l^'tUKfJIift V .. » »°J > • • • A MODERN CROP OF INDIAN CORN And still later, when the Autumn Changed the long, green leaves to yellow, And the soft and juicy kernels Grew like wampum hard and yellow, Then the ripened ears he gathered, Stripped the withered husks from off them, . . . And made known unto the people This new gift of the Great Spirit. — Longfellow in!i:n!"!ll!!lll!!ll!!ll!!l!l'll!'l!llll IHI!lll!!!ll'llllllllllllll!!imi!l!l'nill![TTTTnT ^^ ^a" =="< yy =9= «/ 3» *■! ix: FRYE-ATWOOD GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES ^^^ ^^^ ~'f' —^ —^ " " — " — ^ — '^ — ^ — »^y NEW GEOGRAPHY BOOK TWO BY WALLACE W. ATWOOD GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS - COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO TTTTTTTTTTTTTTimT PREFACE 15 In this series Book One has introduced the child to the study of geography in a most delightful and most effective way. After visiting homes in various parts of the world an introductory study is made of the different nations of the* earth. Book Two follows a wholly new method of treatment, avoids repetition of matter pre- sented in Book One, and guides the pupil to a much fuller knowledge and understanding of geography. Human geography is the keynote of the series. Em- phasis is given to the study of those factors that have a controlling influence upon the life and activities of people. The " New Geography " becomes an applied science of fundamental significance to all American citizens. The natural regions of the world, differing as they do in surface features, climate, and resources, have produced widely different occupations and modes of life. They serve, therefore, as the best units for study. Regional geography is not a new idea ; it is the goal toward which the best scientific thought and the best pedagogy have long been progressing. The simplicity and the logic of this approach has each year won new supporters. The one thing lacking has been a textbook constructed on this principle. Regional maps. The natural regions of the United States as shown in this book are the work of the geographers of the Association of American Geographers and of the United States Geological Survey. For the other countries of the world the leading authorities of several nations have been studied. The consistent use of one simple color scheme on the maps enables the pupil to gain most easily a picture of the different physical settings in which the scenes of huin3,ix Hffe are enacted. Other maps. A new "fiiid very u&efOT series of eco- nomic and commercial \njaps .eltow; gi:a,pHically the chief exports and im^0rt3;:Th&*ro'u'tes of inland trans- portation are also clearly shown. From these maps the essential facts of commercial geography can be readily comprehended and easily remembered. The relief and vegetation maps are also entirely new. By a skUlful use of color they show the relief, drainage, and distribution of vegetation. The series of colored rainfall maps indicate effectively the periods of heavy or of light rainfall that are of such great importance in agriculture. Comparative map studies are introduced as a new feature. With maps in the hands of each pupil, show- ing the relief, drainage, vegetation, rainfall, and distri- bution of population, the data are available for the solution of many excellent problems. Problem method. The understanding of the geographic conditions in a natural region is the fundamental basis for the discussion of problems relative to the life and occupations of the people living in that region. Numer- ous concrete problems and topics for discussion have been formulated, and many practical exercises that may be assigned for library or home study have been prepared. Picture study. The illustrations are accompanied by very full legends ; each view teaches some importa,nt fact. A remarkable series of aeroplane drawings of the great cities and their surroundings assists in a proper emphasis on urban geography. Mathematical geography. While all necessary infor- mation has been given as needed, mathematical geog- raphy in general has been postponed until the pupil has become familiar with the details that should serve as the basis for such world-wide or universal conceptions. The United States — a world power. At the close of the book the pupil is brought back to his own country. Against the background of world conditions he now examines our natural resources, the role they play in our industrial life, and the care that should be taken to conserve them. This leads to the treatment of our inland and foreign commerce and the development of our international relations and responsibilities. Acknowledgments. In the preparation of this book Mr. Frye, Mrs. Atwood, Mr. William T. Oliver, several map experts, many government departments, many railroads and chambers of commerce, the Pan American Union, and members of the author's staff and that of Ginn and Company have given most valuable assistance. The proof sheets were criticized by Miss Nellie B. Allen of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, by Mrs. Jane Perry Cook of the Chicago Normal College, and by Mr. Grant E. Finch of the Montana Normal School. To all the author expresses his sincere thanks. WALLACE W. ATWOOD Harvard University COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY WALLACE W. ATWOOD • ALL RIGHTS RESERVED • ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL THE ATHEN^UM PRESS • GINN AND COMPANY • PROPRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. • ,-. 420.6 ii l.iai«Ar?r CEOGRAPHY DEPT. iJl!linilllinillllll!llllillllll|!i!l!!;ill'l'll'lllllin!l!lllll!ll'!!ll!llll!H!!|inil!linillllllll|l!J EL CONTENTS M NORTH AMERICA PAGE The United States 1 Northern Division of the Appa- lachian Highlands (New England) 5 Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain . . 14 Southern Division of the Appalachian Highlands 26 Interior Highlands 38 Central Plains 39 Great Plains 53 Rocky Mountains 59 Western Plateaus 65 Pacific Mountains and Lowlands . 70 ^ Comparative Map Studies ... 82 Possessions of the United States 83 Alaska 83 Hawaiian Islands 87 Panama Canal Zone 88 Porto Rico 90 Virgin Islands 91 Philippine Islands 92 Guam 95 Samoan Islands 95 The Nation as a Whole ... 98 Canada 103 Appalachian Highlands .... 103 Laurentian Upland 104 Hudson Bay Lowland 105 Central Plains 105 Great Plains 106 Western Mountains and Plateaus . 108 Newfoundland and Labkadok . 110 Mexico Ill Centkal America 114 West Indies 115 Trinidad 120 Bermud.\ Islands 120 The Continent of North America 121 Comparative Map Studies . . . 124 SOUTH AMERICA Introduction 125 Natural Regions 127 Brazil 130 The Guianas 134 Venezuela 136 Colombia 138 PAGE Ecuador 138 Peru 140 Bolivia 142 Chile 144 Argentina 148 Paraguay 152 Uruguay 154 Falkland Island.s 155 Colon Archipelago 155 Comparative Map Studies . . . 156 EUROPE Introduction 157 Natural Regions 158 Coast Line 162 Influence of the Ice-Sheet.s . . 162 Climate 163 Natural Resources 163 British Isles . 164 Norway and Sweden 170 Denmark 174 Iceland 175 The Netherlands 175 Belgium 177 Luxemburg 179 France 180 Switzerland 187 Germany 189 Austria 193 Hungary 194 Czechoslovakia 195 Poland 196 Baltic States 197 Finland 197 Ru.ssia 198 Small Countries South of the Caucasus 200 Ukraine 202 Rumania 202 Mediterranean Lan^s .... 203 Spain \ . . 204 Portugal 206 Italy 207 jugo.slavia 213 iii PAGE Albania 213 Bulgaria 214 Greece 214 Constantinople and the Turks . 215 Comparative Map Studies . . . 216 AFRICA Introduction 217 Natural Regions 220 Climate 220 Vegetation and Animal Life . 221 Natural Resources 221 British Possessions 222 French Possessions 225 Other European Possessions . . 228 Independent Countries .... 229 Comparative Map Studies . . . 230 ASIA Natural Regions 231 Climate 234 Countries op Southwestern Asia 235 Countries of West-Central Asia 239 Siberia 240 The Republic of China .... 242 Japan 246 Indo-China 249 The Malay States 251 India 252 Small Countries in the Himalaya Mountains 254 East Indies 255 Comparative Map Studies . . . 256 AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND PACIBIC ISLANDS Australia 257 New Zealand 263 Pacific Islands 264 Comparative Map Studies . . . 265 POLAR REGIONS North Polar Region 266 South Polar Region 266 -426220 WORLD GEOGRAPHY PAGE World Geography 267 The Earth ix the Universe . . 276 THE UNITED STATES — A WORLD POWER ixtroduction 277 Natural Resources of the United States 278 Soils 278 Forests 284 Mineral Resources 286 Water 295 Fisheries 297 Industries Dependent upon Im- ported Raw Materials . 299 Inland Commerce 300 Foreign Commerce 302 Summary and Conclusion . . . 304 APPENDIX Reference Books i Geographical Explorations . . ii, iii World Production Maps . . . . iv, V Great Trade Routes .... vi, vii Tables op Area and Population viii Index and Pronunciations . . . xi INDEX OF MAPS Maps in Colors Africa, Physical (showing Natural. Regions) 218 Africa, Political and Economic . . 227 Africa, Rainfall and Population . . 230 Africa, Colored Relief and Vegetation 230 Alaska, Political and Economic . . 84 Asia, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 232 Asia, The Near East, Political and Economic 237 Asia, The Far East, Political and Economic 247 Asia, Political and Economic . . 250 Asia, Rainfall and Population . . 256 Asia, Colored Relief and Vegetation 256 Australia, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 258 Australia, Political and Economic . 260 Australia, Rainfall and Population . 265 Australia, Colored Relief and Vege- tation 265 Canada, Political and Economic . . 107 Central America, Political and Eco- nomic 118, 119 Europe, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 161 Europe, North Sea Countries, Polit- ical and Economic . . . . 171 Europe, Central, Political and Eco- nomic 182, 183 Europe, Eastern, Political and Eco- nomic 201 Europe, Mediterranean Sea Countries, Political and Economic . . 208, 209 Europe, Rainfall and Population . 216 Europe, Colored Relief and Vegeta- tion 216 ^ Hawaiian Islands, Political and Eco- nomic 84 Mexico, Political and Economic . 118, 119 North America, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 122 North America, Rainfall and Popu- lation 124 North America, Colored Relief and Vegetation 124 \/ Philippine Islands, Political and Eco- nomic 93 Porto Rico, Political and Economic 118, 119 South America, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 126 South America, Northern Section, Political and Economic . . . 135 South America, Southern Section, Political and Economic . . . 145 South America, Rainfall and Popu- lation 156 South America, Colored Relief and / Vegetation ....... 156 ' United States, Physical (showing Natural Regions) 2, 3 United States, Sectional Maps, Polit- ical and Economic New England States .... 13 Southern States, Eastern Section . 23 Southern States, Western Section 25 Middle Atlantic States .... 35 Central States, Eastern Section . 45 Central States, Western Section . 55 Northwestern States .... 73 Southwestern States .... 76 United States, Rainfall and Popula- tion 82 United States, Colored Relief and Vegetation . 82 i. PAGE United States, Political (showing Railroads) 96 97 West Indies, Political and Eco- nomic ....... 118, 119 \Yorld Maps Average Annual Rainfall of the World 275 Ocean Currents and the Tempera- ture of the Surface Water . . 275 Geographical Explorations Appendix, Plate A Great Trade Routes Appendix, Plate B Black-and-White Maps North America Extent of Continental Ice-Sheet Panama Canal Zone .... United States Cattle-Producing Areas . Coal Resources Corn-Producing Areas . Cotton-Producing Areas Forest Areas Gold and Silver Resources . Iron and Copiier Resources Lead and Zinc Resources . Northeastern Industrial District Oil and Gas Resources . Sheep-Producing Areas . Sugar-Producing Areas . Territorial Expansion . ■\\^estward Movement of Population Wheat-Producing Areas World Maps Cattle-Producing Regions . Coal-Producing Regions Cotton-Producing Regions . Iron-Producing Regions Silk-Producing Regions . WheatrProducing Regions . Wool-Producing Regions . 10 89 283 ?87 278 282 284 293 289 292 21 288 283 279 99 98 279 iv V V V 299 iv iv Aeroplane Drawings Boston 9 Chicago 50 London 167 New York City 30 Paris 185 Philadelphia 32 Pittsburgh 33 Rio de Janeiro 133 San Francisco 79 . Washington 101 NEW GEOGRAPHY NORTH AMERICA THE UNITED STATES During the last hundred years the United States of Anaerica has become one of the busiest nations in the world. In every state, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Canadian boundary to the Mexican frontier, most of the people are very busily engaged in some kind of work. Their occupations and many of their customs depend chiefly upon the geographic con- ditions in the regions where they live. We are a hopeful and enthusiastic people. We look forward to having better homes, more beautiful churches, and better schools. We want the people in the country to enjoy the advantages of good roads, mail service, the telephone, and many other comforts, and we look for better living and working conditions in the cities. Every boy and every girl in this country has an opportunity to rise to a position of great responsibility. The schools are open to all, and everyone who is able and willing to work hard may have the advantages of the highest and best education. Each one will have the responsibility of citizenship in a great nation. To fulfill the responsibility of citizenship, to help the home community, the state, and the nation, each one of us should understand the geography of this country ; and at this time, when the United States of America is taking a larger and larger part in affairs of world-wide importance, it is more necessary than ever before that we know also the geography of other countries. Variety in physical and human geography. Some parts of the United States are warm and other parts are cold ; some are well watered and forested, others have a moderate rainfall and are grasslands ; and still others are very dry. In some sections of the country there are plains, in some parts there are plateaus, and in other parts there are mountains. See map opposite page 82. Vast areas of rich soils have led to farming, and the extensive grasslands have invited many to raise cattle, horses, and sheep. The wonderful supplies of coal, oil, gas, and water-power, together with iron, copper, lead, and zinc, have made possible a most re- markable industrial development. People living on the coast, where there are good harbors, have very natu- rally become interested in commerce, and throughout the land many are engaged in ti-ade and transportation. Because the physical geography differs so widely in the many sections, the human geography varies also. Natural regions. For purposes of study, which should lead to an understanding of geography, the United States is divided into natural regions. See map on pages 2 and 3. A natural region is a portion of the earth's surface throughout which the geographic conditions which help to determine life do not differ greatly. When a natural region is very large, the climate in the distant parts will differ, and this difference must be considered in explaining the life of the region. Grei t Bear 120° Lake F Longitude 100° IWst ( W5r O Giuu and Coaipaajr NATURAL REGIONS MAP STUDIES — NATURAL REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES (Pages 2, 3) 1. Where are the young, rugged mountains of the United States ? the old, worn-down mountains ? 2. Name and locate tlie three large regions of plains in the United States. 3. Tlie longest river in the world is on this map. Which one is it? See tables in Appendix. 4. The greatest system of fresh-water lakes in the world is on this map. Make a list of 18. The routes of migration westward were of great im- portance in the settlement and development of this country. Frequent reference will be made to them in the text. Trace each one on the map. 19. What city has grown up where many of the western routes left the Missouri River? 20. What was the easiest route through the Appalachian Mountains? 21. Which of the western routes avoided most of the mountains ? 22. Which of the western routes had the least desert country ? See map opposite paxje 82. 23. Wiiat natural regions are crossed by the parallel of 40° north latitude? 24. What two states are separated by that parallel ? 25. In what natural region is (ireat Salt Lake ? Yellowstone National Park? the Grand Canyon? Mount Mitcliell ? Pikes Peak ? Mount Whitney ? 26. In what region does the Mississippi River rise ? the Rio Grande? the Colorado River? the Tennessee River? Fig. 1. This steam plow is turning over the rich soil in the Great Plains. notice the gently rolling country and contrast it with the Rocky Mountains region shown in Fig. 2. Are any states entirely within the Great Plains ? What states are partly included in them ? the lakes. 5. Wiiat is the Continental Divide? Where is it? 6. Can one go by water from Chicago or Duluth to Europe ? Describe the route. 7. The waters from what lakes flow over Niagara Falls ? See page 41, Fig. 74. 8. What nations sent explorers to this country ? See Appen- dix,'Plate A. Where did they go? 9. What nation sent the men who sailed down the Mississippi River ? Who found the mouth of this river ? 10. Learn to locate each of the natural regions. After studying the map, write the names of the regions in a list, close the book, and see if you can tell where each region is located. 11. Add to your list of the natural regions the general elevation of each above sea level. 12. Which one of the western plateaus has, in general, the higher elevation ? 13., Where' is the greatest delta on this map ? 14. Suppose the sea withdrew to the edge of the continen- tal shelf, what states would be enlarged ? What state would gain the most land? 15. What parts of the United States have good harbors ? 16. Trace the southern limit of continental glaciation (ice action) from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Through what states does it pass ? 17. North of that line the land in the United States, ex- cept in tlie driftless area of Wisconsin and neighboring states;' has been covered by glacial ice. South of that line in the high mountains there were also glaciers. We must frequently refer to this line, for the surface features, soils, streams, and lakes north and south of it differ very greatly. Fig. 2. Glacier National Park, in the Rocky Mountains of Montana, has been set aside by our government as a vacation land for the people. It is a region of rugged mountains with glacier-covered peaks and heavily wooded slopes. In the valleys between the mountains are beautiful glacial lakes 27. In what region does the Humboldt River end ? 28. What peak in Maine is in about the same latitude as j\Iont Blanc, Switzerland ? See eastern margin of map. 29. What mountains in New York are about one degree farther north than Mount Vesuvius, Italy ? 30. Are the New England states and New York in the latitude of northern Europe or southern Europe ? 