i: t : \' ^. •\ N.^- J STANDINa INFORMATION EEGARDINQ THE OFFICIAL ADinNISTEATION OF THE MADRAS PEESIDENGY IN EACH DEPARTMENT, IN ILLUSTEATION OF THE YEAELY ADMINISTEATION EEPOETS PREPARED UNDER THE ORDERS OF GOV1.RNMENT. BY C. D. MACLEAN, ADDITIONAL SUB-SECKETABY TO THE BOARD OP EETENCB. ]\I A D R A S ; PRINTED BY E. KEYS, AT THE GOVERNMENT PRESS. 1877. /S17 y PEEFACE. Some of the notices in the following pages have been taken from that portion of the Madras Administration Reports for 1872-73 and 1875-76 which dealt with standing as opposed to current information regarding the different departments. The greater number of the notices, however, and those which seemed the most important, have been written specially for the present volume. The account of the method of official administration in the Native State of Travancore has been taken from a paper written by the late Dewan of Travancore ; it is given here as throwing light on the British administration of the Western Coast, especially with regard to the land revenue question. This volume does not attempt in any sense to be a Gazetteer of the Presidency ; the few remarks of that nature which will be found, have been introduced only because there is at present no Presidency Gazetteer, and because a certain amount of information as to the state of tho country seemed necessary for a proper understanding of the official machinery. The information is not brought down later than the 31st March 1876 ; it was necessary to fix one date for the whole, and a later date than this could not have been taken with any prospect of securing accuracy. An interleaved edition is published for the use of certain offices ; in this, such corrections can be made as are necessitated either by: changes in the administration or by the imperfections of the present work. With corrections of this nature, the volume, may perhaps be serviceable for some little time to comflo. :JC8y;j CONTENTS. SECTION I.— GENEEAL AND POLITICAL. Page Area, Physical Features, Climate, Chief Staples, and Linguistic Divisions. General description ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 Area ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .,, 1 Physical geography ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .,, 1 Influence of Physical geography on climate ... ... ... ... 2 Do. on production ... ... ... ... 2 Eain-fall throughout the Presidency ... ... ... ... ... 3 Chief staples ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6 Linguistic Divisions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6 Historical Summary. Military History— 1620 7 1672 7 1754 8 1757 8 1780 11 1790 14 1792 15 1799 16 Acquisition of Territory down to 1799 ... ... ... ... ... 17 Subsequent history ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18 Civil Divisions of the British Territory. Districts grouped ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Northern Circara ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Camatic ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 Chingleput and Madras ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 Ceded Districts 21 Kumool ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 West Centre Districts, Salem and Coimbatore ... ... ... ... 22 Neilghen-ies ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 West Coast Districts, Canai'a and Malabar ... ... 22 Form of Administration. Government of the Presidency ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 Secretariat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 Officers in direct communication with Government ... ... ... 23 Administi-ative Departments ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 Covenanted Civil Service ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 Staff Corps 26 Uncovenanted Civil Service ... ... ... ... ... ... 27 Other Civil agency 27 CONTENTS. Page Administration of Tributary States. Travancore. History of political relations ... ... ... ... ... ... 28 Features of the country ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30 Travancore Census ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .,< 31 Taxation in Travancore ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 32 Growth of the Judicial system ... ... ... ... ... ... 33 Revenue Regulations ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35 Present judicial machineiy ... ... ... ... ... ... 35 The Bar 36 Criminal Courts ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36 Police 37 Jails 38 Registration of Assurances 38 Tenures of land ... 39 Jenmum lands ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 39 Madambimar lands ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 Sircar lands ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 Assumed Pagoda lands ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 44 Large Jenm holdings ... ... ... •.. ... ... ... 44 Surveys and Assessment ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45 Extra cesses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46 Mode of collecting assessment 46 Former customs duties ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46 Salt monopoly ... ... ... ■•• ••• •.. ... ... 47 Present supply of salt ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 48 Abkaiy 48 Opium 49 Forests 49 Cardamoms ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• •■■ ••• 50 Davasom ... ... ... ... ... ••■ ••• ■■■ ••• 50 Ootperas ... ... ... ■■• •.. ••• ••• ••• ••• 50 Vernacalar Schools ... ... ... ... ••• ... ... ... 51 Vernacular Schools belonging to Missionary Societies ... ... 52 Medical Department ... ... ... .- ... ••• ... 52 Revenue Survey ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ■•• ••. 53 Press ... ... ... ... ... ... ■•• ••• ••• ••• 53 Unjel or Local Post 53 Mint 54 Elephant Department ... ... ... ... ... ... ••. 54 Financial ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 55 Cocliin, History of political relations ... ... ... ... ... ... 56 Features of the country 57 Recent census ... ... •.. •■• ••• ••• ••• ••• 57 Taxation in Cochin ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 59 Puducotfah. Description ... ... ... ... .•• ••. .■• .•• ■•• "° History 60 Treaties 61 BanganapalU. History 61 Statistics 62 CONTENTS. Sundoor, General description History Sanitarium of Ramandroog Ganjam Agency. Natm-e of Hill Tracts Government juriadictiou ViZAGAPATAM AGENCY. History of the Agency Consuls, &c. Consuls and Consular agents Political Pensions. NoN-PoLiTicAL Pensions. Nature of the pensions Public Endowments. Nature of the endowments Escheats, &c. Escheats Lapses of personal property Petitions. The petition system Vll Page 63 64 65 66 67 69 70 History of Carnatic Family 70 Carnatic Stipends of 1801 71 Carnatic Stipends of 1855 ... 72 Prince of Arcot Family Stipend 72 Carnatic Agency, &c. 72 Other political pensions 72 Kumool pensioners ... ... 73 Two-Lakh Fund Pensioners 73 Mysore pensioners 73 Kandyan pensioners ... 73 Goomsur pensioners 74 Palcondah pensioners 74 Cuttack pensioners 74 74 76 77 77 78 SECTION II.— ADMINISTEATION OF THE LAND. Qotbbnment and Alienated Land. (a.) Historical Sketch. Movement of races ... Aboriginal landed institutions The most ancient Hindu village system 79 80 80 vm CONTENTS. Paqk The more recent form ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 81 Ancient proprietary rights ... ... ... ... ... ... 81 Slavery ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 82 Early system of land revenue ... ... ... ... ... ... 83 State of the country before the Mahomedan invasions ... ... 84 The Tamil Country 84 The Western Coast 87 The Telugu Country 89 Mahomedan invasions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 90 Early measures of the British Government ... ... ... ... 92 Contemporary measures in Bengal ... ... ... ... ... 93 Permanent settlement in Northern Circars ... ... ... ... 93 Settlements in the Jaghire ... ... ... ... ... ... 94 Acquisition of other territories ... ... ... ... ... ... 95 Dealings with the Poligars ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 95 Settlement of Baramahl ... ... ... ... ... 96 Settlements in Malabar ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 Settlements in Canara ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 99 Trial of village rent system ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 Final establishment of Eyotwari 102 (b.) Present Laiid Tenures. Classification of tenures under Government ... ... ... ... 103 Perpetual freeholds ... ... ... ... ... 104 Zemindariea ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 105 Ancient Zemindaries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 106 Other Zemindaries 106 Extent and value of Zemindaries ... ... ... ... ... 106 Inams enfranchised but unredeemed ... ... ... ... ... 107 Poligar estates 107 Eyotwari tenure ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 108 Principles of settlement of Eyotwari 109 Eyotwari puttahs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 110 Transfers of Eyotwari puttahs ... ... ... ... ... Ill Joint puttahs and divided puttahs ... ... ... ... ... 112 Application for Eyotwari lands 113 Eelinquishment of Eyotwari lands ... ... ... ... ... 113 Eyotwari on the Western Coast ... ... ... ... ... 114 Ooloogoo, Mottafysal, and Amani ... ... ... ... ... 115 Lands held on cowles, &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... 115 Ordinary Inam tenures of land ... ... ... ... ... ... 115 Farming the Eevenue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 116 Mirasi rights ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 116 Unassigned lands within villages ... ... ... ... ... 117 Other unassigued lands ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 119 Tenures other than those under Government ... ... 119 Private dealings in land ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 122 Number of landed proprietors ... ... ... ... 123 (c.) The Collection of tlie Revenue. Eates and amount of the Land Eevenue ... ... ... ... 124 The demand on permanently settled estates ... ... ... ... 125 The demand on Inam lands ... 126 Quit-rents on building sites ,., 126 CONTENTS. IZ The demand in Ryofcwari holdings ... ... ... The annual Jummabaady Standard rates of assessment ... Second crop cultivation Water-tax Waste remitted ... Occasional remissions ... Fixed remissions Siiudry deductions The demand on the West Coast The demand under Amani The demand under Ooloogoo ... The demand in estates rented out Land. Revenue Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... Special cases of assessment Land-revenue according to the land from which it is derived Assessment on lands containing minerals Revision of Ayacut ... Snb. division of assessment ... Payments of land-revenue ... Tuccavi Land Improvement Act The acquisition of land for public purposes Coercive measures Recovery of private rents ... (d.) Estahlishments. Village Officers ... ... ... ... ... ... Succession to Village Offices ... ,,. Emoluments of Village Officers Revision of Village Establishments Taluqs ... ... ... Taluq Officers Districts District Officers Board of Revenue ... >.. (e.) Accounts. Village Accounts ... ... ... ... Taluq Accounts Huzoi- Accounts Surveys. History of the Department ... Nature of work Progress to date Revenue Settlement. History and nature of the department INAM COJIMISSION. Origin of Tnams Early measures by British ... Institution of Inam Commission ... Page 126 127 127 127 128 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 134 134 136 137 137 137 137 138 138 138 139 141 142 144 145 146 147 150 151 151 152 154 155 156 157 158 158 159 160 163 165 165 X CONTENTS. Page Work of the Commission ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 167 Classification of Inams ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 167 Class I 167 Class II 168 Class III 169 Classes IV and V 169 Class VI 170 Class VII 170 Classes VIII and IX 171 Miscellaneous operations of Commission ... ... ... ... 171 Close of the Commission ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 171 General results ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 171 Wards' Estates. Court of Wards 173 SECTION ni.— PEOTECTION. Legislating Authority and Government Law Officers. Council for making laws and regulations ... ... ... ... 175 Limits of its jurisdiction ... ... ... ... ... ... 175 Rules of the Council ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 176 Advocate- General ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 176 Government Pleader ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 176 Crown Prosecutor ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 177 Government Vakeels ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 177 Government Solicitor ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 177 Clerk of tlje Crown 178 AdministratorfGeneral ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 178 Sheriff of Madras 180 Coroner of Madras 181 Police. Nature of the Department .,, 182 Criminal Justice, Old Sudder Courts 183 High Court, Criminal Side ... .,. ... ... ... ... •■. 183 District Sessions Courts ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 185 Magisterial Courts ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 186 Mode of collecting Ciiminal Statistics 188 Prisons, Jail accommodation ... .,, ,,. ... •.• ••• ••• 1^8 Civil Justice. High Court, Civil Side 191 Madras Small Cause Court ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 192 District Courts 192 CONTENTS. XI Page Subordiuate Judges' Courts 193 Up-country Small Cause Courts ... ... ... ... ... ... 193 District Munsifs' Courts ... ... ... ... ... 193 Village Munsifs' Courts and Punchayets 194 Eevenue Courts ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 194 Suits against Government and Government Officers in the Eevenue Department ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 195 Registration. History of the Department ... 196 Provisions of the law ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 196 Establishment, &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 196 Military. General constitution of the Army ... ... ... ... ... ... 197 Commissariat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 198 Ordnance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 198 Army Clothing 199 Remount ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 199 Medical 199 Educational ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 199 Pensions, &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 199 Marine. Marine Department . ... ... ... ... ... 200 Tinnevelly Chank and Pearl Fisheries 201 Agricultural. Wild Animals 203 Road Avenues ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 202 Local Funds Administration. Nature of Circles and provisions of Act ... ... ... ... ... 202 Assets of Circles 203 Charges on Cii'cles ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 204 Municipal Administration — Mofussil. Historical Survey — Former acts ... ... ... ... ... ... 207 Act of 1871 208 Present situation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 209 Statistics 210 Municipal Administration — Madras Town. History and constitution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 213 Nature of Taxation, &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 213 Income and expenditui-e for eight years ... ... ... ... ... 214 CONTENTS. SECTION IV.— PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Page Agriculture. Description of Cultivable lands ... ... ... .. ... ... 216 Distribution of soils, as affecting agriculture ... ... 217 The seasons with reference to cultivation ... ... ... ... 218 Treatment of irrigated land ... ... ... ... ... ... 219 Treatment of unin-igated land ... ... ... ... ... ... 220 Treatment of pasture land ... ... ... ... ... ... 221 Treatment of garden lands ... ... ..<• ... ... ... 221 Rotation of crops and fallows ... ... ... ... ... ... 222 Extent of cultivation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 223 Cotton cultivation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 223 Cotton experiments ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 224 Indigo cultivation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 226 Wheat cultivation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 226 Coffee planting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 227 Tea planting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 228 Tobacco cultivation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 229 Agricultural condition of ryots ... ... ... ... ... ... 231 Agricultural condition of farm laborers ... ... ... ... ... 232 Live-stock, treatment and present condition ... ... ... ... 233 Fairs and Markets 234 Food prices ... ... ... ... ... ... ••. ••. ••. 234 General Agricultural Statistics 234 Direct Government Operations ... ... ... ... ... ... 235 Agi-icultural Education 236 Public Exhibitions 237 Horticulture — Cinchona. Government Cinchona Plantations 237 Quinologist ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• •«. 238 Horticulture— Government Garbens. Ootacamund Botanical Gardens ... ... ... ... 239 Kulhuttj Garden 239 The Burliar Garden 239 Coonoor Gardens ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 240 Agri- Horticultural Society ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 240 MmERAL Resources. Government Operations ... ... ... ... . . ... ... 240 Gold 240 Coal 241 Iron 241 Forests. History of the Department ... ... ... ... ... ••• 242 Present constitution ... ... ... ... ... ... ••. 242 Object and duties ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 243 Progress made ... ... ... ... .■. .•• ••• •■• 244 Receipts and Charges 244 CONTENTS. Page Trade and Manufactures. Arrangements for collecting and distributing trade statistics 245 Amount of trade ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 245 Particulars of trade ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 246 Internal trade ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 247 Number of traders ... ... ... ... ... ... 248 Manufactures ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 248 Pdbuc Works — General. General organization and divisions ... ... ... ... .,, 249 Nature of work done ... ... ... ... '" ... ... 251 Government of India works ... ... ... ... ... ... 251 Works for Provincial Government ... ... ... ... ... 252 Local and Special Works 252 Workshops 253 Establishment 253 Establishment charges ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 254 Tools and Plant charges ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 254 Execution of works ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 255 Public Works — Build*ngs and Roads. Nature of the division ... ... ... ... .,. ... ... 256 Public Works — Irrigation. Nature of the division ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 256 Nature of Capital Extraordinary ... ... ... ... ... ... 257 Godavery Delta System ... ... ... ... 257 Kistna Delta System ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 258 Pennair Anient System ... ... ... ... ... ... 259 Cauvery Delta System 260 Chembrumbakum Tank System 261 Pelandorai Anient System 261 Palar Anient System ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 262 Striviguntum Anient System ... ... ... 262 Nature of Capital Ordinary 262 Nature of Revenue Head ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 262 Nature of Ordinary Agricultural 262 Additional heads and sub. divisions ... ... ... ... ... 264 Eeceipts from Irrigation Works ... ... ... ... ... ... 265 Conservancy of Works of Irrigation 267 Public Works — Railways. Constitution of the Department ... ,.. ... ... 267 Madras Irrigation Company. History of Company and scope of operation ... ... ... ... 269 Post. Imperial Post 270 District Posts — History ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 270 Present arrangements ... ... ... ... ... ... 271 Tblegraph. Imperial Telegraph 272 CONTENTS. SECTION v.— REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Page Classification of Revenue and Finance ... ... ... 273 M elhod of Financial Administration ... ... ... ... ... 274 Budgets 275 Preparation of a Provincial budget ... ... ... ... ... 275 Utilization of a Provincial budget ... ... ... ... ... 276 Financial powers of Board of Revenue ... ... ... ... ... 277 Disbursements ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 278 Treasury cash arrangements ... ... ... ... ... ... 279 Account and Audit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 279 Impeeial Services — Civil. General. Nature of the Services ... ... ... ... ... ,,, ... 281 Incidence of Taxation ... ... ... ... ... ... .., 281 La/nd Revenue. Nature of the entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 282 Forest. Nature of the entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 283 Excise on Spirits, ^c. Nature of the entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... £83 History of Abkary ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... £83 Present sources of taxation ... ... ... ... ... ... £85 Arrack revenue in the Mofussil ... ... ... ... ... ... 286 Toddy revenue in the Mofussil ... ... ... ... ... ... 288 Abkary in Madras Town ... ... ... ... ... ... ... £88 Progress of the Revenue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... £90 Assessed Taxes. Nature of the funds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... £91 Customs. Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 292 Sea-customs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... £92 Sea-customs collections of fifteen years ... ... ... ... ... £93 Land customs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 294 Salt. Nature of the entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 294 General view of salt administration ... ... ... ... ... £95 Details of manufactui-e of Government salt ... ... ... ... 296 Season ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... £97 Storing and depots ... ... ... ... ... ... £98 Manufacturers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... £98 Payments to manufacturers ... ... ... ... ... ... £99 Cost to Government ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... £99 Sale of salt at the depots ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Retail prices by dealers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 301 Consumption ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 301 Export and Import arrangements ... ... ... ... ... 302 Statistics 302 Proposed Excise system ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 303 CONTENTS. XV Page Stamps. Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 303 Hiatoiy of Stamps ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 304 Acts in operation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 305 Manufacture, supply, and sale ... ... ... ... ... ... 306 Postage Stamps and Telegraph Stamps 307 Mint. Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 308 Post Office. Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 308 Laiv and Justice. Nature of entries 308 Interest. Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 309 Superannuation, Sfc. Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 309 Exchange. Nature of entries ... 309 Refunds and Drawhacke. Nature of entries ,. ... ... ... ... ... 309 Administration, Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 310 Minor Departments. Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 310 Medical. Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 110 Allowances and Assignments. Nature of entries ... ... ... ... ... ... 310 Public Debt. Nature of the arrangements ... .,. ... ... ... ... 310 Loans from Government. Nature of the arrangements ... ... ... ... ... ... 311 Imperial Services — Military. Nature of Militaiy Finance ... ... ... ... ... ... 311 Imperial Services — Public Works. Nature of Finance and Account system ... ... ... ... 312 Budgets 312 Disbursements ... ... ,,. ... ... ... ... ... 313 Accounts ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 314 Imperial Services — Telegraph. Telegraph ... ... ... ... ... .,. ... ... ... 315 XVI CONTENTS. Provincial Services. General. Nature of the Services History of the decentralization measure Present Financial reeults Heads of Keceipts and Charges ... Local Funds under Act IV of 1871. Nature of the entries Special Funds. Nature of the funds Jungle Conservancy Funds Cattle Pound Fund and Surplus Pound Fund Endowment Fund Village Service Fund Irrigation Cess Fund Cochrane's and Sadras Canal Fund Canal and Ferry Fund Nanal Grass Fund Public Bungalow Fund Cash Remittances. Statistics Page 316 316 317 317 318 319 320 321 322 322 323 323 323 323 323 324 Paper Currency. Nature of arrangements 325 Money Order Department. Nature of Money Order System 326 SECTION VI.— VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SEEVICES. Eesults of Latest Census. Area, &c. of the Presidency History of early Censuses Operations in Census of 1871 Gross results of ditto Nationalities Hindus Mahomedans Native Christians Europeans Eui-asians Jains and Buddhists 327 327 328 329 330 331 331 331 322 332 332 CONTENTS. XVll Pagk Density of population ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 333 Houses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 333 Proportions of the sexes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 333 Ages of the people ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 335 Religions of the people ... ... ... 336 Hindus 337 Mahomedans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 337 Christians 338 Jains and Buddhists ... 339 Castes — Brahmins ... 339 Present occupations of Brahmins ... ... ... ... ... 340 Divisions of Bi-ahm ins ... ... ... ... ... ... 340 Kshatriyas 340 The Trading Castes 341 The Agricultural Castes ... ... ... ... ... ... 341 Shepherd and Pastoral Castes ... ... ... ... ... 342 The Artisan Castes 342 The Writer or Accountant Classes ... ... ... 342 Weaver Castes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 343 Agricultural Laboring Castes 343 Potter Castes ... 344 Mixed Castes 344 Other castes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 344 Hill and Wandering Tribes ... ... ... ... ... ... 344 Pariah or Outcaste Tribes ... ... ... ... ... ... 346 Mahomedans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 346 The occupations of the people ... ... ... .,. ... ... 347 Education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,.. .., 343 Infirm persons ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 350 General compai'ative vital statistics ... ... ... ... ... 350 Sanitary. Sanitary Commissioner ... ... ... ... ... ... ,.. 351 Mode of registering births and deaths ... ... ... ... ... 353 Mode of ascertaining public health ... ... ... ... ... 354 Distribution of practical sanitation ... ... ... ... ... 354 ?Jmic;katton. Nature of South Indian Emigration ... ... ... ... ... 355 Nature of Government protection ... ... ... .., ... ... 357 Medical Relief. Nature of relief ... ... ... ... ... ... 359 British Medical SerWce ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 359 Indian Medical Service ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 359 Civil Medical Relief 360 Chemical Examiner. Duties 361 Vaccination. Nature of Department ... , 862 CONTENTS. SECTION VII.— INSTRUCTION. Page Educatioxal Department. Historical retrospect— 1826 to 1855 364 Establishment of present Government Department ... ... 365 Private Schools 366 Grants-in-aid to pi'ivate schools ... ... ... ... ... 366 Act VI of 1863 368 Acts of 1871 369 Eecent progress ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 371 Controlling Agency ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 371 Classification of Educational Institutions ... ... ... ... 372 Government Institutions ... ... ... ... 373 Quasi- Government Institutions ... ... ... ... ... 374 Aided Institutions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 375 Female education ... 376 Constitution of the Madras University ... ... ... ... ... 377 Special Institutions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 378 Normal Schools ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 378 Teachers' certificates ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 379 Grovernment Scholarships ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 379 Financial system of Government Department 379 School fees 381 Outlay on Education ... ... ... ... ... ,.. ... 382 Technical classification of educational institutions ... ... ... 382 Book. Eegistration. Nature of the system ... 383 Government Book Department. Constitution of the Book Department 384 M ISCELLANEOVS — LITERARY . Book Translator 385 Madras School Book and Vernacular Literature Society 385 Library of Oriental Manuscripts ... ... ... ... ... ... 386 Madras Medical College. Nature of the institution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 386 Civil Engineering College. Nature of the institution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 387 Madras School of Arts. Nature of the institution ... 388 Ootacamund Lawrence Asylum. Origin and object ... ... ... ... ... ... 389 Constitution and Funds ... 389 Committee for Examination of Assistants. Functions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 390 Uncovenanted Civil Service Examinations. Former Test Examinations ... ... ... ... ... ... 391 Present General Test Examinations ... ... ... ... ... 392 Present Special Test Examinations 392 CONTENTS. SECTION VIII.— MISCELLANEOUS. Paghj Arts and Sciences. Mitseums. Nature of Goveiument operations ... ... ... ... ... 394 Architecture. Nature of Goverument operations ... ... ... ... ... 396 ArchcBology. ArchaBological remains in the Presidency ... ... ... ... 396 Madras Observatory. Nature of the institution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 399 Meteorological Department. Nature of the department ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 400 Ecclesiastical. Nature of the establishment, &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... 401 Eegistration of Marriages. Procedure of Marriage Registrars 402 Stationery. Nature of the department ... ... ... ... 403 Government Press. Establishment, and nature of work ... ... ... ... ... 404 Lawrence Asylum Press. Nature of the institution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 405 District Presses and Gazettes. District Presses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 405 District Gazettes ... 406 Eegistration of Joint Stock Companies. Nature of Government control ... ... ... ... ... .,, 408 MoNEGAR Choultry. Nature of the institution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 408 Triplicane Lung herkh ana. Nature of the institution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 408 SuLPHL'R Licenses. Nature of arrangements 409 Government Workhouse. Nature of the institution 409 CONTENTS. Money, Weights, and Measures. Money ... Weights Linear Measure Square Measure Measure of Capacity Comparison of local food measures Stamping Weights and Measures , Peesidency Gazetteer, &c. District Manuals and Presidency Gazetteer Traualiteration Page 410 410 411 411 412 412 413 413 414 APPENDIX TO SECTION" II.— ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. (1). — Statement showing the Talnqs under the charge of Divisional Officers on 1st February 1877 419 (2).— Statement showing the Particulars of the Estates under the charge of the Coui-t of Wards at the end of Fasli 1285 435 INDEX VERBOEUM 437 SECTION L GENERAL AND POLITICAL, AREA, PHYSICAL FEATURES, CLIMATE, CHIEF STAPLES, AND LINGUISTIC DIVISIONS. The territory included within the Presidency of Fort Saint General George, or what is better known as the Madras Presidency, occupies a considerable area of the peninsula of India, The coast line extends on the east of the peninsula from Orissa, in Bengal, to Cape Comorin. On the west the narrow strip of country, which includes the Native States of Travancore and Cochin, forms the coast line from Cape Comorin to the town of Cochin, where Madras territory again extends along the coast until its junction with the Bombay Presidency at the northern extremity of the South Canara District. In the centre of the peninsula are the Nagpore country and Berar, the territories of His Highness the Nizam, known generally as the Deccan, and the province of Mysore ; but all the centre of the peninsula, south and east of Mysore, belongs to the Madras Presidency. The Presidency occupies an area of 139,698 square miles; Area, but within this is included 1,380 square miles belonging to tho Pudncottah territory, which is situated in the middle of one of the Revenue districts. The Presidency has a coast line of about 1,700 miles, and Physical consequently a large area of countiy but little elevated above the ^^°^^^^ ^' level of the sea. Mountain ranges run northward from Cape Comorin along the Western Coast, attaining an elevation in some parts of from 4,000 to nearly 9,000 feet. Ranges of hills follow also the general line of the East Coast ; but these, as a rule, are of lower elevation than the Western Ghauts. The drainage of the peninsula is for the most part from west to east into the Bay of Bengal, the area of country drained by rivers running westward being only the narrow strip of territory between the Western Ghauts and the sea. As a rule the country slopes gradually [Section I. GENERAL AND POLITICAL, Influence of physical geography on climate. Ditto on production. from the eastern base of tlie western mountain chain down to the Coromandel Coast, wliile the fall is sudden and precipi- tous on the western side of the mountains. The centre of the peninsula consists generally of undulating table-lands from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. The peculiar physical geography of the peninsula of India, with a huge mountain chain running from north to south along its western boundary, is of importance in regard to cKmate and the productions of the various districts. These hills have the effect of arresting the lower strata of rain clouds brought up from the Indian ocean by the periodical winds of the south-west monsoon, and of causing excessive rain precipitation on the narrow strip of coast line on the western side of the penin- sula. Where the mountain range is of great height, as between Malabar and Coimbatore, the rain clouds are almost entirely diverted from the districts immediately below the mountains on the eastern side, and while the annual rainfall on the western side may be one hundred and fifty inches, not more than twenty inches will be registered on the eastern side, immediately within the influence of the mountain ranges. Where the mountain chain is of lower elevation, the rain clouds pass over the hills, and rain is precipitated in uncertain and varying amount over the peninsula to the east of the Western Ghauts ; but, except in the northern districts, where the rainy season approximates to that of Bengal, the heaviest rainfall of the southern portion of the eastern division of the peninsula occurs during the period of the north-east monsoon. During the continuance of this monsoon, the western ranges of mountains have a similar effect in arresting the rain clouds, so that at the season of the year when the Carnatic ia deluged by heavy rain, the Western Coast Districts enjoy fine clear weather. To the physical barrier of the Western Ghauta must be attri- buted not only the vast differences of climate, but also those in the nature of the prodactions, in the eastern and western divisions of the peninsula. In the former the uncertainty and capricious character of the rainfall has taught the cultivators of the soil the necessity of making provision for the storage of water for irrigation purposes, and the existence of innumerable tanks or reservoirs, scattered all over the country, testify to the fact that, from periods of the remotest antiquity, the inhabitants of the tracts of country which I'cceive an irregular rainfall, have exercised great ingenuity and readiness of resource in the Section I.] AREA, PHYSICAL FEATTIRES, &C. 3 construction of public works for the artificial irx'igation of the soil. On the western side of the mountains, however, the neces- sity for such works has never arisen. There the periodical rains fall with great regularity as to time and quantity, and the earth yields her fruits so abundantly that, although in certain excep- tional years there may be partial failures of ci'ops, absolute famine, as a result of bad seasons, is unknown. Only three of the twenty-one disti'icts of which the Madras Presidency is composed lie within the infl.uence of the never-failing rains of the south-west monsoon. In the remaining eighteen districts nature demands the assistance of art in the collection, storage, and distribution of the condensed moisture of the heavens. In some of these eighteen districts, however, as in the northern coast area, the periodic rains fall more regularly than in others, while in several of them the rivers running eastward, swelled by the south-west monsoon rains, are utilized in the fertilization of districts in which the natural moisture is defective. The following table giving the mean average rainfall in each Rainfall district for a recent period of four years will throw light on the the°P^si^ normal climate of the Presidency. An account of the scientific dency. operations of the Meteorological Department will be found under Section VII : — [Section I. GENERAL AND POLITICAL. I •-3 1 iOOOQkO«SOQ»ftOOU500W5»ftU8USOO t».>r50pt^t^>jOpO.t>.00 l-t i-H i-l »» (M kot>»n-*T*o»»00Q0^t^i-iOi>»O'J«'*u5i-i(M pj>pt^NrHCppQOQpOO^<>laOMp«pCO.--iCO CO Tf 6 kftkoino»oiooooC'QOOio»o»nioo»«»o (N^t^p0'lMOOpOOOi01:~(Mt--.(MOt»t- 1— 1 (M (M 1 i-(M-^lOOeOi-(OOOaSlfflOOt^i-l0300?D«r-*M t^O^Sipj^055pr-(t^i-H05TjH>g300COO'-l CO CO CO 00 p K5»fflO«50»nOOiOK50»OU50iOiCOOiftO (NN>f5t^>pi>ioiosqcqiot^t^pcNi>iou5_(Np g «DOi?D«DtH«0005(Me005Vft(MCD'^NeOi-ICD'* (MOit^r-(Cp'«*i-|-*rHCpr-ipi>l-(tt>eprHT}(pC0 Q OW5000000USOO»ftOv(500W5W5WSO iHOWOMi^bOi^MiDoAHNA-loqNOTNiH g "3 05 Ot-iooi-iNOQO«ooo-oOlOO»OWS OO-^OrHOOOiHrH^bbOObONOO 3 t^0500t^W500tO-feOOW5t^CO>0?Di-C*<35Q01> OCOlCMt^-^COpt^U^t^i-Hl^t^NC^lC-lMpCO bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb-^bb cS g n QO^O»n"5iraQOOO«5»000'fflOW5»00 O'OSvllOCvlWCvlOOOlOIMt^OlOt^pJL^J^O bF^-^bbbbbNMrtbb^^btNNl-Hb _g "3 P3 i-HTjIkat^COlOt^OWS^DaOO-^rHrJlCO-^COCOO Qcoi>iM>-i05-*t^ys500i?apt^co-* a d o5 P cv|iMkOt^i>i>i^t>kaONNt^>f3t^t^V'ira2^it> oAibbbbbQNN'^rHbbbbNcoi^b g '3 05(Mi-lrH050050l«OOi-tOW5CDCOCO(MOOCOeSi>QCssnoii-icii- S§Sp-§S5a5:a.o|:Hi3 'e Section I.] AREA, PHYSICAL FEATURES, &C. o H Eain. Days. 1 i-H r-l O»»«iOM-O5Ci#<35f-ie0 t^Oi>f500l?5(J50005a5T}OCO a o W5000o«5»oio0k0ooiaioiraiooooo 0(Nl>iMQOi005QOOeOi-(«D05TficoCDO-^iMCO > o >> CO o lOOioiftioowoovftiraooKnwsKftooirao r-l i-( r-l 1—1 i-l r-l d 05aOeOOO;#qjO>OpiXit;»X:»iX>(>Jl>(N0005i>-05 >-l i-H rH r-l o o w50>oooicoira»ooKa"5»fto»raift»oo«50 oooooojoiootbibdocvidiodsocorHiisrHOT r-l r-lrHrHrHr-lr-lrHrH-H •i r-IQ0-*-*lN(NI>lOQ0-l>lT}(Q0r-l5pipClpOO00rHrHi>.Ot^ oo6j6s(NOiJ5 a kOOiOOiOiOiOOvOOOiOOiftKJvOOOOO t>pX>lCCO'{2l>)pCK|(Nt;»lrtir5OO i>i>k050cas?bc(^^co■*oocqQOO rH m Q WSOWOiOOOvOiOOWSWiOOtOwsOOWSO (M01>inO<100lMlM01>X>OOlMt^lOOoi-Mo6dso6coocb>adcQodoiNj>i>i«b«i rH rH rH (M "3 eOrHetlrHOtDOOOOMt^OCO-<*l05a50rH«505rH q5i>iTft»wpip«>oocpcpt>-a>OiiOT}»h>T}iTfi-^sqr^m-^-^>b.^-*OT}l>O05e005rH05rHe0W5a)05O00lOOlHU5«) r-^ t-i T-\ r^ y-\ j-\ r-\ r-K r-{ r-\ t-\ r-* t-i •c tn s ■■ ::::::::: : fS;-^ Bellary Chingleput Coimbatore Cuddapah Ganjam Godavery Kistna Kurnool Madras Madura Malabar Nellore North Arcot Salem South Arcot South Canai Tanjore Tinnevelly . Trichinopob Vizagapatan [Section I. 6 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. Chief staples. The chief staples of the Presidency are rice, cholum (a kind of maize), cumboo (a kind of millet), ragi, and varagu amongst food-grains ; gingelly amongst oil seeds ; and chillies, tobacco, sugar-cane, plantains, and betel leaf amongst garden crops. Cotton, as a special crop, has a cultivation almost equal- ling that of ragi. The trees most grown for their fruits are cocoanut, areca nut, jack, tamarind, and mango. Rice, as might be expected, is produced in the largest quantities in the alluvial and highly-irrigated districts of Tanjore, Godavery, and Kistna on the East Coast, and in Malabar and Canara on the West Coast, where the rainfall is so abundant as to render irrigation by artificial means almost unnecessary. Cholum is most abun- dant in the table-land districts of Bellary and Kurnool, while cumboo and ragi are most extensively grown in the other inland, but less elevated, districts, such as Salem and Coimbatore. Cocoanut palms flourish most luxuriantly on the banks of the estuaries and backwaters or salt-water lagoons of the western districts of Malabar and Canara, and areca nut palms in the valleys intersecting the lower slopes of the Western Ghauts. Linguistic Within the Madras Presidency there are six well-defined linguistic boundaries. In the northernmost district of Ganjam is included a portion of the Ooriya-speaking population. The Telugu language is commonly spoken by the people of the Northern Circars, and in a portion of the Nizam's country, Kurnool, Caddapah, part of North Arcot, Nellore and some parts of Bellary. Tamil is the common language of the districts from a few miles north of Madras to the extreme south of the eastern division of the peninsula. Malayalum is the language of the Native States of Travancore, Cochin, and the Malabar District. Tulu is spoken in a limited portion of the South Canara District ; and Canarese in certain portions of the Bellary, Coimbatoi-e, Salem, and South Canara Districts. Besides these six Dravidian languages, the hill tribes of certain districts have dialects of their own, also of a Dravidian type. In the whole Presidency there are about 11,610,000 persons who speak the Telugu language ; Tamil, 14,715,000 ; Canarese,l,699,000 ; Malay- alum, 2,324,000 ; Tulu, 29,400 ; Ooriya and Hill languages, 640,000. From time to time colonies of Telugu and Canarese- speaking people have found their way down to the southern or Tamil country. In some cases they have been invited to settle as cultivators in localities where waste lands were available. In othex's they followed probably in the train of invading armies. divisions. Section I.] HCSTORICAL SUMMARY. 7 In the same way people from the Mahratta couBtry have settled in the south, and in all the large towns there are colonies of silk-weavers from Gujirat, who speak a language of their own. Along the border lines of the prevailing languages two or more languages are indifferently spoken by the people. There is no instance of the Tamil people pushing their colonies up towards the north. The migrations appear to have been always from north to south. In the large military cantonments of Sucun- derabad and Bangalore there are Tamil-speaking populations, but these people have settled as camp-followers. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. The first attempt at the formation of an English Settlement Military His- in the Madras Presidency was in conjunction with the Dutch at ^°^^ 1620. Pulicat early in the seventeenth century, or about one hundred years after the establishment of the Mahomedan kingdoms of Bijapore and Golconda. Compelled to desist from this attempt, the English formed a trading settlement at Masulipatam in 1620, and shortly afterwards at Armogum, about forty miles north of Pulicat ; and in 1639, after permisbion had been obtained from the Hindu Rajah of Chandragherry, the fii'st English fortress on the Eastern Coast of India was erected at Madras. In 1691 Fort St. David was built at Tegnapatam, near Cuddalore, on a site purchased from a petty native prince. Until the end of the first half of the following century the 1672. English carried on their trading operations tolerably unmolested in the midst of the continual wars between the Mussulman and Mahratta conquerors of the old Southern Hindu powers ; the only event really affecting the future career of the settlements being the acquisition by the French of the village of Pondi- cherry, which they purchased in 1672 from the King of Bijapore shortly befoi'e his dynasty was overthrown by Aurungzcbe. In 1744, war broke out between the French and English, and Fort St. George fell — only to be restored again, however, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1749. Tne European war being thus ended, the forces of the two powers found both occupation and profit in the various wars between the native princes, and it usually happened that their sympathies or their interests were enlisted on opposite sides. Nearly the whole of Southern India was then subject to the Nizam of Hyderabad, the country in [Section I. 8 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. the neighborhood of Madras being under the immediate rule of a tributary prince, called the Nabob of the Carnatic, while the Mahrattaa still held supreme power in Tanjore and the adjacent country. The English first assisted a claimant to the Mahratta throne of Tanjore, and were rewarded by the cession of the town of Devicottah. The French took up the cause of Chanda Sahib, who, in alliance with Mirzapha Jung, opposed Mahomed Ali, Nabob of the Carnatic, and Nizam Nazir Jung. Chanda Sahib being an old enemy of the Tanjore Prince, the assistance of the English was again invoked and obtained, but Mirzapha Jung succeeded in securing the throne of the Nizam, and the triumph of the French under Dupleix was complete until Clive appeared upon the scene and changed the whole course of the war by seizing Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, on the 30th August 17-Dl, while Chanda Sahib and the French were besieging Mahomed Ali in Trichinopoly. He himself was besieged in turn, but repulsed all attacks and followed up his success by the victory of Arnee, which virtually placed the Carnatic once more under the ally of the English, although the siege of Trichinopoly was not formally raised until the French detachment, which had retreated to Srirungum, surrendered to Clive and Major Lawrence in June 1 752. Chanda Sahib was eventually assassinated by a Mahratta, probably at the instiga- tion of Mahomed Ali. 1754. A quarrel next broke out between Mahomed Ali and Nunjeraj, the Minister of the Rajah of Mysore. The assistance of the latter had been procured by the Nabob by the promise to cede Trichinopoly if he were victorious, but, when he had got all he wanted, he declined to fulfil his agreement. Nunjeraj then had recourse to force, and, ftiough the English at first hesitated to assist the Nabob under such circumstances, the conduct of Nunjeraj in other matters left them no alternative but to treat him as an enemy. The French supported the Mysoreans, and a succession of engagements tock place, chiefly in the immediate vicinity of Trichinopoly, in which the English were almost uniformly successful. The recall of Dupleix on the 14th October 1754 led to a cessation of hostilities, but the English continued to aid the Nabob of the Carnatic in the internal management of bis dominions, the Nizam Salabut Jung receiving similar assist- ance from the French under M. Bussy. 1767_ The theati'e of- action was then for some time transferred to Bengal, where Clive took command of the English army, but hostilities x'ecommenged in Southern India in 1757 as soon as it Section I.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 9 was known that war had again broken out in Eui'opo between the French and English. The French took advantage of the English forces being dispersed in various expeditions, and made an unsuccessful attack on Trichinopoly, while another detach- ment succeeded in gaining possession of Vizagapatam. In 1768 a French fleet appeared off Fort St. David, and the fort fell on the 2nd June. Devicottab was next reduced, and the French commander, Count j de Lally, made a triumphal entry into Pondicherry ; but here his success ended for the time, and an expedition against Taujore resulted in complete failure. In December, however, he besieged Madras itself, and the siege was not raised until two months afterwards, when an English fleet appeared in the roads. In the meantime the English arms under Colonel Forde were progressing satisfactorily farther north, where Clive had sent a detachment to operate in a tract called the Northern Circars, which had been ceded by the Nizam to the French, and their successes culminated in the fall of Masulipatam on the 7th April, by which the French influence with the Nizam was destroyed, and a tract of territory around Masulipatam, extending eighty miles along the coast and tAventy miles inland, was ceded by him to the English. The opera- tions in the south were of a minor natui'Q until the 22nd January 1760, when the French under Lally were completely defeated at Wandewash, near Arcot, by Colonel Coote, who had arrived with reinforcements from England. This was followed by the capture within a fortnight of Gingee and Arcot. Minor forts fell in rapid succession, and by May the English Avere in a position to lay siege to Pondicherry. Lally then had recourse to the services of Hyder Ali, an adventurer who subsequently usurped supreme power in Mysore, but at that time merely held high military command under the Rajah. An English detach- ment sent to meet the Mysoreans was totally defeated, and tho situation of the English might have become critical had not home troubles recalled the Mysore troops to their own country. Deprived of their aid, the French cause soon became hopeless, and, on tho 16th January 1761, Pondicherry surrendered. With this event the French power in the Carnatic may be said to have ended ; and, so far as the English were concerned, there were no more military operations in Southern India until 1 766 beyond granting such little aid as was, from time to time, necessary to enable the Nabob of the Carnatic to keeiJ down his turbulent vassals. Negotiations were carried on with the Nizam of Hyderabad for the cession of tho Northern Circars, 2 [Section I. 10 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. but with no very satisfactory result ; and in 1 7G5 sunnuds trans- ferring these tracts to the Company were obtained direct from the Emperor of Delhi, whose paramount authority was recogniz- ed by the Nizam. The Madras authorities, however, hesitated to avail themselves of the powers thus assigned to them except with the consent of the Nizam ; and in 1766, although sending a body of troops to secure their possession, they entered into a treaty with Nizam Ali, agreeing to pay tribute for the Circars and to defend the Nizam against his enemies. In the meantime the Mysore adventurer, Hyder Ali, had succeeded, not only in obtaining supreme power in that province, but in extending his dominion on all sides, and the English were very soon called on, under the treaty, to assist the Nizam and the Mahrattas in checking the advance of Hyder in the direction of their terri- tories. No sooner, however, had operations commenced than Hyder Ali, by judicious expenditure of treasure, not only bought off the Mahrattas, but actually induced the Nizam to desert his allies and join him in a descent upon the Carnatic. Colonel Smith, who commanded the English troops, finding himself thus opposed to a force infinitely larger than his own, commenced a retreat, followed by the allies who overtook him at Changamma. The English repulsed the attack thus made, but were compelled to continue their retreat to Trinomallee. On being attacked at that place the victory of the English was decisive, the troops of Hyder and of the Nizam retreating in the utmost confusion, while bands of marauding horse, who had been plundering the country up to the very gate of Madras under the command of Hyder's son Tippoo, a boy of seventeen, considered their situa- tion to be no longer secure, and drew off to rejoin the rest of the army. Colonel Smith, however, was too weak to follow up his victory, and withdrew his troops into cantonment for the rains, which were now at hand. Hyder at once took advantage of this inaction to reduce a few unimportant fortresses, but his move- ments were checked at the hill fort of Amboor, where Captain Calvert, with a garrison of five hundred sepoys and fifteen Europeans defied the utmost efforts of Hyder's armies for nearly a month, when he was relieved by Colonel Smith on the 7th December 1767. Hyder then drew off, and after a few skir- mishes he retired abo/e the ghauts, having learned that an expedition from Bombay had captured his fleet in the harbours of Canara and commenced hostile operations in his territories on the Western Coast. Risking an invasion from the east, Hyder hurried over to meet what to him seemed the more Section I.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 11 imminent danger, and appeared suddenly before Mangalore in such force as to compel the re-embarkation of the expedition. In the meantime, though very imperfectly informed of Hyder's actual movements, the Madras Government resolved to commence offensive operations, and one body of troops under Colonel Wood proceeded to reduce the foi'tresses under the south-eastern slopes of the ghauts, while another entered Mysore proper under Colonel Smith. The movements of both detachments were at first completely successful, but just as they had united in August 1768, with the view of attacking Bangalore, Hyder returned from the Western Coast and made an attack on the camp of a Mahratta Contingent, which, though unsuccessful, was sufficient to show that there was no chance of reducing Bangalore unless a decisive victory could be first obtained over Hyder in the field. Various marches and counter-marches were undertaken with this object, but in vain, and after reconquering a number of the fortified places on the table-land, Hyder descended into the lowlands by passes unknown to the EngHsh, and speedily retook the fortresses in Coimbatore, the Baramahal, and Salem, which in almost all cases had been left most inadequately supplied with troops. He did not, however, care to risk an engagement in the field with Colonel Smith, and a treaty was concluded on the 4th April 1769, on the basis of a mutual I'estitution of con- quests with the exception of Caroor, which was ceded to Hyder on the ground of its being an ancient dependency of Mysore. From the date of this treaty until the year 1 780 the only —1780. military operations in the south of India, beyond the usual work of assisting the Nabob of the Carnatic in keeping peace in his own dominions and in his quarrels with the Tanjore Rajah, were the capture of Pondicherry from the French in 1779, and the reduction of the French Settlement of Mahe on the Western Coast in 1779. The war which broke out again with Hyder in 1780 was attributable to the Nabob of the Carnatic failing to furnish the necessary supplies to enable the English to fulfil the stipula- tions of the treaty of 1769. Enraged at this apparent treachery and bad faith, Hyder succeeded in forming an alliance with the Nizam and the Mahrattas, and descended on the plains of the Carnatic in July 1780, burning crops and devastating villages, so that a cordon of blackened desert was formed around Madras, commencing at the lake of Pulicat, extending some fifty miles inland, and terminating a little to the north of Pondicherry. The English Commander-in-Chief, Sir Hector Munro, proceeded to Conjeveram, an open town 40 miles from Madras, and directed [Section I. 12 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. Colonel Baillie to join him there with troops from the north. Hyder endeavoured to prevent the junction, and Sir Hector, seeing that Colonel Baillie was in danger, sent a detachment under Colonel Fletcher to his aid, which successfully eluded the enemy, and joined Colonel Baillie on the 9th September, only to be included, however, in the general massacre which took place when Colonel Baillie's force was attacked by overwhelming numbers on the following day. Sir Hector Munro considered Conjeveram no longer tenable when he heard the news of this disaster, and commenced a retreat to Madras, which he reached on the 14th September, leaving the field open to Hyder. On receipt of the intelligence at Calcutta, the then Governor- General Warren Hastings suspended the Governor of Madras and despatched Sir Eyre Coote with reinforcements. The latter arrived on the 1st N'ovember 1 780, but was unable to take the field until the 17th January 1781. On the 19th he relieved Chingleput, and on the 21st retook Carangooly, which had the efiect of raising the siege of Wandewash, which had been gloriously defended by Lieutenant Flint. Hearing of the arrival of a French fleet off Pondicherry he proceeded to that place, but, finding that the fleet had brought no land forces, he tux'ned his attention to the protection of Cuddalore. Hyder had followed him down the coast, but moved oS when the English general offered him battle, probably considering it more politic to endeavour to weaken the force by cutting ofi" supplies, from the want of whch the English army had already experienced consider- able difficulty. Thus hampered, the troops remained almost inactive until the 18th June, when an ineffectual attempt was made to capture Chellumbrum. The news of this failure appar- ently emboldened Hyder to make a decisive attempt to annihilate the English army, and he accordingly advanced and took up a position close to Sir Eyre Coote's camp at Porto Novo, a small town on the coast about 14 miles south of Cuddalore. The battle commenced early on the moi-ning of the 1st July 1781, an English fleet lying close in shore with the view of enabling the embarkation of the remnant of the army in the, by no means impossible, contingency of its being defeated in an encounter with an enemy at the very least eight times its numerical superior. The battle was long and severe, but by 4 p.m. the enemy were in precipitate retreat. The want of proper equip- ment rendered Sir Eyre Coote unable to take full advantage of the complete victoi'y which he had gained, but he succeeded in again relieving Wandewash on the 18th July, after which Section I.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. IS he proceeded northwards and joined a detachment from Bengal at Pulicat, having eluded the force sent to intercept him by adopting a line of march hitherto supposed impassable for troops. Thus reinforced he marched against the fortress of Tripassore and procured its surrender on the 22nd August, just before Hyder's relieving army appeared on the field. A general action took place on the 27th, but with no very decisive result, though the English kept possession of the field. A month later, on the 27th of September, the English commander surprised the enemy near Sholinghur and gained such a victory as put him in a position to throw provisions into Vellore, which had been defended from the commencement of the war against the finest troops and strongest batteries which Hyder's resources could furnish. In November the English army retired for the monsoon to Madras, where it remained until the following January, when it had once more to advance to the relief of Vellore. Hyder then turned his attention to Cuddalore, and succeeded in reducing it with the assistance of a French Contingent which had landed at Porto Novo. Permacoil followed, but Sir Eyre Coote once more arrived in time to save Wandewash. In the meantime war had broken out with the Dutch as well as with the French, and the Dutch Settlements of Sadras, Pulicat, and Negapatam had been captured. A portion of the force employed for the reduction of the latter place was subsequently detached under Colonel Brathwaite to operate in Taujore. Deceived by false spies, the little force was suddenly surrounded by superior numbers under Hyder's son, Tippoo, and only a small remnant escaped with their lives. To counterbalance this, a rebellion had broken out in Malabar, and a small force of English sent to their aid gained a consider- able victory at Tellicherry, which necessitated the immediate despatch of Tippoo to the Western Coast, and Hyder Ali, feeling himself overmatched by Sir Eyre Coote, determined to quit the Coromandel Coast. The English commander then returned with his army to Madras, where he bid them a final farewell, and General Stuart assumed the command in his place. The English force on the Western Coast seemed hardly strong enough successfuly to oppose that brought against it, but the news of the death of Hyder at Chittoor on the 7th December 1782 led to Tippoo's speedy return to the head-quarters of the principal army, thereby leaving the field open to the English, who were shortly afterwards reinforced by a considerable number of troops from Bombay under Genei'al Matthews. Several places on [Section I. 14 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. tlie coast fell in rapid succession, and eventimllj tlie English penetrated to Bednore above the ghauts. Here, however, their Bnccess ended, Tippoo returning and compelling the surrender of the place on the 3rd May, after which he marched to the siege of Mangalore, where a small fort was in the occupation of Colonel Campbell. The garrison was insignificant and the material defences of the place contemptible, but Tippoo was unable to take it by assault and his large army remained for many months practically inactive, while his French allies under M. Bussy were being besieged in Cuddalore. On the receipt of the news of the conclusion of peace between Franco and England, an armistice was agreed upon under which Tippoo was bound to provision the garrison of Mangalore With but little more than a pretence of observing the letter of the convention, he deliberately broke the spirit by supplying provisions which were utterly unfit for consumption, and the garrison, completely broken down by famine and. sickness, were obliged to capitulate on the 30th January 1 784, the health of the commander being so undermined that he expired on the 23rd March following. After much evasion and delay, peace was ultimately concluded on the lOtli March on the basis of mutual restoration of conquests. During this war many of the English prisoners, including General Matthews, were put to death by Tippoo by poison or still^more inhuman means. —1790. After the conclusion of peace with the English, Tippoo seized about thirty thousand of the Christians of Canara, forcibly converted them to Islam, and deported them to the country above the ghauts. Subsequently, the many rebellions of the Nairs of Malabar on account of a somewhat similar exercise of fanatical zeal in that portion of his territory led to expeditions for the suppression of the sevei'al risings ; and many of the Nairs having taken refuge in Travancore, Tippoo resolved to invade that countiy in their pursuit, notwithstanding an intimation that such a proceeding would involve him in another war with the English. His first attempt to enter Travancore ended in failure. A second was more successful, and the country was overrun in the usual cruel manner; but, on his return to Coimbatore, he found an English army in the field at Trichinopoly under the command of General Medows, the Governor of Madras, who had also entered into alliances with the Mahrattas and the Nizam. Tippoo at first withdrew to Seringapatam, which he had established as the capital of his dominions, and the English met with little opposition in the Section I.] HISTOMCAL SUMMARY, 15 reduction of the various forts along the south-eastern slopes of the ghauts until the 7th September, when their army was attacked by a force commanded by Tij^poo in person, -which had descended by the Gazalhatti pass. The attack was repulsed, but all General Medows' efforts to bring on a general action were evaded by Tippoo, and nothing but indecisive skirmishes took place, until the Governor- General, Lord Cornwallis, took the field in person, and, assuming the command on the 29th January 1791, at once commenced preparations for a march upon Bangalore, concentrating his army at Vellore. Tippoo hastened to intercept his advance, which he expected would be made by the passes near Amboor, but the demonstra- tion in that direction was a mere feint, and the table-land was reached by the more northerly pass of Mooglee without a shot fired. The pettah or town of Bangalore fell early in March, and on the night of the 20th the fort was taken by assault after a severe contest of little over an hour. While these operations w^ere going on in Mysore, Colonel Hartley from the Madras side had defeated the Sultan's troops near Calicut ; and General Abercrombie, Governor of Bombay, had landed at Tellicherry Avith a considerable force, and reduced Cannanoi'e without encountering much opposition. The name of Tippoo was so hated throughout the province that but little difficulty was met with in the operations in that neighborhood, and within a very short time the whole of Malabar was in the occupation of the English. Operations on a smaller scale were conducted in the north in concert with the Mahrattas and the Nizam, the latter having also despatched a body of about ten thousand horse to join Lord Cornwallis' army. On the 4th of May the English army left Bangalore to march — 1792. against Seringapatam ; but the route was so difficult, the means of transport so limited, and the devastation of the country by Tippoo so thoroughly carried out, that, notwithstanding a successful engagement at Arikera, only nine miles from Seringa- patam, Lord Cornwallis was compelled to abandon his plan of operations for the time and retire to the vicinity of Bangalore, where he occupied himself for some time in reducing a number of hill forts. The Nizam's troops and the Mahrattas having worked their way up from the north and reinforced his army with both men and supplies. Lord Cornwallis again appeared before the walls of Seringa i3atam on the 5th February 1792. On the night of the 6th, the outlying encampment and redoubts were carried and the city closely invested on two sides. Prepara- [Section I. 16 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. tions were made for the vigorous conduct of the siege, and on the 16th the army was joined by that of General Abercrombie from Malabar. A few days previously Tippoo had made overtures for peace, but the negotiations did not lead to a cessation of preparations for the siege, and it was evident that the fall of Seringapatam was close at hand when, on the 24th • February, orders were issued for the discontinuance of all hostilities, peace having been agreed upon on the basis of a cession to the allies of one-half of the dominions of which Tippoo was in possession before the war, the payment of three crores and thirty lakhs of rupees, and the restitution of all prisoners including those retained from the time of Hyder. Under this treaty the English came into possession of the Baramahal, Dindigul, Malabar, and Coorg, the latter being restored to the Rajah, who had rendered essential aid to the English in the course of the war. — 1799. Though thus severely disabled, Tippoo was not rendered completely powerless. He lost no time in commencing a series of intrigues with the view of winning over those who had been the allies of the English, and even despatched an embassy to Paris to try and obtain the assistance of the French. His overtures being rejected by Louis XVI., he renewed them after the revolution had broken out, and a paltry contingent of ninety- nine men from the Mauritius landed at Mangalore in 1798. The aid thus received was contemptible, but the object of applying for it was manifest, and the then (jovernor-Greneral, Lord Mornington, resolved to act at once instead of waiting till Tippoo had matured his plans. Instructions were despatched for the immediate adoption of such measures as were necessary to place the Madras army on a satisfactory footing, and an alliance was entered into with the Nizam. The object of the Governor-General was to obtain possession of the maritime territory still under Tippoo, and thus preclude him from communication with the French ; and, before commencing the war, an opportunity was afforded him of averting it by timely concession, but all efforts at negotiation were fatile, and offensive operations were determined on. The army of the Carnatic was placed under the command of General Harris, while another force from Malabar under General Stuart ascended into Coorg early in March 1799. Tippoo directed his first efforts against this latter army, but was beaten at Sedasseer near Periapatam, and in the meantime General Harris and the Nizam's troops crossed the Mysore frontier. Tippoo turned to Section I.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 17 meet them, and was defeated with severe loss in a general action at Malvelly on the 27th March. He then retired to Seringa- patam, and the allies advanced to the siege, which lasted for a month before a practicable breach was made. The assault com- menced at one o'clock on the 4th May, and before evening Tippoo was dead, and the whole town in the possession of the English, The dynasty of Hyder and Tippoo having practically como to an end with the fall of the latter, the settlement of the country was effected by the restoration of My sore proper to the represent- ative of the ancient royal family whose rights had been usurped by Hyder. The greater part of the remainder was then divided between the English and the Nizam, the districts of Canara, Coimbatore, and Wynaad falling to the share of the former. A portion was also resei'ved for the Peishwa, with the view of its forming a basis for a new treaty with the Mahratta Empire. Arrangements were at the same time made by which Mysore could never again become a great military power, and, to provide against the most remote contingencies, it was stipulated that the heads of all the passes on the table-land should remain for ever in the hands of the British. The military history of the Madras Presidency may be said to cease with the treaty of 1799, all subsequent addition of territory, with one exception, having been peacefully acquired. Before noting these, a brief recapitulation will be made of the territorial acquisitions already alluded to. As stated in the opening paragraph, a trading settlement Acquisitio* of Tcmtorv was established at Masulijiatam in 1620, and in 1639 and iii down to 1799, 1691 Forts St. George and St. David were built at Madras and Tegnapatam, respectively, by the permission of the ruling Hindu princes. The fort of Tellicherry, in Malabar, was similarly established in 1708. The first footing in Tanjore was gained by the cession of Devioottah in 1749, as a reward for assistance rendered to a successful claimant to the throne. The Nizams Mirzapha Jung and Salabut Jung had ceded Masuli- patam and portions of the Northern Circars to the French ; but, on the capture of Masulipatam by the English in 1757, the influence of the French was broken, and the town of Musulipatam and a considerable tract of the surrounding territory was made over to the English. In 1765 sunnuds ceding the whole of tho Northern Circars were obtained direct from the Emperor of Delhi, but the Madms Government thought it more politic to obtain the consent of the Nizam also, and in 1766 the five Circars of Ellore, Chicacole, Rajahmundry, Moostafarnugger, 3 [Section I, 18 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. and Moortizanugger oi' Guntoor were ceded by treaty on the English agreeing to pay an annual subsidy of nine lakhs, or to furnish military assistance when required. A life-interest in the Circar of Guntoor was retained on behalf of the Nizam's brother Bazalut Jung, and it did not come into the possession of the English until 1 768, six years after the death of Bazalut Jung. The Dutch settlements of Pulicat, Sadras, and Negapa- tam were annexed in 1781. The earlier wars with Hyder and Tippoo were concluded with a peace on the basis of mutual restitution of ten-itory, but by the treaty of 1792 the districts of Malabar and Salem and the Dindigul division of Madura were acquired by the English, and on the partition of Tippoo's territory in 1799 the districts of Canara and Coimbatore fell to the share of the British Government. Subsequent During the wars of the eighteenth century the English more IS ory. than once interfered in the disputes between the Rajah of Tanjore and the Nabob of the Carnatic, and in 1776 a treaty was concluded by which Nagore and 277 villages were ceded to the Company. The internal affairs of the kingdom continued to go on fi'om bad to worse, and, after a turbulent period of disputed succession, the rightful claimant to the throne, on being put into power in 1 799, executed a treaty resigning the administration of the kingdom into the hands of the British, on the understanding that he would receive a provision of one lakh of pagodas and one- fifth of the net revenues. The titular dignity became extinct in 18?5 through failure of heirs. In 1800 a new treaty was entered into with the Nizam, by which a considerable increase was made in the British Subsidiary Force, on account of which the Nizam ceded all the territories he had acquired by the Mysore treaties of 1792 and 1799, together with the taluq of Adoni and all other talnqs situated to the south of the rivers Toombuddra and Kistna. These are known by the name of the Ceded Districts, and comprise the provinces of Bellary and Cuddapah. The English having in all the earlier wars of the peninsula supported the cause of Mahomed Ali, Nabob of the Carnatic, and having in fact secured him both the original possession of his kingdom and the power of retaining it, the revenues of the Carnatic were looked to for the defrayal of the expenses of the wars, and with this view the present district of Chingleput, then known as "the Jaghire," was made over to the Company in 1763. This was rented to the Nabob for some time, but in ] 780 the British GoYernment took the management into their own Section I.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 19 hands. As new wars arose fresh agreements were made, and a series of treaties were executed culminating in that of 1792, three years before the death of Mahomed Ali, and the accession of Omdut-ool-Oomrah, by which the Nabob agreed to pay a large subsidy, and, in order to secure punctual payment, the English were authorized to collect tribute direct from a large number of the poligars or local chiefs. In the event of the balance not being paid, the English were farther authorized to assume the management of certain specified districts. In accordance with this treaty, tribute was collected throughout a great part of the Tinnevelly and Madura Districts, and in 1795 the (yompany assumed the entire management of the Ramnad division of the pi'esent district of Madura. On the fall of Seringapatam in 1799 it was discovered that both Mahomed Ali and Omdut-ool-Oomrah had been carrying on a treasonable correspondence with Mysore, and the treaty of 1792 having thus been infringed, the British Government resolved to assume the entire management of the Carnatic, and proposed a treaty for the purpose. Omdut-ool-Oomrah having died before arrange- ments were concluded, and his reputed son Ali Hoossain having rejected the terms offered him, another grandson of Mahomed Ali, named Azeem-ood-Dowlah, was declared his successor, and an ai'rangement was entered into on the Slat July 1801, by which he resigned the government of the country into the hands of the British, retaining the titular dignity and receiving a liberal stipend. The effect of this treaty was to bring under British rule the whole of the country from the Northern Circars to Cape Comoi'iu, with the exception of the French settlements of Pondicherry and Karikal and the Danish settlement of Tranquebar. The titular dignity of Nabob of the Carnatic was continued until 1855, when there was a failure of direct heirs. The present representative of the family bears the title of Prince of Arcot, and has the position of the first native nobleman of Madras. In 1838 internal mismanagement and suspicion of treasonable intrigue on the part of the Nabob of Kurnool led to the occupation of his territory by an armed force and to its subsequent annexation. Ti-anquebar was ceded by the Danes in 1845, since which time there has been no accession of terri- tory to the Madras Presidency. The district of North Canara was transferred to the Bombay Presidency in 18G2. [Section I. 20 GENERAL AND TOLITICAL. CIVIL DIVISIONS OF THE BRITISH TERRITORY, Districts grouped. MortTiem Circars. The Madras Presidency, according to existing boundary divisions, is made up of twenty-one districts, grouped as below : — *Tcchnical names Area in of groups of Districts • Square Position. Districts. Miles. / 1. Ganjam 8,313 1 Northern ...| 2. Vizagapatam 18,344 3. Godavcry 4. Kistna 7,109 8,036 To the north and east along East Central . . . | 5. Nellore 6. Madras 7. Chiiigleput 8,462 27 2,753 the sea coast on the Uay of Bengal. ( 8. South Arcot 4,873 Ceded Districts. ! 9. North Arcot 7,1.'59 \ 10. Kurnoolt 11. Bellary 7,358 ll,0f»7 In the centre of the penin» ( 12. Cuddapah 8^67 >• sula and mostly south and ( 13. Salem 7,483 east of Mysore. West Central... { 14. Coimbatore 7,432 1 ( 15. Nilgiris 749 J . 16. Tanjoje 3,654{ \ To the south, forming the Soutliem I 17. Trichinopoly 3,515 r south-eastern boundary of ' 18. Madura 9,502 1 the peninsula. 19. Tinnevelly 5,176 .' West Coast ..A 20. South Canara 21. Malabar 3,902 6,0«2 s On the Western Coast. The four districts at the head of the list are known as the " Northern Circars." Prior to 1859-60 these circars consisted of five districts, but in that year the three districts of Rajah- mundry, Masnlipatam, and Guntoor were divided to form the present Godavery and Kistna Districts. The northern districts were formerly under the Nizam's Government, and in that time the divisions were as follows : — Guntoor, Condapilly, Ellore, Rajahmundry, and Chicacole- They came finally into British possession in the year 1823, by the payment to the Nizam's Government of Rupees 11,GG,6 G 6 in lieu of an annual tribute. When these districts fell into the hands of the East India Company they consisted chiefly of large estates held by x*enters or zemindars ; of lands called " Havelly," which were the old demesnes, or private estates, of former rulers ; and of tracts near the principal towns which had been resumed by the Mahomedan Governors of the districts, and appropriated for the support of their numerous bands of soldiers and public establishments. For some years prior to 1855-56 these Northern Circars were under the charge of a separate Commissioner, but each district • Districts with a sea hoard are called " Maritime Districts." ■f Kurnool is not strictly speaking one of the historical " Ceded Districts." t Exclusive of Puducottah territory, the area of which is 1,380 scyiarc milesv Section I.] CIVIL DIVISIONS OF THE BRITISH TERRITORY. 21 had then also its own revenue and judicial establishments. The appointment of Commissioner of the Northern Cirears was abolished in June 1856. The part of the Presidency usually known as the Camatic Carnatic. appears to have been originally formed of three divisions, namely, Northern, extending from the River Pennar to the River Gundegama, and consisting of a portion of the Nellore District ; Central, extending from the Coleroon to the Pennar River, and containing a portion of Trichiuopoly, Chingleput, North Arcot, South Arcot, Madras, and Nellore Districts ; and Southern, consisting of a portion of the Trichiuopoly and the whole of Tanjore, Tinnevelly, and Madura Districts. These districts came into the possession of the British between the years 1799 and 1801. In the year 1859-60 the two districts of Madras Town and Chingleput Chingleput were amalgamated into a single district, the collec- tion of Sea Customs revenue being separately provided for. In the year 1870 the Chingleput District was again divided as before, leaving the administration of the Madras Town District in the hands of the Sea Customs Collector. The Chingleput District was obtained from the Nabob of Arcot in 1763 in return for services rendered to him and his father by the Com- pany. The grant was confirmed by the Great Moghul in 1765, and for a long time the district was known as the " Jaghire " of the East India Company. The site of the town of Madras was obtained in the year 1640, by a grant from the descendants of the Vijianaggur rulers, subsequently confirmed by the Moghul Government. The districts of Bellary and Cuddapah were ceded to the Ceded English by the Nizam in the year 1800 for the maintenance, in Districts, perpetuity, of a body of troops known as the Hyderabad Subsi- diary Force, and as payment for troops furnished during the Mysore wars. The territories so made over are still known as the Ceded Districts. In 1800 the rights of sovereignty exercised by the Nizam Kurnool. over the Kurnool country as Soubadar of the Deccan became vested in the East India Company. The Nizam, in the treaty of partition, gave over to the British all his possessions south of the Toombudra and Kistna rivers below their junction. At this time the ruler of the Kurnool country paid a yearly tribute of one lakh of Rupees to the Nizam. In 1839 the Kurnool District, through the rebellion of the then ruler of the countiy, was placed under British administration. [Section I. 22 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. West centre Districts. Salem and Coimbatore. The districts of Salem and Coimbatore came into British possession, the former in 1792 by the ti-eaty of Seringapatam, and the latter in 1799 after the final defeat of Tippoo and the partition of his territory between the British, the Nizam, and the legitimate successor to the Mysore Government, the late Maharajah of Mysore. Neilgherries. The Neilgherry Hills, formerly a taluq of the Coimbatore District, was constituted a separate district under Act I of 1868. West Coast Districts. Cauara and Malabar. The two districts of Malabar and Canara, on the western side of the ghauts, fell into the possession of the British in 1 792 and 1799 respectively. Canara was in 1859 divided into North and South Canara for administrative purposes, and in 1860 North Canara, with a population of 378,825, was transferred, for convenience of administration, from the Madras to the Bombay Presidency. The taluq of Kundapur, which formerly belonged to North Canara, is now attached to South Canara. FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. Government of the Presidency. Secretariat. The Administration of the Madras Presidency is vested in a Govei'nor, with a Council of three Members, one of whom is the Commander-in-Chief for the time being, and the others Members of the Covenanted Civil Service. The Commander-in-Chief ia Second in Council, but the Senior Civilian Member presides in the absence of the Governor. The appointment of the Ordinary Members of Council is made by the Queen in Council. Additional Members are added to the number for jDurposes of legislation only by the Governor; the particulars will be seen under Section III. The cabinet system of administration, under which each member of the Executive Council deals with separate subjects and refers special cases only to the whole Council, is carried out in a certain degree. It does not prevail however to the same extent as in the Supreme Council, still less to the same extent as in a European cabinet. The different Seci'etariat Departments of the Government aro given in a list below : — Section I.] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 23 Financial Department Judicial do. Public do. Educational do. Political do. Ecclesiastical do. Marine do. Legislative do. Revenue do. Pension do. I Under the Chief Secretary to Government. ... (Un ... i t der the Revenue Secretary to Government. Public Works do. Railways < f Under the Public Works Secretary to Government and the Joint Secretary to Government for Irrigation. Under the Public Works Secretary to Government. Military Department ... Under the Military Secretary to Government, Attached to the Chief Secretary, Revenue Secretary, Public Works Secretary, and Joint Secretary for Irrigation, arc four Under Secretaries. An Assistant Secretary is also attached to the Judicial and Legislative Departments. The principal executive and other officers who are in direct Officers in .. .11/-. jii- i-i. direct comma- communication with the Government, and the secretariat nication with departments in which for the most part their communications Government, are received, are shown in the list given below : — Judicial. The Judges of the High Court. District and Sessions Judges. District Magistrates. Inspector-General of Police. Inspector- General of Jails. Magistrates of the Town Police Court. Do. of the Egmore Police Court. Judges of the Madras Court of Small Causes. Advocate- General. Government Solicitor. Administrator- General. Coroner of Madras. Inspectoi'-General of Registration. [Section I. 24 general and political. Public. Collectors of Districts. Surgeon- General, Indian Medical Department. Sanitai'y Commissioner. Committee for the Examination of Assistants. Private Secretary to His Excellency the Governor. Government Astronomer. Superintendent, Government Central Museum. Chemical Examiner. Superintendent of Stationery. Supervisor of the Government Press. Protector of Emigrants. Translators to Government. Examiner of Medical Accounts. Political. Resident in Travancore and Cochin. Government Agent at Chepauk. Government Agent at Tanjore. Political Agent at Pudncottah. Collector in charge of the Special Agent's Department at Cuddalore. Officer in charge of the Stipend Pay Ofl&ce at VeUore. British Consular Agents at Pondicherry and Karikal. Receiver of Carnatic Property. Ecclesiastical. The Right Reverend the Bishop of Madras. Venerable the Archdeacon of Madras. Senior Chaplain of the Church of Scotland. Marriage Registrar for the Town of Madras. Marine. Master Attendant, Madras. Financial. Trustees of the Civil Fund. Accountant-General. Commissioner of Paper Currency. Presidents of Municipalities. Superintendent of Stamps. Section I.] fobm op administeation. 2s Educational. Director of Public Instruction. Commissioner for the Uncovenanted Civil Service Examinations. Revende. Secretary to the Board of Revenue. Conservator of Forests, Director of Revenue Settlement. Superintendent of Revenue Survey. Potlio Works. Chief Engineer, Public Works Department Chief Engineer for Irrigation, Consulting Architect. Consulting Engineer for Railways. Examiner of Railway Accounts. Examiner of Public Works Accounts, Military, Adjutant-General. Quartermaster-General. Inspector-General of Ordnance. Surgeon-General, British Medical Service, Commissary-General. Controller of Military Accounts. Superintendent of Family Payments and Pensions, Remount Agent. Judge Advocate-General. Superintendent of Army Clothing, Apart from the Secretariat demrtments pst mentioned, Administra- , . . ■ ,, ■, i )T • i T • 1- J.1- ti^® Depart- there are also the admmistrative departments into wmcn tne ments, executive body is divided. Though the same term is used for each, the divisions are not identical in the two cases. The mode in which the work of these administrative departments, or different branches of the executive agency, is carried out, will be detailed hereafter under different sections. The normal strength of the Covenanted Civil Service in Covenanted ° Civil Servic*. Madras, present and absent on leave, is usually taken to be about 160. The appointments in this Presidency reserved by law for Covenanted Civilians are the following : — 2 Membefs 4 [Section I. 26 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. of Council, 2 Judges of the High Court, 21 Judges, 3 Members of the Board of Revenue, 2 Secretaries to Government, 19 Collectors, 2 Secretaries to the Board of Revenue, 1 Collector of Customs and of Madras, 17 Sub-Collectors and Principal Assistants, 2 Under Secretaries to Government, 19 Head Assistants and Senior Assistants, 1 Special Assistant. The following appointments are held by Covenanted Civilians by usage though not by law : — 1 Resident at Travancore, 1 Registrar of the High Court, 1 Commissioner of the Neilgherries, 1 Director of Revenue Settlement, and 1 Deputy Director of Revenue Settlement- A certain number of the Small Cause Court Judgeships have usually been held by Covenanted Civilians. The position occupied by a Junior Civilian as an Assistant, and until he acts in one of the posts detailed above, is not reckoned as an appointment. There are thus about 1 00 appointments ordinarily available to the service, and the service is kept at such a strength that, allowing for absentees, a Junior Civilian will get his first acting appointment in the lowest grade at about the close of his fourth year after arrival in the country. The ordinary annual recruitment calculated so as to ensure these results is about 7, giving an average of 28 Junior Civilians who will be at any one time not yet provided with an appointment. Recruitment in the Civil Service has not always been regular; prior to 1861 there was a large under-recruitment, followed in the years 1862, 1863, and 1864 by a correspondingly large over- recruitment. A second under-recruitment followed the year 1869. These inequalities have produced some inconvenience. The Cove- nanted Civil Service is so called because each member of the service, before leaving England, enters into a covenant with the Secretary of State, wherein his privileges are recited, and in which he binds himself to certain conditions. The Cove- nanted Service have for leave and pension special rules attached to the Civil Leave and Civil Pension Codes. Staff Corps. The Staff Corps, which provides officers for military duties, for duty in the civil branches of the Army, and for purely civil duties, numbers in this Presidency about 559 officers ; of these about 149 are employed in civil duties, that is to say, in the Political, Public Works, Police, Survey and Forest Depart- ments, and 410, including unemployed officers, are in Military employment. The Staff Corps are under Military rules as regards leave and pension. The following table gives further particulars as to numbers : — Section I.] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 27 Major Genei'uls . Colonels with Colonel's al. lowances. Brevet Colonel and Lieutenant Colonels. Majors. Captains. Lieutenants. a ." o Military Employ. Civil Em- ploy. ^ a, 2 a a .& P. O 8 unemployed. 33. 2 in Military employ ; rest unemployed. 164 40 104 60 74 42 27 7 Total 8 Total 33 Total 204 Total 164 Total 116 Total 34 The Uncovenanted Civil Service comprises every person in the xjncove- employ of Government, other than a Covenanted Civilian or an panted Civil ^ "^ . . Service, ofi&cer of the army, who is in receipt of 10 Rupees a month and upwards. No means are at present available for computing the exact number of Uncovenanted Civil Servants in the Presidency, but the number must be many thousands. A few of the superior posts are held by Europeans, but the service is for the most part composed of Eurasians and Natives. An Act of Parliament of 1793 (33 George III, cap. 52), in extending the East India Company's charter for another period of twenty years, provided among other things that no office, place, or appointment in the " Civil line " of the Company's India service should be filled up except by the appointment of a " Civil servant," that is a member of what is now the Covenanted Agency. This disability was removed in 1861 by Parliament in their Civil Service Act (24 and 25 Victoria, cap. 55) under which it was declared that with the exception of certain reserved appointments there detailed as belonging to the Covenanted Civil Service, all offices should be open. The Uncovenanted Service, though practically in existence for a very long time, dates then legally from the year 1861. The Uncovenanted Service is for pensionary pui'posea under the Civil Pension Code, and in that respect all its mem- bers are on the same footing. Some of its members, though not all, are provided with leave rules under the Civil Leave Code. Below the Uncovenanted Civil Service is a large class of Other Civil Government servants, with important duties, but whose salaries nevertheless do not place them in that class. The sub-division of the soil into so many independent interests necessitates in particular a large staff of Government officials in connection with revenue administration. Each village has its staff of officials, of whom the most important arc the head of the village and [Section I. 28 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. magistrate, the accountant, tbe watcliman, and the distributor of water. These will be more particularly described hereafter. If to these are added the large number of peons and other minis- terial servants in Government employ, we shall obtain a total under the present head of probably not less than half a lakh of persons. Village servants have no pensions ; the rest are provided for under the Civil Pension Code. There are no codified leave niles for this class of public servants. ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES, TRAVANCORE. History of political relations. The English first settled in Travancore in 1684 at Anjengo, when a Commercial Resident was appointed, whose functions soon became political. In the war in Madura and Tinnevelly in 1756, the Travancoreans, though not actual allies of the British, effected diversions in their favor against the Mahomedans and Polygara whose country they entered for the purpose of plunder through the Ariencavoo or Puliaray and Aramboly passes. In the wars with Hyder and Tippoo the Rajah of Travancore was an ally of the British, and in the treaty concluded with the latter in 1784, he was specially named as included in its provisions. In 1 788 the Rajah seeing Tippoo establishing himself at Palghaut and Calicut, and by his proximity threatening the lines of Travancore, which connect the ghauts with Cranganore, applied to the British Government for officers and sergeants to di'ill his troops, but this being refused he accepted the offer of two of the Company's battalions to be stationed on his frontiers at his expense. Notwithstanding this, in the following year Tippoo attacked the lines, and though at first he was unsuccessful and had to retire wounded, yet in a second attempt he forced the lines and ravaged the country. Up to this point the Governor- General had been prevented by the restrictions placed on his power by Act of Parliament from adopting measures to counteract the danger existing from the scarcely concealed hostile intentions of the Sultan of Mysore, but freed from this restraint by the open aggression of Tippoo on an ally, Loi*^ Cornwallis at once decided on war as "a measure not les3 necessary to vindicate the insulted honor of the nation, than to provide for its future security by accomplishing at a favorable Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OP TRIBUTARY STATES. 29 moment the reduction of the power of Tippoo Sultan." The result of this war was the treaty of 1792, which secured Travan- core from further danger. In 1 793 the Bombay Government entered into a treaty with the Rajah, by which they bound him to supply a large quantity of pepper for ten years in return for arms and European goods. In 1795 a treaty was concluded with the Rajah by which he agreed to pay an annual subsidy equivalent to the cost of three battalions of sepoys, a company of European Artillery, and two companies of lascars, and in 1805 a further treaty was entered into by which he engaged to make such addition to the payment as shoiild maintain one more regiment of sepoys, and in case an additional force were necessary to defend his territory against attack or invasion, he agreed to contribute such a sum as was just and reasonable in proportion to his revenue. This treaty gave the Governor General power to interfere in the internal management of the country, and even to assume the direct management of such parts as seemed necessaiy to pi'ovide funds if there were grounds for apprehending failure to defray the expense of the permanent force and of any extraordinary force. The subsidy was finally fixed at Rupees 8,00,000, at which sum it now stands. In 1808 an insurrection broke out, headed by the Dewan Vailoo Thumby and his brother. The chief object was the assassination of the Resident, Colonel Macaulay, and a party of Nairs endeavored to surprise him in his house at Cochin, but he escaped on board a vessel in the harbour. The Officer Commanding at Quilon was at first unable to cope with the greatly superior numbers of the rebels, but on being reinforced he marched out and utterly defeated the Dewan who commanded a force of 30,000 men with 18 guns. A British force was then sent to invade Travancore from the South, which, after forcing the Aramboly lines near Cape Comorin and capturing the Forts of Oodiagherry and Pulpanapuram, advanced on the capital and opened up commu- nications with the Quilon force. The Rajah tendered his sub- mission and disclaimed any sympathy with the insurgents. The debts, however, into -which the country was thrown by these events prevented the punctual payment of the subsidy, and the administration of the territory would have been assumed under the terms of the treaty of 1805 had not the death of the Rajah and the succession of a female led to the union in the person of Colonel Munro of the combined functions of Resident and Dewan. Under his administration tranquillity was restored, the public services reorganized, debts discharged, and the financial [Section I. 30 GEXIRAL AXD POLITICAL. prosperity of the kiugdom secui'ed ; and in 1829 the Rajah having attained his majority was formally installed, and thence- forth no political troubles affected the State. In 1862 a sunuud was issued by the Govei-nor- General conveying to the Rajah the assurance that on failure of natui'al heirs the adoption of a Buccessor according to Hindu law would be recognized. In 1865 a Customs Convention was entered into with IVavancore by the British Government. According to this Travancore undertook — First. — To raise the selling price of salt at the coast depots to the British monopoly price, and at inland depots to that price phis cost of caiTiage. Secondly. — To abolish import duty on all British Indian produce imported by sea or land, and on goods of foreign origin exported through British Indian ports or by land from British temtory, receiving as compensation Rupees 40,000 a year. Tobacco is not included. TJiirdhj. — To levy the same import duty as the British Indian Government on foreign goods imported direct, except on cotton and metals, wliich were to pay 10 per .cent, and tobacco which was to pay 120 Rupees per candy. Fourtldy. — Not to levy export duty of more than 5 percent, except on timber, pepper, and betel-nut. In consideration of this undertaking the British Government on its part agreed — First. — To supply salt at Bombay on the same terms as to the Madras Government, namely, levying no duty, except three Pies per maund for petty local expenses. Secondly. — To declare Ti-avancore sea-ports to be British Indian ports within the meaning of Section 12, Act YI of 1863, and to levy no duty by sea or land on goods to and from Travancore. Opium is excepted. Features of The mountains which separate Travancore on the east from ^ '■ the British provinces of the Coromandel Coast, and which at some points rise to an elevation of 8,000 feet above the sea, are covered with forest jungle ; the flat country, which ext^ends to an average distance of about ten miles from the sea inland, is distinguished by an almost xinbroken mass of cocoanut and ai'eca palm cultivation, this constituting the wealth of the country. The geological formation is peculiar. The whole eountry is undulating, and is traversed east to west by numerous rivers, the floods of which arrested by the peculiar action of the Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 31 Arabian Sea on the coast spread themselves out into numerous lakes or lagoons ; these connected by artificial canals, form an inland line of smooth-water communication, which extends nearly the whole length of the coast, and is of great value during the monsoon, whcu the coast itself is closed to navigation. According to the trigonometrical survey the area is 6,G53^ square miles. The population has been given till recently at 1,280,000, but there are reasons for supposing that this number should be nearly doubled. The number of houses is supposed to be about 500,000, giving four or five souls to a house. The forests contain valuable timber, principally teak, anjelly, ebony, and blackwood. The borassus and other palms and the cotton tree are abundant. Elephants, tigers, cheetas, panther (includ- ing the black species), bear, bison, elk, deer, nilghau, and various species of monkeys are found in the forests. Pepper and cardamoms and nutmegs and cloves in a less degree, are characteristic productions of Travancore. The ordinary staple productions are the cocoanut, the arcca nut, and the jack fruit, all grown in gardens ; various kinds of yams and other farina- ceous roots are also grown. Rice is cultivated in the valleys and along the edges of the backwaters and in the tract of the flat country near Cape Comorin known as Nanjinad. Coffee has been introduced of late years by European planters, and is becoming a valuable article of export. A census has recently been carried out in Travancore. The Travanooro rules and ai-rangements were nearly the same as those adopted ^^^^^' in British India. There was first a registration of houses, and then a registration of shops, pagodas, churches, mosques, schools, and chuttrums. This was followed by a pi'eliminary house-to-house enumeration occupying thirty days. Finally there was a synchronous enumeration of the population of the whole State in one day, the 18th May 1875. The I'esult gave the population at 2,311,379 against 1,262,047, the result announced in 1854, and 900,587, the result announced in 181G. The cost of the operation was Rupees 32,000. The differenco in accuracy between a census taken as the present one was on scientific principles and former censuses taken on a mere hap- hazard method is so great that no argument can be raised on the difference between the results. Taking the most important divisions of the community, the figures stand aa follows : — Hindus, 1,700,317, or 73-64 per cent.; Christians, 468,518, or 20-20 per cent. ; Mahomedans, 139,905, or 606 per cent. The [Section I. 32 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. feature that will probably cause most surprise in these figures is the large proportion of Christians, amounting to upwards of 20 per cent, of the population against 1| per cent, in the British portion of the Presidency. In Tinnevelly, where this element is strongest in the British Territory, the proportion does not rise above 6 per cent. In fact the total Christian population of the whole of the Madras Presidency is only 545,120 or but one- sixth more than that of Travancore. The Travancore Christians are thus classified : — Syrian Christians, 295,770 ; Roman Catho- lics, 109,820 ; Protestants, 61,284. The Hindus are separated in the census tables into 75 castes, but nearly 50 per cent, of the total are comprised in the two principal castes, Malayala Sudras and Eloovars ; the Nairs and Teers of Malabar. The Brahmins only number 38,434, of whom 27,672 are classed as foreign Brahmins. In the matter of education Brahmins, as might be expected, take the lead, 50 per cent, being returned as educated. Among the Nairs the proportion is 21 per cent. Taking the percentage throughout for educated persons it is 11 '08 among the males and 46 among females compared with the figures 9'4i and *16 in the Madras Presidency generally. Looking at the population of the country as now ascertained with respect to area it amounts to 343" 4 per square mile. The average in British territory is 226, and the only districts in which the density of population exceeds Travancore are South Arcot, where it amounts to 360, Malabar, where it is 376, and Tanjore where it rises to 540. The great increase in the last-named district is evidently due to the fact that there is hardly any unoccupied area in it, whereas in Travancore as in Malabar large areas of primeval forest exist, much of which can never be inhabited. Taxation in The census shows that the total revenue raised in the State in ravancore. ^^^^ year amounted to 2^ Rupees per head of the population, or almost the same as in the British territory. The average incidence of the land tax was 11 Annas per head as against 1 Rupee 6 Annas in British territory. This difference, however, is in part counterbalanced by the excess in customs, a great part of which is export duty on agricultural produce. The salt revenue amounted to 7J Annas per head, which is somewhat in excess of the average throughout the British territory. The salt consumed, however, is Bombay salt, the extra cost of carriage of which is now included in the selling price. Fish- curing is also largely carried on. Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OP TRinUTART STATES. 33 Zillali Courts were first established in Travancore in M. E. Growth of 987. They were seven in number, and were placed under the ay!fe^ ^^ orders of the Dewan, who was then supreme head of all depart- ments. The term regulation had not then come into use. All measures of State were made known by royal proclamations under Sign Manual, or by Sattavari-olais or Hookoonnamas. The duty of these Courts was to inquire into all cases brought before them, civil, criminal, or police, and to report to the Dewan, whose approval in each was necessary to give effect to their proceedings. This patriarchal system remained in force till 990, when an Appellate Huzzur Court was formed for the hearing of appeals from the decisions of the Zillah Courts. This court still formed rather an appendage of the Dewan 's Cutcherry than an independent Court of Justice. In 993 Tahsildars, who were up to that time confined exclusively to revenue duties, were for the first time invested with jurisdiction in petty cases of police. The first experiment was tried in the outlying taluq of Shencottah, adjoining British territory. In 1007 Munsiff Courts were created, vested with jurisdiction in petty police cases and in civil suits not exceeding Rupees 100 in value. In 1010 a general scheme of judicial administi*a- tion was conceived, founded on the arrangements obtaining in the Madras Presidency, and was carried out by means of seven regulations. Regulation I prescribed the general powers and functions of MunsiflPs, together with rules of general procedure to be observed in the trial of civil suits. Regulation II provided for the adjudication of suits by punchayets. Regula- tion III laid down the procedure for execution by Munsiffs of decrees passed by all the courts. Regulation IV revised the powers and constitution of Zillah Cour-ts. Regulation V created the Appeal Court subsequently called the Sudr. Regu- lation VI invested the Tahsildars with police powers. Regula- tion VII created Circuit Judges, and, in addition to defining their powers, laid down the procedure to be observed in the trial and commitment of criminal cases. These regulations, though modified subsequently in some respects, furm still the groundwork of the present judicial machinery. In 1023 sub. ofiicers of police were appointed to exercise the powers of tha police oflBceror Tahsildar during his absence for the commitment of cases only. In 1025 a regulation was passed reducing the number of Munsiffs and relieving them of the duty of executing decrees passed by the Appeal and Zillah Courts. In the same year a law was passed to enable parties to sue in forma paiq^eris. 5 [Section I. 84 GENEBAL AND. POLITICAL. In 1030 an important administrative change was made. Revenue divisions were formed and the Dewan Peishcars, who were till then doing duty in the Huzzur Cutcheny in charge of special departments under the orders of the Dewan, were sent out to take charge of them with powers of general control and super- vision in all matters, revenue, magisterial, and police. They were still subject to the orders of the Dewan as head of the Administration and Chief Magistrate. In 1032 Circuit Courts were abolished and Sessions Courts, three in number, were constituted in their place. In 1036 Sessions Courts were in their turn abolished, and the Zillah Judges were invested with the full powers of the former Circuit Judges, This regulation provided also for the adoption of the scale of punishments prescribed in the Penal Code of British India. It also conferred on single judges jurisdiction in causes up to Rupees 300, and in 1038 appeals in such cases were made inadmissible; but this was rescinded and superseded by Regulation II of 1041, by which small causes involving sums up to Rupees 10 before Munsiffs, and up to Rupees 50 before Zillah Judges f I'om the judgments of Munsiffs, were determinable without appeal. This jurisdiction still continues in force. In 1037 a very important reform was introduced, a regulation being passed which virtually adopted the British Civil Procedure Code. The present Sudr Court was at the same time constituted under that title, the name of Appeal Court being discarded. Regulation I of 1039 was passed for the punishment of offences against the telegraph. Regulation II of the same year created copyright in books. Breaches of contract by artisans and workmen were made punishable by Regulation I of 1040. In 1040 another regulation was passed, defining the status of Vakils, their discipline and rights in relation to the courts. A statute of limitation was also passed in the same year. By Regulation I of 1041, single judges of Zillah Courts were empowered to try and detm-mine both criminal and civil cases. In the same year a regulation raised the jurisdiction of Munsiffs to suits of Rupees 200 value. Regulation III of 1041 legalized admission of approvers in criminal cases. Regulation I of 1042 introduced an amended system of registration of assitranees based upon that obtaining in British India, but did not come into force till 1043. The use of stamped cadjans and the then existing agency of registration ceased from the date last named. Regalafcion I of 1043 legalized the employment of Vakils in criminal cases. Regulation I of 1047 provided for the better conduct of business in the Sadr Section 1.] ADMINISTRATION OP TRIBUTART STATES. 35 Court by giving a casting vote to the Chief Judge in certain cases. Another regulation was passed in the same year to relieve the Dewan of magisterial functions and appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases, and for redistribution of magisterial pow^ers generally. In 1049 a Zillah Court was established at Always presided over by a single judge. Of revenue regulations not many have been passed. In 1035 Revenne and 1036 regulations were made for the levy of port dues at the port of Alleppey. Regulation II of 1040 provided for the adjudication of claims to waste lands, and rules for the sale of waste lands with special reference to the cultivation of coffee in the hill tracts of the State. In 1042 a royal proclamation was issued defining the rights and relations between Jenmies or landlords and their tenants. The present judicial machinery is thus the outcome of the Present legislation of more than half a century. It may be summai-ized machinery, as follows. First as to criminal jurisdiction. Sub- Magistrates are Magistrates of first instance in all cases, and have power to pass sentence of fine up to Rupees 10, imprisonment up to 30 days, and corporal punishment up to 6 lashes. The Magistrates have power of fining up to Rupees 50, imprisonment 3 months, and corporal punishment up to 1 dozen lashes. The Criminal Courts have power of fining up to Rupees 500, imprisonment 3 years, and corporal punishment up to 3 dozen lashes. All cases involving punishments higher than what is here mentioned must be referred to the Sudr Court for approval, whether the Criminal Court records a finding of conviction or acquittal. Appeals lie from Sub-Magistrates to Magistrates, from Magistrates to the Criminal Courts, and from the Criminal Courts to the Sudr, except in cases of disputed possession of lands, &c., wherein the order of the Magistrate is final as to present occupancy till a decision from a competent court of civil jurisdiction is obtained. The Sudr have also a general power of revision over all the decisions of the lower courts ; for this purpose they peruse the calendars which are submitted to them in every case disposed of, in which the Zillah Court passes remarks. Next as to civil jurisdiction. Munsiffs have jurisdiction in suits up to Rupees 200, their decisions in suits up to Rupees 10 on the small cause side being final. The Zillah Courts have original jurisdiction without limit, and in suits up to Rupees 50 on the small cause side, in appeal from the decisions of Munsiffs their judgment is final. The Sudr have no original jurisdiction, but receive appellate regular [Section I. 36 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. appeals from the Zillah Courts and special appeals from decisions ofMunsiffs, where points of law are involved. The Maharajah is the highest appellate authority in the State in all criminal and civil matters. All punishments exceeding 14 years of imprisonment or 36 stripes, all punishments involving imprison- ment for life, and all sentences of capital punishment, must be confirmed by the Mahai-ajah. The Bar. There are Vakils attached to courts of all grades, Munsiffs, Zillah Courts, and the Sudr. Local examinations are held, and such candidates only as pass are allowed to practise in the courts, those passing high being selected for the Sudr, and those passing lower being permitted to plead in the Zillah and Munsiffs' Courts. Three Barristers of the High Court of Madras are also enrolled Pleaders of the Sudr. Several of the other pleaders have passed the British legal tests. The nominal roll of the Sudr Bar consists of 51 pleaders, and that of the Zillah Courts of 84 pleaders. Attached to the Sudr and to each of the Zillah Courts is a Sircar Vakil, who discharges the duties of a public prosecutor in criminal cases and those of a Govei'nment Vakil in civil suits where the Government is interested. Criminal The Criminal Courts of First Instance are those of the Sub- Courts. Magistrate. Tahsildars are ex-ofl&cio Sub-Magisti-ates, as also are Police Amins. The former perform, in addition to their magisterial work, revenue and police duties ; the latter similarly combine police with magisterial work. There are special Sub-Magistrates in a few places. Previous to 1048 there were altogether 67 officers exercising the functions of Sub-Magistrates. The Tahsildar Sub- Magistrates were divided into three classes in respect of their salaries, which were Eupees 100, 70, and 56, respectively. In the year 1049 the Maharajah abolished the last class altogether, making the salaries of all Rupees 70 and upwards. The Police Amin Magistrates were divided into two classes on salaries of Rupees 35 and 30. In their case the salaries were raised to Rupees 50 and 40 according to length of service. As to the standard of qualification of the Sub-Magis- trates, it may be observed that they have had previous training for the most part in the various ministerial offices, Huzzur, Division, and Taluq. Some of them have passed the legal tests, and upwards of 20 are well acquainted with English. The Dewan Peishcars who are in charge of the divisions are ex-officio Magistrates, and are four in number. The Commercial Agent at Alleppey, the Superintendent of the Cardamom Hills, and the Section I.] ADMINISTEATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 87 Conservator of Forests are also Magistrates. Thus there are in all 7 officers exercising the powers of a Magistrate. Regulation II of 1047, which was passed towards the close of the preceding year, which relieved the Dewan of direct magisterial functions, reserving to him as before full executive and administrative control, and which redistributed magisterial powers among the various grades, came into force from the beginning of 1048. Nearly all criminal cases come before the Sub-Magistrates in the first instance, few original cases being taken up and tried by the Magistrates. When cases are referred to the Magistrate by the Sub-Magistrate for higher punishment or other reasons, such cases are taken as original cases on the file of the Magistrate. There is no distinct organized Police in Travancore, such as Police, has of late years been introduced into British India. That is to say, so far as the supervising and controlling agency is concerned, the Police has no separate establishment ; the mass of the force however has always occupied a distinct footing and been employed exclusively for Police duties. The Dewan Peishcars or Divisional Officers, and the Tahsildars, combine revenue, magisterial and police functions, while Sub-Magistrates are Magistrates as well as Police Officers. There are however some purely Police Officers answering to the grade of Inspectors in the present British Police. There were eight of these including two newly appointed in the year under report. Their salaries, which varied much before, were raised during 1049 and fixed with reference to a scale by which the officers were graded into two classes according to their service and qualifications. Next come some ranks in the force which, known under various designations, Cutwalls, Police Naiks, Aminadars, Vicharipoos, Jemadar, Havildar, Dufiadar, and the like, may be classed as answering to the grade of Head Constables. Their number is 56, and their pay ranges from Rs. 6 in the case of the Dufi'adar to Rs. 17 in the case of the Cutwall. The rest of the force may be termed " privates, " and are known as Naikens, Moodalpers, Peons, and the like ; their pay ranges from Rs. 4| to 6, and they number about 1,900. The total strength of the force of all ranks in 1048 was 1,964, and has been augmenting considerably of late years, 31 being added in the year 1049. The whole force in 1040 was 1,043 and in 1045 was 1,667. The cost of the Police Force in 1048 was Rupees 8,960 per mensem, or for the year Rs. 1,07,520. The cost of the Police Magisterial [Section I. 38 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. Officers and their establishments and Huzzur Central Office and establishment charged to Police amounted to Rs. 2,611 or 31,332. The entire cost was thus Rs. 1,38,852. All the principal ranks are stipendiary, and are paid exclusively by the State. Tte Desacavalgars or village watchmen, the remains of the ancient hereditary Police still found in Shencottah and Thovallay, are remunerated partly by the Sircar in money, and partly by the ryots in kind. The lowest class are required to render some kind of police duties, such as guarding public cutcherries and buildings in their own villages, but receive no remuneration. Jail?. There are four jails in the State, are all under the general control of the Dewan. The Central Jail and another supplementary to it are at the capital ; there is one at Quilon and another at Alleppey. The Durbar Physician, as Principal of the Medical Department, has chief medical charge, one or two subordinates having immediate charge of the hospitals attached to each jail. The charge of the jails themselves is vested in superintendents or jailors. No valuation has been attempted of the work done by the convicts as a body ; a large number of them are employed in the making and repairing of roads at the capital and at Quilon. Others are told off in small parties, from day to day, for garden- work in the palaces, hospitals, Sircar buildings, and public gardens. Parties are told off to cart their own daily provisions, to cook their own meals, to wash their own clothes, to shave, to draw water for cooking and cleaning the jails and urinals, to make their own fetters, and to remove poudrette. Some are employed to saw timber in the Marhamut workshop, and a few are employed in ivory carving. By the custom of the country Brahrnins and females of all classes are exempt from hard labor or labor of any kind ; they are from the same cause free from capital punishment. Registration The old system of Registration of Assurances, which was superseded in 1042 by the regulation now in force, provided a regular agency of village notaries, who derived their appoint- ments from, and acted under, the orders of the Sudr Court. Their number was unlimited. They were remunerated, not by salaries, but by fees levied upon the instruments which they registered, and which had to be di-awn up by themselves and to be transcribed for registry. The stamped cadjans were supplied to them through the Munsiff Courts, and were sold at certain fixed rates, the proceeds being credited to the State. The Village Registrars (or Oorkanakens) had power to make summary ofAssurauces. Section I.] ADMINISTEITION OF TRIBUTARY STATES, 39 inquiries into objections against the execution of the deeds, and to refuse registration in case they were deemed valid. They wei'e also prohibited from registering whenever they found that the Sircar had liens on the property, such as for arrears of revenue, or had them already under attachment, or that they were Service or Personal Inam tenures. The revenues under the system did not average more than Rupees 1,200, as unstamped documents were not invalid but were only subjected to a penalty of 3 per cent, on value when produced before a Court. This unpaid agency did not work either to the profit of the State or to the satisfaction of the public, and the latter were subjected to much annoyance, delay, and extortion. A reform was effected by new legislation, which brought into existence the present system. Under this the Registi'ars are paid servants of tho State, divided into four classes with reference to the quantity of work of the vai'ious districts. As a rule, there is a Registrar to each Revenue Taluq, and none is appointed who has not passed a public examination in the law and rules of Registration. Above the District Registrars are Inspectors, who are three in number, and whose duty it is to inspect every Registry Office within their ranges once in two months at least, examine the state of the registers, and report the result in their fortnightly diaries. The work of these District Rogistrars is checked and controlled by a Central Office, at the head of which is the Huzzur Registrar. The broad distinctions in the tenures of land in Travancorc Tenures of are Jenm, Madambimar and Sircar. ^^ ■ The Jenm lands may be sub-divided into Devasom, or those Jenmum held by pagodas, and Bramasum, or those held by Brahmins. ^^"^^• The normal condition of the Jenm tenure is absolute freedom from tax of any kind, and the tenure dates from that remote period of antiquity when, according to tradition, the " Kerala" country was reclaimed from the sea and parcelled out by Parsurama among a colony of Brahmins. The colony still remains, and is known as that of the sixty-four village communities. The tenure ceases the moment it passes into alien hands for a money consider- ation, whatever the nature of the transaction. The mere letting out of lands however for annual rent to a tenant does not vitiate the tenure. The moment an alienation or kanom takes place, the land becomes liable to a light tax called rajabogum, amounting in the case of gardens to one-sixth or one-eighth of the full rental (Venpauttom or Kundapauttoni) ; in the [Section I, 40 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. case of paddy lands the tax amounts to nearly the same pro- portion of the full grain-rent, that is, half, three-tenths, or one- tenth of the quantity of seed required to sow the land, the full grain-rent being represented by an average of three times the quantity of seed. If the Kundapauttom of the alienated garden was fanams 100, the rajabogum or karum or tax would be nearly 16^ or 12 j fanams ; in the case of paddy lands, if the land was one parah khandum, that is, a block of land which would require one parah of seed, the full grain-rent would be 3 parahs. The light tax chargeable would be only ^^ A"? "i~o of one parah. Even if the mortgage is afterwards redeemed by the Jenmi, the light tax continues on the land for ever and at the same rate. The only variation is for worse ; for if the mortgagee dies heirless, the Sircar seizes the tenure, transfers the land to the head Sircar, and pays to the Jenmi or landlord the residue of rent or mitchavarom if any was paid to him by the deceased. Again, if the land is abandoned (Mrthul) by the kanom holder on account of its becoming unfit for cultivation, from various causes, it is at once transferred to Sircar and granted as a new Sircar pattom tenure if it is ever reclaimed. A Jenmi, as a rule, never alienates absolutely (Uttipare) except to other Jenmies, Brahmins or Davasoms (pagodas). Madambimar The Madambimars are, in common parlance, also called Jen- ^^ *■ mies, though strictly speaking they are not so, because their lands are subject to the rajabogum, whether in their own hands or alienated to others. They are generally Nairs, or others not Bi'ahmins. These also seldom alienate by absolute sale ; if they do, the tenure is extinguished as with Jenm lands, the land is transferred to Sircar, the purchase money, less a fine of 25 per cent., is given credit for, and interest is allowed on the 75 per cent, only, the remainder of interest being added to the existing rajabogum karom, which will still be much short of full pattom or rent of the land. At every alienation, however, this fine of 25 per cent, is levied, till sometimes the purchase money entirely disappears, and interest, added to rajabogum which continues unabated, may absorb all the rental and even exceed it. Sircar lands. All other lands are known as Sircar that is liable to full assess- ment or pattom, whether actually paying it at the full or reduced rates or not paying it at all, as when given away as Inams, The Sircar, in fact, takes in respect of these lands the place of the Jenmi or landlord. These may be broadly sub-divided into six classes — (1), Kundukriahipattom ; (2), Kuttagaj)attom ; (3) Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 41 Vempattom ; (4), Otti ; (5), Annbogum, &c., or personal Iname ; and (6), Ulliam or service. It is not easy to state precisely how the proprietary right in such lands came to be vested in the Sircar or the governing power, the primeval tenure of all lands on the coast being pure Jenm according to accepted tradition. Probably, when the Rajahs were called in by election by the Numboory landlords, as they did once in twelve years for the pur- pose of government, some lands were granted to them. Accre- tion of escheated lands, unoccupied lands reclaimed in the course of years, annexed home farms of subjugated chiefs, and lands purchased for money from the Dutch, have also contributed to increase the roll of Sircar lands. The kandukrishi lands are literally the " home farms " of the sovereign. The lands are theoretically speaking cultivated by the sovereign himself. Seed and hire for cultivation, the latter being given in kind, used to be advanced to the actual tenants and recovered with interest out of the harvest, of which they get for their share generally a little more than half of the gross produce. Of late years this system has been discontinued, the grain-rent alone being recovered from the cultivators in kind. The tenants are really tenants at will. They cannot sell even the occupancy right, nor can they transfer it without the previous consent of the Sircar. As a matter of fact, however, the Sircar never interferes with their occupancy. The grain-rent is collected in kind, is stored in various granaries, and is spent according to the requirements of the large feeding-house at the capital. If there is any surplus, it is sold and the proceeds credited to the general exche- quer. (2.) The few lands which now remain under the head of Kuttagapattom are the purchases from the Dutch (Paliport), from the Jenmi (Pooliendurti), and the jungle lands called Kadu- kaval, forming the frontier defences towards Cape Comorin. The bulk of such tenures have been sold in past years and converted into vempattom. The above arc rented out to the highest bidder, who levies full rent and makes some profit himself. This system of farming out for short periods, which leads to oppression of the tenants, is now discouraged. (3.) The vempattom lands are lands liable to and paying full tax or assessment. In the case of gardens a general deduction of 25 per cent, is allowed as compensation to the owner for the cost and labor of growing the gardens. In the case of paddy lands 20 or 30 per cent, is allowed as a permanent deduction for adverse seasons, blights, and floods of ordinary kind. When an extraordinary drought or flood occurs, remissions on a larger 6 [Section I. 42 gs:neeal and political. scsale are allowed as a matter of grace. In the case of lauds lying on the borders of bactwaters or rivers the assessment is remitted on fallows of alternate years once in three years or once in four years. These fallows having been determined originally on the oath of the ryots, the remission is called Sathiakoravu. In the Nanjanaud, where there is river irrigation which is some- times deficient, remissions are allowed for blighted or withered crop, though never for waste lands. Where the water-supply is dependent on the falling rains and on rivers, both waste lands a;nd witliered crop are allowed for. A deduction is also allowed when dry crops are cultured on paddy lands. The lands foiling Mnder this head were formerly unalienable by the occupant ryots, ihe proprietary right being theoretically vested in the State. In 1401 rights of full property were conferred on them without payment, but subject to a fine or fee of 2 per cent, on the money "Consideration indicated in the conveyances. This fee yields an annual sum of Rupees ^,000, representing a value of trans- actions in this description of land (before unsaleable and unmarket- able) of Rupees 15,00,000. (4.) Otti, or as it is commonly called Pandar Otti, denotes a mortgage, the parties to the trans- action being the Sircar on one side as mortgagor and the ryot holding the land on the other as mortgagee, the consideration being either actual cash borrowed by the State or something equivalent. It is, in fact, in no respect legally different from a simple mortgage dealing, or kanom, between a jenmi who borrows and a tenant who lends the money. One kind of con- sideration is actually money borrowed from the ryot to meet State necessities. Another kind is an acknowledgment of money invested in forming a garden, repairing tanks, making improve- ments or reclaiming lands, from all of which either new revenues have been added or old revenues revived and secured. A third kind consists of State debt which came with the various petty kingdoms and principalities from time to time subdued and annexed to Travancore. A fourth kind consists of similar debts coming with escheats. Interest is allowed on these^loans at rates rising from 5 to 12 per cent, per annum according to the circumstances and times when the obligations were contracted. These transactions are in many cases several centuries old. The interest is made payable by a deduction from the tax or pattom on particular lands. Whatever remains after deducting the interest and adding rajabogum on the full pattom becomes the next tax payable on otti lands. These lands are alienable at will, but at every aheuation both the principal aud interest are reduced 25 Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TmBUTART STATES. 