up to Poland. The other possessions of the Order to the North were treated in nearly the same way. In 1561 the Grand-Master of Livonia, Gotthard Kettler, who had also turned Lutheran, gave up all the dominions of the Order to Poland, except Curland, which was made into a Duchy for himself, just as Prussia was for Albert. But in the one case, out of the treaty with Albert arose one of the great states of Europe, while out of the treaty with Kettler nothing came but long wars between Sweden and Poland for the lands east of the Baltic, till in the end they were all swallowed up by Russia. But long before this Russia was making great advances. John or Ivan the Fourth, known r.s Ivan the Terrible, reigned from 1533 to 1584, and hij doings towards his own subjects were among the strangest in history. But, besides wars with Sweden and Poland waged with various success, he altogether overthrew the power of the Moguls or xui.] TURKE Y AND HUNG AN V. 26} Tartars of Kasan, who had once held Russia in bondage ; he took Astrakhan also, and so extended the Russian dominions to the Caspian Sea. He was the first of the Russian princes who took the title of Czar. Some say that this name is simply a Slavonic word meaning King, while according to others it is the Russian form of Ccesar; anyhow it is certain that the sovereigns of Russia, who have latterly been called Emperors, have always wished, as the most powerful princes belonging to the Eastern Church, to be looked on as successors of the Eastern Emperors. Russia was now a powerful state, but it was cut off from the Baltic by the Poles and Swedes, and from the Black Sea by the Tartars of Crim or Crimea, so that Russia, had no havens except on the Caspian and the White Sea. It was by the White Sea, from the port oi Archangel, that Russia now began to have trade with England and the other nations of the West. In 1589 the old line of Ruric came to an end, and great con- fusions followed, among which the Poles were able in 1605- to place a pretender, who professed to be the true heir, on the Russian throne. But in 1613 the Russians chose Michael Romanoff, from whom the present royal family springs in the female line, and Russia began to flourish again, though it had to wage wars with Sweden and Poland with various success to the end of the century. In 1573 the Poles made their crown purely elective, instead of choosing, as before, from the royal family. Sometimes they chose a native Pole, sometimes a foreign prince ; but from this time all power came into the hands of the nobles, to the loss both of the King and of the people, and Poland began to go down both at home and abroad. 22. Turkey and Hungary. Under Bajazet tht Second, the successor of Mahomet the Conqueror, the Ottoman power did not advance, but in some parts rather fell back. In his time a new Mahometam 26S 77 fE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. enemy rose to the east of him. This was the modern kingdom of Persia, which rose again, very much as Persia had risen again under Artaxerxes in the third century, by the preaching of a national religion-. Only this time it was not the preaching of the old Persian religion, but that of the Shiah sect of Mahometanism. Thus the Turks and Persians were not only political enemies, but they looked upon each other as heretics. The new dynasty, which began with Shah Ismael in 1501, was known as that of the Sophis. Endless wars now followed between the Turks and the Persians; meanwhile Selim the Inflexible, who reigned from 1512 to 1520, added Syria and Egypt to the Ottoman Em- pire, and obtained a surrender of the Caliphate from the nominal Abbasside Caliph at Cairo. Then came Suleiman that is, Solomon the Lawgiver, who reigned from 1520 to 1566, and was one of the greatest of the Sultans. It was in his time that Francis of France made alliance with the Turks against the Empire. Under him the Ottomans made great conquests. In 1521 he took Belgrade; in 1522 the Knights of Saint John were driven off the island of Rhodes, after which the Emperor Charles gave them the isle of Malta, which they successfully defended against the Turks in a great siege in 1565. But meanwhile Suleiman con- quered a large part of Hungary. In 1526 Leuns tht Second, King of Hungary, was killed at the battle of Mohacs, after which the crown passed in the end, though not without a good deal of opposition, to Lewis's brother-in-law, Ferdinand Archduke of Austria, who was afterwards Emperor. But the greater part of the country fell into the hands of the Turks, and Buda became the seat of a Turkish Pasha. The Hungarian Crown has ever since been held by the Archdukes of Austria. It was in the course of these Hungarian wars that Suleiman made his way into Germany, and besieged Vienna. He had also wars with the Empire in other parts, as along the coast oJf xni.] THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 269 Africa, where the Emperor Charles at one time took Tunis. And in 1543 the Turkish fleet was actually brought by the Most Christian King into the waters oi Italy and Provence, where Nizza oi Nice was in vain besieged by the Mahometans. Suleiman was the last of the great line of Sultans who had raised the Otto- mans to such power. After his death, though the Turks still made some conquests, they no longer threatened the whole world as they had done before. In the reign of the next Sultan, Seltm, the Turks gained the island of Cyprus and lost the battle of Lepanto ; and from this time they had constant wars with the Persians to the east, and with the Poles and with the Emperors, in their character of Kings of Hungary, to the north. 23. The Thirty Years' War. We now come to the great war which took up all the later years of this period, which had Germany for its centre, but in which most of the nations of Europe had more or less share. This is called the Thirty Years' War. It began in Bohemia, where the intolerance of the King, the Emperor Ferdinand the Second, provoked a revolt. In 1619, just about the time that Ferdinand was crowned Emperor, he was deposed in Bohemia, and the Elector Palatine Frederick, a Protestant Prince, was elected in his place. It was like the old wars of the Hussites beginning again. The next year Frederick was driven out of Bohemia, and he pre- sently lost his own dominions as well Meanwhile, at the other end of Ferdinand's dominions, the Pro- testants of Hungary revolted, and for a while turned him out of that kingdom also. But the great scene of the war was Germany, where it was first of all carried on between the Catholic and Protestant princes within the country ; but gradually, as the Emperor, with his famous generals Tilly and Wallmstein, seemed likely to swallow up all Germany, other powers began to step in. The firs: was Christian the Fourth King of Deiv z 7 o THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP mark, who was himself a Prince of the Empire for his German dominions. In 1625 he became the chief oi the Protestant League, but he was soon driven out and obliged to make peace. Presently, in 1630, a greater power stepped in from the North. This was the famous Gustavus Adolphus King of Sweden, who be- came for twv> years the head of the Protestants, and carried on war with wonderful success for a short time till he was killed in the battle of Lutzen in 1632. In this war Gustavus showed himself one of the greatest leaders that ever commanded an army. By this time other nations were beginning to take part in the war. England never formally joined in it, but there was, as was natural, a strong feeling in England on behalf of the Protestant cause, all the more so as Frederick's wife Elizabeth was a daughter of James the First, and many Englishmen and Scotsmen served in the Swedish army. France top, under Cardinal Richelieu, began to meddle, first making a treaty with Gustavus and help- ing him with money, and afterwards, in 1635, joining openly in the war. Richelieu had put down the special privileges of the Protestants in France ; yet he did not scruple to make a league with the Protestants in Germany and with the Protestant powers of Sweden and Holland, in a war which had begun as a war for religious liberty in Bohemia and Germany. From this time it changed into a war far the aggrandizement of France, all the more so as most of the Protestant states of Germany made peace with the Emperor in 1635. Meanwhile the Emperor Ferdinand died in 1637, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand the 7hird. The war went on for a while in most parts ot Europe with various success, the chief leader in Ger- many on the Protestant side being Duke Bernhard oj Weimar. In 1642 the great minister of France, Car- dinal Richelieu, died, and his power passed to another Cardinal, Mazarin. In 1643 Lewis the Thirteenth died, and then began the long reign of Lavis tht xiii.] THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 271 Fourteenth, who was only five years old when he came to the crown. Thus the latter part of the war went on under a different Emperor and different sovereigns both of France and of Sweden from those under whom it had begun. In this latter part of the war the French arms, under their great leaders Turenne and the Prince of Conde, began to be decidedly successful. At last, after long negotiations, peace was made in 1648. 24. The Peace of "Westphalia. The peace that was now made, which is known as the Peace of Westphalia, made some important changes in Europe. In Germany the two religions were put quite on a level, that is to say, the government of each state might establish which religion it chose. But the country had been utterly ruined by the long war, and whatever traces were left either of authority in the Empire or of freedom in the people quite died out. From this time Germany long remained a mere lax confederation of petty despotisms and oligarchies, with hardly any national feeling. Its boundaries too were cut short in various ways. The independence of the two free Con- federations at the two ends of the Empire, those of Switzerland and the United Provinces, which had long been practically cut off from the Empire, was now formally acknowledged. And, what was far more im- portant, the two foreign kingdoms which had had the chief share in the war, France and Sweden, obtained posesssions within the Empire, and moreover, as guarantors or sureties of the peace, they obtained a general right of meddling in its affairs. Sweden re- ceived territories in northern Germany, both on the Baltic and on the Ocean, part of Pomerania, the city of Wismar, and the Bishopricks of Verden and Bremen. The free Hanseatic city of Bremen remained independent, as well as Liibeck and Hamburg; but these were now the only remnants of the famous Hah- seatic League which had once been so great. But foi 272 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP, xin these possessions the Kings of Sweden became Princes of the Empire, like the Kings of Denmark and Hungary, the Elector of Brandenburg, and any other princes who had dominions both in the Empire and out of it. But the territories which were given to France were cut off from the Empire altogether. The right of France to the Three Lotharingian Bishopricks, which had been seized nearly a hundred years before, was now formally acknowledged, and, besides this, the possessions and rights of the House of Austria in JElsass, the German land between the Rhine and the Vosges, called in France Alsace, were given to France. The free city of Strassburg and other places in Elsass still remained independent, but the whole of South Germany now lay open to France. This was the greatest advance that France had yet made at the expense of the Empire. Within Germany itself the Elector of Brandenburg also received a large increase of territory. The war in Germany was now over, but the war between France and Spain still went on, till 1659. Then France gained Roussillon, and a few places in Lorraine and the Netherlands, and Dunkirk was given to England, much as England had at other times held Calais and Boulogne and afterwards Gibral- tar. In the next year Lewis the Fourteenth seized the little principality of Orange, but this was afterwards given back. 25. European Settlements in the East. We have now come to the time when European his- tory begins to spread beyond Europe itself and those parts of Asia and Africa which had immediate deal- ings with Europe. In the last years of the fifteenth century new worlds were opened, both in the East and in the West, and gradually all those European nations which had any power by sea began to trade, to con- quer, and to make settlements, in parts of the world which were never before heard of. In this way Eng- land, France, Spain, Portugal, and Holland have all, EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN THE EAST. 273 like the old Greek commonwealths, planted colonies in various parts of the world. But there has been a great difference between the ways of colonizing in the two times. An old Gr;ek colony was an independent state from the beginning ; it owed a certain respect to the mother city, but it was in no way subject to it; but the colonies planted by European kingdoms have been looked on as parts of the dominions of the mother country, and have been held as dependent provinces. The colonists therefore, when they have got strong enough, have commonly thrown off the yoke of the mother country, and have made themselves into inde- pendent states. Then again we may make some dis- tinctions among the different kinds of colonies. In some places the European settlers have gradually killed or driven out the native inhabitants, much as the English did with the Welsh when they first came into Britain. This has been the case with most of the colonies of England. The English settlers have often been largely mixed with settlers of other European nations and even with slaves from other lands, but they have hardly mixed at all with the natives. In other cases, as has happened in most of the colonies of Spain, the Europeans and the natives have mixed a great deal, and things have been somewhat as they were in the time of the conquests of Rome ; that is to say, large bodies of men speak Spanish who are not Spaniards by blood. Then there is a third class of European possessions in distant lands, where Euro- peans bear rule over the natives, but neither drive them out nor mix with them, and indeed cannot be strictly said to settle or colonize at all. Such is the great dominion of England in India, which is some- thing quite different from her colonies in America, Africa, and Australia. Possessions of both sorts began in the times with which we have now to do. The colonies strictly so called were chiefly planted in America, while dominions of the other kind wer 274 THE GREATNESS OF SPATN. [CHAP chiefly gained in the distant parts of Asia and Africa, The first European state which began this course ol distant dominion was Portugal ; of this we have seen the beginning in the time of Don Henry. Before the end of the fifteenth century Portugal had made a great number of settlements along the west coast of Africa ag far south as the Equator. Then, when Vasco da Gama found out the passage to India round the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese carried on their discoveries and settlements along the eastern coast of Africa, along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and on into Southern India and into the peninsulas and islands beyond India. This quite changed the course of trade with India and the far East generally. Hitherto trade had gone by way of Alexandria and Venice ; now it went by the longer but easier way round the Cape. Throughout the sixteenth century the Portuguese had a far greater Eastern dominion than any other European power ; indeed they could hardly be said to have any Euro- pean rivals in Asia at all. The Spaniards held only the Philippine Islands, and the settlements of the Eng- glish and Dutch and other nations did not begin till the seventeenth century. Russia indeed, after she had overthrown the Tartar dominion, went on to win a vast territory in Northern Asia, the great land of Siberia. But this was not gained by sea ; it was the mere exten- sion of European Russia by land to the east, and the cold and profitless country of Siberia could never be compared with the rich possessions of other European nations in Asia and Africa. 26. Discovery of America. But the land of European colonization, as distinguished from mere dominion, the land in which European settlers have grown up into independent nations, is the New World, America. It was in the last years of the fifteenth century that this New World began to be opened to the men of the old. It has been thought that th: old Northmen who settled in Iceland touched Ain.y THE SPANISH COLONIES. 27^ en some parts of the coasts of North America, and U is quite certain that they made a settlement in G*een- laiid, which lasted till the fourteenth century. But, i' they ever found out any of the lands in which the great Spanish and English colonies were afterwards planted, they certainly made no lasting settlements in them. The New World was first found out in 1492 by Christopfier Columbus, a Genoese in the service of Ferdinand and Isabella, who was not seek- ing a world to the west, but, now that the earth was known to be round, was trying to find a westward road to India. Thence the lands which he first discovered came to be called the West Indies. These were the islands in the Gulf of Mexico, and one of the first of those on which he landed he called Hispaniola or New Spain. It is also called Saint Domingo or Hayti. Bu Columbus did not land on the continent till 1498, and before that time Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian in thi service of Henry the Seventh of England, had made his way to the mainland of North America much further to the north. Thus America was discovered by citizens of the maritime commonwealths of Italy, thougli they were acting, not in the service of their own cities, whose fleets never got beyond the Mediterranean, but in that of the Kings who commanded the Ocean. This marks how the course of trade and of dominion was now changing. And the new continent took its name of America from a third Italian, Amerigo Vespucci^ who at one time was thought to have reached the mainland before Columbus. He too was in the service of Spain : thus it was that, though Italy had no part in the dis- covery of America, yet Italians had the chief pait in it. 27. The Spanish Colonies. Thus the New World was found out, and all Europeans then iield that they had a perfect right to seize upon any coun- tries beyond the bounds of Christendom, and to do pretty much as they pleased with the people. Th; 276 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHVP. Spaniards in this way conquered the rich lards of Mexico and Pent, where they found gold, much as in old times the Phoenicians had found gold in Spain itseltl Those lands had reached a high degree of civiliza tion and regular government without any dealings with the civilized nations of Europe and Asia. And they were without many things, such as iron, horses, and the use of alphabetic writing, without which no Christ- ian or Mahometan people would have thought it possible to get on. They were of course heathens, and the idolatry of the Mexicans was of a specially horri- ble and bloody kind. The Spaniards dealt with the natives in a way not unlike that in which the first Saracens had dealt with Christians and heathens, mix- ing up the notions of conquest and conversion in a strange way. But it is certain that no Mahometans ever treated their Christian subjects so badly as the Spaniards did the natives in America. At last, when it was found that they could not do the hard work of the mines, negro slaves from Africa were brought in to work in their place. The Portuguese in their African settlements had made many negro slaves, and thus the slavery of the black man in the New World began, which went on for a long time in all the European colonies, and which still goes on in Brazil and the Spanish Islands. And thus too began, what was yet worse than slavery itself, the trade in slaves, the stealing men and bringing them over from Africa, which is now forbidden by all civilized nations. Mexico was con- quered by Hernando Cortez between 1519 and 1521, and Peru by Francisco Pizarro between 1532 and 1536. And, shameful as was the greediness and cruelty shown by the Spaniards, there was something very wonderful in the overthrow of such great powers by such small bodies of men. But a wide difference must be made between the conquest of Mexico and that of Peru. For Cortez, though he did several very cruel dc ds, really tried to convert and civilize f .ho 90 Longitude W. 60 from Greenwich 30 SPANISH & PORTUGUESE COLONIES IN THE I6 TH CENTURY Spanish Colonies {^ ^] P E R U | Portuguese d o. [ I BRAZIL Long. East 30 from Greenwich 60 Flk & See.N.