31. Compare the latitude of Cape Henry with that of the Strait of Gibraltar. 32. Compare the latitude of Fuji Moun- tain, Japan, with that of the Grand Canyon in Arizona. 33. Are the Himalaya Mountains of northern India as far north as the Sierra Nevada of California? 34. In general, how does the_ latitude of China and the Japanese islands compare with the latitude of the United States? 35. What Atlantic seaport is in abont the same longitude as the Panama Canal? 3G. What is the difference in longi- tude from Boston to San Francisco ? 37. About how far, in miles, is it from Boston to San Francisco ? Use scale. NEW ENGLAND Fig. 3. This is Lake Sunapee in New Hampshire, one of the thousands of beautiful lakes which are scattered among the hills and mountains of New England. Notice its irregular shape, its islands and wooded shores, and the cleared land surrounding the farmhouse at the right. In the distance NORTHERN DIVISION OF THE APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS beyond the lake you can see the rolling upland country of the old, worn- down Appalachians. What do the people of this region do for a living ? Can you explain why farming is difficult in this part of New England ? Why are there so many lakes in New England ? Of what use are they ? England states there are many areas of good soils, although much of the land is too hilly or too stony for farming. The rock formations (such as granite, marble, lime- stone, sandstone, and slate) of which the hills and mountains are made, and often the bowlders scattered about on the surface, are used as building materials. Much of the United States depends upon New England for granite and marble. i The seashore, the islands, the many beautiful lakes cellent harbors on the New England coast, and offshore, (Fig. 3), and the mountains serve as summer resorts, in the cold, shallow waters, fish have always been abun- They attract thousands of visitors each year, and in a dant. Forests once covered most of this region, and country where so many people live and work in large there are still extensive forests in the northern parts cities, such vacation grounds are a real natural resource of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Recently the of ever-increasing value. Many of the lakes serve as United States government has established a national reservoirs for city water supplies, others furnish ice, and New England In this portion of the United States, farming, lum- bering, and fishing were formerly the chief occupations, but now New England is a great manufacturing district. There must be some good reason for such a change. Natural resources. Use map on pmje 13. There are ex- forest in the White Moun- tains, and much of the land in that part of New Hamp- shire is being purchased by the government and will be reforested. Almost every farm in New England has a wood-lot which supplies fuel for the home. The broad, flat areas of the Connecticut River Low- land are the most extensive farm lands in this region (Fig. 4), but the lowlands bordering Lake Champlain in Vermont also have fertile soils. In each of the New Fig. 4. Much tobacco is grown in the southern part of the Connecticut River lowland. The leaves are picked and hung on racks like this to wilt in the sun. Then they are taken to the barns and dried. The Connecticut valley tobacco is used chieSy for making wrappers for cigars in many there are good supplies of fish. Another natural resource of very great importance, and one that helps to ex- plain why New England has become a manufacturing district, is the water-power. Most of the streams, large and small, have falls or rapids in their com'ses, and in those places dams have been constructed and mills have been erected. Many great plants have been built to transform the water- power into electric power. NEW ENGLAND Fig. 6. Dairy herds like this are a very common sight in New England. In summer the cows graze over the grassy hillsides, but in winter they are fed indoors. The great cities of New England demand large quantities of milk and butter, and make dairying profitable for the farmer Even the Connecticut River, the largest stream in New England, is used to generate electricity. In several places a small stream has been dammed to generate electricity on a farm, so that the farmer may light his home and run machines with the power generated by the little stream that flows over his land. Climate. The rainfall in this region is enough for agriculture and for tree growth, and it is evenly dis- tributed; that is, about the same amount falls each month. The amount that falls in a year in New England is about 45 inches. See map on page 82. In any land where the rainfall is over 80 inches a year, as in the Amazon Basin, there is a very wet chmate. In places where the rainfall is less than 20 inches, as in some of our Western states, agriculture is unsafe without the help of irrigation. In the great deserts of the world the rain- fall is less than 10 inches a year, and in some, notably the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, it is almost nothing. Often during the winter "in New England there are very heavy snows, and though they cause much extra work and much inconvenience, they are a great pleasure to all who enjoy the winter landscape. The trees to be used for lumber are cut during the winter, and the logs are drawn over the snow to the streams. "When spring comes, the melting snows furnish water to the lakes and streams. These waters carry the logs to the mills, and there help to turn the wheels that generate power. Moisture in the air is very helpful in the spinning of cotton, and thus the climate of New England favors the development of one of the most important of the textile industries (Fig. 7). The average summer temperature is about 70 degrees, and during the winter the average temperatiu-e is about 30 degrees. Temperatures as low as 40 degrees below zero are, however, not unknown to people in this part of the country. Such a climate, with large seasonal changes, forces the people to look ahead and provide for the future. New Englanders must build good, substantial houses, and, in order that their homes may be warm during the winter months, they must lay in supplies of fuel. Much of the food raised in the summer, such as potatoes and other vegetables, is put away for winter use, and during the winter months enough ice is cut and stored away to last for the next summer. In this way the climate tends to make people vigorous. Home work. 1. Find out how many inches of rain falls in your home district each year. For what crops is it sufficient ? Com- pare that amount with the amount that falls in New England each year. 2. Read about the life in a logging camp in the Maine woods. Note to Teacher. The home work planned in this book may often serve as library or desk work in school. In many cases it may be best to assign certain problems or exercises to Individual pupils or to committees to report upon. Encourage oral reports in class. ■■••I...... 77 !!!!!'"" ■>'••••■*•■••■■• I •■••■■■••■a ',■■■'— ■" Ml!!! !::• """"• • i •■•••••"•■ 'riiiTMijjji|]]i| |j|j||r| iiiiiiiiii ' IIIUl"' — - - '"TiM MiiiiiiiMliytffaiiltii^ *''. Fig. 6. This is one of the great manufacturing plants at Manchester, New Hampshire. It is located on the Merrimack River at a point where a water- fall occurs and provides power to run the machinery. This one mill turns out over two hundred million yards of cotton and worsted cloth each year. Water-power is a very valuable natural resource. Years ago it could be used only to turn the mill wheels directly, but now the falling water is made to generate electricity, and this hydroelectric power can be transmitted over great cables for use in factories which are hundreds of miles away NEW ENGLAND Fig. 7. This is Fall River, Massachusetts, the largest cotton-manufacturing city in the United States. The city has water-power, but not enough for the industry ; most of the mills use steam power. Fall River has a safe, almost landlocked, harbor, deep enough for large passenger vessels and freighters. Advantages for manufacturing, — summary. The loca- tion of New England on the Atlantic seaboard, its many excellent harbors and its numerous rapid streams so well supplied with falls, the moist air, an invigorating climate, and a distribution of rainfall which supplies streams and reservoirs with water throughout the year, are factors which have made possible the rapid develop- ment of manufacturing. The construction of railroads and the improvement in steamship service have greatly assisted the industrial growth. Thousands of people have come to New England to work in the mills and factories. Settlements and occupations. The Pilgrims first landed near the tip end of Cape Cod, where Provincetown is located, but they soon sailed across the bay and estab- lished their first settlement at Plymouth. Each of the good harbors along the New England coast attracted settlers, and the largest coast cities have developed near the best harbors. Some of the streams are navigable {see map, p. 13), and at the head of navigation other settlements were started, such as Augusta and Bangor in Maine. The settlers who undertook farming needed trading centers where they could sell their products and buy their supplies, and towns soon began to appear in the better agricultural parts of the region. Little by little each of the seaports and each of the settlements increased in size. Lumbering and shipbuild- ing were undertaken, and many engaged in fishing. As ships became available and there were fish and lumber to use in trade, some commerce was undertaken ; and from those early days to the present time the New England people have become more and more interested in and dependent upon commerce. Locate Fall River on your map. How do the manufacturers get coal to make steam for their mills ? Where does the raw cotton come from ? Where do most of the manufactured cotton goods go ? Explain why New England is one of the two great cotton-manufacturing centers of the United States The mills demanded raw materials, and in response the ships brought large quantities of cotton from the South- ern states. Later, vessels brought cotton from Egypt to be manufactured into cloth in New England. Wool was first furnished from the sheep raised in the New England pastures. To-day wool is brought to Boston from all the leading sheep-raising countries of the world. The srtiall mills were increased in size, until now the New England mills are immense structures (Figs. 6, 8). With the introduction of railroads more raw materials were brought to this part of the country, food supplies were imported from the great agricultural districts in the interior of the United States, and the manufactured articles of New England were sent west and south to markets that increased rapidly in number and in size. ^ r i. , .. 1 ■■'■__■ - , _ '-timji'"-'\ :■ '.',',.'. ^"/■. '^t-fiirtfsa; >-"'■■ --^rtAr-g^-*'— — iM ^ ^''"ii '^' k-i^::; ^ .... 1 ... . u a^^^^^Hi 1 1 "■-■"•'■"■ '%^y-^ ■' #2^111 '■^fl*^^^^^^^^^H '.tr •: T'Jv. ■^^^5?"''" >' ..•.-. ' A^^^ ^ Fig. 17. The woolen mills at Winooski, Vermont, owe their location to the falls of the Winooski River. More and more of the New England waterfalls are being harnessed and made to produce power for industry. What are the chief products of New England manufacture ? 12 NEW ENGLAND Problems and review questions. 1. Where were the first settle- ments of white people in this region ? 2. What natural advan- tages led to the location of these settlements ? 3. What natural advantages led to the more rapid growth of Boston ? 4. What disadvantages did the early settlers find in this region ? 6. To what occupations did the forests lead ? the water-power ? 6. Where are there wood-pulp mills ? 7. For what is the pulp used ? 8. Why was sheep-raising undertaken by many New Eng- land people? 9. What factors led to the abandonment of New England farms ? 10. What leading cities have been much benefited by a loca- tion on the coast? 11. What cities have developed at the head of navigation on certain of the rivers ? 12. What river in New England has been most used in developing water-power ? 13. Why are the mouths of the New England rivers wide and deep ? 14. What is the largest river in New England ? 15. What are the chief manufactured products of New England ? 16. Why has New England become a manufacturing region ? 17. Name a leading cotton-manufacturing center ; a woolen- manufacturing center ; two cities where boots and shoes are made in large numbers. 18. Could New England get along easily without importing foods from other regions ? Why ? 19. What foods has New England in such quantities that some may be exported? 20. Where does the fuel for New England come from ? How is it sent ? 21. Why should there be so many large bowlders in the fields ? 22. Why do we find scratched and polished rock surfaces along the coast of Maine and on many of the mountains ? 23. How much of New England was formerly covered by ice ? 24. Where did this ice come from ? 25. How was the ice formed ? 26. Why did the ice disappear ? 27. Why do the farmers build stone walls about their fields in New England ? 28. How do the attractive summer resorts along the coast and in the mountains benefit New England ? MAP STUDIES Maine. The White Mountains that center in New Hamp- shire extend northeastward into Maine, but do not reach quite to the eastern border of the state. Note on the map the curving brown line which runs from Saddleback Mountain to a point near Houlton. North of this line the land bor- dering the old, worn-down mountains is a plateau country. South of this line the land is part of the Coastal Hilly Belt. All of Maine is within the Appalachian Highlands, where there is a pleasing variety in the surface features. Lakes and streams are abundant. The irregular coast has numerous pic- turesque inlets and islands. 1. Locate Mt. Katahdin and give its elevation. 2. Name two navigable rivers ; three large lakes. IJew Hampshire. The center of scenic interest in this state is Mt. Washington, and the outlook from the summit is over the Presidential Range and the beautiful lake district in the bordering hilly country. The lowlands near the Connecticut River and small areas among the hills of the Coastal Belt furnish attractive opportunities for farming. The state is fortunate in having large supplies of good building stone, extensive forests, and an abundance of water-power. Vermont. The Green Mountains extend from north to south through this state. In the northwest are the fertile agricultural lowlands that border Lake Champlain, and in the southeast the farm lands of the Connecticut River Lowland. The mountains are forested and furnish large quantities of lumber. The granites and marbles of the mountains are used as building and ornamental stones, and the valleys between the ranges are used as farm lands. Water-power is available in many places. Massachusetts. This state is fortunate in having a great variety in surface features and soils. The Connecticut River Lowland is between two belts of old, worn-down mountains. To the west are the Berkshire Hills. They represent the southward extension of the Green Mountains. To the east are the Central Highlands of Massachusetts. They are the southward extension of the White IMountains. Farther east is the Coastal Hilly Belt, and in the extreme southeast a little of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Cape Cod, Nantucket, and jMarthas Vineyard are in the Coastal Plain region and have light, sandy soils. The hills and mountains contain building stones, much of the land is suitable for farming, and nearly every stream furnishes water-power. Rhode Island. This is tlie only state entirely within the Coastal Hilly Belt. The sinking of the land has allowed the sea to advance inland and form Narragansett Bay. Here there are good harbors and many islands and peninsulas that furnish attractive sites for seaside homes and resorts. Connecticut. Near the coast this state is hilly, and the hills become higher to the north and northwest near the old, worn- down mountauis. The Connecticut River Lowland crosses from Hartford to New Haven, but the river leaves the Low- land at Middletown and flows southeastward to Long Island Sound. The manufacturing centers of this state are fortu- nate in being near the great markets of the city of New York. GENERAL QUESTIONS 1. Are the products of New England all used there, or are some exported ? 2. What countries do New England manu- facturers draw upon most for raw material ? 3. Why should the New England farmers give so much attention to dairy- ing, gardening, and poultry-raising ? 4. Where do the grains and meats come from that are ex- ported from Boston and Portland ? 5. What conditions off- shore make favorable fishing grounds ? 6. What are the chief crops of the Connecticut River Lowland ? 7. Where is maple sugar made in large quantities ? 8. Where is granite obtained ? Where is marble obtained ? 9. How may the irregular coast line of New England, which has given such good harbors, be explained ? 10. What rivers in New England are navigable ? 11. To what state do Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard belong? 12. What state in this group is without a seacoast? 13. What water route is there from Burlington, Vermont, to the sea? 14. Is Boston or Buffalo farther from^ the equator ? See western margin of map. 15. Compare the latitude of Providence with that of Cleve- land, Ohio. 16. What city in France is in about the same lati- tude as Bangor, Maine ? See eastern margin of map, 17. What New England states border on the Canadian frontier ? Note. For a study of New England cities see pages 8 and 9. 74" B 73' 78'" D Lone. TV yy—t E from 70^ Creen^wich H 67' 17 NEW ENGLAND STATES ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL MAP Scale of statute miles ee Scale of kilometers too =S»' ■k State capitals =3w Navisrable rivers • Chief seaports '¥ Large water power sites Lowlands Q I Uplands and I plateaus I Old. worn-down mountains Military Camp Camp Devens, D 6 --^St., ■^Valleyaeld Johns •( .(*' 'W/ Fi N > 1 D ^dmundston waska t.K0it~' t.FifanciSi^-^ t Caribou 1 -i^^Ashlandx Heron . Ai ai/aah L.Q- u Sherb oke \Che8U; \\\ Ft.Fairfi|ld, ' Presfljif ), :rloin'^ " ■^^ 'Houlton^ Island Falls Co, I phrcma'joci /nATS Bartop rtuHington HarTlwick -ville JIv.»nca8tci^_ '■■'^ " - • - Whjudeld Gorham •Stewart] iolebrooll Island f North Pond l.Stratfcrtl -„ . , , -r •■ ii^Vo, Wilton 0,1-1',"^'"* W3nterp6rt Morristown r-nrfnnJtNorthomb rland'^'^V'''' ' , '-'•i''^"na •WateVville | i —■'•'" — -J^yj *WinsIow on WHITE • Bristol •NorthfioW Williumstown* *> Wellsfl Kivei WoodsviHe ^- ", pconUeroga,] iLaka /L Fair.H, Litibon Mi^d dlebury, -, '^♦Randolph Zprandon .Bethel VT. J, -I--V" •./. Hartford-jrHanover - Osaipe ^i)it*hallV 1 rrot. N.H. , rflymouthS7»a«°'"""«' «a. '^, sehead , i^'**^^- Milii'notltfet^lt I Lake ' \ ' ' (irijunville'*' Schoodif L. . ■- '-■ I ' Brownvitfc' ^ ' '^,,.Saddleback 'Mtri- .Dexter Ul.Kcdahtim SJOO \ Fredericton Aattal^^ ^Lincoln e R V ;MJE- .JGrani "RTjCldtov?