4'3' pep cent. ; in other vrords, the Sircar repudiates the obligation tO' that extent by refusing to pay the full original interest. When the number of hands thus changed amount to 16, the debt i& extinguished, and the land begins to pay full assessment. In some few places the fine is levied in cash in a lump, leaving the assessment on the lands as favorable as before. Economically and financially this plan is by far better, as the value of property remains the same to the ryot and the Sircar is benefited by the lump receipt and is saved the constant coi'rection of accounts. In Nanjanaud no such fines are levied on alienations of otti lands, unless the family of the survey holder becomes extinct. In some few cases near the capital no fines are levied under any circumstances. (5) Anuboguia lands are held on bond fide favorable or personal Inam tenures, and are liable to pay no assessment except the usual rajabogum at ^ and i. In some cases they are liable to quit-x-ents in addition. They may be mortgaged and redeemed without fines, b«t when absolutely sold the tenure is resumed and the land transferred to " otti" and dealt with under the rules applicable to that head. (6) Oollium, or Vritti tenures constitute the Service Inams. They are held either for services actually performed at the present time, or for former services ; in the latter case tbey are of the nature of Inama held for personal benefit. As a general rule, the former are inalienable, and the latter, when alienated, become liable to finea or ottivilakum. But even in regard to the former a succession duty or addukuvathu is levied on every change of incumbency calculated at 50 per cent, of a yearns rental (pattern) for gardens and 2| fanams per parah of paddy land. If the holder's family becomes extinct, the tenure is either transferred on payment of a high fine or premium (adiyara), or sold to the highest bidder at a public auction, when sometimes veiy high prices are realized. The bulk of these tenures are the Nair Vrittis, the holders of which are bound to supply at certain fixed prices vegetables and provisions for pagodas, for ootperas or charity feeding-houses, and for the royal birthday ; they are also bound to raise sheds, to thatch and guard public buildings, and to do occasional peon's duties. They receive advances from the public funds and settle accounts subsequently on producing vouchers for the due delivery of the provisions, supplies, or work done. The Nair Vrittis are held free of all assessment or pattern, but they are liable to the payment of the rajabogum qait-rentsat |, &c., as already alluded to, plus a fee called " load-tax " (chumadupanam), which is about 2 fanams payable on the whole Vritti. This is suppt scd [Section I, 44 GENEBAL AND POLITICAL. AssTimed Pagoda lands. Large Jenm holdings. to represent the commuted value of a load of vegetables, &c., which each Vritti holder was bound by the tenure to bring without payment. When Vrittis have been found excessive in proportion to the service required, they have been charged with ^ pattom and left with the holders. Where lands were insufficient, they have been supplemented by grants of money from the State treasury without interest. Where there were no lands previously, money grants were made on the same condition for service. When the service is not rendered for a time, the full pattom on the lands is levied as a penalty if the holder refuses to render it, and the land itself becomes liable to be resumed and transferred to another. This, however, seldom happens. Where the money loans received from the State alone constitute the consideration for the service, it can be redeemed and enfranchised by the repayment of the original sum if the holder is inclined to relieve himself from the service. This measure wi*s sanctioned recently. The Nair Vrittis consist of about 20,000 holders of 6,764 gardens and 220,000 parahs of paddy land ; the annual rental of the former being about Rupees 9,000 and that of the latter about Rupees 2,00,000. The State loans advanced for service amount to about Rupees 2,00,000, the interest on which is about Rupees 12,000 at 6 per cent. Thus, the total value of the tenures is about Rupees 2,21,000, and deducting from this quit-rent paid amounting to about Rupees 21,000, the net value may be given at Rupees 2,00,000. Other kinds of Service Inams are of a miscellaneous and local kind, such as those belonging to canoe services, elephant trapping, wrestlers, songsters, coppersmiths, potters, musicians, dancers, &c. Of the Dovasom Jenmi lands alluded to above, 378 pagodas were assumed and brought under the direct management of the Sircar in the year 987, during the administration of Colonel J. Munro. They consisted of 62,000 gardens and 548,000 parahs of paddy lands, the foi-mer yielding a rental of about Rupees 50,000, the latter Rupees 3,50,000, total Rupees 4,00,000. The annual expenditure out of this is only Rupees 2,50,000, leaving a surplus Rupees 1,60,000. There are certain large Jenm holdings called Adhigara Oyevoo and Desa Oyevoo, consisting of compact blocks of territory. The largest of these is the Edapully R;ijah, a Numboori Brahmin of the highest rank. He was and still is in some respects an independent chief, and is entitled to all soui'ces of revenue, Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 45 whether actually levied by himself or administered by the State for him ; compensation being settled and paid every year. He pays no tribute excepting a sum of Rupees 1,000 per annum, which is for police services rendered. He has, however, no police, civil or criminal authority within the principality. The annual revenue amounts to about Rupees 75,000. The Pooniat Rajah is another chief whose tenure is peculiar. Attingul consists of two Adhigaroms, and is the private property of the Ranees. The annual rental is probably below Rupees 20,000. Killimanoor is the estate of the Coil-Tumburans, who are generally allied by marriage to the Ranees and, consequently, to the reigning Sovereigns. There are other large holdings in which, besides exemption from tax of any kind, the proprietors have power to deal with their property without the interference of Government. 1. Mahadevaswami Pagoda (Kottarakarray). 2. Kavioor do. (Tiruvellah). 3. Kamooganicheri do. (Puthanapooram). 4. Elankonappen do. 5. Pangotoo Krishnaswamy (Kottarakarray). 6. Maunadi Bagavathy (Koonatoor). 7. Paniannarkavoo (Tiruvellah). 8. Congrapully Numburipad's Sastha (Canjeripully). 9. Agherra Numbooripaud (Kottarakarray). 10. Do. and Omanpalh do. (Quilon). 11. Vunchipelar Peruvauthanum Sastha. The lands of the Sree Pudmanabha Swami temple extend over the whole of Southern Travancore, and are for purposes of account divided into three divisions, Madapaud, Neendakara Sanketham, and Colatoor-Melanganom. The tenure, which is pure Jenm, dates from every remote antiquity. The annual rental of these lands is about Rupees 73,000, derived from 21,517 gardens and 92,9G0 parahs of paddy lands, the former yielding Rupees 14,000, the latter Rupees 59,000. The funds belonging to this pagoda are separately collected and accounted for, but the State has a general control ; any surplus is credited to the State, and deficits, when they occur, are made good by the State. The earliest survey or ayacut remembered by the oldest living Surveys and accountant in Travancore is that of the year 914, when Travan- Asseesment. core was within its ancient limits. There were several surveys both anterior and subsequent. The surveys on which the present revenue arrangements are based are those of the year 948 ; this was a very comprehensive one, and embraced nearly the whole of [Section I. 46 GENERAL AXD POLITICAL. the lands, gardens and paddy fields now belonging to the State, There has however been subsequent surveys. No idea is afforded by the ayacut accounts of the whole extent of paddy lands, but those which come under assessment consist of 31,81,620 parahs of lands, or about 40,000 acres at 8 parahs per acre, assessed with a net revenue, after making all deductions, of Rupees 8,08,958, or 2 Rupees per acre. It is impossible to say that the ayacut rates of assessment on paddy lands have been fixed on a uniform plan or principle, but a very minute local appraisement by arbiters and Sircar officers seems to have preceded the opera- tion of classification. Each field expressed by the quantity of seed it took to sow was rated at ao many parahs of produce, and commonly expressed as double, treble, quadruple, &c. North of Trevandrum the average rate of rent was about double the seed. In the south it went up to beyond ten times, but the average was probably five times, and in recent years all excessive rates above ten were reduced to that level. The average gross produce in the north may be put at between 7 and 8 times, and that in the south at between 12 to 15 times the amount of seed. The Sircar share is thus about a fourth in the one case and a third in the other. Extra ceiies. The above are the standard pattom rates on the lands. There are however various other extra cesses, about 200 in number, corresponding to the abwabs of North India, collected over and above the standard rates. They amount to Rupees 60,000, and are met with in all taluqs. The taxes on gardens are collected in money with a few exceptions. The tax on paddy land is collected part in grain and part in money, according to the wants of the Sircar with reference to neighboring temples and charity feeding institu- tions. The proportion may be stated as a third in grain and two-thirds in money. All grain received in kind, but found in excess of Sircar wants, is commuted into a money payment at varying rates. For gardens 10 equal kists are required and for paddy 4 kists for each crop ; only two instalments however ar& allowed for the portion payable in money. As in British India, there were inland and frontier and sea customs duties levied in Travancore up to the year 1012, when the inland transit duties were abolished, and the frontier and sea-board chowkeys alone wei-e retained. There were import as well as export duties on almost every article up to the year 1040, when, by a convention with the British Government, Mode of collecting aaaeiimeat Former customs duties. Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TBIRDTARY 3TATE3. 47 import duty, except on articles brought direct from countries other than British India and Cochin, was abolished. The Government undertook to compensate Travancore by an annual cash payment. The export duty was retained, but it was in no case to exceed 5 per cent., except in the case of timber, •which was subject to a duty of 10 per cent. The articles of Sircar monopoly, namely, salt, tobacco, pepper and opium, were exempted from the convention. The pepper monopoly was abolished in 1036, and superseded first by an excise duty of Rupees 15 per candy levied in the taluqs before the article left, and afterwards in 1044 by an export duty of 5 Rupees per candy ; this continues to the present day. The monopoly in the highest year has yielded a net revenue of Rupees 3,50,000 and in average years Rupees 1,50,000. Under the excise system it yielded a maximum of Rupees 95,000 and an average of Rupees 65,000 •, under the present arrangement the export duty gives Rupees 15,000 on an average. Tobacco, which was also a strict monopoly, was formerly imported by the Sircar from British India and Ceylon and sold in the Sircar's own bankshalls. This system was abolished in 1038 and superseded by an import duty, which has been successively reduced from Rupees J 90 to Rupees 110 upon the best kind. Under the present arrangement merchants import tobacco on their own account, but by certain routes only, and not below a certain quantity ; and they are required to bond it in Sircar warehouses. In the time of the monopoly it yielded a maximum of Rupees 12,00,000 and an average of Rupees 10,00,000 ; under the excise arrangement it yielded at first nearly Rupees 8,00,000 and afterwards Rupees 9,00,000. The quantity of tobacco consumed has more than doubled itself between 1033 and 1049. Salt was made a monopoly of the State in the last two months Salt mono- . J poly- of the year 988. In the following year 989 the sales stood thus : home-made white salt 60,000 Indianj maunds, black salt 81,000 Indian maunds, total 131,030 Indian maunds ; foreign salt imported 153,000 Indian maunds ; grand total 284,000 Indian maunds. The total revenue yielded to the Sircar was Rupees 1,85,149. The price was Rupee 1-1-0 per maund for the best quality, lower prices being put on inferior salt. At the end of the year the selling price was reduced to Annas 11 J per maund. The amount of revenue and the prices remained with little variations till the year 1034, when the price of foreign salt was raised to Rupee 1-1-0 and the revenue [Section I. 48 GEMEBAL AND POLITICAL. Present supply of salt. Abkary. indicated a corresponding increase. In the year 1037 the selling price of home-made white salt was raised and made equal to that of foreign salt. But this increase in the selling rate was then made applicable only to the districts north of the Wurkally barrier. In the following year the increase was extended to all white salt sold throughout the country. The revenue continued to increase from year to year until 1040, when it reached Rupees 5,48,659. At the close of this year, by an arrangement with the British Government, the price was assimilated to that of British India ; that is to say, from Rupee 1-1-0 it became Rupee 1-8-0 per maund. In all the subsequent revisions made by this Government the Sircar has followed the example set. In 1041 the price was raised from Rupee 1-8-0 to 1-11-0, and in 1045 it was raised from Rupee 1-11-0 to Rupees 2, which latter is the price ruling at present. At the time when the price was first assimilated with the British rate, it became necessary to discontinue the production and sale of black salt ; from its bad quality this could not be sold at the same price with the rest. The present supply is derived partly from the Sircar pans in South Travancore, four in number, and partly from Bombay. Occasionally salt from Tinnevelly or Tanjore is imported. The actual prime cost of home-made salt is 1 anna and 10 pies per Indian maund, or Rupees 13^ per garce. Imported Bombay salt costa the Sircar Rupees 38 per garce when landed and delivered into the stores. Unlike the operations on the other coast, there are in Travancore two seasons of manufacture, one between September and November and the other between January and June. Salt is not taken over from the ryot as soon as made, but is buried in pits and allowed to season till the bitter taste has worn off. It is dug up and received into store as required, and then only payment of the kudiwarum is made. The interval between manufacture and payment is sometimes several years. This is the system of the country, but a concession was made in the year under report, by advancing 50 per cent, of the price on the estimated quantity as soon as it was removed from the pans. The revenue from Abkary is managed much as it is in British India ; that is to say, the monopoly of selling toddy and country liquor is farmed out, taluq by taluq, to the highest bidder. The contractors are forbidden from selling below certain rates ; the Tahsildars recover the rents from the contractors in ten equal Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 49 monthly instalments, the last two months of the year being left out. If the contractor chooses to register sub-contracts or sub-leases before the Tahsildar, this officer is authorized to help the contractor in enforcing recovery of his dutjs by summary process. Fifty-seven years ago the revenue from this source was Rupees 41,124, and continued fluctuating between that sum and Rupees 59,448 up to the end of the year 1033. Since then it has risen rapidly, and in 1047 had reached Rupees 1,06,591- The opium monopoly includes also that in gunja, which is Opium, cultivated in the southern extremity of the State. Opium was made a source of revenue for the first time in 1037 ; it then yielded Rupees 14,774, but fell off in subsequent years owing to losses sustained by the contractors. It is again reviving at present, the rental for the last two years having been Rs. 9,101 and 10,1 78 5 the amounts were fully recovered within the close of each year. Opium is consumed chiefly by the Moplas, north of Quilou, and especially in Meenachel, a hilly taluq, where the drug is resorted to as a preventive of malarious fever. A single contractor usually holds the farm of this monopoly for the whoie State. The whole range of forests in the country is under the charge Forest*, of the Conservator, excepting the Cardamom Hills, mostly included in the Thodupulay Taluq, and a small tract in South Travancore, both of which are separately administered. The forest tract in South Travancore is under the control of the Revenue Department. Timber is felled here at Government cost, and periodically sold by public auction at a depot established in the Thovalay Taluq under the superintsendence of an officer called Aminadar. Besides the general conservancy of the forests, the Conservator is charged with the duty of supervising the trapping of elephants, the collection of revenue from miscellaneous forest produce, the supplying of timber for Government requirements, and other items. The most valuable timber trees produced in the forests are teak, blackwood and ebony, in respect of which the Government has a monopoly. No permits are granted to private individuals for felling them. Timber of other kinds is allowed to be cut by private parties on payment of a fee, or kntticanom, at certain fixed rates. As a means of check, watch stations are provided at various places, and timber felled under permits is subject to inspection at these stations in the course of transit. 7 [Section I- 50 GENEEAL AND POLITICAL. Cardamoms. One item of miscellaneous forest produce is cardamom. In the forests under the Conservator this spice is not regularly cultivated, but grows wild. Of late, however, it would seem that attention has been directed towards bringing it under regular cultivation as in the Cardamom Hills. Cardamom gardens to the extent of some hundred acres have been marked out. The Cardamom Hills were under the supervision of the Conservator of Forests till the year 1044, when they were transferred to a special Superintendent. The undivided attention which the change has secured for the industry has produced increased efficiency in the working of the department. Davasom. The revenue of the lands belonging to the Sri Padmanatha- sawmi Pagoda, which have been acquired from remote times by gift, amount to Rupees 75,000 and go to defray the daily expenses of the institution ; surpluses are credited to the State treasury and deficits, which rarely occur, ai-e made good from it. This temple is more or less independent of Government manage- ment. The State had no concern with the management of any temples before the year 987, when the landed property of 378 temples was assumed and the management taken over. Other minor temples, 1,171 in number, which had no property, were also assumed either before or at that date. The expenditure, establishments and rules for management, were settled on this occasion on a permanent basis. The lands thus assumed now yield a revenue of Rupees 4,30,000, while the annual expenditure on the 878 pagodas concerned with them amount to about Rupees 3,92,000. The annual grants for the other 1,171 temples amount to about Rupees 28,000. The interest of Government in respect of these institutions is for the moat part that of a trustee, and as a church establishment they cannot be regarded as expensive. Ootperas. The ootperas or charitable feeding institutions are 45 in number, inclusive of 3 conjee-houses. The chief is at the capital, and is known as the agrasala. The others are distributed at convenient stages on the line of road commencing from the Aramboli Pass in the south and ending at Paravoor in the north. The former is intended to feed all comers, the latter to feed travellers only — Brahmins are the chief recipients of the charity. Of the conjee-houses one is at Thovallay close to the Ai-amboli Pass, where all classes and castes of travellers are fed ; Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 51 one is at Sliencottah a little way beyond the Ai-iengavoo Pass, where also all classes are served ; the third is at the capital, which is confined to the very poorest of all classes and creeds, and chiefly to the dumb, the lame, the sick and the blind. The ootperas are primarily intended for the relief of the poor and wayworn traveller, but it cannot be denied that they have come in some cases to be regarded as feeding-houses for the poor of a resident population. It may be remarked that 75 per cent. of the people fed at these charitable institutions come from the southern provinces of the Madras Presidency, and from Malabar, and form a kind of migratory population. The reduction of expenditure on ootperas has been kept in view of late years. The system of State vernacular education embraces — Vernacular (1) Proverti or Village Schools, (2) Taluq District Schools, and S<=^°o^s- (3) Aided Schools receiving grants. The third class is confined to the town of Trevandrum. The department was organized in the year 1042. The course of instruction in the village schools consists of reading, writing, both on paper and cadjan ; arith- metic ; geography, both general and of Travancore ; and writing from dictation from the History of Travancore. The course of instruction in the taluq schools is the same, but the standard is higher, and Indian History is also taught. Sanscrit is taught in three and Tamil in all of the taluq schools in South Travan- core. At the central vernacular school at Trevandrum the standard embraces the first book of Euclid, Algebra (to simi^le equations), and the History of India and Travancore. In the girls' schools the subjects are the same as in the taluq schools, with the addition of some vocal music. Some of the teachers ai'e females. The class books used in all the vernacular schools have been translated or compiled by a committee who were brought into existence simultaneously with the system of State vernacular education. Uniform fee is collected in every school, namely 2 annas, except at the central school, where it varies with each class from 2 annas to 4 annas. The first masters of Proverti schools are paid Rupees 7 per mensem and the under-masters each Rupees 5. But the pay is reduced when the fees realized fall short of 25 fanams, or the attendance falls short of 25 boys. Formerly, when this was not attained, pay used to be refused altogether. In a recent year this rule was relaxed, and the masters were paid in proportion to the fees realized. The buildings and furniture are provided by the villagers themselves. [Section I. 52 GENERAL AND TOLITICAL. Maps alone are at present supplied by the Government. In some schools the boys sit on the ground. The salaries of Taluq Schoolmasters range thus : 1st Master, Rupees 20 ; 2nd Master, Rupees 12 ; 3rd Master, Rupees 10 ; Monitors, Rupees 5. The head-master of the central school is allowed a salary of Rupees 60 and the nnder-masters from Rupees 30 to 10. The aided schools receive a grant of Rupees 60 per annum each on condi- tion of their teaching the same subjects as are taught in the Government schools and of undergoing periodical inspections. Thei'e is nothing to prevent other subjects being taught. The village schools are inspected at least once in two months by Deputy Inspectors whose salaries range from Rupees 30 to 35. There were ten of them in 1049. The district or taluq schools are inspected once in three months by Inspectors whose salary is Rupees 85, inclusive of a travelling allowance of Rupees 15. The aided schools in the town of Trevandrum are visited evci'y month and supervised by a special Inspector on a salary of Rupees 40 per mensem. The whole department is controlled by a Director, whose salary is Rupees 1 50. Vernacular The educational operations of the various Missionary Societies Schools have always been a very active widely influential agency in Missionary the education of the youth of the country, especially of the lower classes. The results of their labors may be summarized thus in a reeent year : — The London Mission Society., The Church Mission Society., The Catholic Mission, Vicar Apostolic, Malabar. Vicar Apostolic, Quilon Bishopric, Cochin Syrian Metropolitan See of Malabar 132 20,000 7,000 (de- ducting 2,000 for English schools) . It is under contemplation to introduce a system of grants-in- aid or of payment for results in respect of some of these Bchools. Medical The total monthly cost of the Medical Establishment is Department, jj^ 3^924, and of the Vaccination Establishment Rs. 882, giving a total monthly cost of Rs. 4,08G, or Rs. 57,672 per annum. The medical institutions maintained at the capital are the Civil No. of No. of Pupils. Schools. Boys. Girls. .. 137 4,040 1,036 ,.110 2,600 560 25g (^average 25 each) 6,000 1,500^^^^^'^- ,. 72 2,674 228 .. 28 589 197 Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 53 or General Hospital, the Charity Hospital to wliich is attached a Small -pox Hospital, the Lunatic Asylum, the Lying-in Hospi- tal, and the Jail Hospital. There are subordinate dispensaries attached to the Rajah's Palace, to the First Prince's Palace, to the public offices, and to the Durbar Physician's residence. The medical institutions at out-stations consist of three at Alleppey, namely, a Civil Hospital, Charity Hospital, and Jail Hospital, and twelve at other places. The medicines and medical stores cost on an average Rs. 30,000 per annum. The total annual expenditure of the department amounts to nearly Rs. 1,08,000. The Revenue Survey Department is attached to the Dewan's Revenue Siiirvdv Cutcherry, and is directly under his orders. It was organized in the year 1040. The survey operations are mostly in connection with coifee estates. The Sircar Press was organized about forty years back, at the Press, time when the Trevandrum English school came into existence. The scope of its operations was exceedingly limited for a long time, the demand for printing work being confined to the publication of the Trevandrum Almanac and the requirements of the English school and one or two more departments. Recently the department has undergone considerable improvement in strength and efficiency. The stock of printing machinery and types received valuable additions during the years 1040 to 1044. In 1045 a Lithographic Press w^as supplied wuth an establishment to work it. At the present time almost every department derives help from the Press, and the general introduction of paper recently effected is calculated to render the need for its assistance still greater. The Unjel, in former days, was maintained for State service xjnjel or only, but about 1036 it was thrown open to the public and the ^""'^^ ^®**- Bystem of levying postage introduced. In 103G there were 44 stations or Post Offices, and 30 more have been added in subse- quent years, making a total of 74 at the present day. The total cost was last year Rupees 21,847, or with contingencies Rupees 22,099. The distance traversed by runners every day is 620 miles. From the Central Post Office at Trevandrum one line runs so nth to Thovallay, another runs north as far as Pavoor, another to Shencottah by the new road via Nccdoovengaud. A branch line runs from Quilon to Shencottah, and another from Krishnapoorum to Thoduvellah ; ten other branch lines start from the main ones and proceed into the interior and towards the coast. The average speed attained is between 3 and 4 miles [Section I. 64 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. per hour. The total number of private despatches in the year 1049 was 207,796, and was in excess of the number in the preceding year by 11,265. The income yielded from this source was Rupees 11,568. Owing to the substitution of paper for palm leaves, on which latter most of the correspondence of the country used to be carried on, the additional number of covers did not yield a corresponding increase in the receipts, the weight of the letters being considerably reduced. The Unjel carries also the letters, newspapers and books received into the country through the British Post Offices, of which there are about eight. By the extra charge levied on these it earned in lOlQ Rupees 324. Mint. With the exception of two stamping presses, an assaying furnace, and assay balances and weights, procured from the Madras Mint and from England, there is no machinery in the Travancore Mint, and the operations are carried on in the native style. For some years past the operations have been very limited. At present work is confined for the most part to copper coinage. The British Rupee is current in the State. The local coins are, therefore, only of lower denominations. A fanam is equal to 4 chuckroms (silver coin), and a chuckrom is equal to 16 cash, (copper coin). 28| chuckroms go to the rupee, a chuckrom being nearly 6 grains Troy. The copper coinage yielded Rupees 1,913 in 1048 and Rupees 2,539 in 1049, deducting cost of metal ; allowing for charges of establishment, the result was a loss of Rupees 421 in the one year and Rupees 21 in the other. Elephant Elephants are taken in pits, partly by Government agency and partly by private individuals. In the latter case, the captor receives a reward from the Government of Rupees 150, the animal itself being royal. There are in all about 500 Sircar pits and 500 private pits. Each pit is 8 feet square, rounded off towards the bottom. They are scattered over the valleys frequented by the animal. When an elephant falls into a pit, a report is sent to the Aminadar of the range, who reports to the talaq, and a party with tame elephants is then immediately despatched to capture it. After capture the animal is taken to certain large stables or enclosures and there let loose. It then becomes the business of the Mahoot to tame it. When young, a few months suffice for taming ; when old, it takes longer. A full grown elephant at work costs about Rupees 51 per mensem, inclusive of the Mahoot's salary. When out of work and left to graze in the forest, Rupees 7 per mensem are allowed. Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 65 The gross receipts from all sources indicated in the Financial Financial, Returns for five recent years are given below : — — 1045. 1046. 1047. 1048. 1049. RS. RS. RS. RS. R8 1 Land Revenue 16,66,950 16,43,954 16,59,923 4,86,687 5,98,907 16,81,217 16,93,651 2 Miscellaneous 6,09,182 4,69,338 6,29,807 3 Judicial fees, &c. 1,17,418 1,20,813! 1,28,501 1,31,641 1,44,258 4 Customa 3,63,822 3,55,244 4,55,811 4,13,027 3,87,994 5 Arrack and Opium . . . 1,00,605 1,05,494 1,08,658 1,22,447 1,34,996 6 Tobacco 7,75,031 8,10,511 8,89,114 8,62,893 9,09,746 7 Salt 9,57,228 10,03,336 9,83,815 9,91,317 9,88,798 8 Cardamoms & other goods. 2,06,767 4,09,923 3,78,585 2,73,394 2,24,870 9 Timber 1,08,074 1,20,174 83,701 1,03,728 1,01,710 10 Interest on Govern- ment Securities. 1,73,393 1,59,079 47,035 1,98,066 1,06,637 11 Arrears of Revenue collected. Total ... 55,537 29,257 38,862 53,403 29,66-l 51,34,007 52,44,472 53,72,372 53,00,471 53,46,131 The disbursements for the same period were as follows : — 1045. 1046. 1047. 1048. 1049. RS. RS. RS. RS. RS. 1 Devasom 5,59,243 5,52,827 i 5,54,735 5,44,922 5,73,253 2 Ootperas 3,21,572 3,05,950 2,94,791 3,06,517 3,09,644 3 Palace 5,42,603 4,99,549 5,11,494 5,03,233 5,41,939 4 Huzur Cutchorry and other civil establish- ments. 5,62,219 5,65,867 5,83,781 5,92,721 5,64,045 5 Judicial Establish- ments. 1,54,969 1,57,415 1,48,668 1,54,111 1,69,105 6 Police ... 1,33,242 1,32,956 1,32,609 1,36,455 1,42,430 7 Nair Troops ... 1,53,631 1,77,597 1,59,364 1,49,620 1,54,905 8 Elephant and Horse establishment. 67,649 65,696 62,715 63,599 66,251 9 Education, Science and Art 1,14,545 1,23,244 1,09,987 1,15,883 1,14,346 10 Medical 1,45,480 11 Pensions 1,21,912 l,2i,517 1,26,706 1,34,654 1,35,029 12 Public Works 9,67,801 11,68,728 13,20,967 10,58,617 10,15,913 13 Costs and chai-ges of goods sold, &c. 3,52,902 4,13,969 4,08,021 3,71,170 3,78,008 14 Contingent charges ... 2,00,608 1,96,593 1,78,188 1,62,886 1,80,972 15 Subsidy 8,10,652 8,10,652 8,10,652 8,10,652 8,10,652 16 Moorajapom ... 1,94,752 17 Tulabarura 1,61,177 18 Tirumadampu 20,690 18,425 19 Pulmagarblmm 90,979 20 The Rajah's trip to Bombay and Be- nares. ... 1,54,592 21 Sankara Chai-iar Swamy's visit. Total ... 1 20,130 54,40,167' 52,92,560 1 54,93,657 52,78,060 53,21,292 [Section I. 56 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. COCHIN. History of political relations. According to tradition the Rajahs of Cochin claim to hold the territory in right of descent from Cherman Perumal, who governed the whole country of Kerala, including Travancore and Malabar, as Viceroy of the Chola Kings about the beginning of the ninth century, and afterwards established himself as independent ruler. The genealogical table, showing the descent of the present ruler of Cochin cannot be traced beyond the last three centuries, and even for this period the information is untrustworthy. From the commencement of the present century the information becomes better defined, and the following names appear in regular succession : — Rama Vurmah, died at Trichoor, September 28th, 1805 ; Rama Vermah, died at Velarapully, January 14th, 1809 ; Veei'a Kerala, died at Tripoontorah, August Gth, 1828 ; Rama Vui'mah, died at Tripoontorah, November 18th, 1837 ; Rama Vurmah, died at Irinjalacodah, May 31st, 1842 ; Rama Vurmah, died at Trichoor, July 10th, 1851; Veei-a Kerala, died at Benares, February 22ud, 1853; Revi Vermah, died at Tripoontorah, February 7th, 18G4 ; and Rama Vermah, the present Rajah, who ascended the musnud March 28th, 1864. In 1776 Cochin was subjugated by, and became tribiitary to, Hyder Ali. In 1792 Tip2X)0 ceded the sovereignty to the British, who left the country under the uncontrolled authority of the Rajah, subject to a tribute cf 1,00,000 Rupees ; this undertaking was concluded with the Rajah in the previous year, when the Company restored to him the districts and forts taken from him by Tippoo. The Cochin State is in subsidiary alliance with the British Govern- ment under treaty of 17th October 1809. By this treaty, which was entered into on the suppression of an insurrection raised by Cochin jointly with Travancore against the British power, the Rajah agreed to pay the Ea?t India Company, in addition to the usual subsidy of one lakh of Rupees, an annual sum equal to the expense of one battalion of Native Infantry, or 1,76,037 Arcot Riipees, making an aggregate annual payment of Rupees 2,76,037, paid in six equal instalments. It was further stipulated that, should it become necessary to employ a larger force for the defence of these territories against foreign invasion, the Rajah should contribute towards the expense in proportion to his means. The Rajah engaged to be guided at all times by the advice of the English Govei'nment ; to hold no correspon- Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 57 dence with any foreign State without the knowledge and sanc- tion of the Company ; and to admit no Europeans to his service, and permit none to remain in his dominions, without the consent and concurrence of the Company. Power was given to the Company to dismantle or garrison any fortress in His Highness* territory. On the other hand the Company undertook to defend the integrity of the State territory against all enemies. Subse- quently the annual subsidy to the British Government was reduced to Rupees 2,40,000, being one-half of the estimated amount of the revenue at that time ; and at a still later period the payment was fixed at two lakhs only, which forms the pecu- niary obligation of the State at the present day. There is a British Resident for Cochin jointly with Travancoro. Cochin contains seven districts, namely, Cochin, Cannanore, Features of Mugundapuram, Trichoor, Tallapully, Chittoor, and Cranganore. * ^^^^ ^^' The total area is 1,361 square miles. A census was recently taken of the population of this Recent State. The inhabitants have been enumerated five times during the last 55 years, the figures presenting the total popu- lation being respectively 223,203 in 995 M.E. ; 288,176 in 1011 ; 356,802 in 1024; 399,056 in 1032 ; and 601,114 in 1050. The augmentation in numbers appears to have been great and continuous, though not always uniform, being 29 per cent, for an interval of 16 years between the first and second censuses ; 27 per cent, for the second period of 13 years ; 11 per cent, for the third period of 8 years ; 49 per cent, for the fourth period of 18 years ; and 170 per cent, for the whole interval of 55 years, between the earliest and latest enumerations. The highest rate of increase has obtained during the present administration, which has been marked also by the rapid development of the food resources of the country. In the following table is given the present annual increase in each of the principal countries of Europe, together with the number of years in which the population would be doubled if the rates continued so : — Countries. Increase per Annum. Years Russia ... 1-39 50 England... 1-29 54 Prussia ... 1-13 6H Spain 0-89 78 Italy 0-70 99 France ... 0-35 198 [Section I. 68 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. The rate and years for Cochin are 1'86 and 39, respectively. The aiale population of the country has increased during the interval between 995 and 1050 from 109,669 to 302,030, or 175 per cent., and the female from 11 3,334 to 299,084, or 164 per cent. The subjects of the Cochin Government, excluding those whose domicile of origin is elsewhere as above shown, may be ethnically divided into 530,262 Malayalees, 31,325 Tamulians, and 30,849 other languages. The subjoined table shows the distribution of the Cochinites and foreigners according to the districts in which they reside : — Malayaltmi. Tamulian. Other Races. Total. o5 CO GO GO 01 00 m Grand Districts. 9 a '3 a '3 '3 H"3 ■fl c"3 Total. ■g 1^ O A yi XI. "A-t "A o o o o O o o o O o O O o u o 1 Kanayannoor ... 86,245 1,341 1,341 294 4,337 125 91,923 1,760 93,683 2 Cochin ... 81,813 221 1,088 8 10,697 74 93,598 303 93,901 3 Kodungaloor . . . 18,426 100 594 40 1,218 19 20,238 159 20,397 4 Mugundapuram 110,407 422 1,851 111 2,161 22 114,419 555 114,974 6 Trichoor 98,904 217 869 443 944 365 100,717 1,025 101,742 6 Tallapully 103,160 995 3,393 184 2,712 21 109,265 1,200 110,465 7 Chittoor Total ... 31,307 1,633 22,189 1,223 8,780 820 62,276 3,676 65,952 530,262 4,929 31,325 2,303 30,849 1,446 592,436 8,678 601,114 Taking the three principal caste divisions of the people the figures stand as follows : — Hindus, 426,922, or 71 02 per cent. ; Christians, 140,414, or 23*35 per cent. ; Mahomedans, 32,499, or 540 per cent. The proportion of Christians is 3 per cent, greater than in the adjoining State of Travancore, 21| per cent, greater than in the Madras Presidency generally, and nearly four times as gi-eat as in Tinnevelly. The bulk of this population are Syrian Christians, though the report does not distinguish the different denominations. They are massed in the neighborhood of the seacoast back-waters and lagoons, and almost monopolize the boating and fishing industry. Of the Hindus 6622 per cent, are classed as Malayala Sudras and Eloovars. The Brahmins number 22,342, or 3'6 of the total population, and 5' 5 of the Hindu population. The density is 441 to the square mile, a result exceeded only in Tanjore. The luxuriant growth of the cocoa palm on the sea shore and back- waters is the chief support of this heavy population. Little labor being entailed by this cultivation, abundant opportunity exists for further earnings. Nearly the whole produce of the country consists of special articles for export, the collection of Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY PTATDS. 59 which at the port of Cochin by the endless net-work of canals affords ample employment to boatmen, imported rice being distributed in the shape of return cargo. The fact that a sufficient fish diet is available to the great bulk of the people at an almost nominal cost is not to be overlooked in drawing conclusions regarding the density of population. The census shows the total revenue for that year as a little Taxation iu over 2 Rupees a head, or quarter of a rupee less than in the British territory and in the adjoining State of Travancore. The difference indeed is almost explained by the smaller revenue from salt already refeiTed to. The average incidence of the land tax is Rupees 1-4-0 a head, or 2 Annas less than in British teri-itory. The geogi-aphical formation of the country does not favor the Travancore system of indirectly taxing the land by expox't duties. PUDUCOTTAH. The Puducottah State is surrounded by the British Districts Description, of Tanjore, Trichinopoly, and Madui'a. Its gross revenue is about five lakhs of Rupees, of which three lakhs are Inam and Jaghire and two lakhs are payable to the Rajah. The British Government has no treaty with Puducottah, the Rajah of which is exempt from tribute, and has independent Courts of Justice. The Madras Government, however, receives petitions of complaints from his subjects and sends them for the report of the Political Agent, who is considered entitled to advise and remonstrate with the Rajah on all subjects of importance. The area of the State is about 1,04(3 square miles. The population, which is almost entirely agricultural, was 316,695 according to the census of 1874. The country is genei-ally a flat plain, interspersed with a few small rocky hills, some of which are crowned by old forts. In the south-west hills and jungles are found, but elsewhere it is a well cultivated tract, and there are 3,000 tanks, some of considerable size. The alienations of land revenue are extensive. Members of the Rajah's family hold 110,000 acres, 95,627 acres are held by temples, and 9,584 acres are held by alms-houses. The Inams held by Brahmins, and on various tenures of service, amount to 100,000 acres. Further particulars will be found below. [Section I. 60 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. History. The first connexion of the British Government with this chieftain, then usually called Tondiman, was formed at the siege of Trichinopoly in 1753, when the British army greatly depended on his fidelity and exertions for provisions. Subsequently he was serviceable in the wars with Hyder Ali and in the Poligar war, the latter being the name given to the operations against the usurpers of the large zemindary of Shivagnnga in the Madura District after the cession of the Carnatic. In 1803 he solicited as a reward for his services the favorable consideration of his claim to the fort and district of Kilanelli, situated in the southern part of Tanjore ; this claim was founded on a grant by Pratap Singh, Rajah of Tanjore, and on engagements which were afterwards entered into by Colonel Braithwaite, General Coote, and Lord Macartney. The Government of Madras ceded the fort and district of Kilanelli ; and the cession was afterwards confirmed by the Court of Directors of the East India Company, bat with the condition that the district should not be alienated, and that it should revert to the British Government upon proof being given at any time that the inhabitants labored under oppressive government. Kilanelli yields a revenue of about Rupees 30,000 a year. The grant was also made subject to the yearly tribute of an elephant ; this tribute however was not insisted upon, and in 1836 it was formally excused. The Rajah Vijaya Raghunath Tondiman died on the 1st February 1807, leaving two sons, the elder of whom, aged eleven, succeeded. During the minority of the young chief the Resident at Tanjore exercised a strict superintendence over the afiairs of the State, and pro- cured various reforms of system in the revenue, police, and judi- cial departments. As the Rajah increased in age, the interference with his affairs was gradually lessened ; and about the year 1817 he was placed in charge of the whole administration. Rajah Vijaya Raghunath Rai Tondiman Bahadoor died in 1825 and was succeeded by his younger brother Rajah Raghunath Tondiman, who died on the 13th July 1839. He left two sons. Rajah Rama- chandra Tondiman Bahadoor, aged nine years, and Tirumalai Tondiman, aged eight years. The former succeeded eventually to the chieftainship. Until 1841 the administration was conducted by the widow assisted by two ministers, but in that year, in conse- quence of representations of injustice by relations of the Rajah, the Resident at Tanjore was directed to make Puducottah his occasional residence, and to take up the immediate superintendence and control of the business of the country, which was however to continue to be conducted by the ministers of the Rajah. The Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 61 Resident, on the receipt of these orders, laid down rules for the guidance of the ministers, which prohibited expenditure beyond certain limits, and forbade the ministers to make grants of land, to assign produce, to create offices, or to increase or decrease emoluments, without his sanction ; the rules prescribed also the mode in which public business was to be carried on. In the same year the Residency at Tanjore was abolished, and the charge of Puducottah was entrusted to the Collector of Madura. The administration of the State was pi'osperously conducted under the superintendence of this officer during the remainder of the minority ; all debts were paid off, and a surplus invested in the funds of the British Government. In 1854, owing to disturb- ances in the country, originating in part in the irregular conduct of public business by the present Rajah, who had then recently come of age, the Governor in Council decided upon the system of administration now in force. That system is 1st, that the acts of the Rajah, through the Minister or Sirkele, shall be subject to the revision of the Political Agent with regard to all appoint- ments and dismissals of public officers ; 2nd, that, subject to the Political Agent's supervision, the Sirkele shall manage the finances, the Rajah being restricted to his privy purse allowances ; drd, that there shall be a full yearly report of affairs ; 4^/*, that the Political Agent shall expel from the territory all disorderly persons and evil counsellors. In 1865 the Political Agency was transferred from Madura to Tanjore, and in 1874 from Tanjore again to Trichinopoly. There have been no regular treaties between the British Treaties, Government and the Rajah, but in 1803 the fort and district of Kilanelli were granted to him by Lord Clive, then Governor of Madras, as mentioned above, and in 1862 a sanad was granted to him by the Viceroy Lord Canning, assuring him that the British Government would recognize the right of adoption, and that nothing should disturb the arrangement so long as the House should remain faithful and loyal to the Crown. BANGANAPALLI, The Jaghire of Banganapalli situated in the Kurnool District History, was originally granted to Mahomed Beg Khan, eldest son of the Grand Vizier of Aui-angzeb. It was afterwards confirmed by [Section I. 62 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. successive grants from Mysore and Hyderabad ; and at tlie treaty of 1800 was confen-cd on Muzafar Mulk and his heirs in perpetuity. In 1825, in consequence of the disorders which prevailed in the jaghire, its management was temporarily assumed by the Company, and the Collector of Cuddapah was directed to examine the accounts of the chief and settle the claims of his creditors, to whom three-fourths of the net revenue was allotted, and the dividends regularly paid by the officer placed in charge of the jaghire. In 1848, the accounts being closed, the jaghire was restored to Hussain All Khan, the eldest surviving heir. Hussain Ali Khan died before a sanad recognizing him could be issued. He was succeeded by his nephew Ghulam Ali Khan, the late chief, to whom in 1849 a sanad was granted renewing to him and to his heirs their former rights and privileges, with administration of civil and criminal justice except in cases involving capital punishment, and stipulat- ing that no grant should be made without a written document distinctly specifying that each alienation should hold good during such period only as the jaghire should remain in the enjoyment of the grantor. All frontier duties were abolished. In 1862 a sanad was granted to Ghulam Ali Khan guaranteeing that the British Government would permit and confirm any succession to his State which might be legitimate according to Mahomedan law. In October 1868 Ghulam Ali Khan, c.s.i., died, and his nephew and son-in-law, Fatte Ali Khan Bahadoor, the present ruler, was recognized as his successor. Under the sanad granted to Ghulam Ali Khan and renewed in the name of the present chief, the jaghire is confirmed as an independent State free of peishcush and pecuniary demand, the chief being bound at all times to maintain faith and allegiance to the Paramount Power. The civil jurisdiction of the chief is unre- stricted ; but in the administration of criminal justice he is debarred from mutilating criminals, and capital sentences must be sanctioned by the Madras Government before being carried out. Statistics. The area of the jaghire is estimated at 206| square miles, or 132,191 acres. Of this 54,171 acres are held on full assessment, and 38,578 acres are held on favorable tenure. There are only 29 acres of fully assessed land unoccupied. The remaining area, amounting to acres 29,413, is unassessed, and compri.ses hills, streams, roads, village sites, &c. The population of the jaghire was returned at 45,065 in the census of 1871. The land revenue amounts to Rupees 2,24,841, and the miscellaneous revenue to Rupees 9,798, but considerably more than half the land revenue Section I.] ADMINrSTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. 63 is assigned as maintenance to members of tlie family. The jaghire contains some of the finest gardens in this part of the country, the mangoes and oranges of Banganapalli being cele- brated. The Collector of Kurnool acts as agent to the Madras Government ; he does not however forward an administration report of the jaghire . S U N D R. The State of Sundoor is situated nearly in the centre of the General Bellary District. The area is roughly estimated at 140 square ^^''"P ^^^' miles, of which more than a third is hill territory ; it is also surrounded by a cordon of hills, which completely isolate it from the neighbouring country. The administration is in the hands of a European Agent, who is the chief executive officer, and whose decisions on both the revenue and judicial sides are final. The law in force is substantially that of British India. The population of the State, not including the hill sanitarium of Ramandroog, is according to the recent census somewhat over 14,000, showing an increase on the census of 1865 of more than 1 ,000 persons. The avei^age revenue fi'om all sources somewhat exceeds Rupees 45,000. Of this sum about Rupees 24,000 is realized fi*om land, about Rupees 18,300 from contracts of different kinds, and the rest from miscellaneous sources. The land revenue includes grants of laud to dependents and service lands, and these are generally estimated at the highest figure ; the contracts also form a somewhat precarious and fluctuating source of income. The following Inams are enjoyed : — Bramadaya, Rupees 4,571 ; Komaraswami Pagoda, Rupees 2,945 ; other temples, Rupees 2,332; Fakirs and others, Rnpees 1,298; and sundry small jaghires, Rupees 1,360. In all, lands to the value of Rupees 1 2,506 per annum are alienated. Since November 1863 nearly a lakh of Rupees has been paid towards the liquidation of debts ; but, it is to be regretted, with less practical result than might reasonably be anticipated. The system of paying with one hand, and contracting fresh obligations with the other, has not yet been entirely abolished. Education is in a backward state, roads are still urgently required, and pubUc buildings are wanted. The incubus of debt is a considerable check to efforts in these directions. [Section I. 64 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. History. The present chief of Sundoor is Siva Shan Mukha Row. The founder of the family wa3 Malloji Row Ghorepura, an oflBcer in the army of the Bijapur State, whose son Biroji entered the service of the Rajah of Sattara. The Sundoor State had been previously held by a Beder Poligar, but Biroji's son Siddoji took Sundoor from the Beders, and his conquest was confirmed to him and his heirs by Sambhaji, the successor of Sivaji. Siddoji died in 1715, and was succeeded in Sandoor by his second son Gopal Row, whose fate is involved in obscurity. All that is known of the history of that time is that Sundoor was taken by Hyder Ali some time after his capture of Gooty in 1779 ; that he and his son Tippoo built the fort ; and that Gopal Row's son, Siva Row, was killed in action in 1785 in a vain attempt to recover his patrimony. In 1790 Siva Row's brother, Vencata Row, acting on behalf of his nephew Siddoji, drove out Tippoo's garrison, but did not attempt to occupy Sundoor till the fall of Seringapatara. The Peshwa then claimed the State as his own, and presented it to Yeswant Row Ghorepura, a distinguished officer of Scindia's army, who belonged to the same family. Yeswant Row did not take possession, and the widow of Siddoji, who died in 1796, adopted Siva Row, a son of Kandi Row the younger brother of Yeswant Row. The Peshwa mado an unsuccessful attempt upon Sundoor in 1815 ; at his request in 1817 the British Government, in conformity with the pro- visions of the treaty of Bassein, sent a force under Sir Thomas Munro to reduce it, and in October of that year the fort and government were surrendered. Siva Row was compensated, on Sir Thomas Munro's recommendation, with a jaghire of Rupees 10,000. In 1818, after the failure of the Peshwa's government, Siva Row was restored to his State, and in 1826 received a sanad from Government confirming the lands of Sundoor to him and his heirs for ever free of peishcush and pecuniary demands. Siva Row was succeeded iu 1840 by a nephew named Venkat Row, who died in 1861. His eldest son, the present chief, being then a minor, was not invested till 1863, when the sanad was renewed. The present chief has the entire management of the revenue and police of his State, and the duty of administering civil justice. He is bound at all times to maintain allegiance to the British Government, and to assist them against foreign or domestic foes, maintaining a watch over public peace and deliver- ing up ofienders who escape into his territoiy from British India. In the administration of criminal justice he is required to refer all cases calling for capital punishment for the orders Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TKIBUTARY STATES. G5 of the Madras Government. He is held responsible to the British Government for the satisfactory administration of his State, and in case of misgovernment the Governor in Council has the power to take such measures as appear proper for the establishment of order and security. The Collector of Bellary acts as Government Agent, but does not submit an administra- tion report. Sundoor contains a very important bill sanitarium for Euro- Sanitarium of peans in the plateau of Ramandroog. Pennission was obtained ^^"^^^ ^°°^' from the Rajah in 1846 to establish a sanitarium there, and it has since been utilized chiefly as a convalescent depot for the troops serving in the Ceded Districts. Ramandroog .is distant from Bellary 38 miles, and from Secundcrabad 270 miles. The station is built on an elevated plateau 3,150 feet above the sea-level, 1,825 above Bellary, and 1,200 feet above the surrounding plains. The greatest extent of the plateau, is from north to south one and a half miles, and it varies in breadth from half to three-quarters of a mile. The general aspect of the surface is undulating, the eastern ridge of the hill being more than 100 feet higher than the western ; the ground gradually slopes down from the former to the latter, where in many places the descent to the western plains is very precipitous. Owing to this conformation no rain water lodges on the hill. The soil on the plateau formed by the disintegrated rock is scanty, but sufficient in some spots on the west and south sides of the hill to admit of a certain amount of cultivation ; on the eastern side the rock is generally bare. Daring the months of January, February, and March the air is cool, dry, and bracing, being generally 12° cooler than at Bellary during the same period. April and May may be called the hot months, when the mean of the thermometer is about 80°. The morn- ings and evenings during these months are h-owever cool and pleasant, and towards sunset a fresh breeze sets in from the west. Early in April and during May partial showers fall ; the air, except in the early morning and evenings, is close and sultry i, and the sky becomes cloudy. Towards the end of May banks of clouds are seen forming in the west, and occasional heavy showers of rain fall. This is soon followed by violent stoi'ms bi'inging in the south-west monsoon. Rain continues with occasional breaks till the middle of October, after which, to the end of the year, the I'ainfall is iucon.sideral:)le. During the south-west monsoon fogs cover the hills from sunset till 9 or 10 o'clock next morning, the thermometer in the early mornings 9 [Section I. 66 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. falling to 62° Patrenlieit. The damp and chilly state of the atmosphere at this period necessitates the use of fires in barracks and houses. The north-east monsoon sets in about the middle of October, and a cold wind prevails ivom. the north-east quarter till the end of February, when it gradually veers round to the south-west. During the south-west monsoon the sides of the hill and the ravines and nullahs at the base contain a large amount of decaying vegetable matter. After the rains are over the surface of the country rapidly dries up and the atmosphere becomes full of impurities ; this probably accounts for the not unfrequent occurrence of malarious fever during the period of the year just mentioned. The rainfall is greater than in the plains, but seems to have fallen ofi" in the last few years — a fact which is probably due to the unlimited destruction of trees and shrubs during the minority of the present Rajah. The climate of Ramandroog is suitable for cases of general debility, unattended by organic disease. Hepatic, cardiac, rheumatic, pulmonic and bowel affections appear to be aggra- vated by the climate, especially during the rains. All cases of glandular affections derive great benefit, and children of a scrofulous habit of body thrive remarkably. The depot can accommodate 60 single men and 10 families. There are three good roads up to the Droog, one by Yettinhatti and Bavihalli, "which is the one used by travellers from Bellary ; one from Hospett ; and the third, the steepest of all, from Narayan- deverkerra. There are about fifteen houses on the Droog belonging to Bellary residents. Two carriage roads run along the whole platform, and many good bridle roads have been cut along the sides of the hills to the north and south. GANJAM AGENCY. Nature of The Maliah tract at preseiit under the jurisdiction of the Ganjam Agent occupies the western portion of the District of Ganjam covering an area of about 3,500 square miles, or about five-twelfths of the entire district. It is inhabited chiefly by Khonds and Savarahs. The term Maliah or Malwah means high lands, and is the name given by Khonds to the upland regions of Onssa generally. The country is mountainous and covered wath dense forests of sal, which however never attain Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBUTARY STATES. G7 any great age, as they are periodically cleared by the Khonds and Savarahs for cultivation purposes. Agriculture is practised by the Khonds with a degree of skill and energy which is perhaps nowhere surpassed in India, and the result is a high degx'ee of rural affluence. The Maliah Khonds are extremely rich in every species of agricultural stock. The Khonds inhabit the northern and centi'al portions of the Maliahs in Ganjam and comprise many tribes speaking different dialects and of various degrees of lawlessness. Those on the Kalahundy and Jeypore borders, known as the Kuttiah Khonds, are perhaps the most fierce and warlike. The tribes occupying the hills bordering on Ganjam, with the exception of the Simili Khonds of Bodagadah, are somewhat more civilized ; and in the Goomsur Maliahs, where many of them speak Uriya, there is not much perceptible difference between the Khonds of the hills and those living in the jungle villages at the foot of the ghauts. The Savarahs occupy the Pedda Kimedy, Surangi, and Parla Kimedy Maliahs to the south of the Khond tribes, with whom they have little in common. In agriculture they are on a par with the Khonds. The region occupied by this people extends from the Kimedy Zemindari to the Godavery, or for 200 miles. The principal means of access to the Maliahs from the plains is by the Kalingia Ghaut Road from the foot of the hills at Durgaprasad in the Goomsur Taluq to Kalingia on the summit, a distance of seven miles. It was oiiginally constructed by the Sappers and Miners, and is at present maintained by the Depai-tment of Public Works. It is accessible to carts. There are many other rough ghaut tracks connecting the Maliahs with the low country available for foot passengers and cattle. A cart road is under construction from the Parla Kimedy plain country to Gumma in the Parla Kimedy Maliahs. In the year 1836 the Zemindari of Goomsur and the Maliahs Government attached thereto were resumed by Government in consequence ^ of the I'ebellious conduct of the Zemindar and were placed under the control of the Collector. During the war it came to the notice of the Commissioner that meriah sacrifices were practised in certain portions of the Maliahs, and in consequence a Military Assistant with an armed force was specially entertained with a view to their gradual suppression. It was at the same time considered necessai'y for the prevention of further disturbances that the administration of criminal and civil justice in the Hill Zemindaries should be removed from the jurisdiction of the ordinary Courts and placed under the Collector, and Act XXIV [Section L 68 CENERAL AND POLITICAL. of 1839 was passed giving the Collector, or Agent to the Governor of Fort St. George, the necessary powers. During the time the Maliahs were under the control of the Collector and Agent it was discovered by his Military Assistant that the meriah sacrifices were not confined to the Maliahs of this district alone, but extended to those of the neighboring district of Vizagapatam as well as to those under the jurisdic- tion of the Bengal Presidency and Central Provinces, and that female infanticide was also practised in some of them. The Crovemment of India therefore considered it proper to create a separate Agency for the suppression of meriah sacrifices and female infanticide in the Hill Tracts of Orissa in general, and appointed an Agent under Act XXI of 1845, to whom all the MaHahs then under the Collector and Agent were transferred. This arrangement continued up to May 1862, when the Govern- ment having been satisfied that these rites had been completely a,nd successfully put down the Meriah Agency was done away with, and the Maliahs were retransferred to the Collector and Agent. In 1863 all the Agency tracts situated below the ghauts, with the exception of Goomsur and Suradah, were retransferred to the jurisdiction of the ordinary Courts, and in 1866 Goomsur and Suradah also were removed from the jurisdiction of the Agent. In 1869 the Chokapad Mutah of the Goomsur Taluq and the petty Chieftainships of Koradah and Ronabah were restored to the Agent. The Maliahs at present under the juris- diction of the Collector and Agent are the following : — Goomsur, Suradah, Chinna Kimedy, Pedda Kimedy, Bodagadah, Surangi, Parla Kimedy, Mutahs of Koradah and Bonabah, Jaradah, Jalantra, Mandasa, Budarasingi, and Kattingiah. Of these the Goomsur Suradah and Chinna Kimedy Maliahs are under the direct management of Government ; the two former having been forfeited to Government along with the Zemindari of Goomsur, while the latter was taken by Government in consequence of disturbances, towards the quelling of which the Zemindar, who is a nominal proprietor, was unable to render assistance for want of influence with the Khonds. The remaining Maliahs are held on sanads by their respective Zemindars, who derive more or less revenue therefrom. The Government derive no revenue from the Maliahs under their own management. The population of the Maliahs under the Agency is computed at 185,957 according to the Census of 1871. In these MaUahs the Agent exercises the powers of Civil and Sessions Judge, though questions of disputed succession to landed estates are Section I.] ADMINISTRATION OF TRIBOTART STATES. 69 decided by Government on the report of the Agent. The Penal and Criminal Procedure Codes are in force. These tracts are Scheduled Districts under Act XIV of 1874. VIZAGAPATAM AGENCY. In 1835 Sir Frederick Adam, Governor of Madras, visited the History of Circars, and recorded in a Minute his opinion as to the expediency of exempting the Hill Zemindaries from the general regulations. Mr. Russel, Special Commissioner in the Northern Circars, after minute inquiries into the causes of disturbances then lately suppressed, and the policy needful for adoption in order that the recurrence of such outbreaks might be prevented, reported finally on this subject in 1836 and 1837. He observed that a system which was adapted to districts where the authority of Government is paramount could not fail to be inapplicable to mountainous tracts, where, up to that period and after a lapse of more than thirty years, the Government had in effect no police and no power. He proposed, as the course best calculated both to add to the weight and influence of the local authority, and to remove existing causes of irritation on the part of the Hill Zemindars arising from the unbending forms of regulation procedure, that those tributaries should be exempted from the jurisdiction of the ordinary Courts and placed exclusively under the Collector of the District, in whom should be vested the entire administration of civil and criminal justice, under such rules for his guidance as might be prescribed by orders in Council. This proposal was approved by tbe Government, and forms the basis of Act XXIV of 1839. It was further enacted that the Collector, as Agent to the Governor, should have the power of making commitments by warrant which is possessed by the Governor in Council by virtue of Regulation II of 1819, subject always to the orders of Government on each case. The present Agency embraces Jeypore, with those portions of the Zemindaries of Madgole, Pachipenta, Kurupain, and Mcrangi which lie within the hills and the hill mutas of Palcondah, those of Golgondah, and the Hill Zemindary of Kasipur. These tracts are Scheduled Districts in the same way as the Ganjam Maliahs. Consuls and Consular agents. [Section I. 70 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. CONSULS, &c. At Madms the folloing Governments are represented by Consuls : America, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy Portugal, Spain, and Sweden and Norway. At Cocauada, America, Austria, Bremen, France, and Germany are repre- sented. At Telliclierry France has a Consul. At Cochin, both France and Germany have Consuls. At Bimlipatam, Germany has a Consul. The French consuls act under the authority of the Consul-General of France at Calcutta. The Madras Government have Consular agents at the French settlements of Pondicherry and Karikal. POLITICAL PENSIONS. History of Carnatic Family, The Musalmans first assumed the actual government of the Carnatic at the commencement of the last century, when the Em2)eror Aurengzebe, after conquering and annexing the independent Musalman kingdoms of the Dakhan, appointed Kasim Khan Nawab of the Carnatic. The Nawabs were subsequently appointed by the Viceroy of the Dakhan, subject to the confirmation of the Emperor at Delhi. Anwar ud Din Khan, the first Nawab of the present Arcot family, was the last Nawab appointed directly by the Viceroy, in the year 1744. In the general dissolution of the Mogul empire, numerous claimants to the dignities of the viceroys and nawabs started up ; and Anwar ud Din Khan was killed in endevouring to suppress a rebellion fomented by the French. The English espoused the cause of his son Muhammad AH Khan, who afterwards assumed the title of Walajah, and by their aid he succeeded his father as Nawab in 1749. In 1795 he died and was succeeded by his son Umdat Ulmara. The English had long been the virtual masters of the country, and the disadvantages of the double government being evident, thay resolved to end it ; and on the death of Umdat-ul-Umara in 1801 the civil administration of the country was assumed with the collection of the revenues. The Nawab was permitted to retain his state and title with a pension of one- fifth of the revenues : but the heir to the dignity, Ali Husain, refusing to sign the treaty relinquishing Section I.] POLITICAL PENSIONS. 71 hia rights, he was set aside, and his cousin, the son of Amir ol Umara, Nawab Muhammad Ali Khan, Walajah's second son, was raised to the titular dignity under the style of Nawab Az;im ud Daula ; he on his part engaging to comply with all the demands of the English Government. Azim ud Daula had two sons, Azam Jah and Azira Jah. He died in 1819 and was succeeded as titular Nawab by Azam Jah, who, dying in 1825, was succeeded by his son Ghulam Muhammad Ghous Khan. On the death of the latter in 1855 the title and dignity of Nawab was abolished and the allowance of one-fifth of the revenues resumed. Azim Jah, the uncle of the last Nawab, long claimed, as the legal heir, the right to succeed to the musnud ; and in 1 86 7 the Government compromised his claim by creating him hereditary Prince of Arcot, with a perpetual .stipend and other privileges and immunities. He died in 1874 and was succeeded as Prince of Arcot by his eldest sou Zahir Dudula Bahadur. The assumption of the internal administration of the Camatic Carnatic by the British Government in 1801, and the change in ^f igoi. the succession, led to the grant of stipends to the different members of the families of the Nawabs Muhammad Ali Khan Walajah and Umdat ul Umara, and to some of their officers and dependents. The total annual amount of these stipends at first granted was seven lakhs. Many additional grants to various claimants, distant relatives, connexions, or servants and dependents of these Nawabs were made subsequently, the last grant on this account being made in the year 1840. The aggregate amount of these subsequent grants was three lakhs of rupees per annum. The amount now paid on account of these stipends to the descendants of the original grantees has been diminished by lapses to little more than one lakh per annum. The continuation of Carnatic stipends of 1801 to the heirs of the stipendiaries is made entirely at the discretion of the Governor in Council, and is regulated by precedent and by the rulings of the Court of Directors, Some of the stipends latterly granted were given in lieu of Jaghires or laud assign- ments formerly given by tlie Nawabs but now resumed by the British ; in these cases the stipendiaries retain the name of jaghiredars Others of the stipendiaries are called yeomi- adars, as their stipends are the equivalents of yeomiahs or daily allowances made to them by the nawabs. In all matters relating to their stipends these persons come under the same rules as the other stipendiaries of 1801. [Section I, 72 GENERAL AND POLITICAL. Carnatic Stipends of 1855. Prince of Arcot Family Stipend. Carnatic Agency, &c. Other political pensions. On the death of Nawab Ghulam Muhammad Ghous Khan in 1855, and the consequent resumption of the fifth of the revenues heretofore allowed to the titular nawabs, the Government granted stipends to all members of his immediate family and to all his chief officers servants and dependents. The total amount thus granted was upwards of five lakhs per annum, and the number of persons stipended was nearly five thousand, of whom less than one thousand now remain, the rest having died or having commuted their stipends. The continuations of the stipends of members of the immediate family are made, under rules laid down by the Government of India, for two or three lives only ; the stipends of all others are life grants, and cease absolutely with the deaths of the holders. The total amount of the Carnatic stipends of 1855 now aggregates little more than three lakhs per annum. The family of the late Prince Azim Jah of Arcot enjoy a perpetual stipend of a lakh and a half of rupees per annum, of which one lakh is divided among the members of the family, and the remaining 50,000 Rupees is set apart as an appanage of the title in addition to the personal share of its holder. The whole of these stipendiaries are mustered and paid by an officer called the Government Agent and Paymaster of Carnatic Stipends. It is the duty of this officer to report lapses, and to submit for the consideration of Government distribution rolls of those who claim continuations from the lapsed stipends. A Receiver of Carnatic Property was appointed under Act XXX of 1858 to administer to the estate of the late Nabob of the Carnatic. He was also to pay persons claiming to be creditors of the late Nabob, under the orders of the Supreme Court, with interest not exceeding six per cent, per annum. For the performance of these duties the Receiver was to receive a commission not exceeding five per cent, upon the value of the property collected by and distributed under the Act ; by Act XXI of 1868 his duties were somewhat extended. From 1858 to 1875 the Receiver realized Rupees 20,29,700, and disbursed, under the orders of the Supreme and High Courts, Rupees 33,37,619. The subsequent transactions have been limited, and the Receiver's functions may, in point of fact, be said now to have ceased. Other political pensions have arisen under various circumstances, as detailed in the following paragraphs. These are all paid by the revenue authorities of the districts in which the pensioners are permitted to I'eside- Section I.] POLITICAL PENSIONS. 73 On the aBSumption of the Kurnool territory by the British Kumool Government in 1800 pensions were granted to the Nabob's personal family and such of his relatives and dependants aa were in receipt of allowances from him and held jaghires I'esume able at his pleasure. The pensions so granted were all declared by the Government of India to be life-grants and amounted to Rupees 2,22,651-4-0 per annum. By the death of most of the recipients, and consequent lapse of their pensions to Government, the total amount of these pensions was gradually reduced till, on the 1st April 1875, it stood at Rupees 79,159-10-0, which was still further reduced to Rupees 75,123-10-0 drawn by 127 persons on the 1st April 1876. Of the last amount Rupees 1,860 were transferred to Hyderabad in the course of the year. The *' Two- Lakh Fund " was a sum of two lakhs of Star Two-lakh Pagodas set apart by treaty for the maintenance of the families pensioners, and connexions of Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan, and their dependants. There are at present 70 pensioners under this head, drawing an aggregate pension of Rupees 9,624-10-0 annually, with a clothing allowance of Rupees 1,255 per annum the latter sum being enjoyed only by certain of the pensioners. The pensioners principally consist of the descendants of the officers of Hyder's and Tippoo's courts, whose present pensions have devolved to them by gradual lapses. Some are the relatives, and a few others the dependants o£ the widows of Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan. Under this head is also paid a sum of Rupees 1,251 per annum, intended for the ceremonies over Padshaw Begum's tomb, the principal wife of Tippoo Sultan, and for other religious ceremonies known aa the Ashar Fateahs. The Mysore pensioners also are the descendants of the officers Mysore . . ,•■ pensionOTB. of Tippoo's court. They are so called in contradistmction to the Two-Lakh Fund pensioners, as their pensions are chargeable to the Mysore State. There are at present seventeen pensioners under this head, drawing an aggregate pension of Rupees 7,184-11-0 annually. A sum of Rupees 276 per annum is allowed for the performance of fateah ceremonies over the tomb of Goolam Ally Sadoor, one of the principal officers of Tippoo's court. The Kandyan pensioners include the relatives and servants of Kandyan the late King of Kandy, Vickrama Singah, who was deported P^^sioners. to Madras in 1816 and died at Vellore in 1832. They reside principally at Vellore. They are in receipt of pensions aggregat- ing Rupees 3,068-12-0 per annum, which are paid by the Madras authorities but are chargeable to the Ceylon Government. [Section I. Goomsnr pensioners. Palcondah pensioners. Cnttack pensioners. H GENERAL AND POLITICAL. The late Goomsur pensioners were the members of the family of the late Zemindar of Goomsnr, who had been implicated in disturbances raised in Goomsur and elsewhere in the Ganjam District. They were originally brought to Vellore in 1837, when they consisted of some twenty persons ; the number has now been reduced by casualties, &c., to only one member, a concubine of the ex-zemindar. The Palcondah pensioners, of whom there are five in number, are the members of the family of the late Zemindar of Palcondah. They were banished to the North Arcot District in 1834, and placed under restraint there to prevent their entering into intrigues with the disaffected adherents of the family in Palcondah and elsewhere in the Vizagapatam District. They consist of the son, two daughters, and two widows of the Zemindar, and are in receipt of pensions amounting in the aggregate to Rupees 2,928 per annum. They reside in the mahals in the Port at Vellore. The Cnttack pensioners are the members of the family of Rajah Pillay alias Lutchmee Narrain Bunge, a turbulent char- acter who created disturbances in the Ganjam District. He was sent to Vellore in 1856 by desire of the Bengal Government, accompanied by his wife, a son, and two male relatives, and died in 1857. The present members of his family consist of his widow, his son, and his uncle. They are in receipt of a pension of Rupees 25 per mensem, or 300 Rupees per annum. They reside in a mahal in the Port at Vellore, and are under surveil- lance. Katnre of the pensions, NON-POLITICAL PENSIONS. The following is 'a list of civil pensions other than political pensions classified for purposes of account. It will be seen that it includes both non-official and official ponsions. In the Accountant-General's Office all these pensions are grouped under twomajor heads " Allowances and Assignments " and " Super- annuation and Retired Allowances." "" Compensation in lieu of lands and privileges resumed. Do. to private persons. Do. to Pagodas and Mosques. Salt and Toddy compensations. ^Yeomiadars. Compensation ..< Section I.] NON-POLITICAL PENSIONS. 75 Miscellaneous, i.e., other pensions and charitable allowances chargeable on revenue. r Revenue. Superannuation, ) Abkdrv. / Customs and Salt, &c. r Law and Justice. Superannuation, 1 public Departments. ^''''^- (Post Office. Do. Marine. Superann\jation, Public Works Department. C Pensioners of Native Pension Fund. Compassionate \ Lungerkhana. / Charitable Allowances of General Nature. Gratuities. The titles of the non-official pensions indicate generally the mode in which they have arisen. Compensation money paid to mosques and pagodas is here specified, but will be mentioned again under the section on Public Endowments. The alienation of pensionary allowances by persons holding them is prohibited ; on the other hand Collectors are authorized to see that families which are entitled to a share or to maintenance obtain their dues, and, if necessary, to make a proper partition themselves. Whether a non-official pension is hereditary or not depends on the circum- stances under which it was originally granted. In most cases of hereditary pensions, the hereditary line is not allowed to be continued by adopted children, but even this is permitted in cases where the pension took its rise in compensation for land chari- tably granted and then resumed. Pensions which are not hereditary are often gradually reduced on each occasion of a succession. There are certain rules for the commutation of non- official pensionary allowances into a lump sum fixed at so many years' purchase accoi'ding to age or circumstances, of which pensioners frequently avail themselves ; the Government exercise their discretion as to disallowing commutation when the object appears to be an improvident one. The adjudication of claims to these pensions rests entirely with Government in the Pension Department, non-official pensioners, unless specially exempted, are required to appear periodically before the Revenue autho- rities of the districts in which they are permitted to reside, for muster and inspection. Payment is made to pensioners at stated intervals by the sanie officers. The duty of reporting casualties among pensioners is imposed by Govern- [Section I. 76 GENERAL AND POLITICAL, ment ^ various oflBcials, and rewards are offered for infor- mation as to casualties which have not been brought to the notice of these officials within three months after their occur- rence. Official civil pensions are regulated entirely by the Civil Pension Code recently issued by the Financial Department of the Government of India; the Code contains clear instructions regarding the points mentioned above and several others. Mili- tary pensions are administered in the Military Department, and certain minor Police pensions are administersd under special rules in the Police Department. Covenanted Civil Servants, Judges of the High Court, and Chaplains are specially provided for in the Civil Pension Code. PUBLIC ENDOWMENTS. Nature of the Since the year 1817 the Government have assumed the more or less direct control of all endowments in land or money made by the British or previous Governments, or by private persons, for the support of religious or charitable institutions, or for public buildings, such as bridges, choultries, &c. By Regulation VII of 1817, the Board of Revenue was appointed to control all these endowments, subject to the general supervision of Govern- ment. So far as endowments for religious purposes were concerned, this contfol was transferred by Act XX of 1863 from the Board to District Committees appointed by Government. These have proved a failure, and the mismanagement and malversation of public funds have been so great, that a revision of the law is again under contemplation. The supervision of endowed charitable institutions still rests with the Board. In most cases the institutions are allowed by the Board to remain under the immediate management of private individuals appointed as trustees by the founders, and the Board do not interfere so long as the object of the grant is duly fulfilled ; where there has been neglect or irregularity on the part of the trustees, the institutions have been placed under the manage- ment of Collectors acting as agents to the Board. Chuttrums constructed and endowed by Government are managed similarly by Collectors. The policy has latterly been to transfer all such charitable institutions as have been directly managed by Collec- tors, to Local Fund Boards, and it is under contemplation to place these Boards in charge also of the privately managed Section I.] ESCHEATS, ETC. *J'7 institutions ; if this is done tliey will virtually take the place of the Board under Regulation VII of 1817. The British Govern- ment in some cases keep up the endowments of pagodas and mosques, the obligation to do so having been handed on to them by previous Governments. In deference to certain objections, efforts have from time to time been made to convert all ready- money payments of this nature into assignments of land revenue. The arrangement has however been only very partially carried out owing to the general reluctance of landholders to have their revenues so assigned. It has now been settled that money allowances shall continue to be paid, but not from the Govern- ment Treasury. The payments are to be made in future direct to the trustees by the villagers concerned ; they will do this out of the revenues due by them to Government by the system of what is called Beriz deductions, the Government taking so much off the demand. The annual value of the land revenue assigned for religious and charitable institutions is about 29 lacs of rupees, and the ready-money payments made by Government for the same institutions amount to about five lacs ; total 34 lacs of rupees. ESCHEATS, &c. On a person dying intestate and without legal heirs his real Escheats, property escheats to Government. Section 6, Regulation 7 of 1817 provides that such property shall be sold on the public account or otherwise disposed of at the pleasure of Government. Excheats of valuable property often occur in Malabar ; in other districts the instances are rare. Buildings are generally sold ; ordinary assessed land is sometimes sold, and sometimes given to occupiers on condition of merely paying the assessment ; Inam land is resumed and fully assessed. In many cases the property is assigned by Government to persons having a natural though not a legal claim. The Board of Revenue are charged with the duty of, bringing cases of escheat to the notice of Government ; when the property is valued at not more than Rupees 50 they are authorized by Government to dispose of the case themselves. When intestates leave personal property to which no proper Lapses of claim is made, the ownership vests in Government, Under property clause 7, Section 16, Regulation III of 1802 the Zillah Judges are to take charge of such property pending the orders of [Section I. 78 eSNERAL AND POLITICAL. Government. In practice, when the value is small, the Collector takes charge and disposes of the property at his discretion. PETITIONS. The petition The petition system, under which a person aggrieved with the action of any Government official appeals to the next higher authority by means of a petition, and receives back a reply endorsed on his petition, either refusing or promising redress, assumes an unusual importance in this Presidency owing to the number of small holdings of land under Ryotwari, and the consequent multiplication of details in administering the land revenue. Most of the petitions presented to Government officials relate to land revenue. An aggrieved person may appeal in succession to the officers representing each grade in the department concerned, and may finally address in turn the Local Government, the Government of India, and the Secretary of State. The three last named alone have prescribed certain rules checking the indiscriminate presentation of petitions ; in all other cases there is no check beyond the discretion of the officer receiving them. In a few cases the quasi-judicial Regulations provide for appeals, and impose limits on their presentation. In a recent year the Board of Revenue received 3,330 petitions ; called for reports, that is to say, took evidence, in 230 cases ; gave redress in 15 cases without calling for evidence ; and gave redress in 43 cases after calling for evidence. In the same year the corresponding figures for petitions dealt with by Government, in all departments other than the Military and Public Works, were 2443, 150, 53, and 49, respectively. Section II.] SECTION II. ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. GOVEKNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. (a). — Historical Sketch, The early movement of races in Southern India seems to show Movement of an indigenous and mostly pastoral population, superseded by an "^^^es. invasion from the north of one or more immigrations of Hindu agriculturalists, and these again superseded by a further invasion from the north of a more military class of the same general race. The aborigines of the south remain still in a distinct form in the hill tribes, but these may very possibly represent only the most degraded form of the early civilization. The aborigines were Mongolian by race, Dravidian in speech, demonolators by religion, and in their occupations chiefly pastoral. The first invaders were cultivating Brahmins ard herdsmen of the Aryan stock, and an admixture of these with different tribes of the aborigines gave the present southern nations. The cause of the first migration was probably the displacement of the pure Hindus in the north by another kindred race of different political constitution, of which the Rajputs are now the best known type. This race followed agriculture as their proper calling and had fixed property in land, but simultaneously showed an aptitude for arms. In their turn they moved south and are traceable successively in Guzerat, the western coast, and the extreme south of the peninsula. The Nairs of Malabar and the southernmost part of Canara and the Vellalars of Tinnevelly are probably the most distinctive present specimen of the race. As far as the movement of races going to form a landed proprietary is concerned, the history ends with the Hindu migrations. Two Mahomedan and one British conquest have since taken place, and each has effected considerable change in the landed institutions of the country. But neither has aflFected the agricultural population [Section II. 80 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. Aboriginal landed insti tutions. itself. In speaking of Aryan immigrants superseding Dravidian occupants it is of course understood that they superseded them only in the sense of being successful in introducing their own institutions and vocabulary. Upon the inflectional grammar of the Dravidian language or languages they produced no effect whatever, a certain proof of the vitality of the Dravidian race. In fact there is no such thing in the south of India as an Aryan Hindu race ; the Hindus here are but Arianized Dravidians. Regarding the landed institutions of the aboriginal Dravidians little or nothing can be ascertained. They must have been chiefly a pastoral race, but the cairns belonging to this period, which are to be found all over Southern India, contain brass and iron implements of agriculture, and the old Tamil language contains words showing that agriculture was practised. The language also shows that they had kings occupying fortified habitations and ruling Over defined districts. On the immigration of the Aryans forming the Pandyan and later dynasties they appear to have passed for the most part into the position of prffidial slaves. The most The presence of the Hindu immigration in Southern India is villa^ffe ^^ ° ^^^^ traceable in the springing up of organized village communi- system. ties of the type found among the ancient Teutons of the West. Tribal arrangements may have given place to village communi- ties among the Dravidians themselves before the appearance of the Aryans ; but the presence of the type just mentioned is conclusive as to Hindu influence. In the early Hindu village system, the village was governed by a headman, there was a highly concentrated system for regulating common afiairs, and the division of labor was rigidly carried out in the practice of the different trades and professions by individualsreceiving a regulated remuneration. Local taxes for common purposes were levied rate- ably. The ownership by the individual in the soil was at first weak, for the land being abundant was the property of him who liked to take it, and, there being more in reserve, occupation alone could give to the land but a slight marketable value. Ownership however gradually grew stronger as occupants closed in on the first settlers. The Government, as soon as any arose, limited its operations to taking from each individual cultivator a share of the produce. This primitive form of village corpora, tion remains more or less intact in many places to this day, the only difference being that the lower orders have been to a considerable extent emancipated and that the Govern- ment have assumed the additional duty of assigning waste lands Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 81 to new occupants. It will be noticed that the communistic principle is not fully developed in the village system here described. For instance there is no joint claim to the whole village area, including waste ; and there is no combination to exclude strangers. If this form of village community corresponds, as there seems little doubt that it did, with the first Hindu immigra- tion of Brahmins and herdsmen, it appears that those races were content with little, and easily amalgamated with the aborigines in their arrangements regarding landed property. Another form of village community sprung up at a more The more recent date, instituted, it is supposed, by the quasi-military '^^''^'^t form. Hindus, who represented the second set of Hindu immigrants. This form was the result of an occupation by a body democratic among themselves, but forming an exclusive oligarchy as regards the aborigines and others whom they found before them. The distinctive features of this system of village corporation, as opposed to that already prevailing in Southern India, were that the dominant race claimed a strong proprietary right in the whole of the village area, whether cultivated or uncultivated ; that they gave no franchise to aborigines or strangers ; and that in their own internal administration they had a tendency to communism, and adopted government by panchayet or committee in preference to that by a single headman. In other respects the arrangements were the same as in the more ancient form. The details of their land administration will be mentioned hereafter. The govern- ment had no concern with the distribution of lands, and it is believed that they settled, not with the individual cultivator singly, but jointly with the village authorities. These communities also exist to this day, but their special charac- teristics have been much curtailed. The panchayets are of less importance than they were, and have generally given place to headmen. The rents to the dominant body survive in a few cases only of what are called Swatantrams in the Chingleput District, and the rights to the waste, though still asserted by Mirassidars and Kareikarar in the southern districts, are recog- nised by Government only as a preferential claim to be indulged under certain conditions and in common with other inhabitants of the village. In the times of the early Hindu village communities pro- Ancient prietary rights, as defined by powers to alienate, existed to a very rights, trifling extent. In the more ancient form of community, as has been said, tenures had no market value ; and in the later and more democratic coromunities where rights were more decided, 11 [Section II. 82 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. the land was not an individual but a common property, and one man coiikl not -without the consent of the othei*s sell to a stranger. Still transactions occurred in the latter case among the members of the community themselves, which showed an individual owner- ship within that limit. Sales were not common, and mortgages were usually not foreclosable for a very long period ; but the latter existed in abundance, showing a certain value in individual ownership of landed property . Individual property in land sprung tip earlier than elsewhere in the districts on the Western Coast, probably owing to the political circumstances which rendered the Government authority weak, and the state demands light. The attitude of the Hindu rajahs with regard to the soil has been m^uch discussed. It probably varied entirely with the circumstances oi: times and places. The object of Government is to obtain revenues for Government purposes. If it found communities so organized as to able to farm the villages properly and to render the proper state dues, the Government would not interfere in the direction of the disposal of the lands claimed by the community. If it found an imperfect organization it would be forced to interfere in the disposal of the lands, especially of the waste lands, with a view to the proper development of the country and realization of the revenue. The tendency probably was for the villagers to lean more and more on the Government in these matters, and hence in many parts of the country the state interference became a regular institution. Still there is no evidence that any Hindu governments ever took the step of ejecting an occupier ; even if they failed to obtain their dues from him they limited their reprisals to personal torture or sale of moveable property. The sale law is not a native institu- tion. The discussion whether the Indian Governments are *' proprietors" of the soil or not, seems to be little more than a dispute about words. Slavery. By far the greater part of the laboring classes of the people must have been, during the early historical periods, in a state of acknowledged slavery. In Malabar and Canara where the land became gradually the subject of distinct properties, the laborer was the personal slave of the occupier of the soil, and was liable to be sold and mortgaged by him independently of his lands. In the Tamil country the slave was considered rather as attached to the soil. In the Telugu countiy only does slavery seem to have been weak. It must be noticed however that South Indian slavery was always domestic, and never the subject of foreign traffic. It even appears that in the Tamil country the Pariahs or Pallers, Section 11.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 83 slaves attaclied to the Vellalars, and the Pullis, slaves attached to the Brahmins ; used to claim hereditary landed property as the incident of their slavery. Slavery did not survive the Hindu period, except to a very limited extent. As long as the Government land-tax was moderately light, as it is believed to have been in the Hindu period, the proprietor could afford to maintain slaves and servants to cultivate for him. The Mahome- dans are believed to have raised the land-tax, and rendered it necessary for the landlord to work at the plough in his own person or with the help of his family. This is the explanation usually given, and there is probably some truth in it ; it is by some however denied that the land-dues of the Mahomedans were higher than those which obtained before their time. It is at any rate certain that slavery has gradually died out. In the earliest times the land-revenue was the sole govern- Early system ment impost, and the revenue system of the country may be said to °^ ^^^^ have been founded on the absence of taxation properly so called. This principle has been brought down to the present day with no very great modification, and has met with opponents. The oriental theory, as now intei'preted, is that the jjortion of the produce of the land which is given by nature, as opposed to that which is produced as the interest of invested capital, is the proper source from which to draw revenue ; and that if this be not alienated to individuals, or appropriated by them by prescription, the necessity of taxing labor or capital is obviated. This state of things is not inconsistent with the creation of private property in the occupation of land, in capital sunk in it, and in that portion of the rent which is allowed to individuals to give them an interest in the soil. The land-revenue was levied by all Hindu governments in the shape of a proportion of the gross produce fixed according to the capacity of different soils and the value of different products, or the commuted money-value of that proportion. There was no settlement for a succession of years or seasons, but each crop was divided as it was produced. The Metayer system of Italy and some other modern continental countries is but a repetition of this plan. The Government share was usually taken in kind under what is now called the Amany system- In those times, when the boundaries of fields were ill- defined and the holdings very small and intermixed, and where it was the practice to thresh out grain at once after reaping, it was easier, and gave less opportunity for abuse, to divide the grain so threshed out than to calcukte aui-.ual luyney payments [Section II. 84 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. State of the country before the Mahomedau invasions. —The Tamil Country. according to the quantity and quality of land actaally cultivated. In certain cases, however, the value of the crop was estimated after reaping, and a portion of this value was paid in money to the State. This commutation system would naturally take the place of the other where joint settlements were made with villages. It was also considered more applicable to dry-land crops than to wet-land crops. The amount of the Government share in Hindu times was very fluctuating. The institutes of Menu would have it that the State should take of grain only "an eighth part, a tenth, or a twelfth, according to the difference of the soil, and the labor necessary to cultivate it." But it is quite certain that the average share under Hindu Grovernments considerably exceeded these theoretical limits. The Hindu share was, as first mentioned, probably less than the Mahomedan share, but it must have been very much above the share of Menu, or it will be impossible to account for the slow development of individual landed property. It is probable that in times of war the land demand was increased. Certain characteristics have been mentioned which are believed to have been broadly true of the whole of Southern India in ancient Hindu times. If a step forward is taken, and the approximately modern ante- Mahomedan period is considered, we find considerable variations in different parts of the country. For convenience sake we may roughly divide the country as existing at that period into three principal tracts, the Tamil Country, the West Coast, and the Telugu Country. The Tamil Country lies between Nellore on the north and the most southern extremity of the East Coast, skirting the Mysore plateau on the eastern side. It was the scene of the three old Hindu dynasties of Pandya, Chola, and Chera. The exact limits of these kingdoms cannot now be traced, and without doubt was in a state of constant change. It is only known with certainty that they met near Caroor, about 40 miles west of Trichinopoly, a town which alternately passed into the hands of each of the rivals. Pandya is generally identified with Madura, Chola with Tanjore, and Chera with Salem. In the Tamil Country the republican form of village community above mentioned was especially prevalent. On the first establishment of a Tamil village the rights of occupancy of the whole land were divided into a number of equal shares or " ploughs," and apportioned to the different members of the settling community. At the earliest stage it is probable that there was common cultivation, and that the Section II. GUVEENMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 85 net pi'oduce after payment of taxes was divided according to the shares. Subsequently individual cultivation seems to have been carried on, but the land to be cultivated by each was re-apportioned by lot in the original proportions either annually or at every five, six, or ten years. In Tanjore, Tinnevelly, Madura, Dindigul, and the other Tamil provinces south of the Coleroon, individual occupancy seems to have arisen at an early date. The division of lands was then considered permanent, and as far as occupation and cultivation went the ancient collective tenure was converted into one of severalty. For all other purposes, however, the communistic principle still prevailed. A sharer could not sell his land without the consent of the community, and on the other hand the possession of a share, whether inherited or acquired by sale or mortgage, gave a proportionate claim to all incidents common to the village, as for instance the advantage arising out of mines or quarries, fisheries, forests, taking up of new waste, pasturage, &c. Gradually the shares became sub-divided ; but in the accotmts of the village the original partition always remained, the small holdings being represented in terms fractional of the original shares, and the possessor of a reduced share possessing a corresponding share of the communistic rights and duties. The name given to these communistic rights and duties was kaniachi among the Vellalars. When the property fell into the hands of the Brahmins it was called Swastium. The same property when found in the possession of Mahomedans or Native Christians was called Mirasi, the name now most usually employed in all cases ; Miras is an Arabic word, meaning inheritance or patrimony. Pasangkarei in Tamil and Sarwaddyan in Sanscrit are also terms for the same thing. In some instances, principally in Tanjore, the whole Mirasi of a village was vested, either by purchase or otherwise, in the hands of one individual ; it was then called Ekabhogam. The duties of the individual Mirasidars, as such, consisted of paying certain small taxes or "merei " to the community for purposes of internal village administration. The following list taken from old accounts is illustrative of the nature of these taxes : — To feeding Brahmins on particular festivals, to lighting the village temples and gates ; to expenses incurred on certain anniversaries ; to feeding travellers and strangers, one meal to each ; to repairing the village wall; to repairing the chief temple ; to constructing a new gate for the village ; paid to certain men for killing a tiger, &c., &c. The rights of the Mirasidars were more numerous than theii' duties, [Section n, 86 ADMINISTEAIIOX OF THE LAND. the institution being one for the assertion rather of tlie former than of the latter. Against the Government the Mirasidars asserted freedom from all interference in the apportionment of land within the village bonndarj, or in the management of village affairs ; claiming the exclusive right to a hereditary possession and. usufruct of the former and a hereditary authority in the latter. In Tondeimandalam lying between the south of Nellore and the Coleroon, or the countiy now comprising Chingleput and Iforth and South Arcot, the Mirasidars claimed also as a perquisite a portion of arableland, called Grama Manyam, free of all Govern- ment demands. Against non-Mirasidars the claims of the Mirasidars were the same as those of any owner of landed property against strangers, the latter having no part in the corporation and being admitted to cultivate only on sufferance. Non-Mirasidars paid village taxes to the Mirasi corporation, and these contribu- tions eventually no doubt removed the necessity for the Mirasidars themselves making any contributions at all ; at the present day we find the Mirasidars in some localities claiming such contributions from non-Mirasidars, in the form of a proportionate deduction from the gross produce of lands paying tax to Govern- ment, and this merely as a perquisite and without making any return for it. The village government was carried on by a panchayet, or body of five, and the headman was only president in a sort of council. The management of all internal details and the realization of the government dues from the individual cultiva- tor, vested with this body or their delegates, and public opinion was no doubt the check on injustice. The collection of the revenue cost the Government nothing. The demand was a maximum demand liable to remissions on the report of the village authorities. In early times each village was composed of a number of families claiming to be of the same brotherhood or class, and generaUy the villages in the same pai*t of the country were of one tribe or sub-division of a tribe. The princi- pal caste was that of the Vellalar, the professional cultivator. Non-Mirasidars were nearly always tenants of the Mirasidars collectively or severally, and in that capacity they were called Poyakaries. Besides the village mereis, they paid an ordinary rent. The profit of the Mirasidar owner after paying Govern- ment dues was called Swamybhogum or landlord's profit. In many cases one family of tenants rented the same farm at a stipulated amount of share of produce for several generations, and thus gradually acquired a prescriptive right to remain and not to have their rents raised. They also gradually acquired Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 87 rights of alienation. This class of tenants were called Ul-kudi or inside cultivator. Tenants -who had not attained to such a position were called Para-kudi, or foreign cultivator. These tenancies resembled very closely those of the coloni and aratores of the Roman empire. That the Mirasidars enjoyed a clear landlord's rent, and that individual property gradually arose, may be seen from deeds of sale belonging to the pei'iod. The Mirasi system flourished as long as the Government demand was not excessive. The Mahomedan rulers are generally supposed to have augmented the land-tax to such a point as to have absorbed all landlords' rents, and to have reduced the Mirasidars to much the same position as an Ul kudi. Tanjore retained the Mirasi system the longest, and at the beginning of this century the landlord's rent was still about 25 per cent, of the crop. At the same pei'iod the Tinnevelly rent had sunk to 13|- per cent. It should be mentioned, to render the description of the Tamil system complete, that Manyams or alienations of State demands on certain lands were already prevalent in tho Hindu period. In these cases the alienation was either in favor of a village servant in accordance with custom and under the authority of the village register, when it was classed as Tarabadi ; or in favor of some independent person under special grant from the ruling power, when it was called Sanad or Dumbala. The Mirasidars paid the Government tax on Manyam lands to the persons to whom the rights of Government were under these arrangements transferred. Occasionally the payee would himself get possession of the land, and pay the Government dues to himself; whether this was done with the consent of the Government, or only by accident and encroachment is a point much debated. The tract of country known to ancient Hindu geographers as — The West- Kerala comprised the whole of the tract lying along the Western Coast and under the mountains as far as Gokurna in North Canara. Travancore and Cochin were from the first under rajahs belonging to the land-owning class. Malabar was similarly ruled, but broke up in the ninth century into a number of petty principalities, among the chief of which was that of the Zamorins at Calicut found still in authority by Vasco di Gama at the end of the fifteenth century. Tuluva, or Canara, as it has erroneously been called by the British, was established as a separate Hindu dynasty held by the land-owning [Section II. 88 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAXD. class ; but in tlie twelfth centuiy this dynasty made way for that of the Pandyans, and a century later for that of the Telugu speaking kings of Vijayanagar, the representatives of the old Camatic or Canara Empire. The characteristic of the whole of the Kerala country was the presence of a strongly developed personal and individual land-property, the absence of a Govern- ment tax on land, the absence of a concentrated village system such as obtained in the Carnatic, and the existence of a military tenure similar to the feudal system of Europe. The country was originally sub-divided between a race of Brahmins or priests called Namboories, and a military tribe called Nairs ; these two holding in subjection the agriculturalists of the country consisting of persons called Teei's and others. The Nairs paid no land-tax but attended the kings to the field with their retainers. The Namboories also paid no land-tax, but furnished the expenses for the support of the temples. In the ninth century a Zamorin of Calicut became a convert to Mahomedanism, and about this time a large colony of Mahom- edan settlers of Arabian descent were allowed to occupy lands in Malabar. These Mahomedans, called Moplahs, were mostly merchants, and were equally exempted from payment of direct land-tax. In the absence of land-tax the kings of the country had considerable domains assigned to them, which were cultivated by slaves and yielded a sufficient revenue for household expenses. The subordinate chiefs maintained their own internal police arrangements, and excepting in time of war the personal expenses of the rajahs were not large. But they were not "without other branches of revenue. A succession duty equal to 25 per cent, on the value of the estates was levied on Mahom- edan subjects being landholders. There were also import and export duties, mint duties, fines, escheats, confiscationa, protection, money received from persons of other states who claimed asylum, benevolences in the shape of offerings made to the crown at great festivals or on an occasion, and fees on marriages of important persons. There were also license- taxes, and royalties on gold ore, elephants, ivory, teak-trees, bamboos, and vessels wrecked on the coast. The inhabitants of the "West Coast did not congregate together in villages, but resided in scattered habitations on their farms and in their gardens. For fiscal arrangements there were authorities in charge of defined tracts of country. The proprietary right in the land differed from Mirasi right in being individual and not commnnistic. "Whether enjoyed by the original Nairs and Section 11.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 89 Namboories, or by the more recent Moplabs, it was equally called Jenum, or birth -right. The owners seldom cultivated their own lands, but let them out on limited leases to tenants called Patomkars. The crown ceased to recognize the immunity from land-tax if an original Jenumdar once parted by sale with his right. Hence mortgage was the rule of the country, and sales scarcely ever occurred. The mortgagee again could not acquire the Jenum right by simply foreclosing ; the landlord never losing the power of subsequently reclaiming his property by paying the principal, and being always entitled to some recognition of his ownership even if it were only given in the shape of a sheaf of corn or a pound of butter. The Malabar mortgages possessed another peculiarity in the principle of self-redemption. On the death of the owner of mortgaged lands, it was usual for the heir to furnish a new instrument recognizing the act of his predecessor, but on this occasion he was entitled to deduct 13 per cent, from the principal of the debt. Thus in a few generations the lands reverted to the ancient faii-'iy proprietors. These were the primitive tenures of the West Coast, and as long as they were recognized by the Governments, there can be little surprise that landed property so carefully protected should be strongly asserted by the holders. There is no trace that up to the time of the Mahomedan invasions there was any land-tax south of Tuluva, and in the southernmost part of Tuluva it must have been even then a very light one. The Tuluva country began to change its land-revenue features in the thirteenth century when invaded by the Pandyan king- On that occasion the original Nairs seemd to have been dispossessed in favor of a race of cultivators called Hullers, and in making the transfer of property the land-tax, such as it was, suffered an increase. It is reported that the new Govern- ment required the grain to be husked before being delivered into the public stoi'es, thus adding 10 per cent, to the impost, In A. D. 1336 when Tuluva came under the Rajah of Vijayanagar, the system was still further adapted to that prevailing in the north. Regarding the Telugu country as it existed in the pre- — The Telugu Mahomedan period there is much less to say than regarding the '^^^ ^^' two other main divisions of the Presidency ; partly because it had less characteristic features, and partly because such special features as it possessed have been almost entirely oblitei-ated by the subsequent Mahomedan and British occupations, and 12 [Section II, 90 ADMINISTEATIOX OF THE LAND. infonnation on tlie subject is therefore very meagre. As far as can be ascertained, tise village system in tbe Telugu country- was more of the ancient non-republican form than in the more southern parts of the country. There are traces however, in certain parts, of a right akin to mirasi right in the ancient landholders whom the Mahomedans called kudeem. It is known that a large proportion of the cultivators, if not all of them, possessed under the old rajahs the privilege of hereditary occupancy, and that their assessment was light. Hence the land must have been saleable. Traces of landed proprietorship are however by no m^ans so clear as on the west coast, or even as in Tondeimandalam. The hilly portions of the country seem to have been from time immemorial parcelled out among chieftains of the military class, who held hereditarily, exercised uncontrolled territorial jurisdiction within their limits, and appropriated the entire revenues subject to the condition of perforraing military service or other offices at the court of their superior rajah, at Cuttack or Vijayanagar for instatice. In th« plains were found a number of petty non-military Hindu rajahs, forming an ordinary landed aristocracy. These petty chieftainships obtained more or less all over the Presidency, but are the more noteworthy in the Telugu country because it is there that they have been principally supported and iocorporated into the revenue system by subsequent Governments. The origin of these chieftainships was no doubt various, and while some represented old families, others were at the time of the Mahomedan invasions little more than Government officers for the collection of revenue in large tracts, Mahomedan India has twice been subject to Mahomedan rule, once under the Turks after the invasion of Mahommed of Ghuznee in the eleventh centui'y, and once under the Moguls after the invasion of Baber in the sixteenth century. On each of these occasions the southern part of the peninsula was oveii-un by the conquerors, though not to the sai::e extent as more northern provinces. About the year 1300 Allahoodeen formally completed the conquest of the Deccan; and in the year 1347 we find direct Mahomedan authority extending as far south as the Krishna river. There is no accurate account of the mode in which the Turks raised supplies, but it was probably through the local Hindu chiefs. The occupation was strictly a military one, and the police and revenue administration still remained for the most part in the hands of the local chiefs. There is no distinct trace of any changes of land-revenue system. luvasions. Section II,] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 91 The Mahomedans were well content to leave sucli iustit'-'tions as they found them, and indeed the only information now available as to the rates of taxation peculiar to the Hindus is that given by the Mahomedan historian Ferishta. It is asserted tbat the Turkish invasion had the indirect effect on landed property of forcing up the land demand exacted by the Hindu chiefs, and so of weakening private property. In the interval between the Turkish and Mogul dynasties a number of the Hindu kingdoms of the south were absorbed by Mahomedan kingdoms, the result of incessant petty wars. This period saw the rise of the farming system, mere outside speculators taking the place in many cases of the old native rajahs. Where the Mahomedans found it inconvenient to deal with village communities, and native rajahs were not at hand, they appointed farmers of the land- revenue. Such men undertook the farm as a mere temporary speculation, without acquiring any local rights, claims or ties of any kind, and without interfering in any way with the existing rights of the cultivators. By the time that Akber succeeded to the throne in 1556, the conquest of the country was sufficiently confirmed to enable him to inaugurate measures of a more detailed nature for regulating the revenue system. Akber perfected the land settlement of his predecessor, Shir Khan ; and Malik Amber, an Abyssinian under the Mahomedan princes of the south, and Sevajee among the Mahrattas, carried out Akber's principles in a large portion of the south. The farming system had naturally led to abuses on the part of the farmers and to resistance on the part of the cultivators, and Akber was desirous of superseding it. He endeavoured to settle in all cases with village communities. With this object he surveyed and classified the lands in the villages, took the average produce of each class of land, ascertained the average price of produce for ten years past, and took one- third of the average gross produce paid in cash as the Government demand. In this way was calculated the amount to be paid by each village. At the same time a detailed statement was drawn up of the amount payable by each cultivator, for the guidance of the village authorities. The close similai'ity between these assessment arrangements and the assessment arrangements of the present day will be observed ; and at the same time this important distinction, that village settlements have been abandoned. The assessment obtained under Akber's system was less than former assessments, but it was anticipated that the difference would be made up by increased punctuality of payment, for the joint responsibility of the community was Section II. 92 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. Early the condition on whicli the reduced rates and other advantages were accorded to the villagers. The community managed their own affairs and disposed of their own waste. Under this settlement lands exempted from revenue were registered and inquired into, and those that were improperly held were resumed. Remissions were given on the occurrence of great calamities, but not otherwise. Payment was enforced by personal restraint and seizure of goods, but not by sale of lands. On the other hand the Government reserved the right to take land from those who would not cultivate and give it to others- The Mahomedan arrangements of this period were probably in many respects rather theoretical than practical, for a very short time afterwards the former farming system is found again re-established all over the country. When the administration of Southern India fell into the measures of j^g^^j^g of the British, the state of things was briefly as follows, the British ° / _ Governmeiit. Large farms were held by large renters called Zemindars, or in a few cases by Native chiefs dating from the pre-Mahomedan period ; certain single villages were farmed by the headmen ; and in other villages the more perfect democratic communities made joint-bargains for lump payments. The part of the country first acquired, and where the first administrative steps had to be taken, was the Northern Circars, or the tract lying on the northern extremity of the present Madras Presidency between the sea-board and the Orissa hills. As little was known by the Company's servants about the tenures or settlements of the country, the detailed administration was at first left entirely in the hands of the natives, the European oflB.cials merely keeping the books. The farming system was carried out even further than before. This administration was not successful- The Circars were divided into Zemindary lands, or lands found in the hands of middlemen, and Havelly lands or lands not so found. At the outset the British put renters even into the Havelly lands. The Zemindars invariably sub-rented the lands to another middleman, and the speculators or renters put in by the British into the non-Zemindary lands had little regard for the welfare of the cultivators. In either case the actual cultivator retained a very small share of the produce. This state of things lasted but a few years however, and in 1769 the Fort St. George Government took the detailed administration into its own hands, and set about making improved settlements- The first step was to appoint Provincial Councils. They found the work too great, and did not eflfect much. The next step was Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 93 the appointment by the Coui-t of Directors of a special Commis- sion, or Committee of Circuit as it was called, consisting of certain members of the Madras Council, with instructions to make tours in the districts and institute inquiries into rights and interests. The instructions of the Court of Directors were conceived in a liberal and enlightened spirit, and were clearly and emphatically expressed. But this Committee was also a failure. The Provincial Courts did not sufficiently support its operations, and the middlemen did their best to create impedi- ments. No fixed system was introduced. Annual leases were granted in the first instance, then settlements for three and five years. The Havelly lands were let in some cases on the village joint-settlement system, but the settlements were imperfectly made. In 1786 a Board of Revenue was established at Madras, on the pattern of the Board already existing in Bengal, and about the same time individual Collectors took the place of the Provincial Councils in the Circars. In the same year that the Madras Government entered on the Contempo- manag:ement of the Northern Circars, the Bengal Government ^^^^ ^®*" " ° sures in assumed that of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa ; and experiments Bengal, were conducted in the latter case in very much the same way as in the former. The Bengal Government however came earlier to a decision, and when Lord Cornwallis came to India as Governor-General in 1786, the plan of the permanent settle- ment with the Bengal Zemindars had already been arranged. An experimental settlement of the whole of Bengal for a ten-year period was announced in 1789, and in 1792 the experiment of a permanent settlement was declared to be confirmed. The permanent alienation of the land- revenue thus made to Permanent the Bengal middlemen had some supporters in Madras, and i^njrorthern pressure was brought to bear on Madras by the Bengal Govern- Circars. ment to adopt the same policy in this Presidency. The Court of Directors wrote out to the same efiect in 1795. The Madras Board of Revenue however reported that they were hardly prepared to recommend the perpetuation of the settlement, and that they required time for the collection of further informa- tion. In 1799 positive orders were brought out from England that Lord Cornwallis' permanent system was to be adopted throughout the Madras Presidency. On this occasion the Governor-General proclaimed his resolution to remove from office any public servant who evinced a want of zeal in fulfilling the intentions of Government. Eventually the Madras Government [Section II. 94 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. reported to the Supreme Government that they were possessed of materials for a permanent zemindary settlement in certain parts of the country. Lord Wellesley, who had by this time succeeded to the Governor- Generalship, directed the commence- ment of operations in the lands on the East Coast. A special Com- mission was accordingly appointed, and between the years 1802 and 1804 the northern districts of Madras were permanently assessed. The lands already in the hands of Zemindars were confii'med to fchem in perpetuity, the assessment being fixed according to local circumstances. The Havelly lands were parcelled out into estates of a convenient size, yielding from 3,500 to 17,500 rupees annual rent, or in some cases more, and were sold as Mootahs or perpetually settled revenue farms, to the highest auction bidder. Regulation XXV of 1802 constituted both those descriptions of landholders " propi'ietors," and detailed the terms on which they held their property. Settlements The country round Madras known as the Jaghire had Jaghire. been obtained from the Nawab of Arcot, partly in 1750 and partly in 1763, in retui'n for services rendered to that State. The history of its settlement at the period now under notice is of special interest, inasmuch as it shows joint- village settle- ments made as late as the end of the last century, and only superseded by the forcible imposition of the permanent settlement. The Jaghire was placed in 1794 in the hands of Mr. Lionel Place, and it is to this gentleman that we are indebted for the first correct information as to landed tenures in Southern India. The villages in the Jaghire were discovered by Mr. Place to be of the class already described as democratic or mirasi. The villages, that is to say, were corporate bodies, with an internal municipal constitution, and with the land the property of the corporation. The land was sub-divided into shares which wei"e saleable, and still retained all the value of real property. In each village there were besides the corporate members, cultivators holding as tenants of the corporation and having on their side prescriptive rights according to ancient agreements. Again there was a third class cultivating from year to year without other privileges than that of doing so. The distinction between the shareholder and the tenant consisted in the fact that the latter could not sell his rights of occupancy, nor enjoy any of the various immunities and advantages belonging to the former as a member of the corporation. Mr. Place in making his settlements, dealt with the whole communities and not with any particular Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 95 in dividual, and left it to tbe villagers to assess themselves individually. Each village chose its own representative or representatives. There is every reason to suppose that the joint village settlements of Mr. Place would have proved successful. They were not allowed however even a few years trial. Under the orders of the Court of Directors the Jaghire was permanently settled in 1802, the lands being divided into sixty-one estates bearing an assessment of from 7,000 to 17,500 rupees, and put up to public auction as Mootahs or Proprietaiy Estates. Whilst these measures for the settlement of the more ancient Acquisition territories of the Company were in progress, new territories tories. were being added to the Presidency, and the question of land- assessment came up again for discussion in connexion with the parts of the country ceded to the English in the south. In 1792 the first war with Tippoo placed a considerable tract of country, comprising the Baramahl, or Salem as it is now called, Dindigul, and Malabar, in the hands of the English. The second war with Tippoo added Canara and Coimbatore. According to a treaty made with the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1800 the whole territory lying south of the Toongabudra and of the Krishna river after its junction with the former, was ceded in perpetuity, constituting what are now called the Ceded Districts. In 1801 all the possessions of the Nawab of Arcot in the Carnatic were made over to the British, thus carrying their possessions down to Cape Comorin. In the lands thus newly acquired the same distinction was Dealings found as in the Northern Circars. That is to say, there were Poiigars. lands holding direct from Government, and lands holding through intermediary chiefs. The latter went in the south by the name of Poligars. They may be classed under three heads, as : — 1st, descendants of the royal families of Vijayanagar, Conje- veram, and Madura ; 2nd, the military feudal chieftains of those sovereignties who had resisted the conquest of the Mahomedans, and had either retained by force, or through indulgCDce and tolerance, the estates which they had enjoyed under their ancient governments ; 3rd, district Collectors who had contrived to elude the immediate control of the Mahomedans, and who had gradually usurped the sovereignty of the districts. These distinctions were not recognised by the Mahomedans. All the Poligars were made to pay tribute and not according to [Section 11 96 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. any fixed principle, but according to the power of the government to enforce it. The management of their chiefships, and the control of their subjects, were left entirely to the Poligars ; but they were almost always at war with their neighbours, or in revolt against the State, Whenever the exactions of the Mahomedans were considered exorbitant, they were resisted, and even if the dues were eventually paid, the Poligar took the earliest opportunity of reimbursing himself and of taking revenge, by an attack on the villages holding direct of the Government. In many cases the Government ryots were obliged to compromise with the invaders by agreeing to pay a stipulated amount, denominated kavel or protection-money. This was, in fact, a Slim paid to one Poligar to induce him to give protection against the encroachment of others. Under the systematic control of the British Government, it was highly necessary to check the unbridled conduct of the Poligars ; but having no knowledge of their true rights the Government were not always successful in dealing with them. Permanent settlements which left about two-thirds or more of their estimated revenue were made in the Chittoor, Kalastry, Venkataghirry, and Bomrauz Pollams ; and most of those chieftains or their descendants still retain their hereditary estates. In the southern part of the Tamil country there were thirty-three Poligars, for the realisation of whose tribute it was found necessary to appoint a separate European Collector. These Poligars fought desperately for what they con- ceived to be their rights, and their reduction forms a noteworthy incident in the military history of the Presidency. Of those chiefs who had held their patrimonial estates for several genera- tions, we find in the year 1803 thirteen only still in possession ; the lands of fourteen others were under charge of the European Collector, and six were forfeited, given away, or sold. In the districts ceded by the Nizam in 1800, there were eighty Poligars. These also resisted the Government, and had to be reduced to subjection by force of arms. In 1807 they were found to have been thus disposed of : Pensioned 2, holding a Jaghire 1, residing on their estates deprived of authority 23, managing their own estates 40, expelled by force 6, in confinement 8, total 80. Settlement of Turning to the settlement of the lands not held by Poligars, the arama . ^^^^ ^^^^ calling for special notice is that of the operations in Baramahl, showing the rise of the ryotwari system. In 1792 a Commission was appointed to take charge of the Baramahl, Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 97 with Captain Read at its head. Captain Read was assisted by three junior Military officers, Macleod, Graham, and Munro, and by Mr. Hardis, a Civilian. The military exactions of Tippoo are supposed to have disorganized the natural insti- tutions of the country, and to have impaired the efficiency of the village corporations. However this may be, it is certain that the new Commission directed their attention rather to individuals than to communities. In the Tahsildars of the period they found mere receivers of the revenue, and as the idea of dealing with village communities was not favored, there was no alternative but to deal with the individual cultivator. A system of individual settlements involved a detailed survey of fields, and this work was at once undertaken. The settlement also aimed at making moderate assessments and at guaranteeing them for a short period of years. Though the assessment was to be fixed for a period, every man was to be able to add to or throw up his lands annually. No increases were to be made in the assessment on account of improvements made by the ryot, such as digging of wells, building tanks, or converting dry land into garden or rice-fields. By 1798 the Commission had completely surveyed the Baramahl and deter- mined the rents which should be paid on the ryotwari system. The average assessment per acre was on the dry lands in the southern division 2 rupees, in the centre 1| rupee, and in the northern division 1 rupee. On wet lands, it was in the southern division 11 rupees, in the centre 6f, and in the northern division 5|. The average rent was little more than three shilUngs an acre on the common soils, and the average contribution of each cultivator was about 70 shillings a year. The ryotwar system, as thus propounded, was approved in theory by the Directors in England, but it was treated as an experi- mental measure and no practical steps were taken for confirming it. In 1799 orders were received, as already mentioned, for a permanent Zemindary or Mutahdary settlement throughout Madras. In pursuance of this decree the Baramahl was divided in the years 1803, 1804, and 1805, into 228 revenue farms, which were sold by auction to the highest bidders. The numerous bankruptcies which occurred showed that there was some flaw in the system. A great many of the farmers failed in the second year after having pillaged the villages placed under them. The system could not be carried out, and a return was almost immediately made to ryotwari. The supporters of the Zemin- dary system asserted that it failed in Baramahl only because 13 [Section It, 98 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. the assessments had already been fixed too high by Read's Commission. On the side of the village-settlement system it is said that no trial was made of it. Tho practical result however was that ryotwari prevailed. What is said here of the Baramahl, applies for the most part to the history of adjacent parts during the same period, for instance of Dindigul and Coim- batore. The Ceded Districts were brought under the ryotwar system by Colonel Munro a few years later. Settlements The remainder of the Madras provinces consisted of Malabar and Canara. The ancient feudal system which existed in Malabar has already been mentioned. Tho country was in the hands of a race of rajahs or military leaders, and their retainers the Nairs ; holding in subjection the Teers, and other laborers, the ancient inhabitants of the country. Instead of the districts in Malabar being assessed at so many thousand pagodas, they were rated at so many men liable to be called to the field. At the peace of 1792, Malabar was ceded to the British Government by Tippoo Sultan. It had been first invaded by the Mahomedans under Hyder Ally thirty-four years previously ; its invasion being invited in the first place by the Palghaut Eajah, to enable him to repel the attack of the Zamorin of Calicut, The landlords of Malabar did not yield readily, and in the struggles which ensued between them and the Mysore Government most of the ancient landed proprietors were either killed or expelled. In the year 1783, Arshed Beg Khan was put in by Hyder as governor of Malabar, and his administration appears to have been more lenient and equitable than that of any of his predecessors. The principles of his assessment are said to have been as follows : — to the cultivator 6| tenths, feo the proprietor 1^ tenths, to the government 3 tenths. Shortly after the cession to the British a committee, consisting of two Bengal and two Bombay servants, were deputed to make a settlement of the country ; and their report, issued in 1 793, consisting of several volumes, furnishes a full account of the district. In this province, where the landholders maintained that not only were they the proprietors of their estates, but that under tho native princes they had never paid a land-tax at all, the doctrine of State proprietary right to the land then prevailing and a claim to half the produce assumed in other places, were not likely to he acceptable. Tho Bengal and Bombay commissioners found that in Malabar no such claims could be enforced, and they proposed to regulate the future demand by the assessment of Arshed Beg Khan. The first settlement, or rather realisatiou Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 99 of revenue, fell short of that amount by about twenty-five per cent., and an attempt to raise the rates caused an open rebellion, which lasted for some years, and cost a heavy expenditure of lives and money. In 1800, the province was transferred from the Bombay to the Madras Government, and its management was made over to Major Munro, the advocate of ryotwari, who in effect introduced the ryotwari system there. One of the earliest of this ofiicer's measures was a survey and assess- ment. These led to urgent complaints, which were unattended to, and winch ended in another rebellion more violent than the former. The second rebellion was suppressed, more by concilia- tion than coercion, and the result was the recognition on the part of Government of the proprietary right of the landholders to their estates. Peace being restored, the chief Brahmins and landed proprietors assembled at the Collector's invitation at his office, where they selected a committee from among themselves, to arrange matters for tho future administration of the province. On this occasion the landholders agreed, after allowing fifty per cent, of the produce to tho cultivator, to pay to Government a sum of money estimated at twenty per cent, of the gross produce, themselves retaining thirty per cent, as rent. It was decided that the assessment should be founded on the survey n-nd assessment of 1800. Affairs remained thus for several years, but meanwhile many complaints were made as to the inequality of the assessment, the people not being satisfied with the arrangement of 1800. In 1817 Colonel Munro, who had been the principal agent in suppressing the last rebellion and in making the last settlement, was deputed to visit and report on the condition of the province ; the chief result of tho visit was a reduction in the assessment. It should bo mentioned that there are no compact villages in Malabar similar to those in the Carnatic. The taluqs in Malabar are divided into Amshoms, which are again sub-divided into Deshams. Over each Amshom is a headman called Adhigari, associated with an accountant called Menon. These officials are paid by fixed salaries. The Deshams are presided over by honorary headmen called Mukyastans. The houses are scattered, and there is therefore no village-site. In Canara individual landed property was not so demonstra- Settlements ..