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Southern Branch
of the
University of California
Los Angeles
Form L 1
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F87
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below
OCT 8 'WM^ S9
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OCT a?
JUL 2 1931
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, 30 1962
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FREEMAN 1 S HISTORICAL COURSE FOR SCHOOLS
GENERAL S K E H
H I S T O R Y
EDWARD A. FREEMAN, D.C.L.
Late Feilo-.K i-f Trini;\ ' i ford.
ADAPTED FOR AMERICAN STUDENTS
New Edition Revised, with Chronological Table,
Maps, and Index
NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
COPYRIGHT. 1876, BY
HKNRY HOLT.
TROW'S
PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING Co.
- i I-;HS,
105-313 Kast utA St.,
NKW YORK.
PREFACE TO THE NEW
EDITION.
THE present edition has been thoroughly revised
throughout. A Chronological Table, a full Index,
and several Maps, illustrating historical Geography at
different periods, have been added.
In such a mass of names and dates it is impossible
wholly to avoid slips both of the pen and .of the
press. I have tried to correct all that I found in
earlier editions; but I. fear that some may have
escaped me. I shall be sincerely thankful to any
one who will point out to me any that he may come
across.
SXMERLF.AZE, WELLS,
April ^rd, 1876,
PREFACE TO THE FIRST
EDITION.
THE object of the present series is to put forth cleai
and correct views of history in simple language, and
in the smallest space and cheapest form in which it
could be done. It is meant in the first place for
schools; but it is often found that a book for schools
proves useful for other readers as well, and it is hoped
that this may be the case with the little books the first
instalment of which is now given to the world. The
present volume is meant to be introductory to the
whole course. It is intended to give, as its name im-
plies, a general sketch of the history of the civilized
world, that is, of Europe and of the lands which J ve
drawn their civilization from Europe. Its object is
to trace out the general relations of different periods
and different countries to one another, without going
minutely into the affairs of any particular country,
least of all into those of our own. This is an object
of the first importance, for, without clear notions of
iii PREFACE.
general history, the history of particular countries cat
never be rightly understood. This General Sketch
will be followed by a series of special histories of par-
ticular countries, which will take for granted the
main principles laid down in the General Sketch.
In this series it is hoped in time to take in short
histories of all the chief countries of Europe and
America, giving the results of the latest historical
researches in as simple a form as may be. Those
of England and Scotland will shortly follow the
present introductory volume, and other authors are
at work on other parts of the plan. The several
members of the series will all be so far under the
supervision of the Editor as to secure general ac-
curacy of statement, and a general harmony of plan
and sentiment But each book will be the original
work of its own author, and each author will be
responsible for his own treatment of the smaller
details. For his own share of the vork the Editor
has, besides the General Sketch, taken the histories
of Rome and Switzerland. The others will be put
into the hands of various writers, on whose know-
ledge and skill he believes that he can rely.
SOMERLKAZE, WELLS,
23, 1872.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGI
ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS I
CHAPTER II.
GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES ..... l8
CHAPTER III.
THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH 49
CHAPTER IV.
THE HEATHEN EMPIRE 82
CHAPTER V.
THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE 98
CHAPTER VI.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST IIS
CHAPTER VII.
TKE PRANKISH EMPIRE I3<3
CHAPTER VIII.
THE SAXON EMPERORS 14$.
t CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IX
M;
THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS 154
CHAPTER X.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES .... 1 68
CHAPTER XI.
THE SWABIAN EMPERORS 184
CHAPTER XII.
THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE 209
CHAPTER XIII.
THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN 244
CHAPTER XIV.
THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE 293
CHAPTER XV.
THE RISE OF RUSSIA 316
CHAPTER XVI.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 33<j
CHAPTER XVII.
THE REUNION OF GERMANY AND ITALY .... 363
LIST OF MAPS.
THE GREEK COLONIES Page 24
DOMINIONS OF ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS " 40
THE MEDITERRANEAN LANDS AT THE BEGINNING
OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAR "62
ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT . . "88
EUROPE AT END OF 5TH CENTURY " 104
EUROPE UNDER JUSTINIAN " 114
DOMINIONS OF THE EARLY CALIPHS .... " I2O
EUROPE UNDER CHARLES THE GREAT .... ' 128
EUROPE AT THE END OF THE gTH CENTURY . u 130
EUROPE IN THE I2TH CENTURY " 158
EUROPE TOWARDS THE END OF THE I4TH
CENTURY " 210
EUROPE UNDER CHARLES THE FIFTH .... " 242
THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE COLONIES . . " 276
EUROPE UNDER LEWIS THE I4TH " 284
EUROPE UNDER BUONAPARTE " 332
EUROPE ACCORDING TO TREATY OF VIENNA . . " 336
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
B.C.
Messenian Wars ...... ..... 743-668
Solon gives laws to Athens . . - - . MA
Peisistratos, Tyrant of Athens ....... 56O-527
Sardis taken by Cyrus ........... 546
Poems of Theognis of Megara ........ 544
Babylon taken by Cyrus .......... 538
Hippias driven out of Athens ........ 51O
The Tarquinii driven out of Rome ....... 51O
Battle of Marathon ....... ..... 49Q
Battles of Thermopylai and Salamis ..... . 48O
Battles of Plataia and Mykale ........ 479
Confederacy under Athens . - ^ - - - r
Lddci'iliip of ^L'tiriklcs at Atlicus ...... 444-429
Early Greek Dramatic Poets ........ ATQ-aan
Beginning of the Peloponnesian War ........ 431
Thucydides, fl ....... ...... c. 431-411
Xenophon, fl.. . .......... c. 41O-362
Ailtpni^^ fypfHifirm acrainst .^yrnr^ft^ t T T T 4L1 &
Defeat of the Athenians .......... 413
Dionysios I., Tyrant of Syracuse ...... 4O6-367
I<?attle of Aigos-potamos .......... 4O5
Government of the Thirty at Athens ...... 4O4
Deliverance of Athens by Thrasyboulos ..... 4O3
Veii taken by Camillas ....... ... 396
tir CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
B.c
Battle of the Allia ; Rome taken by the Gauls. . . . 39C
Spartan Campaigns in Asia Minor 399-394
Corinthian War 394
Peace of Antalkidas 387
Kadmeia of Thebes taken by the Spartans .... 389
The Spartans driven out of Thebes ; leadership of Pelo-
pidos and Epameinondas 379
Olynthian Confederacy suppressed by Sparta. . . . 379
Battle of Leuktra 371
Dionysios II., Tyrant of Syracuse 367-356
The Arkadian League ; foundation of Megalopolis . 369
Restoration of Messene 369
Lucius Sextius first Plebeian Consul 366
Battle of Mantineia ; death of Epameinondas . . . 362
Philip, King of Macedonia 359
Demosthenes, fl c 356-322
Olynthos taken by Philip 347
First Samnite War 343
Latin War 34O
Battle of Chaironeia 338
Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia .. . . . 336
Thebes destroyed by Alexander 335
Battle of the Granikos 334
Battle of Issos 333
Foundation of Alexandria 332
Battle of Arbela 331
Second Samnite War 326
Death of Alexander 323
The Lamian War 323
Submission of Athens to Antipatros 322
Beginning of Kingdom of Pergamos 28O
Agathokles, Tyrant of Syracuse c. 31O-286
Battle of Ipsos 3O1
Third Samnite War 298-29O
Pyrrhos, King of Epeiros 295
Demetrios Poliorkete's, King of Macedonia .... 294
War between Pyrrhos and the Romans 281
Gaulish invasion of Greece and Macedonia '. 28O
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. x
B.C.
Revival of the Achaian League 28O
Gaulish Settlement in Asia 279
Battle of Beneventura 275
Death of Pyrrhos at Argos 272
Hieron II., King of Syracuse 27O-216
First Punic War 264-24.1
Sikyon joins the Achaian League 251
Rise of the Parthian Dynasty 25 O
Aratos, General of the Achaian League .... 24-7
Hamilcar Barcas, General of the Carthaginians . . 245
Kleomens, King of Sparta 236
War between Rome and Illyria 229
War between Sparta and the Achaian League . . . 227
Corinth given up to Ar.tigonos Doson 223
Battle of Sellasia 221
Death of Kleomenes 221
Hannibal, General of the Carthaginians 221
The Confederate War . '. ". . . . '. . . 223-5217
Second Punic War . . ^ - - - 218
The Scipios in Spain 218-2O6
Battle of Lake Trasimene 217
Battle of Cannae 216
First Macedonian War 213-2O5
Publius Cornelius Scipio in Africa 2O6-2O1
Philopoimen, General of the Achaian League . . . 2O8
Battle of Zama 2O2
Second Macedonian War . . 2OO
Battle of Kynoskephale 197
Defeat of Antiochos the Great at Therm opylai . . . 191
Roman Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul 191
Defeat of Antiochos at Magnesia 191
Roman Conquest of ^Etolia 189
Polybios, fl c. 182-146
Third Macedonian War - .... 171
The Lykian League 168
Battle of Pydna 168
Third Punic War 149
Fourth Macedonian War 149
Macedonia becomes a Roman Province
icvl CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
B.C
Carthage taken jy the Romans ........ 140
War between Rome and Achaia ; destruction of Corinth 146
Attalos bequeaths Pergamos to the Romans .... 133
Roman Conquest of Numantia ........ 133
Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus ........ 133
First Roman Province in Transalpine Gaul .... 125
Tribunate of Cains Gracchus ........ 123
Jugurthine War ........... 111-1O6
Invasion of Gaul by Cimbri and Teutones .... 1O9
Caius Marius, Consul .......... . 1O7
Defeat of the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae ..... 1O2
Defeat of the Cimbri at Vercellae ...... 1O1
The Social War ............. 9O
Civil War between Marius and Sulla ..... 88-82
First Mithridatic War ........... 88
Battles of Chaironeia and Orchomenos ..... 87
Dictatorship of Sulla ........... 82
Second Mithridatic War .......... 74-64
Roman Conquest of Syria ......... 64
Jerusalem taken by Pompeius ........ 63
Conquests of Caesar in Gaul . .......... 58-51
lr.v.T>inns of Britain ......... 55-54
Parthian Expedition and Death of Crassus .... 54-53
Civil War of Pompeius and Caesar ...... 49
Defeat of Pompeius at Pharsalos ....... 48
Perpetual T^jrtntnrship of Cfr*SfT ....... 45
Death of Caesar ............. 44
Second Civil War ............ 43
Battle of Philippi ............ 42
War between Caesar and Anton ius ....... 32
Battle of Aktion ............ 31
Title of Augustus taken by Caesar ....... 27
feeginn'flg of {fog RotOI" F-mpire ...... 27
Campaigns of Drusus and Tiberius in Germany . . . 11-9
A.D.
Defeat of Varus by Arminius ..... , . . 9
Tiberius, Emperor ......... ... 14
Campaigns of Gcrmanicus ..... .... 15-ie
Caligula, Emperor
Claudius, Emperor
Claudius in Britain
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xrtt
A.D.
Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Emperors 68-69
Revolt of Civilis , 69-7 O
Destruction of Jerusalem 7O
Vespasian, Emperor , 7O
Domitian yg
Titus 8 ,
Final Conquest of Britain by Agricola 84
Dacian War , 33
Nerva 9e
Trajan 9a
Hadrian H7
Antoninus Pius 133
Marcus Aurelius ...... 161
Commodus . . . . \ . . ~ t " t ] [ \ \ 13 O
Septimius Severus . 193
Antoninus Caracalla 211
Alexander Severus 222
Sassanirl Dynasty in Pprda . . . . ... . . ggq
Valerian 253
Gallienus 26O
Kingdom of Palmyra 261
Claudius II 268
Defeats of the Goths by Claudius 269, 27O
Aurelian, Emperor 27O
Overthrow of the Kingdom of Palmyra 273
Diocletian, Emperor . . . .-- . Q84
Maximian, joint Emperor with Diocletian . . . 286
Abdications of Diocletian and Maximian . . . , . 3O5
Constantine the Great (sole Emperor) 323
Foundation of Constantinople 324.
Council ot Nikaia 325
Constantius (sole Emperor) ....... . ^ . . . . 3SQ
Campaigns of Julian in Gaul 856-360
Julian, Emperor 36O-363
I
xviii CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
A.I).
The Goths cross the Danube ... .... 376
Battle of Hadrianople 378
JThcodosius the Great (sole Emperor) . . . . . . 393
Arcadius and Honorius 395
Alaric in Italy 4O2
Stilicho defeats Alaric 4O3
Rome taken by Alaric 41O
The Roman Legions leave Britain 410
Beginning of the Gothic Kingdom in Spain ana i"iaul 414
Settlement of the Vandals in Africa 429
English Conquest of Britain . . . . . . . . 44-9-547
Defeat of Attila at Chalons .. . 451
Majorian, Emperor in the West 457-461
Reunion of the Empires under Zeno 476
Odoacer governs Italy as Patrician 476
Reign of Theodoric in Italy 493-526
Justinian, Emperor 527-565
Chosroes or Nushirvan, King of Persia 531
Campaigns of Belisarius in Africa 534
Italy recovered by Belisarius and Narsfc .... 536-554
Lombard Settlements in Italy 568
Birth of Mahomet 569
Maurice, Emperor 582
Chosroes Parviz, King of Persia 59O
Conversion of the English 597-681
Phokas, Emperor 6O2
Beginning of Mahomet's Mission 6O9
Heraclius, Emperor 61O
Campaigns of Chosroes 611-615
Heraclius overthrows the Persian power .... 623-628
Death of Mahomet ; Abu-Bekr Caliph 632
Saracen Conquest of Syria 632-639
Saracen Conquest of Persia 632-651
Saracen Conquest of Egypt 638
Saracen Conquest of Africa 647-7O9
First Siege of Constantinople . . _ 673
Carthage taken by the Saracens . '" 698
Saracen Con ]uest of Spain 71O-713
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xi>
4.D.
Second Siege of Constantinople . 716
Leo the Isaurian, Emperor 717
Iconoclast Controversy in Italy 728
Battle of Tours ; defeat of the Saracens by Charles
Martel 732
Constantine Kopronymos, Emperor .... 741-775
Pippin, King of the Franks ......... 753
End of the Ommiad Dynasty at Damascus ....
Abd-al-rahman founds the Ommiad Dynasty in Spain .
The Saracens driven out of Gaul
Charles the Great overthrows the Lombard Kingdom
Deposition of Constantine VI
Charles the Great. Emperor of the West ....
Ecgberht, King of the West-Saxons . . . . ; 8O2-837
Lewis the Pious, Emperor 814
Saracen Conquest of Crete 82f5
Saracen Conquest of Sicily 27-87*1
Treaty of Verdun 84O
Alfred, King of the West-Saxons 871
The Macedonian Emperors in the East . . . 867-1O26
Paris besieged by the Northmen 885
Division of the Karolingian Empire . . . . . - rttrr
Settlement of KolfinGaul 913
Edward the Elder, Lord of all Britain 924
?- Great crowned Enope
Otto the Second, Emperor ......... 972
Otto the Third, Emperor .......... 983
Mahometan Invasion of India ...... 1OO1-1O26
Danish Conquest of Jingland ...... 1O13-1O16
.Cn-ut, King of all England . 1 ^ . . . . 1017-loas
Edward the Confessor ........... 1O49
Corrad II ..... .' King 1O24,* Emperor 1O27
End of the Ommiad Dynasty in Sp^in . . . . . loai
Union of Burgundy wit-h HIP Fmpirp
* In the case of the Weuern Emperors the first date is that of election and
coronation as King or, in thjfcase of a King crowned in his father's life-
time, his accession as sole King ; the second date is that of his coronation aj
Emperor.
w CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
A.D.
Henrv III King 1O39, Emperor 1O46
Rise of the Seljuk Turks 1O3I
Togrel Beg helps the Caliph Al Kayem against the
Dilemites 1O55
Henry IV King 1O56, Emperor 1O84
Norman Conquest of Sicily 1O6O-1O9O
Battle of Senlac 1O66
Battle of Manzikert 1O71
Revolt of the Saxons against Henry IV .... 1O73
Henry IV. at Canosa 1O77
Alfonso of Leon takes Toledo 1O84
Dynasty of the Almoravides in Spain 1O87
Division of the Seljuk Empire 1O92
Council of Clermont 1O95
The First Crusade . . . 1O96
Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders 1O99
Henry I., King of England . . . . . . 11OO-1135
Henry V king noa r E^mr mi
Alfonso of Aragon takes Zaragoza 1118
John Komn^nos, Eastern Emperor .... 1118-114-3
The Concordat of Worms . . 1122
Norman Kingdom of Sicily - - , t - - ^ . 113O
Lothar of Saxony . . . . King 1125, Kinperur 1133
Conrad III., King 1138
Manuel Komnenos, Eastern Emperor 1143
The Almohade Dynasty in Spain 1146
The Second Crusade 1147
Henry II. of England 1154
-FrpHprir TUrharnsisa . . , Kfog 1158. Emperor 1155
The Lombard League 1167
Conquest of Ireland 1171
Saladin overthrows the Fatimite Dynasty .... 1171
Manuel, Eastern Emperor, defeated by the Turks . . 1176
Philip Augustus, King of France 118C
Peace of Constanz 1183
Saladin takes Jerusalem f . . . . . 1187
Henry VI King 11 9O, Emperor 1191
Conquest of Sicily by Henry VI 1194
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. x
A.D.
Battle of Alarcos 1195
John, King of England 1199
Alliance between the Crusaders and Venetians . . . 12O1
First Latin Siege and taking of Constantinople . . 12O3
Second Latin Conquest of Constantinople .... 12O4
Theodore Laskares, Emperor of Nikaia .... 12O4
Invasion of the Moguls under Tenghiz Khan . , . 12O6
Crusade apn.inst the Alhigpnspg . T . _ r fljftpff
Battle of Tolosa 1212
James the Conqueror, King of Aragon . . . 1213-1276
Battle of Bouvines 1214
The Great Charter granted by John 1215
Henry III., King of England 1216-1272
Ferdinand III., King of Castile . . . . . 1217-1252
Frederick II King 1215, Emperor 122O
John Vatatzes, Emperor of Nikaia 1222
Mogul Invasion of Persia 1222
Saint Lewis of France 1226
Frederick II. crowned King of Jerusalem .... 1228
The County of Toulouse joined to France .... 1229
Ferdinand III. unites Castile and Leon ' 123O
The Teutonic Order conquers Prussia . . . 123O-126O
Kingdom of Granada 1237
Rise of the Ottoman Turks 124O
Battle of Lignitz 1241
Jerusalem taken by the Chorasmians ...... 1244
First Crusade of St. Lewis of France 1248
Death of Frederick II. Conrad IV., King . . . 125O
End of the Swabiau Dynasty 1254
The Interregnum " 1254-1273
Manfred, King of Sicily 1258
End of the Bagdad Caliphate 1258
Michael Palaiologos, Eastern Emperor 1259
Recovery of Constantinople 1261
Battle of Evesham 1265
Dante born 1265
Conquest of Sicily by Charles of Anjou 1266
Gregory X., Pope 1271
xii CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
A.1X
Edward I., King of England . 1272
Rudolf of Habsburg, King 1273-1293
The Sicilian Vespers 1282
Wales united to England 1282
Albert, Duke of Austria 1282
Genoese Defeat of the Pisans off Meloi la .... 1284
Acre taken by the Mahometans 1291
Beginning oEthe Swiss League 1291
Adolf, King 1292
Albert I., King 1299
Battle of Courtray 13O2
Boniface VIII., Pope 1294-13O3
Clement V., Pope 13OS
Edward II., King of England 13O7
Popes at Avignon 13O9
Robert, King of Naples 13O9
Henry VII King 13O8, Emperor 1312
Lewis of Bavaria .... King 1314, Emperor 1328
Philip the Fair annexes Lyons to France .... 1314
Battle of Mortgarten 1315
Edward III., King of England 1327
Independence of Scotland 1328
First Passage of the Turks into Europe . . 134-1-1347
Lewis, King of Hungary 1342
Jane I., Queen of Naples 1343
Battle of Crecy 1343
Rienzi at Rome 1347
Dauphiny of Vienne becomes an appanage of France . 1349
Charles IV King 1346, Emperor 1355
The Golden Bull . ^ 1356
Battle of Poitiers 1356
Peace of Bretigny . 136O
Philip of Valois, Duke of Burgundy 1361
Hadrianople taken by the Turks 1361
Battle of Najara 1366
Rise of Timour 1370
Return of the Popes to Rome 1376
Beginning of the Great Schism ... ... 1378
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xxiij
A.D.
Beginning of the War of Chioggia 1378
Timour conquers Persia 138O-I393
John the Great, King of Portugal 1385
Battle of Sempach 1386
Union of Poland and Lithuania 1386
Bajazet, Sultan of the Ottomans 1389
Gian Galeazzo Viscouti, Duke of Milan 1395
Victory of Bajazet at Nikopolis . 1396
The Union of Calmar 1397
Bajazet defeated by Timour at Angora 14O2
John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy 14O4
Death of Timour 14O5
Pisa becomes subject to Florence 14O6
Sicily united to Aragon 14O9
Council of Pisa 14O9
Sig-ismund ...... King, 141O, Emperor 1433
Henry V., King of England 1413
Battle of Agincourt . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
Council of Constanz 1415
John Huss burned 1415
Alfonso V., King of Aragon 1416
Jane II., Queen of Naples 1419
Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy 1419
Henry V. takes Rouen 1419
Treaty of Troyes 142O
Amurath II., Sultan 1421
Siege of Constantinople 1422
Council of Basel 1431
Treaty of Arras 1435
Council of Florence 1439
Frederick III King 144O Emperor 1452
Battle of St. Jacob near Basel 1444
Battle of Varna 1444
Death of Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan . . 1447
Christian I., King of Denmark 1448
Constantine Palaiologos, Eastern Emperor .... 1448
Francesco Sforza Duke of Milan 1450
Mahomet II., Sultan 1451
ixiv CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
A.D.
End of the Hundred Years' War 1453
The Turks take Constantinople 1453
Wars of York and Lancaster 1455-1483
John Huniades drives back the Turks from Belgrade . 1456
Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary ..... 1-458
Mahomet II. conquers the Empire of Trebizond . . 1461
Casimir IV., King of Poland, wins West Prussia
from the Teutonic Knights 1466
Union of Castile and Aragon 1471
Ivan Vasilovich frees Russia from the Moguls . . . 1477
Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope 1483
Conquest of Granada 1492
Christopher Columbus discovers America .... 1492
Charles VIII. of France enters Italy 1494
Florence gets rid of the Medici ....... 1494
Pisa regains her liberty - 1494
Lewis XII. of France conquers the Duchy of Milan. 15OO
Shah Ismael, first Sophi of Persia 15O1
Ferdinand of Spain and Sicily conquers Naples . . 15O4
League of Cambray 15O8
Maximilian I. takes the title of Emperor-elect . . . 15O8
agHenry VIII., King of England . . ,_.__ . . 15O9
Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League 15J1
Ferdinand conquers Navarre 1512
Battle of Ravenna 1512
The Medici return to Florence 1512
Selim the Inflexible, Sultan 1512
Germany divided into Circles 1512
Christian II., King of Denmark and Norway . . . 1513
Francis I., King of France 1515
Battle of Marignano 1515
' Charles V., (I.) King of Spain 1516
Beginning of the Reformatioji 1517
Charles V. elected Emperor 1519
Ulrich Zwingli preaches at Zurich 1519
Christian II. of Denmark becomes King of Norway . 152O
Mexico conquered by Hemando Cortez .... 1519-21
guleiman the Lawgiver, Sultan 152O
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xx
A.D.
Suleiman takes Belgrade ... 1521
War between Charles V. and Francis I. . . . . 1521
Luther before the Diet of Worms . 1521
Knights of St. John driven out of Rhodes .... 15223
Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden < 1523
Frederick L, King of Denmark and Norway . . . 1523
Battle of Pavia 1525
Foundation of the Duchy of Prussia 1525
Lewis II. of Hungary killed at the Battle of Mohacs 1526
Baber, Emperor of Hindostan 1326
Sack of Rome by the Imperialists 1527
The Medici driven out of Florence 1527
Peace of Cambray 1529
Diet of Speyer 1529
Sultan Suleiman besieges Vienna 1529
Charles V. crowned Emperor 153O
Fall of Florence 153O
Confession of Augsburg 153O
The Portuguese colonize Brazil 1531
The Smalcaldic League 1531
Death of Zwingli 1531
Peru conquened by Francisco Pizarro .... 1532-1536
Ivan IV. (the Terrible), Czar of Russia 1533
Duke Charles of Savoy besieges Geneva .... 1534
The Society of Jesus founded by Ignatius Loyola . . 154O
Mary, Queen of Scots 1542
Nizza besieged by the Turks 1543
Council of Trent 1545
Death of Luther 1546
Henry II. of France 1547
Edward VI. of England 1547
Henry II. of France seizes the Three Bishopricks. . * 1552
Mary, Queen of England 1553
The Fall of Sienna 1555
Abdication of Charles V. . , 1555
Peace of Augsburg 1555
Philip II. of Spain 15S6
Akbar, Emperor of Hindostan 1550
ucvi CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
A.D.
Cosmo de' Medici, Duke of Florence, gets possession
of Sienna 1557
Battles of St. Quentin and Gravelines 1557
The French take Calais 18
Elizabeth, Queen of England 18
ce of Cateau-Cambresis * . . 1559
Francis II. of France % 1559
Frederick II. of Denmark and Norway 1559
Charles IX. of France 156O
Death of Gustavus Vasa 156O
Religious Wars in France begin 1562
First French Settlement of Carolina 1562
Cyprus taken by the Turks 1571
Battle of Lepanto 1571
Massacre ol Saint Bartholomew i572
The Polish Crown becomes purely elective .... is 73
Henry III. of France 1574
Philip II. annexes Portugal to Spain 15to
Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy 158O
Union of the Seven Provinces 1581
Death of William the Silent 1584
Sir Walter Raleigh founds the Colony of Virginia . 1585
Mary of Scotland beheaded 1587
Philip II. sends the Armada against England . . . 1588
Christian IV. of Denmark and Norway 1588
Henry IV. of France 1589
End of the Dynasty of Ruric in Russia 1589
Philip III. of Spain 1598
Treaty of Lyons 16O1
James I. of England ? 16O3
Jehangir, Emperor of Hindostan 16O5
Lewis XIII. of France 161O
Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain 161O
Union of Prussia and Brandenburg 1611
Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden 1611
Beginning of the Romanoff Dynasty in Russia . . 1613
Beginning of the Thirty Years' War 1618
Philip IV. of Spain 1681
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xxvii
A. P.
Massacre of Amboyna 1623
Christian IV. of Denmark Head of the Protestant
League 1625
Charles I. of England 1625
Shah Jehan, Emperor of Hindostan 1627
Gustavus Adolphus, Head of the Protestant League . 163O
Battle of Liitzen 1632
Christina, Queen of Sw iden 1632
Ferdinand III., Emperor 1637
Beginning of the Dynasty of Braganza in Portugal . 1639
English Settlement at Madras 164O
Lewis XIV. of France 164-3
War of Candia 164-5
Peace of Westphalia . . . . . . . . . . . 1648
Charlft; I. of England beheaded 1649
Oliver Cromwell, Protector of Eng'.and 1653
Prussia independent of Poland . . 1657
Death of Oliver Cromwell 1658
Leopold I. Emperor 1658
Aurungzebe, Emperor of Hindostan 1658
Peace of the Pyrenees 1659
Restoration of Charles II. of England 166O
Treaties of Oliva and Copenhagen 166O
Denmark becomes an absolute Monarchy .... 166O
Charles II. sells Dunkirk to Lewis XIV 1663
War between England and the United Provinces 1664-1667
The Plague of London 1665
The Great Fire of London 1666
Lewis XIV. conquers Franche Comte and part of
Flanders 1667
The Triple Alliance against Lewis XIV 1638
The Turks take Candia 1869
William III., Stadholder 1672
John Sobieski, King of Poland 1674
Peace of Nimwegen 1678-1679
Lewis XIV. seizes Strassburg 1681
Sweden becomes an absolute Monarchy ..... 1682
The Turks besiege Vienna 1683
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
A.D.
Lewis XIV. revokes the Edict of Nantes .... 1685
James II. of England 1685
The Hungarian Crown becoir.es hereditary .... 1687
Lewis XIV. seizes Avignon 1688
William and Mary, King and Queen of England . . 1689
Peter the Great, sole Emperor of Russia .... 1689
Russian Conquest of Azof 1696
Peace of Ryswick 1697
Charles XII., Kin- of Sweden 1697
Augustus the Strong, King of Poland 1697
English Settlement at Calcutta 1698
Peace of Carlowitz 1699
Battle of Narva 17OO
War of the Spanish Succession 17OO
Frederick I., first King of Prussia *17O1
Anne, Queen of England 17 OS
Stanislaus, Kiiig of Poland 17O4
Gibraltar taken by the English 17O4
Joseph I., Emperor 17O5
Union of England and Scotland 17O7
Beginning of the East India Company 17O8
Charlfes VI., Emperor 1711
Treaty of Utrecht 1713
Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy, King of Sicily . . . 1713
Frederick William I., King of Prussia 1714
George I. of England 1714
Lewis XV. of France 1715
War between Austria and Turkey 1715
The Turks win back Peloponnesos from Yenica . . 1715
Jacobite Rebellion in England 1715
Peace of Passarowitz ........ . . 1713
Death of Charles XII 1718
Quadruple Alliance against Spain 1718
Victor Amadeus II., King of Sardinia 172O
The Pragmatic Sanction 1 720
Mahmoud I., Sultan 1730
War of the Polish Election 1733
Peace of Belgrade ............ i73*
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xxu
A.D.
Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary 174O
Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia 174O
Frederick conquers Silesia 174O
War of the Austrian Succession ...'.. 1741-174&
Charles VII., Emperor 1742
Francis I., Emperor . 174-5
Second Jacobite Rebellion 1745
Battle of Culloden 1746
William IV. Hereditary Stadholder 1747
The Seven Years' War .--... 1756
Suraj-ad-dowla takes Calcutta 1756
Battle of Plassey 1757
English Conquest of Canada 1759
George III. of England 176O
The Family Compact 1761
Catharine II., Empress of Russia 1762
Russian conquest of Crim Tartary 1762
Peace of Paris 1763
Joseph II., Emperor 1765
Annexation of Lorraine to France 1766
Annexation of Corsica to France 1768
First Partition of Poland 1772
Abolition of the Society of Jesus ....... 1773
Peace of Kainardji 1774
Lewis XVI. of France 1774
Revolt of the American Colonies 1775
Declaration of Independence 1776
Independence of Ireland 1782
Convocation of States-General in France .... 1789
Constitution of the United States 1789
Selim III., Sultan 1789
Leopold II., Emperor 179O
Francis II., Emperor 1793
National Convention m France 1792
Treaty of Jassy 1792
Wars of the French Revolution 1793-1815
Second Partition of Poland . 1793
Execution of Lewis XVI .... 1793
txx CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
A. a
Third Pirtitionof Poland 1795
Batavian Republic 1796
Paul, Emperor of Russia . 1796
Helvetic Republic . ' 1798
Battle of the Nile 1798
Union of Great Britain and Ireland 18OO
Alexander, Emperor of Russia 18O1
Peace of Lunevill. 18O1
Peace of Amiens 18O2
Napoleon Buonaparte, Emperor of the Frgnrh . . 18O4
Buonaparte, King of Italy 18O5
Battle of Austerlitz 18O5
Peace of Pressburg 18O5
Battle of Trafalgar 18O5
Francis II. resigns the Imperial Crown ..... 18O6
Battle of Jena laoe
Peace of Tilsit 18O7
Mahntoud II. Sultan 18O7
The Peninsular War begins 18O8
Battle of Wagram 18O9
Revolt of the Spanish Colonies in America . . . 181O
French Invasion of Russia 1812
War between England and the United States . 1813-1815
Battle of Leipzig 1813
First Peace of Paris 1814.
Abdication of Napoleon Buonaparte 1814
Congress of Vienna 1815
Return of Buonaparte. Battle of Waterloo . . . 1816
Second Peace of Paris 1815
The German Confederation 1815
Greek War of Independence 1821
Separation of Brazil from Portugal 1822
Charles X. of France 1824
Nicholas, Emperor of Russia 1825
Battle of Navarino 1827
War between Russia and Turkey 1828
French Revolution of July 183O
Separation of Belgium from the Netherlands . . . 1830
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xxxk
A.D.
Insurrection in Central Italj 1831
Polish Revolution 1B31
Civil War in Spain 1833
Indeyendence of Egypt 1841
Tius IX., Pope 1846
War of the Sonderbund in Switzerland 1847
Frederick VII. of Denmark 1848
Second French Republic 1848
Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, President ..... 1848
First War of Independence in Italy 1848
War of Sleswick and Holbtein 1848
Swiss Federal Constitution 1848
Battle of Novara 1849
Victor Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia 1849
Fall of Rome and Venice 1849
French Republic destroyed by Louis Napoleon Buona-
parte 18S1
Buonaparte calls himself Emperor 1852
The Crimean War 1854-1854
Alexander II., Emperor oi Russia 1855
Indian Mutiny 1857
Freedom of Lombardy 1859
Garibaldi frees Sicily and Naples . I860
Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy 1861
Secession War in America 1861
Polish Revolt . 1863
Battle of Konigsgratz 1866
Sleswick and Holstein joined to Prussia . ..... 1866
France declares war against Prussia 187O
Battle of Sedan \ 87O
Rome the Capital of Italy 187O
William I. of Prussia, German Emperor . . . . 1871
Swendernf Paris 1O71
Peace of Frankfurt l71
GENERAL SKETCH
OF
HISTORY.
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS.
Oifferent nations of the world (\) difference between East
and West (2) the Aryan nations (3) connexion
among their languages (3) amount of progress made
by them before tJieir dispersion (4) their advances in
religion and government (5) the Semitic nations (6)
their religious influence on the world (6) the Tu-
ranian and other Non-Aryan nations (7) tJieir extent
in Asia (7) traces of them in Europe (7) movements
of the Aryans in Europe and Asia (8) geographical
shape of Europe (9) the tliree great peninsulas (10)
advance of the successive Aryan swarms (n) the
Greeks and Italians (i 1, 12) the Celts (12) the Teutons
(13) the Slaves and Lithuanians (14) later Turanian
settlements in Europe; Hungarians and Tttrks (14)
different degrees of importance among the Aryans of
Europe (15) Rome the central point of all European
History (i) Division of periods before and after the
Roman Dominion (16).
i. Different Aspects of History. The history
of the various nations of mankind may be looked at
in many and very different ways ; and the importance
2 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. [CHAP
of different parts of history varies widely according to
the way in "which they are looked at. One who wishes
to trace out the history of religion, or of language, or
of manners and customs, will often find as much that
is useful for his purpose among savage nations, who
have played no important part in the world, as among
the most famous and civilized people. But researches
of this sort cannot be put together into a continuous
tale ; they are not history strictly so called. By history
in the highest sense we understand the history of
those nations which have really influenced one another,
so that their whole story, from the beginning to our
own time, forms one tale, of which, if we wholly leave
out any part, we cannot rightly understand what fol-
lows it Such a history as this is found only in the
history of the chief nations of Europe, and of those
nations of Asia and Africa which have had most to
do with them.
2. Difference between East and West.
Between the history of the East, as we may vaguely
call it, that is chiefly the history of Asia and Africa,
and the history of the Western world in Europe
and America, the gap is in many ways wide. To
take one point of difference among many, the his-
tory of the East does not give the same political
teaching as that of the West. It is in a much greater
degree the history of a mere succession of empires
and dynasties, and in a much less degree the history
of the people. We shall therefore do right if we deal
with the history of the West as our main subject, and
treat of the history of the East only so far as it bears
on the history of the West. For history in the highest
sense, for the history of man in his highest political
character, for the highest developements of art, Jitera-
ture, and political freedom, we must look to that family
of mankind to which we ourselves belong, and to that
division of the world in which we oursflves dwell.
The branch of history which is history in the
I.] EAST AND WEST. 3
and truest sense is the history of the Aryan nations
of Europe, and of those who have in later times gone
forth from among them to carry the arts and languages
of Europe into other continents. The history of these
nations forms Western or European history, the history
of Europe and of European Colonies. But here too
we shall nnd some periods and countries of higher
interest and importance than others. Still the whole
from the earliest times to which we can trace it back,
forms one connected story. No part is altogether
void of interest in itself, none is altogether cut off
from connexion with the general thread of continuous
history. And with regard to particular times and
places, this part of history reaches the highest degree
of interest and importance that history can reach. It
takes in the history of those times and places which
most directly concern ourselves, and it takes in the
history of those times and places which have had the
deepest and most lasting influence on the world in
general. It is then to the history of Europe, and of
the Aryan nations in Europe and in European colonies
elsewhere, that the present sketch, and the more de-
tailed histories which are to follow it, will mainly be
devoted. The history of other parts of the world,
and of other families of the human race, will be dealt
with only so far as those other nations and countries
are brought into connexion with the long unbroken
tale of European history.
3. The Aryan Nations. Some readers may
perhaps by this time have asked what is to be under-
stood by a word which has been already used more
than once, namely, the Aryan nations. That is the
name which is now generally used to express that
division of the human race to which we ourselves be-
long, that which takes in nearly all the present nations
of Europe and several of the chief nations of Asia.
The evidence of language shows that there was a
time, a time of course long before the beginning of
4 ORIGIN OF THE NA TIONS. [CHAP
recorded history, when the forefathers of all these
nations were one people, speaking one language.
Sanscrit, that is the ancient language of India, Persian^
Greek, Latin, English, and other tongues, many of
which we shall soon have occasion to speak of, are
really only dialects of one common speech. They
show their common origin both by their grammatical
forms, such as the endings of nouns and verbs and the
like, and also in a way which is more easily understood
by people in general, by their still having many of the
commonest and most necessary words, those words
without which no language can get on, essentially the
same. Now many of the nations which now speak
these languages have for ages been so far parted from
one another that it is quite impossible that they can
have borrowed these words, and still less these gram-
matical forms, from one another. We can thus see
that all these nations are really kinsfolk, that they
once were only one nation, the different branches of
which parted off from one another at a time long
before written history begins.
4. Early State of the Aryan Nations. But
what we know of the languages of the various Aryan
nations tells us something more than this. By the
nature of the words which are common to all or most
of the kindred tongues, we can see what steps the
forefathers of these various nations had already taken
in the way of social life and regular government in
the days before they parted asunder. And we can
see that those steps were no small steps. Before there
were such nations as Hindoos and Greeks and Ger-
mans, while the common forefathers of all were still
only one people, they had risen far indeed above the
state of mere savages. They had already learned to
build houses, to plough the ground, and to grind their
corn in a mill. Tins is shown by the words for
ploughing, building, and grinding being still nearly the
same in all the kindred languages. It is i-asy for any-
I.] THE EARLY ARYANS. 5
one to see that the word mill is the same as the Latin
mo/a, and that the old word to ear that is, to plough
the ground, which is sometimes used in the Old
Testament, is the same as the Latin arare, which has
the same meaning. But no one ought to fancy that
the English word is derived from the Latin, or that
we learned the use of the thing from any people who
spoke Latin, because the same words are found also in
many other of the kindred languages, even those which
are spoken in countries which are furthest removed
from one another. We see then that words of this
kind and I have chosen only two out of many are
regally fragments remaining from the old common lan-
guage which was spoken by our common forefathers
before they branched off and became different nations.
It is therefore quite plain that the things themselves,
the names of which have thus been kept in 30 many
different languages for thousands of years, were already
known to the Aryan people before they parted into
different nations. And I need not say that people
who build houses, plough the ground, and grind their
corn, though they may still have very much to learn,
are in a much higher state than the people in some
parts of the world are in even now.
5. Early Aryan Religion and Government.
But language again tells something more of the
early Aryan people besides the progress which they
had made in the merely mechanical arts. We find
that the names for various family relations, for the
different degrees of kindred and affinity, father, mother,
brother, sister, and the like, are the same in all or
most of the kindred tongues. We see then that,
before the separation, the family life, the groundwork
of all society and government, was already well un-
derstood and fully established. And we see too that
regular government itself had already begun ; for
words meaning king orrulerz.ro. the same in languages
so far distant from one another as Sanscrit, Latin, and
6 ORIGIN OF THE NA 77OA19. [CHAP.
English. The Latin words rex, regtre, regnum, are the
same as the Old-English riea, rixt'an, rice, words which
have dropped out of the language, but which still re
main ir the ending of such words as bishoprick, where
the last syllable means government or possession. And
we can also see that the Aryins before their dispersion
had already something of a religion. For there is a
common stock of words and tales common to most of
the Aryan nations, many of which they cannot have
borrowed from one another, and which point to an
early reverence fof the great powers of the natural
world. Thus the same name for the sky, or for the
great God of the sky, appears in many of the kindred
languages, as Dyaus in Sanscrit, Zeus in Greek, and
the Old-English God Tiw, from whom we still call the
third day of the week Tiwcsdag or Tuesday. And
there are a number of stories about various Gods and
heroes found among different Aryan nations, all of
which seem to come from one common source. And
we may go on and see that the first glimpses which
we can get of the forms of government in the early
days of the kindred nations show them to have been
wonderfully like one another. Alike among the old
Greeks, the old Italians, and the old Germans, there
was a King or chief with limited power, there was a
smaller Council of nobles or of old men, and a general
Assembly of the whole people. Such was the old con-
stitution of England, out of which the present consti-
tution has grown step by step. But there is no reason
to think that this was at all peculiar to England, or
even peculiar to those nations who are most nearly
akin to the English. There is every reason to believe
that this form of government, in which every man
had a place, though some had a greater place than
others, was really one of the possessions which we
have in common with the whole Aryan family. We
see then that the common Aryan forefathers, in the
times when they were still one people, times so long
t] THE SEMITIC NATIONS. J
ago that we cannot hope to give them any certain date
had already made advances in civilization which placed
them far above mere savages. They already had the
family life ; they already had the beginnings of religion
and government ; and they already knew most of those
simple arts which are most needed for the comfort of
human life.
6. The Semitic Nations. Such then were the^
original Aryans that one among the great families of
mankind to which we ourselves belong, and that which
has played the greatest part in the history of the
world. Still the Aryan nations are only a small part
among the nations of the earth. It is not needful for
our purpose to speak at any length of the nations
which are not Aryan ; but a few words must be given
to the two great families which have always pretty well
divided Europe and Asia with the Aryans, and
with whom the history of the Aryans is constantly
coming in contact. Next in importance to the Aryans
we must place those that are called the Semitic nations,
among which we have most to do with the Hebrews,
the Phoenicians, and the Arabs. And in one point we
must set them even above the Aryans ; for the three
religions which have taught men that there is but on-e
God the Jewish, the Christian, and the Mahometan
have all come from among them. But those among
the Semitic nations to whom this great truth was not
known seem often to have fallen into lower forms of
idolatry than the Aryans. Now the Semitic nations
have, so to speak, kept much closer together than the
Aryans have. They have always occupied a much
smaller portion of the world than the Aryans, and they
have kept much more in the* same part of the world.
Their chief seats have always been in south-western
Asia ; and, though they have spread themselves thence
into distant parts of the world, in Asia, Africa, and
even Europe, yet this has mainly been by settlements
in comparatively late times, about whose history wt
8 ORIGIN OF THE NA TIONS. [CHAP.
know-something. Their languages also have parted
off much less from one another than the Aryan
languages have ; the Semitic nations have thus always
kept up more of the character of one family than the
Aryans.
7. The Turanian Nations. The rest of Asia,
which is not occupied either by Aryan or by Semitic
people, is occupied by various nations whose tongues
differ far more widely from one another than the Aryan
tongues do. Still there is reason to believe that many
of them at least were originally one people, and at all
events it is convenient for our purposes to class
together all those nations of Europe and Asia which
are neither Aryan nor Semitic. The people of the
greater part of Asia are commonly known as the
Turanian nations. In the old Persian stories Turan,
the land of darkness, is opposed to Iran or Aria, the
land of light ; and it is from this Iran, the old name-
of Persia, that it has been thought convenient to give
the whole family the name of Aryans. And besides
that large part of Asia which is still occupied by the
Turanians, it is plain that in earlier times they occupied
a large part of Europe also. But the Aryans have
driven them out of nearly all Europe, except a few
remnants in out-of-the-way corners, such as the Pins
and Laps in the north. The Basques also on the
borders of Spain and Gaul, whether akin to the
Turanians or not, are at least neither Aryan nor
Semitic, so that for our purpose they may all go
together. Except these few remnants of the old races,
all Europe has been Aryan since the beginning of
written history, except when Senrtic or Turanian
invaders have come in later times. But in Asia the
nations which are neither Aryan nor Semitic, the
Chinese, Mongols, Turks, and others, still far out-
number the Aryan and Semitic nations put together.
8. The Aryan Dispersion. We have seen that
there was a time. long before the beginning of recorded
I. J THE ARYAN DISPERSION. 9
history, when the forefathers of the various Aryans
dwelled together as one people, speaking one iitnguage.
And the advances which they had made towards
civilization show that they must have dwelled together
for a long time, but a time whose length we cannot
undertake to measure. Nor can we undertake to fix
a date for the time of the great separation, when the
families which had hitherto dwelled together parted
off in different directions and became different nations,
speaking tongues which are easily seen to be near akin
to each other, but which gradually parted from one
another so that different nations could no longer
understand each other's speech. All that we caji say
is that these are things which happened long before
the beginnings of written history, but which are none
the less certain because we learn them from another
kind of proof. The various wandering bands must
have parted off at long intervals, one by one, and it
often happened that a band split off into two or more
bands in the course of its wanderings. And in most
cases they did not enter upon uninhabited lands, but
upon lands in which men of other races were already
dwelling. Among these they came as conquerors, and,
for the most part, they drove them out of the best
parts of the land into out-of-the-way corners. First
of all, there are the two great divisions of the Eastern
and the Western, the Asiatic and the European, Aryans,
divisions which became altogether cut off from one"
another in geographical position and in habits and
feelings. From the old mother-land one great troop
pressed to the south-east and became the forefathers
of the Persians and Hindoos, driving the older inhabit-
ants of India down to the south, into the land which
is properly distinguished from Hindostan by the name
of the Deccan. The other great troop pressed west-
ward, and, sending off one swarm after another, formed
the various Aryan nations of Europe. The order in
which they came can be known only by their geo-
10 ORIGIN CF THE NATIONS. [CHAP.
graphical position. The first waves of the migration
must be those whom we find furthest to the West
and furthest to the South. But, in order fully to take
in the force of the evidence furnished by the geo-
graphical position of the various Aryan nations in
Europe, it is needful to say a few words as to the
geographical aspect of the continent of Europe
itself.
9. Geographical Shape of Europe. A glance
at the map will show that, of the three continents
which form the Old World, Europe, Asia, and Africa,
the first two are far more closely joined to one
another than either of them is to the third. Africa
is a vast peninsula in our own day indeed it may be
said to have become an island united to the other
two by a very narrow isthmus. But Europe and Asia
form one unbroken mass, and in some parts the boun-
dary between the two is purely artificial. Some maps,
for instance, make the Don the boundary ; others make
it the Volga. The most northern and the most central
parts of Europe and Asia form unbroken geographical
wholes ; it is only the southern parts of the two con-
tinents which are quite cut off from one another. And
it is in these southern parts of each that the earliest
recorded history, at all events the earliest recorded
history of the Aryan nations, begins. Central Europe
and central Asia form one great solid mass of
nearly unbroken land. The southern parts of each
continent, the lands below these central masses, con-
sist of a series of peninsulas, running, in the case of
Europe, into the great inland sea called the Meditcr-
ranfan the sea which brings all three continents
into connexion in the case of Asia into the Ocean
itself. Europe thus consists of a great central plain,
cut off by a nearly unbroken mountain range from a
system of islands and peninsulas to the south, which
is again balanced to the north by a sort of secondary
system of islands and peninsulas, the Baltic being a
I ] GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. IS
kind of northern Mediterranean. We might almost
say the same of Asia, as the mouths of the great rivers
which run to the north form several peninsulas and
inland seas. But then this part of the world has
always been, so to speak, frozen up, and it never has
played, nor ever can play, any part in history.
TO. The three great European Peninsulas.
We thus see that the southern part of Europe consists
mainly of three great peninsulas, those of Spain,
Italy, and what we may roughly call Greece. Of
these, the two eastern peninsulas are purely Mediter-
ranean, while Spain, from its position at one end of
the Old World, could not help having one side to
the Ocean. So Northern Europe may be said to
consist of the two Scandinavian peninsulas and of
the British Islands, which in a certain wav
balance Spain, and which, in a general glance, seem
peninsular rather than insular. Now of the three
southern peninsulas, it will be seen at once that the
eastern one has a character of its own. Though the
nearest to Asia, it is in its geographical character
the most thoroughly European. As Europe is, more
than either of the other continents, a land of islands
and peninsulas, so Greece and the countries near to it
are, more than any other part of Europe, a. .and of
islands and peninsulas. It is therefore hardly more
than we should expect when we find that the recorded
history of Europe begins in this eastern peninsula,
that is to say, in Greece ; that for several ages the
history of Europe is little more than a history of this
and the neighbouring peninsula, that i. c to say, of
Greece and Italy ; that the third peninsula, that of
Spain, first appears in European history as a kind of
appendage to the other two ; and that the historical
importance of central and northern Europe belongs
to a later time still.
ii. The Aryan Settlement of Europe. The
Greeks and Italians. This does not howevei
12 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. [CHAP,
necessarily prove that the two peninsulas of Greece
arid Italy were positively the first parts of Europe
which received Aryan inhabitants. There can be
no doubt, from the close likeness of the Greek and
Latin languages, that the Aryan inhabitants of those
two peninsulas branched off from the original stock
as one swarm. They afterwards parted and became
two nations, or rather two groups of many nations ; but
the fact that the Greek and Latin languages agree so
closely together shows that there was a time when
the forefathers of the Greeks and the forefathers of
the Italians had already parted off from the fore-
fathers of the Hindoos and Germans, but had not
yet parted off from one another. Now the time
when they occupied these two peninsulas must have
been long before the beginnings of recorded history,
so that it is impossible to give any details of the way
in which the land was conquered. Still it is not
in the least likely that they found the land uninhabited.
Tlvey may have found earlier inhabitants who were
not Aryans,- as the Aryans certainly did in many other
parts of Europe, or they may even have found Aryan
settlers earlier than themselves. The exact relations be-
tween the Greeks and the other ancient nations of south-
eastern Europe are in some respects very hard to
make out, and the little that can be said about it in
such a sketch as this will be better said when we come
to speak of Greece somewhat more particularly.
But of the people whom the Italians found in the
middle peninsula of the three, we must say something
more.
12. The Italians and Celts. In the case of
the Italians, we know a little more of the nations,
both Aryan and otherwise, whom they seem to have
found in their peninsul, In some parts they most
likely found a non-Aryan people, and it can hardly
be doubted that, if they entered their peninsula by
land from the head of the Hadriatic Gulf, they
<.] THE CELTS. 13
already found a Celtic people in the northern part of it
The Celts were the first wave of the Aryan migra-
tion in central Europe, and we therefore find them
further to the west than any other Aryan people.
In historical times we find them in Gauf, in the
British Islands, in parts of Spain and Italy, and in the
border lands of Italy and Germany south of the Danube.
Now it is not likely that they found any part of these
lands quite uninhabited ; it is far more likely that they
found aii earlier people dwelling in them, whom they
slew or drove out. In Spain indeed and in Southern
Gaul we know that they found an earlier people
dwelling, because, as has been already said, there is
a small district on each side of the Pyrenees where
a non-Aryan tongue is- still spoken. The people who
speak it, the Basques, are, we cannot doubt, remnants
of the earlier people who inhabited Spain and Southern
Gaul, and most likely other parts of Western Europe,
before either the Celts or Italians came. And we can
hardly doubt that the Italians found people of this
race, perhaps in their peninsula itself, and at any rate
on its borders. But the Italians never settled far to
the west of their own peninsula ; the first Aryans who
pushed their way into Western Europe as far as the
Ocean were the Celts. But we must now mark that, as
the Aryans pressed upon and slew or drove out the
earlier people whom they found in the lands into which
they came, so presently other Aryan swarms came
pressing upon the first Aryans, and dispossessed or
drove them out in like manner. Thus, in Western
Europe, while the earlier inhabitants have been driven
up by the Celts into very small corners indeed, the
Celts themselves were in the end also driven up into
corners, though not into quite such small corners.
Thus, out of all the land where the Celts once
dwelled, their languages, or which the British 01
Welsh, the Breton, and the Irish tongues still sur-
vive, are now spoken onl^. in certain parts of Gaul,
14 ORIGIN OF THE NA TICNS. [CHAF
Britain, and Ireland. This change is partly because
as we shall see as we go on, a large part of the Celts
were conquered by the Romans, and learned to speak
their language. But it is also partly because another
wave of Aryan settlement presently came into Western
Europe, which pressed upon the Celts from the east,
and drove them out of a great part of the land, just
as they had driven the earlier people. And so in
later times, other branches of the Aryan family.have
pressed backwards and forwards, and have conquered
and displaced other Aryan nations, just as much as
those that were not Aryan. But there can be no
doubt that the Celts were the first Aryans who made
their way into the western lands of Spain, Gaul, and
Britain,
13. The Teutons or Dutch. The second Aryan
swarm in Western Europe, that which came after
the Celts, is the one with whose history we are more
concerned than with that of any other ; for it is the
branch of the Aryan family to which we ourselves
belong. These are the Teutons, the forefathers of the
Germans and the English, and of the Danes, Swedes,
and Norwegians in Northern Europe. The Teutons
do not appear in history till a much later time than the
Celts, and then we find them lying immediately to the
east of the Celts, chiefly in the land which is now called
Germany. From this they spread themselves into
many of the countries of Europe ; but in most cases
they got lost among the earlier inhabitants, and learned,
like them, tD speak the language of the Romans.
The chief parts of Europe where Teutonic languages
are now spoken are Germany, England, and Scan-
dinavia. In Scandinavia we cannot doubt that the
present Teutonic inhabitants were the first Aryan
settlers ; for they found a Turanian people there,
some of whom still remain, by the name of Laps and
Fins, in the extreme north of Sweden and Norway iiui
OD the eastern coast of the Baltic. But in most place*
I.] THE TEUTONS AND SLAVES. 13
the Teutons, as the second wave, came into lands
where other Aryan settlers had been before them.
Sometimes they may have simply come in the wake
of the Celts as they were pressing westward ; but,
sometimes they found the Celts in the land and drove
them out, as was specially the case in Britain. O f
the first coming of the Teutons into Europe we
can say nothing from written history, any more than
of the first coming of the Celts. But many of their
chief settlements, and among them the settle-
ment in Britain, happened so late that we know a
good deal about them. The true name of the Teutons
is Theodisc or Dutch, from Theod, people, as one might
say, "the people," as opposed to foreigners. The
Germans still call themselves Deutschen in their own
language, and not so long ago the word Dutch was
still used in English in a sense at least as wide as this,
and did not mean only the people to whom alone we
now commonly give the name.
14. The Slaves and Lithuanians. The third
wave of Aryan settlement in the central parts of Europe
consisted of the Slaves and Lithuanians, whom for our
purpose we may put together, It must not be thought
that the word Slave, as the name of a people, comes
from slave in its common sense of bondman. It is just
the other way, for the word slave got the sense of
bondman because of the great number of bondmen of
Slavonic birth who were at one time spread over Europe.
This third swarm forms the Aryan inhabitants of the
central part of Eastern Europe, of Old Prussia and
Lithuania, of Russia, Poland, Bohemia,, of parts of
Hungary, and of a large part of the countries which
are subject to the Turks. They thus lie to the east
of the Teutons, who in after-times turned about and
greatly enlarged their borders at their cost. And it
is also among thes-e Slavonic people that we find the
only instances in Europe of a Turanian people turning
about and establishing themselves at the cost of Aryan
10 ORIGIN OF THE NA T1ONS. [CHAP.
nations. One of these is the Hungarians or Magyar^
a people allied to the Fins, who pressed in as
conquerors, and founded a kingdom which still lasts,
and where the old Turanian tongue is still spoken.
The other case is that of the Ottoman Turks, who
still bear rule over many of the Greeks, Slaves, and
other Aryan and Christian people in south-eastern
Europe. And as we go on, we shall find other cases
in eastern Europe of Turanian nations invading or
ruling over Aryans ; but it is only the Hungarians
and the Ottoman Turks who founded kingdoms
which have lasted to our own time. The last Aryan
people to be mentioned in this survey of Europe
are the Lithuanians, whose language and his-
tory are closely connected with those of the Slaves.
They are the smallest, as the Slaves are the largest,
of the great divisions of the Aryan settlers in Europe.
But they are of great importance, because their lan-
guage is in some sort the very oldest in Europe ; that
is, it is the one which has undergone the least change
from the common Aryan tongue from which all set
out. But it is only in a very small part of Europe,
on the south-east corner of the Baltic, that the
Lithuanian tongue is still spoken.
15. Rome the Centre of European History.
Such is a very short sketch of the settlement of the
chief Aryan nations in Europe. The history of these
nations forms European history. But, even among
these Aiyan nations in Europe, some have played a
much more important part than others. Thus the
Lithuanians and Slaves have always lagged behind
the other nations. Nor have the Celts played any
great part in history, except when they have come
under either Roman or Teutonic influences. The
nations which have stood out foremost among aL 1
have been the Greeks, the Romans, and the Teutons.
And among these it is the Romans who form the centre
of the whole story. Rome alone founded a universal
I.] ROME THE COMMON CENTRE. 17
Empire in which all earlier history loses itself, and
out of which all later history grew. That Empire,
at the time of its greatest extent, took in the whole
of what was then the civilized world, that is to say,
the countries round about the Mediterranean Sea, alike
in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Roman Empire
was formed by gradually bringing under its dominion
all the countries within ttyose bounds which had
already begun to have any history, those which we
may call the states of the Old World. And /it was
out of the breaking up of the great dominion of
Rome that what we may call the states of the New
Wurld, the kingdoms and nations of modern Europe,
gradually took their rise. Thus through the whole of
our sketch we must be ever thinking of Rome, ever
looking to Rome, sometimes looking forward to it,
sometimes looking back to it, but always having Rome
in our mind as the centre of the whole story. In the
former part of oiir sketch we have to deal with king-
doms and nations which are one day to come under
the power of Rome. In the latter part of our sketch
we have to deal with kingdoms and nations, many
of which actually formed part of the Roman dominion,
and all of which have been brought, more or less
fully, under Roman influences.^ In this way Rome
will never pass out of our sight.
16. Division of Periods. We may thus say
that the history of the civilized part of the world falls
into three parts. There is the history of the states
which were in being before the Roman dominion
began, and out of whose union the Roman dominion
was formed. Then there is the history of the Roman
dominion itself. Lastly, there is the history of the
states which arose out of the breaking up of the
Roman dominion. But we shall have much more to
say about th e states which grew up out of the breaking
up of the Roman dominion than about the states
which were brought together to form it. There are
18 ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS. [CHAP.
two reasons for this. History which we can fully
trust, history which was written down at or soon after
the time when things happened, begins only a few
hundred years before the Roman power came to its
full growth. But a far longer time has passed since
the days when the Roman dominion began to break
in pieces. Thus the portion of trustworthy history
which comes after the days of the Roman dominion
is much longer than the portion which comes before
it. And in these later times we have to deal with
many great and famous states, among which are those
which have grown into the chief powers of Europe in
our own day. But in the earlier time, the time before
the Roman dominion, we know very little of most of
the European nations : the history of most of them
may be said to begin at the time when the Romans
began to conquer them. Of most of them therefore
the little that we have to say will be best said when
we come to speak of the Roman conquests. But
there is one European country which has a history
of its own before its conquest by the Romans, and
a history longer and nobler than that of the Romans
themselves. This country is Greece. Of Greece then,
and of Greece alone, we must give a separate sketch
in the next chapter, before we begin to trace the steps
by which Rome won her universal dominion.
CHAPTER II.
GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.
Connexion between the Greeks and Italians (i) their rela-
tion to other neighbouring nations (i) their early
advances over their kindred (i) meaning of the name
Hellas (-^geographical character of the country (2)
number of islands and peninsulas (2) consequent
number of small states (2) early political superiority
of Greece (3) relations between the Greeks and Phaeni'
(4) extent of the Phoenician Colonies (4) extern
IL] THE GREEKS. *,
of the Greek Colonies (5) distinction between Greek*
and Barbarians (6) relations of the Greeks to the
kindred nations (6) relations among the cities of Greece
(7) relations of the colonies to the mother cities (7)
early constitutions of tJte Greek cities ; likeness of those
to other Aryan nations (8) Kingship, Aristocracy ;
Democracy (8) Tyranny '(9) Greek religion andmyth-
ology(\o) the Homeric poems (i i) the Dorian migra-
tion (\\) the Messenian wars (i i) reforms of So ton
at Athens (n) growth of the Persians (12) thei*
conquests of Lydia and the Greek cities of Asia (12)
first Persian invasion of Greece; Battle of Marathon
(13) second Persian invasion of Greece; Battles of
Salamis, Plataia, and My kale ( 1 3) greatness of A thens
(14) beginning of the Peloponnesian War (15)
Athenian expedition to Sicily (15) Athens overcome
by Sparta (15) the dominion of Sparta (16) the Peace
of Antalkidas (16) rise of Thebes (17) rise of Mace-
donia under Philip; his supremacy in Greece (18)
conquests of Alexander the Great (19) effects of his
conquests; spread of Greek civilization in Asia (20)
the Successors of Alexander in Asia and Egypt (21)
the later Kings of Macedonia and Epeiros (22)
character of the later history of Greece (23) prevalence
of Federal Governments in later Greece : Leagues of
A chain, ^Etolia, and elsewhere (24) greatness of
Sparta under Kleomenes (25) interference of Rome
in Greek affairs (25) Summary (26).
i. The Greek People. Whether the Greeks
were the first Aryan people to settle in Europe or in
Eastern Europe we cannot tell for certain. But we
do know for certain that they were the first Aryan
nation whose deeds were recorded in written history ;
and there never was any nation whose deeds were
more worthy to be recorded. For no nation ever did
such great things, none ever made such great advances
in every way so wholly by its own power and with so
little help from any other people. Yet we must not
look on the Greeks as a nation quite apart by them-
selves. We have already seen that the Greek people
ao GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAR
were part of a great Aryan settlement which occupied
both the two eastern peninsulas, and that the fore-
fathers of the Greeks and the forefathers of ' the
Italians must have kept together for a good while after
they had parted company from the other branches of
the Aryan family. And there is some reason to think
that some of the other nations bordering near upon
Greece, both in the eastern peninsula and in the western
coast of Asia, in Illyria, Thrace, Phrygta, and Lydia,
were not only Aryan, but were actually part of the same
swarm as the Greeks and Italians. However this may
be, i.t seems quite certain that most of the nations lying
near Greece, as those in j>eirosand Macedonia, which
lie to the north, those in Sicily and Southern Italy, and
in some parts of the opposite coasts of Asia, were very
closely akin to the Greeks, and spoke languages which
came much nearer to Greek even than the languages
of the rest of Italy. The people of all these countries
seem to have had a power beyond all other people of
adopting the Greek language and manners, and, so
to speak, of making themselves Greeks. The Greeks
seem, in fact, to have been one among several kindred
nations which shot in advance of its kinsfolk, and
which was therefore able in the end to become a
teacher to the others. And one thing which helped
the Greeks in thus putting themselves in advance of
all their kinsfolk and neighbours was the nature of the
land in which they settled.
2. Geographical Character of Greece. Any-
one who turns to the map will see that the country
which we call Greece, but which its own people have
always called Hellas, is the southern part of the great
eastern peninsula of Europe. But we must remember
that, in the way of speaking of the Greeks themselves,
the name Hellas did not mean merely the country
which we now call Greece, but any country where
Hellenes or Greeks lived. Thus there might be patches,
so to speak, of Hellas anywhere ; and there were sucb
n.] GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE. 21
patches of Hellas round a great part of the Mediter-
ranean Sea, wherever Greek settlers had planted
colonies. But the first aad truest Hellas, the mother-
land of all Hellenes, was the land which we call
Greece, with the islands -round about it. There alone
the whole land was Greek, and none but Hellenes
lived in it. It is, above all the rest of Europe, a land
of islands and peninsulas ; and that was, no doubt,
one main reason why it was the first part of Europe
to stand forth as great and free in the eyes of the
whole world. For in early times the sea-coast is
always the part of a land which is first civilized,
because it is the part which can most easily have
trade and other dealings with other parts of the world.
Thus, as Greece was the first part of Europe to be-
come civilized, so the coasts and islands of Greece
were both sooner and more highly civilized than
the inland parts. Those inland parts are almost
everywhere full of mountains and valleys, so that the
different parts of the land, both on the sea-coast and
in the inland parts, were very much cut Off from one
another. Each valley or island or little peninsula had
its own town, with its own little territory, forming,
whenever it could, a separate government independent
of all others, and with the right of making war and
peace, just as if it had been a great kingdom.
3. Character of Grecian History. The geo-
graphical nature of the land in this way settled the
history of the Greek people. It is only in much later
times that a great kingdom or commonwealth can
come to have the same political and intellectual life as
a small state consisting of one city. In an early state
of things the single city is always in advance of the
great kingdom, not always in wealth or in mere bodily
comforts, but always in political freedom and in real
sharpness of wit. Thus the Greeks, with their many
small states, were the first people from whom we
can learn any lessons in the art of politics, the
2 GREECf. AXD THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP
art of ruling and persuading men according to law,
The little commonwealths of Greece were the first
states at once fr2e and civilized which the world ever
saw. They were the first states which gave birth to
great statesmen, orators, and generals who did great
deeds, and to great historians who set down those
great deeds in writing. It was in the Greek common-
wealths, in short, that the political and intellectual
life of the world began. But, for the very reason that
trreir freedom came so early, they were not able to
keep it so long as states in later times which have
been equally free and of greater extent.
4. The Greeks and the Phoenicians.
Whether the Greeks found any earlier inhabitants
in the land which they made their own is a point on
which we cannot be quite certain, but it is more
likely that they did than that they did not. But it is
certain that, when they began to spread themselves
from the mainland into the islands, they found in the
islands powerful rivals already settled. These were
the Phoenicians, as the Greeks called them, who were
a Semitic people, and who played a great part in both
Grecian and Roman history. Their real name among
themselves was Canaanites, and they dwelled on the
coast of Palestine, at the east end of the Mediterranean
Sea, especially in the great cities of Sidon, Tyre, and
Arados or Arvad. They were a more really civilized
people, and made a nearer approach to free govern-
ment, than any other people who were not Aryans.
They were especially given to trade and to everything
which had to do with a seafaring life. They had thus
begun to spread their trade, and to found colonies,
over a large part of the Mediterranean coast, before
the Greeks became of any note in the world. They
had even made their way beyond what the Greeks
called the Pillars of Herakles, that is, beyond the
Strait of Gibraltar, and had sailed from the Mediter-
ranean Sea into the Ocean. They had there founded
.] GREEKS AND PIKENICIANS. 23
the city of Gades, which still keeps its name as Cadix*
and they founded other colonies, both in Spain and
on the north-west coast of Africa, of which the most
famous was Carthage. They had also settlements in
the islands of the ^Egsean Sea, as well as in the greater
islands of Cyprus and Sicily ; and it was in these
islands that they met the Greeks as enemies. But,
even before the Greeks had begun to send out colonies,
they had a good deal of trade with the Phoenicians.
And, as the Phoenicians were the more early civilized
of the two nations, the Greeks seem to have learned
several things of them, and above all, the alphabet.
The Greeks learned the letters which the Phoenicians
used to write their own language, which was much the
same as the Hebrew, and they adapted them, as well
as they could, to the Greek language. And from the
Greeks the alphabet gradually made its way to the
Italians, and from them to the other nations of Europe,
with such changes as each nation found needful for its
own tongue. The Phoenicians did much in this way
towards helping on the civilization of the Greeks : but
there is no reason to believe that the Phoenicians, or
any other people of Asia or Africa, founded any settle-
ments in Greece itself after the Hellenes had once
made the land their own.
5. Foundation of the Greek Colonies. From
the mainland of Greece the Greek people gradually
spread themselves over most of the neighbouring islands,
and over a large part of the Mediterranean coast, especi-
ally on the shores nearest to their own land. In fact,
we may say that the Phoenicians and the Greeks between
them planted colonies round the whole coast of the
Mediterranean, save in two parts only. One cf these
was Egypt on the south ; the other was Central and
Northern Italy, where the native inhabitants were far
too strong and brave to allow strangers to settle among
them. The Greeks thus spread themselves over all
the islands of the yEgsean Sea, over the coasts of
24 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHA*
Macedonia and Thrace to the north and of Asia Minor
to the east, as wel' as in the islands to the west ot
Greece, Korkyra and the others which are known now
as the Ionian Islands. A great part of this region be-
rame fully as Greek as Greece itself, only even here, on
some parts of the coast, the Greek possessions were not
quite unbroken, but were simply a city here and there.
And nowhere, except in Greece itself, did the Greek
colonists get very far from the sea. Other colonies were
gradually planted in Cyprus, in Sicily and Southern
Italy, and on the coast of Illyria on the eastern side of
the Hadriatic. And there was one part of the Mediter-
ranean coast which was occupied by Greek colonies
where we should rather have looked for Phoenicians ;
that is, in the lands' west of Egypt, where several
Greek cities arose, the chief of which was Kyrene.
These were the only Greek settlements on the south
coast of the Mediterranean. But some Greek colonies
were planted as far east as the shores of the Euxine,
and others as far west as the shores of Gaul and
Northern Spain. One Greek colony in these parts
which should be specially remembered was Massalia,
now Marseille. This was the only great Greek city in
the western part of the Mediterranean, and it was the
head of several smaller settlements on the coasts of
Gaul and Spain. In the southern part of Spain, and
in the greater part of northern Africa, the Greeks
could not settle, because there the Phoenicians had
settled before them. And no Greek sailors were ever
bold enough to pass the Pillars of Herakles and to
plant colonies on the shores of the Ocean.
6. Greeks and Barbarians. We have thus seen
the extent of country over which the Greek people
spread themselves. There was their own old country
and the islands nearest to it, where they alone occupied
*,he whole land ; and there were also the more distant
colonies, where Greek cities were planted here and
there, on the coasts of lands which were occupier! by
fl.l GREEKS AND BARBARIANS. 25
men of other nations, or, as the Greeks called them,
Barbarians. This word Barbarians, in its first use
among the Greeks, simply meant that the people so
called were people whose language the Greeks did
not understand. They called them Barbarians, even
though their blood and speech were nearly akin to
their own, if only the difference was so great that
their speech was not understood. It followed that in
most parts of the world it was easy to tell who were
Greeks and who were Barbarians, but that along the
northern frontier of Greece the line was less strongly
drawn than elsewhere. Along that border the ruder
tribes of the Greek nation, the ALtolians, Akarnanians,
and others, lived alongside of other tribes who were
not Greek, but who seem to have been closely allied
to the Greeks. If you turn to the map, you will see
along this northern border the lands of Macedonia,
Epeiros, Thessaly. Macedonia was ruled by Greek
Kings, but it was never reckoned to be part of Greece
till quite late times. Thessaly, on the other hand, way
always reckoned as part of Greece, though the people
who gave it its name seem not to have been of purely
Greek origin. In Epeiros again the same tribes are
by some writers called Greeks and by others Bar-
barians, and it was only in quite late times that
Epeiros, like Macedonia, was allowed to be a Greek
land. So, among the colonies, though all were planted
among people whom the Greeks looked on as Bar-
barians, yet it made a great practical difference whether
the people among whom they were planted were
originally akin to the Greeks or not. Thus, in many
countries, as in the lands round the ./Egsean and also
in Italy and Sicily, the Greeks settled among peonle
who were really very near to them in blood and speech,
and who gradually adopted the Greek language and
manners. In this way both Sicily and Southern Italy
became quite Greek countries, though in Sicily the
Greeks had to keep up a long struggle against th<
26 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP,
Phoenicians of Carthage, who also planted several
colonies in that island. In Cyprus also the same
struggle went or., and the island became partly Greek
and partly Phoenician. But in those of the ^Egaean
islands where the Phoenicians hud settled, the Greeks
drove them out altogether. For there was no chance
of the Phoenicians taking to Greek ways as the Italians
and Sicilians did.
7. The Greek Commonwealths. Greece it-
self, the land to the south of the doubtful lands like
Macedonia and Epeiros, was the only land which was
wholly and purely Greek, where there was no doubt as
to the whole people being Greek, and where we find
the oldest and most famous cities of the Greek name.
Such, in the great peninsula called Peloponnesos, were
Sparta and Argos, and, in early times, Mykene ; Corinth
too on the Isthmus, and beyond the Isthmus, Megara,
Athens, Thebes, and, in very early times, Orchomenos.
Each Greek city, whenever it was strong enough,
formed an independent state with its own little terri-
tory ; but it often happened that a stronger city
brought a weaker one more or less under its power.
And in some parts of Greece several towns joined
together in Leagues, each town managing its own affairs
for itself, but the whole making war and peace as a
single state. Thus in Peloponnesos, first Mykene, then
Argos, and lastly Sparta, held the first place, each in
turn contriving to get more or less power over a greater
or smaller number of other cities. And it would
seem that in very early times the Kings of Mykene
had a certain power over all Peloponnesos and many
of the islands. Still, even when a Greek city came
more or less under the power of a stronger city, it did
not wholly lose the character of a separate common-
wealth. And when the cities of Old Greece began to
send out colonies, those colonies became separate
commonwealths also. Each colony came forth from
some city in the mother country, and it often hap-
n.] FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. 2?
pened that a colony sent forth colonies of its own in
turn. Each colony became an independent state, owing
a certain respect to the mother city, but not being
subject to it. And as the colonies were commonly
planted where there was a rich country or a position
good for trade, many of them became very flourishing
and powerful. In the seventh and sixth centuries
before Christ, many of the colonial cities, as Miletos in
Asia, Sybaris in Italy, and Syracuse in Sicily, were
among the most flourishing of all Greek cities, greater
than most of the cities in Greece itself. But the
colonies were for the most part not so well able to
keep their freedom as the cities in Greece were.
8. Forms of Government. In the earliest days
of Greece we find much the same form of government
in the small Greek states 'which we find among all the
Aryan nations of whose early condition we have any
account. But both the Greeks and the Italians were
unlike the Teutons and some of the other Aryan
nations in one thing. That is because they were
gathered together in cities from the very beginning,
while some of the other nations were collections, not
so much of cities as of tribes. Still the early form of
government was much the same in both cases. Each
tribe or city had its own King or chief, whose office
was mostly confined to one family, for the Kings were
commonly held to be of the blood of the Gods. The
King was the chief leader both in peace and war ; but
he could not do everything according to his own
pleasure. For there was always a Council of elders or
chief men, and also an Assembly of the whole people,
or at least of all those who had the full rights of
citizens. This kind of kingship lasted in Greece
through the whole of the earliest times, through what
are called the Heroic Ages, and in the neighbouring
lands of Epeiros and Macedonia a kingship of much
the same kind lasted on through nearly the whole
of their history. But in Greece itself the kinglj
28 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP.
power was gradually abolished in most of the cities,
and they became commonwealths. At first these com-
monwealths were aristocracies; that is to say, only
men of certain families were allowed to fill public
offices and to take part in the assemblies by which the
city was governed. These privileged families were in
most cases the descendants of the oldest inhabitants
of the city, who o]id not choose to admit new-comers
to the same full rights as themselves. Some of the
Greek cities remained aristocracies till very late times ;
but others soon became democracies; that is to say, all
citizens were allowed to hold offices and to attend
the assemblies. But it must be remembered that
everyone who lived in a Greek city was not therefore
a citizen. For in most parts of Greece there were
many slaves ; and, if a man from one city went to live
in another, even though the city in which he went to
live was a democracy, neither he nor his children
were made citizens as a matter of course. In a few
cities the name King, in Greek Basileus, remained in
use as the title of a magistrate, though one who no
longer held the chief power. And in Sparta they
always went on having Kings of the old royal house,
two Kings at a time, who kept much power both in
military and in religious matters, though they were no
longer the chief rulers of the state.
9. The Tyrants. All the three chief forms of
government, Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy,
were held by the Greeks to be lawful ; but there was
another kind of power which was always deemed un-
lawful. This was Tyranny. It. sometimes happened,
especially in cities where the nobles and the people
were quarrelling as to whether the commonwealth
should be aristocratic or democratic, that some man
would snatch away the power from both and make
himself Tyrant. That is to say, he would, perhaps
with the good will of part of the people, seize the
power, and much more than the power, of the old
ii. J THE GREEK RELIGION. 2*
Kings. The word Tyrant meant at first no more
than that a man had got the power of a King in &
city where there was no King by law. It did not
necessarily mean that he used his power badly or
cruelly ; though, as most of the Tyrants did so> the
word came to have a worse meaning than it tiad at
first. The time when most of the Tyrants reigned in
Greece was in the seventh and sixth centuries before
Christ ; and the most famous of them were Peisistratos
and his sons, who ruled at Athens in the sixth century.
In the colonies, and especially in Sicily. Tyrants went
on rising and falling during almost the whole time of
Grecian history. But in old Greece we do not heal
much of them after the sons of Peisistratos were driven
out, about the end of the sixth century, till quite the
later times of Grecian history, when Tyrants again
were common, but Tyrants of quite another kind.
10. The Greek Religion. The religion of the
Greeks was one of those forms of mythology which
have been already spoken of as growing up among
most of the Aryan nations. All the powers of nature
and all the acts of man's life were believed to be under
the care of different deities, of different degrees of
power. The head of all was Zeus, the God of the
sky, and he is described as reigning on Mount Olympoi
in Thessaly, where the Gods were believed to dwell,
with his Council and his general Assembly, much like
an early Greek King on earth. The art and literature
of the Greeks, and indeed their government and their
whole life, were closely bound up with their religion.
The poets had from the beginning .many beautiful
stories to tell about the Gods and about the Heroes,
who were mostly said to be the children of the Gods.
And, when the Greeks began to practise the arts, it
was in honour of the Gods and Heroes that the
noblest buildings and the most beautiful statues and
pictures were made.
11. The Early History of Greece. Of the
30 GREECE AND THE GREEK CGL ONIZS. [CHAP
earliest times of Grecian history we have no accounts
written at the time ; we have to make out what we
can from the traditions preserved by later writers,
and from the notices of the poets. For composition
in verse always goes before composition in prose, and
the earliest Greek works that we have are those of
the poets. The poems which go by the name of
Homer, the Iliad and Odyssey, give us a picture of the
state of things in the earliest days of Greece, and al-
lusions and expressions in them also help us to some
particular facts. But scholars no longer believe that
the story of the war of Troy is a true history, though
the tale most likely arose out of the settlements of
the Greeks on the north-west coast of Asia. These
settlements were among the earliest of the Greek
colonies, the very earliest probably being the settle-
ments in the southern islands of the ./Egsean, which
Homer himself speaks of. These were made so
early that it is vain to try to give them any exact
date. Presently we get glimmerings, which seem to
have been preserved partly by poets and partly by
tradition, of a great movement by which the Dorians,
a people of Northern Greece, came and conquered
the Achaians in Peloponnesos and dwelled in their chief
cities, Argos, Sparta, Corinth, and others. The other
chief division of the Greek nations was the Ionian*,
whose chief city was Athens, and who are said to have
planted many colonies in Asia about the same time
when the Dorians came into Peloponnesos. And when
we get down to times to which we can give something
more like exacUdates, we have remains of several poets
which sometimes help us to particular facts. Thus there
was a war in which Sparta conquered her neighbours of
Mtssene, of which we learnt something from the poems
of the minstrel Tyrtaios, who made songs to encourage
the Spartan warriors. This was in the seventh cen-
tury before Christ ; and in the next century, Solon, the
famous lawgiver of Athens, made laws for his owu -u^
ii.] THE PERSIANS. 31
and first gave the mass of the people a share in the
government, which wis the beginning of the famous
democracy. Solon was also a poet, and we have
some remains of his verses, which throw light on his
political doings. So again, the poems of Theognis of
Megara throw some light on the disputes between the
nobles and the people in that city. But from frag-
ments like these we can get no connected history, so
that most of what we know of these days comes from
later writers, who did not live near the time, and
whose accounts therefore cannot be trusted in every
detail. It is only when we come to the Persian Wars,
in the beginning of the fifth century before Christ,
that we begin to have really trustworthy accounts.
For those times we have the history of Herodotos, who,
though he did not himself live at the time, had seen
and spoken with those who did. By this time the chief
cities of Greece had settled down under their several
forms of government, aristocratic or democratic. And
most of the colonies had been founded, especially
those in Italy and Sicily, which were at this time very
flourishing, though many of them were under Tyrants.
Greece had now pretty well put on the shape which
she was to wear during the greatest times of her
nistory, and she had now to bear the trial of a great
foreign invasion and to come out all the stronger
for it.
1 2. The Persians. The people of Persia, though
they lived far away from the shores of the Mediterra-
nean, in the further part of Asia beyond the great
rivers Euphrates and Tigris, were much more nearly
allied to the Greeks in blood and speech than most
of the nations which lay between them. For they be-
longed to the Eastern branch of the Aryan family, who
had remained so long separate from their kinsfolk in
Europe, and who now met them as enemies. The
Persians first began to be of importance in the sixth
century before Christ, when, under their King Cyrus,
32 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP
they became a conquering people. He took Babylon,
which at that time was the great power of Asia, and
also conquered the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor.
This conquest first brought the Persians across the
Greeks, first in Asia and then in Europe. For the
Greeks who were settled along the coast of Asia had
been just before conquered by Crcesus, King of Lydia,
the first foreign prince who ever bore rule over any
Greeks ; and now, as being part of the dominions
of Crcesus, they were conquered again by Cyrus. The
Greek cities of Asia, which had, up to this time, been
among the greatest cities of the Greek name, now lost
their freedom and much of their greatness. And from
this time various disputes arose between the Persian
Kings and the Greeks in Europe. The Athenians
had now driven out their Tyrants and had made their
government more democratic. They were therefore
full of life and energy, and they gave help to the
Asiatic Greeks in an attempt to throw off the Persian
yoke. Then the Persian King Darius wished to make
the Athenians to take back Hippias, the son of Peisi-
stratos, who had been their Tyrant At last Darius
made up his mind to punish the Athenians and to
bring the other Greeks under his power; and thus
the wars between Greece and Persia began.
13. The Persian Wars. The first Persian
expedition against Greece was sent by Darius in the
year 490 B.C. A Persian fleet crossed the ^igajan,
and landed an army in Attica. But, far smaller as
their numbers were, the Athenians, under their general
AliltiadeS) utterly defeated the invaders in the famous
battle of Marathon. In this battle the Athenians had
no help except a small force from their neighbours of
Plataia, a small town on the Boeotian border, which
was in close alliance with them. This was the firs'r
of all the victories of the West over the East, the
first battle which showed how skill and discipline
can prevail over mere numbers. As such, it is
II.] THE GROWTH OF ATHENS. 33
the most memorable battle in the history of the
world. Ten years later, in 480 B.C., a much greater
Persian expedition came under King Xerxh himself,
the son of Darius. He came by land, and all the
native kingdoms and Greek colonies on the north
coast of the ^gaean, and even a large part of Greece
itself, submitted to him. Some Greek cities indeed,
especially Thebes, fought for the Barbarians against
their countrymen. But Athens, Sparta, and several
other Greek cities withstood the power of Xerxes, and
in the end drove his vast fleet and army back again in
utter defeat. In this year 480, were fought the battle
of Tlurmopylai, where the Spartan King Leonidas was
killed, and the seafight of Salamis, won chiefly by the
Athenian fleet under Themistokles. After this Xerxes
went back ; but in the next year his general Mardonios
was defeated by the Spartans and other Greeks in the
battle of Plataia. and the same day the Persians were
also defeated bath by land and sea at Mykale, on the
coast of Asia, These three battles, Salamis, Plataia,
and Mykale, decided the war, and the Persians never
again dared to invade Greece itself. But the war went
on for several years longer before the Persians were
driven out of various posts which they held north of
the ^Egsean. Still, they were at last wholly driven out
of Europe, and they were even obliged to withdraw
for a time from the Greek cities of Asia.
14. The Growth of Athens. At the beginning
of the Persian Wars, Sparta was generally looked up
to as the chief state of Greece ; but, as Athens was
much the stronger at sea, it was soon found that she
was better able than Sparta to carry on the war against
the Persians, and to recover and protect the islands
and cities on the coasts. Most of these cities therefore
joined in a League, of which Athens was the head,
and which was set in order by the Athenian Aristcides,
surnamed the fust. But, after a time, Aihens, instead
of being merely the head, gradually became the
34 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP.
mistress of the smaller states, and most of them
became her subjects, paying tribute to her. Athens
thus rose to a wonderful degree of power and
splendour, beyond that of any of the other cities of
Greece. The chief man at Athens at this time was
Perikles, the greatest statesman of Greece, perhaps of
the world, under whose influence the Athenian govern-
ment became a still more perfect democracy. In his
time Athens was adorned with the temples and other
public buildings which the world has admired ever
since. This was also the time of the great dramatic
poets, ^schylus, Sophokles, Euripides, and Aristo-
phanes. ^Eschylus had fought in all the great battles
with the Persians. Euripides and Aristophanes were
younger men who lived on through the next period.
Oratory, which was so needful in a democratic state,
began to be studied as an art, and so were the differ-
ent forms of philosophy ; in fact, there never was a
time when the human mind was brought so near to
its highest pitch as in these few years of the greatest
power and splendour of Athens.
15. The Peloponnesian War. But the great
power of Athens raised the jealousy of many of the
other Greek cities, and at last a war broke out between
Athens and her allies on the one side, and Sparta and
her allies on the other. This war, which began in the
year 431 B.C. and lasted for twenty-nine years almost
without stopping, was known as the Peloponnesian
War, because it was waged by the Athenians against
Sparta and her allies, among whom were the greater
part of the cities of Peloponnesos, besides Thebes and
some other cities in other parts of Greece. Of this
war we know all the events in great detail, because we
have the history of it from writers who lived at the
time. The history of the greater part of the war was
written by Thucydides, who was not only living at the
time, but himself held a high command in the Athe-
nian army. And the history of the latter years of
n.] THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 35
the war was written by Xenophon, another Athenian
writer, who also lived at the time. This war might be
looked on as a war between lonians and Dorians,
between democracy and oligarchy. For Athens was the
chief of the Ionian and democratic states, and Sparta
the chief of the Dorian and aristocratic states. But
the two parties were never exactly divided either ao-
cording to descent or according to forms of govern
ment. It is perhaps more important to remark that
Sparta had many free and willing allies, while Athens
had but few such, so that she had to fight mainly with
her own forces and those of allies who were really
her subjects. During the first ten years of the war,
down to the year 421, the two parties strove with
nearly equal success, the Athenians being much the
stronger by sea, and the Spartans and their allies by
land. A peace was then made, but it was not very
well kept ; so that Thucydides says that the years of
peace ought to be reckoned as a part of the war.
Then, in 415, the Athenians sent a fleet to attack the
city of Syracuse in Sicily. The Syracusans got help
from Sparta, and so the war began again ; but, after
two years of fighting and siege, the Athenians were
altogether defeated before Syracuse. The allies of
Athens now began to revolt, and the war during the
later years was carried on almost wholly on the coasts
of Asia. The Persians now began to take a share in
it, because they were eager to drive away the Athenians
from those coasts, and to get back the Greek cities in
Asia. But they did more in the way of giving, and
sometimes only promising, money to the Spartans than
by actually fighting. Several battles, chiefly by sea,
were fought in these wars with varying success ; and
it is wonderful to see how Athens regained her strength
after her loss before Syracuse. At last, in the yeai
405, the Athenians \\ere defeated by the Spartan
admiral Lysandros at Aigospotamos in the Hellespont
Athens was now besieged, and in the next year she
36 GREECE AND THE GREEK COL ONIES. [CHA.
had to surrender. She now lost all her dominion and
her great naval power, and was obliged to become a
member of the Spartan alliance. Her democratic
government was also taken away, and an oligarchy of
thirty men was set up under the protection of Sparta.
But in the next year, 403, the oligarchy was put down,
and Athens, though she did not get back her power,
at least got back her freedom.
1 6. The Dominion of Sparta. At this time,
at the end of the fifth century before Christ, Sparta.
was more than ever the greatest power of Greece.
From this time Athens has no longer any claim to be
looked on as holding the first place. But she still
remained one of the greatest among the Grecian cities,
and, as her political power grew less, she became more
and more the acknowledged chief in all kinds of
literature and philosophy. Her loss of power, which
left Sparta for a while without a rival, presently led to
great changes. New powers began to come to the
front. We shall, first of all, see the foremost place in
Greece held for a while by Thebes, the chief city of
Bceotia, which had always been reckoned one of the
greater cities of Greece, but which in the Pelopon-
nesian war had played only a secondary part as one
of the allies of Sparta. We shall next see the power
over all Greece fall into the hands of a state which
had hitherto not been reckoned to be Greek at all,
through the victories of the great Macedonian Kings,
Philip and Alexander. But for a while the Spartans
ha i it all their own way. No state in Greece could
stand up against them; the government of most of
the cities passed into the hands of men who were
ready to do whatever the Spartans told them, and in
many cities there even were Spartan governors and
garrisons. A few years after the end of the Pelopon-
nesian war, the Spartans made war upon Persia, and
their King A^esilaos waged several successful cam-
paigns in Asia Minor. But by this time several of the
II.] THE RISE OF THEBES. 3)
Greek cities had got jealous and weary of the Spartan
power, and the Persian King Artaxerxes, against whom
the Spartans were fighting, was naturally glad to help
them with both money and ships. So in the year 394
Agesilaos had to come back to withstand a confederacy
formed against Sparta by Athens, Argos, Corinth, and
Thebes. Several battles were fought ; and, though the
Spartans commonly had the victory, yet it was shown
that the Theban soldiers were able to do great things.
In the former part of this war the Persian King sent
his great Phoenician fleet to help the Athenians j'but
afterwards he was persuaded to change sides, and in
387 a peace was made, called the Peace of Antalkidas,
by which the Greek cities of Asia were given up to
Persia, and those of Europe were declared to be every
one independent. But in truth the power of Sparta
now became greater than ever, and the Spartans
domineered and interfered with the other cities even
more than before. Among other things, they treach-
erously seized the Kadmeia or citadel of Thebes, and
put a Spartan garrison in it. They also put down a
confederacy which the city of Olynthos was making
among the Greek cities on the coasts of Macedonia
and Thrace, and thus took away what might have been
a great check to the growing power of the Macedonian
Kings.
17. The Rise of Thebes. It was when the
power of Sparta was at its very highest that it was over-
thrown. The Thebans, who had shown in the former
war that they were nearly as good soldiers as the
Spartans themselves, now rose against them. In 379 the
Spartans were driven out of Thebes ; a democratic
government was set up, and Thebes under two great
citizens, Pelopidas and Epameinondas, became for a
while the chief power of Greece. The Spartans were
defeated in 371, the first time they had ever been
defeated in a pitched battle, at Leuktra in Bceotia.
After this Epameinondas invaded Peloponnesos
3* GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES, [ciu.*
several times. He greatly weakened the power of
Sparta by restoring the independence of Messtne*, which
the Spartans had long ago conquered, and by persuad-
ing the Arkadians to join in a League and to found
Megalopolis or the Great City, near the Spartan frontier.
During the first part of this war the Athenians took
part with Thebes, and in the latter part with Sparta ,
and in the course of it they won back a great deal
of their power by sea, and again got many of the
islands and maritime cities to become their allies. At
last, in 362, Epameinondas was killed at Mantineia in
a battle against the Spartans and Athenians, and after
his death, as there was no one left in Thebes fit to
take his place, the power of the city gradually died out.
18. The Rise of Macedonia. We have
already seen that, though the Macedonians seem to
have been closely allied to the Greeks, and though
the Macedonian Kings were acknowledged to be
of Greek descent, yet Macedonia had hitherto not
been reckoned as a Greek state. Its Kings had
not taken much share in Greek affairs, but several of
them had done much to strengthen their kingdom
against the neighbouring Barbarians, and also to bring
in Greek arts and civilization among their own people.
Just at this time there arose in Macedonia a King
called Philip, the son of Amyntas, who did much
greater things than any of the Kings who had gone
before him. His great object was, not exactly to
conquer Greece or make it part of his own kingdom,
but rather to get Macedonia acknowledged as a Greek
state, and, as such, to win for it the same kind of
supremacy over the other Greek states which had been
held at different times by Mykene, Argos, Sparta,
Athens, and Thebes. He artfully contrived to mix
himself up with Grecian affairs, and to persuade
many of the Grecian states to look upon him as theii
deliverer, and as the champion of the god Apollon.
The temple of Delphi had been plundered by th
n.J ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 39
Phokians, and Philip put himself forward as the
avenger of this crime, and g^t himself admitted as a
member of the Ampkiktionic Council, the great religious
assembly of Greece, which looked after the affairs of
the Delphian Temple. This was much the same as
formally acknowledging Macedonia to be a Greek
state. Philip also conquered the Greek city of Olynthos
in the neighbourhood of his own kingdom, and made
the peninsula called Chalkidike, which runs out as it
were with three fingers into the ^Egaean, part of
Macedonia. This he would hardly have been able
to do if the Spartans had not already destroyed
the great Greek alliance which the Olynthians had
begun to make in those parts. Philip was several
times at war with Athens, and it was during these wars
that the great orator Demosthenes made himself famous
by the speeches which he made to stir up his country-
men to act vigorously. Philip's last war was against
Athens and Thebes together, and in 338 he gained a
victory over them at Chaironeia in Boeotia, from which
the overthrow of Grecian freedom may be dated. After
this, all the Greeks, except the Spartans, were partly
persuaded, partly compelled, to hold a synod at
Corinth, where Philip was elected captain-general of
all Greece, to make war on Persia and avenge the
old invasions of Greece by Darius and Xerxes. But,
while he was making ready for a great expedition into
Asia, he was murdered in the year 336 by one of his
own subjects.
19. Alexander the Great. Philip was suc-
ceeded by his son Alexander, known as Alexander the
Great. He was presently acknowledged as the leader
of Greece against the Persians, as his father had been.
Thebes however, where Philip had put a Macedonian
garrison, now revolted, but it was taken and destroyed
by Alexander. In the next year, 334, Alexander set
out on his great expedition, and he nevei came back to
Europe. In the course of six years he altogether
40 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAP.
subdued the Persian Empire, fightir g three famous
battles, at the river Granikos in Asia Minor in 334, at
/ssffs, near the borders of Cilicia and Syria, in 333,
and at Arbela or Gaugame/a in Assyria in 331. In
these last two battles the Persian King Darius was
present, and was utterly defeated. Between the last
two battles Alexander beseiged and took Tyre, and
received the submission of Egypt, where he founded
the famous city which has ever since borne his name,
Alexandria. Soon after the battle of Gaugamela Da-
rius was murdered by some of his own officers, and
Alexander now looked upon himself as King of Persia.
He afterwards set out, half exploring, half conquering,
as far as the river Hyphasis in northern India, beyond
which his soldiers refused to follow him. At last he
died at Babylon in 323, having made greater conquests
than were ever made by any European prince before
him or after him. And there was no conqueror whose
conquests were more important, and in a certain sense
more lasting ; for, though his great empire broke in
pieces almost at once, yet the effects of his career have
remained to all time.