-y. xin.] COLONIES IN AMERICA. 277 countries which he conquered, while Pizarro seems to have had no objects of this kind. Thus began the great Spanish dominion in America, which has grown up into several independent nations speaking the Spanish tongue. 28. French, English, and other Colonies. The next people after the Spaniards who began to settle in North America were the French, and the next were the English, and the settlements of both nations had a good deal to do with the religious dissensions at home. The first attempt at a French settlement was made by Huguenots in 1562, in the land to which they gave the name of Carolina, but it was not till 1607 that any lasting French settlements were made in America. From that time the French gradually occupied, or laid claim to, a vast territory in North America, taking in a great deal of the western part of the present United States and of the lands to the north of them. These lands were called Canada and Louisiana, but in a much wider sense than those names bear now. These settle- ments of the French in North America have all passed either to England or to the United States, but some of their colonies in the West Indies, and their small possessions in South America at Cayenne, remain French still. The English sailors, Gilbert, Drake, and others, kept making discoveries and waging war with the Spaniards during the whole reign of Elizabeth, and in 1585 Sir Walter Raleigh tried to begin the colony of Virginia, but it was not really settled till 1606. This was the beginning of the English colonies in North America, which have grown up into the United States. New England was next colonized, and afterwards Maryland : both of these were largely peopled by those men in England who were dissatisfied with the state of religion, and who were often persecuted for not conforming to the law in such matters. For no one as yet thought of allowing perfect freedom to all religions; each country, Catholic or Protestant 01 4 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHA* and Sardinia, it might seem that Italy was as com- pletely held down by the German branch of the House of Austria as it had before been by the Spanish branch. Among the other states there were constant changes during the several wars, but things were at last settled by the Peace of 1748. One Bourbon prince from Spain, Charles, who afterwards succeeded to the Crown of Spain, was settled in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, another became Duke of Parma and Piacenza, and the Emperor Francis was Grand Duke of Tuscany, where he was succeeded in 1765 by his son Leopold, who afterwards was Emperor. Leopold did a vast deal for his duchy, and was as good a ruler as a despotic prince can be. But the only really national princes in Italy were those of the House of Savoy, who were now Kings of Sardinia, Victor Amadeus the Second and Charles Emmanuel the Third. They took a part in every war, and were not very scrupulous about changing sides, but they always gained something in the end. This time, by the Peace of 1748, they gained another part of the Duchy of Milan, while the rest was left to the House of Austria. In all these changes the people were handed over from one master to another without their wishes being thought of at all. The only parts of Italy where any life remained among the people at this time were Genoa and Corsica. In the war of the Austrian Succession Genoa took the side of France, so in 1746 it was occupied by the Austrians. But the people, without any help from the oligarchical government, rose up and drove the Austrians out, a revolution which had a good deal of effect on the course of the war in those parts. And we have seen that, as the people of Genoa rose against the yoke of Austria, so the people of Corsica rose against the yoke of Genoa, till they were handed over to France. The Popes oi this time, especially Benedict the Fourteenth and Cle- ment the Fourteenth, were mostly very good men, bitf XV.] RUSSIA AND POLAND. 315 they had ceased to be of any importance as temporal princes, and the best of them were unable to make any thorough reform in their own dominions. Cle- ment the Fourteenth, who is perhaps better known by his family name of Ganganelli, altogether put down the Order of the Jesuits in 1773, but it was afterwards set up again. 8. Russia and Poland. We now come to what is really the greatest event during this time, namely, the wonderful rise of Russia. For this we must go some way back to an earlier period, so as to tell the story straight on. Russia was already a powerful state in its own part of the world, but it was quite cut off from any dealings with Europe in general till the reign of Peter the Great. He began to reign together with his brother Ivan in 1682, and alone in 1689. During their joint reign Poland finally gave up to Russia a great deal of the Russian territory which she had formerly held. Presently Peter began to turn his mind to naval affairs. He improved his one haven of Archangel, and presently, in 1696, he conquered Azof from the Turks, so that he now had a haven on the Black Sea. Then he twice travelled in various coun- tries, especially Holland and England, to learn such things as might be useful for his own people. Between his two journeys came his war with Charles the Twelfth of Sweden, which in the end turned to the greatest advantage of Russia. For Peter got Livonia and the other possessions of Sweden east of the Baltic, and so he had a footing on a third sea. Within this newly-gained territory he founded his new capital of Saint Petersburg, which thus supplanted Moscow, as Moscow had supplanted the earlier capitals. Later in his reign he extended his borders on the other Russian sea, the Caspian Sea, at the expense of Persia. He took the title of Emperor of all the Russias, which amounted to a claim over the Russian provinces held by Poland, and which besides gave great offence to 3i6 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHA>. the German Emperors of the West. He made many changes in the internal state of his dominions, bring- ing the clergy under the control of the civil power, and making improvements in many ways, though it must be remembered that improvements of this kind, when made by the single will of a despot, do in fact only make his despotism stronger. Still Peter is entitled to the honour of having raised his country from a very low position in Europe to a very great one. His policy was carried on by his widow Catha- rine, who succeeded him in 1725 : for the crown of Russia passed, like the old Roman Empire, sometimes by will and sometimes by revolution, without any very certain rule of succession. During the greater part of the eighteenth century the throne was filled by women, Anne the niece of Peter, Elizabeth his daughter, and lastly Catharine the Second, who succeeded in 1762 by the murder of her husband Peter the Third, and reigned till 1796. With some checks, Azof for instance being twice or thrice lost and won again in the wars with the Turks, Russia, notwithstanding its internal revolutions, went on advancing in the face of other nations. Under Catharine the Second the great con- quest of Crim Tartary or Crimea, was made. Russia now got rid of the last trace of the oldTartar dominion, and she again had free access to the Euxine, as when Russian fleets threatened Constantinople in the ninth and tenth centuries. This conquest on the part of Russia was very much like the conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabel. But the chief advance of Russia towards Western Europe was made by her share in the successive partitions of Poland. The internal govern- ment of that country was so bad, both the King and the people being subject to a tumultuous nobility, that the state grew weaker and weaker. The last two Kings, Augustus Elector of Saxony, son of Augustus the Strong, and Stanislaus Poniatowskt, a native Pole were forced on the country by Russia, and attempts al xv.] NORTHERN EUROPE. 317 internal reform, as being likely to make the kingdom stronger, were always checked At last, in 1772, the Empress Catharine of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and the Empress-Queen, as Queen of Hungary though the last very unwillingly joined together to partition Poland, each taking certain provinces. In 1793 another partition was made by Russia and Prussia only, and in 1795 Poland was altogether destroyed as an independent nation, and its remaining territory was divided among its three neigh- bours. What was then understood by Poland took in both the old Kingdom of Poland, the Duchy of Lithuania, and the Russian provinces which were held by Poland. Of this, Russia got back most of her old territory, and she took also the greater part of Lithuania. Prussia took West Prussia, the greater part of old Poland, and a small part of Lithuania. Austria or Hungary (whichever we are to call it) took the rest of old Poland, and some territory which had been Russian. In the Russian provinces the mass of the people were still Russian, and they had often suffered persecution from Poland for cleaving to the Eastern Church. This however docs not justfy the breach of the law of nations, and the other two powers, which divided Poland it self, had not even thus much of excuse to make. By this partition, Russia, which had hitherto stood on the confines of Europe, was brought into the middle of the continent and into the thick of European affairs. 9. Northern Europe. During this time the Scandinavian Kingdoms, especially Sweden, were of much less account than they had been in the period before it. Neither of them now took much share in the general affairs of Europe. Sweden had had more than one war with Russia, and in 1743 she had to give up the district called Carelia on the Gulf of Finland, and this time without gaining any territory to the West 318 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAP. The history of the country is mainly remarkable foi its internal revolutions. After the changes of 1720 the government became almost wholly aristocratic , but in 1772 the royal power was set up again. In Denmark meanwhile the government remained an absolute monarchy, but the country was on the whole well governed and prosperous, and its naval powei especially was greatly increased. ' During this time too the ever-shifting Duchies of Sleswick and Holstein were at last wholly united with the Danish Crown. Holstein was held as a fief of the Empire, while Sleswick was not 10. The Netherlands. During fhis time those provinces of the Netherlands which had belonged to Spain were held by the House of Austria, while the Seven United Provinces remained independent ; but. like Sweden, their importance in Europe in the eigh- teenth century was very much less than it had been in the seventeenth. In the war of the Austrian Succession, the United Provinces supported the Queen of Hungary, and the Austrian provinces were overrun by the French. But when, in 1 747, the Dutch territory also was invaded, a change in the internal constitution followed, by which the Prince of Orange, William the Fourth, was made hereditary Stallholder. His own principality of Orange had before this been annexed by France. During the war between England and France which arose out of the revolt of the American colonies, there was a short war between England and the United Provinces, but both the grounds of quarrel and the terms of peace had almost wholly to do with the colonial possessions of the two countries. Presently there were disturbances in the country and dis- satisfaction with the Stadholder, William the Fifth^ which gave both the King of Prussia and the Emperof Joseph the Second excuses for interfering. By the end of this time, about 1790, the United Provinces had sunk into utter insignificance, being almost wholly xv. J THE TURKS. 3 , 9 under the control of Prussia. In the Austrian Nether- lands alro the changes made by Joseph the Second led to revolts. ii. The Turks. The power of the Turks during this time had altogether ceased to be dreaded by Christian nations. The advances of Russia during this time form the greater part of the European history of Turkey, but it was not till the reign of Catharine the Second that the advantage set steadily in on the Russian side, and in the early part of the period Turkey was decidedly successful on the side of Austria. During the reign of Mahmoud the First, who reigned from 1730 to 1754, in a war which began in 1737, the Turks, by the Peace of Belgrade in 1739, recovered from Austria the city of Belgrade, and all that had been given up by the Peace of Passarowitz. And by this treaty Russia was not to keep any fleet in the Black Sea. But in the war between Catharint the Second and Mustapha the Third, which began in 1769, the advantages were wholly on the Russian side. The loss of territory by Turkey during the reign of Catharine was great. By the Peace of Kai- nardji, in 1774, the Sultans gave up their superiority over the Tartar Khans of Crimea. The Khan was then recognized as an independent power, but the country was soon afterwards conquered by Russia. By the next war, which was ended by the Treaty of /assy in 1792, the Turkish frontier fell back to the Dniester. But still more important than these losses of territory was the system of interference in the internal concerns of the Sultan's dominions which went on from this rime on the part of Russia. As the Turkish government grew weaker, and as the tribute of children was no longer levied, the Christian nations, Greeks, Slaves, and others, which were under the Turkish yoke, began to revolt whenever th-ey had a chance. In so doing they were always encouraged by Russia, though they seldom really gained anything bj 320 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAP Russian meddling in their affairs. Still this tendency of the Christian nations to revolt, and the encourage ment given to these revolts by Russia, all mark the beginning of a new state of things in Eastern Europe, ind one which is going on still. It should specially be noticed that by the treaty of Kainardji Russia ob- tained certain rights of interference in the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the superiority of the Sultans, without forming part of their immediate dominions. In these wars, Russia, which sixty years before had had no Euro- pean haven except on the White Sea, was able to send fleets into the Mediterranean. She was now fully established, not only as one of the chief powers of Europe, but as the ruling power in the south-east as well as in the north-east. The Eastern Church, which had been so long kept down under Mahometan bond- age, now again begins to be of importance, as being the religion both of the greater part of the Christian subjects of the Turks and also of Russia, which pro- fessed to be their defender. 12. The English Power in India. It was in the course of this period that the great English dominion in India grew up out of the mercantile settlements of the East India Company. But this was not till after a hard struggle with the French, who at one time seemed likely to gain the greatest power in the peninsula. In 1746, during the war of the Austrian Succession in Europe, Labourdonnais, the French governor of Mauritius, seized Madras, which was kept till the end of the war. But mean- while Dufleix, the governor of Pondicherry, the chief French settlement in India, formed great schemes of French dominion in the East, and wars went oil be- tween the French and the English in India, under cover of supporting different native princes. These wars did not stop even when France and England were at peace, in the time between the two wars of x v. ] THE ENGLISH PO WER IN INDIA . 321 the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. In 1756 the English settlement at Calcutta was taken by Suraj-ad-dowla, the Nabob of Bengal, one of the princes who owed a nominal vassalage to the Great Mogul. Now it was that many Englishmen died in what was called the Black Hole. But now came the great advance of the English power under Clive, and the battle of Plassy in 1757, in which the Nabob, with a vast native army and with a small body of French auxiliaries, was utterly overthrown by Clive's little army of English and of natives under English discipline. This battle laid the real foundation of the English dominion in India. But the war with France still went on in Southern India with varying success till the Peace of 1763, when Pondicherry, which had been taken by the English, was restored to the French. Since then it has been commonly taken and given back whenever there has been any war between England and France. But neither the French power in India nor that of any other European nation has, since the days of Give, been able to stand up against that of England. Since that time the English dealings with India have been much like those of ancient Rome in the Mediterranean lands. One state after another has first become dependent and then has been incor- porated, just as when a kingdom or commonwealth was made a Roman province. It must be remembered that all this time the English dominion in India was not in the hands of the King's Government, but was still in those of the Company. It was only in 1784 that the affairs of India were at all brought into the hands of the Home Government by the institution of the Heard of Control, a. body acting in the King's name, to control in certain cases the management of affairs by the Company. After Clive, the most famous name in the history of British India was that of the Governor- General Warren Hastings, who was impeached and tried before the House of Lords on various charges of 322 THE VISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAR oppression and misgovernment, and was acquitted aftei a trial which lasted many years. 13. The Independence of the United States. Georgia was the last English colony that was founded in North, America during this time. The English colonies lay wholly along the east coast ; the French possessions in Canada and Louisiana hemmed them in to the north and west, and the Spanish colony of Florida to the south. The colonies of the different European nations took a large share in the several wars of the century. In 1759 Canada was conquered by the English troops, British and colonial ; this war was memorable for the victory and death of General Wolfe at Quebec. A large French-speaking population in Canada was thus handed over to English rule, and the French settlements now no longer stood in the way of the growth of the English colonies to the west. By the same treaty of 1 763 Florida was given up by Spain to England, and Louisiana was divided between England and Spain, the Mississippi being the bound- ary. The French- were thus quite shut out of North America. Then came the attempt on the part of Great Britain to tax the colonies, their revolt, and the assistance given them by France, and afterwards by Spain. When the colonies in 1776 declared them selves independent, each colony formed an independ- ent State, joined together only by a very lax Confede- ration. But, when the war was over, a closer union was found necessary, and in 1789 the constitution of the United States of America, as a perfectly organized Federal commonwealth, remarkably like the consti- tution of the Achaian League in old times, was fully established. Each State kept its independence in its own affairs, but the Union formed one nation in all dealings with other powers. The first President of the new commonwealth was George Washington, who had been the great leader of the colonists during the war. This constitution was gradually accepted by all the xv.] THE UNITED STATES. 