„,,.. in Canara. ble a fact as in Malabar. The primitive constitution ot tlie district had been changed at its conquest in the 18th century by the Paudyan kings, and subsequeutly b}-- the kings of Vijayunagar. [Section II, 100 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. In later times it had been partially subdued by Hyder, whose exactions are said to have impoverished the landlord class. When the British Government obtained possession, the saleable lands were few in number and limited in extent, and many of the landlords were reduced to the situation of laborers on their own estates. Still there could be no doubt with whom the Government should settle ; proprietary rights were strong enough to render the question of employing middlemen or of making joint-rent village settlements quite unnecessary. Major Munro entered this district for settlement in 1 800, and at once established a ryotwar system which was not subsequently modified. The extent of land in Canara for purposes of assessment has always been measured by the amount of seed it takes to sow it. The settlement for a share of the produce has always been in the name of an individual holder, against whose name in the public accounts is entered every charge to which he is liable. This is the holder's " wurg " or account, a word which has come to mean " holding " in the Revenue system. Major Munro found this method of settlement obtaining, and continued it without change. No alteration was allowed in any man's wurg except on good cause being shown. No general survey of the district was introduced, but partial surveys were instituted for the purpose of obtaining general data for assessment. A complete register, called the Bijawari register, was formed of the extent, calculated by the seed, of each holder's wurg. The only difficulty was with the amount of the assessments. The settlement of Hurry Hur Roy, Rajah of Vijayanagar, made in the 14th century, was for a long time the standard assessment. Hurry Hur Roy took 2^ katties of seed as the basis of the calculation, and assuming the proportion between seed and gross produce to be that of 1 to 12, he apportioned the gross produce thus : — to the landlord 7| katties, to the cultivator 15 katties, to the Government 7^ katties. The Bednore Government left this assessment as they found it till 1618, when the Government share was increased by 50 per cent. The total jummah of Canara, at the close of the Bednore Government, amounted to pagodas 3,20,827. Hyder increased this to pagodas 5,33,202. Colonel Munro's settlement in 1800 amounted to pagodas 4,65,148; of this pagodas 2,84,603 was composed of the ancient laud-tax or Shist, and pagodas 1,80,545 stood for extra assessments imposed by the Bednore and Mysore Governmeuts, the extra imposts of the latter being called Shamil. The inequalities caused by the new British Section II.] ' : ., . ,o GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 101 ' ' assessment were found in the course of a few years to be'' '''-'"' • intolerable, and in 1817 a thorough investigation was instituted, ending eventually in the so-called Tharao assessment in 1819. The Tharao was a maximum assessment which the Collector could not exceed of his own authority, and was based ou a detailed investigation of the collections on particular estates. The Tharao assessment was considered a moderate one when it was made, but it was a considerable time before the country attained even that standard, and constant remissions were necessary. The total amount of the Tharao assessment was Rupees 15,24,879 on 34,216 ryots as against Rupees 16,72,607 of the ancient Beriz comprising both Shist and Shamil. The village arrangements in South Canara are somewhat similar to those in Malabar, each wurg having its house situated upon it. The headmen of tracts are called Potails, and the curnams are called Shanbogues. In the various experiments which were made during the first Trial of twenty years of the century in the mode of settlement for the land gyg^g^ ^^^ revenue, the Zemindary and Ryotwari systems played the most important part. The village joint-rent system was not however entirely overlooked. In 1808 this method was given a general trial in several districts on the authority of the Court of Directors. The Madras Board of Revenue were distinctly in favor of the system, and had not Colonel Munro been so much opposed to it, it is possible that it might have had a different fate. The plan was tried at first for a term of three years. The result was not entirely satisfactory. In many parts the head inhabitants, conceiving the assessment excessive, and finding themselves obliged to ask for remissions annually, refused to rent their villages. Speculators then came forward and out-bid each other, so that the villages were rented at a sum beyond what they could yield, and the contractors failed. Still the Govern- ment were satisfied on the whole, and in many cases made a further ten-year settlement on the same principle. It was even proposed by some to make a perpetual village settlement. The ten-year settlement was not approved by the Court of Directors, but their objections arrived too late to be acted on. A visit to England however made by Colonel Munro had probably not been without its effect upon the opinions of the Court of Directors and the Board of Control ; and towards the close of 1817 instructions were received at Madi-as for the abolition of the village system, and the confirmation in all [Section II, 102 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. pi-acticable cases of the plan of ryotwar settlement with individual holders. It was alleged that the village system had been tried and had failed. The revenue authorities declared that it had not been subjected to a fair trial, and that it had not failed. They alleged too that the home authori- ties had decided hastily on insufficient evidence. " The judgment," the Board of Revenue wrote, " which has been pronounced in England against the village system, is founded on a very partial and unfavorable view of its results ; for it does not appear that the authorities at home had, at the time when that judgment was passed, any information before them respecting any other portion of it than its commencement, the triennial settlement." And they urged that the result of that settlement was no test of the success or failure of the system, inasmuch as the lands had been subjected to an over- assesssment, " founded upon the fallacious data of the Ryotwar collections." thV h t ^^^ Ryotwar system was however by this time in favor at of Ryotwari. home, and orders were sent out for its reintroduction, in all possible cases, under certain modifications prescribed by the Court. At this period, in Ganjam, Vizagapatam, Rajahmundry, Masulipatam, Guntoor, Salem, Chingleput, the Cuddalore district, and the Western, Southern, and Chittoor Pollams, the Permanent Zemindary system prevailed ; in the Ceded Districts, Nellore, the two divisions of Arcot, Paluad, Trichinopoly, Tiunevelly, and Tanjore, the village system had been introduced ; and the ryotwar system was fully established only in Malabar, Canara, Coimbatore, Madura, and Dindigul. The orders were carried out ; and all the necessary preliminaries having been gone through, the village leases having expired, many of the new Zeraindaries or Mootahs having lapsed, or been bought in, the improved ryotwar system was declared to be established in Madras. Colonel Munro himself, who had been appointed to the chief place in the government, took his seat in time to preside over the act of final establishment in the spring of 1820. Since 1820 there has been a periodic revision of the rates of assessment in ryotwari lands ; a special Commission has dealt with the whole question of Inam or rent-free lands ; and various legal enactments have been passed for the protcc*^ion of various landed interests or for the realization of the Government dues. In the broad policy of Government however as to tenures and settlements, there has been no change. Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 103 (h.) — Present Land Tenuees Wliatever be the correct theory of law or political economy Classification as to the nature of the rights of Government in respect to land, ^ndtr*^^^^ an abstract question which has been much and perhaps uselessly Government. discussed, it is quite evident that they must, as a Government representing the interests of the people at large, exercise a considerable amount of interference in affairs connected with the land. Whether this is called executive administration or exercise of a proprietary right is not of much importance. It is certain that a modern Government assumes large powers of interference under the unwritten traditional law of this and all other countries. The subject of land-tenures under Govern- ment will be classified here according to the extent to which the Government has parted with its own powers to control tho disposal of, or the revenue demand on, tho land ; beginning with the cases of greatest alienation and ending with those of least. A classification according to either one or other of those two descriptions of control would have been preferable ; but the subject is too complex to admit of such treatment. Following then this rough classification, the main cases to be considered will bo those of: — (1.) Perpetual freeholds, with fixed tenure, a title-deed showing property as against Government, and no demands representing either a land-tax or the share of the produce. Cases will be (a) holdings under recent rules for redeeming the land- revenue, (&) holdings under the rules for redeeming building- site quit-rents, and (c) holdings under the rules for redeeming enfranchised Inam quit-rents. (2.) Holdings of enfranchised Inamdars, with a fixed tenure, a title-deed showing property as against Government, and a quit-rent fixed for ever, calculated at a beneficial rate. (3.) Zemindaries dating from earlier than 1802, with fixed tenure, a sannad showing proprietorship as against Government, and fixed land dues, with obligation for the Zemindar to enter into written engagements with his tenants, and subject to the law of primogeniture as to succession. (4.) Proprietary estates, that is to say Zemindaries created under the authority of the Regulations of 1802, with the same conditions, but no law of primogeniture. (5.) The so- called Unsettled Palliems without a sannad, but with land demand fixed for ever. (G.) Holdings of ryots under Ryotwari, with fixed tenure, bat without a sannad expressly declaring proprietorship, and with a demand varying under certain special ch'cumstanccs. (7.) Inam holdings, given by Government as freeholds. [Section II. 104 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. emolument or in charity, with no title-deed showing uncondi- tional property, with a tenure dependent on the fulfilment of certain conditions the decision as to which rests with the Government, (and with a demand calculated as under Ryotwari but at highly farorable rates, the difference between these and normal rates constituting the emolument. (8.) Land held on special conditions, as (a) on cowles, and (6) under the tope rules. (9.) Unassigned lands still on the hands of Government, bat to which, as part of village areas, certain persons have a preferen- tial claim when application is made for their occupation. (10.) Unassigned lands still on the hands of Government without any such restriction. Perpetual Absolute and perpetual freeholds have not existed in this Presidency until quite recently, and can now be acquired only by taking the benefit of the rules for redeeming the land- revenue, building-site quit-rents, and enfi-anchised Inam quit-rents. In regard to the first and second of these modes of redemption, it must be observed that inasmuch as land-tax is the main constituent of public revenue it is not allowed to be redeemed universally. It is only allowed in the case of lands occupied for building purposes or intended for gardens and plantations, of lands on the Nilgiris and the Pulny and Shevaroy hills, and of the cofiee lands in the Wynaad. In all these cases, proprietors are allowed to redeem their land-tax, the rate of redemption being twenty- five times the sum annually paid on the land as assessment or quit-rent. The cost of survey and demarcation is borne by the person who redeems the assessment. In Zemindaries the Zemindar alone is given the right to redeem the land-revenue. In the case of ryotwari lands the proprietor holding directly from Government has alone the right. Applications for the redemption of land-revenue are disposed of by Collectors subject to an appeal to the Board of Revenue. On payment of the redemption money in full, with the cost of survey and demarcation, the party redeeming the assessment is furnished with a title deed in a certain prescribed form. The third mode of redemption shown above introduces the question of the Inam tenures of this Presidency, but as these are described in detail under the head " Inam Commission" it is only necessary here to mention that Inamdars holding lands enfranchised from service or from Government resumption, but subject nevertheless to a quit-rent, may redeem that quit-rent in perpetuity at twenty yeai's' purchase. The class of holders Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 105 mentioned in this paragraph have of course unlimited powers of alienating, devising, or disposing of their land. It will be observed that the freehold is absolute against that demand of the Government only which represents the Government right to share the produce, and gives no immunity from other Government demands, such as for artificial irrigation, education, or such matters ; in all of which cases the laud may be subjected to separate cesses or demands. The land also will always be liable to attachment, in the same way as any other land, in the event of its becoming obnoxious to any legal penalty which authorizes its attachment or sale. The redemption in no way affects sub-tenures, right of occupancy, or other similar rights ; and the freedom conferred is absolute only as against Govern- ment. In the case of Zemindaries the land has been perpetually Zemindaries. assigned by the Government, with a proprietary title, at any rate as against themselves. The land-dues however still remain as a charge on the land. The land-dues here are permanently paid, and may be taken therefore to be no longer a share of the produce but a tax. Zemindars hold under a " Sunnad-i-milkut Istimrar " and give in exchange a coi'responding cabooleat or acceptance. Zemindars are at liberty to transfer, without the previous consent of Government, their proprietary right in the whole or part, however small, of their Zemindaries to any person they please by sale, gift, or otherwise ; and such transfers are to be held valid and to be respected by the courts and officers of Government, provided they are not repugnant to the Mahomedan or Hindu law or to the regulations of the British Government. In order to be valid against Government, and in order to liberate the transferrer from his liability to Government dues, such transactions must be first registered in the Collector's office, and where there is a sub-division, the peishcush on the sub-divided portion must be adjusted by the Collector. The Government do not regulate the succession to Zemindaries. They sometimes interfere to recognize a prima facie claimant in cases of demise and pending decision of the law-courts, but nothing more. The Zemindar is in most cases the owner of all waste land, or land not held by cultivators, within his estate, and he has certain powers of selling up cultivators for default of payment of land- tax which will be mentioned hereafter. The land being " permanently settled," that is to say, the land-revenue on it being fixed for ever, no increase of revenue accrues to the State as more and more land is brought under cultivation. Since the U [Section n. 106 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. land-revenue on these estates was fixed, their value has doubled, but the benefit goes to the Zemindar alone. On the other hand the Zemindar's demand does not protect him from cesses for matters other than land-revenue proper. Zemindars have to keep up the regular establishment of village curnams or accountants ; they appoint these officials, but a civil court alone can remove them. About one-fifth of the whole Presidency is under Zemindary. The obligations laid upon Zemindars in their dealings with their tenants will be described hereafter in treating of tenancy. — Ancient The principal of the ancient Zemindaries found by the anes. j3j.j^igjj Government on its assumption of the country may bo said to have been Vizianagaram in the Vizagapatam District, Pittapur in the Godavery, Venkatagiri in the Nellore District, and Eamnad and Shivagunga in the Madura District ; but there were numerous other large estates of the same sort, especially in the north. These Zemindaries differ at the present moment from those subsequently created under Regulation XXV of 1802 in two respects only. In cases of succession by death the law of primogeniture obtains, the eldest son succeeding and the remainder of the family being entitled to no more than maintenance ; and the Zemindar cannot encumber or alienate the estate beyond his own lifetime. —Other The private estates conferred under Eegulation XXV of 1802 ZemincBries. ___,...__ go by various names, as Proprietary Estates, Zemindaries, Mut- tahs, &c. They must not be confounded with Jaghires, Shro- triems, and other classes of Inam holdings ; mere assignments of land-revenue already assessed by Government with no question of the Inamdars either farming the revenue or being proprietors of the land, and having no connexion with the Regulation just named. In the case of all estates which are not ancient Zemindaries, the ordinary Hindu rule of inheritance prevails. They are sub-divided and alienated freely like any other form of real property. The Government have no concern with regard to the succession. — Extent and The following table will show the extent and value of the Zemindaries. Zemindary estates of tbis Presidency. The information is not perfectly true in detail, but is as accurate as can be obtained : — Section n.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 107 Name of tho Area paying Revenue to Government. Revenue realized by Zemindars as Peishcush payable Districts. to Govern- ment. Zemi&dari. Cultivated given in the and Uncultivable. Total. Land Cess Cultivable. Statements. ACRES. ACRES, ACRES. BS. RS. Ganjam Parla Kimedy ... 2.55,040 68,640 323,680 4,66,000 82,139 Vizagapatanu. | Vizianagram ... 217,328 94,784 312,112 17,00,000 4,90,606 Bobbili 217,328 94,784 312,112 3,75,000 89,775 ( Pittapur 174,080 32,640 206,720 8,28,000 2,50,160 Godavery ... J Nedavole and Baharsalli. Wyyur 120,320 17,920 138,240 2,82,000 1,19,468 Kistna ... j 202,480 66,560 359,040 1,71,000 95,443 Devarakota 79,300 35,200 114,560 1,89,000 81,397 Nellorc Venkatagherry... Particulars not known ... 1,345,920 9,57,000 3,77,117 North Arcot... | Karvetuuggur ... 202,400 1 203,720 406,120 0,84,000 1,80,494 Kalastry 130,560 1 254,720 Particulars not known 385,280 334,080 1 4,53,000 1,76,816 Madura ... | Ramnad Particulars not available. 996,149 7,34.000 3,38,686 Shivagunga Do. Do. 461,952 7,70,000 2,88,317 Ettiapuram 301,730 36,020 337,750 2,94,000 88,387 Tinnsvelly ... All other Estates paying a peish- cusliof less than Rupees 80,000— Jevpore Particulars not known . . . 8,346,240 Not known... 16,000 Other Estates. Total ... Total Area ... 4,192,734 1 2,065,892 Particulars not known ... 6,258,626 94,080 1 61,57,000 24,52,184 6,183,360 Particulars r 2,970,880 9,154,240 1,40,60,000 51,32,990 lot known ... 11,578,421 20,732,661 estates. Inamdars wlio have accepted the terms of enfranchisement, Inams enfran- but have not redeemed the quit-rent payable on their lands, call ^^ ^^^' \ for notice here. They pay quit-rent, but their tenure, as regards security of occupation without conditions, and fixity of land demand, is superior to that of any class of landholders other than those who have redeemed. They have full powers of alienation, while they are protected from the periodic revision of the ryotwari rates contemplated by the Revenue Settlement Department. Poligars hold in the southern and western portions of the Madras Poligar Presidency very much the same position as the Zemindars of the northern districts. Originally Poligars were the descendants of officers of police and revenue agents of the Hindu sovereigns, who advanced themselves to the position of chiefs possessing military forces and strongholds. Gradually they reached tho condition of tributary feudatories and proprietors of lands. Their historical relations with the British Government have already been described. All the Palliems have been assessed. Some have been granted permanent settlement under Regulation XXV of 1802, with sannads. The Palliems for which no sannads have been granted are called unsettled Palliems. Practically there is no difiei'cnce between the settled and unsettled Palliems. The assessment is fixed and |)eruianont iu both cases and the succession is governed under the same principles. It was once considered [Section II. 108 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. that tliu holder of an unsettled Palliem had but a life interest in the Palliem, and that it was open to Government to dispose of the Palliem as they pleased on his death, but this view was not accepted by the Privy Council in a case recently decided by them. The Government have directed the issue of permanent sannads to the holders of all such unsettled Palliems as may be willing to accept them on the condition of continuing the tribute which they have been paying for upwards of 50 years. Most of the Poligars have accepted the sannads, but there are a few to whom they have not yet been issued. These latter then have a demand perpetually settled but no permanent title, and form a distinct class in the terms of the classification given above. There were formerly also a few estates called Palliems held for leal or nominal police services to be rendered to Government in the districts of Nellore, North Arcot and South Arcot. These were settled by the Inam Commissioner and enfranchised as Inams. Eyotwaxi The ryotwari system of holding under Government has now teanre. been the principal tenure of this Presidency for half a centui-y. It is difficult to define it in one or two words, but this only arises from the inapplicability to oriental tenures of the phraseology of European landed property. The terms of the engagement can easily be enumerated, and these terms are sufficiently well understood and practically acted on by the persons concerned. No serious difficulty has as yet arisen o"sving to any difference of opinion as to the interpretation of the ryotwari contract. In ryotwari tenure the Government deals with an individual, who is technically assumed to be acting on his own account and not to be a middleman. As he is usually a very small holder, this is often actually the case. The Government allow a ryot who has once acquired possession to remain in possession as long as he pays the Government dues. Even when he becomes a defaulter, they merely sell such portion of his land as is sufficient to cover the amount due, and under cover of a special law for so doing ; they do not dispossess him by any form of eviction other than that provided by the legislature under Madras Act II of ISG-i. If a ryot without authorization takes possession of waste assessed land the Government do not nevertheless evict him. In the particular case of a ryot taking possession of unassessed waste land, the Government reserve the right of putting on a prohibitory assessment ; for here the land is very probably land which it is undesirable to cultivate. The Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 109 Government concede to tho ryot complete power to alienate the land by lease, mortgage, or sale, and only stipulate that, unless he formally registers such alienation with the Collector, he will remain liable for all Government dues on the land however accruing. The trees on puttah lands are absolutely the property of tho Puttadars, and nothing is charged for them except in the case of palmyras in the district of Tinnevelly, In Tinnevelly the tree-tax can be redeemed by the payment of twenty years' assessment. The most important item in the yearly demand, namely the normal laud-tax, is fixed in advance and is liable to revision according to present arrange- ments only once in every thirty years from time of first settlement. Even when a revision takes place it has been guaranteed that no increase shall take place on account of improvements made by the cultivator himself. The normal rate of land-tax is fixed, but every year numerous questions arise of concessions made or extra demands for extra benefits conferred ; the settlement of these questions takes place at the annual Jummabandy. Moreover, the ryot has the power of yearly increasing, decreasing, or entirely abandoning his holdings ; this has also to be attended to at the Jummabandy. The law courts have recently declined to recognize the proprietary rights evidenced by the power to create an easement against Government, in ryotwari holders not claiming as hereditary mirasidars, and newly put in by the British Government ; but this is believed to be a new doctrine. The ryotwari system has taken the place in most localities of the Mahomedan system of renting whole villages to a single individual and leaving it to him to sub-rent to the villagers. It is popular with the people, and creates an elastic i-evenue which expands as increasing population and prosperity cause more land to be taken up. On the other hand it must be observed tliat the absence of middlemen causes an enormous amount of detailed labor on the part of the Govern- ment. Though the State has a right to fix the land-tax at its — Principles discretion, it does so in accordance with certain principles. In Qf Ryotwary. ryotwari it is held that, with a few exceptions, its proper amount is half the value of the net produce of the land after the expenses of cultivation have been deducted from the gross produce. At the commencement of the i-yotwari settlement the tax was determined in a somewhat rough and ready manner, which left many anomalies and inequalities to be afterwards [Section II. 110 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. rectified. The worst of these have been amended from time to time, and at the present time there is a Survey Department which determines the exact area of villages and sub-divisions of villages (khandams) and fields, and a Settlement Department which calculates the rate of assessment for each in accordance with the " half net " principles. The calculation of produce and assessments thus revised are to be in force for thirty years. In Godavery, Kistna, and part of Kurnool an important deviation has been allowed from the " half net" principle in the case of land irrigated by channels led from the great anicuts across the Godavery, Kistna, and Tungabudra. The land-tax there has been calculated as if the land were not irrigated, and the irrigation is charged for at a uniform rate per acre. Further information regarding the Survey and Settlement Departments which underlie the whole ryotwari system will be found further on under the special sections allotted to those subjects. — ^Ryotwari It has already been mentioned that the Government have in times past furnished a title-deed setting out what is there called proprietary right in the case of all Zemindars either ancient or created within this century, and that they still continue to furnish such title-deeds to persons who redeem the land-dues in per- petuity by a lump-sum payment. No such title-deed, however, is given to ryots holding under ryotwari, and they are left to make their own arrangements as to creating a title when they dispose of lands by private transaction. When first a ryot is put in possession of land he is furnished with a document called a puttah. But this is liable to revision at each annual Jumma- bandy, and is merely a document to show that, according to the Government register, the ryot for that year holds, without relinquishment, such and such survey fields, or parts of them, and that the Government looks to that ryot and no other for the Government land-dues untU further notice. As long as the ryot actually holds the land according to the terms of the register, it is of service to him, as showing that the Government will not attempt to put any one else in possession and will not exercise any powers of attachment or resumption of the land without first dealing with him ; and the attachment to landed property is a sufficient motive to make this a very import- ant consideration. In the law-courts however a puttah is very weak evidence to prove possession, inasmuch as there is nothing to show that the arrangement therein indicated has not Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. Ill been superseded by some subsequent private transaction, and even at the outset the Revenue officials in issuing a puttah do not attempt to do more than give it to the person who has the best 'prima facie claim to possession. Regulation XXVI of 1802, Section 3, declares that the Courts shall not recognize transfers of land other than those shown in the register of landed property, and the register coincides with the puttahs issued ; but this provision is held to make unregistered transfers invalid only as against Government, and with reference to the Govern- ment dues. The puttah in fact, as has lately been expressed by legal authority, does not assume to be any muniment of title, a subject on which the Government is silent ; but is only a document indicating certain fiscal arrangements between the Government and the individual mentioned in it. The puttah given to the ryot is his surety against Government. No document of acceptance is received by Government from the ryot, as it is considered unnecessary, the law making the land and its produce liable to attachment for arrears in the land-dues in preference to any other claim and whoever bo in occupation. A register however called a Chittah, showing the settlement of each individual, is maintained in each village ; ryots who are able to read are allowed to examine this register and can sign their names in it if they wish. Occasions will often arise when persons wish to transfer their — Transfers ryotwari puttahs to others. This the Government are always puttahs. ready to do on production of agreements from both persons interested. In such cases the persons concerned prefer a joint application in the office of the Tahsildar of the taluq in which the land is situated. The Tahsildar publishes a notice thirty days in advance in the villages concerned, and, if no objections are raised, he himself orders the transfer. A puttah is then issued in the name of the transferee at the next Jumma- bandy. Meanwhile, as a rule, the new holder gets possession. In cases where transfer is sought under a decree from a Civil Court sanctioning the transfer, consent of the parties is of course unnecessary, nor is notice given to villagers. Looking to the fact that a transferee cannot obtain a puttah except the trans- ferer is willing to enter with him into a joint agreement to that effect, it has been suggested that a law should bo passed for the protection of the transferee making registration of transfers in the Collector's register compulsory. It has not [Section 11. 112 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAKD. — Joint pnttahs and divided puttahs. hitherto been thonglit, however, that the loss of the piittah is of sufficient importance to the transferee to make it necessary to legislate. In the event of the demise of a person whose name is entered in the Government register, the Government themselves take steps to ascertain who is the proper successor. On the occasion of each demise the village curnam i-eports to theTahsildar, and the Tahsildar reports to the Collector. In one or other of these reports, or in both of them, the name is given of the person or persons who appear prima facie to have the best claims to succeed, under the Hindu or Mahomedan law of succession as the case may be. The Collector, when satisfied, causes a puttah to be issued in the name of the presumptive heir or heirs. The transfer of puttahs is carried out as a departmental arrange- ment and under no legislative enactment. The most ordinary cases are where the son or sons succeed the father. Among Hindus property vesting in a person descends in the following order : — Sons, sons' sons, sons' grandsons, wife, daughters, mother, father, brother," brothers' sons, paternal grandmother, paternal grandfather, paternal great grandfather, his sons, his sons' sons, the other ascending ancestors, and their sons and sons' sons in like order. The above is the ordinary line of succession. But there are various complications of law ; for instance if an undivided member of a family dies, leaving only a widow and a brother, the latter succeeds in preference to the former. The Mahomedan law of succession is still more complicated. But the revenue authorities do not strictly go into the details of law in issuing puttahs to the heirs of the deceased individuals. The puttah is issued to the prima facie heir or heirs, leaving the question of possession and other rights to be decided in Civil Courts. But when Courts pass their decrees in regard to succession, puttahs are issued by the revenue authorities according to these decisions. The Hindu law of succession favors partition and creates very numerous sub- divisions in the puttahs. In both of the cases of transfer just named, whether that is to say the transfer is effected before or after death, occasions will arise when either two parties wish to be entered jointly and severally in a joint puttah, or a person holding a puttah desires to split it up and transfer part of it. The former case will arise occasion- ally when partition is inconvenient, as for instance when the heirs to a single deceased holder arc joint widows ; the State does not Section n.] GOVEKNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 113 encourage joint puttahs, but it raises no absolute objection if it suits the parties. The Government will not separate a puttali once made joint without the consent of all the parties, even though one asserts a grievance. The latter case where it is sought to subdivide a puttah is of course of constant occurrence. There were foi'merly certain regulations checking the splitting up of blocks or fields marked off by the peimash or survey department; but these were abolished in 1875, and there is now no limit to the smallness of a holding for which a Government puttah will be issued. Assessed land will be vacant under various circumstances, as — -Apphcation for Ryotwari for instance, owing to its having never been occupied, or to lands. its having been just thrown up by a ryot, or to its having lapsed to Government on a demise or at a. revenue sale. When there are assessed lands in a village thus unoccupied, it is open to any individual, whether resident of the village or not, to apply for the land to be held by him under the terms of the ryotwari tenure. All applications by strangers are invariably communi- cated to the Mirasidars and other resident villagers so that they may have the refusal, and it is only when the Mirasidars and residents do not agree to take up the lands that they are given to strangers. When there are two or more applicants for the same land, preference is given to the ryot whose land adjoins, and when there is no such claimant, to the first among the appli- cants who is a ryot of the village in preference to a stranger. But no preferential claim on the ground of possession of the adjoining land, or of the residence in the village, is admitted in favor of a ryot by whose relinquishment the land becomes unoccupied and available for allotment. In all cases Durkhasts for whole survey fields have preference over Durkhasts for portions only. The applications are in the first instance disposed of by the Tahsildar. From his decision an appeal lies to the Divisional officer if made within thirty days ; and from his decision again an appeal can be made to the Collector within thirty days. The Collector's decision is usually final, but where a Collector has passed the decision on appeal from a Tahsildar within his own division a special appeal lies to the Board of Revenue if made within forty days. Ryots are allowed to relinquish their lands provided they — Eelinquish- apply for permission to relinquish sufficiently early in the -^°^^5j,s seasou to enable othei'S to commence cultivation upon tiiem. lauds. 16 r Section II. 114 ADMINISTRATION OP THE LAND. — Eyotwari on the "West- ern Coast. The dates up to which ryots are permitted to relinquish their lands iu the several districts are shown below : — South Canara Malabar Ganjam Vizagapatam Godavery Krishna 30th April of the fu&ly prece- ding for which relinquishment is made. 31st May do. 15th July of the fusly for which relinquishment is made. 15 th August do. The each Bellary Cuddapah Kurnool Nellore North Arcot Salem Coimbatore Madras South Arcot Trichinopoly Tanjore Madura J Tinnevelly J dates vary so as to follow those of the first rains in district. The lands relinquished must be accessible to others, otherwise the relinquishment is not accepted. For instance a ryot would not be permitted to retain all the fields in his holding except the centre one, as this would not be an eligible holding for another ryot. The tenures and settlements as between Government and the payer of the land-dues are in Malabar and Canara profess- edly a mere form of ryotwari. The special arrangements which exist in those districts between the landlord and his tenants do not as a rule affect the Government, and in dealing with the occupant the Government ignore as much as possible the existence of middlemen, or of interests other than their own. Sometimes, for instance, the Government Puttahdar in Malabar is a jenmi landholder with his tenants under him, and sometimes he is a Patomkar tenant owing his separate rent to a superior jenmi ; but into this the Government do not go. Again in Canara, though the landlord's right or mali sometimes falls to Government by escheat, the Government are in the habit of taking steps for divesting themselves of it and of handing it over to the occupying ryot. In some respects, however, there are considerable differences between this sort of ryotwar settle- ment and the ordinary ryotwary settlement, even from the Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 115 Government point of view. For instance there is no detailed survey in these districts, and the settlements are made not on fields but on holdings. Again, there aie doubts whether there are any waste lands at the disjDOsal of Government, all the waste being at present claimed as private property. Remissions again are never needed, owing to the certainty of the season and the lightness of the assessment. The ancient character of the proprietary rights enjoyed by Wost Coast landlords has already been seen from the historical sketch of land tenures. They are to the individual what the Mirasi rights of the Eastern Coast are to the community. The Ooloogoo Mottafysal and Amani systems of settlement — Ooloogoo. Tjij n 1 1 cl f V S 3,1 involve questions of demand rather than of tenure- In all cases ^nd Amani', where the Government apply them, they apply them to the individual ryot, and they are therefore different forms of ryotwari. Details of the demand will be given hereafter. A cowle is an agreement to hand over land without payment Lands held on for a certain period, or on payment for a certain period of a °^ ^^' °* diminished assessment gradually rising to full assessment. When the period is finished the holder becomes a ryotwari holder, but not before. In the meanwhile he is sxibject to the terms of the contract contained in the cowle. The cowle tenure is usually gi'anted to induce cultivators to break up unpromising waste lands. Though much used between Zemindars, Inaradars, &c., and their tenants, cowles are not in frequent use by Govern- ment. Lands held under the tope rales hereafter to be described fall in reality, though not nominally, under this class of tenure. If the Government have good grounds under the contract for dispossessing the cowledar, they can do so and re-enter on the laud. It will be noticed that this right is never claimed in the case of an ordinary Government ryot. When the State has given up its right to the land-tax, or a Ordinary portion of it, in favor of an individual or an institution, or to ^f ^^j.^^^^"^^' remunerate persons for performing certain duties, the grant is termed an Inam or Manyam. A very large number of such grants was made by former Governments, and it was a condition of most of them that they could not be alienated without the consent of the State, that they would escheat to Government on the failure of male heirs in the direct line, and that they might be cancelled on the occurrence of any lapse. In some cases the giunts were to be resumed after a certain number of lives, that is to say after a certain number of successions by inheritance. [Section II. 11<» ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. Other Tnams depended on the execution of cei'tain religions observances, or thte performance of certain State services. In 1858 a Commission was established to examine the titles of the possessors of Inams, and to enfranchise them if they wished by commuting for a moderate qnit-rent the right of Govern- ment to prevent alienation, to resume, or to demand service. There are still certain Inam lands the holders of which have not accepted the terms of enfranchisement offered by the Inana Commission. These remain on the old and very restricted tenure. They are subject to favorably calculated dues on account of land-tax, but on the other hand they have a tenure very inferior to that of enfranchised Inamdars or even to that of ordinary ryotwar holders. They cannot alienate their land. Succession is prescribed as above shown in a definite way. They hold only on the fulfilment of certain conditions, and Government claims an absolute right to adjudicate as to the proper fulfilment of those conditions. In the case of Village Service Inams the tenure may almost be said to be at the pleasure of Government, Full particulars regarding Inams will be given under the heading of Inam Commission. Fanning the The principle of farming out the land-revenue in certain Revenue, localities for a certain period has almost disappeared. Some rents, however, still remain. Thus in the Vizagapatam district the Hoongeram and Palcondah taluqs are rented out on a lease of years to a mercantile fir-m. Eeckoning these taluqs and detached villages together there are thi'oughout the Presidency 331 villages rented out, 87 in Vizagapatam, 231 in the Goda- very , 1 2 in Chingleput, and 1 in North Arcot. A large number of these are hill-villages not survej-ed and not touched by the Settlement Department. The old joint-rent system where the villagers themselves took up the lease and were jointly and severally responsible has now entirely disappeared. The last trace of it existed a few years ago in the hilly parts of the Godavery. Mirasi rights. The rights which go by the name of mii'asi must be mentioned here. They ai-e not sufficiently strong to be classed as tenures or rights against Government, such as zemindary or ryotwari ; but they ai'e something more than the mere preferential right to occupy new land hereafter to be mentioned, and they are recognized by the Government. The origin of mirasi rights in the Tamil country has been already described in the historical sketch of land tenures. Nearly all that remains now of the Section n.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND, 117 special riglits of the communal oligarchies is the claim by certain hereditary mirasidars in the Chingleput District to fees upon waste which may hereafter be brought under cultivation, and upon lands now occupied by non-mirasidars which may hereafter be thrown up and again re-occupied under the darkhast rules. These fees, otherwise called swatantrams, were formerly taken from the gross produce before the division of the crop, and were then paid to the mirasidars both by the ryots and by the Government. They are now made payable entirely by ths ryots, liberal allowance having been made with these on ari'iviiig at the money rates of assessment charged on their lands. The swatantram payable by the ryot under these circumstances is a yearly sum of two annas in each rupee of the Government assess- ment ; this amount being held to represent the old average rate of 3 per cent, of the gross produce of the year. These fees are recorded by the Government in the land-revenue registers, and their collection is left to the mirasidars themselves. The total amount in the Chingleput District is very small, but the right is tenaciously held to, and represents what was in former days a highly important institution. There are some mirasi swatan- trams in Tinnevelly, and possibly also in other districts, but Government has taken no steps to recognize them. It should be mentioned that the word mirasi means nothing beyond hereditary right, and that it is often applied to other rights besides the special right now under mention ; it is applied, for instance, in the north to hereditary rights to village offices. The unassigned land still in the possession of the State con- Unassigned sists of all land which is not included in any Zemindary, ryot's ^^^^^ witMn holding, or other land already given out by Government for occupation. If it lies, however, within the boundaries of a village, certain prescriptive rights are conceded to the villagers of that particular village, probably as a relic of the old village communal system, in the way of preferential claim to occupy ; and this distinguishes the case for the purposes of the present classification from that of unassigned land not so situated. Unassigned land within a village will be either of the assessed class or the unassessed class. The mode in which assessed lands are applied for and taken up in the first instance has already been described. The unassessed or poramboke land of a village is also at the disposal of the Government acting in trust for the interests of the village community. Subject to the instructions of the Government officers, certain portions are reserved for the gratuitous and communal use of the villagers, [Section II. 118 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. as the tanks, streets, channels, thresHng-floor, burial-ground, cattle-stand, &e. ; wliile in all cases except in the town of Madras and some places on the West Coast, a house-sire and a back-yard with permission to cultivate garden produce in it, are provided gratuitously for each fam'ly. The addition to or sub- traction from the area of village-site is provided for by fixed rules. The unassessed waste lands of a vill..ge, which a; e not yet assio-ned, and which are not reserved for these special purposes, are ojGfered for sale in convenient lots free of assessment, and subject only to local taxes. In Tanjore and Madras there are no such lands to be sold, and on the Nilgiri and Shevaroy hills and in the Wynaad the arrangements in nearly all cases fall under the head next to be mentioned. The following are the upset prices fixed for each district and lands are made over to the highest bidder above that price : — Districts. Forest Land. Open Land. Ganjam Vizagapatam Cuddapah Kumool Nullamallays North Arcot Trichinopoly Madura, Pulnis . . Do. in the plains Tinnevelly, Hill ranges Do. in the plains, all kinds Coimbatore (except Nilg'iris) . . Salem (except Shevaroys) South Canara, Hill ranges Do. plains . . Godavery * Kistna Nellore . . South Arcot Malabar 2^ Es. an acre . . 5 ,, do. . . 5 ,, do. ,, for black cotton soil. R ;. an acre ,, do. „ do. „ do. „ do. do. do. do. do. do. 10 10 5 10 2i 10 2i do. 5 ,, do. , , do. 5 ,, per acre for Ponum land. 5 Rs. an acre. For all kinds. 24 Rupees. 5 Rs.'for all qual- ities of soU. 21 Rs. an acre. li „ do. 2h do. do. do. 2| Rs. an acre, 5" „ do. 5 ,, do. 2i „ do. For all kinds. 2h Rs. per acre. 2| „ do. 10 Es. per acre for the more open and level lands, exclusiv« of Wynaad. No lot within a village is allowed to exceed 10 acres except under orders of Government, but one person may bid for contigu- ous lots. The lots are as far as practicable in parallelograins. In selling the land the existing and customary rights of Govern- ment, of other proprietors, and of the public in existing roads and paths, and in streams running through or bounding the lands are carefully reserved, and when the sale is completed and money * The Delta lands arc excepted from the ordinary operation of the rules. Section II. j GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 119 paid, a formally drawn up title-deed is granted to th.e purchaser by Government. The land is surveyed and demarcated before the sale, and its cost is borne out of the sale-money if there bo an}- purchaser, and if there be no purchaser by the first appli- cant at whose instance the sxirvey has been undertaken. The first applicant has in all cases to make a deposit covering the cost of survey. Due notice is given to the public before sale, and any claims put forward are disposed of on their merits. The Government can of course alienate the unassessed land, if they wish, by puttah or on cowle in the ordinary way, instead of selling the land in the manner just described. This is indeed in practice the most usual course as far as land in the plains is concerned. Unassigned land outside the limits of any village as defined by other unas- custom or the Survey Department, is absolutely at the disposal sigiied lands, of Government. Such portions of land are very limited on the plains, which are fully occupied by village communities, but they abound on the hill ranges where the indigenous tribes have established only a very partial occupation, and where general occupation is only just springing up. The alienation of lands lying outside villages will fall in a few cases under the rules described in the last paragraph. On the Nilgiris and Shervaroys, and in the AVynaad, however, there is a special provision that there shaU be no upset price and that the lands shall be liable to assessment. Thus forest lands are free of assessment for 5 years on the Nilgiris and for 3 years in the Wynaad, after which they are assessed at Rupees 2 per acre. Grass land is liable to an assessment of 8 Annas per acre from the date of appropriation. On the Shervaroy hills all lands are liable to a uniform rate of 1 rupee per acre from the date they are taken up. In any of these cases the annual assessment may be redeemed at 25 years' purchase as already mentioned. In a ryotwari country the most important considerations Tenures connected with land tenures are those which concern the other than those under relations of Government with persons holding immediately from Government. it. The system of tenancy under such land-holders is however fully developed, and is even a matter in which Government is concerned, the interference of the revenue ofiicials between land-holder and tenant being often required under the law. In the districts on the east coast lands are rented out by the land-holders either for a fixed annual payment in money, or for a share in the produce, which is generally half. Ordinarily dry and garden lands are rented for money and irrigated lands [Section II. 120 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. for a share in the produce. Except in large zemindaries, where rights have grown up from long possession, private tenants as a rule are tenants at will, and the leases are from year to year. On the west coast tenancies are more permanent and lands are generally leased out for a number of years. In South Canara tenants are of two kinds, Mulgueni and Chalgueni. The mulgue- nies are pei'manent tenants under the mulavargdar or landlord, paying a fixed and invariable rent. These tenancy rights have been for the most part obtained from the landlord as grants in perpetuity on the payment of a fine and on condition of paying annually a specified rent. Such tenants cannot be ousted except for non-payment of rent, and even in this case not till they have been fully recompensed by the landlord for the permanent improvements they may have made on the lauds. Subject to payment of rent they are at liberty to sub-rent, mortgage, or sell their interest, and are rather a description of subordinate land- lords than mere tenants. On failure of heirs the title lapses to the landlord. The chalguenies are temporary ryots under the mulavargdars or mulguenies ; their lease is for a limited term, usually one year, or even at will. In the case of these tenants the landlord has the right to raise the rent or oust the tenants whenever he pleases, when no period is fixed, after however re-imbursing him for all permanent improvements made by him. Practically the tenants are seldom ousted. In some large estates there is an intermediary tenancy, when the tenants have no written leases but are in practice treated as mulguenies. The rents of mulguenies and chalguenies are paid either in money or a certain quantity of grain, and never by a share of the crop as in other parts of the Presidency. In Malabar the tenants to whom lands are leased out for cultivation are called patomkars. The lands are generally leased for a period of between three and six years, and the rent payable to the landlord is fixed at two-thirds of the net produce of the land after deducting the expenses of cultivation. When waste or jungle lands are leased out the rent is one-fifth of the gross produce. There are various kinds of leases. Where a simple rent is paid annually the lease is known by the name of Verumpatom. Where the proprietor receives from the tenant, in addition to his rents, an advance of money, which may be considered either as a loan or as a security for the due payment of the rent, it is called Kanompatom. The tenaait retains so much of the rent as will discharge his claim of interest on the sum advanced, and delivers over what remains to the proprietor. It is in fact Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. l2l the same as the tenure acquired by a mortgagee, with the difference that the money advanced is generally small. In the case of kanompatom, if the patomkar gives up the land on the expiration of the lease, he loses 20 per cent, of the sum in deposit, being however re-imbursed for the permanent improvements which he has effected. The landlord can demand the land back from the tenant on paying the deposit amount with interest and the value of permanent improvements effected by the tenant. The tenant is liable to forfeit the whole of his kanom money should there be any loss in the originally estimated produce of the land. The proprietor can revoke a lease before the expiration of the lease on payment of double the value of improvements and the deposit money with interest. In some cases the rent for a series of years is paid in advance. The landlord is not then, however, at liberty to demand the land from the tenant before the expiration of the period, and if the tenant gives up the land the landlord must refund to him a deduction of 20 per cent, in the rent for the unexpired portion* This kind of lease is called Oodamtepatom. By another mode of renting lauds termed Kaykanompatom, meaning tenure of labor or usufructuary tenure, the jenmkar conveys a piece of land to a person who undertakes to fence it with mud walls and plant it with productive trees, and the latter is ensured possession for a specified period, generally 12 years, free of all charges. At the expiration of the lease in this case the jenmkar has the right of resuming the land on paying the lessee for the buildings he may tave erected, or the wells he may have dug, or the plantation he may have formed, according to a valuation ; but the resumption of this tenui'e is rarely enforced by the jenmkar when the land has been properly cultivated, the tenant being commonly allowed to continue in possession at an easy rate of rent. The buildings and plantations are in fact the property of the tenant, and he can mortgage or sell them in the same manner as the jenmkar mortgages or sells his property in the land. The verumpatom and kaykanom- patom are the only leases for cultivation exclusively. The others partake partly of the nature of leases for cultivation and partly of that of mortgages. The death of either the tenant or the landlord generally puts an end to the lease. When a lease is renew'ed, it is customary for the tenant to pay the landlord certain fees at a fixed percentage of the deposit money. The Government tax is in some cases paid by the jenmkar, and in others by the tenants or mortgagees in possession. IG [Section II. 122 ADIIINISTEATION OF THE LAND. Private The Government are not concerned in any way in transactions dealings in connected with land other than those ah^eady mentioned. It may be observed, however, that private mortgages are exceedingly common. Sums of money are frequently advanced ■upon landed security, the condition being generally that the mortgagee shall enter and enjoy the land for a definite period, though sometimes it is arranged that the mortgager shall hold as a tenant of the mortgagee during the term, and sometimes the lands are hypothecated simply. Sub-mortgages are frequently made on the East Coast. It is not customaiy for an outgoing mortgager to claim compensation for improvements. Private sales of land again take place, but by no means so frequently. Mortgages are most numerous on the West Coast, especially in Malabar, for reasons already given. It is there considered disgraceful to sell absolutely the Jenm right, i.e., birth-right or proprietorship. The Malabar mortgages are the most interesting. There are several kinds. One is called Kayividu Otti. In this land is pledged and delivered over to the mortgagee, the jenmkar receiving from the former two-thirds of the value of the estate and retaining a certain interest in the land itself. Wo rent is ordinarily paid by the mortgagee to the proprietor as it is generally equal to the interest at 5 per cent, on the sum lent. For instance, an estate yielding a rent of 50 fanams is valued at 1,-500 fanams, and the land is mortgaged for 1,000 fanams. The proprietor cannot revoke the mortgage, but should the mortgagee be willing to restore the land and receive his money back, the proprietor is entitled to the first offer. If the proprietor wants to part with his entire rights, he must make the ofier to the mortgagee, who must either accept or return the land to the proprietor that he may relieve himself by selling it to another and repay the sum advanced to the m.ortgagee. A second mode of mortgage is called Otti simply. This is nearly the same as Kayividu Otti, but the terms are less strictly expressed. It may be executed without the consent of the heir, nor are any witnesses necessary besides the parties and the writer of the document. Tf the pattam or landlord's share exceeds the interest on the sum lent, the excess belongs to the proprietor. If the mortgagee wishes to have the money back he must lose 10 per cent., but if the proprietor offers to return the money the mortgagee is not liable to any deduction. The mortgagee is entitled to compensation for his improvements on the land, and the proprietor to a deduction from the amount borrowed for any neglect on the part of the mortgagee and the Section II. J GOVERNMEXT AXD ALIENATED LAND. 123 consequent reduction in tlie produce of the land. A tliird kind is called Otti Kuli Kanam. This differs from Otti in that if the mortgagee desires to return the land, the proprietor is liable to pay 20 per cent, on the amount of improvements, whereas if the proprietor demands the land, the full value of impi-ovements must be paid. A fourth kind is called Adima Jenm. The peculiarity of this mortgage is that the sum borrowed is not mentioned in the deed. The use of this form is confined to Rajas, Numburies and heads of villages. In other respects it appears to be neai"ly the same as the first kind. " Kettiadakam" is another species of mortgage. In this land is not delivered to the mortgagee. It is left in the possession of the proprietor until he fails in the regular payment of the interest, when the creditor seizes the land and retains it in his own possession. If the pattam or landlord's share exceeds the amount of interest the excess goes to the proprietor. These are the Malabar tenures. In South Canara, land and pi"oduce are separately mortgaged. If the land itself is mortgaged no interest is demanded. The mortgager is sometimes permitted to reside upon the estate and allowed to cultivate a small portion in the capacity of a tenant, but the mortgagee pays the Circar rent and transacts the whole business of the estate as if he were the proper owner. The mortgage bond always contains a clause that as soon as the sum borrowed is repaid the land is to be returned to the mortgager, the latter paying the expenses of all improvements. A certain portion of the produce of estates is frequently mortgaged for the discharge of interest on debts. In this case it is stipulated that a certain quantity of rice is to be paid annually, but that the person receiving the rice shall be allowed no interference with the estate. Should the mortgager fail in the payment, the land itself is to be made over to the mortgagee. The first of these Canara mortgages is termed Bogiadhy or living mortgage, the other Toradoovoo or dead mortgage. The number of persons who own property, and who are Number of independeiat of labor, as returned in the census schedules, is ^^^^ed ^ proprietors. 176,680, or !•! per cent, of the male population. They are naost numerous in the Tanjore district, where I'l per cent, of the males are so entered. In the Godavery district this class forms 3 per cent, of the population, while in Tinnevelly and Coirabatore only 0'04 and 002 per cent, are so returned. The Brahmins figure out of all proportion to anv other class as Section II. 124 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LANP. Rates and amount of the Land Revenue. holders of property; 64,545, or 117 per cent, of their numbers being included under this head. The Kshatriyas have 3'1 per cent. The Chetties, who have their capital mostly laid out in trade, have only 0"5 per cent. The Vellalers, or cultivating castes, have only 1"6 per cent., but many of these are wealthy, though they hold their lands only on ryotwari tenure. The writer, or accountant castes are considerable holders of property in the districts of Vizagapatam and Tanjore, where 22-4 and 31*4 per cent, respectively of their numbers are so classed. (c). — The Collection op the Revenue. It is impossible to exhibit, with any approach to accuracy, the ratio of the Imperial Land Revenue to the actual gross produce of the whole country and the net assets of land. No information exists as to the actual gross produce of lands paying land revenue to Government, nor is it possible to collect such information. Though the Land-tax was imposed, theoretically at least, on a share of the gross produce of the land, this share or its commuted value has varied greatly in different districts and at different times. The principle on which the Land-tax of ryotwary districts is at present undergoing revision and re-settlement, preceded by a scientific survey, is that it should in no case exceed 40 per cent, of the gross produce in the case of lands for which irri- gation is provided at Government cost, or one-third of the gross produce in the case of lands not so irrigated. These proportions are found to be nearly equal to half the net produce. If all the land were ryotwary, it might be roughly assumed that the revenues amounted to half the net produce, but much of it is held at a favorable quit-rent or permanently settled, and in these cases the sum paid to Government bears no fixed proportion to the produce. The rate per acre of the Land-tax on ryotwary land varies very widely in the different districts. In those where the new survey and re-settlement have been introduced the rate varies from 6d. to £1 4s., and the number of rates for a whole district does not exceed 35. In districts where the land assess- ment is still imposed as at the beginning of the century, the rate on irrigated land is oocasionally as high as £3 10s. and that on unirrigated land as high as 9s. The minimum rates on both kinds of land in these districts are fractions of a shilling, and the total number of rates in a district is as large as 885. Taking an average of the whole Presidency, the rate per acre does not exceed 2s, Bd. on unirrigated land or 9s. 6d. on irrigated land. Section II. GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 125 The following list shows the total collections of land revenue in this Presidency for the last fifteen official years, taking £1 to be equal to 10 Rupees. In 1866-67 there were only eleven months, because the date of commencement of the next year was altered from the 1st May to the 1st April : — £ 1861-62 4,112,588 1862-63 4,206,498 1863-64 4,296,535 1864-65 4,181,162 1865-66 4,291,766 1866-67 3,635,509 1867-68 4,239,705 1868-69 4,058,757 1869-70 4,476,056 1870-71 4,393,351 1871-72 4,435,341 1872-73 4,688,448 1873-74 ... 4,446,693 1874-75 4,632,063 1875-76 4,539,657 The land-revenue demand on all Zemindaries, Mootahs and The demand other proprietary estates is fixed once for all, and no remissions °^ perma- ^ „ , ^ nently settled are granted for loss of crop or other reasons. There is, therefore, estates. no special yearly investigation and settlement as in the case of Ryotwari holdings. Slight variations, however, occasionally occur. For instance lands forming part of a Zemindary are sometimes taken up by Government for public works. Again the collection of Government quit-rents on Inams situated in the Zemindaries is sometimes transferred to the Zemindars, who add the amount to their peishcush less 10 per cent, for the trouble of collecting. In such cases the necessary adjustments are made by the Collectors and reported to the Board of Revenue. Water-rates are also charged on Zemindary lands, when water is used from sources of irrigation newly created by Government. The charge is made only on lands actually irri- gated every year ; but where the Zemindars consent, a compo- sition is made with them for a term of years. Where existing works have been superseded by the new works, full allowance is made for the area previously irrigated by the former. For instance in the case of the Nedavole Zemindary in the Godavery, where the Government anient works have obstructed the Zemindar's ancient sources of irrigation, the estate has been [Section II. 120 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. The demand on Inam lands. allowed to irrigate under the anicut channels free of charge 25,881 acres of land, which was formerly irrigated, or considered capable of being irrigated ; and for the excess cultivation an annual sum of Rupees 40,000 has been charged, with the condi- tion that the amount is liable to be altered every five years with reference to the area irrigated. The charges for water-rate go under the general technical head " Miscellaneous Revenue." The jumma or peishcush paid by Zemindars has usually been fixed in the first instance at two-thirds of the gross estimated collections from the cultivator. The whole question of the demand on Inam lands would naturally be treated here. Technically however, it is only the quit-rent on whole Inam villages, or " Shrotriems " as these are called, that is treated as a separate item, quit-rent on other or " Minor " Inams falling under the head Miscellaneous Land- revenue. The quit-rent on Inam villages is a fixed revenue, and no remissions, as a rule, are granted. Variations will however occur in the same way as in Zemindaries on account of lands being taken up by the Government for public purposes, or on account of water-rate, &c. ; or again in the event of the holder relinquishing land. The quit-rent on Inam lands is usually called jodi in cases where it represents the old quit- rent as opposed to that recently imposed by the Inam Commission. Quit-rents on The quit-rents derived from building sites fall naturally for building sites, j^gj^^^^j^ here. They are grouped, however, technically under Land-revenue Miscellaneous, and will be explained hereafter. The demand in Ryotwari holdings. The actual rate at which the land is to be assessed under Ryot- wari is fixed for a period of thirty years by the Revenue Settle- ment Department. But the ryot has the liberty, as already explained, of contracting or extending his holdings ; and the Government undertake to grant remissions of land- revenue, and assume the right to make extra charges, under certain circumstances. There are therefore considerable variations from year to year to be attended to at the yearly settlement of accounts. The ryotwari settlement is formed by adding to the assessment of the holdings (1) the charge on account of second crop cultivation, and (2) water-tax on ryotwari lands ; and deducting therefrom (1) the assessment of waste remitted, (2) occasional remissions, (3) fixed remissions, and (4) deduC' tions on account of village establishments and sundry other purposes. Sundry items classed as Miscellaneous revenue are afterwords added to the demand. Section II.] GOVERNMEXT AND ALIENATED LAND. 127 The Jammabandy or yearly inquiry into the variations of — The ryotwari land-revenue generally takes place after December, by jmnma- Avhich time most of the important crops liave been harvested bandy. The different places where it is to be conducted are previously notified and the ryots of the villages concerned are invited to attend. The Tahsiidar with his establishment and the Curnams and heads of the villages attend, and the Collector or his assistant making the Jummabandy sends in advance his Shei'istadar or other head Native official to examine tlie accounts as prepared in the taluq. After the examination of tlie accounts is completed, the settling officer inquires into the claims of the several ryots in regard to remissions, hears any other statements they may have to make in regard to their lands, and issues a document to each individual called the puttah, showing the particulai^s of his holding, the amount payable by him, and the instalments in which it has to be paid. The puttahs are not necessarily renewed every year, alterations which occur in the holdings being often simply entered on the back of the puttah. Cultivation made after the Jummabandy, but appertaining to the fasli then in question, appears under Land-revenue Miscel- laneous, and is treated as a separate item of revenue. Remis- sions granted after Jummabandy are similarly not shown in the accounts of the year, but the amounts involved are written off the accounts as irrecoverable with the sanction of Government in the following year. The standard rates of assessment are determined by the — Standard Revenue Settlement Department, as hereafter described. Briefly assessment, speaking, the lands are first classified according to their soils, and the grain values of each soil are determined by act«al experi- ments taken over a large area and with the help of other extraneous information. From the grain value thus determined a deduction is made on account of unfavorable seasons and cultivation expenses, and the remainder, which represents the net produce, is halved. From this half a small deduction is again made on account of unprofitable areas, and the remainder is commuted into money at a fixed rate which represents the average value of the grain for a series of years sufficiently long to balance the ordinary fluctuations of seasons and other temporary causes. The money-rates thus obtained approximate as nearly as possible to half of the value of the net produce. In fixing the standard rates of assessment the irrigated lands are — Second presumed to yield but one crop, and when a second crop is raised va°tion!^ [Section II. 128 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. ^Water- tax. —Waste temitted. on them with the aid of Government water half the standard rate is charged in addition. In some cases however tliis charge has already been commuted at the old Peimash or by the Settle- ment Department into a fixed payment consolidated with the ordinary assessment, and this consolidated sum is then paid whether the second crop is raised or not. The object of the latter arrangement is to save Government the trouble of institut- ing a scrutiny into the extent of second crop cultivation each year, and to save the ryots from interference on the part of petty revenue officials. To make the arrangement acceptable to the ryot, the composition rates are somewhat lower than those charged when the payment for second crop is left optional. The ryots do not make any payment if the second crop in question is raised without the aid of Government water. For instance, a dry crop liaised as second crop in land classed as irrigated is not liable to any charge. It happens but seldom that private irrigation is applied to wet lands. In the case of unirrigated lands the ryot is competent to raise any number of crops, for though the soil has been used more than once in the year Government water has not been supplied to it. The charge for second-crop cultivation is in fact a water-rate, though not so called ; it has really no I'eference to the more or less frequent use of the soil. Irrigation under private wells is not as a rule liable to any charge, but wells within the ayacut are considered to draw water from the tank and a charge is therefore made. It has already been mentioned that second- crop assessment is charged where necessary on irrigated Inam lands. Water-tax technically so called is charged whenever lands classed and assessed as unirrigated are irrigated by the aid of Government water. The rates vary with reference to the usage of the locality, to the character of the irrigation, to the time for which the irrigation is required, and to the nature of the crop raised; and run from 8 rupees to 1| rupees per acre. In the delta taluqs of the Godavery and Kistna and in some of the taluqs of Kurnool all the lands are assessed at dry rates, and the whole charge for water appears therefore under water-tax. Government water-tax imposed on Inam lands, or in Zemin- daries, does not come technically under this head, but under Land-revenue Miscellaneous. Under the head of Waste Remitted are technically included all deductions from the land-demand made on account of land left absolutely waste ; that is, in which no crop has been put Section n.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 129 down. It is a remission of the full assessment, is made only where cultivation has been impossible on account of the usual supplies of Government water having been deficient or in flood, and is not given in the case of land classed as unirrigated. Any neglect to cultivate on the part of the holders invalidates the claim to remission. Waste Remitted is in reality an " occasional " remission, —Occasional .-111 T^ • 1 11 remissions, inasmuch as it depends on the season. Jieing however usually a large item it is treated technically as a separate head. The occasional Remissions technically so-called include all remis- sions dependent on the nature of the season, other than that for absolute waste. They consist of the following items : — 1. shavi or withered crops ; 2. panyboodthy, or payamali, that is to say land flooded and injured by water ; 3. palanastham or loss of produce ; 4. thirvakammy or difference between wet and dry assessment ; 5, fasalkammy or second crop not cultivated ; 6. remissions allowed on the introduction of new rates of assessment ; 7. miscellaneous remissions. Remissions under items 1 and 2 are as a rule granted on irrigated lands only when the crop is totally lost owing to either deficiency or excess of water, and provided only that such excess or deficiency has not been occasioned by any act or neglect of the person to whom the land belongs. Remissions for partial loss of crop under item 3 are only granted in districts which have not been settled by the Settlement Department ; these also are confined to irrigated lands. In granting the remissions last named no attempt is made to estimate individual losses, but tho remission is granted in the form of a certain percentage taken oS* from the assessment of the lands in which the crop is lost, the percentage being determined with reference to the extent of the average loss sustained in the adjacent tracts. Remissions are not granted on unirrigated lands except in very exceptional years and under very exceptional circumstances and with tho previous sanction of the Board of Revenue. The remission under item 4 is granted when a dry crop is put down on land classed and assessed as irrigated, but which otherwise would have been left waste. In such cases the dry crop assessment alone is levied, and the difference between that and the assess- ment chargeable on irrigated land is remitted. The remission under item 5 is granted where the land is assessed for two crops, but it has not been possible to raise a second crop for want of water. This remission oocui's chiefly in districts not yet visited by the Settlement Department, where the rates are 17 [Section 11. 130 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. high. In the districts which have been settled by that Depart- ment the collection of the whole assessment is enfoi'ced as a rule when the principal crop is raised, whether the second or inferior crop is raised or not. But if the principal crop fails or is not raised, and only an inferior crop is gTOwn, then the second crop assessment is remitted. Remissions under item 6 are altogether of an exceptional character. They are granted with the special sanction of Government when any newly fixed rates of assessment are particularly high, and when their gradual introduction is considered desirable. The miscellaneous remissions consist of various sundry items, such as those granted on account of lands cultivated having been taken up for public works or for the Forest Department, on account of lands washed away by rivers, «Sitc., &c. — Fixed " Fixed remissions " are remissions which are granted for remissionB. reasons other than those relating to the season. They consist of the following items : — 1. Remission granted for labor involved in reclaiming lands. This is mostly granted for lands situated on a high level in consideration of the difficulty of bringing them under wet cultivation. 2. Remission granted on the ground that the standard rates in unsettled districts are too heavy. The old pymash assessments having in some districts been heavy certain reductions were made in the rates of assessment. The difference between the old and reduced rates appears as remission. 3. Remission granted to privileged classes ; that is to say remissions allowed to certain classes of persons who by custom or caste are prevented from cultivating lands themselves. These are fast disappearing with the introduction of the new rates of settlement, which do not recognize any class privileges. 4. Remission granted on account of irrigation by lift. This is granted for cultivation raised on high level wet lands by baling or other mechanical contrivances. 5. Remission granted under the tope rules. As an encouragement to the formation of topes or small woods, persons are allowed to plant trees under certain con- ditions free of assessment for 20 years. At the end of that period the land is assessed if retained in possession of the planter, but left unassessed if the tope is thrown open to the public. The assessment remitted during the 20 years is shown under remis- sions. As a rule, the land granted on these terms is one that has been waste for more than 10 years. If the trees are planted on land usually cultivated no remission is granted. 6. Remission granted for maintaining irrigation w^orks. This Ls called techni- cally " Dasbuudimi," and is an allowance made in the shape of Section n.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. Wl remission of revenue in compensation for the construction of tanks, wells, and channels, and for the repairs of such works. 7. Remission on grass lands. Ryots in CoimLatore, andon a portion of the Nilgiris, are allowed to hold an extent equal to one-foiu'th of their holdings at one-foui'th of the full assessment for purposes of pasture. The difference between the fuQ and quarter assessment is treated as remission so long as the land is allowed to lie fallow and actually used as pasture. "When once cultivated it is charged with full assessment and this is main- tained whether the land is thenceforward cultivated or used for pasture again. No new lands are now granted under this tenure. 8. Cowle remissions. Lands which have been long lying waste or which require outlay of capital or labor to bring them under cultivation, are allowed to be taken on easy terms for a number of years ; they are either free of tax or subject to a favorable assessment, and the difference between the standard assessment and the assessment actually charged is shown under remissions. 9. Remission granted on salt pans in South Canara. In this district salt pans are situated in lands forming parts of the private wurgs paying land assessment to Government. The land assessment payable on the pan-sites is remitted annually when they are used for salt manufacture, in accordance with the practice of the salt monopoly. 10. Remission granted on forest lands taken up for cultivation in the Nilgiris aud in Malabar. Forest lands taken up in the Nilgiris and in Wynaad for coti'oo or other plantation are not charged with assessment for five and three years respectively in consideration of the preliminary expenses necessary for the plantations, and as a remunerative crop is rarely obtained until after the lapse of those periods. For the periods mentioned the assessment of the lands is shown under remissions. 11. Miscellaneous. This consists of various small items, such as landlord's share on escheated lands sold, remission of assessment in favor of pagodas, &c., &c. Sundry Deductions, otherwise called Beriz Deductions, are —Sundry in reality of two classes, though not so arranged technically. In the one case the principle is that the Government abandons a certain amount of the laud-demand in consideration of the ryot discharging certain liabilities hitherto discharged by Government. Such are pa;^anents of fees or salaries to village servants, and of stipends to Inamdars. In the other case certain sums which are due from the ryot, and which have been hitherto consolidated with the luud-demand, are now [Section n. 132 ADMIJIISTRATION OF THE LAND. separated from it, and the ryot is directed to pay them elsewhere. An example of the latter is the road-cess in the Kristna. The subtraction from the land- demand is a convenient way of adjusting accounts, and is an old practice in this Presidency. Sometimes a deduction wiU represent a transaction under both of the heads just mentioned ; as for instance where a deduction on account of village service represents partly the sum hitherto contributed by the ryot, and partly the sum granted by the Government. The amounts deducted are properly speaking paid by the ryots direct to the persons or authorities to whom they are due. But sometimes practically the village officers collect the amounts. —The demand In speaking of west-coast tenures between Government and Coast. ^^ landholders it was mentioned that in form the agreement was a ryotwari agreement. The details of the demand made, however, show the peculiarity of the situation. Thus the average assess- ment, in Malabar, is Rupees 1-9-5 for dry land, and Rupees 3-0-3 for wet land, compared to an average for the whole Presidency of Rupees 1-1-0 for the former and Rupees 5-9-3 for the latter. The excess in the case of dry land is due to the fact that all the more valuable permanent garden produce is classed in Malabar under this head. The assessments, therefore, are very low and tacitly allow the existence of middlemen and of other interests besides those of Government. The wet cultivation exceeds that of any other district except Tanjore, and would, if assessed at the ordinary rates of other ryotwari districts, produce probably double the revenue. In Canara too ample provision is left for a landlord's share. The fiscal division of estates in Canara is noticeable. Bhurty means full or payiug the entire Tharao demand. Kurabhurty means paying less than the full Tharao demand. The kumbhurty is again subdivided into 1. Board Shifarish, or estates which owing to natural disadvantages never can be expected to pay the full demand, and are entered in the accounts as doubtful, but are practi- cally treated as with reduced demand ; 2. Kayam Kammi, estates in which the full assessment may be leviable in the future, but it is not certain when ; and 3. Waida, or estates which after a certain definite period will be able to pay the full demand, and will be required to do so. The settlement officer leaves Bhurty and Board Shifarish as he finds them, and settled in the lump ; he deals with the Kayam Kammi at his discretion ; and in the case of waida there is usually an annual increment, to be decided by the settlement oflScer, by which Section n.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 133 the estate is to be brought up to Bhurty and Kumbhurty. Practically the same village agency is employed on the West Coast as in other parts of the country. It should be mentioned that the low assessments of Malabar have proved a serious difficulty in levying cesses which are proportioned to the assess- ment. The important Local Fund Cess is a case in point and yields a very poor revenue. In Zemindaries the Local Fund Act has specially provided for assessing the cess on the rents paid by ryots to Zemindars, and taking the amount from the Zemindar, and the application of this to Malabar would give a higher cess-revenue. But this has not hitherto been practicable or even legal. One of the principal difficulties would be the decision as to who is in such case the person to be dealt with analogous to the Zemindar, land-ownership being on the West Coast in a very confused state. In some localities wet crops arc still divided between the —The Government and the ryot under the Amany system. The share unXr^Amany of Government in the produce varies according to usage, but in the majority of cases it is 50 per cent, of the gross produce minus fees paid to village servants. The crop is cut under the personal inspection of Government officers, and the gross produce is divided by actual measurement. After division the Government share, which is called the Rajabhogam or Melvai'am, is sold and the proceeds are carried to the credit of Government. It will be understood that the settlement in these cases is still with the individual ryot, on the ryotwari system. The Amany method of settlement and collection represents the traditional method peculiar to the Hindus under their own rulers. Apart from the machinery of collection, it will be seen that it differs from the method of the English Government in that it settles on the basis of dividing the gross instead of the net produce. Amany is still a favorite system between Zemindars and their tenants, and estates coming under the Court of Wards frequently bring this mode of settlement with them. The British Government have not encouraged it. It would be impossible at the present day to keep in hand the large establishment that would be necessary. Moreover the ryots are said to dislike Amany, as the crops cannot be taken in until measured by the Government official, and have often to lie on the ground till damaged. There are at the present moment only eight Government villages in the Presidency in which division of the produce takes place, namely, 6 in Madui-a, 2 in Chingleput, and 1 in the Kistna. The total revenue of these is Rupees 6,000. [Section IL 134 ADMmiSTEATION OF THE LAND. —The demand under Ooloogoo. The demand in Estates roBted out. Land -Reve- nue Miscel- laseoas. The demand under Ooloogoo differs from that under ordinary ryotwari in this that the Government dues vary to a certain extent v?ith the current prices of grain. The gi-ain is commuted for a money-value, but not for an absolutely fixed value. The- commutation rate is founded on tlie price of past years, but all increase of price of over 10 per cent, above the standard is- added to the demand, while all decrease of more than 5 per cent, under the standard is remitted to the ryot. If the ryot& are dissatisfied with any year's settlement they caa claim division of produce. There are therefore no remissions on account of the season. Ooloogoo holdings obtain now in only one small hamlet in Tanjore, the revenue of which is Rupees 3. Revenue due to Government by renters of estates is collected in the same way as that due by any ordinary ryot under the ryotwari system, with the difference that the lands in the villages rented are not sold for arrears unless they are the property of the renters. The renter's right is saleable, but it is seldom sold as generally the sale of their personal property is sufficient to secure the revenue. Under the head of Land-Revenue Miscellaneous are included all charges pertaining to lands other than those held by ryots under the ryotwari system, or lands held by Government ryots under certain peculiar circumstances. They consist of the following items : 1. Jodi on Sundi'y Inams. This is the quit-rent or favorable assessment charged on Inams smaller than a village at the time of the grant or by the Inam Commissioner. 2. Charge for water on Zemindari and Inam lands. This is a charge made for supplying irrigation to Zemindari and Inam lands from Government works. The charge is made only when the irrigation supplied is such as the landholders are not already entitled to in virtue of grants or original settlement. 3. Land cultivated but not included in the Jummabandy. This is the revenue brought to account after the annual settlement and issue of puttahs but belonging to the then cui'rent fasli. 4. Assessed land cultivated without Dhurkhast or permission. Assessed lands taken up without application and sanction are inquired into at the annual settlement and disposed of according to their merits. But if in any case inquiries cannot be completed within the year or if puttahs are delayed for any other cause such lands are shown under this item. 5. Fees for service of Revenue processes. This is the amount coUocted, in addition to the assess- ment, from rovonue defaulters on whom processes are issued, to Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND, 135 meet the cost of the establishment entertained for the purpose. 6. Eevenue from rented villages. This is mainly derived from persons to whom villages have been rented out in consequence of some difficulty in introducing a ryotwari settlement. 7. Graz- ing-tax or grass-rent. This revenue is derived by the sale of grazing farms in villages, principally in the districts of Nellore, Kistna and Madura. The total amount in the Presidency is about Rupees 1,41,000. 8. Eent of islands situated in rivers. Lands in islands in rivers do not come under ryotwari settlement. They are leased out and this is the amount of their rental. 9. Tax on trees on unassessed lands. This consists of rent of palmyra trees, rent of fruit trees, and sale proceeds of trees. The trees are the scattered trees standing on lands not held under puttahs. Persons holding palm^'ra trees under such a tax can only use or sell the fruit and leaf, the right to draw and sell the toddy being the perquisite of the Abkarry contractor. 10. Quit-rent and ground-rent in the town of Madras. The houses and lands in the town of Madras are subject to a quit- rent. There is nothing similar in the districts. 11. Cultivation of Poramboke lands. This is the revenue charged on unassessed or reserved lands when improperly cultivated. 12. Eent of garden and topes which have become the property of Govern- ment. 13. Sale proceeds of unassessed waste lands sold by Government. 14. Eevenue from hill villages. This revenue is derived by the cultivation of lands on the slopes of hills. The cultivation is not permanent and no puttahs are therefore issued. 15. Eevenue derived from coir the produce of Amendivi Islands attached to South Canara. In these islands cocoanut is nearly the only product, and no land assessment is collected. The islanders are compelled to sell all their coir to Government at a fixed rate, lower than the market-rate. The Government sell and realize a profit. The arrangement is similar to the salt monopoly. 16. Excess collections over the demand. This is ovei"payment erroneously made by the ryots and which is to be eventually refunded. 17. Quit-rent on bungalows and gardens. In some special cases lands are given on favorable assessment for buildings, instead of being treated as ordinary ryotwari lands. 18. Commission on private estates under the management of Court of Wards. A commission of 1^ per cent. is levied by Government on the revenue of the estates managed by the Court of Wards. 19. Water-tax on summer crops cultivated at the close of the preceding fasli, and not then brought to account, 20. Eevenue fines imposed on revenue [Section II. 136 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. servants. 21. Revenue from sequestered Inams, or the assess- ment of Inam lands placed imder attachment for various reasons, for instance the non-appearance of Inamdars for settlement. This item also includes the assessment of Service Inams kept under attachment pending the revision of village establishments. The assessment credited to Land-revenue Miscellaneous temporarily tliough eventually transferred to Village Service Fund. 22, Cultivation of jungle tracts newly cleared by burning in South Canara. The cultivation, is not permanent and therefore puttahs are not issued annually. 23. Recoveries of cost of survey estab- lishment lent to private estate under Court of Wards. 24. Eussums or fees collected from Zemindaries, &c. These are payments made by certain Zemindars according to usage in addition to their peishcush. 25, Tax on house-sites and back- yards exceeding the limit allowed. 26. Chunam shell-rent, or rent derived by farming out the right of collecting shells for making chunam. 27. Charge for water on miscellaneous Jeroyati lands, otherwise Ayan lands, otherwise non-Inam lands. This is the charge made for water on lands for which puttahs are not issued, but which are included under Miscella- neous Revenue. 28. Chank-shell farms. This is the license fee paid for fishing chauks. 29. Revenue deposits forfeited. Depo- sits are forfeited for various causes. For instance, a purchaser in a revenue sale deposits a certain amount, but if he fails to complete the sale by paying the full sum within the prescribed time, he forfeits his deposit. 30. Revenue from Amany villages. 31. Sundry items. These consist of various small items too numerous to mention. Special cases A few special points remain for notice. On special products Qjgjjj a special assessment was formeiOy levied ; this is now abandoned, and the land alone is taxed and not its products. Tank beds may not be cultivated ; if a ryot improperly occupies, remissions are refused, or prohibitory assessment is imposed, to compel him to relinquish. For river-bed cultivation the same remark applies ; there are no special rules. When wet land becomes no longer irrigable from one cause or another, the Collector has authority to class it as dry. When land is found on measure- ment to be in excess of what it was assumed to be in the register, 10 per cent, margin is allowed, but if it is over that the assess- ment is revised, and the amount exceeding the 10 per cent, is charged for. The same rule is followed in gi-anting remissions ; when a deficiency is found to exist as compared Avith the register, that is to say, remission is granted only on such portion of land Section II.] GOVERNMENT ANT) ALIENATED LAND. 137 as is more than 10 per cent, below the registered amount. Lands under private tanks are charged at dry rates, and the Government take the amount from the ryots ; the tank-holder obtains his water-rate from the ryots under his own private arrangements. No additional charge is made on account of irrigation under jungle-streams and natural pools, provided that Government has incurred no expense in their improvem.ent, and provided that the use of water does not interfere with the supply to any Government work. Almost all the land revenue is derived from the lands elsewhere Land-revenue described as assessed lands. The following items however, theTand^ and some others are realized from the unassessed waste : — from which it IS dcrivGd. Tax or rent of scattered trees ; 2. Tax on firewood or timber removed for sale outside the village ; 3. Honey-rent ; 4. Chank- rent; 5. Chunam-rent; 6. Fish- rent ; 7. Wax-rent ; 8. Rent for medicinal roots; 9. Rent on lime quai*ries ; 10. Quit-rent on land for houses in the town of Madras and the district of South Canara. These all fall under the technical head of Land Revenue Miscellaneous. Applications for mining are rai'e, and the question of assess- Assessment ment on lands so applied for is treated speciallv in each case. °^ lands ^ '^ 1 ./ containing The question of the right of landholders to gold obtained from minerals, the soil is under discussion, and possibly resort will be had to legislation. In many cases the so-called irrigable ayacut under a work of Revision of irrigation is not really irrigable. In some cases on the other ^7^°"*- hand a larger extent of land is irrigated than is registered as irrigable. The Settlement Department in some districts and Collectors in others are now engaged in revising ayacuts with reference to the actual capacity of the tanks and the extent cultivated within the last five years. Particular cases are seldom dealt with in the ordinary course of the land administration. The mode in which the sub-division of landed property is Sub-division permitted has been already described, and it has been mentioned of assessments that the transactions are not vaUd against Government until the assessment on the sub-divided portions has been adjusted by the Collector. The principle observed in all cases is that the original peishcush or assessment is not to be disturbed, but is to be taken as a total and rateably subdivided according to the new subdivisions. In zemindaries and Inam lands the new proportions are based on the present estimated value of the 18 [Section II. 138 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. Payments of land, revenue. Tttocavi. £and Improvement Act. lands, and in ryotwari holdings they are based on the assessment already fixed on such lands. The peishcush of large zemindaries is generally paid into the Collector's treasury and that of small zemindaries and Inam villages into the taluq treasury. Other items of land-revenue are paid in the villages to the monigar. Payments arc not collected, but brought by the parties. The curnam notes the payments in the accounts and the shroff examines the coin, after which a receipt is granted signed by the monigar and the curnam to the ryot paying the money. In the case of zemin- daries the payments are made according to the varying instal- ments mentioned in the sannads, and in the case of all other revenue the following instalments are observed : — Proportion of Annual Tax payable by the 15tb of each Month. S >. Districts. 1 > o .0 a ID U « 1 i 0. >> © a s ^ ^ .a .a .a M .a .a "3 -»i -« -..3 l-H to »o 1— 1 in 10 kO io 1— 1 ANNAS. Ganjam ... ... 4 4 4 4 16 Vizagapatam 4 4 4 4 .. 16 Godavery... 4 4 4 4 16 Kistna 4 4 4 4 16 Nellore 2 2 2 4 4 2 16 Cuddapab 4 4 4 4 ' 16 Kurnool "2 4 4 4 2 16 Chiugloput • •• 2 2 4 4 2 '2 16 Bellary 2 2 4 4 2 2 16 North Arcot "2 2 4 4 2 2 16 South Arcot 2 2 2 4 4 2 16 ■r-i°"{fa"ba ::: 3 6 7 "2 3 5 "4 16 16 Trichinopoly 4 4 4 4 16 Madnra ... 2 2 2 2 '4 "4 16 Coimbatore 2 2 4 4 2 2 16 Nilgiris 2 2 4 4 2 2 16 Tinnevelly 2 2 4 4 4 16 Salem 2 2 4 4 2 2 16 South Canara 4 4 4 2 "2 16 Malabar ... "2 2 4 4 2 2 16 Advances called tuccavi used to be made to Government ryots for mere cultivation expenses, but the system was found open to abuse and has now been given up. No advances to ryots ai-e made at present except under the Land Improvement Act. Under the Land Improvement Act, India No. XXVI of 1871, advances on interest at 6j per cent, per annum are made by Government to landlords and tenants desiring to make improve^ Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 130 ments in their lands. On application being made for an advance an inquiry is held as to the right of the parties to the land, and as to the character of the improvement. The proposed advance is made only in the event of the Collector being satisfied on these points. Collectors are competent to advance up to Rupees 500, the Board of Revenue up to 5,000, and the local Government up to 10,000. Advances of larger sums i-equire the sanction of the Government of India- Either the valae of the land itself must exceed the amount of the advance by one- fourth or other security must be given collaterally. Except with the special sanction of Government advances of 500 rupees and under must be repaid with interest within 7 years from the date fixed for the completion of the work and advances exceeding 500 rupees similarly within 12 years. If in any caso the proposed period of repayment exceeds 20 years, the local Government cannot sanction, and the sanction of the Govern- ment of India has to be obtained. When advances made become payable, they are recoverable from the person to whom the advance was made, or from his security, as if they were arrears of land-revenue. But the interest of no person other than the person taking the advance is sold ; that is to say, if a landlord takes a loan, the tenant's right is not sold, and if a tenant takes a loan, the landlord's right is not sold. Works for which advances are made and the accounts kept on the works are to be open for inspection by Government officers at all times. In cases of advances exceeding Rupees 5,000, the parties are bound to keep accounts in a certain form required by the Collector. In the case of works for which advances are made in a lump, the works must be inspected within one month of the date on which their completion is directed in the certificate, and in the case of works for which advances are made by instalments, the inspection must be made before each instalment subsequent to the first is paid. If the persons who receive the advance fail to perform the conditions under which it was granted, the Collector has power to recover under the Act the whole advance or such portion as has been granted- It is in contempla- tion to make revised rules simplifying the detailed procedure under the Act. When land is needed for a public purpose or for the pur- The acquisi- poses of a company, it has been hitherto usual to take it by an ^^"'ij^jjf ^ amicable arrangement with the owners, the procedure laid down purposes, in the Land Acquisition Act being applied only in cases where the owners -would not agree to reasonable tenns, or where there [Section II. 140 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. has been a doubt in regard to title. The Government of India have recently directed that, with a view to securing an indefeasi- ble title, lands required for public purposes shall always be taken under the Act, though the amount of compensation may be determined by a private settlement. The procedui-e to be adopted under the law is briefly as follows. A declaration is first made under the signature of the Secretary to Government or other officer duly authorized that such and such land is required for public purposes ; the Collector then gives notice to the public and to parties concerned, stating that the Govern- ment intends to take possession of the land and that claims to compensation must be made to him on a date. and at^ a place specified. On the date fixed the Collector inquires into the value of the land and determines the amovmt and tenders it to the person interested ; if the parties agree to the amount, the matter is at once settled, and the Collector takes possession of the land. If the offer is not accepted, and the_ Collector is unable to agree with the parties, or if there is any question regarding the title of the parties interested, the Collector refers the matter to the Civil Court which, with the aid of assessors, determines the amount of the compensation payable. In detennining the com- pensation, the market- value at the time of awarding compensa- tion, and the damage, if any, sustained by reason of severing such land from the^owners of other lands are taken into consider- ation, but not the urgency which has led to the acquisition, nor the disinclination of the party interested to part with the land acquired. An appeal is provided against the award made by the Coui't. Payment is made to the owner by the Collector according to the award, or if there has been an appeal according to the decision on such appeal possession of the land is then taken. If land is required only temporarily, the Government dii-ects the Collector to procure the occupation and use of the land for such term as may be necessary not exceeding 3 years. On the expiration of the term, the land is restored to the owner with such compensation as may be necessary for any damage done and not provided for by the original agreement. If the land becomes permanently unfit for use, the Government takes the land as if it was permanently required for a public purpose or for a company. In case the Collector and the owner of the land differ as to the condition of the land at the expiaation of the term, or to any matter connected with the agreement, the Collector refers the matter for the orders of the Comt. Section 11.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 141 When land-revenue due to Government falls into arrears it Coercive is recovered under Madras Act II of 1864 together -with, interest at 6 per cent, and costs of process, by the Collector or his deputy, by the sale of the defaulter's movable property including uncut crops or immoveable property including buildings on land, or by execution against the person of the defaulter. In the case of Zemindars holding under a Sannad Mulkyat Istimrar, the personal property must, under the terms of the sannad, first be sold, and the land only in the event of the first measure not proving sufficient. In the case of other defaulters, the Collector may at his discretion sell either the movable or immovable property or both. If there is any doubt as to ownership, the Collector •will naturally attach the land in preference. Before any property is attached for arrears, due notice is given to the defaulter, and another notice is served previous to sale. Sometimes, though I'arely, the arrear is realized by not selling the land, but by keeping it under Government management and appropriating the proceeds. Persons other than the defaulters who may be interested in the land can have the sale stopped by payment of the arrear. There is now no restriction as regards the distraint of implements of husbandry. The sale of land is at the discretion of the Collector and he is not bound to recognize any transfers, except such as have been registered in his office. The sale does not prevent the defaulter from collecting balances of rent due to him by under-tenants for periods anterior to the sale. Land may be purchased Benamee ; that is, the defaulter himself or any of his friends may purchase it when put up for sale. The former law forbade this. Tlie land-revenue has the first claim on landed property against all other creditors, and the crops of an under-tenant are not protected, except that the latter has subsequent redress. When a purchaser buys land at a revenue sale, he does so taking the land with all its encumbrances ; those he must ascertain in advance from the Tahsildar or by local inquiry. Certificates of sale are issued to the purchaser, and the Boai^d of Revenue receive a statement of sales ; the sanction of the Board to sales is not now required, except in the case of zemindaries. There is provision for enforcing the certificate, and giving possession to the purchaser. In some cases Government buy the land for them- selves. When the arrears cannot be liquidated by the sale of the property of the defaulter, and there is reason to believe that he is wilfully withholding payment of the ai-rears, or has been guilty of fraudulent conduct in withholding payment, the defaulter [Section II. 142 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. is liable to be arrested and imprisoned for a period not exceeding two years if tbe arrear exceeds 500 rupees, not exceeding six months if it is at that amount or below, and not exceeding three months if it is 50 rupees or below. Such imprisonment does not extinguish the debt. When the revenue is paid in kind the ci'op is not allowed to be removed until division has been made. The above procedure is applicable not only to arrears of land- revenue, but to all advances made by Government, for cultivation or other purposes connected with the revenue, to all fees due to village servants employed in Revenue and Police duties, and to all cesses imposed upon the land. The extent to which coercive process is employed in the collec- tion of the land-revenue is, on the whole, not lai'ge. There has certainly been a very large increase of late years in the number of legal processes issued for this object, but the fact is that formerly the law was not used while coercion took place nevertheless. Moreover the provisions of the present law are so lenient that it suits the convenience of ryots to allow process to be issued though they intend ultimately to pay. The interest charged on arrears has been reduced by Act II of 1864 from 12 per cent, to 6 per cent., and the ryot now gains rather than loses pecuniarily by waiting for a better market, or leaving his money out at interest, while the process is running. Taking the absolute results, and without reference to the history of the working of the law, there are no grounds for dissatisfac- tion. In the recent Fasli 1282 recourse was had to coercive process for recovering land-revenue arrears amounting to £250,000. The ryotwari demand of that year was 4| millions, 80 that the arrears were 5^ per cent, on the revenue. Of the £250,000 all were made good before sale except £45,000 or I per cent, of the demand. It may be said then that 95 per cent, of the land-revenue is realized without trouble, and that 4 per cent, more can be recovered with only the trouble of foiTually demanding it. Recovery of Zemindars, Shrotriemdars, Jaghirodars, Inamdars, and persons private rents. £j^j.jj^ing lands or land-revenue under Government, are authorized by Madras Act VIII o'f 1865 to recover their rents under a summary process, provided that the landlord and the tenant have exchanged Puttahs and Muchilikas or written agreements in regard to the terms on which the land is to be held, and provided the simimary powers are sought to be exercised within one year from the time when the rent becomes due. The Government, that is to say, in these cases assists the landholder to recover from Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 143 his tenants. The landholders are allowed to exercise summary power even whei-e no Puttahs and Muchilikas are executed if both parties have agreed to dispense with them. Landholders holding under ryotwary settlements, or in any other way subject to the payment of land-revenue direct to Government, and all other registered holders of land in proprietary rights who have not yet been mentioned, are given the benefit of the Act if [they have taken an agreement in writing from their tenants, but not otherwise. If the rent remains unpaid at the time when, according to any written agreement or the custom of the country, it ought to have been paid, the landholder is authorized to distrain, upon his own responsibility and with the aid of the Police if necessary, the crops and movable pro- perty of the tenants, after giving due notice ; but he is bound to send within ten days a wi-itton notice to the Collector or othei officer duly empowered in that behalf, showing the details of the property distrained, to enable the Collector to have the pro- perty appraised. Tenants are allowed to prefer an appeal to the Collector against wrongful distraint, but the appeal must bo made within thirty days from the date of the distraint. If the appeal is established, the Collector orders the property to be restored, but if no appeal is made, or, if having been made it is rejected, the Collector on the application of the distrainer authorizes the public officer duly appointed in that behalf to cause the sale of the movable property, which is accordingly sold by him after due notice. Where the tenant has a saleable interest in the land, this also is sold under the rules laid down for the sale of the movable property. When there is no property or it is insufficient, the landholder can apply to the Collector for a warrant authorizing him to eject the tenant and to enter on the land ; a wai'rant is accordingly granted and entrusted to a police officer. If no appeal is made to the Collector within fifteen days after the wan-ant is served, or if an appeal has been made and it is decided against the defaulter, the police officer places the landholder in possession of the land. The landholder is also competent to apply for a warrant for the personal arrest of the defaulter, which is granted if the Collector is satisfied that the defaulter is wilfully witliholding pajTuent or has been guilty of fraudulent conduct in order to evade payment ; but no defaulter can be imprisoned for a longer period than two years, whatever the amount of arrear may be. It is open to the landholder either to exercise the [Section 11. 144 ADMIKISTRATION OF THE LAND. Bummary powers above referred to, or to recover his rent in the ordinary Courts of law like any other debt. ((?-) . — Est ABLISHM ENTS , Village The basis of the system of Eevenue administration is found in the villao-e corporations, which, as already stated, have existed from time immemorial, and in many respects still retain their vitality. In almost every Hindu village there are twelve village servants, called the Barabuloti or " twelve men," who perform all needful public offices. The following is the list. The first five only render service to Grovernment, or are recognized as parts of the Eevenue administration : — Officers. 1. Headman. 2. Curnam, or Accountant. 3. Shroff or Notagar. 4. Nirganti. 5. Toty or Taliary. 7. Smith. 8. Jeweller. 9. Carpenter. 10. Barber. 11. Washerman. 6. Potter. ' i 12. Astrologer. The headman, who goes by various names, such as monegar, potel, naidu, reddy, peddacapu, natamgar, &c., is an important officer ; he represents the Government in the village, collects the revenue, and has also magisterial and judicial powers. As a Magistrate he punishes persons for petty assaults and affrays ; and as a Judge he tries suits for sums of money or other personal property iip to Rupees 10 value, there being no appeal against his decision. If parties consent, he can summon a punchayet ; who will then adjudicate on suits without limit as to value, and also without appeal. The headman is generally one of the largest landholders in the village, and as a rule exercises much influence over the inhabitants. Acting as a Judge he is styled Munsif . In some cases the custom of the place separates the Mvmsif ship from the Monegarship, and sometimes more than one Monegar is appointed for a village. The duties of the headman are defined in Regulation XI of 1816, but its interpretation in reference to his police duties has caused doubts. The curnam is the village accountant and is a very important ministerial officer. The accounts kept by him will be described hereafter. The shroff is found only in certain villages ; his duty is to test the money paid in by villagers to the headman on account of Government. The nirganti has charge of the irrigation of village lands where there is irrigation from tanks or channels. Some villages however have irrigation, but no nirganti, the work Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 145 being done by the village peon or by the cultivators themselves. The village toty, otherwise taliary, vetty, or agrany, is simply a village peon acting under the orders of the headman. This office is generally held by the lower class of the community. The taliary is sometimes a separate official acting in the capacity of watchman. The remainder on the list are the artisans necessary to the internal conduct of a village commxmity. In the revisions of Governmental village establishments which will shortly be mentioned, considerable changes have been made even in the assignment of duties and names of the officials. When village offices are hereditary, as is the case in most Succession localities, heirs succeed in the usual course, under the terms offi^es*^* of the native law of inheritance, which is modified only to the extent of precluding partition. In the case of offices other than those of headman, curnam, nirganti, vettian and toty, the villagers manage their own affairs, the parties filing suits if they please before the Collector imder Regulation VI of 1831. In the case of the offices just mentioned the succession is regulated by the Collector. With reference to the rights and fitness of the several claimants to office the native law of inheritance is attended to as far as is possible. Females and minors may in special cases succeed, ajDpointing gumastahs or proxies with the sanction of the Collector. Adoption is recognized or not recognized in the usual way under the law. If any person having an interest desii-es a more formal inquiry, he may file a suit imder RegiJation VI of 1831 before the Collector. This officer will then issue process to parties and witnesses and hold a quasi-judicial inquiry. Disobedience to the summons can be punished under Sections 172 to 174 of the Penal Code. Act VIII of 1859, the Civil Procedure Act, does not apply to cases tried in this way, and there is no law for awarding costs. The Government of India have exempted these cases from the Court Fees Act except in certain minor matters ; stamps are therefore unnecessary. Section 3 of Regulation VII of 1828 gives Collec- tors power to revise the proceedings of their subordinates under this Regulation, without limit of time ; but three months has been fixed departmentally as the period for appeal. When a case ia heard by a divisional officer, the parties may appeal to the Col- lector or to the Board direct, whichever they prefer. When the Collector has made a decision on appeal, this does not bar a further appeal to the Board of Revenue, or from them to the Government. There is no provision for enforcing orders passed 19 Section II. 146 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. Emoluments of Village Officers. under this Regulation, nor for ousting adverse occupants ; but in practice the orders of the Tahsildar are not disobeyed. The procedure throughout is somewhat informal, but the Regula- tion proposes rather to be a measure of State administration than of adjudication of private claims. Collectors are instructed to respect possession extending over more than three years against any ordinary claim on grounds of hereditaryship; though there is no objection to their putting on record a statement of opinion that in the event of the demise of the present occupant, the claimant will have a right to secure a revision of the office. Collectors have the power of dismissing village officers for misconduct. The same questions then arise as in the case of succession by demise. An heir may succeed if no way concerned in the offence ; or if this arrangement is not practicable a temporary appointment of a stranger may be made to last during the life- time of the person dismissed. The Civil courts are forbidden by law to take cognizance of any questions of a nature provided for by Regulation VI of 1831. Curnams in zemindaries are provided for separately by Regulation XXIX of 1802, and placed under the jurisdiction of the Civil courts ; they do not fall under Regulation VI of 1831 and the Collector does not regulate the succession to office. The non-Grovernmental village servants are almost wholly paid by fees from the villagers direct. In some cases, however, where the Government have in former days given Inam lands to such servants, these are continued. No new grants or allowances are made by Government to such servants. The Gevernmental village servants are paid in some cases by the enjojTnent of Government land rent free or on a trifling assessment called jodi, in some cases by having assigned to them the State dues payable by some third person occuj^ying land, in some cases by contributions of grain or money made by the villagers themselves irrespective of the land-revenue, and in some cases by salaries direct from Government. When land questions are involved in the emoluments of office, disputes are frequent, and are decided usually by suit before the Collector under Regulation VI of 1831. The most frequent cause of dispute is the question whether the village officer's case falls under the first or the second of the heads given above ; that is to say whether he is to be put in possession of the land assigned to the office, or whether he is merely to be given the right to receive the Government assessment money from the hands of the occupant. This wiU depend very much on the terms of the Section 11.] GOVEKNMEN'T ANI) ALIENATKD LAND. 147 original grant, which was often made before the Fysal or original settlement of the British Government, and is thus involved in obscurity. The general question, as to whether the land itself or the assessment only constitutes properly the emoluments of a village servant, has been much discussed ; it has been decided in practice to adjudicate each case on its merits and with regard to its past history as far as this can be ascertained. Eegulation VI of 1831 renders it illegal to make any formal alienation of Inam emoluments ; until recently however the law was frequently evaded. The present cost of the village establishments in land and fees is about 47 lakhs of rupees. The system of payment by Inams from Government or by Revision of Merahs from villagers has for some years been regarded as lishn^nts^ objectionable, and the tendency has been to substitute salaries from Government in all cases. Act IV of 1864, which may be applied on occasion to different districts, was passed to enable the Government when they took over the entire charge of the village servants to recover from the villagers, in the form of a land-cess not exceeding one anna in the Rupee on their assess- ment, the amount of the fees which they originally contributed in private. The Inam rules, which may be applied from time to time, provide for raising the beneficial rate of assessment on lands hitherto Inam, whUe withdrawing some of the State claims on the lands and giving an absolute ownership in them to the present occupant. By a combination of these two measures the Government have had it in their power to make a complete revision of the village establishments in the direction of substituting stipends for other forms of emolument. The opportunity has been taken to revise the establishments as well as the emoluments, and to get rid of irregular claimants to the latter. Tha revision of village establishments is being carried out in a detached way in different localities ; it has hitherto followed the operations of the Revenue Settlement Department, but in future it is to be carried out pari passu with the settle- ment. The salaries in the revised establishments are paid from a fund called the Village Service Fund. To this are credited all the new quit-rents which come in from the enfranchised lands, formerly Inam and paying little or nothing ; the proceeds of the cess under Act IV of 1864, where imposed; and contribu- tions made by Government in lieu of lands and fees formerly diverted to this purpose but since resumed by Government. The practical effect of the revision may be seen from the two following examples. A village servant is, we will suppose, in the [Section II. 148 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. enjoyment of Government land ; and his emolument consists in Lis paying no assessment on it or only a nominal jodi. Under the revision lie will receive a salary instead of this emolument. Special terms will be made with him as to the land. The terms will be that Government will make him proprietor of the land, which will thenceforward have no further connexion with the office, and be an alienable piece of property belonging to the individual ; while the Government will thenceforward tax the land with land-revenue, amounting however not to the full amount, but only five-eighths of the amount. The special terms are granted in consideration of the long period during which these lands have been looked on by the people as quasi-private property. A -soilage servant again, we will suppose, derives his emoluments from the payment to him by a third person of the assessment properly payable to Government ; that is to say, the village servant is paid by what is called Tii'vei-manyam and not by what is called Nila-manyam. In this case, if enfranchise- ment is applied, the occuj)ying rj'ot or third person continues to pay to the village servant in whose name the Inam has been enfranchised the full assessment, and the Inamdar pays to Government five-eighths assessment, keeping three-eighths ; the ryot neither loses nor gains. Owing to illegal alienation, and to irregular applications of the Hindu law of partition of property on demise, many superfluous claimants to village service emoluments have arisen. In some localities a number of persons divide the emoluments in this way, one of the number only being the actual working officer. When such persons can show a long prescriptive enjoyment of their emoluments, however erroneously acquired in the first instance, they are allowed to enfranchise on five-eighths assessment. The rules indeed have been very liberally interpreted, and in many cases even a single year's possession has been respected and the possessor allowed to enfranchise. The fees from villagers are, as has already been said, no longer paid in these cases ; the Government make good the fees to the officers in the salaries which they give them, and take from the villagers a one-anna cess to recoup themselves. In revising village establishments small villages are clubbed together in order to reduce the establishments where necessary with refer- ence to the assets available for payment, but care is taken that the clubbing is not carried too far, so as to cause inconveni- ence to the communities concerned. A resident munsif is provided for each village, and the wishes of the -sillagers are as far as possible consulted in caiTj-ing out the clubbing. In the revision, the number of servants is generally reduced, Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 149 but their remuneration is, as a rule, improved. When revision has fully taken place it is evident that there will remain of the numerous land disputes now occurring under Regulation VI of 1831 only a few in connexion with the artizan non-Grovernment village offices. Offices will however still remain hereditary where they are so at present, and cases of succession will still be triable under the Regulation. The districts in which the revision has been already carried out, or in which it is now being introduced, are the Godavery, Kurnool, Tinnevelly, Salem, Chingleput, and Trichinopoly. Eevision will shortly be carried out in Nellore and the Kistna. In Tanjore the village establishments were to a certain extent revised in 1867, but the Village Cess Act, No. IV of 1864, was not brought into force, the existing assets of the district being sufficient. In the remaining districts the old system still continues. The rates of salary allowed in the revision are variable, but the following for Kurnool, the Godavery, and Trichinopoly, may be taken as specimens : — el Kurnool. Godavery. Tricbinopoly. CS > fl . pi • <=l ,• § a O 03 a 3 o CI Revenue. =^3 < Revenue. PI Revenue. 