20. Effects of the Conquests of Alexander.
The conquests of Alexander, though they were won
so quickly, and though a large part of them were soon
lost again, made a great and lasting change through-
out a large part of the world. Both he and those who
came after him were great builders of cities ir Asia
Minor, Syria, Egypt, and as fr.r as their conquests
reached. In each of these cities was placed a Greek
or Macedonian colony, and in the western part of Asia
most of these cities lived and flourished, and some of
them, like Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in Syria,
soon took their place among the greatest cities in the
world. The Greek language became the tongue of all
government and literature throughout many countries
where the people were not Greek by birth. It was
thus at the very moment that Greece began to lose
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DOMINIONS OF ALEXA
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II.] TKE SUCCESSORS OF ALE}.' 'NDER. 45
her political freedom that she made, as it were, an in-
tellectual conquest of a large part of the world. And
though, in the cities and lands which in this way
became partially Bd'lenized, there was neither the
political freedom nor the original genius of the great
statesmen and writers of old Greece, yet mere learn-
ing and science flourished as they had never flourished
before. The Greek tongue became the common
speech of the civilized world, the speech which men
of different nations used in speaking to one another,
much as they use French now. The Greek colonies
had done much to spread the Greek language and
manners over a large part of the world. The Mace-
donian conquests now did still more ; but they did
not, as the old colonies had done, carry also Greek
freedom with them.
21. The Successors of Alexander. The great
empire of Alexander did not hold together even in
name for more than a few years after his death. He
left no one in the Macedonian royal family who was
at all fit to take his place, and his dominions were
gradually divided among his generals, who after a
little while took the title of Kings. Thus arose the
kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt, and that of the
descendants of Seleukos in the East, which gradually
shrank up into the kingdom of Syria. In the countries
beyond the Tigris the Macedonian power gradually
died out ; but various states arose in Asia Minor,
which were not strictly Greek, but which had a greater
or less tinge of Greek cultivation. Such were the
kingdom of Pergamos and the League of the cities
of Lykia. These arose in countries which had been
fully subdued by Alexander, and which won their
independence only because the descendants of
Seleukos could not keep their great dominions to-
gether. But Alexander's conquests had been made
so fast that some parts even of Western Asia were
not fully subdued. Thus out of the fragments of the
42 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAF
Persian Empire several kingdoms arose, like those
of Pontos and Bithynia, which were ruled by native
Kings, but which also affected something of Greek
civilization. And some real Greek states still con-
trived to keep their independence on or near the
coast of Asia, as the city of Byzantion, the island of
Rhodes, and the city of Herakleia, which last was
sometimes a commonwealth and sometimes under
Tyrants. Of many of these states we shall hear again
as they came one by one under the power of Rome.
But we are now more concerned with what happened
in Macedonia and in Greece itself.
22. The later Macedonian Kings. The death
of Alexander was followed by a time of great con-
fusion in Macedonia and Greece. Even while
Alexander was away in Asia, the Spartans, undei
their king Algis, had tried to throw off the Mace-
donian yoke, but in vain. After Alexander's death
another attempt was made by several of the Greek
states, especially the Athenians, who were again stirred
up by Demosthenes, and ihcstotians. These last were
a people of western Greece, the least civilized of all
the Greek states, but which now began to rise to
great importance. This was called the Lamian War.
In the end the Athenians had to yield, and they were
obliged by the Macedonian general Antipatros to
change their constitution, making it much less democra-
tic than before, and depriving many of the citizens of
their votes. For many years there was the greatest
confusion in Macedonia and Greece and all the
neighbouring countries. And things were made worse
by an attack from an enemy with whom the Greeks
had never before had anything to do. Greece and
Macedonia were invaded by the Gar.ls. By these we
need not understand people from Gaul itself, but
some of those Celtic tribes which were still in the
east of Europe. After doing much mischief in those
parts the Gauls crossed over into Asia, and there
II.] THE LATER MACEDONIAN KINGS. 43
founded a state of their own which was called Galatia,
and, as they too began to learn something of Greek
civilization, Gallo-gnecia. Meanwhile Kings were
being constantly set up and overthrown in Macedonia,
and each of them tried to get as much power and
influence as he could in Greece itself. At this time
too Epeiros, a country which had hitherto been
of very little importance, became a powerful state
under its King Pyrrhos, who at one time obtained
possession of Macedonia. He also waged wars in
Italy and Sicily, which will be spoken of in the next
chapter, and he had a great deal to do with the affairs
of Peloponnesos, where he was at last killed in
besieging Argos, in 272. From this time things became
rather more settled ; a second time of freedom, if not
of greatness, began in Greece, and a regular dynasty
of Kings fixed itself in Macedonia. The old royal
family was quite extinct, and the second set of Mace-
donian Kings were the descendants of Antigonos,
one of the most famous of Alexander's generals.
His son Demetrios, surnamed Poliorketts or the
Besieger, got possession of the crown of Macedonia
in 294. Both he and his son Antigonos Gonatas were
driven out more than once, but in the end Antigonos
contrived to keep the Macedonian crown, and to
hand it on to his descendants, who held it till Mace-
donia was conquered by Rome.
23. The later History of Greece. The last
days of Grecian history, before the country came alto-
gether under the power of the Romans, are in seve-
ral ways very unlike times which went before
them. The states which are most important in these
times are not the same as those which were most
important in the old days of the Persian and Pelopon-
nesian Wars. First ot all we must remember that
Macedonia and Epeiros must now be reckoned as
Greek states, and that a large part of Greece,
especially in the north, was now subject to the Mace
*4 GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES. [CHAH
donian Kings, or at least altogether under their
influence. And, among the states of Greece itself,
the division of power was very different from what
it had been in earlier times. In the days which we
have now come to neither Athens nor Thebes was
of any great account, and, though Sparta was of great
importance during part of the time, yet its greatness
was only, as we may say, by fits and starts. We may
say that the chief powers of Greece now were Mace-
donia, Achaia, ^Ltolia, and Sparta. Achaia and
^Etolia are states of which but little is heard in
Grecian history since the heroic times, and the
strength which they had now chiefly came from a
cause which must be explained a little more at length.
24. The Achaian and ./Etolian Leagues.
What chiefly distinguishes this part of Grecian history
from earlier times is that we have now but little to do
with single cities, but with cities and tribes bound
together so as to make states of much greater size.
With the exception of Sparta, the Greek states which
play the greatest part at this time were joined together
in Leagues, so as to form what is called a /VY//VY/,'
Government, such as there is now in Switzerland
and in the United States of America. That is to say,
several cities agreed together to give up a part of the
power which naturally belonged to each city separately
to an Assembly or Council or body of magistrates in
which all had a share. In a government of this kind the
central power commonly deals with all matters which
concern the League as a whole, while each city still acts
much as it pleases in its own internal affairs. There had
been several Leagues of this kind in Greece from the
beginning, but they were chiefly among the smaller
and less famous parts of the Greek nation, and they
did not play any great part in Grecian affairs. The
only one which was of much note in earlier times
was the League of Boeotia, and that could hardly
be with any truth called a League, for Thebes was so
it.] THE ACHAIAN LEAGUE. 45
much stronger than the other Boeotian cities as to be
practically mistress of all of them. But now the
Federal states of Greece come to be of special impor-
tance, because it was found that, as long as the cities
stood one by one, they had no hope of keeping
their freedom against the Macedonian Kings, and
that their only chance of doing so was by several
cities acting together in matters of peace and war
as if they were one city. The greatest of these
Leagues was that of Achaia, which began with the
ten small Achaian cities on the south side of the
Corinthian Gulf. These cities had been joined to-
gether in a League in early times, but in the times of
the Macedonian power they had gradually fallen
asunder, and in the days of Antigonos Gonatas several
of them were in the hands of Tyrants, who reigned
under Macedonian protection. This was the case
with many other cities of Greece also, and it was the
great object of the League, as it grew and strength-
ened, to set free these cities and to join them on to
its own body. It was about the year 280 that the
old Achaian towns began to draw together again, the
chief leader in this work being Markos of Keryneia.
About thirty years after, in 251, the League began to
extend itself by admitting the city of Sikyon as a
member of its body. Sikyon had just been ' set free
by Aratos, who now became the leading man in the
League, and, under his administration and that of
Philopoimen, who followed him, the League took in
one city after another, Corinth, Megalopolis, Argos,
and others, at first only with their own good will, but
afterwards sometimes by force. At last all the cities of
Peloponnesos and some cities beyond the Isthmus
became members of the League. The ^Etolian
League on the other side of the Corinthian Gulf did
not bear so good a character as the Achaian, though
its form of government was much the same. For the
<Etoli;uis, though a brave people and always stout ir
46 GREECE AND THE GKEEK COLONIES. [CH.
defending their own freedom, were ruder and fiercei
than most of the Greeks, and were much given to
plunder both by sea and land. The yEtolian League
thus greatly extended itself, and became more power-
ful than that of -Achaia, but its policy was not so just
and honourable as that of Achaia commonly was.
There were also smaller Leagues in Phokis and Akar-
nania, besides the League of Epeiros, which was now
counted as a Greek land, and which had got rid of its
Kings and had changed itself into a Federal common-
wealth. Thus, except Sparta at one end and Mace-
donia at the other, by far the greater part of Greece
was parted out among the different Leagues.
25. The last Days of Independent Greece.
For a long time the great object of the Achaians was
to set free the cities which were more or less under the
Macedonian power. But at last they became jealous
of Sparta, which was again becoming a great power,
and in 227 a war broke out between Sparta and the
League. Sparta had now a great King called Kleomenes,
who had upset the old oligarchy and had greatly
increased the power both of the Kings and of the
people. By so doing he put quite a new life into his
country, and he pressed the Achaians so hard that at
last, in 223, they asked help of Antigonos Doson, King
of Macedonia, which they only got by giving up to
him the citadel of Corinth. The Macedonians and
Achaians together defeated Kleomenes, and Sparta's
second time of greatness died with him. The next
King of Macedonia, Philip, kept on the alliance with
Achaia, and the Achaians and Macedonians fought
together in a war with ^Etolia ; bat, though the League
gained in extent, it lost in real power and freedom by
joining with a prince who was strong enough to be its
master. Peace was made over all Greece in 216, but
by this time the Romans had begun to meddle in
Greek affairs, and from hence the history of Greece
ind Macedonia chiefly consists of the steps by whick
ni.] LAST DAYS OF INDEPENDENT GREECE. 47
they were swallowed up in the Roman dominion.
This last stage of their history will therefore best be
told in our sketch of the history of Rome.
26. Summary. The history of Greece which we
have thus run through, though it is the history only
of a small part of the world for a few hundred years,
is worth fully as much study as any later and wider
part of history. It is, as it were, the history of the
world in a small space. There is no lesson to be
taught by history in general which is not taught by the
history of Greece. The Greeks too, we should never
forget, were the first people to show the world what
real freedom and real civilization were. And they
brought, not only politics, but art and science and
literature of every kind, to a higher pitch than any
other people ever did without borrowing of others.
In all these ways Greece has influenced the world for
ever. Still the influence of Greece upon later history
has been to a great degree indirect. Greece influenced
Rome, and Rome influenced the world. But with the
history of Rome an unbroken chain of events begins
which is going on still We will now try and trace it
from the beginning.
CHAPTER III.
THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH.
Ancient extent of Italy (i) Gauls, Venetians, and Ligu-
rians ivithin its modern boundary (i) effect of the
geography of the country on its history (i) inhabitants
of Italy ; the Etruscans and the 'Creek colonists (2)
two chief branches of the Italian race, O scans and Latins
(2, $ language, religion, and government; tendency
to the formation of Leagues (4) origin of Rome}
characteristics of its history ($the Roman Kings (6)
dynasty and expulsion of the Tarquinii (&$tk*
powers of the Kings transferred to the Consuls (7)-
48 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHA*
disputes between Patricians and Plebeians (7) wars of
Rome with her neighbours ; taking of Veii (8) taking
of Rome by the Gauls (8) wars "with the Samnites
and Latins ; gradual conquest of Italy (9) state of
Italy under the Romans; distinction of Romans, Latins,
and Italians (10) war with Pyrrhos (i i) origin and
history of Carthage (12) First Punic War (13)
cession of Sicily ; nature of the Roman Provinces
(14) Second Punic War; campaigns of Hannibal
and Scipio (15) Third Punic War; destruction of
Carthage (ib} first dealings of the Romans with Greece
( 1 7 ) First Macedonian War ( 1 7) Second Macedonian
War ; alliance of Rome with JEtolia and Achaia (18)
campaign of Antiochos in Greece; Roman conquest
of s-tolia (19) Third Macedonian War; dismem-
berment of the Macedonian Kingdom (20) Fourth
Macedonian War; Macedonia becomes a Province
(21) war with Achaia; destruction of Corinth (21)
the Macedonian states in Asia; revolt of the Parthians
(22) war with Antiochos; and extension of Roman
influence in Asia (22) -formation of the Province of
Asia (22) conquest of Cisalpine Gaul (23) conquest
of Spain (24) inhabitants of Transalpine Gaul (25)
affairs of Massalia; formation of the Roman Province
in Gaul (25) invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones ;
their defeat by Marius (26) Rome dominant round the.
Mediterranean; her relations with Egypt (27) in-
ternal disputes at Rome ; her relations to her allies ;
murder of the Gracchi (27) the Social War ; final
conquest of the Samnites (28) Civil War of Marius
and Sulla; Dictatorship of Sulla (28) war with
Mithridates ; campaigns of Sulla and Pompcius (29)
Roman conquest of Syria; dealings with Parthia (30)
disputes at Rome ; rise of Caesar (3 1 ) Cesar's conquests
in Gaul ; his campaigns in Germany and Britain (32)
Civil War of Pompeius and Casar ; Dictatorship and
death of Casar (33) Second Civil War; Battles of
Pnilippi and Aktion; Egypt becomes a province (34)
the younger Cczsar becomes Augustus; beginning of
tke Roman Empire (35).
i. The Geography of Italy. We now come to
the history of the second of the three great peninsulas,
that of Italy. But we must remember that in early
m.] GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. 49
times the name of Italy did not take in all the land
that we now understand by that name, and that a
great part of its inhabitants did not belong to the
race of whom we shall have to speak of as Italians.
The greater part of Northern Italy, all north of the Po
and a good deal to the south of it, was counted as
part of Gaul, and was inhabited by Celtic people
akin to those on the other side of the Alps. Thus
there was Cisalpine Gaul, Gaul on this side that is
the Italian side of the Alps, as well as Transalpine
Gaul, or Gaul beyond the Alps. Milan, Verona,
Bologna, and other famous Italian cities thus stand in
what in early times was part of Gaul. And the
country in the extreme north-east was held by the
Venetians, a people whose origin is not very clear. -
They gave their name to the province of Venetia;
but it must be remembered that they had nothing to
do with the city of Venice, which did not begin till
many ages later. And the land between the Gulf of
Genoa and the Po was held by the Ligurians, a
people who were most likely not Aryans at all, but a
remnant of the older inhabitants, like the Basques.
And people akin to the Ligurians seem also to have
held the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, and part of
Sicily. None of these lands were counted as part of
Italy in the earliest times, so that the name of Italy
belonged much more strictly to the peninsula than it
does now. The name seems to have been first given
to quite the southern part only, and to have gradually
spread itself northwards. The map will at once show
that the peninsula of Italy, though it is so long and
narrow and has so great an extent of sea-coast, is
not so broken up by bays and arms of the sea, nor has
it so many islands round about it, as the peninsula of
Greece. And though many parts of Italy are moun-
tainous, and though the great chain of the Apennines
runs from one end of the peninsula to the other, yet the
whole land is not cut up into little valleys in the wav
50 TUE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP
the greater part of Greece is. Two things came of
this difference between Greece and Italy. First, the
Italians never became a seafaring people in the same
degree that the Greeks d'd, nor did they in the same
way send out colonies to all parts of the world that
they knew. Secondly, there never were so many great
cities in Italy as there were in Greece, and the small
Italian towns were less jealous of their separate
independence, and more ready than the Greek cities
to join together in leagues.
2. The Inhabitants of Italy. Setting aside
those countries which were not then reckoned as part
of Italy, we find at the beginning of history three
chief nations dwelling in the peninsula. The part of
Italy between the Amo and the Tiber was called
Etruria, the land of the Raseva as they called them-
selves, otherwise called Tyrrhenians, Tuscans, and
Etruscans. The origin of the Etruscans is a great
puzzle, but most likely they were an Aryan people,
though their tongue was very unlike those of the other
nations of Italy. In early times they seem to have
spread over a much larger country both northwards
and southwards, but in trustworthy history they appear
only in the lands already spoken of on the western
coast, where they formed a confederation of twelve
cities. They were great builders and skilful in many
of the arts, and they were held to be specially wise
in divination and all other matters belonging to the
worship of the Gods. The Etruscans, like the Gauls
and Ligurians, were settled in what we now call Italy
before authentic history begins. At the other end,
quite in the south, the Greeks planted many colonies,
but these belong to a later time, when trustworthy
history was beginning among the Greeks, though it
had not yet begun among the Italians. The map
will show that this part of Italy is much more
like Greece, much more broken up by bays and
I cninsulas, than the rest of Italy. The Greeks were
Hi.] THE INHABITANTS OF ITALY. <->\
therefore, as we have already seen, able to found many
colonies here, some of which flourished so greatly in
early times that the country was known as Great Greece.
But at the time when history begins, all Italy in the
older sense (that is, not reckoning Liguria and Cisalpine
Gaul), except Etruria, was inhabited by people whom
we may specially call Italians. These, as we have
already said., belonged to the same Aryan swarm as
the Greeks, and the common forefathers of both must
have stayed together after they had parted off from the
forefathers of the Celts, Teutons, and others. The
greater part of Italy was occupied by tribes sprung
from this one swarm, some of whom however were
more closely allied to the Greeks than others. But
all may be looked on as coming nearer to the Greeks
than to any other branch of the Aryan family. But
long before history begins, the Greeks and the Italians
had parted off into distinct nations, and the Italians
had also parted oif into distinct nations among them-
selves.
3. The Latin and Oscan Races. We thus set-
that, setting aside the Etruscans and the Greeks who
settled in later times, all the other nations of ancient
Italy were allied to one another, and all were more
remotely allied to the Greeks. But they had parted
far more widely among themselves than the different
tribes of the Greek nation ever did. The Italian
nations fall naturally into two great groups, which we
may call roughly'the Oscans, lying to the north-east,
and the Latins, lying to the south-west. Of these the
Latins were those who were more nearly allied to the
Greeks. The Siculi or Sikels especially, in southern
Italy and in Sicily, to which islandthey gave theirnarne,
and some other of the tribes in the south, seem to have
been as near to the Greeks, and to have been as easily
Hellenized, as their neighbours in Epeiros and on the
coast of Asia. The Oscan tribes, Sabines, Umbrians,
and others, were much less nearly akin to the Greeks,
52 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP
and presently the Oscan races began to press south-
ward at the expense both of the Latins and Greek colo-
nies. It was these Oscans of the south, the Samnites,
Lucanians, and others, whose incursions gradually
destroyed the greatness and freedom of the Greek
colonies in Italy.
4. Language, Religion, and Government.
Our knowledge of all the ancient nations of Italy, except
the Romans, is very scanty, but it would seem that
the differences between the Latin and Oscan races
answered rather to the differences between the Greeks
and their most nearly allied neighbours than to the
differences of Dorians and lonians among the Greeks
themselves. Still they always had much in common
in language, religion, and government. The old
languages of Italy all gradually gave way to the
Latin, and we have only a few fragments remaining of
any of them. And of their religion, even of that of
the Latins, we know very little, because, when the
Greeks and Romans came to have dealings with one
another, they began to call each other's Gods by the
names of those among their own Gods which seemed
most like them. Thus the Greek Zeus and the Latin
Jiipiter got confounded, and the other Gods in the
like sort. But one thing we can see, that none of the
Italian nations had so many stories to tell about their
Gods as the Greeks had. As for their government, we
can see the same elements as among the Greeks and
other Aryans, the King or other chief, the nobles,
and the ordinary freemen. In fact, owing, as we have
already said, to the nature of the country, the common
form of government in ancient Italy was much the
same as that common in the ruder parts of Greece,
several kindred districts or small towns joining together
in a League. Of these Leagues the most famous in
history was that of the Samnites, an inland people ol
the Oscan stock, and that of the thirty cities of thf
Latins on the west coast south of the Tiber.
in.] ORIGIN OF ROME. 53
5. The Origin of Rome. But there was one
Latin city which was destined to be mighty and famous
above ajl, and to become the mistress of Latium, of
Italy, and of the world. This was the town of Romt
on the Tiber. There were all manner of traditions in
ancient times, and all manner of conjectures have been
made by ingenious men in later days, as to the origin
of this greatest of all cities. Into these we cannot
go now. The story most generally believed by the
Romans themselves was that Rome was founded by
Romulus, a son or descendant of ^Eneas (in Greek
Aineias), one of the Trojan heroes who was said to
have escaped after the taking of Troy, and to have
taken refuge in Italy. But Romulus or Romus is merely
one of those names which were made up because
people fancied that every city and nation must have
taken its name from some man. The tales about the
foundation of Rome, and about its early Kings, are
mere legends which cannot be trusted. There can be
little doubt that Rome began as a border town of the
Latins, on the march or frontier, both of the Etruscans
beyond the Tiber, and of the Subines in the moun-
tains. The first Rome was a settlement on the hill
by the Tiber called the Palatine, held by the Latin
tribe of the Ramiics or Romans. This settlement on
the Palatine and other settlements on the neighbour-
ing hills gradually joined into one city. Of these the
first and chief was the Sabine settlement of the
Titienses on the Capitoline hill. The beginning of
the growth of Rome was when the Latin Ramnes and
the Sabine Titienses made a league together, so that
their people gradually became two tribes in one city,
instead of two distinct cities. This was the beginning
of the way in which Rome became the greatest of all
cities, namely by constantly granting its citizenship
both to its allies and to its conquered enemies. Step
by step, the people of Latium, of Italy, and of the
whole civilized world, all became Romans, This
b4 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHA?.
is what ically distinguishes the Roman history from
al! othev history, and it is what made the power of
Rome so great and lasting.
6. The Roman Kings. There can be no doubt
that Rome, like the Greek cities, was at first governed
by Kings, who ruled by the help of a Senate and an
Assembly of the People. But the Roman Kings,
unlike those in Greece, were not hereditary, nor were
they even chosen from any particular family. It is
said, and it is not at all unlikely, that the old rule was
to choose the King in turn from the two tribes of
the Ramnes and Titienses. The legend gives us the
names of seven Kings, and it is most likely that the
two or three last names on the list are those of real
persons. These are the dynasty of the Tarquinii,
about whom there have been many opinions, but who
most likely were Etruscans, and who seem to have
adorned Rome with buildings and works of Etruscan
art. At all events they greatly extended the power of
Rome, so that she became the greatest of all Latin
cities. The last King, Lucius Tarquinius, called
Superbus or the Proud, is said to have acted as a cruel
tyrant, and to have had no regard foi the laws of the
Kings who had gone before him. He was therefore
driven out with his family, and the Romans now said
they would have no more Kings, and they ever after
hated the very name of King. This is said to have
happened B.C. 510, about the same time when the
Tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos, was driven out of
Athens. There can be no doubt that the driving out
of the Kings ot Rome is a real event, but, as we
have no accounts of it written at the time, or foi
ages after, we cannot be certain as to the detail?
of the story, or as to the exact time when it
happened.
7. The Roman Commonwealth The Roman
history is, for want of contemporary accounts, ver)
uncertain for a long time after the driving out of the
HI.] THE KINGS AND THE CONSULS. 55
Kings. Much of what commonly passes for Roman
history is really made up of legends, which are often
most beautiful as legends, but which still are not
history. Much of it also comes from what is much
worse than legends, namely, mere inventions in honour
of Rome or of some particular Roman family. It
is not till two hundred years and more after the
Kings that we come to history of which we can
fully trust the details. Still we can make out some-
thing, both as to the internal constitution of Rome
and as to the steps by which she made her way to the
headship of Italy. The chief thing to be remembered
is that Rome was a city bearing rule over other cities
The government of the Roman commonwealth was
the government of a city ; and so it always remained,
even after Rome had come to be the head of Italy,
and even of the world. When the Kings were driven
out, the powers which had belonged to the Kings were
entrusted to two magistrates, who were at first called
Prtztors and afterwards Consuls, and who were chosen
for one year only. The Senate and the Assembly of
the People went on much as they had done under the
Kings, but, soon after the Kings were driven out,
there began to be great dissensions within the Roman
Commonwealth. For there was a very old division of
the Roman people into Patricians and Plebeians or
Commons, of whom the Patricians for a long lime kept
all the chief powers of the state in their own hands.
Most likely the Patricians were the descendants of the
arst citizens, and the Plebeians were the descendants of
allies or subjects who had been afterwards admitted to
the franchise. This division must have begun in the
time of the Kings, as* it began to be of great impor-
tance very soon after they were driven out. At first
the Consuls and other magistrates were chosen from
among the Patricians or old citizens only, though
the Plebeians voted in choosing them. There were
long disputes between the two orders, as the privileges
56 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP.
of the Patricians were felt to be very oppressive, and
gradually the Plebeians obtained the right to be chosen
to the consulship and other high dignities. The
first plebeian Consul was Lucius Sextius in B.C. 366,
about the time when Epameinondas was warring in
Peloponnesus. After this the two orders were gradu-
ally reconciled, and many of the greatest men in the
later history of Rome were Plebeians.
8. Wars of Rome with her Neighbours. At
the time when the kingly government of Rome came
to an end, she was strong enough to make a treaty
with Carthage, in which she contracts, not only on
her own behalf, but also on that of all the Latin cities
of the coast as her subjects or dependent allies. But
she seems to have lost a good deal of her power after
the Kings were driven out Her chief enemies were
the Etruscans on the one side of her, and the various
Oscan nations, especially those called the ^Zquians
and Volsdans, on the other. With the Latin cities she
was for a long time in close alliance, Rome, as a
single city, being one party to the treaty, and the other
Latin cities, as a League, being the other party.
About B.C. 396 Rome greatly extended her power by
the conquest of Veii, the nearest of the great Etruscan
cities. This was taken by Marcus Furius Camillas,
who was then Dictator ; that is, he received, for six
months only, greater powers than the Consuls them-
selves, as was often done in times of special danger
and difficulty. But soon after this the Roman power
received a great check, for in B.C. 390 the Romans
were defeated at the river Allia by the Gauls, who, it
will be remembered, held most of the northern part of
what is now called Italy. They were now pressing
southward, and invaded Etruria. The city of Rome
itself was taken, but the Gauls were soon either driven
out or paid to go away, and it is wonderful how soon
Rome got dver this great blow. And from this time
the Roman history becomes somewhat more trust
III.] ITALIAN WARS OF ROME. 57
worthy, for we at all events have the lists of the
Consuls and other magistrates, though there is stiL
much falsehood and exaggeration in our accounts
of their actions. The Romans had still to withstand
several invasions of the Gauls, and they had many
wars with their neighbours, in which, on the whole,
they went on increasing their territory, and ever and
anon admitting those whom they conquered to their
own citizenship.
9. The Roman Conquest of Italy. At last,
about B.C. 343, there began a series of greater wars in
Italy, in which the Romans may truly be said to have
been fighting for the dominion of the whole land. And
in the space of about sixty years they gradually won it.
The Samnites, a nation of the race which we have
roughly called Oscan, were now the chief people in
the South of Italy : they were a brave and stout
people, quite able to contend with the Romans on
equal terms. The first war with the Samnites did not
last long, and it was followed in 340 by a war between
Rome and her old allies the Latins. The Latins
wished for a more complete union with Rome, and for
one of the Consuls fo be always a Latin ; but to this
the Romans would not agree. The end of the war
was that the Latin League was broken up and the
cities were merged in the Roman state one by one.
Then, in 326, came a second Samnite War, which
lasted eighteen years, and a third lasted from 298 to
290. In these two latter wars the Samnites were
helped by the Etruscans and Gauls, but all were
gradually subdued, and by the year 282 Rome was
pretty well mistress of all Italy, except some of the
Greek cities in the South.
10. The Italian States under Rome. The con-
dition of the Italian states under the Roman dominion
was very various, but we may say that the free people
of Italy now formed three main classes, Romans^
Latins, and Italians. Many of the allied and con-
58 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP.
querecl states were altogether merged in Rome at a
very early time ; their people became Romans, and
formed tribes in the Roman Assembly. Rome, in the
end, gradually admitted all the people of Italy to her
own citizenship. But, till an Italian city which was
subject to Rome received the Roman citizenship, its
people had no voice at all in the general government,
in choosing the magistrates, or in matters of peace
and war. And, after such a city received the Roman
citizenship, the only way in which its citizens could
influence such matters was by themselves going to
Rome and giving their votes in the Roman Assembly.
This should be carefully borne in mind throughout, as
it was the natural consequence of the Roman govern-
ment always being the government of a city. Among
the states whose people did not at once become
Romans, some had the Latin franchise, as it was
called, the franchise which was at first given to the
cities of Latium and afterwards to others in different
parts. This did not give full Roman citizenship, but
it made it much easier to obtain it. Lastly, the
Italians or Allies kept their independent constitutions
in all internal matters, but they had to follow the lead
of Rome in all matters of peace and war. Thus it
was that the Roman dominion in Italy was a dominion
of a city over cities.
ii. The War with Pyrrhos. We now come to
the beginning of the wars of the Romans with the nations
cut of Italy, beginning with one in which they had
to fight for their newly-won dominion in Italy itself.
Soon after the Roman power had reached into South-
ern Italy, the people of the Greek city of Taras or
Tarentum contrived to offend the Romans, and they
then asked Pyrrhos, King of Epeiros, to come and
help them as the champion of a Greek city threatened
by Barbarians. Pyrrhos came over in 281, and the
Romans had now to try their strength against a way of
fighting quite different from their own, and that under
in.] WAR WITH PYRRHOS. 59
the most famous warrior of the age. Pyrrhos was
joined by some of the lately conquered nations in
Southern Italy, who were glad of a chance of throw-
ing off the Roman yoke. He defeated the Romans in
two battles, but with so much loss on his own side that
he was glad to make a truce and to go over into
Sicily, where some of the Greek cities had asked him
to help them against the Carthaginians. In 276 he
came back to Italy, but in the next year he was
defeated at Beneventum and left Italy altogether. In
the next few years the small part of Italy which still
held out against Rome was subdued.
12. Carthage. Rome was now mistress of Italy,
and she soon began to be entangled in wars beyond
its boundaries. The greatest power besides Rome in
the western Mediterranean lands was the city of Car-
thage on the north coast of Africa. This, as we have
already said, was a Phoenician city, one of the colonies
of the older Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon.
Carthage, like Rome, was a city bearing rule over
other cities ; for she had gained a certain headship
over the other Phoenician cities in Africa, much as
Rome had over the Latin and other cities in Italy.
And besides the kindred Phoenician cities, Carthage
bore rule also over many of the native tribes whom
the Phoenician settlers found in Africa. And, unlike
Rome up to this time, she had, as trading cities and
countries always strive to have, large dominions be-
yond the sea. Carthage at this time bore rule over
the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, and she had also
large possessions in Sicily. But in Sicily a constant
warfare was kept up between the Phoenician and the
Greek settlements, in which the Tyrants who at dif-
ferent times reigned in Syracuse specially distinguished
themselves. Such were Gclon, who reigned at the
time of the Persian War, ' Dionysios, who reigned at
the time of the war between Sparta and Thebes, and
Agathokles, who lived in the time of Pyrrhos. Af
60 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP.
Tyrants in their own city, these men did many evi!>
things ; still they deserve some honour as champions
of the Greek nation against the Phoenicians. Sicily
thus became the great battle-field between the Aryan
and Semitic races, and it became so still more after
the Romans stepped in. The wars between Rome
and Carthage also bring out one great point of dif-
ference between the two cities. For, while the
Romans waged their wars by the hands of their o\vn
citizens and allies, the wars of Carthage were mainly
carried on by barbarian mercenaries, that is, soldiers
serving simply for pay, whom they hired both in
Africa and in Gaul and Spain. A state which does
this can never hold up for good against one which
uses native armies ; and it is a sign of the great wealth
and power of Carthage, helped still more by a few very
great men who appeared among her citizens, that
Carthage could hold up so long as she did. Carthage
had indeed one other great advantage, namely that,
as a trading city, she was very strong by sea, while
the Romans had as yet had hardly anything to do
with naval affairs. Thus Carthage and Rome were
the two great states of the West, and it could hardly
fail but that war should spring up between them
about something. And it was the more likely, as the
island of Sicily lay between them, where' the Greek
cities which were threatened by Carthage were closely
connected with the Greek subjects of Rome in
Southern Italy.
13. The First Punic War. A cause of quarrel
was soon found in the disputes among the different
towns in Sicily. Rome, as the head of Italy, under-
took to protect the Mamertines, a body of Campanian
mercenaries who had seized the town of Mcssene on
the strait. Their enemies were Hierdn King of Syra-
cuse for those who were formerly called Tyrants
now called themselves Kings and Carthage. Thus
arose the first Punic War, so called from the Latin
in.] THE PUNIC WARS. 61
form of the name Phoenician. This war went on be
tween Carthage and Rome for twenty-four years,
beginning in R.c. 264, and Hieron had soon to
change the Carthaginian alliance for the Roman.
During so long a time the two great cities contended
with very varied success, the war being chiefly carried
on in and about Sicily, though at one time the Roman
Consul Marcus Atilius Regulus, who is one of the
most famous heroes of Roman legend, carried the wat
into Africa. For a long time the Carthaginians had
greatly the advantage at sea; but gradually the
Romans came to be their match at their own
weapons, and at last a great naval victory was won
by the Consul Caius Lutatius Catulus, which made
the Carthaginians ask for peace, "he First Punic
War ended in B,C. 241.
14. Beginning of the Roman Provinces.
This victory over the Carthaginians was the beginning
of a new state of things, and gave Rome quite a new
class of subjects. For, when peace was made, Car-
thage had to give up her possessions in Sicily, and
the island, except the part which belonged to Hieron,
became a Roman province. This was the beginning
of the Roman Provinces, that is the dominions of
Rome out of Italy. Their condition was much worse
than that of the Italian allies, for the provinces were
ruled by Roman governors, and had to pay tribute
to Rome. The Provincials in fact were mere subjects,
while the Italians, though dependent allies, were still
allies. Though they were bound to serve in the
Roman armies and to follow Rome in all matters
of war and peace, they still kept their own consti-
tutions and no Roman governors were sent to rule
them.
15. The Second Punic or Hannibalian War.
Twenty-three years passed between the end of the
first Punic War and the beginning of the second. But
in the meanwhile the Romans got possession, rathe?
62 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP.
unfairly, of the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, which
Carthage had kept by the peace. On the other hand
a Carthaginian dominion was growing up in Spain
under Hamilcar Barkas, one of the greatest men that
Carthage ever reared, his son-in-law Hasdrubal, and
his son Hannibal, the greatest man of all, and one ol
the greatest generals that the world ever saw. Another
quarrel arose between Carthage and Rome, whi-n
Hannibal took the Spanish town of Saguntnm, which
the Romans claimed as an ally. War began in 218,
and Hannibal carried it on by invading Italy by land.
This was one of the most famous enterprises in all
history. Never was Rome so near destruction as in
the war with Hannibal. He crossed the Alps and
defeated the Romans in four battles, the greatest of
which was that of Cannce in B.C. 216. Many of the
Italian allies revolted against Rome, and the war went
on in Italy till B.C. 203. By that time the Romans had
taken Syracuse, which, after Hieron's death, had for-
saken their alliance, so that all Sicily was now a
Roman province. They had also, while Hannibal
was in Italy, conquered the Carthaginian possessions
in Spain. Lastly, the Roman general who had been
so successful in Spain, Publius Cornelius Scipio, crossed
over into Africa, so that Hannibal had to leave Italy
and go back to defend Carthage itself. He was de-
feated by Scipio in the battle of Zama in B.O. 202.
Peace was now made, by which Carthage gave up all
her possessions out of Africa, and bound herself not
to make war without the consent of the Romans.
That is to say, Carthage now became a dependent
ally of Rome. The Semitic races could no longer
dispute the dominion of the Mediterranean lands with
the Aryans.
16. The Third Punic War. The last war with
Carthage began about fifty years after the second.
The Carthaginians were always at variance with their
neighbour Massinissa King of Numidia, who had
o..
THE MEDITERRANEAN LANDS
at the beginning of the
SECOND PUNIC WAR
Roman Pos. & Allies |
Carthagenian do. I
Macedonian do. I
Free Greek States [
Syrian Possessions [
Egyptian do.
Longitude E. 10 from Greenwich
PiskiSee.N.Y
HI.J CONQUEST OF CARTHAGE. 63
been a useful ally of Rome in the former war. The
Romans always favoured Massinissa, and in B.C. 149
war broke out again between Rome and Carthage.
Three years later Carthage was taken by the younger
Scipio, Publius Cornelius Scipio jEmilianus ; the city
was destroyed; part of its territory was given to
Massinissa, and part became the Roman province
of Africa. This is an example of the way in which
Rome advanced step by step. By the first Punic
war Carthage lost territory, but it remained quite
independent. The Second made it a dependent ally
of Rome, but left it free in its internal government.
The Third destroyed the city and made the country a
province. It is perhaps hardly needful to say that
Africa, as the name of a Roman province, does not
mean the whole continent, but only the immediate
territory of Carthage.
17. The First Macedonian War. We see
the same way of advancing step by step in the next
great conquest made by Rome, which was going on at
the same time as the Punic Wars. This was the
conquest of Macedonia and Greece. Many things
were beginning to bring the Romans and the Greeks
together, and, when any people began to have any-
thing to do with Rome, however friendly their deal-
ings might be at first, it always ended in the other
nation being sooner or later swallowed up in the
Roman dominion. The Romans already had Greek
subjects in Italy and Sicily. They were now begin-
ning to know something of the language and literature
of Greece, and to imitate them in writings of their
own. For it is about this time that the Roman
literature which we now have begins. The Romans
now began to have dealings with the Greeks in Greece
itself ; but their first dealings were quite friendly. A
war broke out with Illyria in B.C. 229, which ended
in the island of Korkyra and the cities of Apollonia
and Epidamnos submitting to Rome. These were
64 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHA
Greek cities on the Illyrian coast, and they welcomed
the Romans as deliverers. But Rome had now got
possessions on the Greek side of the .^Egajan, and the
conquest of those lands had really begun. In 215
Philip King of Macedonia made a league with Han-
nibal, and in 213 the First Macedonian War began,
while the second Punic War was still going on. In
this war Philip was helped by the leagues of Achaia,
Akarnania, and pdros, while Rome found allies in
the League of stolia, in Attalos King of Pergattws
in Asia, and Nabis Tyrant of Sparta. Since the fall
of Kleomenes, Sparta had been in a state of great
confusion, and she had had several wars with the
Achaians, in which Philopoimin^ the last great general
of Greece, greatly distinguished himself. Peace was
at last made in 205, and some changes of frontier
were made ; but the chief result of the war was that
Rome had now begun steadily to interfere in Greek
and Macedonian affairs.
18. The Second Macedonian War. The
first war with Macedonia, like the first war with
Carthage, did not affect the position of that king-
dom, or of any other of the Greek states, as inde-
pendent powers. The Second Macedonian War,
which began in B.C. 200, marks another stage in
the progress of conquest. The Romans now stepped
in to help the Athenians, who were their allies, and
who had been attacked by Phiiip. The ^Etolians
took the Roman side from the beginning, and the
Achaians joined them in 198. In 197 the war was
ended by the defeat of Philip at Kynosktphalt in
Thessaly, and the next year, 196, the Roman Consul
Titus Qitinctius Flamininus proclaimed the liberty of
all those parts of Greece which had been under his
power. Philip thus lost a large part of his territory,
and had to become a dependent ally of Rome. And
from this time we may count the Greeks allies at
Rome, though nominally free, as practically dependent
L] THE MACEDONIAN WARS. 65
19. The Conquest of JEtolia. The yEtolians
now invited the Seleukid King Antiochos the Great to
cross over from Asia and attack the Romans in Greece.
He crossed over in 192, and several Greek states
joined him, but the Achaians held steadily to Rome.
In 191 Antiochos was defeated at Thennopylai by the
Consul Manius Acilius Glabrio, and his allies the
^Etolians were presently, in 189, obliged to become a
Roman dependency, being the first within the borders
of Greece itself. Rome also took the islands of Za-
kynthos and Kephallenia, and the Achaian League was
extended over all Peloponnesos. Rome was now
really mistress of Greece, and Grecian history from
this time consists mainly of her dealings with the
states which had practically become her subjects.
20. The Third Macedonian War. The
Third Macedonian War, waged with Perseus the son
of Philip, began in 171. Most of the Greek states
were now on the Macedonian side, for it had become
plain that Rome was much more dangerous than
Macedonia. But the Achaians remained allies of
Rome, though they were from this time treated with
great insolence. The war ended with the victory of
Lucius &milius Paullus at Pydna in 168. The
Macedonian kingdom was now cut up into four
commonwealths, all dependencies of Rome. Epeiros
was subdued and most of its cities destroyed.
21. Final Conquest of Macedonia and
Greece. The Fourth Macedonian War happened
at exactly the same time as the Third Punic War, in
149. The Macedonians rose under one Andriskos,
who called himself Philip, and gave himself out as the
son of Perseus. He was successful for a time, but he
was overthrown in 148, and Macedonia, after so many
stages, at last became a Roman province. There
were also many disputes between Rome and Achaia,
which now grew into a war, and in 146 the Achaians
were defeated by Lucius Mummius, and Corwth was
66 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP.
destroyed in the same year as Carthage. The League
was dissolved for a while, and the Achaian cities
became formally dependent on Rome, But Athens
and several other Greek cities and islands still re-
mained nominally independent The history of these
times was written by Polybios, a leading man in th<?
Achaian League, but who, being a prisoner at Rome,
formed a close friendship with the younger Scipio and
other chief Romans. He was thus able to look with
his own eyes at two different stages of the world's
history in a way that perhaps no one else ever could.
22. The Romans in Asia. Macedonia and
Greece formed easy stepping-stones for the Romans
to meddle in the affairs of Asia. By far the greatest
of the Macedonian kingdoms in Asia was that of the
descendants of Seleukos, which for a while took in all
Alexander's conquests in Asia. But this great do-
minion was cut short in the East about B.C. 256 by
the revolt of the Parthians in Northern Persia.
They established a kingdom under the descendants
of their first leader Ashk or Arsakts, which in after
times was the chief rival of Rome. The eastern
provinces of the Seleukid Kings thus fell away one
by one, but at the time of the Second Punic War
their dominion reached to the ^gasan at one end and
stretched far beyond the Tigris at the other. But it must
be remembered that there were several states in West-
ern Asia, both native and Macedonian, like the
kingdoms of Pergamos and Bithynia, which did not
form part of their dominion. All these states were
more or less tinged with Greek culture. We have
already seen how Antiochos, called the Great, had
crossed over into Greece and had been there defeated
by the Romans. The Romans then crossed into Asia,
and Antiochos was defeated by Lucius Scipio at Mag-
n&st'a in 189. Antiochos had now to give up all his
dominions west of Mount Tauros, and the great
dominion of the Seleukid Kings shrank up into a
in.] CONQUESTS IN ASIA. 67
mere kingdom of Syria. But their capital Antioch
on the Orontes still remained one of the chief seats of
Greek culture, and one of the greatest cities of the
world. The Romans now became really masters of
all Western Asia, though after their manner, they did
not as yet formally take any part of the land to them-
selves. What Antiochos gave up they divided among
their allies, giving the largest share to Eumenfc King
of Pergamos. The kingdom of Eumenes thus became
the greatest state in Western Asia, and his capital, like
Antioch, became a great seat of Greek culture and
learning. And a little later the cities of Lykia joined
together in a free and most wisely managed Confedera-
tion, much after the pattern of the Achaian League.
But from this time Pergamos, Lykia, and all these
Macedonian or Hellenized states looked up to Rome,
just as the Greeks in Greece itself had already learned
to do. At last in 1 33 Attalos, the last king of Pergamos,
left his dominions to the Roman people, and the greater
part of them were made into a Roman province, by the
name of the Province of Asia, the first province that
Rome held beyond the ^Egaean.
23. The Romans in Western Europe.
Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. In all these wars
with Carthage, Macedonia, and Syria, Rome had
to struggle with enemies on something like equal
terms. All were civilized states, and the Macedonian
Kings, both in Macedonia and in Asia, had kept up
the military discipline of Philip and Alexander. We
must now see how Rome dealt with the people of
the Wesf, the forefathers of the chief nations of
modern Europe, but who then were only brave bar-
barians. Her first conquest among these was naturally
that of those lands within the Alps which are now
reckoned part of Italy, but which were then known
as Cisalpine Gaul. The Gauls, it will be remembered,
had once taken Rome itself, and they had shown
themselves dangerous enemies to Rome by helping
68 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAf
the Samnites and Etruscans against her. It was ns
wonder then that the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul
began almost as soon as the conquest of Iu\y Wijs
over. The lands south of the Po were won before
the first Punic War, and in the time between the first
and the second Punic Wars the conquest went on, and
several colonies were planted beyond the Po. The
Gauls greatly helped Hannibal in his invasion of
Italy, but they presently paid dearly for so doing.
For, as soon as the second Punic War was over, the
conquest of Cisalpine Gaul went on, and was ended
by about 191. The land was now full of Roman and
Latin colonies, and it soon became a Roman land
and began to be reckoned part of Italy. Liguria
and Venetia were conquered soon afterwards, so that
the Roman power took in all within the Alps, all that
we now call Italy.
24. The Conquest of Spain. Meanwhile the
third and most western of the three great peninsulas,
that of Spain, was being added, like Greece and the
neighbouring countries, to the Roman dominion.
Spain was the only one of the great countries of
Europe where the mass of the people were not of the
Aryan stock. The greater part of the land was still
held by the Iberians, as a small part is even now by
their descendants the Basques. But in the central
part of the peninsula Celtic tribes had pressed in, and
we have seen that there were some Phxnician colonies
in the south, and some Greek colonies on the eas*
coast. In the time between the First and Second
Punic Wars, Hamilcar, Hasdrubal, and Hannibal had
won all Spain as far as the Ebro for Carthage. But
during the second Punic War, between the years 2 1 1
and 206, the Carthaginian territories in Spain were
all won for Rome by tlie Scipios. Rome thus became
the chief power in Spain, even before the second
Punic War was over, and before she had conquered
all Cisalpine Gaul. But Spain has always been a hard
in.] CONQUESTS IN SPAIN AND GAUL. 69
country to conquer, and the Romans had constant
wars with the native tribes. Still we may look on the
Roman dominion in Spain as finally established in
B.C. 133, when the younger Scipio took Numantia.
This, it will be remembered, was in the same year as
the bequest of Attalos which gave Rome her first
Asiatic possession, and Numantia was taken by the
same general who had taken Carthage. From this
time all Spain was a Roman province, except some
of the mountainous parts in the north, where native
tribes still remained free.
25. Beginning of the Conquest of Trans-
alpine Gaul. The conquests of Rome in Trans-
alpine Gaul, Gaul beyond the Alps, began a little
later. Gaul in the geographical sense, the land
between the Rhine, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the
Ocean, was then, as now, peopled by different races,
speaking different languages. In the south the old
non-Aryan inhabitants still held their ground. The
districts near the Alps were chiefly held by Ligurians,
while Aquitaine, 3 name which then meant the land
between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, was Iberian.
In the centre the Aryan Celts had settled, but the
next wave, the Teutons, were most likely already
pressing upon them, though when our kinsfolk first
crossed the Rhine it would be hard to say. The
Mediterranean coast of Gaul was fringed by that
group of Greek cities of which Massalia was the
head. Massalia was a great trading city, and it became
an ally, at first a really equal and independent ally,
of Rome. This was in 218, at the beginning of the
second Punic War. The Romans had once or twice
to cross the Alps to defend their Greek allies, and at
last, in 125, a Roman province was formed in Trans-
alpine Gaul, in the land which has ever since kept the
name of Provence. At the same time the colony of
Aqua Sextia, now Aix, was founded. As usual, the
Roman dominions advanced, and twenty years later
70 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHAP.
the Roman province reached as far as Geneva to the
north and Tolosa or Toulouse to the west.
26. The Cimbri and Teutones. It is not
unlikely that the Romans would now have gone on
and conquered the whole of Gaul, if an event had
not happened which put a stop for some time to their
further progress in those parts. For about this time
Gaul was invaded by avast host of barbarians called
Cimbri and Teutones, who came from the North, but
ibout whom there has been much doubt whether they
really were of Celtic or of what we call Teutonic race.
They defeated several Roman commanders in Gaul,
but in 102 the Teutones were utterly defeated by the
Consul Cains Marius near Aqua Sextice, and in the
next year the war was finished by the two Consuls
Marius and Quintus Lutatius Catulus overthrowing the
Cimbri also at Vercelltz in Cisalpine Gaul. This was
the same kind of danger from which Rome had been
saved long before by Camillus, the danger of being
overthrown, not by the chief of a civilized people like
Pyrrhos or Hannibal, but by a people who were still
altogether barbarous. If any of our ancestors had
a hand in this invasion, it gives it a special interest foi
us ; but, at all events, as saving Rome from this great
danger, the defeat of the invaders was one of the
greatest events in Roman history, and Cains Marius is
one of Rome's most famous men. But, fully to under-
stand the condition of Rome, and especially to under-
stand the position of Marius, we must look back a
little at the state of things in Italy while these great
conquests were going on abroad. It will however be
better to keep the details of the internal affairs of
Rome, as far as may be, for the special History of
Rome, and to speak chiefly of those things which con-
cern the relations of Rome to her allies and subjects.
27. Rome and her Allies. We have thus seen
that, in the space of about two hundred years, from
the beginning of the Samnite Wars to the conquest of
HI.] . ROME AND HER ALLIES. 71
Numantia and the inheritance of the province of Asia,
Rome had come to be the mistress of all the lands
round the Mediterranean Sea. The whole was not as
yet fully annexed and made into provinces, but no
power was left which had the least chance of holding
against Rome. The only great power with which
Rome had had no war was the kingdom of Egypt,
There the descendants of the first Ptolemy, all of whom
bore his name, still reigned, and Egypt was the richest
and most flourishing of the Macedonian kingdoms, and
its capital Alexandria was the greatest seat of Greek
learning and science. But when the Romans began
to be powerful in Asia, even the Ptolemies, who often
had wars with the Seleukids, began to look to Rome
as a protector. It was this vast dominion, while it
made Rome so great in the face of other nations, which
led to the corruption of her constitution within, and
at last to the utter loss of her freedom. The form
of government which had done so well for a single city
with a small territory did not at all do for the govern-
ment of so large a portion of the world. Throughout
the Roman dominions the Roman People was sove-
reign ; the Assembly of the People made laws and chose
magistrates for Rome itself, and sent out generals and
governors to conquer and rule in the subject lands.
'^liz provincials, and even the allies, had no voice in
settling the affairs of the vast dominion of which they
had become a part, and they were often greatly op-
pressed by the Roman officers. Meanwhile in Rome
itself the great offices had been gradually thrown open
to the Plebeians as well as the Patricians, and hardly
any legal distinction was left between the two orders.
The constitution was therefore really democratic ; for
the sovereign power lay in the Assembly of the whole
People, which made the laws and chose the magistrates.
And, in choosing the magistrates, they also indirectly
chose the Senate, as the Senate was mainly made up
of men who had held the different magistracies. StiU
72 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. JCHAP
the constitution had a great tendency to become prac-
tically aristocratic. For the men who had held great
offices, whether patricians or plebeians, began to form
a class by themselves, and their descendants, who were
now called nobles, began to think that they only
had a right to hold the offices which their forefathers
had held. Then again the old citizens of Rome were
largely cut oft" in the endless wars, and many freed 'men
that is, men who had been slaves and strangers got
the citizenship, so that the character of the Roman
People was greatly lowered. And, as every citizen
who wished to vote had to come to Rome in his own
person, the Roman Assembly had become far too
large, and gradually turned into a mere mob. Then
again many citizens were wretchedly poor, while rich
men had made themselves great estates out of the land
which rightly belonged to the commonwealth. Thus,
instead of the old political strife between patricians and
plebeians, there had come, what was a great deal worse,
a social strife between the rich and the poor. While
Rome- had still powerful enemies to strive against, these
evils did not make themselves so much felt ; but, when
Rome had nothing more to fear, they began to be very
glaring, and men had to seek for remedies for them.
And, along with this, the Italian allies, who had not
been raised to Roman citizenship but who had borne
a great part in the wars of Rome, now demanded to
be made Romans. The cause of the poor against the
rich was taken up by Tiberius Semprnnius Gracchus,
in the year 133 ; and the cause botli of the poor and
of the allies was taken up by his brother Cains in 123.
But both of them were murdered by the oligarchs, who
wished to keep all power and wealth in their own hands.
28. The Social War. After the death of the
Gracchi the ill will between the nobles and the people,
and the further ill will between the Romans and the
Italians, still went on. The next great leader of the
popular party was Ciius Afarius, of whom we have
ml THE SOCIAL WAR. 73
already Heard as the conqueror of the Teutones. He was
not of any high family, but was born at Arpinum, an
old town of the Volscians, whose people did not obtain
the full Roman citizenship till 188. His sympathies
therefore lay with the people against the oligarchs,
and still more with the Italians against either the
nobles or the mob of Rome. He was an excellent
soldier, and first began to distinguish himself in the
war with Jugurtha, who had usurped the kingdom of
Numidia, whose King Massinissa had been so useful
to Rome in the Punic War. This war began in nr,
and in 106 Marius brought the war to an end and led
Jugurtha in triumph. Very soon after came the inva-
sion of the Cimbri and Teutones and Marius' great
success against them. He was now the chief man
in Rome and the leader of the popular party. But
the complaints of the Italians still went on, and in the
year 90 most of them rose in arms. This was called*
the Social War, that is the war with the Socii wt Allies
of Rome. It was ended in the course of the next
year by all the allies, except the Samnites and Luca-
nians in the south of Italy, submitting and being made
Roman citizens. The Samnites, whom it had cost
Rome so much trouble to conquer two hundred years
before, still held out. Marius held a command in this
war, and so did Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who had been
his lieutenant in the war with Jugurtha ; but Marius did
little or nothing, and went far to lose his old credit,
while Sulla showed himself the rising man of Rome.
Presently a Civil War, the first in Roman History,
broke out between Marius and Sulla, in which the war
with the Samnites, which had never quite come to
an end, merged itself. At one stage of this war Ser-
torius, a Roman general on the Marian side, held
Spain almost as a separate power, having a Senate of
his own, which he said was the real Roman Senate. In
83 Sulla came back from his wars in the East, of which
we shall speak directly, and the Samrates joined with
74 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHA*
the Marian party, and began openly to declare that
Rome must be destroyed. Rome had never been in
such danger since quite the old times, and there can
be no doubt that Sulla, who now saved Rome and
crushed the Samnites and the Marian party, fixed the
future history of the world far more than Caesar or
anyone else who came after him. Sulla now took to
himself the supreme power at Rome, with the title ol
Perpetual Dictator. But, when he had quite rooted
out the Marian party, and had passed a series of laws
to confirm the dominion of the aristocracy, he gave up
his power, and lived as a private man till he died soon
after. Rome had now passed through her last trial
within her own peninsula. The Samnites, who had
withstood to the last, had been utterly cut off, and the
other Italians had become Romans.
29. The Mithridatic War. While Rome went
through this great trial at home, she had to undergo
another almost as great abroad. She had to wage a
war greater than any that she had waged since the
conquest of Carthage and Macedonia. One of those
states in Asia Minor which had arisen, as was before
mentioned, out of the ruins of the old Persian Empire,
was Pontos, the Kingdom of the Huxine Sea Pantos
in Greek meaning the Sea, and specially the Euxine
Sea. Its Kings were of native blood, but, like all their
neighbours, they made a certain pretence to Greek
culture, and the acquisition of the province of Asia by
the Romsjis made them neighbours of Rome. Pontos
was now ruled by Mithridath the Sixth or the Great.
A war with him broke out while the Social War was
going on in Italy, and Mithridates succeeded in win-
ning all Asia. He then ordered all the Romans and
Italians who were settled in Asia to be massacred in
one day, which the people everywhere did very wil-
lingly they had made themselves so hateful. Then
his generals, like Antiochos, crossed over into Greece,
where many of the Greeks took his side. Sulla then
Hi.] MITHRIDATIC AND SYRIAN WARS. 75
in 87, came into Greece, stormed Athens, won two
great battles at Chairdnda and Orchomenos in Bceotia,
and then, being called home by the news of the suc-
cesses of Marius, patched up a peace by which
Mithridates gave up all his conquests. Such a peace
was not likely to last, and, as soon as he had a good
opportunity, Mithridates began the war again. This
was in 74, and the second war between him and the
Romans, first under Ludits Lidnius Lucullus and then
under Cnceus Pompeius, called Magnus or the Great,
lasted ten years. It ended in the overthrow of the
Pontic kingdom, which was split up in the usual way,
and in the complete re-establishment of the Roman
power in Asia.
30. The Conquest of Syria. In the history
of Rome one conquest always led to another, and,
after the overthrow of Mithridates, the Roman arms
were carried by Pompeius much further towards the
East than they had ever gone before. Tigranes, King
of Armenia, who had helped Mithridates, was utterly
humbled ; Syria, the remains of the great Seleukid
kingdom, was partly made a Roman province, partly
divided among dependent princes. Pompeius also
took Jerusalem in the year 63, and Palestine was
henceforth under the Roman power, though it was
often held by vassal Kings, such as the Herods in the
New Testament. The Roman power now reached
from the Ocean to the Euphrates, and the Roman
Commonwealth may be looked on as having taken the
place of Alexander and his successors in Asia, as the
champion of the West against the East. But each
increase of dominion laid it open to fresh enemies.
The Parthian Kings became formidable enemies, and
indeed rivals, of Rome. We shall hear a great deal
of the wars and other dealings between Rome and
Parthia. But the first attempt of the Romans against
Parthia, which was made by Marcus Ludnius Crassus
in the year 54, was utterly unsuccessful. Crassus was
7 THE ROMAK COMMONWEALTH. [CHA.
defeated and killed, and the more part of his array
were made prisoners.
31. State of Things at Rome. Meanwhile
it became more and more plain how unfit the
government of the single city of Rome was to rule
all Italy and the world. New discontents arose out
of the admission of the Italians to the Roman citizen-
ship, and the commonwealth was torn in pieces by the
disputes of the leading men. We now come to the
famous men of the last days of the Commonwealth,
Pompeius and Crassus, of whom we have already
heard, Marcus Tullius Cicero the great orator, Marcus
Porcius CalOy and the most famous of all, Caius Juiius
C&sar. We shall say more of their doings at home
in the special History of Rome. It may here be
enough to say that, as far as natural gifts went, Caesar
was perhaps the greatest man that ever lived, being
great in all ways, equally as soldier, statesman, and
scholar. He was of an old patrician house, but he
was connected with the family of Marius, and he took
up the cause of the people not honestly, like the
Gracchi, but to serve his own ends. The whole
Commonwealth was now utterly corrupt; still Pompeius
and Cicero, though there were plenty of faults on
their side, did strive to defend the law and constitution,
such as it was, while the Roman people had sunk into
a mere mob, which men like Caesar could use as they
chose.
32. Caesar's Conquests in Gaul. In the year
59 Caesar was Consul, and in the next year he went
into Gaul, which had been given him as his province,
and where he spent about seven years in conquering
the whole of the country. Instead of a small part
of southern Gaul, the Roman dominion now reached
to the Rhine and the British Channel. In this war
the Romans first had to deal both with people ol
our own race and with the land now called Britain.
Our own ancestors, th<; English, were still in theii
in.] CONQUESTS OF C&SAR. 77
o!d land by the Elbe, and Caesar never came nea*
them. But there were several Teutonic tribes in north-
eastern Gaul, and in the year 55 Caesar crossed into
Germany itself, but he did not conquer any part of the
land. In the same year 55, and again in 54, he crossed
over into Britain, but he made no lasting conquest,
and left no Roman troops behind him. Britain was
then inhabited by a Celtic people, the Britons, who
gave their name to the island, and whom our fore-
fathers, when they came into Britain long after, called
the Welsh or strangers. Both the German and the
British expeditions were made rather to show the
power of Rome than to make conquests which it
would have been hard to keep. The Rhine thus
became the boundary of the Roman province of
Gaul ; that is to say, the Germans on the left bank
of the Rhine became subjects of Rome, along with
the Iberian and Celtic inhabitants of Gaul, while the
Germans on the right bank remained free. This con-
quest of Gaul by Caesar is one of the most important
events in the history of the world. It is in some sort
the beginning of modern history, as it brought the
old world of southern Europe, of which Rome was
the head, into contact with the lands and nations
which were to play the greatest part in later times, with
Gaul, Germany, and Britain.
33. The Civil War of Pompeius and
Caesar. Caesar had been all this time winning
fame and power in Gaul, in order to make himselt
master of his country. Things got into great con-
fusion while he was away, which was just what he
wanted. At last, in the year 49, Caesar openly rebelled,
and another Civil War now began, in which Pompeius
commanded the armies which were faithful to the
Commonwealth. But now that the Roman dominion
took in so large a part of the world, a civil war be-
tween Romans was not necessarily fought in Italy.
The power of Pomp eius lay chiefly in the lands east
78 THE ROMAN COMMONWEALTH. [CHA*.
of the Hadriatic ; so, while he was gathering his
forces there, Caesar marched to Rome and got tht
People to make him, first Dictator, and then Consul
for the year 48. Then he crossed over to Epeiros,
and presently defeated the army of Pompeius and
the Senate at Pharsalos in Thessaly. Pompeius was
soon after murdered in Egypt, and in about three
years' time Caesar was able to overcome all who with-
stood him in Africa, Spain and elsewhere. The battle
of Pharsalos is one of the most important battles in
history, as it really ended the Roman Commonwealth,
and began the Roman Empire, which we may almost
say has gone on ever since. The forms of the Com-
monwealth lasted long after, but from this time the
Roman world always had a master. Caesar was now
master of the Roman dominions, and was made Dic-
tator for life. He was also called Impcrator (the word
which is cut short into Emperor\ a title which in
some sort belonged to every Roman general, but
which Csesar was allowed to use in a special way. But
he was not satisfied with being Dictator and Impe-
rator ; he wished to be King and to wear a diadern.
This was more than men could bear ; so many of
the senators, among whom the chief were Caius
Cassias and Marcus Junius Brutus, conspired and
slew him in the senate-house (March i5th, B.C. 44).
Caesar was a Tyrant ; he had overthrown the freedom
of his country and had seized a power beyond the
laws. But it should not be forgotten that for the
provinces it was a distinct gain to get one master
instead of many. The real lesson to be learned from
the overthrow of the Roman Commonwealth is that
states which boast themselves of their own freedom
should not hold other states in bondage.
34. The Second Civil War. After the death
of Caesar followed a time of great confusion, lasting
lor thirteen years. Brutus and Cassius, who had killed
Csesar, stood up for the Commonwealth, and there wu
in.] BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 75
a war between them and the partizans of Caesar undei
Marcus Antonius, one of Caesar's officers, and Caesar's
great-nephew, Caius Octavius. Caesar had adopted
Octavius as his son ; so his name became Caius Julius
Cozsar Octavianus. These two, along with Marcus
sfLmilius Lepidus, formed what was called a Triumviratt
for settling the affairs of the Commonwealth. Mean-
while Brutus and Cassius, like Pompeius, had gone to
the East, and in 42 the battle of Philippi in Macedonia
was fought between them and the Triumvirs, and
the hopes of the party of the Commonwealth were
crushed. Presently Antonius professed to make war
upon the Parthians, but he did nothing great, for he
was utterly bewitched by Kleopatra, Queen of Egypt,
the last of the dynasty of the Ptolemies. War pre-
sently followed between Caesar and Antonius, and
Antonius and Kleopatra were altogether defeated in a
sea-fight at Aktion, near Ambrakia, on the west coast
of Greece (31). Antonius and Kleopatra presently
killed themselves, and Egypt became a Roman pro-
vince. All the lands round the Mediterranean had
now come under the Roman dominion, though here
and there there were principalities and commonwealths
which had not been formally made into provinces.
35. The Beginning of the Empire. There
was now no one left to withstand Caesar, and the
Senate and People gradually voted him one honour
and office after another, which made him practically
master of the state, though the outward forms of the
Commonwealth went on as before. But he was never
called King, or even Dictator, like his uncle, for that
title had become almost as hateful as that of King.
But the new title of Augustus was voted to him, and
all who succeeded him in his puwer called themselves
Ccesar and Augustus. , But he is specially known as
Augustus Ccesar. This is the beginning of the
Roman Empire, for, of the various titles borne by
Augustus and his successors, that of Emperor (Impe
8o THE HEATHEN EMPIRE, [CHAP
rator) or chief of the array was the one which prevailed
in the end. The rest of the history of Europe is the ,
history of the Roman Empire in one shape or another,
and we shall see that the title of Roman Emperor went
on almost to our own times. The first Emperor then
was Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, and we may
count the Empire as beginning in B.C. 27, when he
received the title of Augustus. The last Emperor was
Francis, King of Germany, who gave up the Empire
in A.D. 1806. The differences between the early and
the- later Emperors we shall see as we go on, but there
was a continuous succession between them without
any break.
CHAPTER IV.
THE HEATHEN EMPIRE.
Extent of the Roman Empire ; distinction of the Latin,
Greek, and Oriental Provinces (i) nature of the
Roman dominions ; all the inhabitants of the Empire
gradually become Romans (2) reign of Augustus; steal-
thy introduction of Monarchy (3) wars with the Ger-
mans; victory of Armiimis (3) Roman Literature and
Art '(4) the Claudian Emperors ; conquest of Britain ;
the Empire passes from the Ccesarian family (5) the
Flavian Emperors ; wars with the Jews, tiatavians,
and Dacians (6) the Good Emperors ; origin of the
Rinnan Law (7) Emperors chosen by the army; dis-
tinction of Romans and Barbarians ; the lllyrian
Emperors (8) tlie Tyrants (9) restoration of the
:gdom of Persia ; -wars between Persia and Rome
(10) wars with the Teutonic nations; first appearance
of the Goths (10) origin of Christianity ; its advance
and persecutions (i i) reign of Diocletian ; his division
of the Empire (12) last persecution of the Christians;
Constantine embraces Christianity (i 2) Summary (\$.
i. Extent of the Roman Empire. At the
time when the government of Rome practically
W.] EXTENT OF THE EMPIRE. 81
changed from a common wealth . to a monarchy, the
Roman power had spread over all the lands which
could be looked on as forming the civilized world.
These lands fall naturally under three heads, the
distinction between which will be found to be of
great importance as we go on. In the Western
provinces, as Gaul and Spain, to which we may add
Africa, where Carthage had been restored by Caesar
as a Roman colony, the Romans appeared, not only
as a conquering, but as a civilizing people. Roman
customs and the use of the Latin language took firm
root ; the whole civilization of these lands' became
Roman, and the native tongues and customs lived on
only in out-of-the-way corners, such as the mountain
land of the Basques in Spain and southern Gaul.
But in Greece, and in those lands whither the Greek
speech and customs had been carried bv Greek
colonists or by Macedonian conquerors, the Greek
civilization, the older and the higher of the two, still
held its ground. These lands became politically
Roman, but they remained socially and intellectually
Greek, and Greek still went on as the language of
literature and poiite life. But in the further East, in
the lands beyond Mount Tauros, in Syria and Egypt,
though those lands had been ruled by Macedonian
Kings, and though great Greek cities had arisen as
their capitals, the native languages and religions and
general habit of thought never died out, nor were they
driven, as in the West, into out-of-the-way corners.
It is only in a very superficial sense that these lands
can be said to have ever become either Greek or
Roman. This distinction between what we may call
the Latin,, the Greek, and the Oriental provinces must
be carefully borne in mind throughout. It was not a
distinction made by law, but it was one which had
most important practical results. Speaking roughly,
the Roman dominion was bounded by the Rhine, the
Danube, the Euphrates, and the great deserts of
8a THE HEA Til EX EMPIRE. [CHAP.
Africa. It did not reach quite so far as this at the
very beginning of the Empire, but the few outlying
lands which were needed to bring it to those bound-
aries were added during the reigns of Augustus and
the other earlier Emperors. And, within those bound-
aries, we may look on the Latin provinces as reaching
from the Ocean to the Hadriatic, the Greek as reach-
ing from the Hadriatic to Mount Tauros, and the
Oriental as taking in the lands beyond.
2. Nature of the Roman Dominion. It must
always be remembered that the establishment of the
Roman Empire was not a formal revolution. The old
republican forms went on in Rome, and the relations
between the ruling city and the allied and subject
states were in no way changed. But as the Empire,
as the power of one man, became step by step more
firmly established, the tendency was to break down
the old distinctions. Particular families, and some-
times whole cities and regions, were admitted to the
Roman franchise, till at last all the free inhabitants of
the Empire were declared to be Roman citizens.
From this time all the subjects of the Empire were
legally equal, and all who spoke either Latin or Greek
began to look on themselves as Romans. The
Empire, which had once been a collection of cities
and provinces in different degrees of subjection to one
ruling city, gradually changed into a vast dominion,
all the inhabitants of which were alike fellow-subjects
of the Emperor. Rome, instead of being the ruling
city, thus became merely the capital or seat of govern-
ment. And we shall see that, as time went on, Rome
ceased even to be the seat of government, and other
cities took its place.
3. The Reign of Augustus. Counting the
reign of Augustus to begin when he received that new
and special title, it lasted forty-one years, from B.C. 27
to A.D. 14. During all that time he was practically
master of Rome and of the whole Empire. He be
IV.] REIGN OF AUGUSTUS. 83
came so by the means of uniting various great offices
in his own person, and by having special grants of
authority made to him by the Senate for periods of
ten years. Men thus became gradually used to the
rule of one man, and, though all the old magistracies
and the old forms went on, they gradually sank into
mere forms. The legions were kept up as a standing
army, and the government gradually became a mili-
tary monarchy. Augustus however never took on
himself anything of the pomp of royalty, but behaved
simply as the first magistrate of the commonwealth.
He did not seek to make any great conquests ; still
several wars, both successful and unsuccessful, were
carried on during his reign. The small part of Spain
which remained independent was subdued, and the
lands between the Alps and the Danube were added
to the Empire. There were also wars at this time
which more concern us, for the two Claudii, the
stepsons of Augustus, first Drusus and then Tiberius,
waged long wars with the Germans beyond the Rhine,
and it was hoped that Germany would be subdued
as well as Gaul. Had this happened, the future
history of the world must have been utterly changed.
And everyone who speaks English or any other
Teutonic tongue ought to honour the name of the
German hero Arminius, who in A.D. 9 cut off three
Roman legions under Publius Qiiindilius Icarus, and
stopped all fear of Germany becoming a Roman
province. Drusus had in some of his wars reached
the Elbe', so that it is quite likely that he may have
come across some of our own forefathers.
4. Roman Literature and Art. The reign of
Augustuses also famous as the time when many of the
best-known Latin writers lived. There is nothing in
the Latin language which at all answers to the native
literature of Greece. Before the Punic wars we have
only a few scraps. From that time the existing Latin
literature begins. But the Latin writers, especial: y
84 THE hEATHEN EMPIRE. [CHAF.
the poets, were too much given to imitation of Greek
models to produce anything at all equal to them.
But there were many great Latin writers in the time oi
the Civil Wars, as Cicero and Caesar, who were so
famous in other ways, and the poets Lucretius and
Catullus. But the Augustan Age, as it is called,
became specially famous for the number of poets, such
as the well-known names of Virgil, Horace, and Oi'id,
who lived at that time, and sang the praises of
Augustus, and of their great patron, his minister
Caius Cilnius Macenas. Livy also ( Titus Livius), the
historian of Rome, lived at this time. But both he
and the greatest of the Augustan poets had grown up
under the Commonwealth. Horace, for instance,
(Quintus Horatius Flaccus), had fought against
Augustus at Philippi, having been an officer in the
army of Brutus and Cassius. The most truly original
Latin writers, the satirist Juveiial and the historian
Tacitus, to whom we may add the great Roman
lawyers, belong to a later time. Of all branches of
knowledge and literature, law is the only one in which
the Romans were thoroughly original, and it is that
by means of which they did most to influence other
lands and times. The art of Rome is very like her
literature. The Romans of the Augustan age imitated
the Greeks in their buildings and in their works of art
generally, and it was only gradually that a really
genuine and national form of Roman architecture was
worked out.
5. The Claudian Emperors. As Rome was
not legally a monarchy, it is plain that the supreme
power could not pass at the will of the last Emperor.
But the stepson of Augustus, Tiberius Claudius Nero,
whom he had adopted, and who therefore became his
son according to Roman law, succeeded without any
difficulty, and the Senate voted him all the honours which
Augustus had held. The Umpire thus passed into a
new tamily, that of the Claudii. But, according to th<
IV.] THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. 85
law of adoption, they counted as Casars, and the
Caesars became a kind of artificial family, for no
Emperor at this time was ever succeeded by his own
son. Four Emperors reigned by this kind of succes-
sion, Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero. All of
these were Caesars by adoption, though not by blood,
and Caius, Claudius, and Nero were really descended
from Augustus in the female line. The first of these
four, Tiberius, reigned from A.D. 14 to A.D. 37. The
Empire was on the whole prosperous in his time ;
but he did many jealous and cruel things, causing the
death of all of whom he was in any way afraid, espe-
cially of his nephew Germanicus, the son of Drusus,
and Germanicus' wife, Agrippina. Germanicus took
his name from his wars in Germany, where he advanced
as far as the Weser, but he was happily called back by
the jealousy of Tiberius. Caius, commonly called
Caligula^ the son of Germanicus, succeeded Tiberius,
and reigned four years, from 37 to 41. He seems to
have been quite mad, and did the wildest and wicked-
est things in every way, and at last he was killed by
some of his officers. The soldiers then chose Claudius,
the brother of Germanicus and uncle of Caius, and
the Senate had to confirm their choice. This was the
first time that an Emperor was chosen by the army.
Claudius was a well-meaning man, but he was con-
stantly led astray by his wives and favourites. It
was in his time that the Roman conquest of Britain
began, and Claudius himself went for a short time
into Britain in the year 43. He reigned till 54,
when he was poisoned by his last wife Agrippina,
who was the daughter of Germanicus and his own
niece. She had made him adopt her son Nero, who
then succeeded, and reigned well for a while, but
gradually became the worst of the whole family for
every form of vice and cruelty. At last the soldiers
in the distant provinces began to rebel, aid Nero
wis deposed by a vote of the Senate; and died by hi*
86 THE Iff. A THEN l-.MPJKK. [CHA
own hand in the year 68. The Empire now passed
quite away from the Caesarean family ; those who
followed no longer pretended to belong to that
family, even by adoption ; yet all who succeeded to
the Empire still went on calling themselves Casar
and Augustus to the very end.
6. The Flavian Emperors. A time of con-
fusion followed on the death of Nero. The armies
in various parts of the Empire chose their own
generals to be Emperors, and several of them
obtained possession of Rome, and were acknow-
ledged by the Senate and 'People for a little while.
Thus Gatta, Otho, Vitdlius, succeeded one another
very quickly, each reigning a little time and then being
killed. At last, in the year 70, a more permanent
power was established by Titus Flavius Vespasianus,
who kept the Empire till his own death in 79, and
was succeeded by his sons Titus and Doinitian in
succession, the first time that an Emperor had been
succeeded by his own son. Vespasian made a much
better ruler than any of the Emperors who had gone
before him, and a long time of comparative peace and
good government now began. In Vespasian's time the
/eu's, who had rebelled in the time of Nero, were
subdued by his son Titus, and Jerusalem was destroyed.
And during the times of confusion, the Batavians, a
people near the mouth of the Rhine, very nearly akin
to ourselves, had revolted and tried to set up an
empire of their own in Gaul. This movement too
was put down about the same time as that of the Jews,
The power of Vespasian and his family was now firmly
established, but it is to be noticed that the Flavian
Emperors did not, like the Julian and Claudian, spring
from any of the great and ancient families of Rome.
This is a sign of the way in which old distinctions
were breaking down. Titus reigned but two years after
the death of his father ; he was called the Delight oj
Mankind, but his brothei Doinitian, who succeeded
nr.l THE GOOD EMPERORS. 87
him, and who professed to be a careful and severe
assertor of the laws, gradually became as great a tyrant
as any of the Claudii. In his time the conquest of
Britain was completed by Agncola, and Rome found a
new enemy to strive against in the Dacians beyond the
Danube. Domitian was killed in 96, and the Flavian
dynasty ended with him.
7. The Good Emperors. We now come to a
time which in some sort continues the Flavian
dynasty. The Roman world had now got thoroughly
used to the rule of a single man, and there can be no
doubt that the provinces were better off under the
rule of the Emperors than they had been under the
Commonwealth. And, from the accession of Vespasian
onwards, there was a great feeling in favour of legal
and regular government, of strict observance of the
law and of respect for the authority of the Senate. It
was about this time that Law began to be a matter of
special study, and that the great Roman lawyers began
to put together that system of Roman Law known as
the Civil Law, which has been the groundwork of the
law of most parts of Western Europe except England.
Several famous writers, both in Greek and Latin, flour-
ished at this time, especially the great historian Tacitus.
The Emperors of this time, who are often called spe-
cially the Good Emperors, formed a kind of artificial
family, like that of the first Caesars, each man being
succeeded, not by his real son, but by one whom he
had adopted. Five thus reigned in order, 'Nerva fron
96 to 98, Trajan from 98 to 117, Hadrian from u;
to 138, Antoninus Pius from 138 to 161, and Marcus
Aurelius from 161 to 180. Of these Trajan was the
first Emperor who was born out of Italy, being a native
ofSpain. It was in his time that the Empire reached its
greatest extent. He had wars with the Parthians,
from whom he won several provinces in the East, so
that for a moment the Empire reached the Caspian
Sea. But this was only for a moment, for these
88 THE HE A THEN EMPIRE. [CHAP.
Eastern conquests were at once given up by Trajan's
successor Hadrian. And in Europe also Trajan won
the province of Dacia beyond the Danube. But this
too, though it was kept longer than the conquests in
the East, was not a really lasting possession. From
this time the Romans made no more great conquests,
for they commonly found that they had enough to do to
defend their own frontiers. Thus Marcus had to wage
wars with the Germans along the Danube. He was a
philosopher, who left some excellent moral writings
behind him. Witn him the time of the Good Emperors
ended. For he was succeeded by Commodus, who
was his own son, and not merely a son by adop-
tion. He was the first Emperor who was born during
the reign of his father. But he proved very unlike his
father, being, for vice and cruelty, one of the worst
princes that ever reigned, and was at last murdered
in 192.
8. Emperors chosen by the Army. A time
now followed, lasting for nearly a hundred years, from
192 to 285, during which there is no need to go
through all the Emperors by name. Many of them
reigned only a very short time. The soldiers set up
and slew Emperors as they chose, and the Senate was
obliged to make the usual votes in favour of those
who were thus set up. It was quite a rare thing for
the Empire to pass from father to son, or by fair
election by the Senate, or in any other peaceful and
lawful way. For a little while there was an attempt to
keep up a dynasty or succession of Emperors in the
same family, or at least in the same name; for Septimius
Sez>erus, who reigned from 193 to 211, and his sons
called themselves Antoninus, though it does not seem
that they were descended from, or even adopted by,
any of the Emperors of that name. Under Severus
the government became still more military than it had
been before. He was succeeded by his wicked son
Antoninus, who was commonly called Caratalla
Long. East 10 from Groeuwic i 20
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT v
The Roman Dominions at the Death of Cwsan
The Empire under Trajan (
Flak & See.N., f
nr.l THE TYRANTS. gf
And, after he was murdered in 217, two Syrian youths,
Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, who were said to
be Caracalla's sons, were set up in succession, who
both took the names of Aurelius and Antoninus. Of
these Elagabalus was one of the worst, and Alexandei
one of the best, of the Emperors. In the time of
Caracalla the old distinctions of Romans, Latins,
Italians, and Provincials were quite wiped out. Ro-
man citizenship was now given to all the free inhabi-
tants of the Empire, so that a man in Britain or
Greece or anywhere else called himself a Roman, as in
the East men have done ever since. It therefore hap-
pened that many of the best and bravest Emperors,
especially towards the end of this time, were what
would before have been called Barbarians. That
word now meant those who were altogether outside the
Empire. Many of the best of these later Emperors
came from Iliyria. Decius, Claudius, Aurdian, and
others, brave and wise men who rose by their merits,
followed one another in swift succession, and had
much fighting with the different enemies of Rome.
At last one of the greatest of their number made a
complete change' in the constitution of the Empire,
which we must presently speak of.
9. The Tyrants. While Emperors were thus set
up and put down by the soldiers, it often happened
that there were several Emperors or claimants of the
Empire at once ; that is to say, the armies in different
parts of the Empire had each set up its own general
to be Emperor. And towards the end of this period
it often happened that one of these pretenders con-
trived to keep some pan of the Empire for several
years, so that there were Emperors reigning in Gaul
or Britain or some other province or provinces only.
But these local Emperors must not be mistaken for
national, rulers of the provinces where they reigned ;
they claimed to be Roman Emperors, and they o*
course aimed at getting the whole Empire, if they
00 THE HEATHEN EMPIRE. [CHAP
could. Sometimes the reigning Emperor found il
convenient to acknowledge them as colleagues ; if
they were unsuccessful, they were called Tyrants. As
in old Greece a Tyrant had meant a man who unlaw-
fully seized on kingly power in a commonwealth, so
now it meant a man who called himself Emperor, but
who was held not to have a lawful right to the title
In the time of Gallienus, who reigned from 260 to 268,
the whole Empire was split to pieces among various
pretenders of this kind. One of these should be
specially noticed, because it is the only case among
all these divisions of anything like a real national
state being founded. This was at Palmyra in Syria,
where one Odenathus was acknowledged as Emperor,
and after him his wife Zcncbia, one of the most won-
derful women in history, reigned as Queen of the East.
But this new kingdom was put down by Aurelian, one
of the ablest of the Illyrian Emperors, in 271.
10. Wars with the Persians and Germans.
We have seen that a new state of things begins after
the reign of Trajan, for from that time the Romans had
to fight, not as in former times to make new conquests,
but to keep what they had got already. The wars
went on along the Eastern frontier, with the Parthians
as long as their power lasted, and after that with a new
enemy who stepped into their place. These were the
real old Persians, who had been kept in bondage ever
since the time of Alexander, but who rose up about the
year 226 and founded a new Persian kingdom. Their
first king was Ardeshir or Artaxerxes, whose descend-
ants, called the SassaniJcB, ruled over Persia more
than four hundred years. Many of the Emperors had
to wage war with the Persians, and among them
Alexander Severus and Valerian, the father of Gallienus,
who reigned from 253 to 260. He was taken prisoner
by the Persians, and died in captivity. At a later
time the Romans gained territory from the Persians
and then lost it again, and so things went on for somr
iv.] THE GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 91
ages ; Rome and Persia were always fighthg and
making small conquests from one another, but, till a
much later time, neither dealt any real blow at the main
strength of the other. But the wars which the Romans
had to wage in the West were of quite another kind.
They have a more special interest for us, because they
were wars with our own kinsfolk, and they also mark
one of the greatest stages in the history of the world.
For it was now that the race came to the front
which was to take the place which had been held, first
by the Greeks and then by the Romans, as the leading
race of the world. From the time of Marcus Aurelius
onwards the Teutonic nations began really to threaten
the Empire. The chief business of the Roman armies
now was to drive the Germans back ; and, if they made
any conquests, it was now merely winning back lands
which had been lost. We now first hear of the famous
nation of the Goths, a people whose speech was very
nearly akin to our own, and also of the Franks, whose
name has in later history been more famous still. The
great Illyrian Emperors had much to do in fighting
both with the Persians and with the Goths and other
Teutonic people. And Claudius, who reigned before
Aurelian from 268 to 270, won a great victory over
the Goths, who for some time afterwards kept more
quiet. But Aurelian thought it wise to give up Trajan's
province of Dacia, so that the Danube again became
the boundary. We now come to a time of great
changes in the internal state of the Empire.
ii. The Growth of Christianity. All this
while, almost from the very beginning of the Empire, a
new religion had been growing up in the world. Our
Lord Jesus Christ was born in the reign of Augustus and
was crucified in the reigr. of Tiberius. Ever since
that time Christianity had been gradually preached in
most parts of the Empire, and the Christians were
now a large and important body. The Christians were
often cruelly persecuted, but it should be carefully
93 THE HEATH5N EMPIRE. 'CHAP,
noticed that, as a rule, it was not the worst Emperors
who most persecuted them. The truth is 'hat the
heathen religion of ancient Rome was looked on as
part of the constitution of the state. Oiher Gods
might be worshipped, if only the old Gods did not
lose their worship ; but a religion which taught that the
Gods of Rome and of all other nations were alike
false, and which strove to win over all mankind to that
belief, was looked on as dangerous to the Empire.
Those Emperors therefore who were most zealous to
keep up the old laws and customs of Rome were com-
monly the most anxious to put down the new faith, and
we therefore find that the Christians really suffered
most under good and reforming princes like Trajan
and Marcus Aurelius. Still the Church constantly
advanced and made converts, for men had now but
little real faith in the old Gods, and their worship was
mainly kept up as a matter of state policy. And
Christianity also had no small influence even on those
who did not accept it as a religion. A higher standard
of morals and higher notions of the divine nature
became common even among the heathens, and many
a philosopher who professed to hate and despise
Christianity was a better man for Christianity having
been preached. At last it became plain that a deadly
struggle must come between the old faith and the new.
Those who held that the greatness and glory of Rome
were bound up with the worship of the old Gods of
Rome saw that the time was come when a stand must
be made. The Christians were now grown so powei-
ful that several of the later Emperors, especially Dcciu*
and Valerian, looked on them as dangerous to the
state, and severe persecutions went on during their
reigns. After that time, there was a lull ; the Christians
were not molested for a long time, and their doctrine
spread among all classes of people everywhere. At
last, at the time which we have now reached, among
many important changes, came the last and greatest
persecution.
iv. 1 DIOCLETIAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 93
12. Diocletian and his Successors. During
this time the notion of the Roman Commonwealth.)
the forms of which had been so carefully kept up under
the earlier Emperors, had almost wholly died out.
The Empire had become a military monarchy, in which
the power of the prince rested mainly on the support
of his soldiers. And another change gradually hap-
pened. All the inhabitants of the Empire were now
equally Romans, and the Emperors had to move about
wherever the needs of constant warfare called them.
Italy therefore ceased to be any longer distinguished
from the rest of the Empire, and even the importance
of Rome itself, as the centre of the Empire, was greatly
lessened. These great changes, which had already
taken place in fact, were now formally acknowledged.
In the year 284 the Empire fell to Diocletian, another
of the able Illyrians of whom so many had risen to the
throne. He began quite a new order of things. There
were to be two Emperors, with the title of Augustus,
reigning as colleagues, with two Ccesars under them.
Speaking roughly, this fourfold division answered to
Italy itself and the neighbouring countries, the Western
provinces (Gaul, Spain, and Britain), the Greek, and the
Oriental provinces. Many of the forms of royalty
which had been unheard of before were now brought
into use, though even now no Roman prince dared to
take the title of King, and the Senate and Consuls still
went on in name. But Rome was now quite forsaken
as a dwelling-place of the Emperors, who found it
better to live near the frontiers, whence they could
keep watch against the Persians, Germans, and othei
enemies of the Empire. Thus Diocletian and his col-
league Maximian lived respectively at Nikomedeia in
Asia and at Milan, while one of the Ccesars was com-
monly placed in daul or Britain, at Tritr or at York.
In 303 Diocletian abdicated, and made his col-
league Maximian abdicate also. But towards the
end of their reign they put forth a series of cruel edicts
94 TJ/K HEATHEN EMPIRE. [CHAT.
against the Chiistians, and the heaviest of all the per-
secutions now took place. But the Church lived
through all attempts to destroy it, and its greatest
worldly success followed soon after this great perse-
cution. The system of August! with Caesars under
them was not regularly kept up for any long time,
A series of civil wars followed, till at last the whole
Empire was joined together again in the hands of
Constantine called the Great. He began to reign at York
in 306 ; after that he reigned at Trier, till he obtained
the whole Empire in 3 23 and kept it till 1 is death in 337.
He was the first Emperor who acknowledged himself
a Christian, and other important changes were made in
his time, which will be spoken of in the next chapter.
13. Summary. We have thus gone through the
history of heathen Rome both under the Common-
wealth and under the Empire. It began as a single
city ; it gradually gained the dominion, first over Italy,
and then over all the lands round the Mediterranean
Sea, and it gradually admitted its subjects and allies
to its own citizenship. When the government of a
single city became quite unable to act as the govern-
ment of the whole civilized world, all power gradually
came into the hands of one man, and the practical
holding of all power by one man gradually changed the
state into an avowed monarchy. Then, when all the
inhabitants of the Empire were alike Romans, the city of
Rome became, as it were, lost in the Roman Empire,
and other cities began to be seats of government. At
the same time new enemies, namely our own kinsfolk,
were beginning to threaten the Empire, and a new
religion, that which we ourselves believe, was begin-
ning to supplant the old religion of Rome. We have
thus come to a time of very great and speedy change,
and to the first beginnings of the stSte of things which
still goes on in modern Europe. There is in some
things a greater change between the first Emperors and
the Emperors after Constantine than there was between
the old Kings of Rome and the first Emperors.
v.] THE EARL V CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 95
CHAPTER V.
THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE.
ffL'fory of Constantine ; his changes in the government
of the Empire (i) he fixes his capital at Constantinople
or Neiv Rome (i) re/ens of Constantius and Julian
(l) establishment of Christianity; disputes and Coun-
cils in the Church (2} forms assumed by Christianity
in different parts of the Empire (2) revival of
paganism unaer Julian; its final extinction (2) Teu-
tonic settlements within the Empire (3) movements
of the. Goths ; defeat and death of Valens (4) reigns
of Thfodosius and his sons (4) Rome taken by Alaric
(4) -foundation of the Gothic kingdom in Spain (4)
invasion of Attila (5) later Emperors in the West ;
the two Empires nominally reunited; rule of Odoacer
in Italy (5) settlements of the Burgundians and
Franks in Gaul; reign and conquests of Chlodwig (6)
settlement of the Vandals in Africa (7) reign of
Theodoric in Italy (7) intermixture of Romans and
Teutons ; origin of the Romance nations (8) growth
of the Romance languages (9) distinctions of High
and Low Dutch (10) the English conquest of Britain;
its differences from the other Teutonic settlements (n).
i. Constantine and his Family. The changes
which were wrought by Constantine made him one of
th; most famous of all the Emperors. He was the son
of Constantius, who had reigned under Diocletian and
Maximian in Britain, Spain, and Gaul, and who, though
not a Christian himself, had, out of justice and hu-
manity, done what he could to protect the Christians.
Constantine himself for a long time did the same.
He protected the Christians, but he did not profess
their religion till the last civil war in 323, which gave
him possession of the whole Empire. He presently
made a change which had a great effect upon the later
history of the Empire. Rome, as we have seen, had
96 THE EARL Y CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAT
ceased to be the usual dwelling-place of the Emperors.
Constantine now fixed the capital of the Empire in
the old Greek city of Byzantion on the Bosporus,,
which he greatly enlarged and called New Rome, but
which has ever since been better known as Constanti-
nople or the City of Constantine. From this time, what-
ever changes and divisions there were, Constantinople
remained the capital of the whole Empire when it was
united, and of the Eastern part when it was divided.
The chief power was thus placed in a city which was
Christian from what we may call its new birth, and
which had none of the heathen associations of the
Old Rome. And, as Constantinople was in its origin
a Greek city, it soon again became, though it was the
capital of the Roman Empire, a city more Greek than
Roman, and it gradually took the place of Antioch and
Alexandria as the chief seat of Greek culture and learn-
ing. Constantine too in his new capital was able to set
more fully in order the despotic system of govern-
ment which had been brought in by Diocletian.
From this time, though the Senate and the Con-
suls still went on, we may look on the Empire as
being an absolute monarchy in form as well as in fact.
And moreover Constantine not only reigned longer
than any Emperor since Augustus, but he established
his power so firmly that the Empire lasted in his
family as long as any of his family were left. But
they were mostly cut off by their own kinsfolk. Con-
stantine divided his dominions among his three sons,
but at last, in 353, the Empire was again united in his
son Constantiits, who reigned at Constantinople till
361. There were several revolts and rival Emperors in
his time, as well as many disputes in the Church, and
unsuccessful wars with the Germans and Persians. But
his cousin Julian, who was Ccesar under him in the
West, drove the Germans out of Gaul, and thus made
himself a great name. At last his soldiers proclaimec 1
him Augustus, and, as Constantius died soon after
v.] ESTABLISHMENT OF CHRISTIANITY. \fj
Julian got possession of the whole Empire without
much trouble. But his reign did not last long, as io
363 he died in war against the Peisians, and the
family of Constantine ended with him.
2. The Establishment of Christianity.
When Constantine embraced Christianity, the long
struggle between the Church and the power of heathen
Rome came to an end. The Church conquered the
Empire. Not only did the Empire become Christian,
but Christianity became in a special way the religion
of the Empire. Christianity has hardly anywhere
taken firm and lasting root, except in those countries
which either formed part of the Roman Empire or
learned their religion and civilization from it, and
from this time the history of the Church and of the
Empire go together. Constantine, as was often done
at that time, put off his baptism till just before his
death. Yet he acted throughout as the chief ruler ot
the Church ; and when Arius, a priest of Alexandria,
put forth new doctrines as to the more mysterious
points of Christian belief, it was by the Emperor's
authority that a Council of Bishops was gathered to-
gether at Nikaia in Bithynia in 325. This is com-
monly called the Council of Nice, and here the Nicene
Creed was drawn up. This was the first of what are
called the General Councils of the Church, several of
which were held in this and the next century. For
men were at this time constantly disputing about the
deepest doctrines of the Christian religion, and each
heresy, that is. each new and strange kind of teaching,
commonly called for a Council to settle the dispute.
The truth is that the despotic system of the Empire
had so thoroughly crushed men's minds in all political
matters that it was only on points of religion that there
was any free play of thought at all. Moreover, while
Christianity is essentially the religion of the Roman
Empire, different forms of Christianity took their
firmest root in different parts of the Empire, accord-
9 3 THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAI
ing to the character and turn of mind of the people.
Thus in the West, where Latin was spoken, men
thought les? about subtle points of doctrine ; but we
shall see that, before long, Rome again became the
ruling and Imperial city in ecclesiastical matters, as
she had once been in temporal dominion. Mean-
while, in the Greek-speaking provinces men's minds
were more given to hard questions of doctrine.
As the Greeks had in old times produced so many
subtle philosophers, so they now produced equally
subtle divines. And in the further East, in Syria and
Egypt, in the lands which had never thoroughly be*
come either Greek or Roman, men fell off into doc-
trines which both Greeks and Latins thought heretical.