*^ _ Anson. ;^Newp5rtJ^Ba„go, ''o'''^* „->/ NewpW •! FarminatoAS ^"f '°''<' BWdefordj \ ,-r-r ^ ilawletSprmKfieW.Vi • ifSunaphe A= >Kfenne" W Vf Dofet.t-he3ter. '11 C'""pont. ^^'^ R^hestX .BeriningtonX •!, Manchcstert^s^: -Exeter iSv^s of siCoals 7IT~~2tWS>iiSi£l_NiiahuaT\^MTi tli;'?r""""'* * aius Grieniieid fC^jTTS'RcnSS^Tt^^La wreT 1 '''a''^/ •'' L03STER 'HT.DESERT ROCK AI^Lnyl O.Ann "yGloucester I. «o„n,s ar;-^ , TGarun«ri i^f^Lo^e,, '-VJGIoucest /^OBarrfjIttn ) HolWeiCj . ^■^V^'^^orcester * ' Vhlfl^a^-' .Palmar I <%> Di!5:, W48tficld7M*|P'"'"efi«'<' 'u, , ^•Milford'^ BouthbririgK I "^^''"°r «> .Frankli Jisstonl tt /ThottipsonyOli.' "'uH^ jfYRocltvil). *^'"t"»' L-N.wJl,l„„.d - CONN. '«^v.,S'"' "*" jyttprburv. •«!,w' "• ."« — Nua^aturl'" ' ' i DanLbrv Lf An»- ^"*° naiJtucketi. '^Mdntauk X. ">■**, ook A 74 '-^Sfyf ^ 73"^ 72 D i^ne. 71" »Vm( E flvm 70' OrMnrmo* 88" 67° ® Clan and Coiiipaof 14 ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN Fig. 18. The Cape Cod Canal in Massachusetts was opened in 1914. It connects Cape Cod Bay with Buzzards Bay, making a short, safe route from Boston to Long Island Sound, in place of the long, dangerous trip around the Cape. Here is a tugboat passing through a liftbridge over the canal. lateroktian^ Film bcrucc, luo- The canal is 8 miles long, 100 feet wide, and 25 feet deep, making it possible for large vessels to pass through it. Its cost was twelve million dollars, but already it has saved merchants and shippers many times that amount. Locate the canal on the map on page 13. In what natural region is it? ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN To open the study of this natural region, examine each of the pictures from Fig. 18 to Fig. 39, reading the statements below the pictures. Make a list of all the facts you discover in this way. What are the occu- pations of the people ? Is the country rough or smooth ? Is it wet or dry ? Are any rock ledges shown ? Are there any great bowlders in the soil, as in New England ? What are the principal crops? Make a list of the sea- ports shown in the views. What parts of this area appear to be the warmest? The maps and the text will sup- plement what has been learned by studying the pictures. Climate. The Coastal Plain extendi so far from north to south that the cUmate at one end differs greatly from that at the other end. The temperature along the Gulf coast is about 85 degrees in summer and about 50 degrees in winter. Farther north, along the Middle Atlantic states and the southern shores of New England, the summers are warm, but the winter temperature often falls below zero. Many of the beaches of New Jersey, Long Island, and eastward to the end of Cape Cod are used as summer resorts, and many of the beaches in the South, especially in Florida, are winter resorts. The Gulf Stream flows northward along the Atlantic coast ; it brings warm waters northward and keeps Fig. 19. These are brave men of the United States Coast Guard. They patrol the coast and go to the rescue of ships in distress. This view shows one of their large life-saving boats the air near the coast, both over the sea and over the land, somewhat warmer than it would otherwise be. Along the east Gulf and Atlantic coast, within this region, the rainfall varies from 40 to 60 inches a year. That is enough for agriculture. West of the Mississippi River the rainfall decreases from about 50 inches to 20 inches near the Rio Grande. At the Mexican frontier agriculture is uncertain unless irrigation is practiced. Storms often originate over the warm waters of the tropics and start inland across the Gulf coast or north- ward along the Atlantic coast. These storms commonly bring rain to the coastal lowlands. Some of the storms are dangerous to coastwise shipping, but the United States Weather Bureau stations in the West Indies and on the mainland now send out warnings by wireless, so that sea captains may know when such storms are near and what way they are traveling. The captain who receives such warning may change his course and thus avoid meeting the storm. Natural resources. The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain includes ex- tensive areas of good farming land. In many places the soils are light and sandy. Such soils, when fertil- ized, are suitable for the raising of fruit and vegetables. In Long Island, in New Jersey, and farther south near each of the larger cities the Undorwood & UBdexwood ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN 15 .^iT' •^ gd ^■^:i ii*M&-i__Li^' . 4^*^ 5 liBW*'"*'^' !Imw^ L.*^ ^'^l 4^,- '>'T3H9nk vr ^is ar'^K^^' i^Si-- 1 n^^ . ._ ^. ...idlUJ, F ;.- - -3*St- _r^^^l Mg ?*^r^ .-ria ■1 > . / -\^j^' IpiKg^^' ~.C7" » ^ ■-«-^.,' ' '>, @i '*W ?*-'' *^_ -t- On the map on page 25 notice in what parts of Louisiana and Texas nat- ural oil, or petroleum, and natm*al gas have been dis- covered (Fig. 24), and in what parts of Texas coal is found. The coal in the Coastal Plain region of Texas is lignite, a soft, brown coal, somewhat woody in ap- pearance. The coal farther north, in the Central Plains portion of the state, is bi- tuminous, the grade com- monly known as " soft coal," and very widely used in manufacturing. Louisiana and Texas also have important sulphur beds, which provide the largest source of supply in the country. The navigable rivers and the harbors of the Coastal Plain must also be counted among the chief natural re- the lowlands are used for cultivating rice (Figs. 21, 22). sources of this region. Notice on the maps on pages 23 The great alluvial, or river-made, lands near the Missis- and 25 how many of the rivers of this region are navi- sippi River and on the Mississippi delta are wonder- gable, and what seaports are located near their mouths, fully fertile, and there large crops of sugar (Figs. 25, 26), Occupations. Agriculture is quite evidently the chief rice, and cotton are raised. occupation in this region. Many farmers who formerly Offshore, the shallow waters which cover the conti- thought that the Central Plains region was the best part nental shelf abound in fish, many varieties of which are of the country to live in have migrated to the southern used as food. The quiet waters of the drowned river plains, where it is not necessary to spend much for warm mouths provide great quantities of oysters, and the clothing or for coal. The settlers may work out of doors wann waters which surround the southern end of Florida most of the time, and such healthful work is becoming in- contain large numbers of valuable sponges and turtles, creasingly attractive to large numbers of American people. Coastal Plain soils are used for market-gardening and fruit-raising. In other parts of the Coastal Plain the lands are vised for genei-al farming. Deposits of phosphate rock are available in several localities (see inaj), p. 23), and that rock, when pul- verized, makes an excellent fertilizer (Fig. 20). A large part of the Coastal Plain is still over- grown with a pine forest. This forest is one of the most valuable of the nat- ural resources, and fur- nishes much of the lumber used in the Southern states and even in the Northern states for building purposes. There are also large cypress groves in the Southern states, where lumber is obtained. Near the coast, where the climate is warm enough, Fig. 20. This is a phosphate-mining plant in Florida. The phosphate rock is dug out of pits, loaded onto little cars, and carried to the crushers, where it is ground up. The state of Florida produces half the world's supply of phosphate rock. For what is it used ? EcjatoM VUw Co. Fig. 21. These men are cultivating a rice held on the Coastal Plain. Rice is not a native grain of North America, but came originally from Asia. In 1694 the governor of South Carolina planted a little rice in his garden, and it grew 80 well that the industry was started in this country Fig. 22. After the rice is harvested it is threshed in a machine which separates the kernels from the straw. This view shows the threshing machine and the stack of straw in the background, and in the foreground the bags of rice ready to be shipped. What states produce rice ? 16 ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN Fig. 23. These negroes are picking cotton on a Southern plantation. As yet no one has invented a successful machine for picking the cotton fiber and seeds from the pod, so the work is done by hand. What are the chief cotton-growing states ? In what two natural regions is the cotton grown ? The greatest cotton-producing region in the world is located in the Southern states, where the climate is warm (Fig. 23). The large farms are called plantations. The cotton crop requires the help of thousands of people. In the fields there is the work of planting, cultivating, and harvesting. The cotton fiber must be picked from the bolls by hand and carried to the cotton gins, where the lint cotton is separated from the seeds and baled. It is then ready for market. The seeds of the cotton are sold to the oil mills. In the mills the seeds are first put through a process by which all the short lint left on them by the gin is removed ; this is called linters and is used for making mattresses and guncotton, and for other purposes. The hulls are then removed from the seed. The cottonseed hulls make ex- cellent feed for cattle and are nearly as valuable for this purpose as hay. The oil is then pressed out of the seed ; cottonseed oil is used as a substitute for olive oil and lard and for other purposes. The residue of the seed, after the oil has been extracted, is called cottonseed-oil cake ; this cake is ground into meal, and cottonseed Fig. 24. The petroleum fields of the Gulf Coastal Plain are dotted with derricks like these, each built over an oil well. The Gulf Field, as the oil legion of Louisiana and Texas is called, was opened up about 1900, and since then these two states have become very important producing centers Fig. 25. Railroad lines run through the broad fields of sugar cane in Louisiana, and as the cane is cut it is loaded onto the cars and taken to the mills, where it is crushed and the juice extracted. Louisiana produces eleven twelfths of the total sugar-cane crop of the country meal is used for cattle feed and for fertilizer. It is ver}' rich in nitrogen and is largely used in commercial fertilizers for furnishing this element. The Southern cotton plantations have a dangerous enemy in the cotton-boll weevil, an insect which attacks the cotton plant and destroys the fibers in the boll. The United States government is making a great effort to kill off these insects in the areas where they have estab- lished themselves, and to prevent their causing further damage by spreading to other cotton-growing districts. More and more of the cotton grown in the Southern states is now being manufactured into cloth in the South. The cotton mills are operated by water-power, steam- power, and hydroelectric power. From the earliest days of colonization rosin and turpen- tine have been obtained from pine resin. These products are commonly called naval stores, because they were used in preparing wooden ships for the water (Fig. 32). In New Jersey the sands of the Coastal Plain are used in the manufacture of glass, and the clays from the low- lands have led to the establishment of the pottery business. Since the discovery of petroleum, or natural oil, in Louisiana and Texas these states have rapidly developed a large oil business. Large quantities of the petroleum obtained from the ground are piped to ports on the coast and then shipped to industrial centers. A great amount of sulphur is mined in these two states, and Louisiana produces great quantities of salt. ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN 17 History of settlement. The Coastal Plain is espe- cially interesting to us from a historical stand- point. Provincetown, pro- tected by a curved sand bar, or hook, at the tip end of Cape Cod, has grown up near where the Pil- grims first landed in Amer- ica before making their settlement at Plymouth. When settlers came to Delaware Bay, to Chesa- peake Bay, and to the mouths of navigable riv- ers farther south, they moved upstream to the head of navigation. That was at the inner margin of the Coastal Plain. See maps on pages 23 and 35. At that line falls were encountered in the rivers, and the ocean-going vessels had to stop. Where falls were met in the James River, Richmond was established. The colonists who moved up Chesa- Fig. 26. This is a great sugar refinery in Louisiana. The raw sugar, which is the crystallized juice crushed from the cane, is brought here to be purified. First it is melted, then filtered and cleared, and finally recrystallized into the white sugar of commerce. Where does the raw sugar for this refinery come from ? that were there. The line connecting these cities is called the/aZZ line. It is the western boundary of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and it continues westward, forming the northern boundary of the eastern part of the Gulf Coastal Plain. See map on pages 2 and 3. In the Southern states a number of early settlements peake Bay located Baltimore at the inner margin of were made near the mouths of the larger rivers, and the Coastal Plain. Those who attempted to go up the they became seaports, such as Wilmington (North Caro- Schuylkill stopped at the falls in that river and founded a settlement that has grown into the great city of Phila- delphia. In trying to go up the Delaware River, falls were encountered where Trenton is now located. Columbia, in South Carolina, is at the head of naviga- lina), Charleston, Savannah, Jacksonville, Mobile, and New Orleans. Several of the early Spanish and French explorers came to the mouth of the Mississippi and went up that river into the interior of the continent. See Appendix, Plate A. tion, as are Augusta, Macon, and Columbus in Georgia, The names in the Mississippi Valley, such as New Orleans, and Montgomery in Alabama. Many other cities have Baton Rouge, and St. Louis, suggest that the French grown up along this inner margin because of the falls nation was interested in this part of North America. O Ktjn Fig. 27. The Coastal Plain sands of the shores of sonthern Florida support a large growth of coconut palms. This view shows the clusters of coconuts growing around the trunk of the tree Fig. 28. These men are harvesting Indian River pine- apples. Pineapple-growing has recently become an important industry in southern Florida. What con- ditions make fruit-raising profitable in Florida ? Fig. 29. Oranges are the most important of the Florida fruits. Thousands of acres are covered with thriving groves. Some of the groves contain lime and grapefruit trees as well as orange trees 18 ATLANTIC AND GULF .COASTAL PLAIN Fig. 30. Tampa, Florida, is situated on the margin of the Gulf Coastal Plain at a point where a small river enters Tampa Bay. This view shows the river and the flat land on which the city is built. The lower channel of the river (at the right) has been deepened to allow large vessels to enter The Atlantic portion of the Coastal Plain, as far south as Florida, is a part of the original territory obtained from Great Britain by the treaty of 1783, following the Ameri- can Revolution. Florida was purchased from Spain in 1819. Louisiana and Arkansas are a part of the Louisiana Territory purchased from France in 1803, and Texas was annexed to the United States in 1845 (Fig. 191). Until after the Revolutionary War almost all of the white people in North America lived in southern New England or on the Coastal Plain and Piedmont Belt north of Georgia (Fig. 190). " Piedmont" means at the foot of the mountain. Origin of the plain. The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain was formerly under the ocean. At that time the continental shelf (see map opposite page 82) was more than twice as wide as it is to-day. Rivers from the lands brought sands, gravels, and clays to the shore line, just as they are bringing such materials to the seashore to-day. The sands, gravels, and clays thus deposited offshore i£^'"*' H 1 ^■f^ ^^B^^^^^^^^^SBbC^h s HH|f[| 1 B y^fifc^-' TiiA ■j't^'i^t liB^H k^vM pHJ ■UH|^P^pi' ^H H Hi 1 p^B ^ i*- KiSBJ^g E S i i W ■r Vnnnahei bj £«. Div. N. J. Agr. Ci^U- Fig. 31. This is a common sight along the shores of Delaware Bay. The farmers bring their tomatoes to the wharves in wagons and trucks and load them onto fiat scows bound for the canneries at Baltimore. Thousands of tons of Coastal Plain tomatoes are canned every year at Baltimore from the bay. Tampa is the chief port of export for the Florida phosphate. The railroad tracks over which the phosphate is carried from the mines to the storage elevators are at the right in this view. Where is this product sent from Tampa ? What other products are exported from this Gulf port ? built up a plain underneath the shallow ocean waters. Later the land rose, the sea retreated, and the Coastal Plain came into existence. The surface soil was enriched by the decay of vege- table matter, and in time this whole region became clothed with plant life and with great forests. Most of the materials which make up the Coastal Plain are soft and loose. Even a boy would have difficulty in finding a stone to throw. Instead of bowlder walls, as in New Eng- land, the early inhabitants built picturesque rail fences. In place of marbles, gran- ites, sandstones, limestones, and other hard rocks similar to those that form the Ap- palachian High- -' lands, the materials of the Coastal Plain usually consist of loose sands, gravels, marls, loams, and clays. Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and the broad inlets, farther south are estuaries, or drowned river mouths,, due to a late sinking of the coast. Sand reefs and sand dunes. Use maps on pages 23 ^ 25, and 35. Along the shores of the Coastal Plain the: waves have built sand reefs which inclose, or nearly in- close, lagoons. These offshore reefs become natural break- waters. There is one over 100 miles long on the coast, of Texas ; and in the CaroUnas, Cape Lookout and Cape^ li'Dd«rwood A Underwood. Fig. 32. Savannah, Georgia, is the largest market in the country for naval stores. The wharves ar* crowded with barrels of rosin, tar, and turpentine,. ready for export. Where will they be sent ? ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN 19 Hatteras are parts of sand reefs which project as great points into the Atlantic Ocean. Along the New Jersey and Long Island coasts there are also offshore reefs. The sands washed up by the waves on these reefs are commonly blown into sand dunes, so there is usually a line of low hills bordering the coast. When a sand reef is formed near the mouth of a river or a harbor, the end of it is usually curved. At the open- ing of New York harbor, Rockaway Beach on Long Island MSSSSm ^^^BH^^/ y^ Mir ■-A. m Fig. 33. This is a view in the business section of Houston, Texas. The broad, well-surfaced street, wide sidewalks, and fine business blocks are typical of the enterprising cities of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Locate Houston on your map. What are its chief business activities, and why ? and Sandy Hook on the New Jersey side are both curved (Fig. 52). The tip end of Cape Cod was formed into a curved reef, or hook, by the work of waves and shore currents. This hook protects the harbor of Province- town. All the land about Provincetown is sand. The hills here are made of sand blown up by the winds. Fig. 34. Galveston is built on the end of a sand bar and is open to the full force of the waves from the Gulf. In 1900 the city was destroyed by hurricane waves, and since then this great cement sea wall has been built in order to prevent another such disaster Coral islands. Along the shore of Florida, where the sea waters are suflficiently warm, corals have grown and made little islands and reefs. Corals grow in clear ocean waters w^here the temperature does not fall below 68° Fahrenheit and where the depth is not more than 120 feet. We shall find that there are coral animals in the tropical seas all around the earth where there are clear, shallow waters. Mississippi delta. At the mouth of the Mississippi River is one of the largest deltas in the world. Each year the river brings millions of tons of sediment to the Gulf. If all the material brought in one year were placed on a square mile, it would be nearly 270 feet high. When the river water meets the still water of the Gulf of Mexico, it loses its velocity and so is forced to drop whatever it is carrying. • The deposits appear first as bars opposite the mouth of the river, and the la^er is forced to divide and form two mouths. This procesis continues until there are several mouths. Each distinct mouth is called a distributary. It takes water away from the main stream and thus does a work that is quite different from the work of a tributary. ii^ l}ttna fMbiuhiai Co- Fig. 35. New Orleans is located on a broad bend of the Mississippi River about one hundred miles above its mouth. This view shows part of the city and in the distance the low, flat land of the Mississippi delta across which the river winds its way. Can you explain the origin of this delta ? The river channel has been deepened so that the largest ocean steamers can reach New Orleans, making it the most important seaport on the Gulf of Mexico. Locate New Orleans on your map. What are its exports? With what countries does it trade? What are some of its chief imports? 20 ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTAL PLAIN Fig. 36. Here is a view in a Mississippi pecan orchard. The nuts are spread out in trays according to grades and sizes. Nut-raising is a growing industry in our country, in which the South and the Far West lead. Nuts are very nutritious, and their use as food is increasing rapidly Future. The Coastal Plain is a large region with enough rainfall for agriculture, and with such good soils that it will surely become a more and more important agricultural district. The presence of large supplies of phosphate rock that may be used to fertilize the light sandy soils is most fortunate. The trees should be cared for by trained foresters, and thus the supply of timber and pitch can be made permanent. More nut-bearing trees and more fruits can be raised (Figs. 36, 37, 38). More of the swamp lands should be drained. The Mississippi River can be in part controlled and forced to deposit more silts on its flood plain. Thus wet lands are built up and made suitable for farming. Men should learn how to control this river in such a way as to prevent disastrous floods. In this way it would be possible to save some of the rich soils that the river is all the time carrying to the Gulf of Mexico. The lowlands of Florida are being drained and made available for agriculture. The seaside resorts are certain to become more and more popular as the cities of this country become more crowded. The Coastal Plain will easily accom- modate a much larger population, and with in- telligent, scientific care the soils will yield greater crops, and all who live there may be prosperous. The excellent harbors of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain encourage foreign commerce. With the ever-increasing trade of the United States with the countries of South America, Central Amer- ica, Mexico, and the West Indies the states of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain are sure to be greatly benefited. Fig. 38. A single peanut vine, showing the full-grown nuts and the little nodules on the roots which extract nitrogen from the air in the soil and store it up for food for the vine. When the plant decays, the nitrogen from the nodules enriches the soil Fig. 37. This is a field of Virginia peanut vines. The blossoms come out near the base of the vine and are at once covered with earth. Thus the peanuts develop underground but are attached to the branches of the vine, not the roots. What are the uses of the peanut ? Problems and review questions. 1. How may the absence of hard rocks in the Coastal Plain be explained ? 2. What is the reason for the great bays indenting this coast ? What is an estuary ? 3. How are deltas formed ? What proof is there that the Missis- sippi Kiver made the delta at its mouth ? 4. What is the relationship of the continental shelf to the Coastal Plain ? 5. How were the sand reefs bordering the coast formed ? 6. Explain the presence of sand dunes on many of these reefs. 7. Explain the formation of lakes in the Mississippi River flood plain. 8. Why did the early settlers who came to this coast move in- land rather than settle on the shore ? 9. Why did they stop and build settlements at the inner margin of the Coastal Plain ? 10. Where were some of the early settlements ? 11. What is the fall line ? j 12. Why is this part of the United States an agricultural dis- | trict ? 13. What conditions found here are favorable for raising cotton, rice, sugar cane, citrous fruits, tobacco ? 14. What indus- tries have the southern forests developed ? 15. In what part of Louisiana has oil been discovered ? 16. What European peoples sent exploring parties to this portion of America ? NORTHEASTERN INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT 21 I -IS a 9 a =3 (N. I- -:3 be «* be ■" .3 § > o SI A ^o CD 03 ' O C6 o' S O aj s ^ ^ .2 CZ3 *3 05 'B S CO o -S 03 .2 ^ IS eS ^ o .5 5i t4 03 j3 o 03 03 "^ 03 00 CO ^ <23 ^ b =8 03 03 OJ ^ 03 S -<^ 03 C O 02 s 8 O 03 a, 13 ■^ H fi 03 ac £^ C c 03 ^ ■5 ^ o o) O o ^^ S t< o 03 oj Oi o; M bc;^ 3 * ■3 -^ O 03 03 S ,a cs +3 03 a cs .5 ■« >> s £= => 2 ^ II -22 2 J ^ c8 O 03 is 03 rr 03 5; -^ .>^ - g^ c T-i ,a 1— I o .5 fcc 03 t-i a s3 03 eS 03 03 33 03 O S o •- ^ o t3 03 OB s 03 ? " O 03 03 *-• > > * 03 " 03 Oh 03 TO S a, ^^ -^ £ 03 TO T3 ^ 03 g .3^2 5 a ^ e 03 3 ^^ © c ^ G ca ^ CO O O 03 -^ :2 * 03 B 3 4= r3 :s o « s 3 ^ o o -a -a be ^ 3 g e I "^ •s d^ H t. 03 . 03 -S .s .S S c4 V 03 03 ft X! O a •*^ 1-3 •^ 03 C c« P -c ^ 3 03 » M -^ 11 ~4-> S ■i^ 3 m P i <*-! O ' 03 P 50 .3 £ 03 -2 ? ^ O so c >« c .2 '5; ^ J ^ ^ a, &> 3 ■<; 3 » p i-i 03 2 I be. 3 83 *- C ^ o a CO s e 03 03 J3 22 MAP STUDIES QD Ti § o an ^ o ^ CO a c o 5 I ■5 ^ ^ 2 O o3 t; .2 S *i '^ .2 ^ ."^ g ^ t> be to oi ^ r-* r^ a .S •g CS g 03 O 3 .3 >^ C3 '5 •s i ^^ CU 03 t4 05 S-c a. Id 03 CS > _^ '^ ^ CLi ;3 03 23 ^ 2 M 03 -O 2 05 3 ^ i J -r! 03 *-! bO 03 3 3 o •" 03 03 <>• ^ "§ 03 '^ 3 rr. .2 ^ a ^ 03 C «s -^ c8 03 3 03 -i -4 ;-i r^ -u CC •" ■" I ° .2 ^ '-' 'E "^ .2 ^ § - '^ ^ be be Er .3 ^ 03 be > _ -- .3 S .3 o3 t; -3 _, 1. =* r^ ^ s ^ .s s , 03 03 3 ^ ii o 03 03 =« •■= 03 Tj i5 3 be 2 ® '^ CO O 03 ^ 03 " 3 -b2 03 c3 as 2P-3 e3 S C3 4J ri^ _Q 03 3 o> % o .- 03 " 3 3 03 c3 ^4 , s C3 O 03 03 •3 03 03 -3 C4 03 o I— I w c? 3 O &, 03 03 O- 03 -U 2 3 3 03 *^ 03 r5 .3 1^ -4J 13 p ^ 03 m 03 § 03 >< -2 05 03 "" 03 *+H 03 O -U .3 r- be -1; t-t 03 2 03 3 3 (N- 05 C "S .2 o -3 Oh 03 03 O 05 —I '« 2 03 .3 O U 03 O cS 03 c3 3 3 15 3 05 c3 ^ g 03 '3, •4-^ 3. X £ W cd 10 ■4J 03 ^ o- ^ ^(^ 3 T*^ 3 o Si c 03 OS -» 03 03 •S >. 03 03 C « 03 3 03 3^ « . 03 C5 03 C3 C^- « be a. S be 3 (S c 3 t^.3 03 2 s 3 '^ 03 .3 g 03 3 be -*^ E '^ .2 o f 03 ^.2 3 • o «> 03 2 >^ 3 3 O rS be W -3 o '^ o be 05 r^ r3 03 ^ 3 S '^ 03 ■'^ 03 ^ •5 .2 is 03 t^ .3 o 1^ 03 05 .2 be c3 5 J ^ -i-i 3 C ^ • r3 05 ^^ 3 .2 'bc-^ 3 <4-l o o 03 ^ 3 O -3 be a oc ■-3 2 c3 -3 3 ^ O .-M 3 > O 03 ^ (M m 03 o o =0 X 3 0- 03 .3 03 03 05 T3 -3 ^ Ci O O 05 .2 M *^ •— I S <4H rt iH => ^ rJ CO ■^ -g o S a . ^ m iH 03 ""■ ^ c3 05 i^ '"^ & 6 > S a ■r- a 3h g .^ 05 34 -3 1^ O 0) 03 2 3 <= cS a .2 "3 1— r ^ c« ;3 C3 o ,4 03 "o •5 ?5 3^ a o 3 1 S -4^ bo § 2 03 — I =3 .5 3 ^ 3 ^ O 13 l S '-3 3 -^ a B 03 ^ 8 > « cS 03 ^■^.% 2 05 "^ "■ '-S _- =3 a a 05 ss *•< 3 •3 t4 . 'T' 03 3 <^- .3 03 C-i -^^ X 03 r^ 2 2 =3 .3 bo cs C3 c 05 -3 -W -4-3 <+-! HH O •- 03 >-> o A X -4-9 C3 13 -4^ X •-^ 3 Dm 05 .3 3 13 X — -3-33 c3 .2 03 o 03 bo 2 X c3 O 03 X r3 -e^ CO ^ 3 . S OS C3 3 O C5 r-! 03 .03 -49 a X c3 3 13 S i t4 c3 2 ;z; a 1^ -49 >— 1 fli -3 -4J c tM 13 03 ^2 ^ 03 cS r; _x '3 i^-3 -S "3 ^ 3 ^ 15 '-3 15 * 13 (3 ^ be « -^ 3 X 03 S "^ '-' 3 13 ^ 03 I> -3 -4J 05 -4J 03 (>■ 13 ri ■— ' 03 * .3 2 o ,-. o • 3 D-i c3 -4J X '3 03 ■S be 03 3 bO'o5 3 -=- ■—I t^_l 05 O p3 05 -^ be in ■* 13 .ir ■Jvi 3 C3 Ti o 13 05 a a 03 8 5 05 13 S -2 ^■3 03 ^ . c -►9 a X 03 ^ -s X O .2 S bo — 15 f-i X ^ 13 13 05 a -3 r3 t4-M _bc o ^ -4-3 2 § ^^ eS to 13 15 ai J3 -3 3 X O ;-< a, X .a -3 03 ,, 13 05 2 3 «4-l -49 O ,- c 3 „ O 05 3 .2 P. o 05 -49 c3 -3 O "^ 3 ° _a c3 .3 3 P-l 3 "3 a C3 Q -3 '-3 X 05 05 3 13 3 O _ OS 03 'O 03 S -c a 3 =* :S S 05 c/; 3 5^ 3 fx, ^ 03 ^ =4-1 03 -49 O 05 2 -3 O 3 « cS "3 •* i 03 •«, -3 -49 > ^ o a a 2 >» 05 05 be o fi -4-9 .3 X Q 3 c3 03 3 be. ^-s 03 03 3 =* -49 '-' 03 f3 0) he j; « o o ^ ^ "" -3 4^ -49 ^ 3 '^ r^ '3 S 05 P be -^^ c3 -4-3 ^-i '^ 05 ^£ .3 c3 ca 05 ^^ 05 05 > ~ -49 05 a " 3 3 ^ 03 r- •i9 3 3 c 05 O •' J3 X o ^ 03 O rt 3 is -49 X 05 03 03 13 13 -g s ^ 2 03 3 O -49 Si X +9 a -5 f= S a I •- 1^ ^•" a o a, ' -49 c3 bo-- -49 '*-' be a s a S Z^ ^y r^ O C3 > t; 03 cs o ;3 . ._ ,3 a, a be o ^ bo a % * c * 3 oj c3 ■< 03 I— I t3 H X 03 X §- be 05 . t-i I— I 03 ;-> 3 -49 3 S05 _ -49 Q cs ^ 4-9 H X -4J X eS "A A -3 o 3 15 .J, ^ -3 M eS -4J to -a -49 ^ S 2 .2 •= -t-3 4+J ^J- 3 X o 13 03 i5 to' c a, o3 03 2 o X 03 13 oj X o o3 03 -t-9 fe. -4-9 X l> X Cj 03 -49 X r3 O 03 -49 JZl "^ CM 03 2 ^ 13 Ti X a •" 3 ^ g '^ S 2 - 03 13 !h 05 O c8 ^ "— • c3 r^ O .3 «4-i ai "3 -g 03 rT -^ 3 bc^ ■3 ^ c3 03 c3 03 S 2; <» t: .2 o a 03 tH 03 03 05 05 a t« ^ J: OJ «« a-5 ° C3 "o 13 4-1 '^ O 05 5 .2 P a "■ rf 05 3 -49 f--4 cd .3 05 03 J3 be '> ^ a 3 X 03 bo 13 .3 1= 13 .-S =S X & o o 2 "-3 03 o g "S .s a42 -3 •« , "S 2 I3 .£P^ I I 2 '^ 3 a 3 X 73 ^ 08 3 Ttl 05 ii X 13 S X 3 ■"' 2 ^ .S ^ .2 t-: 3 S ^ o >4 05 3 2 03 05 3 13 -49 O O '^^ t^- i 2 ■e is -s " o t- 2 3^ o '^ a 03 a >^ o 05 X ^4 ^ X 05 05 'T3 , •*- ^ 2 tM 03 ^ 03 .3 •3 -3 -O " 13 05 :3 ^ .49 Ph J -4-9 X •■'- *^ (>. X 3 ^ 13 "S 3 5 ^ ar- -2^ '^ s r^ -4-> ^ - O) CO c^. «: 05 ' ' ^ X c3 ■^■^ 3 2 -49 '•S .2 2 & c3 g 2 -3 g 0^ ^ a^' 05 X g^S § '3 .-49 03 54- .2 "3 ? ii 03 ? 1= 13 15 O .; .3 ■"■ /^-' X c3 ^ .2 3 ce 1 oi X 3 05 s c§ a >> 03 .■te 05 " e .2 o -3 13 13 S -49 .s 05 .-S •i S =- % r-H 05 -S -« i I o ^ .2 2 ° U •5 £ «^ c X 13 03 a OS b to c3 , a c3 c3 C 05 be. vi3 -^ e 35 c a X r^ =S =* -2 .-ti -5 t4 ^ . eg a o ^ ^ 3 3 3 *^ - .- .^ 3 ^ -49 X 05 be c3 >> C 3 3 O £ 03 C3 g ^ O 03 1^ ^ 3 ■e 2 2 3 ^ 2 3 .2 bo 5 13 p ■49 Oi ^ X ^ • -M .^^ S o 3 o , .9 3 03 eS X O 03 M o 1.4 — T! S ,3 ^ 13 o p .49 ti !-i -49 O c3 a . p CO ^ 05 C^. P .2 p -49 t4 03 c3 bO .49 ^ 03 05 .2 "3 (4-1 o ■* '^ p^ 3 3 '5 ■0 15 .3 Q 2 _X -i^ 2 c3 ■3 ^ 13 £.2 S t > £ X c3 «l "S !30 3 u O c3 3 " ^ 3 X^ 03 p X ,3 P -49 r^ .3 '° P ■s o o 3 c3 2 -^ be 1:3 03 <4 3S 03 r^ -49 - -2 2 C ^ 3 •- 3 'd ^-1 £ r— 1 •I— I ^i^ 13 P ^ X P r3 c3 a c3 (H c3 f-i 03 ^ P 05 03 1" r3 3 -I -49 nd p § -a ■49 , a 3 r-r 03 p .5 I' o be ^ a _ 3 t4 p a .5 ^ 3 CO 03 !h c« 3 c3 .2 03 05 -49 Sh Sh o3 c3 P ,3 08 O o3 3 g •3 g be -49 'S 3 S 03 5 -49 3 ti ,, . o oS _ 03 a ra C8 P X X p X a o 'bo 05 '3 3 -49 c3 -* -3 -49 ?; .a O 0) a "C 3 03 IS s 3 "o u ^ ■- fe -49 _4 »^ 05 '^ > . - CO .2 <>- 05 -i -^ 3 .1 1= ?0 ^ 11 3 O 55 "S "S p ra O ^ > P O • o a? ^. 05 " 05 ,3 X X 3 ^ p a "3 -g to § c8 -3 JH ^ -3 S9 c» .2 .2 C to to t4 c3 O 05 X 03 X 05 -49 05 3 -49 c8 H X -4J m 00 p .3 TS -49 55 3 .3 O .2 " 05 ^ =8 5 o 05 ■— • -3 05 05 -a ^ p -49 ^ c3 -49 3 " 6 08.3^ _x ^ tS - p X 05 2 £ 3 <:8 05 ';; -r. '^^ O > -S 3 03 c3 X ^ ii^ .b •& -2 i^ p (H V. ,3 o e8 '3 -S -S-3P. cs ;a p'i'? a > ^ .3 eS 13 >. ^ to p 2 = a 03 05 -49 2 -3 '3 X -49 ^ ^ X ^ 05 "1 ,3 ^ -49 '73 05 ^"^ C8 p 2 a'" '3 S P 03 C^. (>■ 03 .2 10 ^ ^ p 03 05 a ■= ^ ^^ -49 o . ^ s- 10 o a o «« ., p ° B ^ P g +3 a «4H 03 [ • iuai«snj9f ^^ J' I M X ui w o : V 4^ ^ ;^ -ts^ '^, , ■< -I l-s-sf ^/fc-ipJ- I'r" mtt"^ ■ H. g.3 '•w •." ... £*^ lit. Batto- <^ 'Oco o ^■,^ aj —1 . - . >-» a -, - 01- a 1 OL^ za: r^S ••So ^5 i? o 2 H I I •^ ^ 8 S lllll mS a a a a § ' 3 "o^ oj'5 oa^? S OKII.l 1:1 Tjt 24 MAP STUDIES 08 OJ o :/2 Ah P. •i -S o c > £ fl CO « g .2 o •a ^ * s -s 'S g is '*- '^ t! 2 be S " bo C OJ 'C O •*^ ^ la S '^ TO , O ^ CO O (u > .2 •- '^-^ fH aj u ■> « g ^3 =* 3 2 § o .2 'S ^ aj --H bo ,3 CO ^ c8 t^ o o a- ^ CO C a " 'O ^ -4-i cs a> o 03 CD -4-i cS O O i3 ^ a a:i o S X a> OS 09 s '^'^ >i.22 a • -f' CO aj S -2 "^ -a o ii -u +j •3 S to d S cs 02 S S § : OJ o « ~ ^ c8 <» .a a -^ 03 03 .a -S -3 CO ^03| g is bo a =" W 2 «« a o 03 'd s ^ 03 TO § -a - -3 "'^ o s o 02 03 c8 t-t I.-- i 03 03 •3 iz o 3 03 cS O -3 03 o3 03 03 43 " «^ »-' -a* . O 03 8 o .3 ^ 8 03 O- -4^ 03 CO +i O 03 03 45 03 bo- 3 -3 -= a o .5 02 S CO h^ to 3 O a 3 o o -d o o -3 +:> O I t-i ei a. — H 03 4= 03 03 02 03 O 3 O CO -t^ 03 O a, X 03 "15 °5 g a ^ oS b.^ 03 02 &i42 &, cS :a .£P CO >. ^a -i ^ 42 a 03 P CO '^ -^ ^' 3 S C3 43 CO O M 3 a 3 ^ o 03 ■^ +3 ^5 bo 3 'S 3 2 1 'd '3 «+H 03 p 43 a. -u 1 «+-< 03 03 o .2 -a -4J -1.3 't-i (H 03 o- o3 a, 45 o3 -t^ 03 -e ^ o8 _02 08 -a be ^ C^ 03 _a >-. 03 'o 05 45 45 3 ^ 'd O c^. 00 (- IK CL.'d 3 "2 03 o tG 45 (>• s ^^ -1^ 03 o C3 'o 03 ca 3 [^ 03 03 45 >, 45 ^ eS -1^ 1? a, 02 03 ^ 03 03 Xl 26 APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS Fig. 40. These are the great steel works at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, where iron is made into hard, strong steel. The making of steel is one of the most important manufacturing industries in our country, for without steel very little manufacturing, building, or transportation would be possible. Steel SOUTHERN DIVISION OP THE APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS We shall open the study of this region by examining several maps. MAP STUDIES ( Use map on pages S and 3 and refer also to maps on pages 13, S3, and 35) 1. This division of the Appalachian Highlands extends from the Hudson River to central Alabama. How far is that ? Use map scale. 2. What are the mountain and plateau subdivisions of this region ? 3. Where is the Blue Ridge ? 4. Where are the Catskill Mountains ? Of what plateau are they a part ? 5. How high is Mount Mitchell, North Carolina ? Is Mount Washington, New Hampshire, as high ? 6. North of Virginia, which way does the drainage go from the Appalachian Mountains ? 7. Which way does it go from the southern part of the Appalachian Mountains ? 8. What are the larger rivers in the northern part ? in the southern part ? 9. What states are within or partly within this division of the Appalachian High- lands ? 10. What natural regions border the Appalachian Highlands? ' Home work. 1. Select any pictures you have of this part of the country and bring them to school. 2. Write brief studies of your pictures, like those under the views in this book. An industrial region. This division of the Appalachian Highlands is a great industrial region. It is one of the busiest sections of the United States. It includes the densely populated districts in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, and extends southwestward to the in- dustrial section of northern Alabama. Locomotives, steel rails, steel vessels, warships, guns, and munitions are manufactured here on a large scale (Fig. 40). The Dela- ware valley has become the greatest shipbuilding district is necessary for all kinds of machinery ; farmers must have implements made partly of steel ; great buildings need strong steel frameworks ; loco- motives and automobiles must have many steel parts. In what ways does the manufacturer depend upon the miner, and the miner upon the farmer ? in the world. Most of the steel trusses for the bridges and the steel beams for the great skyscrapers are made in this region, as well as all kinds of heavy hardware. Mining and lumbering are very important occupations in this part of the United States, and in places much of the wood of the forests is made into pulp which is used in making paper. Most of the cities are manufacturing centers. Natukal Resources Sources of power and raw materials. There are large supplies of coal, oil, gas, and water-power in this region. These are sources of power, and man must have power in all manufacturing pursuits. Iron is found in the Appalachian Mountains and in the Adirondacks, and great quantities are brought from the Lake Superior district. There are many seaports, many waterways, and a net- work of railways (Figs. 42, 43). Raw materials are readily brought to this region, and manufactured articles are easily shipped to all parts of the world. To understand the great development of the indus- trial life in this region it will be necessary, as well as interesting, to study certain of the natural resources upon which it is dependent. Coal is found in the ground, usually in great layers. If mining men know that coal is to be found deep below the surface, they sink a shaft (which is like a well) into the ground until they reach the coal seam. Then the coal is broken out and brought to the surface. Little by little the men underground take out the coal under acres or square miles of the land, while the surface of that land is perhaps being used for agriculture (Fig. 41). APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS 27 The coal resources in this region, and farther west in the great Mississippi Valley, underlie thousands of square miles. The United States is wonderfully fortunate in having svtch vast quantities of coal. Natural oil and gas. When indications of oil or gas are noticed, deep holes are bored into the ground ; and if there is oil or gas there, it will come toward the surface through pipes that are put down as the boring proceeds. Gas is commonly used as fuel or for lighting purposes. Natural oil, or petroleum, furnishes a large number of useful products. As it comes from the ground it is usu- ally a thick, dark-green substance Coal aJter Fig. 41. The layers of sandstone, shale, limestone, coal, and fire clay shown in this drawing were nearly horizontal when they were made, but they were all upturned when the Appalachian Mountains were formed. The rain and the rivers wore away some of the surface, and men discovered the seams of coal. Then the men dug a deep hole, or shaft, and drove tunnels that crossed the layers of coal. Now the miners can easily break out the coal and let it drop into small cars that are taken to the shaft and lifted to the surface. The fire clay is also mined. In coal fields away from the mountains the layers of coal are usually horizontal channels and are having a difficult time to cut them away. In such places falls and rapids occur, and there men construct dams and put in power plants. Sometimes the force of the falling water is usedi directly to turn mill wheels and thus keep machinery running. Often the falling water turns wheels that generate electricity. This is changing or transforming one kind of energy into another. Such plants are called hydroelectric plants. The electricity is a very convenient form of energy and may be used for the benefit of man in many different ways. When it is heated, Salt and gypsum are found at a number of places in naphtha and gasoUne are driven off as vapors and may New York State (Fig. 72). The salt is far below the sur- be condensed into liquids. Kerosene is another product. Our common oils for machinery come from petroleum. Vaseline is one of the products, and also paraffin, which is used in making candles. Water-power. In addition to the fuels as sources of energy there is a remarkable amount of water-power in this region. The map on page 21 shows where a num- ber of the large water-power plants are located. The waterfalls in the northern part of the district are due to the changes in drainage, caused by the glaciers, just as those in New England were caused (p. 10). South of the land of glacial action (see map, p. 21) water-power is developed where streams have hard rocks in their face and is a great layer of rock. The gypsum is also a layer of rock, but it is nearer the surface than the salt. These deposits are a proof that there were formerly inland seas in this part of North America. When the seas dried up the salt and gypsum that had been in the water were left. Map and picture studies. Use the maijs on pages 23 and 35. 