323 States. By the treaty of 1 783 Florida was given back to Spain, and the late British conquest of Canada, with the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, remained part of the British dominions. The States were thus hemmed in to the north, and for a while to the south also ; but they had free power of growth to the west, where new settlements were quickly founded and were admitted into the Union as independent States on the same terms as the first thirteen. 14. Summary. The greatest events during this period are thus to be found in the furthest parts of the civilized world. The rise of Russia in Eastern Europe, the foundation of the English dominion in India, and the establishment of the United States in America, are the three greatest events of the time. They are more than mere common conquests or acquisitions of terri- tory. Each one of them is the real beginning of a new state of things. The English now fairly took their place as the leading people of the earth in coloni- zation and distant dominion. The British Empire in India is the greatest example of distant dominion, as distinguished from proper colonization, on the part of any European power ; and the establishment of the United States as an independent power has given to a people of English birth and speech the means of growing to far greater extent and power than they could have done if they had remained dependent on the mother country. Geographical knowledge was also greatly increased by the more thorough survey of the islands of the Eastern Ocean, including the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, which just at the end of the period with which we are now dealing, opened another field for English colonization. France was now altogether driven out of the world of distant dominion, and the other colonizing powers, Spain, Portugal, and Holland, could at most keep what they had got. None of the changes which happened in 3 2j THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAP. Western Europe at this time were at all on the samf scale as these, for the gains and losses of the mari- time powers had been made much less in Europe than in their distant possessions. In Europe, the three Western powers, England, France, and Spain, kept nearly the same position at the end of the period which they had held at the beginning. The United Pro- vinces and the Scandinavian kingdoms had fallen from their momentary greatness, and Italy hardly existed, except as the battle-field for other powers, and as a land in which the younger branches of ruling families might be provided for. But the House of Savoy was still pushing its way, and it gained some increase of territory by nearly every fresh treaty of peace. But in Eastern Europe the advance of Russia, at once against Sweden, Poland, and Turkey, the way in which, from having been cooped up inland, she made her way into both the Baltic and the Mediterranean, and became a great and even threatening power, was the greatest European change of the time. Russia, after having been thrown back for so many ages, at last won the place which she had tried to win when she at- tacked Constantinople in the old times. Her advance is also remarkable as bringing into prominence a race and a religion which had long been kept in the back- ground. The Slavonic nations with whom we have hitherto had most to do, the Poles, Bohemians, and others, belonged to the Western Church, and were more or less closely connected with the Western Empire. But with the rise of Russia, a Slavonic country which got its Christianity and civilization wholly from Constantinople, both the Slavonic race and the Eastern Church again rise into special im- portance. And so in some sort does the Eastern Empire also, by means of the influence which the Russian princes, as the most powerful princes of the Eastern Church, were able to exercise on those nations of their own Church, both Greek and Slavonic, xv.J SUMMARY 321 which were still in bondage to the Turks. The ad vance of Prussia during the same time was very important, but it was not so important as this. The change was not so sudden, and it was not so great in itself. A new German power came to the front in Germany, and it has gradually grown to be the head of Germany, much in the same way as Wessex grew in England, Castile in Spain, and France in Gaul. But its rise did not, like the rise of Russia, bring a race and a religion from the background to the front. The partition of Poland, in which Russia and Prussia had the chief share, stands pretty well by itself in history ; disputed and tributary dominions have often been divided between several claimants, but there is no other case of a great and independent country being cut up in this way among its neighbours. These political changes and the rise of these new powers were very great events in themselves, and they were also closely connected with the stir in men's minds which went on during this time. During the eighteenth century men were speculating on religion, government, and society in a more daring way than they had ever speculated on so great a scale before. French and French-speaking writers, Voltaire, Rousseau, and others, were leading on men's minds towards that general crash of existing things, good and bad to- gether, which marks the next period in so large a part of Europe. And rulers like the Emperor Joseph, Frederick of Prussia, and Catharine of Russia helped to the same end. For, though they ruled as absolute princes, yet the great changes which they made, both good and bad, tended to unsettle men's minds, and to make them more ready to break with the past alto- gether. This whole period then was one of very great importance, but it was mainly in the way of pre- paration for what was coming. It was a time of great advance in both physical and moral science, and one of great mechanical discovery. But in most branchef 326 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAP. of art, learning, and original composition the eight- teenth century was below either the times before or the times after it. It seemed as if the world needed to be stirred up by some such general crash as was now near at hand. CHAPTER XVI. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Character of the time (i) reign of Lewis the Sixteenth, the States-General of 1789^- they becotrt the National Assembly (2) Constitution of 1790^ abolition of mon- archy ; National Convention; execution of the King (2) Reign of Terror ; Robespierre ; establishment of the Directory (2) foreign wars of the Republic; rise of Napoleon Buonaparte (2) annexations in Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands ; wars in Switzerland and Egypt (2) Buonaparte seizes the chief power as Con- sul; character of his rule ; treaties of I.uneville and Amiens (2, 3) Buonaparte calls himself Emperor of the French and King of Italy (3) conquests oj Buonii- pastc ; his dependent kings (3) he invades Russia; liberation of Germany (3)fall of Buonaparte; his return from Elba; battle of Waterloo ; his final over- throw^ effects of the French Revolution in Germany; abolition of the Empire ; title of Emperor of Austria; the new Kings ; the Confederation of the Rhine (4) Buonaparte's victories over Prussia and Austria ; greatest extent of Buonaparte's dominion in Germany (5) formation of the German Confederation (5) changes in Italy; its resettlement at the Peace (6) dealings of Buonaparte with Spain; Joseph Btiona- parte made King ; campaigns of the Duke of Welling- ton; return of Ferdinand the Seventh (7) King John of Portugal goes to Brazil; liberation of Portugal (7) changes in the Netherlands; union of the whole Netherlands into one Kingdom (8) the French in xvi. J CHARACTER OF THE TIME. 32? Switzerland; the Helvetic Republic; the Act of Medi* ation; formation of the Swiss Confederation (9) share of England in the general War; bombardment of Copenhagen (10) rebellion in Ireland ; Union of Great Britain and Ireland (\o) war with the United States ; settlement at the Peace (10) Russian conquest of Finland; election of Bernadotte in Sweden; union of Sweden and Norway (i i) affairs of Denmark (i i) reigns of Paul and Alexander in Russia (12) Peace of Tilsit; wars with Sweden, Turkey, &nd Persia (12) French invasion of Russia; Kingdom of Poland united with Russia (12) decay of tJie Turkish Empire; in- dependence of Servia, Egy.pt, and other provinces ; Turkish wars with France and Russia; accession oj Mahmoud (13) English conquests in India ; coloniza- tion of Australia (14) revolutions of Hayti (14) growth of the U-nited States; purchase of Louisiana; abolition oj slavery in the Northern States (15) Siimmary (16). i. Character of the Time. We have now come, we may almost say, to our own times, to times which a few old people still living can remember. And these times are so full of matter that it would be vain to try to do more here than to point out the general effect which the events which then happened had on the relations of the states of Europe to one another. It was a time which saw such an upsetting of the existing state of things everywhere as had never hap- pened before in so short a space of time. The centre of everything during this time is France; and in France at this time men did what had never been done before ; that is, they went on the fixed principle of changing everything, whether it were good or bad, wherever their power reached, both in their own country and elsewhere. There was a general change of everything, often out of a mere love of change, and there was in particular a silly way of imitating old Greek and Roman ways and names, even when they were nothing to the purpose. But in this general crash the evil o.' 328 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAP the older times was largely swept away as well as the good, and means were at least given for a better state of things to begin in our own time. 2. The French Republic. The events of the French Revolution must be told in the special History of France. It is enough to say here that Leu' Malta, which, up to the French Revolution, had be- longed to the Knights of Saint John, and of the Frisian island of Heligoland, a possession of Denmark. The Ionian Islands also, part of the old Venetian dominion in Greece, were made into a Republic, under a protectorate on the part of England which did not differ much from actual sovereignty. ii. The Scandinavian Kingdoms. At the beginning of the French Revolution the reigning King of Sweden, Gustavus the Third, was engaged in a war with Russia, which led to no change on either side. He also increased the royal power, but he was mur- dered in 1792. The next King, Gustavus the Fourth, was more zealous than anybody else against Buona- parte and the French ; but he had no means of doing any great things, and he contrived to offend all other powers and his own subjects as well. Russia now- conquered all Finland, and in 1809 the King was deposed, and the free constitution was restored, with- out either the despotism or the oligaichy which had of late prevailed by turns. As the new King, Charles tht Thirteenth, had no children, the Swedes chose Berna- dotte, one of Buonaparte's generals, to be Crown Prince, and to succeed to the kingdom at the King's death. In 1813 Bernadotte joined in the war of liberation in Germany, and led the Swedish troops against his old master. As Sweden had taken the part of the Allies, while Denmark had been on the ide of France, ifwas settled at the Peace that Norway, which had all this time had the same king as Denmark, should be joined to Sweden, to make up for the loss of Finland, which 342 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAP. was kept by Russia. But the Norwegians withstood this arrangement; they chose a Danish prince for their King, and they made themselves the freest con- stitution of any state in the world that has a King at all. They were so far conquered that they had to accept the union with Sweden, but they joined it only as a perfectly independent kingdom, keeping its new constitution. Meanwhile Denmark still remained an absolute monarchy. When the Empire came to an did, the King of Denmark incorporated his German tluchy of Holstein with his kingdom. At the Peace Denmark obtained the small piece of Pomerania which was held by Sweden; but this was presently given up to Prussia in exchange for the Duchy of Lautnburg, and the King of Denmark became a member of the German Confederation for the Duchies of Holstein and Lauen- burg. 12. Russia and Poland. After the death of Catherine the Second in 1796, her son Paul succeeded. In his time the Russian armies acted with those oi Austria in the campaigns of Italy and Switzerland, but Paul soon afterwards made a separate peace with Buonaparte. Paul seems to have been quite mad, and he was murdered in 1801. His son Alexander re- mained at peace with France till 1805, when he again joined with Austria, but, after the overthrow of both Aus'.ria and Prussia, he made peace with Buonaparte at Tihif, and a small part of the Lithuanian possessions of Prussia was added to Russia. Alexander and Buonaparte seemed to have pretty well agreed to divide Europe between them, as if they were to be the Eastern and Western Emperors. Russia and France remained at peace for six years, during which time Finland was conquered from Sweden and a war was waged with the Turks. In this last the Russian frontier was advanced to the Danube, much as, long t before, the French frontier had reached the Rhine. By ano- ther war which went on at the same time with Persia^ xvi.] RUSSIA AND TURKEY. 343 Russia gained a large territory in the land between the Euxine and Caspian Seas. At last, in 1812, came the French invasion of Russia, which led to the fall of Buonaparte, and Russia took a leading part in the last wars in which he was overthrown. At the general Peace the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which Buonaparte had formed out of the Polish provinces of Prussia, and to which the Polish territory gained by Austria at the last partition had been added, was taken away from the King of Saxony. The Grand Duchy of Posen was given back to Prussia. The rest of the Duchy of Warsaw was made into a Kingdom of Poland, with a constitution of its own, which was united with Russia as a separate state, like Sweden and Norway, or like Great Britain and Ireland just before the union. The city of Cracow, the old capital of Poland, which stood at the meeting of the dominions of the three powers, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, was made into a separate commonwealth, under the protection of all of them. The new Kingdom of Poland did not differ very much in extent from the old kingdom before its union with Lithuania and its conquests from Prussia. It did not take in all that had belonged to the old Poland, but it took in some other lands which had not been part of it. 13. The Turks. Sultan Sdim the Third came to the throne in 1789, while Turkey was engaged in the war with Russia and Austria which was ended by the Peace ofjassy. He had to struggle against enemies on ev.ery side. The Turkish power had now got very weak, and many of the subject nations, Christian and Mahometan, were seeking for independence. Many of the distant Pashas in Europe and Asia seemed likely to set up for themselves, just as happened at the break- ing up of the Caliphate and of the Mogul Empire. Especially the Christians of Serbia revolted in 1806 under Czerni George (that is, Black George}. Servia was conquered again in 1813, but in 1815 it again revolted under Milosh Obrenowttz, and it was after a 344 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAF while acknowledged as a separate, though in som degree dependent, state, as it still remains. And in Czernagora or Montenegro, the small mountain land on the borders of the old Venetian and Turkish possessions, the Christians had never submitted, and- they kept up a constant warfare with the Turks. So did the Christians of Souli in Epeiros and their Ma- hometan neighbour Ali Pasha of Joannina ; and the Mamelukes in Egypt were practically independent. In the midst- of all this came the successive French and Russian wars, and it was of course the interest ol Russia to stir up discontent everywhere among the subject nations, and especially to put herself forward as the protector of all who belonged to the Eastern Church. In the war with France both Russia and England naturally took the Turkish side, and it was by English help that the French were dnven out of Syria and Egypt. In the war with Russia, equally naturally as things stood then, England was on the Russian and France on the Turkish side. But Selim, who was a reformer, was deposed in 1807 and presently murdered. Then came Mahmoud the Second, whose reign lasted till 1839, taking in great events which will come in the next chapter. 14. British Possessions abroad. It was dur- ing this time that the English dominion was practically spread over nearly all India, During the adminis- trations of the Marquess Cornwallis and the Marquesi iVcllesley as Governors-General, the greater part of the country was either annexed to the English do- minions or brought wholly under British influence. In the course of the war large conquests were also made among the French, Dutch, and Spanish possessions, and by these means England acquired Ceylon, the great colony of the Cape of Good Hi>pc, the Mauritius 01 hie of France, several of the West India islands, and a small territory in South America. Colonization was aJso beginning in Australia and in the neighbouring xvi.] THE UNITED STATES. 345 island of Tasmania or Van Dieman's Land. Mean- while we may mention, though it did not happen in any British colony, that in the island of Saint Domingo, Hispaniola, or ffayti, which, at the begin- ning of the Revolution, was held partly by France and partly by Spain, the negroes in both parts set up for themselves. A number of revolutions followed in imitation of those in Europe ; sometimes republics were set up, while sometimes a successful negro called himself Emperor in Hayti, just as Buonaparte did in France. 15. The United States The new Constitution of the United States came into force in the same year that the French Revolution began, and, for about forty years, a remarkable succession of able rulers filled the office of President. The republic grew and prospered, and a great number of new States arose, especially in the lands to the West. But one territory was added in a different way. Spain had now given up her possessions in Louisiana to France, and in 1803 the whole of the French possessions in North America were bought by the United States. The States thus gained, not only the territory which forms the present State of Louisiana, but a claim to all the lands beyond the Mississippi which lay south of the British and north of the Spanish settlements. Out of this territory a great number of new States have gradually been made. During this time too negro slavery was done away with in the Northern States of the Union, but not in the Southern. Out of this difference mainly came the disputes between the Northern and Southern States which had been so important in late years. 