This was the only way that was left to them of assert-
ing their national independence. Thus the whole
Empire gradually embraced Christianity ; but Chris-
tianity took different shapes in different parts, and
there were long disputings on various points of doc-
trine, and of course men did not become Christians
of any kind all at once. Many still clave to the old
heathen worship, especially what we may call the two
ends of mankind, that is to say, the philosophers who
trusted in their own wisdom, and the rude peasantry
in the country-places. For Christianity was every-
where preached first in the towns ; hence it came that
the word paganus, which at first simply meant a coun-
tryman, came to mean a pagan or heathen or worship-
per of false Gods. Still, from the time that Constan-
tine professed himself a Christian, Christianity grew
and paganism went back, though it cannot be doubted
that the spread of Christianity was greatly hindered by
the endless disputes in the Church. Constantius
favoured the Arians, and, after his death, paganism
got a new start for a moment. Fo: Julian, though he
had been brought up as Christian, and though in hia
own life he was one of the best of all the Emper jrs,
fell back again to the worship of the old Gods. Bui
v.] THE TEUTONIC INVASIONS. 99
all the Emperors after him were Christians, and by the
end of the fourth century after Christ, the Christians
weie, to say the least, the great majority in most parts
of the Empire. Under the Emperors Gratian and
T/ieodostus, who reigned between them from 367 to
395, the public profession of paganism was quite put
an end to.
3. The Teutonic Invasions. We have now
come to the time when the nations of our own race
began to make their way into the Empire. We
have seen that the different German tribes had been
most dangerous enemies of Rome ever since the time
of Augustus, and that many of the most valiant Em-
perors had much ado to defend the Empire against
them. So it was still ; Constantine and Julian had to
fight hard against the Germans, and so had Valentiniaii,
the next Emperor but one after Julian. But in all these
wars, though the Germans were constantly driven back,
yet they grew stronger and stronger, while the Romans
grew weaker and weaker. Some of the Germans
made their way into the Empire in arms : others took
service in the Roman armies, and often received grants
of land as their reward. In both ways they learned,
something of Roman civilization and Roman military
discipline, without losing anything of their own
strength and courage. Presently it became not
uncommon for a Gothic or other Teutonic chief to
be at once King of his own people and to bear some
title as a Roman general or magistrate. In such cases
he and his people served the Emperors or fought
against them, pretty much as they thought good, or
according as they were well or ill treated. And at the
same time they learned something ot the religion of
Rome, so that most of the Teutonic nations became
Christians, before they settled in the Empire c*r very
soon after. But it was for the most part in v(s Arian
form that they embraced Christianity. Thus ve find
Barbarians, who for the most part however were
loo THE EARL Y CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAP
Christians., settled within the Empire ; and before lon &
they began to occupy whole provinces. We have now
come to the time when the Teutonic settlements
and conquests become the most important facts in
history. It often happens that the migrations and
victories of one nation are caused by some other
nation pressing upon it. And so it happened now.
The movements of the Teutonic nations into the
Roman Empire which had already begun was greatly
hastened and strengthened by the pressure of Tura-
nian tribes who were pushing their way from the East.
The chief of these were the HUILS, who had been them-
selves driven out of China in the extreme east of Asia,
and who were now making their way into Europe.
Though the Huns did not themselves enter the Em-
pire till long afterwards, and though they never
actually settled within it at any time, yet this migra-
tion of theirs had a most important effect on the state
of the Empire, by the stir which it caused among the
Teutonic nations.
4. The Goths. The first Teutonic people whom
the Huns met were the Goths, who had lately formed
a great kingdom in the land north of the Danube,
which had been Trajan's province of Dacia, but from
which the Romans had withdrawn under Aurelian.
They were beginning to become Christians of the
Arian sect, under the teaching of a Bishop named
Wiiljila or Ulfilas, whose translation of the Scriptures
into the Gothic tongue is the oldest Teutonic writing
that we have. The Huns now came upon them like a
storm ; some of the Goths submitted to the new in-
vaders, while others were allowed to cross the Danube
and settle within the Empire. This was in 376. The
first Valcntinian was now dead : the reigning Emperors
were his brother Valens in the East and his sonj
(./rattan and Valentinian in the West. The Goths
were so ill-treated by the officers of Valens that they
took to arms; a "Ddttle was long lit near
V.J THE GOTHS. 101
in 378, in which Valens was killed. After this the
Goths were never driven out of the Empire, though
many of them took service in the Roman armies. But
strangely enough, when the Goths came to found
lasting kingdom, it was not in the eastern part of the
Empire into which they had first passed, but quite
away in the West. This was a most wretched time
for the Empire ; for, besides the movements of the
Barbarians, various Emperors or Tyrants rose and fell
in different provinces, especially in Gaul and Britain.
Things went on a little better during the reign of
7'heodosius, who is called the Great, and who reigned,
first as a colleague of the sons of Valentinian, and after-
wards alone, from 379 to 395. Theodosius is famous
for the penance to which he submitted at the hands ,
of Saint Ambrose, the Archbishop of Milan, who re-
fused him admittance to the church till he had repented
of a massacre which he had ordered among the tur-
bulent people of Tfiessalonica. Theodosius was the
last Emperor who reigned over the whole Empire
before it was divided and dismembered ; as soon as
he died it began to fall in pieces. He left two sons,
of whom Honorins reigned in the West, and Arcadius
in the East. The West-Goths, under their famous
king Alaric, presently revolted, and, though they were
kept in check for a while by the Roman general
Stilicho, at last, in 410, they took and sacked Rome,
which had never been taken by a foreign enemy since
the time of Brennus the Gaul. Alaric died soon after,
and the next Gothic King Athaulf \\\a.&e a treaty with
the Empire and passed into Gaul and Spain. German
tribes of all kinds were now pressing into Gaul, and
from Gaul into Spain, and rival Emperors were rising
and falling. Athaulf went in name as a Roman officer
10 restore the province of Spain to the Empire. In
reality this was the beginning of an independent
Gothic kingdom in Spain arid southern Gaul, and the
way in which this kingdom began is a good example
102 THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CMAP
of the way in which the Roman Empire, its laws an<?
titles, still exercised a powerful influence on the minds
of those who were really its conquerors.
5. End of the Emperors in Italy. Meanwhile
the Western Empire was being cut short in all
quarters by the settlements of the Franks, Burgun-
dians, Vandals, and other Teutonic tribes in the
different provinces, settlements which we shall speak
of again presently. No Teutonic kingdoms were
founded in the East ; but, while the Western pro-
vinces were falling off one by one, the East had
much ado to hold up against the attacks of the
Persians. Presently the Romans of both Empires,
and the Goths and other Teutons who had settled
within the Empire, were all threatened by the
Turanian hordes under the famous Attila, King of
the Huns. He went on for a while ravaging and
conquering far and wide, till at last he was defeated
in the great battle of Chalons in 451 by the united
powers of Romans, Goths, and Franks. This was
one of the most important battles in the history of the
vorld ; it was a struggle for life and death between
ihe Aryan and Turanian races, and Christianity and
civilization, and all that distinguishes Europe from
Asia and Africa, \vere at stake. The names therefore
of Aetius, the Roman general, and of the West-Gothic
King Theodoric who died in the battle, are names
which should always be held in honour. It is need-
less to go through the names of all the Emperors of
this time : the onjy one in the West who is worth
remembering on his own account is Majorian, a wise
and brave man, who reigned from 457 to 461. At
last, in 476, the succession of the Western Empercrs
came to an end, and the way in which it came to
an end marks the way in which the names and
titles of Rome were kept on, while all power was
passing into the hands of the Barbarians. The
Roman Senate voted that one Emperor was enough,
*.l THE LATER EMPERORS. 105
and that the Eastern Emperor Zeno should reign ovei
the whole Empire. But at the same time Zeno was
made to intrust the government of Italy, with the title
of Patrician, to Odoaccr, the chief of the German
mercenaries in the service of the Western Empire.
Thus the Roman Empire went on at Constantinople
or New Rome, while Italy and the Old Rome itself
passed into the power of the Barbarians. Stiil the
Roman laws and names went on, and we may be sure
that any man in Italy would have been much sur-
prised if he had been told that the Roman Empire had
come to an end. We shall presently see what im-
portant events came of this long keeping on of the old
Roman names and feelings.
6. Settlements of the Burgundians and
Franks. It was through these settlements of the
Teutonic tribes within the Roman Empire that
several of the chief nations of modern Europe arose.
We may perhaps call the Spanish kingdom of the
West-Goths, of which we have already spoken, and
which began about 414, the first of the kingdoms of
modern Europe, the first which arose out of the break-
ing up of the Roman Empire. For some while it was
not merely a Spanish kingdom, for it took in all
Aquitaine or Gaul south of the Loire, and the capital
of the West-Gothic kings was at Toulouse. Meanwhile
the Burgundians and Franks, whose names are so
famous in later history, began to settle, at first under
a nominal subjection to the Empire, in other parts
of Gaul. The Burgundians settled in the south-
eastern part of Gaul, where their name has lived on
in several kingdoms and duchies. And, towards the
em' of the fifth century, the kingdom of the Franks
took firm root in Gaul under their King Chlodwig or
Cloins the same name which was afterwards written
Ludwig, Louis, and Lewis who reigned from 481 to
511. He became a Christian, and not only a Chris-
tian but a Catholic, which greatly favoured his con
104 THE EARL V CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAT
quests, as all the other Teutonic Kings were Arians.
The dominions of the Franks now took in part of
their old country in Germany and also their conquests
in GauL And they have given their name to parts ol
both countries ; for part of Germany is still called
Franken or Franconia, and part of Gaul is still called
France. In Latin both names are the same, Francia.
But the Franks gradually spread their conquests over
a much larger part both of Gaul and of Germany,
bringing the different nations of both lands into
more or less of subjection to them. Thus in Gaul they
conquered the kingdom of the Burgundians and won
Aquitaine from the West-Goths, leaving to them only
a small part of Gaul on the coast of the Mediterranean.
But it was only in Northern Gaul that the Franks
really settled. It was out of these settlements of the
West-Goths, Franks, and Burgundians that all the
modern states of Germany, Gaul, and Spain have
arisen.
7. The Vandals and the East-Goths. But
there were other Teutonic settlements in the Empire
which did not in this way give birth to modern states
and nations, because the Emperors were, as we shall
presently see, able to join them again to the Empire.
Among these were what we may call the worst and
the best of the Teutonic settlements, those namely
of the Vandals in Africa and of the East-Goths in
Italy. The Vandals were for some time settled in
Spain, but in 429 they crossed over into Africa and.
founded a kingdom of which Carthage was the capital.
The Vandals were Arians, and they cruelly persecuted
the Catholic Romans whom they found in the
country, and this seems to have been one reason
among others why their kingdom did not last. The
kingdom of the East-Goths in Italy was very different.
Their King Theodoric entered Italy in 489 by a com-
mission from the Emperor Zeno, overthrew Odoacer,
and reigu^d himself from 493 to 526. But, though he
EUROPE
at the end of the
FIFTH CENTURY
r.] REIGN OF THEODORIC. 10$
reigned in Italy, he was never called King of Italy,
but only King of his own Goths. Though he was an
Arian, he in no way persecuted the Catholics, and he
let the Romans keep their own laws and all that they
were used to. Every year he named one of the
Consuls, while the other was named by the Emperor
at Constantinople. Italy under Theodoric was the
most peaceful and flourishing country in the world,
more peaceful and flourishing than it had been for a
long time before or than it has ever been since till
quite lately. The dominions of Theodoric stretched
fat beyond Italy to the north, east, and west, and he
ruled the West-Gothic kingdom in Gaul and Spain as
guardian for his grandson. But this great dominion
of the East-Goths did not last any more than that of
the Vandals in Africa, and none of the modern states
or nations of Europe can be said to spring from either
of them.
8. Origin of the Romance Nations. We thus
see that new states arose out of the settlements of the
Teutonic nations in the western provinces of the
Empire. And we may say that not only new states
arose, but also new nations. For, out of the mixture
of the Roman inhabitants and the Teutonic settlers,
there arose a new state of things, which was neither
Roman nor Teutonic, but a mixture of the two. The
Goths and the other Teutons who settled in Italy,
Spain, and Gaul were by no means mere destroyers
who swept everything before them. They let the
Romans keep their own laws and language and part
of their lands. And in Spain and Gaul those nations,
like the Goths and Burgundians, which had been con-
verted by Arian Bishops gradually came over to the
Catholic faith. Moreover, as the Romans had all the
learning and civilization on their side, the clergy were
for a long time almost always Romans, and they kept
the property and influence which they had before, and
indeed added to it Thus the two nations were
io6 THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAR
gradually mixed together ; and the conquerors, as
being the smaller in number, gradually came to adopt
a great deal of the laws and manners, and especially
the language, of the conquered. Thus there arose the
modern Spanish and Italian nations, and the two
nations of Gaul, the people of Provence and Aquitaint
south of the Loire and the French to the north. But
of the languages which were thus formed we must
speak a little more fully.
9. Origin of the Romance Languages. By
the time the Teutonic settlements in Western Europe
took place, Latin had become the common speech
of Gaul and Spain no less than of Italy. The old
languages which were spoken before the Romans
came lived on only in a few out-of-the-way cornerSi
like the country of the Basques. The language
therefore which the Teutonic settlers found prevailing,
and which they had to learn in order to get on with
the people of the provinces, was Latin. That is to
say, it was such Latin as was spoken at the time,
which of course was not quite the same as the Latin
of the great Roman writers of earlier times, and the
language no doubt differed more or less in different
provinces. And, as the Germans learned to speak
Latin, the language naturally became still more cor-
rupted, and a good many German words crept into it.
Thus the common language of Italy, Gaul, and Spain
became a kind of corrupt Latin, which men used in
common speech ; in writing they used fairly good
Latin for ages after. No one thought of writing in the
common speech, which began to be called Roman, in
distinction from the Latin which men wrote. Thus,
out of the various dialects of this Roman language,
several of the chief languages of modern Europe very
gradually arose. These are those which are called the
Romance languages, those namely which have their
origin in Latin. The chief of these are Italian and
Spanish in their different dialects, Provencal ic
v.J HIGH AND LOW DUTCH. lof
Southern, and French in Northern, Gaul. These
languages had their beginning at the time of which we
are now speaking, but it was not until long afterwards
that men began to understand that quite new languages
had really grown up. And, besides these four great
Romance languages, a fifth, distinct from any of them,
which is still specially called Romansch, is spoken in
the eastern parts of Switzerland, in what was anciently
the Roman province of Rcetia. And, stranger still, in
the lands which formed the province of Dacia, which
the Romans held only from the time of Trajan to that
of Aurelian,a Romance language is still spoken, and the
people still call themselves Roumans. Of the fourth
great Latin-speaking country, Africa, we have nothing
to say in this way, for, as we go on, we shall see how
in Africa everything Roman and everything Teutonic
was utterly swept away.
10. High and Low Dutch. Such was the way
m which the Teutonic nations established themselves
in the western provinces of the Continent. Meanwhile
other Teutonic settlements of quite another kind, and
made by another branch of the Teutonic race, were
going on elsewhere. This is a good place to stop and
explain that there are two great divisions of the
Teutonic or Dutch people, the High and the Low.
It must always be remembered that, though we now
commonly use the word Dutch to mean only the people
of Holland, yet the word is always used in German, and
was formerly used in English, to mean the whole of the
German people. And, as the Germans called their
own speech Thiotisc, Deutsch, or Dutch, meaning the
language which could be understood, those people
whose language could not be understood were called
Welsh or strangers. The High-Dutch are those who
live inland, in the south of Germany away from the
sea, while the Low are those who live near the sea, by
the. mouths of the great rivers Rhine, Weser, and Elbe.
Info the greater part of their country the Romans had
108 THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAF.
never come since the days of Drusus and Germani-
cus, and for a long time they knew very little of the
Romans, and the Romans knew very little of them.
They had not served in the Roman armies, and they
knew nothing about the Christian religion. They were
therefore in quite a different state from the other
tribes who had made their way into the continental
provinces ; for these last knew something of the civil-
i/ation and religion of Rome, even before they en-
tered the Roman dominions. Of the earlier Teutonic
settlers the greater part belonged to the High-Dutch
division, though the language of the Goths had much
more in common with the Low. But, though the
Low-Dutch and Gothic languages are thus closely
connected, yet the settlements of the Goths have
historically nothing to do with the settlements of the
Low-Dutch. Those Low-Dutch settlements which
have had most effect on the history of the world, and
in which we have the deepest interest, were made in
quite another part of the Empire, and in quite another
way. The settlements of the Goths and Franks \\vre
mainly made by land, while the great settlement of the
Low-Dutch tribes was made by sea.
ii. The English Conquest of Britain. We
have seen that in the island of Britain, of which the
greater part became a Roman province in the time of
Agricola, the Romans found a Celtic people, the
Britons. But in the north of the island, and in the
other great island of Inland, there was another Celtic
people, the Scots or Irish. The Romans never even
tried to conquer Ireland, and they never conquered
the whole of Britain. The northern part of what is
now called Scotland always remained free. In the
rest of the island the Britons were conquered, and
the land became a Roman province. But in the fourth
century, when the power of Rome began to gel \veake r
the free Celts in the northern part of the island, the
.SViV.v, Megan to pour into the Roman pro-
v.] THE ENGLISH IN BRITAIN. 109
vince, and other enemies began to invade the land
from the east by sea. These las,t were no other than
the forefathers of the English of to-day. For the
English people belong to the Low-Dutch stock, and
entered Britain from the old Low-Dutch lands by the
Elbe and the Weser. It was in the latter part of the
fourth century that these Low-Dutch tribes, and, first
among them, the Saxons, began to make attacks on
Britain by sea. The Saxons are also heard of a?
pressing into Gaul by land, and they even made one
or two small settlements there ; but their attacks on
Britain by sea were those which led to the greatest re-
sults. The first great Saxon invasion was in the time
of Valentinian, but it was driven back by Theodosius^
father of the Emperor of that name. But when the
Roman power began altogether to give way in the
reign of Honorius, the Roman troops were withdrawn
from Britain, about the year 410, and the island was
left to shift for itself. The Teutonic invasions now
naturally began again, and now it was that the invad-
ers began to settle in the land. No doubt men of
many different Low-Dutch tribes joined in these ex-
peditions ; but there were three tribes which stood
out above the others. These were the Angles, the
Saxons, and the Jutes. The Celts, the Britons and
Scots, have always called Englishmen Saxons, most
likely because it was the Saxons who made the first
attack in Valentinian' s time. But, as soon as the
different Teutonic tribes in Britain began to join to-
gether into one people, the name by which they called
themselves was Angles or English, and the land was
called Anglia or England. Thus it was that the
English people went from their old homes on the
mainland, and won for themselves new homes in the
isle of Britain. They knew nothing and cared
nothing for the laws or language or aits of Rome.
They did not, like the Goths and Franks, adopt the
language and religion of the Romans ; they swept
no THE EARLY CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. [CHAP.
everything before them, and the Britons were eithci
killed, or made slaves, or took refuge in the western
parts of the island. The Germans everywhere called
the people of the Roman provinces, whose tongue they
did not understand, Welsh, and that word in German
is still applied to the French and Italians. But in
Britain of course the name meant the Britons ; they
were called, and are still called the Welsh, and the
part of the island which they still keep is called Wales.
The first English kingdom founded in Britain was that
of Kent, a kingdom of the Jutes, founded in 449, two
years before Aetius and Theodoric overthrew Attila
at Chalons. Presently other kingdoms, Anglian and
Saxon, were founded, and, in a little more than a hun-
dred years, the greater part of that land which had
been the Roman and Christian province of Britain
had become the heathen land of the Angles and Sax-
ons. Thus it was that the English people settled in
the land which thus became England, settling in quite
another way from that in which the other Teutonic
nations had settled in the other parts of the Empire.
Our forefathers kept their own language and their own
religion. The other Teutons did not become Christians
till about a hundred and fifty years after the English
Conquest began, and then they were not converted by
those whom they had conquered. But the tongue
which we still speak, though, like other tongues,
it has gone through many changes, is still in its main
substance the old Teutonic speech of our fathers.
1 2. Summary. Thus, in the course of the fourth
and fifth centuries, the Roman Empire gradually be-
came Christian. The capital was moved to Consian>
tinople, and, when the Empire was divided, Constan-
tinople always remained the capital of the Eastern part.
Meanwhile the Goths, franks, and other Teutonic
nations pressed into the Empire, and out of their
settlements the Romance nations of modern Europe
arose. The invasion of the Huns was driven back bj
n.] THE ENGLISH IN BRITAIN in
the united powers of Romans and Teutons. The series
of Emperors in the West came to an end, and the
Empire was nominally reunited, Theodoric the Goth
reigning in Italy. Meanwhile the Low-Dutch tribes,
the Angles and Saxons, were settling in Britain, and
making the beginning of the English nation.
CHAPTER VI.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST.
Continuation of the Roman Empire at Constantinople
(l) condition of the Eastern Church (i) reign oj
Justinian, his legislation and buildings (2) exploits
of Belisarius and Narsfa; recovery of Africa and
Italy (2) Lombard conquest of Italy ; relations oj
Rome and Venice to the Empire (2) wars with tht
Turks and Avars (3) greatness of Persia under tlit
two Chosroes j Persian victories of Heraclius (3) rise
of the Saracens ; preaching- of Mahomet j spread of his
religion (4) the first Caliphs; their wars with the
Empire ; conquests of Syria and Egypt ; sieges of Con-
stantinople (5) Saracen conquests in Africa, Spain,
and Southern Caul (5) Saracen conquest of Persia,
breaking up of the Saracenic dominion; position of (hi
later Caltphs'(6) the I saurian Emperors; dispute about
images ; decline of the Imperial power tn Italy (7)
advance of the Lombards in Italy (8) the Merwings
in Gaul; they are succeeded by the Karlings (8)
Pippin invited into Italy ; he becomes Patrician of
Rome (8) Charles the Great conquers the Lombards ;
his election as Emperor (8, 9) Summary (10).
i. The Roman Emperors at Constanti-
nople. The succession of Roman Emperors thus
came to an end in the West, but the Empire still went
on at Constantinople. The Emperors who reigned there
still claimed to be sovereigns of the whole Empire,
though they had no real power weot of the Hadriatic
H2 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. [CHAP
The parts of the Empire which were really under the : i
dominion were chiefly those which either were originally
Greek, or where the Greek language and civilization
had been spread by the conquests of Alexander.
That is, they raled over the lands which I have
before spoken of as the Greek and the Oriental
provinces. Still, it must be borne in mind that
these Emperors were strictly Roman Emperors.
The Imperial succession went on without any
break ; the laws and titles of Rome were kept up,
and, though Greek was the language which was mos*
spoken, yet Latin remained for a long time the officia.
language, that which was used in drawing up laws and
public documents of all kinds. There is no need to
say much about the Emperors who reigned at Con
stantinople between the death of Theodosius the Great
and the nominal reunion of the Empire in 476
Their time was mainly taken up with wars with the
IVrsians, in which the Romans generally got the worst,
with the invasion of Attila and his Huns, and with
ecclesiastical disputes within the Empire. The people
of the Oriental provinces especially, who had never
thoroughly become either Greek or Roman, were con-
stantly putting forth or adopting doctrines which the
Catholic Church, both of the Old and of the New
Rome, looked on as heretical. Several Councils of the
Church were held during this time, and this was the
time of some of the most famous of the Greek Fathers^
especially the great preacher Saint John Chrysostom,
that is, the Goldenmonth, who was Patriarch of Con-
stantinople. The Patriarchs of Constantinople or
New Rome were the chief Bishops in the East, but,
as the Emperors were always at hand, they never won
anything like the same power which the Bishops of the
Old Rome won in the West. Thus, though the history
of the Eastern Empire is largely a history of ecclesias-
tical disputes, yet we never find there the same kind
ol disputes between Church and State, between thtj
VI.] RECOVERY OF ITALY AND AFRICA. 113
ecclesiastical and the temporal powers, which make up
so great a part of Western history.
2. The Recovery of Italy and Africa. As
the claims of the Emperors who reigned at Con
stantinople to rule over all the dominions of their
predecessors were never forgotten, so they were put
forward whenever there was any chance ot making
them good. And soon after the Emperors came to
an end in the West, the Emperors at Constantinople
had several opportunities of meddling in Western
affairs. The Franks were too powerful and too far
off for the Emperors to have any chance of winning
back Gaul ; so they were commonly held to be friends
of the Empire, and in 510 Chlodwig himself was made
Roman Consul for the year. With Italy the Emperors
had much more to do. We have seen that both Odoacer
and Theodoric entered Italy with a nominal com-
mission from the Emperor Zeno, which at least kept
up the memory of the claims of the Emperors to rule
in Italy. As long as Theodoric lived, there was no
hope of anything more than this ; but after his death
the power of the Goths in Italy declined. So did
also that of the Vandals in Africa, and the reigning
Emperor now began to think that it would be possible
to make both countries again really, as well as nomin-
ally, parts of the Empire. This Emperor was Justinian,
who reigned from 527 to 565, and was one of the
most famous of all the Emperors. He was famous
for his buildings, especially for the great church of
Saint Sophia at Constantinople, and still more for
putting the laws of Rome into the shape of a regular
code. Thus was formed that complete system of
Roman law, called the Civil Law, which has formed
the groundwork of the law of the greater part of
Europe. Justinian was also famous for the greaf
conquests made in his reign, though he had not much
to do with making them himself. His general
Bdisarius was perhaps the greatest commander thai
n 4 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE LAST. [CHAP
ever lived, as he did the greatest things with the
smallest means. He did something to check the
Persians, who were now very powerful under a great
King called Chosroes or Nushirvan. In 534 Belisarius
put an end to the Vandal kingdom in Africa, and
the next year, being then Consul, he landed in Sicily,
and a long war between the Romans and Goths went
on under Belisarius and his successor Narses, till, in
553, the whole of Italy was recovered to the Empire.
Meanwhile the southern part of Spain was also
recovered from the West-Goths, so that Justinian
reigned both in the Old and in the New Rome, and
the Roman dominion again stretched from the Ocean
to the Euphrates. It would have been far wiser if
Justinian had left the West alone, and had given his
whole mind to defending his Eastern dominions
against the Persians and against the various enemies
who were always attacking the Empire from the north.
While his great generals were conquering Italy, the
Slavonic tribes ravaged the Illyrian and Thracian pro-
vinces at pleasure. In fact these great conquests
were really a source of weakness rather than of
strength. Still it is not wonderful that Justinian, as
Roman Emperor, could not withstand the temptation,
and he most likely thought it his duty, to recover as
many of the old provinces of the Empire as he could.
But, after all, it was only for a very few years that the
Emperors were able to keep the whole of Italy.
Three years after Justinian's death, in 568, a Teutonic
people called the Lombards began to pour into Italy,
and they presently conquered the whole North and
some parts of the South. Still a large part of Italy, in-
cluding Rome and Ravenna, most part of the South,
and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, remain-
ed to the Empire. Venice also, a state which began to
spring up in the fifth century, when men fled for fear
of the Huns and sought shelter in the small islands
of the Hadriatic, also kept up itb connexion wit) the
to
THE EMPIRE
UNDER
JUSTINIAN
;LODK. w. o
Longitude
vi.] WARS WITH THE PERSIANS. in
Empire, but its connexion gradually became one
rather of alliance than of subjection.
3. "Wars with the Persians. We thus see
that, at the end of the sixth century, the Empire,
though so large a part of it had fallen away, still took
in the greater part of the countries round the Medi-
terranean Sea, and still kept all the greatest cities of
Europe, Asia, and Africa. But it was threatened on
all sides, not only by the Lombards in the West but
by the Slavonic and Turanian nations who were
pressing in from the North in the countries by the
Danube, and still more by the Persians in the East.
It was in the reign of Justinian that we first began to
hear of the Turks. That name does not mean those
particular Turks who made their way into the Empire
long afterwards, and who hold Constantinople still.
The Turks with whom we have now to do belonged
to other branches of the great Turkish race, a. race
which is perhaps the most widely spread of all the
Turanian races of Asia, and of the different branches
of which we shall often hear again. Another Tura-
nian people, the Avars, also appear on the borders of
the Empire at this time, and several Emperors,
especially Maurice, \v\\o reigned from 582 to 602, had
much ado to defend their northern frontier against
them. Meanwhile the Persians were at the height of
their power ; and, under another Ckosroes, a grandson
of Chosroes called Nushirvan, they bade fair to
subdue all the Eastern provinces of the Empire.
Between the years 611 and 615 the Persian armies
overran the whole of Syria, Egypt, and Asia, reaching
to the Hellespont, and encamping at Chalkedon within
sight of Constantinople. The Empire was then ruled
by Heraclius, one of the greatest names in the whole
list of Roman Emperors. He had been Exarch or
Governor of Africa, and had risen to the throne by
destroying Phocas, who had rebelled and murdered
the Emperor Maurice. For a while he seemed to d
ii6 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. [CHA*
nothing to stop the Persian invasions ; but at last he
arose ; he restored the old discipline of the Roman
armies, and in a series of great campaigns, from 620
to 628, he altogether broke the Persian power, and
won back all that Chosroes had conquered. But,
while the Romans and Persians were thus dis-
puting for the dominion of Asia, the Empire was
again cut short in the West, for the Gothic Kings now
won back the Roman province in Spain ; and it was
presently cut short in the East in a far more terrible
way. For a power was now arising which was to
overthrow the Persians and Goths altogether, and to
strike a deadly blow at the power of Rome.
4. Rise of the Saracens. We now come to the
rise of a great Semitic power, the only Semitic power
which has played any great part in history since the
time of the great dominion of Carthage. For it must
not be forgotten that the Persians, though so widely
cut off from their Western brethren, were just as
much Aryans as the Italians, Greeks, or Teutons
We also come to the rise of a new religion, the last
of the three great religions which have come out from
among the Semitic nations, and all of which taught
men that there is but one God, and bade them to
keep from the worship of idols. First came Judaism,
then Christianity, and now the religion of Mahomet.
Mahomet was an Arab of Mecca, the holy city of
Arabia, where he was born in 569. He gave himself
out for a prophet, and taught that, though both the
Jewish and the Christian religion were sent from God,
yet he had himself received a revelation more perfect
than either. In his own country there can be no
doubt that Mahomet was a great reformer. He swept
away the idolatry of the Arabs ; he greatly reformed
their laws and manners, and gathered their scattered
tribes into one nation. In his early days he had to
bear niurh persecution ; but, as he grew powerful, he
began to teach that his new religion was to be forced
vi.] THE PERSIANS AND SARACENS. n
upon all men by the sword. So the Arabs, or Saracens
as they are also called, as soon as they had embraced
the faith of Mahomet, held it to be their duty to spiead
their faith everywhere, which in fact meant to conqnei
the whole world. They everywhere gave men the
choice of three things, Koran, tribute, or sword; that
is, they called on all men either to believe in Mahomet
and to accept the Koran, a book which contained
his revelations, to submit to the Saracens and pay
tribute, or else to fight against them if they could.
By these means the religion of Mahomet was spread
over a large part of Asia and Africa, and we shall see
that it made its way into Europe also. As Christianity
became the religion of the Empire and of the nations
which learned their civilization from either the Old
or the New Rome, so Mahometanism became the
religion of the Arabs, and of those nations who were
conquered by them or learned their civilization from
them. We may call it the religion of the East, as fai
as we have to do with the East, just as Christianity
is the religion of the West. It has spread at different
times as far as from Spain to India. The people of
all the countries which were conquered by the
Saracens and other Mahometan powers had either to
embrace the Mahometan religion or else to buy the
right to practise their own, whether Christian or
heathen, by the payment of tribute.
5. Wars between the Saracens and
Romans. As soon as all Arabia had been joined
together under the authority of Mahomet, he and his
followers began to spread their power over the neigh-
bouring countries ; that is, of course, mainly over the
dominions of Rome and Persia. Mahomet himself
died in 632, before any serious attack was made upon
either, and he was succeeded in his power by rulers
called his Caliphs or Successors, the first of whom was
his father-in- law Abu-Bekr. The Caliphs were at once
spiritual and temporal rulers, much the same as if in
n8 THE ROMAN EMPIRE LV THE EAST. [CHAB
Christendom the same man had been Pope and Em-
peror at once. Under the first two Caliphs Abu-Bekr
and Omar, the Roman provinces of Syria and Egypt
were conquered between the years 632 and 639. Now
it should be remembered that these two were the
provinces in which Greek and Roman civilization had
never thoroughly taken root, where the mass of the
people still kept their old languages, and where men
were always falling away into forms of belief which
were counted heretical according to the faith both of
the Old and New Rome. In these provinces there-
fore men may well have deemed that they had little
to lose by a change of rulers. It followed then that,
though the Saracens had to fight several hard battles
against the Roman armies in Syria, yet they met with
no general resistance from the whole people, and in
Egypt they met with no resistance at all. The great
cities of Antioch and Alexandria, as well as Jerusalem,
were thus lost to the Empire. But in the lands on
this side of Mount Tauros, where the influence of
Greek culture and Roman law was more deep and
abiding, the Saracens never gained any lasting footing.
They often invaded the country, and twice, in 673
and 716, they besieged Constantinople itself, but they
made no abiding conquests. In Africa too, which
had been far more thoroughly Romanized than Syria
and Egypt, they met with a long resistance. Their
invasions began in 647, but Carthage was not taken
nil 698, and the whole country was not fully subdued
nil 709. From no part of the Empire have all traces
either of the Roman dominion or of the Teutonic
settlement of the Vandals been so utterly swept away as
/rom Africa. From Africa in 7 10 the Saracens crossed
into Spain, and in about three years they subdued
tne whole land, except where the Christians still held
out in the mountain fastnesses of the North. They
conquered also a small part of Gaul, namely the pro-
vince of Narbonne or Septimania. But this was the
n. J EXTENT OF THE CALIPHATE. 119
end of their conquests in Western Europe. In 732
they were defeated in the great battle of Tours by
the Frank Charles Martd, of whom we shall presently
hear again. In 755 they were altogether driven out of
Gaul, but it took more than seven hundred years more
to drive them out of the whole of Spain.
6. The Saracen Conquests in the East.
The Saracens thus lopped off the Eastern and
Southern provinces of the Empire, so that the
Romans no longer held anything in Africa, nor any-
thing in Asia beyond Mount Tauros. Meanwhile
they were pressing on with equal vigour against the
other great empire of Persia. In about nineteen
years, from 632 to 651, the whole kingdom of Persia
vas conquered, and the native dynasty of the Sas-
wnides, which had reigned in Persia since the time
of Arfaxerxes, came to an end. Persia now gradually
became a Mahometan country. The Saracens thence
pressed northwards and eastwards into Sind, the most
western part of India, and into the Turkish lands
beyond the Oxus. For a short time the whole of this
vast dominion held together, and a single Caliph was
obeyed in Spain and in Sind. But, before long, disputes
and civil wars arose among the Saracens themselves,
as to the right succession of the Caliphate, and in
755 their empire was divided, and was never joined
together again. Spain was lost, and in the East the
Turkish tribes were pressing into the Saracenic empire,
very much in the same way in which the Teutonic
tribes had pressed into the Empire of Rome. The
governors of the different provinces gradually made
themselves independent, and various dynasties, chiefly
Turkish, arose, whose obedience to the Caliph became
quite nominal. Various sects also arose among the
Mahometans, just as they arose among the Christians,
and each sect looked on the others as heretics. There
were opposition Caliphs in Spain and in Egypt; but
those who gave themselves out as the orthodox fot
lao THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. [CHAP.
lowers of Mahomet always looked up to the Caliph
who reigned at Bagdad. So the Caliphs may be looked
on as keeping something like the power of a Pope
after they had lost the power of an Emperor.
7. The Loss of Italy. The descendants of
Heraclius went on reigning till about the end of the
seventh century. Then came a time of confusion, till
at last, in 718, the Empire fell to a valiant man named
Leo, a native of Jsauria, whose descendants reigned
after him till the beginning of the ninth century. The
second siege of Constantinople by the Saracens was
then going on, and it was mainly owing to his valour
and wisdom that the invaders were beaten back. This
defeat of the Saracens by Leo is really one of the
greatest events in the world's history ; for, if Constan-
tinople had been taken by the Mahometans before
the nations of Western Europe had at all grown up, it
would seem as if the Christian religion and European
civilization must have been swept away from the earth.
But, if Leo thus secured the Empire towards the East,
his dealing in religious matters did much to weaken
its power in the West Though Spain and Africa had
been lost, the Emperors still kept Rome and all that
part of Italy which was not conquered by the Lom-
bards, as well as all the great islands of Sicily, Sardinia,
and Corsica, The Italian possessions of the Empire
were ruled by an Exarch or governor, who lived, not
at Rome but at Ravenna. Thus, as neither the
Emperor nor his deputy lived at Rome, the power
of the Popes or Bishops of Rome grew greater and
greater. At last, during the reign of Leo, another
religious dispute broke out, about the worship or
reverence paid to images and pictures in churches.
This worship Leo held to be idolatrous, and so did his
son Constantine, called Kopronymos, who succeeded
him and reigned from 741 to 775, and who also was a
valiant warrior against the Saracens. The party who
thought with them were called Iconoclasts or breakers
EARLY CALIPHS
20 Longitude East SOfron
Benwich 40
Fisk 4 See, N. Y
*!.] THE LOSS OF ITALY. 121
of images, and there were constant disputes about this
matter in the Eastern Church all through the eighth
and part of the ninth century. But in Italy, when
the Emperors tried to put away the worship and even
the use of images, men everywhere withstood them,
the Popes Gregory the Second and Gregory the Third
taking the lead against them. The result was that
the Emperors lost all real power in Rome. But they
kept Southern Italy for a long time afterwards, and
even at Rome their authority was acknowledged in
name down to the end of the eighth century. We
must now see how even its formal acknowledgment
came to an end.
8. The Franks in Italy. Meanwhile the Lom-
bards were extending their dominion in Italy. Under
their Kings Liudprand and Astolf' they took Ravenna
and more than once threatened Rome. There was
no hope of any help coming from the Emperors at
Constantinople ; so the Popes and the Roman people
sought for help in quite a new quarter, namely at the
hands of Pippin the King of the Franks. The Franks
had now long been the ruling people of Germany and
Gaul. The descendants of Chlodwig, the German
King and Roman Consul, went on reigning, though
their dominions were often divided into several small
kingdoms, and in the south of Gaul, especially in
Aquitaine, they had but little real power. These
descendants of Chlodwig, the Mentrings or Moro-
unngians as they were called, were one of the worst
dynasties that ever reigned ; few parts of history are
more full of crimes, public and private, than the
accounts of the early Prankish Kings. Latterly they
became weak as well as wicked, and all real power
passed into the hands of the Karlings, who governed
by the title of Mayors of the Palace. They carne from
the Eastern, the most German, part of the Frankish
dominions, and their rise to power was almost like
another German conquest of GauL One of these
122 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. [CHAP
Mayors was Karl cr Charles, called Martrt or the
Hammer, who won the great victory over the Saracens
at Tours in 732. He was succeeded by his son
Pit fin, who in 753 was chosen King of the Franks,
the Merowingian King Chilpcric being deposed, for
it was thought foolish that the title of King should
belong to one man and the kingly power to another.
Thus began the dynasty of the Karlings, the sons oj
Charles, the second Frankish dynasty in Germany and
Gaul. Of their doings in Germany and Gaul we shall
speak presently ; we have now to do with them in
Italy. King Pippin came at the prayer of Pope
Stephen the Third, and saved Rome from the Lom-
bards and won back from them the Exarchate, that is
the country about Ravenna, which they had conquered.
He became the virtual sovereign of Rome, but, as it
was still not thought right wholly to throw away the
authority of the Emperors, he was called, not King or
Emperor, but Patrician. That word had quite changed
its meaning since it had meant the highest class of the
Roman people ; it was now used rather vaguely, and it
sometimes meant the governor of a province ; this last
must have been the sense in which they used it now.
Pippin's son, Karl or Charles the Great, altogether
conquered the Lombard kingdom in 774. He then
called himself King oj the franks and Lombards and
Patrician of the Romans. As such, he was ruler of all
Italy, except the part in the south which the Emperors
still kept. The Franks were thus the head people in
all Western Christendom.
9. Charles elected Emperor. But a greater
honour still was in store for the Franks and their
King. In 797, the Emperor Constantine the Sixth,
the grandson of Constantine Kopronymos, was de-
posed by his mother Eirene, who put out his eyes and
reigned in his stead. This gave the Pope and the
people of Rome a good excuse for throwing off the
authority of the Emperors at Constantinople altogether.
ri.] CHARLES THE GREAT. 123
They now said that a woman could not be Caesar and
Augustus, and that the Old Rome had as good a right
to choose the Emperor as the New. So in the year 800
the Romans of the Old Rome chose their Patrician
Charles to be Emperor, and he was crowned by Pope
Z<?0as Charles Augustus, Emperor of the Romans. The
Empire was now finally divided, and for many ages
there was one Emperor reigning in the East and
another in the West, each claiming to be the true
Roman Emperor. The Eastern Emperors never got
back Rome again, nor any part of Northern Italy, but
they kept, and sometimes enlarged, their dominions in
Southern Italy, where the Greek tongue was still not
wholly forgotten, for more than two hundred years
longer.
10. Summary. Thus, through the sixth, seventh,
and eighth centuries, there was only one Emperor,
\vlio reigned at Constantinople. Under Justinian a
very large part of the Empire was won back again
from the Goths and Vandals. But, in the course of
rhe sixth and seventh centuries, a great part of the
recovered provinces, together with Syria and Egypt,
were lost again. The Lombards established themselves
in Italy, and the Saracens overthrew the kingdom of
Persia, conquered the Eastern and African provinces
of Rome, and established themselves in Spain. In the
eighth century the dispute about images led to the
gradual separation of Rome and what was left to the
Empire in Northern Italy, and in its last year Rome
parted off altogether from the Eastern Empire, and
chose the Frank Charles as separate Emperor of tht
West.
124 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE.
CHAPTER VII.
THE PRANKISH EMPIRE.
Divison of the Empire; the Western Empire held by tfu
Prankish kings (l) the Onimiad Caliphs ; accession
of the Abbassides (2) division of tfte Caliphate; rela-
tions between the two Caliphates and the two Empires
(2) conquests and losses of the Saracens (2) reign oj
Charles the Great ; extent of his Empire (3) division
of the prankish Kingdoms ; Kingdoms of Germany,
Lotharingia, Karolingia, Burgundy, and Italy ; differ-
ent meanings of the word Francia (4) -final division
of the Empire ; end of the Karlings in Germany (5)
Odo King of the West-Franks ; shifting of the
Kingdom between Laon and Paris (6) Duchies of
Prance, Burgundy, and Aquitaine; distinction between,
Northern and Southern Gaul (6) Hugh Capet elected
King; beginning of the modern kingdom of France
(6) settlements of the English in Britain; their con-
version to Christianity (7) the Northman; their in-
vasions of Gaul and Britain (8) supremacy of ' Wessex
in Britain; invasion and settlements of the Danes;
formation of the Kingdom of England (9) settlements
of the Northmen in Gmil ; settlement of Rolf at
Rouen; growth of the Duchy of Normandy (10)
Summary (n).
i. The Division of the Empire. The Roman
Empire was now finally divided, and it might seem to
have altogether passed away from the true Romans.
The Emperors of the West from this time were
Germans ; they did not live much at Rome itself, and
their native language was German, though Latin
remained the language of law, government, and re-
ligion. In the Eastern Empire the tongue commonly
spoken was Greek ; Latin had gone out of use even
as an official language- ; and, from the time of the loss
of Rome and Ravenna, the Roman Empire of the
VII.] DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. 125
East answered pretty well to those parts of Europe
and Asia which had thoroughly accepted the Greek
language and Greek civilization. Still each Empire
gave itself out as the continuation of the old Empire,
and the old Imperial titles went on. Only, while in
the East the Emperor was a Roman Emperor and
nothing else, in the West the Emperor was King of tht
franks as well as Emperor of the Romans. In truth,
the choice of a German King to be Roman Emperoi
was the greatest of all changes, and it was really the
beginning of quite a new state of things. But men at
the time talked as if things had gone regularly on, and
they spoke of Charles the Great as the lawful succes-
sor of Constantine the Sixth. And in this way. through
the union of the Roman and German crowns, a large
territory was now held to belong to the Roman
Empire which had never belonged to the Empire in
old times. And, though the new line of German
Emperors lived but little in their old capital of Rome,
yet, for seven hundred years after the election of
Charles, it was held that no king had a right to be
called Emperor or Cczsar till he had been crowned at
Rome by the Pope. The Eastern Emperors mean-
while kept Constantinople, or the New Rome, as their
capital, and they were crowned by Patriarchs of Con-
stantinople in the church of Saint Sophia.
2. Division of the Caliphate. We mentioned in
the last chapter that, about fifty years before the final
division of the Empire, the Mahometan power was
divided in much the same way. The first four Caliphs,
Abu-Bekr, Omar, Othman, and Alt', were all among
the immediate friends or kinsmen of Mahomet. Then
came the dynasty of the Ommiads, who reigned at
Damascus. But in 750 they were overthrown by the
descendants of Abbas, the uncle of Mahomet, who
founded the dynasty of the Abbassides, by whom the
seat of their dominion was after a while moved to Bag-
dad on the Tigris. But a prince of the Ommiad family,
126 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP.
Abd-al-rahman by name, escaped to Spain, and was
the founder of the dynasty of the Ommiads of Cordova.
These princes at first called themselves only Emir at
prince, but afterwards they took the title of Caliph,
ana from the beginning they were the enemies of the
Abbassides. Thus there were two rival Empires among
the Christians and two rival Caliphates among the
Mahometans ; and, as was to be expected, each of the
Christian powers was at enmity with the Mahometan
power which was its own neighbour and on good terms
with the Mahometan power at a distance. The Caliphs
of Cordova were the natural enemies of the Western
Empire, and the Caliphs of Bagdad were the natural
enemies of the Eastern Empire. But there was com-
monly peace and friendship between the Western
Empire and the Eastern Caliphate and between the
Eastern Empire and the Western Caliphate. And,
just as the two Empires not only parted asunder from
one another, but each split up into various kingdoms,
so the two Caliphates gradually split up also. Many
Mahometan powers arose, which professed at most n
nominal allegiance to the Caliph either at Bagdad or
Cordova. And some of these powers went on con-
quering at the expense of the Christians. In the course
of the ninth century independent Saracen powers arose
in the great Mediterranean islands of Sta'/y and Crete,
which had up to that time belonged to the Eastern
Empire. In Spain itself the Saracens never conquered
quite the whole of the country, as the Christians always
maintained their independence in the mountains of the
North, whence they gradually won the whole peninsula
back again. In the ninth century then the four great
powers of the civilized world were the two Chrisiiun
Empires and the two Mahometan Caliphates. The
British Islands were independent of all, standing alone
in being both Christian and independent. The other
parts of Europe which acknowledged neither Emperoi
nor Caliph were still heathen and barbarous.
Vii.] DOMINIONS OF CHARLES THE GREAT. 12-)
3. Charles the Great. The first Prankish King
who became Roman Emperor, the f rst man of Teutonic
blood who was called Caesar and Augustus, was, as we
have said, Charles the son of Pippin, called Karolus
Magnus or Charles the Great. In after times he became
a great subject of French romance, in which he is
called by the French name of Charlemagne. Under him
the power of the Franks rose to its highest pitch.
Francia, the land of the Franks, took in all Central
Germany and Northern Gaul. Besides this, Charles
more thoroughly established the Frankish dominion
over Southern Gaul and Southern Germany, that is
over Aquitaine and Bavaria, and also over Armorica,
the north-western corner of Gaul. Here a great num-
ber of the Welsh from the Isle of Britain had settled
when their country was conquered by the English.
Thus the land was known as the Lesser Britain or
Brttanny, and the Celtic language, which had perhaps
never quite died out, was kept" up by their coming.
Charles also subdued the German people to the north
of his own Francia, that is our own kinsmen, the
Saxons who had stayed behind in Germany and had
not gone into Britain. They were still heathens, but
he forced them to embrace Christianity. He thus
became master of all Germany and Gaul. And, as we
have seen, as Emperor and King of the Lombards he
held the greatest part of Italy, and he had also Spain
as far as the Ebro. He had also much fighting with the
nations to the east and north of Germany. To the north
lay the Scandinavian nations, called the Northmen, of
whom we shall have presently to speak more at large.
Of these Charles had a good deal of fighting with the
Danes, and he brought them into some degree of sub-
mission to the Empire. To the north-east of Germany
beyond the Elbe lay the Slavonic nations .vho were
spoken of in the first chapter, who grew up into the
different nations of the Wends, the Poles, and the
Czechs or Bohemians, all of whom had at different times
1 28 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP
to make submission to the Emperors, and a large par 1
of whose country has long formed part of Germany.
To the south-east were other Slavonic nations who had
been allowed to settle on the frontiers of the Eastern
Empire. Between these two branches of the Slaves,
in a great part of modern Hungary, the Turanian
people of the Avars had fixed themselves. With all
these border nations the Emperor Charles had much
fighting, and most of them were brought into more or
less of submission. Under him then the Western Empire
was at a greater height of power than it had ever been
since the division after the death of Theodosius, and
in all his vast dominions Charles did what he could to
encourage learning and religion by promoting learned
men, founding bishopricks and monasteries, and mak-
ing laws for the government of his Empire. He first
united Germany under one head, and he won the rank
of Roman Emperor for the German King. Like
Constantine and Theodosius, he thought of dividing
the Empire among his sons, but, as all his sons, except
Lewis, surnamed the Pious, died before him, the whole
Empire passed at his death in 814 to that one son
Lewis.
4. The Prankish Kingdoms. So great a do-
minion as had been brought together under Charles
the Great needed a man like Charles himself to keep
it together. The second Frankish Emperor Lewis
was a good but weak man, and his sons were always
rebelling against their father and quarrelling with one
another. Several divisions of the Empire were made
during his lifetime, and after his death his dominions
were, after much fighting, divided in 843 among his
sons Jj)thar, L(U>is, and Charles. Lothar was Em-
peror, and, as such, he reigned in Italy, and he was
meant to have at least a nominal supremacy over his
brothers. For his own kingdom he took Italy and a
long narrow strip of territory reaching from the
Mediterranean to the Northern Ocean, and taking ir
EUROPE
under
CHARLES THE GREAT
Eastern Empire
Western Empire
Western Caliphate
Eastern Caliphate
I
10 Longitude East f rot
vir.] THE PRANKISH KINGDOMS. 129
what is now Provence at one end and Holland at the
other. Part of his kingdom spoke German and part
Romance. To the east of him his brother Lewis,
who is called tJie German, reigned over a purely
German kingdom, the lands between the Rhine and
the Elbe. Charles reigned in Gaul to the West of
Lothar. On Lothar's death Italy passed to his son
the Emperor Lewis the Second, while a second Lothar
reigned in the borderland of Germany and Gaul.
From having been the kingdom of two Lothars, this
land was called Lotharingia, and part of it still keeps
the name in the form of Lothringen or Lorraine. Just
in the same way Charles's kingdom was at first called
Karolingia, only the one name has gone out of use,
while the other has lived on. But the different king-
doms which were now formed had no regular names.
All the different Kings were' Kings of tJie Franks,
much as in earlier times there had been several
Emperors at once. There now came a time of great
confusion, during which the different kingdoms were
split up and joined together again in various ways.
But there was still always one King who was Emperor,
though he soon lost all real power over the others.
And all the Kings were of the house of the Karlings,
save only in the Burgundian land between the Rhone,
the Saone, and the Alps, where Kings of other houses
reigned, and which was called the Kingdom of Bur-
gundy or Aries. At last, in 884, all the Frankish
kingdoms except Burgundy were joined together
under the Emperor Charles the Fat. But in 887 all
his kingdoms agreed to depose him, and each king-
dom chose a King of its own. And the kingdoms
which were now formed began to answer more nearly
to real divisions of nations and language than had
hitherto been the case. Thus from this time the
Eastern and Western Franks were never a.gain united,
and the word Franda henceforth has two meanings.
Eastern or Teutonic Franda was the old Frankish land
1 30 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAI>
in Germany, forming part of the Eastern Kingdom.
Western or Latin Francia was the land between the
Loire and the Seine, where men spoke Romance and
not German, and which formed part of the Western
Kingdom. Between them lay Lotharirigia, the border
land, taking in modern Belgium. This had no longer
a King of its own, but it was often disputed between
the Eastern and Western Kings, the Kings of Germany
and Karolingia. In South-eastern Gaul the Burgun-
dian Kingdom went on, sometimes forming one
kingdom, sometimes two. And in Italy, during the
first half of the tenth century, there were several rival
Kings, some of whom got to be crowned Emperors.
But they had no power out of Italy, and not much in
it. And it must be remembered that all this time
Southern Italy still belonged to the Eastern Emperors,
and that Sicily had been conquered by the Saracens.
5. The End of the Karlings in Germany.-
After the division in 887 the Eastern or German
Kingdom still stayed for a while in the family of
Charles the Great. For the East-Franks chose as their
King Arnulf, who was a Karling, though not by lawful
descent. But the Western Franks in Karolingia
chose Odo, Count of Paris, who had been very valiant
in defending his city against an attack of the North-
men, of whom we shall hear presently. But King
Arnulf was the head King, and King Odo of Paris
did Iwmage to him for his crown ; that is, he became
his man, and promised to be faithful to him. Arnulf
afterwards went to Rome and was crowned Emperor
But the German crown did not stay long among the
Karlings. The line oT Arnulf died out in his son
Lewis, called the Child, and then the Eastern King-
dom fell to men of other families, connected with the
Karlings only in the female line or not at all. From
this time the Kingdom of Germany went on as a
separate kingdom, but we shall soon see that it had a
great deal to do with the other kingdoms which arose
V
EUROPE
at the end of the
NINTH CENTURY
gitudc East 15 from Greenwich
m.] BEGINNING OF FRANCE. \y
out of the breaking up of the Prankish Empire.
And it had much to do in other ways with the
Slavonic and Turanian people to the East, and in the
end it greatly extended itself at the cost of its
Slavonic neighbours.
6. Beginning of the Kingdom of France.
A."ter the election of Odo of Paris to the Western
Kingdom, there followed a hundred years of shift-
ing to and fro between his new family and the old
family of the Karlings. Sometimes there was a King
of one house and sometimes of the other. The
Karlings still spoke German, and, when they held the
.dngdom, their capital was Laon, in its north-eastern
corner. The family of Odo were called Dukes of the
French, and they spoke French, as we may now call the
Romance speech of Northern Gaul, and their capital
,vas Paris, Their Duchy, the Duchy of France that
s, Western or Latin Francia was, even when its
Oukes were not Kings, the most powerful state north
of the Loire. But whichever family held the crown.
.he Kings had very little power south of the Loire.
^or, in these times of confusion, the Dukes and Counts,
vho at first were only governors of the different
>rovinces, both in the Eastern and Western King-
loins, had grown up into hereditary princes, paying a
nerely nominal homage to the King, whether he
eigned at Laon or Paris. The princes north of the
^oire, the Counts of Flanders, the Dukes of the
\ormans (of whom we shall say more presently),
he native princes of Britanny, and the Dukes of
burgundy, were often at war with the Kings, and with
>ne another. These Dukes of Burgundy held the
orthern part of Burgundy, that of which Dijon is
le capital ; this did not form part of the Kingdom
f Burgundy, but of the Western Kingdom or Karol-
igia. South of the Loire, where men spoke, not
'rench but Provencal, the Dukes of Aquitaine and
, and the Counts of Toulouse and Barcelona
132 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP
had hardly anything to do with the Kings at all
The most famous among the Karolingian King!
at Laon was Lewis the Fourth, called From-beyond-sea,
because he had been brought up by his uncle King
/Ethelstzn in England. He had much striving with
Ilu;h the Great, Duke of the French, the nephew of
King Odo, who refused the crown more than once,
but who never had any scruple about rebelling against
the King. But on the death of the last Karolingian
King at Laon, Lewis the Fifth, Hugh Capet, the son
of Hugh the Great, was chosen King in 987. This
was the real beginning of the modern Kingdom of
France. The Duke of the French was now King oj
the French. Paris became the capital of the King-
dom, and, as the Kings of the French got hold of the
lands of their vassals and neighbours bit by bit, the
name of France was gradually spread, as it is now,
over the greater part of Gaul.
7. The English in Britain. We have thus
seen how the kingdoms and nations of Germany,
Italy, Burgundy, and France were formed by the
breaking up of the great Frank ish Empire. Mean-
while the English nation was growing up in the
Isle of Britain, which formed no part of the Empire,
and which men spoke often of as a world of itself.
We have already seen how the three Low-Dutch tribes,
the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, settled in Britain, how
they drove the Britons or Welsh into the western part of
the Island, and how, as they gradually became one
people, the whole nation was called Angles or English.
They formed a great number of principalities in
Britain, among the chief of which were the Kingdom
of the Jutes in Kent, the oldest of all, the Kingdom
of the West-Saxons, which began in what is now
Hampshire and gradually spread over all South-
western Britain, the Kingdom of the Mercians in the
middle of England, and the Kingdom of the North-
umbrians, which, sometimes under one King, some
THE ENGLISH IN BRITAIN. 133
times under two, stretched fromthe Humberto the Firth
of Forth. The Kingdoms of the South-Faxons, East'
Saxons, and East- Angles should also be noticed, but
they were less powerful than the other four. All these
kingdoms had much fighting with one another, as well
as with the Britons or Welsh to the west of them and
with the other Celtic tribes of the Pitts and Scots to
the north beyond the Forth. Sometimes one of theii
Kings gained a certain authority over the other king-
doms ; he was then called a Brefrvalda or Widder 0}
Britain. As we have already said, the English re-
mained heathens for about one hundred and fifty years
after their first settlement in Britain. Then, in 597, Pope
Gregory the Great sent over Augustine, who converted
the Kentish King jEthelberht, who was then Bretwalda ;
so Kent was the first Christian kingdom among the
English. Gradually all the English kingdoms were
converted, some by missionaries from Kent or straight
from Rome, some by the Scots, who were already
Christians, but none, it would seem, by the Welsh.
And presently the English began themselves to send
missionaries to convert those of their kinsfolk in their
old land who were still heathens. One of them,
Winfrith or Bo?iiface, in the time of Pippin, was
called the Apostle of Germany. This was quite
another way of being converted from that of the
Goths and Franks who embraced Christianity while
they were pressing into the Empire. But, even after
they became Christians, the English still went on
making conquests from the Welsh, and also carrying
on wars among themselves. During the seventh and
eighth centuries the three great kingdoms of the West-
Saxons, Mercians, and Northumbrians were ever striving
for the mastery. Sometimes one had the upper hand
and sometimes the other ; but at the beginning of the
ninth century the different English kingdoms began to
be more closely united together, and they had also a
common enemy from without to withstand.
34 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP.
8. The Northmen. We have already spoken of
the Aryan people in Northern Europe, called the
Northmen or Scandinavians. These were a Teutonic
people, whose speech is more nearly akin to the Low-
Dutch than to the High. They had settled in the
great peninsula to the north-east of the Baltic, where
they were gradually making their way against the
Turanian inhabitants, the Fins and Laps, and they
hid also occupied the peninsula called the Cimbrie.
Chersentsos or Jutland, which is divided from Saxony
by the river Eider. In these peninsulas and the
neighbouring islands they gradually formed three king-
doms, those of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The
Danes in the southern peninsula had often to yield
more or less of submission to Charles the Great and
his successors. But the Northmen of the northern
peninsula never submitted to the Empire, and^ indeed
the Swedes had for a long time to come but little to
do with the general affairs of Europe. They had
enough to do in striving with their own Turanian
neighbours, and in conquests toward the East, where
they came to bear rule over the Slavonic land of
Russia. But the Western Scandinavians, the Danes
and the Norwegians who were more specially called
Northmen, began, towards the end of the eighth cen-
tury, to be fearful scourges both to Britain and to all
the coasts of the Empire. Even while Charles the
Great lived, they had begun to sail about and plunder
in various parts ; and after he was dead, and when the
Empire began to break in pieces, they were able to
ravage almost wherever they pleased. After a while
they began, not only to plunder, but to make settle-
ments, both in Gaul and in Britain. They also settled
in Iceland, in the Orkneys and in the other islands near
Scotland, in the northern part of Scotland itself, and
in the towns on the east coast of Ireland. But we
have most to do with their settlements in England and
in Northern Gaul. For through their settlement in
vii.] FORMATION OF ENGLAND. 135
Gaul a new power in Europe arose, and, what we
should hardly have looked for, their settlements in
England had a great deal to do with the making of
the different English kingdoms in Britain into one.
9. Formation of the Kingdom of England.
We have seen that, up to the end of the eighth century,
the chief power among the English in Britain was
always passing from one of the English kingdoms
to another. But at the beginning of the ninth century
it came permanently into the hands of Wcssex. This
was under Ecgberht, who was King of the West-Saxons
from 802 to 837. He was a friend of Charles the
Great, with whom he had taken shelter when he was
banished from his own country. It was no doubt the
friendship and example of Charles which set him
upon doing in Britain much the same as Charles had
done in Germany. Ecgberht gradually brought all
the other English kingdoms and the Welsh both of
Cornwall and of what we call Wales, into more or
less of subjection to his own kingdom of the West-
Saxons. Other Kings went on reigning, but they
were his men and he was their lord, like the Emperor
among the Kings and princes on the mainland. Thus
.1 great step was taken towards joining all the English
in Britain into one kingdom. But the Scots beyond
the Forth and the Northern Welsh in Cumberland
and thereabouts remained independent, so that
Ecgberht was still far from being master of the whole
island, and presently the Danish invasion seemed
likely to shatter the newly founded West-Saxon power
altogether. King sElfred or Alfred, the grandson of
Ecgberht and the most famous of all our ancient
Kings, who began to reign in 871, had much fighting
with the Danes. The northern part of England was
conquered by them, and Danish Kings and Earls
reigned at York. Presently they invaded Wessex,
whence they were driven out by Alfred in 878. But
he found it needful to make a treaty with the Danish
136 THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP
King Guthrum, by which Guthrum was allowed to
hold all the eastern part of England, on condition of
becoming King Alfred's man and also becoming a
Christian. For the Danes were still heathens, as the
English were when they first entered Britain, and
they seem to have taken special delight in destroying
the churches and monasteries. The Kings who came
after Alfred, his son Edward and his grandsons
/Ethelstan and Edmund, had much fighting with the
Danes in Britain. But at last they were able to bring
all the Teutonic people in Britain, both English and
Danish, into one kingdom ; so they were called Kings
of the English and not merely Kings of the West-Saxons.
And all the princes of the Welsh and of the Scots also
became their men, so that they were Lords of all
Britain. Sometimes, as being lords of the other world
where the Roman Emperors had no power, they were
called Emperors of Britain, or in Greek Basileus, in
imitation of the Emperors of the East. It was King
Edward who first received the homage of all Britain
in 924. But it was not till a long time after that the
Danes in the North of England were thoroughly
subdued. But these settlements of the Danes, by
breaking up the other English kingdoms and by mak-
ing Englishmen everywhere ready to join against the
invaders, really did much to help the West-Saxon
Kings in winning the lordship of the whole island.
10. Foundation of the Duchy of Normandy.
The Danes and other Northmen also made many
invasions of Gaul through the whole latter half of the
ninth century. They more than once sailed up the
Seine and besieged Paris. There was one specially
famous siege of Paris in 885, when Count Odo did
great things in withstanding the Northmen, in reward
of which he was before long, as we have seen, elected
King. Soon after this the Northmen began to rr.jke
settlements in Gaul as they did in Britain, and one
of their settlements rose to great importance. Thia
VH.] BEGINNING OF NORAfANDY. ij>
was the settlement made at Rouen by a chief named
Rolf, or in Latin Rollo. This was in 913, when
Charles the Simple, who was King of the West-Franks
he was of the House of the Karlings and reigned at
Laon and Robert, Duke of the French, who was
brother of King Odo and was afterwards King him-
self, granted the land at the mouth of the Seine to
Roif. For this he became King Charles's man, and
he served his lord much more faithfully than ever the
Dukes of the French did. Rolf was baptized, as
Guthrum had been, and the Northmen who settled in
Gaul gradually became Christians and learned to
speak French. Their name was softened into Nor-
mans, and their land was called Normandy, and their
prince the Duke of the Normans. The Dukes of the
Normans of the House of Rolf became the most
powerful princes in Northern Gaul, and we shall
presently hear of them in England.
ii. Summary. Thus, in the course of the ninth
and tenth centuries the great Prankish Empire broke
in pieces ; the Kingdom of France arose in Gaul ; the
Kingdom of England grew up in Britain ; the Danes
and Northmen settled both in Britain and in Gaul, and
their settlement in Gaul grew into the Duchy of Nor-
mandy. During this time the Romance languages had
hardly begun to be written, but men were finding out
that they were distinct languages from Latin. Books
on the Continent were still wholly written in Latin.
Thus Eginhard, the Secretary of Charles the Great,
wrote the Life of his master, and there were other
good writers of history in all the Prankish kingdoms.
But the English Chronicle began to be put together
in England in these times, so that we have, what
no other people in Western Christendom has, our
ancestral history written in our own tongue from th*
beginning.
138 THE SAXON EMPERORS. [CHxr
CHAPTER VIII.
THE SAXON EMPERORS.
The King iom of Germany ; dealings with the Magvars and
Slaves (\)the Saxon Kings ; -victories of Henry the
Fowler and Otto the Great over the Magyars (2)
Otto the great crowned Emperor ; relations between
the Empire and the German Kingdom (2, 3) the later
Saxon Emperors (3) disputes between the Eastern and
Western Churches (4) the Macedonian Emperors in
the East ; their victories over the Saracens (4) Slavonic
settlements in the Eastern Empire ; wars with the
Russians and Bulgarians (5) greatness of England
under Edgar (6) Danish invasions of England; reign
of Cunt in Englana (6) greatness of the Scandinavian
nations ; great dominion of Cnut j effects of the Scan-
dinavian settlements in Gaul ami Russia (6, 7) con-
version of the Scandinavians and Russians to Chris-
tianity (7) Summary (8).
i. The German Kingdom. The division of 887
separated for ever the Kingdoms of the East and West
Franks, those which answer to Germany and France.
But the Kingdoms of Italy and Buigundy were, after
a while, once more united with Germany. But this
was not just yet. The Kings of the East-Franks, the
Eastern Kings as they were called, were the head
Kings, but as yet they only held their own land, the
Teutonic Kingdom or Germany. They had much ado
to defend themselves against the inroads of the Danes,
to defend and extend their border against the Slave?
to the north-east, and to drive back some new and
fearful enemies who had begun to show themselves to
the south-east. These were the Magyars or Hun-
garians, of whom we have already spoken, who were
pressing into Central Europe, and who, wherever they
came, did as much mischief by land as the Northmen
trill.] THE GERMAN KINGDOM. 135
did by sea. They were still heathens, but in the end,
before the tenth century was out, they became Chris-
tians, and settled down into a regular and powerful
Christian kingdom. They have held their place
among the kingdoms of Europe ever since, and their
land is still called the Kingdom of Hungary. But,
before the Hungarians had thus settled down among
Christian nations, the German Kings had to fight
many battles against them to keep them out of their
own dominions. As a safeguard against the Hun-
garian invasions they founded a Mark or border-state
under a chief called a Markgraf or Marquess ; this
was called the Eastern Mark, Ostmark or Oesterreich.
This grew into the Duchy of Austria, the Dukes of
which have, oddly enough, for a long time past been also
Kings of Hungary. To the north of Hungary several
Slavonic states grew up during this time into Christian
dukedoms and kingdoms, especially those of Poland
and Bohemia ; but the Wends on the south of the
Baltic remained heathens for a long time, and the
Prussians to the east of them for a longer time still.
Thus the Kingdom of Germany was the central state of
Europe, and it had to do with all parts of Europe,
East, West, North, and South. And it was soon to
rise to greater things still.
2. The Saxon Kings. The dynasty which had
most to do with raising the German Kingdom to
greatness was that of the Saxons, whose Duke, Henry,
was elected King in 918. He did much to make his
kingdom flourishing and powerful, and he had to wage
many wars against the Magyars, especially by the
foundation of towns. He was succeeded in 936 by
his son Otto, called the Great. He finally defeated
the Magyars in a great battle in 954. He had also
much to do with the affairs of the Western Kingdom,
and he often stepped in to help the Karolingian King
Lewis, who was his brother-in tew, against his enemies
in France and Normandy. But he is most famou?
4Q THE SAXON EMPERORS. [CHAP
for again uniting the Roman Empire to the German
Kingdom. Since Arnulf no Emperor had been gene-
rally acknowledged, though some of the Kings of Italy
had been crowned Emperors at Rome. In truth, Italy,
during the whole half of the tenth century, was alto-
gether torn in pieces by the struggles of rival Kin^a
and wicked Popes. In 951 Otto was invited into
Italy, and he made the King Berengar become his
man. In 962 he was again called on by the Pope and
the Italians to deliver them from Berengar altogether.
So he entered Italy a second time, and was crowned
Emperor at Rome, by the Pope John the Twelfth^ one
of the worst of all the Popes.
3. The Restoration of the Empire. The
coronation of Otto the Great as Emperor put the
Western Empire on quite a new footing. Hitherto the
Empire had had no special connexion with any one of
the several kingdoms which had arisen out of the
break-up of the dominion of Charles the Great The
Imperial crown had been sometimes held by one King,
and sometimes by another, and very often there had
been no Emperor at all. But now Germany had,
under the Saxon Kings, become so much the greatest
of all the Frankish kingdoms that it was able to join
the Empire to itself. The change was in truth a
restoration of the Empire in a more regular shape
after a time of confusion. From this time the Empire
was always held by a German king. As long as the
Empire lasted, the rule was that whoever was chosen
King in Germany had a right to be crowned King oj
Italy 'at Milan, and to be crowned Emperor at Rome.
There was not always an Emperor, because some of
the German Kings never got to Rome to be crowned
Emperors ; but there always was either an Emperor
or a King who alone had the right to be crowned
Emperor. Thus the Kingdom of Italy was again
united with the Kingdom of Germany. But both
Burgundy and Karolingia or the Western Kingdom
viii.] RESTORA TION OF WESTERN EMPIRE. 141
still remained cut off from the Empire, Burgundy fol
a while and Karolingia for ever. Still the Emperors
kept a good deal of influence in Burgundy, and in the
Western Kingdom too as long as any of the Karlings
reigned at Laon. But when the Kingdom of Franct
was finally established, when the long line of Kings of
the French of the blood of Hugh Capet began to reign
at Paris, France left off having anything to do with the
Empire at all Otto the Great died in 972, and after
him reigned his son Otto the Second till 983. He had
wars with the Danes, whose King Harold, called
.Blaatandor Bluetooth, he forced to become a Christian,
and also with the Eastern Emperors in Southern Italy.
Then came Otto the Third from 983 to 1002. He was
called the Wonder of tlie World. His great wish was
to make Rome again the head of the world and to
reign there again, like one of the old Emperors. But
he died young, and his plans were all cut short. Then
came Henry the Second, a descendant of Henry the
First, but not of Otto the Great, who was the last
Saxon Emperor. He died in 1024.
4. The Eastern Empire. It is now time to
say something of what had happened in the East
since the election of Charles the Great in the West.
The Eastern Empire, as I before said, was now chiefly
confined to the Greek-speaking parts of Europe and
Asia. And, after the Eastern and Western Empires
were separated, disputes gradually arose between the
Eastern and Western Churches. They differed on
some points both of doctrine and ceremony, but the
real ground of quarrel was chiefly because the Eastern
Church would never admit the claims of the Bishops
of Rome. The Iconoclast controversy went on during
a great part of the ninth century, but in the end the
worshippers of images gained the day. After Eirene
there were several Emperors of different families, some
of whom were weak men, while others ruled well and
fought manfully against the Saracens, At last, in thf
f4* THE SAXON EMPERORS. [CHAf
latter pait of the ninth century, a dynasty arose undef
which the Eastern Empire won back a great deal of
its former power. This was the Basiiian or Macedonian
dynasty, the first Emperor of which, Basil the First or
the Macedonian, began to reign in 867. He was a
law-giver, and under him the Byzantine dominions in
Italy were greatly increased. But the time when the
Eastern Empire reached its greatest amount of power
after the final division was from 963 to 1025. Three
Emperors, one after the other, Nikephoros Phokas,
John Tzimiskes, and Basil the Second, won back many
of the provinces which had been lost The Saracens,
as we have already seen, were now cut up into many
small states, and, though the Caliphs went on, they
could no longer meet the Emperors on equal terms.
Nikephoros won back Crete, and both he and John
Tzimiskes, who murdered him and reigned in his stead,
waged wars in the East, won back Antioch and other
cities which had been taken by the Saracens in their
first conquests, and again carried the Roman frontier
to the Euphrates.
5. The Slavonic Invasions. We said at the
beginning that the Slavonic nations were the last of
the great Aryan swarms which had pressed into
Europe, and that which had played the least part in
the general affairs of the world. As yet we have not
heard much of them, except so far as the German
Kings had greatly extended their dominion to the West
at their expense. But we have now reached a very
important period in their history, chiefly with regard
to their dealings with the Eastern Empire. For a
long time past various nations had been pressing into
the northern parts of the Byzantine dominions, and
the Emperors had constant wars to wage against
enemies on their northern as well as on their eastern
frontier. Some of them settled within the Empire,
while others simply invaded and ravaged its provinces.
Some of these invaders and settlers were Turanians
mi.] THE MACEDONIAN EMPERORS. 143
out many of them belonged to the race of the Slaves,
who play a part in the history of the Eastern Empire
something like that which the Teutonic people played
in the West. That is to say, they were half conquerors,
half disciples. Many of the north-western provinces
of the Empire were settled by Slavonic tribes, who
have grown into the people of Servia, Dalmatia, and
the other lands now bordering on Hungary, Austria,
and Turkey. They also made large settlements in
Macedonia and Greece, but from some of these they
were afterwards driven out. It is even said that the
Macedonian Emperors themselves were really of Sla-
vonic descent. The Russians, also a Slavonic people,
though their princes were of Scandinavian descent,
made several inroads into the Eastern Empire in the
ninth and tenth centuries, and even attacked Con-
stantinople by sea. But they were finally defeated by
the Emperor John Tzimiskes in 973. Another great
enemy was the Bulgarians, a people originally Tura-
nian, but who learnt to speak a Slavonic language,
and who were so mixed up with their Slavonic neigh-
bours and subjects, that they may pass as one of the
Slavonic nations. They founded a kingdom in the
north-western part of the Empire, and they were for
a long time a great thorn in the sides of the Emperors.
With these Bulgarians the Emperors had many wars,
till in the end their kingdom was altogether destroyed
by Basil the Second, who was called the flayer of the
Bulgarians, when the Roman frontier was again car-
ried to the Danube. All these invaders and settlers
gradually became Christians, getting their Christianity
from the Eastern Church, as the Teutons and Western
Slaves got theirs from the Western Church. But the
Popes and the Patriarchs of Constantinople had long
disputes about the obedience of the Bulgarians. It
was under Basil the Second, whose sister Theophant
married the Western Emperor Otto the Second, that
the separate Eastern Empire was at the greatest height
144 THE SAXON EMPERORS. [CHAC
of its p>wer, but after his death it greatly fell back
again.
6. England and the Danes. England had a
good deal to do with the Western Empire during the
time of the Saxon Emperors. The daughters of
Edward the Elder were married to the chief princes
of Europe, and one of them named Eadgyth or Edith
was the first wife of Otto the Great. It marks the
central position of the German Kingdom that its
kings made marriages with England at one end and
with Constantinople at the other. Under Edgar, who
reigned from 959 to 975, England was at the height
of its power, but in the reign of his son sEthelrcd the
inroads of the Danes and Northmen began again. At
one time, in 994, England was attacked at once by
Olaf King of the Northmen and by Sweden or Sweyn
King of the Danes. Olaf was persuaded to become
a Christian and to make peace with England ; so he
went home to Norway and began to bring in Chris-
tianity there. Swegen was the son of that King
Harold who had been overcome by Otto the Second ;
he had been baptized in his childhood, but had fallen
back into heathenism. The war with Swegen went
on till at last, in 1013, ^Ethelred was driven out and
Swegen was acknowledged King all over England.
This was quite another kind of conquest from mere
plundering inroads, and even from settlements in
parts of the country, like that of Guthrum or that of
Rolf in Gaul. A King of all Denmark came against
England to make himself King over all England also.
Swegen died very soon and ^Ethelred did not live
long after The war then went on between Cnut or
Canute the son of Swegen and Edmund the son of
^Ethelred. At last, in 1017, Cnut became King over
all England ; he inherited the crown of his native
country Denmark, and he also won Norway and part
of Sweden. He was thus lord of all Northern Europe,
and was by far the most powerful prince of his time
vin.] DOMINION OF CNUT. 145
Though he came into England by force, he ruled well
and won the love of the people j but after his death
in 1035 the bad government of his sons disgusted th
English with the Danish rule, and in 1042 they again
chose a native King in the person of Edward the SOB
of ^thelred.
7. Greatness of the Scandinavians. The
time when Cnut reigned in England was the time
when the Danes and the Northmen were at the height
of their power. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were
all powerful kingdoms ; England was under a Danish
King, and princes of Scandinavian descent ruled both
in Normandy and in Russia. But wherever the North-
men settled, though they always put a new life into the
lands which they made their own, they showed a
wonderful power of adapting themselves to the people
among whom they settled, and of taking to their
manners and language. Thus Cnut, when he reigned
in England, became quite an Englishman, and the
Northmen who settled in Gaul became quite French,
and those who settled in Russia became quite Slavonic.
In this way the original lands of the Northmen really
lost in strength and importance, and became of less
account in Europe than they otherwise might have
been. For the best life of Scandinavia went away
into other lands to give a new life to them. About
the end of the tenth and beginning of the eleventh
centuries, all the Northern nations, except the Prus-
sians and Lithuanians, gradually became Christians.
The Scandinavians, like the other Teutonic nations,
got their Christianity from the West ; but the Russians,
like the Bulgarians and the other nations who had to
do with the Eastern Empire, got their Christianity from
Constantinople and became part of the Eastern
Church. To this day they are the only one among
the great nations of Europe which remains in the com-
munion of the East, having nothing to do either with the
Bishop of Rome or with the Reformed Churches.
146 THE FRANCON1AN EMPERORS. [CHAP
8. Summary. Thus, in the ninth century and
the beginning of the tenth, the German kingdom ad
vanced, and was again united with the Roman Empire,
The Eastern Empire won back much of its power,
and drove back its Slavonic invaders. The Danet
conquered England, and trie Scandinavian people
generally were at the height of their power. The
chief historians of this period were the German
writers who recorded the deeds of the Ottos. In
England learning had got back from what it was at
an earlier time. In Gaul men had already found out
that the Roman, or the spoken tongue of the people,
had grown into a different language from the written
Latin. But we have no French writings as yet
CHAPTER IX.
THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS.
Succession of Kings, Conrad, Henry the Third, Henry the
Fourth, Henry the Fifth (i) dealings of henry the
Third with the Popes (^disputes between Henry the
Fourth and Gregory the Seventh (i) continued dis-
putes between the Popes and Henry the Fifth (i)
causes of the growth of Papal power (2) designs of
Gregory t]ie Seventh; disputes about invest ures and
the marriage of the clergy (2) growth of the Duchy
of Normandy (3) reign of William the Conqueror ;
his claims on the crown of England favoured by the
Pope (3) election of Harold of England: 'invasion nf
Harold of Norway ; Norman invasion and conquc\t
of England (3) effects of the Norman Conquest of
England; use of the French language; closer connex-
ion of England with other lands (4) relations between
France and Normandy (5) effects of the Norman
Conquest on France ; greatness of Henry the Second
in England (5) advance of the Christians in Spain;
growth of the kingdom of Arragon (6) Norman
Conquest of Sicily ; fouiulation and growth of the king-
IX. J HENRY TtlE THIRD. 14?
dom (7) decline of the Eastern Empire (8) growth
of the Turks ; their dealings with the Caliphs (8)
divisions of the Caliphate (8) wars between the Turki
and the Eastern Empire; conquests of the Turks in
Asia Minor (8) revival of the Empire under the.
Komnidan Emperors * decay of the Turkish power (8)
- causes of the Cnusades (8, 9) the Crusade preached
by Peter the Hermit and Urban the Second (9)
First Crusade ; taking of Jerusalem (9) effects of tht
Crusades (9) Summary (ro).
i. Succession of Kings. On the death of
Henry the Second, Conrad, a descendant of a daugh-
ter of Otto the Great, was chosen King. He was the
first of the Franconian Empercrs. They are so called
as coming from the Eastern or Teutonic Francia,
which, to distinguish it from Latin Francia or France,
is commonly called Franconia. He was crowned
Emperor in 1027 and reigned till 1039. The chief
event of his reign was that in 1032 the Kingdom of
Burgundy was united to the Empire on the death of
its last King Rtidolf. Thus three out of the four
Prankish Kingdoms were again joined together, France
alone, as we must now call it, standing aloof. Conrad's
son Henry the Third was one of the greatest of all the
Emperors. He was crowned King both of Germany
and of Burgundy in his father's lifetime. This was
often done in those days, in order to make the succes-
sion certain, and to avoid the dangers of an interregnum
or time when there is no King. Henry was called
into Italy in much the same way as Otto the Great
had been ; for there were great disputes at Rome, where
three candidates at once all claimed the Popedom.
King Henry came into Italy in 1046 and deposed
them all. He then gave the Popedom to several
German Bishops one after the other, and they ruled
the Church far better than the Romans had done.
He was himself crowned Emperor in the same year
He did much to restore order and religion both in
I 4 8 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [CHAF
Germany and in Italy, and he maintained the authority
of the Empire better than had been done for a long time.
He was a close ally of the English King Edward,
whose half-sister Gunhild, the daughter of Cnut, was
his first wife. On his death in 1056 he was succeeded
by his son Henry the Fourth, who was only six years
old when his father died, but who had been already
crowned King. His childhood and youth was a time
of great confusion, and, as he grew up, he ruled at first
very ill, and his oppression drove the Saxons to revolt
in 1073. About the same time there arose long dis-
putes between the Emperors and the Popes, which tore
Germany and Italy in pieces. At one time Pope Greg'
ory the Seventh, the famous Hildebrand, professed to
depose the King, and in the beginning of 1077 Henry
had to come and crave pardon of Gregory. In the
same year the Saxons, and others in Germany who
were discontented, chose Rudolf Duke of Swabia
King instead of Henry. Rudolf was killed in 1080,
but, during nearly all the rest of his reign, Henry had
to struggle with one enemy after another, among them
his own son Conrad, and afterwards his other son
Henry, whom he had crowned King in 1099. Henry
himself had driven Gregory out of Rome in 1085,
and he had been crowned Emperor by Clement the
Third, whom he had himself appointed Pope. At
last he died in n 06, while still at war with his son
King Henry, who now reigned alone. Henry the Fifth
had nearly the same disputes with the Popes which
his father had had, but he was regularly crowned
Emperor at Rome in 1 1 1 1. He married Matilda, the
daughter of our King Henry the First, but he had no
son, and the Franconian dynasty came to an end at
his death in 1125.
2. Growth of the Papal Power. The power
of the Popes, which has just been mentioned, and their
disputes with the Emperors, must be spoken of a little
more fully. From the time of Constantine onwards
IX] Ti'fE POPES AND THE EMPERORS, 149
the divisions of the Empire and the constant absence
of the Emperors from Rome had greatly increased the
power of the Popes. They had not, like the Patriarchs
of Constantinople, a superior always at hand. Charles
the Great had fully asserted the Imperial power over
the Church, but, after his Empire broke up, the power
of the Popes grew again. It was checked only by
their own wickedness and their divisions among them-
selves, which Kings like Otto the Great and Henry
the Third had to step in and put an end to. Things
were very different now from what they had been in
the old times, when the whole or nearly the whole of
the Church was contained within the bounds of the
Empire. First of all, there were now two rival Empe-
rors and two rival Churches, and the Empire and the
Church of the East in no way acknowledged either the
Emperor or the Bishop of the Old Rome. And even
in the West, part of the Empire, namely the Kingdom
of France, had cut itself off from the main body, while
new Christian kingdoms like England, Hungary, and
Denmark had risen up beyond the Empire. In this
state of things the Bishops of Rome, who were looked
up to by so many kingdoms as the chief Bishops of
the West, could hardly remain so submissive to the
Emperors as they had been when the Emperors were
the only Christian princes. The Popes had not as yet
any distinct temporal dominion, such as they had in
after times ; still they were no longer mere subjects of
the Emperor, as they had been under Constantine and
Justinian and Charles the Great. In truth, it was to
this undefined position that the Popes owed much ol
their power. And now Gregory the Seventh, the great-
est of all the Popes, set himself to work to set up the
ecclesiastical power as superior to the temporal. To
this end he laid down two main rules, one that the
clergy might not marry, the other that no temporal
prince should bestow any ecclesiastical benefice, as
was then commonly done in Germany, England, and
ISO THE FRANCOMAN EMPERORS, [CHAP,
most parts of Europe. Hence began the long quarrel
between Gregory and Henry the Fourth, and between
many Popes and Emperors after them. And we may
mark that the quarrel between the Popes and the
Emperors was one in which good men might and did
take either side. A good Emperor like Henry the
Third did much good by clearing away unworthy dis-
putants, and giving to the Church a succession ol
worthy rulers. But the same power in the hands of a
bad prince led to the sale of bishopricks for money
and to many other abuses. The great evil was that
Popes like Gregory the Seventh, who were really
anxious for the purity of the Church, acted too much
as if the Church were made up only of the clergy, and
strove to make the clergy, with themselves at their
head, into quite a separate body from other men. It
is hard to say which party won in the end. We may
perhaps say that the Popes succeeded in overthrowing
the power of the Emperors, but that they had them-
selves to yield in the end to the power of other
temporal princes.
3. The Norman Conquest of England. We
have already seen how in 987 the dynasty of the
Karlings in the West came to an end, and how Hugh,
the Duke of the French, became King of the French.
Meanwhile the duchy which had been founded by
Rolf had grown up into great power and prosperity,
and Normandy reckoned among the chief states of
Western Euorpe. And Normandy became greater still
under its famous Duke William, who subdued England,
and who is therefore known as William the Conqueror.
It was now that Britain, which had hitherto been
looked on as another world, began to have much more
to do with the general affairs of Europe. King Ed-
ward, the last King of the English of the old West-
Saxon dynasty, was, through his mother, a kinsman
of Duke William, and it would seem that at one
time of his life he made Duke William some kind oi
tX.J THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 151
promise that, as he had no children ; he should succeed
him on the throne of England. But, however this may
be, when King Edward died in 1066, the English
people, as there was no one in the royal family fit to
reign, gave the Crown to Earl Harold, who was then
the greatest man in the land. Duke William however
put forth his claim, and, though he found no one to
help him in England, he made most people in other
lands believe that he had the right on his side. Espe-
cially he persuaded Hildebrand, who was not yet Pope,
but who already had great influence at Rome, to take
his part. So Pope Alexander the Second declared in
his favour, and blessed his undertaking. This was the
way in which the Popes seized every opportunity to
extend their power both within the Empire and in
other parts of the world. William was thus able to
invade England, at the head not only of his own Nor-
mans, but of men from all parts, who were taught to
look on the enterprise as a holy war. England was
just at this time attacked by Harold ffardrada, King
of the Northmen, so that her King Harold had to fight
against two foes at once. He defeated Harold of
Norway, but was himself defeated and slain by Duke
vVilliam in the famous battle of Senlac or Hastings.
Duke William was crowned King at Christmas 1066,
but the English still withstood him in many places,
and it took him about four years to get full possession
of the whole kingdom. He gradually found means to
give all the greatest estates and highest offices in Eng-
land to Normans and other strangers, and he handed
on the English Crown to his descendants, by whom it
has been held ever since.
4. Effects of the Norman Conquest of
England. The establishment of Duke William and
his followers in Normandy brought about some very
great changes both in England and in the rest of
Europe. The English were not killed or turned out
as they hat x themselves done by the Welsh, and the)
'52 THE FRANCON1AN EMPERORS, [CHAP.
kept their own laws and language ; yet for a long time
all the chief men in the land were of Norman or othef
foreign descent. But it is wonderful in how short a
time the Normans in England became good English-
men. This was partly perhaps because Normans
and English were, after all, near kinsfolk, only the
English had kept their own tongue, while the Normans
had learned to speak French. French remained for a
long time the fashionable language in England, and
though, in the end, English became once more the
speech of all men in the land, yet in the meanwhile it
became greatly changed, and a great many French
words crept in. Many new ideas came in with the Nor-
mans, which gradually made great changes in English
laws and manners. The power of the Kings became
much greater than it had been before, and William
made the whole kingdom far more truly one than it
had been up to his time. Since his days no one has
ever thought of dividing it. The Norman Conquest
also caused far more intercourse than there had been
before between England and other nations. Learning
flourished more, the art of building greatly advanced,
and many reforms were made in the Church ; but it
must not be forgotten that England from this time was
brought much more under the power of the Popes.
5. Relations between England and France-
Before the Norman Conquest, England and France^
meaning thereby the new Kingdom of Paris, had
hardly anything to do with one another. J!ut France
and Normandy often were enemies. Ever since Paris
became the capital, the Kings of the French had felt
themselves hemmed in by the Dukes at Rouen. And
now that the same man was Duke of the Normans
and King of the English, the Norman Dukes became
still more powerful in Gaul, and were still more dan-
gerous neighbours to their lords the Kings of the
French. The King at Paris was in truth shut in on
every side by his own vassals, the great Dukes and
IX.] ENGLAND AND FRANCE, 153
Counts, over whom he had no real authority. Just at
the time when the Empire was strongest undei Henry
the Third, the Kingdom of France was weakest under
Henry the First, the third of the Parisian Kings.
From this time there was a distinct rivalry, which we
shall constantly come across, between the Kings of the
French and the Kings of the English, who were also
Dukes of the Normans. This rivalry has gone on
almost ever since, and we shall constantly meet with it
in one shape or another ; and this rivalry had the
further effect of keeping up the old connexion be-
tween England and Germany, both of them being
rivals of France. I have already mentioned that
Henry the First of England, the son of William and the
third of the Norman Kings, gave his daughter in mar-
riage to the Emperor Henry the Fifth. King Henry
of England, who reigned from noo to 1135, was
born in England, and he married Edith or Matilda,
the daughter of Malcolm King of Scots. Her
mother Margaret was the granddaughter of King
Edmund Ironside, so that Henry's children had some
English blood in them. In 1154 Henry, the son of
Henry the First's daughter, the Empress Matilda, by
her second husband Geoffrey Count of Anjou, came to
the Crown of England. The pedigree in this case
should be carefully remembered, because with Henry
the Second began the Angevin Kings of England, who
were neither Norman nor English, except in the female
line. Henry presently married Eleanor the heiress of
Aquitaine ; he thus was master of the greater part of
Northern and Western Gaul, holding of the King of
the French far greater possessions than the King held
himself. Here is quite a new state of things, in which
the same man not only held both England and Nor-
mandy, but had by far the greatest power in all Gaul.
We shall presently see what came of these changes.
6. Wars with the Mahometans in Spain.
The time of the Franconian Emperors is also memor
54 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [CHAF
able as the time when the great struggle between the
Christian and Mahometan nations began to spread
itself over a much wider field. All this while wars
had been going on with the Saracens in all those parts
of Europe and Western Asia where they had settled.
The Christians of Spain, as I have already said, had
always kept their independence in the mountainous
lands in the north, and the conquests of Charles the
Great had been a further check to the advance of the
Saracens. As the Western Empire began to be divided,
the Western Caliphate grew stronger. The time of
the greatest power of the Mahometans in Spain was in
the reign of Abd-al-rahman the Third, from 912 to
961. The Christian kingdoms however still main-
tained their independence, and in 1031 the Western
Caliphate came to an end, and the Saracen dominion
in Spain was cut up into several small states. The
Christians were now able to advance, and in 1084
Alfonso the Sixth, who had united the two kingdoms
of Leon and Castile, won back the old capital of Toledo,
and was near making himself master of the whole of
Spain. The Mahometans in Spain had now to call
in their fellow-believers in Africa to their help. Thus
arose the Moorish dynasty of the Almoravides in
Southern Spain, which put a check for the while to the
advance of the Christians. But in 1118, Alfonso of
Aragon recovered Zaragoza, that is Casar- Augusta,
the chief city of Eastern Spain, and from that time the
kingdom of Aragon also began to grow in importance.
7. Foundation of the Kingdom of Sicily.
Meanwhile the Christians were also gaining ground
on the Mahometans in the great islands of the Medi-
terranean. I have said how the Emperor Nikephoros
won back Crete for the Eastern Empire, and in the
beginning of the eleventh century Sardinia was won
back by the people of the Tuscan commonwealth ol
Pisa. Soon afterwards, Norman adventurers began
to press into the South, and to make conquests at th
IX.] SPAIN AND SICILY. 155
expense both of the Saracens and of the Eastern
Emperors. Under the famous Robei-t Wiscard, they
conquered nearly all the lands which the Eastern
Emperors still kept in Italy. They then crossed into
Sidfy'm 1062, and founded a county which, in 1130,
under its third Count Roger the Second, became a king-
dom. Thus began the Kingdom of Sicily, where at
first French-speaking Kings leigned over Arabic-
speaking Mahometans and Greek-speaking Christians.
All three languages gradually died out, but for a time
all nations and religions flourished under the Norman
Kings. King Roger afterwards won the Norman
possessions in Italy, and the little that was left to the
Eastern Emperors. Thus the Kingdom of Sicily
took in, not only the island, but all the southern part
of the Italian peninsula.
8. The Eastern Empire. We must now look
to the affairs of the Eastern Empire in Asia, and the
more so because its danger at this time led to the
most famous of all the wars between Christians and
Mahometans, namely to the Crusades or Holy Wars.
These were the wars which the Christians waged to
win back the Holy Land, and especially the tomb oi
our Lord at Jerusalem, from their Mahometan posses-
sors. After the death of Basil the Second, the Eastern
Empire, which, under the Macedonian Emperors, had
again become so powerful both in Europe and Asia,
began once more to fall back. As a new European
enemy had arisen against it in the Normans of Sicily,
so a new and terrible enemy arose against it in Asia.
These were the Turks of the house of Seljuk. We
may now look on the chief dominion of Asia as being
finally handed over from the Saracens to the Turks.
1'his change of power in Asia brought about two
memorable results. First, it was the cause of the
heaviest blow which the Eastern Empire had under-
gone since the time of the first Caliphs. Secondly,
it was the cause of the Crusades which were waged
*5 6 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP,
by men from Western Europe. In the course of
the tenth century, the Eastern Caliphate may be
looked on as coming to an end as a political power.
A third Caliphate arose in Egypt, and the Caliphs
of Bagdad gradually fell under the control of their
own mercenaries and ministers, much as the Mero-
wingian Kings of the Franks had fallen under the
control of the Austrasian Mayors. Meanwhile
several Turkish dynasties arose in Persia, and the
Mahometan conquest of India began. At last, in 1055,
the Caliph Al Kayem asked help of Togrel Beg, the
chief of the Seljuk Turks, much as the Popes had in-
vited Pippin and Charles the Great into Italy. The
Caliphs were now left in free possession of Bagdad,
but a great Turkish power now arose, which soon took
iu all Western Asia. War soon arose between this
new power and the Eastern Roman Empire. In 1071,
at the battle of Manzikert, the Turks, under their
Sultan Alp Arslan, gained a great victory over the
Romans, and the Emperor Romanes was taken pri-
soner, as Valerian had long ago been by Sapor. The
result of this was that the Eastern Emperors lost, not
only all that had been won back under the Macedo-
nian Emperors, but nearly all their possessions in Asia.
The dominions of the Seljuk Turks now reached to the
Hellespont Palestine meanwhile was conquered and
conquered again by the different Mahometan powers,
and both the Eastern Christians and the pilgrims from
Europe who went to pray at Jerusalem were far worse
treated than they had been in the days of the first
Saracens. Meanwhile a new dynasty arose in the
Eastern Empire under Alexios Komnenos, a wise
prince, whose family kept the throne for about a
hundred years, and produced some of the best rulers
and bravest warriors among the Byzantine Emperors.