1. Make a list of the resources that man gets from the ground in the Southern Division of the Appalachian Highlands. 2. "Which ones, when used, are gone forever ? 3. Which ones may be used more than once ? 4. Study Fig. 41. 6. Where is iron shown on these maps ? 6. What building stones are shown ? There are other excellent building stones in this region. Home work. 1. Find out how coal was made. 2. Find out how coke and other valuable products can be obtained from coal. % ^^^ ifld^ tTI ^^__ % 1 ->.- ta^^^ Sr^^ * "^^^'''^^i>^r^ isata^ :;;: Fig. 42. Here is a section of one of the great railroads of the state of New York, where six tracks run parallel to one another. Above each track is the •ignal which tells the engineer whether to go ahead or to slow down. If it is upright, the track is clear; if it is down, there is a train ahead Fig. 43. The electric engine is fast coming into use on our modern railroads. It makes traveling far cleaner and more comfortable and ia easier to run than the steam engine. It carries no coal car and needs no stokers. How will the increased use of hydroelectric power afiect railroading ? 28 APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS Fig. 44. This little girl is feeding the chickens on Fig. 45. These little kids live on the same farm. Fig. 46. These are the fine, strong oxen which are a government experiment farm in Maryland. Our Goats are not very common in the United States, used in the mountainous parts of the Southern government runs many experiment stations in and the government is experimenting to see Appalachians for hauling logs in places where order to discover the best farming methods whether goat-raising would pay the farmer railroads have not been built as yet Soils. Soils are of the greatest importance to a com- munity, and it is wise conservation to keep up their fertility. For this purpose special nitrogen-fixing crops (Fig. 38), such as clover and alfalfa, or soy beans and peas, may be planted, and fertilizers may be used. The continuous prosperity of our nation will depend more upon the fertility of our soils than upon any other one of our natural resources. In the northern portion of this region (including most of New York State), the northern part of New Jersey, and a little of Pennsylvania the soils are of glacial origin. See map on page 21. The glacial soils vary because they are made of different kinds of rocks, which were ground up, or pulverized, by the movement of the glacier ; some are stony, some are heavy clays, others are sandy and gravelly, but most of them are fertile soils. South of the line of ice action the soils were made during long periods of rock decay (Fig. 48). Those periods were probably millions of years in length. Each time that the rocks are heated by the sun and then cooled they expand and contract and thus are weakened. Each time that water freezes in the cracks of the rock it expands and opens the cracks a little more, just as the formation of ice may break a bottle or a pitcher. Each time that a root gets into a crack and grows it helps to widen the crack, and sometimes roots of trees break rocks. As plants decay and as animals burrow through the loose material the soil becomes finer and finer until a surface loam is made. Forests. See Figs. 49, 50, and 51. The soil in a forest is loose and porous, and much of the rainfall easily sinks into the ground. Thus there is less water to rush down the hillsides and cause floods. The water which sinks into the ground percolates through the soil and gradually finds its way into the streams, thus preventing them from dry- ing up. In the shade of the forest also the surface water evaporates slowly. Thus droughts are prevented. In portions of this region where the forests have been removed from the mountain sides heavy rainfalls often cause disastrous floods. At other times droughts occur because the rain waters, instead of sinking into the ground, have poured down the hillsides and been lost. , ,• sflimwawgwifi '•\i5 ^ ,2 03 r" *■ . cS 03 rH S 03 05 .X 0) be .2 5 cS l-H C» 03 .Si 'cS 03 3 d 03 d .2 ? -« "H be ■S.B 03 a .2 be 3 M M =* !> O .22 C8 § o *^ 39 2 M >« S S C .^J -4J ►^^ OJ OS SO 39 «4-i o 3 o ^ OO (U O) O -C - s tc a; be sZ < o c3 3 o 3 ■fcc c c 53 3 -S i -3 <>• ^ 3 3 39 ■1^ ^ r3 o ^ +3 o Si cS s o O «5 a.ic o a, cS _2 3 "o O -^ ■^ _ ^ rj O- 09 -*J i^ ^ ___ "^ =« 3 s CC i-H O} ^ t4 > S Q a o .2 o § o i .2 3 6(^ -2 i s ai = IJ _■ « 2 -§ "^3 -31 - 1) -^ o 3 » < -3 2-^ ^-1 O 2 1 t: o S § ^ p--^ 3 rrf o OJ o a:) tCJ2 ^ "Xi 0) £ •^ O O 2 - "^ **- '5o^ O a< o » ^ O a 3 3 rf £ cS IJ -3 ^1 *J -^ OS :S -^-3 2 111 ^ 3 J -3 » -s C '2 3 — 3 — 3 U ci X O 03 *4-l C5 bX) 33 .^3 if i « be .4^ » s— < 03 3 03 X 0) . .4^ £ o ^ "^ -iJ 03 3 03 So 33' 2 o >> 3 s 13 03 £ 1 e8 03 > O e-i i (— « o £ 03 O 2 o 03 i 1 ■2 '3 "-• ^ "i -2 =c o 03 03 '3 03 3 1 i 2 H 1 c3 bo 3 •^ 03 3 -4^ i 03 "s 2 X '1 1 U-l 03 eS 03 > 1 03 be S 03 03 1"^ £ 03 3 .4^ .2 3 -a .a 35" to 3 '5 S J 1 P 1 o *S X S -c i5 .4^ £ CD 3 3 4^ deep cany natural b s i X 2 "3 o 3 1 03 i S-4 X Sh s X 1 1 £ 03 « 03 .3 _ 1^- 03 X a, X g «* 3 >■ S 03 •s *■ -^ 03 >5; X »-i ^ O 2^ A 03 o o 03 -H o ^ <<-i 3 03 ^ IH 03 •^ S 03 Tl5 -a 03 i X ^§ 5 S cS S .3 .3 Oh =4 ^ is ca -3 => 3 "^ "S • ^ «4-l O ^ o to >. 03 tH ^> .3 -3 ■'O +3 JJ S x ^ s o S « ^ > 03 +3 3 03 03 ri c4 eS bo g r- 03 -3 -S « . . 03 O 2h a, o 3 .4.3 • .- X bi ^ 2 CS ~ XI O fl 2 « 3 X .2 2 0^ ^ +3 Tj 03 03 .2 S -3 O O X .u> "^ t.1 r^ S 03 ^ X! X a^ 2 ^ 2 To J .3 3 "3 cS O *3 f-l +3 3 03 'o -^ S 3 O IM 5 '^ U =i < 3 03 ^ C •3 .2 03 ^ X >- 03 r-* o 03 c« 3 03 o '3 X 3 C O * 03 03 -3 --5 "" 1 O g *3 — ^ 3 £ 3 cS O cS *" ^1 03 O ^ ■r 3 P 03 3 5 o ^ o ^ 03 C eS 2 X X .2 .2 '-: c3 S > Oi ti O 03 =^ S .4^ t4 03 X 03 X S O ' Si 03 Cli X -S a, -^3 S 03 g X O 5 03 — > X • — .J X 03 03 ^ ^ il be 22 — CO eS —3 •- 03 ^ ^ c3 X 5 -e •: <>. es _s d 2 03 3 -^ 3 c3 "S 3 ~ O 03 •g ^' < a, 3 *3 03 S " t3 i5 i ^ _2 3 *3 ;g O. tH 2 3 -i5 t- ^ti: ^ — .'* § Z So 3 .■^< .3 3 O 3 < s e 2 S rs X 2 ^ 3 JS 03 3 J= O -^ CO X •"" 03 be .2 3 eS _r ^ "^ &-3 o 3 03 cS — bO .2 "^ .2 03 ca *3 3 ^ X 4J 5 .2 C -3 ill .^ CQ X 03 — 03 ^ !3 3 . ca flj 03' '** b4 S3 03 .03 'u 'o* be & 72 a H X 35 ^ .3 "3 Sh 3 .43 ca 3 03 .2 .2 cS ^^ 03 p 2 3 S 5 X X .;: bo X ^ - 3 2^ 3 &> . o 2 "S oj "-^ ^lo (D bo 03 £19 03 fc< ^ -3 O 03 O X < X _3 .X S .2 '^ =: — 3 53 . c8 i-> 03 •o 3 ^ -: 3 "■ 5 S3 If 3 £ ■" J .53 _a, S Ci • — < ^*-' "3 2 t, ^ tl -C c3 -Q X O O -.0 5 .2 2 ?:, X 3 33 -^ ^ 3 =3 to'3 s; be o s o 03 r-J !:* 3 >; - 3 c3 •« 3 ^ — 2^.2 03 .3 J3^ -" ^ n .. -r- 13 r^ 03 „, 03 g X 3 ": I'. O 3 — 03 =a H t- ca P 3 2 a .« ea 03 JS |d~ _2 3 > '^ S3-— 03 ~ ° 5 2 -e -72 -^a r. = 5 -3 03 :a bo 03 3 t< 03 «*" — O CD -3 >i .2 03 __ 3 b 2 2 c3 ca s ^ -J 13 .3 ?; 3 X — -^ J ^ "3 5 g-3 ^, 3 -v^ 03 —I U 03 03 -X ,3 O 3 ^ 3 O CS -3 -s -t: 3 ca 3 a 3 03 > -2 c3 03 X 03 > O .a :3 .h3 03 03 «4-l O O o =a5 £ iS o -3 § •i3 S C3 3 ^•§ .2 2 " 5 03 2 '3 t-. 03 c3 O a, o 13 3 O o o o bo..^ ^ .3 ■- 03 -3 ■> 3 2 -3 ^ "C 3 § 03 «= "3 .2 g 03 03 — > 03 13 X '-' c3 2 03 X 13 cS o S .4J > 1) • r; 13 3 O X .2 a, .-3 ia ca 3 _x 03 "3 be 3 03 C3 Ij "■ C3 S 2-5-1 -^3 cS 03 13 O to -3 3 2 03 "o £ o so ^ . 03 o > 1 ° 1 S 00 12; .3 ft o e ■■" cS X > 3 43 ;3 ^ CS .2 3 s *=> o 5 03 ci i2 .2 =u 03 *4H £4 13 13 "3 S^ 03 2 ="• 3 ■3 13 .4^ -is X 03 ^- -g 03 C 3 „ -3 '3 3 .4-4 3 03 2 5 13 hi « 03 V be.S o S 53 l*( 3 3 -^ £ 3 .4:» c3 y -3 ca 13 03 O 03 2 3i -3 35 -3 ^^ CS S X 03 "^ X ^•^1 _c3 ^ "Oa 3 03 03 S -3 ea a . u ^ i o •- -w' -g 54-1 3 r5 3 13 . .3 *-* 3 bo X X »^ 03 03 (4 2^13 .2 «■» 3 03 *• ^ u '^> 3 ?<> "3 '^ -S 3 gs 03 3 ^-S 03 ;2; .3 S 05 * 03 ft cS ii .03 =c -3 ■S _g 2 ca X •5 :s '-^ £-3:5 1) X E o Si — 03 5 03 c o -1 u ,2 — . C 3 ~ — rS 3 *3 *J "^ 2 -. ^ -2 p 03 54-1 ^3 -3 O 5 '3 ^S5 « -3 S 03 O S-t ea 0) 3 .. ;2; -s 2 2 • Is ~ "* £ bo 03 *C? .— j_3 t< l* 53 ^ o «*- cS 3 O o .3 Ji BS o C3 •- 03 X S 3 "■ -2 'S -.; Q <; 03 o es 78 PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS Fig. 147. This is part of the city of Seattle, and in the distance, sixty miles away, is Mt. Rainier. Seattle is situated on Puget Sound, and the summit of Mt. Rainier is 14,408 feet above sea level. Locate both on your map. What makes Seattle an important city ? Location and growth of cities. With the development of mining, agriculture, lumbering, and fishing, and the coming and going of people from foreign lands, a num- ber of large cosmopolitan cities have grown up. The chief seaports are shown on the maps (pp. 73, 76). They have the advantages of being inland and on protected waters. Many of the facts regarding the commerce are shown on those maps. Seattle (Fig. 147) and Tacoma have the advantage of the deep water of Puget Sound, and are both lumber centers. Both are fortunate in having a supply of coal near at hand. A canal at Seattle connects the Sound with a fresh-water lake. Here vessels are cleaned of barnacles, for the barnacles cannot live in fresh water. Seattle is a great outfitting point for people going to. Alaska and is the port most commonly reached on the return from Alaska. Most of the supplies for that territory pass through Seattle. At Bellingham (Washing- ton) and at Astoria (Oregon) there are immense salmon canneries. Portland is beautifully situated on the Willamette and Columbia rivers. These waters are navigable for ocean-going vessels, and Portland is the seaport for Oregon (Fig. 150). San Francisco is very favorably sit- uated just within the Golden Gate. It is the commer- cial center and the financial metrop- olis of the Pacific coast (Fig. 151). The four prin- cipal fruit-growing districts in the val- ley of California are near Stockton, Sacramento, Fresno, and San Jos^, but there are several other large fruit- growing districts. In the south, in Fig. 148. The state capitol of California at Sacramento is an exceptionally fine example of the domed type of architecture most com- monly used for our state and federal buildings the lowland bordering the coast, are Los Angeles and Pasadena. Pasadena is beautifully located near the base of the mountains (Fig. 149). Los Angeles adjoins Pasa- dena and extends by a narrow strip of land to the coast. It is the leading city in southern California. These cities are in the midst of a fruit-growing district. They attract large numbers of visitors during the winter. Fig. 149. Pasadena is located on lowlands that are composed of sands, gravels, and silts washed out from the mountains by streams. It is an exceptionally beautiful city. The streets are lined with a great variety of tropical trees such as the eucalyptus and palm. The rainfall is light, so ^ Hear; U. Pcabodj the gardens must be irrigated and all the trees and lawns watered frequently. Because the city is situated between the mountains and the sea the climate is always mild, with no extremes of heat or cold. Can you explain this ? In this view notice the automobile road which zigzags up the mountain PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS 79 Fig. 150. Mt. Hood, one of the old volcanic mountains of the Cascade Range, towers like a giant above the surrounding ridges. It is 11,224 feet in elevation. The city in the foreground is Portland, Oregon, the most im- portant city in the state. How far away from Portland is Mt. Hood ? Picture study. Use Fig. 151. 1. How should you describe the land surface shown in this view ? 2. Has the shore line heen elevated or depressed ? Give reasons for your an- swer. 3. To what natural region does this area belong ? See map on page 76. 4. San Fi-ancisco Bay is about fifty miles long and ten miles wide. It is connected with the Pacific Ocean only by the nar- row strait of the Golden Gate. What advantage is there in this ? 6. How is the bay connected with the valley of California ? See map on page 76. 6. In what ways is the physical geography of this area favorable to commercial development ? 7. What are the chief exports and imports of San Francisco ? 8. With what countries does San Fran- cisco trade ? National parks. The Pacific Mountains and Lowlands contain several of the most beautiful national parks in the country. Mt. Rainier National Park sur- rounds the beautiful peak of the same name, which is remark- able for the twenty-eight glaciers which descend its slopes (Fig. 156). Crater Lake National Park con- tains the most extraordinary crater lake in the world (Fig. 134). Yosemite National Park is an area of deep valleys, lofty peaks, and cascading waterfalls (Figs. 1 .52, 153, 154). These and the other na- tional parks of the region appear on the maps on pages 73 and 76. Physical Featctres Sierra Nevada. At the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada there is a great crack, or fissure, in the earth. When the mountains were last uplifted, a slipping took place along that crack. The mountains undoubtedly rose very slowly, perhaps a few inches at a time, but they rose to elevations of from 10,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea. Standing on Mt. Whitney (14,501 feet high) one may look down a most wonderful mountain slope into the basin region to the east or view to the north and west a panorama of lofty peaks that extend to the westward until they reach the valley of California. When this huge mass of land was uplifted, the rivers, supplied with plenty of water by the moist winds from the Pacific Ocean, began their work of cutting it down (Fig. 154). Immense canyons were carved out, and during the Ice Age great glaciers formed in the high mountains and helped to deepen the canyons (Fig. 152). ) Qinn knd Compkoj Fig. 161. This aeroplane drawing of San Francisco and its surroundings shows the location of the city on a hilly peninsula south of the Golden Gate. Before gold was discovered in California, San Francisco was only a small town, but as the prospectors and miners poured into the state after 1849 it grew very rapidly until to-day it is one of the leading seaports of the United States. How does San Francisco rank among the cities of the United States ? See tables in Appendix 80 PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS Fig. 152. Long ago Tenaya Canyon, in the Yosemite National Park, was carved by a river. Then it was widened and deepened by a glacier. To-day its floor is covered with a forest of evergreens. On the right is' the great granite Half Dome, rising nearly a mile above the valley floor Cascade Mountains. The Cascade Mountains, which seem to be a continuation northward of the Sierra Nevada, have been greatly uplifted by earth pressure, and here also the streams and glaciers have been at work cutting into the mountain mass, deepening the canyons, and carrying the loose material to lower levels. There are beautiful glacial lakes and superb waterfalls in these mountains. Volcanoes. In places in the Sierra Nevada, volcanoes have broken forth. Shasta is a magnificent volcanic cone. It is so high that the upper slopes are covered with snow all the year round, and there are glaciers on the summit. In the Cascade Range there are many more volcanoes (Fig. 156). Lassen Peak was active in 1916 and 1917. Coast^Ranges. The Coast Ranges are even younger than the Cascades and Sierra Nevada. They are not so high as the Sierra Nevada or Cascades, and are still growing. They have in them rock forma- tions which have come up out of the ocean since the glacial period, and this is an indication of extreme youth in mountains. They have also been dissected by streams and by glaciers. On their western edge the waves are now actively at work cutting away the rocks, making sea cliffs, sea caves, and rock islands. The Pacific Ocean side of these ranges shows a series of terraces like gigantic steps, rising to at least 1500 feet above the present sea level. These are benches made by the waves when the land was lower. Each time the land rose, a new bench, or terrace, was cut. The terraces prove that the land was under the sea, and the kinds of sea shells found on them show that they have been but re- cently uplifted. Since the last up- lifting of the coast the lands have been somewhat depressed, which accounts for the excellent har- bors which were de- scribed on page 75. Earthquakes. The young mountains in this region are still growing, and occa- sionally, as in all regions of young mountains, the little slippings along the cracks and fissures in the rocks cause earthquakes. There are certain cracks in the Coast Ranges where earthquakes have occurred since the white people settled there. Volcanoes are also commonly located in regions where the mountains are growing. . Lowlands. The lowlands of the Pacific coast region have received the wash from the mountains on each side. Sands, clays, and gravels and some glacial materials have been depos- ited here, making rich soils (Fig. 157). Future. The natural re- sources are varied and abundant and will lead to a greater prosperity. With the development of the nations in eastern Asia and the steadily increasing trade with Australia and New Zealand our Pacific coast states are sure to con- tinue their rapid growth. Fig. 153. These jagged peaks are the Three Brothers in the Yosemite National Park. The park, with its steep-walled canyons and cascading waterfalls, is one of the nation's beautiful playgrounds Fig. 154. These are the four great waterfalls in Yosemite National Park. From left to right they are Bridal Veil Falls, 620 feet ; Yosemite Falls — upper, 1430 feet, lower, 320 feet ; Vernal Falls, 320 feet ; Nevada Falls, 594 feet. Of what value are these falls ? PACIFIC MOUNTAINS AND LOWLANDS 81 About fifty years ago Japan began to use modern industrial methods and has since developed rapidly in that direction, until now it is a great world power. China is just entering upon a period of internal develop- ment. Many of the valuable natural resources of that country have as yet been little used. The Chinese have lived chiefly as an agricultural people. They have great resources of coal, oil, and iron and many other metals. Industrial life there is sure to develop on a large scale, and that will lead to foreign commerce. China is now building ships to meet the demand of a growing trade, and commercial intercourse with the United States is increasing rapidly. Docking facilities on the Pacific coast must be enlarged. The history there will be somewhat like the history of the Atlantic seaports, where it has been difficult to build enough wharves to meet the ever- Fig. 155. This is the beautiful canyon of the Columbia River. The river rises east of the Pacific Mountains and is the only one which cuts its way across them to the ocean. Study the map on pages 2 and 3 and explain the impor- tance of the Columbia in the westward expansion of the American people increasing demand. With more foreign trade will come the necessity of more extensive railroad service for transporting imports and exports. A larger population will be needed to care for this business and to supply food for all who live in the region. Much of this growth will certainly take place in the next half-century. Problems and review questions. 