1 6. Summary. Thus, in the space of about five- and-twenty years, Europe was more changed than it had ever been before in the same space of time. The great wonder of these times was that, in France itself and in all the countries which were brought altogether under French influence, old ideas and old institutions 346 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. (CHAP. were utterly swept away in a way that had neve! happened before. It followed of course that much that was good and much that was bad perished to- gether. France itself, since the Revolution, has never had a government of any kind that could last for any time. But, on the other hand, none of the ever- shifting French governments have brought in anything like the abuses and oppressions of the olH monarchy. So in other countries, where the old governments went on or where the kings came back again at the general peace, the restored princes mostly forgot their pro- mises and went on reigning as despots ; yet men in general had learned lessons which they never forgot, and which bore fruit afterwards. Even where there was no great political change, there was a wide social change ; and we may say generally that, since the French Revolution, there has been no part of Europe where the people have been so utterly down-trodden as they were in many parts before. Thus serfage, answering to villainage in the old times in England, has been abolished wherever it still went on, though in Russia this has been done only quite lately by the present Emperor. And, though no man ever did more than both Buonaparte himself and the Allies who over- threw him in parting out nations to this and that ruler without asking their leave, yet during all this time ideas were growing up which have taught men that such things should not be done. So again, though the union both of Germany and of Italy was not to happen at once, yet the wars of Buonaparte led men in both countries in different ways to feel more strongly than they had ever felt before that all Germans and all Italians were really countrymen, and that they ought to be more closely joined together. As for particulai changes, France came out at the end of the war with nearly the same boundaries and under the same dynasty which she had at the beginning, but with her internal state utterly changed England had raised .Uirg Confession, 352; Peace of, If. Augustine, Saint, his mission to Britain, '33 Augustus, title of. given to Roman Emperors, 79, 116 Augustus Caesar, (Caius Julius Cesar Octavianus) Triumvir, 79; defeats Antonius and Kleopatra, ib. \ his special title of Augustus, ib. ; his reign, 82; literature and art under, 83 Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, wins back Kaminiec from the Turks, 297 ; his deposition and restoration, ib. ; death, 306 Augustus III., King of Poland, 316 Aurelian, Emperor, 89 ; overthrows the kingdom of Palmyra, 90 Aurelius Marcus, Emperor, 87; his wars with the Germans, 88 ; his writings, ib. Aurungzebe. Mogul Emperor in India, decline of the Empire under, 299 ; revolt of the Mahrattas> from, ib. Austerlitz, battle of, 334 Australia, beginning of colonization in, 323 ; English in, 344 Austria, origin of the Duchy, 139 ; grant of to Albert of Habsburg, 202 ; many of its Dukes chosen Kniperors, 204 ; early dealings with Swiss League, 220; dynasty of "in Spain, 242; its Archdukes Kings of Hungary, 268 ; its power, 201 ; rivalry with Prussia, 304 ; loss of Italian dominions, 306 ; wars under Charles the Sixth, 305 ; with Prussia, 307, 308 ; Genoese re- volt against, 314 ; share of, in the final partition of Fwi.ind, 317 ; wars with Huonaparte, 332, 334, 336; dominion of in Italy, 338, 355; war with France, 352 ; with Prussia. 354; final loss of her Italian dominions, 355, 304 ; relations with Hungary, 357 Austrian Succession, War of the, 307 39 Avars, wars of the Empire with, 115, 128 Avignon, Income tho seat of Popcdom, 205: seized by Lewis XIV., 285; French annexation of, 328 Azov, conquered by Peter the Great, "5 B. Babcr, his reign and descendants, 298 Babylon, taken by Cyrus, 32 ; death ul Alexander at, 40 Babylonish Captivity, meaning of the name, 205 Bagdad, capital of the Abbassides, 125 ; taken by the Moguls, 197 Bajazet the Thunderbolt, Sultan, growth of the Turkish power under, 225 ; defeated by Timour, 226 ; de- feats Siegmund at Nikopolis, 231 Bajazet II., Sultan, 227, 267 Baldwin, Count of Flanders, goes on the Fourth Crusade, 189 ; made Emperor of Constantinople, 190 Baltic Sea, answers to the Mediterra- nean in Northern Europe, 10 Barbarians, meaning of the name, 25 ; settlements of within the Empire, 99 Barcelona, County of, 131 Bartholomew. Saint, massacre of, 256 Bise!. Council of, 207, 208 liasil I., Eastern Emperor, reign of, 147 Basil II., Eastern Emperor, 142: power of the Empire under. 143 : overthrow* the Bulgarian kingdom, ib. Basques, remnant of the non-Aryan people of Eurcpe, 8, 13 Batavian Republic, 339 Batavians, revolt of, against Rome. 86 Baton Khan, Mogul invasions of Eu- rope under, 196 Bavaria, under Charles the Great, 137; war of succession to, 308 Begging Friars, preaching of Wycliffe against, 207 Belgium, kingdom of, 257, 361, see Nether lands Belgrade, Mahomet II. repulsed from, 231; taken by Suleiman, 268: ceded to Austria, 291; restored to Turkey, 319; Peace of ib. Belisarius, his Persian campaigns, 114; ends the Vandal kingdom in Africa, ib. ; his wars with the Goths ii Italy, ib. Bender, Charles XII. takes shelter at INDEX. 373 Benedict, Sa'.nt, founder of western monasticism, 170 Benedict XIII., Pope, 207 Benedict XIV., Pope, 315 Beueventum. Pyrrhos defeated at, 59 Berengar, King of Italy, sufc.uts to Otto the Great, 140 Bern joins the Confederates, 220; fol- lows the teaching of Zwingli, 260; her alliance with Geneva, ib. ; her con- quests, ib. Bernadotte, chosen Crown Prince of Sweden, 341 ; see Charles XIV. of Sweden Bernard Saint, preaches the Second Crusade, 186 Bernhard of Weimar, his share in the Thirty Years' War, 270 Besancon, annexed by lwis XIV., 283 Bithynia, kingdom of, 42 Blake, Admiral, 287 Bceotian League, character of, 44 Bohemia, origin of, 127; its relations to the Empire, 139, 162, 163 : Hussite war in, 207; Frederick, Elector Pala- tine, King of, 269 Bombay, English settlement of, 299 Boniface, Apostle of Germany, 133 Boniface, Marquess of Montferrat, goes on the Fourth Crusade, 189 Boniface VIII., Pope, reign and death of, 305 Boulogne, English conquest of, 254, 262 Bourdeaux, rule of the Black Prince at, 216 Bourses, 217 Bouvines, battle of, 182 Braganza, Portuguese dynasty of, 243 .Brandenburg, Electorate of, 266, 272, 290, see Prussia J5raxil, Portuguese colony, 278; its sep- aration from Portugal, 366 Bremen, Commonwealth of, 174; Bish- oprick of, annexed to Sweden, 271 ; to Hanover, 296 1'resse, annexed to France, 261 "Bretigny. Peace of. 216 Siretiualda, meaning of the name, 133 Britain, its inhabitants, 77. 108; cam- paigns of Oesar in, 77; Roman con- quest of, 85-87 ; Picts and Scots invade the Roman province, 108; first Saxon invasion, 109 ; Roman troops withdrawn from, ib. English con- quest, ib. ; settlement of the English in, 132 ; of the Northmen, 134 ; the English kings become Lords of, 136; destruction of Roman towns in, 173 Britain, Lesser, see Uritanny. Kriunny, origin of the name, 127 : Duchy of, annexed to France, 253 popular speech of, ib. Bruce, Robert, separation of Scotland from England under, 214 Brutus, Marcus Junius. conspires with Cassius and kills Caesar, 78; defeated at Philippi, 79 Buda, Turkish pashilic at, 268 Building, knowledge of, among primi- tive Aryans, 4 Bulgaria, kingdom of, 143 ; conquered by Basil II., tb. ; :onverted to Chris tianity, 145 ; revolts against the Em- pire, 189; conquered by the Turks 225 Buonaparte, Napoleon, rise of, 329 ; hij wars in Italy, ib.; in Switzerland and Egypt. 330 ; Consul, ib. ; reigns as Emperor of the French and King ol Italy, 331 ; his war with England, ib.; his dependent kings, 332 ; invade* Russia, ib.; general alliance against, ib.; his fall, 333 ; his return from Elba and final overthrow, ib. Buonaparte, Louis Napoleon, his early career, 351 ; chosen President of tha Republic, ib. ; reigns as President for ten years, ib. ; as Emperor, 352 ; his wars with Russia and Austria, ib. ; his dealings with Italy, ib. ; his war with Prussia, ib.; his death, it. Buonaparte, Jerome, King of West- phalia, 335 Buonaparte, Joseph, King of Spain, 332 Buonaparte, Lewis, King of Holland, 339 Burgundians, settlement of, in Gaul, 103 Burgundy, County of, temporary an- nexation of, by France, 218 ; part ol the dominions of Charles the Bold, 223 ; of Charles V., 242 ; conquered by Lewis XIV., 283 Burgundy, Duchy of, 131 ; beginning of the Valois Dukes of, 221 ; growth of their power within the Empire, 222; united to France, 223 ; Burgundy, Kingdom of, 129, 130 ; its union with the Empire, 147 : relationi of, with France, 183 ; broken up, 201; the greater part annexed to France, Burgundy, various meanings of th name, 221 Byzantion, 42 ; keeps its independence, ib.; the capital of Empire removed to, 96 c. Cabot, Sebastian, discover* the mail land of America, 175 374 INDEX. Cadiz, see Gades. C&sar, title of, 79. 93 Czsar, Caius Julius Octavianas, tee Augustus C^sar. Oesar. Caius Julius, his birth and char- acter, 76 ; his conquests in Gaul, il>. ; his campaigns in Germany and Bri- tain, 77 ; his civil war with Pompeius, 77, 78 ; his dictatorship and death, 78 ; his writings, 84 Caius Caesar, suruamed Caligula, Em- peror, 85 Calais, English conquest of, 215 ; re- taken by the French, 254, 262 Calcutta. English settlement at, 299 ; taken by Suraj-ad-dowla, 321 Caliph, meaning of the word, 117 Caliphate, Eastern, beginning of, 117 ; division of, 119, 125 ; decay of, in ipth century, 156 Caliphate, Western, beginning of, 126 ; end of, 154 Calmar, union of, 229 Calvin, John, his German followers. 253; teaching of, 255 : his settlement at Geneva, 261 Cambray, League of, 245 Camillus, Marcus Furius, Dictator, takes Veii, 56 Canaanites, native name of the Phce- nicians, 22 Canada. French settlement of, 377 ; English conquest of, 323 ; French rebellion in, 363 Candia, war of, 293 Cannie, battle of, 64 Canute, see Cnut Cape of Good Hope, Portuguese dis- cj.eryof, 228 ; ceded to England, 344 Capuoline Hill, Sabine settlement on. 53 ^aracalla. Emperor, 88, 89 : extension of Roman citizenship under, 89 Carelia, Russian annexation of, 307 Caihst wars in Spain. 360 Carolina, first colonized by Huguenots 277 ; English settlement of, 301 ; South, secession of, from United States, 366 Cirlowitz, Peace of, 291, 294 Carthage, Ph'unician colony of, 23, 59 ; treaty of Rome with, 56 ; extent of her power, 59 ; difference between her warfare and that of Rome, 60 ; her naval superiority, il>. ; her wars with Rome. 60-63 ; her fleet defeated by the Romans. 61 ; her Sicilian pos- essions ceded to Rome, ib. ; her do- minion in Spain, 62, 68 ; becomes de- pendent on Rome, 62 ; taken and destroyed by younger Scipio, 63 : re- stored as a Roman colony by Caesar, 81 ; capital of the Vandal kingdom it Africa, 113 ; taken by the Saracen\ 118 Casimir IV. of Poland, annexes West ern Prussia, 230 Cassius, Caius, conspires with Bruttit against Ca;sar, 78 ; defeated at 1'hil- 'Pp'i 79 Castile, united with Leon under Alfonso VI., 154 ; separated from Leon, 195 ; reunited, ib. ; campaign of the Black Prince in, 227 ; union of, with Aragon, 229 Catalans, revolt of, against John oi Aragon, 228 Cateau-Cambresis, Peace of, 254 Catharine of Medici, her influence over her sons, 255 Catharine I., Empress of Russia, 316 Catharine II., Empress of Russia, suc- ceeds Peter III., 316; her conquest pt Crim Tartary under, ib. ; her share in the partitions of Poland, 317 ; death of, 342 Cato. Marcus Porcius, 76 Catullus, Roman poet, 84 Catulus, Caius Lutatius, defeats the Carthaginians by sea, 61 Cavaignac, General, administration of, Cavour, Count, his share in the union of Italy, 356 Cayenne, French colony of, 277, 351 Celts, the earliest Aryan settlers in Western Europe, 13 ; remains of their languages, 13, 127 ; their place in history, 16 ; their settlements in Spain, 68 ; in Britain, 108 Ceylon, 300 ; acquired by the English, 354 Chaironeia, victory of Philip at, 39 ; victory of Sulla at, 75 Ch.ilkedon, Persian armies encamp at, "5 ChalkidikS, peninsula of conquered by Philip, 39 Chalons, battle of, loa Charlemagne, see Charles the Great Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, reign and abdication of, 355 Charles, Duke of Lorraine, delivers Vienna from the Turks, 291 Charles Kdward Stuart, (the Young Pretender) attempt of, 310 Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, 261 Charles Emmanuel the Third, Duke Ol Saroy and King of Sardinia, his ex- change of kingdoms with Charles VI., 305 ; his share in the war . ; Kast- ern and Western, further division between, 168, 169 ; reconciliation be- tween Eastern and Western, 208 ; changed relations between the Church and the Empire, 237 ; Eastern, mo- dern importance of, 238, 320 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 76, 84 Cimbri, invade Gaul, 70 ; defeated at Vcrcellae, ib. Cimbric Chersonesos, see Jutland Cisalpine Republic, 337 Cistercians, order of, 170 Cities, greatness of, in Italy, 174 Citizenship, 53, 58 Civil Law, Origin of, 87 ; Code of, com- piled by Justinian, 113; study of, in Middle Ages, if>i, 164, 209 Claud ii, Emperors of their house, 84 Claudius, Emperor, chosen by the army, 85 Claudius Gothicus. Emperor, 89, 91 ; his victory over the Goths, 91 Clement III. Pupe, crowns Henry IV., Emperor, 148 Clement V., Pope, his subservience to Philip the Fair, 205 ; moves his Court lo Avignon, ib. ; joins with Philip to destroy the order of the Templars, ib. Clement VI., Pope, deposes Lewis of liavaria, 203 Cisalpine Gaul, 49 ; Roman conquest of, 67, 68 Clement VII., Anti-Pope, tee Robert of Geneva Clement VII., Pope, 247 : makes peace with Charles V., ib. ; his policy, 249 Clement XIV., Pope, suppresses the Jesuits, 315 Clergy, marriage of, forbidden by Gre- gory VII., 249 ; position of, in Middle Ages, 169, 170 ; distinction between ular and secular, 170; learning in the West chiefly in their hands, 171 ; one of the three Estates, 184 Clennont, Council of, 157 Clive, Lord, career of, 321 Clovis, see Chlodwig Cnut, his conquest of England, 144 ; his northern dominion, ib. Cola di Rienzi, see Rienzi Colleges founded in English Universi- ties, 231 Cologne, sec Koln Colonies, Phoenician, extent of, 22, 23, 63; Geeek, extent of, 23, 24. 6t- their relation to the mother cities, 2^ 273 ; their early prosperity, 27, 31 , their difference from European colo nies, 273, see European Colonies Columbus, Christopher, his discover* of the New World, 275 Commodus, Emperor, 88 Commons, one of the three Estates. 184 ; House of. see Parliament Commons of Home, see Plebeians Commonwealths, German, 173, 174! Italian, 174, 209, 212 Commune of Pans, 353 Como, oppressed by Milan, 177 ; seekl help of Frederick Barbarossa, U>. Conde 1 , Prince of, his share in the Thirty Years' War, 271 Confederate States of North America, 367 Confederates, see Swiss League Conrad II., Emperor, first of the Fran cpnian dynasty, 147 ; unites Burgundy with the Empire, ib. Conrad, son of Henry IV., war of, with his father, 148 Conrad III., King, 176 ; goes on the Second Crusade, 177, 186 ; makes a League with the Emperor Manuel, 177 Conrad IV., King, son of Frederick II., >8o Conradin, attempts to win back Sicily, 19? ; his defeat and death, ib. Constance, see Constanz Constance of Britanny, mother of Ar- thur, 181 Constance, wife of Henry VI., Em- peror, 178 Constantino the Great, first Christian Emperor, 94 : union of the Kinpira under, ib. ; moves his capital ta Byzantion or New Rome, 96; i.n changes in the government, //'. ; di- vision of his dominions, 16.: his bap- tism, 97 ; calls the Council of Nikaia, ib. Constantino Kopronymos, Emperor, reign of, 120 Constantinc VI., Emperor, deposition Of, 122 Constantine Palaiologos, last Eastern Emperor, his reconciliation with the Western Church, 226 ; his defence ol Constantinople, and death, 227 Constantinople, becomes the capital ol the Empire, 96 ; Greek influence in, ib.; Saracen sieges of, 118; Rome becomes independent of, 122; Latia conquest of, 189, 190; won back by Michael Palaiologos, 190; bo INDEX. 371 sieged by Amurath II., 226 ; by Mahomet, H., ib.\ becomes capital of the Ottoman Empire, 227 Constantius. Emperor, father of Con- stantino the Great, 95 Constantius, Emperor, son of Constan- tine the Great, reunion of the Empire under, 96 Constanz, Peace of, granted by Frede- rick 1., 178 ; Council of, 207 Constitution of England, 6, 166, 183, 184 Consuls, power of the Roman Kings transferred to, 55 ; Plebeians first chosen, 56 Copenhagen, Treaty of, 295 ; bombard- ment of, 327 Cordova, Ommiad dynasty founded at, 126; seat of the Western Caliphate, ib. Corfu, Venetian possession of, 227, 248 ; attacked by the Turks, 294 Corinth, early foundation of, 26 ; joins the Confederacy against Sparta, 37 ; Alexander's synod at, 39 ; joins the Achaian Leugue, 44 ; destroyed by Mummius, 65 Corsica, its ancient inhabitants, 49 ; subject to Carthage, 59 ; ceded to Rome, 69 ; its relations to the East- ern Empire, 114, 120 ; revolt of, against Genoa, 312 ; annexed to France, 312, 314. Cortez, Hernando, his conquest of Mexico, 276 Corvinus, Matthias, King of Hungary, 231 C'ornwali'., Marquess, his administra- tion in India, 344 Cosmo de' Medici, sre Medici Council, nature of, among Aryan na- tions, 6, 163 Councils of the Church, see Church Courtray, battle of, 219 ; why famous, ib. Cracow, Commonwealth of, 343 ; sup- pression of, 360 CrassuB, Marcus Licinius, defeated and killed by the Parthians, 75 Crecy, battle of, 215 Crete, Saracen conquest of in, 126 ; won back to the Eastern Empire, 143 ; Venetian possession of, 227, 248 ; conquered by the Turks, 293 ; their conquest of, ib. Crimea, 267 ; Russian conquest of, 316 ; war in, 352, 359, 363 Crossus, King of Lydia, conquers the Greeks on the coast of Asia, 32 ; con- quered by Cyrus, ib. Cromwell, Oliver, Protector, greatness of England under, 287 Crusade, First, preached by Peter tin Hermit and Urban II., 157; taking of Jerusalem, ib. Crusade, Second, preached by St. Ber- nard, 1 86 Crusade, Third, 187 Crusade, Fourth, characterof, 188, 191 ; taking of Constantinople, 189 Crusades, beginning and causes of, 155 ; meaning of the name, 157 ; effects of, 158, 186 ; against the Albigenses. 191 ; against Sicily, 192 ; in the nortli of Europe, 193 Cuba, 365 Curland, Duchy of, 217 Culloden, battle of, 310 Cyprus, Phoenician settlements in, 23 . Greek settlements in, 24, 26 ; separata Empire in, 189 ; subject to Venice, 227 ; conquered by the Turks, 248, 269 Cyrus, King of Persia, his conquests ol Babylon and Lydia, 318 ; of tha Greek settlements in Asia, ib. Czar, origin of the name, 276 Czechs, 127 Czernagora, see Montenegro, 343 D. Dacia, wars of, with Rome, 87 ; made a province of by Trajan, 88 ; given up by Aurelian, 91 ; Gothic kingdom in, 100 ; Romance language of, 107 Damascus, capital of the Ommiads, 125 Dandolo, Henry, Doge of Venice, his share in the fourth crusade, 189 Danes, their relations with Charles the Great, 127 ; their ravages and settle- ments of, 134 ; conquer Northern England, 135 ; their wars with Al- fred, ib.\ their settlements in Gau!, 136, 137 ; their final conquest of Eng- land, 144 Dante Alighieri, fixes the standard ol the Italian language, 172 ; his atti- tude towards the Empire, 209 ; his birth and death, 212 Danube, Roman boundary crossed by the Goths, 81, 100 Darius, King of Persia, his expedition against Athens, 32 Da-upkin, origin of the title, 218 David II., King of Scots, captive in England, 216 Davis, Jefierson, President of Confeder- ate States, 366 Deccan, the, 9 Decius, Emperor, persecutions of ChrU tians under, yt 373 INDh X. Delaware Bay, Swedish Colony of, 300; Dutch conquest of, it. Dlmetrios Poliorketes, King of Mace- donia. 43 Democracy, meaning of the word, 28 Demosthenes, stirs up the Athenians against Macedonia, 39, 42 Denmark, greatness of, 163, 194 : its decline in the 131(1 century, 229: reign of the House of Oldenburg in. ib.; its relations with Sleswick and HoUtein, ii>. ; its separation from Sweden, 264 ; accepts the Reformation in, 265 ; wars of, with Liibeck. ib.\ cedes Scania to Sweden, 295 ; becomes an absolute monarchy, ib.; Sleswick and Hulstem united with, 32 ; her exchange of territory in 1814, 324 ; becomes a constitutional state, 363 ; loss of the Duchies, ib. Dermot, Irish King. 185 DC Kuytcr, Dutch admiral, 287 DC Witts, murdered, 295 Dictator, his office at Rome, extent of hi-. ["AVer, 56 Diet, German, in Middle Ages, 167 Dijon, capital of the Duchy of Bur- gundy, i jt Diocletian, Kmperor. his division of the Empire. 93 ; hi* abdication, it'.; perse- cution of the Christians under, 94 Dionysios, Tyrant of Syracuse, 59 Directory in France, 329 Ditmarsclieu conquered by Denmark, 265 Dominic, Saint, founder of the Domini- cans, -70 Dominicans attacked by \yicldiffe, 207 Domingo Saint, see Hayti Doimtiau, Emperor, 86, 87 Dorians, their migration, 30 Dmsus. campaigns of, in Germany, 83 Dunkirk, cession of, to England. 272 ; sold by Charles II. to France. 288 Dnpleix, governor of Pondicherry. 