Again, in 1092, the Seljuk power, like other Eastern
states, was divided. One line of Sultans reigned in
Asia Minor, having their capital at Nikaia, and, as
ix. J THE CRUSADES. 157
they ruled over lands which had been woi. from the
Empire, they called themselves Sultans of Rome.
Thus everything favoured a common enterprise on
the part of the Christians. The Mahometans were
divided ; the Eastern Empire was recovering itself,
and men in the West were stirred up by pilgrims who
told of all that the Christians suffered in the East
Thus the nations of the West were moved to a great
general enterprise to deliver their brethren and the
Holy Places from the power of the infidels.
9. The Beginning of the Crusades. The
duty of going to deliver the Holy Places was first
preached by Peter, a hermit of Amiens, though several
Popes and Emperors, Gregory the Seventh among
them, had already dreamed of such an undertaking.
The cause was now zealously taken up by Pope Urban
the Second, who in 1095 held a Council at Clermont in
Auvergne, at which the Holy War was decreed. This
war was called a Crusade, because men put a cross on
their shoulders to show that they were going to fight
in a holy war. Neither the Emperor Henry nor any
of the Kings of the West took any part in the Crusade,
but many of the smaller princes and a vast number
of private men set forth on the pilgrimage. Most of
those who went on the First Crusade were French-
speaking people, from which it has come that the
Eastern nations have ever since called all the people
of Western Europe Franks. The Crusaders passed
through Asia Minor into Palestine, and at last, in 1099,
they took Jerusalem. They founded several Christian
principalities in Palestine and Syria, of which the
head was the Kingdom of Jerusalem, of which Godfrey
of Boulogne, Duke of Lower Lotharingia, that is of
JSrabant in the modern kingdom of Belgium, was
the first King. The Crusaders kept Jerusalem for
somewhat less than a hundred years ; and, though the
kingdom was constantly helped by new Crusaders
from Europe, ft had much ado to hold its ground
<5S THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [CHAI
against the various Mahometan powers. Meanwhile,
as the power of the Turks had been so much weak
ened by the coming of the Crusaders, the Komneniau
Emperors were able to win back a large part of Asia
Minor, all the Euxine and yEgaean coasts, and the
Sultans of Rome were driven back into the inland
parts, and had their capital at Ikonion, instead of at
Nikaia. The effects of the Crusades were very im-
portant in every way. Eastern and Western Chris-
tians were brought across one another and across the
Mahometans ; and, though they commonly met one
another as enemies, yet they came to know one another
better, and to learn of each other. Both the Saracens
and the Romans of the East had much to teach the
Western nations in many branches of art and learning.
But still more important than this was the general
stirring up of men's minds which followed on such
great events. From the time of the Crusades a great
revival of thought and learning of every kind began
throughout Europe.
to. Summary. The time of the Franconian Em-
perors was thus a time of very important changes.
The great struggle between the Popes and the Emperors
began. The Turkish power began. The Crusades
began. The Norman Conquest of England took plnre.
The Christians began to gain ground again in Spain.
It was the time when the chief states of modern
Europe began to form themselves, and when the litera-
ture of the Romance languages began. It was also
a time when we find many good historical writers in
England, Germany, and Normandy. And it was a time
of great splendour in building, especially in building
churches. But they were still built in the round-arched
or Romanesque style ; the use of \hz pointed arch, and
what is commonly called the Gothic s'y\, did not com*
in till near the end of the twelfth century.
Long. TV.
Long. E.
* Ulnputed portion on the French court appears in light porpli
10
from Greenwich
JFisk * See,N.T
sombination of red and bluv the French and English colors.
x.] VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 159
CHAPTER X.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE MIDD1 E AGES.
t'fo Middle Ages ; unimi of Roman and Teutonic tlement*
(l) the Church and the Empire ; how affected by thi
Teutonic settlements (2) ideal powers of the Emperor
and the Pope ; the theory only imperfectly carried out
(2) changes following on the transfer of the Empire
to the German Kings (2) study of the Roman Law
(2) the Western Empire becomes German and the
Eastern Empire becomes Greek (3) condition of tlie
various countries of Europe; extension of the German
Kingdom to the East (3) the old Teutonic constitu-
tion; three orders of men, nobles, freemen, and slaves
(4) mixture of Roman and Teutonie ideas (4) origin
of fief s ; Roman grant's of land for military service;
Teutonic custom of companionship to a personal Lord
(5) distinction of allodial and feudal tenures ; change
of allodial holdings into feudal (5) effects of the feudal
tenures; growth of the class of serfs (6) introduction
of representative assemblies ; growth nf the power of
the feudal princes (6) comparison of the political state
of England, Germany, and France (7) Kings com-
monly chosen out of a single family (S) origin of the
Electors of the Empire (8) the Crown of France be-
comes strictly hereditary (8) uncertainty of succession
in the Eastern Empire (S) spread of Christianity over
nearly all Europe (9) division between the Eastern
and the Western Chiirches (9) growth of the power
of the Popes ; tendency of the clergy to act as a distinct
class (9) temporal powers of the clergy ; special
greatness of the German Prelates (10) distinction
between regular and secular clergy ( 1 1 ) various orders
of monks ; the military orders (u) learning in (he
West chiefly in the hands of the clergy j contrast in
the East (12) Greek becomes the language of the East-
ern Empire ; continued use of Latin in the West (12)
early Teutonic literature ; growth of the Romanct
languages (12) revival of learning in the twelfth cen-
160 VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. [CHAP.
tury (\TL) position of the towns in ancient Greece and
Italy ; their decline under the Teutonic invasions
(13) destruction of Roman towns in Britain (13)
growth of the towns in Germany; greatness of the
Hanseatic League (13) greatness of the cities in Italy
(13) Summary (14).
1. General Survey of Europe. We have now
reached a point at which it will be well to stop and
look at the general state of things among the
European nations. All the things which distinguish
what are called the Middle Ages, alike from what
we are used to in modern Europe and from the old
days of heathen Greece and Rome, have now fully
come in. The settlement of the Teutonic nations
within the Roman Empire had gradually brought
about a state of things in which we may see both
Roman and Teutonic elements, but in which the two
had, as we may say, so joined together as to make a
third thing different from either.
2. The Church and the Empire. The two
great powers in Western Europe were the Church and
the Empire. Both of them lived on through the set-
tlements of the German nations, and both in a manner
drew new powers from the change of things. Men
believed more than ever that Rome was the lawful and
natural centre of the world. For it was held that there
were of divine right two Vicars of God upon earth,
the Roman Emperor his Vicar in temporal things, and
the Roman Bishop his Vicar in spiritual things. This
belief did not interfere with the existence either of
separate commonwealths and principalities or of
national Churches. But it was held that the Roman
Emperor, who was called Lord of the World, was of
right the head of all temporal states, and that the
Roman Bishop, the Pope, was of right the head of all
Churches. Now this theory was never carried out, if
only because so large a part of Christendom, all the
Churches and nations of the East, refused to acknow
K.] THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. 161
ledge either the Emperor or the Bishop of the Old
Rome. But it was mnch more nearly carried out in
the case of the Roman Bishop than it was in the case
of the Roman Emperor. For the Popes did really
make themselves spiritual heads of the whole West,
while the temporal head ship of the Emperors was never
acknowledged by a large part even of the West.
But the continued belief which men still had in the
Roman Empire as a living thing is not only most re-
markable in itself, but it had a most important effect
on the history of the world. Still it is plain that the
Roman Empire could not really be the same thing as
it had been before the Teutonic nations came into
the Roman dominions. . Even during the short time
that the whole Empire of Charles the Great stayed
together, it made a great difference that the Emperor
was a German King, living for the most part in Ger-
many, and not at Rome or anywhere in Italy. And
afterwards the utter cutting off of France and Spain
from the Empire did much to take away from its
character as a universal monarchy, and to make the
Emperors more like common Kings over a particular
nation. They were still Kings of Italy and Burgundy
as well as of Germany, but most things were now
tending to make the Empire more and more German
and less and less Roman. On the other hand, as
this was the time of a great new birth of learning, men
had begun, among other things, to study the Civil Law,
the old law of Rome, as it was put together by the
Emperor Justinian. This study naturally led men to
a respect for the Imperial power, and thus helped to
give the claims of the Emperors a new source of
strength. We shall see presently the effects of these
different tendencies when we come to the history of
the Emperors during the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies.
3. The Nations of Europe. Nearly all the
nations of Modern Europe had now come into being
1 6* VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. [CHAP.
We may even say that the two Empires themselves
had begun to answer to two of those nations. For
the Eastern Empire had, through the conquests of the
Turks, come to answer pretty nearly to those parts of
Europe and of the coasts of Asia where Greek was the
prevailing language. That is to say, the Roman
Empire of the East might be said, speaking roughly, to
have become a Greek state. And, speaking still more
roughly, it might even be said that the Roman Empire
of the West had become a German state. For Ger-
many was now the heart and centre of the Empire,
though the possession of the Kingdoms of Italy
and Burgundy of course gave the Emperors many
Romance-speaking subjects. Southern Italy, it will
be remembered, now formed part of the Kingdom
of Sicily. To the west of Germany and Burgundy,
beyond the Rhone, the Saone, and the Maes, lay the
Kingdom of France, the lands held by the King of the
French and his vassals. In the Spanish peninsula the
Christian states of Castile and Leon, Navarre, Aragon,
and Portugal, were all growing up, and were gradually
driving the Mahometans into the southern part called
Andalusia. These countries had now so little to do
with the Empire that more than one of the Kings of
Castile took the title of Emperor, as being the chief
princes in their own peninsula, just as the West-Saxon
Kings had done the like, as being the chief princes in
their own island. It was only towards the East, where
Germany bordered on the Slavonic nations, that the
Empire had much chance of extending itself. The
Wends, the Slavonic people slong the south coast of
the Baltic, in Mecklenburg and Pomerania and the
other lands beyond the Elbe, gradually became Chris-
tians and were joined on to Germany, and the Low-
Dutch language gradually displaced the Slavonic.
Bohemia became a dependent st^fe, but it kept its
own Dukes who afterwards became Kings. So in the
other chief Slavonic country, that of Poland, the Dukes
x.] THE NATIONS OF EUROPE. 163
and Kings had sometimes to submit to the Empeiors,,
but in the end Poland gradually became quite inde-
pendent, while Bohemia became more and more
closely joined on to the Empire. We may say nearly
the same of the Kingdom of the Magyars in Hungary.
To the east of Poland and Hungary, Lithuania, where
the people were still heathens, and Russia, where they
belonged to the Eastern Church, had very little to do
with Western Europe. In Northern Europe, Denmark,
Sweden, and Norway were distinct kingdoms. Swe-
den and Norway had, from their position, very little to
do with the rest of Europe, except so far as the Orkneys
and the other islands oft" Scotland were still closely
connected with Norway. But Denmark was a very
important power, and its Kings made large conquests
in various parts of the coasts of the Baltic. England,
as we have said, had become thoroughly welded into
one kingdom under the Norman Kings. Scotland was
a distinct kingdom, but its Kings were held to be the
men of the English Kings. And, during the time with
which we are now concerned, came the beginnings of
the English Conquest of Ireland. We thus see that
most of the European states which still exist had
already come into being. From this point therefore
we may, for the most part, leave the internal affairs of
each country to be dealt with in its own special
History. But we must still go on with our sketch of
those events which affected the history of the nations
in general, and this will be a good point to say some-
thing about the state of government, religion, and
other matters during what are called the Middle Ages.
4. Changes in the Old Teutonic Constitu-
tion. We saw at the very beginning of this book
that all the Aryan nations set out, as far as we can see,
with very much the same kind of government. There
was a King or chief as the leader, there was a smaller
Council of nobles or old men, and there was a general
Assembly of the whole people. This was the form o/
1 64 VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. [CIIAF.
government of the Teutonic nations at the time when
they began to settle within the Roman Empire. There
were commonly three classes of men in the state, the
nobles, the common freemen, and the stoves. And men
became slaves in two ways, either by being made
prisoners of war or by being condemned to slavery for
some crime. And it was also usual, especially in war-
time, for men to attach themselves to the service of
some particular leader, to become his companions or
his men, who were bound to be faithful to him and
who looked to share such rewards as he had to give
them. This we may call the old Teutonic Constitution,
as being at first common to all the Teutonic nations.
But our own forefathers, when they settled in Britain,
swept away all Roman institutions more utterly than
was done in any part of the mainland. Scandinavia
too never came under the Roman power at all. It
was therefore in Britain and Scandinavia that this old
constitution lasted longest on a great scale. In those
parts of the mainland which had always belonged to
the Empire things went on somewhat differently. As
we have already said, Roman and Teutonic institutions
influenced one another. As the Roman Empire be-
came something quite different when it began to be
held by German Kings, so the Teutonic Constitution
was greatly changed by the Roman laws and institu-
tions which were already established. The cities, for
instance, kept up something of their Roman constitu-
tions ; and, as men learned something of the Roman
Law, they began to attribute to the Teutonic Kings
something of the great powers of the Roman Emperors.
And of course they did this all the more after the
Frankish Kings had actually become Roman Em-
perors. And one institution arose out of the mixture
of Ronidji and Teutonic ideas which has had a most
important influence on the world ever since.
5. Origin of Fiefs. It had been very commoa
under the Roman government to grant lands on coo-
X.] FEUDAL TENURES. 165
dition of military service. But such lands weie held of
the Roman Commonwealth or of the Emperor as its
head, and their holding did not create any particular
personal relation between one man and another. But
when this Roman custom was combined with the
Teutonic custom of men following a chief as their
personal lord, a peculiar relation arose out of the
union of the two. The lord granted lands to his wan
or vassal, on condition of his being faithful to him and
doing him service in war. The land so granted was
called a feudum, fief, or fee; and land held in this
way was said to be held by a feudal tenure. Land
which was a man's very own, which was not held of
any lord but was subject only to the laws of the state,
<vas called allodial. But it often happened that men
whose estates were small found it better to turn their
allodial holdings into feudal, and to agree to hold their
land of some powerful lord, in order to get his pro-
tection. And the same thing was sometimes done on
a great scale, when a prince who was conquered, or
who feared that he might be conquered, agreed to hold
his dominions in fief of the Emperor rather than
lose them altogether.
6. Effects of the Feudal Tenures. The
general introduction of these feuda/ or irvuitary tenures
caused some important changes both in political and
in social matters. The change was made gradually,
and it was slower in England than in most parts of
the Continent ; but its general effect was to raise those
men who held their lands by these new tenures above
all others, and to thrust the poorer freemen lower
down. In many countries they gradually sank into
the state of serfs or villains ; that is, men who are not
actually slaves to be bought and sold man by man,
but who are bound to the land and pass with it.
Meanwhile the class of actual slaves was dying out, and
the class of villains was increased both by the freemen
who fell down to it, and by the slaves who were raised
1 66 VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. [CHAP.
into it. The smaller freemen also lost power in
another way. The old Teutonic Constitution, by
which each freeman had a right to appear in the
national Assembly, could no longer be fully carried
out when the Franks or any other people had got
possession of a large country. All men could not
come in their own persons, and it was not for a long
time, not till the twelfth or thirteenth century, that
any one thought of choosing a smaller number of men
to speak and act on behalf of all, as is now done in
Parliament, and as is done in most of the countries of
Europe and America. From all these causes working
together two chief results happened. First, in most
parts of Europe the old national Assemblies either
quite died out, or were attended only by the chief men
who could come in their own persons. Secondly, each
province or district had a tendency to set up for itself.
The Count or Duke, who was at first merely the
governor of a province, often grew into an hereditary
prince, acknowledging the Emperor or other King as
the lord of whom he held his dominions in fief, but
acting almost as an independent sovereign in the
internal government of those dominions.
7. Comparison of Different Countries.
These tendencies were more or less at work in every
part of Western Europe, but they were carried out
more fully and more quickly in some countries than in
others. Scandinavia and England up to the time of
the Norman Conquest were less affected by them than
other countries. In England the national Assemblies
never died out, but, as the Kings of the West-Saxons
grew into Kings of the English, the Assembly of Wessex
became the national Assembly of all England. The
entering of the Normans greatly strengthened the
power of the Crown, and thereby made the nation
more thoroughly one. But, on the other hand, it
greatly strengthened the feudal ideas, till it was thought
that all land must be held of a lord, of the King o<
x.] WAYS OF APPOINTING KINGS. i6j
course in the first instance, as the supreme lord. In
Germany also the national Assemblies never died
out; but the Bishops, Dukes, Counts, and other
princes gradually became sovereigns within their own
dominions, and the Diet or Assembly of the Empire
gradually became little more than a meeting of princes.
In Italy things took a course so different from other
countries that it will be well to speak of it by itself.
France for a while fell asunder more completely than
any other kingdom. The national Assemblies ceased
altogether, and the Kings became mere nominal lords
over the great princes who held fiefs of them. But
this in the end led to a greater strengthening of the
royal power in France than in any other kingdom.
For the Kings of the French step by step got into
their own hands nearly all the dominions of theii
vassals, as well as those of many of their neighbours
who were not their vassals. Thus, for the very
reason that the French Kings had once had much
less power than either the Emperors or the English
Kings, they came in the end to have much more
power than either of them.
8. Ways of Appointing Kings. As for the
way in which Kings were appointed, by the old
Teutonic Constitution the Kings were chosen by the
people, but for the most part out of one particular
family. In England this way of choosing Kings lasted
till the Norman Conquest, and died out only very
gradually afterwards. The Prankish or German
Kings, who by virtue of their election in Germany had
a right to become Roman Emperors, were always
elected. But in the twelfth century the right of elec-
tion began gradually to be confined to a few of the
chief princes of Germany, who were fixed at seven,
and who bore the special title of Electors. But the
Emperors, whenever they could, got their sons to be
chosen Kings in their lifetime, as Henry the Third
and Fourth both did. In this case, when the young
168 VIKW OF Tin-. MIDDLE AGES. [CHAP.
King's father died, he went on reigning without any
interregnum, and in due time he was crowned Em-
peror. In France the crown became more strictly
hereditary than anywhere else, because, for more than
three hundred years after the election of Hugh Capet,
every King of the French left a son ready to suc-
ceed him, who had sometimes been crowned in his
father's lifetime. Thus in France the male line went
on without any break, while, both in Germany and in
England, the crown passed several times from one
family to another, though the several dynasties were
commonly of kin to one another through female
descent. All that we have now been saying has
to do only with Western Europe. In the East the
system of fiefs was never brought in till the Latins
began to make conquests at the expense of the
Eastern Emperors. And in the East too the Empire
went on as it had done from the time of the first
Caesars, often staying in one family for several genera-
tions, but being often seized on by any general or lead-
ing man who was strong enough. This was a state of
things which had quite passed away in the West. In
the Eastern Empire too the power of the Emperors
remained quite despotic ; still their government never
became quite like the despotisms of the East, as it was
always tempered by some remembrance of the old
laws and traditions of Rome.
9. State of Religion. By this time by far the
greater part of Europe was Christian. Polarul and
Hungary were converted about the end of the tenth
century, and the Scandinavian countries, as we have
already seen, about the same time. Only the Prus-
sians and Lithuanians, and the Fins and Laps in
the extreme North, remained heathen. In Spain the
Saracens and Moors were of course Mahometans, and
there were still Mahometans in Sicily under the
Norman Kings. But, while nearly all Europe thus
became Christian, the division between the two greal
x.] STATE OF RELIGION. 169
branches of the Church had become wider than ever
After the eleventh century there seemed no hope of a
reconciliation between the Churches of Old and New
Rome. In the West the power of the Popes wag
steadily growing, and it was at its height from the
eleventh century to the thirteenth, during which time
several Popes followed the example of Gregory the
Seventh, in taking upon themselves to depose the.
Emperors and other Kings, and to give away their
dominions. And, while the power of the Popes was
thus growing at the expense of civil rulers, it was
growing no less fast at the expense of national
Churches in each particular country. And, as the rule
by which the clergy were forbidden to marry was
spreading everywhere, they were becoming a class
more and more separate from other men, and more
and more obedient to the Popes. In all this there was
much that we cannot help blaming, and the Popes and
clergy often thought too much of the interests of their
own order, and not of the welfare of the Church in
general ; still we must remember that the Popes and
other clergy kept up religion and learning, and a
general sense of right and wrong, in very rough and
wild times. There was much to blame in their own
doings, but they were a great check on the evil
passions of men ; and, whatever we say of the Popes
in particular, the general influence of the clergy was a
powerful influence for good.
10. Position of the Clergy. As the Popes were
constantly taking to themselves power in temporal
matters, so we find that in these times the clergy in
general took a part in temporal affairs which we should
now think very strange. But this was by no means
wholly the fault of the clergy ; as things were then,
it could hardly be otherwise. The clergy had nearly
all the knowledge of the time in their hands, so that
it could not fail that they were largely employed in all
matters, including many which did not exactly belong
i;o VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. [CHAP
to their own duties. They acted as ministers of Kings
and as lawyers, and many of them did not scruple to
wear weapons and fight, though this was always held
to be a wrong thing and against the laws of the Church.
In all parts of Western Christendom the bishopricks
and monasteries and other ecclesiastical bodies were
richly endowed, and held great lands and lordships,
In Germany especially most of the Bishops and Abbots
were princes of the Empire, and the three Archbishops
of Mainz, Koln, and Trier (called in French Mayence,
Cologne, and Treves) were among the Electors of the
Emperor. In other countries they did not rise to
such power as this, but they were always high in tem-
poral rank and were chief members of the Parliament
or other national Assembly.
ii. The Monastic Orders. The distinction
between the regular and the secular clergy was now
fully established. The regular clergy were those
who went out of the world and lived together as
monks in monasteries ; the seculars were those who
lived in the world as parish priests or as canons of
cathedral and coftegiate churches. There were many
learned men in both classes ; but we have on the
whole more histories and other books written by the
regulars than by the seculars. The oldest monks in
the West were the Benedictines, who followed the rule
of Saint Benedict, the great founder of the monastic
life in Italy in the sixth century. But, as the Bene-
dictines grew rich and their discipline became less
strict, other orders of monks arose, who professed to
bring back an older and stricter discipline. Such
were the Cistercians, an order of which many houses
were founded in the twelfth century ; and in the
thirteenth arose the different orders of Friars, as
the Franciscans and Dominicans, called after their
founders Saint Francis and Saint Dominic, who pro-
fessed more complete poverty than the older orders,
and gave themselves much to preaching. All thesf
x.] LANGUAGE AND LEARNING. 171
different revivals, one after the other, did good at
the time, both among the monks and among other
men ; but each new order commonly came in the
end to be rich and corrupt, like those which it had
undertaken to reform, and so a new reformation wa?
needed. But the strangest thing of all was that during
the Crusades there arose orders of monks who were
also soldiers men who took the vows of monks,
but whose further business it was to fight against the
enemies of Christianity. Two of these military orders,
the Templars and the Hospitallers or Knights of Saint
John, were the chief defence of the Christian kingdom
of Jerusalem. Another order of this kind, called the
Teutonu Knights, arose in Palestine towards the end
of the twelfth century, and in the course of the thirteenth
they undertook to convert or conquer the heathens on
the coast of the Baltic, in Prussia and Livonia, where
the order held principalities. Thus strangely were
religious zeal and the love of fighting mixed up in
these times.
12. Language and Learning. In all this it
must be remembered that we are speaking wholly of
Western Christendom, and more especially when we
speak of knowledge being in the hands of the clergy.
In the Eastern Empire both the regular and secular
clergy play a great part in history, but they neither had
all learning to themselves, nor did they fill temporal
offices in the same way in which they did in the West.
In the East, where the Empire had gone on uninter-
ruptedly without any lasting barbarian conquests, learn-
ing had never died out among the laity. The Latin
language was now quite forgotten in the East. Greek
was the one tongue which men both wrote and spoke,
though of course they wrote much better Greek than
they spoke. Many of the Histories which were written
at Constantinople at this time were written by laymen,
often by Emperors and other men of high rank. Bui
in the West there was nowhere any one language con*
,72 VIEW Of THE MIDDLE AGES.
rnon to all classes of men. The use of Latin was
everywhere kept up for all purposes of religion and
learning. The Church service was still said in Latin,
though Latin was now nowhere the common language of
the people. For in Germany, England, and Scandi-
navia men spoke their own Teutonic languages, and
in Italy, Aquitaine, Spain, and France men spoke the
Romance tongues, which we must now look on as lan-
guages distinct from the Latin. It thus came about
that very few books were written by laymen, and that
very few books were anywhere written in the speech
of the people. Still, more books were written in the
speech of the people in the Teutonic than in the
Romance countries, because no one could help knowing
that High-Dutch, English, or Danish was quite a differ-,
ent language from Latin ; while men for a long time
looked on the -vulgar tongue, as it was called, in the
Romance countries, simply as bad Latin, which no one
would think of writing. Thus we have many Old-
English, and some High-Dutch, writings older than
anything in any of the Romance tongues. The English
have what no other nation has, a History of their
own people from the beginning written in their owo
language. In Scandinavia too men wrote their own
legends and histories in their own tongue. We begin
to get French verse in the twelfth century, but it is not
till the thirteenth century that we get any prose. It
is somewhat later that we come to the first great work
of Italian literature in the famous poem of Dantt
Alighieri. The first chief writers in both these lan-
guages were, as might be supposed, laymen. The
twelfth century was a great new birth of learning and
science everywhere, partly because men then began to
have more dealings with the Greeks and Saracens.
Still, even after this time, laymen in Northern Europe
were, as a rule, not taught to read and write, though
reading and writing gradually became more common,
and it must always be remembered fhat, when a man
x.] GROWTH OF THE TOWNS. 173
could not write, it does not at all follow that he could
not read.
13. Growth of the Towns. Another thing
must here be mentioned, which was of special import-
ance at the time which we have just come to. This
was the growing up of the towns into greater, in some
parts into the very first, importance. In the old state
of things, Greek and Roman, the towns had, so to
speak, been everything. Every freeman was a citizen
of some town or other, and the Roman dominion was
throughout a dominion of one city bearing rule over
other cities. The Teutonic settlements everywhere
drove the towns back ; none of the Teutonic nations
were used to a town life. They looked on the
walls of a town as a prison. In Britain, the inhab-
itants, who knew nothing of Roman civilization, seem
at first to have utterly destroyed the Roman towns,
and it was not till some time after the first conquest
that new English towns began to arise, very often on
the old Roman sites. In the other provinces, the
Goths, Franks, and other Teutonic settlers did not
destroy the Roman towns ; but the towns lost much of
their importance and local freedom. But, as civilization
began to grow again, new towns began to spring up,
and the old towns to win back something of their
old greatness. In Germany the Saxon Kings and
Emperors were great founders of towns; and, both
there and in other parts of the Empire, the old and
the new towns alike gradually won for themselves great
privileges, which made them almost independent within
their own walls. And, as the Imperial power declined
and the Dukes and Counts grew into sovereign princes,
so in the same way the free Imperial cities grew into
sovereign commonwealths, acknowledging only the
outward supremacy of the Emperor. And in many
cases, like the towns of old Greece and Italy, they
joined together in Leagues for mutual defence. Thus
in Northern Germany, the Hanseatic League, thf
174 VIEW OF THE MIDDLE AGES. [CH\*
league of the great trading towns, became a great
power in all the Northern seas, and often gave law to
the Kings of Denmark and Sweden. But the part of
the Empire where the towns rose to the highest pitch
of greatness was Italy, especially the northern part.
There, from the eleventh century onwards, the towns,
as we may say, became everything, just as they had
been in old Greece. Here nearly the whole country
was parted out among the dominions of the different
cities, and the whole land became again an assemblage
of commonwealths, independent of any power but
that of the Emperor. But, though the freedom of the
Italian towns became greater than that of the towns
of Germany, it was not so lasting. In Germany a
great many of the towns always kept their freedom ;
and three of them, the Hanse Towns of Liibeck, Bremen,
and Hamburg, are separate commonwealths even now.
But in Italy most of the cities fell, just as those of old
Greece did long before, into the hands either of native
lords or Tyrants or into those of foreign princes.
Thus it was that Italy became divided, or rather
grouped together, into the various principalities which
have lately been joined together again into the
restored Kingdom of Italy. But a few common-
wealths contrived to go on till the end of the last
century, and one very small one, that of San Marino,
remains still.
14. Summary. These are some of the chief cha-
racteristics which we may look on as distinguishing
the times known as the Middle Ages from times earlier
and later. It is not easy to say when the Middle
Ages begin and end, as the name is nothing more
than a convenient way of speaking. But the ten-
dencies of which we have been speaking were about at
their height in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, in
the time of the Swabian Emperors. We have now,
so to speak, got quite clear of the old Roman times,
while we have not yet got into the times which are
xi.] THE SWAB TAN EMPERORS. 175
more like those in which we now live. In the course
of the thirteenth century we shall corne across great
changes.
CHAPTER XI.
THE SWABIAN EMPERORS.
The Hohenstaufen Kings and Emperors j origin of thi
names Cue If and Ghibelin (i) reign and crusade of
Conrad (i) reign of Frederick Barbarossa; his deal-
ings with the Italian cities, with the Popes, with Kings
of Sitijy, with the Eastern Empire (2) reign of Henry
the Sixth ; his conquest of Sicily (3) double election
of Philip and Otto ; reign of Frederick the Second;
his dealings with Sicily, Germany, Italy, and the Popes
(4) reign of Conrad the Fourth ; end of the Swabian
dynasty ; decline of the Imperial power (4) relations
between England and France ; dominions of the
Angevin Kings; reign of Henry the Second (5)
rivalry of Philip Augustus and Richard Cceur-de-Lion
(5) reign of John in England j his forfeiture of. Nor-
mandy (5) victory of Philip at Bouvines; Lewis of
France in England (5) reign of Lewis the Eighth
(6) reign of Saint Lewis ; his dealings with Henry
the Third; annexation of Toulouse (6) effects of Hie
reign of Saint Lewis ; advance of the French Kingdom
(6) growth of the English Constitution; union of
Normans and English against foreigners (7) reforms
of Simon of Montfort; nature of national assemblies
in England and elsewhere (7) the English conyuesl
of Ireland (8) state of the Kingdom of Jerusalem;
the Second Crusade ; taking of Jerusalem by Saladin
(9) Crusade of the Emperor Frederick, and the Kings
Philip and Richard (10) Frederick the Second wins
back Jerusalem ; its final capticre by the Chorasmians
(10) Crusades of Saint Lewis and of Edward the
First ; final loss of the Holy Land (10) revival of
the Eastern Empire under the Komnenian dynasty ;
Us decline (nl Fourth Crusade ; taking of Ccnstan-
176 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS.
tinople by the Franks and Venetians ( 1 1 ) The Latin
Empire of Constantinople ; Eastern dominion of Vaunt
(1-2) -formation of various principalities in the East;
Emperors of Nikaia and Trebizond (12) Constanti-
nople recovered by the Greeks; dynasty of the Palaio-
logoi (12) the Albigenses j Crusades waged against
them ; suppression of their sect and of their national
independence (13') reign of Manfred in Sicily j
Crusades preached against him (14) conqttest of Sicily
by Charles of Anjou; execution of Conradin ; revolt
0f the island of Sicily (14) state of North-eastern
Europe; advance of Denmark east of the Baltic (15)
establishment of t/te Teutonic Knights in Prussia,
and Livonia (15) new Mahometan dynasties in Spain;
victories of the Caliph Jacob (16) advance of the
Christian Kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal ;
the Moors confined to Granada (16) rise of the Moguls >
reigns of Jenghiz and his descendants (17) invasion
of Central Europe by Batou Khan; subjection of
Russia (17) overthrow of the Caliphate and of the
Seljuk Turks (17) Summary (18).
i. Origin of the Guelfs and Ghibelins.
On the death of Henry the Fifth in 1125, Lothar,
Duke of Saxony, was elected King, and in 1133 ne
was crowned Emperor. He submitted more readily
to the Popes than most Emperors did, and Pope Inno-
cent the Second even gave out that he became his man
at his coronation. But on Lothar's death the Impe-
rial Crown passed to one of the greatest families
which ever held it, that of the Hohcnstaufen or Dukes
of Swabia. The first King of that house was Conrad
the Third, who reigned as King from 1138 to 1152,
but who was never crowned Emperor. He was the
son of a daughter of the Emperor Henry the Fourth,
so that the Swabian dynasty did in a manner continue
the line of the Franconian Emperors. It might also
be said to continue then in their policy ; for the
Emperors of this family had fully as much to do
in disputing with the Popes as the Franconiao
Emperors had done. This however did not begin
xi. i FREDERICK: BARBAROSSA. m
in the time of King Conrad, though the two names
of Guclf and Ghibelin, which presently became so
famous in Italy, began during his reign in Germany.
For Conrad had several wars with the Saxons and
others who disliked his election, and in one of the
sieges the war-cry of the rebels was Welf, after their
leader, Welf, brother of Duke Henry of Saxony, while
the King's men shouted Waibling, the name of a village
where their leader, Duke Frederick of Swabia, the
King's brother, had been brought up. These names,
written in an Italian fashion, became Guelfs and Ghi-
belins : the Guelfs meaning those who supported the
Popes, and the Ghibelins those who supported the
Emperors. King Conrad went on the second Crusade
to the Holy Land, in which he did not gain much
success ; and it is a thing to be noted that he made a
league with Manuel, the Emperor of the East, against
Roger King of Sicily, who was making himself dan-
gerous to both Empires.
2. Reign of Frederick Barbarossa. But the
reign of Conrad was of little importance compared
with that of his nephew and successor Frederick, who,
from his red beard, is commonly known as Frederick
Barbarossa. He was chosen King in 1152 ; he was
crowned Emperor in 1155, and reigned till 1190.
The greater part of his reign was taken up with the
affairs and wars of Italy. The Italian cities, as has
been already said, had grown up into nearly indepen-
dent commonwealths. They often had wars with one
another, and, just as in old Greece, the smaller cities
often complained of the oppression of the greater.
Thus the great city of Milan sought to bring Como,Lodi,
and others of the smaller cities under its power, and the
smaller cities in their turn prayed the Emperor to come
to their help. Some of the cities, as Pavia, which had
been the capital in the Lombard times, and the great
seafaring commonwealth of Pisa, were always strong
on the side of the Emperors. But, gradually, most o/
l?8 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP
the cities of Northern Italy found that it was their
interest to join together to defend their independence
against the Imperial power. Thus was formed the
Lombard League, with which Frederick had long wars,
which will be best spoken of in the special History of
Italy. But, besides the cities, the Western Emperors
had other enemies to strive against in Italy. Popes
and Emperors never could agree ; disputes arose be-
tween Frederick and Pope Hadrian the Fourth, who
had crowned him. When Hadrian died in 1159, a
fiercer dispute broke out ; for the Popedom was
claimed by two candidates, Victor and Alexander.
The Emperor took the side of Victor ; therefore the
cities which were against him naturally took the other
side, and Frederick had to strive against all who fol-
lowed Pope Alexander. The Kings of Sicily too,
William the Good and William the Bad, were his
enemies ; and the Emperor Manuel Komnenos, who
dreamed of winning back Italy for the Eastern Empire,
also gave help to the revolted cities. The end was
that the Emperor had to make peace with both the
Pope and the cities, and in 1183 the rights of the
cities were acknowledged in a treaty or law of the
Empire, passed at Constanz or Constance in Swabia,
Besides his wars in Italy, the Emperor Frederick had
also to strive in Germany with Henry the Lion, who
was Duke of Saxony and Bavaria at once, and who
married Matilda, daughter of Henry the Second of
England. Duke Henry lost the greater part of his
dominions, and the great duchy of Saxony was
broken up. In the las'" years of his reign, Frederick
went on the third Crusade, and died on the way.
3. Union of Sicily with the Empire. Fred-
erick was succeeded by his son Henry the Sixth, who
had already been chosen King, and who in the next
year, 1191, was crowned Emperor. The chief event
of his reign was the conquest of the Kingdom of Sicily,
which he claimed in right of his wife C instance, the
xi.] FREDERICK THE SECOND. 179
daughter of the first King William. He died in 1197,
leaving his son Frederick a young child. But he had
already been chosen King in Germany, and he suc-
ceeded as hereditary King in Sicily. The Norman
Kingdom of Sicily thus came to an end, except so far
as it was continued in Frederick, who was descended
from the Norman Kings through his mother.
4. Reign of Frederick the Second. On the
death of the Emperor Henry, the election of young
Frederick seems to have been quite forgotten, and the
crown was disputed between his uncle Philip oj
Swctbia and Otto of Saxony, the son of Henry the Lion.
Both Kings were crowned, and, after the death of
Philip, Otto was crowned Emperor in 1209. But
presently young Frederick was again chosen, and in
1220 he was crowned Emperor, and reigned thirty
years till his death in 1250. This Frederick the Second,
who joined together so many crowns, was called the
Wonder of the World. And he well deserved the
name, for perhaps no King that ever reigned had greater
natural gifts, and in thought and learning he was far
above the age in which he lived. In his own Kingdom
of Sicily he could do pretty much as he pleased, and it
flourished wonderfully in his time. But in Germany
and Italy he had constantly to struggle against enemies
of all kinds. In Germany he had to win the support
of the princes by granting them privileges which did
much to undermine the royal power, and on the other
hand he showed no favour to the rising power of the
cities. In Italy he had endless strivings with one
Pope after another, with Innocent the Third, Honorius
the Third, Gregory the Ninth, and Innocent the Fourth ;
as well as with the Guelfic cities, which withstood him
much as they had withstood his grandfather. He was
more than once excommunicated by the Popes, and
in 1245 Pope Innocent the Fourth held a Council at
Lyons, in which he professed to depose the Emperor.
More than one King was chosen in opposition to him
rSo THE SWAB I AN EMPERORS. [CHAP.
in Germany, just as had been done in the time of
Henry the Fourth, and there were civil wars all his
time, both in Germany and in Italy, while a great part of
the Kingdom of Burgundy was beginning to slip away
from the Empire altogether. On Frederick's death,
his son Conrad, who had been chosen King in Ger-
many in 1237, and who of course succeeded his father
in the hereditary Kingdom of Sicily, was reckoned as
King by the Ghibelins in Germany and Italy. But he
died in 1254, and he was never crowned Emperor.
With him ended the line of Swabia as Emperors and
as Kings of Germany and Italy. Moreover, from the
death of Frederick the Second, we may look on the
power of the Empire, as the great leading state of
Europe and the centre of all European history, as
coming to an end.
5. England and France. While the Swabian
Emperors reigned in Germany and Italy, the Angevin
Kings reigned in England. They began with Henry
the Second, the grandson of Henry the First through
his daughter the Empress Matilda. Now came the
time when England was part of the dominions of a
prince whose greatest power lay on the Continent
The dominions which Henry held through his father,
his mother, and his wife, took up nearly the whole of
Western Gaul, and he held the mouths of the great
rivers Seine, Loire, and Garonne. Thus it came that
in England both the native English and the Norman
settlers were brought under the rule of a King who was
not really either Norman or English. Thus too it came
that in France the King was more than ever shut tip
in his own dominions, when nearly the whole coast
was held by a prince who was Duke of Normandy and
Aquitaine and King of England all at once. Thus
there began in England a more distinct rule of
foreigners over all the natives of the land of whatever
race, and in France 'the rivalry between the King and
his great vassal is more marked than ever. In France
XI.] ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 181
King Lewis the Sixth, who reigned from 1 108 to 1 137,
had done something to strengthen the royal authority
and he had also favoured the growth of the towns
His son Lewis the Seventh was often at variance with
King Henry of England, but no very great changes
happened while they lived. It was quite different in
the time of their sons. Lewis died in 1180, and was
succeeded by his son Philip, called Philip Augustus;
and Henry died in 1189, and was succeeded by his
son Richard, called Cceur-de-Lion or the Lion-Heart,
These two Kings joined in a Crusade, of which we
we shall say more presently ; but enmity went on
during the whole of their reigns, and things came to a
head in the time of imgjohn of England, who suc-
ceeded on the death of his brother Richard in 1199.
John was lawfully chosen King according to English
law, and it does not seem that any party in England
thought of raising any one else to the throne. But a
party in Richard's foreign dominions wished to have
for their Duke young Arthur, the son of John's elder
brother Geoffrey, whose mother was Constance, the
heiress of Britanny. John got Arthur into his power,
and he was commonly believed to have murdered him.
This of course raised great indignation everywhere,
and Philip took advantage of it to cause a sentence to
be passed by the peers of his kingdom, by which John
was declared to have forfeited all the fiefs which he
held of the Crown of France. By way of carrying out
this sentence, Philip conquered, with very little trouble,
all continental Normandy and the other possessions of
John in Northern Gaul. But the Duchy of Aquitairu
and the Norman Islands were still kept by the Kings
of England. From this time England became the
most important part of the King of England's domi-
nions, and all the natives of England, whether of Old-
English or of Norman descent, began to draw together
as countrymen to withstand the strangers whom the
Angvin Kings were constantly bringing into the land
IJ$2 TIIF. SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP
Meanwhile John contrived to quarrel both with Pope
Innocent and with his own subjects: and in 1214
Philip won the battle of Bouvines m Flanders over the
English forces, together with those of the Emperor
Otto, who was John's nephew, being the son of his
sister Matilda. In this battle the French got the
better of three Teutonic nations, Germans, English,
and Flemings all together. In 1216, the Barons of
England who had revolted against John offered the
crown to Lewis the eldest son of Philip of France.
He came over to England ; but as John died before
long, the supporters of Lewis gradually left him, and
Henry the Third, the young son of John, was acknow-
ledged King. Two things strike us in this part of the
story. On the one hand, it seems strange that the
Normans in Normandy, who had had such long wars
with the French, should have allowed themselves to
be conquered by Philip almost without making any
resistance. On the other hand, it seems strange that
the Barons of England, whether we call them Nor-
mans or Englishmen, should have offered the crown of
England to the eldest son of the King of the French.
The truth is that John was felt to be really neither a
Norman Duke nor an English King, and men most
likely thought that, if they were to have a foreign ruler,
Lewis would be better than John.
6. Saint Lewis. After the death of Philip, his
son Lewis the Eighth, who had failed to get the crown
of England, reigned for a few years in France, from
1223 to 1226. Then came his son Lewis the Ninth,
called Saint Lewis, and most rightly so called, for he
was perhaps the best King that ever reigned, unless it
were our own Alfred. The only evil was that his per-
sonal goodness helped greatly to increase the power
of the Crown, and so, in the end, to make the Kings of
France absolute rulers. And in the like sort it helped
greatly to increase the power of France among other
nations. While Saint Lewis reigned in France,
XL] INTERNAL AFFAIRS OF ENGLAND. i8j
the Third reigned in England from 1216 to 1272
Henry made some attempts to get back his possessions
in France; but in 1259 peace was made, by which
Henry kept nothing except his possessions in the
South. In Saint Lewis's time also, but while he was
still young and under the rule of his mother Blanche
of Castile, the dominions of the Counts of Toulouse.
were added to the royal possessions by a treaty made
in 1229. Thus the Kings of the French, instead of
being cooped up in Paris and Orleans, as they had
been up to the time of Philip Augustus, had the more
part of their kingdom in their own hands. Their
dominions now reached to the Mediterranean Sea,
and they had havens on all the three seas, the Medi-
terranean, the Ocean, and the Channel. And, though
Provence and the other great fiefs of the Kingdom of
Burgundy were not joined to France for a long time
to come, still from this time they began to have a con-
nexion with France. The French Kings began to
meddle with their affairs in a manner which paved
the way for their conquest at a later time. Generally,
just as the German Kingdom was getting weaker, and
was now in truth splitting to pieces, the French King-
dom was getting stronger and more united ; and from
this time France was always reckoned amongst the
foremost powers of Europe.
7. The Internal Affairs of England. The
internal and consticutional affairs of England will be
spoken of more at large in the special history of Eng-
land. But a few words must be given to them, as
they are closely connected with the general course of
European affairs. The thirteenth century was a time
of great changes, a time, so to speak, of beginnings
and endings, throughout the world. As both Empires
practically came to an end, as the Kingdom of France,
in anything like its later extent and importance, may
be said to have begun, so now the Constitution oj
England began to put on the shape which it has kept
184 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAP
ever since. Under John and Henry the Third we se
how the fondness of the Angevin Kings for foreigners
of all kinds drove the natives of England, whether of
English or Norman descent, to join together against
the strangers. The whole nation joined together to
force King John in 1215 to grant the Great Charter,
by which all the old rights and good laws which he
had broken were confirmed. This Great Charter the
Kings who followed had to confirm over and over
again, because they were always trying to break it ;
and it has been the groundwork of English freedom
ever since. So again, in the time of Henry the Third,
the King's misgovernment and his favour to foreigners
again drove the Barons and the whole people to rise
against him. And, though the Popes again took the
side of the King and excommunicated all who rose
against him, yet we again find the whole English
nation, nobles, clergy, and people, acting firmly to-
gether. In this war against Henry the Third the
great leader was Simon of Montfort, the son of
another Simon of whom we shall hear presently. He
was, oddly enough, a Frenchman by birth, but he in-
herited the earldom of Leicester through his mother ;
and when he came to England, he threw in his lot
with his new country, and did in everything as a good
Englishman. It was by him that the Great Council
of the Nation, which was now called by the French
name of Parliament, was made to take the form which
it has borne ever since. Some kind of National
Assembly was found in every part of Western Europe.
But in most countries the Assembly consisted of
Estates ; that is, representatives of the different classes
of freemen in the nation. These, in most countries,
were counted as three, Nobles, Clergy, and Commons,
the Commons generally being only the citizens of the
towns. This kind of constitution was set up in
France by Philip tfu Fair, the grandson of Saint
Lewis. The States came together in each country ta
ti.l THE CONQUEST OF IRELAND. 185
grant money to the King, and to demand such changes
in the laws or other reforms as might be needed.
But in France the States never met regularly, but only
when it suited the King's purposes, or Avhen he could
not help calling them together. In England, on the
other hand, Parliaments went on far more regularly,
so that people have never been without a national
Assembly of some kind from the very beginning of
things till now. And in England the Parliament took
the particular form of an assembly with Two Houses.
The Earls, Bishops, and other great men, grew into the
House of Lords, and the House of Commons was gradu-
ally formed out of the representatives of the people
in general. First of all, the freeholders of each county
were called on to send some of the knights of that
county to represent them, and at last, when Earl
Simon held a Parliament in 1265, he called on the
cities and boroughs to send each two of their citizens or
burgesses. Earl Simon was killed that same year in
the battle of Evesham, but the system of representation
which he had brought in was before long firmly estab-
lished under King Edward the First.
B. The Conquest of Ireland. During this
time many things happened between the English
Kings and their vassals the Kings of Scots and Princes
of Wales, which will be better told in the History of
England. But it must be mentioned here that it was
in the reign of Henry the Second that the English do-
minion in Ireland began. At the very beginning of
his reign, in 1155, King Henry got a bull that is, a
writing sealed with the Pope's bulla or seal from
Pope Hadrian the Fourth, who was an Englishman
and the only Englishman that ever was Pope, giving
him leave to conquer Ireland : thus had the Popes
taken upon themselves to dispose of kingdoms. But
it was not till 1169 that some nobles and other private
adventurers went over into Ireland under pretence of
helping a banished Irish king called Dermot Twe
186 THE SWAB 7 AN EMPERORS. [CHAP
years afterwards King Henry went over himself to
receive the homage of the whole country. From iha\
time the Kings of England always claimed to be Lords
of Ireland, and the city of Dublin and a greater or less
part of the island was always under the English power.
But it was not for many ages that English Kings really
got possession of all Ireland, and cruel wars long went
on between the English settlers and the native Irish.
9. The Loss of Jerusalem. A large part of
the history of this time might come under the general
head of Crusades. The first Crusades or Holy Wars
had been undertaken to win back the Holy Sepulchre
from the infidels ; but after a while both the name
and the thing began to be greatly abused, and Cru-
sades were preached against an)' one with whom the
Popes were at enmity. The First Crusade, as we
have already seen, led to the establishment of the
Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1099. The chief
strength of the kingdom lay in the two orders of
military monks, the Templars and the Hospitallers or
Knights of Saint John, and many warriors from all
parts of Christendom went to serve for a while in the
Holy Land as a good work. Still the Kings of Jeru-
salem had much ado to keep their little kingdom from
the attacks of the neighbouring Mahometan powers,
and several new Crusades had to be made to help
them, some of which were led by the greatest princes
in Europe. Thus in 1147 the Second Crusade was
preached by Saint Bernard, one of the holiest men of
the time, and who is called the last of the Fathers oj
the Church. Conrad King of the Romans and Lewis
the Seventh, King of the French, both went on this
Crusade, but they were not able to do any great tilings.
And there soon arose a power in Egypt which became
more dangerous to the Christians of the East than
any of the other Mahometan powers had been. We
have seen there had been for some time a separate
line of Caliphs in Egypt ; these were called the Fati
.] THE CRUSADES. 187
mitts, as they profess to be the descendants of Ali and
Fatima, the daughter of Mahomet. But in 1171 their
power was put down by Joseph surnamed Saladin, who
brought back Egypt under the spiritual power of the
Caliph of Bagdad, much as if the Eastern Church had
been brought under the power of the Bishops of
Rome. Saladin became the greatest Mahometan
prince of his time, and in 1187 he took Jerusalem and
drove the Christians out of the greater part of the
kingdom. Thus far all the Crusades since the First
had been waged for the purpose of defending the
Christian possession of Jerusalem. We have now
again to come to Crusades which were waged, as the
First had been, to win back the Holy City from the
Infidels, as well as to save the small fragment of the
kingdom which was left.
10. The Later Crusades in Palestine. The
loss of Jerusalem roused the spirit of all Western
Christendom. King Henry of England took the
cross ; but he died two years later, without ever setting
out for the Holy Land. But in 1189 the Emperor
Frederick set out by land, but was drowned on the
way; and in 1190 Philip King of the French and his
great vassal Richard, the new King of the English,
went to the Holy Land by sea. King Richard did
many great exploits ; but the princes quarrelled among
themselves, so that Jerusalem was not won back ; but
some parts of Palestine were still left to the Christians,
and they were allowed to make pilgrimages to Jeru-
salem. Of the Third Crusade we shall have to speak
by itself, as it did nothing for the Holy Land at all.
But in 1228 the Emperor Frederick the Second, who
claimed to be King of Jerusalem in right of his wife,
notwithstanding the opposition of Pope Gregory the.
Ninth, really went to the Holy Land, and won Jeru-
salem by a treaty with the Egyptian Sultan Kamel, and
was crowned King there. He was the last Christian
King who really reigned at Jerusalem. For in 1 244
iSS THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHA?.
the Holy City was again lost by the Christians, being
taken by the Mahometan C/iorasmians, and it has
never been won back again. The Popes, instead of
helping the Emperor to win back his kingdom, were
always excommunicating him and preaching Crusades
against him. The Christians however still kept some
small parts of the kingdom, and in 1248 Saint Lewis,
the King of the French, set out on a Crusade ; but,
instead of going straight to Palestine, he first attacked
Egypt, as being the best way of winning the Holy Land.
But he was taken prisoner in Egypt; and, though he
did afterwards reach Palestine, yet he could not win
back Jerusalem. At last he came back to France in
1254, having done little or nothing for the common
cause, but having shown his own courage and good-
ness in a wonderful way. In 1270 he set out on
another Cnisade ; but this time he began by besieging
7'iinis, and died there. In 1270 Edward the son of
King Henry of England, afterwards the great King
Edward the First, went on another Crusade, and did
something to stop the final overthrow of the Christians
in Palestine, though even he could not win back Jeru-
salem. At last, in 1291, Acre, the last town which the
Christians held in the Holy Land, was taken by the
Mahometans, and the Christian Kingdom of Jeru-
salem came altogether to an end. But the Emperors
called themselves Kings of Jerusalem as well as of
Germany, and the same vain title has been borne and
disputed about by several other European sovereigns.
ii. The Latin Conquest of Constantinople.
No one perhaps would have expected that the
Eastern Empire, the great bulwark of Christendom
against the Saracens and Turks, and which the first
Crusaders had professed to go forth to defend, would
be actually overthrown by a crusading army. We
have seen that the Komnenian Emperors, following in
the wake of the first Crusaders, were able to win back
t large part of the Byzantine dominions in Asia. Th
XL] LATIN CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. iSf
two Emperors who reigned after Alexios,y^# and
Manuel, were both great warriors. John, who reigned
from mS to 1143, did much really to restore the
strength of the Empire ; but Manuel, who reigned
from 1143 to 1180, was rather a bold knight-errant
than either a good ruler or a great general. He had
to contend with many enemies both in Europe and in
Asia. In his time Greece was several times ravaged
by the fleets of the Kings of Sicily ; he had to wage
wars with Hungary, and at last he was defeated in a
great battle against the Turks in 1176. After his time
the Eastern Empire again began to decline ; there
were many internal revol ution s ; Emperors were set up
and put down ; the Bulgarians revolted, and a separate
Emperor set himself up in the isle of Cyprus. At last,
in 1 201, several Western princes, among the chief of
whom were Baldwin Count of Flanders and Boniface.
Marquess of Montferrat in Italy, were setting out on a
Crusade, and they came to Venice to ask for ships to
take them to the Holy Land. Venice, it will be re-
membered, had never been part of the Western
Empire, but had always kept on its nominal allegiance
to the Emperors of the East, till it had gradually be-
come quite independent, as it was now. The three
Italian cities, Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were now the
greatest naval powers in Europe. The Doge or Dukt
01 Venice, Henry Dandolo, agreed to let the Crusaders
have ships and to go with them himself; only the
Crusaders were to conquer for the Venetians the town
of Zara in Dalmatia, to which they laid claim. Pope
Innocent protested against this, as being no part of the
business of a Crusade. Yet they not only took Zara,
but agreed to help Alexios Angelas, the son of an Em
peror of the East who had been deposed, in getting
back the Empire. This they actually did in 1203.
But, as the Romans or Greeks (whichever we are to
call them) of Constantinople presently revolted,
and slew the Emperors who had been put in by the
190 THE SIVABIJN EMPERORS. [CHA
Crusaders, the Crusaders in 1204 again took the
city ; and the Roman Empire of the East may now be
said to have come to an end.
12. The Later Greek Empire. When the
Crusaders had taken Constantinople, they went on to
deal with the whole Eastern Empire as their own.
They set up Count Baldwin as Emperor of Constanti-
nople, and they divided among themselves as much oi
the Empire as they could get This was the begin-
ning of what was called the Latin Empire of Constan-
tinople : the word Latin being now often used, as
opposed to Greek, to mean all those who admitted the
supremacy of the Roman Church and who used Latin
as their religious and official language. Among the
Latin powers which now won settlements in the
East, the Venetians got possession of many of the
islands and important points of the coast, which
was the beginning of their great Eastern dominion.
Some of the Venetian and other Latin possessions
were never won back by the Greeks, but, on the other
hand, the Latins were far from conquering the whole
Empire. The Greeks maintained their independence
in Epeiros and at Nikaia and Trapezous or Trebizond
in Asia ; in both these latter cities Greek princes
reigned with the title of Emperor. Thus the Eastern
Empire was cut up into a crowd of small principali-
ties, Greek and Frank (the meaning of this last word
in the East has already been explained), Despots of
Epeiros, Dukes of Athens, Princes of Achaia, and
what not ; the Latin Emperors at Constantinople
, being supposed to be lords over all the Frank settlers.
But, as the Emperors who reigned at Nikaia, Theoaore
Laskares and John Vatatzes, were very wise and good
princes, the Empire of Nikaia, which professed to be
the true continuation of the Roman Empire at Con-
stantinople, grew and flourished; and in 1261 the
Emperor M ; chacl Palaiologos won back Constantinople,
and the Empire of the East in some sort began agaiiv
XL] CRUSADES AGAINST THE ALBIGENSES. i 9 j
But it never won back its old power, for, besides the
provinces which were held by the Mahometans and
the new dominions of the Venetians, some of the
Greek and Frank princes still went on reigning, and
were independent of the Greek Emperor at Constan-
tinople. The Empire of Trebizond especially outlived
the restored Empire of Constantinople. In truth this
restored Empire of Constantinople was little more
than the most powerful of several Greek states which
went on from this time till they were all swallowed up
by the Turks. Still the Emperors of Constantinople
always called themselves Emperors of the Romans, and
professed to continue the old Roman succession.
From this time the Eastern Empire became more
strictly hereditary than it had been of old, and the
crown remained with very little interruption in the
family of Palaiologos, till the Empire was finally
destroyed by the Ottoman Turks.
13. Crusades against the Albigenses. We
have just seen how a Crusade, which was meant to be
a war for the defence of Christendom against the
unbelievers, could be turned into an attack made by
one body of Christians against another. But when the
Fourth Crusade was turned about into an attack on
Zara and Constantinople, Pope Innocent at least did
what he could to hinder such a falling away from the
original design of a Crusade. Yet, before long, Inno-
cent himself caused a Crusade to be preached, no
longer against Mahometans, but against Christians who
were looked on as heretics. In the South of Gaul,
both in those parts which were fiefs of the King of
the French and in those which were held of the Em-
perors as Kings of Burgundy, many men had fallen
away into doctrines which both the Eastern and the
Western Churches condemned. Those who held
these doctrines were commonly called Albigenses,
from the city of Albi. The chief princes in those
parts were the Counts of Toulouse and the ' Counts <yf
102 THE SWAB I AN EMPERORS. [cn\f
Provetice : each of them held fiefs both of the Emperoi
and of the King of the French but the County of
Toulouse itself was a fief of France, while the County
of Provence was of course a fief of the Empire. The
Counts of Provence at this time were of the house of
the Kings of Aragon. In 1 208 a Crusade was preached
against Raymond Count of Toiilouse, which was car-
ried on at first by Simon of Montfori, the father of
the Simon who was so famous in English history, and
afterwards by Lewis the Eighth, King of the French.
Simon even defeated Peter King of Aragon in a great
battle, and obtained possession of Toulouse. It looked
at one time as if the house of Montfort were going
to be established as sovereigns in the South of Gaul ;
but the end of the matter was that the heresy of the
Albigenses was put down by cruel persecutions, and
that in 1229 the county of Toulouse was, as we have
seen, incorporated with the Kingdom of France.
14. Crusades against Sicily. In this way the
Crusades, which had first been preached only against
the infidels, next began to be preached against heretics.
The next stage was to preach them against any one
who was an enemy of the Pope. Thus Crusades were
preached against the Emperor Frederick, and, after his
death, they were preached against his son Manfred
King of Sicily, who began to reign in 1258. Manfred
was a wise and brave King, and he greatly helped the
Ghihelins in other parts of Italy ; things almost looked
as if a Kingdom of all Italy was about to arise in
the House of Swabia. But the Popes were of course
the enemies of Manfred. Even while King Conrad
was alive, Pope Innocent the Fourth had in 1253 pro-
fessed to give the crown of Sicily to Edmund the son
of our King Henry the Third. But nothing came of
that: so in 1262 Pope Urban the Fourth offered the
crown to Charles Count of Anjou, the brother of Saint
Lewis, who was also Count of Provence in right of
hii, wife. Charles got together an army of French
XL] THE CRUSADES IN THE NORTH. 193
Crusaderfe, and in 1266 he overthrew and slew Manfred
in battle. He then took the kingdom himself ; and
when, two years afterwards, young Conradin, the
nephew of Manfred, tried to win back the crown, he
was defeated in battle, and was beheaded by order of
Charles. Charles was thus King of Sicily, both of the
island and of the mainland; but in 1282 the island
of Sicily revolted against the oppression of him and
his Frenchmen, and the Sicilians chose as their King
another King Peter of Aragon, who had married the
daughter of Manfred. A long war followed ; the
end of which was that Charles's descendants kept the
kingdom on the mainland, which was commonly called
the Kingdom of Naples, while the island of Sicily
became a separate kingdom in the House of Aragon.
But in both kingdoms the Kings called themselves
Kings of Sicily, so that when the island and the main-
land were joined again long afterwards, the kingdom
was called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
15. Crusades in the North of Europe.
Besides the real Crusades against the Mahometans
and what we may call the mock Crusades against
heretics and other enemies of the Popes, there were
also, as we have already seen, Crusades against the
heathens in the North of Europe. The people on the
east side of the Baltic, in Prussia, Lithuania, Livonia,
and Esthonia, were still idolaters. Poland\&& become
Christian at the end of the tenth century, and the
Polish Dukes and Kings had much trouble with their
heathen neighbours. Both Poland and Lithuania
were much smaller states now than they became after-
wards. But ^Russia at this time was a much greater
state, and came much further to the west, than it did
again till quite late times, for the Poles and Lithuanians
made large conquests at the expense of Russia. Both
Russia and Poland were at this time often divided be-
tween several princes ; and one or two of the great
cities, especially the famous Novgorod in the north.
194 THE SWAB I AN EMPERORS. [CHAF
were able to make themselves into republics. But
both Poland and Russia were almost wholly cut of?
from the sea by their heathen neighbours, and at one
time it seemed as if the chief power in those parts
was likely to fall into the hands of Denmark. For seve-
ral of the Danish Kings, in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, made large conquests on the southern and
eastern shores of the Baltic. But in the reign of
Frederick the Second great changes were made in those
parts by the establishment of the Teutonic KnigJits.
They were first invited by some of the Polish princes
to help them against the heathen Prussians. Under
their Grand Master Hermann of Salza, they were
commissioned by the Emperor Frederick and by Pope
Gregory the Ninth, who preached a Crusade against
the Prussians, to settle themselves in those parts about
1230. They presently conquered Prussia and East-
ern Pomerania; and in 1237 another order, called the
Knights of the Sword, who were established in Livonia,
were joined with the Teutonic Knights. The territo-
ries of the Order now quite cut off Poland, Lithuania,
and Russia from the Baltic, and hindered any further
advance of Denmark in those parts. The wars of the
Knights in those lands were looked on as holy wars,
and many men came from other parts of Europe to
join them in fighting against the heathens, just as they
had done against the Saracens in the East. But the
government of an order can never be a really good
government, and the Knights became quite as danger-
ous neighbours to the Poles, whom they had at first
come to help, as they were to the Prussians and other
heathens whom they had come to fight against
16. Advance of the Christians in Spain.
While Crusades against heathens and Mahometans
were thus going on in the North and East, the whole
history of Spain might be called one long Crusade on
the part of the Christians who were winning back the
land, step by step, from the Saracens and Moors.
XI.] THE SPANISH KINGDOMS. igj .
The advance of the Christians was still checked by
the foundation of new Mahometan dynasties, which
passed over from Africa into Spain. As the Almora-
vides passed over in the eleventh century, so the
Almohades, who were much like a kind of Mahometan
Crusaders, passed over in the twelfth. Alfonso tht
Eighth, who, as being the chief prince in Spain, called
himself Emperor, withstood them for a while ; but,
after his death in 1159, Castile and Leon were again
divided, and the Almohades were able again largely
to extend the Mahometan territories. In 1195 Jacob,
the Caliph of the Almohades, at the head of a kind
of general Mahometan Crusade, won the great battle
of Alarcos over Alfonso of Castile, the grandson of the
Emperor Alfonso ; and as the different Spanish Kings
were constantly quarrelling between themselves, it
almost seemed as if the Mahometans were going again
t get the upper hand. But, when the Caliph Jacob
was dead and the Christians began to join together
again, the Almohade prince Mahomet was utterly de-
feated in 1 2 1 2 at the battle of Tolosa ; and from that
time the Mahometan power in Spain steadily went
down. Ferdinand the Third, called Saint Ferdinand,
who reigned over Castile from 1217 to 1252, and who
in 1230 finally united the kingdoms of Castile and
Leon, won back a large territory, including the great
cities of Seville and Cordova. The Kings of Portugal
and Aragon also were pressing their conquests in the
West and East of the peninsula. The most famous
of the Kings of Aragon \\zsjames the Conqueror, who
reigned from 1213 to 1276. At last nothing was left
of the Mahometan power in Spain save only the
Kingdom of Granada in the South, which began in
1237, and which, having a good barrier of mountains,
lasted much longer than any one would have looked
for. From this time there were five kingdoms in
Spain, Castile, Aragon, Portugal, Navarre, and Gra-
nada. Of these Castile was the greatest and Navarre
196 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHAF
(the smallest : but, as both Castile and Portugal were
chiefly employed with their wars with the Mahometans.
Aragon was the Spanish kingdom which had most to
.do with the general affairs of Europe, as we have seen
when speaking of the history of Sicily and Southern
Gaul.
17. The Invasions of the Moguls. While
Christians and Mahometans were thus fighting in
various parts of Europe and Asia, a new power, a
Turanian power, which was neither Christian nor
Mahometan, threatened to overwhelm both alike.
These were the Moguls, commonly known in Europe
as Tartars, who in the thirteenth century burst forth
fr.om the unknown lands of Asia, beyond either the
Saracens or the Turks, much as Attila and his Huns
had burst forth eight hundred years before. They
began to rise to power under Temujin or Jenghiz Khan,
who reigned from 1206 to 1227. During the whole
of the century he and his descendants went on con-
quering and destroying through the greater part of
Europe and Asia. In some parts they only ravaged,
and ravaged more croielly than either the Saracens or
the Turks had ever done ; in others they founded last-
ing dynasties. In religion they seem to have been a
kind of Deists, acknowledging one God, but not ac-
cepting either the Christian or the Mahometan law.
But all religions, Christian, Mahometan, and heathen,
were freely tolerated among them, and in the end most
of them became Mahometans. In Europe Batou
Khan pressed all through Russia, Poland, and Hun-
gary, as far as the borders of Germany. The furthest
point which they reached to the west was Lignitz in
Silesia, the border province of Poland and Bohemia,
which had been Polish, but which now was Bohemian.
They there, in 1241, gained a battle over the Teutonic
Knights and all the princes of those parts. AU
Europe was naturally frightened at such an invasion,
and the Emperor Frederick tried to stir up all the
xi.] INVASIONS OF THE MOGULS. iy\
other Kings to a Crusade against these enemies, who
were worse than Saracens or Prussians. But the
Moguls pressed no further westwards ; they ravaged
Hungary and the countries to the north of it, but the
only lasting dynasty which they set up in Europe was
at Kasan on the Volga, whence they held Russia in their
dependence. Thus Russia, which had at one time
seemed likely to become an important power in
Europe, was altogether thrust back for a long time.
The Lithuanians conquered all the western provinces,
even the old capital of Kiev, and the Russian Dukes,
first of Vladimir and then of Moscow, were looked on
as mere subjects of the Mogul Khans. In Asia, be-
sides conquests in China and other parts which do
not concern us, the Moguls overthrew most of the
existing powers, and founded a lasting dynasty in
Persia. The Chorasmians, from the lands east of the
Caspian, flying before them, overthrew, as we have seen,
the restored Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1258
Holagou, another grandson of Jenghiz, took Bagdad,
and put an end to the Abbasside Caliphate, though
a line of Caliphs who professed to be the descend-
ants of the Abbassides went on in Egypt, but without
any temporal power. The power of the Seljuk Turks
was also quite broken up, and the Greek Emperors at
Nikaia were greatly frightened, though in the end the
invasion of the Moguls helped the Eastern Empire to
last a little longer, by destroying the power of the
Seljuks. But it was only for a little while, because
the overthrow of the Seljuk Turks made a way for
the growth of the far more famous Turkish power of
the Ottomans, whose beginning came a little later than
the time which we have, now reached.
1 8. Summary. Thus we see that the time of
the Swabian Emperors was a time of still greater
changes than that of the Franconian Emperors. In
their time much was done towards bringing the
rarious powers of Europe into something like th<
198 THE SWABIAN EMPERORS. [CHA
btafc in which they are now. The power of the Westerc
Empire came pretty well to an end, and Germany and
Italy began to be collections of separate states, inde
pendent or nearly so, as they have been ever since
till quite lately. The Eastern Empire was broken up ;
the greatness of Venice began ; the Caliphate perished,
and the Crusades came to an end. But, while Chris-
tendom lost in the East, it gained in the West by the
great advances of the Christians in Spain. Castile
now takes the first place in the Spanish peninsula.
In the like sort France is now fully established as the
leading power of Gaul. In England Normans and
English are fully reconciled ; the Angevin Kings, by
the loss of the more part of their foreign dominions,
are driven to become national sovereigns, and that
parliamentary constitution is established which has
lasted ever since. The north of Europe was further
from putting on its present form than the west ; but
the establishment of the Teutonic Order, the check
given to the power of Denmark, the extension of
Lithuania, and the subjection of Russia to the Moguls
are all events which had an important effect on later
times. This was also a time of great intellectual pro-
gress. Universities began to arise, among which Paris
and Oxford were two of the most famous north of the
Alps. In England there were Latin Historians and
other writers, such as William of Malmes bury, John of
Salisbury, and Matthew Paris, and the great Friar
Roger Bacon, who forestalled many of the inventions
of later times. In France prose writing began with
Villehardouin, who wrote an account of the taking of
Constantinople. Italian literature began under Fred-
erick the Second, and in Germany this was the time of
the Minnesingers or love-poets. The pointed or Gothic
style of architecture also began to come into use in
the last years of the twelfth century, and flourished
greatly in the thirteenth. Altogether this was, both in
Europe and Asia, a time when old systems were falling
XII, j SUMMARY. 190
and new ones were rising, and in most parts we may
see the beginnings of the state of things which we see
now.
CHAPTER XII.
THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE.
Decay of the Empire; the great Interregnum (i) double
election of Richard and Alfonso (i) election of Rudolf ;
his grant of Austria to his son (2) reigns of Adolf
and Albert (2) reign of Henry the Seventh; his
career in Italy (2) history of John of Bohemia (2)
reigns of Charles the Fourth, Wenceslaus, and Sieg-
inund(ji] reigns of Albert the Second and Frederick the
Third (2) new position of the Empire ; its connexion
with the House of Austria (2) papacy of Gregory
the Tenth ; of Boniface the Eighth (3} the Avignon
Popes; suppression of the Templars (3) the Great
Schism ($)-the- reforming Councils, Pisa, Constanz,
and Basel (4) Councils of Ferrara and Florence ; re-
conciliation with the Eastern Church (4) intellectual
pre-eminence of Italy (5) study of the Roman Law;
revival of classical learning (5) invention of print-
ing and gunpowder (5) growth of the tyrants in
Italy ; the Visconti at Milan (6) constitutions of
Venice, Genoa, and Florence (6) revolution of Rienzi
at Rome (7) return of the Popes; their temporal
powir (7) the Two Sicilies ; rivalry of the Houses of
Anjou and Aragon (8) dealings of England with
Wales and Scotland (9) the Hundred Years' War be-
tween France and England (10) claim of Edward the
Third to the crown of France ; victories of the English
do) Peace of Bretigny ; independence and loss of
Aquitaine (10) wars of Henry the Fifth; Treaty of
Troyes (10) exploits of Joan of Arc; French con-
quest of Aquitaine (10) growth of France; annex-
ations in the Kingdom of Burgundy ; defeat of the
French at Courtray (n) beginning of the Swiss
League; the three Forest Cantons ; battle of Morgartett
oo THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAI
(12) the eight Canttms ; battlt of Sempach (12) re-
lations of the League to the Empire, France, ana
Austria (12) beginning of the Valois Dukes of Bur
gundy; acquisition of Flanders (13) reigns of J oh*
the Fearless and Philip tfie Good; advance of tin
Burgitndian power within the Empire (13) reign oj
Charles the Bold; his rivalry with Lewis the Eleventh
(13) his schemes and conquests; his war with the
Confederates ; battles of Grandson, Moral, and Nancy
(13) effects of the Burgundian War on the Confede-
rates (13) the Greek Empire of Constantinople; its
advance and decline (14) rise of the Ottoman Turks ;
tkfir conquests in Asia (14) their advance in Europe ;
institution of the Janissaries (14) rise of Timour ;
he defeats Bajazet at Angora (15) reign of Mahomet
the Second; fall of Constantinople (16) conquest of
Greece and Trebizond; taking of Otranto; death of
Mahomet (16) civil war in Castile ; battle of N ajar a
(17) wars of Aragon with Provence and France (17)
maritime discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese
(17) union of Castile aud Aragon; conquest of Gra-
nada; beginning of the greatness of Spain (17) state of
the Scandinavian Kingdoms; Union of Calmar (18)
the House of Oldenburg in Denmark; affairs of
Sleswick and Holstein (18) conversion of Lithuania;
its union with Poland; partition of Prussia (19)
deliverance of Russia from the Moguls (19) the An~
gevin Kings in Hungary; reign of Siegmund; his de-
feat at Nikopolis (20) exploits of Huniades ; defeat
of Wladislaus at Varna (20) reign of Matthias Cor-
vinus ; designs of Austria on Hungary (20)- ^rowth
of Universities (21) writers of history and poetry
(21) -final triumph of the English language (21)
theology and philosophy (21) levelling doctrines
taught; condition of the villains (21) use of in-
fantry in war (21) state of architecture (21) Sum-
mary (22).
i. The Great Interregnum. After the death
of Frederick the Second the power and dignity of the
Western Empire greatly declined Italy now began
quite to fall away. Many of the Kings who were
chusen in Germany never went to Rome to be crowned
XII.] THE GREAT INTERREGNUM. 2o\
Emperors at all, and those who did so, though their
passing through the country always made some changes
at the time., could not keep any lasting hold on the
Italian Kingdom, The Kingdom of Burgundy quite
broke in pieces , some of its princes and common-
wealths still kept on their nominal connexion with the
Empire, but others passed, one by one, by one means
or another, under the power of France. Thus began
that growth of France at the cost of the kingdoms
belonging to the Empire, of which we had a sort oi
foreshadowing in the battle of Bouvines, and which
has gone on ever since, till it was stopped only yester-
day. In fact, after the death of Frederick the Second,
his successors, though they were still called Kings
and Emperors of the Romans, were really very little
more than Kings of Germany, and even in Ger-
many their power was always growing less and less.
The time from the death of Conrad in 1254 to
the year 1273 is commonly called the Great Interreg-
num, because, though more than one King was chosen
during that time, there was no King really acknow-
ledged by all Germany, much less by the other parts
of the Empire. In 1256 some of the Electors chose
Richard Earl of Cornwall, brother of King Henry the
Third of England, and others chose Alfonso King ol
Castile. Alfonso never came to Germany at all.
Richard came and was crowned King, but he never
was crowned Emperor, and he kept very little power
in Germany, and spent most of his time in England,
where we often hear of him in English history. He
died fn 1271, the year before his brother King Henry.
This long Interregnum was a time of great confusion
in Germany. The Empire quite lost its hold over the
neighbouring countries, and the princes in Germany
itself greatly enlarged their own powers vrhile there
was no King to keep them in check. In short, ever}
sort of lawlessness and wickedness was rife through
the whole land. At last men felt that an end must be
* THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAF
put to such a state of things, and in 1273 a King
dwelling in the land was once more chosen.
2. Kings of the Houses of Habsburg and
Lvizelburg. The King who was now chosen was
not one of the great Princes ofi the Empire ; he was
Rudolf Count of Habsburg, a castle in Aargau in the
south of Swabia. He reigned till 1292, and was a
brave and wise man, who did much to restore peace
and to subdue Ottoctr King of Bohemia and other ene-
mies. He was the founder of the House of Habsburg
or of Austria, from which so many Kings and
Emperors were afterwards chosen. For the old
Margraves and Dukes of Austria had come to an
end, and the Duchy was granted by Rudolf to his
son Albert, from whom the later Dukes, Kings,
and Emperors of the Austrian House all sprang.
Neither Rudolf nor either of the two next Kings,
Adolf of Nassau and Rudolf's son Albert, was ever
crowned Emperor. Albert was the first Austrian
King, and there were no more for some time to
come; for, when he was murdered in 1308, the
Electors chose Henry Count of Luzelburg or Luxem-
burg, who reigned as Henry the Seventh. In his time
it seemed as if the Empire were going to win back
again all its old power. For he went into Italy, and
was crowned King at Milan and Emperor at Rome in
1312 ; but in the next year he died, by poison as was
thoughi, and his great schemes died with him. He
was however able to provide for his own family as
Rudolf had done, for he got the Kingdom of Bohemia
for his son John, by marrying him to the daughter of
the last King Wenceslaus. This King John figures a
good deal in the history of the time, but not so much
either in his own kingdom or in Germany as in going
about as a kind of knight-errant in Italy and France.
At last he died in the battle of Crecy between the
French and the English, of which we shall speak
presently. He was never Emperor or King of thf
Xii.] THE LUZELDURG EMPERORS. 201
Romans himself, but several of his descendants were,
as we shall soon see. On the death of Henry the
Seventh, there was a double election between Lewit
Duke of Bavaria and Frederick Duke of Austria, the
son of King Albert. But Lewis reigned in the end,
and in 1328 he was crowned Emperor. He had
great quarrels with Pope John the Twenty-second, and
each professed to depose the other, just as Gregory
the Seventh and Henry the Fourth had done. Lewis
was again declared deposed in 1346 by Pope Clement
the Sixth, and then John of Bohemia persuaded the
Electors to declare the Empire vacant and to elect his
son Charles, who reigned as Charles the Fourth. He
was crowned Emperor in 1347, and, what one would
hardly have expected, he was crowned King of Bur-
gundy at Aries in 1365. Charles made a good King
in his own kingdom of Bohemia, but he sadly lowered
the Empire both in Germany and in Italy. He is
chiefly remembered for granting a charter known as
the Golden Bidl, by which the way of choosing the
Emperor was finally settled, but by which the powers
of the Empire were still further lessened in favour of
the princes. Then followed several Kings who were
never crowned Emperors, and on whom we need not
dwell long. One of them, Wenceslaus, son of the
Emperor Charles, so far from taking heed to Italy,
took none to Germany, and kept always in Bohemia.
At last, in 1410, his brother Siegmund was chosen
King, and he was crowned Emperor in 1433. He was
already Margrave of Brandenburg and King of Hun-
gary, and he afterwards became King of Bohemia.
The truth is that the Empire by itself was growing
so weak and so poor that it was found needful to
choose some prince for Emperor who had dominions
of his own which would enable him to keep up his
dignity. And in Siegmund we get the beginning of
that special connexion between the Empire and the
Kingdom of Hungary which afterwards became oi
204 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CIIA*.
great importance. Siegmund was specially zealous in
the attempts for reforming the Church of which we
shall hear presently. He died in 1437. Then came
his son-in-law Albert Duke of Austria, who died in
1439, and was succeeded by another Austrian Prince,
Frederick Duke of Steiermark or Styria. His was a
very long reign, lasting from 1440 to 1493, but he
himself did nothing memorable. In 1452 he was
crowned Emperor at Rome, being the last Emperor
who was crowned there. From the time of Siegmund
we may look on the Empire as putting on quite a new
character. Neither as Emperor nor as King of Ger-
many, was the Emperor any longer the chief prince of
Europe. But the Empire was now held by princes
who were powerful through their dominions both in
and out of Germany, Kings of Hungary, Dukes of
Austria, and so forth. And, from the time of Albert
the Second, though the Emperors were still always
elected, yet the Electors always chose a member of the
House of Austria, and most commonly the head of
that House. Thus from this time the Emperors were
again very powerful princes, though it was not from
the Empire that they drew their chief strength. The
House of Austria lent its strength to the Empire,
and the Empire lent its dignity to the House of
Austria, and, before the death of Frederick the Third,
the German Emperor was again the only Emperor.
How this came about we shall see presently.
3. The Popes at Rome and Avignon. We
left the Popes disputing and waging war against the
Emperor Frederick the Second and his descendants,
both in Germany and in Sicily. There were however
some Popes who gave their minds to better things.
Thus, nearly about the same time that Rudolf was
chosen King, a very good Pope, Gregory the Tenth,
was chosen in 1271. Indeed Gregory had a good
deal to do with the election of Rudolf ; for his grea?
wish was to put an end to all the strifes and confusion*
JCIL] THE POPES AT AVIGNON. 205
which were going on in Germany, Italy, and elsewhere,
and to make all Western Europe join together in an
attempt to win back the Holy Land. He even brought
about for a moment the reconciliation of the Eastern
and Western Churches ; and, between him and King
Rudolf and King Edward in England, it almost seemed
that the whole world was going to start afresh with a
good beginning. But Gregory only reigned a little
while ; he died in 1276, and the real power and glory
of the Popes died with him. Boniface the Eighth, who
reigned from 1294 to 1303, tried to get back all the
powers which any of the earlier Popes had ever made
use of. 'But the times were no longer fitted for this.
The more Europe began to settle down into a system
of distinct nations, and the more the Popes began to
put on the character of Italian princes, the less were
they able to act as rulers of the whole world, even in
purely ecclesiastical matters. Boniface the Eighth
quarrelled with Philip the Fair, the King of the French,
and in the end Philip sent and seized him, and he
died soon after. The next Pope but one, Clement the
Fifth, was a Pope of Philip's own choosing, and was
quite at his beck and call. He lett off living at Rome,
and moved his Court to Avignon on the Rhone, just
outeide the French border. Avignon had been one
of the free commonwealths in the Kingdom of
Burgundy ; but it had come under the power of the
Counts of Provence, so that it now belonged to the
French King of Naples. The new Pope was thus
more within the power of his master the King of the
French. For seventy years the Popes lived at Avignon
instead of in their own place at Rome, a time which
men called the Babylonish Captivity. Of course this
greatly weakened their power. Presently Clement
and Philip joined together to destroy the order of the
Templars, which had done such great things in the
Holy Wars. We can well believe that many corrup-
tions had come into the order, but no one can believe
K>6 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHA*.
the monstrous tales which the Pope and the King got
up against them, as if they had cast aside all religion
and morals altogether. It was no doubt the wealth
of the knights which Philip wished to seize ; so the
order was suppressed throughout Europe, and in
France many of its members were cruelly put to
death. The next Pope, John the Twenty-second, had,
as we before said, great disputes with the Emperor
Lewis, and he was also thought to have gone wrong
in some hard points of theology. This is one of
many things which show how much men's minds
were now stirred on the subject of religion, as we
shall presently see. The Popes did not finally go
back to Rome till 1376, in the time of Gregory the
Eleventh; and, when he died two years afterwards,
there was a double election. Urban the Sixth, an
Italian, was the first chosen, and afterwards Robert of
Geneva, who called himself Clement the Seventh. So
the Church was divided. Urban lived at Rome and
Clement at Avignon, and some nations followed one
and some the other ; France of course took the side
of the Pope at Avignon, and England therefore took
that of the Pope at Rome. There were thus two
opposition Popes, for, when Urban and Clement died,
their several parties chose others to succeed them ;
and this state of things went on till men got weary
of their disputes, and tried to settle them in another
way.
4. The General Councils. Ever since the
time of Constantine, General Councils, that is meetings
of Bishops and divines from all parts, had been
summoned, first by the Emperors and afterwards
by the Popes, whenever there were matters to be dis-
cussed concerning the whole Church. Such Councils
were always held to have greater authority than the
Popes. But of course, after the separation of East and
West, they could not really represent the whole Church,
but only the Western part of it So now a srries of
XII.] THE GENERAL COUNCILS. 207
Councils were held to settle the affairs of the Church,
especially the disputes between the Popes. The first
was held at Pisa in 1402. This Council deposed both
the Popes and chose a third, Alexander the Fifth, who
was succeeded by John tJie Twenty-third. But as the
other two, Benedict the Thirteenth and Gregory the
Twelfth, would not give in, this only made three Popes
instead of two. At last in 1415 another Council was
held at Constanz, chiefly by the help of King Sieg-
mund, who worked very hard to bring about the
peace of the Church. This Council deposed all the
three Popes, and very rightly ; for John the Twenty-
third, whether he were rightly chosen or not, deserved
to be deposed, for his wickedness reminded men of
the old times of John the Twelfth. The Council
then elected Martin the Fifth, who was acknowledged
everywhere as the true Pope. But the Council did some
other things which were less to its credit The religious
controversies at the time, and the abuses of the Papal
dominion, had led everywhere to much thought on
religious matters and to the putting forth of many new
doctrines. In England John Wickliffe, a doctor of
Oxford, had written against many things in the received
belief and practice of the times, especially against the
Begging Friars, that is the Franciscans and Dominicans,
who professed to live upon alms. He made many
followers, and his opinions spread, especially in
Bohemia. Two of the chief Bohemian preachers,
John Huss and Jerome of Prague, were brought be-
fore the Council and were burned, to the great shame
of King Siegmund, who had plighted his word for the
safety of Huss. The followers of Huss- in Bohemia
now rebelled, and a fearful civil war followed. In
1431 there was another Council held at Basel, which
professed to depose Pope Eugenius the Fourth, and
which lasted from 1431 to 1439. This Council, had
its decrees taken effect, would have greatly lessened
the powers of the Popes and increased those of the
208 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAF
Bishops and the national Churches, bringing things in
short more to the state in which they were in early
times. But the Council of Basel gradually fell into
discredit, and it died out. The Popes never liked
these Councils which were held in places north of the
Alps, like Basel and Constanz ; and meanwhile Pope
Eugenius held a Council of his own in Italy, first at
ferrara and then at Florence, where in 1439 another
nominal reconciliation with the Eastern Church was
made. This was because the Eastern Empire was
just then at its last gasp, and was glad to get help from
the West on any terms. For the rest of this century
the Popes must be looked on as little more than
Italian princes, and we will speak of them again aa
such.
5. The Revival of Learning in Italy.
During all this time we may look on Italy as being in
some sort the central nation of Europe. It had
indeed no kind of political power over other nations,
for the power of the Emperors was gone, and this
time, when the Popes were so much away in Gaul,
was.just the time when they were less Italian, and had
less power both in Italy and elsewhere, than at any
time before or after. And Italy, cut up as it was into
many principalities and commonwealths, was in no state
to bear rule over other nations. Still it might be called
the centre of Europe, as being the country which had
more to do with the rest of the world than any other one
country. It was the country to which others looked up
as being at the head in arts, learning, and commerce,
and it was the country too where, just as in old Greece,
there was the greatest political life among the many
small states. But of course, as in old Greece also,
this was bought at the cost of constant wars between the
different cities and of many disturbances within them.
The two nations which had been the most civilized in
Europe, the Greeks in the East and the Saracens in
the West, were now falling before the Turks >ud th
xii. J THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 209
Spanisn Christians. The Italians in some sort took
their place. Ever since the twelfth century there had
been a great movement of men's minds in the way of
learning, and this turned more and more towards the
study of the ancient Latin writers, and after a while
the Greek also. And studies of this kind also had an
important political effect. Thus men in the twelfth
century began to study the old Roman Law, and this
study disposed them much in favour of the Swabian
Emperors. So again, somewhat later, the study of
the old Latin poets, and what they said about the old
Caesars, led men to welcome Henry the Seventh and
the Emperors who came after him. The great poet
Dante Alighieri was strong on the Imperial side, both
in his poems and in his prose writings, and he re-
proaches King Albert for staying away from Italy and
not taking heed to the garden of the Empire. But,
on the other hand, the study of the ancient republican
writers, and the praises which they give to the killeis
of tyrants, several times stirred up men in the fifteenth
century to conspiracies against the Popes and other
princes. Towards the end of the time with which we
have to do printing was invented ; and though it was
not invented in Italy but in Germany, by Gutenbur%
at Mainz, yet it was in Italy, where there were more
learned men and writers than elsewhere, that it was
for a long while of the most importance. Gunpowder
too, an invention as important in war as printing was
in peace, gradually came into use in the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. It quite changed the manner
of warfare ; the old style of armour and the old style
of fortification, both of which had in Italy been
carried to such perfection that men could not be
wounded, and castles could not be taken, by any arms
then known, now became of little use, and a new
order of things in warfare began.
6. The Commonwealths of Italy. Mean-
while the political state of Italy greatly changed. The
210 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAP.
separate cities, which had in the twelfth century beer
independent commonwealths, were gradually grouped
together into larger states. Sometimes the lord or
tyrant of one city got possession of several cities, so
as to form a large continuous dominion. In such
cases a ruler generally tried to give some show of law-
fulness to his power by getting the Pope or the
Emperor to invest him with his dominions as a fief,
and to give him the title of Duke or Marquess as an
hereditary prince. Thus, in the course of the thir-
teenth century, the chief power at Milan gradually
came into the hands of the family of the Visconti.
Then, in 1395, Gian-Galeazzo Visconti, who was Lora
of Milan and held Pavia and other cities of Lombardy,
bought a charter from King Wenceslaus making him
Duke of Milan. The Dukes of Milan, through the
wealth and industry of the cities over which they
ruled, became far richer and more'powerful than many
princes who had much wider dominions, but, now that
their dominions were made hereditary, they were laid
open to the usual disputes and wars as to the right of
succession to the duchy. When Fitippo-Maria, the
last of the Viseonti, died in 1447, the Milanese tried to
set their ancient commonwealth up again. But they
were obliged to admit Francesco Sforza, the son-in-law
of the late Duke, as his successor. He was one of a
class of men of whom there were then many in Italy,
mercenary generals who went about with bands of
soldiers, hiring themselves out to fight for any prince
or commonwealth that would pay them. It was by
the help of such leaders that most of the princes and
commonwealths of Italy in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries waged their wars. Thus there was a new
dynasty at Milan, that of the Sforza. Meanwhile, as
some of the cities of Northern Italy thus fell under the
power of the Dukes of Milan, so others came under
the power of the commonwealth of Venice. For it was
in Italy at this time just as it was lorg before in old
EUROPE
towards the end of the
FOURTEENTH CENTURY
xii. ] THE STA TE OF ITAL K 211
Greece ; one city bore rule over another. Venice, 33
we have seen, had gained the first position in the
world as a maritime power, holding large possessions
in the East. But in the fifteenth century she was
tempted to become a land power also, and she won
a large dominion over the cities in the north-east of
Italy. The government of Venice had by this time
grown into a narrow oligarchy. The chief power was
in the hands of the noble families, quite shutting out
the people and leaving very little power to the Doge.
But, though Venice was an oligarchy, yet it was a
prudent and moderate oligarchy, which never failed
to supply wise statesmen and brave commanders by
sea. For the fleets of Venice were always manned by
her own citizens and subjects, though by land mercenary
troops were commonly used. Genoa also remained a
republic, and kept up a great deal of her old maritime
power. At one time, in 1379, she seemed almost on
the point of conquering Venice. But at Genoa, un-
like Venice, there were constant internal revolutions,
and the city had several times to submit to the Dukes
of Milan and the Kings of France. The other great
maritime commonwealth, Pisa, lost nearly all her
power after a sea-fight with the Genoese in 1284, and
at last in 1406 Pisa became subject to Florence. This
last commonwealth, which had not been prominent
in the twelfth century, gradually became, in the course
of the thirteenth century, one of the chief states of
Italy. As Venice was the greatest example in later
times of an aristocratic commonwealth, so Florence
was the greatest example of a democracy. In this
way the two in some sort answer to Sparta and Athens
in the old Greek times. At Florence the old nobles
were quite put down in 1292, but, in the course of the
fifteenth century, a kind of new nobility gradually arose.
Among these, one familyin particular, thatof the Medici^
gradually rose to have the chief power in the state,
though without disturbing the forms of the common-
ti2 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CIIA?,
wealth, or taking any particular title to themselves.
Such were Cosmo de 1 Medici, called the Father of his
Country, and his grandson Lorenzo. Their power was
of a different kind from that of the lords or tyrants,
either in old Greece or in other cities of Italy. Nor
was it such a power as that of Perikles at Athens, for
it passed on from father to son. It was more like the
power of Augustus and the other Roman Emperors
who respected the forms of the commonwealth. On
the whole, Florence, though the greatest and most
famous democratic state in later times, was by no
means so pure and regular a democracy as Athens was.
Still there was no part of Europe where there was
so much life, political, intellectual, and commercial.
Dante, the greatest of all Italian poets, was born at
Florence in 1265, and died in banishment in 1321.
Many other of the chief artists and men of letters
also belonged to Florence ; the commerce of the city
was famous, and its bankers lent money to Kings
in England and elsewhere. And in the time of the
Medici there was no city in Italy where greater en-
couragement was given to the men who were engaged
in reviving the old Greek and Roman learning.
7. Rome and the Popes. Rome meanwhile,
forsaken as the city was for so long both by the
Emperors and by the Popes, quite lost its old place in
Italy, and did not begin to win it back again till the
affairs of the Popes became more settled after the
Council of Constanz. Tne Romans never forgot the
old greatness of their city, and, as men's minds were
constantly falling back on old times, one Cola di Rienzi
in 1347 set up again for a short time what he called
the Good State, and ruled himself by the title of Tribune.
So again, after the Popes came back to Rome, there
were one or two conspiracies to set up the old com-
monwealth ; but from the Council of Constanz onward?
we may look on the Popes as undoubted temporal
princes of Rome. They were gradually able to biing
xii.] ROME AND THE POPES. 213
under their power all that part of Italy, stretching from
one sea to the other, over which they professed
to have rights by the grants of various Kings and
Emperors. The latter Popes of the fifteenth century
must be looked on as little more than Italian princes,
and many of them were among the very worst of the
Italian princes. Some of them, like Nicolas the Fifth^
did some good in the way of encouraging learning; and
Pius the Second, who reigned from 1458 to 1464, and
who is famous as a writer by his former name of Jncas
Silvius, tried, like Gregory the Tenth, to get the
Christian princes to join in a Crusade for the deliver-
ance of the East. But Sixtus the Fourth and Innocent
the Eighth were among the worst of the Popes, men who
thought of nothing except increasing their temporal
power and advancing their own families.
8. The Two Sicilies. The Two Sicilies mean-
while remained divided. The Kingdom of Sicily on
the mainland, often called the Kingdom of Naples,
was in extent the greatest state in Italy, and some of
its Kings, especially Robert, who reigned from 1309 to
1343, played an important part in Italian affairs. But
it shows how much greater was the life of the separate
cities, even when they were not under a free government,
when we see how this large kingdom lagged behind the
rest of Italy, and how, even in political power, it was
not more than on a level with the principalities and
commonwealths of Northern Italy which were not above
half its size. This Kingdom of Sicily was much
torn in pieces by civil wars arising out of disputed
successions to the Crown. Two bad Queens, Joanna tfo
First (1343 to 1382) and Joanna the Second (1419
to 1435), caused much confusion by their different
marriages* and adoptions of successors. During the
greater part of the fifteenth century the crown was
disputed between a branch of the House of Aragon,
who for the most part kept possession, and the Dukes
of Anjou, a branch of the royal house of France, who
214 77/3? DECLINE OF THE EM PI PL. [CHAP
ever and anon tried to make their own claims good.
At last the claims of the Angevin princes passed to the
Kings of France themselves, and then many important
events followed. Meanwhile in the Island of Sicily
the other branch of the house of Aragon went on
reigning. The first King Frederick, who established
the independence of the island, ruled bravely and
wisely, but after him the island kingdom became of no
account at all. At last Sicily became united to the
Kingdom of Aragon, another step towards the great
events of the next period.
9. England, France, and Scotland. A great
part of the history of the lands beyond the Alps during
this time is taken up by the long wars between England
and France. These had now become thoroughly na-
tional wars, and before long they grew into attempts
at a complete conquest of France on the part of
England. And the wars between England and France
are a good deal mixed up with the wars of the English
Kings with Scotland, and even with Wales. For,
when England and France became constant national
enemies, it was the natural policy of the French Kings
to raise up enemies to their rivals within their own
island. It was the object of Edward trie First, like
that of his namesake Edward the Elder in old times, to
join all Britain, as far as might be, under one dominion.