3 P) PI <1 u O) 1 1- ft ft ft a u „ 9,000 4 c« 00 >• 00 03 No scale. Not known ii (=1 cj No scale. 6f ««M 0) > Oj =* P ft o CQ §3 ft cS ,», SS CO •^ > CQ H ft cS ^ lis 00 r^ iM It* O CO [Section 11. 150 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. «4H O Kurnool. Godavery. Trichinopoly. a .2=5 Scale with reference Rate Scale with reference to the Rate Scale with reference to the Rate 1- to the Revenue of each Village. ( per Annum. Revenue of each Village. per Annum. Revenue of each Village. per Amium. RS. RS. ES. ES. 1 o o f ' Up to . , 5,000 . . 60 Up to 600 . . 18 S U'» „ . . 7,000 . . 84 „ 1.000 .. 24 ^-s ° ^1 §'5 ^ „ . . 9,000 and upwards. ( 96 1 120 144 „ 1,500 .. „ 3,000 .. „ 5,000 . . 36 48 60 No scale. cs for eac ithout r revenue a o 1^ 1 Reddv for 2^ undial 240 „ 7,000 .. 72 VUlage. „ 9,000 .. 96 C fe o © *- 1 Town Munsif 300 Above 9,000 . . „ 22,000 . . 120 144 42 ru gar to t villa RS. RS. RS. RS. RS. ES. /- Up to 1,000 .. 60 Up to 1,500 60 Up to 1,000 72 1,500 .. 72 2,000 84 2,000 84 2,000 .. 84 3,000 96 4,000 96 „ 3,000 .. 96 4,000 108 Above 4,000 108 s 4,000 .. 108 5,000 120 n< „ 5.000 .. 120 6,000 132 s 6,000 .. 132 ,, 7,000 144 o 7,000 .. 144 8,000 156 „ 8,000 .. 156 9,000 168 „ 9,000 .. 168 Above 9,000 216 L Above 9,000 . . 180 22,000 240 Talaqs. There are in all 27,181 villages excluding those in perma- nently-settled estates, and these are distributed into 157 taluqs, each of which is controlled by a Tahsildar. The following statement shows the average area, number of villages, popalation, and land-revenue of the taluqs in each district according to a recent computation : — Districts. Nnmber i Average of Grov- Area of ernment , each Taluqs. Taluq. [each Taluq Average M^''^'^^ Number of ! . ^ » -r^-,, . tion 01 \ lUages m , ^ • each Taluq. Average Land Revenue of each Taluq. Sq. MILES RS. Ganjam 3 647 460 190,366 3,98.446 Vizagapatam 2 1,541 83 114,848 1,09,100 Godavery 10 760 99 139,041 3,87,076 Kistna 11 608 118 117,204 3,37,740 Kellore 9 505 66 126,402 2,04,084 Cuddapah 11 834 94 122,836 1,79,942 BeUary 15 766 153 111,200 1,74,322 Kurnool 8 934 87 114,304 1,88,932 Madras 1 27 21 397,552 77,704 Chingleput 6 464 261 156,364 2,99,178 North Arcot ... 9 440 326 150,141 2,33,443 South Arcot ... 8 597 376 219,477 4,32,816 Tanjore 9 415 268 219,303 4,70,375 Trichinopoly 5 1 713 251 240,081 3.02,446 Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 151 Districts. Number of Gov. ernment Average Area of each Average Number of Villages in Average Popula- tion of Average Land Revenue of Taluqs. Taluq. each Taluq. each Taluq. each Taluq. SQ. MILES RS. Madura 6 814 131 221,372 3,05,881 Tinnevelly 9 572 101 188,217 3,37,650 Coimbatore 10 799 152 176,327 2,61,996 Nilgiris 1 479 17 49,501 46,049 Salem ... 9 845 282 218,555 2,51,200 South Canara 5 841 256 183,672 2,57,515 Malabar 10 626 43 226,125 1,81,638 Excluding the three exceptional taluqs of Madras, the Nilgiris, and Cochin, each taluq has thus on the average 1/6 villages, a population of 166,772, a land-revenue of Rupees 2,78,482, and an extent of G94 square miles. Taluqs are divided into five grades according to their Taluq importance. The Tahsildar's establishment consists of a ^^^cers. Sheristadar, Clerks, Revenue Inspectors, and Servants. The Sheristadar is in immediate charge of the Taluq Treasury ; as also of accounts, abstracts, registers, and periodical returns. The Clerks, of whom thei'e are eight or nine, prepare the accounts, bills, abstracts, cultivation statements, season and other retm-ns, village abstracts of demand, collection, and balance, settlement accounts, registers, &c., attend to corre- spondence, aid in Magisterial work, and have charge of the ofl&ce records which under the ryotwary system are voluminous. The Revenue Inspectors, of whom there are three or four, are in charge of portions of taluqs and itinerate constantly from village to village seeing that the work of the village officers is properly performed, and conducting such local inquiries as may be considered necessary by the Tahsildar. Every Tahsildar is also a Sub-Magistrate. In this capacity, and also to a limited extent in his Revenue work, he is assisted by ofiicers styled "Deputy Tahsildar and Sub-Magistrate," who are established in important towns and outlying portions of taluqs. Some of these officers are also placed in charge of large estates which do not fall within the jurisdiction of any Tahsildar. Each has a small establishment. The actual cost of all these establishments according to a recent computation was Rupees 14,64,732. The 157 taluqs are distributed amongst twenty-one districts, Districts, two of which, namely Madras and the Nilgiris, being of an exceptional character, contain only one taluq each. The extent and revenue of each is shown in the following statement : — [Section II. 152 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. District Officers. Collection from all Districts. Extent. Population. Sources in last Revenue Year. SQ. MILES. RS. Ganjam 8,313 1,520,088 33,01,554 Vizagapatam 18,344 2,159,199 2-1,11,916 Godavery 7,109 1,620,634 54,51,537 Kistna 8,036 1,452,374 56,74,860 Nellore 8,462 1,376,811 37,60,770 Cuddapah 8,367 1,351,194 23,74,878 Bellary 11,007 1,668,006 34,34,599 Kurnool ... 7,358 959,6W 19,43,937 Madras 27 397,552 34,15,747 Chiugleput 2,753 938,184 50.06,304 North Arcot 7,139 2,015,278 31,48,400 South Arcot 4,873 1,755,817 45,90,021 Tanjore ... 3,654 1,973,731 74,86,496 Trichinopoly 3,515 1,200,408 18,30,510 Madura ... 9,502 2,266,615 40,12,993 Tiunevelly 5,17^ 1,693,959 48,69,326 Coimbatore 7,432 1,763,274 30,29,273 Nilgiris 749 49,501 1,38,708 Salem ... 7,483 1,966,995 28,12,210 South Canara 3,902 918,362 22,04,630 Malabar ... 6,002 2,261,250 40,35,616 Each district contains on the average, excluding Madras and the Nilgiris, 7,285 square miles and 1,624,306 inhabitants, and has a revenue of Rupees 37,56,828, The revenue from all sources, instead of from land-revenue alone, is shown in this statement, because the establishments are required to administer all. The districts were controlled on the 31st March 1876 by- twenty Collectors and a Commissioner,* sixteen Sub- Collectors (called in two casesf Principal Assistants), eighteen Head Assistant Collectors (called in two cases Senior Assistants), three Special Assistants, eight Passed Assistants, and eight Unpassed Assistants (all of whom, with the exception of two Special Assistants, belong to the Covenanted Civil Service), assisted by fifty-four Uncovenanted Deputy Collectors. The number of Deputy Collectors is stated below, dividing them according to their class and according to their duties : — Class. Number. Duties. Number. 6 12 13 24 Treasuries . . . General Duties Salt Department Exceptional 19 19 12 4 * Of the Nilgiris. f (Janjam and Vizagapatam. Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 153 There are nineteen District Treasuries ; and the average revenue being Rupees 87,56,828 as already shown, and the average disbursements considerable, a Deputy Collector is required for each. A Deputy Collector is in charge of the Salt Department in each of the twelve Maritime Districts. The Deputy Collectors on General Duties assist the Collectors and their Assistants in Revenue administration and Magisterial work except the Deputy Collector of Madras who is not a Magistrate. When an Assistant Collector has passed a certain examination in law and languages he is said to be a Passed Assistant, and may be placed in charge of one or two taluqs. Until he passes he is attached to some superior officer to learn his work. The Special Assistants, of whom one is a Covenanted Civilian and the other an Officer of the Staff Corps, assist the Agents to the Governor in Vizagapatam and Ganjam. The Head Assistant Collectors hold independent charge of two or three taluqs, but are subject to the complete control of their Collectors. The Sub-Collectors who are also Magistrates have larger charges, and are more independent. Their establishment consists of a Sheristadar or Manager, and Clerks and servants. The Collectors, who are also Magis- trates, have each a territorial charge immediately under them, and exercise a general control over their Sub-Collectors, Assistants, and Deputy Collectors. They superintend and control all persons engaged in the administration of the revenue ; they are responsible for the Treasury to which the talnq collections are sent, and which keeps and dispenses a large stock of stamps ; they see that the revenues are punctually realized, and that when arrears accrue, the proper processes are resorted to for recovering them ; they manage estates of Minors under Regu- lation V of 1804 ; they determine boundary disputes under Regulation XII of 1816 ; they try cases of malversation under Regulation IX of 1822, and claims to village offices under Regulation VI of 1831 ; they decide rent cases between land- lords and their tenants under Madras Act VIII of 1865 ; they take a chief pai't in the administration of Municipalities under Madras Act III of 1871, and of Local Funds raised for roads and communications, primary education, hospitals, and sanita- tion under Madras Act IV of 1871 ; as Agents to the Board of Revenue under Regulation VII of 1817 they are responsible for the due appropriation of endowments ; in Maritime Districts they manage the salt monopoly and control the Sea Customs ; finally, they are expected to be thoroughly acquainted with the state of Native feeling in their districts in regard to the policy 20 [Section n. 154 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. and measures of Government, and to be the advisers of Govern- ment with respect to police, public works, education, sanitation, and the miscellaneous matters which conduce to the welfare of their districts. A Collector's establishment consists of (1) a Sheristadar managing the Native Correspondence Department ; (2) the English Correspondence and General Account Depart- ment ; (3) the Treasury and Stamp Department ; (4) the Press Department ; (5) Miscellaneous Office Servants. The Deputy Collector in charge of the Treasury supervises the second, third, and fourth departments, and a Head Clerk is in immediate charge of the second department. One-fifth of the costs of all the establishments which have been described is con- sidered chargeable to Law and Justice on account of the Magis- terial work performed by them, and the rest to Land Revenue. Collectors of districts are competent on their own authority to suspend from office or dismiss any servant of inferior grade to that of Deputy Tahsildar, Tahsildar, Sub-division Sheristadar, or Head Sheristadar, The nomination to the offices just specified vests in the Collector. The Board's sanction however is required for the appointment of Head Sheristadar and Sub- division Sheristadar, and that of Government for the appointment of Tahsildar and Deputy Tahsildar. In the case of Tahsildars, transfers involving a reduction of salary or suspension can only be made under the orders of the Board ; in the case of Deputy Tahsildars, reference to the Board is not necessary. Tahsildars and Deputy Tahsildars can be dismissed only under the orders of Government Collectors may dismiss Taluq Sheristadars on their own authority, reporting that they have done so to Government in order that the sanction given to their employment as Magistrates may be revoked. Collectors may suspend Tahsildars for grave offences, but a report must then be made to the Board within twenty-four hours. Collectors are competent to inflict fines upon any of their subordinates, but the amount cannot exceed Rupees 10 without the previous sanction of the Board. An appendix statement at the end of this volume shows in detail the charges of different divisional officers throughout the Presidency with their head-quarters, &c. Board of The whole of the machinery just described is controlled by a Revenue. Board of Revenue, consisting of thi'ee Members, a Secretary, a Sub- Secretary, a Sheristadar, two Assistants, a Manager, Clerks and servants. The first duty of the Board is to secure the punc- tual collection of the revenues; to maniimlate and record h1! Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 155- statistics with regard to population, agriculture, exports and imports, health and the condition and advancement of the country ; to manage the expenditure of Local and Special Funds ; to take charge of the estates of Minors as a Court of Wards ; to secure the proper application of endowments; and to decide the frequent appeals which result from a system in which the Government is concerned directly with peasant proprietors. To compare the Board of Revenue with departments of Government in England, it may be said that it performs the duties undertaken there by the Board of Customs, the Board of Inland Revenue, and the Commissioner of Woods, Foi*ests and Land Revenue, as well as much of the work that devolves upon the Treasury. In communi- cation with the Survey and Settlement Departments, which are subordinate to it, it carries on work similar to that of the Copy- hold Enclosure and Tithe Commission in England. It takes the place in many respects of the Board of Trade, the Commission of Fisheries, the Registrar-General and Record Office so far as regards the census and life statistics, and the Warden of the Standards in stamping weights and measures. Under Regulation VII of 1817 it acts the part of the English Charity Commis- sioners In auditing charges connected with the administration of the revenue and the smaller local funds it does the duty of the London Audit Office. In four-fifths of the Presidency where the land is held direct from Government by peasant proprietors it does the work which is done on a smaller scale by the Duchy of Coi'nwall Office for the estates of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales in the County of Cornwall. In its capacity as Court of Wards under Regulation V of 1804 and as a guardian of endow- ments under Regulation VII of 1828 it does work which in England devolves upon the Court of Chancery. {e) — Accounts. The old system of accounts in Government villages was Village extremely complicated and cumbrous, and a thorough revision was ■^''*'°^'^"' made in 1855 by Jeyaram Chetty then Head Sheristadar to the Board of Revenue under the orders of Government. A com- plete uniform system of accounts was then prescribed, but since that date there have been various changes in the Revenue administration, such as the introduction of the survey and settlement in several districts, the settlement of Inam lands, the abolition of moturpha or profession- tax, the discontinuance of the Ooloogoo renting system in Tanjore and Tinnevelly, the abolition of garden i^ates, the creation of Local Fund Circles, and the like, [Section II. 156 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. these seem to call for a further revision of the accounts, and the matter is now under consideration. The village accounts at present kept are divided into permanent, daily and monthly, annual and quinquennial. The most important of the permanent accounts is the register of fields showing their size, desciiption, assessment, and other particulars, as decided by traditional records or by the new Survey and Settlement Departments in districts in which they have worked. This is in fact the topographical map of the village reduced to the form of a statement. The other perma- nent accounts are abstracts of the field register and registers intended to show in one view the revenue and other particulars of the village for a series of years. The daily and monthly accounts show the progress of cultivation, and the progress made in collect- ing the state dues . They also include a rain register and a register of births and deaths in the village. The object of the annual accounts is to adjust the yearly demands between the State and the ryot. Owing to the nature of the ryotwari system the demand necessarily varies each year. The kurnam has to note down all the lands newly occupied by the ryot, and those given up, to record the extent actually cultivated and that left waste, to notice the claims of the ryots to remissions for loss of crops or waste fi-om causes beyond his control, and to register the extent of second crop raised on single crop lands, and of Government water used for lands classed as unirrigated in the accounts. All this information is exhibited in the annual accounts which are checked by the taluq officials, chiefly by an officer called a Revenue Inspector, and with reference to these accounts and such other inquiry as is held by the Collector or his assistant at the annual Jammahbundy or settlement, the revenue demand payable by each ryot is determined. The quin- quennial accounts are purely statistical. They show the rent- roll, the population, the number of ploughs and live-stock, and the number of irrigation works in repair in the village. All these accounts which are twenty-four in number with twelve enclosures are prepared on paper and are written in the verna- cular of the district, the figures however being in English. Some of the registers are kept in the village, and others are sent to the taluq periodically for deposit. Taluq '^^^ accounts kept at the talujs or head-quarter stations of Accounts. Tahsildars are prepared for the most part on the same principle as the village accounts substituting items of whole villages for those of individual holdings. The only accounts of importance Section II.] GOVERNMENT AND ALIENATED LAND. 157 in regard to wliich individual particulars are kept at the taluq head-quarters are the statements showing arrears outstanding against each lyot at the time of the yearly settlement, these being prepared with a view to decide whether the arrears should be recovered in the ordinary course, or remitted and written off as irrecoverable for any special reason. Accounts are kept relating to stamps and progress of revenue work which do not appear in the village set of forms. The taluq accounts were last revised in 1858 when a manual was prepared. A fux'ther revision is in contemplation for the reasons given with regard to village accounts. Collectors furnish accounts to the Accountant-General and Huzur A.CCOU.TlfiS Board of Revenue according to forms which have been prescribed from time to time. There is no manual. The accounts sent to the Accountant-General are almost all monthly and relate to actual receipts and disbursements in the district. Those sent to the Board are monthly, annual, and quinquennial. Monthly the Collector sends to the Board a statement showing the area cultivated, the demand, collection, and balance statement of all sources of revenue and a report on season and prices. Annually he furnishes a report on the settlement of the year called the Jam- mahbundy report accompanied with detailed statements showing the area occupied, the area actually cultivated and irrigated, the gross demand payable, the remissions granted with particulates, the amount and particulars of miscellaneous revenue, the actual collections, the extent of coercive processes used, and the arrears and the amount of arrears requiring to be written off the accounts. He also furnishes the Board annually with separate statements showing the several crops raised and the extent under each crop, the revenue raised under each important work of irrigation, and the works of irrigation requiring repairs ; quinquennially statistical information is given in regard to the number of ryots and agricultural stocks, rent-roll, population, sources of irrigation, and the extent of the cultivable lands available for cultivation. There are various other statements sent by Collectors to the Board but they are not of sufficient importance to require mention. Collection of statistical informa- tion on a still more comprehensive scale is under contemplation. rSection II. 158 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. SURVEYS. History of the Depart- ment. Nature of work. Before the yeai' 1853 no regular Revenue Survey had been attempted in the Madras Presidency, and the only maps were those prepared by the Military Institution between the years 1805 and 1820. As regards field measurements, the Land Revenue demand was either based on Curnams' unchecked statements, or on measurements made in haste and with imperfect machi- nery. In the year 1853 an experimental survey of villages in the South Arcot District was instituted. During the two succeeding years the subject of a general survey of the Presi- dency was fully discussed, and in December 1856 the Court of Directors sanctioned a definite scheme. In 1858 a Superin- tendent of Revenue Survey was appointed, an establishment sanctioned, and work commenced. The original scheme has since been considerably extended, and the settlement and demar- cation of boundaries, as well as the topographical survey of all zamindary and hill tracts, are now part of the duties of the department. The survey as now organized is conducted on the accurate English method, and is, as far as is known, the only Indian revenue survey, except those in progress in certain districts of the North- West Provinces, which is based on rigorous principles in every detail. It combines the operations of a revenue or cadastral survey with those of a perfect topographical survey on a trigonometrical basis. The revenue survey proper, -with few exceptions, is confined to villages in which land-tax is paid to Government on the ryotwary system. Villages othei- than these ranges of hills, and tracts of waste land or forest of inferior value are excluded from the minute detailed field survey, and are topographically surveyed on a scale of 4 inches to the mile for detached Zamindaries and Agraharams, 2 inches and 1 inch to the mile for large zamindaries and excluded tracts, and | inch to the mile in the case of the NellumuUei Hills. The operations in Government lands are as follows. The village boundaries are first settled, every turn of the line being permanently marked with stone ; then disputes are disposed of, irregular boundaries are adjusted, very small villages are amalgamated, and very large villages are sub-divided. After these preliminaries, then the field is pointed out by the curnam and is demarcated in accordance with his puttah accounts and revenue I'ccords. The field Section II.] SURVEYS. 159 boundaries are permanently marked with stone and every holding is registered. The law regarding boundary marks is contained in Act XXVIII of 1860. Main circuits of from 50 to 100 square miles are carried out by the theodolite, the angular work being checked by observations for azimuth at about every 50 stations. Village boundaries are also surveyed by theodolite, and check lines within the village forming minor circuits of from 100 to 200 acres are run. While the boundary work is being set up by traverse and plotted, the fields are measured by chain in triangles, so that when the measurement books are received in office, the map is ready to receive the fields. After correction of any errors that may be found to exist, the area of each field is taken by computing scale, and the sum of the area so obtained is compared with the traverse area. In zamindary and hill tracts, the details are put in by Plane Table. The village map is then sent out for insertion of topographical details. It shows eventually, the limits and area of every field, with a record of the nature of tenure, cultivation, pi-esent assessment, name of ryot and source of water-supply if irrigated. The village maps are compiled into taluq maps, on a scale of 1 inch to a mile, and these form the matei^ials for district maps. The district and taluq maps are compiled in the Central Survey Office at Madras. At the request of the Sur- veyor-General of India, the results of the Madras Survey are being recast in such a form as to be available for the revision of the Atlas of India. Village maps are reproduced by lithography for the use of the Settlement Department. Taluq and District maps are also lithographed ; photo-lithography has been in use in the survey office since 1873. The following scales for the preparation of maps are in use : — Village maps, 5 chains to 1 inch, or 1 mile to 16 inches. Taluq maps, 1 mile to 1 inch, and District maps, 2 miles to 1 inch. The Presidency contains approximately 125,886 square miles. Progress to and up to the close of the official year 1875-76 the following total progress had been made. The average size of a field is about 2 acres. The average error in the village maps, shown by the test of comparing the work with that of the great trigono- metrical survey is 7"61 per mile. The measuring work of the survey is followed by the equally important operation of classing the fields with reference to the productiveness of their soils. This is the work of the Revenue Settlement Department next to be described. Section n. 160 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. Revenue Survey. Villages mapped on 16-incli scale Do. do. in progress ... Topographical Survey. Zamindary and hilly tracts mapped on 4, 2, and 1 inch scale Zamindary and hilly tracts in progress... Topographically surveyed by a party from Bengal ... Total surveyed . . . Remaining to be (Revenue surveyed ... t Topogi-aphical Maps. Village maps published ... Taluq maps published ... District maps published ... Square Miles. 40,407 3,655 44,062 17,393 1,480 3,000 65,935 15,553 44,398 13,420 75 7 REVENUE SETTLEMENT. History and nature of the deyartmeut, The principle adopted in this Presidency in the settlement of holdings other than those already permanently settled under the Regulation of 1802 is to fix a money-assessment founded upon due consideration of all the circumstances of the district, and to declare this assessment liable to revision after 30 years. A period is named as the Government reserve the right to derive benefit in the future from a share of the increased value conferred on the land by improved administration, the construction of public works, especially works of irrigation and railways, and the improved price of agricultural produce. The settlement is effected from time to time in different pai'ts of the country. A revision of the land assessment of the Madras Presidency was undertaken in 1858 by Mr. Newill, who was then appointed Director of Revenue Settlement. This revision commenced in the South Arcot and Godavex'y Districts, and was shortly afterwards Section IT.] REVENUE SETTLEMENT. 161 extended to the Kistna District. In South Arcot only the Chedambai'am taluq and part of the Cuddalore taluq were completed in 1861, but the whole of the Godavery and Kistna Districts were settled in 1866-73, the settlement of the Trichinopoly, Salem, and Nellore Districts was made in 1865, 1873, and 1874, and Kurnool proper, excluding two taluqs lately ti*ansferred from Cuddapah, was settled in 1872. Operations were further extended to the Tinnevelly, Chingleput, Cuddapah, Coimbatore, and Ganjam Districts, and these are now far advanced towards completion. The Settlement Department at first consisted of three parties under Deputy Directors, who were required to demarcate the village and field boundaries in advance of the Survey, and to ascertain the value of the lands as a preliminary to revising the assessment. The former was a tedious process, involving much arbi- tration and the investigation of many disputes- A patch of waste land in the plains, or a few acres of barren hill side, were disputed by rival villagers with a tenacity fostered by years of factious contention ; and though the possession, when gained, could often be of no possible use, the claim of either party had to be carefully considered, and the work in that spot delayed until the matter was finally settled. The requirements of the Survey, too, were not suflScieutly known, and the marks erected, in many cases, were temporary and destructible, and had frequently to be renewed by others of a more permanent nature. This unsatis- factory work continued to occupy much time and attention until the Godavery, Kistna, Kurnool, Nellore, Salem, Trichinopoly, and Tinnevelly Districts wex-e demarcated and surveyed, when the demarcation of boundaries was made over to the Survey Department. This was in 1864. When freed from demarca- tion the Settlement Establishment was able to turn full attention to its legitimate work of revising the land assess- ment. To do this it was necessary to obtain a general view of the characteristics of each district about to be settled ; to ascertain particulars of the climate, rainfall, and physical features of such tracts or divisions as might differ from each other distinctly ; to search the Collector's records for information relative to the past history of the districts, their years of plenty or famine, their lands, tenures, mode of taxation, and the cause of their gradual progress ; to study the relative values of such sources of irrigation as they might possess ; to determine how different tracts were affected by roads, canals, market towns, hill ranges or seaboard j and to acquii-e a general idea of the prevailing soils in 21 [Section II. 162 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. each tract, and the relative value of such black or red loam, sand, or clay as might be found to exist. Each taluq was next visited, and the Revenue oflBccrs and leading ryots assembled, and their opinion asked regarding the relative values of villages under such and such irrigation, or in such and such a position ; informa- tion was also recorded as to the payment of labor, the method of cultivation pursued, the crops grown, the mode of disposal of surplus grain, and the markets mostly frequented. The villages were next formed into groups, with reference to their several advantages of irrigation, climate, soil, situation, &c., and a series of experiments was made to ascertain the yield of the staple grains. When this was determined a table was framed showing the yield of each class of soil, and this yield was converted into money by an average struck on twenty years' market prices, with some abatement for traders' profits and for the distance that the grain usually had to be carried. From the value of the gross produce thus determined, the cost of cultivation was deducted, and the remainder or net value of the produce was then divided, and one-half taken as the Government demand on the laud. The work so far was done by the officer at the head of each party, but in the mean time his native establishment had been employed in going over the villages and classifying the lands according to soil and circumstance. This operation was carefully watched and checked by the head of the party who eventually prepared a scheme for the settlement of the whole, or part of a district, and submitted it for the sanction of Grovernment. In the manner just described 17 schemes, or estimates of financial results, have been submitted up to date, and on sanction accorded by Govern- ment the settlement has been introduced in the whole or part of nine of the twenty-two districts of the Presidency. This settlement is not only an acreage chai'ge on the lands in each ryot's holding, but it fixes the charge on each acre of waste likely to be cultivated hereafter, and as an average district contains 100,000 ryots and some 10 lacs of fields the work of introducing the settlement by issuing puttahs, hearing appeals, and affording relief where needed is one of the most important parts of the pi'ocess. In the districts first settled it was thought sufficient to accept existing entries in the Government account, and to issue the puttahs in the names in which they then stood, but latterly more has been done, and the opportunity of making the settle- ment has been taken advantage of to divide the common lands, to allot necessary grazing grounds, to transfer lands improperly assessed as wet to dry, or vice versa, and to change many thou- Section II.] INAM COMMISSION. 163 sands of puttahs from the names of deceased ryots or vendors to those of the actual occupants of the land exhibited in these puttahs. When this has been done, a register showing the number, area, assessment, soil, irrigation, and name of the puttahdar of each field has been prepared for every village, and 30 copies of each register have been printed and distributed, one-third for sale to the ryots, one-third for oflBcial use, and one-third for reserve in store. The cost of settlement has been from the commencement to date Rupees 23| lakhs, or about 5 lakhs for each finished district, or Rupees 1,375 per village, or 4 Annas per acre. The work is necessarily slow ; the average district of 1,500 villages and 100,000 puttiahdars has occupied nine years to settle, but the work has been complete, and the figures furnished in the registers admit of revision, should such be necessary, on the expiration of the term of this 30 years' settle- ment without again going through the processes on which these figures are based. On the whole there is an increase in the revenue derived fi'om increased rates, and the taking up of the waste. The additional revenue drawn from the finished districts is now 5^ lakhs of Rupees above the assessment of the year preceding that in which they were settled ; this is equivalent to a present return of 24 per cent, on the outlay, and this return is likely to increase as more waste land is brought under cultivation. INAM COMMISSION. The origin of Inam tenure can be traced to a very remote Origin of antiquity in Southern India. The gift of land is enjoined by the Hindu Shastras as the most meritorious of charities, and every Hindu Sovereign was therefore ambitious of distinguishing his reign by the extent and value of the lands he alienated in Inam to the religious classes of the community. Inam grants were generally made in a solemn and impressive manner. They were engraved on copper-plates or slabs of stone and were declared to be irrevocable " so long as the san and moon endure ;" a heavy curse was invoked on those who disturbed the tenure, while great merit was ascribed to those who maintained and confirmed it. The grants made by the Hindu Sovereigns of Bijayanagar, the rulers of the Pandian dynasty whose seat ^ [Section n. 164 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. was Madura, the Mahratta princes who latterly ruled at Tanjore, and the chieftains of Orissa who for many centuries ruled over the greater part of the Northern Circars were of this religious nature. Daring the period of anarchy wliich followed the over- throw of the Native dynasties and which continued, though in a less degree, after the establishment of the Mohammadan rule in Southern India, the power of granting Inams for numerous miscellaneous purposes was assumed by various petty chiefs, officers of Government, and others, who alienated the revenues to a considerable extent. Numerous Minor Inams of this description were granted by Zamindars, by Faujdars, and even by renters in the Northern Circars ; while the Poligars of the Ceded Districts and the southern provinces of the Presidency were even more liberal. Though it was not the principle of the Mohammadan rulers to regard alienations of revenue as perma- nent and binding, their policy with regard to Inam tenures was practically lenient and they generally respected the more ancient grants held by Brahmins and on account of temples. They also made liberal fresh grants, not only to their own immediate relatives and followers, the higher ranks of their Civil and Military Officers and the religious classes of their own faith, but al.so to the Hindus and their religious institutions. Thus the effect of the Mohammadan rule was to add greatly to the already existing large extent of land exempt from the payment of revenue. Another period of political confusion ensued during the latter pai-t of the last century when the supremacy in Southern India was contested between the British, the French, and the various local powers, which did not subside until the different treaties between the years 1750 and 1801 brought into the possession of the East India Company the whole of the present Madras Presidency. There is good reason to suppose that a large extent of land was granted as Inam during this interme- aidry period by parties who had not the least authority to make such alienations. During the earlier years of British rule the Government of the day, following the custom of the country, adopted the practice of rewarding meritorious services by grants of Jaghires, and thus many villages were alienated either in perpetuity or for a stated number of lives. This practice however gradually fell into disuse after the receipt of the despatches from the Court of Directors, dated 2nd January 1822 and 27th May 1829, in which they expressed their opinion of the superior propriety of money pensions to grants of land on all ordinary Section 11.] INAM COMMISSION. 165 occasions, and directed that grants of land should Ix? restricted to special cases. It was not unusual for the earlier Collectors to grant Inams of their own authority for various purposes, but the extent of land so alienated was comparativelj trifling. The enormous sacrifice of State revenue involved in these Early arrangements attracted the attention of the British admini- ^e.^^^'^'^s ^y ° British. stration at a vciy early period, and caused a recognition of tLe importance of a general inquiry into titles to rent-free lands. The enactment of certain laws followed, and several orders were issued on the subject ; these however led to no practical results. Steps were certainly taken to prevent the diversion of Inams from the purposes for which they were granted in 1831, but it was not until 1845 that active measures were adopted to assert the reversionary rights of Grovemment in property of this desci'iption. A prohibition was then issued against the devolution of Inam property by adoption, unless due notice to Government was given, and it was further proposed to limit the continuance of charitable grants to the lives of existing holders, on the ground that it was objectionable in principle that a portion of the land revenue should be set apart for the maintenance of a class of persons who had no legitimate claim on the State. The more liberal policy, which was after- wards adopted in dealing with these tenures, may be ascribed to the discussion regarding the inadvisability of disturbing long existing rights in landed property, which arose out of the insur- rection of one Nursimha Reddi in the Cuddapah District. The rules at first laid down for dealing with claims to succeed to Inam lands resulted in charging the district ofiicers with numerous investigations of a complex and difiicult character, which they found it difficult to deal with concurrently with their regular duties ; the state of uncertainty in which this description of property was placed gave rise to a feeling of irritation and insecurity on the part of the holders, and the initiation of the general survey and revision of the assessment eventually led to definite proposals being made to the Homo Government for the appoint- ment of a special commission to deal with all tenui'es of this description. The Madras Inam Commission was accordingly established on institution the: 16th November 1858 during the administration of LordHarris, J^^^j^Jgig^^ and Mr. G. N. Taylor, who was appointed Commissioner, shortly after proceeded to Bombay to learn, by personal conference with the authorities there, the details connected with the working of tho [Section II. 166 ADMINISTEATION OF THE LAND. Inam Commission in that Presidency and with the proposed plan of treating Inam tenures for the future. In his reports Mr. Taylor proposed certain modes of procedure the object of which was to carry on the necessary registration through the District Revenue agency either under the orders of the Inam Com- missioner or of a Member of the Board of Revenue. While the subject was under consideration, Sir Charles Trevelyan arrived and assumed the Grovernment of Madras. The first question which engaged his attention was the settlement of the Inams of the Presidency, and in bis Minute of the 13th May 1859 he propounded certain rules by which the principles enunciated by the Court of Directors were to be practically applied by the Inam Commissioner in the investigation upon which he was about to enter. His scheme was of a more liberal nature than that already proposed by the Madras Government. The basis of his proposals was that when it should be proved that land had for fifty years been in the possession of a person, or of those through whom he claimed, without the payment of land-tax, such length of posses- sion should be held to be a good title to that land as Inam, what- ever might have been the origin of the possession. The entries in the Revenue Accounts were to be considered as sufficient evidence of possession without the production of other proofs, and where the failure of proof of fifty years' possession was owing only to lapse of time, the Inamdar was to bo allowed the same advantage as if possession had been proved for the full term. When the title to an Inam based on length of possession was once established, it was then to be open to the owner of an Inam held for personal benefit either to retain the Inam according to his actual tenure subject to the liability of lapse and without the power of alienation ; or to enfranchise it by payment of a moderately substantial annual quit-rent or a single fixed sum equal to so many years' purchase of the quit-rent. The quit-rent was to be estimated in terms particularly favorable to the Inamdars in order to induce them to take advantage of the arrangement aSbrded. With regard to Service Inams, those that were attached to services still required were to be continued intact ; but where the services were such that they could not be made available for any useful public purpose the holder was to be enfrancliised, and the land was to be fully assessed, still giving the holder the opportunity of commuting as above. As regards lands forming endowments of Temples and Mosques held in remuneration for services to be rendered therein, these Section II.] INAM COMMISSION. 1G7 were to be confirmed on their existing tenures, and to be rcsuma- ble only when the object for which they were held had ceased to exist. All questions of disputed right between individuals relating to Inams were to be settled according to the established forms in the ordinary Courts of Justice. The claims of Govern- ment upon Inams previously to enfranchisement were to be determined by the officers of Government ; but after enfranchise- ment the Inams were to be in every respect under the protection of the Courts of Justice. The operations of the late Inam Commission were conducted on Work of the these principles. Full information was prepared regarding the Commission. Inams of each village by the taluq and village officers, and the Deputy Collectors of the Commission inspected documents and took such further evidence as seemed proper, recording details in an English register in which the rate for enfranchisement was calculated and the acceptance or refusal of the Inamdar recorded. These registers were subsequently forwarded to the Commissioner for review and confirmation and for the issue of a title-deed. The progress of the work was at first somewhat impeded by the ignorance and mistrust of the people, as the imposition of the additional quit-rent was viewed as merely a step in the direction of the full assessment of all Inam pi'operty ; but when the really liberal character of the settle- ment became generally known opposition ceased, and the operations of the Commission proceeded with a rapidity hitherto unknown in the investigation of Inam titles. The Inam tenures of this Presidency may be divided into nine Classification classes : — I — Those held for the support of religious institutions "^^^^"^s. and for services connected therewith ; II — Those held for purposes of public utility ; III — Those held for the sujiport of works of irrigation yielding public revenue ; IV — Those held by Brahmans and other religious classes for their personal benefit ; V — Those held by the families of Poligars and those who filled hereditary offices of trust under former Governments ; VI — Those held by the kinsmen, dependents and followers of former Poligars and Zamindars ; VII — Those connected with the former general police of the country ; VIII— Those held for ordinary Village Revenue and Police Service ; IX— Those held by various descrip- tions of artisans for services due to village communities. Each class will be noticed in the above order. A considerable portion of the Inam tenures in the Presidency Class I. belongs to the religious institutions of the country, both Mohammadau and Hindu. A recent computation gives the [Section II. 168 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. extent at acres 1,458,081 and the Government value or assess- ment at Rupees 24,22,467. They are held either directly for the support of the institutions or for various services to be rendered therein. There is hardly a village of any importance in the country which does not possess its two temples, one to Vishnu and the other to Siva, and which has not also its tutelary village deity known under a variety of names. The Inams of this descnption are therefore by far the most numerous, though the value of each taken by itself is often inconsiderable. With the exception of the Pagoda of Jagannath, which though not within this Presidency enjoys extensive Inams in the District of Ganjam, there are very few tem^jles of note in the Northern Circars, nor are there any of much celebrity in the Ceded Districts excepting the temples at Hampi and Sandur. By far the larger portion of the Inams belongs to the Pagodas in the Southern Districts, such as Tripati, Conjiveram, Srirangam, Rameswaram, and Madura. The valuable endowments attached to the different Mathams, or spiritual headships of the three leading sects of Brahmins are also included under this head, and are to be met with in nearly all the districts of the Presidency. There are besides throughout the country minor religious institutions not presided over by Brahmans, which enjoy Inams of more or less value. These belong to Bairagis and Pandarams or religious mendicants, and Jangams or priests of the Lingait sect. The Mohammadan Institutions are of a less varied character, and are generally in a decaying condition throughout the country. They consist chiefly of Mosques or places of public worship, Takyas or residences of Fakirs, and Dargahs or shrines of Mohammadan saints. The endowments attached to Christian Churches are very few and occur only in the Districts of Tinnevelly and Tanjore. Class II. A great variety of Inams falls under Class II, which embraces those held for the support of Chattrams, Water- pandals. Topes, Nandavanams or Flower-gardens, Wells, Ponds, Tanks, Bridges, Village Schools, and Veda Patasalas or Schools for teaching the Vedas. The extent was recently computed at acres 156,949 and the assessment at Rupees 3,07,912. The object of the greater part of these grants is the provision of water and shade, both wants of the first importance in a tropical country. Bridges and Village Schools endowed with Inams are few in number. Schools for teaching the Vedas are also not numerous and may be said to be falling into disuse. Section II.] INAM CuMMISSION. 109 The Inams of tke third class usually known as Dasabhandanis Class III. are confined chiefly to the Ceded Districts, the western portions of Guntoor, Nellore, North Arcot and Salem. The extent has been computed at acres 24,824 and the assessment at Rs. 1,40,715. They were granted as a recompense t/j pri%'ate individuals who •constructed tanks, wells, and river channels by means of which the revenue of the State was augmented. The extent and value of the Inam were in proportion to the capital expended on the work and the outturn in revenue. These grants are of two descriptions, " Khanda Dasabhandams '' or Inams given in specific localities, and " Shamilat Dasabhandams" or the allow- ance as Inam of a certain proportion of each year's cultivation under the work in question. Inams of the latter description have not been brought on the Inam registers as they had no locality. In all ordinary cases Dasabhandamdars are under the obligation of maintaining the works of irrigation in due repair. In some cases such a condition was either not attached to Dasabhandam Inams or it had not been enforced for a long time. Such Inams have been treated and enfranchised as pei'sonal grants. In the Ceded Districts certain Wudders or tank-diggers held Inams for the service of executing the ordinary repairs of large Oovernment tanks. Under the present organization of the Public Works Department the Wudders occupied an anomalous position, and the services attached to their tenures were repoi'ted to be very ineflB.ciently rendered. Their laams have consequently been enfranchised under the rules. The Bhatta-vritti and Khairati Inams held respectively by Classes 17. Brahmans and Moharamadans for subsistence form nearly one- ^'^ half of the Inams of the Presidency. The extent has been given at acres 3,964,394 and the assessment at Rupees 54,89,928. As has been already remarked, the grant of Inams to Brahmans is of very great antiquity. The Mohammadan rulers also freely alienated lands to the religious classes of their own faith. These grants may be said to represent the accumulated charities of the sovereigns and chiefs of the country from the most remote times. The Inams held by the families of dispossessed Poligars in the Ceded Districts and the Baramahal, and of the ancient Kanungos, Despandyas, and Desmukhs, who have been permitted to enjoy certain lands free of all conditions of service to Government, have been all now treated as personal. When the Polliems were reduced at the cession of the territories to the East India Company, certain pensions and Inam lands were 90 [Section II. 170 ADMIKISTRATIOX OF THE LANP. granted to the ex-Poligars foi' their subsisteuce. Although a vague impression appears to have prevailed at the time that they were liable to be called out for police service during emergencies, the occasion for such services very seldom arose, and the Inams have been practically enjoyed as personal. The Kanungos were the provincial, and the Despandyas the district, Registrars or Revenue Accountants. The Desmukhs were chief officers of police and revenue, corresponding generally to Zemindars. Their offices were abolished at a very early stage of the British adminis- tration, and the Inams granted to or allowed to be held by them being of a personal character have been enfranchised like ordinary Inams. Class VI. The luams held under Class VI. are considerable in number and value chiefly in. the Northern Circars and the Southern Paleiyams of Madura. Before their cession to the British these countries were mostly held by Zemindars or Poligars who exercised the powers of sovereignty within their limited estates. They alienated lands not only for the maintenance of Brahmans and of their own relatives and dependents, but also to a large number of their household servants and to numerous men of rank of their own caste. Whole villages were held on conditions of service, which was neither rendered nor called for under the British administration. Of this character were the Bissois and Doratanams in the hill tracts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam, the Mukhasas of the Kistna District, the Amarams of North Arcot, the Umligas of Salem, and the Jivitams of Madura. All these tenures have been now enfranchised, a higher rate of quit-rent being charged on those which were held on the condition of actual service. Several miscellaneous Inams, such as those held by Desayis, Nattars, Settis, and other heads of castes, and by certain classes of servants known as Tambalas, Anakalaa, Matapatis, and Jirars in the Ceded Districts, the services connected with which have long ceased to be required, have been also enfranchised and converted into private property. Class VIJ "^^^ seventh class comprises the Inams held by the Kattubadis, a class of peons who discharged police, military, and not unfre- quently revenue duties. They were called into existence by the Poligars, who remunerated them by assignments of land and paid them batta also while on actual service ; they were chiefly employed in the hilly and inaccessible parts of the country. On the introduction of the British rule they were generally left in quiet possession of their Inams and were hut seldom called out fur Section II.] INAM COM MISSION. 171 duty. The Inams of this class have now been all enfranchised. The Kattubadis are found in the greatest numbers in the Ceded Districts and North Arcot. The Inams embraced in the eighth and ninth classes are those Classes VIII. of the village servants, revenue and police, and of the village ^ artisans. These were simply recorded by the officers of the late Inam Commission, as no steps could be taken in regard to the former until some decision was come to as to the principles on which the Village Establishments of the Presidency were to be revised and remodelled. The operations which have since taken place have been fully described in a previous division of this Section. In addition to dealing with Inams proper, the Commission Miscellaneous investigated and disposed of a large number of anomalies which operations of . Comniission. had for some time disfigured the revenue system of the Presidency. These latter measures have greatly tended to simplify the revenue administration of the several districts, and the discussion and final decision of may long-disputed rights between the Government and Zemindars, between Zemindars and Inamdars and their tenants, have facilitated the revenue procedure of district officers in no small degree. The Inam Commission continued as a separate department up close of the to November 1869, when, the bulk of the work having been Commission, completed, and under a pressing necessity for the reduction of Imperial expenditure, it was resolved to abolish the department, and the Inam Commissioner was ordered to submit his general report. The work which remained to be done was entrusted to a Member of the Board of Revenue, who was appointed Inam Commissioner pro forma and to satisfy legal requirements. By the 1st July 1870 some 28,000 further cases were disposed of, and the work which remained at the time of transfer was got through ; but it was found necessary to continue the appointment of a Member of the Board as Inam Commissioner. References are still continually made by Collectors in Inam matters, scattered cases still occur which have remained undisposed of oAviug to the absence of parties or other causes, and title-deeds for Village Service Inams enfranchised on the revision of the establishments coincident with new settlement have to be issued. The total number of Inams confirmed, the quit-rent charged by General 1*6 suits the Inam Commission, and the cost of the Commission from its commencement to the present date are shown below ; — [Section II, 172 iDMlNISTlUTiaN OF THE LAND. Total Number of Inams. Area. Assess- ment. Old Jodi. Quit-rent newly charged. Cost. ACRES. KS. ES. 1 BS. RS. From the com- 367,427 5,977,305 90,90,881 8,42,765 10,62,767 "1 mencement up to 30th June 1866. Fi'om 1st Jiilv 36,384 1 256,681 \ 6,28,663 56,181 1,79,723 ■13,23,901 1866 to 31st 1 1 March 1875. 1 1875-76 166 6,825 9,464 510 1,938 J Total ... 403,977 ! 6,240,811 97,29,008 8,99,456 12,44,428 13,23,901 Assessment of Inams fully assessed up to 1,13,962 1866. Do. do. since Not known. Total ... 13,58,390 Of the above-mentioned amount of quit-rent newly charged, Rupees 3,45,692* represent the sum charged on Village Service Inams enfranchised. The general success which has attended the proceedings of the Commission can best be judged by the very large proportion of those interested who accepted the terms proffered by Government. It appears from the figures given down to 1866 by w^hieh time the bulk of the work had been completed, that these terms were declined in only 6,588 cases, and that the rejections involved the temporary annual loss to Government of not more than Rupees 35,885 ; this sum was the quit-rent fixed for enfranchise- ment, and represents a little less than 3| per cent, on the whole amount of additional quit-rent imposed. The provisions in the rules authorizing the conversion of the absolute tenure on enfranchisement into a freehold by the redemption of quit-rent at twenty years' purchase was taken advantage of to a very trifling extent, only Rupees 666 of quit-rent having been redeemed in this way down to 1866. No other result was ta be expected as twelve per cent, may be viewed as the ordinary rate of interest procurable among Natives of the country for money lent on undoubted security. They would hardly, therefore, be likely to invest largely in redemption of quit-rent which would return but five per cent, on the capital sunk. It will be seen that the total cost of the Commission since its * Godaveiy Kurnool Trichiuopoly 1,2.5,2.57 2,11,612 8,823 Total ... 3,45,692 Section II.] wards' estates. 173 foi'mation has scarcely exceeded thirteen lakhs of Rupees ; a sum the reverse of excessive when the highly satisfactoiy results attained are considei'ed. Landed property in which not less than two and a half million persons are in some measure interested, and extending to nearly 6j millions of acres in area, which was lately held on defective and doubtful titles, and which paid to the revenue less than one-tenth of the regulated land assessment, has now been confirmed to the holders on indefeasible Government titles ; and the measure has resulted in a clear gain to the revenue of about 4| lakhs of Rupees per annum. The alienation of State revenue has been consider- ably reduced, and at the same time contentment has been diffused throughout the whole body of the Inamdars. WARDS^ ESTATES. Under Regulation V of 1804, the Members of .the Board of Court of Revenue are constituted a Court of Wards with authority to ^^ ^' take charge of property devolving by succession on heirs incapacitated by minority, sex, or infirmity, from administering their own affairs, provided that the heirs concerned be persons paying revenue or rent direct to Government. In cases where lunacy may occur at some time other than that of succession, the Collector of the district is empowered by Act XXXVof 1858, Section 3,Clanse 2, to move the Civil Coiirt to put the estate under charge of the Court of Wards. Property under the Court has this special advantage that it cannot be attached or sold for arrears of public revenue ; if one year shows a loss in the collections, the deficiency to the public purse has to be made good by the surplus collections of other years. The first step in assuming charge must be sanctioned by Government, but Bubseqaently to that the Court of Wards administers the estates on its own responsibility. The estates are restored at the discretion of the Court. The estates are managed through Collectors, who employ special establishments at the cost of the estates. A paid Manager appointed under the Act to take charge of the property forms part of every establishment. There is also in most cases a Guardian, paid or otherwise, whose duty it is to attend to the private affairs of the work and to administer that part of the income which is set apart for the ward's private use. A commission of 11 per cent. [Section II. 174 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND. on the revenues, deducting from these all establishment and maramut charges, is paid into the public funds as consideration for general supervision. Important public works which require execution on the estate have been hitherto carried out, under sanction of the Government, by the Public Works Department, the Public Works executive staff up to the grade of Overseers being provided for in the estimate, and the supervision being gratuitous. In minor cases the Collectors have carried out the works themselves with special and sometimes temporary engineering establishments. It is in contemplation that the Court should employ its own pubHc works establishments hereafter in all cases. On the Ramnad estate the special establishment under the Collector already comprises an Assistant Engineer transferred by Government for that purpose from the Public Works establishment. Each estate sends up an annual budget to the Court, to be dealt with separately. The funds as raised from the estate are paid into the Government treasury, and accounts are there kept for each estate. The public funds cannot be indented on by an estate except by special loan. When the accounts show a large deposit for any one estate at any treasury the amount is remitted to the Bank of Madras through the Court. The Court keep a separate account for each estate, but the Bank of Madras keep only one account in the name of the Court. Surplus funds are invested in Government paper. In the management of the funds of an estate under the Court, the object held in view is rather to improve the estate, than to attempt to accumulate savings so as to make a purse for a ward on his succeeding to the estate in person. Under Act XXI of 1855 the Court have also conti-ol of the education of every male minor whose property has been taken under their management with that of such minor's younger brother or brothers. The wards are generally educated, either by a tutor or by attending school, at the head-quarters of districts, where they can be under the eye of the Collector. There is a penalty for aiding and abetting the marriage of a minor made without the consent of the Court. Disqualified proprietors cannot adopt children without the Court's consent. An appendix statement at the end of this volume shows the estates under management at the end of Fasli 1285, with the names, age and sex of the wards, the date of assuming management, date when they will probably be restored, and the reut-i'oll according to the best information. Section III.] SECTION III. PROTECTION. LEGISLATING AUTHORITY AND GOVERNMENT LAW OFFICERS. Under the Indian Councils Act of 1861 (24 & 25 Victoria, Council for Cap. 67), the local legislating authority for the Presidency of JJfj^j,g|^\^J^ Madras is vested in the Governor in Council ; the Council, at tions. meetings held for the purpose of making laws and regulations, consisting of the Ordinary Members with the addition of the Advocate-General and such other persons, not less than four or more than eight in number, as the Governor may nominate. Not less than one-half of the persons so nominated are non-officials. At a meeting of the Council for this special purpose, the Governor, or in his absence the Senior Civil Ordinary Member of Council, presides, and business can only be transacted if the Governor or some Ordinary Member of Council and at least four other Members are present. In the case of a dilference of opinion the President has if necessary a casting vote. The business of the meeting is confined to the consideration of measures already introduced into the Council, or to granting sanction for the introduction of new measures. No measure afiecting the public revenues can be introduced without the previous sanction of the Governor. Every law or regulation made by the Council must, before it comes into force, receive the assent of the Governor in the fii'St instance, and subsequently that of the Governor- General, and is eventually subject to be disallowed by the Crown. Except with the sanction of the Governor- General previously, Limits of obtained, no measure can be introduced, (1), Affecting the ^*^ J^"^^^*'* public debt of India, or the customs duties, or any other tax or duty now in force and imposed by the authority of the Govern- "Section HI. 176 PROTECTION. —Rules of the Council. Advocate- General. Government Pleader. ment of India for the general purposes of such Government ; (2), Regulating any of the current coin, or the issue of any bills, notes, or other paper currency ; (3), Regulating the convey- ance of letters by the Post Office or messages by the electric telegraph ^^'ithin the Presidency ; (4), Altering in any way the Penal Code of India as established by Act of the Governor- General in Council, No. XLV of 1860; (5), Affecting the reli- gion or religious rites and usages of any class of Her IMajesty's subjects in India; (6), Affecting the discipline or maintenance of any part of Her Majesty's Military or Naval Forces ; (7), Regulating patents or copyi-ights ; (8), Affecting the relations of the Government with Foreign Princes or States. Rules for the conduct of business at the meetings of Council have been made under the provisions of Section 37 of the Act. The most impoiiiant of these relate to the introduction of Bills. "When leave has been obtained for the introduction of a Bill either from the Council when sitting or from the Governor during the adjournment, the Bill is printed, together with a Statement of Objects and Reasons, and a copy is fui*nished to each Member of the Council. On the day fixed for the introduction of a Bill, or on any subsequent day, the principles of the Bill and its general provisions may be discussed, and if necessary it may be referred to a Select Committee for report. All reports of Select Committees, as well as the Bill and the Statement of Objects and Reasons, must be published in the Official Gazette, and copies furnished to all the Members of the Council before the measure is brought up for final consideration. The principal law-officer of the Government is the Advo- cate-General. His duties, briefly put, are — (1), to advise the Government upon legal matters refered to him; (2), to appear for the Government in legal proceedings on the Original Side of the High Court in which the Government is interested ; and (3), to appear at the Madras Sessions and prosecute in cases of murder, counterfeiting coin, and offences by Government servants against the Government. The duties of the Government Pleader as at present constituted are— (1), to appear before the High Court, Appellate Side, when instructed to do so by Government in all appeals in suits in which Government or officers of Government are parties; (2), to appear before the same tribunal in support of convictions in criminal appeals when directed to do so by Magistrates or by the High Court ; (3), to appear for Governmpnt in civil or criminal Section III. ] LEGISLATING AUTHORITY AND GOVERNMENT LAW OFFICERS. 177 cases in mofussil Courts when instructed to do so; (4), to advise Government or the Board of Revenue on legal questions arising out of suits, &c., in the mofussil. The Crown Prosecutor is Standing Counsel to Government in Crown criminal cases arising within the original jurisdiction of the High ^'^^^^^ ^^' Court, It is his duty to appear for the prosecution on behalf of Government and conduct all the cases at the High Court Sessions ; except that in cases of murder, and certain other serious offences, in which the Advocate-General is required to appear on behalf of Government, he acts as the Advocate-General's junior. It is also the duty of the Crown Prosecutor to appear as Counsel for Government and conduct Government prosecu- tions before the Presidency Town Magistrates ; the Government Solicitor furnishing him with the necessary briefs. The Crown Prosecutor is the officer to whom commitments for trial before the High Court are made by the committing Magistrates. The Crown Prosecutor is also ex-officio PubUc Prosecutor for the purposes of the Presidency Magistrates' Act, 1877, and, as such, when directed by the Government to do so, presents appeals to the High Court from orders of acquittal, or dismissal, or discharge, made by Presidency Town Magistrates. To each District Court is attached a Government vakeel, Government Vplf agio who is a member of the Local Bar. He is required to appear and act in all Government suits in the Courts of the District Judges' stations. Besides the regulated fees in each suit he receives a salary of Rupees 21 a month. The functions and duties of the Government Solicitor are Government shortly these — To advise the different departments and officers of Government in matters on which the opinion of the Advocate- General may not be required ; in cases where that officer's opinion is required, to lay the papers before him, and on receipt of his opinion to forward a copy of it to Government ; to prepare contracts for the several departments of Government, and all deeds and conveyances to Government ; to furnish the Crown Prosecutor with the necessary briefs in Police cases in which that officer has to appear, i.e., all cases in which the prosecution is instituted or carried on by or under the orders or with the sanction of Government ; to appear at the Police Courts and instruct the Crown Prosecutor in such cases ; to send the necessary briefs to the Advocate-General for the quarterly Sessions of the High Court in all cases of murder, coining and other cases in which the Crown is immediately interested and to 23 [Section III. 178 PROTECTION. Clerk of the Crown. Administra- tor-General. appear in Court on tlie trial of such cases ; and to institute, defend and conduct all civil suits and proceedings by or against Government, and where the sanction of Government has been obtained by or against its officers. The duties of Clerk of the Crown are — (1), to draw up indict- ments against prisoners committed to stand their trial at the High Court Sessions ; (2), to make copies of all depositions, exhibits, &c., for prosecuting and defending counsel, or others employed in prosecution or defence ; (3), to draw up warrants, and sentences passed on prisoners during the Sessions ; (4), to prepare lists of special and petty jurors, and settle all doubt- ful cases arising under the lists j (5), to draw up and issue jury rules ; (6), to take recognizances of witnesses, and bail bonds of prisoners; (7), to issue subpoenas for all witnesses on behalf of prisoners in jail, prosecutors, and the Crown ; and (8), to register the proceedings of Courtsmartial. The Administrator-General is appointed by the local Govern- ment, and must be a member cf the Bar of England or Ireland or of the Faculty of Advocates in Scotland. He is not an oflBcer of the High Court, but obtains from that Court letters of administration authorizing him to deal with and dispose of estates committed to his custody. He gives general security to the Secre- tary of State for the due execution of his office, and no special security is required to be given by him to the High Court when administrations are granted by that Court to him. The duties of the office are detailed in Government of India Act II of 1 8 74. Under Section 15 the Administrator- General is entitled generally to letters of administration unless they are granted to the next of kin of the deceased. By Section 16 he is required within a reasonable time after he shall have had notice that a person has died, (other than a Hindu, Mahomedan or Buddhist, or a person exempted under the Indian Succession Act, 1865, Section 332, from the operation of that Act) and that the deceased has left assets within the Presidency, to take steps to apply for letters of administration, and this whether the deceased has left a will or not provided that the assets are of greater value than Rupees 1,000, and provided that no person shall within a month after the death have applied within the Presidency for probate of a will or for letters of administration of the estate. If the assets do not exceed 1,000 rupees in value in the whole, the Administrator. General is not bound to act, but be may either grant a certificate of administration to some person entitled to a share of the Section IH.] LEGISLATING AUTHORITY AND GOVERNMENT LAW OFFICERS. 179 effects of the deceased or take charge of the estate himself without letters of administration. In certain cases such as where danger is to be apprehended of misappropriation, deterio- ration or waste of an estate, the Administrator- General may bo directed by the Court to apply for letters of administration to the effects of any person whether Hindu, Mahomedan, Buddhist or not, and power is also given to the Administrator- General to collect and hold all such assets until the right of succession or administration is ascertained ; and if no person appears according to the practice of the Court and entitles himself to probate of the will, or grant of administration as next of kin of deceased, or if the person obtaining the order of administration neglects to give the security required of him, the Court is bound to grant letters of administration to the Administrator- General. Any private executor or administrator may, with the consent of the Administrator- General, by an instrument in writing, under his hand, transfer all estates, effects and interests vested in him by virtue of such probate or letters to the Administrator-General, and the Administrator- General shall have the rights and be subject to the liabilities which he would have had and to which he would have been subject if probate or letters of administration had been originally granted to him. As soon as the Administrator- General takes charge of the estate, the fact is advertised in the Gazette and in the public papers, and creditors are called upon to prove their claims. They are required to state the amounts and other particulars, and to support their claims by such evidence as, under the circumstances of the case, the Administrator- General is reasonably entitled to require. If a claimant fail to do this within one month of the date of the institution of any suit he is liable to pay the cost of the suit, and if in any suit judgment is pronounced in favor of the plaintiff, he is nevertheless entitled only to payment out of the assets equally and rateably with the other creditors. The Adminis- trator-General like any other executor or administrator keeps the assets for a reasonable time to answer the claims of creditors. This time is fixed at one year, but where the case permits of it, the account is closed earlier. Like any other executor or administrator he is bound to pay all creditors rateably or preferentially according to the law governing the distribution. No claim can be made upon him, in respect of any assets paid or delivered by him, to any legatee or to any person entitled on distribution without notice of the claim. The [Section III. 180 PROTECTION. following are preferential payments : — (1), Funeral expenses ; (2), death-bed cliarges ; (3), fee for medical attendance ; (4), board and lodging for one month prior to death ; (5), expenses for obtaining probate or letters of administration ; and (6), wages for services rendered to deceased within three months of his death by any laborer, artizan, or domestic servant. After this comes payment of other debts, which are on an equal footing. The Administra- tor-General is bound to keep the accounts prescribed by the Act and to allow persons entitled so to do to inspect them. He is bound to furnish half-yeai'ly schedules of estates under his charge in form prescribed by the Act, and these schedules are published in the Fort St. George Gazette. Three copies are sent to Govern- ment for transmission to the Secretary of State for India for the information of persons in England who are interested in the matter. The remittances made by the Administrator-General to England are made through the India Office, at the I'ate of exchange annually fixed by Government, for the repayment of advances made in India. The Administrator-General of Madras is entitled to a commission of 5 per cent, (except in the case of officers and soldiers when the commission is 3 per cent.) on the assets, and no person other than the Administrator-General acting officially is entitled to charge any commission or agency charges for any thing done as executor or administrator under any probate or letters of administration granted by the Supreme or High Court in Madras since the passing of Act II of 1850, or by any Court under the Indian Succession Act, 1865. Sheriff of The Sheriff of Madras executes the process of the High Court. Madras. jjg executes warrants of execution, warrants of arrest, warrants of attachment and sale of moveable and immoveable property, and warrants of possession of immoveable property. Where parties appear in person, that is to say without the intervention of a vakeel or an attorney, the Sheriff serves summonses to defendants, summonses to witnesses, citations, notices and all other process. He forwards to the mofussil Courts for service, summonses to defendants, notices, &c., issued by the High Court against parties residing in the mofussil. He also serves summonses to witnesses and executes attachments and other process issued by the Court for the relief of insolvent debtors. Also summonses to witnesses and executes all other process issued by the Crown side of the Court. The Sheriff" presides over the preparation of the annual lists of persons liable to sei've on juries, and summons the jui'ors who are to serve at each quarterly Sessions of the High Court. The Sheriff" attends personally in Section III.] LEGISLATING AUTHORITY AND GOVERNMENT LAW OFFICERS. 181 Court during the continuance of the Sessions. The SheritF convenes public meetings under Act XXIII of 1840. At present he serves and executes within his jurisdiction process issued by Courts in the mofussil. This duty however he will cease to perform from the 1st October 1877 as all process issued by the mofussil Courts will have to be executed by the Px-esidency Courts of Small Causes under Act X of 1877. The office of Coroner of Madras was first created about the Coroner of year 1800. The duties are now regulated by the Coroner's Act, No. IV of 1871, under which the Coroner has to inquire into cases of death occasioned by accident, homicide, suicide, or suddenly by means unknown, and into the cause of the death of any person being a prisoner dying in jail. The Police authorities bring to his notice all cases of death occasioned in the way just mentioned, and he thereupon orders a jury to be assembled at the spot where the body is and holds an inquest on view of the body. Madras is divided into four Medical districts, and the Surgeon in charge of the district in which an inquest is to be held ia generally summoned by the Coroner to give professional evidence. The Coroner's jurisdiction extends over an area of 28 miles and is conterminous with the Presidency Police and Municipal limits. Murders in the Presidency Town are rare, for during the eleven years, 1866 to 1876, only 35 cases have occurred in which the Coroner has been called upon to hold inquest. Drowning seems to be the mode most resorted to by suicides ; since the year 1868 to the end of 1876 there have been 212 cases. During the same period there have been 26 cases of suicide by hanging, and only 8 by cutting the throat. Suicide by poison shows only 13 cases during this period. During the first twenty years after the creation of the oflttce 413 inquests were held or an average of about 20 a year. For the twelve years from 1840 to 1852 there was a total of 1,217 or an average of 101 a year. For the twenty years from 1853 to 1872 the number had reached 3,403 or an average of 170 a year. For the four years from 1873 to 1876 the total number of inquests was 707 or an average of 176 a year. [Section III. 182 PROTECTION. POLICE. Nature^of the fpj^e present Police organization in the Madras Presidency department. has been in existence for a little less than twenty years. The report of the Torture Commission in 1855 made certain what had for some time previously been a matter of inquiry and discussion, namely, that there was urgent necessity for PoHce reform in this Presidency. The Mofussil Police then existing were described by the Commission in very disparaging terms and a reform was at once projected. The Court of Directors in 1856 concurred in the views put forward by the Local Government, and the establishment of a Chief Commissioner with 20 District Superintendents and 20 Assistant Superintendents was sanc- tioned in December 1857. Mr. WilUam Robinson of the Madras Civil Service, who had minutely studied the question of police organization in England and elsewhere, was appointed Chief Commissioner in 1858 and subsequently took the designa- tion of Inspector-General of Police. The new constabulary was introduced in the District of North Arcot in 1859, and early in 1860 the work of reorganization was extended to all districts except those of the Northern Circars, where the measure was postponed till 1861. The force as now constituted consists of — Inspector- General and Supervising Staff (3 Deputy Inspectors- General and 1 Assistant Inspector-General) ... 5 Commissioner and Deputy Commissioners, Madras Town ... ... ... 3 Superintendents ... ... ... 20 Assistant Superintendents ... ... 20 Inspectors ... ... ... ... 388 Sub-Inspectors ... ... ... ... 31 Constabulary of all ranks ... ... 22,691 Office Establishments and other servants (not Police Officers) ... ... 246 Total ... 23,404 Of the above the following are employed on purely State services : — Salt Preventive Force ... 1,897 Land Customs Force ... ... ... 170 Jail Guards ... ... ... ... 1,143 Total ... 3,210 Section III.] CRIMINAL JUSTICE. 183 In addition to the above, 179 Policemen ai-e supplied to banks, public companies, and private individuals on payment. Besides the prevention and detection of crime and maintenance of public peace and order, the Police undertake the guarding of jails, the guarding and escort of treasure, the escort of convicts, the guarding of salt-pans and platforms, the prevention of smug- gling on foreign frontiers, the guarding of distilleries under the Excise Act, the protection of marine traffic in the harbour of Madras, the working of the Municipal, Cantonment, and Con- tagious Diseases Acts, and the serving of processes in criminal cases. The duties formerly performed by the Meriah agency in Ganjam are now performed by the Police, who occupy all the hill tracts in the Northern Circars. The Police also hold all the frontier posts formerly held by detachments of Madras troops. CRIMINAL JUSTICE. In former years there was a Supreme Court, presided over by Old Sadder Barrister Judges consisting of a Chief Justice and one or more puisne Judges appointed by the Crown, which exercised jurisdiction within the limits of the city of Madras. For the supervision of criminal justice administered in the Mofussil by the Company's Judges and Magistrates, there was again a Superior Court called the Foujdary Adalut which sat at the Presidency town. This latter Court was presided over by a chief and four other Judges, being covenanted civilians of experience taken from the judicial branch of the service. The Chief Judge was practically honorary President of the Foujdary Adalut, being one of the two Civilian members of Council. Appeals from the mofussil lay to the Foujdary Adalut. On the direct assumption of the Government of the country by the Queen, these two Courts were abolished as such, and were, by 24 and 25 Yic, Cap. 104, merged in one High Court of Judicature, with original and appellate jurisdiction, and presided over by a Bai-rister Chief Justice and four puisne Judges, one of whom is a Barrister and all of whom hold their appointments direct from the Queen. The High Court exercises ordinary original criminal jurisdic- High Court, tion within the limits of the city of Madras, and tries all case.-^ sid^'°*^ committed to it by the City Magistrates. Its procedure, in [Section III. 184 PROTECTION. the exercise of its original crimiual jurisdiction, is now governed by Act X of 1875, entitled the High Court's Criminal Procedure Act. By this Act it is empowered to hold sittings on such days and at such convenient intervals as the Chief Justice from time to time may appoint. These sittiBgs are presided over by a single Judge and are known as sessions, usually held once a quai'ter. All prisf)ners committed to take their trial before the High Court are ari-aigned at these sessions, and the trial is held before a jury consisting, under the new procedure, of nine persons, three of whom are usually Europeans. The rela- tions between the Judge and the jury are the same as in English law. Juries are of two kinds, common and special. All ordi- nary cases are tried before a common jury ; but capital cases and special cases usually those in which the Crown is directly interested, and for which it prosecutes through the Advocate- General, are tried before a special jury. Under Section 50 of the High Court's Criminal Procedure Act the High Court has power to sit at any place outside the Presidency town, and in any such case juries have to be empannelled under special arrangements. There is no appeal from a criminal trial before the High Court. By its Letters Patent the High Court may exercise extraordinary original criminal jurisdiction over all persons within the jurisdic- tion of any Court subject to its superintendence, and may, at its discretion, try any such pei'sons brought before it on charges preferred by the Advocate- General, or by any Magistrate, or by any other officer specially empowered by Government in thai behalf. European British subjects are committed by Justices of the Peace to take their trial before the High Court. The High Court has now no power to issue a writ of habeas coijnis, but it has somewhat analogous powers under Section 148 of the High Court's Criminal Procedure Act ; under this provision the High Coiirt may direct a prisoner to be brought before it to be bailed or examined as a witness, or for other purposes. By its Letters Patent the High Court is also invested with Admiralty and Vice- Admi- ralty jurisdiction. As a Court of Appeal and Revision, the powers of the High Court are prescribed by the Criminal Procedure Code, Act X of 1872, as amended by Act XI of 1874. Appeals from the Session Courts in the districts lie to the High Court and are heard and determined by two Judges ; but in case they differ in opinion, the difference of opinion must be settled by adding one or more Judges to the bench to hear and determine the appeal. All sentences of death must be confirmed by the High Court. There is no appeal from a judgment of acquittal ; but the Local Govern- Section III.] CRIMINAL JUSTICE. 185 ment are empowered by Section 272 of the Code of Criminal Procedure to direct an appeal to the High Court from such a judgment. There is also no appeal from convictions in summary trials of certain offences held by Ist-class Magistrates or benches of Magistrates with Ist-class powers, where the sentence does not exceed two months' imprisonment, or fine of 200 Rupees, or whipping only, nor from sentences passed by such Magistrates or by Session Judges in which the imprisonment awarded does not exceed one month, or the fine inflicted does not exceed 50 Rupees, or where the sentence is for whipping only. Under Chapter XXII of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the High Court exercises powers of supex'intendence and revision over all the Criminal Courts of the Presidency, in the matter of framing rules for their guidance, of revising their calendars and sentences, of calling for their records, and of annulling, suspending, or modifying their sentences. In each of the districts of the Presidency, except in Malabar District where there are two Courts, there is a single Sessions Court pre- °®^^^°^* sided over by the District Judge who, in the exercise of his criminal jurisdiction, is styled the Sessions Judge. Sessions Judges are appointed and removed by the Governor in Council by virtue of the powers vested in him by Section 9 of the Code of Criminal Procedui'e. In the Nilgiris the Commissioner is the Sessions Judge. The Sessions Court cannot take cognizance of any offence as a court of original jurisdiction unless the accused person has been committed to it by a competent Magistrate, except when the offence has been committed before itself or under its own cognizance. Trials before a Court of Session are usually held with the aid of two or three Assessors, whose verdict however the Judge is empowered to set aside. Trials by jury also may be held before a Sessions Court, but only in those districts to which the jury system has been extended by the Government, As yet the jury system has not been extended beyond the five districts of North Arcot, Cuddapah, Godavery, Tanjore, and Vizagapatam, as it is difficult to procure the services of a suflBcient number of qualified persons in the other districts. The crimes tried by juries are theft, robbery, and gang robbery, house-breaking, and receiving or concealing stolen property ; and it is to this careful selection of oflFences that the measure of success hitherto attained is chiefly attributable. The Sessions Court has power to pass the maximum punishment prescribed for each offence by the Penal Code, and, except in the case of death, its sentences are effectual without further reference, subject only to appeal 24 [Section HI. 186 PROTECTION. to the High Court. All capital sentences must be confirmed by the High Court. The Sessions Court is also an Appellate Court, as to it lie all appeals from the decisions of the District Magis- trates or other Magistrates of the 1st class. Magisterial Below the Courts of Session there are three grades of Criminal ^^ ' Courts, presided over by Magistrates of the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd class. At the head of each district is the District Magistrate, who is also the Collector of the district. This officer is a Magistrate of the 1st class, his Magisterial jurisdiction extends thix)ughout the district, all the other Magistrates in the district are subject to his control, and he has the power of allotting the criminal work of the district among the different Magistrates subordinate to him and of defining their local jurisdiction. A district is divided into divisions, consisting each of so many taluqs. At the head of each division is one of the Covenanted Assistants of the Collector and District Magistrate, who is invested with first-class powers, is styled the Division Magistrate, and has control over the subordi- nate Magistrates within his division. The Sub-Collector of the district, however, although a Divisional Magistrate, is styled the Joint Magistrate. The Deputy Collector on general duty, an Uncovenanted officer, is also a Ist-class Magistrate, and is usually in charge of a division. Each taluq is under the Magisterial control of the Tahsildar, who, for that purpose, is usually vested with the powers of a 2nd-clas3 Magistrate. He is assisted by his Sheristadar who has third-olass powers. In larger taluqs the Deputy Tahsildar is likewise vested with the powers of a Magis- trate of the 3rd class ; and in large towns there is a special Town Magistrate with second or third-class powers as the case may call for. All these Magisti-ates have various powers of ordering search, commitment, taking of bail, &c. ; but their punitive powers are limited as follows. A Magistrate of the 1st class may pass sentence of imprisonment not exceeding two years, fine to the extent of 1,000 Rupees, and whipping. A Magistrate of the 2nd class may pass sentence of imprisonment not exceeding^ six mouths, fine not exceeding 200 Rupees, and whipping. A Magistrate of the 3rd class may pass sentence of imprison- ment not cxceediiig one month and fine not exceeding 50 Rupees. In addition to his other powers, a Ist-cIass Magistrate may hear appeals from the decisions of Magistrates of the 2nd and 3rd classes when so empowered by the Government. All Eui'opean Magistrates are invested with the powers of a Justice of the Peace to enable them to deal with European Briti-sh subjects. Except in the Presidency town, no Justice of the Peace Section HI.] CRIMINAL JUSTICE. 187 can, under Section 72 of the Code of Ci-iminal Procedure, inquire into a complaint or try a cliarge against a European British subject unless he is himself a European British subject. Justices of the Peace are appointed by the Governor in Council under Act II of 1869 ; and by Section 5 of this Act they have power to commit for trial European British subjects to the High Court or Court prescribed in that behalf by the law in force, and to do all other acts appei'tainiug to the office of a Justice of the Peace. In the Presidency town the Magistrates now sit and exercise jurisdiction under a special Act called the Presidency Magistrate's Act IV of 1877. Their powers are co-extensive with those of a Ist-class or District Magistrate under the Code of Criminal Procedure. They are all Justices of the Peace, and one of them is styled the Chief Magistrate with power to regulate the conduct and distribution of business, to appoint the time of sittings, and otherwise to control the business of the Magistrates. They are not now called Magistrates of Police but Presidency Magis- trates. The Commissioner of Police who, with two Deputies, administei-s the police of the town of Madras subject to the authority of the Inspector-General of Police, is invested with the powers of a Magistrate and Justice of the Peace under the provisions of Madras Act VIII of 1867. He does not, however, ordinarily exercise Magisterial powers. He may do so on emergency, but ordinarily his powers are limited to preserving the peace, prevent- ing crimes, detecting, apprehending, and detaining prisoners with a view to their being brought before a Magistrate. Military Cantonments are administered by Cantonment Magistrates. These are, as a rule, Officers of the Army, and are invested with the powers of a Magistrate of a Division of a District within the meaning and for the purposes of the Code of Criminal Procedure. They are appointed by Government under Madi'as Act I of 1866. The Government have recently appointed certain persons in. different towns to be Honorary Magistrates ; these sit as Benches with the Stipendiary Magistrate as their President for the trial of certain offences. All Magistrates are appointed by the Governor in Council under Section 9 of the Code of Criminal Procedure. The lowest class of jDfficers vested with criminal powers are the heads of villages called Village Munsifs, who, under Regulation XI of 1816, are empowered to take cognizance of petty offences of assault and abusive language, and to punish the offenders by imprisonment in the village choultry for twelve hours ; or if the offenders are of the lower castes, by putting them in the stocks for not more than six hours. [Section HI. Mode of collecting Criminal Statistics. tEOTECTION'. Criminal statistics are collected by the Police in the Madras Presidency in the following manner. Village Munsifs are com- pelled to report all crimes as they occur to their superior Magistrate and to the nearest Police Station. Beat Constables also obtain information of crimes, thus forming a check on Village Munsifs, and inspecting officers exercise a superintendence over the returns. Station House Officers report all crimes to the District Office, •where the information is tested and recorded. Each Magistrate sends in to the District Police Office a monthly statement (termed Form B) of all cases dealt with or reported. These Forms B are collated with the Police reports, and discrepancies or inaccuracies form the subject of reference and investigation. Finally the annual statements compiled in District Police Offices are subjected to scrutiny in the Statistical Department of the Chief Office at Madras, and every discrepancy or apparent inaccuracy is referred back to the district for explanation. PRISONS. Jail accom- modation. The prison accommodation in this Presidency consists of 7 Central Jails, including the Penitentiary at Madras ; 25 District Jails, including the European Prison at Ootacamund ; 302 Sub- sidiary Jails ; and 1 Jail for civil debtors at Madras. Central Jails are divided into two classes : the first class to contain 1,000 convicts and upwards ; and the second class to contain less than 1,000 convicts. There are four first-class and three second-class Central Jails. The first-class Central Jails are Rajahmundry, Vellore, Trichinopoly, and Coimbatore. The second-class Central Jails are Salem, Cannanore, and the Penitentiary. Two abstract statements are appended showing the number of persons the diffiirent jails in this Presidency are constructed to contain. In the case of subsidiary jails the information is given by districts : — Section m.] PRISONS. 189 Statement I. — Accommodation in each Central and District Jail. Jaila. Capacity of the Jail Barracks at 36 Super. ficial Feet per Head. Daily Average Number of Prisoners of ail Classes. M. F. Total. M. F. Total. Eusselcondah 127 3 130 107-77 3-88 111-65 Berhampore 160 32 192 172-18 13-63 185-81 Vizagapatam 282 18 300 300-40 30-53 330-93 Rajahmundry, Central 958 44 1,002 918-14 32-37 950-51 Do. District 88 18 106 89-60 12-56 102-16 Masulipatam lOG 4 110 3600 •90 36-90 Guntoor 105 15 120 9202 9-42 101-44 Nellore 245 27 272 176-23 20-50 196-73 Kurnool 98 5 103 111-77 5-12 116-89 Bellary 388 27 415 346-26 21-47 367-73 Cuddapab 153 22 175 208-35 8-34 216-69 Chittoor 254 22 276 153-17 10-37 163-54 Vellore, Central 943 88 1,031 888-45 41-68 930-13 Salem do. 618 30 548 500-41 27-11 527-52 Guindy 87 87 65-25 65-25 Chingleput 130 29 159 149-54 9-20 158-74 Cuddalore 345 13 358 357-36 12-17 369-53 Tranquebar ... 116 8 124 126-70 11-84 138-54 Tanjore 169 28 197 159-35 10-87 170-23 Trichinopoly, Central 938 86 1,024 921-60 33-88 955-48 Do. District 180 18 198 147-12 •21 147-33 Madui-a 224 12 236 37419 9-94 384-13 Tinnevelly 366 23 389 236-75 15-21 251-96 Cochin 29 8 37 •10 •10 Calient 221 9 230 189-55 4-67 194-22 Tellicherry 161 5 166 82-49 3-26 85-75 Cannanore, Central ... 829 30 859 687-45 687-45 Mangalore 223 15 238 111-94 9-60 121-54 Coimbatore, Central 966 52 1,018 944-76 25-46 970-22 Do. District 180 ... 180 195-37 •45 195-82 Ootacamund, District 201 12 213 155-65 2-27 157-93 European PrJHon 35 35 27-72 27-73 Penitentiary ... 436 45 481 398-35 50-32 448-67 Debtors' Prison, Madras 40 6 46 19-85 3-29 2314 Total ... 10,301 1 754 11,055 1 9451-84 440-52 9892-36 [Section III. 190 PROTECTION. Total Population (all classes of Prisoners included) . Maximum Population on any one day. Jails. M, F. Total. M. F. Total. Rueseloondah 339 14 353 133 9 142 Berhampore 822 68 890 240 27 267 Vizagapatam 1,562 268 1,830 348 47 395 Rajahmuudry, Central 1,395 57 1,452 1,005 36 1,041 Do. District 653 78 731 114 13 127 Masulipatam 152 6 158 49 1 50 Guntoor 499 41 540 119 16 135 Nollore 743 108 851 220 1 21 1 241 Kiiruool 576 31 607 155 10 165 Bellaiy 1,370 87 1,457 434 22 466 Cuddapah 969 45 1,014 257 11 268 Chittoor 872 77 949 191 13 204 Vellore, Central 1,240 68 1,308 949 51 1,000 Salem do 1,399 103 1,502 563 29 592 Guindy 228 ... 228 81 ... 81 Chingleput 797 44 841 179 10 189 Cuddalore 1,272 60 1,332 407 23 480 Tranquebar 621 67 688 166 21 187 Tanjore 758 52 810 193 12 215 Trichiuopoly, Central 1,270 99 1,369 963 40 1,003 Do. District 610 3 613 167 1 168 Madnra 1,777 45 1,822 482 16 498 Tinnevelly 1,148 67 1,215 280 21 301 Cochin 3 3 3 3 Calient 1,082 34 1,116 263 5 268 Tellicherry 551 10 561 119 5 124 Cannanore, Central 933 933 708 708 Mangalore 563 46 609 137 13 150 Coimbatore, Central 1,239 58 1,297 999 26 1,025 Do. District 814 14 828 214 1 215 Ootacamund, Distiict 388 34 422 189 3 192 European Prison 46 46 31 31 Penitentiary 2,385 379 2,764 558 92 650 Debtors' Prison, Madras ... 533 77 610 35 4 39 Total .. 29,609 2,140 31,749 ... Section HI.] CIVIL JUSTICE. 101 Statement II. — Sulsidiary Jail AccommoHatlon in each District. Average Daily Number of Number the Jails prill hold. Prisonc rs ill all the Jails put together. Districts. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Ganjam • 437 269 706 85-73 24-20 109-93 Vizagapatam 194 147 341 138-71 27-67 166-38 Godavery 147 111 258 71-64 16-73 88 37 Kistna 137 75 212 66-19 25-09 91-28 Nellore 98 49 147 33-05 16-34 49-39 Kui'nool 141 85 226 57-32 17-23 74-55 Bcllaiy 130 50 180 22-00 1-98 23-98 Cuddapah 107 42 149 50-82 3-54 54-66 North Arcot 206 93 299 89-98 12-10 102-08 Salem 214 120 334 76-07 7-14 83-21 Chinglepat 376 200 576 48-80 3-91 52-71 South Arcot 274 108 382 79-20 13-82 93-02 Tanjore 225 80 305 74-29 14-44 88-73 Trichinopoly . . . 185 89 274 36-64 6-84 43-48 Madura 137 72 209 9202 20-25 112-27 Tiunevelly 232 77 309 8111 11-14 92-25 Malabar 322 155 477 69-72 2-84 72-56 South Canara ... 126 50 176 39-25 9-17 48-42 Coimbatore 157 74 231 78-94 12-84 91-78 Nilgiri Hills ... 4 4 8 •24 •08 •32 Grand Total . . . 3,849 1,950 5,799 125508 240-81 1495-89 CIVIL JUSTICE. The administration of Civil Justice is under the exclu.sive High Court, superintendence of the High Court, constituted by 24 & 25 ^^^^^ ^^^®- Vic, Cap. 104, and by Letters Patent. The High Court consists of a Chief Justice and four Puisne Judges ; the Chief Justice and one of the Puisne Judges being Barristers appointed by the Queen from the Bar of the United Kingdom, and the other Judges being members of the Civil Service appointed by Her Majesty on the nomination of the Local Government. The High Court exercises ordinary original jurisdiction over all suits the cause of action in which has arisen within the limits of the city of Madras, and it exercises appellate jurisdiction over all Civil Courts established throughout the Presidency. Original cases in the High Court are decided by a single Judge, from whose decision there is an appeal wliich is ordinarily heard and deter- mined by a division bench consisting of two Judges. In the [Section III. 192 PROTECTION. Madras Small Cause Court. District Courts. same manner appeals from the Mofussil Courts are heard and determined by a division bench of two Judges ; but in any case in which the two Judges differ in opinion, the appeal is re-heard and finally determined by a full bench consisting of three or more Judges. By its Letters Patent the High Court possesses powers of extraordinary original jurisdiction, in the exercise of which it can call up and determine any suit within the juris- diction of any Court subject to its superintendence. By paragraph 17 of its Letters Patent (1862) it has power to hold sittings under a single Judge for the relief of insolvent debtors at Madras ; such Judge exercising, within and without the city of Madras, such powers and authorities with respect to original and appellate jurisdiction and otherwise as are constituted by the laws relating to insolvent debtors in India. By its Letters Patent the High Court also possesses Admiralty, Testamentary, and Matrimonial jurisdiction. All small suits of 1,000 Rupees and below that value within the Presidency town are cognizable, and may be summarily determined by the Madras Court of Small Causes sitting under Act IX of 1850, and consisting of a First Judge who is a Barrister, and three other Judges who are as a rule appointed from the ranks of the Uncovenanted Service. Questions of title cannot however be decided by the Small Cause Court ; and all suits involving title or affecting landed property in any way are carried into the High Court, irrespective of the value in litigation. In each of the districts into which the Presidency is divided there is a chief Court styled the District Court, which is presided over by a District Judge appointed from the Covenanted Civil Service. In Malabar there are two Courts of this class, styled respectively the District Court of North Malabar and the District Court of South Malabar ; and in the Nilgiris the chief Court is that of the Commissioner who sits as the District Judge under a special enactment. The District Court is both an Original Court and an Appellate Court, and by Section 27 of the Madras Civil Courts Act III of 1873 the District Judge is vested with general control over all the Civil Courts of what- ever grade established in his district, subject however to rules prescribed for the purpose by the High Court. All appeals in suits decided by the inferior Courts in which the amount litigated is 5,000 Rupees and less, lie to the District Court ; but where the amount or value of the subject-matter of the suit exceeds 6,000 Rupees, the appeal lies to the High Court direct under Section 13 of the Act above mentioned. Section III.] CIVIL JUSTICE. 193 The Court next in importance to that of the District Judge is Subordinate the Court of the Subordinate Judge, formerly styled a Principal Qgyftg^ Sadr Amin, who is usually a native officer belonging to the Uncovenanted Service. The pecuniary jurisdiction of this officer is co-extensive with that of the District Judge, whose Assistant he really is in the disposal of original and appellate work. Subordi- nate Judges are appointed to districts in which the civil work is unusually heavy. There is one Subordinate Judge in Bellary, South Canara, Madura, and Salem, two in each of the districts of Godavery, Tanjore, and Tinnevelly, and three in Malabar ; or 13 Subordinate Judges in all. Although the jurisdiction of a Subordinate Judge is as large as that of the District Judge, the latter is empowei'ed by law to remove to his own Court any suit or appeal which he may for any reason see fit to dispose of himself ; and in the same manner the District Judge is empowered to refer to the Subordinate Judge for disposal any suit or appeal filed in the District Court. By Section 28 of the Civil Courts Act the Govei-nment may invest any or all of these Subordinate Judges with the jurisdiction of a Judge of a Court of Small Causes for the summary trial of suits up to the amount of 500 Rupees ; as a fact most of the Subordinate Judges arc invested with such power's. At the five stations of Cuddalore, Vellore, Madura, Comba- Up-country conum, and Masulipatam there is a Court of Small Causes held g^^^ts ^^^^ under Act XI of 1865, with ordinary jurisdiction over small suits up to 500 Rupees in value, but which jurisdiction the Government may extend to 1,000 Rupees. These Judges are also invested with the powers of a Subordinate Judge for the trial of suits of any value by regular procedure, the decisions in which are accordingly open to appeal. The Judges at Cuddalore, Vellore, and Madura are at the present moment members of the Covenanted Service, and the other two Judges are Uncove- nanted. In Military Cantonments the Cantonment Magistrate is generally invested by Government, under Madras Act I o^ 1866, with the powers of a Court of Small Causes with a pecuniary jurisdiction not exceeding 500 Rupees. As a Court proper, with all the functions of a regular judicial District tribunal, the Court of the District Munsif is the lowest in courts grade, but it is at the same time the most important to the country, as it is widely distributed, and is thus the chief Court of first instance open to the people. There is generally one such Court at the head-quarters of every taluq of a district, and the District Munsif's territorial jurisdiction is as a rule conterminous 25 [Section III. 194 PROTECTION. Village Munsifs' Courts and Punchayets. Revenue Courts. with the taluq. The District Munsif is Tisually a native officer of experience who has risen in the subordinate ranks of the Judicial Departraent ; but of late yeai»s he has been appointed in many instances from the ranks of the native baif, having- previously undergone a " special test " examination as prescribed for the grade. The District Munsifs jurisdiction extends to suits, the value of which does not exceed 2,500 Rupees ; and in most cases be is invested with a Small Cause jurisdiction over suits up to 50 Rupees in value. There are at present 113 such officers located at different stations in the districts. A still lower Court is that of the Village Munsif, established by Regulation IV of 1816, to meet the simple requirements of a village community. The head of the village is under the Regulation ex-officio Village Munsif; local custom however sometimes has it otherwise. The Village Munsifs judicial powers extend to suits for personal property up to 10 Rupees, his decisions not being open to appeal ; if the parties consent, he may try and determine similar suits up to 100 Rupees in value in the character of an arbitrator, and when the litigant villagers wish stich a course, he has power under Regulation V of 1816 to summon a punchayet, generally of five persons, to decide suits for personal property without limitation as to value. Under Regulation XII of 1816 Collectors of Districts may summon punchayets through the Village Munsifs, and may, with the eon.sent of parties, refer to such punchayets the settlement of suits respecting the occupying, cultivating, and irrigating of land between proprietors or renters and their ryots ; as well as claims to crops and lands and cases of disputed boundary. Colleetors, Sub-Collectors, and Assistant and Deputy Collectors in charge of a Division sit as Revenue Courts and exercise judicial powers under the following Regulations : — (a). Regulation IX of 1822, on charges against native servants of the Collector's public establishment, heads of villages, curnams and their gumastahs and other village officers and servants, for exacting or corruptly receiving money for the performance of official acts, levying unauthorized cesses or extra collections for their private use, embezzling public money, falsifying, destroying, or concealing public accounts or other documents relating to the receipt or expenditure of public money; (&), Regulation VI of 1831, regarding claims to hereditary village offices in the Revenue and Police departments, and to the emoluments attached to these offices. The ordinary Courts have no jurisdiction in legai'd to such claims 5 (c), Act VIII of 1865, Madras, regard- Section III.] CIVIL JUSTICE, 1^5 iug disputes between landlord and tenant in wliicii no question of title is involved. The Revenue Courts have power under the latter Act to enforce the terms of a tenancy to compel the exchange of puttahs and muclulkas, to settle the rates of assess- ment or rent, to order sales under distraint, to award compensa- tion for damages in such distraint, to arrest defaulters, and to eject tenants. These Courts, however, do not possess jurisdiction when any question of title to the land itself is raised in the course of such a suit. When a suit is instituted against Government, or against Suits against Collectors or their subordinates for acts done in their official ^^^ Govern- capacity, a report containing the facets of the case, for the ment Officer* ^ , • . • . i» the Eeve- accuracy of which the Collector is responsible, is submitted to nue Depart' the Board of Revenue with copy of the plaint and of the draft ^^^^' answer which it is proposed to iile. When the Board consider the suit defensible they are empowered to sanction its defence at the public cost unless the value of the suit exceeds Rupees 1,000, or unless there is some important principle involved, iu which cases the matter is submitted for the orders of Govern- ment. Difficult and doubtful cases are referred for the advice of the Government law officers. In simple suits between Government ryots for the transfer of puttah in which the Collector is made a defendant ^^ro forma in view to registration, the defence may be undertaken by him without reference to higher authority. When a suit is decided the result must be reported to the Board and copy of the decree and judgment submitted, and when the decision is adverse to Government the report must be submitted in time to admit of orders being passed as regards an appeal in such course is deemed advisable. No formal application is required for sanction to defend suits regarding claims to waste lands under Act XXIII of 18G3, but a report of the institution of the suit is submitted for the informa- tion of Government. Suits against Government and Collectors are chiefly of the following description : (a), for the cancellation of sales for arrears of revenue under Madras Act II of 18G4 5 (b), for transfer of puttahs and registration of lands ; (c), disputes regarding irrigation rights ; (d), claims to waste laud assigned by Government to parties under the rules for the disposal of assessed waste ; («), claims to house sites in the gramanattam or village site. In the great majority of cases the decision is in favor of Government. [Section HI; 196 PROTECTION. REGISTRATION. History of In the year 1834 the Court of Directors of the East India ment ^*^'" Company proposed the enactment of a law making registration of deeds relating to immovable property compulsory under such penalties and safeguards as might be deemed requisite. Legis- lative proposals were accordingly made, and the subject was referred from time to time to various Committees, until in 1864 a Bill containing the main substance of the present law on the subject was passed as Act XVI of 1864, This Act has since undergone several modifications (vide Acts IX of 1865, XX of 1866, XXVII of 1868, and VII of 1871), and the law as at present administered is contained in Act III of 1877. Provisions of The Act just mentioned provides the machinery necessary for ® ^^' registration, lays down the duties and powers of the different classes of ofl&cers, declares what are registrable documents and the effects of registration and non-registration, and prescribes the mode, time and place of presentation and registration. The principle of the Act is the same as that of the law previously in force, No. VIII of 1871, but the new enactment has effected several detailed alterations. The main featui'e in the Registration law is the distinction of registrable documents into those which must be registered in order to obtain vahdity or what are called compulsory documents, and those which it is in the option of the parties to register or not as they think fit. Documents under the first head lose all validity if not registered. In the case of documents falling under the second head it is provided that a registered document of the same class shall take priority over a non-registered one. To remove a technical doubt the present Act also provides that all registered documents, whether compulsory or not, shall take priority over non- registered documents. Establish- For registration purposes the Presidency is divided into 22 ment, &c. districts and 276 sub-districts. "With the exception of Malabar, which is divided into two registration districts, Calicut and Telhcherry, the districts are conterminous with the limits of the Revenue CoUectorates. The sub-districts are also, as a rule, co- extensive with the taluqs and the divisions of Deputy Tahsildars and Sub-Magistrates. The Government were originally in favor of employing the existing Judicial Agency, wherever practicable, in performing the work of registration, but the idea after due consideration was abandoned. The department is now adminis- tered by 22 Registrars and 276 Sub-Registrars under the control Section III.] MILITARY. 197 and supervision of an officer styled the Inspector-General of Registration. Fourteen of the Registrars are Deputy Collectors in charge of the District Treasuries, while the remaining eight are officers specially appointed. Of the Sub- Registry offices 200 are presided over by Taluq Tahsildars and Sub-Magistrates, and 76 by persons specially appointed. Originally all Registering officers and their establishments were paid by a commission on the fees collected, but this mode of remuneration is being gradually superseded by a system of fixed salaries and commission. The fourteen official Registrars are divided into three grades and remunerated by certain fixed allowances in addition to the salaries they draw as Deputy Collectors. The Special Registrars, who are Sub-Registrars as well at the head-quarters of the districts to which they are appointed, are divided under a scheme recently sanctioned into six grades and paid by fixed salaries varying from 50 to 500 Rupees and by a commission of 20 per cent, on the amount of fees collected by them after the first 30 Rupees. The Special Sub- Registrars also are distributed into six classes and remunerated partly by a fixed salary and partly by commis- sion ; the former ranging from 30 to 100 Rupees and the latter being at the same rate as that allowed to the Special Registrars. The official Sub- Registrars receive a commission of 20 per cent, as personal remuneration on the fees they collect and 25 per cent, for their establishments and contingencies. The special Registering officers are, as a rule, chosen from among the graduates and under-graduates of the Madras University, and they are required to acquire a practical knowledge of their duties in the central office before taking up their appointments. MILITARY. The constitution of the Madras Army is as follows : — General constitution 2 Regiments of British Cavalry ; of the Army. 2 Batteries of Royal Horse Artillery ; 1 1 Batteries Field Artillery ; 8 Batteries Garrison Artillery ; A Heavy Battery is stationed at Secundcrabad and a mounted Battery at Tonghoo ; Regimenta British Infantry ; [Section HI. 198 PROTECTION. The Queen's Own Sappers and Miners consisting of 10 companies ; 4 Regiments Native Cavalry ; 40 Regiments of Native Infantry of the above Force ; 5 Batteries of Artillery ; 2 Regiments of European Infantry ; 1 Company of Sappers and Miners ; and 5 Regiments of Native Infantry are serving in British Burma ; and I Regiment of Native Cavalry and 5 Regiments of Native Infantry in the Bengal Presidency . The Army is divided into 3 Divisions and 6 Brigades as under. The commands of 1 Division and 2 First-class Brigades are held by officers of the British service, and those of 2 Divisions, 2 First-class, and 2 Second-class Brigades by officers of the Indian service. Divisions, Hyderabad Subsidiary Force- Mysore Division. British Burma Division. First-class Brigades. Centre District. Nagpore Force. Ceded District. Northern District. Second'class Brigades. Southern District, Malabar and Canara. Commissariat. The executive of the Commissariat Department consists of 1 Commissary-General, 1 Deputy Commissary-General, 5 Assis- tant, 6 Deputy Assistant, and 11 Sub-Assistant Commissaries- General. The head-quarters and the principal office and stores are at Madi-as. The Amrut Mahal, or Government Cattle Breeding Establishment, at Hoonsoor in Mysoi-e is under the control of this department, and supplies draught bullocks for the army, the herds maintained averaging about 10,000 head of cattle. Ordnance. The head-quarters of the Ordnance Department is also at Madras and is under the administration of the Inspector- General of Ordnance and Magazines, 1 Deputy Inspector- Genei-al, and 7 Commissaries of Ordnance. The Gun Powder and Gun Carriage Section III.] MILITARY. 199 Factories, each under a Superintendent, are at Madras. A Bullet Factory is attached to the Gun Carriage Factory, and a Laboratory and Percussion Cap Factory are maintained at St. Thomas' Mount. The Camp Equipage Depot is at Madras. The Gi-and Arsenal is at Fort St. George ; there is an Arsenal at Secunderabad, Magazines at Bangalore, Rangoon, and Nagpore, and Ordnance Depots at St. Thomas' Mount, Trichinopoly, Bellary, and Cannanore. The Army Clothing Department is located in Madras, and Army Cloth- supplies the whole of the Madras Army, European and Native. ^^^' The material is obtained from England and is made up under contract by native workmen. The sewing machine is now largely used. The Remount Depot at Oossoor, about 30 miles from Banga- Remount, lore, is under the superintendence of an Agent, assisted by a Veterinary Surgeon and a small European staiF. It contains accommodation for 1,000 horses. The average number of horses purchased annually is about 600, a large propoi^tion of which are Australians, which are principally required for Artillery and British Cavalry. The Northern and Persian horse is generally allotted to the Native Cavalry. The average price paid to dealers per horse is about Rupees 530, and, on transfer to tlah ranks, their assumed value is Rupees 700. The Medical Department consists of two branches, the British Medical, and Indian. The former has 1 Surgeon-General, 4 Deputy Surgeons-General, 26 Surgeons-Major, and 49 Surgeons. The duties of this branch ai'e connected solely with the medical care of the European troops. The Indian Medical Department has 1 Surgeon- General, G Deputy Surgeons-General, 82 Surgeons- Major, and 92 Surgeons. A large proportion of the officers and subordinates of the Indian Medical Department are employed on civil duties, and the medical care of the Native troops is also provided for by this department. The Government are kept informed of the state of the health of the army by periodical returns furnished by the Surgeons-General of both departments, and by the reports of the Sanitary Commissioner. Further particulai"S on these heads will be found in Chapter VI. The army schools, which are maintained for both European Educational, and Native troops, are under the management of a Commissioned Superintendent, one Assistant Superintendent, and two Sub- Inspectors. The head office for the payment of pensions and family PensiouB, &c. payments is at Madras. The number of pensioners throughout [Section III. 200 PROTECirON. tlie Presidency is about. 32,000, find the immbor of families receiving remittances from the troops in Burma and beyond the frontier is about 3,000. They are all paid monthly. MARINE. Marine The Marine Department of the Presidency is presided over by the Master Attendant of the Port of Madras. The local execu- tive duties in connection with the conservancy of the port, as well as those of Shipping Master, are performed by the Deputy Master Attendant. The Head of the Marine Department is the adviser of Government on all marine matters, and is vested with the control and audit of the marine expenditure pertaining to his own department, or incurred on account of freight and passage in connection with the Military and Civil offices. It is his duty to arrange the programme of yearly reliefs by sea ; and to exercise a general superintendence over vessels engaged for the conveyance of Government troops, passengers, stores, specie, or mails. He is also Registrar- General of Shipping for the Presidency, and Superintendent of Marine for the whole sea- board. The duties of out-port Masters Attendant and Conserva- tors are similar to those of the Deputy Master Attendant at Madras. They are required to enforce obedience to all port rules, and see that the provisions of the Conservancy, Passenger and Merchant Shipping Acts, Imperial and Indian, are properly observed. They enforce quarantine regulations, and by virtue of their office are Government Surveyors of Shipping. They sit also as nautical assessors in Courts of Inquiry held with reference to shipwrecks, and are Landing and Shipping Agents for Government consignments. Some of these officers are Magis- trates of the 1st or 2nd class and Justices of the Peace, their functions in this respect being confined to the trial or adjudica- tion of offences against maritime law. Eastern Grotip. Ganjam. Gopaulpore. Calingapatam. Bimlipatam. Vizagapatam. Cocanada and Coringa. Masiilipatam. Madras. Cuddalore. Porto Novo. Tranquebar. Negapatam and Nagore. Tiiticoriu. Section m.] MARINE. 201 Western Group. Cochin. Calicut and Beypore. Tellicherry. Cannanore. Mangalore. The pera'l nr d chank fisheries in this Presidency are connected Tinnevelly with the Marine Department inasmuch as they are under the pearl superintendence at present of the Master Attendant of Tuticorin ; Fisheries, they are treated however as a branch of Revenue and are administered by the Revenue Board. The Tinnevelly chank or conch, shell fishery was some years ago carried on under Government management, the shells being sold to private persons who exported them to Bengal. About eighteen years ago a change was made in the management and the right of fishery was sold for a term of years. This plan was found to be undesirable, and in 1864 a system of licenses was introduced, which has been continued up to date. It is in contemplation to revert to the plan of Government management. The value of this fishery to Government is from 4,800 to 6,000 Rupees per annum. There is no outlay for establishment and no expenditure of any sort. The price paid for the right of fishing has been Rupees 20 per 1,000 shells, but this is probably a very low figure. The pearl banks on the Tinnevelly coast are of very ancient origin. The old head-quarters were at the Ramnad promontory, but for the last two centuries the head-quai*ters have been at Tuticorin, ninety miles north-east of Cape Comorin. In 1822 the Tuticorin pearl fishery contributed about Rupees 1,30,000 to the revenue, and in 1830 the yield was worth about Rupees 1,00,000. Between this and 1861 there were no fisheries, as the beds seemed to be exhausted. The causes assigned were the widen- ing of the Paumben channel which increased the current and the interference of the chank divers. In 1856 an examination was made, the results of which showed the possibility of a fishery in 1861. Two fisheries actually took place in 1861 and 1862, the total amount realized being Rupees 3,78,581 ; since then, although oyster spat has on several occasions fallen on the banks, there has been no oysters. There is a prospect however of a fishery in 1880. These pearl fisheries are conducted entirely on account of Government The divers employed being given one-third of all oysters they bring up subject to certain rules. The Government share of the oyster- is sold by auction at so much per 1,000. The steamer Margaret Northcofe and the boats Pearl and Ed!fh form a guard establishment at the pearl 26 [Section HI. 202 PROTECTION. banks, the steamer being used for other duties when not required for inspection there. No crews are at present enter- tained for the Pearl and Edith, and the latter boat has been lent to the Marine Department at Paumben until her services are asrain needed. AGRICULTURAL. Wild Animals, Boad Avenues. The Government offer rewards for killing elephants, tigers, cheetahs, bears, wolves and hyaenas- Collectors pay the rewards on production of the skin, or other satisfactory evidence. Cheetahs and hyaanas form the most frequent cases. Road avenues are in most cases under the charge of the Local Fund Boards, nearly all the roads in the country being undertaken by them. Where this is not the case Collectors take charge of the avenues. LOCAL FUNDS ADMINISTRATION. Nature of Circles and provisions Act. In the Madras Presidency the Local Funds properly so called Qf are constituted and administered under Madras Act IV of 1871. The whole of the Presidency outside the limits of municipal towns, and with the exception of the Jeypore Zemindary in Vizagapatam, and the Hill Maliahs in Ganjam, was brought under the operation of the Act immediately on its passing. The country was under the Act divided into circles, in each of which a Local Fund Board was constituted. The Collector of the district is under the Act ex-officio President of each Board situated within his jurisdiction, and the members of the Board are appointed by Government under the restriction that non- official members must be appointed in numbers at least equal to those holding Government appointments. The circles at first constituted were thirty-six in number; the districts of Nellore, Kurnool, Ti'ichinopoly, the Nilgiris, and South Canara formed each one circle ; the district of Bellaiy had three ; and the I'emaining fourteen districts two each. In 1872-73 the two circles in Coiinbatorc wwe amalgamated, and the division Section III.] LOCAL FUNDS ADMINISTRATION. 203 of the Godavery District was revised so as to make the river the boundary between the circles. From the beginning of 1875-76 the two circles in Vizagapatam have been amalga- mated, so that the number now in existence is thirty-four. The Madras Local Funds Act repealed the District Road Cess Act III of 1866 and the Education Act VI of 1863. The former imposed a cess not exceeding half an anna in the rupee on the rent- value of occupied land to constitute a fund for the consti'uction and maintenance of local roads. The latter enabled the inhabitants of a locality to tax themselves for the upkeep of schools. On the repeal of these Acts the existing funds and the charges appertaining to local roads and to schools wei'e ti'ansferred to the newly-constituted Local Funds. The new Local Funds Act provided for the imposition of a cess similar to the District Road Cess, but with a maximum of 1 Anna ; for the establishment of tolls upon roads ; and for the levy of a house-tax. Two-thii'ds of the cess and the whole of the tolls wei'e made applicable exclusively to roads and communications, and the house-tax was declared available for schools only, and was to be imposed only in villages or gi'oups of villages in which schools existed or were about to be established. The objects to which local funds were made applicable were described in the Act to be — (I), the construction, repair, and maintenance of roads and communications; (II), the diffusion of education, and with this object in view the construction and repair of school-houses, the maintenance of schools either wholly or by means of gi-ants-in-aid, the inspection of schools and the training of teachers ; (III), the construction and repair of hospitals, lunatic asylums, choultries, markets, tanks and wells ; the payment of all charges connected with the objects for which such buildings have been constructed ; the training and employment of vaccinators and medical practitioners ; the sanitary inspection of towns and villages ; the cleansing of the roads, streets and tanks ; and any other local works of public utility calculated to promote the health, comfort, and convenience of the people. The Act also provided for the transfer to Local Fund Boards of public dispensaries, choultries, tanks, &c., endowed and unendowed ; for vesting the endo\\Tnents in the Boards ; and for enabling the Board of Revenue to transfer to them the powers of control of charitable endowments conferred by Regulation VII of 1817. Immediately upon Act IV of 1871 being passed, the land cess AsaetB of was levied at the maximum rate in all districts except Godavery. ^'i*""^®*- Section III. 204 PROTECTlO.V. CliargeB on Circles, Kistna, Kurnool, Chingleput, Nortb Arcot, Tanjore, Madura, and Tinnevelly, where it was fixed at 9 Pies. In 1873-74 the rate was raised to 1 Anna in the Chittoor Circle, and in 1874-75 to the same rate in Vellore : both in the North Arcot District. The house-tax under the same Act was imposed at first in those areas in which taxes had been levied and schools maintained under Act VI of 1863, but was discontinued under the orders of Government from the beginning of 1873-74, since which date the Union Funds referred to in the Act have been abolished. In the first year only 9 new toll-gates were established, but the number has since been considerably increased. The figures below show the total number of tolls maintained in each year for the last five years, including those which in Malabar and Canara are kept up otherwise than under Act IV of 1871 : — 1871-72 47 tolls. 1872-73 1873-74 1874^75 1875-76 51 55 65 72 In addition to the sources of revenue just mentioned, the Local Fund Circles have hitherto received an annual grant from Provincial Funds for the special relief of the funds devoted to the construction and maintenance of Imperial Roads. They possess also the endowment funds pertaining to the trusts of the endowed institutions handed over to them under the Act ; and there are certain other assets, such as a share in surplus pound receipts, ferry rents, fishery and grass rents, &c., which have been made over to them by the Government under conditions. The Provincial grants for the last four years are shown below, and side by side the outlay made by the circles in the same years on the roads in question : — Year. Provincial Grants for Roads.* Outlay on Imperial Roads.f 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 R8. 11,52,115 11,74,402 11,57,527 11,52,624 RS. 13,58,-591 13,06,916 13,51,546 12,75,213 The passing of the Local Funds Act was, though not conse- quent on, yet coincident with, the decentralization scheme of * Including establishment grant, f Excluding establishment charges. Section III.j LOCAL FUN'TtS ADMINISTRATION. 