320 Dutch, settlements of High and Low, 108 Dutch colonies in America, 278, 300 ; ti India, 300 E. Eadgyth, tee Edith Ear, a common Aryan word, 5 East, the, character of its history, 2, ST ; prevalence of Mahomctanism in, 117 East-Angles, kingdom of, 133 Kast-Saxons, kingdom of, 133 Eastern Caliphate, see Caliphate, East- ern Eastern Omich, see Church Eastern Empire, separate.! from thf Western, 123, 125; its greatness undei the Hasiiian dynasty, 142, 143 ; Sla- vonic invasions, ib.; decline of iu power, 155 ; cut short by the Seljulc Turks, 156 ; its revival under the Komnenian dynasty, ib., 189 ; be- comes practically Greek, 162 ; uncer- tainty of succession in, 168 ; its de- cline, 189 ; its restoration, 190 : be- comes more strictly hereditary, 190, 191 ; its advance and decline in I4th century, 224 ; end of, 227 Eastern Mark, see Austria East India Company, its beginning and growth, 298, 299, 320 ; its powen transferred to the Crown, 321, 364 Ecgberht, King of the West Saxons, his supremacy, 135 Edgar, King of the English, reign of, 144 Edith, daughter of Edward the Elder, marries Otto the Great, 144 Edmund. Magnificent. King of the English, his wars with the Danes, 136 Edmund Ironside. King of the English, Ins wars with Cnut. 144 Edmund, son of Henry III. of England, crown of Sicily offered to, 192 Edward the Elder, King of the English, his wars with the Danes. 136 ; receives the homage of all Britain, ib. Edward the Confessor, King of the Eng- lish, son of ./Ethelred, 145 ; his alliance with the Emperor Henry II.. 148; last of the West-Saxon dynasty, 150, IS' Edward I. of England, his crusade, 188 ; his conquest of Wales and Scot- land, 214 Edward II. of England. 215 Edward III., his claim to the French crown, 215 ; his alliance with the Em- peror Lewis, ib. ; gives up and re- asserts his claims, 216 Edward VI. of England, 262 Edward the Black Prince, his rule at Bordeaux, 216; restores Peter of Cas- tile's crown, 228 Egbert, see Ecgberht Eginhard, his life of Charles the Great, '37 Egypt, submits to Alexander the Great, 40; rule of the Ptolemies in. 41, 71 ; Roman conquest of 79 ; Saracen con- quest of, Il8; separate Caliphate in, 156, 186; recovered by Saladin, 187' campaign of Saint Lewis in, 188; an- nexed by Sultan Selim. 268 ; campaign of Buonaparte in, 330; it no'ler* relation to Turkey, 358 INDEX. 37$ Eirene, deposes Constantino VI., 122 Elagabalus, Kmperor, takes the names of Aurelius and Antoninus, 89 Elba, Buonaparte exiled to, 333 ; his re- turn from, ib. Eleanor of Aquitaine, wife of Henry II. of England, 153 Electors of the Empire, origin of, 167 Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, 516 Elizabeth, Queen of England, final set- tlement of the Reformation under, 262 ; conspiracies against, 263 ; her war with Philip, ib. Elizabeth of Parma, wife of Philip V. of Spain, 306 Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of Eng- land, married to Frederick, Elector Palatine, 270 Elsass, French annexations of, 272, 275, 312, 328 ; given back to Germany, 353 Kmmanuel Filibert, Duke of Savoy, 261 Emperor-elect, title of, 250 Kmpire, Roman, see Roman Empire Empire, Eastern, see Eastern Empire Empire, Western, see Western Empire England, foundation of the kingdom of, 136 ; its connexion with the Western Empire, 144; Danish conquest of, ib. ; restoration of West Saxon Dynasty, 145 ; Norman conquest of, 150, 152 ; relations with France, 150, 180 ; growth of Feudal ideas in, 165, 166 ; growth of its constitution, 183, 185 ; its connexion with Ireland, 185, i8S ; final union of Wales with, 214; rela- tions with Scotland and France, 215, 217; loss of her possessions inAqui- taine, 216, 217; historians of, 231; religious and social movements in, 242 ; decline of villainage in, ib. ; civil wars in, 261, 264 ; the Reformation in, 232 ; its later relation and union with Scotland, 263, 264 ; its colonies, 277, 278, 301, 363 ; wars of, with France, 285, 286 ; greatness of, under the Par- liament and Protectorate, 287 ; her* wars with the United Provinces, #., 288 ; degradation of, under Charles and James, ib. \ effects of the Revo- lution in, ib. ; legislative union of Scotland with, 289 ; growth of her power in India, 298, 299, 321, 344 ; growth of her maritime power, 300 ; her foreign wars, 309, 310; revolt of her American colonies, 310; her col- onization in Australia, 323, 344 ; her wars with Napoleon Buonaparte, 329, 331, 340; with the United States, 341 ; with Russia, 363 ; her later wars, 564 ; her relations with Ireland, ib. English, the early home cf, 76, 109, their conquest of Brirjun, 109; m difference from other Teutonic settle- ments, 110; keep their own languag* and religion, ib. ; their kingdoms in Britain, 132, 133 ; their convers on, 133 ; history of their language, 152, 232 ; later settlements of, 273 Epaminondas, restores Messene, 38; killed in the battle of Mantineia, ib. Epeiros, relations of its people to th Greeks, 20, 25 ; kingship in, 27 ', its greatness under Pyrrhos, 43 ; reck- oned as a Greek state, ib. \ becorres a Federal commonwealth, 46 ; helps Macedonia against Rome, 64 ; Roman conquest of, 65 ; despots of, 190 Epidamnos, submits to Rome, 63 Estates, assemblies of, 184 ; established in France by Philip the Fair, 184, 185 Esthonia, 193 Etruria, doubtful origin of its people, 50 ; Confederation of, ib. ; Gaulish invasion of, 56 Eugenius IV., Pope, 207 ; holds a coun- cil at Ferrara and Florence, 208 Eumenes, King of Pergamos, 67 Euripides, 34 Europe, its geographical character, 10 ; its three great peninsulas, n ; settle- ment of the Aryans in, 12-15 i ' l characteristics in modern times, 236 ; spread of Christianity in, 238 Evesham. battle of, 185 F. Family Compact, 313 Farel, William, 260 Fatimites, their Caliphate in Egypt, 186 ; put down by Saladin, 187 Federation, nature of, 44 Ferdinand III. of Castile, finally unites Castile and Leon. 195 ; his conquests from the Mahometans, ib. Ferdinand, King of Naples, 228 Ferdinand of Aragon, marries Isabella of Castile, 228 ; their conquest oi Granada, 229; his conquest of Na- varre, 242 ; his treaty with Lewis XII., 245 ; his conquest of Naples, ib. ', joins in the League of Cambray, ib. ; his death, 246 Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 338, 360; death of, ib. Ferdinand I., Emperor, 251 Ferdinand II., Emperor, his luccesse* in the Thirty Years' War, 269; hit death. 270 Ferdinand III., Emperor, a 70 3 8o INDEX. Ferdinand V., of Hungary and Austria, 356. 357 Ferrara, Council of, 208 Feudal Tenure, origin of, 165 ; its dif- ference from allodial tenure, ib. ; effects of, 165, 166 Fiefs, see Feudal Tenure Finland, Russian conquest of, 341 Fins, a remnant of the non-Aryan peo- ple of Europe. 8 Flamininus, Titus Quinctius, proclaims the freedom of Greece, 64 Flanders, Counts of, 131 ; a fief of the French crown, 210; united to the Duchy of Burgundy, 222; freed from homage to France, 247 Florencs, Council of, 208 ; subjection of Pisa to, 211 ; constitution of 211, 212; power of the Medici in, 212 : the birthplace of Dante, ib. ; gets rid of the Medici, 245 ; obliged to take them back, 246 : siege and subjugation of, 248 : the Medici made Dukes of, ib. \ Sienna added to, ib. ; becomes the temporary capital of Italy, 356 Florida, Spanish colony. 313 ; ceded to England, it'. ; given buck to Spain, 33 Forest Cantons, the three, league formed by, 219 France, origin of name, 104 : Duchy of, 131 : beginning of the kingdom, 13* ; end of her connexion with the Empire, 141 ; relations of, with England, 152, 153; effects of the Norman conquest on, i!>, ; effects of the Feudal Tenures on, 167; the crown becomes heredi- tary, 168 ; relations of, with England under Henry II., 180; conquest of English possessions in, 181; growth of the royal power in, 182 ; advance of her dominion, 183 ; constitution of, 184, 185 ; suppression of Templars in, 206 ; allied with Scotland against England, 215; wars of, with England, 215-217; further extensior of her do- minion, 218 : Duchy of Burgundy annexed to, 223, 242 : peasant revolts in, 232 ; acquires Roussillon and Artois, 243 ; rivalry of, with Spain, 044, 246 ; advance of the power of, S3 i her annexation of Britanny, ib. ; her wars with England, 254 : wins lack Calais, ib. ; her wars with the Empire, ib. '. annexes the three Lo- tharingian bishopricks, ib. ; her wars with Spain, 255 ; persecution and civil wars in, it>. ; dealings of, with Savoy, 261 ; her part in the Thirty Years' War, 270; further annexations of, 272; her settlements in America. 2 77 : greatness of, under T-ewis XIV, 282; Grand Alliance formed against, 285 ; persecutions of Protestants in, 286; wars of, 305, 306, 310; position of, in i8th century, 311; her annexa- tions of Lorraine and Corsica, 312? allied with Spain against Portugal. 313 ; her wars with England in India, 320, 321 ; her loss of Canada, 312 ; beginning of the Revolution, 328 ; divided into departments, ib. ; an- nexes Venaissin and Avignon, /'/>. ; becomes a Republic, 329 ; wars and conquests of the revolution, ib. ; rule of Buonaparte, 330 ; extent of his Em- pire, 332 ; restoration of the Bourbons, 333 ; her North-American possessions bought by United States, 345 ; rev- olutions in, 350, 351 ; late wars of, 352 ; last republic of, ib. Franche Comte\ see Burgundy Francia, meanings of the name, 104, 129 ; extent under Charles the Great, 127 Francis I. of France, his rivalry with Charles V., 246 ; his wars in Italy, ib. ; his captivity and release, it: ; makes peace with Francis, 247 ; his conquest of Savoy, 254 ; characftr and death of, Hi. Francis II. of France, reign of, 255 ; persecution of the Hngutriots under, ib. ; marries Mary of Scotland, 263 Francis, Duke of Loraine, marries M.ina Theresa, 306; succeeds to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, ib. ; see Francii I., Emperor. Francis I., Kmperor, 307 Francis II., Emperor. 308 ; resigns the Imperial crown, 334 ; his title of Em- peror of Austria, ib. ', President of tha German Confederation, 336 ; reign of, 356 Francis Joseph of Austria, 357 ; crowned King of Hungary, ib. Francis, Saint, founder of the Frascin- can order, 170 Franciscan order, foundation of, 170 Franconia, origin of the name, 147 Francoman Emperors, 147 ; end of theii dynasty, 148 Franken, see Franconia Frankfurt (am Main), free city, 336 annexed to Prussia, 354 Franks, first heard of, 91 ; their settle- ments in Gaul, 103 ; their advanca under Chlodwig, 103, 104 : their do- minion in Italy, 121 : greatness of, under Charles the Great, 127 ; di- visions of their kingdoms, 128 ; union of, under Charles die Fat, 129 ; J^^*t INDEX. rrn, use of the name, 157 : Franks, East, choose Arnulf king, 130 ; their kingdom grows into Germany, ib. Franks, West, choose Oiio king, 130; their kingdom grows into France, 131 Frederick L, Emperor, surnamed Bar- barossa, 177 ; his dealings with the Italian cities, ib. ; with the Popes, i/8 ; with the Kings of Sicily, ib. ; with the Eastern Empire, ib. ; dies on the Third Crusade, ib., i8j Frederick II., Emperor, his two elec- tions, 179 ; called the " Wonder of the World," ib. ; flourishing state of Sicily, under, ib. his dealings with Germany, Italy and the Popes, ib. ; wins back Jerusalem, 187 ; favours Teutonic knights, 194 Frederick III., last Emperor crowned at Rome, 204 Frederick I., King of Denmark and Norway, 265 Frederick II., 265 Frederick III. of Denmark, the king- dom becomes an absolute monarchy under, 295 Frederick VII. of Denmark grants a free constitution, 362 Frederick, Elector of Saxony, protector of Luther, 251 Frederick, Elector Palatine, chosen King of Bohemia, 269 ; driven out, ib. Frederick of Aragon, King of Sicily 214 Frederick of Austria, double election of, with Lewis of Bavaria, 203 Frederick of Swabia, brother of Conrad III., 177 Frederick William I., the Great Elector of Brandenburg, 266 ; joins the league against Lewis XIV., 284 Frederick I., first King of Prussia, 266, 290 Frederick William I., King of Prussia, 290 Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia, his claims to and conquest of Silesia, 307: growth of Prussia under, 308 ; his share in the partition o! Poland, 317 Frederick William III. of Prussia, his annexation of Hanover, 335 Frederickshall, Charles XII. killed at, 2 95 Freedraen obtain Roman citizenship, , ?2 French, Dukes of, 131 French, Romance speech of Northern Gaul, 107, 131 ; use of, in England, 152, 232 ; its media val literature, 172, ^ 231, 279 Froissart. his history of the Hundred Vears' War, 231 G. Gades, Phoenician colony, 23 Galatia, settlement of, 42 Galba, Emperor, 86 Gallienus, Emperor, 90 Ganganelli, see Clement XIV. Garibaldi, 356 Gascony, Duchy of, 131 Gaul, Cisalpine, 49 ; Roman conquest of, 67, 68 ; invaded by Cimbri and Teutones, 70 Gaul, Transalpine, Greek Colonies on the coast, 24, 69 ; Roman province in, ib. ; Caesa j s conquest of, 76; reason of its importance, 77 ; settlement oi Burgundians and Franks in, io;j ; Romance nations and languages in, 105, 107; Saracens in, 118; driven out of, 119; invasions and settlements of Northmen in, 136 ; see France. Gauls, their invasion of Greece and Macedonia, 42 ; their settlement in Galatia, ib. ; defeat Romans at the Allia,56; take Rome, ib. ; help Sam- nites against Rome, 57 Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, 59 General Councils, see Church Geneva, preaching of Farel in, 260 ; be- sieged by Dukes of Savoy, ib. ; Cal- vin's influence in, 261 ; annexed to ranee, 339 ; freed, 340 Genoa, its position in i4th and isth centuries, 211 ; bombardment of by Lewis XIV., 284 ; revolt of Corsica from, 312 ; revolutions in, 314 : joined to Piedmont, 337 Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, husband oi Empress Matilda, 153 Geography of Europe, 10 George I. of England, 289, 309 George II. of England, 309 George III. of England, 310 George of Denmark, King of Greece, 358 George, Czerni, revolt of Scrvia under, 3 2 5 . Georgia, colony of, founded, 301 German Confederation, the, 336 German Emperors of the West, 125 German language, fee Teutonic, Dutch, High and Low Germany Germanicus, origin of his name, 85 ; death of, ib. Germans, early government of, 6 ; Ro- man wars with, 85, 88, 99 ; their in- vasion and settlements in the Empire, 09 Germany, campaigns of Caesar in, 77 ; united under Charles the G; eat, 127 } beginning of the kingdom, 129, 136 INDEX. wars with the Hungarians, ib. ; Saxon Kings of, 139 ; union with the Roman Empire, 140 ; becomes the centre of the Krnpire, 162 ; effects of the Feudal Tenures in, 167 ; election of Kings i'i, it., 168 ; special greatness of Prelates in, 170 ; language of, 172 ; frowth of towns in, 173 ; reign of 'rederick II. in, 179 : decline of the kingdom, 183, 198 ; effects of the Great Interregnum, 201 : King of, use of the title, 206 ; its division into circles, 251 ; the Reformation in, 251, 253 ; results of Peace of Augsburg, 253 ; the Thirty Years' War in, 269, 271 ; state of, after the Peace of West- phalia, 271 ; state of literature in, 279 ; liberation of, from BuonapartCj 332 ; effects of the French Revolution in, 333< 335 : e "d of the kingdom of, 333, 334 ; confederation of, 336 ; formation of the Zollvcrein in, 353; revolutions in. il>. ; union and Empire of, 354 GhibeKn, origin and meaning of the name, 147 Gian (Jak-azzo Visconti, see Visconti Gibraltar, taken by the English, 286, 289 ; defence of, 310 Glabro, Manins Acilius. defeats Antio- chos at Thermopylai, 65 Gods, names of, common to Aryan na- tions, 6; Roman and Greek con- founded. 52 Godfrey of Boulogne, King of Jerusa- lem, 1-7 Golden Bull, the, 204 Good Hope, Cape of, its discovery, 274 Gothic lai.-guage, 91, 108 G.iths, firjt heard of, 91 ; wars of, with Romans, ib. ; defeated by Claudius, Hi. , converted by Ulfilas. ib. ; pass into the Kmpire, it. ; defeat Valens at Hadrianople, ib. ; their settlement in Dacia, 100 Goths, Kast, their dominion in Italy, 104, 105 ; overthrow of their kingdom, 114 Goths, West, take Rome, 101 ; their kingdom in Gaul and Spain, 101, 103 ; lose and recover part of Spain, 114, 116 Gotland, Isle of, annexed to Sweden, 265 Gotthard Kettler, Grand Master of Livonia, his cessions to Pcland, 266 Government, earliest form of, among Aryan nations, 6,27; fcrnis of, in Greece, 27 ; in ancient Rome, 52 ; effects of standing armies upon, 237 ; Gracchus Tiberius and Caius, 72 Grunada, Mahometan kingdom of, 230 ; conqt :redby Ferdinand and Isabel]* 229 Grand Alliance, the, 285 Granikos, battle of, 40 Granson, battle of, 223 Gratian, Emperor, extinction of pagan- ism under, 99, ico Gravtlines, battle of, 254 Grtat Britain, kingdom of, 289 310; re- volt of the American colonies front, 310, 322 ; position of, in i8th centurv, 31 1 , Ireland united to, 340 ; posses- sions abroad, 344 ; extension and in- creased independence of her colonies, 363 ; less interference of. in conti- nental affairs, 364 ; later wars of, ib. firm union of, 300-364 Great Mogul, title of, 300, 364 Great Schism, 206 Great Interregnum, 200 Greece, Aryan settlement in, 12 ; its history earlier than that of Rome, 18 : influence of its geographical charactei on, 11, 21 ; its earlier political advance, 21 ; early history of, how far mist- worthy, 30, 31 ; first Persian invasion, 32 ; second, 33 ; supremacy of Philip, 39 : Gaulish invasion, 42 ; character of its later history, 43 ; prevalence of Federal government in, 44, 45 : the last days of its independence, 46 ; first dealings of, with Rome ; freed from Macedonia, 64 ; practically dependent on Rome, ib. \ final conquest, 65 ; in- fluence of its culture in Asia, 67 ; last- ing power of its civilization, 79 ; Sla- vonic settlements in, 143 ; Turkish conquest of, 227 ; War of Indepen- dence, 357 ; kingdom of, 358 Greek, an Aryan tongue, 4 ; use of, in the Eastern Empire, 112, 171 ; in Southern Italy, 123 Greek provinces of Rome, 81 Greeks, their kindred with Italians, 12, 20, 51 : first Aryan nation mentioned in written history, 19 ; their relationi to the neighbouring nations, 20 ; their relations with the Phoenicians, 23 ; extent of their colonies, 23, 24 ; dis- tinction between them and the Bar- barians, 25 ; their forms of govern ment, 27, 28 : their religion, 2C) ; con- quest of their cities in Asia Minor, by Croesus, 32 ; by Cyrus, ib. ; then disputes, with Persian Kings, ib. ; submission of their colonies to Xerxes. 33 ; their Asiatic cities given up to Persia, 37 ; spread of their civilization in Asia, 40, 41 ; th'.ir colonies in Southern Italy, 50, 51 ; their cobnie* in Can), 69 INDEX. Greenland, Scandinavian settlement in, 275 Gregory I. (the Great), Pope, sends Augustine to Britain, 133 Gregory II., Pope, withstands the Iconoclasts, 121 Gregory III., Pope, withstands the IconocNsts, 121 Dregory VII. (Hildebrand), Pope, dis- putes of, with Henry IV., 148 ; driven out by Henry, ib. ; his designs, 149 Gregory IX., Pope, opposes Frederick II., 187 ; preaches crusade against the Prussians, 194 Gregory X., Pope, his measures of pacification, 204, 205 ; his death, ib. Gregory XI., Pope, brings back the Papal court to Rome, 206 Gregory XII., deposed by Council of Constanz, 207 Gut If, origin and meaning of the name, 177 Guise, family of, its relations with France, 255 Gunhild, daughter of Cnut, marries the Emperor Henry II., 148 Gunpowder, invention of, 209 Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden, 264 ; growth of the kingdom under, ib. Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, 265 ; his share in Thirty Years' War, 270 ; death of, ib. Gustavus III. of Sweden, war of, with Russia, 341 ; murder of, ib. Gustavus IV. of Sweden, reign and deposition of, 341 Gutenberg of Mainz, his invention of printing, 209 Guthrum, Danish King, Alfred's treaty with, 136 H. Habsburg, House of, 202, 306 Hadrian, Emperor, 87 ; gives up the conquests of Trajan, 88 Hadrian IV., Pope, his disputes with Frederick I., 178 ; gives his Bull to Henry II. for the conquest of Ireland, 185 Hadrian VI., Pope, character of, 249 Hadrianople, battle of, 100 ; taken by the Ottomans, 225 Hamburg, commonwealth of, 174, see Hanseatic League Hamilcar Barkas, growth of the Car- thaginian power in Spain under, 62 yannibal, general of the Carthaginians, takes SaRimtum, 62 ; his campaigns in Italy, it. ; defeated by Scipio, 63 ; 383 makes a league with Philip of Mace- donia, 64 Hanover, Electorate of. joined to Prus- Sla > 335: kingdom of, 336; annexed to Prussia, 354 Hanseatic League, formation of, 173 ; its wars with Scandinavia, 229 ; dim- inution of its power, -271 ; its cities annexed to France, 336 ; joins the German Confederation, ill. Harold Blaatand, Danish King, wars of Otto II. with, 141 ; conversion of, ib. Harold Hardrada, of Norway, invades England, 151 Harold, King of the English, defeated by William the Conqueror, 151 Hasdrubal, 62 Hastings, battle of, 151 Hastings, Warren, 321 Hayti, 275 ; revolutions in, 345 Hebrews, a Semitic nation, 7 Hedwig, Queen of Poland, marrie. Jagellon, Duke of Lithuania, 230 Heligoland, English possession of, 344 Hellas, mear.ing of the word, 20 Helvetic Republic, 339 Henry, Duke of Saxony, elected King of Germany, 138 ; his wars with the Magyars, ib. Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, his wars with Frederick I.. 178 ; marries Matilda, daughter of Henry II. of England, ib. ; loss of dominions, ib, Henry II., Emperor, 141 Henry III., Emperor, his dealings with the Papacy, 147 ; his alliance with Englan'd, 148 Henry IV., Emperor, revolt of the Sax- ons against, 148 ; disputes between him and Gregory VII., 148 : his wars with his sons, ib.; drives Gregory from Rome, ib. crowned Emperor by Clement III., ib. Henry V., Emperor, his war with his father, 148 ; his disputes with the Popes, ib. ; marries Matilda, daugh- ter of Henry I. of England, ii, ; ends the Franconian dynasty, ib. Henry VI., Emperor, his conquest ol Sicily, 178 Henry VII., Emperor, revival of the Empire under, 202 ; coronations of, at Milan and Rome, ib. ; death of, ib. Henry I. of England, marries Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, 153 Henry II. of England, pedigree of, 153 ; marries Eleanor of Aquitaine, ff: : dominions of, 170; death of, 181 ; conquest of Ireland under, 185 3*4 INDEX. Henry III. of England, reign of, 182; his wars with France, 183 ; civil wars of his reign, 184 Henry V. of England, his French vic- tories, 217 Hinry VI. of England, crowned at t'aris, 217 Henry VIII. of England, takes Bou- logne, 254 ; aspires to the Empire, i'.u , throws off the Papal power, 262 Henry I. of K ranee, 153 Henry 11. of France, his wars with the Empire, ..54 ; annexes the three Bish- fjincks, //'. ; persecution of Hugue- nots under, ^25 Htnry 111. of France, 255, 256 H'.:nry IV. of France and Navarre, leader of the Huguenots, 255 ; his possessions, 256 ; turns Catholic, ib. ; his niunler, u>. Henry, Dim, Infant of Portugal, mari- time discoveries and conquests under, 228 Henry of Trasuimara. civil war of, with Pedro of Castile. 227 ; kills 1'edro, 228 Herakleia, long independence of, 42 Heiachus, Emperor, 115 ; his Persian campaigns, 116 Hermann of Sal/a, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, 194 Herodotos, history of, 31 Heroes, children of the Gods, 29 Ages, 27 Hessen-Cassei, Electorate of, 3 4 Hi^h- Dutch tongue, influence of Luther on, 279 Hienm, King of Syracuse, helps Car- ih.ige against Rome, 60 ; makes an > e with Koine, 13 Hiidebrand, favours the designs of Wil- liam the Conqueror, 151, see also Gregory Vll. Hindoslan. Aryan settlements in, 9 Hippias, Tyrant of Athens, 32 Hi.-.] ..ia, see Hayti Hi-'.oiy. different aspects of, i ; Eastern und Western, dillerent characters of, i ; division of, into periods, 17 ; how soon trustworthy, 17, 18 ; writers of, at Constantinople, 171 ; English and trench writers of, 231 HobewtMifen, House of, 176 Hoi i.;ou Khan, ends Caliphate of Bag- dad. 197 H lilaud, Stadholdcrship of, 294 ; see Netherlands and United Provinces HoUtein, Duchy of, ils relations with Denmark, 229, 318, 342, 362 ; a fief of die Empire, 229 ; joined to Prussia, 362 Holy League, the, 245 Homeric Poims, their value, 30 Honorius, Western Emperor, 101 Horace, 84 Hospitallers, foundation of, 171, 186 driven out of Rhodes, 268 ; their po session and defence of Malta, ib. House of Commons, origin of, 185 House of Lords, origin of, 185 Hugh the Great, Duke of the French, 132 ; his wars with Lewis, ib. Hugh Capet, Duke of the French, chosen King, 132 Huguenots, persecutions of, 255 ; mas- sacre of, 256 ; colonize Carolina, 277 Hundred Years' War, 256 ; compared with Peloponnesian War, ib. ; end of, 217 Hungarians, their settlement in Europe, 15, 138 ; their wars with Germany and conversion, 139, 168 Hungary, kingdom of, founded, 139, 163 ; ravages of the Moguls in, 197 ; its connection with the Empire, 203 : its Angevin Kings, 230 ; threatened by the Turks, ib. ; designs of Austria on, 231 ; Turkish conquests in, 268 ; crown passes to House of Austria, ib. ; revolts against Ferdinand 11., 269 ; reign of Leopold, 290 ; Turks driven out of, 291 ; crown made hereditary, ib. ; civil wars in, it. ; dealings of Joseph II. with, 308; revolution and re-conquest, in, 356, 357 ; restoration of, 357 Hnniades, John, exploits of, against the Turks, 231 Huns, driven out of China, 100 ; enter Europe, ib. \ their dominion under Amla, 102 ; their defeat at Chilooi, il>. Huss, John, burning of, 207 Hussite War in Bohemia, 207 Ibrahim lays waste Peloponnesos, 258 Iconoclasts controversy, 120, 141 Ignatius Loyola founds the Order of Jesuits, 250 Ikomun, capital of Scljuk Turks in Asia Minor, 158 Iliad, see Homeric Poems lllyria, Greek settlements in, 24 ; war of, with Rome, 63 ; Roman Emperan from. 89, 91, 93 Imjxrator, title of, 78, 79 Imperial Chamber, 251 Infantry, use of, in war, 232 India, Aryan settlements in, 9 ; begii> ning of Mahometan conquests of, 15',' INDEX. 385 English and Dutch settlements in, 398; Mogul rule in, ib., 299; begin- ning of the Company in, ib. ; French and English struggles for supremacy in, 320 ; growth of English power in, 321, 344 ; mutiny of the native sol- diers, 364 ; its government transferred to the British crown, ib. Indies, West, discovery of, by Colum- bus, 275 Innocent II., Pope, 176 Innocent III., Pope, 179 ; his dealings with John of England, 182 Innocent IV., Pope, deposes Frederick II., 179, 182; protests against the taking of Zara, 189, 191 ; proclaims a crusade against the Albigenses, 191; offers crown of Sicily to Kdmund of England, 192 Innocent VIII. , Pope, 213 Interregnum, the Great, 201 Ionian Islands, Republic of, formed, under English protection, 341 ; in- corporated with Greece, 258, 363 lonians, their Asiatic colonies, 30 Iran, meaning of the name, 8 Ireland, Celtic inhabitants of, 108 ; English conquest of, 155, 185 ; Re- formation in, 240; Cromwell's con- quest of, 287 ; conquest of, by Wil- liam III., 289; independence of, 310; rebellion in, 340 ; union of, with Great Britain, ib. ; disaffection In, 357 ; disestablishment ot Church in, ib. Irish, a Celtic people, 108 ; see Scots Irish tongue, 13 Isabella, wife of Edward II. of Eng- land, 215 ; Edward III.'s claim to the French crown through her, ib. Isabella, Queen of Castile, marries Ferdinand of Aragon, 228 ; their joint rule, ib. ; conquest of Granada under, 229; death of, 241 Isabella II., Queen of Spain, reign deposition of, 360 Issos, battle of, 40 Italian, a Romance tongue, 106 ; fixed by Dante's poems, 172 Italians, their kindred with the Greeks, I2 > 5 r > 57 i their relations to Rome, 58 ; rise against Rome, 73 Italy, ojie of the three great European peninsulas, n ; its Aryan and pre- Aryan inhabitants, 12, 13, 48, 50 ; geography of, 48 ; effect of its geo- graphy on its history, 50 ; language re- ligion and government in, 52 ; Leagues in. ib. ; Roman conquest, of 57, 59 ; invaded by Hannibal, 62 ; end of Emperors in, 102 ; passes into the hands of the Barbarians, 103 ; rule of Odoacer in, ib. ; East- Gothic kin dom in, 104; flourishing state of, under Theodoric, 105 ; recovered to the Empire by Belisarius and Nar- ses, 114; Lombard conquest of, ib., 120; decline of the Imperial power in, 121 ; dominion of the Franks in, 122 rule of Lothar in, 128 ; rival Kings, 130 , kingdom united to Germany, 140 ; growth of the towns in, 174 ; decline of their power and freedom, ib. ; dealings of Frederick I. with, 177, 178; Frederick II. 's wars in, 179; falls off from the Empiie, 200 ; revival of learning in, 208, 209 ; use of print- ing and gunpowder in, 209 ; its Com- monwealths in I4th and isth centuries, 209, 212 ; growth of Tyrants in, ib. ; made the battlefield of Europe, 244, 292 ; rivalry of France and Spain in, 244. 246 ; wars of Charles VIII. and Lewis XII. in, 244-246 ; wars of Charles and Francis in, 246 ; domi- nion of Charles V. in, 247 ; Spanish rule in, ib. ; no progress made by Reformation in, 249 ; state of, in the eighteenth century, 313; wars of the French Revolution in. 329, 337 ; Buona- parte's kingdom in, 331 ; restoration of the princes, 337 ; changes in, ib. ; power of Austria in, 338 ; disturb- ances in, 354 ; revolutions and wars, deliverance of, 352-356 ; formation of the kingdom, 355, 356 Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, 365 Ivan Vasilowitz, frees Russia from Mo- guls, 327 Ivan IV. of Russia, his wars, 266 ; takes the title of Czar, 267 J. Jacob, Caliph of the Almohades, defeats Alfonso of Castile at Alarcos, 195 ; growth of the Mahometan power in Spain under, ib. Jagellon, Duke of Lithuania, marries Hedwig, Queen of Poland, 230 ; his conversion, ib. Jamaica, English conquest of, 287 James the Conqueror, King of Aragon, reign of, 195 James V. of Scotland, death of, 263 James I. of England (VI. of Scotland), union of England and Scotland under, 264 : his foreign policy, ib. James II. of England, reign and abdi- cation of, 285, 288 James Franks Edward Stuart (<>M Pretender), attempt of, abetted by 386 INDEX. Lewi* XIV., 309 ; by Spain and Sweden, ib. Jamteland, annexed to Sweden, 265 anissaries, origin of, 225 ; decay of, 297 ; end of, 358 }assy, Treaty of, 319 ehangir, Mogul Emperor, grants a Qiarter to the English, 298 Jena, battle of, 335 Jenghiz Khan, rise of the Moguls under, 196 Jerome Buonaparte, King of West- phalia, 335 Jerome of Prague, burning of, 207 Jerusalem, taken by Pompeius, 75 ; de- stroyed by Titus, 86 ; taken by the Crusaders, 157 ; kingdom of, i/>., 186 ; taken by Saladin, 187 ; won back by Frederick II., ib. ; final capture of, by the Chorasmians, 188 ; end of the kingdom, ib. Jesuits, order of, their foundation and growth, 250 ; power of, ib. ; driven out of Spain and Portugal, 313 ; sup- pressed by Clement XIV., 315 Jews, a Semitic people, 7 ; religion of, ib. ; subdued by Titus, 86 ; persecu- tion of, in Spain, 244 Joachim Murat, King of Naples, 332 Joan of Arc, called the Maid of Orleans, 317 Joanna of Castile, 242 ; married to Philip of Austria, ib. Joanna I., Queen of Naples, 213 Joanna II., Queen of Naples, 213 John, Chrysostom, Saint, Patriarch of Constantinople, 112 John XII., Pope, crowns Otto the Great, 140 John XXII., Pope, quarrels of, with Lewis of Havana, 903, 206 John XXIII., Pope, deposed, 207 John of Aragon, revolt of the Catalans against, 228 John of Austria, Don, 258 John, King of Bohemia, killed at Crecy, 2O3, 2l6 John of England succeeds Richard, 181 ; loses Normandy, ib. ; quarrels with Innocent the Third, i8a ; signs the Great Charter, 184 John, King of France, taken prisoner at Poitiers, 216 Joiin the Great, King of Portugal, 228 ohn VI., of Portugal, goes to Brazil, 338, 36' John of Salisbury, 198 ohn, Duke of Bedford, Regent of ' France, 217 John the Fearl-ss, Duke of V \rgundy, , his murder, 23 John, Duke of Calabria, 228 John Tzimisk6s, Eastern Emperct, murders N ; kephoros Phokas, 142 his *ars and victories iu the East, ib. defeats the Russians, 143 John KomnSnos, Eastern Enperor, r vival of the Empire under, ilig John Vatatzes, Emperor at Nikaia, 190 oseph I., Emperor, reign and death of, 291 Joseph II., Emperor, his reign and re- forms, 308 Joseph Buonaparte, King of Spain, 333 Juarez, President of Mexico, 365 ; Maxi- milian killed by, ib. Jugurtha, conquered by Marius, 73 Julian, Caesar under Constaniius, 96 : campaigns in Gaul, ib.; his restora- tion, 96 ; reign and death, 97 ; pagan- ism, 98 Julius II., Pope, his share in the League of Cambray, 245 ; his Holy League, ib. ; his alliance with the Swiss, ib. his policy, 249 Justinian, Emperor, reign of, 113 ; his buildings and code of- laws, if.', ex- tent of the Empire under, 114 Jutes, a Low-Dutch tribe, 109 ; found the kingdom of Kent, no Juvenal, 84 K. Kainardji, Peace of, 319 Kamel, Egyptian Sultan, gives up Jeru- salem to Frederick II., 187 Kaminiec, won back to Poland by Au- gustus the Strong, 297 Karl, see Charles Karlings, Frankish dynasty of, in Ger- many and Gaul, 121, 122 ; end of. in Germany, 130 ; end of, in Western- Frankish kingdom, 132 Karolingia, kingdom of, 129, 131, 140 Kasan, Mogul, 197 ; Russian conquest of, 266, 267 Kent, kingdom of, founded by the Jutes, no, 132; the first Christian kingdom of the English, 133 Kephallenia, Roman conquest of, 65 Kettler, Gotthard, Grand Master of Livonia, his cessions to Poland, 266 Kiev, Lithuanian conquest of, 197 " King of France," title of English Kings, 216 Kings, ways of appointing, 167 ; in- crease of their power, 237 Kingship, common among Aryan na- tions, 27, 163 ; ^mdiially abolished i* Greece, 28 ; abolished in Hum'!, 5 ^ INDEX. 38? Momenes, King of Sparta, greatness of Sparta under, 46 ; defeated by the Macedonians and Achaians, ib. Kleopatra, Queen of Egypt, her influ- ence over Antonius, 79 ; her death, ib. Koln, its Archbishops and Electors, 170 ; French annexation of, 334 Komnenos, Byzantine dynasty, 156 Koran, the, 17 Korkyra, 24 ; submits to Rome, 63 Kossuth, 357 Kynoskephale, battle of, 64 Kyrene, 24 Labourdqnnais, French Governor of Mauritius, 320 Lamian war, the, 42 languages, Aryan, their common ori- gin, 3, 4 ; Romance, 106 ; Teutonic or Dutch, 108 ; use of, in the Middle Ages, 152, 231 ; growth of the study of, 182 Laon, capital of the Karlings, 131 Laps, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 8, 168 La Rochelle, 256 Latin, use of the word in 13th century, 190 Latin language, classical writers in, 82 ; groundwork of the Romance tongues, 106; use of, dies out in Eastern Empire, 171 ; continued in the West, 173 Latin franchise, 58 Latin provinces of the Roman Empire, distinction of, from Greek and Ori- ental, 8 1, 82 Latins, 51 ; their league of Thirty cities, 52 ; their alliance and wars with Rome, 56, 57 Lauenburg, Duchy of, joined to Den- mark, 342 Lausanne, Bisphoprick of, annexed by Bern, 260 Law of nations, 279 Leagues, nature of, 26; in later Greece, 44, if> ; in ancient Italy, 52, 53 framing in the East, 171 ; in the West, 172 ; .revival of, in Italy, 208, 209 ; in i3th, i4th, and isth centuries, 231 ; promoted by Leo X., 249 ; in i6th and I7th centuries, 278, 279 ; decline of, in Thirty Years' War, ib.; in i8th century, 302, 326 ; revival of, in Ger- many, 347 Leipzig, battle of, 332 Leo III., Tope, crowns Charles the Great, 123 Leo X., Pope, his alliance with Charles, 246 ; his policy and encouragement ol learning, 243 Leo the Isaunan, Emperor, defeats the Saracens, 120 ; Inconoclast contro- versy under, ib.; decline of the Im- perial power in Italy under, 121 Leon, its growth and union with Cav tile, 154, 162, 195 Leonidas, King of Sparta, killed at Thermopylai, 33 Leopold I., Emperor, alliance of, with the United Provinces, 284 ; reign of, 390; gives up Hungary to his son Joseph, 291 Leopold II., Emperor, ^08 ; his pre- vious rule as Grand Duke of Tus- cany, 314 Leopold, Duke of .Austria, defeated at Morgarten, 317 Leopold of Austriu, defeated at Sem- pach, 221 Leopold, King of Belgium, 361 Lepanto, defeat of the Turks at, 243, 269 Lepidus, Marcus j*Emtlius, 79 Leuktra, defeat of the Spartans at, 37 Lewis I. (the Pious), Emperor, 128 ; divisions of the Empire under, ib. Lewis, the German, extent of his king- dom, 129 Lewis II., Emperor, his reign in Italy, 129 Lewis the Child, last of the Karlings in Germany, 130 Lewis IV., Emperor, his disputed election, 203 ; his deposition, ib. ; his alliance with Edward III. of Eng- land, 215 Lewis IV., King of the West-Franks, 133 Lewis V., last of the Western Karlings, 133 Lewis VI., of France, 181 Lewis VII., of France, 181 ; goes on the Second Crusade, 186 Lewis VIII., of France, the English crown offered to, by the Barons, 183 Lewis IX. (Saint), of France, 183 growth of the kingdom under, 183 ; his crusades and death, 188 Lewis XI. of France, his annexation of Provence, 218 Lewis XII., his Italian wars, 245 ; his death, 246 ; his marriage with Anne of Britanny, 253 ; his reign in France, 254 Lewis XIII., 246 ; his death, 270 Lewis XIV., accession of, 270, 883 : his seizure of Orange, 272 ; his char- acter and absolute dominion, 383, 3 88 INDEX. 311; his wars and annexations, 284, 85 ; bis devastation of the Palati- nate, to.; his persecution of the Protestants, 286 ; revokes the Edict of Nan:es, ii>.; his intrigues with Charles II., 288 : recognizes the claims of the Old Pretender, 309 Lewis XV. of France, his reigu and wars, 306, 311 Lewis XVI. of France, his reign and execution, 337, 328 I/ewis XVIII. of France, his restora- tion and reign, 333, 350 Lewis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, 330 Lewis II. of Hungary, killed at Mo- hacs, 268 Lewis Buonaparte, King of Holland, 339 Ligiiitz, battle of, 196 Liguri.i, inhabitants of, 49; Roman conquest of, 68 Lincoln. Abraham, President of United States, 366 ; murder of, ib, Lithuania, language of, 16, 193, 197 ; its conversion, growth, and union with Poland, 230 Literature, Roman, under the Empire, 85; early Teutonic, 172 ; Italian, be- ginning of, 198, 308 Liudprand, King of the Lombards, 121 Livonia, conquest of, by the Teutonic Knights, 171, 194 ; Swedish conquest of, 295 ; given up to Russia, 296 Livy, 84 Lodi, seeks help from Frederick Bar- barossa against M ilan, 177 Lollards, the followers of Wyckliffe, 232 Lombard League, 178 ; its wars with Frederick Barbarossa, 178 Lombards, their conquests in Italy, 114; take Ravenna, 121; victories of Pippin over, 122 ; conquered by Charles the Great, ib. Lombardy and Venice, kingdom of, 337 London, Plague of, 288 ; Great Fire of, iA. Lorraine, modern name of Lotharingia, 129 ; Duchy of, its relations to Charles the Bold, 222 ; with France, 255 ; settled on Stanislaus, 306 ; annexed to France, 312 ; part of given back to Germany, 353 Lorraine, House of, its relations with Austria, 306 Lothar I., Emperor, kingdom of, 128 Lothar II V Emperor, 176 Ix>tharingia, kingdom of, 129, 130 Lothringen, see Ixjrraine Louis Philippe, King of the French, reign ant! deposition of, 350 Louisiana, French colonization in, ao8 t 304 ; divided between England ana Spain, 225 liw-Dutch, fee Dutch Loyola, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuit* 250 Liibeck, Commonwealth of, 174; waj of, with Denmark, 265 ; annexed to France, 332, 336 ; joins the German Confederation, ib, Lucca, Duchy of, 337 Lucius Sextius, first Plebeian Consul, 56 Lucretius, 84 Luneville, Peace of, 330, 334 Luther, Martin, preaching of, 251 : condemned at Worms, 252 ; follower! of, ib. : his death, ib. Luxemburg, Duchy of, 361 Lyt.Ua, kingdom of^ conquered by Cyrus, 3 2 Lykia, league of its cities. 41, 67 Lyons, Council of, 179 ; French an- nexation of, 218 Lysandros, Spartan admiral, defeats the- Athenians at Aigos-potamos, 35 M. Macedonia, its inhabitants, 20; Greek colonies in, 23 ; not at first counted as Greek, 25, 38 ; its relations with its Kings, 27 ; its rise under Philip, 38 ; invaded by the Gauls, 42, 43 ; reck- oned as a Greek state, 43 ; its wars with Rome, 64, 65 : its dismember- ment and final conquest, 65 ; Slavonic settlements in, 143 MacMahon. Marshal, President of the French Republic, 333 Madras, English settlement at, 299; taken by the French, 320 Maecenas, Caius Cilnius, 84 Magnesia, defeat of Antiochos at, 66 Magyars, tee Hungarians Mahmoud I., Sultan, 319 Mahmoud II., Sultan, 344, 358 Mahomet, born at Mecca, 116; spread of his religion, 117 Mahomet II., Sultan, called the Con- queror, 226 ; his siege and conquest of Constantinople, ib ; his C'nquest of Greece and Trebizonil, ^27 ; death of, ib. ; defeated by Joliu Huniades, 231 Mahomet IV., Sultan, 297 Mahomet Alnohade, his defeat al Tolosa, 195 Mahomet Ah, Pasha of F-sypt, 358 Mahra'.tas, revolt of the, 299 INDEX. 