That part of Wales which still kept its own princes was
joined on in 1282. Wales was never again separated
from England ; but once or twice, when there were
revolts in Wales, those who were discontented with
the English rule tried to get help from France. How
Scotland was for a moment united with England, how,
after the death of Edward the First, it was again
separated under its King Robert Bruce, how in
1328 Scotland was acknowledged by England as an
independent kingdom, but how constant rivalries and
wars went on between the two kingdoms in or e island,
must be told more fully in our Histories of England
XH.] ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND SCOTLAND. 215
and Scotland. The point to be borne in mind now is
that, from this time, we find a steady alliance between
France and Scotland against England. This began
as early as the time of Edward the First. In the long
wars of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we now
and then find French troops serving in Scotland, while
the Scots soon learned to take service in France, and
in the later wars we find them serving against the
English in every battle. Through this close connexion
with France, Scotland came to hold a higher place in
Europe than she could otherwise have had from her
size and position.
10. Wars between England and France.
During the reigns of Edward the First and of his son
Edward the Second, who reigned from 1307 to 1327,
the rivalry between England and France did not lead
to any great war. Philip the Fair got possession of the
Duchy of Aquitaine in the year 1294, but he had soon
to give it up again. It was in the reign of Edward
the Third, from 1327 to 1377, that the great war began
which the French writers call the Hundred Years' War.
It was something like the Peloponnesian War in
Greece in old times ; for, though there was not actual
fighting going on for the whole time, yet there was
no firm or lasting peace between the two countries for
more than a hundred years. Edward the Third pro-
fessed to have a claim to the Crown of France through
his mother Isabel, who was a daughter of Philip the
Fair. But the French held that no right to the Crown
could pass through a woman. And Edward might
very likely not have pressed his claim, had not the
French King, Philip of Valois, driven him into war
by his attempts to get possession of Aquitaine. A
long war followed, which was famous for the taking of
Calais and for the great victories of the English at
Crecy in 1346 and at Poitiers in 1356. Edward, as
was natural, was an ally of the Emperor Lewis and of
the Flemish cities, which wert now beginning to rise
zi<5 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAP.
into great importance, though they never won the same
complete independence as those of Italy. The feudal
superiority over Flanders belonged to France ; the
Flemings were therefore better pleased when King
Edward took the title of King of France, so that they
might seem to be fighting for, and not against, their over-
lord. As King Edward was an ally of the Emperor
Lewis, it came about that King John of Bohemia took
the French side, so that he and his son Charles, who had
just been chosen King of the Romans, were both at
Crecy, and King John was killed there. At Poitiers
another King John, the French King himself, was taken
prisoner, and, as David King of Scots, the son of Robert
Bruce, was taken prisoner in 1346, there were two cap-
tive Kings in England at once. This first part of the
war with France was ended by the Peace of Bretigny in
1360, by which Edward gave up his claim to the Crown
of France, but kept his possessions in Aquitaine,
together with Calais and some other small districts,
and that no longer as a vassal of the French King,
but as an independent sovereign. Edward then
granted his dominions in the south to his son Edward,
called the Black Prince, who ruled at Bourdeaux as
Prince of Aquitaine. Before long the Peace of Bre-
tigny was broken by the French King Charles the Fifth,
and, before the end of the reign of Edward the Third,
the English had lost nearly all their possessions in
Aquitaine except the cities of Bourdeaux and Bayonne.
The cities commonly stuck to the English rule, under
which they were less meddled with, while the nobles
were mostly for a union with France. After the
peace was broken. King Edward again took up his
title of King of France, which was borne by all the
Kings of England down to the year 1800. Then
came a time which was neither war nor peace. Many
truces were made, and now and then there was some
little fighting, but it was not until the reign of Henry
the Fifth in England that the war began again on 3
JCII.J THE HUNDRED YEARS WA'K. 217
great scale. He took advantage of the dissensions by
which France was torn in pieces during the reign ol
the weak, or rather mad, King Charles the Sixth. He
won the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, took Rouen in
1419, and in 1420 concluded the Treaty of Troy es, by
which Henry was to succeed to the crown of France
on the death of Charles, and the crowns of England
and France were to be ever after united. Both Charles
and Henry died in 1422, but a large part of France
refused to acknowledge the treaty; so, after their deaths,
the war went on between Charles the Seiienth, who
reigned at Bourges, and John Duke of Bedford, who
was Regent of France for his nephew Henry the Sixth.
Now comes the great story of the waking up of France
under the famous Maid of Orleans, Joan of Arc. She
came from the borders of Lorraine, but she was
called the Maid of Orleans, because she relieved that
city when it was besieged by the English. By her
means Charles the Seventh was crowned at Rheims,
the old crowning-place of the French Kings, in 1429.
He thus got the start of his English rival, who had not
yet been crowned, but who was now crowned at Paris
in 1431. The war now went on for a long time, and,
after the death of the Duke of Bedford, it was for the
most part badly managed on the English side. The
English were gradually driven out, not only from
France, but from Aquitaine also, till at last, in 1453,
Bourdeaux and Bayonne were finally taken by the
French, and the English kept nothing on the continent
except the territory of Calais. The Hundred Years'
War was now over. The Kings of England still kept
on their claim to the Crown of France, and they now
and then professed to make attempts to recover it.
But, though there were for a long time many wars
between England and France and long enmity between
the two nations, the notion of conquering France was
never again seriously taken up after the time of Henrj
the Sixth.
2i8 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE.
ii. The Growth of France. The long wars of
the English were a great check to the growth of the
Kingdom of France, yet it was growing all this time,
both by uniting the territories of the great vassals to
the Crown and by annexations at the expense of its
neighbours. These were of course mainly made at
the expense of the Empire ; but, as Aquitaine had
become an independent state by the Tieaty of Bre-
tigny, its conquest also may be looked on rather as a
foreign conquest than as the union of a great fief to the
Crown. And it was during this time that the French
Kings began the process which has gone on ever since,
that of joining the states which made up the Kingdom
of Burgundy one by one to the Kingdom of France.
Even before this they had taken the little County of
Venaissin, but that had been given up to the Popes.
But now they began in earnest. In 1314,. Philip the
Fair took advantage of the disputes which the citizens
of the Imperial city of Lyons had with their Arch-
bishops, and annexed the city to his own dominions. In
1349, in the thick of the English wars, the last of the
princes of Vienne on the Rhone, who from their arms
bore the title of Dauphin or Dolphin, sold his domi-
nions to Charles the eldest son of King John of France,
and from this time it became the rule that the eldest
son of the King of France bore the title of Dauphin.
The County of Provence also, though not part of the
Kingdom of France, was, from the time of Charles of
Anjou onwards, held by French princes. And so it
came about that, somewhat after our present time, in
1481, Lewis the Eleventh, the son of Charles the
Seventh, was able to add Provence also to France.
The French Kings also more than once got hold of
the County of Burgundy or Franche Comte, of which
Dole is the capital. But this they were not able per-
manently to keep till long afterwards. Still, before
the end of the fifteenth century, the acquisition of
Provence, Lyons, and the Dauphiny of Vienne had
Ml.] GROWTH OF PRANCE. 219
given the French Kings a good half of the Burgun.
dian kingdom. The only princes of any great powet
left in that part of the world were the Counts, after-
wards Dukes, of Savoy, who ruled on both sides of thi
Lake of Geneva, and who had also possessions in the
north-west corner of Italy. In other parts of the
Empire also, even where the French Kings did not
make conquests, they were winning influence. To
the north of their own dominions they often had wars
with the stout people of the Flemish cities, over whom
they sometimes won victories, but by whom they were
sometimes defeated. The battle of Courtray in the
time of Philip the Fair is famous as the first great
victory north of the Alps won by townsmen over
nobles. On the whole, notwithstanding the long wars
with England, the kingdom of France had greatly
grown in power and in extent in the times between
the middle of the thirteenth century and the middle
of the fifteenth.
12. Beginning of the Swiss League. While
the three kingdoms which belonged to the Empire
were thus getting weaker and more divided, and while
the kingdom of France to the west of them was growing
stronger and stronger, two new powers gradually arose
in what we may call the border-land of all these king-
doms. One of these lasted but a short time, but the
other has lived on to our own day. These are the Duchy
of Burgundy and the League of the Swiss Cantons. This
last began among three small mountain districts on
vne borders of Germany, Burgundy, and Italy, called
Uri, Schivyz, and Unterwalden. They were German-
speaking members of the Empire, and there was
nothing to distinguish them from other German-
speaking members of the Empire, except that they had
kept far more of the freedom of the old times than
most other lands had. Like many other districts
and cities of the Empire, they joined together in a
League for mutual defence. This they had doubtlesi
220 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAP,
done from earlier times, but the first written document
of their union belongs to the year 1291. The Counts
of Habsburg, who had now become Dukes of Austria,
and who had estates within the three lands themselves,
were now very dangerous neighbours, and the Con-
federates had to keep close together in order to guard
their freedom. This they made safe by the battle of
Morgarten, which they won over Duke Leopold oj
Austria in 1315. Presently several of the neigh-
bouring cities, Luzern, Zurich, and Bern, joined
their alliance, as also did the smaller towns of Zug
and Glarus ; so that in the course of the fourteenth
century they formed a league of eight states. Its
name was the Old League of ffigh Germany, and
its members were called the Eidgenossen or Confede-
rates ; but the name of the Canton of Schwyz gradually
spread over the whole League, and they came to be
commonly called Swiss and their country Switzerland.
But it is only in quite late times that those names
have come into formal use. Such a league was of
course much dreaded by the neighbouring nobles, but
it was for a long time favoured by the Emperors. The
three lands had been specially loyal to the Swabian
Emperors, and they were no less favoured by Henry
the Seventh and Lewis of Bavaria. Charles the
Fourth was their enemy, but they were again favoured
by his son Siegmund. But the Dukes of Austria were
their constant enemies, and therefore, when the Em-
pire passed into the Austrian House, the Confederates
had to be on their guard against the power which had
hitherto been friendly. But they did not throw off
their allegiance to the Empire, and, during all the time
of uhich we speak, the Confederates remained a purely
German body, although some parts of their territory,
including Bern, which was the most powerful member
of the League, lay within the bounds of the Kingdom
of Burgundy. The Confederates had to wage several
nars for the defence of their freedom, as when in 1386
XII. 1 THE SWISS LEAGUE. 221
they won the battle of Sempacli over another Duke
Leopold of Austria and a great confederacy of the nobles,
and when in 1444 they were attacked by the Dauphin
Lewis, afterwards Lewis flie Eleventh. They had
also some disputes and even civil wars among them-
selves ; but on the whole the League steadily ad-
vanced and made many alliances with its neighbours.
And these commonwealths also, like those of old
Greece and of Italy, conquered, or sometimes bought,
various towns and districts, which they held as their
subjects. Thus, by the middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury the Confederates had grown into a new power in
Europe, and one which was getting more and more
independent of the Empire. But they in no sort
formed a nation, because all the members of the
League were still purely German. They were simply
one of many German Leagues, which circumstances
allowed to become more independent than the others,
and, as it turned out, to survive them. We must now
speak of the other power which was growing up mean-
while in the border-lands, and with which the Con^
federates presently had a great deal to do.
13. The Dukds of Burgundy. It must be al-
ways borne in mind that the name Burgundy has several
meanings. Thus, besides the Kingdom of Burgundy,
which, in the times of which we are now speaking,
quite fell to pieces and was almost forgotten, there
was the Duchy of Burgundy, which was a rief of the
Crown of France, and the County of Burgundy, which
was part of the Kingdom, and therefore a fief of the
Empire. A power now began to arise, which took in
more than one of these Burgundies, and which seemed
not unlikely to bring back the old times when there
was a Middle Kingdom of Burgundy or of Lotharingia
lying between Germany, Italy, and France. This
came about in this way. The French Duchy of Bur-
gundy fell in to the Crown in 1361, and Philip the son
of King John of France became the first of a new
Z22 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAI.
line of Dukes, that of Valois. He married Margartt
the heiress of Flanders, and thus united two of the
greatest fiefs of the Crown of France. Of these two,
Flanders, where the great cities were always quarrel-
ling with the Counts, was almost an independent
state. After Philip there reigned three Dukes of his
family, John the Fearless from 1404 to 1419, Philip t/u
Good from 1419 to 1467, and Charles the Boldjrow
1467 to 1477. All these Dukes, as French princes,
played a great part in the affairs of France. They
also were always winning in all kinds of ways, by
marriage, by purchase, or by conquest, large territories
within the Empire, including the greater part of the
Netherlands or Lent) Countries, taking in nearly all both
of the present Kingdom of the Netherlands and the
present Kingdom of Belgium, besides much which has
now gone to France. They thus were vassals at once
of the Emperor and of the King of France, and they
weie really more powerful than either of their lords.
For their position as a border power gave them great
advantages, and their possession of the great cities of
the Low Countries, turbulent as their citizens often
were, made them the richest princes in Europe. Duke
John the Fearless was murdered by the Dauphin
Charles, afterwards Charles the Seventh, and this
threw his son Duke Philip into the arms of the Eng-
lish. Philip supported the English in France for a
long time, and, after he forsook their side at the Treaty
of Arras in 1435, the English power in France fell
away very fast Duke Philip reigned very prudently,
and increased the power of his Duchy in every way.
But under his son, Charles the Bold, his great power
fell to pieces. There was a constant rivalry between
him and Lewis the Eleventh. He also kept all the
world in alarm by endlessly planning one scheme after
another, and by annexing such of the territories of his
neighbours as he could get hold of. One great object
of his was to annex the Duchy of Lorraine, that is th
xii.] THE DUKES OF BURGUNDY. 223
southern part of the old Lotharingia, the capital oi
which is Nancy. This would have joined his domi-
nions in the Netherlands with the Duchy and County
of Burgundy. But he also dreamed of getting Provence,
and of making himself King of all the lands which had
2ver formed part of any of the old Burgundian and
Lotharingian kingdoms. In this way he got into dis-
putes with the cities on the Rhine, with Duke Siegmuna
of Austria, and lastly with the Confederates. And the
King of France, of course, took care to stir up all his
enemies against him. A war now followed between
Duke Charles and the Confederates, which was carried
on in the dominions of the Duke of Savoy north of the
Lake of Geneva. Charles was overthrown in two great
battles at Granson and at Murten or Morat in 1476. At
last he was defeated and killed in 1477 in a third battle
at Nancy, whither the Confederates had gone to help
Rene Duke of Lorraine to win back his Duchy from
Charles. This war had two great results. The great
power of the Dukes of Burgundy was broken up.
Charles' daughter Mary kept his dominions in the
Low Countries and, after a while, got back the County
of Burgundy. But the Duchy of Burgundy was joined
to the Crown of France, and the scheme of a great
power lying between Germany and France came to an
end. On the other hand, the great victories of the
Confederates raised their reputation to the highest
pitch. They now began to take a part in general
European affairs, and to count as a distinct power.
They also now began to win dominions in the Romance-
speaking lands to the west and south of them. But
then successes did much to corrupt them ; the Swiss,
as they now began to be called, were such good
soldiers that all the princes of Europe, especially the
Kings of France, were glad to have them in their
armies, and thus began the practice of serving for
hire, which was the disgrace of the Swiss League tiM
quite lately.
22 4 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CMAF.
14. The Eastern Empire. Rise of the Otto-
mans. While the Western Empire was quite chang-
ing its character, sinking into a German Kingdom, or
rather into a Confederation of German States, the
Eastern Empire, which had now become practically
Greek, came to an end altogether. After the Greeks
had won back Constantinople from the Latins in
1260, their dominion, under the last dynasty of the
Palaiologoi, was but a shadow of the old Empire. Yet,
as had so often happened before, there was for a while
a time of revival, and the Emperors of Constantinople,
Emperors of the Romans as they still called themselves,
were able to join on to their dominions many of the
little states, joth Greek and Frank, which had sprung
up at the time of the Latin Conquest. During these
last days of the Eastern Empire there was more inter-
course than before between the Greeks and the Western
nations, especially the Venetians and Genoese. And,
whenever the Greeks were in any trouble, their
Emperors always made a show of putting an end to the
division between the Eastern and Western Churches.
But schemes of this sort never really took root, as
the Greeks were fully determined never to admit the
authority of the Pope. These applications for Western
help were commonly made when the Eastern Emperors
were hard pressed by an enemy which seemed likely
to swallow up, not only the Eastern Empire but ail
Christendom. These were the Ottoman Turks, so
railed from their early leader Othman. They arose in
the middle of the thirteenth century, being first heard
of about 1240. This branch of the Turks produced a
succession of greater rulers than any other Eastern
dynasty, and their power has lasted till our own time.
They gradually swallowed up the provinces of the
Empire in Asia, and most of the other powers, Chris-
tian and Mahometan, in those parts, and Turkish
pirates began to ravage the coasts of Europe. Aboul
1343 they got a firmer footing in Europe during some
xii.] THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 225
of the dissensions within the Empire, and they were
never again driven out. In 1361 their Sultan Morad
or Amurath took Hadrianople, which became the
Ottoman capital What remained of the Eastern
Empire was now altogether hemmed in ; all was lost,
except Constantinople itself and a: small territory round
it, and some outlying possessions, chiefly in Pelopon-
nsos. Meanwhile the Turks were spreading them-
selves to the north, and were overcoming the Slavonic
lands which had learned their Christianity from the
Eastern Empire, Servia, Bulgaria, and other states in
those parts. This brought them into contact with
Hungary, and thus led to wars of which we shall speak
presently. The successes of the Turks were largely
owing to their taking a tribute of children from their
Christian subjects, the strongest and bravest of whom
were brought up as soldiers, and formed a well-dis-
ciplined body of" infantry which overcame all enemies.
These were called Janissaries or Neu> Soldiers. Dur-
ing the reign of Bajazet, surnamed the Thunderbolt,
who reigned from 1389 to 1402, things seemed as
if the Eastern Empire and all the Christian states
of South-eastern Europe were about to be destroyed
at once. But they gained a respite in a strange
way from the appearance of a new Mahometan power
in Asia.
15. Rise of Timour. The great Mogul Empire
which had been founded by Jenghiz had long ago
fallen to pieces ; but dynasties rising out of it reigned
for a long time in Persia, and for a still longer time
held Russia in bondage. In the latter half of the
fourteenth century a prince called Timour arose in
Central Asia, whose descendants are commonly spoken
of as the Moguls, but who seems in truth to have been
Turkish rather than Mongolian. He was a Mahometan
of the Shiah sect, those who hold the divine right of
All the son-in-law of Mahomet, and who look, not
only on all the Ommiad and Abbasside Caliphs, but
226 THE DECLINE OP THE EMPIRE. [CHAP
on the first three Caliphs, Abou Bekr, Omar, and
Othman, as usurpers. They had always existed as a
religious sect, but most of the great Mahometan
nations were Sonnitcs or orthodox Mahometans, who
look on all the first four Caliphs as lawful successors of
Mahomet. Timour therefore made religious zeal an
excuse for attacking the whole world, whether Chris-
tians, heathens, or such Mahometans as he looked on
as heretics. At last he came into Western Asia to
attack the Ottoman Sultan Bajazet, whom in his letters
he addressed as the Casar of Rome. Bajazet was utterly
defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Angora in
1402 ; but Timour never crossed into Europe. He
died in 1405, and his great dominion, like other great
dominions of the kind, broke in pieces.
1 6. The Fall of Constantinople The little
that was left of the Eastern Empire got a breathing space
through the overthrow of Bajazet by Timour. A civil
war arose among his sons, and the Ottoman monarchy
was not again united till 1421 under Sultan Amurath
the Second. He besieged Constantinople in 1422, but
the Empire still dragged on a feeble existence till the
accession of his son Mahomet the Second, called the
Conqueror, in 1451. All the Ottoman Sultans hitherto
had been great warriors, and, according to the Eastern
standard, wise rulers. Mahomet was perhaps the
greatest of them all. He presently besieged Constan-
tinople : the last Emperor of the East, Constantine
Palaiologos, made another of those reconciliations with
the Western Church of which we have already heard ;
but he gained no real help from the West except a few
volunteers, who came chiefly from Venice and Genoa.
The great siege of Constantinople began, one of the
first great sieges in which cannon, which had been
gradually coming into use in war for about a hundred
years, played a great part. The Emperor did all that
man could do in such a strait, but at last, on May the
agth, 1453 Constantinople was taken by storm. Con-
xn.] FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 227
stantine died sword in hand, and the Roman Empire
of the East came to an end. Constantinople now
became the capital of the Ottoman Empire, and Jus-
tinian's great church of Saint Sophia became a Maho-
metan mosque. In a few years Mahomet conquered
Peloponnesos and the greater part of Greece, and in
1461 he conquered the Greek Empire of Trebizond,
which thus outlived that of Constantinople. He had
thus got possession of nearly the whole mainland
which had belonged to the Eastern Empire at any
time since the first Saracen conquest. But the Vene-
tians still kept several points on the mainland, besides
Crete and Corfu and some smaller islands. Some of
the other islands were still kept by Latin princes, and
Rhodes was held by the Knights of Saint John. Cyprus
too remained a Latin kingdom, though before long
the Venetians gained that also. Mahomet went on to
plan the invasion of Western Europe, and the Turks
actually took Otranto in Southern Italy ; but the West
was delivered by the death of Mahomet in 1481, for
his successor Bajazet the Second was not a conqueror
like his father.
17. The Spanish Kingdoms. The two ends of
Europe, the Scandinavian and the Spanish penin-
sulas, played a less important part in general history
during this time than they did either before or after.
Their history is chiefly confined to dealings within
their own bounds. In Spain the Saracens or Moors
were now shut up in the one kingdom of Granada, and,
though there were often wars between them and their
neighbours of Castile, yet the Spanish history of this
time is much more taken up with wars and disputes
among the several Christian kingdoms. The history
of Castile is connected with, that of England, because
the Black Prince, Edward, Prince of Wales and Aqui-
taine, was persuaded in 1366 to lead an army into
Spain to restore King Pedro or Peter, surnamed the
Crue? t who had been driven out by his brothei
228 THE DECLINE OS THE EMPIRE. [CHAP
Henry of Trastamara. In this war Edward won his
third great battle of Najara or Navarete, and restored
Peter, who was however before long killed by Henry.
Aragon again was closely connected with the Two
Sicilies. The island kingdom was united to Aragon
in 1409, and Alfonso the Fifth, who was King from
1416 to 1458, was, during part of that time, in posses-
sion of Naples. But, as he was succeeded in Naples
by his natural son Ferdinand and in Aragon by his
brother John, the two kingdoms were again separated
for a while, and the crown of Naples was all the while
disputed by the Angevin princes. At one time, in
1467, the war was carried into Spain by John, Duke
of Calabria, son of Rene, Count of Provence and. Duke
of Anjou, who called himself King of Sicily. This John
came to help the Catalans, who were in revolt against
John of Aragon. John had also wars with Lewis of
France for the possession of the border county of
Roussillon, which changed hands several times between
the two crowns. Portugal meanwhile was doing great
things. Under John the Great, who reigned from
1385 to 1433, the Portuguese began to take revenge for
the long possession of Spain by the Saracens of Africa
by conquests in Africa itself. And at the same time,
under the Infant or prince Don Henry, they began
a course of navigation and discovery along the western
coast of Africa and among the islands of the Atlantic,
which went on during the whole of the fifteenth cen-
tury. At last the great discovery of the Cape of Good
Hope in 1486 opened for Portugal a yet wider
dominion in India and other parts of the East. In
this work of exploring, conquering, and colonizing
distant parts of the world, other nations soon followed,
but :!: was the Portuguese who first showed the way.
Meanwhile a change took place in the Spanish penin-
sula, which led to great changes in Europe generally.
This came about through the marriage in 1471 of
Isabella Queen of Castile with Ferdinand the Infant oj
xii.] NORTHERN EUROPE. 22*
Aragon, who soon after succeeded to tne Aragonesc
crown. The Crowns of Aragon and Castile were ever
afterwards, except for a very short time, held together.
In 1481 the Catholic Kings, as Ferdinand and Isabella
\vere called, began a war with Granada, whose King
had invaded the Castilian territory. In 1492 they
took Granada itself and united the kingdom to Castile.
The Mahometan dominion in Spain, which had lasted
through so many ages, was now at an end, and the
recovery of Granada might almost seem to make up
in Christendom for the loss of Constantinople at the
other end of Europe. Spain, as the united dominions
of Ferdinand and Isabella were commonly called, soon
became the greatest power in Europe.
18. Northern Europe. In the Scandinavian
peninsulas, the power of Denmark gradually sank in
the course of the thirteenth century. Towards the
end of the fourteenth, in 1397, the three kingdoms
were united by the famous Union of Calmar, under
Margaret Queen of Nonvay and daughter of Waldemar
the Third King of Denmark. This union, with some
interruptions, went on through the fifteenth century.
In 1448, under Christian the First, the House of
Oldenburg began to reign, which has gone on in
Denmark till our own time, and which held Norway
also within the present century. During all this time
the Northern kingdoms had many wars with the League
of the Hanse Towns, and the shifting relations began
between the Kings of Denmark and the Duchies of
Sleswick and Holstein which have gone on till our own
days, Sleswick, the land north of the Eyder, was the
southern part of Denmark, which had become a
separate Duchy, but which was not a fief of the Em-
pire. Its people were partly Danish and partly Low-
Dutch. Holstein, on the other hand, that part of
Saxony which lay between the Elbe and the Eyder,
always was a fief of the Empire, and its people were
wholly Low-Dutch.
230 THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHAIV
19. Russia and Poland. Great changes took
place in the lands to the east of the Baltic during this
period. The Lithuanians, the last Aryan people in
Europe to accept Christianity, were converted towards
the end of the fourteenth century. Their Duke
fagdlon married Hedwig Queen of Poland in 1386,
and was baptized and brought about the conversion of
his people. He was the founder of the dynasty of
Kings of Poland of the house of Jagellon. The
union of Poland and Lithuania under one sovereign
formed one of the greatest states in Europe. The
dominions of the Jagellons stretched far to the east
and south, taking in a large part of Russia and reach-
ing to the new conquests of the Ottoman Turks.- And
in 1466 Casimir the Fourth finally got the better of
the Teutonic Knights, annexing the western part of
Prussia to Poland, and so cutting Prussia off from
Germany. Russia meanwhile, while cut short by the
Poles and Lithuanians to the west, was held in bond-
age by the Moguls to the east. But, after Moscow
became the capital in 1328, Russia began to recover
itself somewhat, and at last, in 1477, Ivan Vasilovitz
completely freed the country from the Mogul supre-
macy. Still Russia was altogether hemmed in, and it
had no means of taking any part in European affairs
for some time to come.
20. Hungary and the Turks. Meanwhile
Hungary shifted about from one dynasty to another.
Towards the end of the thirteenth century the Hun-
garian crown passed by marriage into a branch of the
Angevin house of Sicily. The greatest King of this
line was Lewis, who reigned from 1342 to 1382, and
who was also King of Poland. He was the father of
Hedwig who married Jagellon. Her sister Mary
married Siegmund, who was afterwards Emperor, and
who also became King of Hungary. In his time
the Turks became dangerous to Hungary, and both
Hungary and Poland soon became special bulwarks of
Hi.] POLAND AND HUNGARY. 2;^
Christendom by land, as the commonwealth of Venice
was by sea. In 1396 King Siegmund and a large
body of Western allies were overthrown by Sultan
Eajazet at Nikopolis. In the next century a famous
captain, John Huniades, Waiwode or prince of Trans*
silvania, greatly distinguished himself against the
Turks ; but in 1444 Wladislaus the son of Jagellon,
who was King both of Hungary and Poland, after
driving back Sultan Amurath for a while, was defeated
and slain by him at Vartta. After this John Huniades
was regent, and in 14*56 he drove back Sultan
Mahomet from Belgrade. His son Matthias Corvinus
was King from 1458 to 1490. He did much to
civilize his kingdom, and valiantly kept off the Turks,
while on the other side he won great victories over
the House of Austria, who were striving to get the
kingdom of Hungary into their own hands.
21. Language, Science, and Art. The pro-
gress of learning has been already spoken of with
regard to Italy, as it was there that it had most effect
on the political history of the country. But men's
minds were at work in other parts of the world also.
Men were eager after knowledge in many ways.
Many of the Universities in different countries were
now of great importance, and in England Colleges
began to be founded in them. History was in most
countries still written in Latin. In the thirteenth
century there were good writers of history in Eng-
land, especially Matthew Paris, who spoke out boldly
against both the Pope and the King. But in England
the writing of history went down a good deal in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. There was, on the
other hand, a series of historical writers in French
from the thirteenth century onwards, and in the four-
teenth and fifteenth we learn much about the different
stages of the Hundred Years' War from the French-
speaking writers frriuartand Monstrelet. In England
the English tongue had in the fourteenth century. again
2 3 2 TlfE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. [CHA*
quite driven French out of use, except for some legal
and formal purposes. And now lived such poets aj
Geoffrey Chauter, whose works did much towards fixing
the standard of the English language. There were
many divines and thinkers in various ways, some of
whom, as we have already seen, began, especially in
England and in Bohemia, to teach doctrines different
from those which were commonly received in the
Church. And the general stirring of men's minds led
some into speculations about the natural equality of
mankind which led to revolts of the peasants both in
France and England in the course of the fourteenth
century. The people called Lollards in England, the
followers of Wickliffe, often mixed up the religious
and the social movement together. But in England
villainage was on the whole dying out, while in many
other countries it was getting harder and harder. In
war, up to the invention of gunpowder, the knights and
gentlemen who fought on horseback still despised all
other troops, though the Scots, the Swiss, the Flemings
at Courtray, and the English archers at Crecy, all
showed what a good infantry could do. These cen-
turies also, the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth,
were the ages when architecture reached its height in
Europe, and when the finest churches and castles were
built. But it was only towards the end of this period,
as times grew quieter and law grew stronger, that we
find many great houses strictly so called, except within
the walls of the cities.
22. Summary. During this time then the Em-
pire of the West dwindled into insignificance, and the
Empire of the East was destroyed altogether. A great
Mahometan power was settled in the East of Europe,
while the last Mahometan kingdom was overthrown in
the West Spain became a great power. In ftaly
learning revived, but the freedom of the cities was in
most cases destroyed, and the corruptions of the
fopedom grew greater and greater. England ax\<\ Fratici
xn.j SUMMARY. 233
waged a long war, in which France was nearly con-
quered, but she gained in the end, and won a large
increase of territory both from England and from
other powers. The Swiss League and the Duchy 0}
Burgundy became important powers, but the advance
of the latter was cut short. The three Scandinavian
kingdoms were united, though not very firmly. Poland
became a great power, and Russia laid the foundation
of her greatness by throwing off the yoke of the
Moguls. The defence of Christendom against the
Turks, though endlessly talked about by Popes and
Emperors, really fell in the main on Poland, Hungary,
and Venice.
214 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN.
Characteristics of modern Europe ; formation of tht
existing powers and nations (i) progress of arts
and inventions ; falling back of political freedom
(i) increase of the royal power; introduction oj
standing armies (i) all Western Europe now
Christian (2) chief causes of the Reformation of
Religion; practical abuses; the po-wer of the Popes ;
disputes on points of Mixology (2) different forms
taken by the Reformation in different cvuutries ; the
Reformation, as a rule, accepted by the Teutonic
nations and refused by the Romance (3) no real
toleration on either side (3) names given to the
different parties (3) growth of the power of Spain ;
acquisition of various kingdoms by conquest and
marriage (4) succession of Charles the First of
Spain; his e-lection as the Emperor Charles the
Fifth; the Austrian Kings in Spain (4) reign of
Philip the Second; annexation of Portugal (5)
reigns of Philip the Third and Fourth; wars with
France and toss of territory ; persecution and expul-
sion of the Moriscos (5) rivalry of France and Spain
in Italy (6) conquest of Naples by Charles the
Eighth (6) conquest of Milan by Lewis the Twelfth,
and of Naples by Ferdinand (7) League of Cambray
against Venice; the Holy League; restoration of
the Medici at Florence (7) rivalry of Charles and
Francis ; battle of Marignano ; captivity of Francis
At Pavia (8) sack of Rome; peace between Char Us
Kill.] THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. 235
and Francis j coronation of Charles (8) dominion of
Charles throughoitt Italy ; subjugation of Florence
(9) Wars of Venice -with the Turks ; loss of Cyprus f
battle of Lepanto (9) the Popes ; their purely -worldly
policy at the beginning of the period (10) improve-
ment under the later Popes ; Council of Trent;
foundation of the Jesuits (10) reign of Maximilian
(n) the Emperors after Charles the Fifth; the
Empire becomes purely German (n) beginning of
the Reformation in Germany ; preachmg of Luther
(12) religious wars and persecutions ; invasion of
the Turks (12) groivth of France j annexation of
Brittany (13) reign of Francis the First; Henry
of England takes Boulogne (13) reign of Henry the
Second; seizure of the Theee Bishoprics ; Peace oj
CAteau-Cambresis (13) tlie Reformation in France ;
teaching of Calvin (14) persecutions and civil wars
in France ; reign of Henry the Fourth (14) revolt
of the Netherlands against Spain; William the Silent
(15) -formation of the Republic of the United Pro-
vinces (16) growth of the Swiss Confederation ; the
Reformation under Zwingliand Farel(if} conquests
of Bern from Savoy ; Savoy loses in Burgundy and
gains in Italy (17) civil wars in England ; reign
of Henry the Eighth (17) the Reformation in
England; Henry throws off the Papal power;
religious changes under Edward (18) restoration of
the Pope's power under Mary; final settlement under
Elizabeth (18) relations between England and Scot-
land; reign of Mary in Scotland ( 1 9) war between
Elizabeth and Philip (19) union of England and
Scotland under James ; civil wars of England (19)
-final separation of Denmark and Sweden under
\ Gustavus Vasa (20) the Reformation in Denmark
and Sweden ; advance of Sweden under Gustavus
Adolphus (20) greatness of Poland ; humiliation cj-
the Teutonic Order ; foundation of the Duchy of
Prussia; its union with Brandenburg (21) disputes
about Livonia (21) groivth of Russia; accession of
*36 THE GREATNESS OF SPA Iff. [CHA*.
the house of Romanoff ; the Polish crown becomes
Purely elective (21) beginning of the modern kingdom
of Persia (22) reigns of Selim the Inflexible and
Suleiman the Lawgiver ; Turkish conquests in
Hungiry (22) conquest of Cyprus and battle of
Lepanto (22) disputes in Bohemia ; t/ie Elector
Palatine chosen King ; beginning of the Thirty
Years' War (23) career of Gustavus Adolphus (23}
interference and advance of France (23) Peace of
Westphalia; degradation of the Empire; acquisitions
of Sweden and France (24) continued war between
France and Spain; Peace of the Pyrenees (24)
European colonies and settlements ; different kind*
of settlements (25) Portuguese settlements in Africa
and India (25) discovery of America (26) Spanish
settlements in America (27) French, English, and
Dutch settlements in America (28) progress o)
learning, art, and science ; use of the national
languages (29) Summary (30).
i. Characteristics of Modern Europe We
are now gradually passing into a new state of things.
Nearly ah the nations and powers of Europe which
now remain have been already formed \ the indepen-
dent states are fewer and larger than before, and
things are beginning to be in many ways more like
what they are now than they have been hitherto. The
great advance of learning and science in the fifteenth
century altogether changed the face of the world, and
three great inventions, printing, gunpowder, and the
mariner's compass, were now fully in use and gave a
wholly new character to all matters both of war and
peace. The general stirring of men's minds, and the
spirit of thought and enterprise which began to be
abroad, took various forms. It led to the great
changes in religion which are spoken of as the Re-
formation, and it led to the discovery of new lands
beyond the sea, and to the establishment of colonies
by the chief European nations in distant parts of the
Xlii.] CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN EUROPE. 237
world. In all matters of intellectual progress, and in
all the arts of ordinary life, the time to which we have
now come is a time of wonderful advance. But, for a
Jong time after the beginning of what we may call
modern history, political freedom did not go forward,
but rather fell back. It was a time of much deeper
and more far-seeing policy than earlier times, and it
was a time when governments grew stronger, when
laws could be more regularly carried out, and when
much of the turbulence and disorder of earlier times
came to aft end. But it was also a time when, in most
parts of Europe, Kings contrived to get all power into
their own hands ; it was a time of wars which Kings
waged for their own purposes, and in which the
nations which they governed had very little interest.
To wage these wars they had to keep standing armies,
that is, armies of soldiers who are always under arms
and who always receive pay. A standing army need
not be an army of mere mercenaries, like those which
served in Italy for any prince or commonwealth that
would hire them. Still, where there are standing armies,
things are very different from what they are when a lord
calls on his vassals, or when a commonwealth calls on
its citizens, to fight when they are wanted to fight and
then to go home again. A standing army makes the
government which employs it far stronger ; and it was
by means of these standing armies that the Kings in
most parts of Europe were able to overthrow those free
institutions of earlier times which many countries have
only quite lately won back again. But the main outward
difference between these times and the times that went
before them is that the old ideas of the Church and
the Empire now passed away for ever. The Eastern
Empire was gone ; the Western Empire survived in
name only. The Emperors were ofcen very powerful
princes, but it was not by reason of their being Em-
perors that they were so. We have now very largely to
deal, not so much with nations, or even with particular
238 THE GREA TNE^S OF SPA/A [CHAI-,
states, as with collections of states and nations in th
hands of particular families. And we now come to
that great revolution in religion by which the Churches
of Western Europe have ever since been still more
widely divided among themselves than in former times
the whole Western Church was from the Eastern.
The Eastern Church meanwhile remained for a long
time as it were hidden, as most of the nations which
belonged to it were in bondage to the Turks. It is
only in later times that the Eastern Church has again
become politically important, as being the religion of
the great Empire of Russia.
2. Causes of the Reformation. At the be-
ginning of the sixteenth century we may say that the
whole of Western Europe was in communion with the
Western Church. And, though all men did not think
exactly alike as to the authority of the Pope or Bishop of
Rome, yet all looked on him as being at least the head
Bishop of the whole Church. There was no nation in
the West which was not Christian. The Lithuanians
had been converted, and the Moors in Spain had been
conquered. If there were any heathens left anywhere,
it would be a. few Laps in the extreme North. Nor
was there any Christian nation in the West which
refused submission to the See of Rome. The Albi-
genses had been put down long ago, and the revolt of
the followers of John Huss in Bohemia had, after
much hard fighting, been put down also. There had
all along been religious discontents among particular
men, and both in England and elsewhere many men
had been burned as heretics. Still no whole nation
had as yet set up any new ecclesiastical system for
itself. But early in the sixteenth century there began
to be a much greater stir about religious matters in
most parts of Western Europe. This was owing,
partly to the general stir in men's minds caused by the
revival of learning, and partly to the exceeding
wickedness of the Popes of those times. There were
Bin.] CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION. 2 .
three things at which men were specially offended.
First there were many practical abuses in the Church
which could have been done away with without either
casting off the authority of the Pope or making any
changes in doctrine. Many of these things the Coun-
cils of the fifteenth century, at Constanz, Basel, and
elsewhere, honestly tried to mend; but the Popes
always stood in the way. The Popes themselves in
after days tried to mend many things, but not till it
was too late. Secondly, the authority of the Popes
was itself felt to be a great grievance, partly because it
was often so badly used, but also because, even when
it was well used, it interfered with the rights both of
civil governors and of national Churches. The truth
is that the power of the Bishops of Rome had grown
up from the same causes as the power of the Emperors
of Rome, that is, because Rome was the head city of
the world. And now men were beginning to be dis-
contented with the power of the Popes through the
same causes which had made the power of the Em-
perors die away. That is to say, Christendom was
split up into separate nations and kingdoms, and Rome
no longer kept its place as the centre of all. But, as
the power of the Popes was held to be a matter of
religious belief, it was not so easy to get rid of it as it
was to get rid of the power of the Emperors. Lastly,
besides all this, many men held that not a few of the
doctrines which were believed, and of the ceremonies
which were practised, in the Church were wrong in
themselves, and had no ground in Scripture or in the
practice of the first Christians. Disputes arose about
the Mass or sacrament of the Lord's Supper, about
the use of images and the practice of praying to
saints, about the state of men after death, about the
necessity of confessing sins to a priest, about the laws
which forbade the clergy to marry, and about the
practice of saying the Church service in Latin now
that Latin was nowhere the tongue commonly under
a 4 o THE GREATNESS OF SPAM. [CHA*
stood. Some of these disputes were about pointi
\vhich the Popes might have yielded without giving up
their general system, and which indeed they have
sometimes yielded in distant parts of the world. Bui
others were about points of doctrine strictly so called,
which those who held the received belief to be true
could not give up so easily. Thus the early part of
the sixteenth century was a time, above all others, of
religious controversies, and these controversies led to
the most important events, both religious and political.
3. The Reformation in different Countries.
The end of all these disputes was that a large part
of Western Europe gradually became separated from
the communion of the See of Rome. This gradual
change is commonly called the Reformation. And, as
in old times, Christianity took different forms in the
Latin, the Greek, and the Eastern provinces of the
Empire, so nearly the same thing happened now.
Allowing for a good many exceptions, it may be said
that the Teutonic nations accepted the new teaching,
while the Romance nations clave to the See of Rome.
And there were great differences in the way in which
the Reformation arose and was carried out in different
countries. In some countries the change arose among
the people and was rather forced upon the govern-
ments, while in others it was chiefly the work of Kings
and rulers. And change went much further in some
countries than in others. In some countries quite new
forms of worship and Church government were set up,
while in others men cast off the authority of the Pope
and changed what they thought wrong in doctrine and
practice, but let the general order of the Church go
on much as it did before. The extremes each way
might be seen in England; for, of all the countriei
which made any reformation at all, England changed
the least and Scotland the most. And in Ireland
the great mass of the people have always with-
stood all change, partly tio doubt because their
Kin.] THE REFORMATION. 24!
English rulers tried to force it upon them. And,
though the stirring of men's minds, and the habit of
thinking for themselves which led to the Reformation,
did in the end lead men in most countries to see
that they ought not to persecute each other for differ-
ences in religion, yet they did not find this out for a
long time. For a long time men on both sides held
it to be a crime to allow any kind of worship except
that which they themselves thought right Thus the
Reformation gave rise to civil wars wherever the two
parties were nearly equally balanced, and to persecu-
tions wherever one side was much stronger than the
other. Those who clave to the old teaching thought
it their duty to hinder the spread of the new, and those
who adopted the new teaching thought it their duty to
hinder the practice of the old. It was only in a few-
cases, where neither side was strong enough to do
much mischief to the other, that the old and new
worship went on for any time side by side. Those
who accepted the Reformation were commonly called
Protestant or Reformed, two names which at first had
different meanings, but which are now commonly used
without much distinction. Those who clave to the
Popes called themselves Catholics, as claiming to be
the whole and only true Church. The other side
called them in contempt Papists and Romanists.
Perhaps it is safest to use the name Roman Catholics,
a name which is not very consistent with itself, but
which avoids disputes either way, and which in Eng-
land is the name known to the law.
4. Growth of the power of Spain in Eu-
rope. Charles the Fifth. From the latter part
of the fifteenth century onwards the power of Spain
grew fast, and during the greater part of the sixteenth
century we may fairly call it the greatest power in
Europe. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella had
united Aragon and Castile ; they had conquered
Granada, and, after Isabella's death in 1504, Ferdinand,
24 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP.
in 1512, conquered nearly all the Kingdom o
Navarre, that is all south of the Pyrenees. The
whole peninsula, except Portugal, was thus joined
together. Ferdinand also held Sardinia and the island
of Sicily, and in 1501, by wars which we must speak
of presently, he also got possession of the continental
kingdom of Naples. Isabella was succeeded in Cas-
tile by her daughter Joanna, who had married Philip
cf Austria. He was the son of Mary of Burgundy
the daughter of Charles the Bold, and of Maximilian
the son of the Emperor Frederick, who was chosen
King of the Romans in his father's lifetime. Each
chain in this pedigree ought to be remembered, be-
cause each marriage brought with it some fresh domi-
nion, and so helped to build up the great fabric of the
Spanish power. Mary, after her father's death, kept
the Low Countries and the County of Burgundy, while
Lewis of France seized the Duchy. Her son Philip
was thus sovereign of the Low Countries. By his
marriage with Joanna came the strange union of those
distant provinces with the kingdoms of Castile and
Aragon. Thus Charles, the son of Philip and Joanna,
succeeded to all the possessions of the Houses of
Castile, Aragon, and Burgundy. In 1516 he suc-
ceeded one grandfather Ferdinand in his Spanish domi-
nions, and in 1519, on the death of his other grand-
father Maximilian, he was elected to the Empire. In
Spain he was Charles the First, but, as he was the
fifth Emperor of the name, he is always spoken of in
history as Charles the Fifth. Thus the Emperor was
again the greatest prince in Europe ; but this was not
because he was Emperor, but because of his dominions
in Spain and the Netherlands. Charles could hardly
be said to belong to any nation in particular, but in
the male line he came of the House of Austria, and
the Kings of Spain of his dynasty are called the Aits*
tnan Kings. He also obtained possession of the
County of Burgundy and of the Duchy of Milan, and
EUROPE
under
CHARLES the FIFTH
10 Longitude
20 from Greenwich
Fisk t, See, N. T.
vin j Sl/CCSSOXS Of CHARLES THE FiFTH. 24^
all these dominions he gave up to his son Philip n
5. Successors of Charles the Fifth. Aftes
Charles the Fifth came three Kings of Spain called
Philip. Philip the Second reigned from 1556 to 1598.
He was a most bigoted Catholic, yet almost the first
act of his reign was a war with the Pope, Paul the
Fourth, in his character of a temporal prince. In
Philip's time began the war in the Netherlands by
which the northern provinces threw off the Spanish
yoke, of which we shall speak more presently. It was
lie also who sent the famous Armada against England
in 15^8, and he also interfered largely in the affairs
of France. On the other hand, in 1571 his fleet, in
alliance with that of the Commonwealth of Venice,
won the sea-fight of Lepanto the ancient Naupaktos
in the Corinthian Gulf over the Turks. This was
the first great check which their power met with. In
1580 he got possession of the Kingdom of Portugal,
?o that the whole Spanish peninsula was for a while
joined together under one ruler. As long as Philip
lived, Spain outwardly kept its place as the leading
power of Europe ; but under the two following Kings,
Philip the Third, who reigned from 1598 to 1621,
and Philip the Fourth, from 1621 to 1665, the Spanish
power greatl/ decayed. The war in the Netherlands
went on till the independence of the seven northern
provinces was acknowledged, and in 1639 tne P rtu
guese threw off the Spanish yoke, and set up the dynasty
of Braganza, which has reigned in Portugal to our
own times. In the reign of Philip the Fourth theie
was a long war with France, which was ended in 1659
by giving up to France part of the Spanish dominions
at the two ends of Gaul, Roussillon and part of Artois*
The Spanish dominions were thus lessened in various
places, though Spain still kept her distant possessions
of the Two Sicilies, Milan, the County of Burgundy,
and the Southern Netherlands. In its internal govern
244 THE GREATNESS isf SPAIN. [CHAP.
merit, Spain was, during all this time, the most despotic
and intolerant country in Europe. The old liberties
of Castile were overthrown by Charles the Fifth, and
those of Aragon by Philip the Second. Nowhere were
Jews and heretics of all kinds more cruelly persecuted,
so that in Spain the Reformation made no progress
The Moors too, who, at the conquest of Granada, had
been promised the free exercise of their religion, were
shamefully oppressed. A revolt under Philip the
Second was put down with great cruelty, and at last
under Philip the Third, the remnant of them, called
Moriscos, was driven out of the country. This was a
great loss to Spain, as the Moors were a sharp-witted
and hard-working people, and the provinces where they
lived were the most flourishing parts of the peninsula.
6. French Invasion of Italy. During the
first half of the sixteenth century, no part of Europe
is brought more constantly before our notice than
Italy. But this is no longer a sign of the greatness of
Italy, but of its decay. Italy had now become the
battle-field on which most of the princes of Europe
fought out their quarrels. During all this time there
was a long rivalry between France and Spain, which
was in some sort a continuation of the dispute between
the Houses of Anjou and Aragon for the kingdom of
Sicily, as that was a continuation of the older dis-
pute between Guelfs and Ghibelins. But now that
the two sides were represented by the great kingdoms
of France and Spain, the quarrel was carried out on a
much greater scale, and, between the two, Italy was
lorn to pieces and utterly trampled under foot. What
the Italians called the invasion of the Barbarians
began in 1494, when Charles the Eighth of France
took it into his head that he had a right to the King-
dom of Naples. In two years he marched all through
Italy, conquered the kingdom with very little trouble
and, as soon as his back was turned, lost it again.
Great confusion -,>as caused throughout Italy bj
xiii.J THE LEAGUE OF C A MB KAY. 24?
Charles' march, and one result of it was that th
Florentines were able to get rid of the Medici, and that
Pisa was able to throw off the yoke of Florence, and
remained independent till 1509. Presently, when the
next King of France, Lewis the Twelfth, again set up
a claim to the Kingdom of Naples and also to the
Duchy of Milan, Ferdinand did not scruple to make
a treaty by which Naples was to be divided between
the two Kings of France and Aragon. Lewis won the
Duchy of Milan in 1499, but, before the division of
Naples was fully carried out, he and Ferdinand quar-
relled over their spoil ; and the end of it was, that in
1504 Ferdinand got possession of the whole kingdom,
and was thus King of the 2wo Sicilies. In these wars
the Spanish infantry won a renown which they long
kept.
7. The League of Cambray. Spain had thus
gained a footing on the mainland of Italy, and Ferdi-
nand now went on to meddle still more with its
affairs. In 1508 he and Lewis of France, the reigning
Pope Julius the Second, and the Emperor-elect Maxi-
milian, al-l joined together in a league, called the
League of Cambray, to despoil the commonwealth of
Venice. For each of these princes pretended that
some part of its territories rightly belonged to himself.
Venice now seemed on the point of ruin, when again
the spoilers quarrelled among themselves, but this time
it did not happen as it had done in the case of Naples.
For Venice got back nearly all that she had lost,
though the commonwealth was never again so power-
ful after this war as it had been before. The cause
of the division among the enemies of Venice was that
Pope Julius, when he had got all that he himself
wanted from the republic, made what he called the
Holy League to drive the Barbarians out of Italy. To
this end he joined with Ferdinand against Lewis. In
1512 the French defeated the Spaniards in a great
battle at Ravenna, but Pope Julius leagued himsel/
24 6 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHJUL
with the Swiss, and by their meanr the French were
altogether driven out of Italy. Florence had all along
been in alliance with France, and, now that the French
were driven out, the commonwealth was obliged tc
receive the Medici again. Milan also went back to its
own Dukes of the House of Sforza. Lewis and
Ferdinand both died before long, Lewis in 1515, and
Ferdinand in 1516.
8. Wars of Charles and Francis in Italy.
Lewis and Ferdinand were succeeded by two young
Kings whose rivalry led to more wars. Lewis was
succeeded in France by Francis the First, and Ferdi-
nand, as we have seen, by his grandson Charles. Both
Charles and Francis sought for the Empire on the
death of Charles' other grandfather Maximilian in
1519, when Charles was elected. Thus the rivalry
between France and Spain was yet further height-
ened by the personal rivalry between the two Kings.
Francis had by far the most compact and united king-
dom ; but Charles united the power of Spain, the
wealth of the Netherlands, and the dignity of the
Empire. But before Charles began to reign cither in
Spain or in the Empire, Francis had begun his reign
by another invasion of Italy. He had first to over-
come an army of Swiss in the battle of Marignat.o in
1515, and he presently won back the Duchy of Milan.
Then in 1521 Pope Leo the Tenth, who was of the
House of the Medici, joined with the Emperor, and
another <var began, which may be said to have gone
on till 1530. The armies of the rival princes fought
at both ends of Italy, both in the Duchy of Milan and
in the Kingdom of Naples. In 1525 Francis himself
was taken prisoner at the battle of Paria, and was only
released after consenting to a treaty (which he did not
keep), by which he yielded many things to the Em-
peror. Amongst other things, those parts of the
Netherlands which were held in fief of the Crown of
France, namely the Counties of Flanders and Artcis
xni.] THE STATES OF ITALY. 247
were set free from all homage, just as the Duchy ol
Aquitaine had been by the Peace of Bretigny. In all
these wars the princes and commonwealths of Italy,
the Popes among them, were dealt with as something
quite secondary. The Duke of Milan was set up and
put down again, as happened to suit the Emperor who
professed to be his protector; and in 1527, when
Clement the Seventh, who was also of the House of the
Medici, was Pope, Rome itself was taken and sacked
by the Imperial troops, and suffered far more from
them than it had ever suffered in old times from the
Goths or even from the Vandals. The Florentines
took advantage of the taking of Rome again to get rid
of the Medici. But at last, in 1529, the Pope, the
Emperor, and the King of France all came to terms.
Francis betrayed all his allies, while Charles stuck by
liis. In 1530, Charles was crowned King of Italy
and Emperor, bu't instead of taking the two crowns,
one at Milan and the other at Rome, he took both
crowns together at Bologna. All Italy was now com-
pletely under his power. Charles was more powerful
than any Emperor since Charles the Great, and it
might have seemed that the old days of the Empire
were come agaim But after the time of Charles his
power in Italy passed, not to the next Emperor, but to
his son who reigned in Spain, so that it was plain
where his real strength had lain.
9. The States of Italy. The end of these wars
thus was that the power of the Emperor, or rather of
the King of Spain, was established throughout Italy.
Charles was himself King of the Two Sicilies, and, on
the death of the last Duke of Milan, he granted the
Duchy to his son Philip, so that the Kings of Spain
ruled at both ends of Italy. The other states of Italy
too were really under his power, much as, in the old
days of Rome, the kingdoms and commonwealths of
Greece and Asia had been before they were actually
made into provinces. But there was one Italian state
248 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP.
which at least did not yield without a struggle. Thit
was the commonwealth of Florence. The Pope and
the Emperor agreed that the Florentines should be
obliged again to take back the Medici, but they did
not do so till after a long and terrible siege. Then
princes of the house of thi Medici began to reign as
Dukes of Florence, and in 1557 Duke Cosmo added to
his dominions the territory of the commonwealth of
Sienna. Some time after this he got from the Pope and
the Emperor the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany, and
the memory of the old republic was quite wiped out
Of the other commonwealths, Venice, Genoa, and
Lucca, besides the little San Marino, still went on.
But their governments were aristocratic, and the only
one of them which played any part in European affairs
was Venice, which was still the bulwark of Christendom
by sea, as Poland and Hungary were by land. But, in
the course of the sixteenth century, the Turks won
from the Venetians many of their possessions both in
the islands and on the few points which they held on
the mainland of Peloponnesoe. And, notwithstanding
their share in the great victory of Lepanto, the Vene-
tians had in 1570 to give up the island of Cyprus,
which the Turks had conquered, but they still kept
Crete and Corfu and some of the smaller islands.
10. The Popes. The Popes must, especially in
these times, be looked at in two lights, as Italian
princes and as the heads of those of the Western
Churches which still clave to them. In their temporal
character the Popes were much mixed up in the wars
of Italy, and they had the great advantage of being
able to call on men to support their political schemes
under pretence of helping the cause of the Church.
During the sixteenth century the Popes greatly ex-
tended their temporal dominion, joining on to it
many principalities and cities which, as they gave
out, were held in fief of them, so that, if their holders
rebelled or if their families became extinct, they would
x '-] THE POPES. 24Q
fall to the Pope as superior lord. In this way the
Popes carae to be, even as temporal princes, the great-
est power in Italy after the Kings of Spain. At the
latter end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the
sixteenth centuries, the corruption of the court of
Rome, and the personal wickedness of the Popes, was
at its height. Some of them were men of most
scandalous lives, as was Alexander the Sixth of the
Spanish family of Borgia, who was Pope when Charles
the Eighth came into Italy. And even those who were
not so bad as this were thoroughly worldly men, who
thought more of increasing their dominions and ex-
alting their own kinsfolk than of doing their duty as
the chief Bishops of the Church. Such -was Julius the
Second, the great fighting Pope, and Leo the Tenth and
Clement the Seventh, the two Popes of the house of
Medici. Between them came Hadrian the Sixth, a
native of the Netherlands, an honest man who was
anxious to reform practical abuses, but who had no
kind of love for Italian ways, or for the revival of
ancient learning, of which Leo the Tenth was a great
promoter. Hadrian however reigned only a very little
time. It was in the time of Leo the Tenth that the
Reformation began to be preached by Martin Luther
in Germany, but the Popes for some time took but
little heed of what was going on. But towards the
middle of the century things began to change. The
Reformation, as a system of doctrine, made but little
progress in Italy, and it never became the religion of
any Italian state. But there were many men, even
high in the Roman Church, who would gladly have
yielded to the Reformers on some points, and there
were still more who, without wishing to change any
of the received doctrines, were eager to reform practical
abuses and get rid of scandals. In this way there
came to be a marked change between the Popes at
the beginning of the century and those towards its
end. These later Popes -were often fierce bigots, read?
*So THE GREA TNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP
to persecute and to approve of crimes done in the
cause of the Church ; but they were almost always men
of good lives in their own persons, and eager to do
what they thought their duty. One famous Pope at
this time was Sixtus the Fifth, who reigned from 1585
to 1590 ; he was wonderfully active in bringing his
temporal dominions into good order. In '545 a Gen-
eral Council came together at Trent, which went on,
with some stoppages, till 1563. This Council reformed
many practical abuses, but it fixed the Roman Catholic
doctrines and practices in a much more rigid shape
than they had ever been put forth before. Its decrees
were not received by the Churches which accepted the
Reformation, and therefore the holding of the Council
only made the breach wider and more hopeless.
During this time too new religious orders were formed
for the special purpose of advancing the doctrines of
the Church and converting heretics and heathens.
The chief of these was the famous Society of Jesus, or
Order of the Jesuits, founded by the Spaniard Ignatius
Loyola. This order was for a long time the chief
support of the Papal dominion ; and the Jesuits won
back a large part of Europe to the communion of
Rome, but in most countries, Roman Catholic as well
as Protestant, they contrived to make themselves
obnoxious to the civil power.
ii. The Emperors. Frederick the Third was
the last Emperor who was regularly crowned at Rome.
His son Maximilian, who married Mary of Burgundy,
was never crowned either at Milan or at Rome, but
he took the new title of Emperor-elect instead of merely
King of the Romans. No later Emperor except Charles
the Fifth was crowned in Italy at all, and Charles, as
we have seen, was not crowned at Rome. Maximilian
also took the title, which had never before been for-
mally used, of King of Germany, and all the Kings after
him were called in formal language Kings of Germany
and Emperors-dect. But ihey were commonly spckea
xiii. 1 THE REFORM A TION IN GERMAN Y. 251
of as Emperors, which before was never done unless
they had been crowned at Rome. Maximilian was
always trying to do greater things than he was able to
do, but, as King of Germany, he certainly did some-
thing to restore the royal power, and much more to
bring the country into greater peace and order. In
his time Germany was divided into Circles, and a
supreme court called the Imperial Chamber was set up.
These changes did not do all that they were wished to
do, but still they did something. Then came the reign of
Charier the Fifth, and the great power of the Emperor,
though not of the Empire, in Italy and the world
generally. After Charles' abdication, his brother
Ferdinand, who was already King of the Romans,
succeeded. In his time and in that of his successors
Maximilian the Second, Rudolf the Second, and Matthias,
we may say that the Empire was purely German and
had nothing to do with the affairs of Italy or of the
jvorld in general. In the next reign, that of Ferdinand
the Second, things began to change somewhat.
12. The Reformation in Germany. : ln the
reign of Charles the Fifth came the beginning of
the Reformation. Nowhere was reformation more
needed than in Germany, where the Bishops and
Abbots had grown into powerful temporal princes,
and quite neglected their spiritual duties. Towards
the end of Maximilian's reign attempts began to be
made in the Diet for the reformation of practical
abuses, and about the same time the famous Martin
Luther began to attack, first the practical abuses, and
then the established doctrines, of the Church. This
he began to do in 1517, and he was greatly followed
by many people, though little notice was at first taken
of him in high places. Luther was protected by his
own sovereign, Frederick Elector of Saxony ; and, when
in 1520 a bull was put forth against hmi by Pope Lee
the Tenth, Luther ventured to burn it. By this time
Charles the Fifth had been elected Fjmperor, and IB
52 TffE GREATNESS OF SPAM. [C:JAP
1521 Luther was condemned in a Diet of the Empir<
at Worms. But Luther was still protected by the
Electors of Saxony, and gradually many of the princes
and cities of Germany, especially in the north, em-
braced his doctrines. Germany was further disturbed
by a revolt of the peasants in various parts, but all
that came of it was to make their bondage harder than
it had been before. There were also revolts of the
Anabaptists, fanatics who not only preached wild doc-
trines in religion, but tried to upset all government and
society. Against all movements of this kind, Luther
set himself quite as strongly as the Catholics did.
His own reformation meanwhile went on. At the Diet
of Speyer in 1529 the Emperor and a majority of the
Diet passed a decree against all ecclesiastical changes.
Against this the princes who followed Luther protested,
and thus arose the name of Protestants, a name which
originally meant the German followers of Luther, as
distinguished, not only from the Roman Catholics, but
from the other Reformers who did not agree with
Luther on all points. In 1530 the Lutherans or Pro-
testants drew up a statement of their doctrines, which
was called the Confession of Augsburg; in the next
year the Protestant princes and cities joined together in
a confederacy for mutual defence, which was called the
Smalcaldic League. But, when some of them tried to
get help from France, Luther protested against such
treason, and a kind of reconciliation was patched
up with the Emperor. There was no time when Ger-
many more needed to be at peace, for, besides France
on the one hand, the Turks were threatening on the
other, and Sultan Suleiman or Solomon in 1529
actually besieged Vienna, and ravaged the country as
tar as Regensburg or Ratisbon. In 1546 Luther d/ed,
and in the same year a war broke out between the
Emperor and the Catholics on one side and the
Protestant princes on the other, which went on with
some stoppages til. in 1555, by the Peace of Augslurg
HII.] THE ADVANCE OF FRANCE. 253
the two religions were put on terms of equality through
out the Empire. But this was no real toleration ; it
simply meant that the government of each German
state might set up which religion it pleased, Catholic
or Protestant ; nothing was done for those persons in
any state who might be of a different religion from the
Government Thus, for instance, in Austria, where a
targe part of the people had become Protestants, the
Catholic religion was brought back, chiefly by the help
of the Jesuits. And in the same way Protestants of
one sect did not scruple to persecute Protestants of
another : for in some parts of Germany men had fol-
lowed the doctrines of the French reformer Calvin,
and they and the Lutherans drove one another out.
During Ferdinand's time and that of the following
Emperors, religious disputes went on, till, in the reign
of Ferdinand the Second, came the beginning of a
more fearful religious war than had ever happened
before between Christian and Christian.
13. The Advance of France. The power of
France was meanwhile advancing, and the jealousy
between the French Kings and the House of Austria,
both in Spain and in the Netherlands, was getting
stronger and stronger. The Kings of France were
getting more and more absolute in their own dominions,
and they were still increasing their dominions at the
expense of their neighbours. In their Italian wars
they failed ; for they were never able to keep either
the Duchy of Milan or the Kingdom of Naples. But
the only great fief of the Crown of France which still
kept its own princes was now added to the royal do-
minions. This was the Duchy of Britanny, which
passed to an heiress, Anne, who- married two Kings ot
France in succession, Charles the Eighth and Lewis
the Twelfth. From this time Britanny has been reck-
oned part of France, but to this day a large part of the
people do not speak French, but still use their old
Celtic tongue, akin to the Welsh of Britain. Lewis th
254 THE GREATNESS OF SPATtf. , [CHAP
Twelfth, though he did so much harm in Italy, mad
a good King in his own kingdom, and was called the
Father of the People. The next King, Francis the
First, was thoroughly bad in every way, except that he
was a promoter of art and learning. All these Kings
were of the House of Valois ; but, as neither Charles
the Eighth nor Lewis the Twelfth left any sons, the
Crown did not again pass from father to son till
the death of Francis in 1547, when it passed to his
son Henry the Second. There were some wars between
France and England at this time, but they were ol
small moment compared with those either earlier or
later. At one time, in 1544, Henry the Eighth of
England took Boulogne, but in 1557 the French got
back Calais, which the English had kept ever since
the time of Edward the Third. But these wars with
England were nothing compared with the long wars
which Francis and his son Henry waged with the
Emperor Charles and his son Philip. These may be
said to have gone on from 1520 to 1558. For, though
peace was made several times, it never was well kept
or lasted long. The French Kings, while cruelly per-
secuting the Protestants in their own kingdom, did not
scruple to help the Protestants in Germany in their
wars with the Emperor, nor were they ashamed to
encourage the Turks, the common enemies of Chris-
tendom, to attack the Empire and its allies by land ana
sea. In 1537 Francis got hold of the greater part of
the dominions of Charles Duke of Savoy, but this
conquest was not kept very long. Thus far the Frencn
Kings had mainly sought after Italian dominion ; they
now began more directly to attack the Empire on the
side of Germany. In 1552 Henry the Second got
hold of three Bishopricks of the Empire, Mefz, Tim!,
and Verdun, which, though they lay apart from the
Kingdom of France and were surrounded by the
Duchy of Lorraine, were kept by France ever after, till
Metz was won back in our own times. Indeed, from
KITI.] THE CIVIL WARS OF FRANCE. 251
this time, though Lorraine remained a fief of the
Empire, yet it began to come very much under the
power of France, and the family of Guise, who were
of the ducal House of Lorraine, began to play a great
part in French affairs. After Charles had abdicated,
the war still went on, though of course it was now a
war between France and Spain, and no longer between
France and the Empire. At last the French under-
went two great defeats at St. Quentin and Gravelines,
on the borders of France and the Netherlands, so the
Peace of Cateau-Canibresis was made in 1558, and the
advance of the French power was stopped for a time.
14. The Civil Wars of France. From th^
Peace of Cateau-Cambresis till the end of the sixteenth
century, the history of France is mainly taken up with
the religious wars between the Catholics and Protes-
tants within the country. These lasted, with stoppages
now and then, from 1562 to 1595. The French
Protestants were not Lutherans, but followers of John
Chauvin, or Calvin, a Frenchman by birth, who settled
at Geneva. His teaching went further away from
that of the Roman Church than that of Luther. It was
followed by all who accepted the Reformation in the
Romance-speaking countries, and also in part of Ger-
many. The name Protestant therefore did not pro-
perly belong to the Calvinists in France, who called
themselves the Reformed, and who were commonly
known as Hugu-enots, They were cruelly persecuted
under Francis and Henry the Second. After Henry
three of his sons rtigned in order, Francis the Second
from 1559 to 1560, Charles the Ninth from 1560 to
1574, and Henry the Third from 1574 to 1589. The
mother of these three Kings, Catharine of Medici, of
the House of Florence, had great power, which she
used very badly, during the reigns of all her sons.
The religious wars began in 1562, and in the latter part
of them the chief part on the Reformed side was taken
by Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre. He was the
256 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIX. [ciiAf
next heir to the Crown of France after the sons of
Henry the Second, though the kindred between them
in the male line was very remote, as they were descen-
ded from different sons of Saint Lewis. Henry had
inherited from his mother the title of King of Navarre,
and with it the possession of that small part of the king-
dom which lay north of the Pyrenees, and which had
been kept by its own Kings when all the rest had been
conquered by Ferdinand of Aragon. He had also
large fiefs in the South of France, which was the part
where the Huguenots were the strongest, like the
Albigenses in the old times. The two parties were
always going to war, and always making peace again ;
but, when peace was made, it never gave any- real
toleration. The Reformed religion was allowed to be
practised in particular towns and places, La Rochelle
especially became something like a separate Calvinist
commonwealth but men were not allowed to follow
what religion they pleased everywhere. Philip of
Spain meddled as much as he could, of course helping
the Catholics. The most famous event of these times
was the massacre of the Huguenots at Paris on
Saint Bartholomew's Day, 1572, which was called the
Massacre of Saint Bartholomew. At last, when Henry
the Third died in 1589, the Crown came of right to
Henry of Navarre, but he found that, as long as he
remained a Huguenot, Paris and the greater part of the
kingdom would not acknowledge him. So in 1593 he
turned Catholic, and then he soon obtained possession
of the whole land. Instead of the old title of King of
the French (in Latin Rex Franconun), he called himself
King of France and Navarre. Henry was murdered
in 1610, and was succeeded by his young son, Leans
the Thirteenth, who reigned till 1643. Under his
famous Minister Cardinal Richelieu, the royal power
was greatly strengthened, and, "though the Huguenots
were not persecuted, they lost their special privileges
in particular places. Under him too the House of
xiil.] REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS. 257
Bourbon began to take the first place in Europe instead
of the House of Austria,
15. The Revolt of the Netherlands. Mean-
while a deadly blow was dealt to the power of Spain
in her outlying possessions, and a new commonwealth
arose in Europe. It will be remembered that the
Netherlands had been brought together under the
Dukes of Burgundy, and that they had now passed to
Philip of Spain as their successor. They were a most
important part of his dominions, for nowhere else
north of the Alps were there so many great and rich
cities near together ; but the bad government of Philip,
especially his religious persecutions, and above all the
cruelties of his Lieutenant the Duke of Alva, led to a
revolt. This began in 1568, and the war went on till
1609. The great leader of the revolt was William
Prince of Orange, called the Silent. His principality
of Orange was one of the small fiefs of the Kingdom
of Burgundy which had not been swallowed up by
France, though it was now almost wholly surrounded
by French territory. In this he was something like
Henry of Bourbon, with his little kingdom of Navarre,
for thr Prince of Orange had private estates in the
Netherlands which were really worth much more than
his principality. His wisdom and endurance led to the
deliverance of all the northern part of the Netherlands
from the Spanish yoke. At the beginning of the revolt
the Southern provinces were the most zealous; but
after a while, as their people were mainly Catholics,
they fell back under the power of Spain, and they
remained dependencies of one power after another,
till such parts of them as escaped being swallowed up
by France became the present Kingdom of Belgium.
16. The United Provinces. Meanwhile the
Northern provinces, Holland, Zealand, and others,
where the people were mostly of the Reformed
religion, stuck by the Prince of Orange, and called in
help from England, France, and the German branch
258 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP
of the House of Austria. But none of these foreign
helpers did them much real good ; so at last they
formed themselves, in 1581, into the Federal Common-
wealth of the Seven United Provinces. In 1584 the
Prince was murdered; for Phiap, who stuck at no
crime in what he thought the cause either of the
Crown or of the Church, had offered rewards to any
one who would kill him. After William's death the
war was continued by his son Maurice, and it went
on after Philip's death till peace was made in 1609.
The peace was in name only a truce for twelve years,
because Spain was too proud to acknowledge the
independence of her revolted subjects, but the war
now really came to an end, and the United Prmn'nccs,
answering nearly to the present Kingdom of the Nether-
lands, were firmly established as an independent
power. This was one of the most famous wars in all
history, for never did so small a power so long and so
successfully withstand a great one. Some of the
greatest generals of the age were brought against the
Provinces. There was the Duke of Alva first, and
then Don John of Austria, Philip's half-brother, who
had won the battle of Lepanto, his nephew the famous
Alexander Duke of Parma, and lastly the Marquess
Spinola, whose great exploit was the siege of Ostcnd,
in the latter years of the war. The Dutch, as the
people of Holland and the other United Provinces are
now commonly called in a special way, did everything
for themselves ; for they got very little real help from
those who professed to be their allies in England and
France. Thus a new state and a new commonwealth
was formed in Europe. In strictness the Provinces
were still members of the Empire, but their allegiance
was quite nominal, and in 1648 their absolute inde-
pendence of the Empire was formally acknowledged.
Owing chiefly to the daring and activity of their
people in all things to do with trade and the sea, the
United Provinces, small as their territory was, reckoned
xm.] SWITZERLAND AND SAVOY, 259
during the rvhole of the seventeenth century as one of
the chief powers of Europe. They came afterwards to
defy France, as they had before defied Spain, and
things so turned about that, before the end of the
century, they were helping Spain against France.
17. Switzerland and Savoy. Meanwhile the
older Federal commonwealth which had grown up at
the other end of the Empire, the Old League of High
Germany or of Switzerland, was playing an important
part in European affairs. From the middle of the
fourteenth century till after the war with Charles of
Burgundy, the Confederates had made many conquests
and alliances, but they did not admit any new Canton
into their own body. But in the latter years of the
fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century
five new Cantons were made, Freiburg, Solothurn,
Basel, Schaffhausen, and Appenzell. These made up
the Thirteen Cantons, which lasted till the end of the
eighteenth century. All these were purely German,
but now begins the connexion of the League with
the Romance lands. About the end of the fifteenth
century the Confederates won a small territory in
Italy, and we have seen that they played a great
part in the wars of that country. And, ever since
the Burgundian War, they had been making their
way to the West, in the lands of the now pretty
well forgotten Kingdom of Burgundy. The history
of the Dukes of Savoy now becomes of great im-
portance. For, whereas they had lands both in Bur-
gundy and in Italy, they have ever since been losing
their lands north of the Alps and winning new lands to
the south. At last, in our own day, they have lost all
their old Burgundian dominions, but have become
Kings of all Italy. But at this time it seemed as if the
power of Savoy was going to be wiped out altogether.
We must remember that the territories both of the
Confederates and of the Dukes of Savoy were still
parts of the Empire, though their real connexion with
160 THE GREA TNESS OF SPAIN. JCHAI.
it was very slight. As in Germany, religious and
political affairs had much to do with one another; but
Switzerland had its own Reformation distinct from that
of Germany. The new doctrines were first preached at
Zurich in 1519, by Ulrich Zwingli, whose teaching in
many things went further away from the received faitli
than that of Luther. He also did good by speaking
against the custom of men hiring themselves out as
mercenary soldiers. Zurich, Bern, and several other
Cantons accepted his teaching, while others remained
Catholic and some were divided. A civil war followed,
and Zwingli was killed in battle in 1531. Meanwhile
the Reformation was preached by William Farel in
the lands bordering on the Confederates to the west,
and espec'ally in the free city of Geneva. That city
was hemmed round by the dominions* of the Dukes
of Savoy, who were always wishing to get hold of it.
Now that Geneva had embraced the Reformed re-
ligion, there was a further pretext for attacking it, and
in 1534 Duke Charles of Savoy besieged the city.
But Geneva was in alliance with Bern and with some
others among the Confederates ; so a Bernese army
marched to deliver Geneva, and at the same time took
the opportunity of conquering a large part of the
dominions of Savoy on both sides of the Lake of
Geneva. Other parts were seized by the Canton of
Freiburg, though it remained Catholic, and by the
little Confederation of Wallis or Valais, which was in
alliance with the Swiss. Bern not long after also
annexed the Bishoprick of Lausanne the Bishop of
Lausanne, like other Bishops of the Empire, being a
temporal prince but in 1564 she restored to Savoy
her conquests south of the Lake. The result of all
this was that the Confederates, themselves a purely
German body, became the head of a large body of
Romance-speaking subjects and allies, which in later
times have been made Cantons alongside of the
original German states. Geneva from this lira*
xiii.] THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 26*
remained a free city, though the Dukes of Savoy still
sometimes tried to seize upon it. And presently the
great French Reformer, John Calvin, came there,
and became the real ruler of the city, which thus grew
into a kind of centre for men of all lands who followed
his doctrines. After this time the affairs of the Con-
federates had but little to do with the general state of
things in Europe, but it should be noticed that in 1648
they were, like the United Provinces, acknowledged to
be quite independent of the Empire. As for Savoy,
almost as soon as Bern had conquered the northern
districts, the whole of the Duke's dominions were
overrun by France, but they were gradually won back
by the next Duke Emmanuel Filibert. From this
time the Dukes of Savoy began to look more to their
Italian than to their Burgundian dominions. Thus a
dispute with France about the marquisate of Saluzzo
was ended by the Duke Charles Emmanuel, who
reigned from 1580 to 1630, keeping Saluszo and
giving up the district of Bresse to France. These are
but small districts, but they show the way in which
France was winning the old Burgundian lands bit by
bit, while Savoy was losing territory north of the Alps
and gaining it in Italy.
1 8. The Reformation in England. The
affairs of the countries of which we have thus far
spoken were all closely connected with one another.
England meanwhile was constantly mixed up with the
general course of affairs, but she did not engage in any
such great wars on the Continent as she did in either
earlier or later times. After the ending of the great
war with France England was torn in pieces by the
Civil Wars between the different claimants of the
Crown of the Houses of York and Lancaster, and there
was no King whose title was altogether undisputed till
the accession of Henry the Eighth in 1509. He was
always mixed up with foreign affairs ; and when the
Empire was vacant, in 1519, he had some notion of
262 THE GREATNESS OF SPA IV. [CHAP
getting chosen himself, and there was talk more than
oi.ce of his famous minister, Cardinal Wolsey, being
chosen Pope. But in truth nothing very great was
done by England on the Continent at this time, except
that, as we have seen, the English conquered Boulognt
and kept it for a short time. \/i he Reformation in
England is commonly said to have begun under Henry
the Eighth, but in truth Henry changed very little
either in doctrine or in ceremony. What was done in
his time was to restore and enlarge the authority which
the old Kings had in ecclesiastical matters, and to
declare that the Pope had no jurisdiction in England.
AH through his reign men who taught the Reformed
doctrines were burned as heretics. It was only
when Henry's son, Edward the Sixth, succeeded
in 1547 that any strictly religious changes were made.
Then, in 1553, came Henry's daughter Mary. She
was, through her mother Katharine of Aragon, a
cousin of the Emperor Charles, and she married his
son Philip, afterwards Philip the Second of Spain.
Thus England was in close alliance with Spain and at
enmity with France. Now it was that England lost
Calais, and so had no longer any possessions on the
Continent. Mary also undid all that had been done
by her father and brother ; not only were the old
doctrines and ceremonies restored, but the authority
of the Pope was set up again. Under her siste-
Elizabeth, who began to reign in 1558, the English
Reformation was finally settled. The Pope's autho-
rity was again thrown off, such changes as were
thought needful were made in doctrine and worship,
but the general system and government of the Church
went on. But the reign of Philip and Mary, under
which many men were burned for their religion, had
thoroughly set Englishmen against anything that had
to do with either Spain or the Pope, and many men in
England wished that change had gone further in
ifeligious matters than it had gone.
Kin.] ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 263
19. England and Scotland. Meanwhile the re-
lations between England and the neighbouring king-
dom of Scotland were very important. The old wars
often began again, and, when James the fifth, of
Scotland died in 1541, leaving only a young daughter
called Mary, there was talk of joining the two king-
doms by marrying her to Henry the Eighth's son
Edward, afterwards Edward the Sixth. But all that
came of this was more wars, and the throwing of Scot-
land still more thoroughly on the side of France.
Queen Mary was brought up in France and she married
the Dauphin Francis, who was afterwards King fora little
while. She was thus Queen regnant of Scotland and
Queen consort of France, and she claimed to be Queen
of England also, because, according to the extreme
views of the papal power, she had a better right to the
English Crown than Elizabeth. After the death of
Francis she went back to Scotland, but about this
time the greater part of the people of Scotland em-
braced the Reformation in a very extreme form, while
Mary stuck to the old religion. She was afterwards
driven out of her kingdom for her personal crimes, and
took refuge in England, where she was kept in ward
for many years. She thus naturally got to be looked
on as a Catholic saint and confessor, and she became
a centre of conspiracies against Elizabeth at home and
abroad. At last, in 1587, she was beheaded for her
share in a plot against Elizabeth's life. The indigna-
tion of the Catholic party everywhere was great, and
now the quarrel between England and Spain broke out
on a great scale. (Elizabeth and Philip had for many
years been doing harm to each other in a small way, but
now, in 1588, Philip sent his great Armada against
England, which came to nothing. J Elizabeth now
came to be looked on as the heatl of the Reformed
party throughout Europe, and she gave some help at
different times to the Reformers both in France and
in the Netherlands. The war between England and
264 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP
Spain went on during all Elizabeth's reign ; but when,
on her death in 1603, the Crowns of England and
Scotland were united in Mary's son James, Sixth ol
Scotland and First of England, the policy of England
altogether changed. For James truckled to Spain,
and England for a long time lost the position which
she had before held in Europe. The reign of his
successor Charles the First was mainly taken up with
internal affairs, and the latter years of it with the
great Civil War, which lead to the King's beheading
in 1649. All this time is one of the most important
parts of the history both of England and Scotland,
but it is mainly taken up with the internal affairs of
the two countries, which have comparatively little to
do with the general course of things in Europe. But
the union of England and Scotland under one King
had this effect, that Scotland was no longer the enemy
of England, nor could it any longer be an ally of
France in wars between France and England.
20. Northern Europe. It was in the beginning
of the sixteenth century that the attempt to join to-
gether the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden, which had never been carried
out for any long time together, came wholly to an end.
Christian the Second, called Christian the Cruel, who
became King of Denmark and Norway in 1513,
became King of Sweden also in 1520; but his oppres-
sion provoked revolts in all his dominions. In 1523
he was driven out of both Denmark and Sweden,
The Swedes chose as their King the famous Gustavus
Vasa, who had been their leader in driving out Chris-
tian. He brought in the doctrines of Luther, but
less change was made in the order and government of
the Church in Sweden than anywhere else except in
England. Under Gustavus Sweden began to rise to a
much higher position in Europe than it had ever held
before. He died in 1560, and the Kings who followed
him were of no great account till the famous Gustavut
xiii. 1 KUSS/A AND POLAND. 2 6*
Adolphus, who began to reign in i6ir. Of him we
shall hear more in the history of the great wars in
Germany. On his death in 1632 came his daughter
Christina, in whose time a part of Norway, namely the
province of Jamtdand, with other districts, and the isie
of Gotland, were won from Denmark. All this while
Denmark and Norway remained under the same King.
Under Frederick the First, who reigned from 1523 to
I 533> tne Lutheran religion was established in Den-
mark ; but after his death there were disputes about
the succession to the Crown, and wars with the city of
Liibeck. Under Frederick the Second, who reigned
from 1559 to 1588, the free people of Ditmarschen,
who had all this time kept on their old freedom at that
end of Germany just as the Forest Cantons did at the
other end, and who had more than once defeated the
Counts of Holstein and Kings of Denmark, were at
at last conquered. His son Christian the Fourth
reigned from 1588 to 1648, and we shall hear of him
again.
21. Russia and Poland. In Poland and
Lithuania the descendants of Jagellon went on reign-
ing till nearly the end of the sixteenth century.
Under them Poland was at the height of its power,
and it formed one of the greatest states of Europe,
Its territory now stretched far to the east, and took in
large countries which had once been part of Russia,
and which have since become part of Russia again.
In the course of the sixteenth century, when the
Russian power began to rise again, parts of these terri-
tories were won back again, and from that time the
Polish frontier has commonly gone back. But before
this, as we have seen, the Teutonic Order was greatly
humbled in 1466, when the Knights had to give up
the western part of Prussia to Poland, and to hold the
eastern part as a fief of the Polish Crown, This led
to a further change in 1525. The Grand-Master
Ai2)ert of Brandenburg had become a Lutheran. By a
266 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP
treaty with Sigfsmund the First of Poland, the Teutonic
order was abolished as a sovereign power, and Alber
became hereditary Duke of Prussia, holding his duchy,
which took in East Prussia only, as a fief of Poland.
After a few generations the Duchy of Prussia and the
Mark or Electorate of Brandenburg were, in 1611,
joined together. Thus began the power of the House o(
HoJienzollern as sovereigns of Brandenburg and Prussia,
which has gone on so greatly growing to our own times.
In 1657, under Frederick William the First, who was
called the Great Elector, the Duchy of Prussia became
independent of the Crown of Poland, just as the
Duchy of Aquitaine three hundred years before be-
came independent of the Crown of France. In 1701,
to go on some way beyond our present time, the Great
Elector's son Frederick took the title of King of
Prussia instead of Duke. Thus the Electors of Bran-
denburg, besides their possessions in Germany, held
the Duchy or Kingdom of Prussia, which was cut off
from their Electorate by that part of Prussia which
had been given up to Poland. The other possessions
of the Order to the North were treated in nearly the
same way. In 1561 the Grand-Master of Livonia,
Gotthard Kettler, who had also turned Lutheran, gave
up all the dominions of the Order to Poland, except
Curland, which was made into a Duchy for himself,
just as Prussia was for Albert. But in the one case, out
of the treaty with Albert arose one of the great states
of Europe, while out of the treaty with Kettler nothing
came but long wars between Sweden and Poland for
the lands east of the Baltic, till in the end they were
all swallowed up by Russia. But long before this
Russia was making great advances. John or Ivan the
Fourth, known r.s Ivan the Terrible, reigned from 1533
to 1584, and hij doings towards his own subjects were
among the strangest in history. But, besides wars with
Sweden and Poland waged with various success, he
altogether overthrew the power of the Moguls or
xui.] TURKE Y AND HUNG AN V. 26}
Tartars of Kasan, who had once held Russia in
bondage ; he took Astrakhan also, and so extended
the Russian dominions to the Caspian Sea. He was
the first of the Russian princes who took the title of
Czar. Some say that this name is simply a Slavonic
word meaning King, while according to others it is the
Russian form of Ccesar; anyhow it is certain that the
sovereigns of Russia, who have latterly been called
Emperors, have always wished, as the most powerful
princes belonging to the Eastern Church, to be looked
on as successors of the Eastern Emperors. Russia
was now a powerful state, but it was cut off from the
Baltic by the Poles and Swedes, and from the Black
Sea by the Tartars of Crim or Crimea, so that
Russia, had no havens except on the Caspian and the
White Sea. It was by the White Sea, from the port oi
Archangel, that Russia now began to have trade with
England and the other nations of the West. In 1589
the old line of Ruric came to an end, and great con-
fusions followed, among which the Poles were able in
1605- to place a pretender, who professed to be the
true heir, on the Russian throne. But in 1613 the
Russians chose Michael Romanoff, from whom the
present royal family springs in the female line, and
Russia began to flourish again, though it had to wage
wars with Sweden and Poland with various success to
the end of the century. In 1573 the Poles made
their crown purely elective, instead of choosing, as
before, from the royal family. Sometimes they chose
a native Pole, sometimes a foreign prince ; but from
this time all power came into the hands of the nobles,
to the loss both of the King and of the people,
and Poland began to go down both at home and
abroad.
22. Turkey and Hungary. Under Bajazet tht
Second, the successor of Mahomet the Conqueror, the
Ottoman power did not advance, but in some parts
rather fell back. In his time a new Mahometam
26S 77 fE GREATNESS OF SPAIN.
enemy rose to the east of him. This was the modern
kingdom of Persia, which rose again, very much as
Persia had risen again under Artaxerxes in the third
century, by the preaching of a national religion-. Only
this time it was not the preaching of the old Persian
religion, but that of the Shiah sect of Mahometanism.
Thus the Turks and Persians were not only political
enemies, but they looked upon each other as heretics.
The new dynasty, which began with Shah Ismael in
1501, was known as that of the Sophis. Endless wars
now followed between the Turks and the Persians;
meanwhile Selim the Inflexible, who reigned from 1512
to 1520, added Syria and Egypt to the Ottoman Em-
pire, and obtained a surrender of the Caliphate from
the nominal Abbasside Caliph at Cairo. Then came
Suleiman that is, Solomon the Lawgiver, who reigned
from 1520 to 1566, and was one of the greatest of the
Sultans. It was in his time that Francis of France
made alliance with the Turks against the Empire.
Under him the Ottomans made great conquests. In
1521 he took Belgrade; in 1522 the Knights of Saint
John were driven off the island of Rhodes, after which
the Emperor Charles gave them the isle of Malta,
which they successfully defended against the Turks in
a great siege in 1565. But meanwhile Suleiman con-
quered a large part of Hungary. In 1526 Leuns tht
Second, King of Hungary, was killed at the battle of
Mohacs, after which the crown passed in the end,
though not without a good deal of opposition, to
Lewis's brother-in-law, Ferdinand Archduke of Austria,
who was afterwards Emperor. But the greater part of
the country fell into the hands of the Turks, and
Buda became the seat of a Turkish Pasha. The
Hungarian Crown has ever since been held by the
Archdukes of Austria. It was in the course of these
Hungarian wars that Suleiman made his way into
Germany, and besieged Vienna. He had also wars
with the Empire in other parts, as along the coast oJf
xni.] THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 269
Africa, where the Emperor Charles at one time took
Tunis. And in 1543 the Turkish fleet was actually
brought by the Most Christian King into the waters oi
Italy and Provence, where Nizza oi Nice was in vain
besieged by the Mahometans. Suleiman was the last
of the great line of Sultans who had raised the Otto-
mans to such power. After his death, though the
Turks still made some conquests, they no longer
threatened the whole world as they had done before.
In the reign of the next Sultan, Seltm, the Turks
gained the island of Cyprus and lost the battle of
Lepanto ; and from this time they had constant wars
with the Persians to the east, and with the Poles and
with the Emperors, in their character of Kings of
Hungary, to the north.
23. The Thirty Years' War. We now come
to the great war which took up all the later years of
this period, which had Germany for its centre, but in
which most of the nations of Europe had more or less
share. This is called the Thirty Years' War. It
began in Bohemia, where the intolerance of the King,
the Emperor Ferdinand the Second, provoked a revolt.
In 1619, just about the time that Ferdinand was
crowned Emperor, he was deposed in Bohemia, and
the Elector Palatine Frederick, a Protestant Prince,
was elected in his place. It was like the old wars
of the Hussites beginning again. The next year
Frederick was driven out of Bohemia, and he pre-
sently lost his own dominions as well Meanwhile, at
the other end of Ferdinand's dominions, the Pro-
testants of Hungary revolted, and for a while turned
him out of that kingdom also. But the great scene of
the war was Germany, where it was first of all carried
on between the Catholic and Protestant princes within
the country ; but gradually, as the Emperor, with his
famous generals Tilly and Wallmstein, seemed likely
to swallow up all Germany, other powers began to step
in. The firs: was Christian the Fourth King of Deiv
z 7 o THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP
mark, who was himself a Prince of the Empire for his
German dominions. In 1625 he became the chief oi
the Protestant League, but he was soon driven out and
obliged to make peace. Presently, in 1630, a greater
power stepped in from the North. This was the
famous Gustavus Adolphus King of Sweden, who be-
came for twv> years the head of the Protestants, and
carried on war with wonderful success for a short time
till he was killed in the battle of Lutzen in 1632. In
this war Gustavus showed himself one of the greatest
leaders that ever commanded an army. By this time
other nations were beginning to take part in the war.
England never formally joined in it, but there was, as
was natural, a strong feeling in England on behalf of
the Protestant cause, all the more so as Frederick's
wife Elizabeth was a daughter of James the First, and
many Englishmen and Scotsmen served in the Swedish
army. France top, under Cardinal Richelieu, began to
meddle, first making a treaty with Gustavus and help-
ing him with money, and afterwards, in 1635, joining
openly in the war. Richelieu had put down the
special privileges of the Protestants in France ; yet he
did not scruple to make a league with the Protestants
in Germany and with the Protestant powers of Sweden
and Holland, in a war which had begun as a war for
religious liberty in Bohemia and Germany. From this
time it changed into a war far the aggrandizement of
France, all the more so as most of the Protestant
states of Germany made peace with the Emperor in
1635. Meanwhile the Emperor Ferdinand died in
1637, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand the
7hird. The war went on for a while in most parts ot
Europe with various success, the chief leader in Ger-
many on the Protestant side being Duke Bernhard oj
Weimar. In 1642 the great minister of France, Car-
dinal Richelieu, died, and his power passed to another
Cardinal, Mazarin. In 1643 Lewis the Thirteenth
died, and then began the long reign of Lavis tht
xiii.] THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 271
Fourteenth, who was only five years old when he came
to the crown. Thus the latter part of the war went
on under a different Emperor and different sovereigns
both of France and of Sweden from those under whom
it had begun. In this latter part of the war the
French arms, under their great leaders Turenne and
the Prince of Conde, began to be decidedly successful.
At last, after long negotiations, peace was made in
1648.
24. The Peace of "Westphalia. The peace
that was now made, which is known as the Peace of
Westphalia, made some important changes in Europe.
In Germany the two religions were put quite on a level,
that is to say, the government of each state might
establish which religion it chose. But the country had
been utterly ruined by the long war, and whatever
traces were left either of authority in the Empire or of
freedom in the people quite died out. From this time
Germany long remained a mere lax confederation of
petty despotisms and oligarchies, with hardly any
national feeling. Its boundaries too were cut short in
various ways. The independence of the two free Con-
federations at the two ends of the Empire, those of
Switzerland and the United Provinces, which had long
been practically cut off from the Empire, was now
formally acknowledged. And, what was far more im-
portant, the two foreign kingdoms which had had the
chief share in the war, France and Sweden, obtained
posesssions within the Empire, and moreover, as
guarantors or sureties of the peace, they obtained a
general right of meddling in its affairs. Sweden re-
ceived territories in northern Germany, both on the
Baltic and on the Ocean, part of Pomerania, the city
of Wismar, and the Bishopricks of Verden and
Bremen. The free Hanseatic city of Bremen remained
independent, as well as Liibeck and Hamburg; but
these were now the only remnants of the famous Hah-
seatic League which had once been so great. But foi
272 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHAP, xin
these possessions the Kings of Sweden became Princes
of the Empire, like the Kings of Denmark and
Hungary, the Elector of Brandenburg, and any other
princes who had dominions both in the Empire and
out of it. But the territories which were given to
France were cut off from the Empire altogether. The
right of France to the Three Lotharingian Bishopricks,
which had been seized nearly a hundred years before,
was now formally acknowledged, and, besides this, the
possessions and rights of the House of Austria in
JElsass, the German land between the Rhine and the
Vosges, called in France Alsace, were given to France.
The free city of Strassburg and other places in Elsass
still remained independent, but the whole of South
Germany now lay open to France. This was the
greatest advance that France had yet made at the
expense of the Empire. Within Germany itself the
Elector of Brandenburg also received a large increase
of territory. The war in Germany was now over, but
the war between France and Spain still went on, till
1659. Then France gained Roussillon, and a few
places in Lorraine and the Netherlands, and Dunkirk
was given to England, much as England had at other
times held Calais and Boulogne and afterwards Gibral-
tar. In the next year Lewis the Fourteenth seized the
little principality of Orange, but this was afterwards
given back.
25. European Settlements in the East.
We have now come to the time when European his-
tory begins to spread beyond Europe itself and those
parts of Asia and Africa which had immediate deal-
ings with Europe. In the last years of the fifteenth
century new worlds were opened, both in the East and
in the West, and gradually all those European nations
which had any power by sea began to trade, to con-
quer, and to make settlements, in parts of the world
which were never before heard of. In this way Eng-
land, France, Spain, Portugal, and Holland have all,
EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN THE EAST. 273
like the old Greek commonwealths, planted colonies in
various parts of the world. But there has been a great
difference between the ways of colonizing in the two
times. An old Gr;ek colony was an independent state
from the beginning ; it owed a certain respect to the
mother city, but it was in no way subject to it; but the
colonies planted by European kingdoms have been
looked on as parts of the dominions of the mother
country, and have been held as dependent provinces.