205 Provincial finance described further on under Chapter V. The grants made on that occasion towards the control of certain services being less than the past expenditure on those services, the Madras Government was compelled to transfer a considerable bui'den of charge from Provincial Funds to the Local Funds constituted under Act IV of 1871. Upon what is technically known as the Road Fund was laid the cost of the construction and maintenance of all roads, &c., formerly provided for from the Imperial grant under Communications, with a corresponding charge for Public Works Department Establishment. The charges provided for in the oinginal Public Works Budget of 1871-72 for Communications and so transferred amounted to Eupees 11,27,996. The old District Road Fund paid 10 per cent, on outlay as a contribution for Public Works Department Establishment; but in 1871-72 the charge, which was arbitrarily fixed, was Rupees 5,59,083 and at the rate of 18-96 per cent, on the outlay. In 1872-73 and 1873-74 a system was in force under which the cost of the Public Works Department Establishment was rateably distributed amongst the several funds from which outlay was incurred after deduction of certain portions of the cost of establishments maintained for special purposes, these being charged in full to the funds concerned. The percentage charged to Road Fund was in 1872-73 28'97 per cent., and in 1873-74 24'70. In 1874-75 a fixed rate of 25 per cent, on the outlay effected through the Public Works Department was introduced and has since been enforced. These arrangements regulated also the charge for Public Works Department Establishment on account of outlay from the other branches of the Local Fund. Under education it was resolved to lay upon Local Funds the whole charges incurred within Local Fund Circles in connection with elementary education ; and in pursuance of this decision, the cost of Inspecting Schoolmasters, two-thirds of the cost of Deputy Inspectors and certain contributions towards the cost of Normal Schools were at first imposed on Local Funds. The last two classes of charge were resumed as Provincial in 1874-75. Local Funds bear all grants, salary and results, made to schools of the lower class ; but grants paid by Government to schools established under Act VI of 1863 and transferred to Local Boards continue to be ci-edited to Local Funds. The institution of Local Funds has given a great stimulus to primary instruction, and the sums expended upon it are yearly increasing. A modification of the results-grant system has been introduced, whereby the permanence of the school is secured by the grant of a small salary to the master, which is supplemented by results [Section III. 206 PROTECTION. grants, so that the master's remnneration still depends to a great extent upon his exertions. Fui'ther particulars on this head will be found under Chapter VII. Various charges in connection with medical services were transferred to Local Funds in 1871-72. The whole charges for vaccination, and for the salaries of medical subordinates, cost of medicines, &c., borne by Government in dispensaries endowed and unendowed are now transferred to Local and Municipal Funds. Local Funds contribute also in aid of dispensaries situated in Munici- palities. When the medical subordinate in charge of Local Fund Dispensaries is the only one in the station, the Government have been in the habit since 1872-73 of contributing one-fonrth of his salary, on condition that his services are available for Government employes at the station. The niimber of endowed dispensaries is ten only, but the number of Local Fund Dispen- saries has increased to a very great extent. In the statement given below are noted the number of dispensaries under Local Fund Boards in each year, and also the total number and income of endowed institutions transferred to them in accordance with the provisions of the Act : — Dispensaries endowed and unendovred. Endowed Institutions. Endowment Revenue. 1871-72 1872.73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 20 34 45 60 75 139 135 196 208 202 RS. 45,420 74,842 2,42,806 2,30,585 2,80,454 The travellers' bungalows and choultries throughout tbe country were, with one or two exceptions, transferred to the local boards in 1872-73 and 1873-74. The administration of the Vaccination Department was in 1874 handed over to such local boards as were willing to receive it, and payment by results as well as other schemes for stimulating operations have since been adopted. The accounts of Local Fund Boards are audited by the Examiner, Public Works Accounts, for Public Yf orks, and by the Accountant-General for other charges. Each Local Fund Circle has its budget, which is reviewed in detail by the Revenue Board and Government. The financial control rests with the latter. Section III.] MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION — MOFUSSIL. 207 MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION— MOFUSSIL. Municipal action in the rural parts of this Presidency may be Historical said to date originally from the passing of Act XXVI of 1850, Former~aot8. which authorized inhabitants of towns to raise voluntary taxes for sanitary and other public purposes. Little use was made of this enactment. The next Act of a municipal nature was the Towns Improvement Act X of 1865. The Government had for some time had under consideration the expediency of requiring the inhabitants of towns, who under the fiscal arrangements in force up to that time contributed a far smaller proportion to the general revenues than the inhabitants of the rural districts, to defray a portion of the cost of the Town Police, with the view both of reducing the charge which its maintenance entailed upon the State and so increasing the sum available for the general Police, and of providing funds for placing the Police in towns upon a more efiicient footing than had hitherto been practicable. It was pointed out at the time that the moneyed and trading classes who resided and carried on their business in towns did not pay their fair share of taxation, and that at the same time, owing to the number of persons congregated in a small space, and the increased facilities for crime which were thereby occa- sioned, the expense of Police protection was greater in town than in country. The original intention was to make compulsory only that part of the taxation which was required to defray Police charges, while the raising of a rate for the pui-poses of conservancy or other purposes of local improvement was to be left optional with the rate-payers, the consent of a majority of whom should in each case be requisite. It was eventually decided however to include among the purposes for which the funds raised under the Act must necessarily be appro- priated, the construction, repair, and maintenance of roads, drains, tanks, &c., and the carrying out of all measures necessary for the preservation of the public health. The Com- missioners were provided with means of taxation, and the Government were held liable to pay a contribution amounting to 25 per cent, of the sum spent by the Commissioners on the objects above named. In addition to the funds raised for the purposes so specified, the committees were empowered to raise and expend with the previous sanction of Government such additional amoauts as might appear to them necessary for [Section III. 208 PROTF.CTION. other municipal purposes, for instance, the lighting of the town, the prevention or extinction of fire, the supply of water, &c. — Act of 1871. The Act of 1865 was gradually introduced into all the more important towns, and in 1869-70 Avas in successful operation in 44 cases. In 1871 it was considered that the Act needed revision, and in Act III of 1871 certain changes were made of considerable importance. The introduction of the financial system known as the " decentralization scheme," which will be found described further on under Chapter V, operated to accelerate the passing of Act III of 1871, but did not materially influence its contents. The Act of 1865 contained a restriction which prevented the appointment as Municipal Commissioners of persons not residing within the limits of the Municipality. Experience had shown that the occasional presence of a European officer as a working member of the Commission was essential to the efficient working of the Act, and it was therefore considered advisable that the Government should have the power of appointing any officer they might think proper, subject to a limitation as to the proportion of official persons who should be members of these Commissions. It was also thought right to substitute the Revenue Officer in charge of the division of the district in which the town was situated for the Executive Engineer as an ex-officio Commissioner. It was considered important that Revenue Officers of all gi-ades as the administrative agents of the Government should identify themselves with the successful working of municipal institutions within their respective ranges, and that they should regard the duty as formiHg an essential part of their official functions. The qualification for appointment to the office of Municipal Commissioner was also made more elastic, and provision was made for introducing the system of appointment by election whenever the Government might deem it proper to apply that system to a particular Municipality. The particular rules under which the latter arrangement is to be carried out are still under consideration. One of the most important provisions of the new Act was the application of municipal funds to certain educational and other purposes, which, though essentially of a local character and such as might properly be met by local taxation, did not come under the provisions of the Towns Improvement Act of 1865. Such for instance was the construction and maintenance of hospitals, the training and employment of medical practitioners, sanitary inspec- tion and the collection of statistics of births and deaths. Tt was Section III.] MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION — MOFUSRIL, 209 considered of great importance tiiat larger funds tlian were then available should be provided for all these objects, and it was held to be essential that these funds should be raised by local taxation. The inclusion of education among the purposes to which municipal taxation was to be applied had the efiect of making compulsory that which had previously been done in some towns by the volun- tary action of a majority of the inhabitants under the provisions of Madras Act III of 1863 ; the working of this Act had shown that nothing short of a system of compulsory taxation would suffice for any considerable extension of primary education among the people. The Act of 1871 where introduced supersedes the Act of 1863. Since the passing of the Act of 1871 it has been made a rule of practice that the education undertaken by Municipalities shall be of the " primary " description, that is to say, that it shall not proceed farther than the third of the four standards laid down by Government in the " Results Grant-in-aid" Rules. In addition to the above, vaccination and the registration of births and deaths within the limits of the town devolved on the Municipalities constituted under the new Act. Another important change was the withdrawal of the 25 per cent, grant which under the Towns Improvement Act of 1865 the Government was bound to contri- bute in aid of the charges for Police and Conservancy. It was at first designed that the Municipalities should be required to pay the whole of the charges for conservancy and other municipal purposes excluding Police, and 60 per cent, of the Police charges. The system in force in Provincial Municipalities would thus have been very nearly assimilated to that in the Presidency town, where the Municipality contributed 50 per cent, of the Police charges. These considerations did not however ultimately prevail, and it was finally decided to withdraw the State aid altogether, to relieve Municipalities from all Police charges, and to leave the municipal powers of taxation in much the same condition as they were before. The motive for withdrawing the grants-in-aid was chiefly a financial one. The measure effected a net annual saving to Imperial or Provincial Funds of about one lakh and a half of Rupees. Moreover it would have been impossible to extend the system of State grants to the new system of taxation for local purposes, which was at the same time inaugu- rated in the rural districts, and there was no valid reason for retaining the grant-in-aid system in the one case and discarding it in the other. To sum up the present situation of the Mofussil Municipalities, Present Act III of 1871 has superseded Act X of 1865, By the change situation. 27 [Section in. 210 PROTECTION. the Municipalities have gained in the direction of having no longer to contribute 75 per cent, to public charges ; they have lost however in having had thrown on them four new charges, namely, those for hospitals and dispensaries, for schools, for birth and death registration, and for vaccination. Each Municipality has a Board or Commission presided over by the Collector of the District, and this Board administers the Act under the super- vision of the Government. The Board is composed of official and non-official members, the former being not more than one-half of the whole number. The Revenue Officers in charge of recognized divisions of districts are ex-officio members of the Commissions situated within those limits. The members are appointed for a term of three years subject to removal for misconduct or neglect of duty. Provision is also made for election by the rate-payers. The Vice-President may either be appointed by Government or elected by the Commissioners. The taxes authorized by the Act are — (1), rates on houses, buildings, and lands not exceeding 7| per cent, on the annual rent value ; (2), a tax on arts, professions, trades, and callings varying from Rupee 1 to Rupees 100 ; (3), a tax on carriages, horses, and other animals varying from Annas 4 to Rupees 9 half-yearly ; (4), a fee not exceeding Rupees 2 half-yearly for the registration of carts ; and (5), tolls on carriages, carts, and animals entering the municipal limits varying from 1 Anna to 1 Rupee. In addition to the above, fees are leviable for the use of markets, slaughter-houses, and cart-stands and for the exercise under license of offensive or dangerous trades. Rates on houses, lands, or buildings and tolls may be recovered by distress and sale of the movable property of the defaulter or the movable property on the premises, but in the case of the other taxes payment can only be enforced by prosecution before a Magistrate. Since the passing of Act III of 1871 three additional Municipalities have been constituted, making the total number of towns at the end of 1875-76 forty-seven. Statistics. The following tables give statistics regarding the forty -seven Mofussil Municipalities for a recent average year: — Section III.] MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION — MOFUSSIL. Table I. — Taxation and Incidence. 211 Ttipom A Incidence Incidence Municipalities. Census Population from Taxa tion. _ of Taxation of Taxation including excluding Tolls. ToUs. RS. HS. A. P. RS. A. P. Adoni 22,723 11,712 8 3 6 1 Anantapore 4,918 5,119 10 7 5 6 Bellary 51,766 47,338 14 7 9 Berhampore 21,670 13,658 10 1 5 Bimlipatam 8,744 10,698 13 7 2 10 Calicut 47,962 25,279 8 5 7 5 Cannanore 31,358 17,Oo9 8 9 8 Caroor 7,945 8,056 10 2 7 1 Chellumbrum 15,519 11,438 11 9 5 6 Chicacole ... 15,587 7,639 7 10 2 5 Cocanada 17,839 19,053 1 1 1 9 10 Cochin 13,840 6,833 7 10 7 10 Coimbatore 35,310 22,098 10 6 1 Combaconura 44,444 34,958 12 7 5 11 Conjeveram 37,327 17,555 7 6 5 4 Coonoor ... 3,058 4,086 15 4 15 4 Cuddalore 40,290 25,354 10 1 5 1 Cuddapah 16,275 13,191 12 11 6 8 Cumbum 7,295 3,234 7 1 3 7 Dindigul 12,865 7,501 9 4 3 5 Ellore 25,487 7,476 4 8 1 10 Erode ... ... 7,817 5,789 11 10 8 11 Ghooty 6,730 4,800 11 5 4 10 Guntur 18,033 17,652 15 8 8 11 Kurnool 25,579 14,189 8 10 4 9 Madura 51,987 39,621 12 2 5 2 Manargudi 17,703 12,336 11 1 3 10 Mangalore 29,712 16,867 9 1 8 Masulipatam 36,188 19,347 8 6 5 1 Mayaveram 21,165 14,399 10 10 6 2 Negapatam 48,525 39,381 13 9 Nellore ... 29,922 15,483 8 3 5 11 Ootacamnnd 9,982 15,313 18 7 18 7 Palamcottah 17,945 10,983 9 10 3 11 Palgaut 30,752 16,496 8 7 2 5 Rajahmundry 19,738 11,010 8 11 6 Salem 50,012 29,288 9 4 6 2 Srirungum 11,271 8,871 12 7 12 7 Tanjore 52,175 35,329 10 10 4 10 Tellicherry 20,504 11,594 9 1 6 10 Tinnevelly 21,044 11,838 9 3 7 Trichinopoly 76,530 47,657 9 11 7 10 Tuticorin ... 10,565 15,879 18 11 10 Vellore 38,022 30,320 12 9 4 7 Vizagapatam 32,191 21,071 10 6 4 8 Vizianagram 20,169 11,800 9 4 3 2 Wallajapett 12,103 7,354 9 9 4 [Section m. 212 PROTECTION. Table II. — Proportion to 100 of different ontlays. Municipalities. on Grant I— Works and PS. 1 on Grant IV— ng, Markets, Miscellaneous Improvc- 1 > c O 1 (A i Ill s5 tlay id iiblic ents, ft > 1 5^« ^mS ^^S^S .f. < 3 Adoni ,,, 15 5 30 1 7 38 Anantapore . . . 13 11 50 11 12 3 Bellary 29 5 46 10 9 1 Ghooty 19 7 49 8 13 4 Conjeveram . . . 18 7 43 9 8 "5 10 Caroor 36 3 41 7 8 5 Coimbatore ... 14 2 35 10 7 23 9 Erode 21 3 47 12 7 5 5 Cuddapah 21 5 44 10 11 3 6 Berhampore ... 22 11 36 7 11 13 Chicacole 24 9 43 3 9 12 Cocanada 35 3 36 11 13 2 EUore 33 3 32 3 12 17 Eajahmundry... 2V 2 42 6 5 6 12 Gimtoor 16 7 46 9 8 1 13 Masulipatam ... 18 6 19 16 8 2 1 Ciimbum 9 10 56 3 16 6 Kurnool 17 1 47 23 8 4 Dindigul 38 5 25 14 9 9 Madura 19 1 37 14 3 i 25 Calicut 18 4 62 6 8 1 1 Cannanore 17 4 52 11 11 5 Cochin 17 19 43 9 11 1 Palghaut 55 7 14 3 6 15 Tellicherry 27 14 38 2 11 8 Coouoor 21 1 37 11 12 "7 11 Ootacamund . . . 45 3 16 15 6 2 13 Nellore 15 10 47 14 8 6 Vellore 34 3 31 15 5 12 Walla japett . . . 30 9 35 12 14 Salem 25 8 54 5 7 3 —2 Cuddalore 34 2 41 11 7 5 Chellumbrum . . . 15 2 36 6 16 1 24 ]\[angalore 41 2 26 11 7 1 12 Combaconum ... 28 6 35 5 6 20 Mayaveram . . . 29 12 29 10 7 13 Manargudi 28 2 39 11 7 13 Negapatam . . . 39 1 30 7 5 18 Tanjore 37 6 25 13 8 11 Palamcottah ... 15 4 47 18 9 7 Tinnevelly 12 7 46 13 21 1 Tuticorin 42 1 40 11 6 Sriningum 35 3 40 9 6 "7 Trichinopoly ... 37 2 35 17 5 i 3 Bimlipatam ... 28 2 47 11 7 5 Vizagapatam ... 19 9 43 7 12 10 Viziauagx-um ... 39 5 36 3 17 Average ... 28 1 5 38 10 8 1 1 10 Section III.] MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION — MADRAS TOWN. 213 MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION— MADRAS TOWN. Tlie Municipality of the Town of Madras dates its origin from History and the passing of Statute 33, George III, Chapter 52, Section 158, constitution, and may therefore be said to be an old -established institution, though it was only in 1856 that the public functionaries administering the funds were first styled Municipal Commis- sioners. The Act of 1856 was superseded by Act IX of 1865, and this in its turn gave way to Act IX of 1867, which, with a slight amendment effected by Act V of 1871, is still in force. The Municipality is divided into eight divisions. Four persons residing within the limits of each division are appointed by Grovernment to be Commissioners for that division. The Commissioners hold office for three years, subject to removal for misconduct or neglect of duty. Provision exists for election by the rate- payers, but has not yet been carried out in practice. The entire executive power is vested in the President who is appointed by Government and paid from Municipal funds. An Executive Engineer, a Sanitary Inspector, an Assessor, and a Collector of Municipal Taxes also hold their appointments direct from Government and are removable at their pleasure. All other paid officials are appointed by the President, subject to the approval of the Municipal Commissioners when the salary exceeds Rupees 150 per mensem. The taxes leviable under the Madras Municipal Act are — Nature of (I), a tax on carriages, horses, and other animals varying from 4 ^^ ^°^' Annas to 12 Rupees half-yearly ; (2), fees not exceeding 2 Rupees half-yearly for the registration of carts and other vehicles without springs ; (3), tolls on carriages, carts, and animals entering the municipal limits varying from 6 Pies to 4 Annas ; (4), a tax on arts, professions, trades, and callings classified as follow^s : — Class I. — Persons with incomes ranging from Rs. 150 to Rs. 350 yearly. do. do. ,. do. , do. do. (5), licenses for tlie sale of spirituous liquors varying from Rupees 12 to Rupees 75; (6), sea tolls on boats or rafts calculated on the tonnage at the rate of 4 Annas per ton ; and (7), rates on Do. II.— Do. Do. III.— Do. Do. IV.— Do. Do. v.— Do. Do. VI.— Do. LOO do. 50 do. 25 do. 12 do. 4 do. [Section III. 214 PROTECTION, Income and Expenditure for eight years. houses, buildings, and lands not exceeding 10 per cent, on the estimated gross annual rent at which they might reasonably be expected to let from year to year. The above rates and taxes are all in force with the exception of sea tolls, the house rate being levied at 7^ per cent. Rates and taxes may be recovered by distress and sale of the goods and chattels of the defaulter, and any person carrying on his profession or trade without registration is liable, on conviction before two Magistrates, to a penalty not exceeding thi*ee times the amount payable for a registration certificate. Appeals against assessments are heard and determined by two Magistrates, who are empowered to state a case for final decision by the High Court. Under Act IX of 1867 the Town Police were paid from Municipal funds, but they were relieved of this charge by Act V of 1871, which, at the same time, extended the application of the Municipal funds to purposes of education, the establislxment of hospitals, vaccination, and other works of local public utility. The population of nearly 400,000 inhabitants among whom the taxation is distributed ai'e scattered over an area of 2 7 square miles. The following statements show for the past eight years the income, incidence of taxation, expenditure, and other particulars for this Municipality. Previous to 1871-72 the municipal accounts were kept for the calendar year. Column 7 in Statement I refers to the taxation authorized by the Act and not to all sources of income: — Table I. d Number of Members of Committee. Total Income from all Sources. Incidence of Taxation per Head of Popu- lation. Amount Years. 1 O Nomi- nated. Total. of Debt. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1868 1869 1870 1871-72 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 ^ r « 1 s 1 Ci ' CO J L 13 9 9 9 10 9 12 12 1 19 23 23 23 22 23 20 20 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 ES. 7,35,077 7,05,063 6,13,371 5,71,346 5,22,407 5,91.343 5,36,292 6.08,218 RS. A. P. 1 4 61 1 9t 1 2 61 1 1 8| 1 6-iif 10 1 2 1 2 3i RS. 50,000 1,25,000 10,19,571 12,60,000 14,28,000 14,30.000 14.30,000 Section III. MUNICrPAL ADMINISTRATION — MADRAS TOWN. Table II. 21^ Years. RS. 1868 5,17,283 1869 6,52,921 1870 5,44,663 1871-72 5,62,406 1872-73 5,19,794 1873-74 5,21,684 1874-75 5,16,573 1875-76 5,93,885 Total Expenditure. Sinking Fund for reduction of Debt for Water-supply- Project. 1,011 13,457 10,292 13,144 19,098 27,278 [Section IV. SECTION lY. PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. AGRICULTURE. Description The land in every Government village, as plotted out by the lands. old original Peimasli or Survey, or by tbe operations of the recent Revenue Survey and Settlement, falls into two main divisions, the uncultivable portion and the cultivable. The former goes by the general name of poramboke, and consists of various classes of land which from one cause or another are uncultivable or not likely to be cultivated, such as hills, rocks, jungles, and other lands not naturally cultivable ; and of lands reserved for public purposes, viz., village sites, roads, beds of tanks, channels, cattle stands, burial grounds, &c. As has already been explained in Section II no revenue is realized from poramboke lands, except a few miscellaneous items ; it is not classified or assessed by the Revenue Settlement Department, and it is only surveyed by the Survey Department when it consists of small blocks interspersed in cultivable lands. In the ease of all portions of a village area which are considered to be in any way likely to be cultivated, whether on the irrigated or unirrigated system, the land is surveyed and marked off into distinct numbers or fields by the Survey Department, each field is examined and classified by the Revenue Settlement Depart- ment, and the amount of Government due or assessment chargeable thereon is fixed and placed on record. Any one taking up this land knows in advance that he will have to pay so much and no more in the form of Government assessment upon it ; this land is consequently called the assessed land, or sometimes the ayacvit or cultivable area of the village. Assessed land will, of course, include Inam lands, though the terms made with the Inamdar are for the moment special, and full assessment is not levied. It is not often that the whole of the assessed land in the village has already been taken up by cultivators. In each village there may be said therefore to be a portion of assessed land Section IV.] AGRICULTURE. 217 which is offered but has not yet been taken up, and which forms the margin of cultivation, being always of poorer soil than the rest of the ayacut ; this is otherwise called assessed waste. Villages have communal rights of grazing over assessed waste. Deducting this portion, the remainder of the ayacut consists of lands in the occupation of cultivators, and for the most part actually cultivated by them ; this is called the cultivated area. In some cases the lands will from one cause or another be left temporarily waste by the occupiers, who will not nevertheless resign them. These occasional waste portions are ascertainable from the cultivation accounts ; they can therefore be deducted and the remainder will represent the area actually under crops. The following figures show to a certain extent the proportion of acreage belonging at a recent date to each of these four main classes of lands for an area of, say, 65,664,000 acres. The whole area of the Presidency is 88,523,520 acres, but the balance consists of lands for which particulars of cultivable or uncultivable lands are not known, lands lying outside villages, forest lands, &c. The four classes of lands are of course locally interspersed, and the division is merely a paper division : — ACRES. 1. Poramboke or uncultivable ... ... 23,964,160 2. Assessed waste not occupied ... ...-. 3. Assessed land occupied but not cultivated} ' ''^ 4. Assessed lands under crops ... ... 27,516,511 Total . . . 65,664,000 The word " ayacut " is most usually employed in the phrase " wet ayacut, " when speaking of the area irrigable by a particular tank. The greater part of the Madras Presidency is covered with Distribution soils that were originally formed by the disintegration of rocks of °ff^°t- ' ^^ the metamorphic and igneous systems. The soils derived from agriculture, the rocks of the first-mentioned system, gneiss, mica, quartz, &c., which prevail the most widely, are very inferior ; especially when, as is the case in many parts of Southern India, they occur as sedentary soils, that is to say, when they rest on the rock from which they were originally formed. The extensive ranges of mountains known as the Pulneys, Anamallais, and Neilgherriea are composed of granitic rocks, the decomposition of which, especially where the felspar occurs as orthoclase, afibrds a productive soil in situations where the rainfall is not excessive. The minor ranges of hills, of which there aro many scattered 28 [Section IV. 218 PEODUCTION AND DISTPJBUTION. The seasons with refsr- ence to cultivation, over the Presidency, consist chiefly of syenite and quartz rocks ; the former yields on decomposition a productive soil, but the soils derived fi*om the latter are always inferior, and sometimes perfectly sterile. Stretching across the country in a north-east direction from Trichinopoly there is a wide belt of green sand, which affords a highly productive soil. The area of sedentary soil derived from inferior rocks is very considerable, but it fortunately happens that, ovring to the gigantic scale on which the forces of natui'e have operated in Southern India, there is a wide extent of transported soils, formed of the disintegrated portions of the rocks of other formations. Of this class is the black cotton soil, an alluvial soil met with all over the Presidency, sometimes in isolated patches of only a few acres in area, and sometimes in large plains of hundreds of square miles. The depth of this soil varies from 12 inches to from 12 to 15 feet. It is closely allied to the black earth of Southern Russia, and evidently occupies the sites of dried-up lakes. From its unusual power of absorbing and retaining moisture, is in great request. Another characteristic soil met with in all parts of the Presidency is the red soil, so called fi-om its peculiar red appearance, derived from a large admixture of the peroxide of iron. This soil differs very considerably in its character ; in some places forming extensive plains with a hard crusted surface almost incapable of producing even indigenous vegetation, and in other places being friable, open, easily worked, very hygroscopic from the oxide of iron it contains, and generally fertile. As a rule, the most fertile tracts of land occupy low situations ; most of them are of alluvial origin, and from the facilities they afford for irrigation, they generally form the irrigated area. The land most in need of irrigation from its extreme dryness and the natural povei'ty of its original constituents, is obviously the most difficult to provide with irrigation water, but such land consti- tutes three-fourths of the food-producing area of the country. The most important cultivating season of the year in the greater part of the Presidency begins with the first rains that inaugurate the north-east monsoon ; this is generally about the end of September, the sowing month being October and the harvest month Februaiy. Over the other portions of the Presidency the crops are raised under the influence of the rains acompanying the south-west monsoon, and in this case the sowing is performed in the months of April and May, while the crops are harvested in August and September. All cultivation, whether artificially irrigated or not, depends more or less on the Section IV. ] AGRICULTURE. 219 tnoiisoon seasons. Land irrigated from wells is naturally the least so, and land irrigated from tanks, -wliicli do not in ail cases get their supply from the immediate rainfall, are more independent than unirrlgated laud. The unirrigated land is absolutely dependent on the falling rain. Irrigated land, especially that under wells, has sometimes two crops in the year. Two crops can be got off unirrigated land only in certain highly favored localities. Irrigated land forms about 15 per cent, of the area under Treatment occupation. It is watered exclusively from rivers, river ^^nd channels, and tanks, and in most instances the water flows upon the land by gravitation. The area of land irrigated directly from rivers is extremely small compared with the area watered from river-channels. The reason of this is that the beds of most of the rivers on the plains are so frequently changed, or are situated in such deep valleys that it is difficult to get the water thence to the cultivated land. Hence the practice of putting dams or anicuts across rivers. Dams are constructed where there is space for the storage of water, and where the water can be raised to a height sufficient to command a suitable area of ai"able land. From the dams the water passes along channels to the cultivated land ; the beds of these channels being kept so high that the water will flow by gravitation through sluices into the minor distributing channels. In many instances the irrigation water cannot be secured at a sufficient height, and the water is then raised from the channel by a picottah or similar means. Tanks ai'e always placed in situations where the surface drainage of a more or less considerable area of country naturally flows or collects. Sometimes they are natural and form shallow lakes ; but as a rule they are artificial and occupy a situation on land having a slight slope. In .selecting the position for a tank the object is to secure for the upper slope a large collecting area and to command on the lower slope a sufficient area of arable land for watering by gravitation. Artificial tanks are always more efficacious than natural tanks equally supplied with water, because the land irrigated from the artificial tank is from its position generally well drained, while that irrigated from the natural tank is frequently altogether without drainage, being but a portion of the bed of some original lake. The only crop grown on this description of land is paddy. Where an abundance of water is available throughout the year, two crops are grown annually, but most of the land as abeady said produces [Section IV. 220 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. only one crop. The irrigation water is usually supplied on each occasion to a depth of from 1 to 2 inches, and the supply is made according to its abundance on every day, every other day, or every third day, during the growth of the crop. In many parts of the Presidency the practice is to sow the paddy broadcast on a semi-Hquid soil which is brought into this state by frequent waterings and stirrings. The practice is also common of transplanting young seedling paddy plants from nursery beds into the field. Beyond weeding and watering, the paddy land receives no attention while under crop. Some vaiueties of paddy are six months on the ground, others only four months. The crop is cut when dead ripe, and is thrashed by striking the sheaves on a log of wood or by the treading of cattle. The agricultural practice in dealing with irrigated land is said to be capable of improvement in the direction of a more economical use of the water ; as long however as the ryot is unable to apply manure to his irrigated land he is under the necessity of using a large quantity of irrigation water in order to secure silt in its places. There are many practical difficulties in the way of procuring manure ; there is also a deficiency of capital to invest in it. Treatment of Eighty per cent, of the food-producing area of the Presidency Tand^^^^^^ consists of dry land. A very large area of these tracts is covered by soils of the lowest value ; there are however considerable areas of really good soil. The dry lands are in the hands of poorer cultivators than the wet lands, and it is probable that their cultivation is more susceptible of improvement than that of the wet lands. The black soils are usually cropped with cotton and cholum. The red soils are variously cropped ; in some districts they constitute the chief cotton-producing areas, but when good they are cropped with the difiei^ent cereals. The grey soils produce varagoo, korraloo, and inferior cumboo, cholum, &c. Sometimes two or even three crops are sown simultaneously on the same ground, so that if one fails the other may succeed ; choice being made of crops that do not all bear at one time. The crops grown on the unirrigated land are sown both broadcast and in lines, but the former is more usual. The tillage consists usually of ploughing in various directions ; the native plough stirs but does not turn over the soil and seldom penetrates to a greater depth than three inches. The seeding is always heavy, and there is probably a waste of seed. The actual Section IV.] AGRICULTURK. 221 operation of sowing is either performed by broadcasting the seed over the land by the hand, or by the aid of a drill formed of three or four bamboo tubes connected at the top to a fixed hopper into which the seed is placed and from which it passes through the bamboo tubes into the soil. During the growth of the crop but little is done in cultivations or hoeings. The crops are all harvested by the hand, the work being paid for in kind. Grass is encouraged to grow spontaneously in all parts of Treatment of the village area where it will not interfere with other crops, but special grass-crops raised from seed, or developed by irrigation, are as yet very rare in this Presidency, the remuneration not proving sufficient. Ryots will frequently Jeave permanently uncultivated the least productive portions of their holdings for the sake of giving a better pasture to the live-stock required for farm labor than is to be got in the poramboke land. Or they will leave the land temporarily fallow in the same way, with a view to combining pasture with fertilization of the soil. With the exception however of certain cases, yearly diminishing, where a light assessment is placed on arable land reserved for pasture, the ryots have to do this at their own expense, paying full assessment for the lands thus employed. The principle of deriving remuneration from grass and fodder crops in the form of farm manure will doubtless be more acted upon as capital increases. There is no want of intelligence on the part of the cultivator. Garden land is land irrigated with water artificially raised from Treatment of wells, tanks, or other sources. The crops usually grown are ^^'^^^^ lands, those that will mature satisfactorily with from five to eight waterings in a month. The water is raised by cattle-power and manual-power only, horse-power or steam-power being not yet in use. For very low lifts a bale is used, that is to say, a bucket suspended by two ropes, one of which on either side is held by a man. In baling the bucket is allowed to di'op into the water and when full swung up to the height needed, where a third man who stands in the water catches and capsizes it. For bigher lifts, up to about 12 or 13 feet, the picottah is used. This is a horizontal pole balanced on an upright post of a height regu- lated by the length of the horizontal pole. The arrangement is something like that of the ordinary weighing balance. At the end of the horizontal pole which projects over the water, an upright rod is attached, "generally of bamboo, and to the lower end of this the bucket is fastened. In working the picottah, an alternate up-and-down motion is given to the anns of the [Section IV. 222 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Eotation of crops and fallows. horizontal pole, a bucket being brought up each time the pole dips and rises. The motion is genei-ally produced by the backward and forward walk of a man along the pole ; as he advances along the pole towards the water the bucket dips and fills, and as he walks back in the contrary direction, it rises to the required elevation, and is there guided and capsized by another laborer. Where the lift is great two and sometimes three men are employed on the horizontal pole. In cases where the lift is moderate a man on the pole is frequently dispensed with, a heavy ball of clay only being attached to the end of the pole opp )site to that at which the bucket rod is attached. In this case a single man stands over the well, pushes down the bucket, guides it, and capsizes it at the point of discharge. For low lifts the picottah works at a veiy moderate cost, especially when worked by the cultivator himself. In well lifts, which are too high for the picottah, that is to say, for depths from 12 to 40 feet, the " Kavalay " is usually employed worked by cattle. This ari'angement consists of a horizontal roller fixed over the well on uprights of three or four feet in height while a rope travels over the roller ; at one end of the rope a skin bucket is attached, and the other end is fastened to the yoke of a pair of cattle. At the place where the water is to be discharged from the bucket there is a cistern, and in front of the cistern an inclined path of 20 or 30 feet in length according to the depth of the water. When raising the water the cattle walk down the slope, and when the bucket descends to the water they are backed up again. In this way, the cattle alternately ascending and descending the slope, the bucket is filled and brought to the surface. The arrangement is very simple, but is rude and probably cruel to the cattle, the backward journey being often up a very steep slope. The cost of raising the water by this method is high. An improved lift has lately been introduced, by the aid of which it is anticipated that the water will be raised at one-half the cost. It is very desirable that garden cultivation should be extended, as a check on disastrous consequences of long continued droughts. At present about two per cent, of the occupied area of the Presidency is what is called " garden land." The crops grown are tobacco, sugar-cane, chillies, wheat, the ordinary cereals, &c. There is no establi.shed system of rotatory crops, but the principle of not overstraining the resources of the soil is fully understood by the ryots. A crop requiring little nourishment generally succeeds an exhausting crop, and fallows are common Section IV.] AGRICULTURE. 223 in the case of inferior soils. The liberty allowed to the ryots of relinquishing and taking up lands frequently brings the principle of leaving lands fallow into imperceptible play. Rotation and fallows are practised mainly in regard to unirrigated lauds, and irrigated lands planted with sugar-cane ; in the ordinary irrigated lands, which generally consist of small holdings, manuring is more frequent and is considered sufficient to secure a good crop without rotation. Considerable care is bestowed on manur- ing garden lands under wells. Lands near villages are better manured than those at a distance, for obvious reasons. The follow^ing statement shows the proportion existing between Extent of different species of crops throughout the Presidency at a recent '^^I'^^^.tion. date : — Food-grains ... ... ... ... 84'0 Seeds 6-2 Green and garden crops ... ... ... 1*8 Topes and orchards ... ... ... 2*2 Special crops, such as cotton and indigo, Ac. ... ... ... ... 6*8 100 The following statement giving the acreage under cotton in Cotton each district during a recent average year will show the cotton- *'^^*^^*t"°- producing powers of the different parts of the Presidency : — Districts. Acres. Ganjam 3,302 Vizagapatam ... ... ... ... 13 107 Godavery ... 10,348 Kistna 219,267 Nellore ... ... 18,378 Cuddapah ... ... ... ... 76 074 Bellary 385,596 Kurnool 243,637 Madras ... Chinglepnt ... ... ... ... 3 North Arcot ... ... ... ... 263 South Arcot 16,303 Tanjore 4^061 Trichinopoly 6,731* Madura 95,101 Tinnevelly 281,569 * Does not include aren of cotton cultivated with other crops. [Section IV. 224 PROPUCTIOX AND DISTRIBUTION. Districts. Acres. Coimbatore ... ... ... ... 184,.517 Nilgiris Salem 12,630 South Canara ... ... ... ... 164 Malabar ... Total ... 1,571,587 —Cotton During the last few years several experiments have been made with cotton of different varieties on the Farm at Sydapet. The soils of the Farm are very sandy, insoluble silica constituting nearly 90 per cent, of their entire weight, while the percentage of plant-food they contain naturally is extremely small. These soils are therefore much inferior to the " cotton " soils of Southern India, which are alluvial in their character and contain a moderately large percentage of clay and organic matter. It was only by the judicious use of manure that fair results were obtained in cotton culture at Sydapet. The follo-\ving varieties of cotton were experimentally grown with the results noted : — Western. — A 5-acre field sown with this variety of cotton and maize in alternate lines yielded 1,766 lbs. of seed cotton equal to 353 lbs. per acre, and this was in addition to a fair crop of grain and straw fi'om the maize plants that grew in alternate lines with the cotton plants, Hinginghaut and Bdnie. — These varieties are grown largely in Bombay, where they are said to be highly appreciated. At Sydapet the results obtained with them differed but little from those yielded by ordinary "Western" seed. Yea Valley. — This valuable species of cotton grows well at Sydapet and produces a lint that is long, white and silky, resem- bb'ng very much the cotton lint imported into England from the Fiji Islands. But unfortunately the Yea Valley cotton plant has almost died out at Sydapet from the repeated attacks of a borer which confined its depredations to this species of cotton. Arrangements are, it is believed, in operation for obtaining a fresh supply of seed from Brazil. New Orleans. — This species of cotton has been growTi with considei-able success at the Farm, a retui^n per acre of from 100 to 180 lbs. of clean lint in addition to a fair crop of maize having been frequently obtained. This species of cotton is probably peculiarly adapted for cultivation under an improved system of fai'ming ; indigenous varieties are very liable to run to stem and leaf under the influences of manure while the returns from this species of cotton are always large when manure is liberally used. The plant seems however to Section IV.] AGRICULTURE. 225 have two or three objectionable characteristics ; it bears at very uncertain intei'vals, and produces gatherings that vary greatly in amount, while the harvest is spread over several months, thus necessitating a considerable expenditure in gathering the crop and in keeping down the weeds, which from the open shade the cotton affords grow very freely amongst it ; but these defects also, to a certain extent, characterize indigenous varieties of cotton. Crops sown in September do not begin to bear until the following March, and the plants must remain on the ground until the end of August or the beginning of September to admit of a fair return being obtained. As in the Cotton States of America the sowings are made in April and May, and the whole of the harvest is over before the end of December, it is probably desirable that a supply of fresh seed should be obtained from the Southern States, preference being given to the Mexican variety, from which the true New Orleans variety is said to have originated. It is said that the ordinary black-seed New Orleans cotton was introduced into America from India. It appears desirable that a maize or cholum crop should always be sown with the cotton crop in alternate lines ; in this way the food-producing area of the country is not lessened by a larger area of land under cotton, nor will the returns from the area under cotton be materially diminished if the cultivation is properly conducted. The cholum and maize plants grow upright and do not interfei'e with the early growth of the cotton plants, and before the cotton plants begin to throw out lateral branches, the maize or cholum will be ready for harvesting. The New Orleans plant was treated as a biennial, but the results were not satisfactory, the cotton of the second year being much less in quantity while its fibre was harsh and short. Egyptian. — This species of cotton has yielded very fair results at Sydapet, though as yet it has been cultivated there only on a very limited scale. Its cultivation is somewhat costly, as the plant throws out many lateral branches, thus preventing the use of cattle in weeding the land ; but it is hoped that by sowing only the seed of the most upright. growing plants this habit may in time be overcome. The lint produced is soft and silky, and it separates readily from the seed. The experiments above described afford ground for thinking that with due cai'e and a judicious use of manure the cultivation of foreign cotton of finer quality than the indigenous cotton of local origin can be successfully introduced into this country. It is desirable, however, that further experiments should be tried on a larger scale both on the Government Farm 29 [Section IV, 226 PRODUCTION AND MSTRIBUTION. at Sydapet and on the District Farms when established, and the matter engages attention. Indigo The following is a statement for indigo similar to that given cultivation, j^^^^^g f^j. cotton :~ Districts. Acres. Ganjam ... ... ... ... ... 986 Vizagapatam ... ... ... ... 3,803 Godavery ... ... ... ... 1,739 Kistna 42,975 Nellore 57,519 Cuddapah 62,824 Bellary 10,358 Kurnool 40,556 Madras Chingleput 5,157 North Arcot 13,728 South Arcot 61,318 Tanjore 472 Trichinopoly ., 837 Madura 72 Tinnevelly 245 Coimbatore Nilgiris Salem ... ... 2,087 South Cauara Malabar ... Total ... 304,676 Wheat The cultivation of wheat in this Presidency is very limited, cultivation, g^j^^j jg cj^igfly confined to six districts as shown below : — Districts. Acres. Kistna 2,145 Cuddapah 2,283 Bellary 3,387 Kurnool ... ... ... ... ... 5,557 Coimbatore 2,108 Nilgiris 3,199 All other districts ... ... ... 667 Total ... 19,346 The quantity of wheat exported to Foreign Ports and British Ports beyond the Presidency during 1875-76 was 8,764 cwt., value Rupees 36,292. Section IV.] AGIUCULTDEE. 227 The principal coifee tract of Southern India is along the Coffee Western Coast, and coffee estates extend in nearly an unbroken P ^° ^ ; line along the summits and slopes of the Western Ghauts from the northern limits of Mysore down to Cape Comorin. The only portions of the area within the limits of the Madras Government are the Wynaad tract and the Nilgiri Hills. Coffee plants were introduced as a curiosity into the Wynaad about fifty years ago by Major Bevan ; the first regular plantation was opened out by Mr. Glasson in 1840 on a hill at Manantoddy, and was soon followed by others. Nearly all the land taken up at this period was what is known as grass or bamboo land, and in consequence most of the estates proved unprofitable. Of many of them not a trace except the ruins of bungalows remains at the present day. After the first attempts cofiee cultivation was transferred to South Wynaad. For ten or fifteen years it made little progress. In 1855 and 1856 a number of new estates were opened out, some too hastily and consequently with little success. In 1862 the returns showed 9,932 acres under cultivation. In 1865 there were 200 estates covering 14,613 acres. An official inquiry was made on the subject of Wynaad coffee in the year 1868, and according to the returns then made the average was 29,909*08, of which 21,479'54 acres were held by Europeans and 8,429'54 acres were held by natives. Subsequent returns have shown no increase in the acreage until quite recently when high prices have stimulated cultivation. The following table showing the quantities of Wynaad coffee shipped on the Malabar Coast during a period of twelve years indicates nearly all the crops, as very little passes out by Mysore or Coimbatore : — Cwts. 32,658 Coffee 1872. Years. 1856-57 1857-58 1858-59 1859-60 1860-61 1861-62 1862-63 1863-64 1864-65 1865-66 1866-67 1867-68 cultivation A lai'ge ar 20,416 36,934 49,680 48,742 91,080 43,907 91,947 110,548 125,891 66,552 128,011 on the Nilgiri s was reported on in ea of laud on the Nilgii-is has proved to be [Section IV. 228 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. admirably suited for the cultivation of the coffee shrub. Not less than 13,000 acres are now under coffee plantations, whereas twenty years ago the area under this crop did not much exceed 500 acres. This great increase is entirely the result of private enterprise, and has added much to the prosperity of the Nilgiris, while at the same benefiting the districts immediately adjoining. In the establishment of these coffee estates a property has been created worth about five millions of Rupees, on which the annual expenditure cannot be less than two millions of Rupees. Of the total expenditure about one-third is for the payment of wages to coolies ; and most of this is carried into the low country, either in payment for food grains consumed by plantation coolies, or as cash carried by the coolies themselves when they return to their homes. Estimating that the sam sent into the low country in this way represents annually Rupees 6,00,000, this will support about 14,000 families of laboring people. Moreover in carrying coffee to the coast, and in sorting, packing, &c., a large amount of other labor is employed. Until a few years previous to 1850 the coffee plantations in this district were found only on the eastern slopes, but they have now been extended to the southern, northern, and north-western slopes; there are also some extensive plantations in the Ouchter- lony Valley and in the neighbourhood of Coonoor. Coffee culti- vation has also been commenced on the Shevaroy Hills in the Salem District, and on the Pulney Hills in Madura. An official investigation is about to be made into the whole question of coffee cultivation in this Presidency. Tea planting. Tea cultivation has not the same interest in Southern India as coffee cultivation, and there are few plantations except on the Nilgii-is. The tea plant was introduced on these hills nearly forty years ago, but it is only daring the last ten years that any real progress has been made in the cultivation. The experi- ments made between 1835 and 1840 were useful in proving that the tea plant ^^ ould thrive on the hills, but little else resulted from them, though the opinions frequently expressed by Mr. John Sullivan and Monsieur Perrottet, and founded on these experi- ments that the greater part of the district was well suited for tea culture, have now been proved to be accurate. It is difficult to account for the little interest that was taken in tea cultivation previous to 1865, for there was evidence that the plant would succeed weU. At the present time the area under tea cannot be much less than 2,000 acres. The oldest estates ai'e planted with Section IV.] AGRICULTURE. 229 tea of the China variety ; those that have recently been opened, on situations not too exposed, are generally planted with the Assaoi variety, or with plants produced from a cross between the China and Assam varieties. The China variety is the most hardy and best adapted for high and exposed positions, but grows slowly, and produces very little leaf. The Assam variety is suited only for sheltered situations on rich fertile soil ; when so circumstanced it grows rapidly, and is a large producer of leaf. The hybrid is the most generally useful, combining the leaf-producing quality of the Assam with the hardihood of the China variety. Most of the tea estates on the Nilgiris are on land which was formerly under grass ; such land especially, if heavily covered by ferns, gives good results, but shola land is preferred when it can be obtained equally well situated, as on such land the shrub grows with much greater rapidity, and gives earlier and heavier flushes of leaf. The plantations are generally small, ranging from 50 to 80 acres in extent, and besides these there are numerous gardens varying from plots of a single acre up to 15 or 20 acres. The bulk of the planta- tions appear to have been started as experimental plots, and gradually increased until they have reached their present area. They are generally not well arranged, and are ill- provided with buildings ; many are altogether without buildings, being worked in connection with some other estate. Tobacco cultivation in this Presidency has recently been the Tobacco subject of an oflBcial inquiry. Tobacco is grown more or less throughout the Presidency, with the exception of Malabar and the Hill Ranges ; but the chief localities of production are the alluvial lands of the Godavery District where is grown the well known " Lunka" tobacco (so named from the lunkas or river islands on which it is cultivated) and parts of the Coimbatore and Madura Districts from which the Trichinopoly cheroot manu- facturers draw their supplies of raw material. The plant is grown on almost every description of soil, from black loam to sand, and from irrigated land to high arid sites. Alluvial lands are preferred ; then high ground, and such places as deserted village sites, and backyards of houses, the latter on account of the salts impregnating the soil, and also probably for convenience of position as regards manuring and watching and curing the produce. Of the more esteemed tobaccos used for European consumption ; the best of the Godavery produce is grown on these alluvial lands which receive rich deposits of silt in [Section IV. 230 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION, the river floods and are out of the influence of the sea- freshes ; while the Dindigul tobacco is produced on a carefully cultivated red loam to which an alluvial character has been artificially imparted. Some of the highest priced tobacco is grown on rich dry land under irrigation, but this while sviited for chewing, is too coarse in texture of leaf and too pungent in flavour for smoking. In some parts irrigation is practised and in others it is dispensed with ; only a small quantity of water is supplied to the plant, and as a rule not by gravitation, but by mechanical appliances, and preferably from wells of brackish water containing potassic salts. Excessive damp is prejudicial, and the seed-beds and soil generally are superficially drained or stand high. The crop while young is gently watered by hand, and heavy rains detract from the quality of the tobacco, the tobacco grown on ordinary irrigable lands being generally inferior. The manures used are the droppings of sheep and goats penned on the land previously to cultivation, cattle-dung and urine, ashes and sweepings. In Nellore salt-earth is used. The manures are very plentifully applied to all soils except alluvial lands. The seed is invariably sown in seed-beds. The seasons of cultivation vary according to local climatic considerations. As a rule, sowing commences after the local rains from July to October, though tobacco is sometimes grown as a second crop commencing in January. The site of cultivation is thoroughly ploughed and manured, the seed germinates in some eight days after sowing, and the seedlings are transplanted in the course of some six weeks, on attaining a height of five or six inches, into holes a foot to a yard apart, sometimes in ridges, sometimes on the flat surface of the field. In some localities the seed-beds and young plants are protected from the extreme heat of the sun by means of mats, etc., and all leaves except ten or twelve are nipped off to strengthen those left ; the flowers are also promptly nipped off with the exception of those purposely left for seed. The leaves begin to ripen in the course of some two months from transplantation, and as soon as one or two turn colour, the whole crop is collected. This is effected generally by cutting the stem with a knife, though in Gaujam and the alluvial lands of Vizagapatatn the leaves are nipped off separately, and in part of Tanjore some leaves are first plucked in January and the stem and remaining leaves cut down in May or June. As a rule no second crop is gathered, and where the after sprouts are collected at all they are of very inferior quality. The process of gradually drying and fenneuting is effected by Section IV.] AGRICULTURE. 231 modes slightly differing iu detail. In Nellore, for instance, the cut leaves are hung in the sun for two days, put in heaps, turned every two days, and ranged in layers for twenty days, during which time they are frequently turned. They are then tied in bundles, dipped in water, sweetened with date jaggery, and are then ready for sale. In other parts, as in the Salem District, the plants are left a day or two in the field, then exposed to the sun and dew alternately for a week, then wrapped in straw and buried in the ground for a week, after which the leaves are stripped from the stems, made into bundles, placed in straw, and put under heavy weights, with their ends exposed for six weeks, the piles in which they are laid being opened and turned every other day. In other localities the leaves, after drying in the fields for a day or two, are hung over poles or ropes, preferably in the shade, in regular drying sheds or in the cultivators' houses, and subsequently stacked in heaps which are opened out and pressed together again at stated intervals until the requisite curing is effected. Occasionally the leaves are sprinkled with jaggery water or an infusion of the cassia auriculata while drying, and in Coimbatore the festoons of leaves after being strung are hung up on the milk hedge (euphorbia tirucalli) to acquire thence a flavour. State interference has been suggested in the case of this industry, but the Government have decided otherwise. Such interference has not been found necessary with indigo or coffee, and it was relinquished in the case of tea when that industry had made much less progress than tobacco has at the present time. The tobacco grown in this Presidency is at present inferior ; but it seems clear that this is mainly due to the fact that there is a great demand for the coarse article, and that it is found to pay better to grow a large quantity of inferior leaf than to grow a smaller quantity of superior leaf. European capital would, however, doubtless improve the curing processes. The statistics of the tobacco industry lately obtained are too voluminous to be here inserted. Nearly one half of the whole number of persons shown by the Agricultural last census as in employment, that is to say, 4,878,890 persons, of^Jot"^ are given as cultivators. These are peasant proprietors holding land either under Grovernmont directly or under Zemindars, &c. The number of holders of Government puttahs was at the last census 2,392,064 only, but one puttah often includes several members of the same family. Every section of the community, from the Brahmin to the Pariah, and Hindu or Mahomedan, is [Section IV. 232 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Agricultural condition of farm laborers. represented in the list of cultivators. The desire for holding land is as strong as in any other part of the world. Of late years and consequent on the gradual abolition of domestic slavery, the lower orders of the Hindus have become farmers on their own account to a larger extent than before, and their position has improved. The direct taxes to which an agricultu- ralist in this Presidency is now Hable are very numerous, but though the multiplicity of the present taxation is no doubt an unwelcome substitute for the simplicity of the old taxation, all the present taxes and imposts put together amount to no more than the old land assessment. The rise in prices of late years has impi*oved the position of the agriculturalist, and it may be hoped that with increasing resources more capital may be invested in the development of the soil. The most needy cultivators are those who hold the dry lands. In addition to the great body of small farmers upwards of two milUons of adult males are returned by the Census as " laborers," and probably more than three-fourths of these are employed in connection wnth the cultivation of the land. These represent for the most part the classes of the community who were formerly predial slaves. The principal caste engaged in inferior agricultural labor is that of the Vannians. Throughout the greater part of the Presidency the agricultural laborer receives his wages in the form of farm produce ; and it is only near large towns that money wages are paid. The rate of hire varies from one to two Madras measures of grain per day, the higher rate being that usually given for occasional labor and the lower rate that for long engagements. These two classes of laborers differ very much in their circumstances. The latter have little liberty, being usually in debt to their employers on account of the advance made to them on first taking service. The casual laborer, on the other hand, finds hving precarious ; he meets with regular employment only at the busy seasons of the year, and during the remainder of the year has to depend upon such work as he can secure on the roads, and other public works, or upon the small earnings to be made by selling fuel, grass, &c., in the large villages and towns. It is usual for the wife and other members of the laborer's family to contribute their earnings. The following statement shows the rate of wages of agricultural laborers obtaining in June and December of a recent average year. Wages of certain other laborers have been added for illustra- tion ; — Section IV.] AGRICULTURE. 233 Average Wages per Month. Prevai' iug at the end of June 1875. At the end of December 1875, Districts. Able Common Able- Common bodied Syce or Mason, bodied Sy< ;e or i Mason, Agricu 1- Horse- Carpenter, Agricul- Horse - Carpenter, tural keeper. or Black- tural keeper. or Black- Laborer. smith. Laborer. smith. RS. A. p. Rg. A. p. RS A. P. RS. A. P. RS. A. p. RS. A. p. 1. Gfiujam 3 6 7 8 3 6 7 8 2. Vizagapatam. 4 8 6 9 12 4 8 6 9 12 3. Godavery ... 6 6 12 6 7 12 4. Kistna 7 8 7 12 8 7 8 7 12 8 5. Nellore 6 6 15 3 8 6 12 8 6. Cuddapah ... 7 S 6 22 8 7 8 6 22 8 7. Bellary 4 6 15 4 6 11 4 8. Kuniool 4 6 11 4 6 12 9- Madi-as 6 8 5 8 9 6 6 5 8 13 12 10. Chingleput... 3 12 5 10 5 4 3 6 13 10 8 11. North Arcot. 4 7 15 4 7 14 12. South Ai-cot. 4 5 11 4 4 11 5 11 4 13. Tanjore ... 4 11 6 11 13 4 4 8 6 11 13 4 14. Trichiuopolj. 4 8 6 8 9 11 4 6 8 10 15. Madura 6 7 20 6 7 20 16. Tinnevelly ... 6 6 14 6 6 4 6 14 6 17. Coimbatore... 4 6 15 5 8 6 16 18. Nilgiris 7 8 25 7 8 25 19. Salem 2 8 5 4 16 14 2 8 5 4 15 20. South Canara. 7 8 6 20 10 7 8 7 20 10 21. Malabar ... 7 8 7 15 7 8 7 15 The wages of agricultui'al labor have increased during the last quarter of a century, though not in proportion to prices. Where wages are paid in grain it is evidently difficult to secure progressive rates. The agricultural live-stock of this Presidency consists of live-stock, cattle, sheep, and goats, horses being almost entirely unrepre- and present sented. The cattle are small in stature, the average live weight condition, not being much more than 350 lbs. In one or two localities the breed of cattle is superior ; as in Nellore and the surrounding districts and in the districts bordering the Mysore frontier. Cattle are kept for draught, for the dairy, for breeding, and for manure purposes ; they are hardly ever fed or fattened for slaughter as in other countries, the meat market being su]>]ilicd chiefly by the slaughter of wora-out draught cattle, old or barren cows, &c. The sheep are light-framed animals with long legs, yielding on the average about 25 lbs. of mutton per head. The yield of wool, which is always largely mixed with hair, is usually not more than 1 lb. in the year per head. The large losses of cattle from the occiirrencc of prevcntible diseases have 30 [Section IV. 2U PKODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Fairs and Markets. Food prices. attracted the attention of Government, and the provisions of the Cattle Diseases' Act have been applied to some districts. At jjreseut however there is no agency for enforcing its provisions other than the ordinary Revenue establishment. Attempts are at the present moment being made in Europe to secure the services of a competent Veterinarian to fill the post of Inspector of Cattle Disease. Fairs and markets are held periodically throiighout the Presidency, the latter generally weekly or bi-weekly, and the former on the occasion of different festivals. At the fairs, in addition to the usual sale of agricultural produce, considerable numbers of farm-stock are brought together, especially in the breeding districts. The markets are on a very much smaller scale, and grain and petty articles of domestic use constitute the chief articles of trade. The produce brought for sale to a market is in most instances of no greater bulk than a cooly-load ; and live stock is seldom offered. The prices of food-grains are ascertained by local inquiry at the head- quarters of Tahsildars and Deputy Tahsildars and reported to the Board of Revenue once a month. The number of local measures of capacity per rupee is given in these reports. The measures are converted in the Board's Office into seers' weight of 80 tolas, and a genei'al statement is then published in the Fort St. George Gazette. Once a fortnight a statement is sent to the Government of India showing the prices prevailing at the head-quarters of each collectorate ; this is published in the Gazette of India. The grain markets are now much steadier than they were some years back. The years 1874-75 and 1875-76 maybe taken to have been average years; the retail prices of the principal articles of food in those years is shown below : — Items i. 1874-75. 1875-76. RS. RS. Price oi rice, 2nd sort, seers of 80 tolas per rupee... 15-2 160 Do. paddy, do. do. 27-2 286 Do. cholum, do. do. 25-7 26-6 Do. cumboo, do. do. 260 26-4 Do. ragi, do. do. 27-9 27-9 Do. Tara gu, . do. do. 370 39-6 Do. wheat, do. do. 10-7 11-4 Do. salt, do. do. 15-7 15-8 Do. cottou, pe r candy 111 104 General General statistical information regarding agriculture is now smistics,^ available to Government on the following subjects: — (1) Area cultivptod and uncultivated : ('2) Crops cultivated and area Section IV.] AGRICULTURE. 235 under crops ; (3) Prices of food grains, and (4) Price of labor. This information is not quite sufficient, and the question of collecting agricultural statistics on a more extended scale is under consideration. The village agency is perhaps sufficient for what would be wanted, but additional establishments, estimated to cost 2| lakhs of rupees, would be required to secure proper supervision and for tabulation of results. Little or no information is at present available for Zemindari or Inam villages. The Government Agricultural Department in this Presidency Direct 13 confined at present in great measure to the operations Government operations, connected with the Government Farms already established or hereafter to be established. The officers of the department are however available for making tours, for answering references from districts, and for many miscellaneous duties in connection with agricultaral questions. The proposed extension of agricultural education in connection with the department will be mentioned in tbe next paragi-aph. The department is now under the control of a Superintendent, who is placed immediately under the orders of the Boai'd of Revenue. He has two Assistants who have received an agricultural training in Europe, and also certain office establishments ; the cost of this establishment and of such experiments as are made from time to time is met partly by a Government grant and partly from receipts in the Farm and certain Local Funds. At present there are only two Government farms in operation, both situated at Sydapet close to the Presidency town, and in fact forming practically but one farm. It is intended gi-adually to open similar farms in other districts. Four have actually been sanctioned, but from the impossibility of obtaining properly qualified native superintendents and other causes, neither of them has yet been opened. The idea of establisliiiig Government Farms in this Pre.sideucy originated in 1864, and a small farm was established in 1865 at Sydapet under the management of a committee. The success which attended the experiment induced the Government to take it under their direct management, and to extend its opera- tion ; hence the present Sydapet Farms. These institutions have been concerned with too many tentative measures to be capable of showing a commercial success, but many important agricultural experiments have been made, and some have produced encouraging results, in indicating the general direc.. tion in which improvements can be effiscted in the agricultural practice of this Presidenov- Attention has been given to subsoil [Section IV. 23G PEODUCTION AXD DISTiaBUTION. —Agricul- tural education. drainage, improved tillage, the restoration of exhausted soils, economy, and the proper utilization of irrigation water ; the fertilization of arable soils by the use of lime, saltpetre, oil-cake, poudrette and other manures available in Southern India, but now unused by the ryot ; the introduction of new crops, suited to the climate of India and adapted for cultivation under an improving agricultural practice, such as maize, Sorghum Saccha- ratum, Carolina paddy, Guinea grass and other grasses, 'New Orleans cotton and other superior varieties of cotton, tobacco of sorts, &c. ; the production of live fences, in view to aflfoi'ding protection, shelter and fuel ; the introduction of water-lifts, barn machines, carts, ploughs, cultivators, cattle-hoes, reaping knives, &c., of improved construction, and the improvement of similar kinds of machines and implements now in use in this country ; improvement of the live-stock of the country by careful breeding and feeding, and by introducing and acclima- tizing new breeds ; with other matters. Between the first opening of the Experimental Farm and the end of the year 1875 several apprentices joined the institution, an apprentice meaning here a student drawing from the institution a small stipend. These apprentices were either Eurasians or Hindus, the former generally the sons of old soldiers resident at Palaveram or St. Thomas' Mount. In establishing this class, the intention was merely to afford an opportunity to a few young men to make themselves acquainted with the rovitine out-of-door duties of the farmer. In 1871, in order to provide the necessary agency for carrying on the District Farms, another apprentice class was established. This second class was better paid and was established in view to training Superintendents for the District Farms. The young men of both classes came to the Farm ignorant of agriculture, and as the training was entirely out-of-door and mechanical, they made but little progress towards gaining a real knowledge of this subject. It appears to be established that youths trniiied under such a system cannot be usefully employed in the districts in spreading agricultural knowledge, or in conducting agricultural operations of any complexity, and it has been recently decided to establish a School of Agriculture at Sydapet. Suitable educational buildings, a Veterinary Hospital, a Chemical Laboratory, and an Agricultural Museum will be erected. The institution will be attached to the Educational Department and will be placed under the direct management of the Superintendent of Government Forms, who will be assisted Section IV. HORTICULTURE— CINX'HONA. 237 iu lecturing by officers of the Madras Medical College and others. The instruction wdll extend over three years, and will embrace a thorough study of agriculture and of such portions of Chemistry, Geology, Zoology, Botany, and the Veterinary Art as bear on the theory and pi-actice of Agriculture, Farm Book- keeping, Land Surveying, Mensuration and Drawing. The students, before admission, must have passed the Matriculation Examination or the General Test Examination, or the special Entrance Examination of the Institution. Candidates must be above 16 and below 24 years of age. The course is entirely free- A considerable number of Stipendiaryships and a few Scholar- ships have also been established, and the regulations provide for the gratuitous admission of school teachers and others to certain special courses of lectures. Those who obtain no stipendiaryship or scholarship, pay their own expenses, but no fee is demanded from them. Judging from the number of applicants and the qualifications of the present students there are grounds for believing that it will amply fulfil the object for which it has been established. Some of the present students intend to settle on the Nilgiris as farmers, others similarly on the plains in the ordinary course. Some hope to get employment as agricultural teachers under the Government or under Zemindars or in Native States. The estimated annual cost of the institu- tion is Rupees 15,000, not including the salary of the Superin- tendent or his Assistants. Under Native Governments and for along time after the British Public took possession of the country, no expenditure appears to have Exhibitions, been incurred on account of Cattle Shows. Public exhibitions however of cattle and useful productions of all kinds in agricul- ture, manufacture, minerals, and arts were held in several districts of this Presidency in 1855, 1856, 1857, and 1859, at an annual expense varying from Rupees 13,000 to Rupees 35,000. Since then the exhibitions have been continued with more or less regularity year by yeai;. HORTICULTURE— CINCHONA. The object of the Government Cinchona Plantations is the Government provision of an abundant and cheap supply of the febrifuge Cinchona for the use of hospitals and troops in India, and the spread of Cinchona cultivation throughout the Hill Districts. In [Section IV. 238 PRODUCTION A\D PISTRIBUTIOX. 1859 Her Majesty's Government engaged the services of Mr. Clement E. Markham for the special duty of introducing the Cinchonas into India. He started on an expedition to South America in the early part of 1 860 and arrived in India at the end of the same year with the first instalment of Cinchona plants. These plants -were in an unhealthy state when they arrived at Ootacamund. In July 1861 the experiment was entrusted to Mr. Mclvor and ever since the plantations have made satisfactory progress and proved a decided success. There are thi-ee Plantations at Neddivuttiim, the Denison, the Kilgroston, and the Napier ; two at Pykara, the TFood and the Hooker ; one at Ootacamund, the Dodabetta ; and one at Mailkoon- dah, the Stanley Estate. The last-named was abandoned in 1871 with a view to ascei-tain whether the Cinchona could be left to mature. The experiment has proved a failure and the Stanley Estate is exterminated. The seven estates cover upwards of 1,200 acres, surface measurement. The number of Cinchona plants permanently established on the 31st March 1876 was 1,190,458, of which the Officinalis and Suceirubra number half a million each. Operations of late years have been restricted in a great measure to conservancy, and the experimental cultivation of the rarer and more valuable varieties of Cinchona. The first yield of the plantations was in 1872, when the trees planted at the commencement of the enterjirize were twelve years' old. The outturn was 7,294^ pounds of dry bark which realized Rupees 7,294-8-0. The prices varied from 2s. ^d. per pound to 2s. lOcZ., or an average price of 25. 6|f?., which must be considered satisfactory. A second consignment of 23,646 pounds of dry bark was made in the spring of 1873, which sold for Rupees 34,900. The average price realized was 3>j. I^d. per pound. The third consignment went to England in 1875. The quantity despatched was 28,659 pounds, and sold for Rupees 28,659 ; the average price per pound was 2s. \d. The next consignment of 63,600 pounds was remitted last Januaxy and realized Rupees 96, 039-2-8. In addition to the above the plantations fui'nished the Quinologist with 362,050 pounds of greener 111,481^ pounds dry bark, valued at 95,500 Rupees. The entire return on the estates accordingly during the five years to 31st March 1876 aggregated Rupees 2,35,000 or about 28^ per cent, on the total outlay. The outlay to 31st March 1876 including the cost of convict labor was Rupees 8,25,350. Quinologist. A\Tien Mr. Markham visited Ootacamund in January 1866 he suggested tlie appointment of a Quinologist to investigate on Section IV.] HORTICULTURE — GOVERNMENT GARDENS. 239 the spot various questions connected with the elaboration of alkaloids, the harvesting of the bark, the most economical and efficacious mode of preparing the febrifuge, &c. The services of the same officer were also to be turned to profitable account in utilizing the medicinal plants of India generally. This was earned out, and the office continued in existence to the end of 1875, when it was abolished. The Quinologist's Department has cost the State Eupees 1,28,684 made up of the following items: — Salary Rupees 77,366, Plant, materials, and building Eupees 33,193, and Establishment Eupees 18,125. The returns fi'om this department have been 922 pounds of " Amorphous Quinine," manufactured out of 362,050 pounds of Cinchona green bark and valued at Eupees 59,930 or at the rate of 130 shillings a pound. HORTICULTURE— GOVERNMENT GARDENS. The Ootacamund Botanical Gardens were opened during the Ootacamund Governorship of the late Marquis of Tweedale, and cover an (j^rdens* area of 51*45 acres. The professed object of the gardens is 1st — The improvement of horticulture in this Presidency by the dissemination of information ; 2nd — The introduction and accli- matization of vegetable productions of Europe and other parts of the world hitherto unknown in India ; and 3rd — The distri- bution of good seeds and plants. In 1871 these gardens which had hitherto foi-med a part of the charge of the Superintendent of the Cinchona Plantations were placed under a separate officer, and their importance was fiu'ther recognized by a more liberal allotment of funds. The Kulhutty Garden is maintained as a branch of the Kulhutty Ootacamund Gardens. It is adapted for the ripening of vegeta- Garden, ble and flower seeds as it enjoys a drier and a warmer climate than that at Ootacamund. The Buj.'liar branch garden was purchased by Government in The Burliar 1871 for the sum of Rupees 2,000. The garden is in charge of ®"^®°- the Superintendent of the garden at Ootacamund, and is worked out of funds provided in the budget for the latter. It is situated at an elevation of 2,500 feet above sea-level, and the extent is 8 acres. The object of its accjuisition was to extend the culture of the Ipecacuanha plant which was found not to flourish at Ootacamund The locality was believed to be [Section IV. Coonoor Gardens. Agri-Horti- cultural Society. 240 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. specially adapted for the growth of West India plants, as -well as those from the Straits and the Eastern Archipelago. The experience of the past five years has proved that the garden is well adapted for the purpose contemplated. In the early part of 1 874 the Government opened a pleasure {rround at Coonoor. The plot is about 30 acres. The outlay to the 31st March 1876 has been Eupees 8,931-13-5 provided exclusively by Government. A donation of Rupees 250 per mensem is paid to the Agri- Horticultui'al Society at Madras and an annual contribution of Eupees 500 is made for prizes for agricultural and other products, such as cotton, tea, cereals, forage, gums, resins, dyes, shade and avenue trees, &c. ; special payments are also occasionally made. MINERAL RESOURCES. Government operations. Gold. The development of the mineral resources of this presidency is at present in its infancy, and there is no special Government agency. Inquiries and investigations have however been made on sevei'al occasions. The Government of India have expressed an opinion that when waste land is sold actually for cultivation no special reservation of a Government right to a share in its mineral wealth should be made, but that land known or strongly believed to contain mineral wealth should be removed from the category of cultivable land and be gi'anted to appli- cants on special agreements only. The Government have acted on this principle, and no land answering the above description has as yet been alienated at all. An examination was recently made of the gold-bearing rocks in part of the Wynaad District. Gold has long been known and worked in the Wynaad, but the amount obtained has always been small, and the gold-dust generally found so minute in size as to necessitate its being secured by amalgamation. In the vein- stone the gold is geuei'ally so finely distributed through the matrix as to be scarcely visible even with the assistance of a magnifier; occasionally it appears in the form of particles or Btrings, but always in minute quantities. There is no instance of the metal appearing in any abundance in the quartz. With regard to the alluvial deposits it appears certain that there is at Section IV.] MINERAL RESOURCES. 241 present no probability of tlieir being worked with any profit on a large scale. The quantity of gold known to exist in them is always small, and the serious difficulties necessarily incident on a new undertaking are such as to make the profitableness of explorations doubtful. Quartz-mining however presents more favorable indications, the number of quartz-reefs and veins being large, and their extent by no means insignificant. Most of the reefs are more or less auriferous, particularly in Nambalicode and Moonad. Preliminary experiments on the southern ends of six reefs have given an average proportion of 7 cwts. of gold to the ton of quartz, and it is calculated that this will allow of a profit on the extraction. In one reef the proportion given was 11 dwts., and in two others the propor- tion was 10 dwts. The best assay of reef-gold showed a fineness of 20 carat 3| carat-grains ; but it is anticipated that a purer alloy than this will be found in some reefs, owing to the generally high standard exhibited in the alluvial gold from Wynaad and the Malabar low country. Several applications have recently been made for land in the Wynaad ostensibly for coffee-planting but really for gold- mining. A small quantity of gold is washed from stream gravels in the Godavery valley ; the profits are very trifling. In 1870-71 the Government of India Geological Survey Coal, carried on the general mapping of the sandstone area in the eastern portion of the territory of the Nizam of Hyderabad, and southwards into this Presidency as far as Ellore in the Godavery District. On this occasion the coal-bearing rocks of the Godavery were mapped, and a series of borings for coal were taken near Dumagudem the head-quarters of the navigation works at the first barrier of the river. The coal was found to be of an inferior quality. The sandstones of this part of the country seem to belong to the true coal-bearing rocks, but to be for the most part devoid of coal. Some remarkable deposits of magnetic iron ores are found in Iron, the Salem District. The ores occur in large beds of from 50 to 100 feet in thickness, and the outcrop may be traced for miles. On one hill, six miles from Salem, there are five bands of magnetic iron from 20 to 50 feet thick. In 1825, Mr. Heath, of the Civil Service, obtained a Government advance and formed a company to establish iron works at Porto Novo near Cuddalore, at Palampatty near Salem, and at Beypore on the West Coast. At the last place the iron was to be obtained from laterite. The Porto Novo works were begun in 1833, and those at Beypore 31 [Section IV. 242 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. some years latei\ The Government gave tlieir aid, but the experiments failed. The causes assigned were the distance of the works from the source of supply, scarcity of charcoal, and various other practical difficulties. Several companies took up the matter, but with no final success. The little information that is available regarding native working in iron will be found under the head of Manufactures. FORESTS. History of the department. Present constitution. The Forest Department in this Presidency had no existence before 1847. Up to that year the forests were nominally in charge of Collectors, and no special arrangements were made for their conservancy. In 1847 the Executive Engineer of Malabar brought to the notice of Government that the forests in Malabar and Coimbatore were being denuded of timber by the Malabar merchants who supplied the Bombay market, and that some arrangements were necessary to preserve them. On this a special oflB.cer was appointed to explore, conserve, and work the Govern- ment forests in those districts, and this arrangement continued in connection with the Public Works Department for seven years. The importance of forest consei'vancy had then become apparent and an officer was appointed in 1856 as Conservator of Forests of the Madras Presidency. Up to 1871-72 the depart- ment was directly responsible to Government, but in 1872-73 it was reorganized. The district officers were placed under the orders of the Collectors, the account department was transferred to the Board, and the office of Conservator was abolished and converted into that of Inspector of Forests, with the duty of visiting thejn and offering advice to Collectors. This arrange- ment, however, was found inconvenient, and the organization was again altered in 1875, when the department was placed on a footing somewhat on the plan adopted in Bombay. The following are the rules under which the department is worked at present. The relative position of the District Forest Officers to the District Collector is analogous to that of the District Police Officers to the District Magistrate. In all forest m.atters the District Forest Officer is subordinate to the Collector subject to the following restrictions. All orders of a professional character I'elating, for example, to felling, planting, and such Section IV.] FORESTS. 243 operations emanate from the Conservator, but reach the District Forest Oflficer through the Collector. If the latter sees any reason to object to them he can do so, and differences of opinion between him and the Conservator, which cannot be otherwise settled, are referred to the Revenue Board, and if necessary to Government. The Conservator is specially responsible for the economical working of the department. The Conservator is at liberty to communicate direct with District Forest Officers for the collection and dissemination of scientific or professional knowledge. In like manner all correspondence between District Forest Officers and the Conservator, including bills for travelling allowances, periodical reports, estimates, &c., are sent through the Collector, who makes such comments as he may deem advisable. The Collector cannot as a rule issue orders to District Forest Officers direct, but in the event of his deeming it necessary to order him to proceed to a particular locality, or to take special action in any forest matter, he may do so, taking care to send a copy of Such order for the information of the Conservator. The Conservator is the controlling authority in all matters of promotion in the subordinate branches and in all matters of departmental discipline. The control of forest expenditure rests with the Conservator subject to the approval of the Revenue Board and Government. The Conservator has power to sanction expenditure on any one work up to Rupees 500 and the Revenue Board up to 5,000 Rupees, provided that funds are available in the budget grant. An annual plan of forest operations is prepared by each District Forest Officer and forwarded through the Collector to the Conservator. The Conservator in like manner submits through the Revenue Board sketch of proposed operations in the several forest divisions or districts for the information or orders of Government. The Conservator submits *' notes " or "inspection reports " on the forests visited by him. These tour notes are transmitted to the Secretary to Govern- ment, Revenue Department, through the District Collector and Revenue Board, for any remarks or suggestions which they may have to offer. The cost of the establishment in 1856, when the department was first formally organized, was Rupees 4,530, but now, according to the revision in 1875, it costs Rupees 2,24,616, exclusive of contingencies, mileage, &c. The object of the department is to prevent denudation of Object and forests and to meet a i-apidly increasing demand throughout the ^ ^^^' country for timber and fuel, but a not less important object is the preservation of the natural influence of trees on the climate [Section IV. 244 PRODUCTIOX AND DISTRIBUTION. Progress made. Receipts and charges. and drainage of the country and supply of water. Forests are divided into local and imperial. The former, -which are generally close to the villages where agricultural com- munities live, are placed in charge of Collectors entirely for local purposes, the remaining forests alone being in charge of the Conservator. In the latter no one is allowed to remove timber or firewood without a license, which is granted on payment of a fixed seigniorage, or free of duty when the timber or firewood is required by the people for their domestic use. Certain tracts and trees are reserved for railway fuel and depart- mental felling for supply to Government and for sale to the public. The area of the forests conserved is not known, but it must be more than 5,000 square miles. The question of surveying the State forests is now under consideration. The area of reserves and plantations for railway fnel is about 6,200 acres, estimated to yield 67,000 tons of firewood annually, and the area of teak, sandalwood, &c., plantations is about 2,500 acres. The receipts and charges of the department have been as shown below for fifteen years down to 1874-75 : — Years. Receipts. Charges. Balance. ES. ES. BS. 1860-61 ... 3,52,449 1,68,716 + 1,83,733 1861-62 ... 6,60,352 2,31,712 + 4,28,640 1862.63 ... 1,82,334 1,75,768 + 6,566 1863-64 ... 2,43,642 2,04,303 + 39,339 1864-65 ... 3,30,570 1,95,657 + 1,34,913 1865-66 ... 3,21.581 2,59,802 + 61,779 1866.67 ... 3,38,607 2,17,149 + 1,21,458 1867-68 ... 4,24,184 2,72,840 + 1,51,344 1868-69 ... 3,91,179 2,69,700 + 1,21,479 1869-70 ... 4,95,789 2,86,691 + 2,09,098 1870-71 ... 3,39,762 2,94,860 + 44,902 1871-72 ... 4,18,882 3,45,717 + 73,165 1872-73 ... 4,18.767 4,78,147 - 59,380 1873-74 ... 4,49,541 3,53,184 + 96,357 1874-75 ... 3,64,326 3,97,872 - 33,546 The receipts above shown do not represent the entire return for the charges incurred. There are large plantations, the trees in which have not come to maturity. No data exists for estimat- ing the present value of the plantations. Section IV.] TEADE AND MANUFACTURES. 245 TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. Except in Madras, where there is a separate establishment Arrange- for compiling trade statistics under the orders of Sea Customs collecting and Collectors, the work of compilation in the outports of this distributing Presidency is conducted by the same establishments as are statistics, employed in passing goods, collecting duty, &c. When applications are made for exporting goods or clearing those imported, the applicants are required to specify in their applications the quantities and values of the articles with all the particulars required for statistical purposes, and after the applications are passed and the prescribed duty, if any, collected, the information required is compiled from them, tabulated, and submitted to the Collectors daily, where the outports are situated at a distance from the Collector's head-quarters, and monthly where they are close by. From this information the returns required are compiled by the Collectors in certain forms prescribed for the purpose and forwarded to the Board of Revenue, where they are brought together for the whole Presi- dency and the statements forwarded to the Government of India every month. New forms of statements were brought into use during the year under review. An impoi'tant feature of the forms is that they are made to exhibit not only the external trade, but also the tirade from port to port within the Presidency, which was not hitherto shown in the returns. The following are the principal particulars recorded : — 1, the quantities and values of goods, and the value of gold and silver exported or imported ; 2, the ports from and to which exports or imports are made ; 3, the quantities left in bond and those cleared for house consumption ; 4, the amount of duty collected and the articles upon which it is charged ; 5, the amount of refunds and drawback allowed ; 6, the number of vessels cleared and entered distinguished into steam and sailing, in cargo, and in ballast ; 7, the countries from which they enter or to which they clear ; and 8, the nationalities and tonnage of vessels. The statistics are reviewed, and any impediments to the progress of trade noticed by the Board annually. In the districts the work is done chiefly by the ordinary establishments, but a clerk has recently been allowed to each district to aid in the work. The following statement shows the value of exports and Amount of imports for the last twenty-one years at all ports, cxcludiug ^'^*^®' interportal trade ; — [Section IV. 246 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Yeaxs. Value of Imports. Merchan- dise. Treasure . Total. Value of Exports. Merchan- dise. Treasure. Total. Value of Re-ex- ports. Merchan. dise. 1855-56 ... 1856-57 ... 1857-58 ... 1858-59 ... 1859.60 ... 1860-61 ... 1861-62 ... 1862-63 ... 1863-64 ... 1864-65 ... 1865-66 ... 1866-67 ... 1867-68 ... 1868.69 ... 1869-70 ... 1870-71 ... 1871-72 ... 1872-73 ... 1873-74 ... 1874-75 ... 1875-76* { RS. 2,31,33,876 2,35,25,2441 2,46,85,453 2 93,08,408 2,99,07,033 2,16,55,8121 3,44,94,149| 3,03,30,148! 4,02,65,473; 4,18,02,487! 4,79,87,412! 4,16,74,2011 5,08,27,573! 5,14,00,610 5,11,84,481 5,49,93,170 5,04,11,411 5,29,04,294 5,46,45,249 5,65,69,225 6,42,27,053 1,72,59,681 ES. 1,37,16,696, l,70,38,582j 1,86,23,162 1,42,96,207 1,74,39,684 2,07,25,887 2,22,85,900 3,03,86,890 3,60,75,985 3,03,13,958 3,66,42,492 1,36,86,606 1,12,93,529 2,25,60,091 1,76,42,023 82,68,321 1,04,92,486 1,19,42,830 84,69,288 96,01.625 95,62,079 24,09,141 ES. 3,68,50,572 4,05,63,826 4,33,08,615 4,36,04,615 4,73,46,717! 5,23,81,699[ 5,67,80,049| 6,07,17,038, 7,63,41,458 7,21,16,445! 8,46,29,904j 5,53,60,807: 6,21,21.102! 7,39,60,7011 6,88,26,504! 6,32,61,491' 6,09,03,897! 6,48,47,124 6,31,14,537 6,61,70,850 7,37,89,132 1,96,68,822 2,91,70,905 3,67,26,978 4,03,65,1611 3,37,99,807! 3,87,82,800; 4,45,98,338} 5,42,92,250 6,35,58,990! 8,77,78,126 8,36,71,790 9,00,15,155! 4,45,86,571' 5,80,09,230' 7,67,50,9991 7,32,4.5,315; 6,24,26,649, 8,79,57,788! 7,92,95,348! 8,26,86,748! 8,40,14,312i 8,88,33,445 1,18,37,969 RS. 44,18,750 33,33,678 1,17,00,866 57,28,536 45,47,547 62,88,632 39,58,486 61,90,551 2,23,39,284 1,81,50,942 1,26,10,223 1,75,29,881 1,01,55,634 36,81,960 62,22,657 1,72,12,961 68,99,824 69,92,958 1,84,09,184 97,59,965 43,71,537 29,91,753 RS. 3,35,89,655 4,00,60,656 5,20,66,027 3,95,28,343 4,33,30,347 5,08,86,970 5,82,50,736 6,97,49,541 11,01,17,410 10,18,22,732 10,26,25,378 6,21,16,452 6,81,64,864 8,04,32,959 7,94,67,972 7,96,39,610 9,48,57,612 8,62,88,306 10,10,95,932 9,37,74,307 9,32,04,982 1,48,29,722 RS. 6,64,364 7,78,134 9,10,155 17,16,376 12,56,494 15,07,146 11,60,099 11,96,496 17,35,648 10,04,383 14,61,719 4,86,237 4,39,318 14,45,965 18,65,985 26,75,979 21,72,662 20,81,746 25,58,661 28,04,065 16,74,217 45,34,303 T!h.e export trade of t!he Presidency consists c!tiiefly of agri- cultural produce, cotton, oil or oil-seeds, grain, coffee, ginger, turmeric, dye-wood, indigo, skins, &c. The imports mostly of piece-goods, twist, metals, liquors, &c. The export and import trade used to be mainly in the hands of European merchants, but native traders ai'e now beginning to conduct their operations direct with Europe, without the intervention of the local houses of agency. Particulars ol The following statement shows in detail the nature of the imports and exports, and the proportion existing between their value in a recent year : — trade. * Upper figures are exclusive of British ports within the Presidency. Lower figmes are those of British ports within the Presidency Section IV. 1 TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 247 1875-76, 1875-76, exclusive of exclusive of Imports. British Ports Exports. British Ports within the within the Presidency. Presidency. RS. RS. Twist 1,23,88,399 Coflfee 1,66,11,109 Cotton piece-goods, grey ... 94,51,950 Cotton wool ... 1,65,28,491 Metals 49,96,807 Hides and skins 1,08,15,853 Cotton piece-goods not other- Rice 89,00,886 wise described 48,66,561 Seeds . 58,66,899 Railway stores 45,95,289 Indigo 47,31,631 Paddy 20,19,554 Spices 40,52,130 Millinery and wearing apparel. 18,10,154 Oils 34,42,041 Rice 15,53,748 Cotton goods ... 27,80,400 Timber and wood 15,17,622 Provisions and oilman's stores. 23,80,652 Silk, raw 14,10,365 Sugar and other saccharine Spices, including betel-nuts. 13,05,505 matter 19,40,827 Spirits 10,24,528 Coir, yam, and rope 18,90,966 Wine ... 8,35,741 Cocoanuts 11,44,592 Grain of sorts 8,21,533 Timber and wood 10,45,109 Provisions and oilman's Tobacco 7,32,343 stores 7,39,146 Paddy 6,84,876 Drugs and medicines 6,04,525 Dyes of sorts 5,81,326 Malt liquors 5,02,455 Grain of sorts 3,85,929 Paper 4,16,944 Salt, 3,68,583 Wool, manufactures of 3,93,147 Drugs 3,12,593 Seeds ... 2,84,125 Horns 2,25,914 Glass and manufactures of ... 2,75,639 Fruits and vegetables 1,61,080 Silk, manufactures of 2,35,698 Wax 1,43,094 Machines and machinery 2,14,780 Silk and manufactures of ... 1,37,909 Tea 2,14,197 Saltpetre 84,829 Coral, tmwrought 1,76,909 Hemp and manufactures of. . . 66,349 Wheat 1,76,623 Mats 57,141 Books ... 1,73,498 Wheat 36,292 Stationery except paper 1,41,369 Jewellery 34,440 Earthenware and porcelain ... 1,19,635 Feathers 27,087 Dyeing and coloring mate- Spirits 17,790 rials 1,01,068 Ivoiy and ivory ware 11,908 Jewellery 70,350 Precious stones 5,969 Other articles 1,07,89,189 Other aiticles 26,26,407 Total 6,42,27,053 Total ... 8,88,33,445 £ ... 6,422,705 £ ... Include Government Stores,.. 34,20,467 8,883,344 and Government Salt on the West Coast 8,76,961 Include Government Stores... 890 The only official information as to intei'nal trade is obtained Internal from the census classification and retarns of the different branches of trade. The particular branches of trade are entered in the schedules under eighty-one headings, but the great bulk of traders are described simply as " merchants " (234,531) and " Bazaar-men " (146,182), The following are a few of the chief trading occupations specified : " Arrack-sellers " (14,146), "Bangle-sellers" (7,008), " Fish-sellers " (47,555), "Cloth- [Section rv. 248 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Number of traders. Manufac- tures. merchants," " Contractors," " Cattle-dealers," " Bankers and Money-lenders," "Oil-mongers," "Salt-Merchants," "Indigo- dealers," " Leather-Mei'chants," "Wood and Charcoal dealers." A vast majority of the " Merchants " and " Bazaar-men " are general dealers, and their shops supply the usual requirements of the community. According to the census of 1871 there are 534,662 persons engaged in trade, or 3"4 per cent, of the male population. All castes and classes of the people are traders, though certain branches of trade remain chiefly in the hands of the Chetty or trading castes. Traders are most numerous in the Northern Coast districts and the town of Madras and fewest in South Arcot, Salem, and Trichinopoly. The proportions vary from 7'8 per cent, of the male population in Madras to 2*2 per cent, in South Arcot. The chief trading caste is the Chetty, of whose males 42 per cent, are engaged in trade. Next are the Fisherman and Toddy-drawing castes, who have respectively about 3 and 5 per cent, of their numbers occupied in trade and commerce. The mixed class of Mussulmans, known as Liibbays and Mapilahs, are petty traders to a large extent, and indeed all the divisions of Mahomedans seem to furnish a larger number of traders than the Hindus. About manufactures again little is known officially except from the census returns. In 1871 there were 540,061 males engaged in these occupations, of whom nearly three-fourths were weavers. About 113,000 persons are " shoe makers," or workers in skins and leather ; 25,000 were engaged in cleaning and ginning cotton for export ; and about 15,000 were tailors. The great bulk of the people of India do not indulge in clothing that requires the aid of a tailor to shape and sew it, but some of the better classes, of both sexes, wear cut jackets ; hence the small number of tailors, compared with the numbers engaged in making shoes, " or coverings for the feet. The produce of the Indian looms is not exported now to any great extent. In former days the chintzes of Masulipatam enjoyed a great celebrity abroad. They were celebrated for the freshness and permanency of their dyes, the colors being brighter after washing than before. There is still a small demand for these articles in Burmah, the Straits, and Persian Gulf ; but Manchester goods have nearly beaten the Indian exporter out of the field. The home-made cloths, however, stiU hold their own in competition with British goods. The working in metals is almost the Section IV.] PUBLIC WORKS — GENERAL. 249 exclusive employment of certain divisions of the artisan castes. Of a total of 126,117 males engaged in labor connected with metals, 115,954, or 9r9 percent, of the whole, are members of the Hindu artisan castes. The metal workers form 0'8 per cent, of the entire male population. Black-smiths or iron workers were in 1871 about 40,566 in number; gold and silver smiths 70,075 ; brass and copper smiths about 15,000 ; and workers in tin about 200. There are a few other occupations under this heading, as "engravers," "platers," " wire-drawers," "knife-makers," &c., but the numbers so engaged are insignifi- cant. The simplicity of Hindu domestic life is especially noticeable in the furniture of their houses. As a rule, no house contains either chairs, raised seats or tables, and the people sit and sleep either on the bare floors, or on mats or carpets. Only 71,805 persons are returned as engaged in occupations connected with the manufacture of household goods, or 0'5 per cent, of the males. Of this number, upwards of 50,000 manufacture earthenwjire pots for holding water and cooking food, while about 16,000 weave baskets and rattan work. In some districts the people use cots of wicker work to sleep upon. The weaving of mats gives employment to upwards of 3,000 persons. PUBLIC WORKS — GENERAL. The channel of communication between the Madras Govern- General ment and the different divisions of the Public Works Department orgauization '■ and divisions. is at the present date, 31st March 1876, the Secretary to Government, Public Works Department ; the functions of this officer, as such, proceed no further than the Secretariat. The Examiner of Public Works Accounts acts also as Financial Assistant to the Secretariat, assisting in the present case the Secretary to Government, Public Works Department. The Secretary is also assisted in Secretariat work by the Chief Engineer in charge of one of the main divisions of works, who is gazetted as Joint Secretary for that division. It will be seen from this description that the Secretariat arrangements of the Madras Presidency are not so symmetrical as those obtaining in other Provinces ; differing for instance from Bombay, where there is a Secretary to Government and three Deputy Secretaries, 32 [Section IV. 250 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. one for each, division, and from Bengal, Puiijaub, and the North- West Provinces, where there are three Joint Secretaries, one for each division. The main divisions of the department are three, according to the nature of the works to be executed, that is to say Buildings and Roads, Irrigation, and Railways. The Build- ino'S and Roads division is sub-divided into two branches, the Executive and the Accounts. At the head of the former is a Chief Engineer, with an office estabhshment and an executive stalf consisting of District Engineers, Executive Engineers, Assistant Engineers, and a subordinate executive. The Chief Engineer for Buildings and Roads would according to the theory of the present Madras organization be gazetted as Joint Secretary also, and as such assist the Secretary to Government in Secretariat work ; at the present date, however, the Secretary to Government occupies also the position of Chief Engineer for Buildings and Roads, so that the Joint Secretaryship lapses. The Chief Engineer is assisted by a Deputy Chief Engineer and Under Secretaiy for Buildings and Roads. At the head of the Accounts Branch of the Buildings and Roads division is the Examiner of Public Works Accounts already mentioned, assisted by a Deputy Examiner for Buildings and Roads, and an office establishment. Tlie Irrigation division is similarly sub-divided into an Executive Branch and an Accounts Branch. At the head of the former is a Chief Engineer, gazetted also as Joint Secretary, with an office establishment and an executive staff of District Engineers, &C- The executive staff for Irrigation is, for economy's sake, identical with that previously mentioned as belonging to Buildings and Roads. The Chief Engineer and Joint Secretary in this division is assisted by a Deputy Chief Engineer and Under Secretary for Irrigation. At the head of the Accounts Branch is a special Deputy Examiner for Irrigation acting under the general control of the Examiner already mentioned, and assisted by an office establishment of accountants. Here again the office establishment is, for economy's sake, identical with that employed in the Buildings and Roads division. It has already been explained that the executive establishment in the Buildings and Roads and Irrig-a- tion divisions is one, being employed that is to say indifferently in the execution of all works, of whatever nature, which have to be carried out in the district or range to which they are attached ; it is proper to mention here that the whole of this establishment, as an establishment, is under the general control of the Chief Engineer in charge of Buildings and Roads Section IV.] rUBLIC WOKTCS— GENERAL, 251 or Irrigation who happens to be the senior. At the present date the Senior Chief Engineer is also Secretary to Government. The third main division of the Public Woi'ks Department, Railways, is divided, as are the other divisions, into an Execu- tive Branch and an Accounts Branch. The Railways in this Presidency being all guaranteed, there being that is to say no Railways constructed by the dii'ect agency of the State, the officer at the head of the division is called Consulting Engineer. As there are no works to be executed there is no executive staff ; but the Consulting Engineer is assisted by two Deputy Consulting Engineerf?, who aid in office woi'k and inspectii.n. The Railway Accoimts Branch is in charge of an Examiner of Railway Accounts with an office establishment of accountants. The Public Works Department deals with all Engineering Nature of Works undertaken by the State, the construction or repair '^"^"'^ a.one. of which has to be carried out under professional superin- tendence. Detailed designs and estimates for public buildings and other engineering works required by any other department of Government are drawn up by this department, and, after the general arrangements proposed have been approved of, the Public Works Department carries out the works as soon as funds are made available to meet the estimated expenditure. The Public Works Department is thus called upon to plan and execute works for the Government of India ; for the Provincial Government ; for the various Local Fund Boards ; for the Board of Revenue and the Heads of other Departments, as Trustees of cei'tain special funds which they administer ; for the Court of AVards ; and occasionally for Municipal Corporations. In the absence of State Railways it is evident that there are works to be execiited only in the " Buildings and Roads " and " Irrigation " Secretariat divisions. For the Imperial Government the Public Works Department Government of India undertakes the construction and maintenance of the following Works. works. The following classification is the technical one used for st^atistical purposes : — (ii.) Irric/atioii,, including all works in connection with Irriga- tion and River C(ni.scrvancy. (It.) fiiijirrial proper sub-(livi(h'd into (1.) }fi}ify the Imperial Grovernment from the ordinary revenues of India and also from loans raised by the Imperial Govern- ment for the purpose of constructing reproductive works. By far the most important works carried out by the Public Works Department on behalf of the Government of India are those connected with irrigation and the conservancy of rivers. For the Provincial Government, the Public Works Department constructs and repairs all buildings in connection with the Judicial, Revenue, Customs, Police, Educational, Jail, Medical, Marine, and Ecclesiastical Departments, as well as all navigable canals not forming part of a system of irrigation channels. To these may be added a few roads ; all works connected with the improvements, water-supply, and drainage of towns other than Municipalities ; all works connected with harbours ; and all works connected with the light-houses required for the purely local coasting trade. The expenditure from Provincial Funds on Public Works in a great measure takes the form of grants-in-aid to the several Local Fund Boards, which have charge of all the roads in the Presidency, with the exception of a few roads leading up to the hills, considered to be of Provincial rather than of Local importance. The work executed by the Public Works Department on behalf of the Local Fund Boards consists chiefly of the construc- tion and repair of roads, and occasionally of buildings in connection with Hospitals, Dispensaries, School-houses, and Travellers' Bungalows. The expenditure on these works is met by grants from the Local Funds raised under Act IV of 1871, supplemented by the grants-in-aid from Provincial Funds before referred to. Sums to defray the cost of similar works are further allotted to the Public Works Department by the Board of Revenue from special funds administered by the Board itself, such as the Canal and Ferry Fund, Jungle Conservancy Fund, Pound Fund, Irrigation Cess, and other Funds, and also by the Court of Wards from the revenues of the estates under their charge. The Public Works Department also execute various works the cost of which is defrayed from the Port, Educational, Convict Labor, and Police Lodging Funds. Section IV.] r""^'""^ PUBLIC WOHRS — GENERAL. 253 In connection with the Pubhc Works Department are the Workshops. Workshops at Madras, Dowlaishweram, and Bezwada. These institutions are self-supporting ; the prices cha.rged on the work turned out being sufficient to meet all charges for labor, materials, and supervision, as well as for interest on capital and deprecia- tion of the block. The Public Works Establishment is divided into two distinct Establish- branches, the Executive and the Accounts, the former of which °^^"*- deals with the preparation of designs and estimates and with the supervision and execution of the works, and the latter with the control and audit of the expenditure incurred. The Executive Branch consists of (a), the Engineer Estaltlish- ment of professional Engineers, composed chiefly of officers of the Royal Engineers and of Civil Engineers either trained at one of the Civil Engineering Colleges, or engaged from the Profession at home ; (b), the Upj)er Subordinate Establishment, consisting chiefly of European Artisans, Mechanics, Clerks of works, and others, who have either been apprenticed to some trade, or who have received a professional training at one of the Civil Engineering Colleges ; (c), the Lower Subordinate Establish- ment of native foremen carpenters, masons, and others, who have a practical knowledge of oi'dinary building work, and some slight knowledge of plan-drawing and surveying ; (d), the Petty Establishment of storekeepers, guards, lascars, and other inferior servants ; and (e), the Office Establishment of clerks, drafts- men, messengers, and others employed in the various offices. The Accounts Branch is divided into the Control Establishment corresponding to the " Engineer " Establishment, and the "Accountant" Establishment of trained Accountants corre- sponding to the Upper Subordinate Establishment of the Executive Branch. Further particulars regarding Public Works Accounts will be found under Chapter V. The Public Works Executive Establishment maintained in the districts is employed indifferently in the general execution of all the works entrusted to the Department, the service of each Officer being utilized in the best way practicable in carrying out the works, irrespective of the kind of work to be carried out, or the service for which the work is required. The advantages of having a distinct establishment which would concern itself exclusively with ii'i igation and thus acquire the efficiency which practice and experience in a limited field of work would give has long been recognized, but the difficulties arising from the small scale of establishments and the lai'gc area over which works arc spread [Section IV. 254 rnoDUCTiON and dtstt^ioution. has hitliorto bcon considered an insuperable obstacle to such an arrangement. There is a small special establishment maintained in connection with Irrigation works, namely the Navigation and Water Regulation Establishment, the cost of which is a charge to Imperial Irrigation Funds. This extra establishment is employed in the distribution of water for irrigation and the regulation of the supply in canals and channels, the control of the canal navigation and the record of traffic, the execution of petty repairs and general conservancy of canals, channels, and embankments. A grant for temporary establishments employed on surveys has also been made of late years. These surveys are required for the purpose of framing the projects for the completion of the works of the Godavery, Kistna, and Pennair Delta systems, and also for supplying data for the grouping of other woi'ks of irrigation and their comprehensive treatment in the way of reform, reconstruction, or repair. Establish- Apart from the cost of the works themselves, which men rg s. j^-^p|y^^|gg extra or temporary establishment beginning and ending with the work and tlie materials necessary for the work, there are charges to be met from permanent establishment. The work of the latter consists in making plans, in supervising execution by permanent hands, and in accounting and in audit- ing, and the charges for this are called " establishment charges." The cost of the whole establishment of the Railway Branch is borne by Imperial Funds. That of the rest of the general establish- ment is divided ai'bitrarily between the several heads of service. Imperial and Irrigation Funds are charged in each year for Public Works supervision 25 per cent, on the outlay on works during the year or on the budget grants, whichever may be the greater. Local and Special Funds are charged 25 per cent, on the actual expenditure. The cost of any establishment specially entertained for particular investigations is charged to the Head of Service concerned. The balance of the establishment charges, whatever it may amount to, is charged to Provincial Funds. When works are carried out by departments other than the Public Works Department, the latter find the plans and audit the expenditure ; but no charge is made for establishment on this account. Tools and Under the Public Woi'ks system of account, the estimate Plant charges. drawn up for a work does not include the cost of the Tools and Plant required for its execution ; all charges on account of Tools and Plant being carried to a separate head. At present the cost of the tools and plant required for the execution of the works is charged against the different heads of service, Imperial Section IV.] PUBLIC WORKS — GENERAL. 255 Irrigation, Provincial, &c., according to the works for which they were intended to be principally used. There is, however, some reason to believe that this arrangement practically leads to an incorrect distribution, and proposals are now under consider- ation for dividing off the charges for Tools and Plant arbitrarily in much the same manner as those for establishments. The execution of the Public Works in this Presidency is for Execution of the most part carried out either by daily labor under the ^°'^^^' direction of the Officers of the Department, or by petty contract under the same supervision. A few works, however, after being designed by the Public Works Department, are carried out under the supervision of Officers of the departments directly concerned with the work, special Government sanction being necessary for this in nearly all cases. The employment of large contractors, and especially of European contractors, in the execution of works in this Presidency is extremely rare. The progress of a Public Work from initiation to completion, say of a building required for the Revenue Department, is as follows. When the necessity for the work has been recognized by Government, the District Engineer is called on to submit a plan and estimate, usually through the Collector. When this is sanctioned by Government the work is placed on the list of those which are ready to be carried out when funds are provided. Funds are provided by the Government by sanctioning a specific appropriation for the work in some year's Public Works budget. For the commencement of this work after the funds are provided the sanction of Government is not again necessary. Before beginning the work it will as a rule be necessary for the land to be made over to the Public Works Department ; this is done by the Collector, who, if necessary, takes due steps for acquiring the land. The District Engineer then entrusts the work to the Executive Engineer or Range Officer, and the latter either collects labor and materials and builds himself, or gives out the work on potty contract, Funds are drawn by the Executive Engineer from the treasury by cheque on his public account kept there. When this work is done the Collector countersigns a " completion certificate," which has been prepared by the Executive Officer, and the Public Works Department are relieved of responsibility. Repairs to buildings once constructed are made, as occasion requires, by the Public Works Department, under the head of " Repairs " in their budget. [Section IV. 256 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. PUBLIC WORKS— BUILDINGS AND ROADS. Nature of the division. The Buildings and Roads division in this Presidency includes both of what arc known in the Northern Provinces of India as the Buildings and Roads division and the Military Works division. It deals with all questions and works not special to the Irriga- tion branch, and comprises therefore Military Works ; build- ings, &c., connected with the Post Office, Revenue, Telegraph, Ecclesiastical, Educational, and Judicial Departments, and roads, bridges, navigable canals, river improvements, accommodation for travellers, light-houses, mines, and manufactures. Following the classification according to account heads given in the preceding remarks works executed under this division fall necessarily under one or other of the following heads. As a rule the works executed are only of local interest : — hnpei'ial. Military. Fortificatious. Militajy Buildiugs. Military Roads. Aliscellauoous. Other Services. Civil Buildings. C oinmuuication 8 . Miscellaueous Public Improvement. Prcvincial. Civil Buildings. Communicatious. Miscellaneous Public luipi'ovement. Local and Special. Comnmnications. Civil Buildings. Miscellaneous Public Improvemeut. PUBLIC WORK S— I R R I G A T I N. Nature of the division. The Irrigation division of the Public Works Department deals with works in connection with Irrigation and River Conservancy. The expenditure on these works is met partly from ordinary Imperial revenues, and partly from loans. Grants from Loan Funds are made for the construction of such irrigation schemes only as give a reasonable promise that the works will yield a return at least equal to the interest of the money laid out upon them, and for all such works quasi-commercial accounts of capital and revenue arc maintained. Works paid for from loans are called Extraordinary Works, and those paid for from current revenue arc called Ordinary Works. Outlay Section IV.] PUBLIC WORKS — IRRIGATION. 257 from ordinary funds is further sub-divided and accounted for technically under three heads, Capital Ordinary, Revenue, and Ordinary Agricultural. There are therefore in the Irrigation branch four fund heads — (1) Capital Extraordinary, (2) Capital Ordinary, (3) Revenue, and (4) Ordinary Agricultural. This classification is that observed both in the budget estimates and the appropriation and outlay accounts. The notice of w^orks in the yearly Public Works administration reports follows the fund heads, as being the only ari-angement practicable. The arrange- ment however is not so satisfactory under Irrigation as it is under Buildings and Roads, for whereas in the latter division a single work is always carried out from a single fund, in the former the same work is frequently carried out from different funds. Works under the first head above mentioned are synonymous ifature of with Loan Works. All expenditure on construction is regarded Capital \ * Extraordi- as capital outlay and is carried to a capital account. At present nary. only the eight following works come under the category of Loan Works: — 5. Palar Anicut. 6. Pelandorai Anicut. 7. Cauvery Delta Works, 8. Streeviguntam Anicut. The Godavery Anicut or Weir was commenced in 1844-45 for — Godavery the supply of the canals of the delta, at the head of which it * ystem. stands. The river drains an area of about 115,570 square miles. The crest of the anicut is at 38 feet above mean sea level, and it is situated at about 33 miles from the coast. The length of the crest of the weir on the line of which the river is divided into four branches is 3,938 yards. The greatest depth of water which has passed over the weir is 15"25 feet. A short distance below the river forms two main branches with the Central Delta between them. There are three main canals — that of the Eastern Delta has a bottom width of 184| feet, and when carrying a full supply the water is 8"21 feet deep. That of the Central Delta will be 114 feet wide at bottom with a depth of 7 feet of water. That of the Western Delta varies considerably in width, but where the water is carried in a single channel the bottom width is about 225 feet, and the full depth of water 10 feet. All the principal canals of the delta are navigable. The length of canals now available, or shortly to be ready, for navigation is 450 miles, and many of them have during the last four years been much improved by the coustructiou of additional locks and 33 1. Godavery Delta Works. 2. Kistna Delta Works. 3. Pennair Anicut. 4. Chembrambakam Tank. [Section IV. 258 PRODrCTION AND DISTKIBUTION. the reduction of the current. The total area of the delta is about 2,023 square miles. Extensive drainage works have been under- taken since 1870 in the Eastern and Western Deltas. This eystem irrigates about 513,143 acres with an average revenue of Rs, 15,61,019. The following statement shows the length of navigable canals open to date : — J Completed and Navigable. Propotseu Names of Canals. Total Up to Up to Length. 1874-75 1875-76 inclusive. inclusive. Eastern Delta. Ma. CHS. MS. CHS. MS. CHS. Main Canal 4 12 4 12 4 12 Samulcotta Canal 32 68 32 68 32 68 Cocanada Canal ... 25 27 25 27 25 27 Bank Canal 37 23 23 40 23 40 Coringa Canal 22 27 22 27 22 27 Injeram Canal 10 62 10 62 10 62 Mundapetta Canal 13 35 13 35 13 35 Total ... 146 14 132 31 132 31 Central Delta. Main Canal 8 8 8 West Bank Canal 44 28 28 East Bank Canal including Billa- 45 39 39 caiTu junction. Amalapur Canal ... 31 40 27 27 Bendamui'lunka Canal ... 14 2 2 Total ... 142 40 104 104 Westei-n Delta. Main Canal ... 6 5 6 5 6 5 Kakarapurru Canal 10 29 10 29 10 29 Nursapur Canal ... 29 51 29 51 29 51 Bank Canal 24 40 16 21 40 Gostanuddy and Velpui* 28 35 14 23 40 Ellore Canal 40 27 40 27 40 27 Junction Canal ... 3 43 3 43 3 43 Venkiah and Weyyeru ... 29 74 29 74 29 74 Undi Canal ... 14 73 5 60 Attili Ca.na,l 15 75 15 75 15 75 Total ... 203 52 165 64 186 44 i Grand Total ... 492 26 402 15 422 75 — Kistna The Kistna Anient or weir was commenced in 1852. The site ■ chosen is at a point where the river is much narrower than its normal width, its channel being there confined by rocky hills on either bank. The length of the crest of this weir is 1,280 yards. In 1874 the river rose to 19'42 feet above the weir crest, and this was the highest fresh which has occurred since the anient was built. The draina^'e basin of the river has an area of about Section IV.l PUBLIC WORKS — IRRIGATION. 259 110,000 square miles, and divides tlie delta into two parts. The Eastern Delta Main Canal will, when completed, have a bottom width of 200 feet, and a depth of water of 8f feet. The main canal of the Western Delta will have a bottom width of 230 feet, and a depth of water of 8 feet. The principal canals are navigable and their length so available is at present about 254 miles. Some addition will hereafter be made to the extent of navigation by the extension or improvement of the canals. The area of the two parts of the delta is, together, 2,110 square miles, the irrigated area is 226,226 acres, and the revenue Rupees 8,90,753. The subjoined statement shows the length of naviga- ble canals open to date : — Proposed Total Length. Completed and Navigable. Names of Canals. Up to Up to 1874-75 1875-76 inclusive, inclusive. Eastern Delta. Ellore Canal Budameru Masulipatam Canal Pulleru between Head Sluice and Cowtaram. Bauturailly Canal Polarazkodu Canal MILES. 39 29 49 26 22 17 MILES. 39 29 49 17 22 17 MILES. 39 39 49 17 22 17 182 173 173 Western Delta. Nizam patam Canal Bank Canal Commamoor Canal 42 46 50 42 21 la 42 21 18 138 81 81 Grand Total ... 320 254 254 The Pennair Delta embraces a comparatively small area ; on Pennair the noi'th side of the river there are from. 200 to 220 square f^'^^f'^* System. miles of country in which there are numerous tanks which receive a more or less rehable supply of water, and it has been proposed to improve radically the arrangements ; but hitherto the irrigation is much in the state in which it was found when the district came into British possession. On the south side the area is 150 square miles, and has been provided with a fairly complete system of irrigation. The anicut or weir across the river was commenced in 1855, and was until this year (1875) 527 yards in length, or about one-third of the normal width of the river. It has been lengthened to 677 yards to lessen its liability to damage. In the [Section IV. 260 PEOPTTCTIOX AXD DISTRIBUTION. flood of 1874, 1837feetof water passed over the crest, and much of the country on both sides of the river was inundated. The area of the basin drained by the river is about 20,000 square miles. — Cauvery The Cauvery Delta has the largest area of irrigation in Madi-as. Delta System, ^^q^^ ^q miles west of Trichinopoly, the Agunda Cauvery divides at the head of the island of Seringham into two branches, the Coleroon and the Cauvery. Across the Coleroon a weir called the Upper Anient was constructed about the year 1834, and was one of the earliest of the great works planned by Sir Arthur Cotton. Its effect on the Delta has been very great, and the benefits conferred on the Government and on the people of the Tanjore District have more than fulfilled the anticipations of the projector, by securing a reliable supply of water, and obviating the necessity for collecting annually or in some seasons several times during the year several thousands of the cultivators to form temporary works for the diversion of water down the Cauvery. The head of this latter river is 1,950 feet wide, and the bed level is regulated by a dam. After running for some 16 or 17 miles, the Cauvery divides into two principal rivers, the Cauvery and the Vennaur, which irrigate nearly equal areas, and which give ofi" numerous branches : at all the principal bifurcations regulating works have during the last few years been constructed. The Cauvery was formerly connected with the Coleroon at the east end of the island of Seringham, some 20 miles from the Upper Coleroon Anient, and across this channel a work called the Grand Anicut was built by the natives many years before the province of Tanjore was ceded to the British. This was the first step towards the improvement of the delta, and its effect must have been great. In the Northern Deltas the whole of the distribution of water has been artificially carried out by canals ; but in the Cauvery Delta the principal distribution was effected naturally by the numerous branches thrown oS" by the Cauvery and Vennaur ; and from these branches innumerable small channels have been cut to convey water to the lands of the Delta villages. The chief work to be done under the British Government was to render the water-supply more reliable, and this was secured by the upper anicut ; secondly, to regulate the distribution by the principal rivers towards which something was done formerly by the regulating works at the head of the Vennaur, and much more during the last few years by the construction of regulators at the heads of all the principal branches. It is intended to bring the Cauvery under complete regulation and to provide a new head for the Vennaur at the grand anicut, so tliat Section IV.] PUBLIC WORKS— IRRIGATION. 261 tbe delta may be entirely protected from excessive floods and tbat water, which cannot with safety be carried by the various rivers of the delta, may be passed over the grand anicut, into the Coleroon, and thus got rid of. Much useful work has been done in the delta towards regulating the widths of the rivers and improving their alignment. Formerly the river beds varied greatly in width, and the result was that the deep channels changed from year to year, the tendency being to cut away the banks in some places, and to deposit the eroded material elsewhere. The parts of river beds in excess of the width required have been planted up with a tall grass, called nanel or durbah ; this checks the current, causes a deposit of the silt held in suspension, and so gradually reclaims land in a very simple, effectual, and inexpensive manner. The Cauvery rises in the Western Ghauts or mountains, and drains an area of about 28,000 square miles. The area of its delta is about 2,760 square miles. The system irrigates about 835,208 acres with a revenue of Rupees 35,30,336. The Chembrumbakam tank is a large reservoir about 14 — Chembrum- miles from Madras, which has been formed by enlarging an old g^ f™ ^^ native tank. Before its enlargement it held from 55"6I* to 77*80 millions of cubic yards, and had an area of 4,648 acres, or 7'26 square miles. Its present capacity is 102'91 millions of cubic yards, and the water-spread is 5,729 acres, or 8'95 square miles. The old sources of supply have been rendered to a greater extent available by enlarging the supply channel and its head sluice. It is not yet known whether the extension of irrigation will correspond to the expectations entertained when the scheme was sanctioned. Originally it was intended to make the tank large enough to hold 19687 millions of cubic yards, but a reconsider- ation of the water-supply available resulted in the alteration of the project to the dimensions above noted. The Pelandorai anicut gives its name to a system of irrigation Pelandorai in South Arcot. The anicut is built across the Vellaur river at ^°^*''^' System. the site which gives the work its name, and a supply channel from the right bank regulated by a head sluice and connected with subsidiary channels conveys water for the irrigation of fifty villages in the Chellumbrum Taluq. The works were commenced in 1870, and are, with the exception of additional storage in tanks, practically completed. • Oidiuarj. [Section IV. 262 PEODCCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. — Palar Anicut System. — Strivigun- tum Anicut System. Nature of Capital Ordinary. Nature of Revenue Head. Nature of Ordinary Agricultural. The Palar anicut is thrown across the I'iver of that name at the town of Vellore in the North Arcot District. It is 2,600 feet long, and is the head of a system which irrigates about 37,672 acres. Channels provided wath head sluices take oflF on either bank above the anicut. The original w^ork was constructed about the year 1 855. It was damaged and partly carried aw ay in 1874, and has since been restored. The Striviguntum anicut system is of considerable importance. The onicut crosses the Tambra^joorney river in Tinnevelly about 16 miles from the sea, and is the lowest anicut on the river. It provides for the extension of irrigation on both sides of the river, the channels leading from which not only irrigate the land directly but furnish supplies to existing tanks where it is stored. The original estimate of the extent of land to be brought under cultivation was 32,000 acres. The w^ork may be said to be completed. Under the second head mentioned above are comprised works constructed by means of funds appropriated from current revenue. The eight systems of extraordinary works in so far as they have been constructed from Ordinary Capital, belong to this head. There are indeed at present no other w^orks under Capital Ordinary. Under Revenue are grouped all works connected with minor extensions, improvements and repairs to works in the two heads just mentioned. The three heads just mentioned belong to the group of works for which capital and revenue accounts are kept. The term Ordinary-Agricultui'al is applied to those works for which capital and revenue accounts are not kept. According to present arrangements capital and revenue accounts are kept for the eight systems of ii-rigation ali'eady enumerated, and all other irrigation works are classed as Ordinary-Agricultural. Regarding these works it is necessary to explain that the reason for omitting them from the system of accounts framed to exhibit the retux'ns due to original outlay and to balance the cost of maintenance against revenue is not necessarily that they are unremunerative ; but that no such exact conclusion can under the circumstances be arrived at as to make it desirable to prepare for them the elaborate accounts prescribed for the exhibition of the financial results of the systems of irrigation on w-hich Loan funds have been expended. When it is considered that Ordinary- Agricultural Works constitute the bulk of the works of irrigation in the Presidency, and that they irrigate an area of about Section IV.] PUBLIC WORKS — IRRIGATION. 