339 Mainz, its Archbishops and Electors, 170; French annexation of, 334 Majorian, Emperor, 102 Malta, given to the Knights of Saint John, 268 ; Turkish siege of, ib. ; English possession of, 341 Mamelukes, 344 Manfred, King of Sicily, crusades preached against, 192 ; defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, 193 Mantineia, battle of, 38 Manuel Komnenos, Eastern Emperor, his relations with Italy, 177, 178; his defeat by the Turks, 189 Manzikert, battle of, 156 Marathon, battle of, 32 Mardonios, Persian General, defeated at Plataia, 33 Margaret of Flanders, married to Philip, Duke of 1'urgundy, 222 Margaret, Queen of Norway, union of the Scandinavian kingdoms under, 229 Maria, Queen of Portugal and Brazil, 364, 365 Maria Theresa of Spain, marries Lewis XIV., 283 Maria Theresa, Empress and Queen of of Hungary, her marriage, 306; her disputed succession, 307 ; her part in the Seven Years' War, 308; in the partition of Poland, 317 Marignano, battle of, 246 Marius, Caius, his wars with Jugurtha and victories over the Teutones, 70, 73 ; his civil war with Sulla, 73, 74 Mark, 139 Markos of Keryneia, general of the Achaian League, 45 Marlborough, Duke of, 286 Marseille, see Massalia Martin V., Pope, 207 Mary, Duchess of Burgundy, 223; marries Maximilian, 242, 250 Mary, daughter of Lewis of Hungary, marries Siegmund, 230 Mary, Queen of Scots, her marriage, reign, and beheading, 263 Mary I. of England marries Philip II. of Spain, 262 ; loss of Calais under, ib. ; restoration of the Pope's power under, ib. Mary II. of England, her marriage and ftlecticn as Queen, 288 Maryland, 277 ; settlement of, 278 Massalia, Ionian colony, 24 ; alliance with Rome, 69 Massinissa, King of Numidia, ally of Rome against Carthage, 63 Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of Eng- land, marries Henry V., 148 ; marries Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, 153, 180 Matilda, daughter of Henry II., mar- ries Henry of Saxony, 178 Matilda, daughter of Milcolm, marries Henry I., 153 Matthew Paris, 198, 231 Matthias I., Emperor, 251 Maurice, Emperor, his wars with th Avars, 115 ; murdered by Phocas, ib Maurice of Orange, leader of the war in the Netherlands, 258 Maximian, joint Emperor with Diocle- tian. 93 !. his enforced abdication, ib. ; persecution of the Christians under, 94 Maximilian I., King of the Romans, marries Mary of Burgundy, 242, 250 ; his share in the League of Cambray, 245 ; his death, 246 ; his new tides, 250 ; his reforms, 251 Maximilian II., Emperor, 251 Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 365 Mayence, see Mainz Mayors of the Palace, 121 Mazarin, Cardinal, 270 Mecca, birthplace of Mahomet, 116 Medici, their power in Florence, 212 , their banishments and restorations, 245-248 ; established as Dukes, 248. Medici, the elder Cosmo de', his power at Florence, 212 Midici, Lorenzo, dc', his power at Flor- ence, 212 Medici, Cosmo de', Duke of Florence and Grand Duke of Tuscany, 344 Mediterranean Sea, the centre of the three old continents, 10 ; Phoenician and Greek colonies on, 23, 24 Megalopolis, foundation of, 38 ; joins the Achaian League, 44 Merowingians, Prankish dynasty of, 121 Merwings, see Merowingians Messene, Spartan conquest of, 30 ; freed by Epaminondas, 38 Metz, Bishoprickcf, seized by Henry II. of France, 254 ; given back to Ger- many, 353 Mexico, Spanish conquest of, 276 ; rev- olution in, 365 Michael Palaiologos, Eastern Emperor, wins back Constantinople, 190 Michael Romanoff, Czar of Russia, 267 Middle Ages, application of the name, x?4 Miguel, Don, of Portugal, 361 Milan, dwelling-place of the Western Emperors, 93 : crowning place of tho Emperors as Kings of Italy, 140 ; her oppression of smaller cities, 177 ; Duchy of, under the Visconti, aio; under the House of Sforza, ib. ; sub- mission of Genoa to, 211 ; conquest of, by Lewis XII. of France, 245 ; ro 69 INDEX. stored to House of .Sforza, 246; taken by Francis I., ib. by Charles V., 242 ; granted to his son Philip, 347 ; part of its territory ceded to Savoy, 306 ; Napoleon Buonaparte crowned at, 331 ; annexed by Austria, 337 ; revolts against Austria, 355 Miletos, flourishing period of, 27 Military Orders, 171, 186 Mill, a common Aryan word, 5 Milosh, Obrenowitch, revolt of Servia under, 343 Miltiades, Athenian General, defeats the Persians at Marathon, 33 Minnesingers, 198 Minorca, taken by the English, 289 ; restored to Spain, 310 Mithridates, King of Pontos, his war with Rome, 74 : defeated by Sulla in Greece, 75 ; his final defeat, ib. Moguls, their invasions and conquests, 196 ; their religion, ib, ; their dynas- ties at Kasan and in Persia, 107 ; overthrow the Caliphate and the Sel- juk Turks, ib. Mohacs, battle of, 268 Moldavia, union of, with Poland, 296 ; Russian influence in, 320; beginning of Greek war of independence in, 357 ; its union with Wallachia, 359 Monstrelet, his history of the Hundred Years' War, 231 Montenegro, its relations with Turkey, I Morad, see Amurath Morat, battle of, 223 Morgarten, battle of, 220 Monscos, driven out of Spain, 244 Morosini, Francesco, conquers Pelopon- ncsos, 294 ; chosen Doge, ib. Moscow, capital of Russia, 230 Mtimmius, Lucius, destroys Corinth, 65 Murat, Joachim, King of Naples, 332 Murten, see Morat Mustapha III., Sultan, 310 Mykalfi, Persians defeated at, 33 Mykene, its early greatness, 20 N. Nabis, Tyrant of Sparta, 64 Najara, see Navarete Nancy, battle of, 323 Nantes, Edict of, its revocation, 286 Naples, kingdom of, its separation frotn Sicily, 193 ; disputes for its succes- uoii, 213 ; conquered by Ferdinand of Ai agon, 242, 245 ; reigu of Joachim Mural, 331 Narbonnr, conquered by Saracen^ 118 N arses, finally subdues the Goths, 1 14 Narva, battle of, 295 National Assembly of France, 338 ; dlt solution of, 351 National Convention of France, 329 Navarete, battle of, 228 Navarino, battle of, 358 Navarre, kingdom of, conquered bj Ferdinand of Aragon, 243 Nelson, Lord, 331 Nero, Emperor, deposition and dea.il of, 85 Nerva, Emperor, 87 Netherlands, their connexion with But gundy, 222, 223 ; with Spain, 242 ; their revolt, 243, 257 ; Spanish pro- vinces transferred to Austria, revolts in, 319 ; annexed to France, -434, 339: kingdom of, 339 ; separation 01 Southern provinces from, 361 Neufchatel, its connexion with Prussia, 290 New Amsterdam, capital of New Nether- lands, 30 ; see New York New England, colony of, founded, 877, 278. New Jersey, colony of. founded, 301 New Netherland, Dutch colony of, 278 i annexes Delaware Bay, 300 ; English conquest of, 301 New Orleans founded, 301 New Rome, see Constantinople New York, origin of, 301 Nice, see Nikaia and Nizza Nicholas, Emperor of Russia, 359 Nicolas V., Pope, 213 Nikaia, council of. 97 ; capital of the Seljuk Turks, 156 ; Empire of, too. Nikephoros. Phokas, Eastern Emiwror, wins back Crete, 142 ; murder of, ib. Nikomedeia, capital of Diocletian, 93 Nikopolis, battle of, 231 Ninwegen, Peace of, 284 Nizza, Turkish siege of, 269; annexe J to France, 352 Norman Conquest, effects of, on En^ land and France, 151 Normans, conquests in Italy and Sicily, 55 Normandy, foundation of the Duchy of '36. 137 ; its growth, 150 ; Frend conquest of, 181. Northmen, their settlements, 134, 136. North-German Confederation, the, 354 Nova Scotia, origin of, 301 Novara, battle of, 355 Novgorod, becomes a republic 193 Nushirvan, set Chosroes INDEX. 39* o. Ootavius, see Augustus Odyssey, see Homeric Poems Odenathus, reign of, at Palmyra, 90 Odo, Count cf Paris, King of the West Franks, 130 ; does homage to Arnulf, ib. ; defends Paris against the North- men, 136 Odoacer, reign of, in Italy, 103 Olaf, King of the Northmen, his war in England, and conversion, 144 Oliva, Treaty of, 295 Olynthos, conquered by Philip, 39 Omar, Caliph, 117 Ommiads, dynasty of, at Damascus, 125 ; at Cordova, 126 Orange, Principality of, 257 ; seized by Lewis XIV., 272 Orchomenos, victory of Sulla at, 75 Orleans, siege of, raised by Joan of Arc, 217 Orleans, Regent Duke of, 309 Oscans, 51 Ostend, siege of, 258 Othman, Caliph, 125 Othman gives his name to the Ottoman Turks, 224 Otho, Emperor, 86 Otho of Bavaria, King of Greece, driven out, 358 Otranto, taken by the Turks, 227 Otto the Great, defeats the Magyars, 139 ; subdues Berenger, King of Italy, 140 ; crowned Emperor, ib. ; death of, 141 ; marries Edith, daugh- ter of Edward the Elder, 144 Otto II., Emperor, his wars with the Danes, 141 Otto III., Emperor, called the Wonder of the World, 141 Otto IV., Emperor, 179 Ottocar IV., Emperor, King of Bohe- mia, 202 Ottoman Turks, beginning and growth of their dominion, 225, 243 ; their ad- vance in Europe, 225 ; their levy of tribute-children, ib. ; take Constanti- nople, 226 ; take Otranto, 237 ; their defeat at Lepanti 243, 269 ; greatness of, under Suleiman the Law-giver, a68, 269 ; their wars with Persia, 268; with Hungary and the Empire, 290, 291 ; with Venice, 293, 294 ; with Poland, 296; their decline, 297,319, 343 ; their wars with Russia, 347, 343. 344) 358, 359 ; revolts of subject na tions aga~.ns% 343, 357 ; wars with France, 3* ^ ; with Egypt, 358 Ovid, 84 OnfurJ, rise >f the University, 198 P. Paganus, meaning of the word, 98 Palaiologos, dynasty of, 191 Palmyra, kingdom of, destroyed by Aurelian, 90 Palatine, first Roman settlement on, 53 Palatinate, ravaged by Lewis XIV., 285 Paoli, the, leaders of the Corsican revolt from Genoa, 312 Papists, origin of the name, 241 Paris, capital of the Duchy of France, 131 ; of the kingdom of France, 132 ; siege of, 136 ; rise of the University, 198 ; peace of, 310 ; taken by th Allies, 332 ; German siege of, 352 Parliament, English, 184, 185 Parliament of Paris, humiliation of, by Lewis XIV., 283 Parthenon, 294 Parthia, kingdom of, founded by Arsakes, 64 ; wars with Rome, 75, 87, 90 ; revolt of the Persians from, 90 Passarowitz, Peace of, 291, 294 Patrician, tide of, 122 Patricians at Rome, 55. 71, 72 Paul IV., Pope, war of Philip II. with, 2 43 Paul, Emperor of Russia, murdered, 342 Paullus, Lucius ./Emilius, defeats the Macedonians at Pydna, 6; Pavia, battle of, 246 Pedro, King of Aragon, defeated by Simon of Montfort, 192 Pedro of Aragon, King of the Island cf Sicily, 193 Pedro the Cruel, King of Castile, ex- pulsion and restoration of, 227, 228 Pedro, Dom, Emperor of Brazil, 319 ; King and Regent of Portugal, 360 Pedro, II., of Hrazil, 366 Peisistratos, Tyrant of Athens, 29 Pelopidas, greatness of Thebes under, Peloponnesian War, 34 Peloponngsos, Turkish conquest of, 227; Venetian conquest of, 294 ; recon- .quered by Turks, ib. Pennsylvania, colony of, founded, 301 Penn, William, colonizes Pennsylvania, 301 Pergamos, kingdom of, 41, 66 ; its great- ness under Eumenes, 67 ; becomes a Roman province, ib. Perikles, his greatness at Athens, 34 : effect of his influence on the govern- ment, ib. Perseus, King of Macedonia, 65 Persia, growth of, under Cyrus, 31 ; wars and alliance with the Greek* 39 2 INDEX. 33-35 ; revival of, under Artaxcrxes, 90; wars with Rome, 93, 112, 184; greatness of, under the two Chosrocs, 114, 115; victories of Heraclius over, 116; Saracen conquest of, 119; rise of Turkish dynasties in, 156 ; Mogul dynasty in, 197 ; beginning of the modern kingdom, 268 ; wars with the Ottomans, ib.\ with Russia, 342 Persians, their Aryan origin, 9, 31 Peru, Spanish conquest of, 276 Peter, King of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal, see Pedro Peter the Hermit, preaches the First Crusade, 157 Peter the Great, rise of Russia under, 315 ; his title and policy, 316 Peter III. of Russia, murder of, 316 Pharsalos, battle of, 78 Philip II. of Macedonia, rise of Mace- donia under, 38 ; conquers Olynthos, 39 ; his supremacy in Greece, and. death, ib. Philip V. of Macedonia, his wars with Rome, and defeat at Kynoskephale, ** Philip Augustus of France, his crusade, 181, 187 ; annexes Normandy, 181 ; \s ins the battle of Bouvines. 182 Philip the Fair of France, founds the Estates of France, 184 ; his quarrel with Boniface VIII., 205 ; subservi- ence of the Popes to, to. ; destroys the Templars, 205 ; seizes Aquitaine, ai ; annexes Lyons, 218 Philip 1. of Castile, his descent and marriage, 242 Philip II. of Spain, 241 : his persecu- tion of the Moors, 244 ; marries Mary of England, 262 Philip III. of Spain, decline of the Spanish power under, 243 ; expels the Moriscos, 244 Philip IV. of Spain, loses Portugal, 243 ; his wars with France, ib. Philip V. oi Spain, disputed succession of, 286, 305 Philip of Valois, Duke of Burgundy, marries Margaret of Flanders, 222 Philip the Good, Puke of Burgundy, growth of the Duchy under, 223 Philip of Swabia, disputes the crown with Otto of Saxony, 179 Philippi, battle of. 79 Philippine Islands, Spanish settlements in, 274 PhilopoimSn, General of the Achian League, 45,64 Phocas, Emperor, usurpation and death of, 115 Phoenicians, their origin and colonies, 22 ; their relations to the Greek% Picts, in Britain invade the Hi-man province, 108 Piedmont French annexation of, 329 ; recovered by King of Sardinia, 337; Genoa joined to, ib. ; despotic gcv eminent in, 338 Pippin, King Jf the Franks, his wars with the Lombards, 122 Pisa,, subject to Florence, 116; con- quers Sardinia, 154; its Ghibellinism, 177 : Council of, 207 Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 310 Pius II., his writings and attempted crusade, 213 Pius VII., Pope, 337 Pius IX., Pope, 355, 356 Pizarro, Francesco, his conquest of Peru, 276 Plassy, battle of, 321 Plataia sends help to the Athenians at Marathon, 32 Plebeians at Rome, their origin, 55; thei* disputes with the Patricians, 56, 71 Podolia, given up to the Turks, 296 Poitiers, batde of, 215 Poland, rise of, 139 ; its conversion, 168, 193; Mogul invasion of, 196; its union with Lithuania. 230 ; its great- ness under the Jagellons, 265 ; its wars with Sweden and Russia. 266, 207 ; its crown made purely elective, af-6 ; its decline, 267, 296 : partitions of, 317 ; new kingdom of, united 'o Russia, 343 ; revolts of, against Russia, 359. 360 Poles, Slavonic people, 15, 127 Polish Election, war of the, 306 Polybios, history of, 66 Pombal, Marquess of, 313 Pomerauia, shifting of territory in, be- tween Sweden, Denmark, and Prus- sia, 277, 206 Pompeius, Cnxus, his eastern wars, 75; his civil war with Caesar, 77 ; his defeat at Pharsalos and death, 78 Pondicherry, 321 Pontos, kingdom of, 42 Popes, beginning of their power, 120 ; disputed elections of, 147, 178, 207 ; their disputes with the Emperors, 148, 150 ; theory of their power, 179, 203, 206 ; their claim to dispose of kingdoms, 185 ; seat of, removed to Avignon. 205 ; brought back to Rome, 206 ; their position in the isth cen- tury, 208 ; increase of their tempotdi power, 212, 213, 248 ; discontent with, 238, 239, 250 ; their character tn tha i6th century, 249, 250; end ot theii INDEX. 393 authority in England, 262 ; their character in the i8th century, 314 ; end of tl eir temporal power, 356 Portugal, wars of her Kings with the Mahometans, 195 , growth of her power, 228 ; annexed to Spain, 243 ; restoration of, ib. ; her settlements in Africa and Indiaj 274 ; her share in the war of the Spanish Succession, 292 ; attack of Spain and France on, 313 , expulsion of the Jesuits from, ib. ; liberation of, 338 ; revolutions and civil wars in, 361 Posen, Grand Duchy of, given back to Prussia, 343 Pragmatic Sanction, the, 305 Pressburg, Treaty of, 334 Pretender, the Old, fee James Francis Edward Stuart Pretender, the Young, tee Charles Ed- ward Stuart Printing, invention of, 200 Protestant, origin of the name, 241, 252 Provence, origin of the name, 69 ; county of, a fief of the Empire, 192 ; held by Charles of Anjou, ib. ; French annexation of, 218 Provinces, Roman, condition of, 61 : Latin, Greek, and Oriental, distinc- tion of, 8 1 Provincials, Roman, 61, 71 Prussia, Gregory IX. preaches a cru- sade against, 194; conquered by the Teutonic Knights, ib. ; Western Prus- sia annexed to Poland, 230 ; Duchy and kingdom of, 266 ; growth of, 290 ; Silesia annexed to, 307 ; its share in the partitions of Poland, 317 ; dis- membered by Buonaparte, 332 ; war with France, 352-354^ ; forms the Zoll- verein, 353 ; revolutions in, ib. ; war with Austria, 354 ; annexes Sleswick and Holstein, 362 Ptolemies, kingdom of the, in Egypt, 41 Pultpwa, Charles XII. defeated at, 295 Punic, Latin form of Phoenician, 60 Pydna, battle of, 65 Pyrenees, Peace of the, 288 Pyrrhos, King of Epeiros, killed at Argos, 43 ; helps the Tarentines against Rome, 58 ; goes into Sicily, 59 ; defeated by the Romans at Bcn- eventum, ib. Q. 8uadmple Alliance, the, 305 uebec taken by the English, 329 Raleigh, Sir Walter, founds the colony of Virginia, 277 Radstadt, treaty of, 286 Ravenna, Exarchate of, 120 ; taken by the Lombards, 121 ; won back by Pippin, 122 ; battle of, 245 Raymond, Count of Toulouse, crusade preached against, 192 Reformation, the, chief causes of, 238, 239 : different forms of in different countries, 240 Regulus, Marcus Atilius, 61 Reign of Terror, the, in France, 329 Ren^, Duke of Lorraine, helped by the Swiss League, 223 Rene, King of Sicily, and Count of Provence, 228 Rhine, the, boundary of the Roman province of Gaul, 77 ; Confederation of the, 334 Rhodes, commonwealth of, 42 ; held by the_ Knights of St. John, 227 ; the Knights driven out of, 268 Richard I. of England, his crusade, i8t, 187 Richard, Earl of Cornwall, elected King of the Romans, 201 Richelieu, Cardinal, growth of the royal power under, 256 ; his share in the Thirty Years' War, 270 Rienzi, Cola di, his Tribuneship, 212 Robert, Duke of the French, his grant to Rolf, 137 Robert, King of Naples, 213 Robert of Geneva, or Clement VII., anti-pope at Avignon, 206 Robert Wiscard, his conquests in Southern Italy, 154 Robespierre, 329 Roger II., King of Sicily, 155 : league of East and West against, 177 Roger Bacon, 198 Rolf, first Duke of die Nornams, his settlement and baptism, 137 Roman Empire, greatest extent of the Empire, 17 ; beginning of, 79 ; extent of, So, 83 ; distinction of its Latin, Greek, and Oriental provinces, 81 : nature of its dominion, 82, 87 ; all its inhabitants become Romans, 82, 89 ; rule of, passes from the Caesarian family, 86 ; Emperors chosen by the army, 88 ; the Tyrants, 89 ; wars with the Persians and Germans, 90, 91 ; threatened by the Goths, ib. ; growth and persecutions of Chris- tianity in, 92, 94 ; division of, under Diocletian, 93 ; united under Con- stantine, 94 ; capital fixed at Constan- 594 INDEX. vie, 96; cnanges under Constan- tine and his sons, ib. ; establishment of ( Ihristianity in, 97, 99; various forms of Christianity in, 98 ; Teu- tonic settlements in, 99, 100 ; re- united under Zeno, 104 ; continued in the East, in, 113; its extent under Justinian, 114 ; wars with Avars and Persians, 115 ; with the Saracens, 22 ; decline of its power in Italy, 120 ; its final division, 123, 124 Roman Law, see Civil Law Roman Catholics, origin of the name, 241 Romance niti< ns, origin of, 105 ; his- tory of their languages, 106, 172 Romansch, language, 107 Rome, the centre of European history, 16-18 ; her probable origin, 53 ; character of her history, 53, 54, 55 ; her kings, 54 ; dynasty of the Tar- quinii, ib. ; the commonwealth, 55, 56; makes a treaty with Carthage, 56 , taken by the Gauls, ib. ; gradual ronquest of Italy, 56, 59 ; war of, with Pyrrhos, 58 ; condition of the Italian States under, 59 : first wars with Carthage, 60, 63 ; her provinces, 61 ; takes Sardinia and Corsica, 62 ; second war with Carthage, 63 ; her first possessions beyond the Hadriatic, ib. ; first and second wars with Mace- donia, 64 ; conquest of /*Etolia, 65 ; final conquest of Macedonia, ib. ; war with Andochos, 66 ; her first province beyond the ./Egean, 67 ; conquest of Cisalpine Gaul, 67, 68 ; of Liguria and Venetia, 68 ; of Spain, 68, 69 ; her first province in Transalpine Gaul, 69, 70 ; invasions of the Cimbri and :''>nes, 70; relations with Egypt, 71 ; her great power the cause of_her final fall, ib. ; her constitution, ib. ; internal disputes, 71, 72 ; revolt and submission of the allies, 73, 74 ; first civil war, 73 ; wars with Mithridates, 74, 75 : conquest of the kingdom of Pontos, 75 ; conquest of Syria, ib. ; first dealings with Parthia, ib. ; in- ternal disputes, 76 ; conquest of Transalpine Gaul, 76, 77 ; first deal- ings with liritain, 77: civil wars, 77, 79 ; conquest of Egypt, 79 ; begin- ning of the Empire, ib. \ her position under the Emperors, 82 ; literature and art of, 83 ; ceases to be the seat of go /eminent, 93 ; taken by Alaric, joi ; growth of the Papal power, 120, 148 ; decline of the Imperial power, X2I ; threatened by the Iximbards, ib. ; saved by Pippin, 122 ; separated from the Eastern Empire, 123 . crowning place of the \\\v,tern K'n- perors, 125 ; return of the Poj.es to. from Avignon, 206 : revolution ol Rienzi at, 212 ; sack of, 247 ; held bv the French, 355 ; the capital of unite! Italy, 356 Rouen, settlement of Rolf at, 137 taken by Henry V. of England, 217 Rousillon, shiftings of, between Eranc and Aragon, 228, 243, 272 ". 