1. What first led exploring parties into the Pacific iMouiitaiiis ? 2. By what routes did the early explorers reach California ? 3. What is meant by " placer mininj,'"? 4. Tell briefly the story of a gold nugget from the time it was in a mineral vein until it w.os found by a prospector. 5. What sources of ywwer are there within this region? 6. Where (lid the soils on the lowlands come from? 7. Why is so much fruit dried in California ? 8. Descrite briefly the life of the salmon. 9. What conditions are favorable to the development of lumbering on a large scale Fig. 156. This view of Mt. Rainier from Mirror Lake shows its rugged slopes covered with ice and snow. It has more glaciers than any other peak in the United States. Many of them are from four to six miles long, and they extend in all directions from the summit to the base in Oregon and Washington ? 10. Name the chief seaports in this region. 11. What different mountain i-anges are included in this region ? 12. What grains are raised in the valley of California? 13. What fruits are raised in California ? 14. What is the explana- tion of the formation of Crater Lake ? 15. Where should you go in this part of the United States to see a glacier ? 16. Explain the presence of Puget Sound and San Francisco Bay on the Pacific coast. 17. What signs are there that the mountains of this region are still growing ? 18. What large city on the Willamette and Columbia rivers may be called a seaport? 19. With what countries is most of the trade from Seattle and Tacoma? 20. What are the chief imports from China and Japan to this country ? 21. Explain the presence of forests in the mountains of the Pacific coast states. Fig. 187. Looking out over the gently rolling lowland of the Willamette River it seems as if the valley were one great orchard. Rows of apple, pear, prune, and peach trees alternate with acres of strawberry plants and berry bushes. Why is the Willamette Valley so favorable for fruit-raising? 82 COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES ■a a s CO -xj r1 >- 03 O o CO t3 o- a 0) 75 '2 >■ (D (V P o "— ' S cS 03 .9 'O ^ § o Oh, 05 05 o CO tc O s * •2 > '-^ lO ""5 CO o .2o Oh S o o , C Oh "^ o CI c4 OJ ' i» -^ ^ .2 o " cu OJ eS 03 Oh^ —' O ^ rr; oj o3 £ .ti ^ (>• ^ So §•8 ^ Oh !C o ^ CS CD o c d 03 -^, Oh d CD Oh O,^ O i^ O '>^ . -5 03 £ 'S aj +2 -^ ^ 0) ^ 'Oh^ o <>' 3 Oh ^ Oh •Si 0) ,a « -S en „ C 03 ,a C Oi eS •n ai (-] •HJ s 0) 1> ^ CO O- U 03 Oi GO -H-» C3 CO C35 b* 03 ^ !=^ h:; *^ S "^ ° CO O) , ^H "Tj <^- ^ Oh 5R =* C3 k _ CO ■~ CO •J §•3 ai O) O OJ (D O) >* (H Cli 03 p So OJ e« O) O rt 05 o TS C3 a 03 C>- O M .a "§ 35 CO 03 r3 OJ OJ On.-te §1 ID fl q 5 >^ Ce -►^ rS ^ ^o ^ o no .3 -tH» c p o bJO . § g J-^ O -±i 's -^ .„ ^ ^ tc s ;j:^ (D G C c3 *> 'as >" O 2 '3 ^ s §.^ ^ 2 fe 3 o c^ d '^ 2 ^ fciD o' ai d o ■t-H tH . CD be !> S 03 3^ -2 05 2 C3 ^ ^ -* -2 d c3 -^ tH CO o O 05 Oh y. c^- d 8 s3 05 ^l 03 1^ 02 d o td (£,«*-( P r^ •— o 11 fl* ^ ^ C3 «4-t 05 '-1 o d '|S d P o -i d c*3 o CO CS r/i " 05 ra !>• 05 > O rd CO 00 05 CO 05 05 D CO '5 fi 03 K '^03 ^ 1^ f^ 03 rj 05 -d -t-> Cj 05 -^^ 43 O! .s-i 05 'o 2 S ^'^ _^ ^-" O ^ cS c3 OJ Eh ^ S tH c3 .-. be d ^ 'd 35 S -o CO LJ C3 C3 CO 05 rH (— ( ft > I— I H <^ Ph o o n U n1 03 05 -3 bJO Oh < oj 05 ,, O Oh C3 >> fi ^ C2 05 S o • Si^ 02 05 ^ 'T! 1—1 ^ 3 05 03 Ph 05 O -M -w — 03 •S fee fcp d >-i o -B ^ be .3 "^ 5 " -o -U 05 CO J^ o C d <4H 05 oj -^ i I— I o O! 03 -^ £ 2 05 Ti n -^05 G5 ^, ^ O ^ eS -d cS d ■5 P _^ P^ .- O -4-2 " 05 03 C3 D O ^ »H-H 03 d "71 Cl 03 03 05 d o a '^ o bo ^ bo 3 .d 2 -5 d 03 05 o bJD rJ 5? ?; o 5 15 05 ,^"i -^ 05 05 . > cS 05 t>- r*- 05 -w 1-1 .-St* Oh'^ c4 d a ^ .2 5^ CO '« d = '^ .^ .2 ° § d .ti ^ J^ ^3 05 ^ .3 be .3 C3 bD OJ ^ JJ d 05 > o ^ ? 73 =* H o be . ,H d c-i :s 'C CM ■r" d P '73 03 05 o s o 05 ^ beO ^ o 05 U > cS S 2 =1 03 S d CO .2 ^ 05 05 bc;d n3 05 05 h O 05 05 03 -tJ I — I 03 «3 .5 ■3 ^ ^ Ph Ph 4j 03 ,—1 05 CS tH •:0 • be o be ^ 3 += 'S CO K 05 9 H C3 O CO Q d C3 O ^ 03 03 05 rd be d CO cS =j-! o -5 O .d C5 C/2 cd ^ ■g ca 2 -" CO JH Ph 05 ^ d I'd 3 o d CO . o -^ iTH rH ^ 3 ^:?^ 05 be g tH P o C/2 05 d P 'd > 3 ^- .2 be 05 TH c 05 05 (H o c3 o 'Oh o (^. _J3 05 ^H CS ^ £ '^ 05 o d O >^ CO -M r -3 t Ph .r< t> bo Ph o d S ^ •_ •§ 5 '^ a^ cs d "d fci =* a 05 qJ d " tH c8 2 ^ -e 05 Gh^ ^ c3 rH 05 05 rd ^ ,r, '=\ 03 03 05 d '^ C3 c3 .tj 05 '^ 05 ^. 05 -^ V a O d CS CO 03 d 'd 05 C« .d -Jd c/j ^ 2 'S be'~ 05 JL, tn 3 O «*H O 4J „ tH CO 05 d o! O 05 •^ 'B o « Oh^ 1=5 03 C3 ""■ 05 _ -tJ >• C3 ■» -S 05 CO CO U r-H O -iJ " d a^ 05 CO O O- a "= " 05 £ =« 2 " CZ2 -y 05 , ^H t! 05 05 ^ 05 05 3 ?" '^ e3 ^ ^ rO ^ r^ ^ e^ 1-H ci > ^ d 't1 W £ Oh rSl 03 Fh 1— ( a- (-- o cd bcw 'yi r5 05 Oj o O Ph CS rH « HJ ^ ^H ^ ;; POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 83 Fig. 158. Some years ago the United States government introduced rein- deer from Lapland into Alaska. Many of the Eskimos of Alaska have now learned to care for reindeer as farmers care for cattle. The Eskimos in this view live at Cape Prince of Wales. They have harnessed their reindeer to sleds and are hauling reindeer meat to market at Nome. How many miles is it from Cape Prince of Wales to Nome ? What will these Eskimos buy at Nome in exchange for their meat? Why do the Eskimos keep reindeer instead of cattle ? How many different uses of the reindeer can you name ? low that the mercury freezes in the thermometers. In the Far North in summer it is daylight throughout the twenty-four hours. The sun is highest at noon, when it is in the south, and lowest at midnight, when it is in the north. During the winter the days in Alaska are short, and in places the sun does not rise above the horizon for many weeks. Effects of climate. Many think that Alaska is so cold a country that no one but Eskimos would want to live there, and that the growing season is too short to raise even vegetables. That is not so. To-day there is a popu- lation of about 65,000 in this far northern territory. Near each of the larger settlements there are vegetable In southeastern Alaska there are large forests, wonder- gardens, and nearly every prospector has a little garden ful waterfalls, and such beautiful scenery that thoiisands patch beside his cabin. Timothy hay and oats are raised POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES ALASKA An investment. In 1867 we purchased Alaska from Russia for 17,200,000. Many people thought we paid too high a price. Since then we have taken from Alaska over $150,000,000 worth of gold, more than 11,000,000 worth of silver, several million dollars' worth of copper, and some tin. Billions of tons of hard and soft coal have been discovered there. We are now taking 110,000,000 worth of fish from the Alaskan waters each year, most of which are salmon. of people take the boat trip to Alaska just to see the mountains, the long fiords, and the glaciers. Home work. In Bancroft's " History of the Pacific States," or elsewhere, read about Bering's discovery of Alaska. Climate. The winds from the Pacific Ocean bring an abundance of mois- ture to the coastal region of southern Alaska. See map on page 124. They blow over waters of the ocean that have been warmed by the Japan cur- rent, and they therefore keep the Pacific coastal region from ever being extremely cold. During the summer season a tem- perature of 95 degrees in the shade is sometimes reached in the interior of Alaska and even as far north as the Fig. 159. This is a view of Chilkoot Pass during the Klondike rush for gold. With their outfits on their backs the gold-seekers formed a long line here, pulling themselves up over the mountain by means of a long wire cable in a few places. Strawberries will ripen. Cattle graze all winter long on certain of the islands near the Alaskan Peninsula, and there are many Pacific coast harbors that are free from ice all the year. People. When the report was circu- lated that gold had been discovered in Alaska, miners and prospectors from almost all parts of the world rushed to this new country in the hope of discovering a rich deposit of gold-bearing gravels (Fig. 159). The miners make up most of the popu- lation to-day. Along the Pacific coast there are several Indian tribes. They are in- dustrious and kindly. Many of them work in the canneries, some in the arctic circle, and some prefer to work at night rather than mines, and others in the forests, where lumbexing is during the day, because it is cooler when the sun is low. carried on. In the interior of the country small Indian The winter temperature in the interior is very low, — so settlements appear along the banks of the Yukon. I Giiui and Coiiipauy ALASKA 85 Fig. 160. These are the rugged coastal mountains along the Alaskan shore. The sharp peak in the middle distance is Mt. St. Elias. Its summit is 18,000 feet above sea level. To the left of it is the great Malaspina Glacier, which extends from the foot of the mountains to the sea At Cape Prince of Wales, which is the nearest point in North America to Asia, and from there northward along the coast as far as Point Barrow, there are Eskimo settlements (Figs. 158, 162). Government. The people of Alaska elect delegates to Congress and have almost- complete control of local affairs. Since Alaska is a territory, the governor is appointed by the president of the United States. Problems and map studies. 1. What are the chief mineral re- sources of Alaska? 2. Name three important products shipped from Alaska to the United States. 3. What makes the coastal region of Alaska so favorable to the salmon? 4. What are the chief articles shipped to Alaska ? 6. Why are there not more people engaged in farming there ? 6. What are the chief cities of Alaska? 7. What is the most impor- tant inland city ? 8. What city is the capital of Alaska? the metrop- olis? See Fig. 163. 9. What is the largest river? 10. Name the northernmost cape. 11. Explain the fiords and islands along the coast of Alaska. 12. What explanation can you suggest for earthquakes? 13. Find the place where the sealskins come from. Study Fig. 164. 14. Who discovered Alaska ? See Appendix, Plate A. 15. What bodies of water have been named in honor of him ? 16. How much did we pay for Alaska? 17. Why should it be very warm in the valley of the Yukon during summer ? 18. What ocean current helps to keep the coast of Alaska warm? 19. Explajn the heavy snowfall on the coast ranges where the glaciers are formed. 20. Why is there less rainfall aft iiS^ N Hfetam^^^^^j^ ~ ^^^^'Bf Fig. 162. This Eskimo is paddling his kyak, which he has made by covering a framework of bones with skins tightly sewed together. He wears a sort of raincoat, which, when tied down over the opening in the boat, makes it water tight. In this rig he can ride the roughest waves with perfect safety in the interior of Alaska than there is along the seacoast ? 21. Where do the Eskimos live ? 22. Of what value to the Eskimos are the reindeer ? 23. How do people travel in the Yukon valley in winter ? 24. Plan three sight-seeing trips in Alaska and describe the things you would see on each one of them. Fig. 161. Perry Island, one of the volcanic mountains of the Aleutian chain, rose suddenly from the sea, and when it was first discovered, steam was escap- ing from every crack and crevice. Later explosions blew it to pieces, and to-day it cannot be seen. Locate the Aleutian Islands on your map Natural Regions The Pacific coastal region. Bordering the coast there are magnificent high mountains. They are a continu- ation northward of the mountains in our Pacific coast states, and extend through British Columbia into Alaska and then follow the coast through the Aleutian Islands. These islands are the peaks of a mountain range which extends nearly to Asia (Fig. 161). The St. Elias Range, as seen from a vessel coasting along the Alaskan shore, is one of the most magnificent sights in the world (Fig. 160). The Coast Ranges are young and growing mountains. Earthquakes are common in this belt, and there are many active volcanoes. There is one volcanic region which has been appropriately called " the valley of ten thousand smokes." This region has been set aside by Congress as the Katmai National Monument. This coastal region has a number of excellent harbors, and in the southeastern part of Alaska there is a beauti- ful inland passageway shel- tered from the storms of. the Pacific by a series of large islands. Juneau, the capital of Alaska, is situated near the northern end of this inland passage. Mining is the chief oc- cupation in southeastern Alaska, although lumbering and the canning of salmon are important. Whaling stations have also been established here, and there are salmon, halibut, herring, and a few cod fisheries, which provide a living for many of the people. 88 PANAMA CANAL ZONE Never before in the history of the world has man attempted a task so large or so difficult as the construc- tion of this canal. There were three chief difficulties: (1) a range of hills which separates the two oceans ; (2) great seasonal floods in the Chagres River ; (3) tropical diseases. The line of hills has been pierced by the Culebra Cut, which is 250 feet deep (Fig. 171). To con- trol the Chagres River the Gatun Dam was constructed, which has caused the formation of Gatun Lake, the largest artificial lake in the world (Fig. 172). The Fig. 169. This is a photograph of a model of Kilauea, the active crater on the eastern slope of Mauna Loa. The circular pit in the foreground contains a lake of boiling lava. Surrounding it is the great floor of hardened lava, built up by many outpourings of hot liquid rock PANAMA CANAL ZONE Ever since 1513, when Balboa climbed to the top of a hill on the Isthmus of Panama and looked off over the Pacific Ocean, men have talked of a water route through this narrow neck of land. France was the first country to attempt the construction of such a canal, and in 1880 Ferdinand de Lesseps, the engineer who built the Suez Canal, began the work. This project failed because those in charge were unable to prevent the spread of tropical diseases among the workmen. In 1904 the United States acquired from the republic of Panama a narrow zone through the Isthmus (Fig. 172). Our purpose in securing this zone was to construct a canal for large ships from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Pulliabers' Fhoto Ser ) PubUBbeni' Plioto Service, Inc. Fig. 170. These are the Gatun Locks of the Panama Canal. They are three great water steps by which ships are lifted from the level of the Caribbean Sea to Gatun Lake. The locks are large enough for the largest vessels afloat. At the left is one of the electric locomotives used for towing Fig. 171. This great steamship is being towed through the Culebra Cut. Across the canal is Gold Hill, which has caused the blocking of the canal several times by slides from its slopes. The Culebra Cut was made through the mountainous backbone of the Isthmus, and was a very hard problem for the engineers who constructed the canal problem of fighting tropical diseases was very difficult. Forests and underbrush were cleared away, oil was spread upon the waters of the marshes and swamps to prevent mosquitoes from breeding, sanitary conditions were greatly improved, and every care was taken to prevent the spread of any contagious diseases which appeared among the workmen. About 260,000,000 cubic yards of material were handled in the construction of the Panama Canal. That amount of material would build a wall around the Dis- trict of Columbia 60 feet thick and a little over 500 feet high. If the material could be piled up around the earth at the equator, it would make a solid wall six feet thick and about nine feet high. The level of Gatun Lake, through which the canal route passes, is about 85 feet above the sea. That neces- sitated a series of locks near each end of the canal. With the help of electric motors at these locks a vessel may now pass from one ocean to the other in about ten hours (Fig. 170). The route of the canal through the lake is marked by buoys that are brightly lighted at night. Colon, the Atlantic terminal, is a supply station. Here ships can obtain almost anything they need. Storage bins for coal, machine shops, bakeries, and ice plants have been established at this terminal. PANAMA CANAL ZONE 89 The Pacific terminal of the canal is Balboa. It is fitted up as a repair station. With huge machine shops and modem dry docks, Balboa stands ready to receive any ship that needs re- pairing after its trip through the canal. By means of the canal the Pacific*' coast ports of North America and South America may easily be reached from all Atlantic seaports. The opening of the Panama Canal shortened the water route from New York to San Francisco by 8000 miles and made all of our island possessions in the Pacific Ocean more valu- able. The United States govern- ment has fortified the canal, but it is open for the Mse of vessels of all nations. The canal is also of great advantage to the countries of western Europe, shortening the distance between their Atlantic ports and the Pacific ports of North and South America by thousands of miles. Home work. 1. Make a diagram showing the length of the canal, the height of Gatun Lake, the location of the locks at each end, and the location of Colon and of Panama. 