263 3,365,157 acres, yielding a revenue of, approximately. Rupees 1,31,04,126, their importance is manifest; and although the outlay under these works is not at present contrasted or compared in any regular financial statements with the returns in the shape of wet assessment or with the difference between that and the cess on dry land of the same area, the close connection of the woi-ks with the land revenue and the intimate sympathy which exists between their condition and the agricultural prosperity of the country must always be borne in mind. The first and most important sub-division of Ordinary-Agricultural works is the head Irrigation. Ordinary-Agricultural irrigation works are widely distributed and exist more or less in every district of the Presidency. They may be divided into two distinctive classes : (1) rain- fed tanks or reservoirs, generally of minor individual importance, each deriving its supply directly from rainfall distributed over an area of land which is called the catchment basin ; and (2) channels from rivers and streams providing direct irrigation or supplying tanks, together with the tanks supplied. In the first case the rainfall is caught and retained before it reaches natural drainage lines of any importance. In the last it is diverted from the drainage lines while pursuing its course and led away by artificial means. The second class is the most important, and the works which have been constructed in connection therewith by natives of the country, or by the British Government, whether anicuts or weirs across rivers or channels themselves, are often of considerable magnitude and have a large revenue dependent on them. The following state- ment in which the number of Ordinary-Agricultural irrigation works in each district is roughly estimated, and in which also the irrigated area in each district is shown, is an index to the geographical distribution of these works throughout the Presidency and to their relative importance in a financial point of view :— &t((hment. [Section IV. 264 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Additional heads and sub-divisions. District. mi J Weirs Tanks and T ■ ,. acioss Irrigation Ri^^rs or C^^^^«- Streams. Irrigated Area. Revenue. 1 2 3 4 5 Ganjam 3,504 1 287,279 BS. 5,15,431 Vizagapatam 392 13 166,846 2,44,098 Godavery ... 1,602 8 173,089 7,75,540 Kistna 442 .. 62,002 2,80,349 Nellore 765 7 208,588 6,78,500 Cuddapah 2,406 260,475 9,13,438 Kumool 654 49 61,791 2,57,656 Bellary 3,493 25 194,380 8,28,462 Chingleput ... 2,860 7 407,169 12,26,004 North Arcot 3,834 76 271,131 13,21,436 South do. 3,736 179 393,100 18,97,301 Tanjore 114,525 1,51,696 Trichinopoly 1,489 91 208,665 7,83,290 Salem 2,005 217 113,936 4,85,747 Coimbatore 337 68 102,933 5,99,827 Madura 3,942 373 172,969 6,31,978 Tinnevelly 2,357 98 166,279 15,13,373 Total ... 33,318 1,212 3,365,157 1,31,04,126 Note. — The statement as regards the number of works is only an approximate one. The area irrigated as well as the revenue attributable to the systems for which Capital and Revenue Accounts are kept is excluded. Irrigation Works belonging to land-owners are not taken into account. It has long been understood that, in order to secure a compre- hensive treatment of these numerous works, it is necessary that they should be grouped into systems hydrographically connected ; measures have accordingly been taken towards this end. It is obvious that the whole of them can be referred to various natural drainage lines and ultimately to river basins. When this has been done and the particulars of water-supply, revenue and outlay are properly recorded, it will be possible to measure with some accuracy the relation of returns to outlay, and to apportion expenditure with due regard to economy and on sound principles. The other Ordinary- Agricultural sub-divisions coming under the two classes mentioned are River Conservancy, River Embankments, and Miscellaneous, the latter including works not susceptible of being referred to either of the three other classes. In addition to the expenditure on new works and repairs for which the Department of Public Works is responsible, there is outlay in other directions. These other heads of account are for the establishment employed in duties of supervision and direc- tion, and for tools and plant used in carrying on the works. The whole outlay may, therefore, be considered under four divi- sions. Original or New Works, Repairs, Establishment, Tools and Section IV.j PUBLIC WORKS — IRRIGATION. 265 Plant. As regards establisliment, since as already remarked the Irrigation Branch is charged with a fixed percentage (25 per cent, on grant or outlay, whichever is the greatest) for general establishment, it is only necessary to notice under this section matters relating to the special establishments which have been described as being attached to the Irrigation Branch. Tools and Plant expenditure have to be considered. In whichever way again outlay under the irrigation branch is treated, it will be necessary to consider under each section the fund heads. Capital Extraordinary, Capital Ordinary, Revenue, and Ordinary Agri- cultural. These divisions and sub-divisions are attended to in the yearly administration i-eports. The revenue dependent on the works existing throughout the Eeceipts from Presidency for the purposes of collecting, storing and distribut- wo^^g ing water for irrigation is, as has already been mentioned, very considerable. The collections from irrigated land amounted in 1874-75, the latest year for which the accounts are compiled, to Rupees 1,95,67,001. On the other hand the receipts actually credited in the Public Works accounts are quite insignificant, accruing not from the sale of water for irrigation but from other incidental sources of profit, such as navigation dues, water- supply of towns, sale of canal produce, such as grass, rent of land, &c. This is due to the revenue system obtaining in the Presidency by which the rent levied on irrigated land is for the most part in the form of a consolidated assessment of which the proportion due to water-supply as distinguished from the claim for the use of the land for cultivation is indefinite. It is only as regards the deltas of the Godavery and the Kistna, and that quite recently, that a settlement has been made distinguishing between land assessment and water-rate, and even here the principle of the settlement has been a consolidated wet rate of which an arbitrary and uniform portion is called the water-rate. In the case of extraordinary works an attempt has been made to estimate profits, and for the irrigation works in the deltas special investigations have already been instituted having for their object on the one hand the summing up of the charges against the works, and on the other the determination of the revenue which is due to the outlay incurred. For five out of the eight extraordinary systems approximate accounts have now been prepared, and the follovviag abstract shows the results temporarily accepted : — S'ate/Ke'it. 34 rSection IV. 266 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. , a) fl 1 bo o I rt -*^ ^ ^ ' " » 5: a >. u^ cfi ercen of N capit outla ^ M CO o CD C3 (^ « <*.! . ^ « ^^ ^ 00 g-a-S °s s s o CO « (1) Hi fc, g >. ^5 -^ oo IN cT « o > o p3 o ^*H £P=!S 60 •o CO >o at CO « BJ t^ "^ oT 00 ai CO ^ o~ 00 '^ "^ O ^ s ^ ** o CO _1 3 o CO oo Tj S oo' "'. CO h g ^ ^ p) =»" CO ■*■ cd" ■^ O . 05 "^ 00^ e^ "i II ^1 ^" IM co" tiO ■^ CO Tj< ^ ^ .a -3 oo CO (3 0) ►< u ^ S ■=>" cT o CG ^ o CO •V •* « eT »^ CO •n o I^ O n g ■* °l g^ ^1 o CD m g CO TjT o CO ^ cT ^ n Ol eo 05 00 05 O OS "\ CO » "C w o s s oT cT c»r 3 a. Ci P| •* co" ^ '^ ■"* o *.» CO CO «n •o S s s •* g k. 00 rt QO o c^ ^ O ;^ _ ■» w^ '-^ •^ •Is => ja ■^ co" H*- •* S a, H III « :f o o o en "^ o >^ oo U) Ol 1^ n „ t^ eo *~v O »-^ ^o to e^ O =■ oo to- 0^ CO c< «M . es (M ^^ ■"J* fr« '^ ^ ■«*' O ■* Oi >. . s cn co_ "^ >n 09 "3 ^1 ^ « 4 CO n o o 3 CO ■* " '~* " be •9" tj o ■* ■^ ■^ m o "S. "i CO 00 o r-;^ oj I^E CO « 5 eo en »o o ^ CO 1 ■oT •^ "o g g • 'S ll c^ 5 Q ^ Q "3 C3 > cd Q as a > a a g, qJ •O -^ CO S S! o O S "3 u w « in" -.J* CO « •jnnoDDB STq? ^ *7 *7 r^ tn pepniom a^ai :>ss}bi "" ^ ^ « J2 •* 00 (X3 QO oo 1.^ •— • .-* « s g s a> .^s ^ ^ ^ b E= ^ t»i !». h £i .Q a S a c3 Q O t5 Of the departmental receipts referred to above the only items meriting notice are those attributable to the navigation of canals Section IV.] PUBLIC WORKS — RAILWAYS. 267 in the Godavery and Kistna Deltas. Licenses to ply on these canals are issued to boat owners, the present rate being 1 Rupee per ton per annum for cargo boats, and from 3 to 6 annas for every square foot of deck space for passenger boats. The old works of irrigation were almost without exception, Conservancy and a majority of them are still, without adequate means of irrio-ation. disposing of surplus water and distributing water for irrigation ; and an outlay on works, such as weirs, sluices, &c., considerably larger than the present outlay, is required to prevent recurring loss of revenue. It is to be regretted that the responsibility of villagers for the timely execution of petty repairs to tanks and other works belonging to the village have generally been allowed to lapse, but it is doubtful whether there is now a possibility of its revival. The execution of such repairs at the public cost will materially affect the charges for maintenance of irrigation works. PUBLIC WORKS — RAILWAYS, The Secretariat ari-angements in connection with this branch of Constitution the Public Works Department have already been described. All ^^q^^ ^^" * the Railways yet undertaken in this Presidency are under the guarantee system. The design, that is to say, and construction of the railroads are entrusted to joint-stock companies, and the Indian Government guarantees interest on moneys duly raised and paid to Government by these companies, while it controls their expenditure and operations. The principal concessions granted under this agreement are the following: — (1) The Government guarantee interest varying in amount from 4| to 5 per cent, for a term of years* on all moneys paid with authority into their treasury, and should the profits in any half-year exceed the guaranteed interest, the surplus is equally divided between Government and the shareholders. (2) The Railway Company have the option of demanding repayment, upon their giving six months' notice of their intention to surrender the railway, of the whole of the capital duly expended upon the railway. On the other hand the Government have the option of purchasing the railway at fixed periods (due notice being given) on payment of the value of all shares calculated according to * Madras Railway 99 years, South Indian Railway 999 years. [Section IV. 268 PRODUCTION AND DISTEIBUTIOS. their mean market-value during three preceding years. The first opportunity of purchasing the Madras Railway will occur on the 1st April 1907, and of the South Indian Railway on 1st March 1890. (3) Government lease to the Railway Company free of cost for a term* of years all land required for the perma- nent works of the railway, and further provide all other land temporarily needed for its construction ; land not permanently needed being returned to Government as soon as possible. In consideration of the above grants of aid, the Government have the power to select the line, to define the limits of all works, to supervise expenditure and operations in England and in India, to examine accounts, to inspect works and line under or after completion, to regulate toils and time-tables, and generally to control the affairs of the Railway Company. Mails are to be carried free ; troops and Government stores on the usual favorable terms. The control in England is exercised by an official Director, who sits at the Boards of aU Guaranteed Railway Companies, and who has the power of passing a veto on their proceedings. In India the supervision is entrusted to the Consulting Engineer for Railways, and the following rules have been laid down for his guidance : — (1) All questions of general importance shall be referred to Government for decision. (2) Under the above will be included the general direction of all lines of railway, the position of stations, and the general arrangements of the more important stations and works. But after the general sanction of the Government has been given to any project, all questions of detail can be disposed of within the limits of the original sanction by the Consulting Engineer. (3) AU matters of routine, or payments, or acts in accordance with rule, precedent, or special agi'eement duly sanctioned, or undisputed contingent expenditure, may be dealt with by the Consulting Engineer without reference to Government. (4) All designs, estimates, and indents, whether for work or for establishments for carrying into effect objects already generally sanctioned by Government, may also be disposed of finally by the Consulting Engineer. (5) The Consulting Engineer may, without reference to Government, reduce the amount of indents, or direct designs or proposed opeiiitions to be modified if he thinks it necessary ; but the Agent in such cases, if dissatisfied with the decision of the Consulting Engineer, may always request that the matter be referred for the final orders of the Government. (6) When the sanction of the Consulting Engi- * Madras KailTrav 99 vcnrs, South Indian Bailway 999 years. Section IV.] MADRAS IRRIGATION COMPANY. 269 neer is given to any proposals of the Agent, in which both of these oflBcers concur, excepting in those matters of great importance specially excepted above, the sanction so given shall, so far as the Government is concerned, be considered final. MADEAS IRRIGATION COMPANY. The guaranteed Company styled the Madras Irrigation and History of Canal Company was incorporated by an Act of Parliament, dated q^^^q/ ^^ the 11th May 1858, for the purpose of constructing and operation, managing works of irrigation and navigation in various parts of India. An indenture or contract deed was executed on the 3rd June 1863 between the Company and the Secretary of State for India, providing for the execution by the Company of one work to be selected by the local Government, to cost one million sterling, and on wliich 5 per cent, return was guaranteed by the Secretary of State. In pursuance of that agreement, the so-called Toombudra or Tongabudra project was adopted. This included a canal for irrigation and navigation from Sunkesala 17 miles above the town of Kurnool on the Toombudra to the Kistnapatam estuary on the sea-coast in Nellore. The Company accordingly undertook that section of the scheme which extends from Sunkesala to Soomaisweram on the Pennair river. In 1866 it having been found that the original estimate was quite insufficient to complete the project, a further agreement was concluded on the 30th July of that year. This contract separates the section of the scheme extend- ing from Sunkesala to Cuddapah from the remainder of the project, and provides for a loan of £600,000 from the Secretary of State to the Company on the security of debentures issued by them, the loan to be expended in the completion of the canal to the Pennair and thence to the town of Cuddapah. The work was virtually completed in 1871. Hitherto the canal has been an entire failure in a financial point of view. The returns from Irrigation and the sale of water generally have been utterly insignificant when compared with the capital outlay. They have averaged about Rupees 51,000 per annum, while the charges against revenue for m.-^intenance and establishment do not fall far short of Rupees 1,80,000 annually. The causes are stated to be the unprofitable outlay on works of navigation, which, owing to the want of capital on the part of the Company, are not utilized ; the scarcity of labor in the district, and the [Section IV. 270 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTIOX. high rates necessary in order to attract it from a distance for the construction of the canal, whereby the capital outlay was increased ; and, the cost of transport of produce to market by the indifferent roads of the country, and the check thus given to the extension of irrigation for the growth of rice, which is not an article of large local consumption. A general superintendence over the financial afiairs of the Company is exercised by the Chief Engineer for Irrigation. POST. Imperial Post. District Posts — History. There is no local control of the Imperial Postal Department. The District Post existed in this Presidency prior to 1846 solely for the transmission of official correspondence between Collectors and Magistrates and their subordinate officers. It had then no connection with the ordinary Postal Department, and the dawks were carried by the peons and village servants belonging to the Revenue Establishment as they could be spared from other duty. There were no receipts, and no separate charges appeared in the accounts. In 1846 the District Post was opened to the public on payment of postage in cash, the agency continued the same, and the district postage, regulated on a different principle from the post rates of the ordinary Postal Department, furnished a fund credited to the district in which it was raised. A letter passed on from the regular Post to the District Post for delivery at an outlying village where there was no regular post office, was charged district rate in addition to the regular postage, and vice versa. There was no inter- communication between the two Posts. It was not at this time contemplated that the district dawks should be a source of profit to the State ; consequently it was understood that the Collector of each district was authorized to expend on the improvement of the district postal system any revenue which it produced. The receipts grew very rapidly, and in 184:8-49 amounted to Rupees 21,734. In 1854 postage stamps were introduced in lieu of cash payments in the regular Postal Department, and simultaneously it was arranged that as regards matters of payment, as far as the public was concerned, there should be no distinction between this Post and the District Post, the two forming one system for the public convenience. From this date the District Post may be said to have been converted into a feeder of the Imperial Post. During the last fifteen veai-s Section IV.] POST. 271 various improvemeBts have been made in the district dawk in the employment of a special establishment for delivery, in opening new District Post OflBces and lines, and in the extension of the system to outlying parts. Under Act XXI of 1866, section 64, the Governor- General in Council is empowered to frame rules, from time to time, for regulating the district dawks, and in exercise of that power sections 25, 27, 35, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, and 51 of the Act just named have been made applicable to them in this Presidency. As the receipts from, postage stamps are now credited to Imperial, and even cash payments incidental to unpaid or insufficiently paid letters sent by District Post are collected by the Imperial Department, while the charges for district runners and gumastahs remain as they were before, it follows that all the receipts in this department go to Imperial while all the charges go to Provincial ; the expenditure however is covered by the Imperial grant. The District Post as now arranged furnishes inter-communi- — Present cation between those parts of the country which are removed meats, from the General Post line. The taluq stations are the first connected, and between these the delivery is carried out by the ordinary staff of District Post peons. The delivery into outlying villages is carried out by a system called the Rural Delivery. The Rural Delivery establishment consists of a staff of itiner- ating peons, whose beats are so arranged that they shall visit each village in the taluq once, twice, and thrice a week, or daily, according to the importance of the village, its accessibility, and the funds that are available ; and of village receiving-houses or houses of call for the peons. The latter are managed by respectable inhabitants of the village, who in some cases give their services gratuitously, and in other cases are paid a small stipend of Rupees 2 a month. The accounts of the District Post are kept by district post gumastahs at the taluqs. The administration of the District Post is vested in the Revenue Department, but it has been found convenient in the case of most districts to entrust the detailed management to the Postmaster- General, who, in communication with the Collectors, undertakes the practical working of the Post, the Collectors finding the funds in their revenue budgets. Again when a . comparison of the District Post charges for any establishment with the Imperial receipts shewn by the postage stamps carried, indicates that in the case of this particular establishment the latter amount covers the former, with a margin of one -fifth, the Postmaster-General is authorized by the Government of India to take over the whole of the charges for that establishment, thus [Section IV. 27-2 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. absorbing that portion of the District Post into the Imperial Post. When this takes place Provincial funds get a clear gain of the charges recently incurred, and these savings are utilized in the improvement of the remaining district establish- ments, especially in the direction of developing the Rural Delivery system. It is difficult to bring about individual solvency in the case of each establishment, and a proposal has been made to the Imperial Department to relax the conditions so as to group establishments and offices for purposes of experiment. TELEGRAPH. Imperial The Government Telegraph Department is imperial, and there Telegraph. -g ^^^ ^^^^^ control. The following were at the end of 1876-76 the lengths of the Sub-divisions of the Madras Division, excluding wires carried on supports of the Department, but belonging to the Local Government : — Bezwarrah Sub-division. Miles of Miles of From Masulipatam through Bezwarrah to Line, Wire. Hyderabad, Decan, and from Bezwarrah to the right bank of the Kistna. ... 212-5 214 Nellore Suh-division. From the right bank of Kistna river to the junction on the Madras Railway 3'5 miles from the Madras Office 260-03 521-62 Paumhen Sub-division. From Madras to Tallamannar 392-32 425-44 Gooty Sub-division. From Madras to Raichore and from Goon- daculJ unction to Bellary 382-5 911-25 Total ... 1,248-35 '2,072-21 The offices open at the end of 1875-76 were : — Madras. Nellore. Pondicherry. Guntoor. Negapatam. Bezwarrah. Paumben. Masulipatam. Telegraphic communication throughout the Presidency is carried out to a great extent by means of the Railway Telegraphs. Section V.] SECTION V. REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. The receipts of this Presidency may be considered tinder threo Classiflcation distinct divisions, first those assigned for the general service j^^^ Finance, of the Empire, secondly those appropriated for the exclusive wants of the Presidency, and thirdly those appropriated to the exclusive benefit of a particular locality or service within the Presidency. The first division chiefly consists of the revenue derived from taxation of the people, such as Land Revenue, Excise on Spirits and Drugs^ Customs, Salt, and Stamps ; but includes also some departmental receipts, such as Judicial Fees and Fines, Marine, Postal, and Telegraph collections, Military and Imperial Public Works Receipts, Interest on Loans and Advances made by Government, and sundry miscellaneous items, as gain by exchange and receipts in aid of superannuation. The tribute and peishcush received from the Mysore, Cochin, and Travancore States also appear under this division. The second division, known as Provincial Services, includes at present, besides certain sums annually assigned out of Imperial revenue by the Government of India, the departmental receipts of Jails, Registration, Police, Education, Medical, and Printing ; as likewise certain petty items, such as the pilotage collections in the Paumben Channel, and the Uncovenanted Civil Service Examination fees. The third division includes taxes raised by special enactment or ruling, such as Road, Village Service, and Irrigation Cesses, and tolls on roads and canals, these taxes being controlled by the Board of Revenue through the medium of Collectors or of the Local Fund Boards. Under the third divi- sion are shown certain Special Funds also, such as Convict Labor, Police Lodging, School Fee, Educational Building, and Port Funds, which are under the control of the Heads of the Jail, Police, Educational, and Marine Departments, respectively. Municipal funds are not treated as State funds, and are therefore omitted from this classification. The distinction in this respect between Municipal funds and Local funds under Act IV of 1871 35 [Section V. 274 REVENUE, FINANCIAI;, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Kethod of Financial Administra- tion. is somewhat arbitrary. There are however certain technical grounds for a distinction. Thus Local funds under Act IV of 1871 are collected by the ordinary Government agency of tho country, and by means of an entry in the usual revenue puttah ; and they are paid invariably into the Government Treasury, and are subject there to Government control and audit. Neither of these conditions can be predicated of funds raised under the Towns' Improvement Act, in the case of which the Town Commissioners are left to collect their own resources, and to bank or not with the Government as they please. Moreover, generally speaking, the interference of Government is less frequently and less directly exercised in the case of Municipal funds than in the case of funds under the Local Funds' Act. The present section will show details of revenue and finance under the heads — I. — Imperial Services, relating to the transactions described in the first division referred to above. (a.) Civil, comprising particular notices of the receipts and charges under several of the heads, and of the administration connected therewith under the following heads : — Abkari, Sea, and Land Customs, Salt, and Stamps. (h.) Military. (c.) Public Works. (cZ.) Telegraph. II. — Provincial Services, relating to the transactions desci'ibed in the second of the divisions referred to above ; and III. — Local and Special Funds, relating to the third division. IV. — Monetary arrangements, as under — (rt.) Cash currency remittances and balances. (h.) Paper Currency. (c.) Money Orders. All funds, whether falling under the heads I, II, or III given above, are controlled generally by the local Government, and are administered in detail by heads of departments or by the Board of Revenue under the supervision of Government. The Board of Revenue administer in detail the Land Revenue, Forest, Excise, Customs, Salt, Stamps, District Post, District Presses, Local Funds and many of the Special Funds ; while Jails, Registration, Police, Education, Medical, and Marine Services, with a few Special Funds, are administered in detail by the respective heads of those departments. In the case of Military and Public Works, the arrangements are somewhat Section V.] REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTBATIVB. 275 Special. For Telegraph there is no local control. Similarly for Port, one of the heads comprised under civil. In keeping its accounts the Local Government is assisted by Imperial oiBcers, who, though subordinate to the Government of India, are required to conform to all requisitions of the Local Government which may not be opposed to the specific orders of the Govern- meut of India. The principal of these ofiicers is the Accountant- General, who, besides his duties connected with accounts and audit, has the duty also of advising the Local Government on all matters of finance. The Accountant-General acts also as general paymaster to the Local Government. He is also appointed Commissioner of Paper Currency. At a suflBcient time in advance of the commencement of each Budgets, official year heads of departments place before the Local Govern- ment an estimate of the probable income and expenditure of their departments under all heads for that year. The material thus sent in is grouped by the Local Government under the heads I, II, and III mentioned above, or some of their sub-divisions, and budgets are prepared for those heads. The Imperial Services budget goes for final manipulation and inclusion in the general budget for the empire to the Government of India. The details of the others are not manipulated by the Government of India, and the Local Government are therefore competent to dispose of them finally, merely reporting results to the Government of India. Though these two budgets stand thus on a different footing, they go practically to the Government of India in one combined Provincial and Imperial budget. The mode of dealing with the budgets may be seen by noting —Preparation the particular case of the Provincial Services budget, where the °^^ b'^^^^T orders of the Local Government are practically final. In this case District Collectors or other local ofiicers supply the head of the department with approximate estimates of their receipts and expenditure for the ensuing official year. This is done about September in the current year. The subordinate estimates usually contain figures in three columns side by side, showing (1), the actuals of the previous year ; (2), the estimate already sanctioned for the current year; and (3), the proposed estimate for the ensuing year. The actuals in the first column are often not the audited figures as finally given by the auditing officer but for budget purposes this cause of inaccuracy is unimportant. In some cases a "regular estimate" for the current year, consisting of the ascertained actuals of so many months of [Section V. 276 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. the current year, added to a newly prepared estimate for the remaining months, is substituted for the budget estimate in cohimn 2 or added as a fourth column. The subordinate estimates prepared in this way are manipulated by the head of the department, in communication, if necessary, with the local officer, and are worked up into a complete budget estimate for that department, and forwarded to the Local Government with remarks and explanations. This is done usually by December in the current year. The Local Government manipu- lates the departmental budget into a single Provincial budget for the Presidency, which is put on record in a combined form, and forwarded in that form, as above mentioned, to the Govern- ment of India for their information. As soon as the whole Provincial budget is arranged, and in some unimportant cases even before that is done, the Local Government send back the departmental budgets separately to the heads of departments with final orders upon them. In some cases the budget is sanctioned as submitted ; in other cases the amounts are altered to suit the exigencies of other departments, or for reasons peculiar to that particular budget. The heads of departments in turn transmit the budgets thus received, or portions of them, to the local officers concerned. — TJtilization A sanctioned Provincial departmental budget indicates to the cial budget.' l^ead of the department and to the auditing officer the limits of expenditure for the year to which it relates. The budget is comprised of various entries, according to the subjects concerned and the sub-divisions or officers composing the department ; each appropriation entry is complete in itself, and cannot under ordinary circumstances be exceeded. On the other hand, under certain conditions any expenditure may be incurred during the year up to the amount of that entry. The main conditions are ; that the expenditure shall be of a nature such as under an ordinary construction pertains to that head of entry, and in eases where such a restriction is necessary, shall be distributed over the year in a reasonable way suitable to the circumstances, to decide as to both of which is left to the discretion of the spending and auditing officers ; again that no more than certain fixed amounts shall be spent wathout special sanction on any one item, whatever the condition of the funds under the appropriation entry, and that in some cases no expenditure at all shall take place on certain things, for instance new establishments, without special sanction, both of which checks are provided for by standing orders of the local Government. In all these Section V.] REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. 277 matters the head of the department controls the subordinate officer, and the local Government controls the head of the department. New estaWishments cannot be sanctioned by any authority lower than the local Govex'nment, and general rates of pay and allowances can be altered only on the authority of the Government of India. The transfer of funds from the appropriation entry of one local officer to that of another, or from one " minor head " to another of the same officer's appropriation, can usually be effected by the head of the department but never by any local officer. Similarly, the transfer of funds from one depart- ment to another, or from one " major head " to another in the same department, can be carried out by the local Government, but not by any head of department. If an officer finds that the funds under any one of his " minor heads " are exhausted, or are insufficient for his purposes, he applies to the head of the depart- ment, who will either provide money from such reserve as he may have at his disposal under the budget-head of " reserve," or will obtain funds from " savings " in one or other of the methods just mentioned. In effecting transfers from " savings," the head of the department ascertains the state of the funds in other branches of his department or under other budget entries of the same branch, either by communication with the local officer himself, or by application to the accounting officer, whose books will give the necessary information. If these measures do not suffice, application must be made by the head of the department to the Government, who will then, if it thinks fit, assign funds from its reserve. The financial powers of the Board of Revenue are in many Financial respects larger than those of any other head of department ; their Borr^ of mention here will at any rate illusti'ate some of the remarks given Eevenue. above. The officers controlled by the Board are Collectors, the Superintendent of Government Farms, and the Superintendent of Stamps ; Collectors administering nearly all the subjects mentioned above as belonging to the Board. Items on which these subordinate officers can incur no expenditure without previous sanction, whatever the state of funds under the corre- sponding appropriation entry, are (1), salt works costing more than Rupees 2,000; (2), other petty public works under land revenue and customs costing more than Rupees 100 ; (3), law charges in civil suits ; (4), refunds of unauthorized collections other than law fines after two years have elapsed ; (5), office furniture; (6), binding books; (7), pi-oss materials; and various other less important items. The Board have to go to the [Section V. 278 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Government for sanction in the following cases : (1), salt works costing more than Rupees 5,000 ; (2), other works under land revenue and customs likely to cost more than Rupees 2,000 ; (3), purchase of periodicals and books ; (4), office rent; with various other items . No mention is here made of such condi- tions as are common to all departments ; for instance, the prohibition of entertaining new establishments without Govern- ment sanction. Disburse- Government money is lodged at the Presidency town with the ments. Bank of Madras, and at Berhampore, Cocanada, Guntoor, Negapatam, Tuticorin, Calicut, Cochin, Mangalore, Ootacamund and Bellary wdth its agents ; at all other places it is left in treasuries under charge of Collectors of disti-icts. There are 23 district treasuries, besides 333 taluq and subordinate treasuries ; the former are usually under the immediate charge of Treasury Deputy Collectors and the latter under the immediate charge of Tahsildars. The funds due from taxation and other receipts are paid into the various treasuries, and it is the duty of the Accountant-General to arrange by remittances of cash and other measures that the funds are duly distributed over the country in accordance with public requirements. Remittances from other Presidencies to this Presidency are very rare. The Accountant-General provides funds for all depart- ments. If a local officer has authority to spend money and wishes to do so, he draws the sum from the nearest treasury or bank keeping Government funds. The rules for disbursement vary in different departments. Generally however it may be said that an officer wishing to draw cash tenders a bill or claim, and if the charge is unusual quotes the authority ; if the claim is an authorized one the Treasury officer pays the money and takes a receipt from the payee, or if the business of the Treasury be managed by one of the Banks orders it for payment at the Bank. At head-quarters the Collector delegates all his powers in connection with the treasury to the Treasury Deputy Collector ; the subordinate Treasury officers at the taluqs can ordinarily make payments only on the authority of the Collector or Treasury Deputy Collector. In connection with lodgment of Government funds with treasuries and banks, it should be mentioned that local officers are authorized to withdraw a certain small portion of the funds under a permanent advance system for conducting current expenditure under certain of their budget heads. The ti-ansactions of all taluq and subordinate treasuries are reported monthly to Collectors, by whom they are Section V.] RKVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. 279 incorporated in the district account and forwarded monthly to the Accountant-Gencral. The bulk of the money in the District Treasury is in a chest Treasury under the lock and key of the Collector, only a sufficient sum meuts. being placed in charge of the Cash-keeper for current expendi- ture. The amount of money to be left with the Cash-keeper is not fixed by any rule, but when the balance with the Cash- keeper in the evening of any day exceeds 10,000 Rupees, the excess is usually transferred to the Collector's box. During the absence of the Collector, the keys are with the Covenanted Assistant at head-quarters. The Collector, and, during his absence, his Covenanted Assistant is personally present when cash or stamps are taken out of or put into the cash-chest under his lock and key. The Treasury is examined monthly by the Collector, or one of his Covenanted Assistants, and a report is made to the Board of Revenue as to whether the amount in it is correct. The examination is made by the Deputy Collector, if it is impossible for any of the European officers to conduct the examination. Every evening the Deputy Collector signs the cash-book. He also examines the balance in the expense chest with the Cash-keeper, at least once a week. The periodical examination of the money in the cash-chest by the Deputy Collector is always reported to the Collector. The Taluq Treasury is under the joint lock and key of the Tahsildar and Taluq Sheristadar, both the keys being in the sole charge of the latter when the former is absent from head-quarters. The Taluq Sheristadar examines every evening the balance in the Treasury, and signs the Chitta with a certificate that the balance has been found to be correct. The Chitta is countersigned by the Tahsildar when he is present at head-quarters. Shroffs or subordinate Cash-keepers are never placed in charge of the keys of the Treasury, either in the district or the taluq. They arc only held responsible for bad coin and over-payments during the day. The Tahsildar examines the balance in the chest not less than twice a month, and every time he leaves and arrives at bead-quarters ; and reports having done so to tlie Deputy Collector in charge of the Treasury. Taluq Treasuries are examined by the Collector or one of his Assist- ants not less than once every six months, and a report is made to the Board of Revenue. The accounts kept by treasuries and forwarded to the Account and Accountant- General are chiefly records of receipts and disburse- [Section V. 280 REVENUE, FINANCIIL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. meuts, entered in prescribed forms of a more detailed nature than the budget forms. The principal return is the monthly Treasury Account Current. Every half-year a set of questions relating to the internal economy of the treasury is filled in by the Collector and forwarded to the Accountant-Greneral through the Board of Revenue. The Presidency books of the Civil Department are kept by the Accountant- General, those of the Military Department by the Controller of Military Accounts, those of the Public Works Department by the Examiner of Public Works Accounts, and those of the Postal and Telegraph Departments by the Compilers of those accounts. The account- ing officers here mentioned, other than the Accountant-General, are furnished by the Accountant-General with monthly accounts of their respective departments, as appearing in the Treasury accounts in different parts of the country. Such departmental accounts are, with the exception of Post Office transactions, treated as remittances in the Accountant -General's books. The accounts of the local Accountant-General are rendered finally to the Comptroller- Genex'al, by whom they are incorporated in the Imperial books of the Government of India. Military trans- actions are accounted for to the Accountant-General, Military Department, Calcutta, and by him to the Comptroller- General. Similarly for Public Works and Telegraphs, which go into the Imperial books through the Accountant-General, Public Works Department, Calcutta, and the Departmental Accounts branch of the Comptroller-General respectively. Provincial Public Works form part of the report of the Examiner Public Works Accounts, but they come back to the local Accountant-General for final adjustment. Postal transactions ai'e treated for book- keeping purposes in the same way as any other receipts and charges in the Civil Department. The local accounting officers perform the duties of audit as well. At the Presidency town itself disbursements of the Civil Department, except those of the nature of advances, are made after audit by an officer of the Account Department and on his orders. Elsewhere they are made in anticipation of the audit of the Account Department. Section V.j IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVI!.. 281 IMPERIAL SERVICES— CIVIL. General. The general nature of these services has already been suffi- Nature of the ciently indicated in the first paragraph of the present section. ^^^^^ ^^' The funds are assigned for purposes which are regarded, artificially at any rate, as having an imperial interest, and in administering them the local Government may be considered as acting in the capacity of agents to the Government of India. The following are the heads of account as usually classified. The figures for 1875-76 ai^e given to furnish an idea of the average amounts in each case. In some instances a comparison can be made between the income and out-goings of the same department. lu the divisions next ensuing will be given remarks as to the nature of the entries and the details of administration under the most important of the heads on each side. The treatment is not exhaustive from a financial point of view ; and receipts and charges are mentioned together, which is contrary to technical practice : — Receipts. Payments. RS, RS. Land Revenue 4,54,50,128 Interest on Service Funds, &c. 4,75,248 Tributes and Contributions .. 34,46,431 Refunds and Drawbacks 3,04,303 Forests 4,27,723 Land Revenue 44,48,139 Excise on Spirits and Drugs . . 63,39,011 Forests ... 4,30,182 Assessed Taxes 481 Excise on Spirits and Druffs... 1,97,035 Customs 30,79,620 Assessed Taxes Salt 1,35,37,890 Customs 1,87,276 Stamps ... 50,19,708 Salt 18,70,376 Mint 3,000 Stamps 1,36,730 Post Office 9,72,248 Mint 29,307 Law and Justice 4,33,791 Post Office 7,60,301 Marine ... 12,495 Administration 12,24,436 Interest 2,69,774 Minor DejDartments 95,392 Eeceipts in aid of Superannua - 24,42,342 Law and Justice 36,19,583 tion, &c. Marine ... 73,029 Gain by Exchange, London . . 99,105 Ecclesiastical ... 3,83,140 Miscellaneous 1,77,898 Medical Political Agencies 3,12,584 1,19,399 Allowances and As &c. "ignments, 24,50,643 Superannuation, & c. Allow- 15,39,399 ances. Loss by Exchange, London ... 3,05,638 Miscellaneous ... 2,88,340 Allotments for Provincial 83,55,701 Services. Total .. 8,17,11,645 Total ... 2,77,09,181 The following statement, showing the incidence per head of Incidence of the population of each head of Imperial taxation roughly calcu- RS. A. p. 1 15 2 3 2 1 5 14 13 1 2 G 11 2 7 [Section V. 282 REVENun:, financial, and administrative. lated with a view to all the circumstances for the same year, will indicate approximately the proportion between the amounts of the taxes : — Land revenue Excise on spirits, &c. Sea customs on population ... Sea customs on Europeans and Eurasians Land customs ... Salt Stamps Land Revenue. Nature of the The receipts under this head are revenues of w^hich land is the entries. primary source. They embrace all collections on account of settled demand, the principal items falling under Permanently settled, Ryotwar, Shotriem Jody, and Miscellaneous. The item " Permanently settled " consists of peishcush charged on Zemin- daries, ancient and proprietary, Jaghires, Mootahs, and Polliems. " Ryotwary " means settlements made directly with the ryots. " Shotriem Jody " is quit-rent on Shotriem and Inam entire villages. Sale proceeds of waste lands, recei^its of all kinds on account of redemption of land Revenue, and all items of Land Revenue which are not included in the annual Revenue Settlement, and which are of a fluctuating character, are shown as Miscellaneous Receipts. Pearl fisheries are included technically under Land Revenue. The gross revenue collected in the districts is brought to account ; aud the practice of liquidating stipendiary allowances, or making any other payments, by deductions from the State Revenue, is prohibited, except in cases where the special sanction of the Government has been received. The entire charges on account of salaries of Collectors, and their Deputies and Assistants, including establishments and contingencies ; and the Settlement, Inam Commission, and Revenue Survey charges appear under this head. One-fifth of the cost of the Revenue and Magisterial establishments of Collectors and Deputy and Assistant Collectors is exhibited under " Law and Justice.'' One-half of the salaries of the Commissioner of the Nilgiris and his Assistant is debited to the present head, and the other half to " Law and Justice." A fall description of the Land Revenue system of this Presidency has already been given under Soctiou IT. Section V.] imperial services — civil. 283 Forest. The receipts here include sale of, and seigniorage on, timber. Nature of the including drift and waif wood, rent of sandal- wood farms, sale ®^''"^®^- of smuggled wood, &c. Fines under the Forest Law, when levied by Magisterial officers, are credited to " Law and Justice," and when levied by Forest Officers, without the interposition of the Magistrate, are credited to " Forest Revenue." The estab- lishments, contingencies and working expenses of the Forest Department come here as charges. Establishments and contingencies are paid for like any other cash charges ; working expenses are defrayed by cheques drawn by Forest officers, the amounts being charged direct to the Forest gi-ant, and adjusted in due course by detailed bills. Roads made exclusively for the development of Forest revenue are treated as Forest charges. Forest administration has been explained under Section IV. Excise on Spirits, kc. This head, otherwise called Abkari, exhibits on the receipt Nature of side all taxes, duties, and fees levied on the manufacture, ®^*^^^^- distillation, or sale of spirituous, intoxicating liquors and drugs. The charges are mainly for establishment and the cost of manufacturing or purchasing liquors in the town of Madras. The pi-actice of deriving a revenue from a tax upon the sale of History of intoxicating liquor has been borrowed from the Mussulman and Abkari. Hindu Governments. In the earlier years of the present century there Avas considerable discussion as to the best mode of collecting the tax. In 1808 the first Abkari Regulation was passed, No. I of 1808 ; but owing to doubts as to the propriety of taxing toddy the operation of this enactment was restricted to taxing the manufacture and sale of arrack, and the sale of foreign spirits. This Regulation provided that the annual rent of the exclusive privilege of selling foreign spirits and of manufiicturing and selHng arrack should be farmed, and that the places where distillation and sale should take place, as well as the retail prices at which the liquors should be sold, should be determined by the Collectors of districts, in communication with the Board of Revenue. In addition to this system of management Section 1 7 of the Regulation authorised the licen.sing of sepax-ate stills as an alternative mode, and when the Regulation was sent to the Collectors of districts they were recommended to make a trial of both plans of management. The licensing or out-still system however was adopted in Nellorc, Soixth Arcot, and TricLinopoly [Section V. 28'4 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. only, and there only for a few years ; in 1815-16 the renting system was in force throughout the Presidency, except within the abkari limits of the town of Madras. The rents, as a rule, included in practice the exclusive privilege of the sale of fermented toddy as well as of that of arrack, though there was no legal sanction for this course ; as might have been expected,^ therefore, difficulties arose in regard to the realization of the former portion of the revenue. The Regulation was also found to be defective, as providing no legal punishment for breach of license. The amendment of the Regulation was finally resolved npon in 1819, and in the following year No. I of 1820 was enacted, which rescinded No. I of 1808, and brought under a regular Government monopoly the tax on " rum, arrack, or other fermented liquors," providing that the exclusive manufacture and sale of these liquors should either be retained under the direct management of Government, or be rented out by them to farmers. The new Regulation permitted renters to sub-rent their farms and to recover their dues from the under-renters by summary process. Special provisions against the use of noxious ingredients in the manufacture of liquors and against irregu- larities in the liquor shops were introduced in this enactment. It also gave powers to the Board of Revenue to frame rules, from time to time, as occasion might require, for regulating the sale of all spirits whether country or foreign, and of toddy or other fermented liquors ; for determining the places at which stills and shops should be erected, the retail rates of sale to be established, and the measures to be used, and generally for regulating matters relating to the detailed management and control of distilleries and shops. Passes were required under the Regulation for any quantity of liquor in transit in excess of one seer or bottle. The abkari revenue of the mofussil was managed under this enactment for forty-four years, or until the present Abkari Act, Madras No. Ill of 1864, became law. In 1841 the question whether a higher rate of taxation could not be imposed on arrack and toddy was considered, but the proposal was eventually abandoned, the district officers being merely enjoined to see that no liquor was sold below the minimum prices prescribed. The immediate cause of the enactment of the present Abkari law was a ruling of the late Sudder Court to the efiect that foreign imported wines or beer did not come within the scope of Regulation I of 1820. This difficulty was met in the new enactment, and a few other amendments of the law were at the same time made. Among other things, powers were taken Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL. 285 to levy the tax on liquors as an excise duty on the quantity manufactured, to admit free excise under cei-tain circumstances, and to suppress the home manufacture of toddy where the privilege was abused or where it was likely to be used as a cloak for illicit sales. The abkari of the town of Madras is regulated by a special enactment Act XIX of 1852, which provides for the direct management of this revenue by the Collector of Madras under the orders of the Board of Revenue. The present sources of the abkari revenue are (1) the tax Present upon the manufacture and sale of country-made spirits or arrack ; t°^'^t^^° (2) the tax upon the sale of date-toddy, palmyra-toddy, and cocoanut-toddy ; and (3) the proceeds of the licenses for the manufacture and sale of country beer, and for the sale of European spirits, wines and beer. The revenue is mainly derived at present from the first two items. The country spirit, which is in most general use throughout the Presidency, though called arrack, is, properly speaking, rum, as it is distilled from sugar- cane-jaggery, palmyra-jaggery, date-jaggery and molasses, or from a combination of these substances together with a small quantity of acacia bark. The spirit consumed in every district, except Kistna, Kurnool, Trichinopoly, Godavery, Malabar, South Canara, Ganjam, and Vizagapatam, is distilled from these ingredients. In the first three of the districts just mentioned the chief portion of the spirits consumed is of this description, but there is also true arrack or spirits distilled from toddy. In Kurnool a small quantity of spirit is made from " ippa " or " mowah " flowers, aod in one taluqof Trichinopoly a spirit is brewed from rice. In Godavery, Malabar, and South Canara spirits are invariably distilled from toddy. The Ganjam and Vizagapatam districts are now supplied from Mr. Minchin's Aska Sugar Factory, and most of the spirits used there is probably rum ; the manufacture of rice-spirit has, however, recently been undertaken at this factory. Of the fermented liquors which are assessed to revenue, the principal is toddy. The most common date-toddy is the fermented juice of the date palm. The juice is extracted by making an incision in the bark of the trees and letting it exude. The average produce is said to be one gallon per tree every alternate day for three months in the year. It may be taken at any period of the year, but only for three months out of the twelve. Date-toddy is largely used in the Bellary district ; it is also used in Kurnool, Cuddapah, Godavery, Ganjam, and Vizagapatam, the upper portions of Salem and in parts of [Section V. 286 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. North Arcot. Palmyra-toddy is another description. This is obtained from the palmyra tree by catting off the ends of the young shoots and squeezing them in a rude apparatus contrived for the purpose. After eight days of this process the juice begins to exude. The male trees produce toddy from January to April, and the female from February to May, and the produce is about two bottles per day during the season. These trees are to be found in almost every district, but they are most plentiful in the southern districts of the Eastern Coast. Cocoanut toddy is obtained from the cocoanut tree by the same process as the palmyra toddy, and the average produce is the same. The liquor may be drawn at any period of the year, but not for more than six months out of the twelve from each tree. Cocoanut toddy is very largely in demand in the Tanjore district, in parts of Trichinopoly and in Canara and Malabar, but in other parts of the country it is not a beverage in general use, as the cocoanut groves are not so thickly spread over the country as to make it easily procurable. There is another fermented liquor in use in the Jeypore Zemindari termed souda which appears to be somewhat similar to the pachwai or rice-beer of Bengal. It is however made from grain, not rice, and is often rendered highly intoxicating by the introduction of which is called a liquor drug. As above stated, the proceeds of license fees for the raanufacture and sale of country beer and for the sale of European liquors are comparatively trifling. Under recent orders an excise duty at 4 Annas per gallon has been levied upon the country beer manufactured on the Nilgiri Hills by Messrs. Honeywell and Company, and at Bellary by Messrs. Norton and Company. Arrack The arrack revenue is managed in the mofussil, under Act III tlie Mofussil. °^ 1864, in two different ways, by the farming system and by the excise system. In each case the system is worked as a monopoly, the exclusive privilege of manufacture and sale within-defined tracts being assigned to the contractors ; the provision of the Act admitting free or un-monopolized excise has not yet been utilized. The contracts under the farming system are disposed of at open auction sale. The contractors almost invariably sublet their contracts at a profit ; sometimes, however, they adopt the system of entertaining a numbers of sub- renters for outside villages and of retaining the pi'incipal town of their tract in their own hands. About 1859-60 efforts were made by Government under the old law to place the farms in the Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL. 287 hands of large capitalists bj selling entire districts ; after ten years' trial however the old system of taluq farms was reverted to, and this still obtains. The excise system was first started in Ganjam in 18G9, and afterwards extended experimentally to Vizagapatam, South Areot, Chinglepnt, and North Arcot, and the system as practised in these five districts still goes techni- cally by the name of the " old excise." Since Fasli 1285 precisely the same system has been in force also in the districts of Salem, Coimbatore, Trichinopoly, Tanjore, Nilgiris, and the Bellary Cantonment, so that about half the arrack revenue is now levied under excise. Under the excise system, as under the farming system, the exclusive privilege of manufacture and sale is assigned to contractors selected on tender made after public notification. Distillation is permitted only at one or two selected places, at which siafficient guard and gauging establishments are main- tained at the conti'actor's expense. The revenue under this system is taken in the shape of an excise duty on each gallon issued at rates defined with reference to strength, and to guai'd against loss of revenue the contractors guarantee that the excise payments shall if necessary reach a certain amount specified. Payments of excise are made monthly. Under either system the contractors make their own arrangements for obtaining material. The conti'actors under either system are bound to keep accounts of receipts and disbursements, and of manufacture and issue of liquor, which are to be open to the inspection and examination of the oflBcers of Government ; to see that a sufficient number of hydrometers are kept in the shops for testing the strength of the liquor sold so as to check dikition ; to sell liquor at only the prescribed strength, and for prices between certain maximum and minimum limits, and to use proper measures and allow inspec- tion of premises by officers of Government. A further restriction provided in the Act is that no greater quantity than one Imperial quart of arrack shall be sold to the public at one sale or put in transit, except on permit given by the Divisional Officer or the abkdri renter. The following statement exhibits the consumption of arrack in some of the principal towns in the Madras Presidency as estimated by the Local Revenue officers ; it will be seen that it amounts to about | a gallon per head per annum, a rate little in excess of the known consumption of tho town of Madras which is f ths of a gallon per head and a little under that of the Nilgiri Hills where it rises to A-ths of a gallon per head. [Section V. 288 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Toddy revenue in the Mofussil. Consump- Comsumption No. Madras. Population. tion in gallons. in gallons per head. 1 Masulipatam ... 36,188 16,000 1 2 2 Guntoor 18,033 4,000 1 4 3 Nell ore 29,922 10,000 3. 4 4 Ongole 9,000 3,000 5 Cnddapah 16,276 19,000 6 6 Bellary 51,766 50,000 1 7 Trichinopoly ... 76,530 30 ,295 1 8 Madura 51,987 10,950 6 9 Coimbatore ... 35,310 24,000 2 3 10 Cocliin 13,840 8,300 1 The toddy revenue in the mofussil is also managed under Act III of 1864, but exclusively on the farming system, the rents being put up to public auction. The domestic manufac- ture of toddy except in a few defined localities is forbidden under Section 28 of the Act. The toddy-rent was formerly in all cases joined with the arrack farms. But of late it has been separated in nearly all districts and given to distinct renters. The toddy-rentera obtain toddy from date and palmyra trees on Government waste land free of payment, but they must make their own arrangements with the owners of puttah or inam lands for the use of trees standing thereon. Abkari in Madras Town. The abkdri of the town of Madi-as is managed on a system different from that in the mofussil, the revenue from both arrack and toddy being managed directly by Government officers, and being worked under Act XIX of 1852. The area to which it applies is defined as extending eight miles beyond the limits of the town proper or the High Coui't's original jurisdiction. The arrack system is as follows. Country or puttai arrack is distilled from jaggery and acacia bark under contract on behalf of Government, and the liquor is brought from the contractor's godowns to the Deputy Collector's Office, where it is issued to the shop-keepers. The shop-keepers enter into an engagement called a dowle, wherein they agree to sell or at any rate pay the duty on certain quantities of liquor supplied to them daily from the Government stores. The revenue is obtrined by issuing the liquor to the shop-keepers at a price higher than that at which it is obtained from the contractor, and the difference constitutes the duty. Columbo arrack, a superior liquor distilled from cocoanut-toddy, is also sold by Government. This is imported from Ceylon through a conti-actor, and sold at Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL. 289 a profit to the sliop -keepers. The duty on Colombo arrack is higher and that on puttai nearly as high within the High Court limits, as the duty on imported spirits ; the latter being thus protected. There are at present 48 Colombo and 93 puttai arrack shops. The tract outside the High Court jurisdiction, but within the total circumference, is called the " outside limits " and the tiuct which is comprised in the High Court's jurisdiction is called the " inside limits." The arrack revenue is administered differently in these two tracts ; the prices and excise of liquor being lower, and the interference of Government officers being much less direct, in the outer limits. The forty shops in the outer limits are subordinate to five large depots or godowns, and the whole rent is divided into five portions only ; in the inside limits the Government officers deal with every shop-keeper. Puttai arrack only is sold in the outer limits ; in the inner limits both Colombo arrack and puttai arrack are sold. In the case of toddy Government do not supply the liquor to the shop- keepers, but the shop-keepers obtain it themselves, under certain conditions imposed to ensure a revenue to Government, Thus each toddy-shop keeper who is licensed by the Government to do so, enters into private engagements with the owners of gardens to draw toddy from the trees situated in those gardens. The Government officers are provided with a list of the gardens and trees which the shop-keeper thus proposes to utilize, and to make sure that no others are used they stamp the trees themselves with marks indicating the season to which they belong or other particulars. When the shop-keeper has decided on the number of trees which he wishes to utilize, the Government fix a corres- ponding sum which he must pay daily as dowle or duty. As a rule the number of trees employed by a particular shop is con- stant, and the shops are arranged in four classes indicating the normal number of trees assigned to them. When extra trees are desired by the shop-keeper, these are allowed to be used at fixed rates, or on extra dowle as it is called. Toddy cannot be extracted from any tree until it has lx;en stamped and registered by the abkari officers. Besides the permanent shops for the sale of date-toddy from 100 to 120 shops for the sale of palmyra- toddy are opened in the three months when the palmyra trees yield. The establishment maintained for the management of the Madras Town Abkari costs about Rupees 2,300. Besides the sources of revenue jnst mentioned a small revenue is derived in Madras from license fees. 37 [Section V. 290 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Progress of In tlie year 1800-1801, the amount realized by abkari the revenue, throagbout the Presidency was little over two lakhs of rupees, but in 1807-'1808 it had risen to upwards of six lakhs, and during the following three years it rose to nearly nine lakhs. From that year up to 1832-83, when the revenue stood at upwards of 18 lakhs there was a steady annual rise except in 1824-25, which was a year of scarcity, and when a check was received which lasted for the five following years. In 1832-33 the average price of unhusked rice of the second sort rose from 66 seers to 45 seers per rupee, and in the following year to 36 seers. During this period occurred a very serious famine in Guntoor and the other northern districts, and the effects were at once visible on the abkari collections, which fell from 18 lakhs to 16 lakhs, and then to little over 14 lakhs. Though prices fell subsequently to their former rates, the abkari I'evenue did not recover till the year 1842-43, when it stood again at a little under 18 lakhs. From this year up to 1855-56 when the revenue touched 22^ lakhs there was a regular increase, year by year, except in the two years of scarcity, 18-16-47 and 1854-55. The abkari revenue has risen from the 22| lakhs noted above to upwards of 30 lakhs in 1860-61, to nearly 42 lakhs in 1865-66, and to nearly 60 lakhs in 1869-70. Thus in fourteen years this branch of the revenue increased nearly three-fold. The greater part of the increase is owing to the enhanced taxation on spirituous and fermented liquors resulting from the keen competi- tion among abkari farmers at the different auction sales, but it is also due to increased consumption. Since 1869-70 there has been a slight falling olf in the abkari revenue. The annexed statement contrasts the actual revenue in different districts for a recent average year : — Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL. 291 Distriots. Revenue of Fasli 1285 excluaive of Misoellaneoua. Toddy. Arrack, Total. Farming System. Godavery Kistna ... Cuddapah Bellary District Kurnool Madura ... ... TinuevcUy South Canara Malabar RS. 78,965 51,430 14,981 *3,08,818 82,969 73,999 39,511 55,258 98,690 RS. 1,90,941 1,66,867 1,98,669 2,64,795 1,24,703 2,00,874 1,27,023 70,667 1,52,057 RS. 2,69,906 2,18,297 2,13,650 5,73,613 2,07,672 2,74,873 1,66,534 1,25,925 2,50,747 Total ... 8,04,621 14,96,596 23,01,217 Excise — Old Exdss Districts. Ganjam Vizajirapatam Chingleput North Arcot South Arcot 9,652 61,619 1,12,367 96,635 1,30,000 65,457 75,087 85,605 2,72,880 1,28,833 75,109 1,36,706 1,97,973 3,69,515 2,58,833 Total ... 4,10,273 6,27,862 10,38,135 Excise — New Excite Districts. Nellore Bellary Cantonment ... Tanjore ... Trichinopoly Coimbatore Nilgiris , Salem 16,721 t 3,20,336 39,778 83,208 J18,995 98,601 56,968 1,17,440 1,50,583 1,01,532 1,47,496 80,204 2,73,168 73,689 1,17,440 4,70,919 1,41,310 2,30,704 99,199 3,71,769 Total ... 5,77,639 9,27,391 15,05,030 Special. Madras Tovra 3,21,494 8,24,214 11,45,708 Grand Total ... 21,14,027 38,76,063 59,90,090 Assessed Taxes. This head is opened for collections under Assessed Taxes Nature of the levied imperially. When the income-tax was in force the receipts consisted of collections levied on personal incomes, profits, &c. There are now no imperial Assessed Taxes, and any amounts under this head show arrear transactions. The Income Tax was * Includes the Collections of Bellary Cautonment. t Included in the Bellary District. X Excise OD country beer. [Section V. 292 EEYENtlE, FINANCIAL, AND ABOTNISTEATITE. first introduced in 1860, discontinued in 1865, revived in 1 8G0, and discontinued again in 1872. Tlie rate varied from year to year, and in 1871-72 it was 1 per cent, and affected only incomes exceeding 750 Rupees per annum. The revenue raised in this Presidency between 1860 and 1871 was as shown below. In 1872-73 the tax was levied on incomes exceeding Rupees 1,000 per annum at 2 Pies in the Rupee on lo^ per cent, under Act VlII of 1872. The tax was collected by the land revenue estabhshments, but a small additional expenditure was incurred every year on account of the salaries of clerks employed for keeping accounts and assisting the Collectors in issuing processes: — C 4 per per cent, on incomes') 1860-61 -j above 500 Rupees and 2 V (. per cent, below that. j 1861-62 Do. 1862-63 3 per cent. 1863-64 Do. 1864-65 Do. 1865-66 1866-67 1867-68 1868-69 1869-70 1| per cent. 1870-71 3| per cent. 1871-72 1-.^ f per cent, do. US'. 5,42,914 25,48,110 23,18,250 16,46,522 14,65,652 *6,70,548 *13,911 *215 11,58,531 22,33,147 9,88,593 JTatare of entries. 8ea Customs, Customs. Transit, Import, and Export duties, and Fees, Fines, and Forfeitures in the Customs Department are shown as receipts under this head. It is sub-divided into two sections, Sea Customs and Land Customs ; the first including Import and Export duties, and the second Transit and Frontier Duties. The charges exactly correspond. Duties on goods imported from and exported to foreign countries are levied under the tariff and rates prescribed in Act XVI of 1875. No duties are collected on goods carried by sea from one British Indian port to another except salt, salted fish, opium, and spirits. The duties are collected by epecial establishments maintained at each port, and are controlled by the Collectors of land revenue, except at the town of * Arrears, Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES— CIVIL. 203 Madras, where tliere is a special Collector of Sea Customs. This officer has also charge of the land revenue, &c., of the town, but his chief Avork consists in supervising sea customs, and his salary is debited to that head. The following is the procedure adopted for the levy of customs duties. As soon as a vessel arrives at a port, the master gives to the officer in charge of the Custom-house a manifest, in which is entered all the cargo he has got on board the vessel, distinguishing goods to be landed at the port ; and also the port clearance or any other similar paper granted to the vessel at the port whence she came. A general permit to land the goods as per manifest and import boat-notes for each boat landing cargo are then granted. A register is kept of all permits granted, and consecutive numbers are given to them. A file of boat-notes thus granted is also kept. This acts as a guarantee that no cargo other than what was entered in the manifest is landed, for the permits are checked with the boat-notes, and both with the manifest. After the cargo is landed an application or bill of entry is put in, and on payment of duty leviable the cai'go is passed. On application to export goods, a permit is granted accordingly, and boat- notes are given to carry cargo as per permit. Before the vessel sails the master gives an export manifest in duplicate in which the description, quantity, &c., of the cargo he has taken on board for exportation are entered. This document, the permit, the boat-notes, and the application are all checked with each other, and the manifest is signed and returned to the master, the duplicate copy being retained for record. The customs duty collected during the last fifteen years is Sea Customs . T , collections of shown below : — fifteen years. Tears. Imports. Exports. RS. ES. ] 861-62 13,63,746 7,07,910 1862-63 10,71,349 6,82,148 1863-64 13,00,505 7,17,286 1864-65 11,18,870 6,67,535 1865-66 12,08,080 7,41,280 1866-67 13,67,250 6,61,180 1807-68 14,78,360 8,59,980 1868-69 16,02,130 10,14,790 1869-70 16,58,390 9,07,880 1870-71 17,92,484 10,36,885 1871-72 16,28,128 12,86,629 Land Customs. 294 Years. 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 Land-customs duty is levied only on goods passing by land into or out of the districts and foreign settlements named below : — [Section V AND ADMINISTRATITE. Imports. Exports. RB. R3. 10,34,532 10,90,191 17,48,128 13,71,595 16,80,788 12,25,272 17,84,205 9,75,128 Districts. Godaveiy South Arcot Tanjore ... Malabar ... Foreign Settlements. Yanam. Pondicherry. Carical. Mahe. The rates of duty charged are the same as those applicable to articles imported from or exported to foreign countries by sea. The duty is collected by establishments posted on the frontiers. The receipts and charges during the last five years were as shown below : — 1871-72 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 Receipts. RS. 2,04,000 1,96,000 2,19,000 2,64,000 2,85,800 Charges. RS, 12,044 14,267 15,488 15,007 15,144 Nature of the entries. Salt. The sale proceeds of salt and of collections therewith connected, including fines and refunds on account of unexpended charges, &c., collected, are shown as receipts under this head. Sea custom duty on salt is also brought to account under the same head. To this head are debited all charges connected with the manufacture and storing of salt and of its superintendence ; the salary and allowances of fixed and temporary officers employed in the department, with their establishments and contingences ; charges for police gardens ; the compensation paid for lands taken up for the manufacture of salt ; and other ordinary and extraoi'dinary expenditure arising out of the trade. Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL. 295 The construction and repair of petty works exclusively for the benefit of the department are also debited here. The Government salt monopoly was created by Regulation I General view of 1805, which at first applied to the whole of the Madras Presi- administra- dency with the exception of the districts of Malabar and Canara. ^^*'°" Regulation II of 1807 extended the provisions of the law, with certain modifications, to the districts of the west coast. The people are prohibited by these enactments from manufacturing salt except on account of and with the permission of Govern- ment. It is made in the coast districts by private individuals under the ordei-s of Government ofiBcers, and on the delivery of the salt, which is received by weight, the Government pay manufacturers at rates varying partly on account of the situation and partly on account of private rights in the soil from 3 Annas and 7 Pies to 10 Pies a maund of 82f lbs. The salt is resold to the public at or near the places where it is manufactured at a certain price fixed by law, which at present is 2 Rupees a maund except in the west coast districts and in parts of the Ganjam District. In the west coast districts the price fixed for home- made salt is Rupees 2-2-0, and for salt imported as mentioned below Rupees 2-5-0 ; in the stations of Ganjam and Itchapur in the Ganjam District the Government selling prices are Rupees 2-4-0 and 2-3-0 respectively. The price fixed at the commencement of the British rule was 9 Annas 4 Pies a maund. The only coast district where no salt is manufactured for sale is Malabar. The supply required for this district and for South Canara, where the salt manufactured locally is insufiicient, is brought from Bombay and Goa by pHvate merchants, taken up by public tender by Government, and retailed by Government at their depots in the same manner as in the other districts. This supply comes eventually from the Bombay ryots, who manufacture on the excise system. Importation by private individuals for sale on their own account after paying an import duty of Rupees 1-13-0 a maund is also allowed. Salt is some- times exported by sea from this Presidency for sale at Calcutta or Chittagong, Penang, and other places. In these cases it is generally purchased by private individuals and exported by them for sale on their own account, but sometimes it has been exported on indent from the Government of Bengal. In both cases the cihai'ge made by this Government is the cost price of the article. Salt is likewise supplied to the French authorities at prime cost for sale at px-ices similar to [Section V. 20G REVENUE, FINANCIAB, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Details of manufacture of Govern- ment salt. British prices to the inhabitants of the French Settlements, French maniifactuife having been put a stop to under certain, conventions and in consideration of certain compensation. The whole of Mysore and the greater part of the Nizam's territories and of the southern and eastern portions of the Central Provinces are also supplied with salt taken by private trade from this Presidency. The monopoly is administered by Collectors of districts under the orders of the Board of Revenue, but there is a separate establishment under them to superintend the manufacture and sale, consisting of a Deputy Collector for each maritime district assisted by subordinate ofi&cials. There are G8 stations or depots in the Presidency. Swamp or spontaAeOus salt, where met with, is destroyed by the Government officials. In the districts of Bellary, Cudda- pah, and Kurnool, notwithstanding the salt regulations, the private manufacture of eai*th salt by lixiviating saline soils was till lately permitted. The practice had grown up gradually and was recognized by Government in consideration of the great distance of these districts from the coast and the hard- ships that would be entailed on the inhabitants by making them depend entirely on marine salt. A small tax in the nature of moturpha was levied in Kurnool and Bellary, but in Cuddapah the manufacture was free. The concession was, however, found seriously to injure the Government monopoly, and the extension of the railway to these districts having placed miarine salt within the reach of the people, it has recently been detornsined to suppress the manufacture. Arrangements have accordingly been made by which the tax is to be gradually i-aiscd until 1879, when it will amount to the full duty paid upon marine salt. Meanwhile inducement has been held out to manufacturers to destroy their modas by the offer of liberal compensation. The manufacture of salt for domestic consump- tion is now allowed in Malabar and South Canara, the High Court having ruled that Regulation II of 1807 docs not forbid it. The execution of petty construction and repair works for the salt department is generally entrusted to the Revenue Dejiart- ment, and forms an important part of its duties. Government salt in the Madras Presidency is manufactured exclusively by solar evaporation. The places of manufacture by this process are certain localities along the line of the Coromandel coast, determined on generally as being the old grounds previous to the monopoly, and sometimes fixed with reference to the Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL. 297 convenience of the community. It is usually considered more desirable to extend the manufacture at one place, than to open a new ground. The more numerous the localities, the greater the risk of smuggling, and the greater the expense of the establishment. The whole line of coast from Ganjam to Cape Comorin is available for salt manufacture. It is not possible to state the exact extent of land occupied by salt pans, as few of them have ever been measured ; but there is no doubt that there is sufficient salt ground to supply the whole of India, if required The salt is manufactured from the saline water of the back- waters, or salt inlets that abound along the coast. Small channels are cut from the inlet, and the water is baled up by the native picottah into shallow reservoirs made by banking up the ground ; when the brine has, after some days, acquired a certain degree of strength or saltness, it is let oflT into still shallower banked-up enclosures or pans, where the earth has been made hard by stamping. Here it is allowed to evaporate, and the salt scraped oflF. Brine is then again let in, and another coating of salt is scraped off, and so on for 12 or 15 times as the weather permits. In some few places, pits or shallow wells are excavated in the earth near the sea, and the water is drawn off from these instead of baling it from creeks and inlets. It is not possible to state with certainty the out-turn of sea salt manufactured by solar evaporation on a given area. Every thing depends on the season, and a fall of rain a few days earlier or later may make a difference of two or thi-ee hundred per cent in the produce. Soils also differ, some retaining the salt much better than others. The mode of manufacture also is subject to variations. The manufacturers receive so much per garce from Government, and it is probable that they do not exert themselves beyond what is sufficient to find them in what they consider the sufficiencies of life. The time for commencing the preparation of the pans is the Season, beginning of January. Previous to this the Collector of the district arranges how much salt is required to be made that season, and the pans are apportioned out accordingly, each man engaging to supply a certain quantity. The first scraping of salt takes place some five or six weeks after the commencement of operations in preparing the pans, and successive scrapings take place at intervals till about July, when the rains generally put a stop to the manufacture. The season is occasionally such as to allow the manufacture to be carried on till September. 38 [Section V. 298 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Storing and Depots. Kanafac- tnrers. In the Southern Districts, the scraped salt is heaped up by the side of the salt pans, and when dry is removed to depots close by. There it is measured and placed on raised plat- forms, in 10 garce heaps, each covered with thatch. In the Northern Circars the salt is allowed to remain some time in drying yards before storing at the Government cotaurs. In Canara and Malabar, the Bombay-made salt is stored at localities on the coast, and also at depots a short way up the navigable rivers. In other districts there are no depots, except those close to the pans ; here all the salt manufactured is stored, and here the purchasers must come to buy. At the town of Madras the jDans have no roads near them passable for carts, and the sales are so extensive that a large gathering of traders, close to the place of manufacture, would encourage smuggling. The salt from these pans is therefore brought at distances varying from six to ten miles by Cochrane's Canal to the Central Depot near the south-west wall of Black Town. This arrange- ment is also more convenient for purchasers, as the salt is sold chiefly to persons who have brought goods from the interior to Madras for sale, and who establish a sort of market close to the depot. Such purchasers can load their carts as soon as they have completed their sales, without the delay and trouble of going some miles to the salt pans. A second depot is established close to the beach at Ennore, ten miles north of Madras, for salt purchased by the public for export by sea. This depot is about three miles from the Ennore pans, and the salt is brought by boats. The persons who manufacture the salt are socially in the same position as the ordinary village ryot, but in general they are, or ought to be, in better circumstances, inasmuch as a salt pan is more valuable property than an ordinary grain land occupancy of the same extent. The labor is entirely voluntary, and the climate of the coast where these people woi'k is healthy. They are the descendants, or heirs, or purchasers of the rights, of the manufacturers who were found so occupied when Government assumed the monopoly. Previous to the monopoly, the salt- pi'oducing grounds in the Noi'thern Circars ; were armed out or rented like other lands ; but in the Carnatic the salt produce or its value in money was divided between the Circar and the cultivator. On first assuming the monopoly the Government recognized in the Carnatic a Meerassee, or private property in the soil, and allowed the salt ryots their share, or Kudivaram, Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL. 299 at a much, liigliei' rate thau they ever had before, and pledged themselves to give compensation in case the pans then, at work were discontinued by oi*der of Government, unless the propriety of closing arose from misbehaviour on the part of the Meerassidars, or from their not manufacturing a requisite quantity. In opening new pans, a written agreement is now entered into with the tnanufacturers, by which they admit the right of Government to close the works when they please without compensation. Every proprietor of a pan is regis- tered under clause 3, Section IV, Regulation I of 1805 ; and when Government extend the manufacture at any one locality, the preference is usually given to the villagers to take up the pans, but if they cannot do so on account of want of capital or other causes, the Government dispose of the pans to whom they please. Persons having pans, but refusing to manu- facture or only giving in a quantity far below the proper yield, are liable to have their pans taken away. Under ordinary circum- stances, however, a salt pan is recognized as real property, alienable by sale or otherwise. The manufacturers are paid for their salt at the fixed rate per garce as soon as it has been measured in to the Government depot. Each manufacturer has his quantity brought in separately ; and an individual account is kept of what he has supplied, though each man's supply is not stored separately. All wastage, previous to its measurement at the depot, is at the loss of the manufacturer. He is not paid for every garce he makes ; but for every garce brought to the depot. The rates of Kudivaram have developed considerably, the average Payments to manufa turers. having risen from Rupees 0-1-0-9 per maund in 1855 to Rs. 0-1-5-8 "^^^^^'^c* in 1875. The maximum present rate is 3 Annas a maund in South Canara. The ryots were relieved in 1862 of the cost of all except the most petty works belonging to the salt operations, which was tantamount to a substantial enhancement of the Kudivaram. An attempt has lately been made to ascertain the extent to which the Kudivaram exceeds the cost of produc- tion, and the conclusion arrived at is that the cost and manufacturer's profit, the items representing which under monopoly may be estimated to average 1 Anna 10 Pies per maund for East Coast salt, which might be reduced by competition to the extent of 6 Pies per maund or more. Taking the East Coast by itself, the cost of the salt to Govern- Cost to ment, including the charge for general supervision, is 3 Annas ^°^^'^'^'"^^'- 6-6 Pies, and the excise x-ealizcd thereon Rupees 1-12-6-4 per [Section V. 300 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. maund ; the full daty on the West Coast, except as regards South Canara indigenous salt, has been secured by Act X of 1875. The items composing the cost are noted below : — Land Assessment ... Payment to manufacturers Works for salt manufacture Establishment Contingencies Police Miscellaneous Works for storage and revenue purposes. Sundry works Interest on value of salt ... Total . General supervision Total . Sale of salt The sale of salt at the depots is free to every body, and salt can be bought for cash at the fixed rate in as small quantities as 5 mercals, or 1| maunds. The persons who come to the depots for salt to supply the neighbouring districts, are usually people of the country. Those who purchase salt to convey to a far distance, or to Native States, are usually Lumbadies or Brinjarries, a wandering race of petty traders in grain and salt, who possess large herds of cattle, and convey the salt away on these, or on donkeys. The channels from the Godavery afford a convenient mode of transport by boats in the delta of Rajahmundry ; and if the Godavery itself were made navigable, on extensive trade in salt would probably be opened into the cotton counti-y of Berar. At present the Nagpore Territory is chiefly supplied from Ganjam, but it is a scanty trade, owing to the difficult nature of the country. The Nizam's Territories are supplied chiefly from Guntoor, Masulipatam and Rajahmundry. In the Town of Madras, the purchasers of salt for the inland districts are, as before said, persons who bring goods to Madras, such as cotton, indigo, sugar, oil, ghee, firewood, &c. Their carts rendezvous at a locality close to the Salt Cotaur and to the grain market, and as soon as their goods are disposed of, the dealers load the Per Maund. A. p. . 0-1 . 1 57 . 1-5 . 6-5 . 0-6 . 58 . 35 , 1-2 . 0-5 ,. 12 .. 3 2-6 .. 3 .. 3 5-6 Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL. 301 return carts with salt ; this is nearly the only article for which there is an inland exiiortation from Madras. In some cases salt is sold wholesale from the Government Depots, the traders being allowed a credit in this case on the deposit of security. The credit is not allowed to run beyond six months, and the account is not opened for a less sum than Rupees 5,000. The price at which the Government sell at their depots to the Retail prices dealers has already been mentioned. With regard to the actual ^^ dealers, retail price of monopoly salt as sold by the dealers in town and village bazaars, it is of course difficult to give an exact figure ; but probably Rupees 2-9-2 per maund, or f (i a lb., taking the rupee at two shillings, may be regarded as the price at which on the average the people of this Presidency consume sea salt. The trader's profit may, perhaps, be set down at on the average 3 Annas 10 Pies per maund. The low range of retail prices is attributed to the exceptional advantages as regards facilities of communication which this Presidency possesses ; to the circumstances of the trade, there being but few intermediaries ; to competition ; and to the fact that, omng to there being no interruption to traffic at certain seasons by the periodical rains, the maintenance of large stocks necessitating the sinking of considerable sums is obviated. From the statistics which are available it seems that the general direction of salt traffic is mainly determined by the cheapness of salt, and that the ti'ade is very sensitive to changes affecting the cost. This conclusion shows that the general policy of non-interference wdth salt after it leaves the Government stores is productive of good results. It must be noticed that the dealer buys from the Government by weight, but sells retail by measure. The average annual consumption of salt per head in the Consumption. Madras Presidency may be estimated by taking the population according to the last census and calculating the amount consumed on the average annual sales of the five years from 1870-71 to 1874-75. Certain tracts beyond the limits of the Presidency partially supplied with salt from Madras depots must be eliminated, and in the absence of any returns of traffic inland the calculations in this respect must bo to a certain extent conjectural. If the exportation to adjoining countries is considered, a rate of 11-38 lbs. is arrived at for the IMadraa Presidency with Mysore and Coorg ; excluding a population of three millions in the Ceded Districts consuming no sea salt, the rate for the rest of the Pi'esidency with Mysore and Coorg is 12-28 lbs. per head. [Section V. 302 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Export and Import arrange- ments. Statistics. More salt is usually made than will find a demand at tlie factitious rate in the open market. This surplus salt is placed by Government at the disposal of traders for purposes of export, ation. Traders receive such salt at a rate which just covers the cost of manufacture, and without the payment of any duty. They take it away and dispose of it in the usual course of trade ; it may pay an import duty at other ports or in other countries, but pays no duty at the time of purchase by the traders. Special provi- sion is made by the Government to ascertain the amount of salt available for exportation, and to give public notice to that effect. The Government Gazette contains a notice once a fortnight that so much salt is available for exportation at cost price at such and such stations. Salt for export is usually stored on special platforms. Tradex's buy at the usual place of sale, and in transit between that place and the ships the salt is watched by Govern- ment ofiicials at the expense of the trader. The importation of foreign salt is a mere matter of ordinary Customs ; in some cases however traders are allowed to open a credit for this purpose similar to that opened for the wholesale purchase of Government salt inland. The following abstract shows the quantity of salt brought to store and of that sold, including exportation together, with the Government price per Indian maund, for the last five years. Miscellaneous receipts, such as proceeds of confiscated Bait, on base on eai-th-salt, &c., are not shown: — 1871-72. 1872-73. 1873-74. 1874-75. 1875-76. Manufactured or impoi-ted ... I. MDS. 7,683,610 I. MDS. 6,125,054 I. MDS. 8,036,134 I. MDS. 6,049,187 1. MDS. 10,451,248 Home consumption ... Inland do. 3,361,508 8,277,447 3,413,289 3,085,524 3,249,151 3,324,574 3,493,154 3,025,620 *3,241,025 3,236,139 Total ... Exportation 6,638,955 408,052 6,498,813 306,558 6,573,725 291,696 6,518,774 702,482 6,477,161 772,091 Grand Total... Government price of Salt per Indian Maund. 7,047,007 RS. A. P. 6,805,371 ES. A. p. 2 6,865,421 RS. A. P. 2 7,221,256 RS. A. P. 2 4 2 3 2 7,249,255 BS. A. P. 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 * Includes 1,881 Indian maunda of salt supplied for curing fish. Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL, 303 The receipts at the commencement of each decade from 1806, when the monopoly was first introduced, have been as shown below : — Revenue. Monopoly price per mauud. KS. ES, A. P. Fas! I 121G (A.D 1806-7) 10,94,439 9 4 1226 1816-17) 25,21,199 14 1236 1826-27) 28,30,585 9 4 1246 1836-37) 36,42,403 14 1256 1846-47) 46,74,928 10 1266 1856-57) 52,67,498 10 1276 1866-67) 115,75,229 1 11 1280 1870-71) 126,05,009 2 The abolition of the Government salt monopoly, and the substi- Proposed tution of a system of excise similar to that in force in Bombay syg^^ and Bengal, has been debated since the beginning of the centuT-y. In 1871 an Act was passed containing provisions for an excise duty, but was not carried into effect. It is probable that the experiment will shortly be tried in Malabar and South Canara, where the circumstances, as has been mentioned, are quite special. In favor of monopoly for the Presidency at large it is to be observed that under it an enormous revenue is easily collected and a fair rate of consumption attained, whilst the people are supplied with a fairly good article, believed to be quite wholesome, at a reasonable price. The advantages claimed for excise consist in a possible improvement of quality and an infinitesimal cheapening of salt to the consumer. The cheapen- ing may be described as infinitesimal, for if the full benefit of the estimated reduction in the cost of production, viz., 6 Pies per maund, is reaped by the consumer, it only amounts to "037 of a farthing per pound, taking the average retail price at Rupees 2-9-2 per maund and the rupee at two shillings. The change involves the destruction of a system which has existed for seventy years, and is deeply rooted in the prejudices of the people. Stamps. Sale proceeds of Stamps of the Stamp Department, Stamp Nature of duties and penalties levied on unstamped or insufficiently Stamped Deeds, together with any other sundry receipts which may be conneoted with the department, are credited to this head. [Section V. 304 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Recoveries made for cost of suits in forma pauperis, are credited to Law and Justice. Tlie charges include commission, to licensed vendors, and all ctarges incidental to the department. History of Stamps, by whicli is meant not only labels to be affixed to amps. documents, but also blank sheets of paper with stamps impressed in the corner, were first introduced by the British Government. The native rulers did not use this fonn of revenue. The early stamp laws of this Presidency were contained in Regulations IV, V, VIII, and XVII of 1808 ; in Section 35 of Regulation VII of 1809 ; and in Regulation II of 1813 ; and under these duty was levied by means of stamped papers and stamped cadjan- leaves on the institution of suits, on exhibits, and on summonses issued to procure the attendance of witnesses. By Regulation XIII the law was carried further, and it was enacted that all documents of a certain description, such as bonds, promissory notes, bills of exchange, &c., executed in the provinces should be stamped pre%4ous to execution. At the same time a fresh table of fees on the institution of suits and on appeals was substituted for the existing table ; and various other steps in the progress of a suit were newly taxed, as the giving of an answer, rejoinder, razeenamah, petition, &c. Under this Regulation a General Stamp Office was estabHshed in Madras town with a Superin- tendent subordinate to the Board of Revenue. All stamped papers required under the Act were to be manufactured by him and counter-stamped at the Government General Treasury. In 1860, the Government of India Act No. XXXVI of 1860 appeared, in which the subject matter of the stamp regulations for Bengal, Bombay and Madras Presidencies, together with several new provisions taken from the English Statutes, was reduced into one enactment applicable to the whole of India. This Act was the first which included the town of Madras, hitherto exempt ; by Bengal Regulation XII of 1826 stamp duties were leviable within the town of Calcutta, but down to 1860 no similar law existed for the town of Maduas or Bombay. Government of India Act X of 1862 was a mere reproduction with a few unimportant additions of Act XXXVI of 1860. In 1867 Act XXVI repealed Schedule B of the last Act, and the stamp duties on judicial proceedings were increased. The portion of the existing stamp law which related to the stamping of documents other than those for judicial proceedings was down to this date highly obscure, and in 1869 Act XVIII took charge of this part of the subject and aimed at completely reconstructing the law. The Act is still in force. In 1870 Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES— CIVIL. 305 Act VII revised the judicial part of the stamp law, diminishing the rates of 1867 in nearly all cases, and making various changes in detail. Under this Act the fees in the Original Side of the High Court and in the Small Cause Court at the Presidency town were for the first time declared to be leviable by adhesive stamps in lieu of cash. This Act is also still in force. Act XX of 1870 merely repaired some clerical errors in Act VII of 1870. A new Act is in preparation. The Acts at present in operation are XVIII of 1869 Acts in opera- called the General Stamp Act, for the stamping of documents other than those indicating steps in judicial proceedings ; and VII of 1870, called the Court Fees Act, for stamping in the last- named cases. If a person desires to execute a document specified in Act XVIII of 1869, he must in most cases either purchase blank stamped paper, and prepare the document thereon, or, according to the practice in this Presidency, send his document prepared but unexecuted to the Stamp Office to have the stamp impressed. In certain cases however specified in the Act, an adhesive stamp may be purchased and applied by the person himself to a document already prepared but not executed. Again the Act provides that in all cases other than that last named the Governor- General in Council may authorize the subsequent application in a speedy manner of an adhesive stamp by Govern- ment officials under what is called the " denoting " system to papers or unexecuted documents brought for that purpose by the public. Hitherto the Governor- General in Council has only applied the " denoting " system to a limited number of documents. Objections have been taken to the Madras practice of subse- quently impressing stamps on prepared private papers, and if this objection is maintained, the state of the case wiU be as follows. The public may in certain case purchase adhesive stamps and affix them previous to execution ; in all other cases the usual course will be to purchase stamped blank paper. In certain cases, however, out of the number last named the public may take their documents unexecuted to receive another description of adhesive stamp at the hands of the Superintendent of Stamps. Under section 22 and section 24, clause (a) of the General Stamp Act a person knowingly executing unstamped, and other persons know- ingly dealing in certain specified ways with, a document which is liable to be stamped, can be prosecuted for evasion of the stamp laws. Such an unstamped document is moreover ineligible as evidence in Civil Courts, it cannot be registered by the Registration Department, and it cannot be authenticated by a 39 [Section V. 306 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMTNISTKATIVE. public officer. Under Section 20 of the General Stamp Act, Civil Courts can receive unstamped or insufficiently stamped documents, where there is no fravid, on payment of the deficiency with a penalty, and will then endorse on the document that duty has been paid, and constitute it thenceforward valid. Civil and Criminal Coux'ts and public offices can impound documents for evasion of stamp duty, and bring the matter to the notice of the Collector. Collectors are the referees as to stamp duties, and may in certain cases remit penalties. The Board of Revenue may remit penalties in all cases. Stamping after execution is permitted in certain cases to render the document valid, but the process will not absolve the person who executed the document. All stamps under the Court Fees Act are under Notification of the Government of India to be of the adhesive class ; this is greatly to the convenience of the public. The law under this Act, as far as it touches the public, relates only to the amount payable on the documents which represent the difierent stages of the Court's proceedings. The Courts see that they are paid. The working of the stamp laws is being carefully watched, for there is no doubt that they are still too complicated. llannfacture, Stamped papers used to be locally manufactured ; water- *sale^'^° marked paper was received from England on which the value stamp was impressed at the General Treasury, or on the aboH- tion of the latter in 18G1, at the Mint, or lastly on the closing of the Mint at the Paper Stamping Department attached to the Accountant. General's Office ; the counter-stamp of the Stamp Office was then affixed. The papers so prepared were issued to Collectors, but before they were offered for sale by Vendors, the Collectorate seal had to be affixed. The manufacture of stamped papers locally has been discontinued under the orders of the Government of India. Those now issued to districts for sale are chiefly stamps of English manufacture. The blue and black stamps of local manufacture, of which there is a large number of high value still remaining in store, continue to be used simultaneously until the stock is exhausted. The adhesive stamps used under the General Stamp Act are the ordinary one-anna receipt stamp, the foreign bill stamp, and the share ti'ansfer stamp. These and the adhesive stamps under the Court Fees Act are all of English make. The "denoting" process is carried out by the Superintendent by means of a special adhesive stamp of English make. The greater portion of the higher values of (^ourt Fees and special adhesive stamps are under the joint lock and key of the Board of Revenue and Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — CIVIL. 307 the Superintendent of Stamps, but the rest of the stamps of all descriptions, besides Postage and Telegraph stamps, are in the custody of the Superintendent who controls the supply of labels and stamped papers to the provinces. The sales in the Town of Madras are effected by vendors under the control of the Collector of Madras, some of whom are remunerated by fixed salaries and others under the discount system. In the interior of the Presidency the Collectors are in charge of the stock of stamps, which they replenish by indents on the Superintendent of Stamps, Stamps of the value of 50 Rupees and under are sold by a class of vendors who are remunerated by a percentage on their sales ; stamps of greater value are sold by officers of Government only. Frauds are somewhat liable to occur in the use of adhesive stamps, which are easily removed from the documents to which they are applied. The mode of fraud is usually to remove the stamp, and, if it is necessary to cover appearances, to substitute one of inferior value which will resemble it. Section 30 of the Court Fees Act requires that the stamp shall be effaced by punching before the Court can take cognizance of the document. In order to prevent fraud on the part of the ministerial servants who might connive at old punched stamps being introduced, arrangements are made for a second punching in diamond form before the documents are put into the record room ; stamps so punched can hardly be re-introduced. Collectors, under Section 45 of the General Stamp Act, have the power of refunding the value of spoiled stamps when soiled or rendered unfit for use. Similar refunds under the Court Fees Act are governed by the Notification of the Government of ]\Iadras, dated 24th April 1872. Postage Stamps and Telegraph Stamps do not belong to the Postage Stamp Department, but the Sapeiintendent of Stamps is placed "^amps and in charge of them for custody and distribution. Postage stamps Stamps, are received direct from England by indents on the Secretary of State for India. Telegraph Stamps from the Stamp Office in Calcutta. Local Depots are supplied by the Superintendent of Stamps on the indents of the officers in charge. Every Treasury in the Presidency, including those attached to Mysore, Coorg, Hyderabad, and Travancore, is a local depot for the sale of Postage and Telegraph Stamps of the value of not less than Rupees 5 of labels at one time. A discount of half an anna per rupee is allowed to licensed Stamp- vendors. Postmasters, Deputy Post- masters and others, not being persons employed in a Govern- ment treasmy, who are required to retail Postage Stamps, [Section V. 308 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. To purchasers other than the above no discount is allowed. Discount is not allowed on sales of Telegraph Stamps. Half -anna and one-anna embossed postage envelopes are sold in packets containing sixteen envelopes, for the value of the stamps borne on them, portions of a packet not being saleable, under the same conditions as stamps with the privilege of discount. '* Service Stamps " are sold to Government officials without restriction as to minimum amount. No discount is allowed on these sales. The bulk of the Postage and Telegraph Stamps at local depots are under the joint lock and key of the Collector or his Treasury- Deputy Collector and the Treasurer, Nature of entries. Mint. The duty on coinage of Silver and the gain on Copper coinage, including other miscellaneous sources of revenue in this department, such as the sale proceeds of Silver dross, old annealing tubes, acids, &c., in the corresponding have hitherto been entered under this head. The Madras Assay Department was however closed on 3 1st March 1876 under orders from the Government of India. The receipts are now only the sale of old stores and materials. The charges are cost of remitting copper, and loss on uncurrent coin withdrawn from circulation. Nature of entries. Post Office. The sale proceeds of Postage Labels, including Remittances from Deputy Postmasters for Postal collectione, &c., made by them are credited to this head. Nature of entries. Law and Justice. The receipts under this head include all Fees, Fines, and Forfeitures of the Judicial and Magisterial Departments, includ- ing those imposed by Judicial officers and officers of other departments acting magisterially under the Abkdri and Stamp Acts, sale proceeds of unclaimed and intestate property, and Court fees when realized in cash. The charges comprise the following : — High Court, including Sheriff of Madras ; Law Officers ; Administrator-General ; Coroner's Court ; Justices of the Peace ; Civil and Sessions Courts ; Courts of Small Causes . Criminal Courts (including the one-fifth charges referred to under Land Revenue) ; Special Assistants and Governor's Agents ; and Cantonment Magistrates. Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES— CIVIL. 309 Interest. Under this head are shown interest received on advances and Nature of loans to public bodies, Native States, or private individuals ; and on arrears of Revenue. There is also a charge head bearing a corresponding name, with charge for interest on Service Funds, Savings' Bank Deposits, and certain local loans on which the Government has agreed to pay interest. Superannuation, &c. Under Receipts in aid of Superannuation are included Nature of subscriptions to the defunct Military and Medical Service funds, ®^^"^^- and contributions for pensions and gratuities made by officers lent for foreign service or employed by the Court of Wards, together with the capitalized value of pensions granted to Local Fund employes ; these are the principal items. The charges under the head Superannuation consist simply of pensions and gratuities to Government servants in the several departments. Exchange. The heads Gain by Exchange and Loss by Exchange are adjust- Nature of ing heads rendered necessary by the fact that the accounts of ^'^t'^^*^' the Home Government are kept in the English, and those of the Indian Government in the Indian currency. The value of provincial stores, &c,, is debited to the proper heads at the fixed rate of exchange, but the per contra credit afforded to the London account is at the rate of 2 shillings per rupee, and the difference between this smaller sum and the debit to Provincial is credited to Gain by Exchange. On the other hand the amount of Secretary of State's bills drawn on India is debited to account with London at the rate of 2 shillings per rupee, the difference between the smaller sum thus obtained and the larger sum actually paid being charged to Loss by Exchange. Refunds and Drawbacks. Refunds represent repayment of revenue or receipts erroneously Nature of collected. The most important at present are Land Revenue and Stamp refunds, and refunds of Magisterial fines ordered by Appellate Courts. Drawbacks represent the portion of Customs Revenue due by law to the exporter or importer for re-exporta- tion or re-importation. [Section V. 310 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADlimiSTEATIVE. Administration, Nature of Tlus charge head embraces salaries and allowances of the GlltiT16S Governor and Members of Council ; the household establishment of the Governor ; the tour expenses of the Governor ; the establishment of the Board of Revenue ; the Secretariat establish- ments of the Government excepting Public Works Department but including Translators' Offices ; the establishment of the Offices of Account and Audit, including Money Order Office ; the charges connected vnth the Currency Department ; and the payments made to the Bank of Madras for conducting Govem- m.ent Treasury and Savings' Bank business, and for the manage- ment of the public debt. Minor Departments. Nature of This is a charge head, and comprises the charges of the smaller departments engaged in administration not specified in separate heads. For instance, Meteorology, Public Observatories, Examinations, Emigration, Cinchona and Tea plantations and nurseries, Census, Public Exhibitions and Fairs, Gazetteer, Donations to scientific societies, &c. All expenditure connected with the improvement and development of the resources of the country comes under this head. Medical. Nature of The charge head Medical in the Imperial section of the entries. public accounts shows the salaries of Civil Surgeons. Allowances and Assignments. Nature of This is the charge head for allowances and assignments under en nes. political treaties and public engagements. The sub-heads are Territorial and Political pensions, Inamdars, Pensions in lieu of resumed lands, Compensations, Charitable Allowances, and Miscellaneous. Public Debt. Nature of the Public Debt is the generic term for accounts kept (1) of debt arrange- ments, incurred by the Government temporarily or permanently, and of debt discharged by the Government; (2) of loans and advances made by the Government and of debts owing to Government ; (3) of remittance transactions between the various Governments in India ; and (4) of receipts and payments which are recovered under the provisions of the law or otherwise in the public Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES— MILITARY. 311 accounts, but which are not payments due by Government or revenue. Loans prom G-overnment. Corporate bodies having a control of public funds are Nature of the empowered under Act XXIV of 1871 to obtain money on loan ^g^f_^^" from the local Governments on the security of those funds ; and under the same Act they are precluded from raising money from any persons other than the local Government except with the consent of the latter. The objects for which such loans may be raised are the construction and repair of works of public utility, or the repayment of debts contracted before the passing of the Act for the same purposes ; and it has been ruled that the works must be of a reproductive character, in all cases except where the borrowers are Municipal bodies, in which case a greater latitude is allowed. Loans bear interest at 4| per cent., and are repayable ordinarily by half-yearly instalments within 20 years. If any of the loan conditions are infringed, the funds of the corporation are liable to attachment by Government. The funds necessary for the issue of these loans are obtained by setting aside at the commencement of each year a certain lump sum from Imperial Services, this sum being fixed on in com- muuication with the Government of India. The loans are given throughout the year out of this lump sum, and are made at the discretion of the local Government except in certain special cases. IMPERIAL SERVICES— MILITARY. The pay of the Army, whether European or Native, and the Nature of pay and cost of military establishments for feeding, clothing, finance and otherwise providing for troops, are drawn from the ordinary Government treasuries. The snms which are entered as depart- mental receipts under Military ai'e separately accounted for, and are not drawn against for these purposes. The estimates for military establishments and pay of the troops are made up into a Budget by the Controller of Military Accounts. When this budget is passed by the Government of India the Controller issues cash assignments or letters of credit, in accordance with its provisions. For British Troops the assignments are sent to the Regimental Paymasters, who take uptheii' money i-equire- [Section V. 312 EEVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. ments from the nearest Civil Treasury ; for Batteries of Artillery, Native Regiments, and military establishments they are sent to the Presidency Paymaster w^ho pays on submission of monthly vouchers. The Accountants-General in the several Provinces where the Madras Army serves are furnished with lists of the annual cash requirement estimates and issue their orders to the several Treasury Officers within their jnrisdiction, who hold in readiness the funds necessary to meet the various demands. Detailed accounts of the military expenditure just described are rendered monthly by the Controller to the Accountant-General, Military Department, Calcutta. IMPERIAL SERVICES-PUBLIC WORKS. Nature of Finance and Account system. Budgets. It has already been explained in Section IV. that the Public Works Department executes works for Provincial and Local Funds as well as for Imperial Funds. A very large proportion of the works are however for the latter and the department is primarily designed for executing these. Moreover the Public Woi'ks Account Department is to a certain extent an Imperial EstabHshment, the superior officers of the department and all newly appointed members of the Subordinate Establishment being available for sei'vice in any part of British India. An account will, therefore, here be given of Imperial Public Works Finance and Account, and it will be understood that, except in minor details, the procedure with respect to Provincial and Local Funds is the same. Two separate budget estimates of Imperial Public Works receipts and charges are prepared annually ; one for Irrigation Works, including the embankment and conservancy of rivers, the other for Military, Postal, and Telegraph Works. The irrigation budget is framed by the Chief Engineer for Irrigation in communication with District Engineers. The budget estimate for Imperial Works other than irrigation is prepared by the Chief Engineer, Buildings and Roads, in communication with District Engineers and the heads of the Military, Postal, and Telegraph Departments. Both budgets, after approval by the local Government, are submitted at the beginning of January to the Government of India, by whom they are finally passed. In Section V.] IMPERIAL SERVICES — PUnLIC WORKS, SiS these budgets a specific assigninent of fands is made for each of the larger works to be undertaken or continued during the year, and special establishments are estimated for in detail ; but the charges for general establishments for administrative and execti- tive purposes are provided for by a percentage on the estimate for works, and repairs are provided for by lump sums placed at the disposal of the local officers of the department. Modifi- cations of the budget are made from time to time during the currency of the year to which it relates. Increases and reduc- tions of the total grants and important transfers can only bo made by the Government of India ; transfers of minor import- ance can be made by the local Government and by certain subordinate officers to whom its authority is delegated. Each budget, when sanctidried by the Government of Indiri, Disburse- is virtually a letter of credit in favor of the Public Works ^^^^^' Department current during the year to which the budget relates. At the end of the year the credit lapses. On receipt of a budget, the local Accountant- General holds the aggregate amount of the grants at the disposal of the Public Works Department ; and to the extent of the aggregate amount of all such grants (including those made in Provincial and Local Fund budgets) he issues credit orders on the Government Treasuries in favor of the disburs- ing officers of the Public Works Department, on applications made from time to time through the Examiner of Accounts. The Accountant- General regulates only the total issue of credit orders limiting the total issue to the aggregate of all Public Works grants ', the Examiner regulates the issue in detail, limit- ing the credit of each disbursing officer to the aggregate of assignments made on account of charges to be incurred by him. All miscellaneous receipts realized by a Public Works Officer are at once paid into a Government Treasury to a separate account against which he is not allowed to draw. The expenditure of each officer is thus strictly limited to the amount of credit orders granted in his favor ; and the aggregate expenditure of the department is therefore limited to the aggregate of all grants made by competent authority. The system of detailed appropriation prevents expenditure on account of any fund in excess of the grant made from that fund. The disbursing officers of the department are the officers in charge of executive divisions and their subordinates. The executive division is the recognized unit ; and the officers in charge of these divi- sions, of which the number is from seventy-five to eighty, are the responsible disburscrs. It is in their favor that credit- 40 [Section V. 314 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. orders are granted on treasuries ; and it is they who account to the Examiner for all receipts realized and expenditure incurred within their several divisions. They make such advances as may be necessary to their subordinates, and their subordinates account to them. They also make payments to oflBcers of other departments to enable them to carry out such public works as may bo entrusted to them. Accounts. As just stated, the subordinate Executive Agents in each division account to the officer in charge of the division for all expenditure incurred by them. Their accounts are of the Bimplest description, being merely copies of their cash-books. The classification of receipts and outlay and the compilation of the accounts of the Executive Officer and his subordinate into one set of Divisional Accounts is carried out at the head-quarters of the division ; a responsible accountant is attached for this purpose to each division. Every month the Executive Officer Eubmits to the Examiner of Public Works Accounts a classified abstract of his receipts and expenditure supported by schedules giving such details as are necessary for audit purposes. Officers of other departments, technically called Civil Officers, who are entrusted with the execution of pubKc works, account every month directly to the Examiner for advances received and outlay incurred by them. The Examiner compiles the accounts received both from Civil Officers and from Public Works Officers, and submits to the Accountant-General, with the Government of India Public Works Department, a monthly account of the receipts and disbursements of the department, classified under the following heads : — Section V.] imperial services— telegraph. Receipts. Charges. 315 Irrigation. Receipts on Capital Account Extraordinary — Receipts on Capital Account Ordinary. Receipts on Revenue Account. Ordinary Revenue Receipts. Imperial {other tlian Irrigation). Military. Other Services. Irrigation. Capital Extraordinary — Works. Establishment. Tools and Plant. Suspense. Capital Ordinary- Works. Establishment. Tools and Plant. Profit and Loss. Suspense. State outlay on Guaranteed Irrigation Companies. Revenue — Extensions and Improve- ments. Maintenance and Repairs. Establishment. Tools and Plant. Profit and Loss. Ordinary Agricultural — Works. Repairs. Establishment. Tools and Plant. Profit and Loss. Suspense. Imperial {other than Irrigation'). MTf f with the same sub- - ^' I divisions as in the ^ case of Ordinary (, Agricultural. Other Services. To the Pi'ovincial Accountant-General the Examiner reports monthly the total receipts and expenditure on account of Irriga- tion and other Imperial funds, distinguishing between E.xtra- ordinary and Ordinary. IMPERIAL SERVICE S— T ELEGRAPH. There is no local control of this item of Imperial Finance. Telegraph. [Section V. 316 EEVENIJE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTEATIVE. PROVINCIAL SERVICES. General, Nature of the The general nature of Provincial Services has already been services. indicated in the first paragraph of this Section. They represent that division of the public revenues and charges which, for technical and purely financial purposes at any rate, are regarded as having an interest limited to the Presidency only. They are administered by the Local Government subject only to the criticism and remarks of the Supreme Government. History of the This head of account was first introduced in the year 1871. decentraliza- tion measure. Under a resolution of the Government of India of the previous year it was decided to make over to each local Government a lump sum from the general revenues, to be administered by them and applied towards the expenses of certain defined departments ; the receipts from these departments which had hitherto been credited to Imperial were to be credited in future to the new head of account ; and the whole fund so constituted was to be styled the Provincial Fund. In thus decentralizing to a certain extent the fiscal authority no new ]X>wers were given to local Governments as regards provincial taxation, for the poAver of taxing locally for purposes confined to the Presidency had already been possessed and acted upon to a more or less considerable degree by the different administrations. Nor was there any appreciable elasticity in the resources thus placed under the control of the local Government, the assign- ment from imperial resources being fixed, and the departmental receipts being, as compared with that assignment, insignificant. The operation of the measure was to fix the sum which would thenceforward be contributed by Imperial Funds towards the expenses of the departments specified, and to provide that any additional expenditure in that direction which might be rendered necessary by the growing wants of the country should be met by taxation imj>osed locally under the legislative powers of the local Governments. This arrangement though constituting an important administrative measure does not at present involve questions of any considerable financial magnitude, at any rate in comparison with similar ari'ang'cments in Eugland, in conse- quence of the small marg-in which the taxable resources of this country leave to local taxation after the claims of Imperial taxation have been satisfied. The departments transferred under the arrangement just mentioned were (1) Jails, (2) Registration, Section V.] PROVINCIAL SERVICES. 317 (3) Police, (4) Education, (5) Medical Services excepting Medical Establishment, (G) Printing, (7) Roads and Miscellaneous Public Improvements, and (8) Civil Buildings. The sum assigned to this Presidency for the maintenance of these departments and to enable the Government to meet its share of the cost of the proportion of the Public Works Establishment employed on the two classes of Public Works thenceforward to be treated as Provincial, as also to purchase tools and plant, was £739,488 per annum. The total grants for the same services had previously been £876,726 ; but £81,810, being the sum estimated for the then current year as departmental receipts, was deducted, and the balance only, or £794,916, regarded as the assignment necessary from imperial resources. At the same time, as a measure of relief to Imperial resources, a sum of £350,000 was deducted rateably from the assignments made to all the provinces ; in the case of Madras the proportion amounted to £55,428, and this further deduction brought down the sum assigned to the amount above mentioned on £739,488. This was the original arrange- ment. Additions however have since been made by the Govern- ment of India for various minor services transferred from time to time from the Imperial to the Provincial heading, and further changes are in contemplation. The actual Provincial expenditure on the transferred services Present in 1875-76 was £822,910 ; there was also Local Fund expendi- fgg'lJ^J*^ ture on the same services, amounting to £603,255, so that the total amount spent on these services in 1875-76 was £1,426,165, The Imperial expenditure in 1870-71 on the same objects was £1,222,164; so that a sum of £204,001, being the difference between these two amounts, has been in the present year saved to the Imperial Exchequer and charged to local sources. The amount of local taxation under the Road Fund was in 1870-71 £238,014. The total amount of present local taxation is £376,964, showing an increase of £138,950 in local taxation since the inauguration of the decentralization scheme ; it is probable, however, that a great portion of this increase would have takeij place in any case. The balance sheet for 1875-76 is given as showing the heads Heads of , , 1 , • • 1 • Receipts and of receipts and charges, and the general proportion existing giiarges. between the different items. [ Section V. 318 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Beceipts. Expetiditure. HS. ES. Imperial Allotment . 83,55,701 Refunds 4,601 Departmental Receipts- — Jails ... 10,57,532 Jails . 2,56,524 Registration ... 2,66,563 Eegistration . 3,80,530 Police ... 35,79,908 Police 37,680 Education ... 8,75,308 Education ... 28,698 Medical ... *5,56,567 Medical . *31,351 Printing .. 2,46,357 Printing 26,723 Marine Marine 25,141 Minor Establishments ... 2,30,831 Miscellaneous Eeceipts- _ Office-rent, Rates andTaxes 85,032 Pees and Fines 62,447 Miscellaneous ... 2,31,848 Sundry Keceipts . 51,753 Contributions ... 12,22,062 Co ntributions Public Works 18,650 79,669 Public Works ... 11,03,689 Total ...*94,60,298 Total . .*93,54,864 LOCAL FUNDS UNDER IV OF 1871. ACT Nature of the entries. A description of the nature of these fands and of the Boards which administer them has been given already under Section III. A general supervision only is exercised by the Local Government, and the funds may be described as funds raised locally, adminis- tered locally, and administered for strictly local purposes. The following balance sheet for 1875-76 will show the ordinary heads of receipts and charges. It is not necessary to explain each item. * Excluding the recoveries from Local Funds and Municipal Boards, Rupees 30,862. Section V.] SPECIAL FUNDS. 819 Receipts. Allotments from Provincial Ser- vices Special Funds BS. 12,33,984 3,57,919 Rates and Taxes — Cess on Lands ... 36,03,247 Tax on Houses ... 1,235 Tolls on Roads, &c. 1,65,163 Fees in Schools and Training lustitu. tious Contributions from other Local Fund Circles and Munici- palities ... Receipts of Schools and Endowed Foundations — Educational 10,634 Hospitals and Dispensaries 22,703 Choultries, Markets, &c. 2,64,798 Miscellaneous 4,614 Miscellaneous — Miscellaneous Fees, Fines, Rents, Sales, and Contributions ... 85,160 Public Works Receipts and Re- funds 1,46,960 Advances, &c. Loans 15,91,903 37,69,645 22,376 29,530 3,02,749 2,32,120 1,19,100 82,237 Total ... 61,49,660 Charges. Public Works — Communications ... 35,11,913 Tolls and Ferries ... 2,795 Educational ... 18,728 Sanitary and Mis- cellaneous ... 2,67,434 Establishment Tools and Plant ... Refunds of Re- cei23ts, &c. Contributions Education — Inspection Local Fund Schools. Grants-in-aid Contributions Sanitation, Medical Services, and Pub- lic and Charitable Institutions — Hospitals and Dis- pensaries and Bledical Pi-acti- tioners ... Vaccine Establish. ments Sanitary Establish- ments and Cleans- ing Tanks and Wells Markets, Choul- tries, &c. Contributions, Ac. Miscellaneous Estab- lishment and Con- tingencies Advances Loans SPECIAL FUNDS. 