The colonists therefore, when they have got strong
enough, have commonly thrown off the yoke of the
mother country, and have made themselves into inde-
pendent states. Then again we may make some dis-
tinctions among the different kinds of colonies. In
some places the European settlers have gradually killed
or driven out the native inhabitants, much as the
English did with the Welsh when they first came into
Britain. This has been the case with most of the
colonies of England. The English settlers have often
been largely mixed with settlers of other European
nations and even with slaves from other lands, but
they have hardly mixed at all with the natives. In
other cases, as has happened in most of the colonies
of Spain, the Europeans and the natives have mixed
a great deal, and things have been somewhat as they
were in the time of the conquests of Rome ; that is to
say, large bodies of men speak Spanish who are not
Spaniards by blood. Then there is a third class of
European possessions in distant lands, where Euro-
peans bear rule over the natives, but neither drive
them out nor mix with them, and indeed cannot be
strictly said to settle or colonize at all. Such is the
great dominion of England in India, which is some-
thing quite different from her colonies in America,
Africa, and Australia. Possessions of both sorts
began in the times with which we have now to do.
The colonies strictly so called were chiefly planted
in America, while dominions of the other kind wer
274 THE GREATNESS OF SPATN. [CHAP
chiefly gained in the distant parts of Asia and Africa,
The first European state which began this course ol
distant dominion was Portugal ; of this we have seen
the beginning in the time of Don Henry. Before the
end of the fifteenth century Portugal had made a great
number of settlements along the west coast of Africa ag
far south as the Equator. Then, when Vasco da Gama
found out the passage to India round the Cape of Good
Hope, the Portuguese carried on their discoveries and
settlements along the eastern coast of Africa, along the
coast of the Persian Gulf, and on into Southern India
and into the peninsulas and islands beyond India.
This quite changed the course of trade with India and
the far East generally. Hitherto trade had gone by
way of Alexandria and Venice ; now it went by the
longer but easier way round the Cape. Throughout
the sixteenth century the Portuguese had a far greater
Eastern dominion than any other European power ;
indeed they could hardly be said to have any Euro-
pean rivals in Asia at all. The Spaniards held only
the Philippine Islands, and the settlements of the Eng-
glish and Dutch and other nations did not begin till
the seventeenth century. Russia indeed, after she had
overthrown the Tartar dominion, went on to win a vast
territory in Northern Asia, the great land of Siberia.
But this was not gained by sea ; it was the mere exten-
sion of European Russia by land to the east, and the
cold and profitless country of Siberia could never be
compared with the rich possessions of other European
nations in Asia and Africa.
26. Discovery of America. But the land of
European colonization, as distinguished from mere
dominion, the land in which European settlers have
grown up into independent nations, is the New
World, America. It was in the last years of the
fifteenth century that this New World began to be
opened to the men of the old. It has been thought
that th: old Northmen who settled in Iceland touched
Ain.y THE SPANISH COLONIES. 27^
en some parts of the coasts of North America, and U
is quite certain that they made a settlement in G*een-
laiid, which lasted till the fourteenth century. But, i'
they ever found out any of the lands in which the
great Spanish and English colonies were afterwards
planted, they certainly made no lasting settlements
in them. The New World was first found out in
1492 by Christopfier Columbus, a Genoese in the
service of Ferdinand and Isabella, who was not seek-
ing a world to the west, but, now that the earth was
known to be round, was trying to find a westward road
to India. Thence the lands which he first discovered
came to be called the West Indies. These were the
islands in the Gulf of Mexico, and one of the first of
those on which he landed he called Hispaniola or New
Spain. It is also called Saint Domingo or Hayti. Bu
Columbus did not land on the continent till 1498, and
before that time Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian in thi
service of Henry the Seventh of England, had made
his way to the mainland of North America much
further to the north. Thus America was discovered by
citizens of the maritime commonwealths of Italy, thougli
they were acting, not in the service of their own cities,
whose fleets never got beyond the Mediterranean, but
in that of the Kings who commanded the Ocean. This
marks how the course of trade and of dominion was
now changing. And the new continent took its name
of America from a third Italian, Amerigo Vespucci^ who
at one time was thought to have reached the mainland
before Columbus. He too was in the service of Spain :
thus it was that, though Italy had no part in the dis-
covery of America, yet Italians had the chief pait
in it.
27. The Spanish Colonies. Thus the New
World was found out, and all Europeans then iield
that they had a perfect right to seize upon any coun-
tries beyond the bounds of Christendom, and to do
pretty much as they pleased with the people. Th;
276 THE GREATNESS OF SPAIN. [CHVP.
Spaniards in this way conquered the rich lards of
Mexico and Pent, where they found gold, much as in
old times the Phoenicians had found gold in Spain itseltl
Those lands had reached a high degree of civiliza
tion and regular government without any dealings with
the civilized nations of Europe and Asia. And they
were without many things, such as iron, horses, and
the use of alphabetic writing, without which no Christ-
ian or Mahometan people would have thought it
possible to get on. They were of course heathens,
and the idolatry of the Mexicans was of a specially horri-
ble and bloody kind. The Spaniards dealt with the
natives in a way not unlike that in which the first
Saracens had dealt with Christians and heathens, mix-
ing up the notions of conquest and conversion in a
strange way. But it is certain that no Mahometans
ever treated their Christian subjects so badly as the
Spaniards did the natives in America. At last, when it
was found that they could not do the hard work of the
mines, negro slaves from Africa were brought in to
work in their place. The Portuguese in their African
settlements had made many negro slaves, and thus the
slavery of the black man in the New World began,
which went on for a long time in all the European
colonies, and which still goes on in Brazil and the
Spanish Islands. And thus too began, what was yet
worse than slavery itself, the trade in slaves, the stealing
men and bringing them over from Africa, which is now
forbidden by all civilized nations. Mexico was con-
quered by Hernando Cortez between 1519 and 1521,
and Peru by Francisco Pizarro between 1532 and
1536. And, shameful as was the greediness and
cruelty shown by the Spaniards, there was something
very wonderful in the overthrow of such great powers
by such small bodies of men. But a wide difference
must be made between the conquest of Mexico and
that of Peru. For Cortez, though he did several very
cruel dc ds, really tried to convert and civilize f .ho
90 Longitude W. 60 from Greenwich 30
SPANISH & PORTUGUESE
COLONIES
IN THE I6 TH CENTURY
Spanish Colonies {^ ^] P E R U
|
Portuguese d o. [ I BRAZIL
Long. East 30 from Greenwich 60
Flk & See.N.-y.
xin.] COLONIES IN AMERICA. 277
countries which he conquered, while Pizarro seems to
have had no objects of this kind. Thus began the
great Spanish dominion in America, which has grown
up into several independent nations speaking the
Spanish tongue.
28. French, English, and other Colonies.
The next people after the Spaniards who began to settle
in North America were the French, and the next were
the English, and the settlements of both nations had a
good deal to do with the religious dissensions at home.
The first attempt at a French settlement was made
by Huguenots in 1562, in the land to which they gave
the name of Carolina, but it was not till 1607 that any
lasting French settlements were made in America.
From that time the French gradually occupied, or laid
claim to, a vast territory in North America, taking in a
great deal of the western part of the present United
States and of the lands to the north of them. These
lands were called Canada and Louisiana, but in a much
wider sense than those names bear now. These settle-
ments of the French in North America have all passed
either to England or to the United States, but some
of their colonies in the West Indies, and their small
possessions in South America at Cayenne, remain French
still. The English sailors, Gilbert, Drake, and others,
kept making discoveries and waging war with the
Spaniards during the whole reign of Elizabeth, and in
1585 Sir Walter Raleigh tried to begin the colony of
Virginia, but it was not really settled till 1606. This
was the beginning of the English colonies in North
America, which have grown up into the United States.
New England was next colonized, and afterwards
Maryland : both of these were largely peopled by
those men in England who were dissatisfied with the
state of religion, and who were often persecuted for
not conforming to the law in such matters. For no
one as yet thought of allowing perfect freedom to all
religions; each country, Catholic or Protestant 01
<f?S THE GREA TNE^S OF SPAIN. [CHAP
whatever it was, punished with penalties, greater o?
less, all those who did not conform to the established
religion. So men tried to get more freedom by
settling in distant lands. Thus the French Huguenots
tried to settle in America; and thus, amongst the English
Colonies, New England was largely peopled by Puritans,
that is, zealous Protestants who thought that reform in
the Church of England had not gone far enough. Mary-
land, on the other hand, was largely settled by Roman
Catholics, who followed the Pope and the Council of
Trent, and held that the Church of England had gone
wrong in having any Reformation at all. The English
colonies in America were all held to be parts of the
English dominions; but most of them had free consti-
tutions, and they were able to do much as they pleased
in their own local affairs. Meanwhile the Dutch, who,
having freed themselves from Spain, were fast driving
the Portuguese out of the commerce of the East Indies,
settled in North America also, and founded a colony
called New Netherland between Maryland and New
England. In South America, besides the French, the
English and Dutch had some small possessions. But
the other great South American power besides Spain
was Portugal. For the Portuguese founded the great
colony of Brazil, after some opposition from the
English, Dutch, and French. The Portuguese began
to settle in those parts about 1531, and after 1660 they
had Brazil wholly to themselves.
29. Learning, Art, and Science. All this
time the mind of man was making great progress in all
parts. The revival of learning in the fifteenth century
did something to check original genius in Italy, for
all men took once more to writing in Latin. But in
the sixteenth century there were again great Italian
writers both in prose and verse, and the time from
the later part of the fifteenth century till that of the
sixteenth was the great time of Italian painting. Learn-
ing also spread through all parts of the West, and there
xiii.] LEARNING AND LITER A TURE. 279
wtre great scholars in most countries, in none more
than in the United Provinces after they had won their
freedom. There too men began to give special heed
to the Law of Nations, that is, to the rules by which
different countries hold themselves to be bound in
their dealings with one another. In this time also men
began to have truer notions on matters of physical
science ; to learn, for instance, that the earth goes
round the sun, instead of the sun going round the
earth. In religious matters too the endless, contro-
versies, both between the Roman Catholics and the
Protestants and between the different sects of Pro-
testants, brought out a great number of learned and
zealous theological writers on all sides. And this was not
only a time of learning, but also of original genius, for,
besides Italy, it was the age of the greatest poets of
England, Spain, and Portugal. France perhaps lagged
a little behind in poetry, but she had many good
writers in prose. Generally throughout Europe, men
were taking to their own languages for poetry and his-
tory, though some great histories were still written in
Latin, and Latin was still the common language of
learning and science. Men also began to learn more
of each other's languages, and the Italian language
especially was much admired and studied in other
countries. In Germany the standard of language
was fixed by Luther's translation of the Bible, which
had this effect, that the High-Dutch in which he wrote
it became the received tongue of Germany, while the
Low-Dutch, though the natural tongue of so large a
part of the country, came to be looked down on as a,
mere vulgar dialect. But, after the wretched times of
the Thirty Years' War, both learning and native litera-
ture sadly went down. Altogether, the time from the
latter years of the fifteenth century to the middle of
the seventeenth was one of the most fertile times, both
in great scholars and in great writers of their own
tongues, but it would be endless to try to set theii
*So THE GREA TNESS OF SPAIN. [CKA.
names down here. It will be better clone in the
histories of their particular countries.
30. Summary. In this peiiod we see the Em-
pire practically come to an end. In strictness there
was no Emperor after Charles the Fifth, and the Im-
perial title no longer carried with it any authority in
Italy, and not much in Germany. It had become
little more than a title of honour in one branch of the
House of Austria, while the greatest power in Europe
had really passed away to the other branch of the
House of Austria which held Spain and its dependent
states. At the beginning of the period Spain de-
cidedly held the first place, but before the end of it,
the Spanish power greatly lessened, and France, by the
result of the Thirty Years' War, became the leading
power instead of Spain. Italy sank into a mere
dependency of Spain, except so far as Venice still
fought the battles of Christendom against the Turks.
Germany, after taking the lead in the Reformation,
was utterly ruined and divided by the Thirty Years'
War. Sivitzetland held a high position at the beginning
of the period, and the dominion of its Cantons in the
Romance lands began. But, before the end of the
period, the reputation of the Confederates greatly sunk
through the practice of mercenary service. Hungary
had sunk, partly into a Turkish province, partly into a
possession of the House of Austria. On the other
hand, several old powers greatly advanced and some
new ones came into being. England and Scotland,
though not yet united into one kingdom, became one
power as regards other nations. Sweden suddenly grew
into a first-class power. Poland both gained and lost,
but Russia, her neighbour to the East, grew in a
manner wh'ich, in her own part of the world, might
almost be set against the growth of Spain in the West
But she was not as yet of any importance in European
affairs generally. The power of the Turks rose to its
height, but it met with its first great check and began
XIH.] SUMMARY. 281
to go down. Savoy, losing territory to the north of tha
Alps, gained territory to the south, and thus had its
course marked out for it as an Italian power. The
revolt of the Netherlands against Spain gave birth to
the new commonwealth of the United Provinces, which
at once rose to the rank of a great power. The treaty
of Poland with the Teutonic Knights gave birth to the
new power of Prussia, though Prussia did not become
great till the United Provinces had begun to go down
again. And, besides these shiftings of territory and
risings and fallings of various powers, we have in this
period the Reformation and all its results, and we have
the great stirring of men's minds which partly caused it
and partly followed it. And we have the discovery of
New Worlds both in the East and in the West, and the
conquests and settlements of all the seafaring powers
of Europe in those distant lands.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE.
\jrowth of the power of France ; accession of Lewis tJu
Fourteenth; his character and absolute dominion (i)
his aggressions on Spain and the United Provinces ;
league against France ; defence of the United Pro*
vinces by William of Orange (l) Peace of Nimwegen;
acquisitions of France (i) Lewis at the height of his
power; seizure of Strassburg (2) devastation of the
Palatinate ; second league against Lewis ; Peace oj
Ryswick (2) schemes for the partition of tJie Spanish
dominions; War of the Spanish Succession (3)
Lewis 's persecution of the Protestants; losses of France
by his reign (3) England under the Parliament and
the Protectorate ; her greatness under Cromwell; wars
with the United Provinces (4) degradation of Eng-
land under Charles and James the Second; wars wit*
tS2 THE GREA TNESS OF FKAXCE. [CHAP.
the United Provinces; election of William of Orangt
(4) different effects of tke Revolution in England,
Scotland, and Ireland; union of the Kingdoms oj
England and Scotland (5) share of Great Britain in
the wars ivith France; accession of the Hanoverian
dynasty (5) reign of the Emperor Leopold; growth
of Brandenburg under the Great Elector; Prussia
becomes a kingdom (6) affairs of Hungary; siege of
Vienna by the 7 urks ; the Hungarian Crown becomes
hereditary ; Peace of Carlowitz ; reigns of Joseph the
First and Charles the Sixth; advance of the Austrian
power; Peace of Passarowitz (6) decay of the Spanish
power (7) affairs of Italy ; advance of Savoy (8)
wars of Venice with the Turks ; war of Candia; con-
quest and loss of Peloponnesos (9) great position of
the United Provinces ; changes in their form cf govern-
ment ; Stadholdership of William the Third (10)
greatest extent of the pow-:r of Sweden; Denmark and
Swe&n become absolute monarchies (n) exploits of
Charles the Twelfth ( 1 1) loss of territory and lessening
of the royal power in Sweden ; comparison of Sweden
and Savoy (il) decline of Poland; reigns of John
Sobieski and Augustus the Strong (12) decline of
the power of the Turks; the tribute of children no
longer levied; advance of the subject nations (13)
English and Dutch settlements in India; beginning
of the East India Company (14) the Mogul Emperors
(14) English settlements in Madras, Bombay and
Calcutta (14) English settlements iu North Ame-
rica; annexations of the Swedish and Dutch colonies
(15) French colonization in Louisiana, (15) Sum-
mary (16).
i. Conquests of Lewis the Fourteenth.
We have now come to the time when France takes the
same place among the nations of Europe which had
for a while been held by Spain, and becomes in the
like sort the object of fear to most other nations. We
have seen that the power of France was confirmed, as
against the Empire, by the Peace of Westphalia in
1648, and, as against Spain, by the Peace' of the
Pyrenees in 1659. Thus the House of Bouibon had
xiv.] LEWIS THE FOURTEENTH. zSj
humbled both branches' 'of the House of Austria. The
reigning King was now Lewis the Fourteenth, who
came to the crown as a child in 1643, and reigned
seventy-two years, till 1715. The earlier part of his
reign was a time of great confusion and rebellion, but
from the time of his taking the government on him.-
self, on the death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661, till
the end of his long reign, no King of any country ever
kept things more wholly in his own hands. He was
served by very able ministers and generals, but his
own will gave the law to France, and thereby to a
great part of Europe. His common saying was, " I
am the State ;" and he made himself so ; for, besides
greatly advancing the power of France in Europe, he
greatly advanced the royal authority in France. The
States-General were never summoned ; he humbled the
Parliament of Paris, the chief court of law, which had
hitherto put some check on the King's will ; in short,
he made France still more thoroughly an absolute
monarchy than it was before. He married Maria
Theresa, an Infanta or Princess of Spain, and at the
marriage all rights to any part of the Spanish domin-
ions which might thus pass to himself or his children
were solemnly given up. Notwithstanding this, when
Philip the Fourth of Spain died in 1665, Lewis gave
out that by an old law of the Netherlands certain pans
of those provinces ought to pass to his Queen rather
than to the next King, Charles the Second. This
frightened the United Provinces, who feared that the
claim would extend to them. Presently, in 1667, he
invaded the Netherlands, and in the next year, he, for
the first time, conquered the County of Burgundy, now
called Franche Comte, which still belonged to Spain,
and the Imperial city of Besan^on, which had now be
come a part of the County. These last conquests he
gave up the same year ty a treaty at Aachen, but he
kept his conquests in the Netherlands. Next in
1672, he attacked the United Provinces, and both
^84 THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE. [CHAR
Knglancl and several German princes were, to theii
great shame, on his side. But after a while the English
Parliament compelled the King, Charles the Second,
to make peace. The war now became general ; the
Emperor Leopold and King Charles of Spain made a
league with the United Provinces, so strangely had
things turned about since they first threw off the
Spanish yoke. The Empire, as a body, was neutral,
but some of the German princes, among them the
Great Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William,
joined the league against France ; so did Denmark,
while Sweden took the French side, so that there was
a kind of separate war going on in the North. It was
in this war that William Prince of Orange, the de-
scendant of William the Silent, and who was afterwards
King of England, first made himself famous. At last
peace was made at Nimwegen in 1678 and 1679, by
which France kept most of her new conquests in the
Spanish Netherlands, with the County of Burgundy
and the city of Besanc_on, and some Imperial towns
in Elsass which had not been given up by the Peace
of Westphalia. In all this war Lewis had been spread
ing his influence far and wide, and making alliances
everywhere. Just as other Kings of France had done,
though he was a cruel persecutor of tne Protestants in
France, he helped the Hungarian Protestants against
their King the Emperor, and even allied himself with
the Turks, as Francis the First had done.
2. Lewis the Fourteenth and "William of
Orange. Lewis was now at the height of his power,
and his flatterers called him Lewis the Great. But,
even after these great successes, he never could keep
quiet ; he went on annexing small places in Elsass,
and at last, in 1681, he seized on the free Imperial
city of Strassbur% in time of peace. Then he began
to meddle in Italy, and, among other things, he picked
a quarrel with the commonwealth of Gtnca, bom-
barded the city, and made the Doge come and ask
EUROPE
under
LEWIS THE FOURTEENTH
) from Greenwich 30
Fisk 4 Bee, X. Y.
xiv.] WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 285
humbly for peace. Other smaller wars with Spain
followed, and in 1688 Lewis seized Avignan, which
belonged to the Pope, and directly afterwards he began
a new war, because he could not get a candidate of
his own chosen to the Archbishopnck of Koln. But
by this time one very important change had taken
place. James the Second of England, who, like his
brother Charles, had been in the pay of Lewis, had
been driven out, and his nephew and son-in-law
William Prince of Orange, the Stadholder of Holland,
had been chosen King of England in his stead.
England was now therefore against France, and King
William was the very soul of the general league
called the Grand Alliance, which was now made to
keep Lewis from bringing all Europe under his
yoke. But William found it hard to manage many
of his allies, for both Spain and the German princes
were often anxious to throw Uie burthen of the war
on England and the United Provinces, and towards
the end of the war Lewis contrived to detach the
Duke of Savoy from the Alliance. This war went
on almost everywhere at once. The thing by which
it is best remembered is the cruel ravaging of the
dominions of the Elector Palatine by Lewis's orders
at the beginning of the war. Many battles were fought
and towns taken on both sides, especially in the
Netherlands ; and at last peace was made at Ryswick,
by which most of the conquests on both sides were
restored. France especially gave up the places which
had been seized in Germany, except the great city of
Strassburg, which she was allowed to keep.
3. War of the Spanish Succession.
Another war began in 1700, on the death of Charles
the Second of Spain. This is called the War of tht.
Spanish Succession. As Charles had no children,
there was much doubt who should succeed to his
dominions, and several treaties had been made be-
tween England and the United Provinces, France, and
286 THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE. [CH\P
the Empire, to hinder the "whole of the Spanish
dominions from being any longer united. By the last
treaty they were to be divided among the several
claimants, and the Crown of Spain itself was to pass
to the Archduke Charles of Austria, the son of the
Emperor Leopold. But when King Charles of Spain
died, it was found that he had left the whole of his
dominions to Philip of Anjou, the grandson of the
King of France. Philip the fifth therefore succeeded
to the Crown of Spain. But war broke out in 1701 ;
the Emperor, England, the United Provinces, Bran-
denburg or Prussia (whichever we a*e now to call it),
and afterwards Savoy, all took part in it. This was
the war in which the Duke of Marlborough carried on
his great campaigns in the Netherlands, and in which
England got possession of Gibraltar. The war went
on in all parts with various success till 1713 and
1714, when it was ended by the Treaties of Utrecht
and Rastadt. By these treaties the great Spanish
monarchy was divided, in a way of which we shall say
more when we come to the several countries which
were concerned in the division. But Philip kept
Spain and the Indies, that is, the distant possessions
of Spain in America and elsewhere, so that Lewis
succeeded so far that he had established his. grandson
on the throne of Spain, But in this last war he had
made no such conquests for his own kingdom as he
had made in his earlier wars. And these constant
wars, and his despotic government at home, had
greatly weakened and impoverished his kingdom. It
was weakened above all by Lewis's persecutions of the
Protestants. In 1685 he revoked the Edict of Nantes,
which had been granted in their favour by Henry the
Fourth. A most cruel persecution followed, chiefly in
the South, where the Protestants were most numerous.
This was a great blow for France, as crowds of skilful
and industrious men left the country, and carried their
(kill to England and elsewhere. But, as far as merf
xi v.I ENGLAND. 287
military glory went, there had as yet been no time
when France had had so large a share of it as during
the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth.
4. England. It marks the great position which
France held during this time, that, in telling the
history of France, we have to tell so large a part
of the history of all Western Europe. But this
was a most important time, both in England and
in other countries. From the execution of Charles
the First in 1649 to the Restoration of his son
Charles the Second in 1660, England was a common-
wealth. During the first years after the King's death,
the Long Parliament, which had overthrown him, kept
the government in its own hands. But in 1653 the
great general of the Parliament, Oliver Cromwell, took
on himself the chief power by the title of Lord Pro-
tector, for, like Caesar at Rome, he did not dare to call
himself King. He kept his power till his death in
1658, and then came a time of confusion till the
Restoration of Charles the Second. Under the govern-
ment of the Parliament and of the Protector, England
rose again to the place, or more than the place, in
Europe which she had held under Elizabeth, and
which she had lost under the first two Stuart Kings.
Scotland, where Charles the Second had been acknow-
ledged King after his father's death, was now united
with England. Ireland was conquered as it had never
been conquered before. A war was waged with the
United Provinces, in which the great admirals of the
two commonwealths, Blake on the English side, and
De Ruyter and Van Tromp on the Dutch, won vic-
tories over each other. The Island of Jamaica in the
West Indies was won from Spain ; the Protector inter-
fered to protect the Protestants in Savoy, who were
persecuted by their Duke, and he made favourable
treaties with most of the powers of Europe. All this
was changed after Charles the Second came to the
Crown ; for he had no care for the honour of th
/SS THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE. [CHAP.
nation, and he actually was in the pay of Lewis ol
France. The secret object of their schemes was to set
up absolute power and the Roman Catholic religion
in England. Charles first made men angry in 1663 by
selling Dunkirk to the French King. Then followed
a. war with the United Provinces from 1664 to 1667,
just at the time when the Plague of London happened
in 1665, and the Great Fire in 1666. In this war the
Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, a thing which no
enemy's fleet had done since the old times of the
Danes. In this war Lewis professed to be on the side
of the Dutch, but intrigues were going on between him
and Charles. Though in 1668 a Triple Alliance was
concluded between England, Sweden, and the United
Provinces, to check the advance of France ; yet, when
Lewis invaded Holland in 1672, Charles joined him,
and another naval war between England and the United
Provinces followed. Peace however was made the
next year, and after a while Mary, the niece of
Charles and daughter of James Duke of York, was
married to her cousin William, Prince of Orange. In
1685 James came to the throne. He had openly
become a Roman Catholic, and his illegal doings in
favour of those of his own religion at last obliged him
to leave the country, and William and Mary were
chosen King and Queen.
5. Great Britain. The effects of the Revolution
which placed William and Mary on the throne were
different in the three kingdoms of England, Scotland,
and Ireland. In England the old laws and liberties
were restored after a time of misgovernment. In
Scotland, which, at the restoration of Charles the
Second, had again become a separate kingdom, the
Stuart Kings had tried in vain to force the rites and
government of the English Church on a people who
preferred a system departing further from that of Rome.
William and Mary were therefore gladly chosen
in Scotland, and tffe Presbyterian Church was finally
xiv.] ENGLAND. 189
established. But in Ireland, where the mass of the
people were Roman Catholics, the cause of James was,
maintained for a while. But in the end Ireland was
more thoroughly conquered than ever, and the native
Roman Catholic inhabitants were ground down for
a long while under the dominion of the Protestant
English. Thus the Scots gained their freedom and the
e-stablishment of their own religion by the same revo-
lution which enslaved Ireland. In 1707, in the reign of
Queen Anne, who succeeded William, England and
Scotland were joined together into one kingdom, with
one Parliament, called the Kingdom of Great Britain,
while Ireland remained a separate and dependent
kingdom. Meanwhile, after the election of William
and Mary, now that the same man was King of
England and Stadholder of Holland, England took a
leading part, as we have already said, in the last two
wars against Lewis. By the Treaty of Utrecht, Eng-
land, or we should now rather say Great Britain,
gained the fortress of Gibraltar, which we have kept
ever since, and the island of Minorca. This was the
English share in the partition of the Spanish monarchy,
and it was our first possession in the Mediterranean.
Tangier had been an English possession during the
reign of Charles the Second, but Tangier lies outside
the Strait. In all these ways England became more
mixed up with continental affairs than she had been
before, and this was still more the case when, just be-
fore the death of Lewis the Fourteenth, the Crown of
Great Britain passed to a foreign prince who was
actually a reigning sovereign, which William was not,
except in his little principality of Orange. This was
George Elector of Hanover, a descendant of James the
First in the female line, who, as neither William nor
Anne left any children, was chosen by Parliament to
gucceed, as being the next Protestant heir. Thus
England had again, after so many years, a King who
could not speak English.
ago THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE. [CHAP.
6. Germany and Hungary. We have seen
how utterly the power of the Emperors came to an
end bjr the Peace of Westphalia ; and the next Em-
peror, Leopold, who succeeded Ferdinand the Third in
1658 and reigned till 1705, was not a man likely to set
it up again. The German princes now did much as
they pleased, and many of them did not scruple to
become the allies of Lewis. In fact, in a great part of
Germany the King of France was much more ruly the
head than the Emperor. The most famous German,
prince of this time was the Great Elector of Branden-
burg, Frederick William, who has been already spoken
of as taking a part in the war against Lewis. It
was under him that the House of Hohenzolleru
began to rise to greatness. He inherited and gained
several fresh territories in Germany, and, as we have
seen, he made his Duchy of Prussia independent of
Poland. His son Frederick, the first King of Prussia
took part against France in the War of the Spanish
Succession ; he also inherited a possession at a great
distance, namely the Principality of Neufchatel in the
old Kingdom of Burgundy. This small state was in
close alliance with the Canton of Bern, and it has
since become a part of Switzerland. The next King,
Frederick William the First, who succeeded in 1713,
received some further additions to his territories in
western Germany by the Peace of Utrecht. Thus
Prussia, as it must now be called rather than Branden-
burg, was advancing step by step to the position of a
great power in Europe. The Emperor Leopold mean-
while, besides the wars with France, had much to do
in his kingdom cf Hungary, both with the wars against
the Turks and with the revolts of the Hungarians them-
selves, who were stirred up by his cruel persecutions
of the Protestants. The Protestants did not scruple
to join with the Turks, and we can hardly wonder at
them ; for the Christian subjects of a Mahometan
power, though they are dealt with as an inferior
xiv.J THE SPANISH PENINSULA. 29*
people, are not denied the free exercise of their re-
ligron. In 1683 the Turks besieged Vienna, which was
delivered by John Sobieski, King of Poland, and Charles
Duke of Lorraine. After this the war went on, and the
Turks were gradually driven out of the part of Hungary
which they held, and peace was made at Carlowitz in
1699. In the midst of all this the crown of Hungary,
which, though it had been so long in the Austrian
family, was still by law elective, was made hereditary in
1687. Leopold then gave up the kingdom to his son
fase-ph, who in 1690 was chosen King of the Romans,
and succeeded his father as Emperor in 1705. He
took a leading part in all the affairs of Europe during
his time. The war with France went on, and so did the
civil wars in Hungary, till 1711, after which we hear
of no more revolts for a long while. In that year
Joseph died, and was succeeded by Charles the Sixth.
He it was whom the Allies had wished to make King
of Spain, and now the fear of uniting Spain with the
dominions of the House of Austria helped to incline
the Allies to peace. By the terms of peace the House
of Austria got, as its share of Spanish dominions, ah
that remained of the Spanish Netherlands, the King-
doms of Naples and Sardinia, and the Duchy of Milan,
except some parts which were given to the Duke oi
Savoy. In 1715 another war began with the Turks,
which was ended in 1718 by the Peace of Passarcwilz,
by which more territory was won, including Belgrade
the capital of Servia. Thus the House of Austria,
whose archdukes were so regularly chosen emperors,
gained a great increase of territory during this period,
but it all went to the advantage of the House of
Austria, not at all to the advantage of what was still
called the Roman Empire.
7. The Spanish Peninsula. The history of
Spain during this time has pretty well been told
already. The power which had been so great
292 THE GREA TXESS OF FRANCE. [CHAP.
under Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second had
now sunk to nothing, and Spain was disputed about
by other powers without their asking the consent of
its own people. But of the competitors for the
Spanish Crown the Spaniards certainly preferred the
French candidate to the Austrian, except in Cata-
lonia, where the people took the other side. They
had been deceived by the French in earlier wars.
Portugal during this time has hardly any general his-
tory. At first it took the side of the French, and
afterwards that of the allies. And we must not forget
that, besides the loss of its possessions in different
parts of Europe, Spain itself suffered dismemberment.
For, as we have seen, England got, not only the
island of Minorca, but also the fortress of Gibraltar
on the mainland of Spain itself.
8. Advance of Savoy. Italy also has very little
history during these times. From this time onwards
we shall find both Italy and the Netherlands used as a
kind of battle-field for the wars of other nations. We
have seen how, by the Treaty of UtrecJit, several parts
of Italy were again made to change masters, and how,
for the first time since Charles the Fifth, the Emperor,
though we can no longer say the Empire, again became
an important powe-r in Italy. But there are two in-
dependent states in Italy of whose history some ac-
count must be given. The House of Savoy was steadily
making its way. From the beginning of the seven-
teenth century the Dukes of Savoy had sought to add
to their dominions the possessions of the common-
wealth of Genoa, and also whatever they might be able
to win in Lombardy, which was then divided between
the commonwealth of Venice and the Kings of Spain
as Dukes of Milan. Genoa they were not to win ibi
a long time ; but,, by taking a part dexterously, and
not very scrupulously, in every war, they always con-
trived to gain scmething by each treaty of peace.
Thus Duke Victor Amadcus the Second took a part is
xiv.j WARS OF VENICE. 293
both the wars of the Allies against France. He gained
in some campaigns and lost in others ; he changed side!
more than once ; but he gained an increase of territory
both by the Peace of Ryswick and by the Peace of
Utrecht His gains by this last peace were very great ;
he gained a part of the Duchy of Milan, and, more
than this, he became a King. The Dukes of Savoy had
for a long time claimed to be Kings of Cyprus ana
Jerusalem, but these were mere nominal kingdoms.
But now Victor Amadeus became really King of the
Island of Sicily, while the kingdom on the mainland
went to the Emperor. The Two Sicilies were thus
again divided, as they had been in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries. The Dukes of Savoy in all this
show a marked contrast to the other princes of Italy,
and the corruption which had spread itself over most
parts of Italy under the Spanish domination had hardly
touched their dominions. They were thus able to do
great things ; and, though their policy as yet was purely
selfish, they were really laying the foundation of the
power which in our own time has grown into the re-
stored Kingdom of Italy.
9. Wars of Venice. The other Italian state of
which some account must be given during this time
was the commonwealth of Venice, which was still
nobly playing its part as the champion of Christendom
against the Turks. Cyprus had been lost, but the
Venetians still kept Crete. But in 1645 the Turks
attacked the island, and a war in its defence went on
for twenty- four years. This war, as the greater part oi
it was taken up by the siege of the town of Candia,
was commonly called the War of Candia. The Vene-
tians were helped, just as in the old times of the
Crusades, by volunteers and others from various parts
of Europe, from France, Spain, England, and Savoy ;
but at last, in 1669, Candia could no longer hold out,
and the whole island passed to the Turks. In 1684
the Venetians joined the Emperor Leopold and the
294 THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE. [CHAP.
Poles in their war with the Turks, and presently Fran-
tesco Morosini, who had commanded at Camlia, con-
quered the whole of Peloponnesos, and was afterwards
tlected Doge. It was in this war that the Parthendn,
the great temple at Athens, which had become a church
under the Eastern Emperors and a powder-magazine
under the Turks, was finally broken down when Moro-
eini was besieging Athens. Peloponnesos was con-
firmed to Venice in the Peace of Carlowitz in 1699,
but it was won back by the Turks in 1715, as well as
all that Venice still kept in the East, except the Ionian
Islands and one or two points on the west coast of
Epeiros. In 1716 the Turks in vain tried to take Corfu,
but in 1718 the Emperor Charles forsook Venice just
when there was a chance of winning back Peloponnesos.
With the Peace of Passarowitz in that year the history
of the wars of Venice in the East, which had gone on
ever since the taking of Constantinople in 1204, came
to an end.
10. The United Provinces. During all this
time the Seven United Provinces, as what we have
already said will show, held a much higher position in
Europe and the world in general than could have been
looked for from the extent of their territories. And
they did this notwithstanding an aw 'sward constitution
in which each of the states of which the Confedera-
tion was made up kept nearly all the rights of sove-
reignty. In Holland, which was the leading province
of the seven, there was a chief magistrate called a
Stadholder, who often held the same office in other
provinces also. This office had passed on for some
generations, almost as if it had been hereditary, in the
family of the Princes of Orange. But, when William
the Second as it is most convenient to call him,
though he was really the Ninth in his own principality
of Orange died in 1650, his son William tfie Third
was not yet born, and the office of Stadhold&r was
formally abolished in 1667. At this time the State*
xiv.] THE NORTHERN KINGDOMS. 295
were chiefly led by a famous statesman of Holland
fohn de Witt, but in 1672 there was a revolution ; De
Witt and his brother were murdered,, and the Prince
was appointed Stadholder. It was he who carried on
the great defence of the Provinces against France, but
after his death the office of Stadholder was again
abolished for a long while.
ii. The Northern Kingdoms. Sweden, like
the United Provinces, held during all this time a
greater position in Europe than it was really able to
keep. Queen Christina abdicated in 1654; the wars
went on during the time of the next King, Charles the
Tenth, and in 1660 Charles the Eleventh concluded the
Treaties of Oliva and Copenhagen, by which Sweden
gained almost all Livonia from Poland, and obtained
from Denmark all that part of Denmark which lay
within the northern peninsula, so that Denmark now
kept only Jutland and the islands. Sweden now had
greater territories than it had at any time before or
since, and in this King's reign, in 1682, the royal
power was made absolute by law. The same had been
done in Denmark in 1660, in the reign of Frederick
the Third. Then, in 1697, came the famous Charle;
the Twelfth. He was presently attacked by Denmark,
Poland, and Russia all at once. He first beat the
Danes, and then the Russians in the famous battle of
Narva; then he passed on into Poland, where he
deposed one King and set up another ; then he passed
on into Russia, where at last he was defeated at
fultowa, and had to take shelter in the Turkish
dominions at Hender. There he stayed in a kind of
captivity for a while, but in 1714 he made his way
almost alone to Siralsund in his Pomeranian domin-
ions, where he was besieged by the forces of Denmark,
Prussia, and Saxony. In 1718 he was killed in attack--
ing Fredericks hall in Norway. His sister Ulrica suc-
ceeded him. Absolute monarchy was now again
abolished, and the royal powers were made very small
296 THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE. [CHAJ
In 1720 and 1721 peace was made by Sweden with
her various enemies, and the Swedish dominions were
cut short in all parts. Livonia and the neighbouring
land were given up to Russia, whose territories
now reached to the Baltic. Bremen and Verden were
given up to Hanover, and part of Swedish Pomerania
to Prussia. So of the fruits of the German victories of
Gustavus Adolphus nothing was left except part of
Pomerania and the town of IVismar; but the Scandi-
navian territories which had been won from Denmark
in the last century were still kept. Charles the Twelfth
had won victories which astonished the whole
world, but he taxed the resources of his kingdom be
yond its strength, and since his time Sweden has never
been what it was during the whole of the seventeenth
century. But, on the other hand, Sweden now reached
to the extreme south of her own peninsula, and was
no longer cut off by Denmark from the western seas.
In fact Sweden has to some extent, like Savoy,
gained territory at one end and lost it at the other,
though the gains have been greater in the case of
Savoy and the losses in the case of Sweden.
12. Russia and Poland. We need say but
little about the history of Russia in this chapter,
because its wonderful advances towards the end of
this time will come better as a connected story in the
next chapter. Poland meanwhile had, as we have
seen, to give up her new territory of Livonia to
Sweden, and presently, in 1672, she had to give up
the border province of Podolia to the Turks, and t.o
submit to pay a tribute. But in 1674 the Poles chose
as their King their own famous general, John Sobieski,
the same who delivered Vienna in 1683. Both before
and after he became King, he won several victories over
the Turks. He got back part of the lost territories, and
for a time joined Moldavia and Wallachia to Poland ;
these are the two Danubian principalities of which
there has been much talk of late years. These coo
xiv.J THE TURKS. 295
quests were not long kept. Sobieski died in 1696,
and the Poles did not choose a new King foi more
than a year. Then they chose Frederick Augustus^
Elector of Saxony, who turned Catholic to receive the
Crown, since which time the Electors and Kings ot
Saxony have been Catholics, while their people have
remained Protestant This King is called Augustus
the Strong. He won back the strong town of Kami
niec from the Turks ; but, having joined the league
against Charles the Twelfth of Sweden, he was utterly
overthrown in 1702. Charles called on the Poles to
depose Augustus and choose a new King; so in 1704
they chose one of their own nobles, Stanislaus
Leszczynski. But he reigned no longer than Charles
could help him, and, after Charles's defeat at Pultowa
and after a civil war in Poland, Augustus was brought
back. Poland was now falling very fast from the high
place which it had once held in Europe.
13. The Turks. The chief events in the history
of the Turks have already been told when we spoke
of their wars with Venice and in Hungary. Though
they conquered Crete and recovered Peloponnesos, yet
on the whole the power of the Ottomans was going
down. Some of the Sultans, like Mahomet the Fourth,
in whose time Vienna was besieged, were men of
sp/.rit, and Mahomet sometimes commanded his own
armies, but some were very weak men indeed, and none
were like the great series of Sultans who had founded
the Ottoman dominion. One great reason for the
decline of the Ottoman power was that the tribute oi
children was no longer regularly levied on the sub-
ject nations. The Janissaries had become a kind of
hereditary caste, and their old spirit was quite gone.
In former times all the best servants of the Sultans,
both in war and peace, had come from among the
tribute children. Now that the tribute was no longer
levied, the Sultans had no longer the same succession
of able and faithful servants, and the subject nations
298 THE GREA TNESS OF FRANCE. [CHAP
were no longer deprived of the men who were most
fitted to be their leaders. As long as the tribute was
levied, we may say that the subject nations could not
revolt. As it was, we do not hear of any revolts for
some time to come, but the subject nations now began
to gain strength and their masters became weaker.
14. European Settlements in India. The
English dominion in India began during this time.
The great sailors of Elizabeth's time had made their
way into the Indian seas as well as into those of the
West, and a systematic trade with India, carried on,
as was usual in those days, by a Company, began iv
the times of James the First. The English merchants
had at first to withstand the opposition of the Dutch
in the islands, and of the Portuguese on the mainland.
The Dutch had got possession of the islands called
the Spice Islands, which form part of the great group
of islands which lie beyond the two peninsulas of
India, and in 1623 great indignation was caused by
what was called the Massacre of Amboyna, when
several Englishmen were put to death by a sentence
of the Dutch Court in the island. With India itself
the English began to trade in a regular manner about
1613, when they received a charter from the reigning
Emperor Jefiangir. The great power in India was
now the Mogul .Empire, which was ruled by Mahometan
princes, sprung from Baber, a descendant of Timeur,
who established himself in India in 1526. His grand-
son Akbar, in whose time the Mogul dominion was
spread over the greater part of India, was the greatest
and best of all Mahometan rulers. But in truth he
gave up Mahometanism, and set up a new religion
of his own. Jehangir was his son. The first settle-
ments in India were merely factories for trade, but in
those distant seas it was needful for merchants to
fortify their factories, and to have ships which could
withstand an enemy. Commercial enterprises thus
Ijradually changed into political and military enter
xiv.] EUROPEAN 'SETTLEMENTS tN INDIA. 299
prises, and the Company, which was at first merely a
company of traders, came to have its dominions and
armies like a sovereign prince or commonwealth, and
in the end to have rule over nearly all India. These
times however are yet to come ; but the story of the
English power in India is something like the history of
Rome ; wherever the English merchants settled and
fortified their factories, their dominion really began.
Their first settlement was at Surai ; one which be-
came of more importance began at Madras in 1 640 ;
and in 1662 the King of England, as distinguished
from the English trading Company, first became pos-
sessed of a dominion in India. This was Bombay,
which was given to England by Portugal on the mar-
riage of Charles the Second to the Portuguese Infanta
Katharine. But this new dominion was before long
granted by the King to the Company. In 1698
began the English settlement at Calcutta, and these
three, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, remained the
chief seats of the British dominion in India. During
all this time there were many disputes between dif-
ferent sets of merchants about the right of trading
with India, till at last, in 1708, the East India Com-
pany was put on the footing which it kept long after,
and under which it gradually obtained either sove-
reignty or commanding influence in most parts of
India. By this time the Mogul Empire was much
weaker than it had been at the time when the English
first settled. Shah Jehan, the son of Jehangir, who
reigned from 1627 to 1658, was a great prince, but
under his son Aurungzebe, who reigned from 1658 to
1707, being thus nearly contemporary with Lewis the
Fourteenth, the Empire, though outwardly at its
highest pitch of splendour, was really falling to pieces.
For Aurungzebe was a bigoted Mahometan, and his
intolerance led to a revolt of the Mahrattas, a Hindoo
people who founded a great dominion in Central
India, And presently the rulers of the different pro
300 THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE. [CHAT.
vinces under the Mogul Emperors began to grow into
independent princes, keeping up only a nominal sub-
mission to the Great Mogul, as he was called. This
is the same thing as we have seen so often in other
parts of the world, in the Caliphate and in the Empire
and in the kingdom of France. By these means the
progress of the English in India was much helped.
But we must remember that during all this time there
was no sign at all that the English were likely to come
to be the head power in India. There were as yet no-
thing more than one set of traders and settlers among
others, Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish.
Some of these settlements of other nations remain
still, though the English have so greatly outstripped
them. But with the islands except Ceylon, which
lies close to the peninsula, as Sicily does to Italy the
English have had but little to do. They have always
chiefly belonged to the Dutch and Spaniards.
15. European Colonization in America.
During all this time colonization was going on briskly.
The two great maritime and commercial powers, Eng-
land and the United Provinces, now took the lead in
it It was now that England was rising to her great
position by sea, and her new power led both to the
foundation of new colonies and to the conquest of the
colonies of other European nations. The Spaniards
and Portuguese kept their great possessions in America,
though the Spanish power had utterly gone down in
the New World as well as in the Old. The Dutch
colony of New Netherland was flourishing, though the
Dutch and English often had quarrels. In 1638 the
Swedes also, now that Sweden had become a great
power, set up a colony on Delaware Bay, but in 1655
this colony was conquered by the Dutch, and was
joined to their own New Netherland. But New
Netherland itself did not last very long, for it was
conquered during the first war between the Dutch and
the English in Charles the Second's time, and several
xiv.] SUMMARY. 301
English colonies were made out of parts of it The
chief town, New Amsterdam, changed its name to
New York, in honour of the king's brother, James
Duke of York. Other colonies were planted during
Charles the Second's time, as Carolina and Newjersty\
and especially Pennsylvania, which was planted by the
famous Quaker William Pmn, who made laws for his
colony, and established greater toleration in religion
than was to be found anywhere else. Meanwhile the
French claimed to hold all the vast regions to the
north and west of the English colonies, and, whenever
there was war between France and England in Europe,
there was also war between the French and English
colonies in America. By the Peace of Utrecht in
1713 the French colony of Acadie was given up to
Great Britain, and became the colony of Nova Scotia.
But, on the other hand, the French were really coloniz-
ing at the mouth of the Mississippi, in their province
of Louisiana, and in 1718 they founded the city of
Nan Orleans. The last of the English colonies in
these parts was Georgia, which was founded in 1723.
This made up the number of the thirteeen colonies in
North America, which still remain as the thirteen
oldest States of the American Union.
1 6. Summary. Thus, during this period, France
gained a great increase of territory, and more than
once she caused great alliances to be formed to with-
stand her. The great Spanish monarchy was divided,
all its outlying possessions in Europe being separated
from Spain. England and Scotland were more firmly
joined together, and began to take a leading part in
all continental affairs, and Great Britain for the first
time won a footing in the Mediterranean. In Ger-
many the Emperors became mere Austrian princes :
but, as Austrian princes, they gained a great increase
of power, both in Italy, from which they had so long
been shut out, and in South-Eastern Europe as Kings
of Hungary. In Northern Germany also we see the
3 02 THE GREATNESS OF FRANCE. ICH\P
beginning of a great and more strictly German powei
in the growth of Brandenburg or Prussia. In Italy,
Savoy advanced, and Venice still maintained a gallant,
though on the whole a losing, hght against the Turks.
In Northern Europe Sweden had, by the end of the
period, quite lost the great position which it held at
the beginning, though it had gained some territory at
the expense of Denmark. Poland was fast sinking,
while the greatness of Russia was beginning. The
power of the Turks was now much less to be feared,
and, if they gained territory from Venice, they lost
their possessions in Hungary and the neighbouring
lands. In India the Dutch drove the Portuguese
from the Islands, and the English settlements in India
itself began. Colonization went on steadily in North
America, and the English colonies were decidedly
getting the upper hand. In the way of learning and
literature, the United Provinces still produced great
scholars and political writers ; but for literature in
their own tongues England and France certainly stood
at the head. Many of the most famous writers of
both those languages, and also some of the chief
philosophers, belong to this time. Spain and Italy
had greatly sunk ; and Germany had not thoroughly
recovered from the Thirty Years' War, though it is im-
possible not to mention the great scholar and philo-
sopher Leibnitz. Generally, French influence had
too much power in Germany just now for anything
very original to be done.
xv.] THE RISE OF RUSSIA.
CHAPTER XV.
THE RISE OF RUSSIi.
Character of the period (i) rivalry of Austria and
Prussia (2) revival of the power of Spain; reign oj
the Emperor Charles the Sixth; exchange of the King-
doms of Sardinia and Sicily (2) War of the Polish
Election (2) the Pragmatic Sanction (2) War of the
Austrian Succession; Prussian conquest of Silesia;
election of Charles the Seventh (3) Maria Theresa;
her husband Francis elected Emperor (3) Frederick
the Great; tlte Seven Years' War (3) reign of Joseph
the Second (3) the Hanoverian Kings in England ;
attempt of the Pretender ; dealings -with France, Spain,
and Sweden (4) War with Spain ; share of England
in continental wars ; administration of Pitt (4)
revolt of the American colonies; war with France and
Spain (4) independence of Ireland (4) reign of Lewis
the Fifteenth; annexation of Corsica and Lorraine (5)
improved state of things in Spain ; the Family Com-
pact ; administration of Poirtbal in Portugal (6)
changes in Italy ; advance of Savoy ; revolution in
Genoa and Corsica (7) the Popes (7) Reign of Peter
the Great in Russia; his conquests from Sweden and
other powers ; rise of Russia (8) reigns of women in
Russia; Catharine the Second; conquest of Critn
Tartary (8) affairs of Poland; the three partitions (8)
loss of power and territory by Sweden; state oj
Denmark and the Duchies (9) affairs of the Nether-
lands ; the Stadholders in the United Provinces made
hereditary; revolts in the Austrian Netherlands (10)
success of the Turks against Aitstria (u) their wars
with Russia; successive losses of territory ; dealings
of Russia with the Christian nations (11) growth oj
304 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAP
the English power in India ; career of Cliw ; relation
of England to the native states ; trial of Warren
Hastings (12) the English Colonies in America;
conquest of Canada (12) re-volt of the colonies; foun-
dation of the United States (13) cession of Florida
(13) Summary (14).
i. Character of the Period. The greatest
change which took place in Europe during the time to
which we have now come was undoubtedly the growth
of the great power of Russia. No other state in
Europe changed in anything like the same degree till
quite the last years of the eighteenth century. Still
Russia did not come to at all the same kind of rank
which had been held by France, and, before that, by
Spain. Nor did Russia rise to its greatness by dis-
placing France in the way in which France rose by
displacing Spain. Therefore, though this chapter is
called after the greatest event of the period, still
Russia will not be the centre of our story in the same
way that the Empire was for so long, and afterwards
Spain and France. In fact there is not during this
time any one power in Europe which stands out in any
marked way above all others. There are several great
powers which are much more nearly on a level than
before, and among them one very important one is
growing up in the form of Prussia. Indeed a great
part of this period is taken up with rivalries between
France and England, and between Prussia and Austria.
And it is specially characteristic of this time that
France and Spain, the two great Bourbon powers are
commonly allied against England. In short, no power
in Europe held a higher place at this time than
Great Britain. Without exercising any general do-
minion or making any general conquests, England
had a hand in nearly everything that went on. But
we must, in this chapter, make the Imperial House
of Austria the centre of our story, as hardly anything
xv.] CHARLES THE SIXTH. 305
happened during this whole time in which that House
had not a direct share.
2. The Reign of Charles the Sixth. The
greater part of the German history of this period is
taken up with the rivalry between the Austrian House,
the family of the Kings of Hungary and Archdukes ol
Austria, ou-t of whom the Emperors were now chosen
almost as a matter of course, and the House of Hohen-
zollern, the House of the Kings of Prussia and Electors
of Brandenburg, who had begun to rise into greatness
under the Great Elector. But this did not begin
till some time later, not till after the death of the
Emperor Charles the Sixth. The first disturbance
came what we should hardly have expected from
Spain. The new French King of Spain, Philip the
Fifth, under his minister, Cardinal Alberoni, tried to
get back the lands which Spain had lost, especially
the kingdom of Sardinia, which had passed to the
Emperor, and that of Sicily, which had passed to the
Duke of Savoy. The Spaniards actually conquered
Sardinia, and went some way towards conquering
Sicily. But France, England, and the United Provin-
ces presently joined the Emperor in the Quadruple
Alliance against Spain, and the end of it was that
Spain had to give up her projects, and the Emperor
and the King of Sicily exchanged their two Italian
kingdoms. Thus the Emperor Charles the Sixth
became King of the Two Sicilies, like Frederick the
Second, and the Dukes of Savoy became Kings of
Sardinia, the title by which they were known till
the present King became King of Italy. This was
in 1720, and in the same year the Emperor made
what is called a Pragmatic Sanction, which was
guaranteed by the chief powers of Europe, and by
which all his hereditary dominions, Hungary, Sicily,
Austria, and the rest, were to pass to his heirs female,
in case he left no son. Presently this Emperor got
entangled in a series of unsuccessful wars. On the
306 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAP
death of Augustus the Strong, in 1733, there was a
double election to the crown of Poland between
Frederick Augustus Electcr of Saxony, the son of the
late king, and Stanislaus, who had before been made
King by Charles the Twelfth. The Emperor and
Russia supported Augustus, but, as Lewis the Fifteenth
had married the daughter of Stanislaus, he took vipon
him to make war on the Emperor, and he was joined
by Charles Emmanuel the Third, King of Sardinia,
and by Philip of Spain, or Bather by his wife Eliza-
bfth of Parma, both of whom had designs on the
Austrian possessions in Italy. Thus a war took place,
in which the two Bourbon Kings were joined against
the Emperor, and in which for once England took
no part. The end of this war, called the War of the,
Polish Election, was that the House of Austria lost
the greater part of its Italian dominions. There was,
as usual, a good deal of shifting among the smaller
duchies, but the important changes were that the
Two Sicilies were given to a younger son of the King of
Spain making a third Bourbon kingdom in Europe
and part of the Duchy of Milan was given to the King
of Sardinia, whose frontier, as usual, thus advanced
a little. And not only the House of Austria, but
the Empire also lost, for it was settled that the Duchy
of Lorraine, a fief of the Empire, should pass to
Stanislaus who gave up his claim to the crown of
Poland for life, and should be joined to France at
his death. Thus France again advanced at the ex-
pense of Germany. The Duke of Lorraine, Francis^
who had married Maria Theresa, the daughter of the
Emperor Charles, got the succession to the Grand
Duchy of Tuscany, where the line of the Medici was
dying out, instead of his own Duchy of Lorraine.
3. The "Wars of Austria .ind Prussia. It
was in this way settled that the hereditary dominions
of the House of Austria should pass to the House oj
I^rraine, as representing the House of Habsburg in thr
xv.J \VARSOFAUSTRIAANDTRUSSTA 307
female line. And it was no doubt expected that the
Empire and the Kingdom of Germany would pass
quietly along with the hereditary states. And all this
did happen in the end, but not till after much disput-
ing and fighting. When the Emperor Charles died in
1740, all his hereditary dominions, the Kingdoms of
Hungary and Bohemia, the Archduchy of Austria, and
the rest, passed, according to the Pragmatic Sanction,
to his daughter Maria Theresa, who was of course
called by her highest title, that of Queen of Hungary,
The Empire of course was at the disposal of the
Electors, and there was an interregnum of two years.
But, notwithstanding the Pragmatic Sanction, various
princes began to lay cla-im to the whole, or to particu-
lar parts, of the dominions of the House of Austria.
Above all, Charles Elector of Bavaria gave himself
out as the rightful heir, and his claim was supported
by France. Meanwhile Frederick tlie Second of Prussia,
commonly called Frederick the Great, who had just
succeeded his father Frederick William, and had in-
herited from him a well-disciplined army, put forth a
claim to the greater part of the Duchy of Silesia, and
presently took possession of it by force. The next
year the French and Bavarians overran Austria ; and
in 1742 the Elector of Bavaria was elected Emperor as
Charles the Seventh. Maria Theresa had now to take
refuge in Hungary, where, notwithstanding all that the
Hungarians had suffered from her predecessors, she
found great zeal in her cause. Presently England and
Sardinia came to her help, and the war went on in
Germany till 1745, when Charles the Seventh died,
and Maria Theresa's husband Francis was elected
Emperor. From this time she was called the Empress-
Queen, being Queen of Hungary in her own right and
Empress as wife of the Emperor Francis. The war
went on between the Empress-Queen, England, and
the United Provinces on one side, and France and
Spain on the other, till 1748, when Silesia was formally
3o8 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHA
givn up to the King of Prussia. It was under Fred-
erick the Great that Prussia, the growth of which had
begun under the Great Elector, rose to be one of the
chief powsrs of Europe. He was a philosopher and
writer, and, when he was not at war, he did much to
make things better within his kingdom. But there
was a good deal more fighting to come before the end
of his reign, for in 1756 another war broke out between
him and the Empress-Queen. This was called the
Seven Years' War. Now things turned about, for not
only Russia, Poland, and Sweden, but even France
was on the Austrian side, and Frederick was surrounded
by enemies and left alone on the continent. England
however joined him, and in 1762 Peter the Third oj
Russia, who was a great admirer of Frederick, changed
sides. The way in which Frederick bore up for so
Jong against so many enemies was one of the greatest
triumphs of military skill on record. There was another
smaller war in Germany in 1777 about the succession
of Bavaria, between Frederick and the Emperor Joseph
the Second. Joseph had been elected King of the
Romans in 1764, and he succeeded his father in 1765,
being also made by his mother fellow-sovereign of her
hereditary dominions. In 1780 Maria Theresa died,
and Joseph reigned alone. Joseph had great schemes
of reform in all bis dominions, but he was too fond of
putting everything to rights according to his own
notions, without 'regard to the old laws of his different
kingdoms, so that in the end he did more harm than
good. In this way he tried to sweep away all the old
institutions of Hungary, but just before his death
in 1790 he restored them. He was succeeded by
his brother, Leopold the Second, and he in 1792 by
the last Emperor, Francis the Second. By this time
quite a new state of things was beginning throughout
Europe.
4. Great Britain. For a great part of thii
rime during which Great Britain was so much mixed
xv.] GREAT BRITAIN. 309
ap with the affairs of the continent, she had herself a
foreign King. George the First could not even speak
English, and he thought much more of his Electorate
than of his Kingdom. The same may be said of
George the Second also, though he had got so far as
to speak English. Thus England got mixed up in
several wars with which she had not much to do. At
the beginning of George the First's reign, Lewis the
Fourteenth, just before his death, abetted an attempt
made in 1715 by the son of James the Second, who
called himself James the Third, to win the crowns of
England and Scotland, for of course he did not
acknowledge the Union of the two kingdoms. This
attempt failed, and England was on good terms, and
even in alliance, with the Duke of Orleans, who was
Regent for the young King Lewis the Fifteetith. This
was the time when England joined with France and
the Emperor Charles to withstand Spain. This time
England really was. threatened, for Spain now took up
the cause of the Pretender, as did Charles of Sweden,
who was angry because the King of Great Britain, as
Elector of Hanover, had got his possessions in north-
western Germany. In George the Second's reign we
had another war with Spain, which began in 1739,
and which was forced on the King and his Minister,
Sir Robert Walpole, by the general wish of the people,
who were stirred up by tales of wrongs done to English-
men by the Spaniards in America. But little came
of this war, except some additions to geographical
knowledge in the shape of the famous voyages oi
Lord Anson. Then, from 1741 to 1748, England
plunged into a war on the continent about a matter
with which she had nothing to do at all, namely the
war of the Austrian Succession, in which, as we have
seen, England took the side of the Queen of Hungary,
and France that of the King of Prussia and the
Emperor Charles the Seventh. Nothing came of this
war either, as the English and French gave back theu
310 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. ft: HA p.
conquests to each other at the end of it ; but it
should be remembered that in 1745 the son of the
old Pretender, Charles Edward, with French help,
made an attempt to gain the British crowns for his
father. Scotland he actually did hold for a while, and
he kept court at Edinburgh and even held Carlisle,
but this rebellion was quelled, like the earlier one, at
the Battle of Culloden. Then a war with France arose
out of the quarrels between the colonists of the two
nations in America, and this war got mixed up with the
Seven Years' War in Germany. The war, as far as
England was concerned, was chiefly waged by sea and
in America; and under the administration of Mr. Pitt,
afterwards Earl of Chatham, many victories and con-
quests were made, especially in the year 1759. The
war went on into the reign of George the Third, which
began in 1760, and it was ended in 1763 by the Peact
of Paris, by which England got back much that had
been lost by the war, and greatly enlarged her American
possessions. But presently, in the reign of George the
Third, the greater part of those possessions were lost
altogether. An attempt to impose taxes on the
colonists led to resistance. The thirteen colonies,
from New England to Georgia, revolted, and in 1776
they declared themselves independent, and thus made
the beginning of the great Federal Republic of the
United States. The French stepped in during the
war to help the colonists, and they were presently
joined by Spain and the United Provinces ; and, when
peace was made in 1783, Great Britain had to ac-
knowledge the independence of the States and to givt
back Minorca to Spain. But Gibraltar, her other
Spanish possession, was kept, and its defence during
this war against the forces of France and Spain is one
of the exploits of which Englishmen are most proud.
In 1782 Ireland, which had hitherto been a kingdom
dependent, first on England and then on Great
Britain, became independent, the two kingdoms of
xv.] FRANCE. T n
Great Britain and Ireland now having the same King,
but distinct and independent Parliaments. It was
also during this time that the English power vastly
extended itself in India, but that will be better spoken
of in a separate section. During all these wars Great
Britain commonly kept herself to her position as
an insular power. She made no attempt at winning
continental dominion, as she had done in the times of
the old wars with France. Her only outlying pos-
sessions in Europe were Gibraltar and Minorca ; on
the other hand, though foreign powers gave help to
pretenders to the British Crown, there was no serious
attempt on the part of any enemy to get possession of
any part of the British islands. The true object of
these wars was dominion in distant parts of the world,
and the great gains and losses of England and France
were not made in Europe, but in America and India.
It marks quite a new state of things that this should
be so. Europe had now ceased to be the only world
of European nations. The great maritime powers
held dominions in the East and West greater than
they possessed at home ; and the colonies which
England lost have grown into a great English-speaking
nation in the New World.
5. France. The long reign of Lewis the Four-
teenth was followed by the reign, nearly as long, of his
great-grandson Lewis the Fifteenth, who also came to
the crown in his childhood, and reigned till 1774.
Lewis the Fourteenth, with all that is to be said
against him both as a man and as a King, was at least
a ruler with a strong will, who had objects, and who
largely carried those objects out. But Lewis the
Fifteenth, though not without capacity, wilfully gave
himself up to vice and idleness and the dominion of
unworthy favourites. Yet France, as we have already
seen, kept up her position as a great power throughout
his reign, and she even gained some increase of
territory. We have already seen how France took a
312 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHA*
leading part in all the chief wars of this time hoWi
except in the first war, she was always in alliance with
Spain, and opposed to England, and how her wara
with England were mainly carried on by sea, and
among the colonial possessions of the two countries.
In Europe France extended herself in two places
during this time, namely in Lorraine, where the
Duchy, which had been given to King Stanislaus
for life and which had greatly flourished under
him, was joined to France at his death in 1766.
And, as by this time nearly the whole of Elsass had
been annexed bit by bit, the lands which France
had taken from the Empire since the first seizure of
the Three Bishopricks now formed a large and
compact territory. The other gain of France at
this time was in quite another part of Europe,
namely the Italian island of Corsica. This had
been for a long time subject to the common-
wealth of Genoa, But the Genoese government was
oppressive, and the Corsicans revolted more than
once. Their chief leaders were the two Pao/i, father
and son, of whom the secend is by far the better
known. The Genoese called in the French to help
them, and at last, in 1768, they gave up their rights
to France, and the French presently conquered the
island. These annexations happened during the reign
of Lewis the Fifteenth, during which time the internal
state of the kingdom was getting worse and worse.
His grandson Lewis the Sixteenth tried to make
things better as well as he could ; but he was quite
unfit for such a task, and he had in the end to suffer
for the misgovemment of his forefathers, and for the
despotism under which they had brought their own
kingdom and so many lands which they had added
to it
6. Spain. We have already seen that Spain
under the new Bourbon dynasty, showed, perhaps
because her dominions were now so much smaller,
XV.] ITALY. 3 i ?
much more of life than she had shown during the
latter part of the seventeenth century. This was
shown both in a marked improvement in her govern-
ment at home and in a vast advance in her European
position. If her attempts to win back her lost terri-
tory failed, she was able to set up Spanish princes
on more than one throne in Italy. In the time of
Alberoni we have seen that France and England
were united against Spain ; in the later wars it was
the other way, and the Bourbon kingdoms of France
and Spain were united, by what was called the
Family Compact, against England and the allies of
England on the continent. Presently they both set
upon Portugal, as being an ally of England. The
reigning King of Portugal was Joseph^ who had an
able minister called the Marquess of Pombal. By
the brave resistance of the Portuguese and the help
of the English, the French and Spanish invaders were
driven back. During this period the Jesuits were
driven out of both Spain and Portugal, having been
found, as they were in most countries, to be dangerous
to the civil power.
7. Italy. During this period Italy again gained
some show of independence as compared with its
state in the seventeenth century. It still formed a
collection of distinct principalities and common-
wealths, of which the commonwealths were oligarchies
and the principalities despotisms, and most of the
princes were members of foreign royal families.
Little room was thus left for any real national feeling.
Still the whole country was not utterly under the
power of one foreign King, as it had been in the days
of the Spanish dominion. On the other hand, the
commonwealth of Venice, which had done such great
things in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
seemed to lose all strength and life after the loss of
Peloponnesos. For a moment indeed after the Peace
of Utrecht, and still more after the exchange of Siciljf
3>4 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHA*
and Sardinia, it might seem that Italy was as com-
pletely held down by the German branch of the
House of Austria as it had before been by the Spanish
branch. Among the other states there were constant
changes during the several wars, but things were at
last settled by the Peace of 1748. One Bourbon
prince from Spain, Charles, who afterwards succeeded
to the Crown of Spain, was settled in the Kingdom of
the Two Sicilies, another became Duke of Parma and
Piacenza, and the Emperor Francis was Grand Duke
of Tuscany, where he was succeeded in 1765 by his
son Leopold, who afterwards was Emperor. Leopold
did a vast deal for his duchy, and was as good a ruler
as a despotic prince can be. But the only really
national princes in Italy were those of the House of
Savoy, who were now Kings of Sardinia, Victor
Amadeus the Second and Charles Emmanuel the
Third. They took a part in every war, and were not
very scrupulous about changing sides, but they always
gained something in the end. This time, by the
Peace of 1748, they gained another part of the Duchy
of Milan, while the rest was left to the House of
Austria. In all these changes the people were handed
over from one master to another without their wishes
being thought of at all. The only parts of Italy
where any life remained among the people at this time
were Genoa and Corsica. In the war of the Austrian
Succession Genoa took the side of France, so in 1746
it was occupied by the Austrians. But the people,
without any help from the oligarchical government,
rose up and drove the Austrians out, a revolution
which had a good deal of effect on the course of the
war in those parts. And we have seen that, as the
people of Genoa rose against the yoke of Austria, so
the people of Corsica rose against the yoke of Genoa,
till they were handed over to France. The Popes oi
this time, especially Benedict the Fourteenth and Cle-
ment the Fourteenth, were mostly very good men, bitf
XV.] RUSSIA AND POLAND. 315
they had ceased to be of any importance as temporal
princes, and the best of them were unable to make
any thorough reform in their own dominions. Cle-
ment the Fourteenth, who is perhaps better known by
his family name of Ganganelli, altogether put down
the Order of the Jesuits in 1773, but it was afterwards
set up again.
8. Russia and Poland. We now come to what
is really the greatest event during this time, namely, the
wonderful rise of Russia. For this we must go some
way back to an earlier period, so as to tell the story
straight on. Russia was already a powerful state in its
own part of the world, but it was quite cut off from any
dealings with Europe in general till the reign of Peter
the Great. He began to reign together with his
brother Ivan in 1682, and alone in 1689. During their
joint reign Poland finally gave up to Russia a great
deal of the Russian territory which she had formerly
held. Presently Peter began to turn his mind to
naval affairs. He improved his one haven of
Archangel, and presently, in 1696, he conquered Azof
from the Turks, so that he now had a haven on the
Black Sea. Then he twice travelled in various coun-
tries, especially Holland and England, to learn such
things as might be useful for his own people. Between
his two journeys came his war with Charles the Twelfth
of Sweden, which in the end turned to the greatest
advantage of Russia. For Peter got Livonia and the
other possessions of Sweden east of the Baltic, and
so he had a footing on a third sea. Within this
newly-gained territory he founded his new capital of
Saint Petersburg, which thus supplanted Moscow, as
Moscow had supplanted the earlier capitals. Later in
his reign he extended his borders on the other Russian
sea, the Caspian Sea, at the expense of Persia. He
took the title of Emperor of all the Russias, which
amounted to a claim over the Russian provinces held
by Poland, and which besides gave great offence to
3i6 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHA>.
the German Emperors of the West. He made many
changes in the internal state of his dominions, bring-
ing the clergy under the control of the civil power,
and making improvements in many ways, though it
must be remembered that improvements of this kind,
when made by the single will of a despot, do in fact
only make his despotism stronger. Still Peter is
entitled to the honour of having raised his country
from a very low position in Europe to a very great
one. His policy was carried on by his widow Catha-
rine, who succeeded him in 1725 : for the crown of
Russia passed, like the old Roman Empire, sometimes
by will and sometimes by revolution, without any very
certain rule of succession. During the greater part of
the eighteenth century the throne was filled by women,
Anne the niece of Peter, Elizabeth his daughter, and
lastly Catharine the Second, who succeeded in 1762
by the murder of her husband Peter the Third, and
reigned till 1796. With some checks, Azof for instance
being twice or thrice lost and won again in the wars
with the Turks, Russia, notwithstanding its internal
revolutions, went on advancing in the face of other
nations. Under Catharine the Second the great con-
quest of Crim Tartary or Crimea, was made. Russia
now got rid of the last trace of the oldTartar dominion,
and she again had free access to the Euxine, as when
Russian fleets threatened Constantinople in the ninth
and tenth centuries. This conquest on the part of
Russia was very much like the conquest of Granada by
Ferdinand and Isabel. But the chief advance of Russia
towards Western Europe was made by her share in the
successive partitions of Poland. The internal govern-
ment of that country was so bad, both the King and
the people being subject to a tumultuous nobility, that
the state grew weaker and weaker. The last two Kings,
Augustus Elector of Saxony, son of Augustus the
Strong, and Stanislaus Poniatowskt, a native Pole
were forced on the country by Russia, and attempts al
xv.] NORTHERN EUROPE. 317
internal reform, as being likely to make the kingdom
stronger, were always checked At last, in 1772, the
Empress Catharine of Russia, Frederick the Great
of Prussia, and the Empress-Queen, as Queen of
Hungary though the last very unwillingly joined
together to partition Poland, each taking certain
provinces. In 1793 another partition was made by
Russia and Prussia only, and in 1795 Poland was
altogether destroyed as an independent nation, and its
remaining territory was divided among its three neigh-
bours. What was then understood by Poland took
in both the old Kingdom of Poland, the Duchy of
Lithuania, and the Russian provinces which were
held by Poland. Of this, Russia got back most of
her old territory, and she took also the greater part
of Lithuania. Prussia took West Prussia, the greater
part of old Poland, and a small part of Lithuania.
Austria or Hungary (whichever we are to call it) took
the rest of old Poland, and some territory which
had been Russian. In the Russian provinces the
mass of the people were still Russian, and they
had often suffered persecution from Poland for
cleaving to the Eastern Church. This however
docs not justfy the breach of the law of nations,
and the other two powers, which divided Poland it
self, had not even thus much of excuse to make. By
this partition, Russia, which had hitherto stood on
the confines of Europe, was brought into the middle
of the continent and into the thick of European
affairs.
9. Northern Europe. During this time the
Scandinavian Kingdoms, especially Sweden, were of
much less account than they had been in the period
before it. Neither of them now took much share in
the general affairs of Europe. Sweden had had more
than one war with Russia, and in 1743 she had to give
up the district called Carelia on the Gulf of Finland,
and this time without gaining any territory to the West
318 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAP.
The history of the country is mainly remarkable foi
its internal revolutions. After the changes of 1720
the government became almost wholly aristocratic ,
but in 1772 the royal power was set up again. In
Denmark meanwhile the government remained an
absolute monarchy, but the country was on the whole
well governed and prosperous, and its naval powei
especially was greatly increased. ' During this time
too the ever-shifting Duchies of Sleswick and Holstein
were at last wholly united with the Danish Crown.
Holstein was held as a fief of the Empire, while
Sleswick was not
10. The Netherlands. During fhis time those
provinces of the Netherlands which had belonged to
Spain were held by the House of Austria, while the
Seven United Provinces remained independent ; but.
like Sweden, their importance in Europe in the eigh-
teenth century was very much less than it had been in
the seventeenth. In the war of the Austrian Succession,
the United Provinces supported the Queen of Hungary,
and the Austrian provinces were overrun by the French.
But when, in 1 747, the Dutch territory also was invaded,
a change in the internal constitution followed, by which
the Prince of Orange, William the Fourth, was made
hereditary Stallholder. His own principality of Orange
had before this been annexed by France. During
the war between England and France which arose
out of the revolt of the American colonies, there
was a short war between England and the United
Provinces, but both the grounds of quarrel and the
terms of peace had almost wholly to do with the
colonial possessions of the two countries. Presently
there were disturbances in the country and dis-
satisfaction with the Stadholder, William the Fifth^
which gave both the King of Prussia and the Emperof
Joseph the Second excuses for interfering. By the
end of this time, about 1790, the United Provinces
had sunk into utter insignificance, being almost wholly
xv. J THE TURKS. 3 , 9
under the control of Prussia. In the Austrian Nether-
lands alro the changes made by Joseph the Second
led to revolts.
ii. The Turks. The power of the Turks during
this time had altogether ceased to be dreaded by
Christian nations. The advances of Russia during
this time form the greater part of the European history
of Turkey, but it was not till the reign of Catharine
the Second that the advantage set steadily in on the
Russian side, and in the early part of the period
Turkey was decidedly successful on the side of
Austria. During the reign of Mahmoud the First, who
reigned from 1730 to 1754, in a war which began in
1737, the Turks, by the Peace of Belgrade in 1739,
recovered from Austria the city of Belgrade, and all
that had been given up by the Peace of Passarowitz.
And by this treaty Russia was not to keep any fleet
in the Black Sea. But in the war between Catharint
the Second and Mustapha the Third, which began in
1769, the advantages were wholly on the Russian
side. The loss of territory by Turkey during the
reign of Catharine was great. By the Peace of Kai-
nardji, in 1774, the Sultans gave up their superiority
over the Tartar Khans of Crimea. The Khan
was then recognized as an independent power, but the
country was soon afterwards conquered by Russia.
By the next war, which was ended by the Treaty of
/assy in 1792, the Turkish frontier fell back to the
Dniester. But still more important than these
losses of territory was the system of interference in
the internal concerns of the Sultan's dominions which
went on from this rime on the part of Russia. As the
Turkish government grew weaker, and as the tribute
of children was no longer levied, the Christian nations,
Greeks, Slaves, and others, which were under the
Turkish yoke, began to revolt whenever th-ey had a
chance. In so doing they were always encouraged by
Russia, though they seldom really gained anything bj
320 THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAP
Russian meddling in their affairs. Still this tendency
of the Christian nations to revolt, and the encourage
ment given to these revolts by Russia, all mark the
beginning of a new state of things in Eastern Europe,
ind one which is going on still. It should specially
be noticed that by the treaty of Kainardji Russia ob-
tained certain rights of interference in the Danubian
Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were
under the superiority of the Sultans, without forming
part of their immediate dominions. In these wars,
Russia, which sixty years before had had no Euro-
pean haven except on the White Sea, was able to
send fleets into the Mediterranean. She was now fully
established, not only as one of the chief powers of
Europe, but as the ruling power in the south-east as
well as in the north-east. The Eastern Church, which
had been so long kept down under Mahometan bond-
age, now again begins to be of importance, as being
the religion both of the greater part of the Christian
subjects of the Turks and also of Russia, which pro-
fessed to be their defender.
12. The English Power in India. It was in
the course of this period that the great English
dominion in India grew up out of the mercantile
settlements of the East India Company. But this
was not till after a hard struggle with the French, who
at one time seemed likely to gain the greatest power
in the peninsula. In 1746, during the war of the
Austrian Succession in Europe, Labourdonnais, the
French governor of Mauritius, seized Madras, which
was kept till the end of the war. But mean-
while Dufleix, the governor of Pondicherry, the chief
French settlement in India, formed great schemes of
French dominion in the East, and wars went oil be-
tween the French and the English in India, under
cover of supporting different native princes. These
wars did not stop even when France and England
were at peace, in the time between the two wars of
x v. ] THE ENGLISH PO WER IN INDIA . 321
the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War.
In 1756 the English settlement at Calcutta was taken
by Suraj-ad-dowla, the Nabob of Bengal, one of the
princes who owed a nominal vassalage to the Great
Mogul. Now it was that many Englishmen died in
what was called the Black Hole. But now came the
great advance of the English power under Clive, and
the battle of Plassy in 1757, in which the Nabob,
with a vast native army and with a small body of
French auxiliaries, was utterly overthrown by Clive's
little army of English and of natives under English
discipline. This battle laid the real foundation of the
English dominion in India. But the war with France
still went on in Southern India with varying success
till the Peace of 1763, when Pondicherry, which had
been taken by the English, was restored to the French.
Since then it has been commonly taken and given
back whenever there has been any war between
England and France. But neither the French power in
India nor that of any other European nation has, since
the days of Give, been able to stand up against that of
England. Since that time the English dealings with
India have been much like those of ancient Rome in
the Mediterranean lands. One state after another has
first become dependent and then has been incor-
porated, just as when a kingdom or commonwealth
was made a Roman province. It must be remembered
that all this time the English dominion in India was
not in the hands of the King's Government, but was still
in those of the Company. It was only in 1784 that
the affairs of India were at all brought into the hands
of the Home Government by the institution of the
Heard of Control, a. body acting in the King's name,
to control in certain cases the management of affairs
by the Company. After Clive, the most famous name
in the history of British India was that of the Governor-
General Warren Hastings, who was impeached and
tried before the House of Lords on various charges of
322 THE VISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAR
oppression and misgovernment, and was acquitted aftei
a trial which lasted many years.
13. The Independence of the United States.
Georgia was the last English colony that was founded
in North, America during this time. The English
colonies lay wholly along the east coast ; the French
possessions in Canada and Louisiana hemmed them in
to the north and west, and the Spanish colony of
Florida to the south. The colonies of the different
European nations took a large share in the several
wars of the century. In 1759 Canada was conquered
by the English troops, British and colonial ; this war
was memorable for the victory and death of General
Wolfe at Quebec. A large French-speaking population
in Canada was thus handed over to English rule, and
the French settlements now no longer stood in the
way of the growth of the English colonies to the west.
By the same treaty of 1 763 Florida was given up by
Spain to England, and Louisiana was divided between
England and Spain, the Mississippi being the bound-
ary. The French- were thus quite shut out of North
America. Then came the attempt on the part of
Great Britain to tax the colonies, their revolt, and the
assistance given them by France, and afterwards by
Spain. When the colonies in 1776 declared them
selves independent, each colony formed an independ-
ent State, joined together only by a very lax Confede-
ration. But, when the war was over, a closer union was
found necessary, and in 1789 the constitution of the
United States of America, as a perfectly organized
Federal commonwealth, remarkably like the consti-
tution of the Achaian League in old times, was fully
established. Each State kept its independence in its
own affairs, but the Union formed one nation in all
dealings with other powers. The first President of the
new commonwealth was George Washington, who had
been the great leader of the colonists during the war.
This constitution was gradually accepted by all the
xv.] THE UNITED STATES. 323
States. By the treaty of 1 783 Florida was given back to
Spain, and the late British conquest of Canada, with
the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and
Newfoundland, remained part of the British dominions.
The States were thus hemmed in to the north, and
for a while to the south also ; but they had free
power of growth to the west, where new settlements
were quickly founded and were admitted into the
Union as independent States on the same terms as
the first thirteen.
14. Summary. The greatest events during this
period are thus to be found in the furthest parts of the
civilized world. The rise of Russia in Eastern Europe,
the foundation of the English dominion in India, and
the establishment of the United States in America, are
the three greatest events of the time. They are more
than mere common conquests or acquisitions of terri-
tory. Each one of them is the real beginning of a new
state of things. The English now fairly took their
place as the leading people of the earth in coloni-
zation and distant dominion. The British Empire in
India is the greatest example of distant dominion, as
distinguished from proper colonization, on the part of
any European power ; and the establishment of the
United States as an independent power has given to
a people of English birth and speech the means of
growing to far greater extent and power than they
could have done if they had remained dependent on
the mother country. Geographical knowledge was
also greatly increased by the more thorough survey of
the islands of the Eastern Ocean, including the vast
island, or rather continent, of Australia, which just at
the end of the period with which we are now dealing,
opened another field for English colonization. France
was now altogether driven out of the world of distant
dominion, and the other colonizing powers, Spain,
Portugal, and Holland, could at most keep what they
had got. None of the changes which happened in
3 2j THE RISE OF RUSSIA. [CHAP.
Western Europe at this time were at all on the samf
scale as these, for the gains and losses of the mari-
time powers had been made much less in Europe than
in their distant possessions. In Europe, the three
Western powers, England, France, and Spain, kept
nearly the same position at the end of the period which
they had held at the beginning. The United Pro-
vinces and the Scandinavian kingdoms had fallen from
their momentary greatness, and Italy hardly existed,
except as the battle-field for other powers, and as a
land in which the younger branches of ruling families
might be provided for. But the House of Savoy was
still pushing its way, and it gained some increase of
territory by nearly every fresh treaty of peace. But in
Eastern Europe the advance of Russia, at once against
Sweden, Poland, and Turkey, the way in which, from
having been cooped up inland, she made her way into
both the Baltic and the Mediterranean, and became
a great and even threatening power, was the greatest
European change of the time. Russia, after having
been thrown back for so many ages, at last won
the place which she had tried to win when she at-
tacked Constantinople in the old times. Her advance
is also remarkable as bringing into prominence a race
and a religion which had long been kept in the back-
ground. The Slavonic nations with whom we have
hitherto had most to do, the Poles, Bohemians, and
others, belonged to the Western Church, and were
more or less closely connected with the Western
Empire. But with the rise of Russia, a Slavonic
country which got its Christianity and civilization
wholly from Constantinople, both the Slavonic race
and the Eastern Church again rise into special im-
portance. And so in some sort does the Eastern
Empire also, by means of the influence which the
Russian princes, as the most powerful princes of the
Eastern Church, were able to exercise on those
nations of their own Church, both Greek and Slavonic,
xv.J SUMMARY 321
which were still in bondage to the Turks. The ad
vance of Prussia during the same time was very
important, but it was not so important as this. The
change was not so sudden, and it was not so great in
itself. A new German power came to the front in
Germany, and it has gradually grown to be the head
of Germany, much in the same way as Wessex grew
in England, Castile in Spain, and France in Gaul.
But its rise did not, like the rise of Russia, bring a
race and a religion from the background to the front.
The partition of Poland, in which Russia and Prussia
had the chief share, stands pretty well by itself in
history ; disputed and tributary dominions have often
been divided between several claimants, but there is
no other case of a great and independent country
being cut up in this way among its neighbours. These
political changes and the rise of these new powers
were very great events in themselves, and they were
also closely connected with the stir in men's minds
which went on during this time. During the eighteenth
century men were speculating on religion, government,
and society in a more daring way than they had
ever speculated on so great a scale before. French
and French-speaking writers, Voltaire, Rousseau, and
others, were leading on men's minds towards that
general crash of existing things, good and bad to-
gether, which marks the next period in so large a part
of Europe. And rulers like the Emperor Joseph,
Frederick of Prussia, and Catharine of Russia helped
to the same end. For, though they ruled as absolute
princes, yet the great changes which they made, both
good and bad, tended to unsettle men's minds, and to
make them more ready to break with the past alto-
gether. This whole period then was one of very great
importance, but it was mainly in the way of pre-
paration for what was coming. It was a time of great
advance in both physical and moral science, and one
of great mechanical discovery. But in most branchef
326 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAP.
of art, learning, and original composition the eight-
teenth century was below either the times before or the
times after it. It seemed as if the world needed to be
stirred up by some such general crash as was now
near at hand.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.
Character of the time (i) reign of Lewis the Sixteenth,
the States-General of 1789^- they becotrt the National
Assembly (2) Constitution of 1790^ abolition of mon-
archy ; National Convention; execution of the King
(2) Reign of Terror ; Robespierre ; establishment of
the Directory (2) foreign wars of the Republic; rise
of Napoleon Buonaparte (2) annexations in Germany,
Italy, and the Netherlands ; wars in Switzerland and
Egypt (2) Buonaparte seizes the chief power as Con-
sul; character of his rule ; treaties of I.uneville and
Amiens (2, 3) Buonaparte calls himself Emperor of
the French and King of Italy (3) conquests oj Buonii-
pastc ; his dependent kings (3) he invades Russia;
liberation of Germany (3)fall of Buonaparte; his
return from Elba; battle of Waterloo ; his final over-
throw^ effects of the French Revolution in Germany;
abolition of the Empire ; title of Emperor of Austria;
the new Kings ; the Confederation of the Rhine (4)
Buonaparte's victories over Prussia and Austria ;
greatest extent of Buonaparte's dominion in Germany
(5) formation of the German Confederation (5)
changes in Italy; its resettlement at the Peace (6)
dealings of Buonaparte with Spain; Joseph Btiona-
parte made King ; campaigns of the Duke of Welling-
ton; return of Ferdinand the Seventh (7) King John
of Portugal goes to Brazil; liberation of Portugal (7)
changes in the Netherlands; union of the whole
Netherlands into one Kingdom (8) the French in
xvi. J CHARACTER OF THE TIME. 32?
Switzerland; the Helvetic Republic; the Act of Medi*
ation; formation of the Swiss Confederation (9)
share of England in the general War; bombardment
of Copenhagen (10) rebellion in Ireland ; Union of
Great Britain and Ireland (\o) war with the United
States ; settlement at the Peace (10) Russian conquest
of Finland; election of Bernadotte in Sweden; union
of Sweden and Norway (i i) affairs of Denmark (i i)
reigns of Paul and Alexander in Russia (12) Peace
of Tilsit; wars with Sweden, Turkey, &nd Persia (12)
French invasion of Russia; Kingdom of Poland united
with Russia (12) decay of tJie Turkish Empire; in-
dependence of Servia, Egy.pt, and other provinces ;
Turkish wars with France and Russia; accession oj
Mahmoud (13) English conquests in India ; coloniza-
tion of Australia (14) revolutions of Hayti (14)
growth of the U-nited States; purchase of Louisiana;
abolition oj slavery in the Northern States (15)
Siimmary (16).
i. Character of the Time. We have now come,
we may almost say, to our own times, to times which
a few old people still living can remember. And these
times are so full of matter that it would be vain
to try to do more here than to point out the general
effect which the events which then happened had on
the relations of the states of Europe to one another.
It was a time which saw such an upsetting of the
existing state of things everywhere as had never hap-
pened before in so short a space of time. The centre
of everything during this time is France; and in France
at this time men did what had never been done before ;
that is, they went on the fixed principle of changing
everything, whether it were good or bad, wherever
their power reached, both in their own country and
elsewhere. There was a general change of everything,
often out of a mere love of change, and there was in
particular a silly way of imitating old Greek and
Roman ways and names, even when they were nothing
to the purpose. But in this general crash the evil o.'
328 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAP
the older times was largely swept away as well as the
good, and means were at least given for a better state
of things to begin in our own time.
2. The French Republic. The events of the
French Revolution must be told in the special History
of France. It is enough to say here that Leu<is
the Sixteenth, the grandson of Lewis the Fifteenth,
who succeeded him in 1774, had to pay the penalty of
the misgovernment of so many Kings who had gone
before him, and above all of the last two. Now that
there was such a spirit of thought and speculation
about in the world, men could no longer bear the
abuses of the old French system of government, the
absolute power of the King and the monstrous privi-
leges of the nobles and clergy. The finances of the
country too were in utter disorder, and generally
there was need of reform in everything. Lewis the
Sixteenth, an honest and well-intentioned man, but not
strong enough for the place in which he found himself,
tried hard to make things better, though perhaps not
always in the wisest way. At last, in 1789, the States-
General were called together, which had not met since
1614. They were presently changed into a National
Assembly, which made the greatest changes in every-
thing, abolishing all the old privileges, and giving all
things as it were a fresh start. Among other things,
they wiped out the old provinces, so many of which had
once been independent states, and divided the whole
country into departments, called in a new-fashioned
way after rivers and mountains. The small part of
Elsass which remained independent, and the territories
of Veniissin and Avignon in the old Kingdom of Bur-
gundy, which belonged to the Popes, were now finally
swallowed up by France, Then came a time of great
confusion and rapid changes. In 1790 a new consti-
tution was made, by which the King's power was made
very small indeed, and the old title of King of the
was revived. In 1792 monarchy was abolished
XVI.] THE FRENCH REPUBLIC. 329
and France became a Republic under the National
Convention; in the next year the King was beheaded,
and religion and everything else was swept away.
Now came the Reign of Terror ; one party after another
as it rose to power put its enemies to death. Among
the men who had the chief hand in this general destruc-
tion was the famous Robespierre. He was a native of
Arras in Artois, but, owing to the conquests of Lewis
the Fourteenth in the Netherlands, his country was
now French. But, before long, a time of rather more
quiet began under the Directory. Meanwhile France
was at war with many of the powers of Europe ; for
Kings began to be afraid of the example of France
spreading. In 1790 war began with the Emperor
and the King of Prussia, and, directly after the King's
beheading in 1793, war was declared against England
also. Thus began the long Wars of the French Revolu-
tion, in which every part of Europe had a share
at one time or another, and which went on, with some
stoppages, till 1815. The first part of the war may bo
looked on as lasting till 1797. It went on in the
Austrian Netherlands, along the Rhine, and in Italy,
and it was in the Italian part of the war that Napoleon
Buonaparte began to make himself famous. He too,
like Robespierre, was a Frenchman only through the
annexations of France, being an Italian of Corsica who
had to learn the French language. His victories m
Italy forced the Emperor Francis to give up the
Austrian Netherlands to France, and Piedmont and
Savoy were also annexed. This was the way in which
things went on during the whole time ; sometimes terri-
tories were actually added to France ; sometimes they
were made into separate states, nominal republics,
which were altogether dependent on France. But for
the old republics of Europe, whether aristocratic or
democratic, no more respect was shown than for Popes
or Kings. As the Emperor had given up so large a
territory to France, that he might get something io
330 THE FKENCJI KEVOI.UJ^ION.
exchange, he joined the French in destroying the
ancient commonwealth of Venice, and they divided iti
dominions between them, France wished to get
power in the east of Europe, and there/ore took the
Ionian Islands as part of her share. Then, in 1798,
Buonaparte planned an expedition to Egypt, and, to
get money, the Directory attacked Switzerland, be-
cause Bern was known to have a large treasure. Pre-
sently, in 1799, another war began against the Emperor,
who was helped by Russia ; this war chiefly went on
in Switzerland. At home the Directory greatly mis-
managed things, and, when Buonaparte came back
the same year, he was easily able to upset it and to
take all power into his own hands. An old Greek
would have said that he made himself Tyrant ; but,
after the fashion of calling everything by Roman names,
he first called himself Consul and then Emperor ; he
had a Senate and what not, being in truth a still more
absolute ruler than ever Lewis the Fourteenth had been.
3. N apoleon Buonaparte. Buonaparte was now
master of France, and he came nearer to being master
of Europe than any other one man had done before.
For fifteen years the whole continent was in confusion,
Kings and kingdoms being set up and put down again
pretty much as it pleased him. But in France itself,
though his rule was altogether despotic, and though in
the end he made himself hateful by draining all the
resources of the country for his endless wars, there can
be no doubt that the land gained by having a time ol
quiet after the disorders of the Revolution. He re-
stored the Christian religion, and, like Justinian, put
out a code of laws for his dominions. During the
time when he called himself Consul, peace was made
with the Empire at I.uneville in 1801, and with England
at Atniens in 1802. By the former peace all Germany
left of the Rhine was given up to France. The Rhine
was in the Roman times the boundary between inde-
pendent German)' and the Roman province of Gaul;
xvi.] RISE OF BUONAPARTE. 331
but the modern kingdom of France had never come
anywhere near the Rhine till the annexations began iu
Elsass. But now France got the Rhine frontier frorn
Basel to its mouth, or we might say, from its source to
its mouth ; for Switzerland was now merely a French
dependency. In 1804 Buonaparte called himsell
Emperor of the French, and he crowned himself at
Paris, having sent for the Pope to anoint him. In this
his object was to give himself out as the successor of
Charles the Great, not merely as the successor of any
of the local Kings of France. For it was of course
part of his plan that men should look, as Frenchmen
commonly do, on the great German Emperor as a
Frenchman. It shows how thoroughly the old notion
of the Empire had died out, when such a pretence
could have any effect on men's minds. Since Buona-
parte's time the title of Emperor, which once meant so
much, has ceased to have any particular meaning.
Everybody that chooses now calls himself an Emperor ;
the title has even been borne by several adventurers
in Mexico and the West Indies. But, besides calling
himself Emperor of the French, Buonaparte made part
of Northern Italy into a kingdom, and called himself
King of Italy in imitation of the old Emperors. No
King of Italy had been crowned since the Emperor
Charles the Fifth was crowned at Bologna, but now
Buonaparte was crowned again the next year at
Milan. Before he had taken up these titles, he was
a;ain at war with England, and he planned an inva-
sion of that country, which he never carried out. For
the power of France by sea was broken by the English
under Lord Nelson at the great battle of Trafalgar.
From this time Buonaparte did much as he pleased by
land, but the smallest arm of the sea stopped him
everywhere. Meanwhile his great land campaigns
spread with little stoppage over the years from 1805
to 1809. He now brought the greater part of Western
Europe more or less under his power. He set up his
332 THE FRENCH REVOLUTMN. [CHAP
brothers and other dependents as Kings of Spaiu,
Naples. Holland, and elsewhere, and' he moved them
from one kingdom to another, or joined their dominion!
on to France, just as he thought good. He cut short
the dominions both of Prussia and Austria, and niadu
himself really master of the rest of Germany, joining
what he pleased to France, and calling himself Protector
of the rest. In 1811 his power stood at its height
What he called the French Empire took in France with
all its old conquests, Germany west of the Rhine, the
Netherlands and the United Provinces, and North-west
Germany also, so that the French frontier took in
Hamburg and Liibeck, and reached to the Baltic. At the
other end it took in all Western Italy, including Rome ;
the rest belonged to the Kingdom of Sta/y, of which
Buonaparte called himself King. Beyond the Hadriatic
a large territory made up of the former possessions of
Austria and Venice and the Republic of Itagiisa was
also part of the French Empire. The Kingdom of
Naples was held by his brother-in-law Joachim Murat,
but Sicily and Sardinia were still held by their own
Kings, because they were islands, and the British fleet
could help them. Denmark was his ally, and Spain was
under his brother. But presently deliverance began
to come from two quarters. In 1812 Buonaparte
thought good to invade Russia, but the climate fought
against him as well as the people, and he had to come
back the next year, for the first time, utterly discom-
fited. The next year, 1813, Germany began to rise
against him, rather by a common impulse of the people
than by any act of the German governments. But
Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and most of the smaller
German states, gradually joined against him. Germany
was now set free in the great battle of Leipzig. Mean-
while, ever since 1 808, when Joseph Buonaparte\\z.& been
sent to be King of Spain, the British troops had been
engaged in the deliverance of the peninsular kingdoms.