2. Which end of the canal is farther west ? 3. Find out how electric motors help vessels through the canal. CARJBBEAy SEA Fig. 173. This is the city of Pananui, near is that the Pacific end i£) Ginn uid Comp&nj Fig. 172. This is a view of the Panama Canal Zone, showing the mountainous country through which the canal was cut. The Canal Zone (shown by the darker shading) is 10 miles wide and 50 miles long from deep water at Colon to deep water in the Gulf of Panama. The narrowest width of the canal is 300 feet, and its shallowest depth is 41 feet. The highest reach of its water surface, from the Gatun Locks to the Pedro Miguel Locks, is 85 feet above sea level Problems and review questions. 1. About how long is the rananui Canal ? 2. How wide is the Canal Zone? 3. How was the Gatun Lake formed ? 4. Of what advantage is the lake ? 6. How is the canal route through the lake marked ? 6. How high do vessels rise above sea level in crossing the Isthmus? 7. How long does it take for vessels to pass from ocean to ocean through the canal ? 8. What difficulties had to be overcome in building the canal ? 9. What was done to prevent the spread- ing of tropical diseases ? 10. What South. American countries are most benefited by the canal ? 11. How did the opening of the canal increase the value of our Pacific islands ? 12. What did it do for Europe ? the Pacific end of the canal. Can you explain how it is the eastern end of the canal ? 90 PORTO RICO Fig. 174. This motor truck, loaded with Porto Rican sugar cane, is bound for the sugar mill. The sugar used to be hauled to the mills in oxcarts in Porto Rico and Cuba, but gradually motor trucks are taking their places. Why are motor trucks better for this purpose ? PORTO KICO Porto Rico is in the torrid zone and is one of the four largest islands of the West Indies. In many ways it is a delightful place to live in, and certainly a most attrac- tive island to visit. The central portion is mountainous, and about the margin are the lowlands, which have been divided into farms. Many of the lower slopes of the mountains are cultivated. About three fifths of the people are white and the other two fifths are negroes or people with mixed blood (Fig. 177). , Porto Rico is not quite as large as the state of Connec- ticut ; it has a population of over a million. The island was ceded to the United States by Spain in 1898. At that time the great mass of the people were uneducated. ^ "maMm Fig. 17S. Many of the broad, rich valleys of Porto Rico are used for raising tobacco. Large areas of the tobacco fields are covered with white cheese- cloth, which protects the plants from insects and the intense heat of the sun. Scattered over the fields are the sheds where the tobacco is dried There are many to-day who cannot read or write, but a system of free public schools has been established, and every effort is being made to have the children attend school at least a part of each year. Climate. The high temperature of this region is weak- ening, especially to white people. They must learn to work less vigorously than they would in the temperate zone, and plan to have a great deal of help. On the lowlands there is never frost or snow. The prevailing winds are the northeast trades. As the moisture-laden winds strike the mountains and rise, the rain falls on the windward, or northeast, side. The leeward, or south- west, side is dry, — a condition which we have discovered in many places where winds pass over mountains and descend. On the dry side of the island irrigation is necessary to assure full and regular crops. The rainy season is in summer, when the equatorial rainy belt moves northward with the appar- ent movement of the sun. Products and Occupations. The chief product is sugar, of which the island exports each year approx- imately 500,000 tons. It consti- tutes over 50 per cent of all the products exported (Fig. 174). Cotton, coffee, tropical fruits, and tobacco are among the other products (Fig. 175). Some of the fruits, especially pineapples, are canned before they are shipped. Great quantities of vegetables are raised on the lowlands of Porto Rico. They ripen during the winter months and are sent directly to the markets of the United States.. Although most of the people in Porto Rico are engaged in agriculture, there is a little manufacturing. Cigars and cigarettes are made. Large numbers of them are used by the Porto Ricans, but a great many are exported. In some ways the United States is fortunate in hav- ing possessions in the tropics and in having commercial relations with many other tropical countries, for from those lands we secure products which we cannot raise in abundance at home. Railways. Since the United States took control of Porto Rico, over 1000 miles of roads have been im- proved, and about 300 miles of railway constructed. The main line of travel is on the lowlands about the margin of the island. See map between pages 117 and 120. Uodeiwood A Uoderwood Fig. 176. San Juan was a sleepy old Spanish town until 1898, when Porto Rico became a United States possession. Now it is a busy modern seaport. Can you explain the change ? THE VIRGIN ISLANDS 91 Cities. The two largest cities are San Juan (Fig. 176) and Ponce. San Juan, the capital, is on the north side, and Ponce is on the south side. They are now con- nected by a railroad which runs around the west end of the island. Government. The governor of Porto Kico is appointed by the president of the United States, but most of the local affairs are entirely under the control of those living on the island. The citizens over twenty-one years of age, both natives and Americans, who have lived there for a year, have a right to vote. The voters elect most of their local officials and a commissioner to the United States, who represents Porto Rico in Congress. THE VIRGIN ISLANDS The Virgin Islands, which the United States purchased from Denmark, lie about 50 miles east of Porto Rico and have a combined area of 142 square miles. Compare this with the area of the smallest state in the Union and with the area of Porto Rico. These little islands are in the belt of the northeast trades, where it is always warm. When the winds strike the mountains, rain falls, so that the northeast sides, as in the case of the other islands in the West Indies, are well watered. Most of the rain comes in summer and early fall. The islands are the tops of moun- tains, but near the coast there is enough low land for large crops of sugar and cotton, which are the two leading products. Trade is increas- ing constantly be- tween the islands and the United States. The pop- ulation of these © L. >\. Newman Fig. 177. This is a typical negro family of Porto Rico. Their little house is built of boards and thatched with straw. Back of the house is the banana patch from which they get most of their food ^^^r 4MW ^^^^ft^Vl m S^^S^ aJ^^^HHH^i^P^^w|^'- Y 'i.»«'V«- BJI^^^^^g^^^ .'-ii^^a^^ ^B§ j- islands is about 32,000. Of the three islands, St. Thomas is the most important commercially. This is due to its advantageous position. The island is located directly on the sailing route be- tween the ports of Europe and the entrance to the Panama Canal, and also on the Hne of communication between North and South America. Its one town, Charlotte Amalie, is beautifully located on the lower slopes of three mountains, overlooking one of the best harbors in the West Indies, and it is the port from which the agricultural products of the surrounding islands are shipped to other parts of the world (Figs. 178, 179). St. Croix and St. John, the other two islands of the group, have rich soils on which excellent crops of sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, and tropical fruits are raised. Fubluihcra' Pliotu ScTTiue, luo. 3 Publiaheri' Photo tSerrice, Idc. Fig. 178. This is a street of steps in Charlotte Amalie. The city is built on the slopes of three mountains overlooking the harbor, and the steep streets climb straight up the hillsides Fig. 179. This is Charlotte Amalie, the port of St. Thomas, one of the three Virgin Islands which the United States bought from Denmark in 1917 for $25,000,000. Charlotte Amalie has a landlocked harbor large enough to shel- ter 200 vessels. Why are the Virgin Islands valuable to the United States ? Problems and review questions. 1. How did the United States come into possession of Porto Eico ? of the Virgin Islands ? 2. Why should these islands have warm climates with plenty of rainfall for agriculture on the northeast sides? 3. Why should they be drier on the southwest sides ? 4. Should you expect the mountainous portions to be forested ? See map on page 124. Ty. Why are the native Indians and the negroes very useful on the islands ? 6. At what season of the year should we find a visit to Porto Rico most enjoyable ? 7. What foods should you probably find in abundance through- out the islands ? 8. Of what advantage i9 it to the United States of America to have island possessions in the tropics ? 9. What are the chief articles that the people on these islands wish to purchase from us ? 92 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS tl i,-^! & ' £ " ^^^fl %K .^ -^ 1 % W ^. ., "si^m >l fubliL- Wurks, ManiU Fig. 180. These Filipino girls are grinding corn Fig. 181. Some of the people of the Philippines Fig. 182. This is one of the beautiful little horses in a simple hand mill made of two stones. The live in tree houses like this. They climb up to for which the mountainous province of Abra, in corn is ground while it is fresh, for the people of the house by a ladder which they pull up after northern Luzon, is famous. These horses are the Philippines do not like it dried them for greater safety rather small but very sturdy and strong PHILIPPINE ISLANDS The Philippines are the tops of mountains which rose from the sea bottom until their summits were out of water. In places the great folds in the earth broke open and volcanoes came into existence. Along the cracks and fissures in the mountain masses little slips take place from time to time, causing earthquakes. These moun- tains are therefore young and are still growing. Many of them now rise from 8000 to 10,000 feet above sea level. Between the larger ranges there are broad valleys suitr able for agriculture. There are over 3000 islands in the Climate. The climate in the Philippine Islands has a greater influence upon the activities of the people than any other geographical factor. The islands are near the equator and are surrounded by sea water. The temperature is never very low, but there is a noticeable change from day to night. The nights are commonly cool and the days are warm. During the winter, except on the windward sides of the mountains, there is little rain, but from June to September there is a rainy season throughout the islands. Under such weak- ening climatic conditions people do not become industri- ous. White people from the temperate zone, who have group. The largest, Luzon, is about the size of Kentucky, lived most active lives, soon stop working hard if they live in such a tropical land. There is an abundance of fruit for food, and one needs but little clothing and shelter. There is therefore no necessity for hard work. Native people. There are over 8,000,000 people living on the Phil- ippine Islands. Among the native people there are many groups, each with a distinct language. Most of them are peaceful and industrious (Figs. 180, 183, 185, 186), but in the mountains away from the sea- coast there are yet many wild and some savage tribes (Fig. 181). Occupations. Gold, copper, and silver have been found in the mountains, and mining has been undertaken. Along the coast there are fisheries, and farther inland there is some cattle-raising. Lumbering is important in Mindanao. The second largest is Mindanao. Review questions and map studies. 1. Near what lands are the Philippine Islands ? 2. Judging from the latitude and position in the ocean, describe the climate of these islands. 3. Judging from the products, name the chief occupations of the people. 4. What is the chief sear port ? On which island is it located ? 5. What are the chief products ex- ported from Manila ? 6. Do the imports and exports suggest that this is a manu- facturing country ? Why ? 7. What have you seen that came from Manila ? 8. Why does the temperature remain about the same in summer and winter in these islands ? 9. What foods do these islands produce ? 10. Why do the natives of the Pacific Islands work less than the people of the United States? 11. Which is farther from the equator, Guam or Manila ? 12. What part of the Philippine Islands is in about the same latitude as Panama ? 13. What part of the Philip- pine Islands is in about the same latitude as the City of Mexico ? Courtea; uf Bureau of Agriculture, Manila Fig. 183. Manila hemp is made from the sheathlike layers of the trunk of the abaca tree. This man is busy pulling ofi the layers, one by one. When he has finished, most of the trunk will have been removed B Fu^how 180° 122 ^(uthi'Vhannet ^^^^^ WITBAYAT I. C Sh«ngh«i« BATAN IS. . B alinjang F 'Seoul 129° Channel W BABUYAN I. CALAYAN Lj^ "] BABUYAN ISI^NDS DALUPIRI I.* J ^ i»n WCAHIGUIN I. ln» ^ Zf"^ Chnn\id BangiAd 14 "<1 I'V Longitude 170° SO' B'wt /rom 170° Grttnwicii W»°»0 W.Cape" r'ANUU I. TUTUILA I. AMERICAN SAMOA ISLANDS Scale, three times that of main map rolslNA I. :«^^LOSENGA I. >*-^, : ' ^ySii. , I Ecnagi e^ Wil/b ^ * -' / Iba San !,:.,„„ , San Narciscol. " "'-' f'/.v « 10 LILLO I. ..^ATNANONGAN I. r9 ^4»JOHALlG I. iflillo rinio^ Bay . j^calagoa IS. IfondajTua -/■"'> ■■,.,,-■ , , W" yW(./.,,r--. r 144'' 30' Ea»t J'rom Gremn\^^^wieK Ritidian Pt. 13 30 Scale, three times thatof main map PHILIPPINE ISLANDS ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL MAP Ml.M'OKC* Q.«j A.NTON ^Sibuyan Sea \ ■> j f rifcfco 1 CATANDUANES ('■ » Virac '■'"to/, Gulf 4ATAN 1. [■^TiAPUBAPU I. Scale of statute miles 10 30 SO too IfiO Scale of kilometers 95 bO 100 aoo jfcaWIBLON I. CALAHIAN ISLANDS CUMON UNAPAQA.?((| f>> > SanJcs. '. lANGA I. > ^■Puqio New Was! iprsogron luYAN .'Vror' , •"'^laocia Bilinih* ' ,,^^. Ban :oron?an Capital Chief seaports Railroads ==^=^^^= Navigable rivers I I Lowlands Uplands 1 Young, rugged mountains Bay Puerto Princess •It. ' ' ' a ' (Polutaii ^9|r, Cuyo« SanJosej riofio « J ,V^ ,*^ de Boenavistal ^V^ X bi MARA.s' I Dao4 'ci L.Bito Uylt^ Guf/^HolloNHON •^frUBBATAHA IS. u britE NORTH BOIfNEO -/V. CACAYAN 118? CAGAYANES X Dapltki^,^/^ PANGVTARANO 4'IiSLAN08 •7 ^ Mambamo 0,0 Catarn^ ^, Bulinu. iilag % <^olVx ,.„„,j IL/iiigW. CimivlTcitllley^— .*t£'!' I L.Imhuo ^^MalalianK A? rman Pt. o Mora Gil If ■portLeUik Gulf , 7"^^^^^ - -' JONQUIL I. L E B E S Sara" E A Tlnaca pt,^j C.San Agustin ^y ^ s 18 12 10 C hongitudt 122° Eatt J) /rom 124° Gretnwich E 126° I GIdu and Coiiii>aii^ 94 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS ) Publuberi' Photo SerTioe, Ine. Fig. 184. The mountain rice fields are cut out of the steep slopes, like great steps one above another. Each field is protected by a high stone wall, which keeps the soil from sliding down the mountain. The water is brought to the fields by a system of irrigation ditches The lowland plains have rich soils, for the streams have brought fine material from the mountain slopes and spread it out on the lower lands. Sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco, and many kinds of fruit are raised, for the most part on these lowland areas. In many places irrigation is practiced, so that crops are not entirely singing and laughing after destroyed during the dry season. The lower slopes of the long day in the field the mountains are also used for agriculture (Fig. 184). Rice culture. The cultivation of rice has several very interesting stages. The fields have dikes about them, so they may be flooded. When the rains begin to fall, these dikes keep the water from running off, so the dry, hard earth becomes a mud. In certain fields men are at work plowing and harrowing the wet, muddy ground. In this work the water buffalo, one of the pull the seedlings, and the women and. older children transplant them. Later the waters are drained off the fields, and the grain begins to ripen. By the first of November the harvesting of the earliest crop begins. This is a period of great merriment, the happiest time of the year. At three o'clock in the morn- ing on harvest days lights are seen in every house. Long before daybreak groups of men, women, and children start walking over the dikes to the harvest fields. Each one carries a flat- bottomed basket, large or small according to the size of the worker. They work on shares ; sometimes it is a fifth of all that the worker has cut, sometimes a fourth or a third. Each one makes a separate heap of grain, and at the end of the day the owner of the field gives him his share. Then the workers tie up their bundles of grain and start for home. Fig. 185. This man is stripping abaca sheaths by pulling them under a sharp knife. After this the strips will be dried in the sun few animals that will work well in mud, is very helpful. After the plowing and harrowing, the seeds are scattered broadcast. In about three weeks, or at the beginning of June, the seed- lings are nearly a foot high and are ready to be transplanted. Everyone who is old enough to work in the field must help, for the transplanting must be done quickly. Most of the men and boys continue the plowing of new fields, but a few help the women and girls in the trans- planting. The experienced men Coiirtesj of Uir Fig. 186. This Filipino farqily is threshing and winnowing rice. The men separate the grain from the stalks by pounding them on a stone. The women winnow the rice by tossing the grain into the air. As It falls the wind blows the chafi away Manila hemp is the best-known product of the Philip- pines. The rich volcanic soils of the lower mountain slopes, with the abundant rainfall, give just the right conditions for the growth of the abaca tree, from which the fiber comes (Figs. 183, 185). The Filipinos take excel- lent care of their abaca trees. Each year they cut only those which are full-grown. The long, white fibers are bound in bundles and shipped in large quantities from Manila to Europe and the United States, where they are made into strong rope and twine. Some rope is manufactured in the Philippines. Foreign trade. Manila is the chief seaport and the seat of gov- ernment (Fig. 189). The popu- lation of the city is over 200,000. Large quantities of raw hemp, sugar, and tobacco are shipped from Manila to the United States. Copra, the dried meat of the coconut, from which coconut oil is extracted, is also exported in large quantities. GUAM AND THE SAMOAN ISLANDS 95 Government.. Since 