38,00,870 8,41,621 37,112 24 42,413 50,241 1,89,990 1,80,714 1,644 1,41,802 78,952 2,87,298 2,09,632 80,969 Total 47,22,040 4,22,589 7,98,653 89,273 1,12,547 17,686 61,62,788 Special Funds are so called from their being formed for special Nature of purposes distinct from those to which Local and Municipal Funds are applied, and from those to which assignments from Imperial revenues are made. Though grouped for convenience under the third of the main divisions of finance mentioned at the head of this chapter, these Special Funds are in the extent of their [Section V. 320 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE. application partly Local and partly Provincial. The following is a complete list of the funds. So many changes are going on with reference to them, that it is useless to give figures as to receipts or charges : — 1. Jungle Conservancy Fund. 2. Cattle Pound Fund. 3. Surplus Pound Fund, 4. Endowment Fund. 5. Village Service Fund. 6. Irrigation Cess Fund. 7. Cochrane's and Sadras Canal Fund. 8. Canal and Ferry Fund. 9. Nanal Grass Fund. 10. Public Bungalow Fund. 11. Convict Labor Fund. 12. Police Lodging Fund. 13. School Fee Fund. 14. Educational Building Fund. 15. Port Fund. 16. General Fund, under the Customs Consolidated Act VI of 1863. 1 7. Bearers' Fee Fund. 18. District Road Fund of Bhadrachellum and Rekapally taluqs. 19. District Road Fund. 20. Labor Contract Fee Fund. 21. LTniversity Fee Fund. 22. One percent. Income- tax Fund. 23. Municipal Fund. Each fund is separately adminis- tered. Of the above list the first ten are under the control of the Board of Revenue, and the next five under that of the Inspectors-General of Jails and Police, the Director of Public Instruction, and the Superintendent of Marine. The District Road Fund of Bhadrachellum Taluq is worked by the Collector of Godavery, while the transactions under Bearers' Fee and General Customs Funds are confined to only a few districts. The heads " District Road Fund " and " Labor Contract Fee Fund " await certain adjustments for being closed, and the balance under " One per cent. Income-tax Fund " has been transferred to Provincial Services. The mode in which the Municipal Funds are shown in Government Accounts having been changed, the transactions in connection with them are in future to be omitted from the list of Special Funds. The University Fee Fund receipts are adjusted annually by setting them off against a portion of the Univei'sity expenditure borne on the Provincial Service Account. Of the funds under the control of the Board of Revenue, the Jungle Conservancy Fund of the Nilgiris was merged in the Forest Revenue on 1st April 1875, and the Nanal Grass Funds of Kistna, Chingleput, North Arcot, Madura, Tiunevelly, and Coimbatore have been transferred to Irrigation Revenue, while those of Nellore, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, and Salem await to be so transferred. Notice will be found below of the funds administered by the Board of Revenue. Jungle The Jungle Conservancy Fund was organized in 1859 for the Conservancy i i . » ■,- ^^^ • ^ i • i Fun da. avowed object of conserving and extendmg village jungles, which were being rapidly destroyed by the villagei-s and others in the Section V.] SPECIAL FUNDS. 321 exercise of ancient prescriptive rights. In order to preserve and improve them, a local tax on firewood cut and charcoal made for sale is levied through the village officers and applied to the formation of plantations and a,venues, raising nurseries, &c,, it being understood that the prescriptive rights of the ryots to fuel, leaves for manure, and wood for implements intended for their own use and not for sale shall be left undisturbed. The operations of the fund in the several districts commenced in different years ranging from 1860-61 to 1866-67, In 1868-69 the fund was in existence in all but the Madras, Nilgiris, and Malabar Districts. In 1869-70 it was established in the Nilgiris by the transfer of the jungles which were under the conservancy of the Forest Department to the charge of the Commissioner. The jungles were, however, retransferred to the Forest Depart- ment from 1875-76. At first the income of the fund was small and the operations necessarily limited. In 1868-69 it was considered that the operations of the fund had become sufficiently extensive to require the preparation of a detailed programme of the work to bo done in each year, which was accordingly ordered and carried out from 1869-70, by which system unifor- mity in the opei-ations has been secured. From 1871-72 the cost of roadside avenues was thi'own upon Local Funds and the Jangle Conservancy Fund relieved of the charge. The general rate of seigniorage now in force on fuel is 6 Annas per 1,000 lbs. The rate for charcoal varies from 8 Annas to 2 Eupees, 8 Annas to 6 Pies per 1,000 lbs. In Ganjam and Malabar no seigniorage is levied on charcoal. Besides the tax on fuel and charcoal, the rents of jungles, sale of trees, and sale proceeds of wood contribute towards the receiiDts. The Cattle Pound Fund was originally inaugurated under the Cattle Pound Imperial Act III of 1857, which was repealed by Act I of 1871. g^j-pius The income of the fand is made up of fines paid on stray cattle Pound Fttnd. and sale proceeds of unclaimed cattle. It is expended in the remuneration of pound-keepers and in the construction and repair of pounds, and the net surplus remaining, which consti- tutes what is called the Surplus Pound Fund, is applied to the construction and repair of roads and bridges and to other purposes of public utiKty. Under orders in force a half of the surplus is paid to local and municipal funds for these purposes, and the other half is appropriated to the Government Fai-ms at Sydapet for agricultural education, &c. In 1871-72 four thousand five hundred and ninety-four pounds were maintained, which increased to 5,766 in 1875-76. The pounds are very 41 [Section V. 322 REVENUE, FINANCflAL, AND APMraiSTRATITE. Endowment Fund. Village Service Fund. unequally distributed over the districts, as a condition of the establishment or i"etention of a pound is that it shall be self- supporting. As regards establishment, the head of the village is by law the ex-officio pound-keeper. In 1875-76 Government fixed the remuneration of pound-keepers, as to which great diversity of pi^actice prevailed, at a uniform rate of 50 per cent, on collections for all districts except the Nilgiris. In 1874 Government allowed the employment of a pound gumastah on 10 Rupees a month in such of the taluqs of each district in which one may be considered necessary, and these are now being gradually entertained. This fund comprises the endowment of choultries, alms-houses, and other public foundations not being religious. Most of the endowed institutions under the control of the Collectors have been transferred to Local and Municipal Boards, and their receipts and charges are exhibited in the Local Fund and Municipal accounts. The institutions now maintained from this fund are few in number, viz., the Muni'o chuttrum and dispensary in Bellary, the lungerkhana in Kurnool, seven chuttrums in Tanjore, and one chuttrum and one water-pandal in Tinnevelly. The receipts of these institutions are composed, for the most part, of fixed allowances granted by Government. The assets of the Village Service Fund are derived chiefly from the cess collected with the Land Revenue under Madras Act IV of 1864i in the districts where the Act has been introduced, from the deductions from the land revenue made in some districts on account of village service and which the Government are pledged to continue for various reasons, and from the sums charged for the enfranchisement of Village Service Inams. In districts where the Act has not been introduced, the old mei*ahs or fees paid by the people as remuneration to the village officers are collected and credited to the Fund. The object of the Fund is to improve the pay of the village servants, and to increase and alter their number so as to meet properly the require- ments of the different villages. Act IV of 1864, which is introduced concurrently with the new settlement in each dis- trict, is as yet in operation only in Godavery, Kumool, Trichi- nopoly, Salem, and parts of Tinnevelly. The maximum rate of aess allowed by the law, viz., 1 Anna in every rupee of assessment, has been levied, and as the cess was collected before the reorganization of the village establishments, there are large surpluses in the districts. A portion of the surplus has been invested in Government securities, but the rate of cess in Section V.] SPECIAL FUNDS. 32S Kurnool has been reduced from 1 Anna to 10 Pies in the rupee, subject to report after two years' trial of the whole reorganization of the village establishments recently carried out. The Irrigation Cess is paid voluntarily by ryots holding lands Irrigation under certain river channels in lieu of customary labor formerly supplied by them. It existed formerly in Trichinopoly, Madura, and Coimbatore, but is now gradually dying out owing to want of any law to enforce the payment. The Cochrane's and Sadras Canal Fund exists only in the Cochrane's Chingleput District, its income being derived from tolls and Qa^^^i Fund license fees on boats using Cochrane's Canal to the north of Madras and the Sadras Canal to the south. The canals were originally Imperial and were made local by the Government of India on an application to that effect from the Government of Madras in 1864, The income is expended on the maintenance of the canals and in payment of the establishment for collecting tolls. The Northern Canal has been extended to within 14 miles of Nellore. The Canal and Ferry is raised under Madras Act I of 1870, and Canal and is made up of tolls and license fees on canals, lines of naviga- tion, and ferries. The money is expended on the construction, improvement, repair, maintenance, and extension of the channels and ferries to which the provisions of the Act may be applied. As yet the Act is in operation only as regards certain ferries in the Godavery, Kistna, and Tanjore Districts, and the Salt Canal from Negapatam to Vedaraniem, to which it was extended in 1874-75. The Nanal Grass Fund consists of the sale proceeds of the Nanal Grass cuttings from nanal and coray grass and reed plantations grown on tank and channel banks for protection. The collections are expended on the maintenance and the general extension of the plantations. In 1874 Government ordered the receipts to be credited to a new head of account styled " Irrigation Revenue," so that the fund will soon cease to appear under Special Funds. Almost all the travellers' bungalows in the Presidency have Public been transferred to Local and Municipal Boards, District OflBcers, j-und. and other departments of the service. In 1875-7G only two bungalows in Coimbatore remained to be disposed of. These have since been transferred, and the Public Bungalow Fund will shortly become extinct under Special Funds. [Section V. 324 REVENUE, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATITB. CASH EEMITTANCES. statistics. The two following statements will show appix)simately the course of exchange between different parts of the Presidency, and between this Presidency and others : — Statement I. BemiUances hy Cash and Bills received from and sent to tJie Banh of Madras and other Districts during 1875-76. Remittances from Districts. Eemittances from Bank of Madras to Districts. Eemittances from other Districts to this District. Eemittances Disfcricta. To the Bank of Madras either in Cash or Bank Supply Bills granted on Payment of Money at from this District to other Districts. Transfer. Madras. ES. ES. ES. ES. ES. Ganjam 15,50,000 40,000 1,15,000 Vizagapatam 6,62,980 3,36,700 ... Godavery 30,00,000 66.680 ... 1,15,000 Kistna 43,00,000 16,380 47,800 ... Is ellore 21,00,100 1,62,580 Cuddapah 11,79,220 1,95,800 85,000 1,57,490 Bellaiy ... 26,07,800 3,46,690 3,i'9,490 ... Knrnool 10,00,000 "'6,760 2,45,000 16,000 2,00,000 Madras ... ... Chinglepnt 23,52,510 ... 9,00,000 North Arcot 12,70,500 4,40,000 ... '30,000 South Arcot 9,15,980 10,'37,080 1,02,000 Tanjore 54.50,000 38,800 3.60,350 '40.000 2,'00,50O Trichinopoly 3,50,000 29,760 7,01,000 12,000 3,00,000 Madura ... 29,84,600 28,410 3,50,000 27,000 Tinnevelly 26,50,000 1,36,170 2,01,000 27.000 3,00,000 Coimbatore 12,81,950 57,000 ... 2,44.000 10,57,500 Nilgiris ... ... 14,78,000 Salem 15,52,250 1,57,880 1,03,100 1, "60,000 South Cjinara ... 15,50,000 3,'6b,000 1,00,000 Malabar 1,00,000 4,00,000 6,64,000 Travancore ... 3,00,000 Total .., 3,69,38,890 22,70,000 39,21,940 32,51,490 32,51,490 Section V.] PAPER CURRENCY. Statement II. 325 Remittances hy Casli and Bills received from and sent to other Presidencies during 1875-76. Districts, &c. From other Presidencies. Sent to other Presi- dencies. Ganjam Vizagapatam Godaveiy Tanjore Tinuevelly ... Bank of Madras Total RS. 2,000 3,000 "iiooo 1,000 19,88,840 19,98,840 RS. 11,00,000 2,50^000 2,62,27,800 2,75,77,800 PAPER CURRENCY. The Presidency is divided into three Circles of Paper Currency Nature of Issue — Madras, Calicut, and Cocanada. The Madras Circle ments^^' of Issue includes the districts of Nellore, Chingleput, North Arcot, South Arcot, Salem, Cuddapah, Bellary, Kurnool, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura, Tinnevelly, and Bangalore, with the toAvn of Madras as head-quarters for the issue of notes for the circle ; the Calicut Circle includes the districts of Malabar, South Canara, and Coimbatore, having Calicut as the office of issue ; and the Cocanada Circle embraces the remaining districts, viz., Ganjam, Vizagapatam, Godavery, and Kistna, with head- quarters at Cocanada. In addition to the three head-quarters of issue, a currency agency is established at Vizagapatam to afford facilities to the public for exchanging coin for notes or notes for coin. The Exchange Department at the head- quarters of each circle of issue issues Home notes for coin or other notes, and coin for notes. Other or forei^ circle notes are only cashed when there is an available margin for cashing foreign circle notes, which naargin is calculated, by deducting from the reserve of silver coin the difference between the circulation account and the fixed minimum for the time being, and the amount of notes held by other offices. At the Head Office at Madras, notes of its sub-circles, Calient and Cocanada (including its agency at Vizagapatam), are at all times cashed by law. The Exchange Department also issues email silver and copper coin in exchange [Section V. 326 RH VENUS, FINANCIAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVB. for coin or notes. District Treasuries are sjipplied with notes by the Accountant-General, through the Treasuries at the head- quarters of each circle of issue, on the receipt of indents from the district treasuries, provided he considers it admissible to do so. Although no person has a legal claim to obtain cash for notes except at the currency office of issue, or in the case of Calicut and Cocanada notes at Madras, notes are cashed freely at Mofussil Treasuries when the Treasury officers are satisfied that no inconvenience can be Caused to their treasuries by the encashment. Notes tendered by travellers, other than visitors to hill sanitaria, are cashed to a limited extent, even when the Treasury is unable to cash them to the general public. At every place other than the office of issue notes of the Home circle are a legal tender in satisfaction of any claim against Government, though ordinarily no person is pressed to take notes in part or full of his demand. Payment of Government dues may be made in Government currency notes of any circle of issue. Railway Companies are also required to receive notes of any circle in payment of fares and freight, and the officer in charge of a Treasury into which such company pays its earning is authorized to receive notes so earned. MONEY ORDER DEPARTMENT. Nature of The receipt and payment of money orders is attended to by ^Ttem^"^*^" a paid Agent at th» head office at the Presidency and by the Treasury Officers in the districts. The amount of an order cannot exceed Rupees 150, nor is the amount grantable on one day to the same person ordinarily permitted to exceed 500 Rupees. Orders not presented for payment within one year from date of issue are not payable without satisfactory explana- tion of delay afforded to the Comptroller-General. Orders are granted on Europe also under similar rules, but they have to pass through the Accountaat-General, Bombay. The I'ates of exchange is determined by the Comptroller-General from time to time and telegraphed to the Madras Accountant-General. Section VI.] SECTION VI. VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. RESULTS OF LATEST CENSUS. It has already been mentioned that the Presidency includes Area, &c., of an area of 139,698 square miles ; that it is divided into 21 dis- Jeno^^^^^" tricts, besides the Native principality of Poodoocottah, the latter ceuiributing 1,380 square miles of the total area given above* and that the districts are divided into 156 taluqs, sub-divided into 56,421 villages. The first census of the Madras Presidency was taken in 1822, History when the population was returned at 13,476,923. The next censuses, enumeration, within the same territorial limits, was in the year 1836-37, when the numbers were returned at 13,967,395, or an increase of only 490,472 in fourteen years, a result doubtless chiefly due to defective census returns, but also attributable in some measure to tbe epidemic cholera prevailing from 1818 to 1826 or 1827, and to the later epidemic, preceded by famine, which raged in 1833 and 1834. The first of the quinquennial enumerations was taken in 1851-52, when the population was found to have risen to 22,031,697, of which 273,190 belonged to the district of Kurnool which had been annexed after the previous census was taken. An increase of 58 per cent, in fifteen years shows very clearly that one or other of the censuses was extremely inaccurate, and it is now believed that many of the zemindaris were omitted, or their population much under- stated in the returns for 1836-37. The results of the four quinquennial enumerations are shown below : — Years. Population. 1851-52 22,031,697 1856-57 22,857,855 1861-62 24,656,509 1866-67 26,539,052 [Section VI. 328 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. The figures for 1861-G2 and 1866-G7 are exclusive of North Canara, which was transferred to Bombay in I8G2, with a population at that time of somewhere about 300,000. Operations in "^^^ Census of 1871 was taken in accordance with the desire ?ft7i^"^ °^ ^^ ^^^ Supreme Government for a general census of the whole of India. Experience having shown that the circumstances of the country were such as to render it dangerous to rely on a census taken on a single day, a preliminary house-to-house enumeration was resolved on, and full instructions were issued by the Board of Revenue in September 1872 to all Collectors, who, as usual, were made responsible for the conduct of the operations within their respective districts. In the beginning of January 1871 the preliminary work commenced by the accountants of each village preparing and transmitting to the Tahsildars of the taluq a series of statistical returns and registers of the houses, area, and assessment of their villages, in order to prepare which the accountants had to proceed from house to house and affix a number to each in such a manner as to last till the 15th of November, the day fixed for the final enumeration. As a rule, these returns reached the taluq offices in time to permit of returns for each taluq being compiled and forwarded to the Collectors of the districts by the 15th February, after which the house registers were returned to the village accountants for use during the preliminary enumeration, which commenced on the 15th July, except in South Canara and Malabar, where it commenced earlier so as to permit of the work being completed before the outbreak of the south-west monsoon. Before the end of July, the inmates of every house were registered and the returns despatched to the local Supervisor, usually the Revenue Inspector of the range, who tested ten per cent, of the entries and sent back for amendment such returns as he found incorrectly prepared, the work of the Supervisors being again tested by Tahsildars and Divisional Officers. In municipalities and cantonments the census was conducted under the supervision of the Municipal Commissioners and Military Authorities acting in concert with the Collector of the district, and in such cases the preliminary enumeration was usually delayed until September or October. The final enumeration took place on the 15th of November 1871 in all the villages and towns of the Presidency, except in the district of Tanjore and the town of Palghaut, where it was thought expedient to defer it for a few days on account of the occurrence of festivals and the presence of numerous strangers. The returns prepared on the 15th were sent Section VI.] RESULTS OF LATEST CENSUS. 329 to the Supervisors to be tested and then transferred to the Tahsildars, who forwarded them after careful examination to the Collectors, by whom they were transmitted to the Census Office at Madras for final scrutiny and tabulation. The enumerators employed in taking the census were for the most part village officials who received no extra remuneration, but in the larger villages and towns it was necessary to employ paid enumeratoi's in addition. Zemindars usually exerted themselves to assist in obtaining correct results on their own estates, and much assistance was gratuitously afforded in many ways by native gentlemen throughout the Presidency. The number of enumerators employed was 71,641, being about 1 to every 436 of the popu- lation. The total charge incurred on this account amounted to Rupees 33,341, or Rupees 1-1-0 per thousand of the population. Naturally the people were somewhat suspicious of the object of the census, but there was little or no active opposition, and any defects in the returns are attributable more to the incapa- city or caste prejudices of the enumerators than to anything else. Careful enumerators found little difficulty, as a rule, in overcoming the reticence usually found in supplying information regarding the female population, and in the case of the census of Mahomedan females the difficulty was much less than had been anticipated. The result of the final examination and tabulation of the Gross results returns was to fix the population of the Presidency at 31,597,872, o^ ^^tto. being a gross increase of 5,058,820 over the figures for 1866-67, and a net increase of 4,274,452 after deducting the population in localities not included in the previous census. It has been already stated that previous censuses erred, if anything, in the direction of understating rather than of exaggerating the population. In considering the apimrent increase this must be borne in mind. Particulars regarding the distribution of the population are given in the annexed table : — Statement. 42 [Section VI. 330 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. 3 • id 3 2 . 00 "S^ o o s ■==1 Districts. 1 a' > s § si ^1 6* 0-" ^.^ C3 o o o i o i p. 1- ci K to tit is < 2 "= ii Ganjam 8,313 3 4,.562 341,404 1,520,088 411 74-8 182-9 4-45 333-2 506,696 Vizasapatam ... 18,344 2 8,581 489,419 2,159,199 26-7 570 117-7 4-41 251-6 1,079,599 Godavery 6,224 9 2,202 389,712 1,592,939 62-6 1770 255-9 4-08 723-4 176,993 Kistna 8,036 11 2,140 282.358 1,452,374 35-1 131-9 180-7 5-14 678-7 132,034 Nellore 8,462 9 2,417 263,820 1,376,811 311 109-2 162-7 5-21 569-6 152,979 Cuddapah 8,367 11 1,337 339,063 1,351,194 40-5 253-6 161-5 3-98 1010-6 122,836 Bellary 11,007 15 2,540 351,943 1,668,006 320 138-6 151-5 4-73 656-7 111,200 Kurnool 7,358 8 787 205,884 959,640 28-0 261-6 130-4 4-66 1219-4 119,955 Chingleput . . 2,753 6 2,362 141,434 938,184 51-4 59-9 a40-7 6-63 397-2 156,364 North Aroot . . . 7,130 9 5,292 329,844 2,015,278 46-2 62-3 282-3 6-11 380-8 223,920 South Arcot . . . 4,873 K 3,198 228,761 1,755,817 46-9 71-6 360-3 7-67 549 219,477 Tanjore 3,654 9 3,935 369,984 1,973,731 101-3 94-0 540-1 5-33 501-6 219,303 Trichinopoly . . . 3,515 5 1,644 210,690 1,200,408 59-9 128-2 341-5 5-69 730-1 240,081 Madura 9,502 6 5,459 443,513 2,266,615 46-7 81-2 238-5 5-11 415-2 377,769 Tinnevelly 5,176 9 1,824 403,803 1,693,959 78-0 221-4 327-3 4-19 928-7 188,217 Coimbatore 7,432 10 1,575 361,109 1,763,274 48-6 229-3 237-3 4-88 1119-5 176,327 Nilgiria 749 1 17 13,922 49,501 18-6 818-9 66-0 3-55 2911-8 49,501 Salem 7,4SS 9 4,021 391,519 1,966,995 52-3 97-4 262-9 5-02 489-2 218,555 South Canara ... 3,902 5 1,288 184,569 918,362 47-3 143-3 2.35-4 4-97 713-0 183,672 Malabar 6,002 10 432 435,462 2,261,250 72-6 10080 376.7 5-19 5234-4 226,125 Madras City ... 27 1 23 51,741 397,552 1916-3 2249-6 14724-1 7-68 17284-8 397,552 Total ... 138,318 156 55,636 6,229,954 31,281,177 45-0 111-9 226-2 5-02 562-2 200,520 Puducottah Ter- ritory 1,380 3 1,279 77,638 316,695 56-2 60-7 229-5 4-07 247-6 105,565 Grand Total ... 139,698 159 56,915 6,307,592 31,597,872 45-2 110-8 226-2 5-01 555-2 198,729 Nationalities. Of the whole population 28,863,978 were Hindus, 1,857,857 Mahomed an s, 490,299 Native Christians, 14,505 Europeans, 26,374 East Indians or Eurasians, 21,254 Jains, 6,910 indi- viduals whose nationality was undistinguished in the returns. Of these 23,714,578 resided in Government villages or luam lands, 7,566,599 on permanently-settled estates (zemindaries, &c.), and 316,695 in the State of Puducottah. The following table shows the distribution of the people according to nationality : — Bud- Districts. Hindus. Mahome- Native Chris- Euro- Eura- dhists Others Total. dans. tians. peans. sians. Jains 1. G-anjam 1,513,673 4,826 679 149 205 45 511 1,520,088 2. Vizagapatamf 2,135,432 21,030 882 378 810 91 576 2,159,199 3. Godavei-y 1,555,981 35,173 585 451 385 39 325 1,592,939 4. Kistna 1,365,709 78,941 7,380 77 208 59 1,452,374 5. Nellore 1,308,014 65,670 2,653 101 237 136 1,376,811 6. Cuddapah ... 1,242,317 103,676 4,608 93 109 4 387 1,351,194 7. Bellary 1,534,223 127,783 3,354 1,213 978 327 128 1,668,006 8. Kurnool 847,805 107,920 3,644 40 160 2 69 959,640 * The number of villages entered includes those of zemindaries also. \ In the total number of males and females the population of Jeypore (males 168,909 -f females 145,579 = total 314,488) is included, but not in the particulars, viz., " children " and " adults.'^ Section VI.] RESULTS OP LATEST CENSUS. 331 Diatricts. Hindus. Mahome- Native Chris- Euro- Eura- Bud- dhists Others Total, dans. tiana. peana. sians. or Jaius. 9. Chinglepnt ... 899,686 23,192 11,480 2,090 1,571 147 18 938,184 10. North Arcot .. 1,913,020 86,741 6,316 336 666 7,889 310 2,015,278 11. South Arcot... 1,676,462 44,567 30,219 123 370 3,861 215 1,755,817 12. Tan j ore 1,803,787 102,703 65,262 389 522 239 829 1,973,731 13. Trichinopoly... 1,115,776 32,024 50,822 623 630 143 390 1,200,408 14. Madura 2,062,768 132,833 70,445 175 166 13 215 2,266,615 15. Tinnevelly ... 1,506,621 84,753 102,249 197 130 9 1,693,959 16. Coimbatore ... 1,715,081 36,026 11,443 153 442 "56 73 1,763,274 17. Nilgiris 42,451 1,936 2,935 1,339 796 44 49,501 18. Salem 1,901,060 52,312 12,684 256 377 ""'28 278 1,966,995 19. South Canara.. 777,587 83,178 48,938 130 190 8,339 918,362 20. Malabar 1,637,914 581,609 32,280 2,579 5,409 31 1,428 2,261,250 21. Madi-as 308,611 50,964 21,441 3,613 12,013 910 397,552 Total... 28,863,978 1,857,857 490,299 14,505 26,374 21,254 6,910 31,281,177 Puducottah Tem- toiy 296,829 8,506 11,328 8 24 316,695 Grand Total ... 29,160,807 1,866,363 501,627 14,513 26,398 21,254 6,910 31,597,873 The Hindus formed about 92'8 per cent, of the whole popu- —Hindus, lation, inclusive of all aboriginal and mountain tribes, whether having caste distinctions or not. The bulk of these are manifestly not of Aryan extraction, but in South India it is impossible to distinguish the Hindu population in this way with any approximation to accui^acy. The proportion of Hindus to the total varied from 99 per cent, in Ganjam to 72 per cent, in Malabar. The great bulk of the Mahomedan population of the Madras — Mahome- Presidency is of mixed descent, due partly to intermarriages either of the conquering races fx'om the north or of Arab and Persian traders to the Western Coast, partly to forcible conversions in the time of Tippoo, and perhaps still more than either to voluntary conversions from Hinduism, especially on the Western Coast, where the percentage of Mahomedans to the whole popula- tion at the time of the census was as high as 25 "7 per cent. In Madras, formerly the head-quarters of the Nabob of the Carnatic, the proportion was 12'8 per cent., while in Vizagapatam and Ganjam it was as low as 0'9 and 03 per cent. Inclusive of Roman Catholics, Syrian Christians, and —Native Protestants, the total Native Christian population of the Presidency amounted to upwards of half a million. The highest percentage, 6-0, was found in Tinnevelly, chiefly owing to the Protestant Missions of later years, while the results of the labors of the earlier Christians and of the Jesuit Missions of the seventeenth century are found most markedly in the districts of South Canara [Section VI. 332 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. — Earasiaas. and ^lalabar on the West Coast, and of Madura, Trichinopoly, and Tanjore in the centre of the peninsula, with a percentage varying from 1'4 to 5' 3. — Europeans. The more important stations occupied by the Madras Army were not embraced by the census, being situated beyond the civil limits of the Presidency ; but the presence of the European troops at the smaller stations contributed in no small measure to bring up the number of the European population to 14,505. The Eurasian or East Indian population amounted to only 26,374, of which 13,584 were in Madras or the neighbouring district of Chingleput, and 5,409 in Malabar, where the Portuguese and Dutch had formerly established extensive settlements. The Jains and Buddhists were classed together, but probably only a very few, if any, returned themselves under the latter heading. The total amounted to 21,254, of which 11,750 were in the districts of North and South Arcot, and 8,339 in South Canara. The following table shows the numbers of the above classes in each 100,000 of the population of the various districts : — — Jains and Buddhists. Districts. Hindus. Mahome- dans. Euro- peans. Eura- sians. Native Chris- tians. Jains. Others Total.'; 1. Gaujam 99,578 317 10 13 45 3 34 100,000 2. Yizagapatam 98,899 974 17 38 41 4 27 100,000 3. Godavery 97,679 2,208 29 24 37 3 20 100,000 4. Kistna ... 94,033 5,435 5 15 503 4 100,000 B. Nellore ... 95.003 4,770 7 17 193 10 100,000 6. Cuddapah 91,942 7,673 7 8 341 " 1 28 100,000 7. Bellary 91,978 7,661 73 59 201 20 8 100,000 8. Kurnool 88,346 11,246 4 17 379 1 7 100,000 9. Chingleput 95,897 2,472 223 167 1,223 16 2 100,000 10. North Arcot 94,926 4,304 17 33 313 392 15 100,000 11. South Arcot 95,480 2,538 7 21 1.722 220 12 100,000 12. Tanjore 91,386 5,206 20 27 3,307 12 42 100,000 13. Trichinopoly 92,950 2,668 52 52 4,234 12 32 100.000 14. Madura ... 91,007 5,860 8 7 3,108 1 9 100,000 15. Tiunevelly 88,941 5,003 11 8 6,036 1 100.000 16. Coirabatore 97,267 2,043 9 25 649 "'3 4 100,000 17. Nilgiris ... 85,758 3,911 2,705 1,608 5,929 89 100,000 18. Salem 96,648 2,660 13 19 645 "1 14 100,000 19. South Canara ... 84.671 9,057 14 21 5,329 908 100.000 20. Malabar 72,434 25,721 114 239 1,428 1 63 100,000 21. Madras ... 77,628 12,819 909 3,022 5,393 229 100,000 Total... 92,273 5,939 46 84 1,568 68 22 100,000 Puducottah Territory. 93,727 2,686 2 8 3,577 100,000 Grand Total . . . 92,287 5,907 46 84 1,587 "67 22 100,000 Section VI.] RESULTS OF LATEST CENSUS, 333 As might naturally be expected the density of the population Density of Was greatest on the sea-board and in the more highly irrigated ^°^'^ atioi- districts, such as Tanjore and Trichinopoly, and most sparse in the hill ranges and the forest tracts adjoining the Eastern and "Western Ghauts. The average number of persons to a square mile throughout the Presidency was 226"2, the maximum per district being 540" 1 in Tanjore, and the minimum 66 on the Nilgiri Hills. Excluding the Nilgiri the thinnest population of all the districts was found in Kurnool, Cuddapah, and Bellary. The highest town population was 98,732 per square mile in the 2nd division of the town of Madras, The house accommodation for the population was as below Houses, noted, showing an average of five persons to a house. On the night of the census 371,960, or six per cent, were returned with- out inhabitants, being either shops or simply empty houses. The average number of persons to a terraced house was 5, to a tiled house 6, to a thatched house 4*9, and to a house undefined 5'1, Taking the Presidency as a whole, the terraced house is probably a superior class of building, but this is not necessarily the case in some districts, such as Bellary, Kurnool, and Cuddapah where the prevalent high winds render it a more suitable style for general adoption, while on the other hand the heavy rainfall on the Western Coast leads to its almost complete absence in the districts of Malabar and South Canara. Terraced 492,279 Tiled 447,420 Thatched 5,180,146 Unspecified 110,109 Total ... 6,229,954 Allusion has been made above to the difficulty in obtaining Proportions correct returns of the female population having been got over mox*e successfully than had been anticipated, but internal evidence shows that it still, in some measure, affected the relia- bility of the census, as the female population, which is usually in excess of the male in other parts of the world, appeared in the returns as such only in the case of the eight districts noted below : — 1. Tanjore. 2. Trichinopoly. 3. Madura. 4. Tinnevelly. 5. Coimbatore. 6. Salem. 7. Madras. 8. Puducottah Territory. [Section VI. 334 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. If the proportion shown for these districts, viz., 103'6 to 100, had prevailed in the other, the total female population would have been increased by 721,010. As it is, the proportion for the whole Presidency according to the returns was 99 females to 100 males. The lowest proportion, 93"9 females to 100 males, was found in Bellary, and the highest, 1U8'4 to 100, in the Pudu- cottah territory. If the returns of the various classes of the population be examined it is found that the defect was almost entirely confined to the Hindus, including Native Christians, Jains, and Buddhists, as the disproportion in the case of Europeans was obviously the result of the peculiar circumstances of their position in the country : — Total. Males. Females. Proportion of Females to every 100 Males. Hindus (including Native Christians and Jains). Mahomedans Eui-opeans Eurasians Others 29,669,296 1,880,720 14,561 26,450 6,845 14,909,056 938,750 9,957 13,091 3,381 14,760,240 941,970 4,604 13,359 3,464 990 100-3 46-2 1020 102-4 Total ... 31,597,872 15,874,235 15,723,637 990 The following table shows the proportions in the various districts : — Total. Divisions. Total. Males. Females. Proportion of Females to every 100 Males. 1. Ganjam 1,520,088 779,112 740,976 951 2. Vizngapatam 2,159,199 1,110,034 1,049,165 94-5 3. Godavory 1,592,939 803,603 789,336 98-2 4. Kistna 1,452,374 737,495 714,879 96-9 5. Nellore 1,376,811 707,392 669,419 94-6 6. Cuddapah 1,351,194 693,400 657,794 94-9 7. Bellary 1,668,006 860,173 807,833 93-9 8. Kurnool 959,640 490,883 468,757 95-5 9. Chin^leput 938,184 475,968 462,216 97-1 10. North Arcot 2,015,278 1,020,678 994,600 97-4 11. South Arcot 1,755,817 885,922 869,895 98-2 12. Tanjoro 1,973,731 953,968 1,019.763 106-9 13. Trichiuopoly... 1,200,408 588,134 612,274 104-1 14. Madura 2,266,615 1,112,066 1,154,549 103-8 15. Tiunevelly ... 1,693,959 836,515 857,444 102-5 16. Coimbatore ... 1,763,274 874,975 888,299 101-5 Section VI.] RESULTS OF LATEST CENSUS. 335 Total. Divisions. Total. Males. Females. Proportion of Females to every 100 Males. 17. Nilgiris 18. Salem 19. South Canara 20. Malabar 21. Madras 49,501 1,966,995 918,362 2,261,250 397,552 27,192 975,502 459,729 1,134,889 194,676 22,309 991,493 458,633 1,126,361 202,876 82-0 101-6 99-8 99-2 104-2 Total . . . Puducottah Territory ... 31,281,177 316,695 15,722,306 151,929 15,558,871 164,766 99 108-4 Grand Total... 31,597,872 15,874,235 15,723,637 99-0 The want of an accurate knowledge of their ages among the ^ggs of the people, and their consequent readiness to adopt round numbers People, renders the usual qainquennial grouping unsuitable for India. The following statement shows the ages in decennial groups, exclusive of the Puducottah results : — Ages. Males. Females. Persons. Oto 10 10 to 20 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50 50 to 60 Above 60 Unknown ages ... 5,113,672 3,063,170 2,757,350 1,960,508 1,294,445 795,887 482,697 254,577 5,036,151 3,031,720 2,944,728 1,818,485 1,233,393 798,095 501,052 195,247 10,149,823 6,094,890 5,702,078 3,778,993 2,527,838 1,593,982 983,749 449,824 Total ... 15,722,306 15,558,871 31,281,177 In the table given below the percentage of population at each decennial period of age is compared with the proportions found at the British Census of 1861 : — Ages. 10. 20. 30. 40. 50. 60. Above 60. Unknown. ■3 ■3 1 1 S "3 ■3 S ■3 1 "3 i "3 a & "3 a ■3 1 1 a S British Census, 1861 Madras 250 32-5 24-4 32-4 206 19-5 19-6 19-5 16 3 17-5 12-8 13-2 17-6 18-9 12-5 11-7 10-2 8-2 10-3 7-9 7-OG 7-08 7-04 500 5-1 3'07 7-7 3-8 i'-'e i'2 The result of the comparison is to show that the proportion of young children below ten years of age is very much greater in [Section VI. 336 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. Madras than in England, and that this excess continues, though in a decreasing ratio up to the age of forty. At fifty the excess is the other way, and at ages above sixty the Madras proportion is not half that of the British. The number of children and adults in the various districts is shown below : — Children. Adults, Total. Districts. Boys Girla under under Males. Females. Males. Females. 12 Years. 10 Years. 1. Ganjam 309,609 251,443 469,503 489,533 779,112 740,976 2. Vizagapatam* 370,235 306,506 670,890 597,080 1,110,034 1,049,165 3. Godavei-y 310,898 256,223 492,705 533,133 803,603 789,336 4. Kistna 271,008 233,490 466,487 481,389 737,495 714,879 5. Nellore 248,362 213,811 459,030 455,608 707,392 669,419 6. Cucldapali 237,325 205,334 456,075 452,460 693,4C»0 657,794 7. Bellaiy 299,477 255,059 560,696 552,774 860,173 807,833 8. Kurnool 175,358 148,269 315,525 320,488 490,883 468,757 9. Chiagleput 183,370 165,662 292,598 296,554 475,968 462,216 10. North Ai-cot 385,495 345,292 635,183 649,308 1,020,678 994,600 11. South Arcot 344,384 310,306 541,538 559,589 885,922 869,895 12. Tanjore ... 355,990 317,259 597,978 702,504 953,968 1,019,763 13. Trichinopoly 219,777 197,754 368,357 414,520 588,134 612,274 14. Madm-a 430,264 380,984 681,802 773,565 1,112,066 1,154,549 15. Tinnevelly 311,876 273,981 524,639 583,463 836,515 857,444 16. Coimbatore ... 338,298 302,560 536,677 585,739 874,975 888,299 17. Nilgiris 9,032 7,734 18,160 14,575 27,192 22,309 18. Salem 382,087 343,524 593,415 647,969 975,502 991,493 19. South Canara 165,322 137,470 294,407 821,163 459,729 458,633 20. Malabar 436,982 355,789 697,907 770,572 1,134,889 1,126,361 21. Madras 56,678 47,211 137,998 155,665 194,676 202,876 Total ... 5,841,827 5,055,661 9,711,570 10,357,631 15,722,306 15,558,871 Paduoofctah Territory . . . 55,644 50,861 96,285 113,905 151,929 164,766 Grand Total ... 5,897,471 5,106,522 9,807,855 10,471,536 15,874,235 15,723,637 Religions of the people. The numbers of each great religious class were as follows Hindus 28,863,978 Mahomedans 1,857,857 Christians 533,760 Jains and Buddhists ... ... ... 21,254 Other religions ... ... ,.. 4,328 Total ... 31,281,177 * In the total number of males and females the population of Jeypore (males 168,909 + females 145,579 = total 314,488) is included, but not in the particulars, viz., " children " and "adults." Section VI.] RESULTS OF LATEST CENSUS. 337 The numbers retui'iied under the four great divisions of Hindus — Hindus, were — Sivaites 16,159,610 Vishnavaites ... ... ... ... 11,657,311 Lingayets 154,989 Other Hindus (including hill tribes) ... 892,068 Total ... 28,863,978 In the Northern Districts the Sivaites were in the minority. In the Ganjam District they were as one to ten of the Vishna- vaites ; in Vizagapatam as one to four ; in the Godavery as one to three and a fraction ; and only when the Kistna District was reached did the Sivaites approach in number to the Vishnavaites. In Nellore, Cuddapah, Bellary, Kurnool, Chingleput, North Arcot, and South Arcot the proportions of these two great divisions of the Hindu people were nearly equal, while in the districts to the south the Sivaites constituted the major portion of the Hindu population. In Tanjore they were nearly seven to one of the Vishnavaites ; in Trichinopoly and Coimbatore about four to one ; in Tinnevelly and Madura more than five to one ; and in Salem two to one. On the Westei'n Coast they were in the proportion of two to one in Canara, and about sixty-seven to one in Malabar. In connexion with the above proportions, it is to be borne in mind that in modern times all demon-worshippers, who seek to appease the power of evil, are included under the head of Siva-worshippers. The Lingayet sect dates from the twelfth century, and owes its origin to Basava, the son of a Sivaite Bx"ahmin, and prime minister of the king of Kalyanajiura, a town on the Western Coast, about forty miles north of Manga- lore, and at that time the capital of Karnataca. Its distinctive tenets are the unity of the godhead represented by Siva, the absence of caste distinctions, and the necessity of respectinf' women. The Lingayets or Jangams do not appear to have spread beyond the south and south-west of India, and they are now numerous only in the west of Mysore. were as follows : — Soonees Shias Wahabis Unspecified Total nsions or the Mahome dans — Mahome dans. PoiJulation. Ter Cent. .. 1,654,529 89-0 69,302 3-7 3,954 0-2 .. 130,072 71 .. 1,857,857 100-0 43 [Section VI. 338 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. The Soonees abounded in all the local and national divisions of the Mahomedan community, but principally among the Moplahs of the Western Coast, of whom 95*8 were returned as Soonees. The largest proportion of Shias was found amongst Mahomedans of Pathan or Mogul descent, in each of which classes about 13 per cent, of the whole were Shias. Outside the town of Madras the Wahabis wex^e few in number. — Christians. The Christian population of the Madras Presidency in Southern India, exclusive of 11,360 in the Puducottah territory, was made up as follows : — Europeans and East Indians ... ... 40,879 Natives of India 490,299 Nationality unspecified ... ... ... 2,582 Total ... 533,760 Nearly one- fifth of the whole Christian population was found in the Tinnevelly District, and next to this they were numerically strongest in Madura, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, South Canara, and Malabar. Christianity has been known in Southern India for many centuries. A Pehlevi inscription in the ancient church of the Little Mount near Madras indicates a settlement of Mani- chgeans or Persian Christians on the Eastern Coast as well as on the west, and tradition speaks of the preaching of St. Thomas in the districts of Madras, Tinnevelly, and Malabar. The adherents of the Syrian Church in Malabar, Travancore, and Cochin are the most ancient Christian community in Southern India ; and after these come the Roman Catholics. The Protes- tant Churches only date from about the commencement of the century, but their progress since that time has been consid- erable. The following table shows how far the various castes and nationalities had contributed to the formation of the Native Christian community Brahmins Roman Catholics, 3,658 Protestants, 39 Kshatriyas Chetties 4,535 3,444 565 375 Cultivating Castes ... ... 35,742 6,147 Shepherd Castes Artisan Castes 2,462 5,215 395 399 Writer Castes 143 25 Weaver Castes 5,027 595 Agricultural laborers (Vunnias) Potters ... 90,852 622 11,411 110 Section VI.] RESULTS OF LATEST CENSUS. 339 Roman Catholics. Protestants. Mixed Castes (Satani) 6,861 1,686 Fishermen ... 14,459 278 Slianars ... ,.. 26,724 36,470 Barbers ... 906 420 Washermen ... 1,840 348 Other Hindus ... 49,389 3,309 Pariahs ,.. 131,367 30,164 Mahomedans 17 5 Nazaranies (wrongly classed Mussulmans) ... 13,808 627 It will be observed that 3,697 were of Brahmin origin. A large —Jains and majority of these were Roman Catholic Christians of South Canara. ^ ^^ ^" The Buddhists are practically extinct in Southern India, but an offshoot, or perhaps heretical branch survives in the Jains, who numbered 21,254 chiefly in the districts of North Arcot (7,889), South Arcot (3,861), and Canara (8,339). Commu- nities also exist in Western Mysore. The leading tenets of the Jains are denial of the divine origin and infallibility of the Vedas ; reverence for sanctified or deified ascetics ; and veneration for animal life. The number of persons classified in the census returns as Castes — Brahmins was 1,094,455, of whom 547,027 were males and ^* miiis. 548,418 females, the proportion of the latter to the former being 100-3 to 100 males. The distribution of this important caste is not a little curious, and shows very conclusively that the Aryan colonization of the south could never have been the result of the conquest and subjugation of the aboriginal races. The Brahmins were most numerous in Canai-a and in the northern districts of the Presidency. In Canara they were 13 per cent. ; and in Ganjam 6'9 per cent, of the Hindu population. In the Godavery District 5'8 per cent. ; in the Kistna 7'2 per cent. ; in Nellore 4'9 per cent. ; in Chingle- put 3"6 per cent. ; in South Arcot 1*9 per cent. In the Tan j ore District, still further south, there was a sudden rise to 6"8 per cent. In Trichinopoly again the proportion diminished to 2*7 per cent. ; in Madura they were only 1*8 per cent. ; in Tinnevelly, the most southern district, 3'5 per cent. They were rare in Coimbatoro and Salem, where the proportions were IG and 1*5 per cent, respectively. In the remaining districts they averaged from 2'3 to 3'6 per cent, of the Hindu population. For the whole Presidency the average proportion of Brahmins as 3'7 per cent, of the Hindu population. The unequal distri- [Section VL 340 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. bution of the Brahmin population is probahly the result of the occupation of favorite sites by the Aryan people in ancient times. —Present The male Brahmin population of the Presidency was 547,027, o"Jrahmins. and of these 338,934, or 61-9 per cent., were entered in the occupation columns, and thus accounted for : — Major Heading. ,,. TT J- Number Minor Headmg. employed. Proportion in 100. Government Civil S service... 8,837 1-6 Professional ... < Military or Police S service... 747 01 Learned Profession s ... 18,499 3-4 (^ Minor do. 55,504 10-2 Domestic Personal Service 19,584 3-6 Commercial Traders Conveyors . . . 12,910 969 2-4 0-2 Agricultural ... Cultivators ... 132,443 24-2 r Dress 165 003 Food 1,778 0-3 Metals 20 0003 Industrial ... «{ Construction 55 001 Books 40 0007 Household Goods 16 0003 I Combustibles 11 0-002 Laborers 5,384 10 Indefinite and \ Property 64,545 11-7 unproductive. 1 Unproductive 15,529 2-9 ^ Others 1,898 0-3 338,934 61-9 —Divisions of Brahmins. The principal divisions are the Pancha Dravida and Pancha Gauda, sub-divided as follows :— ' Dravidas. 1. Andhra or TeKnga. 2. Mahratta. 3. Dravida. 4. Karnataca. 5. Gai'jar. When the Mahrattas overran Gaudas. 1. Kandjia. 2. Saras wat. 3. Gauda. 4. Utkala. 5. Mathila. the south and established a kingdom in Tanjore, the Brahmins settled wherever they could obtain lands. The Andhra or Telinga were mostly found in the Northei-n Districts, and the Dravidas in the Tamil country. In Malabar the Namburi Bi'ahmins were most prominent. The origin of the latter is not very clear, but tradition tells of their ancestors being a race of fishermen. Karnataca Brahmins were most numerous in Bellary and Canara. — Kshatriyas. The census returns showed only 190,415 persons of the Kshatriya caste, cne majority of which were in Vizagapatam, Section VI.] RESULTS OF LATEST CENSUS. 341 Godavery, Nellore, Cuddapah, North Arcot, South Canara, and the Town of Madras. The principal sub-divisions of the caste found in the Presidency are — Arasar (Tamil). Oorya Kshatriya. Bondiliar. Bhat Rajah. Manu. Pandyakulam. Rajavar (Telugu). Nandamandalam Rajulu. Murikinati Rijah. Suryavamsapu Rajalu. Of these, the Bondiliars and the Bhat Rajahs were the most common. Throughout the Presidency 714,712 persons, or 2-4 per cent. —The of the Hindu population, were returned as belonging to the ^"^^^^^ff various trading castes. The greater part of these were classified as " Chetties" or " Beri Chetties" and " Komaties." Besides these, there were Banyias, Marwaries, Oilmongers, and Kdsikkard or bankers. Many of the above wear the sacred thread and claim to be Vaisyas. Some are clearly foreigners, and others, not of recent immigration, show signs of Aryan origin. A large number however are clearly of aboriginal descent, and, in many cases, of Sudra origin. The Trading Castes are more numerous in proportion to other classes in Kistna, Nellore, Cuddapah, Kurnool, Madura, Coimbatore, and, most of all, in the Town of Madras. The Chetties are few in number in Canara only, where the trade of the country seems to have fallen into the hands of Brahmins, Mussulmans, and others. The Vellalars may be taken as a type of the agriculturists in The Agri- the Tamil country. They speak a pure Tamil and no other cultural language, and are chiefly the ryots or farmers of the district they inhabit. Those who are well to do, do not work with their own hands, but like the Brahmins, employ persons of inferior castes to do their menial work. They are mostly Sivaites, but their chief worship is that of the village gods. In some districts they have adopted the title of PiUai, which is also used by the shepherd and accountant classes. The Velama castes in the Telugu country are practically the same as the Vellalars in the Tamil District. They held formerly on military tenures. The cultivators of the Ceded and Central Districts are called Kapus or Kapalu. In the Northern Districts they are known as Kdpus or Naidus, Kammavdrs, and Kammds. In Canara they are called Bants and Nadavars. In Malabar the Nairs are the corre- sponding class of land-owners or occupiers, and these appear formerly to have had a military tenure of their lands. The sub- [Section VI, 342 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEMCAL SERVICES. divisions of the cultivatoi'S are too extensive for ennmeration here. The number of the population classed as belonging- to the agri- cultural castes was 7,826,127, or 26'6 of the entire Hindu popula- tion. They were most numerous in the districts of Vizagapatam, Cuddapah, and Coimbatore ; but in South Arcot, Canara, Trichinopoly, and Tanjore, their place seems to have been taken in a great part by the Brahmins on the one hand and the Vunnian or Pully castes on the other. —Shepherd The principal Tamil representatives of the Shepherd and Castes. Pastoral castes are the Idaiyars. The Telugu term is Grolla. The numbers at the time of the census were 1,730,681, or 5'9 per cent, of the Hindu population. They were most numerous in the inland districts where the country is hilly and mountainous, or from the nature of the climate unadapted for cultivation. In Bellary and Kurnool they numbered 14'1 and 11" 3 per cent, of the Hindu population, but in Canai'a and Malabar only "1 and '2 per cent., the climate there being inimical to sheep and goats, and the breed of cattle inferior. The shepherd castes were also comparatively few in the fertile and fully cultivated deltas of the Godavery and Cauvery. A large proportion of the members of these castes have now adopted occupations other than their original caste pursuits. In religion, they are chiefly Vishnavaites, but there are a few Sivaites or demon- worshippers. — The Artisan The artisan castes in Southern India have always maintained a struggle for a higher place in the social scale than that allotted to them by Brahminical authority. They are known by the Tamil name of " Kamalar " and the Telugu " Kamsala " or " Panchala." They numbei'ed at the last census 785,085, or 2" 7 per cent, of the Hindu population, being most numerous in Canara, Malabar, Vizagapatam, and Madura. Of the whole number nearly one-half were employed in occupations connected with metals, and the majority of the remainder as carpenters, builders, &c. A very small proportion of these castes are Vishnavaites, the bulk calling themselves Sivaites, but in reality worshipping either Kali or the village deity and burning their dead. — The Writer The caste name of the winter or accountant class in Tamil is Classes. " Kanakkan," in Telugu " Karnam." They numbered only 107,652 persons and were very irregularly distributed, being almost unknown in some districts where their hereditary occu- pation- appears to have been usurped by Brahmins or Vellalars. Section VI.] RESULTS or LATEST CENSUS. 343 The term " Conicopillay "applied to agents, purveyors, &c., is a corruption of " Kanakkanpillai," a writer or accountant, " pillay " being a title of respect usually accorded to them as well as to the agricultural and shepherd castes. The weaver castes formed at one time an important section — Weaver of the community, but at the last census their number was only 1,071,781, or 3'7 per cent, of the Hindu population. They were distributed all over the country, but were most numerous in the cotton-producing districts of Vizagapatam, Grodavcry, Kistna, Cuddapah, Bellary, Coimbatore, Salem, and Tinnevelly. The Tamil weaving castes are — Kaikalar. Jendraver. Sedan. Serin gar. Saliyar. Silupan and the Telugu Sale. Padmay Sale. Devdng Jendrar. Thokat. As usual in castes of this grade, the Sivaites bury and the Vishnavaites burn their dead. Many of the weavers have adopted the Jangam or Lingayet religion. Their occupation is mainly confined to the original calling of the caste. The Vannias or PuUies are the great agricultural laboring Agricultu- class of the southern districts. The term Naick is usually I^^ Laboring ^ . Castes, affixed to the name of the Vannias, and the Naicks of Madura and Tinnevelly were great men not very long ago. There are about thirty sub-divisions or branches of the laboring castes, the most important of which are the Marawars or Kalians, formerly turbulent tribes, addicted to thieving anxl general lawlessness. The Marawars were most numerous in Madura and Tinnevelly, and the Kulluns in ]\Iadura, Trichinopoly, and Tanjore, the Rajah of Puducottah being the acknowledged head of the tribe. The Oddars or Wadavars are a laboring tribe of Telugu origin, great at tank-digging, well-sinking, and road- making. The Upparava, a sub-division of the Vunniah caste, are chiefly engaged iu the manufacture of salt on the sea-coast and the saltpetre in the inland districts. In the whole Presi- dency the agricultural laboring castes numbered 3,944,403, or 12"6 of the entire population. In the Telugu country they formed only about three per cent, of the population, but were more than thirty per cent, iu South Arcot, Tanjore, and Trichi- nopoly. In religion they called themselves Sivaites, and occa- sionally Vishnavaites, but in reality they are demon- Avorshippers. [Section VI. 344 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. —Potter Castes. — Mixed Castes. — Other Castes. —Hill and Wandering Tribes. At the last census the Potter castes numbered 250,343 persons or about '9 per cent, of the Hindu population, distri- buted all over the country, but being most numerous in Kurnool, Madura, Nellore, and Canara. The majority still follow their caste occupation of pottery. Classes of persons bearing about 200 different designations were classified in the returns under the head of " Mixed Castes," as it was found impossible to classify them with any of the recognized and defined orders of the people- The principal of these were the " Satanis," the followers of " Chaitanya," a reformer of the fifteenth century, or of his disciple Sanatana. The number grouped in those mixed castes in the census returns was 714,233, or about 2"4 per cent, of the Hindu popu- lation. The Satanis were really very few in number, and the bulk of the mixed castes were a nondescript people, devoted to reli- gion or temple service. The remaining numerically important castes are the fishing and hunting castes, called in Tamil " Sembadaven," and in Telugu " Besta." They numbered 971,837, or 33 per cent. of the Hindu population. In the coast and jungle districts most of them get their living by hunting and fishing, but large numbers are now engaged in cultivation and other pursuits. The palm-cultivator castes are numerous only in the districts in which the cultivation is practised. They are called Shanars in Tinnevelly and the South, Tiyars in Malabar, Billawars in Canara, and Idiyars in the northern or Telugu districts. They numbered 1,664,862 at the last census, or about 5'7 per cent. of the Hindu population. They are clearly an aboriginal people, and, as a rule, demon-worshippers. The barber caste is called "Ambattan" in Tamil, and " Mungala " in Telugu. Their numbers were 340,4.50 distributed pretty equally throughout every district. Of the male members of the barber caste, 42'6 per cent- followed the original calling. The number of persons unclassified according to castes amounted to 2,666,890, or about 9*1 per cent, of the Hindu population. In the settled and cultivated portions of the country the proportions were lower, but in the hilly districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam, Kurnool, Nilgiris, South Canara, and Malabar they varied from 64'2 per cent, in the Nilgiris, and 31'4 in Ganjam, to 7"4 in Kurnool. Numerically s]3eaking, the Khonds and Sowras of the Northern Districts arc the most important of the hill tribes. South of the Kistna are found the Section VI.] RESULTS ON LATEST CENSUS. 345 Yanadis, Yerakalas, and Chentsus, practically the same people as those farthei* north, but in some parts partially civilized and engaged in settled occupations. Further south and west^^ in Salem and the neighbouring districts, are found a tribe of hill people called " Malayalies " not engaged as cultivators and shepherds. In Coimbatore, Malabar, and Canara the Mulcera and Kaders live by the products and the chase and on roots and herbs requiring no special cultivation. On the Nilgiris the Badaghers, who are employed in cultivation, have evidently moved up from the plains. The Todas, a stalwart and rather fine-looking race with a Jewish cast of feature, are peculiar to the high elevations of the Nilgiris, and are exclusively a pastoral people, worshipping local deities or demons, and addicted to polyandry. They are now dying out, having numbered only 693 at the last census. All over the country there are wandering tribes of carriers known as Brinjaries, Lambadies, &c. The religious beliefs of the aboriginal tribes have been modified to a great extent by the prevailing phases of Hinduism, and they are often called Vishnavaites or Sivaites. Practically, however, they are worshippers of local deities, generally females with power to do harm, and required to be propitiated by bloody sacrifices. The following list contains the names of some of the principal hill and wandering tribes : — Budubudukar... A class of mendicants. Badaghers ... Cultivators in the Nilgiris. Gadala ... A sub-division of Jat tribe. Irulars ... Hill tribe of the Nilgiris. Jetti ... Boxers, wrestlers, shampooers. Jogis ... Beggars and mendicants. Koravars ... A wandering tribe common in many districts of the Carnatic, addicted to thieving, &c. Kdtars ... Artisans of the Nilgiri tribes. Kumari ... Jungle cultivators. Lambadi ... A gipsy tribe, carrying salt and grain. Malayalies ... Inhabitants of hills. Mulcers ... Tribes of the western jungles. Pyelavar ... Jugglers. Pambattar ... Snake-charmers. Tombiravan ... Jugglers. Villi ... A jungle tribe, 44 [Section VI. — Pariah or Outcaste Tribes. — Mahome- dans. 346 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES Yenadi Dommora Brinjaries Chentsu Yerakala ... A wild tribe of the Eastern Coast districts. ... Juggler tribes. Gipsies and grain-carriers. '" t Hunters and forest races. There is no part of the country in which the Pariah or out-caste are not to be found under various designations. In Tamil they are called Pariahs ; in Telugu, Mala ; in Canarese, HoHa ; in Malayalum, Poliyar ; and Dheda in Mahratti. They are everywhere the menial servants of the country, and in times prior to the British rule were the slaves of the superior castes. Their numbers at the census were 4,761,503, or 16*2 per cent, of the Hindu population, four times as numerous as the Brahmins. The proportions in the different districts varies from 8"6 in Vizagapatam to 26 per cent, in Chingleput and South Arcot. As regards their occupation, the Pariahs do not now materially differ from any other class of the commu- nity. In religion they are nominally Sivaites or Vishnavaites, but practically worshippers of village idols and demons. The Mahomedans were classified as follows in the census returns : — 1. Labbay. 2. Mapilah (Moplahs). 8. Arab. 4. Sheik. 5. Syud. 6. Pathan. 7. Moghul. 8. Other Mahomedans. The origin of the Labbays cannot now be definitely ascertained. The word is used to signify the descendants of foreign traders (Arabs and Persians) and women of the country. Beyond their customs and dress, there is now nothing to distinguish them from the other people of the country. They numbered 312,088, or 16" 7 per cent, of the total Mahomedan population, and were nearly all found in the districts south of Madras. The Mapilahs or Moplahs are confined almost exclusively to the districts between the Western Ghauts and the sea. They were originally of Arab extraction, but their number has been greatly added by conversions, forcible and otherwise, among the people of the country. At the last census they num- bered 612,789, or 32"7 per cent, of the Mahomedan population, 649,912 being found in Malabar and 65,641 in Canara. They are usually a hardworking, plodding, and frugal people, but Section VI.] RESULTS OF LATEST CENSUS. 347 under the influence of religious excitement they have often been a source of danger to the public peace. A few Mahomedans, 2,121 in all, chiefly in the Trichinopoly and Tinnevelly Districts, returned themselves as " Arabs." A large proportion of the Mussulman population of the Presidency consists of the descendants of converts who at the time of their conversion assumed the name of Sheik or Syud. The number of " Sheiks " returned at the census was 611,112 and of Syud 89,219. The term " Pathan " is applied to Mahomedans of Afighan descent. They numbered 70,943 chiefly in Ganjam, Coimbatore, and Salem. The Moghuls are the reputed descendants of Tartar chiefs who followed Tamerlane into India, and are found chiefly in the Northern and Ceded Districts and in Salem. The following abstract shows numbers in each division and their proportions to the whole Mahomedan community : — Divisions. Males. Females. Total. Proportion of Females to 100 Males. Proportion to the Gross Mahomedan Population. Labbays 146,493 165,595 312,088 1130 16-7 Mapilahs 307,321 305,468 612,789 99-4 32-7 Arabs 922 1,199 2,121 1300 01 Sheiks 260,817 250,295 511,112 960 27-3 Syuds 45,883 43,336 89,219 94-4 4-8 Pathans ... 36,115 34,828 70,943 96-4 3-8 Moghuls ... 6,329 6,078 12,407 960 0-7 OtherMahomedans. 130,835 130,700 261,535 99-9 140 Total ... 934,715 937,499 1,872,214 100-3 1000 The number of persons classified as following some occupa- The occu- tion was 9,930,012, or 63-1 per cent, of the whole male P^*^°°^ > 0-3 20 3. Learned Professions 37,249 „ 0-2 4. Minor do. 172,116 }) 1-1 ) 5. Personal Service 519,350 » 3-3 33 6. Trade and Commerce 534,662 jj 3-4 } 3-7 7. Conveyance of men, animals, and goods . . . 48,108 0-3 8. Cultivators 4,878,890 )) 311 81-1 9. Employments connected vfith dress or 540,061 3-4 ~ textile fabrics. 10. Employments connected with food, drink, 335,287 )» 2-1 and stimulants. 11. Workers in metals ... 126,117 » 0-8 12. Workers in constructive vyorks, build- 121,036 » 0-8 7-72 ings, &c. 13. Employments connected with paper and 3,421 )i 002 books. 14. Household goods 71,805 » 0-5 15. Combustibles 13,189 »> 01 . 16. Laborers for hire (unskilled) 2,071,602 J) 131 131 17. Persons subsisting on property, or of 176,580 » 11 "1 independent means. 1 18. Unproductive, such as mendicants, strol- 103,778 )> 0-7 [• 2-2 lers, &c. 1 19. Persons unclassified under any of the 64,683 )> 0-4 J foregoing heads. Total ... 9,930,012 )) 631 Education. % All that the census professed to ascertain in regard to the education of the people was the number of persons, male and female, of each rehgion able to read and write ; and of the whole population only 1,530,150, or about 5 per cent., possessed these qualifications, the proportion being rendered unusually small by the almost total absence of education among the females. The northern districts were the most backward, and in the south also the district of Salem showed a proportion of only 2'8 per cent. Outside the Presidency town female education has made the greatest advance in Tinnevelly, owing to the labors of the Protestant Missions in that district. While the general average of males able to read and write is 5 per cent., the Hindus have only 4*8 per cent., the Mahomedans 4'9, Native Christians 7"4, Europeans and East Indians 53'3, Jain 12-9, and " Others " 18"4 per cent. The following table shows the numbers and proportions of the population able to read and write in the several districts : — Section VI.] RESULTS OF LATEST CENSUS. 349 CM O . 00 rrt ^1 O 2^ O Ph g e« CO Districts. Population. ° o ffl CO to a Districts. Population. C4-I '^ O Q J 3 a a « 3 ^■sg H^ l6 ^2; Ah ^ Pi 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Ganjam 1,388,976 35,362 2-5 Madura 2,266,615 134,567 59 Vizagapatam... 1,844,711 42,449 2-8 Tinnevelly ... 1,693,959 138,074 8-2 Godavery 1,592,939 47,202 30 Coimbatore ... 1,763,274 63,213 3-6 Kistna 1,452,874 58,173 4-0 Nilgiris 49,501 3,990 81 Nellore 1,376,811 55,588 40 Salem 1,966,995 55,133 2-8 Cuddapah 1,351,194 44,179 3-3 Soiith Canara. 918,362 31,905 3-5 Bellaiy 1,668,006 69,576 4-2 Malabar 2,261,250 119,071 5-3 Kumool 959,640 35,918 87 Madras 397,552 72,865 18-3 Chingleput ... North Arcot . . . 938,184 2,015,278 74,492 109,038 7-9 5-4 Total... 30,835,577 1,530,150 50 South Arcot... 1,755,817 93,920 5-3 Puducottah Tan j ore 1,973,731 173,349 8-8 Territoiy ... 316,695 19,857 6-3 Trichinopoly ... 1,200,408 72,086 6-0 Grand Total... 31,152,272 1,550,007 50 The number and proportion of boys and girls at the time of the census were : — /^Males under 20 Females under 12 8,176,842 5,584,364 Population ...-^ Total ... 13,761,206 Schools f For Boys j Mixed J Girls j-Boys ... Girls ... Pupils ... { I L fBoys ... Proportion of ^. , ^ -1 , Girls ... pupils to ^ 100,000 children. Total Total Total 3,922 296 163 4,381 122,141 10,781 132,859 14937 191-9 065-04 The above table, however, only includes schools brought under the inspection of the officers of the Educational Depart- ment, and takes no notice of the great majority of the indige- nous village schools scattered all over the country. The following [Section VI. 350 VITAL STATISTICS AND MET)ICAL SERVICES. list of matriculated students shows the extent to which the various classes of the community have availed themselves of the means introduced of late years for the higher education of the people : — Europeans and East Indians 424 Brahmins ... 2,058 Hindus, other than Brahmins 856 Native Christians ... 294 Mahomedans .,» ... r.. 61 Total 3,693 Infirm persons. In the following table the infirmities of the general popu- lation are given as returned in the census. Persons of unsound mind appear to number about 0"45 per 1,000. In the " deaf or dumb " return persons deaf by age are included. The blind are about 1'9 per 1,000, most of them being aged. Leprosy appears to be less common inland than on the coast, and the proportion in the several districts ranges from 0*2 to I'O per 1,000 : — Infirm. Males. Females. Total. Insane . . Idiotic Deaf or Dumb BHnd Leprous . . 4,088 3,491 21,373 27,984 9,240 3,447 2,991 19,596 32,369 4,607 7,535 6,482 40,969 60,853 13,847 General The following table gives at a glance the most general results vital statis-^ ^ *^® Presidency statistics, comparing them with those of the tics. whole of India, and in some cases with those of England : — England, British India. Madras Presidency. Total population, excluding 190,563,048 31,281,177 feudatoiy States. Total area, square miles, ... 904,049 138,318 excluding feudatory States. Average population per square 422 211 226 mile. Average number of houses per 73 41 42 square mile. Average number of persons 5-33 514 560 per house. Total population, including ... 238,830,958 33,308,225 feudatory States. Total area, including feudatory 1,450,744 148,128 States, square miles. Section VI.] STATISTICS. 351 England. British India. Madras Presidency. Population of largest town... • London. Calcutta. * Madras. 3,254,000 795,000 398,000 Proportion of Hindus to total 7307 92-27 population. Proportion of Mahomedans to 21-45 5-94 total population. Proportion of Christians to ... •47 t 1-71 total population. Number of persons employed • t. 2,404,855 289,676 in professions and Govern- ment service. Number of persons employed ... 37,462,220 5,215,847 in agi-iculture. SANITARY. The only purely sanitary officer in this Presidency ia the Sanitary Sanitary Commissioner. This officer is the adviser of Govern- ^.°™™^^" siouer. ment in its Civil and Military Departments, of Local Fund Boards and of Municipalities on all questions relating to the prevention of disease and the preservation of health. He possesses no executive power, and his functions are confined to the collection of sanitary information and to inspection and report. He receives weekly returns of sickness and mortality from military hospitals and annual reports of cantonments, monthly returns and annual reports from Central and District Jails, and monthly returns of births and deaths from Districts, Municipalities, and Canton- ments ; and during the prevalence of cholera he receives daily returns of attacks and deaths from District Officers. Civil hospitals do not send returns to the Sanitary Commissioner. The information thus collected is recorded and tabulated; and abstracts of the cholera returns are supplied daily to the Quartermaster- General, the Surgeons-General of the Indian Medical and British Medical Departments, and the Sanitary Commissioner vnth the Government of India. Budget estimates of Local Fund Boards are submitted to the Sanitary Commis- sioner before being forwarded for the sanction of Government, * Slightly more than in Manchester and Birmingham, each of which towns has about 350,000 inhabitants. t The Chi-istians in Madras form thus five-sixths of the whole number of Christians in British India, [Section VI, 352 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. in order that he may express an opinion upon the sufficiency of the proposed provision for sanitary wants. From Munici- palities the Sanitary Commissioner receives an annual sanitary report. In tours the Sanitary Commissioner inspects jails, of which he is an official visitor, Municipal towns and villages, for- warding to the responsible authorities such suggestions for the improvement of their sanitary condition as may occur to him. Notes of these tours of inspection are pi'inted in his monthly Pro- ceedings. In the same Proceedings, which are supplied to aU Local Fund Boards and Municipalities, are published repHes to references on sanitary subjects and sanitary papers communi- cated by Covernment to the Sanitary Commissioner, In this manner each local body is made aware of the sanitary improve- ments which are being carried out in other parts of the Presidency and of India. The Sanitary Commissioner holds a somewhat ambiguous position with reference to the Civil and Military Departments of Government. The original Sanitary Commission and its successor, the Sanitary Commissionership, were instituted chiefly with a view to military requirements, and they were at first connected with the Military Department and communicated with Government through the Military Secretary. The civil portion of the Commissioner's duties however gradually assumed larger proportions, and it was decided in 1869 that he should be thenceforward, as in Bengal, under the orders of the Civil Department, and that all expenses connected with the aiDpointment should be transferi-ed to the Civil Budget. The duties of the Sanitary Commissioner lie now mainly in the civil bi-anch of the administration. One result of the double position occupied by the Sanitary Commissioner is that he has a different local jurisdiction in the two capacities. Thus the garrisons in Burmah, Secunderabad, the Mysore country, and the Central Provinces are all under inspection by the Sanitary Commissioner for the Madras Presidency ; in civil matters however he has no jurisdiction beyond the Presidency limits. Under instructions from the Secretary of State for India the Sanitary Commissioner includes in his yearly report a detailed account of the health, &c., of British and Native troops ; as however this differs in no material respect from the account furnished on the same subject by the military medical authorities, and as an abstract of the latter has usually been given in Chapter III of the yearly Administration Report under the section headed " Military," it is not customai'y to introduce the Sanitary Commissioner's Army statistics in Chapter YI of that Report. There are diffei-ences Section VI.] SANITARY. 353 between the statistics of the two offices just named. Thus the Sanitary Commissioner embodies in his statistics only such regi- ments as are actually serving in Madras commands, including British Burmah, while the returns from the Surgeon-General's office exhibit the vital statistics of all Madras regiments irrespec- tive of their being within or without the limits of the Madras Presidency. The method of tabulation from returns is also different in the two offices. A third cause of discrepancy is that the Sanitary Commissioner deals with corps according to the station in which they may have been quartered, but the Indian Medical Department accepts results irrespective of location. Thus it may happen that a corps has spent ten months of the year in Bangalore and two in Cannanore ; under such circum- stances the Sanitary Commissioner records one series of results for the time passed at Bangalore and another for that passed at Cannanore. In'the Surgeon-General's office on the other hand each regiment is looked upon as a unit and its health statistics are projected in general totals and averages irrespective of locality. The former plan is adopted with a view to sanitarian and the latter with a view to medical purposes. Still the net result in the two sets of statistics is much the same, and for the purposes of the yearly administration reports there is no necessity to introduce both ; as the medical statistics are made up for the official year, these are preferred in that publication. As regards the relations between the Civil Medical Department and the Sanitary Department of the Government, it may perhaps be pointed out that while it is the business of the former to treat disease and to promote medical science, it is the business of the latter to act in the direction of preventing disease, and to collect vital and mortuary statistics as a guide to sanitary measures and as a test of sanitary progress. The machinery of birth and death registration differs in Mode of town and country. In the districts generally it is simple and b^-^J^*^'^^"/ inexpensive, but not on the other hand as accurate as could be Deaths, wished. The Curnam or Village Accountant records the births and deaths which occur in his village, obtaining his information in the former case from the village dhoby or washerman and in the latter case from the village taliary or watchman. A monthly abstract of his records, which in the case of deaths includes particulars as to age and cause of death, is forwarded to the Collector through the taluq authorities. The returns are tabu- lated in the Collector's office, and transmitted by him to the 45 [Section VI. 354 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. Sanitary Commissioner. It is the duty of the Revenue Inspec- tors, a class of subordinate Revenue officials, to supervise the registration as far as they have opportunities for doing so. There is no law compelling persons to report births or deaths to the village officers. In municipal towns special Registrars are appointed, sometimes for purposes of registration only, and some- times for this in conjunction with other sanitary duties. The law makes compulsory the registration of births and deaths occurring within municipal limits, relatives being bound to report within 20 days. Payment of Registrars by results has in some cases been attempted, but the plan has been abandoned. It is believed that under ordinary circumstances birth registration in this Presidency may be regarded as obviously defective when the registered rate falls below 2"5 per cent, of population. The English birth-rate is understood to be 3'51, and the French birth-rate 2*63 per cent. ; the corresponding death-rates being 2*25 and 2*36 respectively. Mode of The machinery for birth and death registration, involving as public healUi. ^^ does registry of the ages at death and presumed causes of death, constitutes at present the only means of testing the public health which can be described as of a scientific nature. The organiza- tion of a separate Health Department has been at various times contemplated, but financial difficulties have prevented the plan from being carried out. The particulars regarding public health usually given in the yearly Administration Reports are taken from the returns of the Sanitary Commissioner. It is to be noted however that the Government obtain health retm*ns from Collectors of districts through the Board of Revenue, and from medical officers in charge of stations through the Surgeon- General, Indian Medical Department; and that these sources of information, though not professedly of a scientific or statistical nature, are still on general questions as valuable, and in the present state of birth and death registration perhaps as accurate as the more formal returns of the Sanitary Department. Distribution Practical sanitation is undertaken chiefly by Local Fund of practical ... .... sanitatioa. Boards and by Municipalities. Municipal sanitation is not checked in detail by Government. Sanitary expenditure by Local Fund Boards is divided technically into three classes : (a) improvement of water-supply, (b) enlargement or improvement of village sites, and (c) conservancy of towns and villages. The main source of income of Local Fund Boards is the fcind-cess, two-thirds of which is necessarily devoted to Commu- nications. The remaining third is available for other objects. Section VI.] EMIGRATION. 356 and, though there are some other minor sources of income, may be taken roughly as the income available for miscellaneous expenditure. This third is divided amongst four claimants, Education, Medicine (Hospitals and Disjiensaries), Convenience, and Hygiene (the last including Vaccination). The ratio of distribution is decided in each case on its merits. The sanitation of jails and in the two armies engages the separate attention of Government. EMIGRATION. The population of Southern India is drained to some extent Nature of by emigration of the laboring classes to neighbouring countries. Emigration, and especially to Burmah and Ceylon. British Burmah contains a large area of uncultivated land, and there is a migration of population from the Telugu districts, especially from the porta of Coringa and Cocanada to Barmah, but no account is kept of the numbers so migrating. The movement is voluntary and unaided by the Government. A number of women emigrate from the northern districts to Burmah for the purpose of prostitution in the Burmese sea-ports. They usually return to their own country after a few years of absence, or when they have saved money. A temple was recently built at Coringa by a woman of this class at a cost of Rupees 30,000, or £3,000. The emigration to Ceylon is on a larger scale, the greater part of the labor required on the coffee estates in Ceylon being furnished from Southern India. At certain seasons of the year, when labor is in demand, the laboring classes of the southern districts travel acz'oss to Ceylon ; and, when they have saved a little money, return again to their native villages. The cooly traffic between the south ports and Ceylon is constant and mutually advantageous to the people of India and to Ceylon. The high wages offered by the planters enable the people to save, and ultimately to take the position of small farmers in their own villages, while the planters in Ceylon can always obtain as much labor as they want by offering sufficient inducements. The Ceylon Government undertakes to see that the coolies are properly housed, fed, and provided with medical attendance, and the migration to and from the coffee districts is entirely voluntary. About 70,660 persons go over to [Section VI. 356 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. Ceylon every year from the southern districts, and of these about 54,000 return to India. The others settle more or less perma- nently in the island. The following table shows the migi-ation of the Madras population to and from Ceylon for ten years prior to the date of the last census :- — To Ceylon. 1862 1863 1864. 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 Total Mean of 10 years 68,896 70,718 81,800 89,597 88,528 42,769 51,033 58,689 65,114 89,529 706,673 70,667-3 From Ceylon. 41,915 61,765 62,276 64,539 49,229 45,996 37,061 54,346 55,082 68,310 540,519 54,051-9 This table shows that the great check to coifee speculation in 1867 immediately affected the labor market. In that one year more coolies returned from the island than went over. But the great industry of Ceylon, under the stimulus of high prices, has been reviving, and in 1871 the cooly migration was as great as in the years 1864 to 1866, when much capital was expended in opening out new estates. In the ten years ending with 1871 the southern districts of India lost 166,154 persons by migration to Ceylon. The greater part of the survivors of these places are probably doing better for themselves in the land of their adoption than they could hope to do in their native land. They are free to return whenever they please, and that they do not come back must be taken as an indication that they are content to remain. Emigration goes on also to the more distant countries of Mauritius, Bourbon, and the West Indies under regulations defined by law ; but the numbers proceeding to those places are comparatively few. The following abstract shows the number of emigrants and of returned emigrants to and from Mauritius, Bourbon, and West Indies for the ten years ending 1871 : — Section VI.] EMIGRATION. 357 I From Madras Porta, 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 Total ... Mean of 10 years . . . Returned Emigrants. 6,804 5,118 5,229 7,133 7,317 12,339 1,426 3,084 3,816 3,308 55,574 5,557-4 542 614 i,261 1,192 851 768 1,696 667 1,293 8,884 The legal provisions regarding emigration are the same Nature of throughout India. The Government take no account of emi- protection, gration other than that to Ceylon ; to the British Colonies of Mauritius, Jamaica, British Guiana, Trinidad, St. Lucia, Grenada, St. Vincent, Natal, St. Kitts, and Seychelles ; to the French Colonies of Reunion, Martinique, (juadaloupe and its dependencies and Guiana ; and to the Danish Colony of St. Croix. Emigra- tion to these places, excepting Ceylon, is regulated or provided for by Act VII of 1871, and contracts regarding emigration proper to any other places have not the force of law. The Ceylon emigration is regulated, as far as the Ceylon Government is concerned, by the Ceylon ordinance as 11 of 1865 ; on the part of the Madras Government, the number of emigrants is checked by the Collectors of the southern districts. This movement of labor, though practically emigration, inasmuch as many of those who go are lost to the country, and though representing the greater number of so-called emigrants, is not of a kind to require much technical interference on the part of the local Government. As has been said, emigration to Burmah and the Straits Settlements goes on from this Presidency, but it is informal and is not checked. For the British Colonies named above a machinery of protection is provided under the Act specified. Each Colonial Government concerned nominates its agent and recruiters for the Presidency and establishes its depot for the reception of emigrants at the town of Madras ; the Protector of Emigrants on the other hand, assisted by a Medical Inspector, represents the local Government. The emigx'ant enters into an engagement with the recruiter iu one or other of the districts for service in the colonies under certain conditions as to time of service, pay, rations, free passage [Section VI, 358 VITAL STitTISTIC5S AND MEDICAL SERVICES. both on the way to the colony and return home, and hours and day of work in the colony. The time of service is usually five years. In the case of the Mauritius the pay ranges from 5 to 10 Rupees according to service in the colony, and in other colonies the pay is usually 5 Rupees. The emigrants have generally to work six days in the week and nine hours in the day. Emigrants when licensed by the recruiter are registered in the mofussil by Magistrates and at the Presidency town by the Protector. The recruit is brought before the Magistrate or Protector as the case may be, and if he is found to understand the terms of the engagement, and to be willing to emigrate, he is registered and sent to the depot belonging to the colony concerned, where he remains under the care and responsibility of the recruiter tUl he embarks. Previous to embarkation the vessel intended to cany emigi-ants is surveyed by competent marine, officers and certified to be fit to carry emigrants, and the Protector personally superintends embarkation. The stock of provisions and medicines, and the accommodation to be afforded, is pre- scribed by standing orders. The Protector is empowered to stop the embarkation of such emigrants as seem to him unfit to undertake the voyage. The Protector inquires into the treat- ment experienced by them in the colony and during the voyage and a report is made to Government. Anything worthy of notice and requiring remedy is communicated to the Colonial Government concerned. The return emigi'ants, or immigrants as they are sometimes called, can only land at the port of Madras, and their numbers are there registered. The only British colony at present represented in this Presidency is the Mauritius, but the establishment of an agency and depot for Natal is in contemplation. For the French colonies, in which case a special convention secures to the French Governments similar advan- tages to those enjoyed by British colonies, the procedure is very much the same ; there are however three ports of embark- ation and three depots, viz., at Madras, Pondicheny, and Karikal. The interests of the local Government are represented at Madras by the Protector of Emigrants, and at the two French ports by two special officers styled British Consular Agents . For the Danish colony mentioned in the Act no provision is made. Section VI.] MEDICAL BELIEF. 359 MEDICAL RELIEF. Operations under this title consist of the operations undertaken Nature of by Government, or by Local Boards in towns and rural circles '*^*'- acting under the orders of Government, for the medical relief of the population. This is done in the case of the Army by Military Hospitals attended by officers of the two Medical Depart- ments, and in the case of the general public by a system of civil hospitals, dispensaries, and asylums. Officers of Government are medically attended by officers of the Indian Medical Department. The information and statistics regarding public health given in the yearly administration report of the Government are those obtained from the observations of sickness taken exclusively in connection with the Civil Hospitals, Dispensaries, and Asylums. The British Medical Service is the portion of the Army Medical British Department serving in the command with European troops. The ^^^^.''^^ establishment sanctioned for the Madras Presidency and Burmah includes 1 Surgeon-General, 3 Deputy Surgeons-General, 26 Sur- geons-Major, and 48 Surgeons, making in all a total of 78. Each officer comes to India on a tour of foreign service, returning to England on its conclusion. The ordinary period of this tour is five years, but in special cases it may be prolonged beyond that limit. The routine duties of the department are exclusively in connec- tion with British troops. The Surgeon- General is in communi- cation with Government through the Military Secretary, with the Commander-in-Chief through the Adjutant-General and Quartermaster-General, and War Office in London through the Director- General of the Department. He conducts the duties of his office at the seat of Government. The Deputy Surgeons- General are in charge of circles or divisions, and are responsible both to the General Officer in command of their particular district and to the Surgeon- General. These officers perform yearly inspections of barracks and hospitals occupied by British troops. The Surgeons-Major and Surgeons are in professional charge of officers and soldiers and their families, and are available during their tour of duty in this Presidency to be sent wherever British troops are stationed. To the Indian Medical Department are allotted medical duties Indian connected with the Native Army and the civil administration of ^^^ical Ser- the country; its members are also occasionally employed by [Section VI. 360 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. Government on scientific and other extra- professional duties. The department consists of Commissioned and Subordinate grades, and its officers are specially engaged for service in India and other Eastern Dependencies. The Subordinate Medical Establishment consists of two classes, viz., the Apothecary or Warrant and the Hospital Assistant class. In addition to the ordinary and Military Medical Subordinates there are at present under training two classes of Medical Subordinates intended for employment under Government in Provincial Hospitals and for service in the Hospitals of Municipalities and of Local Fund Boards. These officials are to be designated respectively Civil Apothecaries and Civil Hos- pital Assistants, and to be purely civil officers not amenable to military discipline or available for military duty. The Surgeon- General at the head of the department is entrusted with the control and superintendence of Military Hospitals and Medical Establishments connected with Native troops ; and of Lock Hospitals, Medical Store Depots, Civil Hospitals and Dispen- saries, and Medical Establishments attached to the Judicial, Revenue, Police, and other Civil Departments. In matters con- nected with the Native Army this officer is subordinate to the Commander-in-Chief. There are six Deputy Surgeons-General, to each of whom is assigned a circle of superintendence. Civil Medical The agencies for the relief of the sick poor in this Presidency are annually increasing under the operation of the Towns Improvement and Local Fund Acts. According to the latest information there were 134 hospitals and dispensaries in opera- tion throughout the Presidency, the medical staff of which consisted of 48 Commissioned Officers, 4 Honorary Surgeons, 62 Officers of the Warrant grade, and 81 Hospital Assistants, making a total of 195 Medical Agents. These institutions are open to all classes of the community applying for relief. Of the 134 institutions 99 are hospitals having wards for in- patients, and 35 may be classed as dispensaries, inasmuch as they at present only afford relief to out-patients. Since the passing of the Towns Improvement and Local Fund Acts in 1871, the cost of maintaining hospitals and dispensaries has, under sanction of the law, been thrown on Municipalities and Local Fund Boards, and at the present moment the entire cost of all up-country civil hospitals and dispensaries is met by those Boards, with the exception of the pay of the Medical Officers when of the Commissioned grade or of the grade of Honorary Surgeon. In the case of a Native Surgeon, Warrant officer, or Hospital Relief. Section VI.] CHEMICAL EXAMINER. 361 Assistant holding cliargc of a civil hospital along with police or jail duties one-fourth of his pay becomes a provincial cliarge in virtue of the latter duties. In most cases the local hospital is a joint charge on the adjoining Local Fund Circles and the Municipality in which it is situated, the expenses being divided equally between them. At the Presidency town the General Hospital, on account of its being a clinical school for the College students, and four other special hospitals are entirely supported by Government. The cost of the Civil Lock Hospital in Madras is also partly borne by Government, but the mainte- nance of the other hospitals is purely a municipal charge. At Mofussil stations Government support two Lunatic Asylums and a Lazaretto, together with Civil Dispensaries at the three large military stations of Secunderabad, Kamptee, aud St. Thomas' Mount. The cost of the Civil Hospitals on the Nilgiris is also partly met from provincial funds. The cardinal principle, however, of the existing system of medical relief for the masses in this Presidency is its maintenance by local taxation, conse- quently its extension depends chiefly on the action of the rate- payers. So far the new arrangement has proved no obstacle to the extension of medical relief, but would appear on the contrary to have given it a fresh impetus ; dispensaries have multiplied rapidly under Local Boards, and the increase in their number would have been still greater had the Medical Department been in a position to provide the requisite number of medical men to take charge of the new institutions. The provision of medical men, and their education and training, has up to the present moment been undertaken by the Government. The Contagious Diseases Act, No. XIV of 18G8, is administered by a Health Officer specially a^jpointed. CHEMICAL EXAMINER. The duties of the Chemical Examiner to Government are Duties, chiefly to examine and report upon substances submitted to him for investigation by Magisterial and Pulice Officers, in cases where poisoning is suspected, and to examine weapons and other articles for blood-stains. He is also required to analyse potable 4G [Section VI. 362 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES. waters used by troops and public establishments ; and to examine Government stores of all kinds, soils, limestones, salts, liquors, and other substances submitted by the various depart- ments of the service. VACCINATION. Nature of The Department of Vaccination consists of an Inspector, epar men . g^pej-in^gndents, First and Second class Vaccinators, and Volun- teers, the last being more properly candidates preparing for admission into the department. The general supervision of the department devolves on the Inspector who is a Commissioned Medical Officer. The Inspector visits all parts of the Presidency, and subordinate supervision is maintained by the Superintend- ents, of whom there are one or more in each district, and who are all in direct subordination to the Inspector. The actual work of vaccination is done by the Vaccinators, whose pay varies according to grading and local arrangements. The Vaccinators themselves are under the orders of the Local Boards. As a general rule each works in his own ^Municipal town or taluq, but in some cases the plan has been adopted of working in bodies which itinerate from village to village. With a few exceptions the whole cost of the Department of Vaccination is borne by Local Fund Boards and MuniciiDalities. Government however contributes the pay and allowances of the Inspector and entertains at its own expense two or three Cantonment Vaccinators. Down to the beginning of 1875-76 vaccination was treated as a branch of the Medical Department, and the principal officer was styled Superintendent-General ; it is now treated as a branch of the Sanitary Department, and the officer just named is styled Inspec- tor of Vaccination. Tlie following list shows the different classes of vaccinators at work, and the relative results attained by each as shown by the figures of a recent year : — Total of Operations. Vaccine Districts and Vaccine Depot ... 291,493 Military Cantonments ... ... ... 5,323 Private Vaccinators ... ... ... 5, 940 Temporary Vaccinators ... ... ••• 12,677 Section VI.] VACCINATION. Local Fund Vaccinators ... Total of Operations 14,671 Medical Subordinates . 11,032 Municipalities Zemindaries ... ... .,. 29,115 4,245 Civil Dispensaries Hospital Assistant, Pulney Hills and Amindivi Islands. 408 51 Railway Apothecaries Chuttrum Vaccinators 1,189 Result-system Vaccinators 5,2G8 303 Total ... 831,421 [Section VII. SECTION VII. INSTRUCTION. EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. Historical In 1826 Sir Thomas Munro appointed a Board of Public — 1826*t.o lustraction to organize a system of public instniction with 1855. authority to establish two principal schools in each collectorate and an inferior school in each taluq. Fourteen collectorate schools and eighty-one taluq schools were accordingly set on foot, together with a central school at the Presidency ; but the scheme proved a failure, and all the schools established in the provinces were abolished. In 1836 the Board of Public Instruc- tion was superseded by a new Board styled the " Committee for Native Education," who were dii-ected to organize a Normal school for training teachers for the eventual establishment of English schools in different pai'ts of the country. This body was in its turn replaced by the University Board which was consti- tuted by Lord Elphinstone for the government of an institution to be styled the Madras University, and to consist of a high school and college upon the plan followed by the Scottish Universities. The high school was opened in April 1841, but it was not until January 1853 that the standard was considered by Government sufficiently advanced to justify the establishment of a Collegiate Department. In 1853 and 1854 Provincial schools were opened at Cuddalore, Rajah- mundry, Combaconum, Calicut, and Bellary. The educational operations of the Madras Presidency were at this period on a very small scale compared with those of the other Governments. The entire expenditure in 1852-53 amounted to only Rupees 45,556-13-4. In the provinces scarcely any thing had been done. In addition to the Provincial schools just mentioned^ there was nothing but a small industrial school at Negapatam, a few elementary schools for the instruction of the Khonds of Gumsur and Chinna Kimedy, some Vernacular schools in the Section VII.] EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 365 delta taluqs of the Godavcry District, two Vernacular schools in South Arcot, and a small school at Pulicat originally founded by the Dutch Government. A monthly grant of Rupees 350, known as the Schwartz grant and dating from the commencement of the present century, had been given to certain Protestant schools in Tanjore and Ramnad. Certain Yeomiahs granted by the former Mahomedan Government for the instruc- tion of Mahomedan children in the Koran had been continued in Nellore and North Arcot, and just at the close of this period a grant of Rupees 5,000 was given to the Madras Training Institu- tion, which was established in 1853 to train male and female teachers for employment in Christian schools. In March 1855, Mr. Alexander Arbuthnot, the Secretary of the — Establish- University Board, was appointed Director of Public Instruction, g^^^ Govern- and during the course of the year sanction was given for the ^ent Depart- appointment of four Inspectors of Schools, twenty Assistant Inspectors, afterwards styled Zillah Visitors and now known as Deputy Inspectors, and sixty Sub-Assistant Inspectors called Taluq Visitors. The Madras University was remodelled and received the name of the Presidency College. A Law Class was established as a branch of this institution, and provision was made for a Normal school for training teachers, four Provincial and eight Zillah schools, a hundred Taluq schools, a depot for school- books. Educational Presses, and Rupees 12,000 for scholarships. To carry out these measures occupied several years, and some changes wei'e made from time to time in the details of the plan originally sketched out. Thus the full number of taluq schools was never established, and schools of a somewhat higher grade known as Anglo-Vernacular schools took the place of some of the taluq schools. The Madras Normal school was supple- mented by Normal schools of a more elementary type in the provinces. A special school for Mahomedans known as the Madrasa-i-Azam was remodelled in 1859. The Provincial school of Combaconum grew into a College and was formally recognized as such in 1867. The Madras Medical School established in 1835 was constituted a College in 1851 and transferred to the Educational Department in June 1855. The School of Ordnance Artificers, established privately in 1840, was in 1855 constituted a Government institution. At about the same time a School of Arts opened privately in 1850, and a School of Industry simi- larly established in 1851, became Government institutions and were amalgamated under the designation of the School of Indus- trial Arts. The Survey School originally attached to the Board [Section Vn. 3G6 INSTRUCTION. of Revenue and afterwards to the Chief Engineer's Office was constituted tlie Civil Engineering College in 1858. — Private Although Government had up to 1855 done but little, educa- 00 3. tional operations had been carried on in different parts of the Presidency by private societies and individuals, and in some districts on a very extensive scale. In these operations the various Missionary Societies had taken a leading part. The two chief Societies of the Church of England, the Church Missionary Society, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, had established a considerable number of Village Boarding schools and Day schools in the Southern Districts, but principally in Tinnevelly. The Scotch Free Church Mission had large schools in Madras, at two of the principal towns in the neighbouring district of Chingleput, and at Nellore. The efforts of this Mission were then as now mainly devoted to education. The Mission connected with the Established Church of Scotland, the London Mission, and the Wesleyan Mission had also large schools in Madras. In Vizaga- patam and Masulipatam schools had been established by the London Mission and by the Church Missionary Society, and on the Western Coast a similar institution was in operation at Mangalore founded by the German Mission. Exclusive of the indigenous village schools the number of schools supported other than by Missionary Societies was comparatively small. The chief of these was Pachiappah's Institution, a large school in Madras established from the proceeds of a bequest left for charitable purposes by Pachiappah Moodelliar and in connection with which smaller schools had been established at Conjeveram and Chellambrum. At Nursapore and Coimbatore schools had been established partly supported by native subscriptions, but their establishment was mainly due to the influence and aid of European officials. — Grants-in- The first Government Grant-in-aid Rules, that is to say rules Schoolf ^^^^*° for regulating State aid given to private schools, were published in 1855, simultaneously with the arrangements above mentioned for the establishment of a purely Government Department, The rules were couched in very general terms, but embodied some important principles. They provided that the grants were to be for specific purposes, mostly for teachers' salaries, and that they were not to exceed in amount the sum contributed on the part of the school itself, that is to say from fees, endowments, &c. Except in the case of Normal and Female schools they were to be confined to schools in which school Section VII.] EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 367 fees were levied. Every aided school was to be under Govern- ment inspection, and no teacher was to receive a grant until his qualifications had been reported on by a Government Inspector. Experience showed that more definite rules were needed, and in 1858 a new code appeared. It was to a large extent an adaptation of the old English Code. Its main feature was an elaborate system of Teachers' certificates in con- nection with the salary grants. Nine standards of qualification were laid down for schoolmasters and five for schoolmistresses, and for each standard there was a departmental examination. To each class of certificate a specific grant was attached, which represented one-third of the teacher's salary. These rules were superseded by a third code which came out in 1865, and which with some modifications is in force still. In this code the number of grades for schoolmasters was reduced to five, and for school- mistresses to three. The maximum grants claimable under these rules were made much higher than they had been before, represent- ing one-half instead of one-third of the salaries of teachers. The Univei'sity B.A., F.A., and Matriculation Examinations were substituted for the departmental examinations for the three higher grades, the departmental examination in these grades being confined to a paper in method and teaching a class in the presence of an Inspector. Grants again were made claimable under the code for various purposes besides salaries, such as the erection and repair of buildings and the purchase of furniture, school apparatus, and books. Grants could also be claimed as an alternative in elementary schools on the payment for results system, but the standards for native schools were pitched so high, that this portion of the code remained at first inoperative. A new set of Results Rules came out in 1868 and are at the present moment in force. These are avowedly framed for elementary schools and are of a more elementary character even than the results rules in force in Great Britain, there being only four instead of six standards. In many respects they are well adapted to the educational requirements of this Presidency. Large numbers of indigenous as well as Mission schools in every district have been improved with the aid of these rules, and the results grants system has almost entirely superseded the salary grant system in elementary schools of all classes. Schools aided on the results grant system generally receive no aid except a result grant once a year. A still further modification of the original grant-in-aid system has of late been allowed to grow up in the form of what is known as the " combined " system, [Section Vn. 3G8 INSTRUCTION. consisting of part fixed salaries and part results grants under the rules. The arrangements for carrying out this system are at present treated as special cases in each instance, but in view to the utility and popularity of the plan it is in contemplation to draw up fixed rules. The three main systems of aid are then the salary-grant system, the results-grant system, and the combined system. The pure results-grant system is considered to be chiefly adapted for the promotion of education in backward parts of the country and among the ruder classes, where the advantages of a less mercenary and purer method of State aid would meet with no appreciation. The salary grant system is regarded as the most suitable where public opinion is active and where confidence placed in teachers will meet with response. The combined system occupies in principle a ground intermediate between the other two, and may probably be reKed upon for all intermediate acts of circumstances. The description of the different forms of State aid given to private schools will not be complete without mentioning that in a few cases lump grants and special grants are given by Government ; these, however, are quite exceptional. In speaking of State aid in this paragraph it must be understood that the term includes the aid given by vainous Municipal and Local Fund Circle Boards, which are in fact quasi-Government institutions. The grant-in-aid rules were originally drawn up to regulate aid given by the Government itself, but the Boards just mentioned have been required to adopt the Government rules. — Act VI of After the grant-in-aid system of 1855 had been in force for some years, it became apparent that however useful it might be in improving higher and middle class schools, it had been doing up to that date very little for elementary education in consequence of the limited number of applications made from elementary schools. In 1863 the Madras Education Act was passed. The object of this measure, which was based on the Municipal Act XXVI of 1850, was to provide a proper machinery for the collection and management of a rate, by which certain village schools in the sub-division of the Godavery District wei'e supported, and to furnish the inhabitants of towns and villages in other parts of the Presidency with the means of raising perma- nent funds for the establishment of new and the improvement of existing schools and of availing themselves of the grants-in-aid which Government were prepared to give. The Act provided that if the majority of the rate-payers in the Godavery District did not petition against the continuance of the schools within Section Vn.] EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMKNT, 369 two months from a given date, the schools should be continued for five years, and that a similar procedure should be observed at the end of every recurring period of five years. In any district the inhabitants might petition for an order declaring the Act in force in any town or village, and the order was to be issued if, after inquiry, a sufficient majority of the inhabitants was found in favor of the application. When however the Act came to be worked, it was found to be ill-adapted to rural commu- nities. The Godavery Commissioners wei-e inexperienced ryots, who knew little or nothing about the management of schools. The collections fell in arrears and the teachers remained unpaid for long periods. In the other districts very few schools were established, and in many cases after the Act had been put in force with the apparent assent of the inhabitants, it was found necessary to close the schools or to abandon the attempt to establish them. At the end of seven years the Act had been brought into operation in only nine out of nineteen districts, and the total number of rate schools was only 104. In the Godavery District the number had dwindled down to fifty-nine, in the other districts it ranged from two to seventeen. Among these were two important schools of the higher class at Palghaut and Sydapet. Except in the Godavery District, the other schools were almost entirely middle-class schools. Thus the experiment of extending an interest in education by means of a voluntary i-ate met with little general success. The only alternative was a compulsory cess. So fiir back as —Acts of 1871 April 1869 the attention of the Government of India and of the several Local Governments had been drawn by the present Earl of Derby, who was then Secretary of State, to the expediency of imposing a compulsory rate to defray the expenses of schools for the rural population. The measure did not at that time find favor at Madras, the Government, at the head of which Sir Charles Trevelyan, being opposed to any compulsory taxation for educational purposes. In May 18G8 the Government of India pointed out that Act VI of 1863 had entirely failed in the main object for wliich it was passed, and suggested for consider- ation the introduction of an education cess on the model of the one which had proved so successful in Northern and Western India. The necessity for supplementing Imperial revenues by local taxation had long been felt in this Presidency, and various local Acts were already in operation under which the conser- vancy of the principal towns and the formation and maintenance of district roads had been provided for by local taxes. The 47 [Section VII. 370 INSTRUCTION. embarrassed condition of the finances of India, whicli became known in the following year, although it was not, as was popularly supposed, the immediate cause of the enactment of the Towns Improvement Act III of 1871, the Local Fund Act IV of 1871, and the Madras Municipal Act V of 1871, rendered it impossible to defer this class of legislation any longer, and those Acts were accordingly passed, providing among other things for the promotion of education in town and country. The provisions of the Acts and the nature of the taxation levied under them have been fully described under Section III. The description of education to which Local and Municipal Funds were applicable was purposely left undefined in the Acts. Government have however since decided that these funds shall be mainly appropriated to the maintenance and improvement of " elementary " education. The exceptions which have been allowed are the rate schools of the higher and middle class established under the Madras Education Act, institutions for medical and technical training, and certain schools which have been dealt with as exceptional cases. It was originally intended that one-fourth of the cost of all Government Normal schools should be debited to Local and Municipal Funds, but it was found that some of these schools supplied few or no teachers to elementary schools, and it was considered inequitable to throw any portion of their cost on Local or Municipal Funds. This part of the scheme was therefore carried out only with reference to a few Normal schools and circumstances occurred which rendered it of very short duration even in this limited form. In the years 1871-72 and 1872-73 three hundred and twenty-three Local Fund schools had come into existence, and the house-tax under the Local Funds Act had been imposed in a corresponding number of villages or groups of villages. But the imposition of this tax encountered in several instances such extreme hostility, that Government determined that it should proceed no further. As the effect of this order was to leave charges for sanctioned " Union " schools unpro- vided for to an aggregate amount of Rupees 1,10,000, a special grant was made from Provincial Funds to the circles concerned to supply such deficiency as could not be met from the unallotted balance of the General Fund of each circle. Since 1873-74 Local Fund Circle education has been developed without the aid of a house-tax. It was calculated at the end of 1873-7-1 that, including the one-third land-cess, the General Local Fund might be estimated at about 14| lakhs, of Section VTI.] EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 371 which 5 1 lakhs were allotted as an additional contribution to the Road Fund, and three quarters of a lakh was given as a contribution towards the pay of the Deputy Inspectors and the cost of Normal schools. From the commencement of 1874-75 it was resolved that no contributions should be made from the one- third land-cess to the Road Fund until the requirements of the other purposes to which the General Local Fund might by law be applicable had been fully met and that all charges on account of Deputy Inspectors and Normal schools should be resumed in toto as a provincial charge. The general effect of these measures was to place about eight lakhs and a half at the disposal of the Local Fund Boards for elementary education. In Decem- ber 1874 the Local Fund Boards and Municipalities were further relieved of all charges connected with female education, and a few girls' schools which had been maintained or aided by them were constituted Government institutions. During the last five years the progress has been satisfactory, — Eecent whether in State schools, in Local Board schools, or in private P^^S'^*^^' schools aided by the State and Local Boards. Thei^e has been a great development of elementary education and female educa- tion. Colleges and higher-class schools have also been increasing in numbers and efficiency. The Central Institution of the Free Church of Scotland, the Doveton Protestant College, and the S.P.G. High school, Tanjore, are now fully developed Colleges educating up to the B.A. degree. The rates of school fees have been twice raised, and many of the higher-class schools are beginning to pay half and even a larger proportion of their cost by means of school fees. Middle-class education is in a less satisfactory state. The higher-class schools are stimulated and improved by the University examinations. The lower-class schools come under the influence of the examinations for results grants. Middle-class schools suffer from the absence of a middle-class examination. The expediency of establishing such an examination has been recently suggested by the Government of India and is now under consideration. The Department of Public Instruction is administered by an Controlling officer styled the Director of Public Instruction, aided by six S^Qoy Inspectors of Schools, under whom are two distinct grades of Subordinate Inspectors called Deputy Inspectors and Inspecting Schoolmasters. The Inspectors travel in their divisions for eight months of the year, and examine each year every higher and middle class school and a certain number of the elementary schools situated in them. The examination of aided schools is [Section VII, 372 jrrsTHUcnow. more cursory and less complete than that of Government schools. The Inspector has the general charge of all Government schools in his division and aids the Presidents of Local Fund Boards and Municipalities with his advice in the management of Local Fund and Municipal schools. Thirty-eight Deputy Inspectors have up to date been sanctioned. Besides aiding the Inspectors in their examinations of higher and middle class schools these officers have the immediate supervision of the Anglo- Vernacular and Taluq schools, and in some districts of a few Government girls' schools . They are also largely employed in superintending Municipal and Local Fund schools, and nearly all the work of examining schools for results grants is done by them. As members of Local Fund Boards and Municipalities, they have to advise and vote on local educational questions, and it is their duty to report and remark on any shortcomings in the Educational Budgets of their circles. There are at present 115 Inspecting Schoolmasters. Their duty mainly consists in travelling about slowly from village to village and teaching the masters of indigenous schools how to prepare their pupils for examinations under the rules for results grants. They show the masters how a school should be organized by dividing the pupils into classes, by the adoption of time-tables, by the introduction of printed books a^nd maps, and by keeping registers of attend- ance. They do not conduct examinations for results grants. Most of the Inspecting Schoolmasters are paid entirely frona Local Funds, but four are at the present date paid by Munici- palities, and one in the Bhadrachellum and Rekapully Taluqs is paid from Provincial Funds. In the Hill tracts of Ganjam, there is an officer of nearly the same standing as an Inspecting Schoolmaster, who is styled the Superintendent of Hill Schools, but he is under the orders of the Special Assistant Agent, who has the general management of the Hill schools. In some districts the Inspecting Schoolmasters visit Local Fund schools. •Classification Omitting for the moment the Madras University, such to 11^" f institutions as deal with special or professional instruction, and tutions. certain private institutions which although under inspection do not I'equire aid from public funds, the remainder of the institutions in connection with the educational department may be divided, according to the mode in which they are supported, into three classes as follows r — (n) Public institutions under the direct management and control of the Educational Depart- ment and maintained from Provincial Funds, supplemented in a few cases by endowments, and in most cases by fees, which Section vn.] EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 373 are paid into the treasury and credited either to Provincial Funds or the School Fee Fund ; these are called Government institutions : (fc) Public institutions under the direct manage- ment of Local Fund Boards and Municipalities, (" Local Fund Schools" and "Municipal Schools") or of Committees acting under the control of Goveniment, and mainly sup- ported from Pul:)lic Funds, Local, Municipal, or Provincial, but in which the fees if any are credited to the local body and not to Government : (c) Private institutions receiving from Government or local Boards (i) salary grants, (ii) results grants, (iii) lump grants, or (iv) aid on the combined system, supple- mented in most cases by fees from parents, and in some cases by private subscriptions and endowments ; these are called " aided schools." Government institutions for general education falling under Govem- class (a) may be sub-divided into Colleges, Provincial schools, ^^^^ Institn- Anglo-Vernacular schools, Taluq schools, and schools for special classes of the community. In Colleges, Provincial, Zillah, and Anglo- Vernacular schools the following classification prevails, but no institution contains all the classes enumerated : — College Department : Tenth or B.A. Class, Ninth or Preparatory B.A. Class, Eighth or F.A. Class, Seventh or Pi-eparatory F.A. Class. Upper School : Sixth or Matriculation Class, Fifth or Preparatory Matriculation Class. Middle School : Upper Fourth Class, Lower Fourth Class, Third Class. Lower School : Second Class, First Class. There are at present only two Government Colleges for general education, the Presidency College and the Provincial College of Combaconum ; both of these contain a complete College Department, and the lowest class in the former is the lower fourth, in the latter the upper fourth. There is a Law Class attached to the Presidency College which prepares students for the B.L. examination. There are four Provincial schools at Rajahmundry, Calicut, Mangalore, and Bellaiy. The highest class in all is the eighth ; the lowest the lower fourth, except at Bellary, where the lowest is the third class. There are eight Zillah schools in which the highest class is the sixth ; the lowest is generally the second, but a first class exists at Kurnool, and an Ooriya first class at Berliampore. There are nine Anglo- Vernacular schools. At Cannanore there is a fifth class from which pupils occasionally matriculate. The others are middle- class schools which ought to have an upper fourth class ; few of them however go beyond the lower fourth, and in some the highest class is the third. There are forty-nine Taluq schools. [Section VII. 374 INSTRUCTION. Hitherto these schools have had a classification of their own, the fifth or highest class about corresponding with the lower fourth, and the first class being a vernacular class, which does not exist in Zillah schools. In future the classes will bo numbered according to the Zillah school standard and the vernacular class will disappear. Few of the Taluq schools have reached the standard prescribed for them, and some of them have no middle department at all. The Madrasa-i-Azam and Anglo-Vernacular school, Mylaporc, are special schools for Mahomedans at Madras. In the former, the highest class is the lower fourth ; in the latter, the third class. There are also ten elementary schools for Mahomedans at Rajahmundry, Ellore, Masulipatam, Adoni, Cuddapah, Kurnool, Vellore, Arcot, Trichi- nopoly, and Nagore. There are sixteen Elementary schools for Ooriyas and Khonds in the Hill tracts of Gumsur and Chinna Kimedy, five Elementary schools for boys in the Rekapally and Bhadrachellum Taluqs, transferred to the Godavery District from the Central Provinces, a school for the half-savage Yenadies of Sriharicottah, now temporarily closed, and an Elementary mixed school for the children of European Pensionei's at Tripassore. — Quasi- The Lawrence Asylum at Ootacamund is the only institution Institutions, which is managed by a Committee, working under the control of Government. There are two higher-class schools falling under class (b). These are the Local Fand schools at Palghaut and Sydapet, which correspond with Zillah schools. There are forty middle-class Local Fund schools and six middle -class Municipal schools. Most of these correspond with Anglo- Vernacular and Taluq schools, but a few are purely Vernacular schools. There are also 654 Local Fund schools of the lower class and forty-one Municipal schools. Most of the Local Fund schools are Vernacular schools in which the highest class corre- sponds with the third results standard. It is optional with the Local Fund Boards to allow English to be taught or not, but most of the schools are vernacular schools. Girls are not excluded from these schools, but the number in attendance is insignificant. Theoretically these schools are managed by the Local Fund Boards with the aid of the Inspector of the division, in practice the tendency of the system is to throw all admini- strative details into the hands of the Deputy Inspectors. A few of the Municipal schools are schools for special classes, such as Mahomedans, East Indians, Silk- weavers, &c., but the majority of them are for all classes, and in large towns they act as feeders Section VII.] EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 375 to the more advanced schools, and do some of the work which used to be formerly done in the pi'imary departments of those schools. The attendance in some of these schools is tolerably large, ranging between one and two hundred, and a few of the best schools are beginning to realize a fair income from school fees. It is a matter for regret that so few Municipal schools have been as yet established, the Boards preferring to utilize the results system. In the Tovvn of Madras this is exclusively the case. English is taught in a good many of the Municipal schools, which thus act as feeders to more advanced schools. Under class (c) there are three Private Colleges, four Collegiate — Aided schools, and thirty-eight Higher-class schools aided on the salary grant system from Provincial Funds. All Middle-class schools which receive salary grants are also aided from Provincial Funds. Salary grants are rarely given now to Lower-class schools, but if given they are paid from Local or Municipal Funds. Grants earned under the results system are at present paid from Provincial Funds if the school is certified by the Inspecting Officer to belong to the Middle class, and from Local or Municipal Funds if it is certified to belong to the Lower class. The line of demarcation between these two classes of schools will be explained farther on. Certain rate schools originally established under the Madras Education Act and afterwards transferred to Local Fund Boards and Municipalities, and certain Middle-class schools which had been aided on the salary grant system previous to their transfer to the Local Fund Boards, receive lump gi-unts from Provincial Funds. Since the adoption of the house-tax, lump grants have also been given, not only to individual schools, but also to certain Local Fund Circles. These grants are not in any way regulated by the ordinary rules. Certain aided schools are worked by Local Boards on the combined system already mentioned. This was originally applied to the Middle-class Local Fund schools of Malabar. According to this plan a proportion of each Teacher's fixed salary was taken and made to depend on the result of the annual examination of the school. His regular salary was reduced, but if he exerted himself, he might eventually get something more than he would have otherwise drawn. In May 1873 this scheme in a somewhat different form was applied to the Elementary Local Fund schools of Malabar. The indigenous teachers were in this case to be trained and to receive a monthly stipend of Rupees 4 with full results grants in addition to such school fees as they could collect. In July 1874 a somewhat similar scheme was sanctioned [Section VII. 376 INSTRUCTION. for the Middle-class and Elementary schools of South Canara, but under this arrangement the indigenous Schoolmasters were to receive Rupees 6 instead of Rupees 4 a month. Various other schemes on the combined system, differing not only in their details, but in their fundamental principles, have been since sanctioned or proposed for different parts of the Presidency. In some districts full results grants are given in addition to salaries of varying amounts ; in others only half results grants are given ; in some the amount drawn as salary is deducted from the result grant, and is thus a mei'e advance to be eventually refunded. In some districts the fees belong to the teachers, in others to the Local Fund Boards. In some districts buildings and furniture are provided by the Boards, in others by the teachers. There is generally at present no condition that the teacher shall be trained, or even that he shall be certificated. In some districts schools on the combined system are regarded as Local Fund schools, in others as private schools. It has already been mentioned that all these details are under considei-ation, with a view to the framing of general rules. The following statement shows the growth of the Gx'ant-in-aid system during the last ten years. It does not include building grants : — Grants .sanctioneii Grants sanctioned Pavments for Lower- Pavments for Lower- Years. made by Govern- class Schools Total. Years. made by Govern- class Schools Total. ment. under the Results System. ment. under the Kesul*-s System. RS. RS. BS. BS. RS. BS. 186fi-67 ... 1,21,271 1,21,271 1871-72... 2,50,333 79,446 3,29,779 1H67-G8 ... 1,54,985 1,54,985 1872-73... 2,59,483 1,18,664 3,78,147 186S-69 ... 2,41,.')49 2,41,549 1873-74... 2.74,883 l,fi9,.5.o5 4,44,438 1S69-70 ... 3,07,881 ... 3,07,881 1874-75... 2,57,787 1,94,470 4,52,257 1870-71 ... 3,35,394 3,35,394 1875-76... 2,U4,818 2,20,450 1 4,85,268 Female Dducation. Female education was for many years almost entirely in the hands of the Missionary Societies. Of late years secular schools have been springing up in various parts of the Presidency, among which may be specially named several large schools established by the Maharajah of Vizianagram at Madras and in various parts of the Northern Circars. None of the Maharajah's schools receive any aid from the State, and some of them, although under inspection, furnish no returns. In December 1874, the Local Fund Boards and Municipalities, as has been already mentioned, were relieved of all salary and results grants which they had been previously paying on account of girls' schools and mixed schools of boys and girls, Section VII.] EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 377 and a few girls' schools which had been entirely supported by them became Government institutions. This policy has not however been strictly adhered to, and sevei'al Municipalities have been recently permitted to open Municipal girls' schools. The only girls' school of the higher class is the Doveton Girls' school. There are at present ten Government girls' schools and five Municipal girls' schools. Most girls' schools are aided on the salary grant system, but results grants are given at rates 50 per cent, liigher than those allowed for boys, and a capitation gi-anfc of a Rupee a- head is allowed on the average attendance through- out the year. Results grants are also given for needle-work at rates ranging fix)m 1 Rupee to Rupees 4. The University of Madims was established on the 5th Constitution September 1857. It is constituted on the model of the University University of London and is purely an examining body, conferring degrees in Arts, Law, Medicine, and Civil Engineering. The Senate, which consists of a Chancellor, a Vice- Chancellor, and not less than thirty Fellows, is divided into the four Faculties just mentioned, and has power, subject to the approval of Govern- ment, to make bye-laws and regulations. The executive government of the University is vested in the Syndicate. This body appoints Examiners, regulates examinations, keeps the accounts, and carries on the correspondence of the University, with the aid of the Registrar, who is an officer appointed once in two years by the Senate. There is no limit of age for any of the University examinations. In the Faculty of Arts there are four examinations : the Matriculation, First Arts, B.A., and M.A. examinations. In the Faculty of Laws examinations are held for the degrees of Bachelor of Laws and Master of Laws. The Faculty of Medicine has the degrees of Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery, Bachelor of Medicioe, and Master in Surgery. Candidates who have obtained the degrees of B.A. and M.B. and CM. are permitted to proceed to the degree of M.D. without examination on producing a certificate of having been engaged two years in the practice of their profession. Previous to the institution of the University medical diplomas were conferred by the Medical College. The only examination in the Faculty of Civil Engineering is that for the degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering. The table given below shows the number of degrees conferred since the establishment of the University :— B.A 4G3 M.A 11 B.L 108 48 378 [Section vn INSTRUCTION. M.L 3 L.M.S • ••• ••• , 1 M.B. and CM. > •• ... 