Now it was that the Duke of Wellington won his greal
EUROPE
under
BUONAPARTE
20 _ 30
from Greenwich 80
Fisk&See. N. T.
xvi.] FALL OF BUONAPARTE. 333
victories over several of Buonaparte's best generals
In 1814 the Allies entered France on both sides, the
English from the south, the other powers from the
east. Several battles were fought at both ends of the
country. At last Paris was taken, Buonaparte abdi-
cated, and he was allowed to hold the little island of
Elba, keeping the title of Emperor. The French
people were now quite weary of him, and they gladly
welcomed the restoration of the old royal family in the
person of the last King's brother, who called himself
Lewis the Eighteenth. But in the next year, 1815,
Buonaparte came back ; he was received by the army,
and reigned again fora few months, till the Allies again
gathered their forces, and he was overthrown for ever
by the English and Prussians at Waterloo. He now
abdicated again ; but this time he was not trusted to
stay anywhere in Europe, but was kept in ward for
the rest of his days in the island of Saint Helena, a
British possession in the Atlantic between Africa and
America. The wars of the French Revolution were
now over. By a series of treaties made at Paris and
Vienna, the boundaries of the different states of Europe
were settled afresh, and France had to give up the
conquests which she had made during the republic and
in the time of Buonaparte. The boundaries of the
restored kingdom did not greatly differ from what they
had been before the wars of the Revolution began.
4. The Fall of the Empire. The part of
Europe which, next to France itself, was most affected
by the French Revolution was Germany. The
changes in Italy were in themselves equally great, but
Italy had already been partitioned out over and over
again, while Germany had never before fallen under a
foreign dominion. It was during this time that the
old state of things, and the old ideas which had lasted
so long, came altogether to an end. The Roman Empirt
and the Kingdom of Germany were now abolished,
even in name. First of all, as we have seen, thf
334 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAP.
Austrian Netherlands, which were now pretty well
separated from the Empire, and all Germany west ol
the Rhine, including the three great archbishopricks
of Mainz, Ktiln, and Trier, and the old royal city of
Aachen, were all added to France. Meanwhile the
princes who lost their dominions by the Peace of
Luneville were allowed to make up for it at the cost
of the bishopricks and free cities east of the Rhine,
and a new electorate of Hessen-Cassel was made,
whose Elector, as it turned out, never had any one to
elect. In 1804, as soon as Buonaparte began to
call himself Emperor of the French, Francis tht
Second, King of Hungary and Archduke of Austria,
being Emperor-elect of the Romans and King of
Germany, began to call himself Hereditary Emperor
of Austria, whatever that meant. And in 1805, after
the war had begun again, and after the Austrians and
Russians had lost the great battle of Austerlitz, the
Emperor made a treaty with Buonaparte at Pressburg,
which was drawn up between the Emperor of Germany
and Austria and the Emperor of the French and King
of Italy. It was time that the Empire should come
to an end, when its chief had in this way forgotten
who he was. And so it happened within two years.
Many of the German princes had by this time joined
Buonaparte. They declared themselves independent
of the Empire, and they began to call themselves by
higher titles,, King of Bavaria, King of Wurttemberg,
and so forth. They then made themselves into the
Confederation of the Rhine, which was put under the
protection of Buonaparte, and they added to their
dominions such of the remaining free cities and
smaller principalities as they thought good. This was
in 1806, and in the same year the Emperor Francis
formally resigned the Empire altogether, and no
Roman Emperor has since been chosen. Thus the
old Kingdom of Germany, which had gone on ever
since the division of the dominions of Charles the
xvi.] THE END OF THE EMPIRE. 335
Great, and the Roman Empire, which had gone on in
one shape or another ever since Augustus Caesar,
came at last to an end. The Kingdom of Burgundy
was now wholly forgotten, and all of it was now either
annexed to France or, being part of Switzerland, was
quite under French influence. As for the third
kingdom, that of Italy, we have seen that Buonaparte
called himself King of it, though by the Treaty of
Pressburg he promised that France and Italy should
not be joined again after his time. Thus all traces of
the old state of things passed away. But the former
Emperor Francis still went on calling himself Emperor
of Austria, and his successors in the Kingdom of
Hungary, the Archduchy of Austria, and his other
hereditary dominions, have gone on doing so ever
since.
5. The Settlement of Germany. The union
of the German States, which had been so lax ever
since the Peace of Westphalia, thus quite passed away.
Buonaparte had now to deal with the separate states
which had not submitted to him. Prussia had made
a separate peace long before, and now, in 1806, the
King Frederick William the Third made a league with
France by which he obtained the Electorate of
Hanover, which belonged to the King of Great
Britain. But the yoke of the French alliance was too
hard to bear, and a war broke out between France and
Prussia, in which Prussia was supported by Saxony.
Now came the great battle of Jena, in which the
Prussians and their allies were utterly defeated.
Saxony now gave way, and the Elector was made King,
and joined the Confederation of the Rhine. In the
next year Prussia was cut short at the Peace of Tilsit;
her western dominions and some other districts were
made into a Kingdom of Westphalia, of which Buona-
parte made his brother Jerome King, while the lands
which Prussia had taken from Poland, except Wes'
Prussia, were made into a Grand Duchy of Warsaw
33 6 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAV. xvi
which was given to the new King of Saxony. Austria
meanwhile, having again ventured on war in 1809,
was overthrown at Wagram, and had to yield he?
south-western dominions to France and Bavaria, being
thus quite cut off from Italy and the Hadriatic.
Lastly, North-western Germany, including the free
sit:es of Liibeck, Bremen, and Hamburg, was altogether
joined on to France. To crown all, the German
states were made to send men to help in Buonaparte's
attack on Russia. Then, in 1813, came the uprising
of the German people, which the German govern-
ments had to join one after another. And lastly, in
1*15, at the Congress of Vienna, the state of Germany
was finally settled as it stayed till a few years back.
There w-as no longer an Emperor or a King of Ger-
many ; but the German princes and free cities, of
which last four only, Liibeck, Bremen, Hamburg, and
Frankfurt, were left, formed themselves by a lax
Federal tie into the German Confederation. Many of
the small states were swallowed up, and the boundaries
of all were settled afresh. And it should be marked
that several of the chief princes who were members
of the Confederation joined it for parts of their do-
minions, but not for all. Francis of Austria, who had
been Emperor, and his successors, were to be Presi-
dents of the Confederation ; they joined it for the
Kingdom of Bohemia, the Archduchy of Austria, the
County of Tyrol, &c., but not for the Kingdom of
Hungary or their other dominions out of Germany.
So the greater part of the Prussian dominions were
within the Confederation, but the Kingdom of Prussia
itself, that is, East Prussia and the Polish provinces,
lay out of it. So too the Kings of Great Britain,
Denmark, and the Netherlands a new kingdom to be
presently spoken of were members of the Confede
mtion for Hanover (which was now called a kingdom),
Hohtcin and Laucnbnrg, and Luzclburg severally.
The German princes whom Buonaparte had set up an
MAP OF
EUROPE
/ according to the
TREATY OF VIENNA 1815
"Long. W. 10 from Greenwich Longitude East 10 from Greenwich
Pisk & See.N.T.
xvi.] ITALY, SPAIN, ETC. , 337
Kings, those of Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, and Saxony,
kept their titles ; but, as the King of Saxony had stuck
to Buonaparte as long as he could, a large part of his
kingdom was added to Prussia. All the princes
promised free constitutions to their people, but most
of them forgot to give them.
6. Italy. Italy was as much tossed to and fro
during these times as Germany. It is hardly worth
while to mention all the little commonwealths and
principalities which were set up and put down. The
rirst conquests from Austria and Venice were made
into the Cisalpine Republic, which was afterwards
changed into Buonaparte's Kingdom of Italy. A
large part, at last taking in Rome itself, was, after
many shiftings, a Ligurian Republic, a Kingdom of
Etruria, and what not, joined on to France, and the
Pope, Pius the Seventh, was got into Buonaparte's
power. In the South, first Buonaparte's brother
Joseph and then his brother-in-law Murat held the
Kingdom of Naples. When things were settled in
1815, the princes who had lost their dominions came
back again. The King of the Two Sicilies, who had
all along kept the island, got back the continental
kingdom also. So the King of Sardinia got back
Piedmont and Savoy, and the Grand Duchy of
Tuscany and the lesser principalities were set up again,
and the Pope again held Rome and his old temporal
dominions. But the commonwealths were not set up
again. Lucca became a Duchy ; Genoa was joined on
to Piedmont, and the Duchy of Milan and the
Venetian dominions, which had changed their names
so often, were made into the Kingdom of Lombardy
and Venice, and joined on to Austria. Only little San
Marino kept its freedom. Thus Germany and Italy
both remained disunited, cut up among a number of
absolute princes. But there was this difference
between them : the German princes were Germans,
and the country had a certain unity, however lax, in
338 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAP
the Confederation. But Italy was altogether cut up,
A large part was held by Austria and by the Pope ;
and the other Kings and Dukes were not real Italian
princes, but all looked to Austria as their chief.
Piedmont indeed was held by a native prince, but ill
government still was despotic. This was the third
time under Charles the Fifth, under Charles the
Sixth, and again under Francis the Second that the
House of Austria had the chief power in the Italian
peninsula,
7. Spain and Portugal. Under Charles tJu
Third, who had been King of the Two Sicilies, Spain
went on greatly recovering herself, as she had done
before under Philip the Fifth. In the reign of Charles
the Fourth, under the administration of Godoy, when
the French Revolution began, Spain at first acted
against France; but afterwards in 1796, she joined
France against England and Portugal, as she did
again when war broke forth once more in 1803.
Buonaparte presently began to meddle in Spanish
affairs, and he caused the King to abdicate in 1807.
He then moved his brother Joseph from Naples to
Spain, but the patriotic Spaniards proclaimed Ferdi-
nand the Seventh, the son of the late King, though he
was actually in Buonaparte's hands. Then came the
great struggle in which the French were finally driven
out of the Peninsula by the English victories. In
1814 the lawful King Ferdinand came back, but hr.
overthrew the free constitution which had been made
during his captivity, and reigned as an absolute
monarch. Meanwhile Portugal, the old ally of Eng-
land, was overrun by the French, and John the Sixth,
the King, or rather Regent for his 'mother Maria, left
Portugal for the great Portuguese colony of Brazil,
where he went on reigning, and did not go back to
Portugal till after the peace. The Portuguese at
home meanwhile shared in the war of independence
along *ith the English and Spaniards.
xvi. J THE NETHERLANDS. 339
8. The Netherlands. The Austrian Nether-
lands, as we have seen, were conquered and joined to
France, with which they remained united till the
Peace. The Seven United Provinces were in 1795
turned into a dependent commonwealth called the
Batavian Republic, which in 1806 was turned into a
kingdom for Buonaparte's brother Leii'is. But in 1810
Buonaparte took his brother away, and joined Holland
and the other provinces to France. At the Peace the
whole Netherlands, except the districts which had
been conquered by Ltwis the Fourteenth, which
France was allowed to keep, were formed into a
Kingdom of the Netherlands, under William Prince of
Orange, who also held the Grand Duchy of Liizelburg
or Luxemburg within the German Confederation.
9. Switzerland. The old state of things in
Switzerland, the Confederation of the Thirteen Can-
tons surrounded by their allied and subject states,
went on till 1798, when the French came to seize the
treasure at Bern. Their coming had the good effect of
releasing the Romance-speaking people of Vaud from
the yoke of Bern, but the French went on to invade
the democratic cantons also. They now set up what
they called the Helvetic Republic, which took in the
old cantons and most of their allies and subjects.
But they were no longer to be a Federal state, in
which each member is independent in its internal
affairs ; the Helvetic Repuolic was a single common-
wealth in which the cantons were no more than de-
partments. Geneva and some other of the allied
districts were added to France, some now, and some
afterwards in Buonaparte's time. But, as the new
republic did not suit the Swiss people, who were used
to a Federal constitution, Buonaparte in 1803, by the
Act of Mediation, gave them a better constitution, in
which the old cantons and several new ones were
joined together as separate states, but on equal terms,
without the old distinction of confederates, allies, and
540 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. I CHAP
subjects. Now for the first time there were independ
ent Romance-speaking cantons as distinguished from
allies and subjects, Buonaparte kept Switzerland alto-
gether dependent on France, but on the whole he
treated it somewhat better than he did other countries.
At the Peace, Geneva and the other districts which
had been joined on to France were set free, and the
Swiss Confederation of twenty-two cantons was formed,
though with very lax union among themselves. The
neutrality of the Confederation was acknowledged, as
was also that of the northern part of Savoy, which had
once belonged to Bern. This, with the rest of Savoy,
went back to the King of Sardinia, and it was not
to be given by him to any power except Switzerland.
10. Great Britain and Ireland. The exter-
nal history of this nation chiefly consists of the
long war with France, with the short stoppage after
the Peace of Amiens. England was the one enemy
whom Buonaparte could never cajole or win over, as,
at one time or another, he did all the powers of the
continent. She was the object of his special hatred,
and he did all that he could to ruin her trade, by
forbidding, when he was at the height of his power
after the Peace of Tilsit, all dealings between England
and any continental state. But England kept her
power by sea, and, except the great campaigns of the
Duke of Wellington in Spain and Portugal, it was by
sea that the English share in the war was carried on.
The great victories of Nelson, at the mouth of the Nile
in 1798 and at Trafalgar in 1805, altogether broke
the naval power of France, and of Spain, which at
Trafalgar was joined with France. Equally successful,
but less righteous, were the two attacks on Denmark
in 1 80 1 and 1806, in which latter Copenhagen was
bombarded. Meanwhile there was a rebellion in
Ireland in 1798, the suppression of which was followed
by the union of the Kingdom and Parliament of
Ireland with that of Great Britain in 1800, when tht
xvi.] THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS. 341
title of King of France, which had been borne by
every King since Edward the Thhd, was at last
dropped. Towards the end .of the great war with
France there was unhappily a war with the United
States from 1813 to 1815. By the final Peace Eng-
land, as usual, kept large distant conquests, but she
gained no territory in Europe, except the island <>'
Malta, which, up to the French Revolution, had be-
longed to the Knights of Saint John, and of the
Frisian island of Heligoland, a possession of Denmark.
The Ionian Islands also, part of the old Venetian
dominion in Greece, were made into a Republic,
under a protectorate on the part of England which
did not differ much from actual sovereignty.
ii. The Scandinavian Kingdoms. At the
beginning of the French Revolution the reigning King
of Sweden, Gustavus the Third, was engaged in a war
with Russia, which led to no change on either side.
He also increased the royal power, but he was mur-
dered in 1792. The next King, Gustavus the Fourth,
was more zealous than anybody else against Buona-
parte and the French ; but he had no means of doing
any great things, and he contrived to offend all other
powers and his own subjects as well. Russia now-
conquered all Finland, and in 1809 the King was
deposed, and the free constitution was restored, with-
out either the despotism or the oligaichy which had of
late prevailed by turns. As the new King, Charles tht
Thirteenth, had no children, the Swedes chose Berna-
dotte, one of Buonaparte's generals, to be Crown Prince,
and to succeed to the kingdom at the King's death. In
1813 Bernadotte joined in the war of liberation in
Germany, and led the Swedish troops against his old
master. As Sweden had taken the part of the Allies,
while Denmark had been on the ide of France, ifwas
settled at the Peace that Norway, which had all this
time had the same king as Denmark, should be joined
to Sweden, to make up for the loss of Finland, which
342 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAP.
was kept by Russia. But the Norwegians withstood
this arrangement; they chose a Danish prince for
their King, and they made themselves the freest con-
stitution of any state in the world that has a King
at all. They were so far conquered that they had
to accept the union with Sweden, but they joined it
only as a perfectly independent kingdom, keeping its
new constitution. Meanwhile Denmark still remained
an absolute monarchy. When the Empire came to an
did, the King of Denmark incorporated his German
tluchy of Holstein with his kingdom. At the Peace
Denmark obtained the small piece of Pomerania which
was held by Sweden; but this was presently given up to
Prussia in exchange for the Duchy of Lautnburg, and
the King of Denmark became a member of the German
Confederation for the Duchies of Holstein and Lauen-
burg.
12. Russia and Poland. After the death of
Catherine the Second in 1796, her son Paul succeeded.
In his time the Russian armies acted with those oi
Austria in the campaigns of Italy and Switzerland, but
Paul soon afterwards made a separate peace with
Buonaparte. Paul seems to have been quite mad, and
he was murdered in 1801. His son Alexander re-
mained at peace with France till 1805, when he again
joined with Austria, but, after the overthrow of both
Aus'.ria and Prussia, he made peace with Buonaparte at
Tihif, and a small part of the Lithuanian possessions
of Prussia was added to Russia. Alexander and
Buonaparte seemed to have pretty well agreed to divide
Europe between them, as if they were to be the
Eastern and Western Emperors. Russia and France
remained at peace for six years, during which time
Finland was conquered from Sweden and a war was
waged with the Turks. In this last the Russian frontier
was advanced to the Danube, much as, long t before,
the French frontier had reached the Rhine. By ano-
ther war which went on at the same time with Persia^
xvi.] RUSSIA AND TURKEY.
343
Russia gained a large territory in the land between the
Euxine and Caspian Seas. At last, in 1812, came the
French invasion of Russia, which led to the fall of
Buonaparte, and Russia took a leading part in the last
wars in which he was overthrown. At the general
Peace the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which Buonaparte
had formed out of the Polish provinces of Prussia, and
to which the Polish territory gained by Austria at the
last partition had been added, was taken away from
the King of Saxony. The Grand Duchy of Posen was
given back to Prussia. The rest of the Duchy of
Warsaw was made into a Kingdom of Poland, with a
constitution of its own, which was united with Russia
as a separate state, like Sweden and Norway, or like
Great Britain and Ireland just before the union. The
city of Cracow, the old capital of Poland, which stood
at the meeting of the dominions of the three powers,
Russia, Prussia, and Austria, was made into a separate
commonwealth, under the protection of all of them.
The new Kingdom of Poland did not differ very much
in extent from the old kingdom before its union with
Lithuania and its conquests from Prussia. It did not
take in all that had belonged to the old Poland, but it
took in some other lands which had not been part of it.
13. The Turks. Sultan Sdim the Third came to
the throne in 1789, while Turkey was engaged in the
war with Russia and Austria which was ended by the
Peace ofjassy. He had to struggle against enemies on
ev.ery side. The Turkish power had now got very
weak, and many of the subject nations, Christian and
Mahometan, were seeking for independence. Many
of the distant Pashas in Europe and Asia seemed likely
to set up for themselves, just as happened at the break-
ing up of the Caliphate and of the Mogul Empire.
Especially the Christians of Serbia revolted in 1806
under Czerni George (that is, Black George}. Servia
was conquered again in 1813, but in 1815 it again
revolted under Milosh Obrenowttz, and it was after a
344 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. [CHAF
while acknowledged as a separate, though in som
degree dependent, state, as it still remains. And in
Czernagora or Montenegro, the small mountain land
on the borders of the old Venetian and Turkish
possessions, the Christians had never submitted, and-
they kept up a constant warfare with the Turks. So
did the Christians of Souli in Epeiros and their Ma-
hometan neighbour Ali Pasha of Joannina ; and the
Mamelukes in Egypt were practically independent. In
the midst- of all this came the successive French and
Russian wars, and it was of course the interest ol
Russia to stir up discontent everywhere among the
subject nations, and especially to put herself forward
as the protector of all who belonged to the Eastern
Church. In the war with France both Russia and
England naturally took the Turkish side, and it was by
English help that the French were dnven out of Syria
and Egypt. In the war with Russia, equally naturally
as things stood then, England was on the Russian and
France on the Turkish side. But Selim, who was a
reformer, was deposed in 1807 and presently murdered.
Then came Mahmoud the Second, whose reign lasted
till 1839, taking in great events which will come in the
next chapter.
14. British Possessions abroad. It was dur-
ing this time that the English dominion was practically
spread over nearly all India, During the adminis-
trations of the Marquess Cornwallis and the Marquesi
iVcllesley as Governors-General, the greater part of
the country was either annexed to the English do-
minions or brought wholly under British influence. In
the course of the war large conquests were also made
among the French, Dutch, and Spanish possessions,
and by these means England acquired Ceylon, the great
colony of the Cape of Good Hi>pc, the Mauritius 01
hie of France, several of the West India islands, and a
small territory in South America. Colonization was
aJso beginning in Australia and in the neighbouring
xvi.] THE UNITED STATES. 345
island of Tasmania or Van Dieman's Land. Mean-
while we may mention, though it did not happen in
any British colony, that in the island of Saint
Domingo, Hispaniola, or ffayti, which, at the begin-
ning of the Revolution, was held partly by France and
partly by Spain, the negroes in both parts set up for
themselves. A number of revolutions followed in
imitation of those in Europe ; sometimes republics
were set up, while sometimes a successful negro called
himself Emperor in Hayti, just as Buonaparte did in
France.
15. The United States The new Constitution
of the United States came into force in the same year
that the French Revolution began, and, for about forty
years, a remarkable succession of able rulers filled the
office of President. The republic grew and prospered,
and a great number of new States arose, especially in
the lands to the West. But one territory was added
in a different way. Spain had now given up her
possessions in Louisiana to France, and in 1803 the
whole of the French possessions in North America
were bought by the United States. The States thus
gained, not only the territory which forms the present
State of Louisiana, but a claim to all the lands beyond
the Mississippi which lay south of the British and north
of the Spanish settlements. Out of this territory a
great number of new States have gradually been made.
During this time too negro slavery was done away
with in the Northern States of the Union, but not in
the Southern. Out of this difference mainly came the
disputes between the Northern and Southern States
which had been so important in late years.
1 6. Summary. Thus, in the space of about five-
and-twenty years, Europe was more changed than it
had ever been before in the same space of time. The
great wonder of these times was that, in France itself
and in all the countries which were brought altogether
under French influence, old ideas and old institutions
346 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. (CHAP.
were utterly swept away in a way that had neve!
happened before. It followed of course that much
that was good and much that was bad perished to-
gether. France itself, since the Revolution, has never
had a government of any kind that could last for any
time. But, on the other hand, none of the ever-
shifting French governments have brought in anything
like the abuses and oppressions of the olH monarchy.
So in other countries, where the old governments went
on or where the kings came back again at the general
peace, the restored princes mostly forgot their pro-
mises and went on reigning as despots ; yet men in
general had learned lessons which they never forgot,
and which bore fruit afterwards. Even where there
was no great political change, there was a wide social
change ; and we may say generally that, since the
French Revolution, there has been no part of Europe
where the people have been so utterly down-trodden
as they were in many parts before. Thus serfage,
answering to villainage in the old times in England,
has been abolished wherever it still went on, though
in Russia this has been done only quite lately by the
present Emperor. And, though no man ever did more
than both Buonaparte himself and the Allies who over-
threw him in parting out nations to this and that ruler
without asking their leave, yet during all this time
ideas were growing up which have taught men that
such things should not be done. So again, though
the union both of Germany and of Italy was not to
happen at once, yet the wars of Buonaparte led men in
both countries in different ways to feel more strongly
than they had ever felt before that all Germans and all
Italians were really countrymen, and that they ought
to be more closely joined together. As for particulai
changes, France came out at the end of the war with
nearly the same boundaries and under the same
dynasty which she had at the beginning, but with her
internal state utterly changed England had raised
.<vi.] SUMMARY. 347
her own position in Europe to the highest pitch ; her
European territory had been increased only by one or
two small islands, but she had vastly increased her
colonial dominions. Germany had changed in every-
thing ; the Empire was gone, and after the time oi
confusion, a lax Confederation had at last arisen, in which
it could not fail that the two great states of Austria
and Prussia would strive for the mastery. Italy was
still cut up into a crowd of small states ; Austria held
a large part of Northern Italy, and had a commanding
influence in the whole peninsula. Spain had got back
her old dynasty. Portugal might be said to have be-
come a dependency of Brazil, instead of Brazil being
a dependency of Portugal ; this is the only case of a
state of the Old World being governed from the New.
Switzerland had got rid of the old distinctions, and a
Confederation on equal terms had been made. The
whole of the Netherlands, less happily, were joined into
a single kingdom. Sweden finally withdrew from the
lands east and south of the Baltic, but the whole of the
greater Scandinavian peninsula came under one ruler,
though its two parts remained distinct kingdoms,
Norway keeping her new and very free constitution.
Russia had grown at all points, and Poland had been
restored in a kind of way, though not in a way at all
likely to last. In the New World the great English-
speaking commonwealth was fast advancing. And this
time, as commonly happens in times of great general
stir, was a time of great inventions and of great writers
in various ways. Germany, above all, now thoroughly
awoke, and both her learned men and her original writ-
ers began to take the place which they have ever since
kept
RKUN'ON OF GKRMAN Y AND ITAL Y. \cn\r
CHAPTER XVII.
THE REUNION OF GERMANY AND ITALY.
Character of the present time; stronger feeling of nation-
ality ; change in the nature of wars (i) revolutions
in France ; reign of Lewis the Eighteenth ; illegal acts
and deposition of Charles the Tenth; Revolution oj
July (2) reign of Louis- Philippe; attempts of Louis-
Napoleon Buonaparte (2) Devolution of February ;
Louis-Philippe driven out ; the second Republic;
administration of Cavaignac (2) Louis- Napoleon
Buonaparte chosen President ; he seizes absolute power
and calls himself Emperor (2) his wars with Russia
and Austria; Savoy and Nizza taken from Italy (3)
he attacks Prussia; Prussia supported by all Germany;
victories of the Germans; Buonaparte taken prisoner ;
Paris taken ; Elsass recovered by Germany (3) the
third Republic ; the Commune of Paris ; administration
of M. Thiers (3) steps towards the union of Germany ;
the Zollverein revolutions of 1848 (4) war between
Prussia and Austria ; formation of the North-German
Confederation; Austria shut out of Germany (4)
union of Germany against France ; the southern states
join the Confederation; King William chosen Emperor
(4) disturbances in Italy; dominion of Austria;
reign of Charles- Albert in Sardinia (5) reign of Pius
the Ninth ; revolutions and wars of 1 848 ; the new
republic suppressed (5) constitutional reign of Victor
Emmanuel in Sardinia; his second war with Austria;
help given by France ; French attempts to divide Italy
(5, 6) the Italian States join Sardinia; exploits of
Garibaldi ; Victor- Emmanuel chosen King of Italy i
the Pope kept at Rome by the French (6) Italy joins
Prussia against Austria ; recovery of Venice (6) re-
covery of Rome (6) reign of Ferdinand the Fifth cj
Hungary; revolutions in Hungary and Austria i
xvn.j CHARACTER OF THE 7YJ/7T.
349
Hungary conquered by Russian help (7) reforms after
the war with Prussia; Francis Joseph King of
Hungary <j)~weakness of the Turns; Greek War of
Independence; battle of Navarino ; kingdom of Greece
(8) wars between Turkey and Russia; independence
*f Egypt (9) Crimean War; affairs of the Danubia*.
Principalities (9) union of Russia and Poland^
revolts of the Poles under Nicholas and Alexander tht
Second; serfage abolished; suppression of the re-
public of Cracow (10) reign of Ferdinand the Seventh
in Spain; revolts on behalf of the Constitution ,
intervention of France (ll) civil war on the death oj
Ferdinand; reign and deposition of Isabel; election
of Amadeus of Italy (11) revolutions and civil war
of Portugal; reign of Donna Maria (u) separation
of Belgium and the Netherlands ; affairs of Luxem-
burg 1 (12) changes of government in the Swiss Can-
tons; war of the Catholic and Protestant Cantons;
establishment of the Federal Constitution (13) Den-
mark becomes a constitutional state ; disputes between
Denmark and the Duchies ; Sleswick and Holstein
joined to Prussia (14) affairs of Sweden and Nor-
way; reforms in Sweden (15) affairs in Great
Britain; less interference in continental affairs than
before ; extension and increased independence of the
British Colonies ; abolition of slavery (16) wars ana
mutiny in India; the government transferred from the
Company to the Crown (16) -firm union of all Great
Britain; troubles in Ireland ; measures for its benefit
(16) revolt of the Spanish colonies in America;
revolutions of Mexico (17) separation of Brazil from
Portugal ( 1 8) advance of the United States ; secession
and re conquest of the South States; abolition oj
slavery (19) Summary (20).
\. Character of the Time. We have now
come altogether to our own times, and there is so
much to tell that we must cut our tale very short
indeed. A long time of peace has been followed
by a time full of wars. And there is much to mark
in these latest wars. Military science has greatly
advanced, and the means of getting about have been
350 REUNION OF GERMANY AND ITALY. [CHAP,
greatly improved. It has therefore followed that wan
have been, on the one hand, carried on with much
greater armies, but that, on the other hand, they have
been brought to an end in a much shorter time than
formerly. There has been no Thirty Years' War, not
even a Seven Years' War, in our time. There has
also been a much stronger feeling of nationality than
there ever was before. Some nonsense has been
talked about this matter, because it is not always easy
to say what makes a nation. For, though language
proves more than any other one test, it will not
always do by itself. Thus in Switzerland four lan-
guages are spoken : yet the Swiss certainly make one
nation. But, when men thoroughly feel themselves
to be one nation, when they wish to come together
as such and to get rid of the dominion of foreigners,
it is clearly right that they should be able to do so.
Now this is what in different parts of Europe men
have been striving to do in our own time more than
they ever did before : and this feeling has been shown
above all things in the joining together of the great
nations of Germany and Italy, which had been so
long split up into a number of small states. This
change is the greatest event of our times ; but it will
perhaps be better understood if \ve first run through
the changes that have happened in France, as they
have had so much to do with the history of the other
countries, but we must tell the tale in as few words as
may be.
2. Revolutions in France. After the final
overthrow of Buonaparte, Lewis the Eighteenth carne
back again, and reigned as a constitutional King, but
many of those who came with him would gladly hava
had the old state of things back again, when the King
ruled as he pleased, and when the nobles and clergy
were set up above the rest of the nation. Of this
sort was his brother, the next King Charles the Tenth,
who was the last who was crowned at Rheims, and
xvii.] REVOLUTIONS IN FRANCE. 35:
the last who called himself King of France. For
when, in 1830, he put out some ordinances which
were wholly against the law, the people of Paris rose,
and King Charles was driven out in the Revolution oj
'fitly. We may mark in all these changes how the on*
city of Paris always acts, and how the rest of France
accepts what it does. This time, when the King was
driven out, his cousin Louis-Philippe Duke of Orleans
was made King, with the old title of King of the
French, and with a freer constitution. France was not
engaged in any great wars during the time of these
three Kings ; only in Africa the piratical power of
Algiers was put down, and all that part of the coast of
Africa became a French dominion. After some re-
volts at Lyons and Paris early in his reign, Louis-
Philippe reigned quietly till 1848; only twice in his
reign Louis-Napoleon Buonaparte, a nephew of the
first Buonaparte, tried to make a disturbance. The
first time he was allowed to go free ; the second time
he was imprisoned, but he escaped. But in 1848
the King's government had become unpopular, and
in February of that year he was driven out, as Charles
the Tenth had been. This time a Republic was set
up, and in June there was a second revolt in Paris
of the more extreme republicans, which was put down
by Genera"! Cavaignac. But when the President of the
Republic was tobe chosen, Louis-Napoleon Buonaparte,
who had been allowed to come back, was chosen by
many votes over Cavaignac. He was chosen President
for four years, and he swore to be faithful to the re-
public. But at the end of the third year, in Decem-
ber 1851, with the help of the army, he seized upon
the government, as his uncle had done, and called
himself President for ten years with nearly absolute
power. The National Assembly, which passed a vote
to depose him, was dissolved by force ; many men
were killed, and others were sent to the unhealthy
colony of Cayenne, while most of the chief men of
352 REUNION OF GERMANY AND ITALY. [CHAP
the country were imprisoned for a while. A ycal
after, in December 1852, he called himself Emperor,
as' his uncle had done before him.
3. The Wars of France. When Louis-Napo-
leon Buonaparte took the title of Emperor, he gave
out that the Empire should be peace ; but there have
been wars in Europe ever since, in which France has
taken the chief part. In 1854, when a quarrel again
arose between Russia and Turkey, France and Eng-
land both joined in the war against Russia and shared
in the victories over the Russians in the Crimea. In
1859, when there was a dispute between Austria and
Sardinia, France made war upon Austria, and it was
given out that France would free Italy from the Alps
to the Hadriatic. But, when the French armies reached
the strong fortress of Verona, all that was done was to
make a peace with Austria, by which Italy was freed
only as far as the Mincio. At the same time, the two
provinces of Nizza and Savoy, the remaining Burgun-
dian possessions of the King of Sardinia, were given to
France. This new possession took in the districts
whose neutrality had been guaranteed, and which,
according to old treaties, if they ever passed from
Sardinia, were to pass to Switzerland. Lastly, in 1870
France declared war upon Prussia, the reason given
being that there had been talk of giving the Crown of
Spain to a distant kinsman of the King of Prussia.
But Prussia was supported by all Germany. The
French crossed the German frontier, but they were
driven out in a few days, and then the German armies
entered France, and won a series of victories. Buona-
parte himself became a prisoner : afterwards he went
to England and died there. Meanwhile he was
declared deposed, and a Republic was again set up in
Paris. Paris was besieged, and surrendered to the
Germans, and a treaty was made by which, besides
the payment of a large sum of money, nearly all
isass, together with that part of Lorraine wherr
xvii.] THE UNION OF GERMANY. 353
German is spoken, and also the strong fortress ot
Melz, were given back to Germany. Thus Strassburg
and the other German places which had been gradual-
ly taken by France have become German again, and
the French frontier, which first reached the Rhine in
1648, is now kept quite away from it. Soon after the
peace with Germany, Paris was held by the Commun-
ists or extreme Republicans, and the city had again to
be besieged and taken by the Government of the new
Republic under the President M. Thiers, who was at
one time chief minister under King Louis-Philippe.
Since then M. Thiers has resigned, and the present
President, Marshal Macmahon, was chosen. In the
year 1875 a regular republican constitution was made ;
but ever since the fall of Buonaparte there have
been different parties in France, some wishing to bring
back his son, and others wishing for a 'King, either
Henry the grandson of Charles the Tenth or one of
the princes of the House of Orleans.
4. The Union of Germany. The German
princes, when they were set up again at the Peace,
mostly forgot their promises of setting up constitutional
governments ; still the national spirit largely tended
towards progress and union. And one great step
towards it was taken, as Prussia gradually, from 1818
onwards, became the centre of a commercial union
among the German states, the members of which
agreed to levy no duties on merchandise passing from
one state to another, but to levy them only at the
common frontier. This union, called the Zollverein,
was gradually joined by most of the German states.
In 1848 there were revolutions over the most part of
Europe, and among them in Prussia, Austria, and
most of the German states ; an attempt was made at
the same time to join Germany together under an
Emperor and a common Parliament, instead of the
lax Confederation which had gone on since 1815.
But, before long, things came back much as they were
354 RE UNION OF GERMAN Y AND 1 TAL Y. {en A*
before, till in 1866 a war broke out between Prussia
and Austria, in which the German states took different
sides. Prussia got the better in so short a time that
it has been called the Seven Weeks' War. By the
peace which was now made Austria was shut out from
Germany altogether, the Kingdom of Hanover and
some smaller states, among them the free city of
Frankfurt, were annexed to Prussia, and the Northern
states were formed into the North-German Confeder-
ation, under the presidency of Prussia, with a common
constitution and assembly. When France made
war on Prussia in 1870, the Southern states took
part in the war as well as the Northern. They
soon joined the Confederation, Bavaria, the largest of
them, keeping some special privileges to herself. Thus
all Germany, except Austria, Tyrol, and the other
German dominions of the House of Austria, has been
joined together much more closely than it had ever
been since the Thirty Years' War, or indeed since
the great Interregnum. And, while the German
siege of Paris was going on, King William of Prussia,
being in the great hall of Lewis the Fourteenth at
Versailles, received the title of German Emperor
from the princes and free cities of Germany. And
presently the German lands held by France were, as
we have seen, joined again to the new Empire. Of
course, in the old use of words, this was a restoration,
not of the Empire, but of the Kingdom of Germany ;
for in old times, as we know by this time, the title of
Empe-ror could be held only by one who was, or
claimed to be, sovereign of either the Old or the New
Rome. But now that several of the German princes
are called Kings, it would have been hard to find a
better title than Emperor for the chief of a Con-
federation which has Kings among its members.
5. The Revolutions of Italy. Italy can hardly
be said to have had any history from 1815 to
1848. There were many conspiracies, and some in-
xvii. J REVOLUTIONS OF ITALY. 355
surrections, in different parts of Italy, especially in
1831. But the Austrian power was strong enough,
not only to hold the Austrian possessions of Loin-
bardy and Venice, but to keep the smaller princes on
their thrones. Meanwhile the movement for the
liberation and union of Italy was growing up in its
north-western corner. In 1831 a new branch of the
house of Savoy, that of Carignano^. succeeded to the
Sardinian crown in the person of Charles Albert.
In the early part of his reign he ruled harshly, but he
was an enemy of Austria. Then, in 1846, the present
Pope, Pius the Ninth, was chosen, and for a while it
seemed as if be were going to do great things for
Italian freedom ; so much so that his dominions were
partly occupied by Austria in 1847. I n tne course of
1847 and 1848, most of the Italian princes gave their
people constitutions. Milan and Venice rose against
Austria, and now the King of Sardinia entered the
Austrian dominions in Italy at the head of an allied
army from various parts of the peninsula. But he
was finally defeated at Novara in 1849, and he abdi-
cated, and was succeeded by his son Victor Emmanuel
the Second. Meanwhile Venice, which had again be-
come a republic, was recovered by Austria. Rome,
whence the Pope had fled and where a republic had
been set up, was overcome by troops sent by the new
republic of France, and the constitutions in the other
Italian states were withdrawn. Thus, after 1849, Italy
was left in much the same case in which she had been
before the insurrections. The Pope was maintained
in his dominions by French help ; Austria had re-
covered her possessions ; but Sardinia remained a
constitutional and advancing state, for King Victor
Emmanuel steadily kept his word to his people.
6. The Union of Italy. And now, after ten
years, came the beginnings of the great movement
which has at last made Italy one. In 1859 there
came the war between Sardinia and Austria, in which
3 - } 6 RE UNION OF GERMANY AND ITAL Y. [ru \p
France took a part : by the peace Austria gave up
Lombardy, but kept Vcnctia. France now tried to
make what was called an Italian Confederation,
but, as Austria was to have been a member of it, it
could have been no real Confederation at all, and
the Italians settled the matter themselves by wil-
lingly joining themselves to the kingdom of Victor
Emmanuel. Now it was that Garibaldi, who had
before defended Rome against the French, wonder-
fully delivered the Two Sicilies, and joined them also
to the kingdom of Victor Emmanuel. The King of
Sardinia thus had possession of all Italy, except the
part held by Austria, and Rome, where the French
still kept the Pope in possession. In 1861 Victor
Emmanuel was made King of Italy by the Italian Par-
liament, and in 1865 the capital was removed to
Florence till Rome could be had. The kingdom had
hardly been established in 1861 when Count Cavour,
who had had the chief hand in bringing about the new
state of things, died. When the war broke out in 1866
between Prussia and Austria, Italy joined Prussia, but
the Italians were defeated by the Austrians both by
sea and land. But at the peace, Austria gave up
Venice and Verona ; but she kept, not only the
old Venetian possessions in Dalmatia, but htria,
Aqiiileia, and Trent, Italian-speaking places which
formed part of the ancient Kingdom of Italy.
Lastly when the war between France and Germany
caused the French troops to be withdrawn from Rome,
Rome was at last joined on to the Italian kingdom,
and it now of course is the capital of Italy. The
Pope's spiritual position remains unchanged, though
he is no longer a temporal prince.
7. Hungary and Austria. Francis the First oj
.Hungary, who till 1806 had been the Emperor Francis
the Second, went on reigning in Hungary, Austria, and
his other states till 1836. Then came Ferdinand tht
Fifih, In 1847 and 1848 there were revolutions in
xvii.] THE DELIVERANCE OF GREECE. 351
Austria and Hungary as well as elsewhere. The
Hungarians stood up for their ancient constitution
with certain reforms, and, when Ferdinand abdicated,
they refused to acknowledge Francis Joseph, who suc-
ceeded him in Austria, because the abdication was
not lawful according to the laws of Hungary. After-
wards they set up a republic under the famous Kossuth.
But feuds had unluckily arisen between the Magyars
and the other races in Hungary, and this greatly helped
the reconquest of the country by Austria, which how-
ever was not done without the help of Russia. Hun-
gary now remained crushed till after the war between
Austria and Prussia. Then the government was put
on a better and more lawful footing ; Austria and
Hungary became two distinct states under a common
sovereign, and Francis Joseph was lawfully crowned
King of Hungary in 1867. Since then Hungary and
Austria have agreed well together ; but difficulties
have arisen through the other states, Bohemia and the
rest, asking for more or less distinct governments.
The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, as it is called, is
in fact a mere joining together of various nations with-
out any natural connexion ; but this is the general
character of South-Eastern Europe, and Hungary
seems marked out to be the leading state among
the Christian nations in those parts.
8-. The Deliverance of Greece. We have
seen that the Ottoman power had been growing weaker
and weaker, while the subject Christian races were
growing stronger. Servia had won back her freedom,
and Montenegro had never lost hers. In 182 1 the Greeks
revolted. The War of Independence began, strangely
enough, in the Danubian Principalities of Wallachia
and Moldavia, but presently the Greeks revolted iu.
all parts of the Ottoman dominions where they were
strong enough. In some parts they were put down
with cruel massacres, but in the greater part of old
Greece the inhabitants, Greek and Albanian, with
358 REUNION OF GERMAN Y AND ITAL Y. [CHAP.
some little help from the other subject races and rnnch
more from volunteers from Western Europe, were able
to hold their ground against the Turks. But in 1826
Sultan Mahmoud called in the help of the Pasha of
Egypt, Mahomet All, who had a be"er disciplined
army than his own. His son Ibrahim that is Abra-
ham brought the Greeks almost to destruction, and
I'eloponnesos might have been altogether wasted had
not the three powers, England, France, and Russia,
stepped in and crushed the Ottoman fleet at Natwrino,
the old Pylos, in 1827. The French troops afterwards
drove the Egyptians out of Peloponne"sos. The end
of this was the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece.
It has had two Kings, Otho of Bavaria, who was turned
out in 1862, and the present King, George of Denmark.
The kingdom has also been increased by England, in
1864, giving up the protectorate of the. Ionian Islands,
which became part of the kingdom of Greece. But
the new state has not been so prosperous or well
governed as it was once hoped that it might have been.
It has been cooped up within a bad frontier, and
moreover the Greeks have had their heads too full of
the memories of the old times, and they have been
too fond of copying the institutions of Western coun-
tries which are not suited to them.
9. Turkey and Russia. Meanwhile great
changes went on in the Ottoman dominions them-
selves, and the Turks had several wars with Russia
and other powers. In 1826 Sultan Mahmoud de-
stroyed the Janissaries, who had now become a tur-
bulent and useless body. Jn 1828 a war with Russia
followed. The next year the Russians got as far as
Hadrianople, and a treaty was made by which Russia
gained some advantages at the mouth of the Danube
and made some stipulations on behalf of the Christiana
in Turkey. Then followed wars with Mahomet AJt\
the Pasha of Egypt, in which several of the European
powers took part, and which were ended in 1 84 1 by Egypl
XVir.] RUSSIA AND POLAND. y&
becoming a nearly independent state, though under
the superiority of the Porte. Lastly came the wai
with Russia in 1854, in which France, England, and
Sardinia took part on the Turkish side. It ended
in 1856 by Russia agreeing to certain terms which
lessened her power in the Euxine and giving up a
small territory, which kept her away from the Danube,
much as France has since been kept away from the
Rhine. Meanwhile, as Greece has been altogether
cut off from the Ottoman dominions, and as Servia
and Egypt had been made practically independent, so
also the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, de-
pendent states whose position was very anomalous,
and which formed a constant excuse for disputes be-
tween Russia and Turkey, have been formed into a
separate principality, whose connexion with Turkey is
purely nominal. But the Roumans, like the Greeks,
have been too fond of imitating Western forms of
government for which they are not fit.
10. Russia and Poland. We have seen that,
by the Peace of 1815, Poland, in the latest sense ol
the word, became a separate constitutional kingdom,
to be held by the Russian Emperor. Such a state o<
things may last between two constitutional kingdoms
like Sweden and Norway, where, though Sweden is
the greater, it is not so very much greater ; but it could
not last between a huge despotic empire and a small
constitutional kingdom. Disputes therefore naturally
arose, especially after the accession of Nicholas in
1825 ; the constitution was not carried out ; so in
1831 the Poles revolted, declared the throne vacant,
and held out for several months against the Russian
power. But they were crushed and very harshty treated,
and the Polish constitution was taken away. The
wars between Russia and Turkey have been already
spoken of; during the great war with France and Eng-
land, Nicholas died, and was succeeded by the present
Emperor Alexander the Second. In his time the set/1
}6o RR UNION OF GF.RMA NY AND TTA L Y. [CHAP
have been set free, but in 1863 another Polish revolt
was put down as harshly as the other, and the Polish
kingdom has been quite swept away. In 1846 too
the commonwealth of Cracow, which still went on as
a kind of representative of Poland, was added to the
Austrian dominions.
u. Spain and Portugal. In Spain Ferdinand
the Seventh came back and refused to abide by the
constitution which had been set up during the wai
with Buonaparte. Several risings on its behalf took
place, and, in 1820, it was restored. A civil war fol-
lowed, and in 1822 French troops entered Spain to
restore the King's authority. This was done, but not
till after much fighting, and the French did not leave
Spain for seven years. In 1833 Ferdinand died.
The Spanish law as to the succession of females had
been altered backwards and fonvards several times, so
on Ferdinand's death there was a civil war between
the partisans of his daughter Isabel and those of his
brother Charles or Don Carlos. The Carlist party was
strong only in the Basque provinces in the North,
but the war went on a long time, and was not fully put
an end to till 1840. Spain was now ruled as a consti-
tutional state, but it has been constantly disturbed by
insurrections of the army, and at last the misgovern-
ment and bad life of the Queen caused her to be
deposed in 1868, like Mary Stuart in Scotland.
Spain now remained for some time without a King or
a settled government of any kind ; several candidates
for the crown were proposed, and some wished for a
commonwealth. At last, in 1870, a son of the King
of Italy, Amadeus Dukz of Aosta, was chosen King.
Presently he abdicated, and, after another time of
confusion, the son of Isabel was brought back in
1875 by the title of Alfonso the Twelfth, though in
the north a war has still gone on with the partisans of
Don Carlos, a grandson of the old Carlos. Owing
to all these confusions, the position of Spain has been
xvii.] TtfE NETHERLANDS. 361
much lower in Europe than it was of old, besides the
loss of its American possessions. In Portugal a con-
stitution was proclaimed in 1820, at the same time as
in Spain, the King, John the Sixth, being in Brazil.
From this time till 1832 there was a time of great
confusion and civil war between the absolute party
under Don Miguel or Michael, the King's younger son,
and the constitutional party under his eldest son Don
Pedro or Peter, who succeeded in 1826 and who
presently abdicated in favour of his daughter Maria.
In 1828 Don Miguel assumed the crown ; but he was
at last driven out, and the Queen was acknowledged.
The strangest thing of all was that Pedro, after giving
up the crown himself, acted as regent for his young
daughter. Since then there have been some disputes
and risings in Portugal, but there has been no revo-
lution or serious change.
12. The Netherlands. By the peace of 1815
all the provinces of the Netherlands had been made
into one .kingdom, but as the Northern and Southern
provinces differed in religion and other things, they did
not well agree together; so in 1830 the Southern
provinces revolted. Then the Kingdom was divided :
the Northern part, which had been the United Pro-
vinces, went on as the Kingdom of the Netherlands in
the House of Orange ; while the formerly Spanish,
and afterwards Austrian, Netherlands became the
Kingdom of Belgium under the House of Coburg, the
first King being Leopold, who had been husband of
the Princess Charlotte of England. This arrange-
ment has gone on since, only there have been disputes
about the Duchy of Liizelburg or Luxemburg, which
was held by the King of the Netherlands as a mem-
ber of the German Confederation, and which since the
fall of the Confederation has been declared neutral.
13. Switzerland. Switzerland has remained a
Federal state ever since the Peace in 1815, and since
that time it has not been engaged in war with any
362 REUNION OF GERMANY AND IT AT. V. [CHA*
other power. But there have been great changes in its
own constitution, and at one time there was even a
civil war. About 1831 there were disputes in most of
the Cantons, which ended in their governments being
made much more popular, but nothing was done to
the Federal Constitution. In 1847 a war broke out
between the Catholic and Protestant Cantons, in which
the Protestants had the better. It was now seen that
the tie between the Cantons needed to be made much
stronger, and in 1848 a new Federal Constitution was
made, in many things very like that of the United
States, only, instead of a single President, there is a
Council of Seven, with much smaller powers. Further
changes were made in 1874, by which many of their
powers were taken away from the several Cantons and
given to the Federal body.
14. Denmark and the Duchies. Denmark
remained an absolute monarchy till the accession of
Frederick the Seventh in 1848, who at once gave his
people a constitution. Since then there have been
endless disputes about the two Duchies held by the
Danish Kings, of which Holstein undoubtedly was
part of Germany, while Sleswick was not a member
of the German Confederation, and its people were
partly German and partly Danish. A war went on
Irom 1841 to 1851, but this time Denmark kept
both Duchies. But in 1864, under the present King
Christian the Ninth, disputes arose again ; a war fol-
lowed, and the Duchies were given up by Denmark to
Prussia and Austria, and again in 1866 by Austria to
Prussia alone. The northern or Danish part of Sles-
wick v-'as to have been given back to Denmark, but
this has not yet been done.
15. Sweden and Norway. At last we come to
those countries in which during all these years there
has been no revolution or great disturbance. One
is Great Britain ; the other is the two Scandinavian
kingdoms of Sweden and Norway. Bernadotte, who
xvii.] GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 36
had been already chosen Crown Prince of Sweden,
succeeded to both kingdoms as Charles the Fourteenth^
and the two crowns have since stayed in his family.
On the whole the two kingdoms have gone on well
side by side, having the same king, but each keeping
its own constitution. A wish has sometime-s been
shown to encroach on the independence of Norway,
but the Northmen have always been able to hold
their own. During the reign of the late King Charle*
the- Fifteenth, improvements were made in the Swedish
constitution also, and greater liberty was given to
people of other religions than the Lutheran.
16. Great Britain and Ireland. No time has
been more important in English history than this last
time of which we are now speaking, but its events have
been mainly of a kind which will be best spoken of in
a separate History of England. It has been a time ol
great advancement in every way, both politically and
socially, and it "has also been a time of many inven-
tions and of great progress in men's minds. England
has also had something to do in some way or another
with most of the affairs of the continent of Europe,
but she has been engaged in only one great war,
namely that with .Russia from 1854 to 1856. Nor has
she gained or lost any European territory, unless we
reckon it a loss that she has withdrawn from the pro-
tectorate of the Ionian Islands. But this time has
been a time of great changes and great advance rn
the British possessions in distant countries. The
trade in negro slaves was finally forbidden in 1807, and
slavery itself was abolished throughout the British
dominions in 1833. The colonial dominions of Eng-
land have vastly extended themselves, especially in
Australia and North America. And most of them
have received constitutions which have made them
altogether independent in their internal affairs. In
Canada alone has there been any serious disturbance.
There was a rebellion in 1837 among the French
364 REUNION OF GERMANY AND ITAL Y. [CHAP
Canadians, but the colony has since been made
almost independent, and it is now highly prosperous.
In India we have had to wage several wars, and
several provinces have been annexed. Here the
British dominion was altogether shaken for a time by
the Mutiny of the native soldiers in 1857. After its
suppression, the government of India was taken from
the Company and given to the Crown, and the phan-
tom of the Great Mogul came at last to an end, as
the last nominal Emperor had been concerned in the
mutiny. There have also been wars with China,
Persia, Abyssinia, and the Ashantees in Africa ; and
generally England ha's come more and more to the
position of an insular power, withdrawing from any
great interference with the affairs of the continent of
Europe, but keeping up trade and colonization in all
parts of the world, and being therefore ever and anon
engaged in distant wars. The whole island of Great
Britain has long been firmly joined together, notwith-
standing the differences of race and speech in different
parts which have still not wholly died out. But the
remembrance of ancient misgovernment has constantly
kept up the spirit of disaffection in Ireland, which has
broken out into more than one conspiracy and rising,
though none on any great scale. Every care has been
taken by a succession of measures to do justice to
Ireland, by the admission of the Roman Catholics to
equal rights with Protestants, by the disestablishment
of the dominant Protestant Church, and by laws for
the benefit of the occupiers of land. But it would seem
that the memory of old wrongs is even now stronger
\han the feeling of recent benefits.
17. The Spanish Colonies in America. If
this period has been one of great change in the Old
World, it has been one of equal change in the New
The example of the British colonies, which have
given birth to the great commonwealth of the United
States, has been followed by the Spanish Colonies also
CHAP. xvn.J SPANISH AMERICA. 365
But it must be remembered that there is this great
difference between the Spanish and the English.
colonies, that, though in the United States the people
are not of purely English blood, yet the mixture has
been with other European nations, or with slaves
brought from Africa, and not at all with the natives
of America. But in the Spanish settlements the
Europeans and the natives have been largely mixed,
and in truth the native blood prevails. When the
national government in Spain was upset by Buona-
parte, the Spanish colonies began to set up for them-
selves in 1810. Mexico was recovered, but it revolted
again in 1820. A certain Iturbide for a while called
himself Emperor, as people did in other places, but
after a while a Federal Commonwealth was estab-
lished. But the country has never been quiet for any
long time, and it has lost the great province of Texas
to the United States. In 1862 a quarrel arose with
England, France, and Spain; from this England and
Spain soon withdrew, but France went on, and in 1863
the Austrian Archduke Maximilian was set up under
French influence as yet another Emperor; but he was
not acknowledged by the whole country, and in 1867
he was overthrown and shot by the native President
fuarez. Chili also separated from the Spanish
dominion in 1810, and Peru in 1820, and now Spain
has no dominions on the continent of America; and in
the Spanish island of Cuba there have been endless
disturbances.
1 8. Brazil. The great Portuguese settlement in
South America has had a somewhat different history
from either the English or the Spanish colonies. It
separated from the mother-country, but it is the only
state in the New World which, instead of becoming a
republic, has remained under a prince of the old royal
family. YJ&gJohn tfie Sixth, as we have seen, reigned
in Brazil when he had to leave Portugal, and he
called himself King of Brazil as well as of Portugal
J66 REUNION' OF GERMANY AMD ITALY. [cHAf
In 1822 Brazil was declared independent with a free
constitution, under Dom Pedro as Emperor. The
crowns of Brazil and Portugal have since remained
distinct, as on Pedro's abdication he was succeeded
by his daughter Maria in Portugal, and by his son
Pedro in Brazil. Brazil has had fewer disturbances,
and has been more prosperous, than any other South
American state.
19. The United States. But neither in the Old
nor the New World has this period made more im-
portant changes than it has in the commonwealth of
the United States. Many new States have been
founded towards the West, and the great dominion of
Texas, which had been part of Mexico, first became
a separate commonwealth, and was afterwards joined
on to the Union. But the greatest event in the history
of America has been the war which began in 1861
between the Northern and Southern States. There
were many causes of difference between them, the
chief being the allowance of slavery in the South,
while it had long died out in the North. On the elec-
tion of Abraham Lincoln as President, in 1860, South
Carolina seceded from the Union, and the rest of the
Southern States presently followed her. They caller!
themselves the Confederate States, and set up a Fede-
ral constitution, nearly the same as that of the United
States, under Jefferson Davis as President. Then
followed the war which lasted till 1865, when the
Confederate States had to submit About the same
time President Lincoln, having just been chosen
President a second time, was murdered. The result
of the war has been the reconstitution of the Union,
and the final getting rid of slavery throughout all
parts of the North American continent. In Brazi/
and in the Spanish and Dutch colonies it still goes
on, but in Brazil it will come to an end before many
years.
20. Summary. Thus, in our own days, France hai
xvn.] SUMMARY. 367
again, for the third time, tried to get the chief power in
Europe, and a third time she has been beaten back,
and has been driven to give up part of her former
conquests. The rest of Europe has been completely
changed by the union of Italy into one kingdom, and
by the union, though less close, of nearly all Germany
under the leadership of Prussia. Austria has with-
drawn from both German and Italian affairs, and has
become a state joined with Hungary, something in the
same way as Sweden and Norway. The last traces of
Polish independence have been trampled out, and
Denmark has been cut short by the complete loss of the
Duchies. Two new kingdoms have arisen, namely
Belgium and Greece, of which the former has pros-
pered much more than the latter. The whole East
of Europe has during the whole time been more or
less unsettled, as it doubtless always will be, as long
as a Mahometan power rules over Christians. On
the whole Europe has greatly gained in freedom and
good government since the end of the wars of the
French Revolution. But on the other hand, the keep-
ing up of vast standing armies by nearly all the govern-
ments of the continent makes peace at all times un-
certain, and the tendency of later times has been to
lessen the importance of the smaller states and to
group Europe under a few great powers. Still, both
in Great Britain, in most other parts of Europe, and
in the United States, men may be very glad that they
live in our own day and not in any of the times which
have gone before us.
INDEX.
Aachen ; French annexation of, 334
Abbas, forefather of the dynasty of
the Abbassides, 125
Abbassides, dynasty of, overthrow the
Ommiads, 125 ; end of, 197
Abdal-rahman founds the Ommiad dy-
nasty at Cordova, 126
Abd-al-rahman III., Caliph, greatness
of the Mahometan power in Spain
under, 154
Abu-Bekr, first Caliph, 117, 119 ; his
wars with the Empire, 117
Abyssinian war, the, 364
Acadie, French colony of, acquired by
Britain, 301. See Nova Scotia.
Achaia, later importance of, 44 ; begin-
ning of the League of, 45 ; extension
of, ib. ; war of, with Sparta, 46 ;
helped by Antigonps Doson, ib. re-
signs Corinth to him, ib. ; in alliance
with Philip, ib. ; helps him against
Rome, 64 ; becomes the ally of Rome,
ib. ; extension of the League, 65 ; war
with Rome, ib. ; dissolution of the
League, 66 ; Principality of, 190
Act of Mediation, 339
Acre taken by the Mahometans, 188
Adolf of Nassau, King, 20
Aetius, Roman general, commands at
Chalons, 102
Alfred, see Alfred
/'Eneas, 53
/Eneas Silvius, see Pius II.
/Equians, their wars with Rome, 56
/Esohylus, 34
yEthelberht, King of Kent, Brctwalda,
133 ; converted by Augustine, ib.
^Ethelred the Unready, Danish inva-
sions of England in his reign, 144 ;
driven put by Swegen, ib.
/Etolia, rise of its people, 42 : League
of, 45 ; war with the Achaians and
Macedonians, 46 ; alliance with
Rome, 64 ; Roman conquest of, 65
Africa, its geographic..! character, 10:
Roman province of, 63 ; settlement
of the Vandals, 104 ; recovered to the
Empire by Belisarius, 114 ; Saracen
conquest of, 1 18
Agathokles, Tyrant of Syracuse, 59
Agesilaos, King of Sparta, his cam-
paigns in Asia, 36 ; returns to Greece,
Agincourt, battle of, 217
Agis, King of Sparta, attempts to throw
off the Macedonian yoke, 42
Agricola, his conquest of Britain, 87
Agrippina, wife of Germanicus, death of,
8 S.
Agrippina, wife of Claudius, poisons
him, 85
Aigos-potamos, defeat of the Athenians
at, 35
Aix. see Aquae Sextiae
Akarnania, League of, 46 ; helps Philip
against Rome. 64
Akbar, Mogul Emperor, 298
Aktion, battle of, 79
Alarcos, battle of, 195
Alaric, King of the West-Goths, takes
Rome, 101
Alberoni, Cardinal, minister of Philip
V. of Spain, 305
Albert I., King, son of Rudolf of Haps-
burg, grant of Austria to, 202; mur-
der of, ib.
Albert II., King, 204
Albert of Brandenburg, Duke of Prus-
sia, 366
Albigenses, crusades against, 191, 192
Alexander the Great succeeds Philip,
39 ; takes and destroys Thebes, ib. \
his victories at the Granikos, Issos,
and Arbela, 40 ; takes Tyre, ib. ; con-
quers Egypt and founds Alexandria,
ib. ; death of, ib. ; effects of his con-
quests, ib.
Alexander Severus, Emperor, takes the
name ot Antonnius, 89 ; his wars witt
Persia, 90
370
INDEX.
AJe*and<;r I of Russia, his relations
with Buonaparte, 352
A.exander II. of Russia, abolition of
serfage under, 359
Alexander II., Pope, sanctions Norman
invasion of England, 151
Alexander V., Pope, chosen by the
Council of Pisa, 207
Alexander VI., Pope, 249
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma.
258
Alexandria, foundation of, 40; becomes
the seat of Greek learning, 71
Alexios Angelos, restored to the Eastern
Empira by the Crusaders, 189
Alexios Komnenos, Eastern Emperor,
156
Alfonso of Aragon recovers Zaragoza,
154 ; growth of the kingdom under,
it.
Aifonso V. of Aragon, 228
Alfonso VI. of Castile, union of Leon
and Castile under, 154; recovers To-
ledo, it.
Alfonso VII. of Castile takes the title of
Emperor, 105 ; his wars with the Al-
mohades, to.
Alfonso VIII. of Castile defeated by the
Caliph Jacob at Alarcps, 195
A'fonso X. of Castile, his election to the
Empire, 201
Alfonso XII. of Spain. 360
Alfred, King of the West-Saxons, his
wars with the Danes, 135 ; his treaty
with On thrum, 136
Algiers, French conquest of, 351
Ah, Caliph, 125
Ali Pasha of Joannina, 344
Ali Kaycm, Caliph of Bagdad, asks
help of Togrel lieg, 156
Allia, Gauls defeat the Romans at the,
5 15 .
Allodial tenure, origin and nature of,
165
Almohades, growth and decline of their
power in Spain, 195
Almoravides, dynasty of in Spain, 154
Alp Arslan, Sultan, defeats the Emperor
Romanes at Manzikert 156
Alphabet, originally Phoenician, 23
Alsace, see Elsass
Alva, Duke of, his government in the
Netherlands, 257
Amadous, Duke of Aosta, chosen King
of Spain, 360 ; abdicates, ib.
Ambrose, Saint, Archbishop of Milan,
submission of Theodosius to, 101
America, discovery of, 275 ; origin of its
name. ib. : Spanish settlements in,
a/6 : French, English and Dutch set-
tlements in, 277, 178, 300 ; American
Wir of Independence, 310 ; revolts oi
the Spanish colonies, 365
Amerigo Vespucci gives his name to th
new world, 275
Amiens, Peace of, 330, 340
Amphiktionic Council, 39 ; Philip made
member of, ib.
Amurath I., Sultan, takes Hadrianople,
225
Amurath II., Sultan, union of th- Otto-
man monarchy under, 226 ; besiege*
Constantinople, it. ; defeats Wladi*-
laus of Poland, 231
Anabaptists, revolts of, in Germany
251
Andiiskas heads the Macedonian r
volt against Rome, 65 ; defeat of, ib.
Angevin dynasty in England, 153
Angles, a Low-Dutch tribe, 109 ; give
their name to England, it.
Angora, battle of, 226
Anne, Empress of Russia, 316
Anne, Queen of England, union of
England and Scotland under, 289
Anne of Britanny, her marriages, 253
Anson, Lord, 309
Antalkidas, Peace of, 37
Antigonos Doson, King of Macedonia,
helps the Achaians, 46
Antigonos Gonatas, King of Macedonia,
Antioch, its foundation, 40 ; capita! o(
the Seleukid kingdom, 67 ; won back
to the Eastern Empire, 1.13
Antiochos the Great, helps the /F.tn-
lians, 65 ; defeated by the Romans at
Thermopylai, ib. ; at Magnesia, 66
Autipatros, Macedonian general, take*
Athens, 42
Antoninus, see Alexander Severus
Antoninus, see Caracalla
Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 87
Antonius, Marcus, Triumvir, 70 ; civil
war of with Brutus and Cassius, ib. ;
makes war on the Parthians. ib. ; in-
fluence of Kleopatra on, ib. ; his civil
war with Czsar, ib. : his defeat an<5
death of, ib.
Apennines, the, 49
ApollSn. Philip of Macedonia declare!
himself champion of, 38
Apollonia, submission of to Rome, 63
Aquas Sextia;, Roman colony of, 69 ;
defeat of the Teutones near, 70
Aquitaine, early inhabitants of, 69;
part of the Spanish kingdom of the
West-Goths, 103 ; conquered by the
Franks, 104 ; Romance speech of,
106 : part of the dominions of Chariet
the Great, 127 ; duchy of, 131 : seized
by Philip the Fair, 215 ; rule of th
INDEX.
37*
Black Prince in, 316 ; French con-
quest of, 216, 218
Arabs, a Semitic nation, 7 ; see S-ra-
cens
Arados, see Arvad
Aragon, kingdom of, its growth, 154 ;
House of, reigns in Sicily, 193 ; con-
quests of her kings over the Mahome-
tans, 195 ; union of Sicily with, 214,
228 ; relations of, with Naples, ib. ;
war of, with Provence and France, ib.\
union of Castile with, 229, see Castile
and Aragon
Aratos, frees Sikyon, 45 ; leader of the
Achaian League, ib.
Arbela, battle of, 40
Arcadius, Emperor in the East, 101
Archangel, port of, 267, 315
Architecture in the nth century, 152,
158 ; in the i2th and 131)1 centuries,
198 ; in the 13th, I4th, and isth cen-
turies, 232
Ardeshir, see Artnxerxes
Argos, its early greatness, 26 ; joins the
Confederacy against Sparta, 37 ; be-
sieged by Pyrrhos, 43 ; joins the
Achaian League, 45
Aria, see Iran
Aristeides the Just, 33
Aristocracy, meaning of the word, 28
Aristophanes, comic poet, 34
Arkadia, League of, 38
Arius, doctrine of, 97 ; Teutonic nations
become followers of, 99, 100
Aries, see Burgundy
Armada, the Spanish, 243, 263
Armies, standing, beginning and cause
of. 237
Arminius, victory of over the Romans,
83
Armorica, British settlement in, 127 ;
called Britanny, ib.
Arnulf, King of the East-Franks and
Emperor, 130
Arpinum, birth-place of Marius, 73
Arras, treaty of, 222
Arsakes, fgui .ds the kingdom of Parthia,
66
Ait, highest '.levelopment of found in
the Aiyan nations of Europe, a;
Roman, 83 ; state of in th^e I3th, I4th,
and isth centuries, 231 ; influence of,
on modern Europe, 2 j6 ; in the i6th
and lyth centuries, 278
Artaxerxes, King of Persia, helps the
Athenians against Sparta. 37
Artaxerxes founds the Sassanid dy-
nasty, 90
Arthur of Britanny, son of Geoffrey,
death of, attributed to John, 181
Artois, part of the county of, annexed
to France, 243 ; freed from homage,
246
Arts, mechanical state of among primi-
tive Aryans, 4
Arvad, a Phoenician city, 22
Aryan, use of the word, 3 ; its orign, 8.
Aryan nations of Europe, 2, 3 ; con-
nexion among their languages, 4 ;
early state of. before their dispersion,
ib. ; their advances in religion and
government, 5, 6 ; movements of, in
Europe and Asia, 9 ; order of their
coming into Eifrope, 12, 16 ; en-
croached on by the Turanians, ib. ',
struggle between them and the Tura-
nians in Europe, 102
Ashanti war, the, 364
Ashk, see Arsakes
Asia, south-western, chief seat of th
Semitic nations, 7 ; extent of the
Turanians in, 8 ; Aryan settlements
in, 9, 20 ; its geographical character,
10 ; Greek colonies in, 27, 30, 32 ;
conquests of Alexander in, 40 ; Mace-
donian kingdoms, 41, 64 ; Gaulish
settlement in, 42 ; first Roman Pro
yince in, 63 ; spread of Mahometan-
ism in, 117 ; Saracen conquests in.
118 ; extent of the Eastern Empire in,
under the Macedonian F.mperors, 142;
power of the Seljuk Turks in, 155 ;
ravages and conquests of the Moguls
in, 196, 197 , rise of the Ottomans in,
224 ; rise of Timour in, 225 ; Russian
dominion in, 274
Asia Minor, Greek colonies in, 24, 30 ;
Persian dominion in, 32 ; submission
of the Greek cities in. to Xerxes, 33 ;
the Persians driven out of, ib. ; latter
part of the Peloponnesian war carried
on in, 35 ; campaigns of Agesilaos of
Sparta in, 36 ; cession of the Greeks
in to Persia, 37 ; Macedonian king-
doms in, 41 ; Roman dominion in,
66, 67 ; Seljuk power in, 156
Assembly, national, common among
Aryan peoples, 6, 27, 54, 71 ; Roman,
becomes too large, 72 ; effects of the
feudal tenures on, 166 : nature of in
France, 184, 185 ; in England, 185
Astolf, king of the Lombards, lai
Astrakhan, taken by Ivan the Fourth,
267
Athaulf, King of the West Goths,
begins the Gothic kingdom in Gaul
and Spain, 101
Athens, commonwealth of, 26 ; tyranny
of Peisistratos, 20 ; reforms of Solon.
30 ; expulsion of Hippias, 32 ; heaa
of the League against Persia, 33 ;
greatness of under Perikles, 34 ; waY
372
INDEX.
witli Persia, ib. - war with Sparta, ib. ;
expedition to Syracuse, 35 ; sur-
renders to Lysendros, ib. ; govern-
ment and expulsion of the Thirty,
ih. : second war with Sparu, 37 ; par-
tial restoration of her power, 38 ;
war with Philip, 39 ; surrenders to
Antipatros, 42 ; in alliance with
Rome, 84 ; Duchy of, 190
Atl.ilos the First, King of Pergamos,
helps Rome against Macedonia, 64 ;
Attalos the Third, leaves his king-
d"in to the Romans, 67
Attil.i, King of the Huns, defeated at
Chalons, 102
Au_;>Uirg Confession, 352; Peace of,
If.
Augustine, Saint, his mission to Britain,
'33
Augustus, title of. given to Roman
Emperors, 79, 116
Augustus Caesar, (Caius Julius Cesar
Octavianus) Triumvir, 79; defeats
Antonius and Kleopatra, ib. \ his
special title of Augustus, ib. ; his
reign, 82; literature and art under,
83
Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony
and King of Poland, wins back
Kaminiec from the Turks, 297 ; his
deposition and restoration, ib. ; death,
306
Augustus III., King of Poland, 316
Aurelian, Emperor, 89 ; overthrows the
kingdom of Palmyra, 90
Aurelius Marcus, Emperor, 87; his
wars with the Germans, 88 ; his
writings, ib.
Aurungzebe. Mogul Emperor in India,
decline of the Empire under, 299 ;
revolt of the Mahrattas> from, ib.
Austerlitz, battle of, 334
Australia, beginning of colonization in,
323 ; English in, 344
Austria, origin of the Duchy, 139 ; grant
of to Albert of Habsburg, 202 ; many
of its Dukes chosen Kniperors, 204 ;
early dealings with Swiss League,
220; dynasty of "in Spain, 242; its
Archdukes Kings of Hungary, 268 ;
its power, 201 ; rivalry with Prussia,
304 ; loss of Italian dominions, 306 ;
wars under Charles the Sixth, 305 ;
with Prussia, 307, 308 ; Genoese re-
volt against, 314 ; share of, in the
final partition of Fwi.ind, 317 ; wars
with Huonaparte, 332, 334, 336;
dominion of in Italy, 338, 355; war
with France, 352 ; with Prussia. 354;
final loss of her Italian dominions,
355, 304 ; relations with Hungary, 357
Austrian Succession, War of the, 307
39
Avars, wars of the Empire with, 115,
128
Avignon, Income tho seat of Popcdom,
205: seized by Lewis XIV., 285;
French annexation of, 328
Azov, conquered by Peter the Great,
"5
B.
Babcr, his reign and descendants, 298
Babylon, taken by Cyrus, 32 ; death ul
Alexander at, 40
Babylonish Captivity, meaning of the
name, 205
Bagdad, capital of the Abbassides, 125 ;
taken by the Moguls, 197
Bajazet the Thunderbolt, Sultan,
growth of the Turkish power under,
225 ; defeated by Timour, 226 ; de-
feats Siegmund at Nikopolis, 231
Bajazet II., Sultan, 227, 267
Baldwin, Count of Flanders, goes on
the Fourth Crusade, 189 ; made
Emperor of Constantinople, 190
Baltic Sea, answers to the Mediterra-
nean in Northern Europe, 10
Barbarians, meaning of the name, 25 ;
settlements of within the Empire, 99
Barcelona, County of, 131
Bartholomew. Saint, massacre of, 256
Bise!. Council of, 207, 208
liasil I., Eastern Emperor, reign of, 147
Basil II., Eastern Emperor, 142: power
of the Empire under. 143 : overthrow*
the Bulgarian kingdom, ib.
Basques, remnant of the non-Aryan
people of Eurcpe, 8, 13
Batavian Republic, 339
Batavians, revolt of, against Rome. 86
Baton Khan, Mogul invasions of Eu-
rope under, 196
Bavaria, under Charles the Great, 137;
war of succession to, 308
Begging Friars, preaching of Wycliffe
against, 207
Belgium, kingdom of, 257, 361, see
Nether lands
Belgrade, Mahomet II. repulsed from,
231; taken by Suleiman, 268: ceded
to Austria, 291; restored to Turkey,
319; Peace of ib.
Belisarius, his Persian campaigns, 114;
ends the Vandal kingdom in Africa,
ib. ; his wars with the Goths ii
Italy, ib.
Bender, Charles XII. takes shelter at
INDEX.
373
Benedict, Sa'.nt, founder of western
monasticism, 170
Benedict XIII., Pope, 207
Benedict XIV., Pope, 315
Beueventum. Pyrrhos defeated at, 59
Berengar, King of Italy, sufc.uts to
Otto the Great, 140
Bern joins the Confederates, 220; fol-
lows the teaching of Zwingli, 260; her
alliance with Geneva, ib. ; her con-
quests, ib.
Bernadotte, chosen Crown Prince of
Sweden, 341 ; see Charles XIV. of
Sweden
Bernard Saint, preaches the Second
Crusade, 186
Bernhard of Weimar, his share in the
Thirty Years' War, 270
Besancon, annexed by lwis XIV., 283
Bithynia, kingdom of, 42
Blake, Admiral, 287
Bceotian League, character of, 44
Bohemia, origin of, 127; its relations to
the Empire, 139, 162, 163 : Hussite
war in, 207; Frederick, Elector Pala-
tine, King of, 269
Bombay, English settlement of, 299
Boniface, Apostle of Germany, 133
Boniface, Marquess of Montferrat, goes
on the Fourth Crusade, 189
Boniface VIII., Pope, reign and death
of, 305
Boulogne, English conquest of, 254,
262
Bourdeaux, rule of the Black Prince at,
216
Bourses, 217
Bouvines, battle of, 182
Braganza, Portuguese dynasty of, 243
.Brandenburg, Electorate of, 266, 272,
290, see Prussia
J5raxil, Portuguese colony, 278; its sep-
aration from Portugal, 366
Bremen, Commonwealth of, 174; Bish-
oprick of, annexed to Sweden, 271 ;
to Hanover, 296
1'resse, annexed to France, 261
"Bretigny. Peace of. 216
Siretiualda, meaning of the name, 133
Britain, its inhabitants, 77. 108; cam-
paigns of Oesar in, 77; Roman con-
quest of, 85-87 ; Picts and Scots
invade the Roman province, 108; first
Saxon invasion, 109 ; Roman troops
withdrawn from, ib. English con-
quest, ib. ; settlement of the English
in, 132 ; of the Northmen, 134 ; the
English kings become Lords of, 136;
destruction of Roman towns in, 173
Britain, Lesser, see Uritanny.
Kriunny, origin of the name, 127 :
Duchy of, annexed to France, 253
popular speech of, ib.
Bruce, Robert, separation of Scotland
from England under, 214
Brutus, Marcus Junius. conspires with
Cassius and kills Caesar, 78; defeated
at Philippi, 79
Buda, Turkish pashilic at, 268
Building, knowledge of, among primi-
tive Aryans, 4
Bulgaria, kingdom of, 143 ; conquered
by Basil II., tb. ; :onverted to Chris
tianity, 145 ; revolts against the Em-
pire, 189; conquered by the Turks
225
Buonaparte, Napoleon, rise of, 329 ; hij
wars in Italy, ib.; in Switzerland and
Egypt. 330 ; Consul, ib. ; reigns as
Emperor of the French and King ol
Italy, 331 ; his war with England, ib.;
his dependent kings, 332 ; invade*
Russia, ib.; general alliance against,
ib.; his fall, 333 ; his return from Elba
and final overthrow, ib.
Buonaparte, Louis Napoleon, his early
career, 351 ; chosen President of tha
Republic, ib. ; reigns as President for
ten years, ib. ; as Emperor, 352 ; his
wars with Russia and Austria, ib. ;
his dealings with Italy, ib. ; his war
with Prussia, ib.; his death, it.
Buonaparte, Jerome, King of West-
phalia, 335
Buonaparte, Joseph, King of Spain, 332
Buonaparte, Lewis, King of Holland,
339
Burgundians, settlement of, in Gaul, 103
Burgundy, County of, temporary an-
nexation of, by France, 218 ; part ol
the dominions of Charles the Bold,
223 ; of Charles V., 242 ; conquered
by Lewis XIV., 283
Burgundy, Duchy of, 131 ; beginning
of the Valois Dukes of, 221 ; growth
of their power within the Empire, 222;
united to France, 223 ;
Burgundy, Kingdom of, 129, 130 ; its
union with the Empire, 147 : relationi
of, with France, 183 ; broken up, 201;
the greater part annexed to France,
Burgundy, various meanings of th
name, 221
Byzantion, 42 ; keeps its independence,
ib.; the capital of Empire removed
to, 96
c.
Cabot, Sebastian, discover* the mail
land of America, 175
374
INDEX.
Cadiz, see Gades.
C&sar, title of, 79. 93
Czsar, Caius Julius Octavianas, tee
Augustus C^sar.
Oesar. Caius Julius, his birth and char-
acter, 76 ; his conquests in Gaul, il>. ;
his campaigns in Germany and Bri-
tain, 77 ; his civil war with Pompeius,
77, 78 ; his dictatorship and death,
78 ; his writings, 84
Caius Caesar, suruamed Caligula, Em-
peror, 85
Calais, English conquest of, 215 ; re-
taken by the French, 254, 262
Calcutta. English settlement at, 299 ;
taken by Suraj-ad-dowla, 321
Caliph, meaning of the word, 117
Caliphate, Eastern, beginning of, 117 ;
division of, 119, 125 ; decay of, in
ipth century, 156
Caliphate, Western, beginning of, 126 ;
end of, 154
Calmar, union of, 229
Calvin, John, his German followers. 253;
teaching of, 255 : his settlement at
Geneva, 261
Cambray, League of, 245
Camillus, Marcus Furius, Dictator,
takes Veii, 56
Canaanites, native name of the Phce-
nicians, 22
Canada. French settlement of, 377 ;
English conquest of, 323 ; French
rebellion in, 363
Candia, war of, 293
Cannie, battle of, 64
Canute, see Cnut
Cape of Good Hope, Portuguese dis-
cj.eryof, 228 ; ceded to England, 344
Capuoline Hill, Sabine settlement on.
53
^aracalla. Emperor, 88, 89 : extension
of Roman citizenship under, 89
Carelia, Russian annexation of, 307
Caihst wars in Spain. 360
Carolina, first colonized by Huguenots
277 ; English settlement of, 301 ;
South, secession of, from United
States, 366
Cirlowitz, Peace of, 291, 294
Carthage, Ph'unician colony of, 23, 59 ;
treaty of Rome with, 56 ; extent of
her power, 59 ; difference between
her warfare and that of Rome, 60 ;
her naval superiority, il>. ; her wars
with Rome. 60-63 ; her fleet defeated
by the Romans. 61 ; her Sicilian pos-
essions ceded to Rome, ib. ; her do-
minion in Spain, 62, 68 ; becomes de-
pendent on Rome, 62 ; taken and
destroyed by younger Scipio, 63 : re-
stored as a Roman colony by Caesar,
81 ; capital of the Vandal kingdom it
Africa, 113 ; taken by the Saracen\
118
Casimir IV. of Poland, annexes West
ern Prussia, 230
Cassius, Caius, conspires with Bruttit
against Ca;sar, 78 ; defeated at 1'hil-
'Pp'i 79
Castile, united with Leon under Alfonso
VI., 154 ; separated from Leon, 195 ;
reunited, ib. ; campaign of the Black
Prince in, 227 ; union of, with Aragon,
229
Catalans, revolt of, against John oi
Aragon, 228
Cateau-Cambresis, Peace of, 254
Catharine of Medici, her influence over
her sons, 255
Catharine I., Empress of Russia, 316
Catharine II., Empress of Russia, suc-
ceeds Peter III., 316; her conquest
pt Crim Tartary under, ib. ; her share
in the partitions of Poland, 317 ; death
of, 342
Cato. Marcus Porcius, 76
Catullus, Roman poet, 84
Catulus, Caius Lutatius, defeats the
Carthaginians by sea, 61
Cavaignac, General, administration of,
Cavour, Count, his share in the union
of Italy, 356
Cayenne, French colony of, 277, 351
Celts, the earliest Aryan settlers in
Western Europe, 13 ; remains of their
languages, 13, 127 ; their place in
history, 16 ; their settlements in Spain,
68 ; in Britain, 108
Ceylon, 300 ; acquired by the English,
354
Chaironeia, victory of Philip at, 39 ;
victory of Sulla at, 75
Ch.ilkedon, Persian armies encamp at,
"5
ChalkidikS, peninsula of conquered by
Philip, 39
Chalons, battle of, loa
Charlemagne, see Charles the Great
Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, reign
and abdication of, 355
Charles, Duke of Lorraine, delivers
Vienna from the Turks, 291
Charles Kdward Stuart, (the Young
Pretender) attempt of, 310
Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, 261
Charles Emmanuel the Third, Duke Ol
Saroy and King of Sardinia, his ex-
change of kingdoms with Charles VI.,
305 ; his share in the war <if tte P<
ish succession, 306
INDEX.
375
Diaries Martel defeats the Saracens at
Tours, 119 ; mayor of the palace,
122
Charles of Anjou, conquers the kingdom
of Sicily, 192, 193 ; loses the island,
193
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,
his rivalry with Lewis XI., 222 ; his
schemes and conquests, ib. his war
with die Confederates, 223 ; death
of, ib.
Charles the Great, conquers Lombardy,
122 ; his titles, ib. ; elected Emperor,
ib. extent of his empire, 127 ; his
death, 128
f harles the Bald, King of the West
Franks and Emperor, 128 ; his king-
dom, 129
Charles the Fat, Emperor, union of the
Frankish kingdoms under, 129 ; de-
posed, ib.
Charles the Simple, King of the West
Franks, his grant to Rolf, 137
Charles IV., Emperor, crowned King of
Burgundy, 203 ; his Golden Bull, ib. ;
present at the battle of Crecy, 216
Charles V., Emperor (the First of
Sp'lin), his pedigree, 242 ; extent of
his possessions, ib. ; abdication of,
243 ; overthrows the liberties of Cas-
tile, 244 ; his wars in Italy, 246 ;
makes peace with Francis, 247 ;
crowned at Bologna, ib. , his deal-
ings with the relormers, 251 ; gives
Malta to the Knights of Saint John,
268 ; takes Tunis. 269
Tiiarles VI., Emperor, 291 ; becomes
King of the Two Sicilies, 305 ; his
Pragmatic Sanction, ib. ; his wars,
306 ; death of, 307
Charles VII., Emperor (Elector of Ba-
varia), disputes the claims of Maria
Theresa, 307 ; his election and death,
ib.
Charles I. of England, execution of, 264,
287
Charles II. of England, restoration of,
287; his intrigues with Lewis XIV.,
s88 ; joins with him against Holland,
Hi.
Charles V. of France, breaks the Peace
of Bretigny, 216 ; his title of Dau-
phin, 218
Charles VI. of France, 217
Charles VII. of France, crowned at
Rheims, 217 ; murders John the Fear-
less, 222
Charles VIII. of France, his conquest
and loss of Italy, 244 ; marries Anne
of Britanny, 253
Charles IX. of France, 255
Charles X of France, illega acts ana
deposition of, 350
Charles I. of Spam, see Char.es V.,
Emperor
Charles II. of Spain, part of his do-
minions claimed by Lewis XIV.. 283 ;
his alliance with the United Provinces,
284 ; death of, 285
Charles III. of Spain, King of ihe Two
Sicilies, 314 ; rise of Spain under,
338
Charles IV. of Spain, 338 ; aidication
of, ib.
Charles X. of Sweden, 295
Charles XI. of Sweden, greatest extent
of the power of Sweden under, 295 ;
Sweden becomes an absolute monar-
chy under, ib.
Charles XII. of Sweden, exploits and
death of, 295 ; abets the attempt ot
the Old Pretender, 309
Charles XIII. of Sweden, 341
Charles XIV. of Sweden, 363
Charles XV. of Sweden, 363
Charlotte, Princess of England, 361
Charter, the Great, wrested from John,
184
Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of. 310
Chaucer, Geoffrey, influence of hii
works on the English language, 233
Chauvin, see Calvin
Chili separates from Spain, 365
Chilperic, King of the Franks, deposi-
tion of, 122
Chlodwig, King of the Franks, 103 ;
made Roman Consul, 113 ; his de-
scendants, 121
Chorasmians, Jerusalem taken by, 188,
197
Chosroes, or Nushirvan, greatness of
Persia under, 114
Chosroes II., his conquests from th
Empire, 115
Christian I. of Denmark. 229
Christian II., his reign in Norway, Den-
mark and Sweden, 264 ; driven out
of, ib.
Christian IV. of Denmark and Norway,
265 ; his share in the Thirty Years'
War, 269, 270
Christian IX. of Denmark. 362
Christina, Queen of Sweden, annexa^
tions under, 265 : her abdication, 205
Christianity, origin of, 91, 116; its
growth and persecutions, 92 ; its es-
tablishment in the Empire, 97 : vari-
ous forms of, 98 ; early disputes, 97,
98, 115 ; conversion of Kuropean
nations to, 143, 145 ; spread oi, in th
xoth century, 168
Chrysostom, see John
376
INDEX.
( 'hurch, General Councils of, 97, 112;
I. astern, condition of, in ; Iconoclas-
tic controversies in, 121 ; Kastern and
Western, disputes between, 141, 143 ;
Western, how affected by the Teu-
tonic settlements, 160 ; theory of the
ideal powers of the Popes, ii>. ; Kast-
ern and Western, further division
between, 168, 169 ; reconciliation be-
tween Eastern and Western, 208 ;
changed relations between the Church
and the Empire, 237 ; Eastern, mo-
dern importance of, 238, 320
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 76, 84
Cimbri, invade Gaul, 70 ; defeated at
Vcrcellae, ib.
Cimbric Chersonesos, see Jutland
Cisalpine Republic, 337
Cistercians, order of, 170
Cities, greatness of, in Italy, 174
Citizenship, 53, 58
Civil Law, Origin of, 87 ; Code of, com-
piled by Justinian, 113; study of, in
Middle Ages, if>i, 164, 209
Claud ii, Emperors of their house, 84
Claudius, Emperor, chosen by the
army, 85
Claudius Gothicus. Emperor, 89, 91 ; his
victory over the Goths, 91
Clement III. Pupe, crowns Henry IV.,
Emperor, 148
Clement V., Pope, his subservience to
Philip the Fair, 205 ; moves his Court
lo Avignon, ib. ; joins with Philip to
destroy the order of the Templars, ib.
Clement VI., Pope, deposes Lewis of
liavaria, 203
Cisalpine Gaul, 49 ; Roman conquest
of, 67, 68
Clement VII., Anti-Pope, tee Robert of
Geneva
Clement VII., Pope, 247 : makes peace
with Charles V., ib. ; his policy, 249
Clement XIV., Pope, suppresses the
Jesuits, 315
Clergy, marriage of, forbidden by Gre-
gory VII., 249 ; position of, in Middle
Ages, 169, 170 ; distinction between
ular and secular, 170; learning in
the West chiefly in their hands, 171 ;
one of the three Estates, 184
Clennont, Council of, 157
Clive, Lord, career of, 321
Clovis, see Chlodwig
Cnut, his conquest of England, 144 ; his
northern dominion, ib.
Cola di Rienzi, see Rienzi
Colleges founded in English Universi-
ties, 231
Cologne, sec Koln
Colonies, Phoenician, extent of, 22, 23,
63; Geeek, extent of, 23, 24. 6t-
their relation to the mother cities, 2^
273 ; their early prosperity, 27, 31 ,
their difference from European colo
nies, 273, see European Colonies
Columbus, Christopher, his discover*
of the New World, 275
Commodus, Emperor, 88
Commons, one of the three Estates.
184 ; House of. see Parliament
Commons of Home, see Plebeians
Commonwealths, German, 173, 174!
Italian, 174, 209, 212
Commune of Pans, 353
Como, oppressed by Milan, 177 ; seekl
help of Frederick Barbarossa, U>.
Conde 1 , Prince of, his share in the Thirty
Years' War, 271
Confederate States of North America,
367
Confederates, see Swiss League
Conrad II., Emperor, first of the Fran
cpnian dynasty, 147 ; unites Burgundy
with the Empire, ib.
Conrad, son of Henry IV., war of,
with his father, 148
Conrad III., King, 176 ; goes on the
Second Crusade, 177, 186 ; makes a
League with the Emperor Manuel,
177
Conrad IV., King, son of Frederick II.,
>8o
Conradin, attempts to win back Sicily,
19? ; his defeat and death, ib.
Constance, see Constanz
Constance of Britanny, mother of Ar-
thur, 181
Constance, wife of Henry VI., Em-
peror, 178
Constantino the Great, first Christian
Emperor, 94 : union of the Kinpira
under, ib. ; moves his capital ta
Byzantion or New Rome, 96; i.n
changes in the government, //'. ; di-
vision of his dominions, 16.: his bap-
tism, 97 ; calls the Council of Nikaia,
ib.
Constantino Kopronymos, Emperor,
reign of, 120
Constantinc VI., Emperor, deposition
Of, 122
Constantine Palaiologos, last Eastern
Emperor, his reconciliation with the
Western Church, 226 ; his defence ol
Constantinople, and death, 227
Constantinople, becomes the capital ol
the Empire, 96 ; Greek influence in,
ib.; Saracen sieges of, 118; Rome
becomes independent of, 122; Latia
conquest of, 189, 190; won back
by Michael Palaiologos, 190; bo
INDEX.
371
sieged by Amurath II., 226 ; by
Mahomet, H., ib.\ becomes capital of
the Ottoman Empire, 227
Constantius. Emperor, father of Con-
stantino the Great, 95
Constantius, Emperor, son of Constan-
tine the Great, reunion of the Empire
under, 96
Constanz, Peace of, granted by Frede-
rick 1., 178 ; Council of, 207
Constitution of England, 6, 166, 183,
184
Consuls, power of the Roman Kings
transferred to, 55 ; Plebeians first
chosen, 56
Copenhagen, Treaty of, 295 ; bombard-
ment of, 327
Cordova, Ommiad dynasty founded at,
126; seat of the Western Caliphate, ib.
Corfu, Venetian possession of, 227, 248 ;
attacked by the Turks, 294
Corinth, early foundation of, 26 ; joins
the Confederacy against Sparta, 37 ;
Alexander's synod at, 39 ; joins the
Achaian Leugue, 44 ; destroyed by
Mummius, 65
Corsica, its ancient inhabitants, 49 ;
subject to Carthage, 59 ; ceded to
Rome, 69 ; its relations to the East-
ern Empire, 114, 120 ; revolt of,
against Genoa, 312 ; annexed to
France, 312, 314.
Cortez, Hernando, his conquest of
Mexico, 276
Corvinus, Matthias, King of Hungary,
231
C'ornwali'., Marquess, his administra-
tion in India, 344
Cosmo de' Medici, sre Medici
Council, nature of, among Aryan na-
tions, 6, 163
Councils of the Church, see Church
Courtray, battle of, 219 ; why famous,
ib.
Cracow, Commonwealth of, 343 ; sup-
pression of, 360
CrassuB, Marcus Licinius, defeated
and killed by the Parthians, 75
Crecy, battle of, 215
Crete, Saracen conquest of in, 126 ; won
back to the Eastern Empire, 143 ;
Venetian possession of, 227, 248 ;
conquered by the Turks, 293 ; their
conquest of, ib.
Crimea, 267 ; Russian conquest of, 316 ;
war in, 352, 359, 363
Crossus, King of Lydia, conquers the
Greeks on the coast of Asia, 32 ; con-
quered by Cyrus, ib.
Cromwell, Oliver, Protector, greatness
of England under, 287
Crusade, First, preached by Peter tin
Hermit and Urban II., 157; taking
of Jerusalem, ib.
Crusade, Second, preached by St. Ber-
nard, 1 86
Crusade, Third, 187
Crusade, Fourth, characterof, 188, 191 ;
taking of Constantinople, 189
Crusades, beginning and causes of, 155 ;
meaning of the name, 157 ; effects of,
158, 186 ; against the Albigenses.
191 ; against Sicily, 192 ; in the nortli
of Europe, 193
Cuba, 365
Curland, Duchy of, 217
Culloden, battle of, 310
Cyprus, Phoenician settlements in, 23 .
Greek settlements in, 24, 26 ; separata
Empire in, 189 ; subject to Venice,
227 ; conquered by the Turks, 248,
269
Cyrus, King of Persia, his conquests ol
Babylon and Lydia, 318 ; of tha
Greek settlements in Asia, ib.
Czar, origin of the name, 276
Czechs, 127
Czernagora, see Montenegro, 343
D.
Dacia, wars of, with Rome, 87 ; made
a province of by Trajan, 88 ; given up
by Aurelian, 91 ; Gothic kingdom in,
100 ; Romance language of, 107
Damascus, capital of the Ommiads, 125
Dandolo, Henry, Doge of Venice, his
share in the fourth crusade, 189
Danes, their relations with Charles the
Great, 127 ; their ravages and settle-
ments of, 134 ; conquer Northern
England, 135 ; their wars with Al-
fred, ib.\ their settlements in Gau!,
136, 137 ; their final conquest of Eng-
land, 144
Dante Alighieri, fixes the standard ol
the Italian language, 172 ; his atti-
tude towards the Empire, 209 ; his
birth and death, 212
Danube, Roman boundary crossed by
the Goths, 81, 100
Darius, King of Persia, his expedition
against Athens, 32
Da-upkin, origin of the title, 218
David II., King of Scots, captive in
England, 216
Davis, Jefierson, President of Confeder-
ate States, 366
Deccan, the, 9
Decius, Emperor, persecutions of ChrU
tians under, yt
373
INDh X.
Delaware Bay, Swedish Colony of,
300; Dutch conquest of, it.
Dlmetrios Poliorketes, King of Mace-
donia. 43
Democracy, meaning of the word, 28
Demosthenes, stirs up the Athenians
against Macedonia, 39, 42
Denmark, greatness of, 163, 194 : its
decline in the 131(1 century, 229: reign
of the House of Oldenburg in. ib.; its
relations with Sleswick and HoUtein,
ii>. ; its separation from Sweden, 264 ;
accepts the Reformation in, 265 ; wars
of, with Liibeck. ib.\ cedes Scania to
Sweden, 295 ; becomes an absolute
monarchy, ib.; Sleswick and Hulstem
united with, 32 ; her exchange of
territory in 1814, 324 ; becomes a
constitutional state, 363 ; loss of the
Duchies, ib.