3 2 5 Rudolf of Swabia, his election and death, 148 Rudolf of Habsburg, elected King, 202; not crowned Emperor,//'.; hii reign, '/;.; grants the Duchy of Au tria to his son Albert, ib. Rudolf II., Emperor, 251 Rudolf, last King of Burgundy, 147 Russia, state of, in the I3lh century, 193 ; subjection of, to the M 197 ; Lithuanian conquest of the Western provinces of, ib. ; deliverance of, from the Moguls, 230 ; growth of, 266, 267 ; her conquest ot Siberia, 2 74 : greatness of, under Peter the Great, 315, 316 ; her conquest of Crim Tartary, 316 ; share of, in the partitions of Poland, 317 ; her an- nexations of Carelia, ib. ; dealings with the nations subject to the Turks, 319, 320, 324 ; Buonaparte's invasion ot, 332 ; wars with Sweden, Tur- key, and Persia, 342, 350 ; French in- vasion of, 343 ; kingdom of Poland united with, ib.\ her new Euroj.u.m position, 358 ; revolts of the Poles against, 359, 360 ; abolition of serfage in, 360 Russians, a Slavonic people, invada the Eastern Empire, 143 ; defeated by John Tzimiskes, ib.; conversion Of, to Christianity, 145 Ryswick, Peace of, 285 S. aguntum, taken by Hannibal, fa Saint Domingo, see Hayti Saint Helena, Buonaparte banished to, 3.33 Saint John, knights of, tee Hospital- lers saint Petersburg, foundation of, 315 saint Qucntin, battle of, 254 Saint Sophia, church of, built by Ju tiniiin, 113 Saladm puts down the pcwcr of thf Fatiiniic.., 187; ukes Jerusalem, it INDEX. 395 Salamis, battle of, 33 Saluzzo, joined to Savoy, 261 Samnites, their wars with Rome, 57 ; join the Marian party, 73 ; finally conquered by Sulla, 74 San Marino, Commonwealth of, 174, 248, 337 Saracens, rise of, 116 ; accept the doc- trine of Mahomet, 117; their con- quests from the Empire and the Goths, 118 ; driven out of Gaul, 119 ; di- vision of their Empire, ib. ; their con- quest of Persia, ib.; repulsed from Constantinople, 120 Sardinia, its ancient inhabitants, 49 ; its relations to Carthage and Rome, 59, 62 ; recovered from the Saracens by Pisa, 154 ; reconquered by Spain, 305 ; Dukes of Savoy become Kings of, 305 ; rule of the Carignano dynasty i") 355 : wars of, with Austria, ib., 356 Sassanides, dynasty of, in Persia, 90 Savoy, Counts and Dukes of, 219, 259 ; their relations with Switzerland, 260 ; their loss and gain of territory, 261; growth of their power, 292, 306, 314 ; become Kings of Sicily, 293, compari- son of Savoy and Sweden, 296 ; become Kings of Sardinia, 305 ; neu- trality of the northern part guaranteed, 34> 352 ; annexed to France, 352 Saxons, their invasion and settlement in Britain, 109, no; their settlements in Gaul, 109 ; the English so-called by the Celts, ib. Saxons, Old, conquered and converted by Charles the Great, 127; revolt against Henry IV., 148 Saxony, Duchy of, broken up, 178 ; alliance of, with Prussia, 335 ; electo- rate and kingdom of, ib. Scandinavia, conversion of, 145, 168 ; union of the kingdoms of, 229 , wars of, with the Hanseatic League, ib. Schaffhausen, canton of, formed, 260 Schwyz gives its name to the League, 220 Scipio, Lucius Cornelius, defeats An- tiochos at Magnesia. 66 Scipio. Publius Cornelius, defeats Han- nibal at Zama, 62 Scipio, Publius Cornelius ^Kmilianus, takes Carthage, 63 ; takes Numan- tia, 69 Scotland, settlement of the Northmen in, 134 ; position of the Kingdom, 163 ; dealings of, with England and France in the I4th century, 214, 215 ; her independence acknowledged, 214 ; Reformation in, 240, 263 her Kings become Kings of England, 264 ; union of, with England, 287 ; effects of the Revolution in, 288 ; fin- al union with England, 289 Scots in Ireland and Northern Britain, 108 ; invade the Roman Province 133 ; their early relations to the English, 135; serve "in French armies, 215 Seleukids, extent and decline of. the!/ kingom, 41, 46 Sehikos, his kingdom, 41 Selim the Inflexible, Sultan, conquests of, 268 Selim II., Sultan, 269 ; Sclim III., Sul- ton, 343 ! murder of, 344 Seljuk Turks, rise, growth and decay of their power, 155, 156 Semitic nations, their history, 7 : then influence on religion, ib. Sempach, battle of, 221 Senlac see, Hastings, Septimania, see Narbonne Serfage, general abolition of, in 346; Russia, ib., 359 Sertorius, revolt of, in Spain, 72 Servia. Turkish conquest of, 225 ; re volts and independence of, 343, 357 Seven Weeks' War, the, 354 Seven Years' War. the, 308 Severus, Alexander, Emperor, 89; his wars with Persia, 90 Severus, Septimius, Emperor, 88 Seville, won back from the Mohame tans by Ferdinand III., 195 Sforza Francesco, Duke of Milan, 210 Shah Ismael, founder of the Sophis in Persia, 268 Shah Jehan, Mogul Emperor, 399 Siberia, Russian conquest of, 274 Sicily, its inhabitants, 20, 25 ; Phocni cian and Greek settlements in, 23, 24 ; their wars, 24, 59 ; origin of its name, 51 ; Pyrrhos helps the Greeks against the Carthaginians, 59 ; bat- tle-field of the Aryan and Semitic races, 60 ; becomes a Roman prov- ince, 61, 62 ; Saracen conquest oi 126 ; Norman conquest of, 155 ; kingdom of, ib. ; union with the Empire, 178; reign of Frederick II. in, 179 : conquered by Charles of Anjou, 193 ; revolt and separation of the island, ib. ; united to Aragon, 214, 228; to Savoy, 293 ; reunited, to Naples, 306, 314 ; delivered by Garibaldi, 356 Siculi, give their name to Sicily, 51 Siegtnund, Emperor, his dominions, 20;: his real fur ecclesiastical ie- fouualwn, 204, 207; mairics .VJari INDEX. of Hungary, 330 ; defeated by Ba- jazet at Nikopolis, 331 Siegmund, Duke of Austria, 223 Sienna, annexed to the Duchy of Florence, 248 Sigismund I., of Poland, abolishes the Teutonic order, 266 Silesia conquered by Frederick the Great, 307 Sikyon, joins the Achaian League, ib. Simon of Monlfort the elder, his crusade against Toulouse, 192 Simon of Montfort, Earl of Leicester, his constitution of Parliament, 184, 185 ; killed at Evesham, 185 Sixtus IV., Pope, 213 Sixtus V., Pope, reign of, 250 Slave, meaning of the word, 15 Slaves, third Aryan swarm in Central Europe, 15 ; dealings of the German kings with, 38 ; their settlements in the Eastern Empire, 142, 143 ; their conversion to Christianity, 143 ; re- volts of, against the Turks, 319, 324 Slavery, abolition of, in British colonies, 366; in United States, 366 Sleswick, Duchy of, its relations with Denmark, 229, 318, 366 ; annexed to Prussia, ib. Smalcaldic League, the, 252 Sobieski, John, King of Poland, de- livers Vienna from the Turks, 291 ; his election, 206 ; his Turkish vic- tories, ib. ; his death, 297 Solon, lawgiver of Athens, 30 ; his poems, 31 Sophis, dynasty of, In Persia, 268 Sophocles, 34 Spain, remains of non-Aryan people in, 8, 13, 68 ; its geographical character, ii ; Celtic settlements in, 13, 68 ; Phoenician and Greek settlements in, 23, 24, 68 ; Carthaginian dominion in, 62 ; Roman conquest of, 62, 68, 69, 83 ; Gothic kingdom in, 101, 103, 105 ; settlement of the Vandals in, 104 ; growth of the Romance language in, 106; southern part won back to the Empire, 114; conquered by the Saracens, 118 ; growth and decline of their power, 154 ; end of the Western Caliphate in, ib. : advance of the Christian states, 162 ; growth of new Mahometan dynasties in, 195 ; end of the Mahommetan power, 241 ; under Ferdinand and Isabel, 242 ; under Charles the Fifth, ib. ; decline under his successors, 243, 244 ; ex- pulsion of the Moriscos, 244 ; rivalry with France, ii. ; wars with Elizabeth of England, 263 ; with France, 27* her colonies, 274, 276 : aggression* of Lewis XIV. on, 283 ; disput u ai to her succession, 292 ; temporary revival of her power, 305, 313 ; alli- ance with France against England and Portugal, 313 ; expulsion ol Jesuits from, ii.; dealings of Buona- parte with, 338 ; Peninsular war, il>,', later revolutions and civil wan in, 360 Spanish Succession, war of the, 285 Sparta, her conquest of MessSne, 30 : joins with Athens against Xerxes. 33 ; helps to defeat Mardomos at Plataia, it.; war of, with Athens, 34 ; gives help to Syracuse, 34 ; over- comes Athens, it. ; her supremacy in Greece, 36 ; makes war upon Persia, it.; wars with Athens and Thebes, 37; destroys Olynthos, it.; in alli- ance with Athens, 38 ; wars with the Achaian League, 46 Speyer, Diet of, 252 Spice Islands, Dutch settlements, 208 ; massacre of Englishmen in, ib. Spinola, Marques, his siege of Ostend, 258 Stadholder, office of, 294 ; abolished. 294, 295 Stanislaus Leszczynski made King ol Poland by Charles XII., 297 ; his second election, 306 ; Duchy of Ix>r- rain settled on. it. States General of France becomes the National Assembly, 328 Stephen III., Pope, asks help of Pippin, 122 Stilicho, Roman general, checks th West-Goths, 101 Stralsund, siege of, 295 Strassburg seized by Lewis XIV., 284 Suleiman the Lawgiver, Sultan, be- sieges Vienna, 252 ; wars and con- quests of, 268, 269 Suliots defend their independence against the Turks, 344 Sulla, - Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, his civil war with Marius, 73 ; his dictatorship, 74 ; his victories in Greece overMitn- ridates, 75 Suraj-ad-dowla takes Calcutta, 321 : defeated at Plassy, it. Surat, first English settlement at, 299 Sweden, separated from Denipark, 264 ; her wars with Poland, 266 ; her share in the Thirty Years' War, and relations to the Empire, 271 ; be- comes an absolute monarchy, 295 ; greatest extent of her power, ib.: compared with Savoy, 296 ; her lost cf power and territory, 117 ; union INDEX. 39) of Norway with, 342 ; reforms in, 363 Swegen, son of Harold Blaatand, his apostasy, conquest of England, and death, 144 Sweyn, see Swegen Swiss, serve in foreign armies, 223 ; their infantry, 232 ; their defeat at Mangnana, 246 Swiss Confederation, the, 340 Swiss League, beginning of the, 219; its extension, 220 ; relation of, to the Empire, France, and Austria, ib.; war of, with Charles the Bold, 223 ; effects of the Burgundian war on, ib.; growth of its power, 259; see Switzerland Switzerland, beginning and growth of the League, 219, 220 ; origin of the name, ib. ; their relations to Austria and the Empire, ib. ; the Burgun- dian war and its effects, 223 ; growth of the Confederation in, 259 ; annexations of, ib. ; admission of the new Cantons, ib. ; the Refor- mation in, 260 ; relations with the Dukes of Savony, ib. ; formal ac- knowledgement of her independence, 271 ; relations to the French Re- public and Empire, 330; the Helve- tic Republic and act of mediation, 339 ; the Swiss Confederation, 340 ; war of the Catholic and Protestant cantons in, 362 ; establishment and reform of the Federal constitution in, ib. Swords, Knights of, joined with the Teutonic Knights, 194 Sybaris, flourishing period of, 27 Syracuse, flourishing period of, 27; Athenian siege of, 35 ; its Tyrants, 59 ; taken by the Romans, 62 Syria, Seleukid kingdom of, 67 ; Roman conquest of, 75 ; Saracen conquest of, 118 ; Ottoman conquest of, 268 T. Tacitus, 84, 87 Tangier, English possession of, 289 Taras, see Tarentum Tarquinii, dynasty of, at Rome, 54 Tartars, the, see Moguls Tarentum, Greek city of, asks help of I'yrrhps, 58 Tasmania, English colonization in, 289 Templars, military order, foundation of, 171 ; chief strength of the kingdom of Jerusalem, 186; uppression of, 05, 206 Temujin, see Jenghiz Khan Teutones, their invasion of Gaul ana defeat by Marius, 70 Teutones, second Aryan swarm in West- ern Europe, 14; their settlements in the Empire, 99, 160 Teutonic Constitution, changes in, 164 Teutonic Knights, military order, theil establishment in Prussia and Livonia, 171, 194 ; defeated by the Moguls al Lignitz, 196 ; their wars with Poland, 230, 265 ; abolished. 266 Texas, annexed to the United States, 79, 366 Thebes, chief city of Boeotia, 26 ; helps Xerxes, 33 ; in alliance with Sparta, 34 ; joins the confederacy againsl Sparta, 37 ; her greatness and wars with Sparta, 37, 38 ; joins Athena against Philip, 39 ; her revolt and destruction under Alexander, ib. Themistokles, commands Athenian fleet at Salamis, 33 Theodisc, meaning of the word, 15 Theodore Laskares, Emperor at Ni- kaia, 190 Theodoric, King of the East-Goths, his reign in Italy, 104 ; extent of his dominions, 105 Theodoric, King of the West-Goths, killed at Chalons, 102 Theodosius the Great, extinction of paganism under, 99 ; his reign and penance, 101 Theognis of Megara, his poems, 31 Theophano, sister of Basil II., marries Otto II., 143 Thermopylai, battle of, 33 ; defeat ol Antiochos at, 65 Thessalonica, massacre of the inhabi- tants of, ioi Thessaly, its inhabitants, 20, 25 Thiers, M., President of the French Republic, 353 Thirty Years' War, the, 269, 271 ThucydidSs, his history of the Pelo- ponnesian War, 34 Tiberius, Emperor, reign of, 84, 85 TigranSs, King of Armenia, subdued by the Romans, 77 Tilly, his share in the Thirty Years' War, 240 Tilsit, Peace of, 335 Timour, rise of, 225 ; defeats Bajazet at Angora, 226 ; death of, ib. Titus, Emperor, destroys Jerusalem, 86 ; succeeds Vespasian, ib. ; hit popular name, ib. Togrel Beg, founds the Seljuk dynasty, helps the Caliph Al Kayem, 156 Toledo, 'won back by Alfonso VI., 154 .393 INDEX. Tolusa, battle of, 195 1'oul, Uishoprick of, annexed to France, 254 Toulouse, capital of the West-Gothic kingdom, 103 ; crusades against, and annexed to France, 183, 191, 192 Tours, battle of, 119 Towns, growth of, 173 Ttifalgar, battle of, 340 Trajan, Emperor, 87 ; his conquests, 87,88 Trapezous, see Trebizond Xrebizond, Greek Empire of, 190 ; outlives the Kmpire of Constanti- nople, 191 ; conquered by Mahomet II., 227 Trent, Council of, 250 Tr&ves, see Trier Trier, dwelling place of the Western Gesar, 93 ; its Archbishops, and Electors of the Empire, 170; French annexation of, 334. Triple Alliance, its object, 288 Troyes, Treaty of, 217 Tunis, taken by Charles V., 269 7'urart, meaning of the word, 8 Turanian nations, their position in Europe and Asia, 8 ; their later set- tlements in Europe, is Turenne, his part in the Thirty Years' War, 271 Turkey, see Ottoman Empire Turks, their settlement in Kurope, 16 ; when first heard o 115 ; see Ottoman and Seljuks Tyrants, meaning of die word, 28, 78 ; in Greece, 29, 32 ; in Sicily, 20, 31, 59 Tyre, taken by Alexander the Great, 40 Tyrtaios, his poems on the wars of Sparta and MessenS, 30 U. UlfUas, Bishop, preaches Christianity to the Goths, 100 ; his translation of the Bible, ib. Ulrica, Queen of Sweden. 295 I'inbrians, 51 I 'nited Provinces, their union, 284 ; their independence formally acknowl- edged, 284, 271 ; their power, 259, 294 ; their wars with France, 2585 259, 295 ; witli England, 287, 288 ; join the Triple Alliance against France, ib. : high position of, in Europe, 294 ; the Stadholdership made hereditary, 318: their decay, ib. ; the Hatavian Re- public, 339 ; the Kingdom of the Netherlands, 352 United Stau-s, 310 ; their union and iu- pendence. 322 ; formation of nc states, 345 ; purchase of Louisiana by, ib. abolition of slavery in the Northern States, ib. ; annexation o( Texas, 366 ; secession ami re-con- quest of the Southern States, ib. ; final abolition of slavery, ib. Universities, growth of, 231 ; college* founded in, ib. Unterwalden, Canton of, 219 Urban II., Pope, holds the Council of Clermont, 157 Urban IV., Pope, offers the crown o< Sicily to Charles of Anjou, 192 Urban VI., Pope, his disputed election, 206. Uri, Canton of, 219 Utrecht, Treaty of, 286,289, joo V. Valens, Emperor, his reign in the East, loo ; killed at Hadrianople, 101 Valentinian, Emperor, his reign in the West, wars of, with the Germans, 99, i oo Valerian, Emperor, taken prisoner by the Persians, 89 ; perser.iiricnis o( Christians under, 92 Valais, see Wallis Vandals, their settlement in Spain and Africa, 104 Van Tromp, Dutch admiral, 287 Varna, Wladislaus of Poland, killed at, 231 V.irus, Publius Quinctilius, defeated by Arminius, 83 Vasco da Gama, his discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, 274 Vaud, liberation of, 339 Veii, Roman conquest of, 56 Venaissin. French conquest of, 218 : yiven up to the Popes, ib. ; French annexation of, 328 Venetia, Roman conquest of, 68 Venice, rise of, 114 ; her relations to the ' rn Empire, 115 ; her share in the fourth crusade, 189 ; her Eastern dominion, 190 ; her constitution and power by land, 211; her wars with the Turks, 243, 248, 293 ; league oi Cambray formed against, 245 ; an- nexed to Austria, 337 ; revolt and reconquest of, 355 ; united toltaly, 356 Vt-rcellre, defeat of the Cimbri at, 70 Verden, Bishoprick of, annexed to Sweden, 271 ; given up to Hanover, 296 Verdun, Bishoprick of, annexed U France, 254 INDEX. 399 "a, 355 : Vespasian, Emperoi, reign of, 86 Victor, anti-Pope, 178 Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, growth of his power, 292 ; becomes King of Sicily, 293 Victor Emmanuel II., of Sardmi chosen King of Italy, 356 Vienna, besieged by the Turks, 252, 268, 291 ; Congress of, 336 Vienne, sale of the Dauphiny of, 218 Villehardouin, writes an account of the taking of Constantinople, 108 Virgil, t 8 4 Virginia, English colony of, 277 Visconti, Gian Galeazzo, first Duke of Milan, 720 ; Filippo-Maria, 220 Vitellitis, Emperor, 86 Voltaire, 315 W. Wagram, battle of, 336 Wales, its final union with England, 214 Wallachia, united with Poland, 296 ; Russian influence in, 320 ; Greek war of independence begins in, 357; united with Moldavia, 359 Wallenstein, his share in the Thirty Years' War, 269 Wallis, its conquests from Savoy, 260 Walpole, Sir Robert, 309 Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, 335, 343 Washington, George, President of the United States, 321 Waterloo, battle of, 333 Wolf, heads the Saxon revolt against Conrad III., 177; Guel/s called from, ib. Waibling, Gkibelins called from, 177 Wellesley, Marquess, Governor-General of India, 344 Wellington, Duke of, 332 W'Wj/i, meaning of the name, 107, no SVenceslaus, King of the Romans, 203 ; founds the Duchy of Milan, 209 Wends, 127 ; conversion of, 162 VVessex, kingdom of, 132 ; supremacy of in Britain, 145 ; Danish invasion of, ib. West, characters of its history, 2, 3 Western Empire, separation of, from the East under Charles the Great, 123 ; beginning of its German character, 124 ; its extent under Charles, 128 ; restored by Otto the Great, 140; its union with the German kingdom, 140, 162; connexion of, with England, 144; kingdom of Hurgundy united to, 147 ; relations of, with the Papacy, 149, 160 ; becones more and more Ger- man, 161, 162 ; relations of Bohemia to, 163 ; growth of towns in, 173, 178; decline of its power, 179, 200, 237, 271 ; the great Interregnum in, it. ; its connexion with Hungary, 203; with the House of Austria, 204 ; its rela- tions with the Swiss League, 220 : with the dukes of Burgundy, 222 ; becomes purely German, 251 ; aboli- tion of, 333, 334 Westphalia, Kingdom of, 335 Westphalia, Peace of, 271 William of Malmesbury, 198 William the Silent, Prince of Orange, leads the revolt in the Netherlands, 257 William II. (IX. of Orange), Stad- holder. 294 William of Orange, Stadholder, his de- fence of the United Provinces, 284 ; his marriage and election to the English crown, 285, 288 William IV. made hereditary Stad> holder, 288 William V., 318 William the Conqueror, greatness ot Normandy under, 150; his claim to the English crown, 151 ; defeats Har- old at Senlac, ib. ; crowned King, ib, William the Bad, King of Sicily, 178 William the Good, King of Sicily, 178 Winfrith, see Boniface Wismar annexed to Sweden, 271 Witt, John de, murder of, 295 Wladislaus, King of Hungary and Poland, killed at Varna, 231 Wolfe, General, 322 Worms, Diet of, 252 Wulfila, see Ulfilas Wycliffe, John, his writings, 207; spreail of his opinions in Bohemia, ib. X. Xenophon, his history of the Pelopon nesian War, 35 Xerxes, son of Darius, his invasion of Greece, 33 Y. York, 93 ; Constantino Ae Grent be giog to reign at. 04 Z. Zakynthos, Roman conquest of, tif /.niui, battle of, 63 400 INDEX. Xara, taken by the Crusaders, 189 Zaragoza won by Aragon, 154 Zeno, Eastern Emperor, reunion of the two Empires under, 103 Zenobia, Queen of the East, 90 Zeus, chief Greek God, 29: confounded with the Latin Jupiter, 51 Zollverem, the, 353 Zug, joins the Swiss League, 230 Zurich, joins the Swiss League, aao ; preaching of Zwingli in, 260 wingli, Ulrich, preaching a and 60 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. L cos Q "7 cf "i^i SOUTHERN BRANCH; UNIVERSITY 01 LIBRARY, IU)S ANGELES, CALIF