6 M.D • •• •• t • 3 B.C.E ••• ••• • 14 Special Institutions. Normal Schools. Fees ranging from Rupees 10 to Rupees 50 are levied for the various examinations of the University, and these nearly suffice to cover the payments made to the Examiners. The salary of the Registrar, the cost of his establishment, and the expense of stationery, furniture, printing, and other miscellaneous charges are at present borne entirely by Government. The net cost of the University in 1875-76 was Rupees 12,684>6-4, but the question of making the University entirely self-supporting is now under consideration. The School of Agriculture has already been described under Section IV. The Madras Medical College, the Civil Engineering College, the Madras School of Industrial Arts, and the Lawrence Asylum will be separately noticed hereafter. The only other institution of a special nature is the Law Class of the Presidency College. The Law Professorship, after being in abeyance for three years, was revived in 1873. The majority of the students are persons who are following various avocations other than that of law. Two difFerent systems have been tried in the Normal schools of this Presidency. Originally the students were kept under instruction for long periods and were prepared for successive Certificate and University examinations. On admission they were required to execute an agreement binding themselves to serve as teachers in a Government or aided school for five years, and during the whole period of their training they were supported by a scholarship, which they were bound to refund in the event of their failing to fulfil the agreement into which they had entered. Under this system the attention of both masters and pupils was far too much directed to success in the examina- tions, and the training became a secondary consideration. The Educational Department being unpopular, the best men generally held aloof from the Normal schools, and even those who accepted the scholarships and signed the agreements, often did so without any real intention of becoming teachers, their object being to pass the University examinations, and to get employment in the Revenue or Judicial Departments. This system has been to some extent abandoned. No preparation for University Section VII.] EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 379 examinations goes on now in any way of the Normal schools. Students who have already passed such examinations are ti-ained for nine or ten months, but are not required to enter into any engagements and are not guai*anteed employment in the Educational Department. The Madras Government Normal school is now entirely on this footing and trains graduates, First Arts men, and matriculates, who receive scholarships of Rupees 15, 12|, and 10, respectively. The other Government Normal schools in the mofussil are conducted iu the main on the principle just mentioned. The Government Female Normal school at Madras prepares six East Indians or Europeans, eight Native Christians, and sixteen Hindus for the first, second, and third grades of the school mistresses' Teachers' Certificate examination. The course extends over four years, during which the scholarships rise from Rupees 6 to Rupees 12. There are four aided Normal schools for males at Masulipatam, Dindigul, Palamcottah, and Sawyerpuram, and one for females at Palam- cottah. A Government examination for Teachers' certificates in con- Teachers' nection with the salary grant-in-aid rules already described is held in July or August. Normal students and all female candidates, whether Normal students or not, are at present admitted to this examination without paying any fees. Other candidates are charged a fee of Rupees 5. It has been recently determined to restrict the fifth or lowest grade examination to Normal students. Persons who are not Normal students will not be admitted to this examination, but will receive a fifth- grade certificate if they pass the Uncovenanted Civil Service Examination, Vernacular Branch, and satisfy the Inspecting Officer in giving a lesson to a class. Persons who have passed the University examinations obtain a certificate after passing in Method and teaching a class before an Inspector. There are at present four kinds of Government stipendiary Government scholarships, that is to say (1) scholarships awarded on the result of the University examinations ; (2), scholarships given to Oori3-a pupils in the taluq schools of the Ganjam District ; (3) scholarships held by Normal students ; and (4) scholarships tenable in the Medical College, the Civil Engineering College, and the School of Arts. Fifteen siiperior officers of the department, including the Financial Director of Public Instruction, the Inspectors of Schools, the (jovernment Principals of the Presidency College and Pi-ovincial College Department. [Section VII. 380 INSTRrCTION. of Combaconum, and tlie Professors of the Presidency College, are graded in classes, and their salaries rise by annual increments from the minimum to the maximum prescribed for their class. The Principal and Professoi's of the Medical College, who belono- to the Indian Medical Department, and the Principal of the Civil Engineering College, who is an officer of the Corps of Royal Engineers, are subject to special regulations. The principle of giving salaries rising by increments has been recently sanctioned in the case of the Head Masters of Zillah schools, the Head Master of the Madrasa-i-Azam, and the mastei's of Anglo- Vernacular and Talnq schools. Masters and Deputy Inspect(>i*s, who are paid from Provincial Funds, have the Bame claim to pension as other roembers of the Uncovenanted Civil Service, but mastei^ who are paid from the School Fee Fund are not on the same footing as the others. The School Fee Fund is a general fund to which are credited all fees received in Government schools except the fees of the Presidency, Medical, and Civil Engineering Colleges, the Madi-as Male and Female Normal schools, and the Madi-asa-i-Azam, which are credited to Provincial Services. The SchooJ Fee Fund was formerly devoted exclusively to chai'ges connected with Government schools, such as salaries of School Assistants, servants, library and prize allowances, I'^nt and contingent expenses ; but, as the receipts have increased, while the charges have remained nearly stationary, the School F'ee Fund is now largely indented on to supplement the grants given from Provincial Funds to aided schools. Although the Medical College is under the control of the Director of Public Instruction, no charges connected with this institution fall on the Educational Budget. The salaries of the Principal and ruajor Professors, who are all officers holding various medical appointments, and the stipends of the Military Hospital Apprentices appertain to Imperial Services. The salaries of the minor Professors and all the other items belong to the medical branch of Provincial Services. The Educational Building Fund was originally formed from the surplus balance of the Devasthanum Funds. Under the orders of the Court of Directors this amount was set apart for educational buildings and was subsequently considerably augmented by a transfer of the unexpended portion of the annual grant of Rupees 50,000 given for native education from 1828-29 to 1854-55. A 4 per cent. Treasury note was issued in the same year for Rupees 10,00,000, afterwards reduced in 1868 to Rupees 8,00,000. The interest upon this note, after meeting chai'gcs incurred in Section VII.] EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 381 connection witli educational buildings, was credited to the Educational Building Fund and continued to accumulate until July 1861, when the Secretary of State directed that no further additions should he made by the accumulation of interest, and that, whenever the building charges fell below tho interest, the balance should be applied towards defraying general educational expenditure. Sums raised bypnvate contri- butions and subscriptions for the constrviction of school-houses are credited to this fund. All charges on account of educational buildings ai-e met fi-om it and are divided into charges on account of original buildings and repairs of Government colleges and schools and building grants to aided colleges and schools. These charges have of late years greatly exceeded the annual receipts from interest and local contributions, and it has been necessary from time to time to divert considerable sums from capital. The Presidency College, the Senate-house, and the Provincial College of Combaconiam have largely contributed to the depletion of this fund, which was reduced on the 31st March 1876 to Rupees 4,29,600. The undermentioned scale of monthly school fees has been School Fees, required since the 1st September 1871 in Grovernment schools and schools aided by Government : — Government Schools. Schools aided by Classes. Gt)verunient. Madras. Mofuasil. Madras. Mofussil. RS. A. p. RS. A. p. RS. A. p. RS. A. p. B.A 5 4 3 8 2 12 F.A 4 3 2 12 2 Matriculation or VI 3 2 8 2 1 12 V and IV 2 8 2 1 12 18 Ill 18 10 10 12 II 10 12 12 8 I 8 8 8 6 Only 5 per cent, of the whole number of pupils in any school are allowed to be free scholars. Besides these fees an entrance fee is charged when a pupil first enters a school at the rate of Rupees 3 in the Matriculation class. Rupees 2 in the fifth and fourth classes, and Rupee 1 in the other classes. Mahoniedan and Ooriya pupils pay only half the above rates. No rules have been laid down with regard to school fees in girls' schools, and the fees in the Practising Departments of Normal schools are not regulated by the above scale. No school fees are levied [Section VII. 382 INSTRUCTION. Outlay on Education. Technical classifica- tion of Educational Institutions. in the liill schools of Gumsur and Chinna Kimedy and some of the other elementary schools maintained by Government for special classes. The rules relating to school fees have been declared not to be in force in schools aided on the results system, and in schools supported directly by Local Fund and Municipal Boards it is left to the Boards and Commissioners to decide whether any, and if so what, fees shall be levied. The following percentage statement shows the proportionate amount spent from all sources on the different branches of education, as shown by the figures of a recent year : — Superintendence ... ... ... ... 9*51 Superior Instruction ... ... ... 5*37 Secondary do. ... ... ... 27*77 Primary do. 43-71 Miscellaneous ... ... ... 5*77 - Superior Inst=ruction in Law, Medicine, *30 and Civil Engineering. Secondary Instruction in Professional Col- 3*85 leges and Technical Schools. Normal Schools .. S'OS Scholarships ... ... ... ... '62 The classification of colleges and schools given in the above remarks has been made with reference to the sources from which those institutions are supported. In the reports of the Educational Department, the order followed is that of educational standard, and the subjects generally reported on run as follows : — Madras University, Arts Colleges, Collegiate schools. Higher-class schools, Middle-class schools, Elementary schools. Girls' schools, and Mixed Boys' and Girls' schools, Professional Colleges and Technical schools. Normal schools and Teachers' Certificate Examinations, and General Statistics. The definition of the term " elementary" as applied to educa- tion has been found necessary in connection with the duty imposed on Local Boards as mentioned above, to provide for instruction answering to that description. The rules for results grants having been framed for elementary schools, the fourth or highest standard under those rules would seem to be the natural limit of elementary education. It was however decided in 1871 that the line of demarcation between elementary and middle-class education should be drawn at the third standard which does not go beyond the second book of lessons iu the vernacular, writing from dictation, the compound rules Section vn.] BOOK REGISTRATION. 383 and reduction, the rudiments of gi*ammar, tlie geography of the district, English reading as contained in the first book, and writing easy words in large hand. The fact of two or three boys passing under the fourth standard was however not to be regarded as taking a results school out of the list of Middle- class schools. This year a more definite rule has been adopted and a results school is not ranked as a Middle-class school unless it passes six boys in five heads of the fourth standard, arithmetic being one of the heads. The fourth standard includes reading from the third book in the vernacular, writing from dictation, moderately easy questions in vulgar fractions and proportion, a genera) knowledge of vernacular gi-ammar, the geography of the Madras Presidency, and a general knowledge of the geogi-aphy of Hindustan, the second book of lessons in English, writing English from dictation and the etymology and syntax of simple sentences. The distinction between Middle and Higher- class education is not necessary except for purely technical purposes. Middle-class education may however be regarded as extending to a limit about two years below the Matriculation standard of the University, after which will come Higher-class education. Schools which have a Matriculation class or a Preparatory Matriculation class are classed as Higher-class schools. Still higher instruction is given in Collegiate schools, which educate up to the F.A. standard ; and in Colleges which educate up to the B.A. degree. There are no institutions in which M.A. classes exist. This degree is attained by private study. BOOK REGISTRATION. Act XXV of 1867, which provides for the preservation of Nature of the systeni, copies of all books printed in British India and for the registra- tion of such books, came into operation in the Madras Presidency with effect from the 1st July 1867 under the late Director of Public Instruction, who was appointed to act as the first Regis- trar of Books. On the 1st January 1868 this officer was relieved of the Registrarship at his own request, and a separate Registrar was appointed. The work of collecting, cataloguing, and preserv- ing book works printed in the Presidency town belongs to the Registrar of Books ; similar duties are performed in the districts by the District Registrars of Assurances, who are in communication [Section VII. 384 INSTRUCTION. with the Registrar of Books at Madras and transmit their collec- tions to him. Printers are compelled to furnish Registrars with three copies of each of their publications within a month from the date of issue from the press, together with a memorandum of particulars regarding each work as laid down in the Act ; and, to induce a general compliance with the provision of the law, and to encourage the punctual delivery of books, their published prices are paid to the presenters. It has not yet been found necessary to enforce the penal provisions of the Act. The Registrar of Books compiles for publication in the Foi't St. George Gazette quarterly catalogues of all registered works with a short state- ment of the contents of such of them as do not carry the inform- ation in their titles or as otherwise deserve distinction, copies of the works themselves l?eing despatched to Government once a month for transmission to the Government of India and the Secretary of State. He further submits an annual analysis and review of the published literature of this Presidency and other periodical reports called for by the Government of India and the local Government. In this way a tolerably coiTect acquaintance is obtained by the Administration with the progress of literary effort during each year, and with the tendency of the published works. The registration of copyright is optional with the proprietors of books. GOVERNMENT BOOK DEPARTMENT. Constitation of the Book Department. The Government Book Department, the work of which lies in the supply and distribution of English and Vernacular books for the use of Government and other schools, has now been in operation for twenty years. The Book agency consists of a Central Depot in Madras under charge of a Curator, and subordinate to this depot are 19 branch or district depots at the principal up-country stations managed by local agents who are styled District Curators. The curators are paid by a commission in addition to fixed salaries. Up to the year 1871 the whole cost of the Book Department was included in the Annual Educational Budget, but in the beginning of that year a change was made and salaries only were left to be proWded for by the Educational Department. The printing and purchase of books and other operations of the Book Department are carried on now by means of advances made by Goverumeut, w ho recoup Section VII.] MISCELLANEOUS LITERARY. 385 themselves from tlic sale proceeds of books. This system has been successfully worked for nearly sis years, and the depai'tment has become fully self-supporting, leaving in fact a surplus after the payment of all charges including the salaries provided for in the Educational Budget. The selling prices of books are fixed on the following system : — In the case of English books imported an addition of 20 to 25 per cent, is made to the published price. In the case of Indian books locally purchased, 10 per cent, is added to the published price, taking no account of the discount allowed by the publishers. With regard to books printed for the department, 25 per cent, is added to the cost price in the case of editions of new books, and this margin is worked up to 50 per cent. by reducing the cost of printing in the case of fresh editions of old books. The former charge includes the amount paid to the author or compiler, while the latter secures a margin of proiit without any addition to the price first fixed. MISCELLANEOUS LITERARY. A Tamil Translator on a fixed salai-y of Rupees 70 is employed Book under the supervision of the Professor of Vernacular Literature ^^^^ * ^' in translating books required for the Government Book Depart- ment, in revising old editions, and correcting proofs of new editions published for sale. The Madras School Book and Vernacular Literature Society Madras has hitherto received an annual grant of Rupees 2,000 from 3oo^°and Government. In September 1875 the grant for 1876 was Vernacular reduced to Rupees 1,500. The Society's Magazine, the Janavi- society, nodini, which is now published in Telugu as well as in Tamil, is very popular. A good Telugu Dictionary for the use of students being a desideratum, the Committee have agreed to pay Rupees 5,000 for a dictionary, and the work is now going through the press. The publication of this work will necessarily be a heavy drain on the resources of the society. Such profits as the society makes are dexnved from reprints of school books, many of which are likely to be superseded. Besides reprints of school books, interesting articles from the Jauavinodini are reprinted and sold in the foi*m of tracts at prices ramging fi'om 1 Pie to 3 Pies. 49 [Section VII. 386 INSTRUCTION. Library of The Library of Oriental Manuscripts is under the charge of MaEuscripts. ^^^ Professor of Sanscrit in the Presidency College. When this ofl&cer assumed charge of the library on the 4th November 1872 he found it in bad order. Since then the manuscripts have been nearly all catalogued and placed in substantial teakwood glass cases. The Professor of Sanscrit was directed in 1868 to cany out certain orders issued by the Government of India in regard to the discovery and preservation of the records of ancient Sanscrit literature. He was to take such measures as might be necessary for commencing the printing of all procurable unprinted lists of Sanscrit manuscripts in the Native Libraries. He was also to arrange for the examination of the manuscripts named in the Native catalogues printed as above described, for the discovery of new manuscripts, for their purchase, and for the employment of copyists to transcribe codicea which were unique, extremely old, or otherwise desirable, but which the possessors refused to sell. He was to make occasional short tours for these objects and was to take advantage of every opportunity of inquiring for and procuring any ancient manuscripts in the vernacular languages which he might consider to be of histoi'ical or literary value. All these undertakings are in course of execution. MADRAS MEDICAL COLLEGE. Nature of the The Madras Medical College was established in 1835 for the insti^ction in Medicine and Surgery of persons entering the medical branch of the public service. The benefits of instruction have been since thrown open to the community at large, but the students are still for the most part of the class just mentioned- The Medical College is under the general control of the Director of Public Instruction, the Surgeon-General, Indian Medical Department, being ex-qfficio visitor. The pupils in attendance at the CoUege consist of — (1.) Pupils of the Senior Department, comprising candidates for the University Degrees of M.B. and G.M., and Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery; the only qualification for entry being that candidates must have passed the general educational standard laid down by the Univer- sity. (2.) Pupils of the Second Department, comprising Military Hospital Apprentices qualifying for employ as Military Assistant Apotheoaries, and Civil Hospital Apprentices qaalify- Section vn.] CIVIL EN-GINEERIlSrG COLLEGE. 387 ing for employ as Civil Apothecaries under the Gt)vemment or Local Boards ; the test for entry being a competition examin- ation in the former case and the University Matriculation examination in the latter. (3.) Pupils of the Junior Depart- ment, comprising Military Native Medical Pupils qualifying for emjDloy as Military Hospital Assistants, and Civil Medical Pupils qualifying for employ as Civil Hospital Assistants under the Government or Local Boards ; the test for entry being a competitive examination in either case. (4.) Female students qualifying for a certificate of fitness to pursue the medical profession. The students of the Second and Junior Departments mentioned above spend the earlier part of their course attached to Military and Civil Hospitals, and the latter part of their course as pupils at the College itself. The technical course of education consists of Anatomy, Botany, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Physiology, Materia Medica, Surgery and Practice of Medicine, Hygiene, IVIidwifery and Diseases of Women and Children, Diseases of the Eye, Comparative Anatomy, Medical Jurispru- dence, Pathology, Clinical instruction in Medicine, Surgery, &c. The lectures on Chemistry, Botany, Physiology, Medical Juris - pradence, and Hygiene are open to the public. CIVIL ENGINEERING COLLEGE. The old Government Survey School was established in 1834 Natnre of the for the purpose of training men as Surveyors under the Revenue ^'^8^^*^"°^- Department. In order to supply the wants of the Department of Public Works the curriculum of instruction was extended and the Survey School merged in the Civil Engineering College. When first established the College had for its object the training of men as subordinates only, that is to say, as Overseers and Sub-Overseers in the Department of Public Works; but in 1861 a Special Class for Drawing and Estimating was formed, and in March 1862 a First Department was established for the purpose of training Military Officers and under-graduates of the Madras University holding the F.A. diploma for the position of Assist- ant Engineers. In December 1862 an Officers' Surveying Class was added. The Civil Engineering College therefore now consists of a First Department, Officers' Surveying Class, Second Department, Special Survey Class and Drawing Classes. [Section VH. 388 INSTRUCTION. The educational staff consists of a Principal ; two masters for mathematics and engineering ; four masters for surveying, drawing, and estimating ; and two Munshis for vernacular languages. The number of students has risen from 46 in 1859 ■to 152 at the close of 1875-76. The Fii-st Department is open to officers of Her Majesty's British and Indian Ai-mies and Civilians, Europeans and Natives. The Second Department consists of European Non-commissioned Officers and Soldiers of Her Majesty's British and Indian Forces, and Civilians (Euro- peans, Eurasians, and Natives) . MADRAS SCHOOL OF ARTS. Nature of the The School of Industrial Arts was established privately by institution. -p^ Hunter in 1850, and was supported till 1855 by fees from pupils, by payments for drawings, engravings, and work turned out in the school, and by small contributions from the public. In 1855 the school was taken up by Government, and a com- mittee, in communication with Dr. Hunter, laid down rules and a course of instruction. Owing to the difficulties in finding competent technical instructors and a suitable class of students, the method of the school has somewhat fallen away from the intention of Government as then expressed. Of late, however, the institution has engaged the particular attention of Govern- nrent, and efforts are being made to extend its usefulness. The school is divided into a Di-awing Academy and an Industrial Department. The course of instruction at the former is very similar to that adopted at South Kensington ; all attempts at high art are discouraged, and efforts are made to introduce an accurate standard of free hand. A girls' branch has been opened in the Drawing Academy and promises to be successful. As the pupils in the Di^awing Academy show aptitude, endeavours will be made to apprentice them to skilled workmen in the industrial department, enabling them thus to work at drawing and one of the crafts together. In the industrial department the pupils are paid for their labor, and it forms in fact a kind of Government workshop for carrying out art experiments. No difficulty is found in providing an outlet for the work produced in the indus- trial department, but care is taken to avoid competition with local tirades by introducing only arts which are not pi*actised Section VII.] OOTACAMUND LAWRENCE ASYLUM. 389 outside. The work done in the industrial department has of late been considerably extended. Thus to pottery, engraving, wood- cutting, and plaster-moulding, have been added recently glass- painting (enamels), stone-carving, wood-carving, different kinds of metal work, and wall decorating. This institution is now under the charge of Mr. R. F. Chisholm. OOTACAMUND LAWRENCE ASYLUM. Sir Henry Lawrence in 1856, after having established the Origin and Hill Asylums for the children of the British soldiers at Suuawur °^J®*^*' and Mount Aboo, offered a donation of Rupees 5,000 if a similar institution could be founded on the Nilgiris. The proposal was warmly received by the residents at Ootacamund, but the project fell through owing to a want of unanimity in regard to the religious basis upon which the Asylum was to be founded. Two years later, in 1858, after Sir Henry Lawrence's death, the matter was again brought forward and the present asylum was established. The object in establishing the asylum was twofold : — 1st, To do honor to the memory of Sir Henry Lawrence ; and 2ndly, to benefit the children of the European soldiery, by providing a refuge from the debiHtating effects of a tropical climate and the demoraHzing inflaence of barrack life. The asylum consists of two branches, male and female. Constitution Owing to the want of a separate building for a hospital, the number of boys is limited to 330. The number of girls is limited to 60, as the building in which they are located is not capable of accommodating more than that number. The management of the institation is placed in the hands of a committee of nine members, four of whom are appointed by Government. The Commander-in-Chief and the Bishop of Madras are the patrons of the institution. The Principal of the Asylum must be a clergyman of the Church of England, and his appointment is subject to the approval of the Governor ia Council. In September 1871, after many years of corre- spondence and delay, the children of the Madras Militaiy Male Asylum were transferred to the Nilgiri institution. The asylum receives a grant-in-aid from Government of Rupees 4,000 per mensem, 66 per cent, of which is placed to the credit of the male branch and the remaining 3i per ceot. to that [Section VII. 390 INSTETTCTION. of the female branch. The funded capital of the male branch belonging originally to the Military Male Orphan Asylum is Rupees 4,89, 20Q, the interest and Government donation on "which amount to Rupees 38,828 per annum. The Asylum Presa contributes a liberal grant of about Rupees 10,000 a year. Another source of income is the sum obtained on account of military pay and orphan allowance to which children and orphans of soldiers are entitled. At present this averages about Rupees 1,000 per mensem. The other sources of income are variable. COMMITTEE FOR EXAMINATION OF ASSISTANTS. Functions. The Committee for the Examination of Assistants took the place in 1854 of the old College of Fort St. George. It now consists of a President and a certain number of members ex-officio and special. The President who is always the Second Member of the Board of Revenue, the Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, Mala- yalam, and Hindustani and Persian Translators to Government, the Sub- Secretary to the Board of Revenue, and the Registrar of the High Court, Appellate Side, are members ex-officio. Other Members of the Committee are appointed at the pleasure of Government. At present the special members are the Collector of Madras and one of the Judges of the Small Cause Court. In conjunction with District Committees appointed by Government, the Committee conducts the technical quarterly examinations of Covenanted Junior Civilians under what are called the first and second standards. They conduct also examinations in Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, Malayalam, and Hindustani for Covenanted Civil Servants and for the following officers : — Ganclklates in the Service : 1, Chaplains ; 2, Public "Works Department Officers ; 3, Farm Superintendents ; 4, Forest Officers ; 5, Jail Superin- tendents ; 6, Medical Officers ; 7, Military Officers ; 8, Police Officers ; 9, Postal Officers ; 10, Revenue Survey Officers y 11, Revenue Settlement Officers ; 12, Telegraph Officers ; 13, Uncovenanted Officers. Candidates not in the Service : 14, Agents and Accountants of the Madras Bank ; 15, Railway Officers. For the vernacular examinations the Committee is divided into sub-committees, each sub-committee consisting of the President or a Member and a Translator to Government. Section VII.] DKCOVENANTED CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. 391 For the High Proficiency and Honors Examinations, under the special rules for the encouragement of the study of oriental languages, a scholar of reputation, outside the Committee, is appointed as an extra member by Government. The Committee is expected to conduct examinations in other languages, but cases have not yet arisen. When a candidate has passed the High Proficiency Examination, the Committee grants a special certificate. When the Honors Examination is passed a certificate is granted by the Governor in Council. The Committee also examine PoHce Officers and Cantonment Magistrates iu law. UNCOVENANTED CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. These examinations owe their origin to the Educational Former Test Exi nations. Despatch from the Court of Dii-ectors of the East India Com- ^^^* E^ami* pany to the Governor-Genei'al of India, dated 19th July 1854. This despatch authorized the Government of India to establish a Hberal system of education throughout India, and approved of the institution of examinations for testing the fitness of candi- dates for offices under Government. The discussion of details occupied considerable time, but a scheme of examination for all Government appointments in this Presidency above the grade of peon was at last promulgated in March 1858, when for the purposes of the examination the Uucovenanted Service was foi'med into two divisions, the first including all appointments the salary of which exceeded Rupees 50 per mensem, and the second all appointments below that grade and above the grade of peon. The examination standards of the various departments are given in full in Appendix F of the Madras Educational Report for 1858-59. The examinations just mentioned were for a short time held under the direction of the late Board of Examiners with the following total results : — Passed for the 1st Division, English Department, 65 ; for the 1st Division, Judicial Department, 2 ; for the 1st Division, Rev-enue Depart- ment, 4 ; for the 2nd Division, English Department, 33G ; and for the 2nd Division, Revenue and Judicial Departments, 646, making a total altogether of 1,053 passed candidates. No fee was required for the old test examinations, and the consequence was that more examinees came forward than could lie provided [Section VII. 392 INSTRUCTION. Present General Test Examina- tions. Present Special Test Examina- tions. with proper accommodation. Copying and other malpractices could not be prevented ; and in order to reduce the number of examinees to more manageable proportions the Government, in an order of the 11th October 1860, authoi'ized several modifica- tions to be made in the examination scheme, amongst which were the exemption of all appointments of Rupees 25 per mensem and under from the operation of the rules, and the exaction of a fee. In consultation with the then Director of Public Instruc- tion, the management of these examinations was at the same time transferred to a Commissioner, and the tests became what is now known as the " General Test." The rules for the General Test at present in force were published as a notification, dated the 26th April 1861, in the Fort St. George Gazette. According to the most recent orders appointments of Rupees 20 per mensem and under are exempted, but in the case of all other appointments the candidate for oflBce must have passed this examination ; in the case of the special appointments, a very large class, for which " special tests " are provided, the qualifications are of course more severe. The present General Test is an elementary examination in Language, Hand-writing, Spelling, Arithmetic, Indian History, and General Geography. The General Test is divided into three branches, according as the candidate elects to pass ha'nd- writing, compo- sition, and orthography in English, or in a vernacular language, or in both. The appointments in the public service are similarly roughly classed in a corresponding manner (though there is no schedule giving a precise definition) into English, Vernacular, and Anglo- Vernacular appointments ; the candidates for any of these appointments must have passed in the corresponding branch. Fifteen of the examinations have been held, and 2,582 candidates have been declared qualified for the public service according to the Anglo-Vernacular Branch, 3,267 according to the English Branch, and 2,908 according to the Vernacular Branch of the test. The present Special Test Examinations were instituted for the purpose of testing the fitness of candidates for particular situations demanding special qualifications, and the first examin- ation of this nature was held in March 1863 in subjects relating to the Judicial and Magisterial Departments. The Revenue Tests came into force in 1864<. The original rules bear date the 4th February and 30th May 1862 ; later on these were revised, and the rules were again superseded by those published under date the 29th July 1869. The latter remain in force with certain slight Section Vn.] UNCOVENANTED CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. 398 alterations. Under the rules no persons are admitted to any of the Special Tests except those who have passed the General Test or the University Entrance Examination, but exceptions are sometimes made under the authority of Government. The result of the Special Test Examinations from their commence- ment in declaring candidates eligible for particular offices is as follows : — Principal Sadr Amins, District Munsifs, and Pleaders in Civil and Sessions Courts, Princi- pal Sadr Amins' Coui-ts, and Courts of Small Causes ... Pleaders in District Munsifs' Courts Court Sheristadars Deputy Collectors and Magisti-ates Nazirs in Civil and Sessions Courts and Princi- pal Sadr Amins' Courts ... Sub-Magistrates, 1st Class Uucovenanted Assistants and Sheristadar of the Revenue Board Office Superintendents and Assistant Superintendents, Salt Department Superintendents of Sea Customs ... Huzur Sheristadars ... ... ... » Abkari Superintendent, Deputy Superintendent, > Madras ... ... ... ... * Tahsildars and 2nd-Class Sub-Magistrates, Taluq Sheristadars, Deputy Tahsildars, &c... Sub- Collector's Sheristadar and Head Assist- ant's Head Clerk Superintendents, Clerks, and Accountants in the"^ Accountant-General's Office Accountants in the English Department of Col- lectors' Offices drawing a salary of Rupees 30 and up\i'ards Accountant in the Board's Office ... Accountant, Deputy Accountant, and Book- keeper in the Mint and Assay Office Accountant, Marine Office Do. Sea Customs Office ... Do. Stamp Office Do. Office of the Conservator of Forests.- 50 No. passed. 558 784 260 317 61 530 165 84 65 157 Q77 164 191 [Section VII. 139 1> 2,070 394 INSTRUCTION. No. passed. Translators, High Court and Civil and Sessions'^ Courts ... ... .. ... Interpreter, Court of Small Causes, Madras . . . ^ Do. Office of the Commissioner of Police. Do. Police Courts ... ...J Translators, Office of Government ..."^ Do. Revenue Board Do. Revenue Settlement Office Do. Collectors' Offices ... ...J Chief Clerk or Manager, Royapettah Police Court ... ... ... ... 40 Head Clerks, Police Courts Assistant Head Clerk, Royapettah Police Court. English Record-keepers, Collectors' Offices ... Head Writers, Civil and Sessions Courts and Principal Sadr Aniins' Courts ... Head Clerks, Small Cause Courts ... ^ Appointments in Public Offices for which Precis- writing alone is prescribed as a test ... 2,631 y 909 ARTS AND SCIENCES. MUSEUMS. Nature of Government operations. The efforts of Government to establish Museums in this Presidency commenced, under authority of the Court of Directors, in 1851. In that year the Madras Literary Society presented to Government a collection of geological specimens, and this, with the duplicates left after despatching the articles for the " Great Exhibition," formed the nucleus of what is now the Government Central Museum. Subsequently, in 1865, subordinate Museums were established at Bellary, Cuddalore, Mangalore, Rajahmun- dry, and Ootacamund for local purposes and -with the object also of serving aS' feeders for the Central Museum ; these were not successful, and with the exception of the one at Rajahmundry were closed in June 1861. In case of Ootacamund the allowance of Rupees 100 per mensem withdrawn £i-om the Museum was Section Vn.] ARCHITECTURE. 395 transferred to the Public Library there and continued till 1875, in which year the grant for the Rajahmundry Museum was also discontinued. In 1855 the formation of a Zoological Garden in connection with the Central Museum was sanctioned, and the animals were retained there till 18G3, when they were transferred to the Madras People's Park. The Government continued to meet the cost of feeding the collection till the close of 1875, when it became a Municipal charge. The Central Museum has been always open to the public free of charge, and the large numbers which daily frequent it show that the boon is appreciated. ARCniTECTURE. With a view to the improvement of architectural and struc- Nature of tural designs in Government buildings, the Madras Government operations, have for some years entertained a Consulting Architect, to whom all projects for important buildings are sent, and from whom designs for various purposes are called for. In nearly all cases the design merely is called for, and the execution is handed over to the Public Works Department, subject to general superintendence by the Consulting Architect. Woi'ks at the Presidency town, however, are usually put under direct charge of the Consulting Architect, who then executes them with Public Works subordinate agency. The main objects kept in view by the Consulting Architect's Department are a comprehensive consideration of the capabilities of the various materials, the suppression of ornament serving no useful end, the careful arrangement of apartments with a view to economy, the thoughtful distribution of parts and masses to avoid ugliness, and the development of ideas and forms suitable to the climate and country. Among the more important buildings con- structed during the past few years are the Presidency College, Madras ; the Lawrence Asylum, Ootacamund ; the College, Com- baconum ; the Public Library, Madras ; the Revenue Board, Madras ; and the Senate House, Madras (in progress). Among the works of restoration and adaptation are Teroomal Naick's Palace, Madura ; the old Palace at Trichinopoly ; and the new Palace at Royapettah, Madras. With the exception of the Presidency College, Madras, and the Lawrence Asylum, Ootaca- mund, the whole of these buildings have been constructed in [Section VII, 396 INSTRUCTION. oriental styles with oriental ornamentation ; the introduction of European taste has been as much as possible avoided, with a view to giving every advantage to the development of arts indigenous to the country, and with a view to avoiding the necessity for using European ornamentation which it is impos- sible to imitate and dijBBcult to import. The incumbent of the post since its institution has been Mr. R. F. Chisholm. ARCH/EOLOGY. Archaeologi- cal remains in the Presi- dency. No archssological department as yet exists in this Presidency. A general list of the principal objects of antiquarian interest in each of the districts in charge of the Revenue Department is here given pending the appearance of the complete series of District Manuals. To the Hst must be added Terumala Naick's Palace at Madura, which is now in course of reconstruction by the Department Public Works, and is in charge of that depart- ment. There are also of course very numerous public monu- ments, buildings, including all pagodas and mosques still used as places of worship, which are in the hands of private indi- viduals or corporations, and which there are no means of cataloguing : — District. Talaq. Village. Name or Description of Building. Ganjam Berliampore. Jagoda Rock engravings exhibiting the Asoka tablet said to be more than 2,300 years old. Eietna Guntoor Undavalli The rock caves at Unda- valli. Satiauapalli. Amaravati ... The remains of the Amara- vati tope. Palnad Pedugural . . . The mound at Pedugural. Gudivada ... ... A colossal figure of Buddha in the enclosure of a choultry at Gudivada. Bezwada ... Buddha images (stone and copper) in the library at Bezwada. Vinucondah... The mantapam in Viuu- condah used by the Post Office. Narsarowpett. ... The Fort at Kondavied. Bezwada Do. at Kondapally. Sattenapalli... Do. at Bellumkonda. Nandigama ... The carved stone of the Kamireddipulli Hill. Section VII J ARCHEOLOGY, 397 District. Taluq. Village. Name or Description of Building. Cuddapah Bellary Voilpaud Madnapalli Cuddapah Jammalma- dugu. Hospett Huvinbadgalli Hospett Magalam Anantasawya- nagudi. Malpangudi . . . In the limits of Kamalapur. Khaderampu- ram. In limits of Ki'iatuapuram. In the limits of Humpi. Old palace at Gurrumkon- dah with npstairs. Pagoda at Sompalli. Carved monolith in front with fine carvings. Fresco paintings. Four buildings formerly occupied as palaces of the Nawab of Cuddapah. Two temples constructed about 700 years ago and one mosque built about 400 years ago situated at Gundicola hill. Stone-posts and stone car belonging to the Vojia Vittaldevor temple in Venkatapur, said to be in ruins. Temple of Vainogopaul- sawmy. Temple of Anantasawmy. Temple of Iswara. Temple of Pattabhirama. Temple of Kumbara. Mattam of Chandrasikara. Rock cut room or hall. Temple of Yellamma. A tower the top of which is in the shape of a lotus. Another tower (dark). Another tower called Bangalada. Palace with spiral steps. Anisalu- mantapam, or elephant stables. Nowbuthkhana. Penalarama mantapam. Gymnasium of Achuta Eow. Agasaquith Mahal, i.e., Washerman's palace. Temple of Hajar Kamachendra. Nelamani, i.e., a house in the ground. Maharavani Dedhba or Simhasanara or throne. Vokalihonda or Bath. Bhimanabagalu, i.e., Bhima's gate. Gan- jetti Temple, i.e., of Oilmongers. Mautapiira near Uddana Varabhudra's temple. Ugra Narasimba's temple. Badali Liuga temple. KrisLnapuram temple. Vokalihonda temple. Sasivikalu Beuakappa. Mantapam of Hemakoo. tam. Kadlikal Bena. kappa. Mantam of Nija Linga. Manmatha Muda. Lokapavanum. Temple of Edura Basappa. [Section VII. 598 INSTRUCTION. District. Taluq. Village. Name or Description of Building. Bellary — ^Continued).. Chingleput ... North Arcot... Sydapet Chingleput Cheodragheri. South Arcot . . . Arcot Cuddalore In Venkatapur. Mathangi Hill. Bazaar and temple of Atchutapuram. Temple of Riingasawrai. Temple of Yentradaraka. Temple of Rama. Sittia- sarovaram. Kalnm temple. Varaha temple. Malyauantha Eagoona- thasawmy. Temple of Goddada Simmappa. " Puncha Pandova Malay " close to Palaveram. Mahabalipnram or " Seven Pagodas." There is a small shrine cut out of a single rock in the village of Vallam. 1. Rajah Mahal or Rajah's palace of Chendragheri. Built by the Telugu kings. Rajah Sreeranga Rozer of that dynasty is said to have signed the Treaty granting the settlement of Madras to the English in the centre room in 1640. The mahal is unique for strength and pecu- liarity of architecture ; built almost entirely of granite, no wood being employed. 2. Rani Mahal, a smaller build, ing adjoining. Delhi Dorwaja. 1. The garden house. Built about 1738 ; was more than once captured by the French. During the period from 1746 to 1752, when Fort St. David was the chief settlement on the Coromandel Coast, this building is said to have been the Governor's residence. 2. The forts of Gingee, Thiatgur, Perumagul, Valdoor, and St. David. At Fort St, David some remains of the subterra- neous gallery which ran round the fort under the glacis and of the mines leading off from it were not long ago discovered and opened up. 3. An obelisk to the memory of Major Stevens, Chief Section Vn.] MADRAS OBSERVATORY. 399 District. Taluq. Village. Name or Description of Building. South Arcot — (Coiitmu.ed) . Tanjore Trichinopoly... Madura Tinnevelly . . . Taujore Madura Tuticorin ... Engineer in the Army under Sir H. Munro, killed at the siege of Pondicherry in 1778. 4. Some old tombs in an ancient gi-ave-yard at Cnddalore. 5. An old grave-yard near Fort St. David. 6. A cenotaph at Trickalore. The palace of the lato Kajah of Tanjore in charge of the Govern- ment Agent and occu- pied by the relatives of the late Rajah. 1. Nawab's palace. 2. Main Guard gate. Tamakam Bungalow. Said to have been built by the ancient kings as a stand whence to witness the fights of wild beasts. The rook carvings at Kolu- gumalai. A colossal stone Jain image, about six feet high, now preserved in Tuticorin. MADRAS OBSERVATORY. The Madras Observatory was Instituted in the year 1792, and Nature of the the present Government Astronomer, Mr. Norman Pogson, was appointed in 1861. The work of the observatory consists in observations of stars, the preparation of catalogues and maps, and the conducting of scientific experiments connected with astronomy ; besides the usual attention to all casual phenomena, such as eclipses, transits, occultations, phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites, &c. From the years 1841 to 1861 systematic hourly records of magnetical and meteorological instruments were made. The publication of the results of these registers is Still in progress ; the observations themselves having been continued only upon a reduced scale, consisting of three observations per day. [Section VII. 400 INSTRUCTION. METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. Nature of the The Meteorological Department of Madras was established in * the year 1867 with a view to securing a better knowledge of the climatic conditions of various parts of the Presidency. Obser- vations of undoubted excellence had been made at the Madras Observatory ever since the close of the last century, and for a shorter term of years at Bombay, Calcutta, Trevandrum, and Simla, but no reliable records with properly compared instru- ments had been made generally over India. Meteorological Superintendents were accordingly in that year appointed for Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the Central Provinces and the North- West Provinces, with Assistants in the various up-country stations, in correspondence with the Meteorological Superin- tendents, but acting under the immediate orders of the local medical officer. At the end of 1874 a Meteorologist to the Government of India was appointed at the head of the whole establishment. The stations of the Madras Presidency are at present twelve in number. Bangalore, Bellary, Cochin, Coimba- tore, Kumool, Madura, Masulipatam, Negapatam, Salem, Secun- derabad, Trichinopoly, and Wellington. The Madras Observatory meteorological observations are made available for the purposes of the Meteorological Department, but do not strictly belong to it, being still under the sole control of the Government Astronomer, and being maintained out of his Budget estimates. Monthly mean and extreme results of the twelve stations in the Madras Presidency are printed in the Fort St. George Gazette for current use. Section vm.] SECTION YIIL MISCELLANEOUS. ECCLESIASTICAL. The Madras Ecclesiastical Establishment proper consists of a Nature of tfie Bishop, an Archdeacon, 39 Chaplains, and a Registrar. The ^^tablish- Chaplains are divided into two classes, senior and junior, promotion to the senior class being attained upon the comple- tion of ten years' service. Chaplains are required to serve twenty years for a fuU pension, and seventeen of those years must have been spent in actual service ; but smaller pensions are granted on retirement enforced through sickness. Retirement is compulsory on the completion of twenty-five years. The appointment of Chaplains to the diffei-ent stations is made by Government. At every station where there is Government Church property a Church Committee is appointed consisting of two Lay Trustees, the Chaplain acting as President. The churches for European congregations are with rare exceptions the property of Government. Outside the regular establishment is a con- siderable body of European and Eurasian Clergymen, some serving with European congregations not entitled to the services of a resident Government Chaplain, and the rest engaged in ordinary Missionary work. The former of these receive their salaries either from one of two Societies for providing additional Clergy, or from local contributions, or from both ; the Government in all cases allowing a grant-in-aid. The Missionaries, as such, are not connected with Government, but are wholly maintained by the two leading INIissionary Societies. In addition to these Native Clergymen, Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalum, constitute a third and continually growing class. The affairs of the Native Churches, in matters not spiritual, are managed by Councils composed chiefly of native clergy and laity, and by the Com- mittees of the Missionary Societies, The native church councils are of two kinds ; the smaller or disti'ict councils, and the larger or provincial. 51 [Section vm. 402 MISCELLANEOUS. REGISTRATION OF MARRIAGES. Procedure of The office of Marriaofe Ref'istrar was created by Statute 14 Marriage , . Eegistrars. and 15 Vict., Cap. XL, entitled an " Act for Marriages in India," which was extended to this Presidency by the Govern- ment of India Act No. V of 1852. There have been three repealing Acts since then — Act XXV of 1864, Act V of 1865, and Act XV of 1872; "The Indian Christian Marriage Act," the last named Act, being the law now in force. The duties of Marriage Registrars are set forth in Part V of the latter Act. When a marriage is to be solemnized one of the parties gives the Marriage Registrar notice, as per Schedule I. On receiving the notice, the Registrar affixes a copy in some " conspicuous place " in his office. If one of the parties is a minor he sends a copy to each of the other Marriage Registrars (if any) in the same district for publication. He files all notices received by him, and enters a true copy of eacb in a book called the " Marriage Notice Book," which is open for inspection by the public at all reasonable times without fee. When the party giving notice of the marriage has made the oath required by Section 42 of the Act, aad requests the issue of the certificate (Schedule II), the Registrar issues under his hand a certificate of such notice having been given, and of such oath having been made, provided that there is no lawful impediment ; that its issue has not been forbidden by any person authorized in that behalf by the Act ; that four days have expired since receipt of notice ; and further, when one of the parties is a minor, that fourteen days have expired. In the latter case, if both parties are residing at Madras, and are desirous of being married in less than fourteen days, they may apply by petition to a Judge of the High Court for an order directing the Marriage Registrar to issue his certificate before the expiration of fourteen days. Any person whose consent to the marriage of a minor is necessary may enter a protest against the issue of the Registrar's certificate by writino- at any time before its issue the word " forbidden " opposite to the entry of the notice in the " Marriage Notice Book," and subscribing his or her name thereto. Every such person is liable for the costs of all proceedings in relation thereto and for damages, if the grounds of protest be found to be frivolous. When a protest has been entered, the Marriage Registrar withholds the issue of his certificate until satisfied that the protest ought not to obstruct its Section VIII.] REGISTRATION OF MARRIAGES : STATIONERY. 403 issue, or until the protest is itself withdrawn by the person who entered it ; or the Registrar may himself apply by petition stating all the circumstances of the case and pray for an order and direction of Court. If the person whose consent is necessary is insane, or unjustly withholds consent, the pai'ties interested may petition a Judge of the High Court or of a District Court to examine the matter, and if upon such examination it shall be declared that the marriage is proper, the declaration is as effectual as if the person whose consent was needed had consented to the marriage, and the Registrar issues his certificate. Should, however, a Marriage Registrar himself refuse to issue a certificate the parties concerned may petition as above, and the decision of the Judge of the High Court or of the District Court in the case is final. After the issue of the certificate by a Marriage Registrar, the marriage is solemnized according to such form and ceremony as the parties think fit to adopt. The ceremony invariably takes place in the presence of two or more credible witnesses, and in a part of the ceremony each of the parties declares that he or she knows of no lawful impediment to the union. When a marriage is not solemnized within two months after receipt of the notice, the notice and the certificate and all other proceedings thereupon are considered void. After the solemnization of a marriage, the Registrar registers it in a Marriage Registrar's Book (Schedule IV), and also in a certificate attached to the book as a counterfoil. The entries in the Register are signed by the Registrar, by the parties married, and by the two credible witnesses in whose presence the ceremony takes place. The certificate attached to the book is sent by the Registrar to the Secretary to the Local Government. The book itself is kept by the Registrar until it is filled, when it is also sent to the Government. In the Rules published in the Fort St. George Gazette, dated 14th March 1874, the Government have, under the provisions of Sections 82 and 83 of the Marriage Act, authorized the levy of certain fees, and have prescribed the manner in which they shall be disposed of. STATIONERY. The Stationery Office is in charge of a Superintendent Nature of tli« supported by a small establishment. Stationery of all descrip- tions required for office use and for drawing purposes is issued [Section VIII. 404 MISCELLANEOUS. annually by the department. In addition to this, school books, color boxes, and mathematical instruments are supplied to Army and Regimental schools and Survey classes. The Government Printing Presses are supplied with ink, flannel, and rollers. Bibles and Prayer Books are issued for the use of Churches, Military and Civil Hospitals, and to the Drummers of Native Regiments, theodolites, levelhng instruments, compasses, and level and survey books, to the Public Works Department, and ecclesiastical forms are supplied to all Marriage Registrars. The Ordnance Atlas Sheets received from the Surveyor-General are sold to private parties, but supplied free to Government offices. All pubHc offices both in the Presidency and at out-stations are supplied with stationeiy free of charge, as also are Regimental schools. Veterinary Surgeons, Garrison Instructors, Instructors of Musketry, Military and Civil Hospitals, the Bishop of Madras, and the Senior Chaplain of the Church of Scotland. Stationery is also supplied on payment to the Mysore Commission, Municipal Commissions, Adjutants of Regiments of Infantry, Staff Officers, Wing Officers, and Commandants of Batteries of Artillery, the Principal of the Presidency College, Curator of the Govei-nment Book Depot, and to the Inspector of Normal Schools. GOVERNMENT PRESS. Establish- ment, and nature of work. The Government Pi-ess, including a branch at the Penitentiary, is under charge of a Superintendent assisted by a staff of upwards of GOO persons employed in various printing operations. One of the Under Secretaries to Government acts as Supervisor to the Press, and exercises a general control. With the exception of the Compositors, who are paid by piece-work, all the Press employes receive fixed monthly salaries, and these range from Rupees 2 upwards. The rate of remuneration to the Compositors for their work is 2 Annas per 1,000 ens or letters, including composition, distributing, and correcting all proofs but author's, for which latter 2 Annas an hour are paid. To facilitate the operations of the Press it is sub-divided into departments, viz.. Public, Public Works, Military, Revenue, Revenue Board, Gazette, Book, Job, Vernacular, and Binding, each of which is in charge of a Foreman. In the printing department 16 machiaes and 39 hand-presses are constantly Section vni.] DISTRICT PRESvSES AND GAZETTES. 405 employed, and the work turned out comprises Government Proceedings, the Proceedings of the Board of Revenue, the Grazette, Vernacular Acts in five languages, Selections from Government Records, monthly returns, annual and other reports, District Manuals, and a large number of fojyus and miscellaneous job-work for ofl&cial use in the Public Offices throughout the Presidency. At the Penitentiary branch, whei'e about 71 adult and 22 juvenile prisoners are employed. Land Revenue, Magis- terial, Judicial, and other forms, averaging in amount upwards of 22,000,000 during the official year, are turned out for use in the Mofussil. LAWRENCE ASYLUM PRESS. The Lawrence Asylum Press in Madras is a quasi Government Nature of the institution, the general management being entrusted to a Comxaittee appointed by Government, though the persons employed in connection with it are not eligible to pension under the Uncovenanted Service Civil Pension Code. The connection between this Press and the Government depends on the fact that the former is really a part of the Ootacamund Lawrence Asylum institution, the stability of which is ultimately guaranteed by Government, although the necessity for assuming the charge on State funds has not arisen and is not Hkely to arise. The Press was originally attached to the Madras Military Orphan Asylum, and the latter has been amalgamated with the Lawrence Asylum. The major portion of the work turned out by the Press is surplus work which cannot be done at the Government Press, and would otherwise find its way to private Presses. Twelve lads apprenticed from the Lawrence Asylum are boarded and clothed at the expense of the Press, and any profit accruing is paid over to the Principal of the Lawrence Asylum for the benefit of the school. DISTRICT PRESSES AND GAZETTES. District Presses were first established in pursuance of an order District of Government passed in 1855- In the previous year the Collector of North Arcot employed a small pi-inting establishment [Section VIH. 406 MISCELLANEOUS. District Gazettes. which he worked at his own cost as an experiment. About the same time one of the Assistant Collectors in the same district set up a small lithographic press of his own to print the ordinary correspondence of the Rajahmundry Collector's office. The successful working of these presses and their utility being brought to the notice of Government, they ordered that a press should be set up at the Huzoor station of the most important Collectorates, and fifteen districts were shortly afterwards sup- plied. By March 1859 every district was furnished with its own press, and labor is now greatly economized by the printing of numerous papers, such as puttahs, forms of account, circulars, Proceedings of Government, of the High Court, and of the Board of Revenue, &c., which formerly had to be copied in manu- script. The presses are worked under the orders of the Collec- tors and managed by a Supervisor or Head Compositor receiv- ing a salary of Rupees 50 per mensem. In 1873-74 Mr. Keys, Superintendent of the Government Press at Madras, was deputed to inspect and report upon the working of the several District Presses. He brought to light several abuses which have been since rectified and prepared a manual for the guidance of the press establishment. The subjoined statement shows the annual value of work done and the receipts and charges during the last ten years : — Estimated Years. value of the work done. Receipts. Charges. ES. RS. RS. 1866.67 1,56,260 17,975 51,510 1867-68 1,89,126 24,261 54,731 1868-69 2,33,461 26,643 60,724 1869-70 2,28,883 29,292 55,783 1870-71 2,41,291 25,092 57,982 1871-72 2,23,000 18,994 58,905 1872-73 2,33,574 22,169 72,768 1873-74 1,43,028 20,556 67,964 1874-75 1,40,315 19,815 67,117 With the establishment of presses commenced the publication of District Gazettes, which were issued for the first time in 1856-57. The District Gazettes are published in each district fortnightly. As a rule, everything is in diglott. Two regular supplements are published, one the Police Sheet, containing matters of special interest to the Police Department, and the other a sheet containing the Standing Orders of the Board of Revenue. When Acts, Bills or other lengthy papers are published in the Section Vm.] DISTRICT PRESSES AST) QAZETTES. 407 Gazette, these are also put into a Supplement, so that they may be filed consecutively. The following are the principal statementa published : — the calendar ; a statement showing arrival and departure of vessels ; the cultivation and rain-fall and price list ; demand, collection, balance statement ; statement of business in the taluqs ; salt sales and manufacture statement ; statement of exports and imports ; vaccination statement ; and statement showing the working of the dispensary. The Gazette contains also all orders of a general nature ; notice of offences committed ; of appointments ; promotions ; leaves of absence ; returns from leave ; dismissals ; suspensions ; punishments ; deaths ; resignations, &c., among the District servants ; abridg- ments or brief notices of orders of Government or Acts of the Legislatures, and other matters of general or ofiicial concernment, such as Rolls of unclaimed sums in Regimental Cash Chests ; sales of land and notices of Abkari rents ; sale notices, &c. There are also Circulars issued by the Local Authorities when of the nature of Standing Orders ; Circular Orders of the Board of Revenue and of the High Court ; the result of criminal trials ; lists of stolen property ; description of escaped convicts ; and offers of reward for their apprehension ; changes in postal rules ; the progress of the Railway and other public works ; the proceedings connected with local exhibitions ; advertisements inviting tenders for contracts ; notices of the dates of preliminary and other hearings in the Civil Courts ; decisions of the Civil Courts, whether for Plaintiff or Defendant ; place where the Collector will hold his Cutcherry during the ensuing week, and similar items of intelligence. The advertisements and circulars of the Officers of the other Public Departments are published free of charge. Editorial articles, mere news or coiTespondence on any subjects, or comments on the proceedings of the Courts or Cutcherries have no place in the Gazettes. Private advertise- ments are published on payment. The District Gazette is supplied gratis to certain officials and persons, but the subscrip- tion of other persons is 3 Annas a month. Village servants and officials drawing less than Rupees 25 per mensem are supplied with the Gazette, post free, for a subscription of 2 Annas per mensem. [Section VIII. 408 MISCELLANEOUS. Nature of Government control, KEGISTRATION OF JOINT STOCK COMPANIES. Joint-Stock Companies are either registered under the Indian Companies' Act, 1860, or formed under some other Act or constituted by Royal Charter or Letters Patent. In the two latter cases the Companies are subject to the terms of the special enactment, charter, or letters patent, under which they are respectively constituted. Most Companies, however, are registered under the Indian Companies' Act of 1866, and under this enactment are controlled by a Registi-ar appointed by Government. The accoujits of such Companies are audited and rendered yearly, and the documents relating to them, which are kept by the Registrar, are open to the public on payment of a fee. The Registrar sees that the Memorandum and Ai'ticles of Association are in accordance with the Act, and that the docu- ments required to be furnished to him are duly sent in. MONEGAR CHOULTRY. Nature of the The Monegar Choultry in Madras is an institution which institution, affords shelter, food, and clothing to native poor and infirm persons without reference to caste. It was founded in the year 1808. Besides a Choultry or Pauper Asylum, it contains also an infirmary and a special asylum for foundling and stray children. The institution is supported by public contributions aided by the Government. The management is placed under the supervision of a Committee selected annually by the Government. TRIPLICANE LUNGHERKHANA. Nature of the institution. This is a poor-house of considerable antiquity, and was taken over by the Government from the Carnatic Sirkar in 1857. Charity is dispensed to out-door and in-door paupers to the extent of Rupees 400 monthly, which is the amount of the Section VIII.] GOVERNMENT WORKHOUSE. 409 Government endov?ment. The institution is managed by the Deputy Commissionei" of Police for Madras. SULPHUR LICENSES. Over a hundred tons of sulphur is annually expended or sold Nature of in this Presidency, and dealers are licensed to have in stock over menta^*" tviTO hundred tons. The sulphur is chiefly used in making gun. powder and fire- works and in blasting operations, and to some extent in bleaching ginger. A little sulphur is employed in medicine, and it has in some instances been used as a disinfect- ant. The manufacture of sulphur and its traf&c are regulated by the Arms and Ammunition Act, XXXI of 1860, under the provisions of which no one can manufacture or deal in sulphur except under a license. Magistrates may be empowered under the Act to grant licenses to sulphur dealers ; but the rule in this Presidency is for the Government to give the sanction on the recommendation of District Magistrates. The premises, books, and stock of licensed sulphur dealers are periodically examined by the Assistant Magistrates, and in the Presidency town by the Deputy Commissioner of Police ; annual returns are submitted by District Magistrates of the number of dealers and the business carried on by them. GOVERNMENT WORKHOUSE. The " Strangers' Home " at Madras, which had existed since Nature of tho 1867 as a private charitable institution, was in 1870 taken over institution, by Government as a Government Workhouse. The institution is now managed by a Governor and a Committee, of which the President is the Commissioner of Police for Madras. It is used exclusively in connection with the Vagrancy Act, No. IX of 1874, for the temporary housing of vagrants according to the provisions of that enactment. The annual budget grant for the expenses of the institution is Rupees 20,000. 52 [Section vm. 410 MISCELLANEOUS. MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. Koney. "Weiglits. There is no separate Mint in Madras, The currency is Impe- rial and consists in silver of rupees, half and quainter rupees, and double annas ; and in copper of single, half, and quarter annas, and single pies. The following are the amounts used in this Presidency for accotmts : — 3 Pies 12 Pies 16 Annas 15 Rupees 16 Rupees 1,00,000 Rupees 1 Paisa or | Anna. 1 Anna. 1 Rupee. 1 Gold Rupee. 1 Gold Mohur. 1 ]\Iadras Lakh, The sovereign is a legal tender for 10 Rupees. The nominal value of the Rupee in English money is two shillings. Accounts were formerly kept in Madras in Star Pagodas, Fanams, and Cash, and the practice still prevails in some parts of the Pre- sidency. The values of these coins are as under : — 80 Cash = 1 Fanam. 42 Fanams = 1 Star Pagoda. The Star Pagoda, when current, was made of gold 19| carats fine, and was nominally worth in English money about 7s. 6d. The original unit of weight in Southern India was the gold pagoda coin of 52j grains Troy weights ; 32 " Red Seeds " made one pagoda weight, and 10 pagoda weights made 1 pollum, A more stable ponderary unit however, and one still in universal use, is the Tola, a weight which is practically equivalent to the weight of a single silver rupee. The following is the table of weights in use in most Government operations in this Presi- dency : — 180 Grains 3 Tolas 40 Pollums 8 Viss = 1 Tola. = 1 PoUum. = 1 Viss. = 1 South Indian Maund. 20 South Indian Maunds = 1 Barum or Candy. The following table gives approximately the equivalents in English measures : — Section VIII.] MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 411 Madras Weights. Avoirdupois. Troy. 1 Tola ... 3 Tolaa 1 Pollum ... 40 Pollums 1 Viss 8 Viss 1 Maund ... lbs. oz. dxs. • • 6-582f • 1 • 3-748A 3 • 1 • 5-9421 24 • 10 •15-542f lbs. 3 30 oz. . . . 1 . . 9 . . . dwts. 2^ The various maunds or muns used under other Administrations differ from the South Indian maund considerably. In salt measure the following Imperial table is adopted, the maund being equivalent to 82f lbs. Avoirdupois the tola and seer remaining the same : — 80 Tolas = 1 Seer. 40 Seers = 1 Imperial Maund. The Imperial seer, which it was the object of Act XXXI of 1871 to introduce, (= 2-2046 lbs., or 857344 tolas) has not yet been applied to this Presidency. In linear measure the EngHsh foot and yard are superseding Linear the native measures, but the latter deserve notice. A table is ^®*surei given below based on a combination of the native measures with the English yard ; this is in general use and may be taken as approximately correct with reference to the equivalence of the English and native measures : — - 4 Ungulums or Thumbs = 1 Hand. 3 Hands = 1 Span. 2 Spans = 1 Cubit or Moolum. 2 Moolums = 1 Yard. 2 Yards = 1 Fathom or Thundum. 2,000 Thundums = 1 Coss. 4 Coss = 1 Kadum (10 miles). The basis of linear measure in the South of India is the m.oolum given above, which is the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger of a full-sized man. In square measure the use of the English Acre is encouraged, Square but the following table holds its ground, the native Cawny taking the place of the Acre : — 144 Inches = 1 Square Foot. 2,400 Square Feet = 1 Mannie or Ground. 24 Mannies = 1 Cawny. 484 Cawnies == 1 Square Mile. The Cawny is in proportion to the English acre as 121 to 160. Measure^ [Section VIII. 412 MISCELLANEOUS. Heasare of Capacity. In the greater part of the Presidency there are no actual dry and liquid measures of capacity, these measures depending in reality on the weight of different commodities used in connection with them ; thus the seer measure is understood to be a measure which when " heaped " will contain a seer weight of rice. In the neighbourhood of Madras however and in some of the Southern Districts, the ordinary grain measure is a " puddy " which, though variable, does not represent any weight. The following table is used in Government transactions, the Ollock being equivalent to 12^ cubic inches : — 8 Ollocks = 1 Measure or Puddy. 8 Puddles = 1 Marcal. 400 Marcals = 1 Garce. A parrah of chunam consists of 5 marcals. It will be seen that 20 Ollocks are equivalent to 1 English Gallon. The Imperial measure of capacity, which it was the object of Act XXXI of 1871 to introduce (:= a measure containing one Imperial seer of water at its maximum density, weighed in a vacuum), has not yet been applied to this Presidency. The following table shows in greater detail the exact dimensions of the Madras measures : — Weight of Rainwater con- Depth and Diameter Size for practice, Capacity tained by each Measure, the water being at 80° of Fahrenheit's Ther- Measures. inside, in in Inches and in Cubic Inches and Tenths. Inches. mometer, in lbs. Avoir. Tenths. dupois. Diamr. | Depth. Cvlindric. Square. lbs. oz. drs. grs. Parrah 17-2050 20 X 20 1 X 10 Cylindric. 4000 144-0-5-0 Marcal 100616 10-3 9-6 800 28 12 - 13 22 i do 7-9859 8-2 7-6 400 14 6 6 24 i do 6-3384 6-3 6-4 200 7 3 - 3 13 Measure (Puddy)... 5-0308 5-0 5-1 100 3 9 • 9 20 ^ do A do 3-9930 40 4-0 50 1 12 12 23 3-1692 3-2 3-1 25 14 6 12 Ollock 2-6154 2-6 2-4 12-1 7 3 6 i do J do 1-9965 20 20 6J 3 - 9 17 1-5846 1-6 1-6 H • 1 -12-22 Comparison of local food measures. For the purposes of the returns of food prices sent to the Government of India as mentioned in Section IV, a thorough comparison was four years ago made of the local food measures in use, taking the form of a conversion of capacity measures into weight measure. In each locality it was ascei'tained what Section VIII.] PRESIDENCY GAZETTEER, &C. 413 was the recognized measure of capacity used for selling grain and salt, what was the capacity of this measure in cubic inches, and how much weight of ordinary rice it contained in terms of the tola or rupee weight. The ratio between the weight of ordinary rice and that of other grains and of salt having then been arrived at by two independent methods, similar results were established for the other commodities. In establishing the ratio between grains and rice one ratio for the whole Presidency was decided on ; in the case of salt however the variations in different districts, owing to reduction of weight by transport to places distant from source of supply and other causes, were so considerable that several ratios had to be taken for the whole Presidency. The Board of Revenue, who made these calculations, are acquainted thereby with the weight of each principal commodity contained in each of the local measures ; and when the bi-monthly returns showing the number of measures of each commodity sold for a rupee reach them from the districts, they are in a position to issue tables showing their price lists in terms of a siugle common weight. At present the unit of weight adopted for the price lists is the seer of 80 tolas. A small fee is collected from shopkeepers, grain merchants, Stamping and others wishing to have their weights and measures tested Measures and stamped in proof of their being of the proper standard. The fee varies from 4 Pies to 6 Annas for each measure tested and stamped, and from the proceeds a small establishment is maintained for doing the work. The fee is not collected under any law, but the benefit of the arrangement is appreciated by the people, and many come of their own accord from long distances to have their measures tested and stamped. The receipts and charges up to 1873 were assigned to the general revenues, on the understanding however that the charges should never exceed the receipts, but they were then transferred to Provincial Funds. The receipts and charges usually average Rupees 10,000 and Rupees 5,000 respectively. PRESIDENCY GAZETTEER, &c. The Madras scheme of District Manuals and Presidency District Gazetteer was inaugurated before the appearance of the scheme Presidency for a statistical survey of the Indian empii-c put forward by Gaaetteer. [Section VIII. 414 MISCELLANEOUS. the Government of India, and does not exactly tally with it. In the Madras Presidency the different districts produce their own manuals, each at a different time, at a separate cost, and, to a certain extent, on a separate plan. The Presidency Gazetteer is to be a distinct publication, prepared hereafter from these manuals. On the plan adopted for the rest of India, no separate District Manuals are published, but the Gazetteers or " Statistical Accounts " of each province consist of a series of "District Accounts" placed side by side in one pubKcation; the District Accounts are in this case on one uniform plan, and are prepared in a central office from rough material supplied by the districts, while the cost is confined to that of the central office. The Madras District Manuals thus correspond to the district sections in the Statistical Accounts of each of the other Administrations ; the differences above mentioned are however too considerable to admit of their playing the same part in the compilation of the Imperial Gazetteer, and special arrangements will have to be made in Madras in the direction of supplying material for that publication. The following list shows the writers of the different manuals : — District. Writer of the Manual. Remai'kg. 1. Vizagapatam Mr. Carmichael Finished. 2. Madirra ... „ Nelson Do. 3. Nellore ... „ Boswell Do. 4. Bellary „ Kelsall Do. 5. Cuddapah ,, Gribble Do. 6. Coimbatore Messrs. Rice and Mackenzie- Do. 7. South Arcot Mr. Garstin In the Press. 8. Godavery „ Morris Do. 9. Chiugleput „ Crole Do. 10. Trichinopoly ,, Moore In progress. 11. Ganjam „ Maltby Do. 12. Kistna „ Leman Do. 13. Tinnevelly „ Bird Do. 14. Nilgiris ... „ Grigg In the Press. 15. Salem ... „ Le Fanu In progress. 16. Malabar ,, Logan Do. 17. Kuruool ... ... M.R.R. G. Kistna Chetty ... Do. 18. South Canara ... Not yet arranged Not yet begun. 19. Tanjore M.R.R. Venkasawmy Row. In progress. 20. North Arcot Not yet arranged Not yet begun. Translitera- tion. The transliteration of native proper names in the District Manuals is conducted in the main on the system of Sir William Jones as finally authorized by the Govei-nment of India for the purposes of the Imperial Gazetteer in February 1870. Sir William Jones' system may be described as the system of spelling according to continental vowel sounds, with an arbitrary Section Vni.] PRESIDENCY GAZETTEER, &C. 415 transliteration of consonant sounds ; being opposed in the former particular to the system of Dr. Gilchrist, which proceeded more phonetically in its rendering into English of native vowels, and to the common usage of Europeans, which may be said to be a mixture of the phonetic principle and tradition. The system as authorized by the Government of India for the Imperial Gazetteer is understood to be arbitrary only as regards the twelve ordinary vowel sounds, leaving the consonant sounds, which vary much in the different languages of India, to be variously represented. Systematic transliteration has not hitherto been attempted in this Presidency in the publication of Government Proceedings and other oflB.cial papers ; but it is in contemplation to take measures in that direction. APPENDIX. 53 APPENDIX TO SECTION IL (1) Statement showing the Tahiqs under the charge of Divisional Officers on 1st February 1877. O Designation of Office and Head, quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula- tion. Land Revenue. Eemarks. R3. Government Taluq. 1. Gumsur ... 277| 157,960 1,95,763 A portion of the Magisterial charge of Gumsur Taluq Zemindaries. is under the Senior Assistant. 2. Surada ... 46 15,324 4,000 3. Attigada 1491 77,228 60,000 1. Collector, Chetterpore. 4. Palur 16-A- 4,173 553 5. Humma ... 5 2,754 1,171 6. Bcridi 141 10,960 4,500 7. Kallikotta Total ... Government Taluq. 84 42,589 19,000 593-A 310,988 2,84,987 1. Chicacole 279i 200,655 2,48,G98 g Zemindars' Estates. "5" 2. Sreekurmaua of 171 16,927 ...* * The revenue is <6 Vizianagaram in Vizagapatam. included iu that of Vizianagram in 3. Karakavalasa ... 9-,^ 7,795 4,048 the Vizagapatam 4. Muugatavalasa . . . 5f 3,695 4,048 District. 5. Gottipalli 6^ 4,351 4,049 6. Takkali Estates... eife 58,054 49,088 7. Taria 28f 24,639 4,000 8. Chackipalli f 1,018 869 9. Konsalacottur ... i 674 393 10. Tarlepatta ■i 388 256 11. Chinnataugara ... s 395 424 2. Principal 12. Peddatangam ... t 564 424 Assistant 13. Tallavalasa 347 424 Collector •{ 14. Jarangi ... 2| 2,336 1,002 (First Aast.), 15. Yellamanchilli ... 1 643 654 Chicacole. 16. Beddam 1| 217 89 17. Belaraarapalava- 2§ 855 1,013 lasa. 18. Gopalapuram 5 5,165 3,699 19. Chittivalaea 7T^r 5,698 2,074 20. Parlaketnedi 451| 252,391 82,139 21. Urlam 14^ 11,061 13,582 22. Danta 4A 3,220 2,309 23. Tilaru 15^ 6,180 3,654 24. Towdam 2i 1,030 686 25. Akkayavalasa ... 1 788 278 I ^ 26. Santalaksimipu- rara. '16 485 1,192 [Appendix to ( 420 ) (1) Statement sliowing the Taluqs under the charge of Divisional Officers on \st February 1817 — (Continued). 1 Designation of OflBce and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula- tion. Land Revenue. Remarks. E8. 2. Principal f 27. Talasamudram ... ■•-8 923 2,383 Assistant 28. Liisaram 3 4 320 332 Collector 29, Rajapiiram 1' i 266 76 (First Asst.), •< 30. Seddibeharakut- 109 103 Chicacole. tur. {Continued). 31. Jonnupadu -fi- xe 138 93 L 32. Malgam 3Ialia1is. l^ 916 572 33. Parlakemedi 19,201 ...* * Area not known. Maliah Tracts. The revenue is included in that shown for the Par- Total ... 92511 631,344 4,32,681 lakemedi Zemin- Government Taluq. dary above. f 1. Berbampore 399 243,685 3,19,322 Tbe Magisterial :^ charge of a por- tion of the Ber. g^ Zemindaries. hampore Talnq is T to remain with tbe 1 ' 2. Daraskota 50i 31,262 25,000 Collector. § 3. Seerghar 20| 9,595 5,500 ¥ 4. Chiunakemedi ... 55-A 29,849 20,000 c 5. Aska 3fk 7,712 4,857 ' 6. Davabhumy 4 3,539 5,188 3. Senior Asst. 7. Kurla 8. Peddakemedi ... 3f 78t^ 5,457 40,810 5,455 23,500 (Second Asst.)," Berbampore. 9. Chicati 10. Surangi 11. Jarada ... 64i 14f 9 40,789 12,919 5,813 34,000 3,500 2,000 12. Jalantra 25^ 18,450 7,000 13. Barwa lOi 8,454 7,800 14. Mandusa 35f 34,508 14,000 c 15. Budarasingbi ... Maliahs. 16. Peddakemedi, 4i 3,244 26,937 500 Do. Surange, Budara- sintrhi, Jarada, and Maudusa Maliahs. Total ... 779-A- 522,023 4,77,622 Section II.] ( 421 ) (1) Statement slwioing flie Tahiqs under the charge of Divisional Officers on 1st Fehruary 1877 — (Continued). p Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula- tion. Land. Revenue. Remarks. s T i 1 4. Special Asst. Collector (Third Asst.), Russelkouda < in the low country. Beeligoodu in the Maliahs. V. r 1, Collector, ...J Vizagapatam. ' r 2. Principal Asst. Collector First Asst.), * Narasipatam. r 3. Senior Asst. Collector (Second Asst.),' Vizianagaram. Maliah Tracts. 1. Gumsur Maliahs... 2. Chockapad, Chali, Pasara, and Gati- gudu of the Gumsur Taluq. 3. Surada and Kuttin- gia Maliah and the portions of Chinna- kemedi Maliahs. 4. Chinnakemedi and Bodigada Maliahs. Total... Grand Total ... Zemindaries. 1. Vizagapatam 2. Bimlipatam 3. Serungavai-apu- kota 4. Chepudipalli Total ... Zemindaries. 1. Golakonda 2. Sarvasiddi 3. Viravalli 4. Anakapalli 5. Hill tracts of Gol. condah and Vira- valli. Total ... Rented. 1. Palconda Zemindaries. 2. Parvatipoor 3. Vizianagaram 4. Gajapatinagarum 5. Bobilli 6. Salur 7. Ganapiir ... 8. Koyagadda Total ... 28,864 7,202 73,551 RS. Area and revenue not known. Revenue not known. Population of these Maliahs is includ- ed in that of the Zemindaries to which the Maliahs belong. 109,127 50 2,297 1,464,355 11,95,340 216 243 318 615 90,467 113,079 130,362 162,827 1,392 496,736 a eg 1 > 874 960 688 597 500 26,720 129,185 166,184 143,549 15,880 1,02,374 1,90,595 3,619 481,518 2,92,969 432 402 333 276 333 222 2,000 1,000 191,908 123,830 149,920 121,758 140,739 77,006 63,127 59,780 4,998 928,068 ... I [Appendix to ( 422 ) (1) Statement showmg the Taluqs under the charge oj Divisional C^ficers on 1st February 1877 — (Continued). Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula- tion. Land Revenue. Kemarks, O 4. Special Asst. Collector (Third Asst.), Korapat. 1. Collector, Cocauada. r 2. Kub-Colloctor { (First Asst.), -{ Rajahmundry. ! L 3. Head Asst. Collector (Second Asst.), El lore. Zemindaries — Jeypore. 1. Kirapad ... 2. Kolupa... 3. Navarangapore ... 4. Malkangiri Total ... Grand Total ... Total ... Zemindaries. 1. Pittapoi-e 2. Cocanada 3. Coringa ... Government Taluq. 4. Ramachendrapur. . Total ... Government Talaqs. 1. Rajahmundry 2. Peddapoor Zemindaries. 3. Tuni 4. Badrachellum and Rakapalli. Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Ellore 2. Ernagoodam 3. Tanuku Total... 8,500 8,500 18,509 188 168 507 863 132,655 80,034 87,363 12,801 312,853 2,219,174 79,606 66,944 24,916 203,583 2,058 505 376 885 3,824 729 1,249 366 2,344 375,049 128,901 111,489 50,201 27,695 318,286 136,875 14.5,715 167,491 2,92,969 11,02,022 13,94,991 3,41,627* 8,34,842 11,76,469 Zemindari revenue, for which Taluq- war particulars are not known. * Including the revenue of Tuni. 1,57,303 2,35,551 21,090 4,13,944 2,19,794 1,95,217 6,16,189 450,081 10,31,200 Zemindari revenue included in that of Cocanada and Coringa. i Section II.] ( 423 ) (1) Statement shoiving tTie Taluqs under the charge ofDivisional Oncers on \st February 1877— (Continued). Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula- tioB. Land Revenue. Remarks. 4. Genei-al Depy. Collector, Narasapoor. 1. Collector, Masulipatam. 2. Sub-Collector (First Asst.), Guntoor. 3. Head Asst. Collector (Second Asst.), Bezwada. . 4. General Depy. Collector, Vimiucoudah. Government Taluqs. 1. Nai-asapur 2. Bhimaveram 3. Amalapoor Total .. Grand Total .. Government Taluqs. 1. Gudivada 2. Bandar ... Total ., Government Taluqs. 1. Bapatla 2. Guntoor ... 3. Sattanapalli 4. Repalli ... Total Government Taluqs. 1. Nandigama 2. Bezwada ... Zemindaries. 3. Nuzvid 4. Virsanapetah Total .. Government Taluqs. 1. Narasarowpettah.. 2. Palnad 3. Vinnncondah Total .. Grand Total .. 450 416 437 1,303 8,334 533 687 1,220 177,876 92,457 206,885 5,74,821 4,36,216 5,79,471 477,218 15,90,508 694 500 621 622 2,437 599 406 561 257 1,823 682 1,095 561 2,338 7,818 1,620,624 42,12,391 87,138 164,525 4,49,508 3,10,021 251,663 7,59,-529 143,629 126,997 101,728 169,912 5,90,405 4,07,008 3,69,704 6,45,838 542,266 20,12,955 106,452 83,081 107,465 55,662 2,04,247 1,57,092 1,08,221 20,829 352,660 4,90,389 120,619 120,658 64,508 3,4^,585 3,31,703 1,47,204 305,785 8,19,492 1,452,374 40,82,365 ( 424 ) (1) Statement slioioing the Taluqs tinder the charge of Bivisional 1st Fehruary 1877 — (Continued). [Appendix to Officers on Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula- tion. Land Eevenue. Kemarks. 1. Collector, Nellore. 2. Sub- Collector (First A.S3t.), <^ Ongole. 3. Head Asst. " Collector ' (Second Asst.), I Nellore. 4. General Depy. Collector, Naidoopet. 1. Collector, Cuddapah. 2. Sub-Collector (First Asst.), Madanapalli. Government Taluqs. 1. Nellore* 2. Gudur Total ., Government Taluqs. 1. Ongole 2. Kandukur 3. Kanigiri ... Zemindaries. 4. Darsi Division . . , 5. Podile do. Total .., Government Taluqs. 1. Kavali 2. Udayagiri 3. Atmakur Total ... Government Talv^s. 1. Rapur 2. Venkatagiri 3. Polar Division .. Total .. Grand Total... 1. Cuddapah Government Taluqs. 1. Royachoti 2. Kadiri 3. Voilpaud .. 4. Madanapalli Total ... 627 813 1,440 710 722 695 488 405 3,020 533 595 608 1,736 179,769 147,141 326,910 195,068 138,375 127,258 73,139 62,934 596,774 81,336 100,985 103,802 286,123 541 229 184 954 7,150 1,207 649 1,442 708 631 3,430 63,885 52,258 50,861 3,20,805 3,23,604 6,44,409 3,27,151 2,86,834 69,442 6,83,427 1,72,639 67,196 1,61,927 4,01,762 1,32,003 3,79,045 * The Magisterial charge under the Head Assistant Collector. ") Revenues included ) under Venkatagiri. 167,004 5,11,048 1,376,811 163,013 128,162 140,948 145,591 135,468 550,169 22,40,646 2,35,064 1,59,013 1,55,760 1,91,157 2,10,648 7,16,578 Section II.] ( 425 ) (1) Statement showing the Taluks under the charge of Divisional Officers on 1st February 1877— (Continued). Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula- tion. Land Revenue. Kemarks. 3. Head Assistant \ Collector, / (Second Asst.), I Ontimittah. / !. General Depy. Collector, Cuddapah ]. Collector, Bellary. 2. Sub-Collector (First Asst.), Gooty. 3. Head Assistant | Collector, (Second Asst.), Pennacondah. ' 4. General Depy. Collector, Harpanahalli. Government Taluqs. 1. Jammalmadugu ... 2. Proddatur 3. Pulivendla Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Bndwail ... 2. Sidhout 3. Pullampet Total ... Grand Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Bellary ... Government Taluqs. 1. Adoni 2. Alur 3. Gooty 4. Tadpatry ... 5. Anantapore Total ... Goverrmient Taluqs. 1. Pennacondah 2. Hindupara 8. Madakasira 4. Dharmaveram Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Huvanadgalli 2. Harpanahalli 3. Hospett ... Total ... 670 343 579 1,592 704 508 609 1,821 8,050 985 805 677 1,014 772 789 4,057 654 481 439 1,226 2,800 623 592 540 1,755 109,965 102,744 110,405 2,03,116 1,89,005 1,72,855 323,114 5,64,976 93,051 76,667 145,180 1,38,389 1,17,940 2,06,424 314,898 4,62,753 1,351,194 19,79,371 182,244 2,97,582 181,583 98,230 144,568 117,211 102,761 2,60,907 2,76,953 2,21,631 1,76,153 1,40,779 644,353 10,76,423 88,754 87,859 79,458 120,608 1,28,020 1,40,273 1,22,625 1,65,333 376,715 5,56,251 89,538 85,729 93,424 268,691 1,42,731 1,15,472 1,56,398 4,14,601 54 [Appendix to ( 426 ) (1) Statement showing the Taluqs under tJie charge of Divisional Officers on 1st February 1877 — (Continued). Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge- Area in Square Miles. Popula- tion. Land Revenue. Eemarks. 5. General Deputy 'I Collector, > Bellary. J 1. Collector, Kurnool. 2. Head Assistant Collector, (Second Asst.), Cumbum. 3. GeneralDeputy \ Collector, \ Nandial. ) 4. GeneralDepntyl Collector, > Koilkuntla. J 1. Collector, Sydapet . Government Taluqs. 1. Kudlighi 2. Raidroog ... Total ... Grand Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Nandikotkur 2. Ramalkota Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Cumbum ... 2. Markapnr Total Government Taluqs. 1. Nandial 2. Sir-well Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Pattikondah 2. Koilkuntla Total ... Grand Total ... Government Taluq. 1. Trivellore 864 890 1,754 11,351 1,186 836 2,022 885 1,039 1,924 777 487 1,264 1,190 637 1,827 7,037 308 93,228 87,779 181,007 1,653,010 101,866 146,195 248,061 123,042 92,665 215,707 107,320 71,066 178,386 173,434 98,844 272,278 914,432 186,404 1,12,609 1,57,367 2,69,976 26,14,833 2,21,277 1,81,541 4,02,818 1,66,686 1,01,160 2,67,846 2,05,527 1,66,462 3,71,989 2,35,429 2,33,544 4,68,973 15,11,626 2,52,384 Section II.] ( 427 ) (1) Statement showing the Taluqs under the charge of Divisional Officers on 1st February 1877 — (Continued). o S Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula- tion. Land Revenue. Remarks. 1 2. Sub-Collector C (First Asst.), | Chingleput. ( 3. Dy. Collector, f Sydapet. \ 1. Collector, Chittoor. 2. Sub-Collector (First Asst.), Vellore. L 3. Head Asst. Collector J (Second Asst.), 1 Ranipet. Government Ta luqs. 1. Chingleput 2. Madurantakum 3. Conjeveram T otal... Government Taluqs. 1. Sydapet 2. Ponneri Total ... Grand Total ... 1. Chittoor* 2. Paluianair 3. Chendragiri* Zemindari. 4. Poonganoor Zemin- dari. Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Arcot 2. Vellore 3. Gudiattum Zemindari, 4. Kangundy Zemin- dari. Total ... Government Talvq. 1. Wallajah Zemindaries. 2. Calastry 3. Karvattinuggur ... Total ... 474 635 447 132,328 197,308 168,036 RS. 2,22,376 4,22,563 4,05,905 Altered w^ith refer- ence to G . 0. , dated 17th July 1877, No. 2,321. s 1,556 497,672 10,50,844 "be a o 312 104,210 2,11,403 2,619 938,184 17,96,425 965 664 553 524 213,045 60,211 99,628 109,282 2,52,348 79,537 99,952 66,859 * The taluqg of Chit- toor and Chendra- giri are usually placed under the charge of anAssist. ant Collector, and if he leaves the district tempora- rily the Collector retains charge of the ChittoorTaluq, the Chendragiri Taluq being placed under the Head Asat, Collector, 2,706 482,166 4,98,696 o < 52; 379 281 443 179 157,391 179,156 162,980 52,047 3,23,685 1,91,972 2,48,216 22,959 1,290 551,574 7,86,832 516 602 634 216,204 135,104 289,894 3,82,549 1,76,816 1,80,495 1,752 641,202 7,39,860 [Appendix to ( 428 ) (1) Statement showing the Taluqs under the charge of Divisional Officers on 1st Fehruarij 1877 — (Continued). Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. 4. General Dy. Collector, Gudiyathum. 1. Collector, Cuddalore. 2. Sub-CoUector, Tindevannm Oovernment Taluqs. "l 1. Wand awash 2. Polur Zemindari. 3. Ami Jaghire Total .. Grand Total .. Oovernment Tahiq. 1. Cuddalore ■I 3. Head Assistant Collector), Virdachellam. 4. General Dy. Collector, Trikalore. Government Taluqs. 1. Trinomalay 2. Tindevannm 3. Villapuram Total Government Taluqs. 1. Virdachellam 2. Chedambaram ... Total Gover7iment Taluqs. 1. Trikalore ... 2. Kallakurichi Total .. Grand Total .. 413 330 170 913 6,661 459 990 810 611 2,411 566 393 Popula- tion. Land Revenue. 153,507 109,150 77,679 340,336 2,015,278 284,849 164,657 239,754 236,108 3,56,291 2,01,450 5,933 5,6-3,674 25,89,062 4,04,793 2,98,648 5,53,798 4,70,541 640,519 13,22,987 178,504 239,133 959 i 417,637 500 607 216,246 196,566 1,107 I 412,812 4,936 I 1,755,817 3,37,577 6,70,712 10,08,289 4,02,020 3,24,441 7,26,461 34,62,530 Remarks. Section II.] ( 429 ) (1) Statement slwivmg the Taluqs under the charge of Divisional Officers on \st February 1877 — (Continued). Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula- tion. Land Revenue. Eemarks, 1. Collector, ) Tanjore. j 2. Sub-CoUeotor (First Assistant), Negapatam. 3. Head Assistant Collector (Second Asst.), Conibaconum. 4. Asst. Collector, Tanjore. 5. Dy. Collector, Mayaveram. 6. Dy. Collector, ( Manargudi. ( 1. Collector, Trichinopoly. Oovernment Taluqs. 1. Negapatam 2. Nannilam Total Oovernment Taluqs. 1. Tanjore ... 2. Combaconum Total Government Taluq. 1. Pattukotta Government Taluqs. 1. Mayaveram 2. Shoalli Total .. Oovernment Taluqs. 1. Manargudi 2. Tritrapooudy Total .. Grand Total .. Government Taluq. 1. Trichinopoly 242 294 536 635 341 976 945 276 170 446 300 536 836 3,739 519 200,733 207,407 408,140 344,339 341,034 685,373 237,423 219,358 107,459 326,817 161,264 154,714 315,978 1,973,731 306,461 3,98,251 7,02,225 11,00,476 5,95,456 7,66,649 13,62,105 1,87,003 5,65,963 2,72,933 8,38,896 4,05,235 3,39,658 7,44,893 42,33,373 4,60,429 [Appendix to ( 430 ) (1) Statement allowing the Taluqs render the charge of Divisional Officers on 1st February 1877— (Continued). 1 w ■p Designation of Office and Head- quarter Station. Taluqs, Zemindaries and other separate Tracts forming the Charge. Area in Square Miles. Popula. tion. Land Revenue. Remarks. 2. Head Assistant \ Collector / (First Asst.), I Museri. / 3. Dy. Collector, ( Keelapalore. \ 1. Collector, ( Madura. ( 2. Sub-Collector ) (First Asst.), \ Dindigul. ) 3. Head Assistant \ Collector 1 (Second Asst.), ( Bamnad. / 4. Dy. Collector, f Madura. ( Government Taluqs. 1. Museri 2. Kulatalai Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Perambalore 2. Oodiarpoliem Total ... Grand Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Periacolum 2. Melur Total ... Government Taluqs. 1. Dindigul ... 2. Palani Total ... Zemindaries. 1. Ramnad ... 2. Shevagunga Total ... Government Taluqs, 1. Madura 2. Terumangalum ... Total ... Grand Total ... 931 667 257,174 228,313 RS. 3,44,411 2,30,525 1-H t^ lO r- S =5 00 00 00 ^ \a (M CO C<1 ■* 1> t-H o" Utl rH lO CO 00 05 CO « CO N rH o "* I-H CO CO CO o >A !M "* \n CO ■* rH i-t 1-H CJ : tA '■ '■ i>. 00 • • t>- d 00 00 00 00 r-1 ^ o I-H -d Oi 00 =2 d 00 . _ 00 03 O OS 00 2 ^ S I-H j^ rH ■^ in 00 u 'a o d h May h Feb. ti Apri H o O 43 H e 1878 e 1883 Feb. 1 H rH U 43 O o CO CO !■» i-H i-H cq d a jj d d m >-5 1-5 rH CJ o ,-l< r-l M s ^ -^ ' »n 5SS ■• r-i : • • • eo ■ • • • i> 00 rH j>. 5£ 00 ■* 00 t* op o CO 00 i-H >-> er 1 1859 1872 CO 00 00 05 t>-> 1-H January 186 Sept. 1875 April 1869 Do. 1870 September 1 .a i-H «=> ■^ d a-..^ Novem August Do. 43 o 42 S O O r^ ^ 18th Ja 27tb Se 8th Oc 05 p 43 'O -si «« hS ^ o ^ pc) ';3 >S ° ° 4 fifln •TO P bo =3 a is vj o d 3 « & » 43 cd > PhOhJ 243 d -S d 43 * s ® Ol CO CD ►?PQ02 Q a a 2 a 43 g a •" J d ^ -*^ O 2 ■ ■ riJ d a'^'O d K 2 > ^ _g Oh -^ § ^ CD T^ ^ be " f> ca d '^ Hj ._ s d *«^ d a o3 'd ^ 43 a a^ g s a d S 43 a cs 2 d 5 ts be d ci ca "^ S -, o ^d tf .3 S 43 _ > ea c3 n '^ PhPQ CB PP 02 -d T3 br 3 • a '■ as It d d 03 a » : Oi .rl d ca £ •« d J 43 =J o -c-a ,«^ a S5 ^ < -/3 >- O §■5 M S t. d ( 436 [Appendix to Section II.] •w 00 fc ^ ^ ;^- J >. sq ifl l> 00 !£ 00 O M ^ 35 CO ■* W5 CD CO •* ITS l^ o> X CO o CO 05 ■A CO ■* IM CO © CO ■* r-l ^ rH (M O PS O 05 C4 m lA 00 i-( IN 00_ 3i ^ 2 00 £- 00 ; X 5 r-( : rH -I . ; O 05 N 00 1-4 . r-l ,— S 00 S p is i 1-5 1-5 M H5 CO t-( M -- a< 00 CO CO • CO t^ CO -^ 00 X ooS IH r-( -H 00 . I-H cj 5s -° • Q ^ Et, o CD t^ X CD l-H X rd "^ u C .J Br 1-5 !zi M 2 ^ .5000 ■-30 000 0.25 c3 'c E bij c3 - a g a s^z; a^ ^ a S a SpaM c6 c c3 c3 '3 s i-5 a I - 3 ? -il 05 > CD ^^ C3 CJ !3 a O S fl a .H ?? « fc CO H Wco S (3 a Ph fa Ti ^ SS ^ rt 's a P a if S S ^ fl QJ C5 O 3 02 O -S a •s ^ . o . • a, • ■ o eS ^ .9 2 eta » cs 03 ^a . &, ra o c8 ■^ Q ■-« ' 2 ■ H § ^ ^ s> a • (8 ss . A. a > oD b», cS 3 c3 cS a ci a ,a c 0. g 0- 2 5 M >H M03 M 1^ INDEX VEKBOEUM. INDEX YEEBORUM. Page 48, 283, 288 ... 155 ... 157 ... 156 .. 155 314 279. Abkarry Accounts Huzur Taluq Village Account and Audit Acquisition of territory, see Terri- torial acquisition. Act, Christian Marriage, Indian ... 402 Court Fees, VII of 1870 305 Educational, VI of 1863 368 of 1871. 208, 379 General Stamp, XVIII of 1869 ...305 Land Improvement, XXVI of 1871. 138 Local Funds, IV of 1871 202 Municipal, Towns' Improvement, X of 1865 207 Municipal, III of 1871 208 Registration, III of 1877 196 Vagi-ancy, IX of 1874 409 Administi-ation, form of ... 22 of Tributary States . . 28 „ of the Land 79 Local Funds ... 202 „ Financial 274 Administrative Departments ... ... 25 Administrator-General ... ... 178 Advocate-General ... ... ... 176 Agency, Ganjam ... ... ... 66 „ Vizagapatam ... ... ... 69 Agricultural ... ... ... ... 202 Agriculture ... ... ... ... 216 Cultivable lands, description of . . . 216 Soils as afPecting agriculture dis- tributed 217 Seasons vrith reference to culti- vation ... ... ... ... 218 Irrigated land, treatment of ... 219 Unirrigated land, do. ... 220 Pasture land, do. ... 221 Garden lands, do. ... 221 Crops and fallows, rotation of ... 222 Cultivation, Coffee 227 Cotton 223 ,, ,, Experimental. 224 „ Indigo 226 Tea 228 Tobacco 229 Wheat 226 Condition of ryots ... ... 231 ,, farm laborers ... 232 Live-stock, treatment and condi- tion of ... ... ... ... 233 Fairs and Markets ... ... 234 Food Prices 234 Agriculture — ( Contd.) Statistics, General Agricultural... Government Agricultural opera- tions, direct Education, Agricultural ... Exhibitions, Public Agri-Horticultural Society Amani system of land tenure... Amani, revenue demand under Amrut Mahal or Cattle-breedingEstab- lishment Army Clothing Department ... Army, Madras, constitution of Anicut system — see P. W. Irrigation. Area of Banganapalli ... Cochin ... Districts Gaujam Agency Presidency Piiducottah Sundoor Taluqs ... Travancore Arrack ... Arts, School of Arts and Sciences Archasological remains in Presi- dency Architecture, nature of Govern- ment operations Madras Observatory, nature of the institution ... Meteorological Department, na- ture of the institution Museums, natui-e of Government operations Assessed Taxes... Assessment, Travancore „ Special cases of ... „ on lands containing mine- rals ,, Sub-division of ... ,, Standard rates of Asylum, Ootacamund Lawrence Avenues, road, conservancy of Ayacut cultivation, revision of Page 234 235 236 237 240 115 132 198 199 197 B. Banganapalli Area History Population Sanads Statistics . ... 62 ... 57 20, 152 ... 66 1, 159, 327 1, 59, 327 ... 63 ... 150 .. 31 ... 286 ... 388 ... 394 396 395 399 400" 394 291 46 136 137 137 127 389 202 137 61 61 62 62 62 62 440 INDEX VERBORUM. Page Berar ... ... ... ... ... 1 Eirtha and deathB, mode of register, ing ... ... ... ... .. 353 Board of Revenue 154,277 Bodagadah Maliahs ... ... ... 88 Book Department, Government, con- stitution of ... ... ... ... 384 Book registration ... ... ... 383 Nature of the system ... ... 383 Book translator .. ... ... ... 385 Botanical Gardens, Ootacamund ... 239 Budgets 275,312 ,, Provincial, preparation of a... 275 ,, ,, ntilizution of a ... 276 Buildinffs and Roads Branch, see under Public Woi'ks. Building sites, quit-rent on c. Canara Canarese Cannanore Cantonment Magistrates Cape Comorin ... Cardamoms Camatic Agency Family, History of Stipends of 1801 1855 Prince of Arcot Stipend Cash remittances Castes — see Census. Cattle Shows Ceded Districts... Census, Travancore Cochin Results of latest ... History of early . . . of 1871, operations of Gross results of Nationalities Hindus Mahomedans . . . Native Christians Eurasians Europeans Jains and Buddhists Density of population Houses ... Sexes, proportions of Ages of people . . . Religions of people Hindus Mahomedajia Christians Jains and Buddhisfca 126 17, 18, 22 ... 6 ... 57 ... 187 1 ... 50 19,21 ... 72 ... 70 ... 71 ... 72 Family 72 ,.. 324 ... 237 18,21 ... 31 ,.. 57 ... 327 ... 327 ... 328 ... 329 ,.. 330 ... 331 .. 331 ,.. 331 ... 332 .. 332 .. 332 ,.. 333 .. 333 ,.. 333 .. 335 ... 336 ... 337 ... 337 .. 338 ... 339 Castes. Brahmins ... 339 Occupations of Brahmins. 340 Divisions of „ ... ... 340 Kshatriyas 340 Ti-ading castes 341 Page Census — (Contd.) Castes —(Contd.) Agricultural ... ... ... 341 ,, laboring class .. . 343 Shepherd and pastoral ... 342 Artizan ... ... ... 342 Writer or Accountant ... 342 Weavers 343 Potters 344 Mixed 344 Others 344 Hill and wandering tribes . . . 344 Pariahs ... ... ... 246 Mohamedans classified ... 346 Occupations of the people ... 347 Education of ,, ... ... 348 Infirm persons ... ... ... 350 Vital Statistics, Comparative... 350 Central Jails 188 Chemical Examiner's duties ... ... 361 Chief staples ... ... ... ... 6 Chingleput 18, 21 Chinna Kimedy ... ... ... 68 Chittoor ... ... ... ... ... 5 Cinchona Plantations, Government ... 237 Civil divisions of territory ... ... 20 Civil Justice, (see also Criminal Jus- 191 tice.) Court, High, Civil Side 291 „ Madras Small Cause ... 192 Courts, District 192 District Munsifs' ... 193 Revenue 194, 195 Subordinate Judges' ... 193 Up-country Small Cause. 193 Village Munsifs' ... 194 Punchayets ... ... ... 194 Suits against Government and their Officers ... ... ... 195 Civil Service, Covenanted ... ... 25 „ appointments reserved by law. 25 ,, appointments held by usage. 26 ,, recruitment ... ... .. 26 ,, Uncovenanted ... ... 27 „ Other agency ... ... ... 27 Clerk of the Crown ... ... ... 178 Coal 241 Cochin ... ... ... ... ... 56 Annual subsidy payable to British Government ... ... 56, 57 Ai-ea ... ... ... ... 57 Census, recent ... ... ... 57 Features of the country ... ... 57 History of political relations ... 56 Population ... ... ... ... 57 Taxation 59 Treaties 56 Coffee planting 227 Coimbatore 17,18,22 College, Madras Medical 386 „ Civil Engineering ... ... 387 Committee for Examination of Assis- tants 390 Commissariat Department ... ... 198 Coonoor Gardens ... ... ... 240 Consuls and Consular AgenfeB ... ... 70 Coroner of Madra.s ... ... ... 181 INDEX VERBOR0M. 441 Page Cotton cultivation, ... ... 6,223 „ experiments ... ... ... 224 Egyptian species ... ... 225 Hinginghaut and Bunie species ... ... ... 224 New Orleans species ... 224 Western species ... ... 224 Yea Valley species ... ... 224 Courts, Criminal, Travancore... ... 36 Courts, see Criminal and Civil Justice. Court of Wards 173 Statement showing particulars of Estates under chai-ge of, see Appendix (2) ... ... 435 Cowle land 12,115 Ci-agnore ... ... ... ... 57 Criminal Justice, {see also Civil Justice.) District Session Courts ... ... 185 Jury system ... ... ... 185 High Court, Criminal Side ... 183 Jury system ... ... ... 184 Magisterial Courts ... ... 186 Cantonment Magistrates ... 187 Honorary Magistrates ... ... 187 Justices of the Peace ... ... 186 Magistrates' punitive powers... 186 Presidency Magistrates ... 187 Village Munsifs 187 Old Sudder Courts 183 Supreme ... ... ... ... 183 Foujdari-y Adalufc ... ... 183 Criminal Statistics, mode of collecting. 188 Crown Prosecutor ... ... ... 177 Cultivation, Coffee 227 „ Cotton 6, 225 „ Indigo ... ... ... 226 „ Tea 228 „ Tobacco 229 „ Wheat 226 Customs 292 Land 294 Sea 293 Customs, Travancore ... ... 30, 46 Cuttack Pensioners ... ... ... 74 D. Deccan 1 Delta system, — see Public Works, Irri- gation. Devicottah, Tanjore District ... 8, 17 Dewan Peishcars or Divisional Officers. 34 Districts 20, 152 „ Area 20,152 „ Population ... ... ... 152 „ Officers 152 District Courts 192 „ Jails 188 „ Post 270 „ Presses and Gazettes ... ... 405 „ Manuals 413 „ Translitei-ation of Native proper names ... ... 414 ,, Munsifs' Courts ... ... 193 ,, Session Courts ... ... 185 t Drayidian languages ... ... ... 6 E. Page Ecclesiastical, nature of the establish- ment, &c. ... 401 Education, Army Schools 199 „ Agricultural 236 „ of the people ... ... 348 Educational Department 364 Historical retrospect ... ... 364 Establishment of present Govern- ment Department 365 Schools 366 Act VI of 1863 368 Act of 1871 364 liecent progress ... ... ... 371 Controlling agency 371 Institutions classified ... 372, 382 Government Institutions ... 373 Quasi-Government „ ... 374 Aided institutions ... 375 Special ,, ... 378 Female education ... ... 376 Madras Univez-sity, constitution of 377 Normal Schools ... ... ... 378 Teachers' Cei'tificates ... ... 379 Government Scholarships ... 379 Financial system of Government Department ... ... ... 379 School fees ... ... ... 381 Educational outlay ... ... 382 Emigration 355 „ South Indian, nature of ... 355 ), „ Government protection 357 Endowments, public ... ... ... 76 Escheats, real and personal property. 77 Establishments, Eovenue — see Lands, Administi-ation of Government, &c. Estates, Poligar ... ... ... 107 ,, revenue demand on perma- nently settled ... 125 )> „ on rented out ... 134 „ Wards' 173 Examinations — Former tests 391 U. C. S 391 Teachers' Certificates 379 Excise on spirits, &c. ... ... ... 283 „ system. Proposed Salt ... 303 Exhibitions, Public 237 F. Fairs and markets ... ... ... 23i Farm laborers and ryots ... ... 232 Female education ... ... ... 376 Financial Administration, — see Reve- nue, Financial and Administrative. Financial, Travancore ... ... ... 55 Fisheries, Chauk and Pearl, in Tinne- velly 201 Food grains ... ... .,, ... Q „ prices ... ... ... ... 234 Forests, Travancore ... ... ... 49 56 442 INDEX VERBORUM. Page ■42, 283 ... 242 ... 243 ... 242 ... 244 ... 244 7, 17 7, 17 ... 183 ... 6 Forests ... History of the Department Object and fluties .. Present constitution Progress made Receipts and charges Fort St. David ... Fort St. Goorge Foujdary Adalut Court, Old ... Fruit trees G. Ganjam Agency ... ... ... 66 Area ... ... ... ... 66 Government jurisdiction ... 67 Hill tracts, nature of ... ... 66 Maliahs embraced by Agency ... 68 Meriah Sacrihce and Agency ... 68 Population ... ... ... 68 Garden crops ... ... ... ... 6 Garden lands ... ... ... ... 221 Gardens, — see below Government Gardens. Gazettes, District ... ... ... 406 Gazetteer, Presidency ... ... 413 General and Pohtical ... ... 1 Ghauts, Eastern and Western ... 1 Gold 240 Goomsur Maliahs ... ... ... 68 „ Pensioners ... ... ... 74 Government Agi-icultural operations. 235 „ Gardens 239 Agi-i-Horticultural Society ... 240 Bvirliar Garden 239 Coonoor Gardens ... ... 240 Kulhutty Garden 239 Ootacamund Botanical Gardens. 239 Government Law Officers ... ... 175 Administrator-Genei-al ... ... 178 Advocate-General ... ... 176 Clerk of the Crown ... ... 178 Coi'oner of Madi-as ... ... 181 Crown Prosecutor ... ... 177 Government Pleader ... ... 176 ,, Vakeels 177 Solicitor 177 Sheriff of Madras ... ^..180 Government of the Presidency ... 2 ,, Press, establishment, &c. 404 ,, Workhouse, nature of the institution ... ... ... ... 409 Grains 6 H. Health, see Public Health. High Court — • Criminal side ... ... ... 188 Civil side 191 Hindu village system ... ... 80 Honorary Magistrates ... ... 187 Horticultui-e, Cinchona ... ... 237 ,, Governjnent Gardens ... 239 HousBB, number of ... ... ... 333 Huzur accounta 157 I. Page Imperial Services, Civil, Militaiy, &c., — see Revenue, Financial and Administrative. Inam Commission — Origin of Inams ... Early measures by British Institution of, in Madias Work of the Commission Classification of Inams ... I. Religious Service Inams.. 167 II. Inams for purposes of public utility III. Inams for support of irri- gation works IV. Personal or Subsistence Inams... V. Inams granted by f onner Governments to Poli- gars and to those who filled hereditaiy offices of trust VI. Inams of kinsmen, depen- dents, &c., of former Poligars or Zemindars 179 VII. Inams connected with former general Police of the countiy VIII and IX. Village Service Inams — (a) Those enjoyed by Village Officers for Revenue or Police services still performed (6) Those enjoyed byartizans and others for services to village communities. . . Miscellaneous operations of Commission Close of Commission General Results ... Inams, enfranchised but unredeemed. Inam lands, revenue demand on ,, tenures, ordinary Indigo cultivation Institutions, Educational, — see Educa- tional Department. Instruction Irrigation Branch, — see Public Works. Irrigation Company, Madras ... 269 History of Company ... ... 269 Opei-ations, scope of ... ... 269 Iron 241 163 165 165 167 167 168 169 169 169 170 171 171 171 171 107 126 115 226 364 J. Jail accommodation Jails, Central ... „ District ... ,, Subsidiary Jails, Travancore 188 188 188 188 38 Joint Stock Companies, Registration of 408 Jummabundi, annual ... ... ... 127 Jiuy svstem — High Court 184. District Sessions Courts ... 185 Justice, see Criminal and Civil Justice. Justices of the Peace 186 INDEX VERBORDM. 443 E. Page Kandyan Pensioners ... ... ... 73 " Kerela, " Country or Travancore, Cochin and Malabar ... 39,56,87 Knmool 19,21,73 Kiu'nool Pensioners ... ... ••• 73 Kundupur Taliiq ... ... 22, 73 L. Land, Administration of Government and Alienated ... ... ... 79 Historical sketch ... ... 79 Movement of races ... ... 79 Landed institution, aboriginal. 80 Hindu village system, most ancient ... ... 80 ,, more recent form ... 81 Proprietary rights, ancient ... 81 Slavery ... ... ... ... 82 Land revenue, early system ... 83 Mahomedan invasions ... 90 Counti-y's state before ... 84 Tamil country ... ... 84 Western coast ... ... 87 Telugu country 89 British Government, early measiires of Madras 92 „ contemporary mea- sures, Bengal ... 92 Settlement, Permanent, in Northern Circars ... ... 93 Settlements in the " Jaghire ". 94 Acquisition of other territories. 95 Poligars, dealings with ... 95 Settlement of Baramahl ... 96 Settlements in Malabar ... 98 „ in Canara .. ... 99 Village rent syiitem, trial of ... 101 Ryotwari, final establishment of 102 Land Tenures, present ... 103 Government classification ... 103 Freeholds, perpetual ... ... 104 Zemindaries ... ... ... 105 ,, ancient and others ... 106 „ extent and value ... 106 Inams, enfranchised but unre- deemed ... ... ... 107 Poligar estates ... ... ... 107 Ryotwari tenures ... ... 108 Settlement, Principles of ... 109 Puttahs 110 „ tranferof ... ... Ill „ joint and divided ... 112 Land, application for ... 113 „ relinquishment of ... 113 Western Coast ... ... 114 Ooloogoo system ... ... 115 Mottafysal 115 Amani ... ... ... 115 Cowle lands, &c. ... ... 115 Iiiam tenures, ordin.ary ... 115 Land revenue, farming out ... 116 Mirasi rights ... ... ... 116 Lands unassigned in villages ... 117 ,, outside ,, ... 119 Tenures not Government ... 119 Land, private dealings in ... 122 Landed proprietors, number of. 123 Pag« Land — (Contd.) Revenue, collection of ... ... 124 Rates and amount ... ... 124 Demand on permanently-settled estates ... ... ... 125 Demand on Inam lands ... 126 Quit-rent on building sites ... 126 Demand on lyotwari holdings... 126 Jummabandi, annual ... 127 Assessment, Standard rates of. 1 27 Second crop cultivation ... 127 Water- tax 128 Waste remitted 128 Occasional remissions ... 129 Remissions, fixed ... ... 130 Deductions, sundry ... 131 Demand under Amani ... ... 132 „ on West Coast ... 132 „ under Ooloogoo ... 134 „ on rented-out estates. 134 Land Revenue, Miscellaneous... 134 Assessment, special cases of ... 136 Land revenue according to land from which derived ... ... 137 Assessment on lands containing minerals ... ... ... 137 Ayacut, revision of ... ... 137 Assessment, sub. division of ... 137 Land revenue, payments of ... 138 Tuccavi or advances to cultiva- tors 138 Land Improvement Act ... 138 Land for public purposes, acqui- sition of ... ... ... 139 Coercive measures ... ... 141 Rents, recovery of private ... 142 Establishments ... ... ... 144 Village offices, succession to ... 145 ,, officers ... ... ... 144 Village officers, emoluments of 146 ., establishments, revision of 146 Taluqs, number, area, popu- lation, &c. ... ... ... 150 Taluq officers ... ... ... 151 Districts, number, area, popu. lation, &c. ... ... 151 ,, officers ... ... ... 152 Board of Revenue ... ... 154 Accounts ... ... ... ... 155 Village accounts ... ... 155 Taluq accounts ... ... ... 156 Huzur accounts... ... ... 157 Lands, application for Ryotwari ... 113 ,, description of cultivable ... 216 Laud for public purposes, acquisition of 139 Lands held on cowles ... ... ... 115 „ Garden 221 ,, Inam — see Inam Commission. ,, IiTigated 219 Lying fallow 222 ,, Pasture 221 ,, Private dealings in ... ... 123 „ Reliiiquishment of Ryotwari ... 113 „ Unirrigated ... ... ... 220 Land tenures of Travanooro ... ... 39 Lands tenures — see above this head. Land Improvement Act, XXVI of 1871. 138 Landed institutions, aboriginal ... 80 ^A<^ INDEX VERBOEUM. Page Landed proprietors, number of ... 123 „ „ rights of ancient ... 81 Laud revenue according to land from which derived ... ... 137 „ coercive measures for collecting ... ... 141 „ early system ... ... 83 „ farming out ... ... 116 „ miscellaneous ... ... 134 „ nature of the entries under 282 „ of taluqs 150 „ payment of ... ... 136 Law Officers, — see Government Law Officers. Lawrence Asylum, Ootacamund ... 405 „ Press Legislating Authority ... ... ... 175 The Council 175 Limits of jurisdiction ... ... 175 Rules 176 Library of Oriental MSS 386 Linguistic Divisions ... ... ... 6 Literary, miscellaneous ... ... 385 Live stock, ti'eatment, &c. of ... ... 233 Local Funds Administration ... 202 Assets of Circles ... ... ... 203 Charges on Circles ... .. 204 Nature of Circles and provisions of Act 202 Local Funds, nature of entries under 318 Lungherkhana, Triplicane ... ... 408 Pa(fe 22 22 22 4 M. Madras Madras Observatory ... Magistrates. Cantonment Honorary ... Justices of the Peace Pi-esidency Village Munsifs ... Mahomedan invasions ... Malabar ... Malayalum Manuals, District Manufactures Maps, Survey Marine Department Man-iages, Registration of Procedure of the Registrars Masnlipatam Medical College, Madras Nature of the institution Medical Department Medical relief, defined Nature of agency for Civil Medical Service. Constitution of British » India Medical Services Medical, Travancore ... Measure, Linear „ Square Measures, Capacity „ Stamping Meteorological Department ... ... 21 ... 399 ... 187 ... 187 ... 186 ... 187 ... 187 ... 90 16,18,22 ... 6 ... 413 ... 248 ... 159 ... 200 ... 402 ... 402 7,9,17 ... 386 ... 386 ... 199 ... 359 ... 360 ... 359 ... 359 ... 327 ... 52 ... 411 ... 411 ... 412 ... 413 ... 400 Members of Council „ Ordinary „ Additional Military — Army, constitution of Commissariat Department Ordnance „ Army Clothing „ Remount Depot ... Medical Department Ednc.itional Pensions, &c. Mineral Resources Coal Government operations ... Gold Iron Mint, Travancore Mirasi rights Miscellaneous ... „ Literary Monegar Choultry, nature of the institution Money Money Order Department Nature of the system Monsoons Mottafysal system of land tenure Mountain ranges Mugundapuram Municipal Administration, Madras Town History and constitution ... ... 213 Income and Expenditure for eight years Taxation, nature of Municipal Administration, Mofussil. Former Acta Historical Survey Present Act, III of 1871. Present situation ... Munsifs, District ,, Village Museums Mysore ... Mysore Pensioners 197 198 198 199 199 199 199 199 240 241 240 240 241 54 116 401 385 408 410 326 326 2 115 1 57 214 213 207 208 209 187 394 1 73 N. Nagpore ... ... ... ... ... 1 Nanal Grass Fund 323 Nationalties, see head Census. Negapatam 13,18 Neilgherries ... ... ... ... 22 Northern Circara 9, 17, 20 0. Observatory, Madras ... ... ... 399 Offices, succession to Village ... 145 Officers, Executive, &c. of the Presi- dency 23 „ in direct communication with Government ... ... 23 Village 144 „ emoluments of ... 146 Taluq 151 District 152 of the Revenue Board ... 154 IMDEX VERBORUM. 445 Page Oil seeds ... ... ... ... 6 Ooloogoo system of land tenure ... ll.'> „ , revenue demand under ... 134 Ooriyas ... ... ... ... ... 6 Ootacamund Botanical Gardens ,, 2.?^ ,, Lawrence Asylum ... 389 Origin and object ... ... 389 Constitution and funds ... 389 Ootperas, or chimtable feeding-honnes. 50 Opium, Travancore ... ... ... 49 Ordnance Department ... ... ... 198 Oriental MSS., Library of 386 P. Palcondah Pensioners ... ... 74 Paper Currency Department ... ... 325 Parla Kimedy ... ... ... 68 Pasture land 221 Pearl Fisheries 201 Pedda Kimedy 68 Pensions, Non-political ... ... '76 „ Political 70 CamaticStipendsof 1801 & 1855—71,72 Cuttack 74 Goomsur ... ... ... ... 74 Kandyan ... ... ... ... 73 Kurnool 73 Military 199 Mysore ... ... ... ... 73 Palcondah ... ... ... ... 74 Prince of Arcot Family Stipends 72 Two-lakhFund 73 Petition System 78 Physical Geography ... ... ... 1 Influence on climate ... ... 2 „ production ... 2 Police, Travancore ... ... ... 37 „ Nature of the Department ... 182 Poligars, dealings with ... ... 95 „ estates ... ... ... 107 Pondicherry acquired by French, 1672 7 Population according to languages spoken ... ... ... ... 6 Population Banganapalli ... ... ... 62 Cochin 57 Density ascertained by Census. 333 Districts 152 Ganjam Agency ... ... ... 68 Mofussil Municipalities ... ... 211 Puducottah ... ... ... 59 Sundoor ... ... ... ... 63 Taluqs 150 Ti-avancore ... ... ... 31 Ports, Eastern and Western Groups. 200 Post, Travancore ... ... ... 53 Postal Department ... ... ... 270 District 270 History 270 Present arrangements ... 271 Imperial ... ... 270 Postage Stamps ... ... ... 307 Presidency Magistrates ... ... 187 Press, Siroar, Travancore 53 Pag« Press, Government, establishment and nature of work ... ... 404 ,, Lawrence Asylum, nature of institution ... ... ... 405 ,. 405 ,. 188 31,58 ,. 216 ,. 175 .. 316 .. 318 .. 317 317 ,. 76 354 .. 249 .. 249 .. 251 .. 257 .. 252 .. 252 .. 253 .. 253 .. 254 ,. 255 ,. 255 Presses, District Prisons Produce ... ... ... 6, Production and Disti-ibution Protection Provincial Services Decentralization scheme Financial results, present Heads of Receipts and Charges Public Endowments Public health, mode of ascertaining Public Works, General Organisation and divisions Nature of work done Government of India Works Provincial Government Works . Local and Special works Workshops Establishment „ charges ... Tools and Plant charges Execution of works Pnblic Works, Buildings and Roads ... 256 Nature of divisions ... ... 256 Public Works, Irrigation Nature of the division ... ... 256 Capital Extraordinary, nature of 257 Godavery Delta System ... 257 Kistna Delta System ... ... 258 Pennair Anient System ... 259 Cauvery Delta System ... 260 Chembrurabakum Tank System 261 Pelandorai Anient System ... 262 Palar Anient System 262 Sti-iviguntnm Anient System... 262 Capital Ordinary, nature of Revenue Head, „ Ordinary Agi-icultural, nature of Additional heads & sub-divisions Receipts iroxn Irrigation Works., Consei-vancy of „ Public Works, Railways Constitution of the department .. Puducottah Ai-ea Description History Physical features Population Revenue Treaties Pulicat Punchayets Puttaha „ joint and divided „ transfer of a. Quinologist Quit -rent on building sites 262 262 262 264 265 267 267 267 ..1,59 .. 60 .. 59 .. 60 .. 59 .. 59 .. 59 .. 61 13,18 .. 194 .. 110 ... 112 .. Ill 238 126 446 INDEX VERBOBUM. E. Page 3 38 267 Rainfall ... Ramandroog sanitarium Railways Constitution of Railway Depart- ment ... ... ... ... 267 Madras and South India Railways 267 Registrar-General of Shipping ... 200 Registration of Books ... ... ... 383 Registration Department — Establishment, &c. ... ... 196 History 196 Provisions of the law ... ... 196 Registration of Joint Stock Compa. Dies ... ... ... 408 „ of Marriages ... ... 402 „ , Travancore ... ... 38 Religious denominations, see head Census. Remissions of Revenue ... ... 128 fixed 130 „ occasional ... ... ... 129 „ on waste-lands ... ... 128 Remount Depot... ... ... ... 199 Revenue, collection of. — See Lands, Administration of Government, &c. „ Establishments — See ditto. Revenue Courts 194,195 Revenue, farming out ... ... ... 116 „ Financial and Administrative. 273 Classification of Revenue and Finance ... ... ... ... 273 Financial Administration, method of 274 Budgets 275 Provincial budget, preparation ofa 275 Provincial budget, utilization ofa ■■• 276 Board of Revenue, financial powers of ... ... ... 277 Disbursements ... ... ... 278 Treasury cash arrangements ... 279 Account and Audit ... ... 279 Imperial Services — Civil... ... 281 General, nature of the services. 281 Land Revenue, nature of entries under ... ... ... ... 282 Forests, nature of entries under ... ... ... ••• 283 Excise on spirits, &c., nature of entries under ... ... 283 Abkarry history ... ... 283 Taxation, present sources of. 285 Arrack revenue in the mofus- sil 286 Toddy revenue „ ... ... 288 Abkarry in Madras town ... 288 Progress of Revenue ... 290 Assessed Taxes... ... ... 291 Nature of the funds . . 291 Customs, nature of entries under ... ... ... 292 Sea customs ... .. ... 293 Fifteen years' collections. 293 Land customs ... ... 294 Salt, see also head — Salt „ nature of entries under ... 294 „ Administration, general view of ... ... ... 295 Page Revenue — ( Contd.) Imperial — [Contd.) Salt, Government, details of manufactm-e ... ... 296 Season 297 Storing and Depots ... 296 Manufacturers . . 297 „ payments to 299 Cost to Government ... 299 Sale at Depots 300 Retail prices, dealers' ... 301 Consumption ... ... 301 Export and import arrangements... ... 302 Statistics 302 Excise system, proposed. 303 Stamps, nature of entries under. 303 History of Stamps ... ... 304 Acts in operation ... ... 305 Manufactui-e, supply and sale. 306 Postage and Telegraph Stamps ... ... ... 307 Mint, nature of entries under... 308 Post Office, „ ... 30S Law and Justice, „ ... 308 Interest, „ ... 309 Superannuation, „ ... 309 Exchange, „ ... 309 Refunds and drawbacks „ ... 309 Administration, ,, ... 310 Minor departments, „ ... 310 Medical, „ ... 310 Allowances and assignments, nature of entries under ... 310 Public Debt, nature of arrange, ments for .. ... ... 310 Loans from Government, nature of arrangements for ... 311 Imperial Services — Military ... 311 Nature of Military Finance ... 311 Imperial Services — -Public Works. 312 Nature of Finance and Account system ... ... ... 312 Budgets 312 Disbursements ... ... 313 Accounts ... ... ... 314 Imperial Services — Telegraph ... 815 Provincial Services ... ... 316 General, nature of services ... 316 Decentralization scheme, his- tory of ... ... ... 316 Financial Results, present ... 317 Head of receipts and charges. 317 Local Funds, nature of entries under ... ... ... 318 Special Funds, nature of entries tmder ... ... ... 319 Cash Remittances ... ... 324 Statistics ... 324 Paper Currency Department ... 325 Natui'e of an-angements for ... 325 Money Order Department ... 326 Nature of Money Order system. 326 Revenue Settlement— Baramahl or Salem ... ... 96 Canara ... ... ... ... 99 "Jaghire" 94 Malabar ... ... ... ... 98 Nsrthern Circars, permanent ... 93 INDEX VERBORUM. 447 Page Revenue Settlement Department. History and nature of Depart- ment 160 Revenue Survey, see Surveys. Reuts, recovery of private .. ... 142 Road avenues, conservancy of ... 202 Ryots and farm -laborers, their agricul. tural condition ... ... ... 231 Ryotwari, early establishment of .. 102 „ holdings, revenue demand on 126 Ryotwari Tenures, see this head Lands, Administration of Govern- ment, &c. Sadraa 13, 18 Salem 16, 18, 22 Salt Administration, general view of. 2^o „ Government, details of manufac- ture 296 Season for manufacture ... 297 Storing and Dejiots ... 298 Manufacturers and pay- ments to them ... ... 290 Cost to Government ... 299 Sale at Depots 300 Retail prices, dealers' ... 301 Consumption ,,. ... 130 Export and Import arrange- ments 302 Statistics 302 Excise systenj, proposed... 303 Salt, Ti-avancore ... ... 47, 48 Sanads, see also Treaties. Bang^iuapallai ... ... ... 62 Sundoor ... ... ... ... 64 Sanitary Statistics ... ... ... 351 ,, Commissioner's duties ... 351 Sanitation, practical, distribution of ... 354 Scheduled Districts. Ganjam Hill Tracts 69 VizagapatamHill Tracts ... 69 Scholarships, Government ... ... 379 Schools, Army ... ... ... ... 199 „ Grant-in-aid ... ... ... 366 ,, Normal ... ... ... 378 „ Private 366 „ Vernacular, in Travancore ... 51 School of Arts, Madras 388 School Book and Vernacular Litera- ture Society ... ... ... ... 385 School Fees 381 Seasons ... ... ... ... ... 218 Secretariat, Government ... ... 22 Seringapatam, fall of, 1799 ... ... 17 Settlement Depjirtment ... ... 160 Settlement of land revenue, see Reve- nue Settlement. Sessions Courts ... ... 184,185 Sexes, proportions of the ... ... 332 Sheriff of Madras 180 Slavery ... .. ... ... ... 82 Small Cause Courts — Madras 192 Up-oountry 193 Page Soils 217 Special Funds ... ... ... ... 319 Canal and Ferry 323 Cattle Pound 321 Cochrane's and Sadras Canal ... 323 Endowment ... ... ... 322 Irrigation Cess ... ... ... 323 Juugle Conservancy ... ... 320 Nanal Grass ... ... ... 323 Public Bungalow 323 Surplus Pound ... ... ... 321 Village Service 322 Spirits, excise on ... ... ... 283 Abkary history ... ... ... 283 „ in Madras Town 288 Taxation on ... ... ... 285 Arrack revenue in Mofussil ... 286 Toddy „ ... 288 Progress of revenue 290 Staff Corps 26 Stamps, history of ... ... ... 304 Acts in operation ... ... ... 305 Manufacture, supply and sale ... 306 Postage and Telegraph 307 Stamping weights and measures ... 413 Staples 6 Stationery, nature of the Depax'tment. 403 Statistics, Cash Remittances ... ... 324 ,, Criminal 188 ,, General Agricultural ... 234 „ Madras Town Municipality. 214 ,, Mofussil Municipalities ... 210 „ Salt ... 302 ,, Sanitary ... 351 Vital 327,350 " Strangers' Home " ... ... 409 Subordinate Judges' Courts ... ... 193 Subsidiary Jails... ... 188 Sudder Courts, old ... 183 Sulphur Licenses. Kature of arrangements for ... 409 Suits against Government and their Officers ... 195 Sundoor ... ... 63 Area ... 63 Description ... 63 Histoi-y ... 64 Inams, principal ... ... 63 Population ... 63 Rajah's debts ... 63 Revenue ... 63 Sanads ... 64 Sanitarium, Ramandroog ... 65 Superintendent of Marino ... 200 Supreme Court, late ... 183 Surad.ah Maliahs ... 68 Suranji Maliahs ... 68 Surveys, Travancore ... ... 45,53 Surveys — Hi.story of Department 158 Maps 159 Nature of Work ... ... ... 158 Progress to date 159 Sydapet Fa,yms ,., , 235 448 INDEX VERBORUM. T. Tallapnlly Taluqa Area Land Revenue Number Officers Population P»ge ... 57 ... 150 ... 150 ... 150 150, 327 ... 151 ... 150 Statement showing, under charge of Divisional Officers, — see Appendix (1) ... ... ... 419 Taluq Accounts ... ... ... 156 Tamnlians ... ... ... ... 6 Tamil Country 84 Taxation, Cochin ... ... .. 59 ,, Madras Town Municipality... 213 „ Mofnssil Municipalities ... 211 „ on Spirits ... ... ... 285 „ Travancore ... ... ... 32 Tea planting ... 228 Teachers' Certificates ... ... 379 Telegraph Department ... ... 272 Telugu ... ... 6 Telugu Country ... ... 89 Territorial acquisitions 17,95 Canara, 1799 iV, 18, 22,95 Carnatic, 1799, 1801 19, 21 Ceded Districts. Bellary, 1800 ... 18, 21, 95 Cuddapah, 1800... 15, 21, 95 Kurnool, 1800, 1839 19, 21,95 Chingleput, 1763 ... 18, 21 Coiml»atore, 1799... "iV, 18, 22,95 Coorg, 1792 16, 18 Devicottah, in Taujore, 1794 8, 17 Dindigul, 1792 16,18,95 Fort Saint David built, 1691 7, 17 „ George built, 1639 7, 17 Fort of Tellicherry, 1708 17 Guntoor, 1768 18 Malabar, 1792 ... 16, 18, 22, 95 Masulipatam, trading settlement, 1620 7, 17 Masulipatam acquired, 1757 9, 17 Nagore and 277 villages, 1776 ... 18 Negapatam, 1781 13, 18 Northern Circars, 1765-6... 17, 20 Pulicat, 1781 13, 18 Ramnad in Madura, 1795 ... 19 Sadras, 1781 13, 18 Salem orBaramahl,1792... 16, 18, 22,95 Tanjore, 1799 18 Tranquebar, 1845 19 Wynaad, 1799 17, 18 Tobacco cultivation ... ... ... 229 Toddy, revenue from ... ... ... 288 Topographical Survey, work done and in progress ... ... ... ... 160 Trade and manufactures ... ... 245 „ amount ... ... ... ... 245 „ internal 247 „ Manufactures ... ... ... 248 ,, particulars of ... ... ... 246 Traders, number of ... ... ... 248 Travancore ... ... ... ... 28 Annual subsidy payable to British Government ... .,, 29 History of political relations ... 28 Page Travancore — (Contd.) Customs Convention ; its condi- tions, 1865 30, 46 Features of the country .. . ... 30 Treaties 29 Area 31 Population... ... ... ... 31 Produce ... ... ... ... 31 Census ... ... ... ... 31 Taxation ... ... ... ... 32 Judicial system, growth of ... 33 „ machinery, present ... 35 „ Regulations ... 33, 34 Revenue Regulations ... ... 35 Dewaa Peishcars or Divisional Officers 84 The Bar 36 Criminal Courts ... ... ... 86 Police 37 Jails 38 Registration of Assurances ... 38 Land tenures ... ... ... 39 Jenmum lands, Devasora and Bramasum ... ... ... 39 Jenm lauds, large holdings ... 44 Devasom, pagoda lands ... 39 „ assumed ... 44, 50 ,, revenue and expen- diture ... ... 50 Bramasum, those held by Brahmins ... ... ... 39 Madam biiriar lands ... ... 40 Sircar lands ... ... ... 40 (1) Kundukrishipattom or " home farms " of the sovereign ... 41 (2) Kuttagapattom, or lands bought from Dutch and Jenmi, and jungle lands ... 41 (3) Vempattom, lands pay- ing full tax or assess- ment ... ... 41 (4) Otti, mortgaged lands. 42 (5) Anubogum, Personal luams ... ... 43 (6) OUium, Service Inams. 43 Surveys and Assessment ... 45 Cesses, extra ... ... ... 46 Assessment, mode of collecting ... 46 Customs duties, former ... ... 46 Salt monopoly ... ... ... 47 ,, present supply ... ... 48 Abkarry ... ... ... ... 48 Opium ... ... ... ... 49 Forests ... ... ... ... 49 Cardamoms ... ... ... 50 Ootperas, charitable feeding- houses ... ... ... ... 50 Vernacular Schools ... ... 51 „ of Missionary Societies ... ... ... 52 Medical Department ... ... 52 Revenue Sui-vov Department ... Sg Press ... ' 53 Uujel or Local Post ... ... 53 Mint 54 Elephant Department ... ... 54 Financial Eetorns 55 IlfDEX VEKBORCJM. 449 Treasury cash arrangements ... Treaties, {see also Sauads). ,, Cochin ,, Puducottah ..- „ Travancore ... Tributary States, Administration of Trichoor Tuccavi, or advances to cultivators Tulu Two-lakh Fund Pensioners ... u. Uncovenantod Civil Service ... „ other Civil Agency University of Madras ... U. C. S. Examinations Test Examinations, former General Test, present Special Test, do. Page . 279 . 56 . 61 ,. 29 . 28 . 57 . 138 6 . 73 .. 27 .. 27 .. 377 .. 391 .. 391 .. 392 .. 392 V. Vaccination Vakeels, Government ... Vernacular Literature Society Village Accounts lands uiiassigned Officers ... ,, emoluments of Offices, succession to .. Establishments, revision of 362 177 385 155 117 144 146 145 147 Munsifs' Com-ts ... 187,194 system, Hindu... ... ... 80 Trial of Rent ... 101 Villages, Number of 150,327 Vital Statistics and Medical Services 327 Vizag'apatam Agency ... ... ... 69 History ... ... ... .. 69 Limits of agency ... ... . . 69 w. Wards' Estates Wars with Hyder and Tippoo. Amboor, siege of, 1767 Arcot seized by Clive, 1751 Arcot fort captured, 1760 Arikera, battle of, 1792 ... Arnee, battle of, 1751 Bangalore taken, 1791 Changamma, battle of, 1767 Gingee fort captured, 1760 Malvelly, battle of, 1799... Mangalore, siege of, 1782 Porto Novo, battle of, 1781 Seringapatam, fall of, 1799 Sholinghur, battle of, 1781 Tellicherry, battle of, 1781 Trinomallee, battle of, 1767 Tripassore fort taken, 1781 Wandevcash, battle of, 1760 ,, siege of, 1781 Water Tax Western Coast, revenue demand on ,, ryotwari tenure ,, state before Mahome dan invasions Weights „ Stamping Wheat cultivation Wild animals, destruction of Workhouse, Government Workshops, Public Works z. Zemindaries ancient and others extent and value Page . 173 10 8 9 15 , 8 15 , 10 9 . 17 . 14 . 12 . 17 . 12 . 13 . 10 . 12 9 , 12 , 128 . 132 , 114 , 87 , 410 413 226 202 409 253 105 106 106 J RETURN Government Documents«Department T0—^> 350 Main Library 642-2568 LOAN PERIOD 1 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS DUE AS STAMPED BELOW jV 0;^ !Jv/ DOCS DEPT. TJETJ JUN 1^1991 JUN 1 ^ 1991 JUN151991 "^rnmmm Wimr^ DOCS DEP 'i . ''' - ''^ ■I T; : ^ . 'u Kr ^^iHsr UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD7. 68m. 1/82 BERKELEY, CA 94720 ®s U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES CDE57E15b5 y '^0* 28 7 7 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY m.