Dermot, Irish King. 185
DC Kuytcr, Dutch admiral, 287
DC Witts, murdered, 295
Dictator, his office at Rome, extent of
hi-. ["AVer, 56
Diet, German, in Middle Ages, 167
Dijon, capital of the Duchy of Bur-
gundy, i jt
Diocletian, Kmperor. his division of the
Empire. 93 ; hi* abdication, it'.; perse-
cution of the Christians under, 94
Dionysios, Tyrant of Syracuse, 59
Directory in France, 329
Ditmarsclieu conquered by Denmark,
265
Dominic, Saint, founder of the Domini-
cans, -70
Dominicans attacked by \yicldiffe, 207
Domingo Saint, see Hayti
Doimtiau, Emperor, 86, 87
Dorians, their migration, 30
Dmsus. campaigns of, in Germany, 83
Dunkirk, cession of, to England. 272 ;
sold by Charles II. to France. 288
Dnpleix, governor of Pondicherry. 320
Dutch, settlements of High and Low,
108
Dutch colonies in America, 278, 300 ; ti
India, 300
E.
Eadgyth, tee Edith
Ear, a common Aryan word, 5
East, the, character of its history, 2, ST ;
prevalence of Mahomctanism in, 117
East-Angles, kingdom of, 133
Kast-Saxons, kingdom of, 133
Eastern Caliphate, see Caliphate, East-
ern
Eastern Omich, see Church
Eastern Empire, separate.! from thf
Western, 123, 125; its greatness undei
the Hasiiian dynasty, 142, 143 ; Sla-
vonic invasions, ib.; decline of iu
power, 155 ; cut short by the Seljulc
Turks, 156 ; its revival under the
Komnenian dynasty, ib., 189 ; be-
comes practically Greek, 162 ; uncer-
tainty of succession in, 168 ; its de-
cline, 189 ; its restoration, 190 : be-
comes more strictly hereditary, 190,
191 ; its advance and decline in I4th
century, 224 ; end of, 227
Eastern Mark, see Austria
East India Company, its beginning and
growth, 298, 299, 320 ; its powen
transferred to the Crown, 321, 364
Ecgberht, King of the West Saxons, his
supremacy, 135
Edgar, King of the English, reign of,
144
Edith, daughter of Edward the Elder,
marries Otto the Great, 144
Edmund. Magnificent. King of the
English, his wars with the Danes, 136
Edmund Ironside. King of the English,
Ins wars with Cnut. 144
Edmund, son of Henry III. of England,
crown of Sicily offered to, 192
Edward the Elder, King of the English,
his wars with the Danes. 136 ; receives
the homage of all Britain, ib.
Edward the Confessor, King of the Eng-
lish, son of ./Ethelred, 145 ; his alliance
with the Emperor Henry II.. 148;
last of the West-Saxon dynasty, 150,
IS'
Edward I. of England, his crusade,
188 ; his conquest of Wales and Scot-
land, 214
Edward II. of England. 215
Edward III., his claim to the French
crown, 215 ; his alliance with the Em-
peror Lewis, ib. ; gives up and re-
asserts his claims, 216
Edward VI. of England, 262
Edward the Black Prince, his rule at
Bordeaux, 216; restores Peter of Cas-
tile's crown, 228
Egbert, see Ecgberht
Eginhard, his life of Charles the Great,
'37
Egypt, submits to Alexander the Great,
40; rule of the Ptolemies in. 41, 71 ;
Roman conquest of 79 ; Saracen con-
quest of, Il8; separate Caliphate in,
156, 186; recovered by Saladin, 187'
campaign of Saint Lewis in, 188; an-
nexed by Sultan Selim. 268 ; campaign
of Buonaparte in, 330; it no'ler*
relation to Turkey, 358
INDEX.
37$
Eirene, deposes Constantino VI., 122
Elagabalus, Kmperor, takes the names
of Aurelius and Antoninus, 89
Elba, Buonaparte exiled to, 333 ; his re-
turn from, ib.
Eleanor of Aquitaine, wife of Henry II.
of England, 153
Electors of the Empire, origin of, 167
Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, 516
Elizabeth, Queen of England, final set-
tlement of the Reformation under,
262 ; conspiracies against, 263 ; her
war with Philip, ib.
Elizabeth of Parma, wife of Philip V. of
Spain, 306
Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of Eng-
land, married to Frederick, Elector
Palatine, 270
Elsass, French annexations of, 272, 275,
312, 328 ; given back to Germany,
353
Kmmanuel Filibert, Duke of Savoy, 261
Emperor-elect, title of, 250
Kmpire, Roman, see Roman Empire
Empire, Eastern, see Eastern Empire
Empire, Western, see Western Empire
England, foundation of the kingdom of,
136 ; its connexion with the Western
Empire, 144; Danish conquest of, ib. ;
restoration of West Saxon Dynasty,
145 ; Norman conquest of, 150, 152 ;
relations with France, 150, 180 ;
growth of Feudal ideas in, 165, 166 ;
growth of its constitution, 183, 185 ;
its connexion with Ireland, 185, i8S ;
final union of Wales with, 214; rela-
tions with Scotland and France, 215,
217; loss of her possessions inAqui-
taine, 216, 217; historians of, 231;
religious and social movements in,
242 ; decline of villainage in, ib. ; civil
wars in, 261, 264 ; the Reformation in,
232 ; its later relation and union with
Scotland, 263, 264 ; its colonies, 277,
278, 301, 363 ; wars of, with France,
285, 286 ; greatness of, under the Par-
liament and Protectorate, 287 ; her*
wars with the United Provinces, #.,
288 ; degradation of, under Charles
and James, ib. \ effects of the Revo-
lution in, ib. ; legislative union of
Scotland with, 289 ; growth of her
power in India, 298, 299, 321, 344 ;
growth of her maritime power, 300 ;
her foreign wars, 309, 310; revolt of
her American colonies, 310; her col-
onization in Australia, 323, 344 ; her
wars with Napoleon Buonaparte, 329,
331, 340; with the United States,
341 ; with Russia, 363 ; her later wars,
564 ; her relations with Ireland, ib.
English, the early home cf, 76, 109,
their conquest of Brirjun, 109; m
difference from other Teutonic settle-
ments, 110; keep their own languag*
and religion, ib. ; their kingdoms in
Britain, 132, 133 ; their convers on,
133 ; history of their language, 152,
232 ; later settlements of, 273
Epaminondas, restores Messene, 38;
killed in the battle of Mantineia, ib.
Epeiros, relations of its people to th
Greeks, 20, 25 ; kingship in, 27 ', its
greatness under Pyrrhos, 43 ; reck-
oned as a Greek state, ib. \ becorres
a Federal commonwealth, 46 ; helps
Macedonia against Rome, 64 ; Roman
conquest of, 65 ; despots of, 190
Epidamnos, submits to Rome, 63
Estates, assemblies of, 184 ; established
in France by Philip the Fair, 184, 185
Esthonia, 193
Etruria, doubtful origin of its people,
50 ; Confederation of, ib. ; Gaulish
invasion of, 56
Eugenius IV., Pope, 207 ; holds a coun-
cil at Ferrara and Florence, 208
Eumenes, King of Pergamos, 67
Euripides, 34
Europe, its geographical character, 10 ;
its three great peninsulas, n ; settle-
ment of the Aryans in, 12-15 i ' l
characteristics in modern times, 236 ;
spread of Christianity in, 238
Evesham. battle of, 185
F.
Family Compact, 313
Farel, William, 260
Fatimites, their Caliphate in Egypt,
186 ; put down by Saladin, 187
Federation, nature of, 44
Ferdinand III. of Castile, finally unites
Castile and Leon. 195 ; his conquests
from the Mahometans, ib.
Ferdinand, King of Naples, 228
Ferdinand of Aragon, marries Isabella
of Castile, 228 ; their conquest oi
Granada, 229; his conquest of Na-
varre, 242 ; his treaty with Lewis
XII., 245 ; his conquest of Naples,
ib. ', joins in the League of Cambray,
ib. ; his death, 246
Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 338, 360;
death of, ib.
Ferdinand I., Emperor, 251
Ferdinand II., Emperor, his luccesse*
in the Thirty Years' War, 269; hit
death. 270
Ferdinand III., Emperor, a 70
3 8o
INDEX.
Ferdinand V., of Hungary and Austria,
356. 357
Ferrara, Council of, 208
Feudal Tenure, origin of, 165 ; its dif-
ference from allodial tenure, ib. ;
effects of, 165, 166
Fiefs, see Feudal Tenure
Finland, Russian conquest of, 341
Fins, a remnant of the non-Aryan peo-
ple of Europe. 8
Flamininus, Titus Quinctius, proclaims
the freedom of Greece, 64
Flanders, Counts of, 131 ; a fief of the
French crown, 210; united to the
Duchy of Burgundy, 222; freed from
homage to France, 247
Florencs, Council of, 208 ; subjection of
Pisa to, 211 ; constitution of 211, 212;
power of the Medici in, 212 : the
birthplace of Dante, ib. ; gets rid of
the Medici, 245 ; obliged to take them
back, 246 : siege and subjugation of,
248 : the Medici made Dukes of, ib. \
Sienna added to, ib. ; becomes the
temporary capital of Italy, 356
Florida, Spanish colony. 313 ; ceded to
England, it'. ; given buck to Spain,
33
Forest Cantons, the three, league formed
by, 219
France, origin of name, 104 : Duchy of,
131 : beginning of the kingdom, 13* ;
end of her connexion with the Empire,
141 ; relations of, with England, 152,
153; effects of the Norman conquest
on, i!>, ; effects of the Feudal Tenures
on, 167; the crown becomes heredi-
tary, 168 ; relations of, with England
under Henry II., 180; conquest of
English possessions in, 181; growth
of the royal power in, 182 ; advance
of her dominion, 183 ; constitution of,
184, 185 ; suppression of Templars in,
206 ; allied with Scotland against
England, 215; wars of, with England,
215-217; further extensior of her do-
minion, 218 : Duchy of Burgundy
annexed to, 223, 242 : peasant revolts
in, 232 ; acquires Roussillon and
Artois, 243 ; rivalry of, with Spain,
044, 246 ; advance of the power of,
S3 i her annexation of Britanny, ib. ;
her wars with England, 254 : wins
lack Calais, ib. ; her wars with the
Empire, ib. '. annexes the three Lo-
tharingian bishopricks, ib. ; her wars
with Spain, 255 ; persecution and
civil wars in, it>. ; dealings of, with
Savoy, 261 ; her part in the Thirty
Years' War, 270; further annexations
of, 272; her settlements in America.
2 77 : greatness of, under T-ewis XIV,
282; Grand Alliance formed against,
285 ; persecutions of Protestants in,
286; wars of, 305, 306, 310; position
of, in i8th century, 311; her annexa-
tions of Lorraine and Corsica, 312?
allied with Spain against Portugal.
313 ; her wars with England in India,
320, 321 ; her loss of Canada, 312 ;
beginning of the Revolution, 328 ;
divided into departments, ib. ; an-
nexes Venaissin and Avignon, /'/>. ;
becomes a Republic, 329 ; wars and
conquests of the revolution, ib. ; rule
of Buonaparte, 330 ; extent of his Em-
pire, 332 ; restoration of the Bourbons,
333 ; her North-American possessions
bought by United States, 345 ; rev-
olutions in, 350, 351 ; late wars of,
352 ; last republic of, ib.
Franche Comte\ see Burgundy
Francia, meanings of the name, 104,
129 ; extent under Charles the Great,
127
Francis I. of France, his rivalry with
Charles V., 246 ; his wars in Italy,
ib. ; his captivity and release, it: ;
makes peace with Francis, 247 ; his
conquest of Savoy, 254 ; characftr
and death of, Hi.
Francis II. of France, reign of, 255 ;
persecution of the Hngutriots under,
ib. ; marries Mary of Scotland, 263
Francis, Duke of Loraine, marries M.ina
Theresa, 306; succeeds to the Grand
Duchy of Tuscany, ib. ; see Francii
I., Emperor.
Francis I., Kmperor, 307
Francis II., Emperor. 308 ; resigns the
Imperial crown, 334 ; his title of Em-
peror of Austria, ib. ', President of tha
German Confederation, 336 ; reign of,
356
Francis Joseph of Austria, 357 ; crowned
King of Hungary, ib.
Francis, Saint, founder of the Frascin-
can order, 170
Franciscan order, foundation of, 170
Franconia, origin of the name, 147
Francoman Emperors, 147 ; end of theii
dynasty, 148
Franken, see Franconia
Frankfurt (am Main), free city, 336
annexed to Prussia, 354
Franks, first heard of, 91 ; their settle-
ments in Gaul, 103 ; their advanca
under Chlodwig, 103, 104 : their do-
minion in Italy, 121 : greatness of,
under Charles the Great, 127 ; di-
visions of their kingdoms, 128 ; union
of, under Charles die Fat, 129 ; J^^*t
INDEX.
rrn, use of the name, 157 : Franks,
East, choose Arnulf king, 130 ; their
kingdom grows into Germany, ib.
Franks, West, choose Oiio king, 130;
their kingdom grows into France, 131
Frederick L, Emperor, surnamed Bar-
barossa, 177 ; his dealings with the
Italian cities, ib. ; with the Popes,
i/8 ; with the Kings of Sicily, ib. ;
with the Eastern Empire, ib. ; dies on
the Third Crusade, ib., i8j
Frederick II., Emperor, his two elec-
tions, 179 ; called the " Wonder of
the World," ib. ; flourishing state of
Sicily, under, ib. his dealings with
Germany, Italy and the Popes, ib. ;
wins back Jerusalem, 187 ; favours
Teutonic knights, 194
Frederick III., last Emperor crowned at
Rome, 204
Frederick I., King of Denmark and
Norway, 265
Frederick II., 265
Frederick III. of Denmark, the king-
dom becomes an absolute monarchy
under, 295
Frederick VII. of Denmark grants a
free constitution, 362
Frederick, Elector of Saxony, protector
of Luther, 251
Frederick, Elector Palatine, chosen
King of Bohemia, 269 ; driven out, ib.
Frederick of Aragon, King of Sicily 214
Frederick of Austria, double election of,
with Lewis of Bavaria, 203
Frederick of Swabia, brother of Conrad
III., 177
Frederick William I., the Great Elector
of Brandenburg, 266 ; joins the league
against Lewis XIV., 284
Frederick I., first King of Prussia, 266,
290
Frederick William I., King of Prussia,
290
Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia, his
claims to and conquest of Silesia, 307:
growth of Prussia under, 308 ; his
share in the partition o! Poland, 317
Frederick William III. of Prussia, his
annexation of Hanover, 335
Frederickshall, Charles XII. killed at,
2 95
Freedraen obtain Roman citizenship,
, ?2
French, Dukes of, 131
French, Romance speech of Northern
Gaul, 107, 131 ; use of, in England,
152, 232 ; its media val literature, 172,
^ 231, 279
Froissart. his history of the Hundred
Vears' War, 231
G.
Gades, Phoenician colony, 23
Galatia, settlement of, 42
Galba, Emperor, 86
Gallienus, Emperor, 90
Ganganelli, see Clement XIV.
Garibaldi, 356
Gascony, Duchy of, 131
Gaul, Cisalpine, 49 ; Roman conquest
of, 67, 68 ; invaded by Cimbri and
Teutones, 70
Gaul, Transalpine, Greek Colonies on
the coast, 24, 69 ; Roman province in,
ib. ; Caesa j s conquest of, 76; reason
of its importance, 77 ; settlement oi
Burgundians and Franks in, io;j ;
Romance nations and languages in,
105, 107; Saracens in, 118; driven
out of, 119; invasions and settlements
of Northmen in, 136 ; see France.
Gauls, their invasion of Greece and
Macedonia, 42 ; their settlement in
Galatia, ib. ; defeat Romans at the
Allia,56; take Rome, ib. ; help Sam-
nites against Rome, 57
Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, 59
General Councils, see Church
Geneva, preaching of Farel in, 260 ; be-
sieged by Dukes of Savoy, ib. ; Cal-
vin's influence in, 261 ; annexed to
ranee, 339 ; freed, 340
Genoa, its position in i4th and isth
centuries, 211 ; bombardment of by
Lewis XIV., 284 ; revolt of Corsica
from, 312 ; revolutions in, 314 : joined
to Piedmont, 337
Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, husband oi
Empress Matilda, 153
Geography of Europe, 10
George I. of England, 289, 309
George II. of England, 309
George III. of England, 310
George of Denmark, King of Greece,
358
George, Czerni, revolt of Scrvia under,
3 2 5 .
Georgia, colony of, founded, 301
German Confederation, the, 336
German Emperors of the West, 125
German language, fee Teutonic, Dutch,
High and Low Germany
Germanicus, origin of his name, 85 ;
death of, ib.
Germans, early government of, 6 ; Ro-
man wars with, 85, 88, 99 ; their in-
vasion and settlements in the Empire,
09
Germany, campaigns of Caesar in, 77 ;
united under Charles the G; eat, 127 }
beginning of the kingdom, 129, 136
INDEX.
wars with the Hungarians, ib. ;
Saxon Kings of, 139 ; union with the
Roman Empire, 140 ; becomes the
centre of the Krnpire, 162 ; effects of
the Feudal Tenures in, 167 ; election of
Kings i'i, it., 168 ; special greatness of
Prelates in, 170 ; language of, 172 ;
frowth of towns in, 173 ; reign of
'rederick II. in, 179 : decline of the
kingdom, 183, 198 ; effects of the
Great Interregnum, 201 : King of,
use of the title, 206 ; its division into
circles, 251 ; the Reformation in, 251,
253 ; results of Peace of Augsburg,
253 ; the Thirty Years' War in, 269,
271 ; state of, after the Peace of West-
phalia, 271 ; state of literature in, 279 ;
liberation of, from BuonapartCj 332 ;
effects of the French Revolution in,
333< 335 : e "d of the kingdom of, 333,
334 ; confederation of, 336 ; formation
of the Zollvcrein in, 353; revolutions
in. il>. ; union and Empire of, 354
GhibeKn, origin and meaning of the
name, 147
Gian (Jak-azzo Visconti, see Visconti
Gibraltar, taken by the English, 286,
289 ; defence of, 310
Glabro, Manins Acilius. defeats Antio-
chos at Thermopylai, 65
Gods, names of, common to Aryan na-
tions, 6; Roman and Greek con-
founded. 52
Godfrey of Boulogne, King of Jerusa-
lem, 1-7
Golden Bull, the, 204
Good Hope, Cape of, its discovery, 274
Gothic lai.-guage, 91, 108
G.iths, firjt heard of, 91 ; wars of, with
Romans, ib. ; defeated by Claudius,
Hi. , converted by Ulfilas. ib. ; pass
into the Kmpire, it. ; defeat Valens
at Hadrianople, ib. ; their settlement
in Dacia, 100
Goths, Kast, their dominion in Italy,
104, 105 ; overthrow of their kingdom,
114
Goths, West, take Rome, 101 ; their
kingdom in Gaul and Spain, 101,
103 ; lose and recover part of Spain,
114, 116
Gotland, Isle of, annexed to Sweden,
265
Gotthard Kettler, Grand Master of
Livonia, his cessions to Pcland, 266
Government, earliest form of, among
Aryan nations, 6,27; fcrnis of, in
Greece, 27 ; in ancient Rome, 52 ;
effects of standing armies upon, 237 ;
Gracchus Tiberius and Caius, 72
Grunada, Mahometan kingdom of, 230 ;
conqt :redby Ferdinand and Isabel]*
229
Grand Alliance, the, 285
Granikos, battle of, 40
Granson, battle of, 223
Gratian, Emperor, extinction of pagan-
ism under, 99, ico
Gravtlines, battle of, 254
Grtat Britain, kingdom of, 289 310; re-
volt of the American colonies front,
310, 322 ; position of, in i8th centurv,
31 1 , Ireland united to, 340 ; posses-
sions abroad, 344 ; extension and in-
creased independence of her colonies,
363 ; less interference of. in conti-
nental affairs, 364 ; later wars of, ib.
firm union of, 300-364
Great Mogul, title of, 300, 364
Great Schism, 206
Great Interregnum, 200
Greece, Aryan settlement in, 12 ; its
history earlier than that of Rome, 18 :
influence of its geographical charactei
on, 11, 21 ; its earlier political advance,
21 ; early history of, how far mist-
worthy, 30, 31 ; first Persian invasion,
32 ; second, 33 ; supremacy of Philip,
39 : Gaulish invasion, 42 ; character
of its later history, 43 ; prevalence of
Federal government in, 44, 45 : the
last days of its independence, 46 ; first
dealings of, with Rome ; freed from
Macedonia, 64 ; practically dependent
on Rome, ib. \ final conquest, 65 ; in-
fluence of its culture in Asia, 67 ; last-
ing power of its civilization, 79 ; Sla-
vonic settlements in, 143 ; Turkish
conquest of, 227 ; War of Indepen-
dence, 357 ; kingdom of, 358
Greek, an Aryan tongue, 4 ; use of, in
the Eastern Empire, 112, 171 ; in
Southern Italy, 123
Greek provinces of Rome, 81
Greeks, their kindred with Italians, 12,
20, 51 : first Aryan nation mentioned
in written history, 19 ; their relationi
to the neighbouring nations, 20 ; their
relations with the Phoenicians, 23 ;
extent of their colonies, 23, 24 ; dis-
tinction between them and the Bar-
barians, 25 ; their forms of govern
ment, 27, 28 : their religion, 2C) ; con-
quest of their cities in Asia Minor, by
Croesus, 32 ; by Cyrus, ib. ; then
disputes, with Persian Kings, ib. ;
submission of their colonies to Xerxes.
33 ; their Asiatic cities given up to
Persia, 37 ; spread of their civilization
in Asia, 40, 41 ; th'.ir colonies in
Southern Italy, 50, 51 ; their cobnie*
in Can), 69
INDEX.
Greenland, Scandinavian settlement in,
275
Gregory I. (the Great), Pope, sends
Augustine to Britain, 133
Gregory II., Pope, withstands the
Iconoclasts, 121
Gregory III., Pope, withstands the
IconocNsts, 121
Dregory VII. (Hildebrand), Pope, dis-
putes of, with Henry IV., 148 ; driven
out by Henry, ib. ; his designs, 149
Gregory IX., Pope, opposes Frederick
II., 187 ; preaches crusade against
the Prussians, 194
Gregory X., Pope, his measures of
pacification, 204, 205 ; his death, ib.
Gregory XI., Pope, brings back the
Papal court to Rome, 206
Gregory XII., deposed by Council of
Constanz, 207
Gut If, origin and meaning of the name,
177
Guise, family of, its relations with
France, 255
Gunhild, daughter of Cnut, marries the
Emperor Henry II., 148
Gunpowder, invention of, 209
Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden, 264 ;
growth of the kingdom under, ib.
Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, 265 ;
his share in Thirty Years' War, 270 ;
death of, ib.
Gustavus III. of Sweden, war of, with
Russia, 341 ; murder of, ib.
Gustavus IV. of Sweden, reign and
deposition of, 341
Gutenberg of Mainz, his invention of
printing, 209
Guthrum, Danish King, Alfred's treaty
with, 136
H.
Habsburg, House of, 202, 306
Hadrian, Emperor, 87 ; gives up the
conquests of Trajan, 88
Hadrian IV., Pope, his disputes with
Frederick I., 178 ; gives his Bull to
Henry II. for the conquest of Ireland,
185
Hadrian VI., Pope, character of, 249
Hadrianople, battle of, 100 ; taken by
the Ottomans, 225
Hamburg, commonwealth of, 174, see
Hanseatic League
Hamilcar Barkas, growth of the Car-
thaginian power in Spain under, 62
yannibal, general of the Carthaginians,
takes SaRimtum, 62 ; his campaigns
in Italy, it. ; defeated by Scipio, 63 ;
383
makes a league with Philip of Mace-
donia, 64
Hanover, Electorate of. joined to Prus-
Sla > 335: kingdom of, 336; annexed
to Prussia, 354
Hanseatic League, formation of, 173 ;
its wars with Scandinavia, 229 ; dim-
inution of its power, -271 ; its cities
annexed to France, 336 ; joins the
German Confederation, ill.
Harold Blaatand, Danish King, wars
of Otto II. with, 141 ; conversion of,
ib.
Harold Hardrada, of Norway, invades
England, 151
Harold, King of the English, defeated
by William the Conqueror, 151
Hasdrubal, 62
Hastings, battle of, 151
Hastings, Warren, 321
Hayti, 275 ; revolutions in, 345
Hebrews, a Semitic nation, 7
Hedwig, Queen of Poland, marrie.
Jagellon, Duke of Lithuania, 230
Heligoland, English possession of, 344
Hellas, mear.ing of the word, 20
Helvetic Republic, 339
Henry, Duke of Saxony, elected King
of Germany, 138 ; his wars with the
Magyars, ib.
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and
Bavaria, his wars with Frederick I..
178 ; marries Matilda, daughter of
Henry II. of England, ib. ; loss of
dominions, ib,
Henry II., Emperor, 141
Henry III., Emperor, his dealings with
the Papacy, 147 ; his alliance with
Englan'd, 148
Henry IV., Emperor, revolt of the Sax-
ons against, 148 ; disputes between
him and Gregory VII., 148 : his wars
with his sons, ib.; drives Gregory from
Rome, ib. crowned Emperor by
Clement III., ib.
Henry V., Emperor, his war with his
father, 148 ; his disputes with the
Popes, ib. ; marries Matilda, daugh-
ter of Henry I. of England, ii, ; ends
the Franconian dynasty, ib.
Henry VI., Emperor, his conquest ol
Sicily, 178
Henry VII., Emperor, revival of the
Empire under, 202 ; coronations of,
at Milan and Rome, ib. ; death of, ib.
Henry I. of England, marries Matilda,
daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, 153
Henry II. of England, pedigree of, 153 ;
marries Eleanor of Aquitaine, ff: :
dominions of, 170; death of, 181 ;
conquest of Ireland under, 185
3*4
INDEX.
Henry III. of England, reign of, 182;
his wars with France, 183 ; civil wars
of his reign, 184
Henry V. of England, his French vic-
tories, 217
Hinry VI. of England, crowned at
t'aris, 217
Henry VIII. of England, takes Bou-
logne, 254 ; aspires to the Empire,
i'.u , throws off the Papal power, 262
Henry I. of K ranee, 153
Henry 11. of France, his wars with the
Empire, ..54 ; annexes the three Bish-
fjincks, //'. ; persecution of Hugue-
nots under, ^25
Htnry 111. of France, 255, 256
H'.:nry IV. of France and Navarre,
leader of the Huguenots, 255 ; his
possessions, 256 ; turns Catholic, ib. ;
his niunler, u>.
Henry, Dim, Infant of Portugal, mari-
time discoveries and conquests under,
228
Henry of Trasuimara. civil war of, with
Pedro of Castile. 227 ; kills 1'edro, 228
Herakleia, long independence of, 42
Heiachus, Emperor, 115 ; his Persian
campaigns, 116
Hermann of Sal/a, Grand Master of the
Teutonic Order, 194
Herodotos, history of, 31
Heroes, children of the Gods, 29
Ages, 27
Hessen-Cassei, Electorate of, 3 4
Hi^h- Dutch tongue, influence of Luther
on, 279
Hienm, King of Syracuse, helps Car-
ih.ige against Rome, 60 ; makes an
> e with Koine, 13
Hiidebrand, favours the designs of Wil-
liam the Conqueror, 151, see also
Gregory Vll.
Hindoslan. Aryan settlements in, 9
Hippias, Tyrant of Athens, 32
Hi.-.] <ui>..ia, see Hayti
Hi-'.oiy. different aspects of, i ; Eastern
und Western, dillerent characters of,
i ; division of, into periods, 17 ; how
soon trustworthy, 17, 18 ; writers of,
at Constantinople, 171 ; English and
trench writers of, 231
HobewtMifen, House of, 176
Hoi i.;ou Khan, ends Caliphate of Bag-
dad. 197
H lilaud, Stadholdcrship of, 294 ; see
Netherlands and United Provinces
HoUtein, Duchy of, ils relations with
Denmark, 229, 318, 342, 362 ; a fief of
die Empire, 229 ; joined to Prussia,
362
Holy League, the, 245
Homeric Poims, their value, 30
Honorius, Western Emperor, 101
Horace, 84
Hospitallers, foundation of, 171, 186
driven out of Rhodes, 268 ; their po
session and defence of Malta, ib.
House of Commons, origin of, 185
House of Lords, origin of, 185
Hugh the Great, Duke of the French,
132 ; his wars with Lewis, ib.
Hugh Capet, Duke of the French,
chosen King, 132
Huguenots, persecutions of, 255 ; mas-
sacre of, 256 ; colonize Carolina, 277
Hundred Years' War, 256 ; compared
with Peloponnesian War, ib. ; end of,
217
Hungarians, their settlement in Europe,
15, 138 ; their wars with Germany and
conversion, 139, 168
Hungary, kingdom of, founded, 139,
163 ; ravages of the Moguls in, 197 ;
its connection with the Empire, 203 :
its Angevin Kings, 230 ; threatened
by the Turks, ib. ; designs of Austria
on, 231 ; Turkish conquests in, 268 ;
crown passes to House of Austria,
ib. ; revolts against Ferdinand 11.,
269 ; reign of Leopold, 290 ; Turks
driven out of, 291 ; crown made
hereditary, ib. ; civil wars in, it. ;
dealings of Joseph II. with, 308;
revolution and re-conquest, in, 356,
357 ; restoration of, 357
Hnniades, John, exploits of, against the
Turks, 231
Huns, driven out of China, 100 ; enter
Europe, ib. \ their dominion under
Amla, 102 ; their defeat at Chilooi,
il>.
Huss, John, burning of, 207
Hussite War in Bohemia, 207
Ibrahim lays waste Peloponnesos, 258
Iconoclasts controversy, 120, 141
Ignatius Loyola founds the Order of
Jesuits, 250
Ikomun, capital of Scljuk Turks in Asia
Minor, 158
Iliad, see Homeric Poems
lllyria, Greek settlements in, 24 ; war
of, with Rome, 63 ; Roman Emperan
from. 89, 91, 93
Imjxrator, title of, 78, 79
Imperial Chamber, 251
Infantry, use of, in war, 232
India, Aryan settlements in, 9 ; begii>
ning of Mahometan conquests of, 15','
INDEX.
385
English and Dutch settlements in,
398; Mogul rule in, ib., 299; begin-
ning of the Company in, ib. ; French
and English struggles for supremacy
in, 320 ; growth of English power in,
321, 344 ; mutiny of the native sol-
diers, 364 ; its government transferred
to the British crown, ib.
Indies, West, discovery of, by Colum-
bus, 275
Innocent II., Pope, 176
Innocent III., Pope, 179 ; his dealings
with John of England, 182
Innocent IV., Pope, deposes Frederick
II., 179, 182; protests against the
taking of Zara, 189, 191 ; proclaims
a crusade against the Albigenses, 191;
offers crown of Sicily to Kdmund of
England, 192
Innocent VIII. , Pope, 213
Interregnum, the Great, 201
Ionian Islands, Republic of, formed,
under English protection, 341 ; in-
corporated with Greece, 258, 363
lonians, their Asiatic colonies, 30
Iran, meaning of the name, 8
Ireland, Celtic inhabitants of, 108 ;
English conquest of, 155, 185 ; Re-
formation in, 240; Cromwell's con-
quest of, 287 ; conquest of, by Wil-
liam III., 289; independence of, 310;
rebellion in, 340 ; union of, with Great
Britain, ib. ; disaffection In, 357 ;
disestablishment ot Church in, ib.
Irish, a Celtic people, 108 ; see Scots
Irish tongue, 13
Isabella, wife of Edward II. of Eng-
land, 215 ; Edward III.'s claim to
the French crown through her, ib.
Isabella, Queen of Castile, marries
Ferdinand of Aragon, 228 ; their
joint rule, ib. ; conquest of Granada
under, 229; death of, 241
Isabella II., Queen of Spain, reign
deposition of, 360
Issos, battle of, 40
Italian, a Romance tongue, 106 ; fixed
by Dante's poems, 172
Italians, their kindred with the Greeks,
I2 > 5 r > 57 i their relations to Rome,
58 ; rise against Rome, 73
Italy, ojie of the three great European
peninsulas, n ; its Aryan and pre-
Aryan inhabitants, 12, 13, 48, 50 ;
geography of, 48 ; effect of its geo-
graphy on its history, 50 ; language re-
ligion and government in, 52 ; Leagues
in. ib. ; Roman conquest, of 57,
59 ; invaded by Hannibal, 62 ; end of
Emperors in, 102 ; passes into the
hands of the Barbarians, 103 ; rule of
Odoacer in, ib. ; East- Gothic kin
dom in, 104; flourishing state of,
under Theodoric, 105 ; recovered to
the Empire by Belisarius and Nar-
ses, 114; Lombard conquest of, ib.,
120; decline of the Imperial power in,
121 ; dominion of the Franks in, 122
rule of Lothar in, 128 ; rival Kings, 130 ,
kingdom united to Germany, 140 ;
growth of the towns in, 174 ; decline
of their power and freedom, ib. ;
dealings of Frederick I. with, 177,
178; Frederick II. 's wars in, 179;
falls off from the Empiie, 200 ; revival
of learning in, 208, 209 ; use of print-
ing and gunpowder in, 209 ; its Com-
monwealths in I4th and isth centuries,
209, 212 ; growth of Tyrants in, ib. ;
made the battlefield of Europe, 244,
292 ; rivalry of France and Spain in,
244. 246 ; wars of Charles VIII. and
Lewis XII. in, 244-246 ; wars of
Charles and Francis in, 246 ; domi-
nion of Charles V. in, 247 ; Spanish
rule in, ib. ; no progress made by
Reformation in, 249 ; state of, in the
eighteenth century, 313; wars of the
French Revolution in. 329, 337 ; Buona-
parte's kingdom in, 331 ; restoration
of the princes, 337 ; changes in, ib. ;
power of Austria in, 338 ; disturb-
ances in, 354 ; revolutions and wars,
deliverance of, 352-356 ; formation of
the kingdom, 355, 356
Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, 365
Ivan Vasilowitz, frees Russia from Mo-
guls, 327
Ivan IV. of Russia, his wars, 266 ; takes
the title of Czar, 267
J.
Jacob, Caliph of the Almohades, defeats
Alfonso of Castile at Alarcos, 195 ;
growth of the Mahometan power in
Spain under, ib.
Jagellon, Duke of Lithuania, marries
Hedwig, Queen of Poland, 230 ; his
conversion, ib.
Jamaica, English conquest of, 287
James the Conqueror, King of Aragon,
reign of, 195
James V. of Scotland, death of, 263
James I. of England (VI. of Scotland),
union of England and Scotland under,
264 : his foreign policy, ib.
James II. of England, reign and abdi-
cation of, 285, 288
James Franks Edward Stuart (<>M
Pretender), attempt of, abetted by
386
INDEX.
Lewi* XIV., 309 ; by Spain and
Sweden, ib.
Jamteland, annexed to Sweden, 265
anissaries, origin of, 225 ; decay of,
297 ; end of, 358
}assy, Treaty of, 319
ehangir, Mogul Emperor, grants a
Qiarter to the English, 298
Jena, battle of, 335
Jenghiz Khan, rise of the Moguls under,
196
Jerome Buonaparte, King of West-
phalia, 335
Jerome of Prague, burning of, 207
Jerusalem, taken by Pompeius, 75 ; de-
stroyed by Titus, 86 ; taken by the
Crusaders, 157 ; kingdom of, i/>.,
186 ; taken by Saladin, 187 ; won
back by Frederick II., ib. ; final
capture of, by the Chorasmians, 188 ;
end of the kingdom, ib.
Jesuits, order of, their foundation and
growth, 250 ; power of, ib. ; driven
out of Spain and Portugal, 313 ; sup-
pressed by Clement XIV., 315
Jews, a Semitic people, 7 ; religion of,
ib. ; subdued by Titus, 86 ; persecu-
tion of, in Spain, 244
Joachim Murat, King of Naples, 332
Joan of Arc, called the Maid of Orleans,
317
Joanna of Castile, 242 ; married to
Philip of Austria, ib.
Joanna I., Queen of Naples, 213
Joanna II., Queen of Naples, 213
John, Chrysostom, Saint, Patriarch of
Constantinople, 112
John XII., Pope, crowns Otto the
Great, 140
John XXII., Pope, quarrels of, with
Lewis of Havana, 903, 206
John XXIII., Pope, deposed, 207
John of Aragon, revolt of the Catalans
against, 228
John of Austria, Don, 258
John, King of Bohemia, killed at Crecy,
2O3, 2l6
John of England succeeds Richard,
181 ; loses Normandy, ib. ; quarrels
with Innocent the Third, i8a ; signs
the Great Charter, 184
John, King of France, taken prisoner at
Poitiers, 216
Joiin the Great, King of Portugal, 228
ohn VI., of Portugal, goes to Brazil,
338, 36'
John of Salisbury, 198
ohn, Duke of Bedford, Regent of '
France, 217
John the Fearl-ss, Duke of V \rgundy, ,
his murder, 23
John, Duke of Calabria, 228
John Tzimisk6s, Eastern Emperct,
murders N ; kephoros Phokas, 142
his *ars and victories iu the East, ib.
defeats the Russians, 143
John KomnSnos, Eastern Enperor, r
vival of the Empire under, ilig
John Vatatzes, Emperor at Nikaia, 190
oseph I., Emperor, reign and death of,
291
Joseph II., Emperor, his reign and re-
forms, 308
Joseph Buonaparte, King of Spain, 333
Juarez, President of Mexico, 365 ; Maxi-
milian killed by, ib.
Jugurtha, conquered by Marius, 73
Julian, Caesar under Constaniius, 96 :
campaigns in Gaul, ib.; his restora-
tion, 96 ; reign and death, 97 ; pagan-
ism, 98
Julius II., Pope, his share in the League
of Cambray, 245 ; his Holy League,
ib. ; his alliance with the Swiss, ib.
his policy, 249
Justinian, Emperor, reign of, 113 ; his
buildings and code of- laws, if.', ex-
tent of the Empire under, 114
Jutes, a Low-Dutch tribe, 109 ; found
the kingdom of Kent, no
Juvenal, 84
K.
Kainardji, Peace of, 319
Kamel, Egyptian Sultan, gives up Jeru-
salem to Frederick II., 187
Kaminiec, won back to Poland by Au-
gustus the Strong, 297
Karl, see Charles
Karlings, Frankish dynasty of, in Ger-
many and Gaul, 121, 122 ; end of. in
Germany, 130 ; end of, in Western-
Frankish kingdom, 132
Karolingia, kingdom of, 129, 131, 140
Kasan, Mogul, 197 ; Russian conquest
of, 266, 267
Kent, kingdom of, founded by the
Jutes, no, 132; the first Christian
kingdom of the English, 133
Kephallenia, Roman conquest of, 65
Kettler, Gotthard, Grand Master of
Livonia, his cessions to Poland, 266
Kiev, Lithuanian conquest of, 197
" King of France," title of English
Kings, 216
Kings, ways of appointing, 167 ; in-
crease of their power, 237
Kingship, common among Aryan na-
tions, 27, 163 ; ^mdiially abolished i*
Greece, 28 ; abolished in Hum'!, 5 ^
INDEX.
38?
Momenes, King of Sparta, greatness
of Sparta under, 46 ; defeated by the
Macedonians and Achaians, ib.
Kleopatra, Queen of Egypt, her influ-
ence over Antonius, 79 ; her death,
ib.
Koln, its Archbishops and Electors,
170 ; French annexation of, 334
Komnenos, Byzantine dynasty, 156
Koran, the, 17
Korkyra, 24 ; submits to Rome, 63
Kossuth, 357
Kynoskephale, battle of, 64
Kyrene, 24
Labourdqnnais, French Governor of
Mauritius, 320
Lamian war, the, 42
languages, Aryan, their common ori-
gin, 3, 4 ; Romance, 106 ; Teutonic
or Dutch, 108 ; use of, in the Middle
Ages, 152, 231 ; growth of the study
of, 182
Laon, capital of the Karlings, 131
Laps, remnant of non-Aryan people in
Europe, 8, 168
La Rochelle, 256
Latin, use of the word in 13th century,
190
Latin language, classical writers in,
82 ; groundwork of the Romance
tongues, 106; use of, dies out in
Eastern Empire, 171 ; continued in
the West, 173
Latin franchise, 58
Latin provinces of the Roman Empire,
distinction of, from Greek and Ori-
ental, 8 1, 82
Latins, 51 ; their league of Thirty cities,
52 ; their alliance and wars with
Rome, 56, 57
Lauenburg, Duchy of, joined to Den-
mark, 342
Lausanne, Bisphoprick of, annexed by
Bern, 260
Law of nations, 279
Leagues, nature of, 26; in later Greece,
44, if> ; in ancient Italy, 52, 53
framing in the East, 171 ; in the West,
172 ; .revival of, in Italy, 208, 209 ; in
i3th, i4th, and isth centuries, 231 ;
promoted by Leo X., 249 ; in i6th
and I7th centuries, 278, 279 ; decline
of, in Thirty Years' War, ib.; in i8th
century, 302, 326 ; revival of, in Ger-
many, 347
Leipzig, battle of, 332
Leo III., Tope, crowns Charles the
Great, 123
Leo X., Pope, his alliance with Charles,
246 ; his policy and encouragement ol
learning, 243
Leo the Isaunan, Emperor, defeats the
Saracens, 120 ; Inconoclast contro-
versy under, ib.; decline of the Im-
perial power in Italy under, 121
Leon, its growth and union with Cav
tile, 154, 162, 195
Leonidas, King of Sparta, killed at
Thermopylai, 33
Leopold I., Emperor, alliance of, with
the United Provinces, 284 ; reign of,
390; gives up Hungary to his son
Joseph, 291
Leopold II., Emperor, ^08 ; his pre-
vious rule as Grand Duke of Tus-
cany, 314
Leopold, Duke of .Austria, defeated at
Morgarten, 317
Leopold of Austriu, defeated at Sem-
pach, 221
Leopold, King of Belgium, 361
Lepanto, defeat of the Turks at, 243,
269
Lepidus, Marcus j*Emtlius, 79
Leuktra, defeat of the Spartans at, 37
Lewis I. (the Pious), Emperor, 128 ;
divisions of the Empire under, ib.
Lewis, the German, extent of his king-
dom, 129
Lewis II., Emperor, his reign in Italy,
129
Lewis the Child, last of the Karlings
in Germany, 130
Lewis IV., Emperor, his disputed
election, 203 ; his deposition, ib. ; his
alliance with Edward III. of Eng-
land, 215
Lewis IV., King of the West-Franks,
133
Lewis V., last of the Western Karlings,
133
Lewis VI., of France, 181
Lewis VII., of France, 181 ; goes on
the Second Crusade, 186
Lewis VIII., of France, the English
crown offered to, by the Barons, 183
Lewis IX. (Saint), of France, 183
growth of the kingdom under, 183 ;
his crusades and death, 188
Lewis XI. of France, his annexation
of Provence, 218
Lewis XII., his Italian wars, 245 ; his
death, 246 ; his marriage with Anne
of Britanny, 253 ; his reign in France,
254
Lewis XIII., 246 ; his death, 270
Lewis XIV., accession of, 270, 883 :
his seizure of Orange, 272 ; his char-
acter and absolute dominion, 383,
3 88
INDEX.
311; his wars and annexations, 284,
85 ; bis devastation of the Palati-
nate, to.; his persecution of the
Protestants, 286 ; revokes the Edict
of Nan:es, ii>.; his intrigues with
Charles II., 288 : recognizes the
claims of the Old Pretender, 309
Lewis XV. of France, his reigu and
wars, 306, 311
Lewis XVI. of France, his reign and
execution, 337, 328
I/ewis XVIII. of France, his restora-
tion and reign, 333, 350
Lewis the Great, King of Hungary and
Poland, 330
Lewis II. of Hungary, killed at Mo-
hacs, 268
Lewis Buonaparte, King of Holland,
339
Ligiiitz, battle of, 196
Liguri.i, inhabitants of, 49; Roman
conquest of, 68
Lincoln. Abraham, President of United
States, 366 ; murder of, ib,
Lithuania, language of, 16, 193, 197 ;
its conversion, growth, and union
with Poland, 230
Literature, Roman, under the Empire,
85; early Teutonic, 172 ; Italian, be-
ginning of, 198, 308
Liudprand, King of the Lombards, 121
Livonia, conquest of, by the Teutonic
Knights, 171, 194 ; Swedish conquest
of, 295 ; given up to Russia, 296
Livy, 84
Lodi, seeks help from Frederick Bar-
barossa against M ilan, 177
Lollards, the followers of Wyckliffe, 232
Lombard League, 178 ; its wars with
Frederick Barbarossa, 178
Lombards, their conquests in Italy,
114; take Ravenna, 121; victories
of Pippin over, 122 ; conquered by
Charles the Great, ib.
Lombardy and Venice, kingdom of, 337
London, Plague of, 288 ; Great Fire of,
iA.
Lorraine, modern name of Lotharingia,
129 ; Duchy of, its relations to
Charles the Bold, 222 ; with France,
255 ; settled on Stanislaus, 306 ;
annexed to France, 312 ; part of
given back to Germany, 353
Lorraine, House of, its relations with
Austria, 306
Lothar I., Emperor, kingdom of, 128
Lothar II V Emperor, 176
Ix>tharingia, kingdom of, 129, 130
Lothringen, see Ixjrraine
Louis Philippe, King of the French,
reign ant! deposition of, 350
Louisiana, French colonization in, ao8 t
304 ; divided between England ana
Spain, 225
liw-Dutch, fee Dutch
Loyola, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuit*
250
Liibeck, Commonwealth of, 174; waj
of, with Denmark, 265 ; annexed to
France, 332, 336 ; joins the German
Confederation, ib,
Lucca, Duchy of, 337
Lucius Sextius, first Plebeian Consul,
56
Lucretius, 84
Luneville, Peace of, 330, 334
Luther, Martin, preaching of, 251 :
condemned at Worms, 252 ; follower!
of, ib. : his death, ib.
Luxemburg, Duchy of, 361
Lyt.Ua, kingdom of^ conquered by Cyrus,
3 2
Lykia, league of its cities. 41, 67
Lyons, Council of, 179 ; French an-
nexation of, 218
Lysandros, Spartan admiral, defeats the-
Athenians at Aigos-potamos, 35
M.
Macedonia, its inhabitants, 20; Greek
colonies in, 23 ; not at first counted as
Greek, 25, 38 ; its relations with its
Kings, 27 ; its rise under Philip, 38 ;
invaded by the Gauls, 42, 43 ; reck-
oned as a Greek state, 43 ; its wars
with Rome, 64, 65 : its dismember-
ment and final conquest, 65 ; Slavonic
settlements in, 143
MacMahon. Marshal, President of the
French Republic, 333
Madras, English settlement at, 299;
taken by the French, 320
Maecenas, Caius Cilnius, 84
Magnesia, defeat of Antiochos at, 66
Magyars, tee Hungarians
Mahmoud I., Sultan, 319
Mahmoud II., Sultan, 344, 358
Mahomet, born at Mecca, 116; spread
of his religion, 117
Mahomet II., Sultan, called the Con-
queror, 226 ; his siege and conquest
of Constantinople, ib ; his C'nquest
of Greece and Trebizonil, ^27 ; death
of, ib. ; defeated by Joliu Huniades,
231
Mahomet IV., Sultan, 297
Mahomet Alnohade, his defeat al
Tolosa, 195
Mahomet Ah, Pasha of F-sypt, 358
Mahra'.tas, revolt of the, 299
INDEX.
339
Mainz, its Archbishops and Electors,
170; French annexation of, 334
Majorian, Emperor, 102
Malta, given to the Knights of Saint
John, 268 ; Turkish siege of, ib. ;
English possession of, 341
Mamelukes, 344
Manfred, King of Sicily, crusades
preached against, 192 ; defeated and
slain by Charles of Anjou, 193
Mantineia, battle of, 38
Manuel Komnenos, Eastern Emperor,
his relations with Italy, 177, 178; his
defeat by the Turks, 189
Manzikert, battle of, 156
Marathon, battle of, 32
Mardonios, Persian General, defeated
at Plataia, 33
Margaret of Flanders, married to Philip,
Duke of 1'urgundy, 222
Margaret, Queen of Norway, union of
the Scandinavian kingdoms under, 229
Maria, Queen of Portugal and Brazil,
364, 365
Maria Theresa of Spain, marries Lewis
XIV., 283
Maria Theresa, Empress and Queen of
of Hungary, her marriage, 306; her
disputed succession, 307 ; her part in
the Seven Years' War, 308; in the
partition of Poland, 317
Marignano, battle of, 246
Marius, Caius, his wars with Jugurtha
and victories over the Teutones, 70,
73 ; his civil war with Sulla, 73, 74
Mark, 139
Markos of Keryneia, general of the
Achaian League, 45
Marlborough, Duke of, 286
Marseille, see Massalia
Martin V., Pope, 207
Mary, Duchess of Burgundy, 223;
marries Maximilian, 242, 250
Mary, daughter of Lewis of Hungary,
marries Siegmund, 230
Mary, Queen of Scots, her marriage,
reign, and beheading, 263
Mary I. of England marries Philip II.
of Spain, 262 ; loss of Calais under,
ib. ; restoration of the Pope's power
under, ib.
Mary II. of England, her marriage and
ftlecticn as Queen, 288
Maryland, 277 ; settlement of, 278
Massalia, Ionian colony, 24 ; alliance
with Rome, 69
Massinissa, King of Numidia, ally of
Rome against Carthage, 63
Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of Eng-
land, marries Henry V., 148 ; marries
Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, 153, 180
Matilda, daughter of Henry II., mar-
ries Henry of Saxony, 178
Matilda, daughter of Milcolm, marries
Henry I., 153
Matthew Paris, 198, 231
Matthias I., Emperor, 251
Maurice, Emperor, his wars with th
Avars, 115 ; murdered by Phocas, ib
Maurice of Orange, leader of the war in
the Netherlands, 258
Maximian, joint Emperor with Diocle-
tian. 93 !. his enforced abdication, ib. ;
persecution of the Christians under, 94
Maximilian I., King of the Romans,
marries Mary of Burgundy, 242, 250 ;
his share in the League of Cambray,
245 ; his death, 246 ; his new tides,
250 ; his reforms, 251
Maximilian II., Emperor, 251
Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 365
Mayence, see Mainz
Mayors of the Palace, 121
Mazarin, Cardinal, 270
Mecca, birthplace of Mahomet, 116
Medici, their power in Florence, 212 ,
their banishments and restorations,
245-248 ; established as Dukes, 248.
Medici, the elder Cosmo de', his power
at Florence, 212
Midici, Lorenzo, dc', his power at Flor-
ence, 212
Medici, Cosmo de', Duke of Florence and
Grand Duke of Tuscany, 344
Mediterranean Sea, the centre of the
three old continents, 10 ; Phoenician
and Greek colonies on, 23, 24
Megalopolis, foundation of, 38 ; joins
the Achaian League, 44
Merowingians, Prankish dynasty of, 121
Merwings, see Merowingians
Messene, Spartan conquest of, 30 ;
freed by Epaminondas, 38
Metz, Bishoprickcf, seized by Henry II.
of France, 254 ; given back to Ger-
many, 353
Mexico, Spanish conquest of, 276 ; rev-
olution in, 365
Michael Palaiologos, Eastern Emperor,
wins back Constantinople, 190
Michael Romanoff, Czar of Russia, 267
Middle Ages, application of the name,
x?4
Miguel, Don, of Portugal, 361
Milan, dwelling-place of the Western
Emperors, 93 : crowning place of tho
Emperors as Kings of Italy, 140 ; her
oppression of smaller cities, 177 ;
Duchy of, under the Visconti, aio;
under the House of Sforza, ib. ; sub-
mission of Genoa to, 211 ; conquest of,
by Lewis XII. of France, 245 ; ro
69
INDEX.
stored to House of .Sforza, 246; taken
by Francis I., ib. by Charles V.,
242 ; granted to his son Philip, 347 ;
part of its territory ceded to Savoy,
306 ; Napoleon Buonaparte crowned
at, 331 ; annexed by Austria, 337 ;
revolts against Austria, 355
Miletos, flourishing period of, 27
Military Orders, 171, 186
Mill, a common Aryan word, 5
Milosh, Obrenowitch, revolt of Servia
under, 343
Miltiades, Athenian General, defeats
the Persians at Marathon, 33
Minnesingers, 198
Minorca, taken by the English, 289 ;
restored to Spain, 310
Mithridates, King of Pontos, his war
with Rome, 74 : defeated by Sulla in
Greece, 75 ; his final defeat, ib.
Moguls, their invasions and conquests,
196 ; their religion, ib, ; their dynas-
ties at Kasan and in Persia, 107 ;
overthrow the Caliphate and the Sel-
juk Turks, ib.
Mohacs, battle of, 268
Moldavia, union of, with Poland, 296 ;
Russian influence in, 320; beginning
of Greek war of independence in, 357 ;
its union with Wallachia, 359
Monstrelet, his history of the Hundred
Years' War, 231
Montenegro, its relations with Turkey, I
Morad, see Amurath
Morat, battle of, 223
Morgarten, battle of, 220
Monscos, driven out of Spain, 244
Morosini, Francesco, conquers Pelopon-
ncsos, 294 ; chosen Doge, ib.
Moscow, capital of Russia, 230
Mtimmius, Lucius, destroys Corinth, 65
Murat, Joachim, King of Naples, 332
Murten, see Morat
Mustapha III., Sultan, 310
Mykalfi, Persians defeated at, 33
Mykene, its early greatness, 20
N.
Nabis, Tyrant of Sparta, 64
Najara, see Navarete
Nancy, battle of, 323
Nantes, Edict of, its revocation, 286
Naples, kingdom of, its separation frotn
Sicily, 193 ; disputes for its succes-
uoii, 213 ; conquered by Ferdinand
of Ai agon, 242, 245 ; reigu of Joachim
Mural, 331
Narbonnr, conquered by Saracen^
118
N arses, finally subdues the Goths, 1 14
Narva, battle of, 295
National Assembly of France, 338 ; dlt
solution of, 351
National Convention of France, 329
Navarete, battle of, 228
Navarino, battle of, 358
Navarre, kingdom of, conquered bj
Ferdinand of Aragon, 243
Nelson, Lord, 331
Nero, Emperor, deposition and dea.il
of, 85
Nerva, Emperor, 87
Netherlands, their connexion with But
gundy, 222, 223 ; with Spain, 242 ;
their revolt, 243, 257 ; Spanish pro-
vinces transferred to Austria, revolts
in, 319 ; annexed to France, -434, 339:
kingdom of, 339 ; separation 01
Southern provinces from, 361
Neufchatel, its connexion with Prussia,
290
New Amsterdam, capital of New Nether-
lands, 30 ; see New York
New England, colony of, founded, 877,
278.
New Jersey, colony of. founded, 301
New Netherland, Dutch colony of, 278 i
annexes Delaware Bay, 300 ; English
conquest of, 301
New Orleans founded, 301
New Rome, see Constantinople
New York, origin of, 301
Nice, see Nikaia and Nizza
Nicholas, Emperor of Russia, 359
Nicolas V., Pope, 213
Nikaia, council of. 97 ; capital of the
Seljuk Turks, 156 ; Empire of, too.
Nikephoros. Phokas, Eastern Emiwror,
wins back Crete, 142 ; murder of,
ib.
Nikomedeia, capital of Diocletian, 93
Nikopolis, battle of, 231
Ninwegen, Peace of, 284
Nizza, Turkish siege of, 269; annexe J
to France, 352
Norman Conquest, effects of, on En^
land and France, 151
Normans, conquests in Italy and Sicily,
55
Normandy, foundation of the Duchy of
'36. 137 ; its growth, 150 ; Frend
conquest of, 181.
Northmen, their settlements, 134, 136.
North-German Confederation, the, 354
Nova Scotia, origin of, 301
Novara, battle of, 355
Novgorod, becomes a republic 193
Nushirvan, set Chosroes
INDEX.
39*
o.
Ootavius, see Augustus
Odyssey, see Homeric Poems
Odenathus, reign of, at Palmyra, 90
Odo, Count cf Paris, King of the West
Franks, 130 ; does homage to Arnulf,
ib. ; defends Paris against the North-
men, 136
Odoacer, reign of, in Italy, 103
Olaf, King of the Northmen, his war in
England, and conversion, 144
Oliva, Treaty of, 295
Olynthos, conquered by Philip, 39
Omar, Caliph, 117
Ommiads, dynasty of, at Damascus,
125 ; at Cordova, 126
Orange, Principality of, 257 ; seized by
Lewis XIV., 272
Orchomenos, victory of Sulla at, 75
Orleans, siege of, raised by Joan of
Arc, 217
Orleans, Regent Duke of, 309
Oscans, 51
Ostend, siege of, 258
Othman, Caliph, 125
Othman gives his name to the Ottoman
Turks, 224
Otho, Emperor, 86
Otho of Bavaria, King of Greece, driven
out, 358
Otranto, taken by the Turks, 227
Otto the Great, defeats the Magyars,
139 ; subdues Berenger, King of
Italy, 140 ; crowned Emperor, ib. ;
death of, 141 ; marries Edith, daugh-
ter of Edward the Elder, 144
Otto II., Emperor, his wars with the
Danes, 141
Otto III., Emperor, called the Wonder
of the World, 141
Otto IV., Emperor, 179
Ottocar IV., Emperor, King of Bohe-
mia, 202
Ottoman Turks, beginning and growth
of their dominion, 225, 243 ; their ad-
vance in Europe, 225 ; their levy of
tribute-children, ib. ; take Constanti-
nople, 226 ; take Otranto, 237 ; their
defeat at Lepanti 243, 269 ; greatness
of, under Suleiman the Law-giver,
a68, 269 ; their wars with Persia, 268;
with Hungary and the Empire, 290,
291 ; with Venice, 293, 294 ; with
Poland, 296; their decline, 297,319,
343 ; their wars with Russia, 347, 343.
344) 358, 359 ; revolts of subject na
tions aga~.ns% 343, 357 ; wars with
France, 3* ^ ; with Egypt, 358
Ovid, 84
OnfurJ, rise >f the University, 198
P.
Paganus, meaning of the word, 98
Palaiologos, dynasty of, 191
Palmyra, kingdom of, destroyed by
Aurelian, 90
Palatine, first Roman settlement on, 53
Palatinate, ravaged by Lewis XIV., 285
Paoli, the, leaders of the Corsican revolt
from Genoa, 312
Papists, origin of the name, 241
Paris, capital of the Duchy of France,
131 ; of the kingdom of France, 132 ;
siege of, 136 ; rise of the University,
198 ; peace of, 310 ; taken by th
Allies, 332 ; German siege of, 352
Parliament, English, 184, 185
Parliament of Paris, humiliation of, by
Lewis XIV., 283
Parthenon, 294
Parthia, kingdom of, founded by
Arsakes, 64 ; wars with Rome, 75, 87,
90 ; revolt of the Persians from, 90
Passarowitz, Peace of, 291, 294
Patrician, tide of, 122
Patricians at Rome, 55. 71, 72
Paul IV., Pope, war of Philip II. with,
2 43
Paul, Emperor of Russia, murdered,
342
Paullus, Lucius ./Emilius, defeats the
Macedonians at Pydna, 6;
Pavia, battle of, 246
Pedro, King of Aragon, defeated by
Simon of Montfort, 192
Pedro of Aragon, King of the Island cf
Sicily, 193
Pedro the Cruel, King of Castile, ex-
pulsion and restoration of, 227, 228
Pedro, Dom, Emperor of Brazil, 319 ;
King and Regent of Portugal, 360
Pedro, II., of Hrazil, 366
Peisistratos, Tyrant of Athens, 29
Pelopidas, greatness of Thebes under,
Peloponnesian War, 34
Peloponngsos, Turkish conquest of, 227;
Venetian conquest of, 294 ; recon-
.quered by Turks, ib.
Pennsylvania, colony of, founded, 301
Penn, William, colonizes Pennsylvania,
301
Pergamos, kingdom of, 41, 66 ; its great-
ness under Eumenes, 67 ; becomes a
Roman province, ib.
Perikles, his greatness at Athens, 34 :
effect of his influence on the govern-
ment, ib.
Perseus, King of Macedonia, 65
Persia, growth of, under Cyrus, 31 ;
wars and alliance with the Greek*
39 2
INDEX.
33-35 ; revival of, under Artaxcrxes,
90; wars with Rome, 93, 112, 184;
greatness of, under the two Chosrocs,
114, 115; victories of Heraclius over,
116; Saracen conquest of, 119; rise
of Turkish dynasties in, 156 ; Mogul
dynasty in, 197 ; beginning of the
modern kingdom, 268 ; wars with the
Ottomans, ib.\ with Russia, 342
Persians, their Aryan origin, 9, 31
Peru, Spanish conquest of, 276
Peter, King of Aragon, Castile, and
Portugal, see Pedro
Peter the Hermit, preaches the First
Crusade, 157
Peter the Great, rise of Russia under,
315 ; his title and policy, 316
Peter III. of Russia, murder of, 316
Pharsalos, battle of, 78
Philip II. of Macedonia, rise of Mace-
donia under, 38 ; conquers Olynthos,
39 ; his supremacy in Greece, and.
death, ib.
Philip V. of Macedonia, his wars with
Rome, and defeat at Kynoskephale,
**
Philip Augustus of France, his crusade,
181, 187 ; annexes Normandy, 181 ;
\s ins the battle of Bouvines. 182
Philip the Fair of France, founds the
Estates of France, 184 ; his quarrel
with Boniface VIII., 205 ; subservi-
ence of the Popes to, to. ; destroys
the Templars, 205 ; seizes Aquitaine,
ai ; annexes Lyons, 218
Philip 1. of Castile, his descent and
marriage, 242
Philip II. of Spain, 241 : his persecu-
tion of the Moors, 244 ; marries Mary
of England, 262
Philip III. of Spain, decline of the
Spanish power under, 243 ; expels
the Moriscos, 244
Philip IV. of Spain, loses Portugal,
243 ; his wars with France, ib.
Philip V. oi Spain, disputed succession
of, 286, 305
Philip of Valois, Duke of Burgundy,
marries Margaret of Flanders, 222
Philip the Good, Puke of Burgundy,
growth of the Duchy under, 223
Philip of Swabia, disputes the crown
with Otto of Saxony, 179
Philippi, battle of. 79
Philippine Islands, Spanish settlements
in, 274
PhilopoimSn, General of the Achian
League, 45,64
Phocas, Emperor, usurpation and death
of, 115
Phoenicians, their origin and colonies,
22 ; their relations to the Greek%
Picts, in Britain invade the Hi-man
province, 108
Piedmont French annexation of, 329 ;
recovered by King of Sardinia, 337;
Genoa joined to, ib. ; despotic gcv
eminent in, 338
Pippin, King Jf the Franks, his wars
with the Lombards, 122
Pisa,, subject to Florence, 116; con-
quers Sardinia, 154; its Ghibellinism,
177 : Council of, 207
Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 310
Pius II., his writings and attempted
crusade, 213
Pius VII., Pope, 337
Pius IX., Pope, 355, 356
Pizarro, Francesco, his conquest of Peru,
276
Plassy, battle of, 321
Plataia sends help to the Athenians at
Marathon, 32
Plebeians at Rome, their origin, 55; thei*
disputes with the Patricians, 56, 71
Podolia, given up to the Turks, 296
Poitiers, batde of, 215
Poland, rise of, 139 ; its conversion, 168,
193; Mogul invasion of, 196; its
union with Lithuania. 230 ; its great-
ness under the Jagellons, 265 ; its
wars with Sweden and Russia. 266,
207 ; its crown made purely elective,
af-6 ; its decline, 267, 296 : partitions
of, 317 ; new kingdom of, united 'o
Russia, 343 ; revolts of, against
Russia, 359. 360
Poles, Slavonic people, 15, 127
Polish Election, war of the, 306
Polybios, history of, 66
Pombal, Marquess of, 313
Pomerauia, shifting of territory in, be-
tween Sweden, Denmark, and Prus-
sia, 277, 206
Pompeius, Cnxus, his eastern wars, 75;
his civil war with Caesar, 77 ; his
defeat at Pharsalos and death, 78
Pondicherry, 321
Pontos, kingdom of, 42
Popes, beginning of their power, 120 ;
disputed elections of, 147, 178, 207 ;
their disputes with the Emperors,
148, 150 ; theory of their power, 179,
203, 206 ; their claim to dispose of
kingdoms, 185 ; seat of, removed to
Avignon. 205 ; brought back to Rome,
206 ; their position in the isth cen-
tury, 208 ; increase of their tempotdi
power, 212, 213, 248 ; discontent with,
238, 239, 250 ; their character tn tha
i6th century, 249, 250; end ot theii
INDEX.
393
authority in England, 262 ; their
character in the i8th century, 314 ;
end of tl eir temporal power, 356
Portugal, wars of her Kings with the
Mahometans, 195 , growth of her
power, 228 ; annexed to Spain, 243 ;
restoration of, ib. ; her settlements in
Africa and Indiaj 274 ; her share in
the war of the Spanish Succession,
292 ; attack of Spain and France on,
313 , expulsion of the Jesuits from,
ib. ; liberation of, 338 ; revolutions and
civil wars in, 361
Posen, Grand Duchy of, given back to
Prussia, 343
Pragmatic Sanction, the, 305
Pressburg, Treaty of, 334
Pretender, the Old, fee James Francis
Edward Stuart
Pretender, the Young, tee Charles Ed-
ward Stuart
Printing, invention of, 200
Protestant, origin of the name, 241,
252
Provence, origin of the name, 69 ;
county of, a fief of the Empire, 192 ;
held by Charles of Anjou, ib. ; French
annexation of, 218
Provinces, Roman, condition of, 61 :
Latin, Greek, and Oriental, distinc-
tion of, 8 1
Provincials, Roman, 61, 71
Prussia, Gregory IX. preaches a cru-
sade against, 194; conquered by the
Teutonic Knights, ib. ; Western Prus-
sia annexed to Poland, 230 ; Duchy
and kingdom of, 266 ; growth of, 290 ;
Silesia annexed to, 307 ; its share in
the partitions of Poland, 317 ; dis-
membered by Buonaparte, 332 ; war
with France, 352-354^ ; forms the Zoll-
verein, 353 ; revolutions in, ib. ; war
with Austria, 354 ; annexes Sleswick
and Holstein, 362
Ptolemies, kingdom of the, in Egypt, 41
Pultpwa, Charles XII. defeated at, 295
Punic, Latin form of Phoenician, 60
Pydna, battle of, 65
Pyrenees, Peace of the, 288
Pyrrhos, King of Epeiros, killed at
Argos, 43 ; helps the Tarentines
against Rome, 58 ; goes into Sicily,
59 ; defeated by the Romans at Bcn-
eventum, ib.
Q.
8uadmple Alliance, the, 305
uebec taken by the English, 329
Raleigh, Sir Walter, founds the colony
of Virginia, 277
Radstadt, treaty of, 286
Ravenna, Exarchate of, 120 ; taken by
the Lombards, 121 ; won back by
Pippin, 122 ; battle of, 245
Raymond, Count of Toulouse, crusade
preached against, 192
Reformation, the, chief causes of, 238,
239 : different forms of in different
countries, 240
Regulus, Marcus Atilius, 61
Reign of Terror, the, in France, 329
Ren^, Duke of Lorraine, helped by the
Swiss League, 223
Rene, King of Sicily, and Count of
Provence, 228
Rhine, the, boundary of the Roman
province of Gaul, 77 ; Confederation
of the, 334
Rhodes, commonwealth of, 42 ; held by
the_ Knights of St. John, 227 ; the
Knights driven out of, 268
Richard I. of England, his crusade, i8t,
187
Richard, Earl of Cornwall, elected King
of the Romans, 201
Richelieu, Cardinal, growth of the
royal power under, 256 ; his share in
the Thirty Years' War, 270
Rienzi, Cola di, his Tribuneship, 212
Robert, Duke of the French, his grant
to Rolf, 137
Robert, King of Naples, 213
Robert of Geneva, or Clement VII.,
anti-pope at Avignon, 206
Robert Wiscard, his conquests in
Southern Italy, 154
Robespierre, 329
Roger II., King of Sicily, 155 : league
of East and West against, 177
Roger Bacon, 198
Rolf, first Duke of die Nornams, his
settlement and baptism, 137
Roman Empire, greatest extent of the
Empire, 17 ; beginning of, 79 ; extent
of, So, 83 ; distinction of its Latin,
Greek, and Oriental provinces, 81 :
nature of its dominion, 82, 87 ; all its
inhabitants become Romans, 82, 89 ;
rule of, passes from the Caesarian
family, 86 ; Emperors chosen by the
army, 88 ; the Tyrants, 89 ; wars
with the Persians and Germans, 90,
91 ; threatened by the Goths, ib. ;
growth and persecutions of Chris-
tianity in, 92, 94 ; division of, under
Diocletian, 93 ; united under Con-
stantine, 94 ; capital fixed at Constan-
594
INDEX.
vie, 96; cnanges under Constan-
tine and his sons, ib. ; establishment
of ( Ihristianity in, 97, 99; various
forms of Christianity in, 98 ; Teu-
tonic settlements in, 99, 100 ; re-
united under Zeno, 104 ; continued in
the East, in, 113; its extent under
Justinian, 114 ; wars with Avars and
Persians, 115 ; with the Saracens,
22 ; decline of its power in Italy, 120 ;
its final division, 123, 124
Roman Law, see Civil Law
Roman Catholics, origin of the name,
241
Romance niti< ns, origin of, 105 ; his-
tory of their languages, 106, 172
Romansch, language, 107
Rome, the centre of European history,
16-18 ; her probable origin, 53 ;
character of her history, 53, 54, 55 ;
her kings, 54 ; dynasty of the Tar-
quinii, ib. ; the commonwealth, 55,
56; makes a treaty with Carthage,
56 , taken by the Gauls, ib. ; gradual
ronquest of Italy, 56, 59 ; war of, with
Pyrrhos, 58 ; condition of the Italian
States under, 59 : first wars with
Carthage, 60, 63 ; her provinces, 61 ;
takes Sardinia and Corsica, 62 ;
second war with Carthage, 63 ; her
first possessions beyond the Hadriatic,
ib. ; first and second wars with Mace-
donia, 64 ; conquest of /*Etolia, 65 ;
final conquest of Macedonia, ib. ; war
with Andochos, 66 ; her first province
beyond the ./Egean, 67 ; conquest of
Cisalpine Gaul, 67, 68 ; of Liguria
and Venetia, 68 ; of Spain, 68, 69 ;
her first province in Transalpine Gaul,
69, 70 ; invasions of the Cimbri and
:''>nes, 70; relations with Egypt,
71 ; her great power the cause of_her
final fall, ib. ; her constitution, ib. ;
internal disputes, 71, 72 ; revolt and
submission of the allies, 73, 74 ; first
civil war, 73 ; wars with Mithridates,
74, 75 : conquest of the kingdom of
Pontos, 75 ; conquest of Syria, ib. ;
first dealings with Parthia, ib. ; in-
ternal disputes, 76 ; conquest of
Transalpine Gaul, 76, 77 ; first deal-
ings with liritain, 77: civil wars, 77,
79 ; conquest of Egypt, 79 ; begin-
ning of the Empire, ib. \ her position
under the Emperors, 82 ; literature
and art of, 83 ; ceases to be the seat
of go /eminent, 93 ; taken by Alaric,
joi ; growth of the Papal power, 120,
148 ; decline of the Imperial power,
X2I ; threatened by the Iximbards,
ib. ; saved by Pippin, 122 ; separated
from the Eastern Empire, 123 .
crowning place of the \\\v,tern K'n-
perors, 125 ; return of the Poj.es to.
from Avignon, 206 : revolution ol
Rienzi at, 212 ; sack of, 247 ; held bv
the French, 355 ; the capital of unite!
Italy, 356
Rouen, settlement of Rolf at, 137
taken by Henry V. of England, 217
Rousillon, shiftings of, between Eranc
and Aragon, 228, 243, 272
". 3 2 5
Rudolf of Swabia, his election and
death, 148
Rudolf of Habsburg, elected King,
202; not crowned Emperor,//'.; hii
reign, '/;.; grants the Duchy of Au
tria to his son Albert, ib.
Rudolf II., Emperor, 251
Rudolf, last King of Burgundy, 147
Russia, state of, in the I3lh century,
193 ; subjection of, to the M
197 ; Lithuanian conquest of the
Western provinces of, ib. ; deliverance
of, from the Moguls, 230 ; growth of,
266, 267 ; her conquest ot Siberia,
2 74 : greatness of, under Peter the
Great, 315, 316 ; her conquest of
Crim Tartary, 316 ; share of, in the
partitions of Poland, 317 ; her an-
nexations of Carelia, ib. ; dealings
with the nations subject to the Turks,
319, 320, 324 ; Buonaparte's invasion
ot, 332 ; wars with Sweden, Tur-
key, and Persia, 342, 350 ; French in-
vasion of, 343 ; kingdom of Poland
united with, ib.\ her new Euroj.u.m
position, 358 ; revolts of the Poles
against, 359, 360 ; abolition of serfage
in, 360
Russians, a Slavonic people, invada
the Eastern Empire, 143 ; defeated
by John Tzimiskes, ib.; conversion
Of, to Christianity, 145
Ryswick, Peace of, 285
S.
aguntum, taken by Hannibal, fa
Saint Domingo, see Hayti
Saint Helena, Buonaparte banished to,
3.33
Saint John, knights of, tee Hospital-
lers
saint Petersburg, foundation of, 315
saint Qucntin, battle of, 254
Saint Sophia, church of, built by Ju
tiniiin, 113
Saladm puts down the pcwcr of thf
Fatiiniic.., 187; ukes Jerusalem, it
INDEX.
395
Salamis, battle of, 33
Saluzzo, joined to Savoy, 261
Samnites, their wars with Rome, 57 ;
join the Marian party, 73 ; finally
conquered by Sulla, 74
San Marino, Commonwealth of, 174,
248, 337
Saracens, rise of, 116 ; accept the doc-
trine of Mahomet, 117; their con-
quests from the Empire and the Goths,
118 ; driven out of Gaul, 119 ; di-
vision of their Empire, ib. ; their con-
quest of Persia, ib.; repulsed from
Constantinople, 120
Sardinia, its ancient inhabitants, 49 ;
its relations to Carthage and Rome,
59, 62 ; recovered from the Saracens
by Pisa, 154 ; reconquered by Spain,
305 ; Dukes of Savoy become Kings
of, 305 ; rule of the Carignano dynasty
i") 355 : wars of, with Austria, ib.,
356
Sassanides, dynasty of, in Persia, 90
Savoy, Counts and Dukes of, 219, 259 ;
their relations with Switzerland, 260 ;
their loss and gain of territory, 261;
growth of their power, 292, 306, 314 ;
become Kings of Sicily, 293, compari-
son of Savoy and Sweden, 296 ;
become Kings of Sardinia, 305 ; neu-
trality of the northern part guaranteed,
34> 352 ; annexed to France, 352
Saxons, their invasion and settlement
in Britain, 109, no; their settlements
in Gaul, 109 ; the English so-called
by the Celts, ib.
Saxons, Old, conquered and converted
by Charles the Great, 127; revolt
against Henry IV., 148
Saxony, Duchy of, broken up, 178 ;
alliance of, with Prussia, 335 ; electo-
rate and kingdom of, ib.
Scandinavia, conversion of, 145, 168 ;
union of the kingdoms of, 229 , wars
of, with the Hanseatic League, ib.
Schaffhausen, canton of, formed, 260
Schwyz gives its name to the League,
220
Scipio, Lucius Cornelius, defeats An-
tiochos at Magnesia. 66
Scipio. Publius Cornelius, defeats Han-
nibal at Zama, 62
Scipio, Publius Cornelius ^Kmilianus,
takes Carthage, 63 ; takes Numan-
tia, 69
Scotland, settlement of the Northmen
in, 134 ; position of the Kingdom,
163 ; dealings of, with England and
France in the I4th century, 214, 215 ;
her independence acknowledged,
214 ; Reformation in, 240, 263 her
Kings become Kings of England,
264 ; union of, with England, 287 ;
effects of the Revolution in, 288 ; fin-
al union with England, 289
Scots in Ireland and Northern Britain,
108 ; invade the Roman Province
133 ; their early relations to the
English, 135; serve "in French
armies, 215
Seleukids, extent and decline of. the!/
kingom, 41, 46
Sehikos, his kingdom, 41
Selim the Inflexible, Sultan, conquests
of, 268
Selim II., Sultan, 269 ; Sclim III., Sul-
ton, 343 ! murder of, 344
Seljuk Turks, rise, growth and decay
of their power, 155, 156
Semitic nations, their history, 7 : then
influence on religion, ib.
Sempach, battle of, 221
Senlac see, Hastings,
Septimania, see Narbonne
Serfage, general abolition of, in 346;
Russia, ib., 359
Sertorius, revolt of, in Spain, 72
Servia. Turkish conquest of, 225 ; re
volts and independence of, 343, 357
Seven Weeks' War, the, 354
Seven Years' War. the, 308
Severus, Alexander, Emperor, 89;
his wars with Persia, 90
Severus, Septimius, Emperor, 88
Seville, won back from the Mohame
tans by Ferdinand III., 195
Sforza Francesco, Duke of Milan, 210
Shah Ismael, founder of the Sophis in
Persia, 268
Shah Jehan, Mogul Emperor, 399
Siberia, Russian conquest of, 274
Sicily, its inhabitants, 20, 25 ; Phocni
cian and Greek settlements in, 23,
24 ; their wars, 24, 59 ; origin of its
name, 51 ; Pyrrhos helps the Greeks
against the Carthaginians, 59 ; bat-
tle-field of the Aryan and Semitic
races, 60 ; becomes a Roman prov-
ince, 61, 62 ; Saracen conquest oi
126 ; Norman conquest of, 155 ;
kingdom of, ib. ; union with the
Empire, 178; reign of Frederick II.
in, 179 : conquered by Charles of
Anjou, 193 ; revolt and separation
of the island, ib. ; united to Aragon,
214, 228; to Savoy, 293 ; reunited,
to Naples, 306, 314 ; delivered by
Garibaldi, 356
Siculi, give their name to Sicily, 51
Siegtnund, Emperor, his dominions,
20;: his real fur ecclesiastical ie-
fouualwn, 204, 207; mairics .VJari
INDEX.
of Hungary, 330 ; defeated by Ba-
jazet at Nikopolis, 331
Siegmund, Duke of Austria, 223
Sienna, annexed to the Duchy of
Florence, 248
Sigismund I., of Poland, abolishes
the Teutonic order, 266
Silesia conquered by Frederick the
Great, 307
Sikyon, joins the Achaian League, ib.
Simon of Monlfort the elder, his
crusade against Toulouse, 192
Simon of Montfort, Earl of Leicester,
his constitution of Parliament, 184,
185 ; killed at Evesham, 185
Sixtus IV., Pope, 213
Sixtus V., Pope, reign of, 250
Slave, meaning of the word, 15
Slaves, third Aryan swarm in Central
Europe, 15 ; dealings of the German
kings with, 38 ; their settlements in
the Eastern Empire, 142, 143 ; their
conversion to Christianity, 143 ; re-
volts of, against the Turks, 319, 324
Slavery, abolition of, in British colonies,
366; in United States, 366
Sleswick, Duchy of, its relations with
Denmark, 229, 318, 366 ; annexed to
Prussia, ib.
Smalcaldic League, the, 252
Sobieski, John, King of Poland, de-
livers Vienna from the Turks, 291 ;
his election, 206 ; his Turkish vic-
tories, ib. ; his death, 297
Solon, lawgiver of Athens, 30 ; his
poems, 31
Sophis, dynasty of, In Persia, 268
Sophocles, 34
Spain, remains of non-Aryan people in,
8, 13, 68 ; its geographical character,
ii ; Celtic settlements in, 13, 68 ;
Phoenician and Greek settlements in,
23, 24, 68 ; Carthaginian dominion
in, 62 ; Roman conquest of, 62, 68,
69, 83 ; Gothic kingdom in, 101, 103,
105 ; settlement of the Vandals in,
104 ; growth of the Romance language
in, 106; southern part won back to
the Empire, 114; conquered by the
Saracens, 118 ; growth and decline of
their power, 154 ; end of the Western
Caliphate in, ib. : advance of the
Christian states, 162 ; growth of new
Mahometan dynasties in, 195 ; end
of the Mahommetan power, 241 ;
under Ferdinand and Isabel, 242 ;
under Charles the Fifth, ib. ; decline
under his successors, 243, 244 ; ex-
pulsion of the Moriscos, 244 ; rivalry
with France, ii. ; wars with Elizabeth
of England, 263 ; with France, 27*
her colonies, 274, 276 : aggression*
of Lewis XIV. on, 283 ; disput u ai
to her succession, 292 ; temporary
revival of her power, 305, 313 ; alli-
ance with France against England
and Portugal, 313 ; expulsion ol
Jesuits from, ii.; dealings of Buona-
parte with, 338 ; Peninsular war,
il>,', later revolutions and civil wan
in, 360
Spanish Succession, war of the, 285
Sparta, her conquest of MessSne, 30 :
joins with Athens against Xerxes.
33 ; helps to defeat Mardomos at
Plataia, it.; war of, with Athens,
34 ; gives help to Syracuse, 34 ; over-
comes Athens, it. ; her supremacy in
Greece, 36 ; makes war upon Persia,
it.; wars with Athens and Thebes,
37; destroys Olynthos, it.; in alli-
ance with Athens, 38 ; wars with the
Achaian League, 46
Speyer, Diet of, 252
Spice Islands, Dutch settlements, 208 ;
massacre of Englishmen in, ib.
Spinola, Marques, his siege of Ostend,
258
Stadholder, office of, 294 ; abolished.
294, 295
Stanislaus Leszczynski made King ol
Poland by Charles XII., 297 ; his
second election, 306 ; Duchy of Ix>r-
rain settled on. it.
States General of France becomes the
National Assembly, 328
Stephen III., Pope, asks help of Pippin,
122
Stilicho, Roman general, checks th
West-Goths, 101
Stralsund, siege of, 295
Strassburg seized by Lewis XIV., 284
Suleiman the Lawgiver, Sultan, be-
sieges Vienna, 252 ; wars and con-
quests of, 268, 269
Suliots defend their independence
against the Turks, 344
Sulla, -
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, his civil war
with Marius, 73 ; his dictatorship,
74 ; his victories in Greece overMitn-
ridates, 75
Suraj-ad-dowla takes Calcutta, 321 :
defeated at Plassy, it.
Surat, first English settlement at, 299
Sweden, separated from Denipark,
264 ; her wars with Poland, 266 ; her
share in the Thirty Years' War, and
relations to the Empire, 271 ; be-
comes an absolute monarchy, 295 ;
greatest extent of her power, ib.:
compared with Savoy, 296 ; her lost
cf power and territory, 117 ; union
INDEX.
39)
of Norway with, 342 ; reforms in,
363
Swegen, son of Harold Blaatand, his
apostasy, conquest of England, and
death, 144
Sweyn, see Swegen
Swiss, serve in foreign armies, 223 ;
their infantry, 232 ; their defeat at
Mangnana, 246
Swiss Confederation, the, 340
Swiss League, beginning of the, 219;
its extension, 220 ; relation of, to the
Empire, France, and Austria, ib.;
war of, with Charles the Bold, 223 ;
effects of the Burgundian war on,
ib.; growth of its power, 259; see
Switzerland
Switzerland, beginning and growth of
the League, 219, 220 ; origin of the
name, ib. ; their relations to Austria
and the Empire, ib. ; the Burgun-
dian war and its effects, 223 ;
growth of the Confederation in,
259 ; annexations of, ib. ; admission
of the new Cantons, ib. ; the Refor-
mation in, 260 ; relations with the
Dukes of Savony, ib. ; formal ac-
knowledgement of her independence,
271 ; relations to the French Re-
public and Empire, 330; the Helve-
tic Republic and act of mediation,
339 ; the Swiss Confederation, 340 ;
war of the Catholic and Protestant
cantons in, 362 ; establishment and
reform of the Federal constitution in,
ib.
Swords, Knights of, joined with the
Teutonic Knights, 194
Sybaris, flourishing period of, 27
Syracuse, flourishing period of, 27;
Athenian siege of, 35 ; its Tyrants,
59 ; taken by the Romans, 62
Syria, Seleukid kingdom of, 67 ; Roman
conquest of, 75 ; Saracen conquest of,
118 ; Ottoman conquest of, 268
T.
Tacitus, 84, 87
Tangier, English possession of, 289
Taras, see Tarentum
Tarquinii, dynasty of, at Rome, 54
Tartars, the, see Moguls
Tarentum, Greek city of, asks help of
I'yrrhps, 58
Tasmania, English colonization in, 289
Templars, military order, foundation of,
171 ; chief strength of the kingdom
of Jerusalem, 186; uppression of,
05, 206
Temujin, see Jenghiz Khan
Teutones, their invasion of Gaul ana
defeat by Marius, 70
Teutones, second Aryan swarm in West-
ern Europe, 14; their settlements in
the Empire, 99, 160
Teutonic Constitution, changes in, 164
Teutonic Knights, military order, theil
establishment in Prussia and Livonia,
171, 194 ; defeated by the Moguls al
Lignitz, 196 ; their wars with Poland,
230, 265 ; abolished. 266
Texas, annexed to the United States,
79, 366
Thebes, chief city of Boeotia, 26 ; helps
Xerxes, 33 ; in alliance with Sparta,
34 ; joins the confederacy againsl
Sparta, 37 ; her greatness and wars
with Sparta, 37, 38 ; joins Athena
against Philip, 39 ; her revolt and
destruction under Alexander, ib.
Themistokles, commands Athenian fleet
at Salamis, 33
Theodisc, meaning of the word, 15
Theodore Laskares, Emperor at Ni-
kaia, 190
Theodoric, King of the East-Goths,
his reign in Italy, 104 ; extent of his
dominions, 105
Theodoric, King of the West-Goths,
killed at Chalons, 102
Theodosius the Great, extinction of
paganism under, 99 ; his reign and
penance, 101
Theognis of Megara, his poems, 31
Theophano, sister of Basil II., marries
Otto II., 143
Thermopylai, battle of, 33 ; defeat ol
Antiochos at, 65
Thessalonica, massacre of the inhabi-
tants of, ioi
Thessaly, its inhabitants, 20, 25
Thiers, M., President of the French
Republic, 353
Thirty Years' War, the, 269, 271
ThucydidSs, his history of the Pelo-
ponnesian War, 34
Tiberius, Emperor, reign of, 84, 85
TigranSs, King of Armenia, subdued
by the Romans, 77
Tilly, his share in the Thirty Years'
War, 240
Tilsit, Peace of, 335
Timour, rise of, 225 ; defeats Bajazet
at Angora, 226 ; death of, ib.
Titus, Emperor, destroys Jerusalem,
86 ; succeeds Vespasian, ib. ; hit
popular name, ib.
Togrel Beg, founds the Seljuk dynasty,
helps the Caliph Al Kayem, 156
Toledo, 'won back by Alfonso VI., 154
.393
INDEX.
Tolusa, battle of, 195
1'oul, Uishoprick of, annexed to France,
254
Toulouse, capital of the West-Gothic
kingdom, 103 ; crusades against, and
annexed to France, 183, 191, 192
Tours, battle of, 119
Towns, growth of, 173
Ttifalgar, battle of, 340
Trajan, Emperor, 87 ; his conquests,
87,88
Trapezous, see Trebizond
Xrebizond, Greek Empire of, 190 ;
outlives the Kmpire of Constanti-
nople, 191 ; conquered by Mahomet
II., 227
Trent, Council of, 250
Tr&ves, see Trier
Trier, dwelling place of the Western
Gesar, 93 ; its Archbishops, and
Electors of the Empire, 170; French
annexation of, 334.
Triple Alliance, its object, 288
Troyes, Treaty of, 217
Tunis, taken by Charles V., 269
7'urart, meaning of the word, 8
Turanian nations, their position in
Europe and Asia, 8 ; their later set-
tlements in Europe, is
Turenne, his part in the Thirty Years'
War, 271
Turkey, see Ottoman Empire
Turks, their settlement in Kurope, 16 ;
when first heard o 115 ; see Ottoman
and Seljuks
Tyrants, meaning of die word, 28, 78 ;
in Greece, 29, 32 ; in Sicily, 20, 31, 59
Tyre, taken by Alexander the Great, 40
Tyrtaios, his poems on the wars of Sparta
and MessenS, 30
U.
UlfUas, Bishop, preaches Christianity
to the Goths, 100 ; his translation of
the Bible, ib.
Ulrica, Queen of Sweden. 295
I'inbrians, 51
I 'nited Provinces, their union, 284 ;
their independence formally acknowl-
edged, 284, 271 ; their power, 259,
294 ; their wars with France, 2585 259,
295 ; witli England, 287, 288 ; join the
Triple Alliance against France, ib. :
high position of, in Europe, 294 ; the
Stadholdership made hereditary, 318:
their decay, ib. ; the Hatavian Re-
public, 339 ; the Kingdom of the
Netherlands, 352
United Stau-s, 310 ; their union and iu-
pendence. 322 ; formation of nc
states, 345 ; purchase of Louisiana
by, ib. abolition of slavery in the
Northern States, ib. ; annexation o(
Texas, 366 ; secession ami re-con-
quest of the Southern States, ib. ;
final abolition of slavery, ib.
Universities, growth of, 231 ; college*
founded in, ib.
Unterwalden, Canton of, 219
Urban II., Pope, holds the Council of
Clermont, 157
Urban IV., Pope, offers the crown o<
Sicily to Charles of Anjou, 192
Urban VI., Pope, his disputed election,
206.
Uri, Canton of, 219
Utrecht, Treaty of, 286,289, joo
V.
Valens, Emperor, his reign in the East,
loo ; killed at Hadrianople, 101
Valentinian, Emperor, his reign in the
West, wars of, with the Germans, 99,
i oo
Valerian, Emperor, taken prisoner by
the Persians, 89 ; perser.iiricnis o(
Christians under, 92
Valais, see Wallis
Vandals, their settlement in Spain and
Africa, 104
Van Tromp, Dutch admiral, 287
Varna, Wladislaus of Poland, killed at,
231
V.irus, Publius Quinctilius, defeated by
Arminius, 83
Vasco da Gama, his discovery of the
Cape of Good Hope, 274
Vaud, liberation of, 339
Veii, Roman conquest of, 56
Venaissin. French conquest of, 218 :
yiven up to the Popes, ib. ; French
annexation of, 328
Venetia, Roman conquest of, 68
Venice, rise of, 114 ; her relations to the
' rn Empire, 115 ; her share in
the fourth crusade, 189 ; her Eastern
dominion, 190 ; her constitution and
power by land, 211; her wars with
the Turks, 243, 248, 293 ; league oi
Cambray formed against, 245 ; an-
nexed to Austria, 337 ; revolt and
reconquest of, 355 ; united toltaly, 356
Vt-rcellre, defeat of the Cimbri at, 70
Verden, Bishoprick of, annexed to
Sweden, 271 ; given up to Hanover,
296
Verdun, Bishoprick of, annexed U
France, 254
INDEX.
399
"a, 355 :
Vespasian, Emperoi, reign of, 86
Victor, anti-Pope, 178
Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy,
growth of his power, 292 ; becomes
King of Sicily, 293
Victor Emmanuel II., of Sardmi
chosen King of Italy, 356
Vienna, besieged by the Turks, 252, 268,
291 ; Congress of, 336
Vienne, sale of the Dauphiny of, 218
Villehardouin, writes an account of the
taking of Constantinople, 108
Virgil, t 8 4
Virginia, English colony of, 277
Visconti, Gian Galeazzo, first Duke of
Milan, 720 ; Filippo-Maria, 220
Vitellitis, Emperor, 86
Voltaire, 315
W.
Wagram, battle of, 336
Wales, its final union with England,
214
Wallachia, united with Poland, 296 ;
Russian influence in, 320 ; Greek war
of independence begins in, 357; united
with Moldavia, 359
Wallenstein, his share in the Thirty
Years' War, 269
Wallis, its conquests from Savoy, 260
Walpole, Sir Robert, 309
Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, 335, 343
Washington, George, President of the
United States, 321
Waterloo, battle of, 333
Wolf, heads the Saxon revolt against
Conrad III., 177; Guel/s called
from, ib.
Waibling, Gkibelins called from, 177
Wellesley, Marquess, Governor-General
of India, 344
Wellington, Duke of, 332
W'Wj/i, meaning of the name, 107, no
SVenceslaus, King of the Romans, 203 ;
founds the Duchy of Milan, 209
Wends, 127 ; conversion of, 162
VVessex, kingdom of, 132 ; supremacy
of in Britain, 145 ; Danish invasion
of, ib.
West, characters of its history, 2, 3
Western Empire, separation of, from the
East under Charles the Great, 123 ;
beginning of its German character,
124 ; its extent under Charles, 128 ;
restored by Otto the Great, 140; its
union with the German kingdom, 140,
162; connexion of, with England, 144;
kingdom of Hurgundy united to, 147 ;
relations of, with the Papacy, 149,
160 ; becones more and more Ger-
man, 161, 162 ; relations of Bohemia
to, 163 ; growth of towns in, 173, 178;
decline of its power, 179, 200, 237,
271 ; the great Interregnum in, it. ;
its connexion with Hungary, 203; with
the House of Austria, 204 ; its rela-
tions with the Swiss League, 220 :
with the dukes of Burgundy, 222 ;
becomes purely German, 251 ; aboli-
tion of, 333, 334
Westphalia, Kingdom of, 335
Westphalia, Peace of, 271
William of Malmesbury, 198
William the Silent, Prince of Orange,
leads the revolt in the Netherlands,
257
William II. (IX. of Orange), Stad-
holder. 294
William of Orange, Stadholder, his de-
fence of the United Provinces, 284 ;
his marriage and election to the
English crown, 285, 288
William IV. made hereditary Stad>
holder, 288
William V., 318
William the Conqueror, greatness ot
Normandy under, 150; his claim to
the English crown, 151 ; defeats Har-
old at Senlac, ib. ; crowned King, ib,
William the Bad, King of Sicily, 178
William the Good, King of Sicily, 178
Winfrith, see Boniface
Wismar annexed to Sweden, 271
Witt, John de, murder of, 295
Wladislaus, King of Hungary and
Poland, killed at Varna, 231
Wolfe, General, 322
Worms, Diet of, 252
Wulfila, see Ulfilas
Wycliffe, John, his writings, 207; spreail
of his opinions in Bohemia, ib.
X.
Xenophon, his history of the Pelopon
nesian War, 35
Xerxes, son of Darius, his invasion of
Greece, 33
Y.
York, 93 ; Constantino Ae Grent be giog
to reign at. 04
Z.
Zakynthos, Roman conquest of, tif
/.niui, battle of, 63
400
INDEX.
Xara, taken by the Crusaders, 189
Zaragoza won by Aragon, 154
Zeno, Eastern Emperor, reunion of the
two Empires under, 103
Zenobia, Queen of the East, 90
Zeus, chief Greek God, 29: confounded
with the Latin Jupiter, 51
Zollverem, the, 353
Zug, joins the Swiss League, 230
Zurich, joins the Swiss League, aao ;
preaching of Zwingli in, 260
wingli, Ulrich, preaching a
and
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