1898, when we paid Spain twenty million dollars to give up all claim to these islands, the government has been under the direction of the United States. The native people, however, have been given practically complete control of local affairs. They have a legislature of their own and send two commissioners to our national Congress. We are helping in every possible way to educate the people and to train them to establish and maintain a good goVernnu^nt. Home work. Find out about how long it takes to go from San Francisco to Manila. GUAM The island of Guam is only thirty-two miles long and from four to ten miles wide. It was ceded to the United States by Spain in 1898, after the close of the Spanish War. It is now used as a naval station, ind the island is under the control of the Navy Department of the United States. Guam has a wireless telegraph plant and cable connections with all parts of the world. The native people raise rice, maize, sweet potatoes, coffee, co- coa, and sugar. SAMOAN ISLANDS i:.iuru-sy ol l(ur. au i.f Sni.'iioe. Manila Fig. 187. After it has been threshed and winnowed, the girls pound the rice in a hollowed-out log of hard wood. This pounding husks the rice grains For years Great Britain, Germany, and the United States liave been interested in the Samoan Islands and have made various treaties regarding their rights in the islands. At present the island of Tutuila and a number of smaller islands near by are among our possessions. These islands owe their importance to the fact that they lie on the direct steamship route from San Francisco to Sydney. They serve as naval bases and as coaling stations for vessels. The native people in the islands held by the United States have control of most local affairs, but the presi- dent of the United States apjxjints a governor, who holds the highest office. Tlie Samoan Islands are volcanic. Some of the vol- canoes are no longer active, btit many of them erupt from time to time, and earthquakes are common. For the most part the islands are thickly wooded and the soils are fertile. These islands are so near the equator that the climate Fig. 188. These carts, drawn by carabaos, are carrying the rice harvest to market in Luzon. The roads here are good and are lined with coconut palms. Rice is the largest single crop in the Philippines, but the people do not raise all they need. From what country do they import it ? is always warm, and they are in the midst of the Pacific Ocean, where the temperature is about the same in summer as in winter. At times they suffer from severe hurricanes. The native }:)eople gather the coconuts that grow in abundance on the islands and dry the coconut meat to make copra. On most of the islands the natives pay their taxes in copra, which is the only product that is sufficiently abundant to export. In addition they raise for their own use breadfruit, yams, and a great many tropical fruits, such as pineapples, oranges, and bananas. Fig. 189. Manila is located at the mouth of the Pasig River on the island of Luzon. This view shows the river, which is deep enough for the smaller steamers and lighters. The larger ships must either anchor in the open water or come to docks in the new harbor formed by the breakwater beyond the city PACIFIC TIME ZONE MOUNTAIN TIME ZONE 130° "'^-:'>-^o;:2j'b — 120° J lis" Calgary j) -i)V — 110° E Prince, iaco Albert ^'"' F Lingituds 100° VTesf C 4 ?p ^N . I T 45 . w^rrjT s^r '\: o "o^co. /^^. "^",^o'^b,, -JVi*; f/am,li ^-..sC^^--/'^ wnS 40 !s?,P'ty D A ^s Lake ^ H O ■^iA arck ' Aberdeen'(«- •♦S i I! RedlKil" JouK-lasI hadrpB 3^rr ■^■To, Cx .To, ^?^fe \i/r' J^-^_2<. *''^ Collins J . J ^S BoOJUe,. B '"opah ■'oWfi, ie/d ^Colorado SpPI Sueblo 35 .W t.a Junta | Cfinidad > "-^--ep^.^S^ v/t-t::?. San o,Y.^^ ^"a " 'v^ GjiS-- Unia .GIofeJ_^ ^ton/ Silver! UNITED STAT] POLITICAL MAP SHOWING PRINCIPAL RAILROADS^ %. h i_Las traces flPaso Entd LaWtc'i Fall ^ so 100 Scale of statute miles 200 -JOO Scale of kilometers O BO lOO SOO 400 600 ■it Capital of country @ Capitals of states Chief se^orts Chief lake p< \ Principal railroads I Lowlands 1, 1(' ^ \ T% •X Abilene AngSh> Auatii tTresidio Chiefly coastal plain) I Uplands and plat^us 25 r~| \ Lowlands \ ' f ( Central plains ) 1 Old, worn-down J mountains LCreat plains ~] Young, ruggred I mountains B 180° 115° 110° • Mazatlan 105° Guadalajara F Longitude 100° Mexico ^*'*'-^' ' y RAL TIME ZONE EASTERN TIME ZONE » ATLANTIC TIME ZONE Lmt'iSon EorV« ■"S^r- "V RtVL. i St iiincapo5 Alpena^ 1.^ >Mason Cit^ O rTEHE Bay Citl kato ^l'^^ ;^i^ City I 1^ j-HirSn ^^_ Chic JS-n^ .c,-:--'_^:n:^^J^^' ^^-y^l k fl^^hSvm JKeajt Atclijs, Jeayenworr k M IS SO u u IN^^|^^n»C:n,^. t'^Carf^— •'1 '"fltf-V'j-^^^S [ I s so u 11 i^V-«-J^^SraW, ^M^if^;;^^ ,yaicv>ll.- V-, rarajjiuld.fflj.r' City .V-- -. £. G ^ \r ^ ^ ?^ r.iiMiSSM V'ajteJttPC^Y „^'C.LO°'^ ,, smith... '^^f I .i> Jp^^T-rr- ^^"'"'"lir Ari^'^f^-"'' ^ "•■■'■■'^f ^ ^-4,^.:-v.ingt°" ^yiatcville V^ p. "IS ' A U^K-A N __,gebi ;hatlesW>» iami K^v, '^ 75° M '^osofa © Giun and Company 98 THE NATION AS A WHOLE THE NATION AS A WHOLE After studying the different parts of the United States and its possessions, we should consider the nation as a whole and see how important a part the geographic con- ditions have played in the settlement of the country and in the development of industrial and commercial life. Early settlements. The first permanent settlements in the United States were on the Atlantic coast (Fig. 190). In the days before there were any railroads the Appala- chian Mountains held the people near the Atlantic sea- board. The mountains were a liarrier that made travel to the westward difficult. Moreover, going beyond the mountains to live meant cut- ting off all easy commvmica- tion witli the settled portion of this country and also with England. Until manufactur- ing plants were established in America the colonists depended upon the trade with England for many of the things they needed. Perhaps the presence of Indians Avest of the moun- tains influenced some people to stay in the East. However, the fact that they did stay together led to the development of great strength in tlie colonies which united to make this nation. 15. What states include a part of the Rocky Mountains ? 16. What states include a portion of the great plateau between the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains? 17. At what place in the United States do four states come together ? 18. What states are crossed by the Colorado River ? 19. In what state is Great Salt Lake ? 20. To what state should you go to see the Grand Canyon of the Colorado? 21. What mountain ranges border the great plateaus on the west? 22. What states border upon Mexico ? 2-3. Between what two states does the lower part of the Columbia River flow ? 24. What large tributary does this river receive from the southeast ? 25. Round the state in which you live. 20. Fig. 190. This map shows the distribution of population in the United States in 1790, and the westward movement of the center of population since that time. Near what cities was the population densest in 1790 ? Trace the progress of the center westward. Near what city was the center in 1870 ? in 1910 ? MAP STUDIES — POLITIC AL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES Ree map hctwern pages 95 and 98. 1. What states border the Atlantic Ocean ? 2. What states border the Gulf of Mexico ? 3. What states that do not border the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico include a part of the Coastal Plain ? 4. What state is north of Long Island ? 5. Of what state is Long Island a part ? 6. What two states are separated by Delaware Bay? 7. Into what two states does Chesapeake Bay enter ? 8. Between what two states is the Savannah River? 9. Locate Mobile Bay. 10. In what state is the delta of the Mississippi River? 11. What state is separated from IMexico by tlie Rio Grande ? 12. What states border on Lake Erie ? on Lake Michigan? on Lake Superior? LS. The banks of a river are named "right" and "left" as one would see them looking downstream. Name the states on the west, or right, bank of the Mississippi River. Name those on tlie l(;ft bank. 14. You have named the row of states on the right bank of the Mississippi. Next to them on the west is a row whose ea.stern jiarts are in the Central Plains and whose western parts are in the Great Plains. Name these, beginning at the north. Bound the United States. 27. What states border on the Pacific Ocean ? 28. What states border on Canada? 29. Are the rail- roads more numerous in the east- ern or in tlie western half of the United States ? Why ? 30. Lay out a route of travel from Boston to Los Angeles by way of New York, Albany, Buffalo, Detroit, Chicago, St. Paul, Glacier National Park, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco. What railroads should you use? What states should you cross ? 31. Return from Los Angeles to Chicago by a route that will take you by a side trip to the rim of the Grand Canyon and through Denver. What is the name of the railroad used and the names of the states cros.sed? 32. Make a list of the chief seaports ; the chief lake ports. Put the population opposite each city name. See Appendix. 33. What are the ten largest cities in the United States? Arrange them in the order of population. 34. What is the difference in the standard time of New York and Chicago? of New York and San Francisco? of Wash- ington, D.C., and Denver, Colorado? 35. What large cities in New England are in about the same latitude as Rome, Italy ? 36. What part of our 'country is in about the same latitude as Palestine, where Jerusalem is located ? 37. What large cities in the United States are in about the same longitude as Bogota, the capital of Colombia? 38. Which is farther west from Greenwich, — the capital of Texas or the capital of Mexico ? 39. Com[)are the latitude of San Francisco with that of Peking and also with that of Tokyo. Home work. 1. On an outline map of the United States, print in from memory the names of the states. If necessary, correct your map and try it again. Learn to do this perfectly. 2. On the same outline map, locate and print in from memory the names of five important seaports, five large lake ports, and five large river cities. 3. How many state capitals can you name and locate correctly from memory ? Test yourself on an outline map. THE NATION AS A WHOLE 99 Westward expansion. The westward expansion was laijj;ely controlled by geography. The trails used by the pioneers followed the easier routes of travel. See map on pages 2 and 3. On the north the Great Lakes and on the south the Gulf of Mexico formed natural boundaries. Later, by a series of pur- chases and treaties (Fig. 191), the wide stri^ of land stretch- ing from the Atlantic to the Pacific was acquired by the United States. In time Alaska, the Panama Canal Zone, and various islands in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans came into our possession. As pioneers pushed into all parts of the territory acqmred by the United States, trails were built and small settlements were established. During the period of active railroad construction, which fortunately came when this country was being opened up, these settlements were joined together by a great network of roads. To-day it is relatively easy to reach almostany partof the United States. Discovery of natural resources. With the expansion, the increase in settlements, and the construction of railroads, more and more of the natural resources of this vast country have been discovered and utilized. We are fortunate in having rich soils, broad, level lands, and abun- dant rainfall, so that sufficient food may easily be raised. In this country we have only begun to test our ability to produce food. We have never had a great famine, and it is hard for us to believe that in some parts of the world millions of people have died in a single year for want of food. Next in importance comes the great group of resources which furnish man with power, such as coal, oil, gas, and streams. These sources of power have increased the amount of work man can do and have led to the remarkable development in manu- facturing which has taken place in the United States. Fig. 191. This map shows the steps by which the United States has expanded from the territory of the original thirteen states to its present size. How many of our present states are included in the original territory ? List the different additions in order of the dates of their annexation Fig. 192. This view shows the special cut, or blaze, on the trees, by which the national forest trails are marked. In what ways are the national forests a benefit to our country ? The forests are always of importance ; the fish, the waterways, and the harbors have all been important in the growth of the nation. Conservation of natural re- sources. Almost everyone in the United States is interested in developing or using great natural resources. It has taken millions of years for the de- posits of coal, iron, gold, silver, and other minerals to form, and perhaps as long for the accumulation of natural oil and gas. It has taken a long, long time for the formation of the soils. Many of these re- sources can be used but once and can never be replaced. Agriculture is dependent upon the fertility of the soils and upon rain or other water supply. Raw materials are essential to our industrial and commercial development as a nation. In this country we have come to know that from this time on the mineral wealth must not be wasted, the forests must be protected, the fertility of the soils maintained, the water-power developed, and many of the dry lands irrigated. Fish and game should be allowed to increase in numbers. The spreading of injurious animals and insects should be prevented, while other animals, and especially the birds, should be protected. The birds not only destroy large num- bers of insects but add much to the pleasure of the people. These facts are sufficient to con- vince one that the natural resources must be conserved if this country is to continue for all time to be an attractive place for people to live in. Our government is making a great effort to conserve all valuable re- sources. The Reclamation Service is adding large areas to our agricultural lands by irrigating the dry places and by draining the wet parts ; the Forest Service is engaged in maintaining the national forests (Fig. 192); the Bureau of Mines is teaching men how to ex- tract the rich mineral ores from the earth most econom- Then come the mineral resources, such as iron, cop- ically ; and the Department of Agriculture is helping per, gold, silver, lead, and zinc. ' the fanner to raise larger and better crops. 100 THE NATION AS A WHOLE Education. The American colonists had high ideals easy routes for transportation, and a number of large of education and very early established schools and col- industrial and commercial lake ports have developed. leges. A school was opened for each new settlement in this country, and as prosperity came these schools were improved. Thousands of high schools have been estab- lished. An effort has been made to give each American child and all those who have chosen to come to this country from foreign lands a good education. Most of the states now have a number of normal schools and a university, and many of the states have established agricultural colleges, either associated with Fig. 193. Here is a great ocean liner lying at anchor off the coast of Japan. This is one of the large ships which run across the Pacific Ocean, carrying freight and passengers between the western ports of the United States and Canada and the eastern ports of Asia. What are some of the goods carried on its westward trips ? on its eastward trips ? the universities or as independent institutions. There are also numerous special schools of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, mining, and engineering, so that everyone who wishes may find a place to go for higher training in the profession of his choice. Geographic factors which affect the growth of the nation. When a land is divided by mountain ranges into small natural regions, many distinct nations are apt to be developed. Here large natural regions and broad, level stretches of fertile lands have led to the development of a unified nation. The great railroad systems have helped to bind the people together. The breadth of view and the daring of the American people are in some degree due to the extent of its territory, its broad, open expanse of prairie lands, and its wonderful natural resources. The location of the United States on the shores of the Atlantic is of great importance to the country. It makes possible a close association with other progressive nations of the world. On the north the Great Lakes provide On the south direct access to lands in the tropics is afforded by the Gulf of Mexico, which, with the Carib- bean Sea, forms an American Mediterranean. Its waters touch Central America, Mexico, the United States, and the West Indies, and reach the northern shores of South America. The United States now holds a prominent place in the commerce which crosses the American Mediterranean, and in the future it will undoubtedly occupy a still more important position. The Pacific coast gives us access to the oriental countries, and leads us to take a great and very direct interest in the development of Asiatic nations (Fig. 193). The addition of Alaska has given us land which is rich in mineral wealth and fish. It has a supply of coal which will become of importance to commerce on the Pacific. The islands of Hawaii, Samoa, Guam, and the Phil- ippines are all important stations in the midst of the Pacific Ocean. They form a chain joined by cables and by the routes of travel followed by the great steamships crossing the Pacific. The Panama Canal is of immeasurable commercial value, and our islands in the West Indies give us additional land in the tropics where certain food suppUes may be produced. The temperature in the United States varies from summer to winter and in general stimulates thought and develops energetic people. The seasonal changes make life more interesting and force people to look ahead and provide for the future. The weather conditions are not so severe that progress is impossible, and yet they are not so mild that everyone becomes lazy. The climate of the United States has therefore been a factor of fundamental importance in the development of a strong, progressive nation. All of these large geographic facts have been of im- portance in the development of the nation and have led not only to great internal strength and great wealth but to an ever-increasing interest in the other nations of the world. Problems and review questions. 1. Where were the first English settlements in the United States ? 2. Why did the Appalachian Mountains serve as a barrier to migrations westward ? 3. Describe the routes most commonly used in crossing the Appalachian Mountains. See map on pages 2 and 3. 4. How did rivers affect the movements of pioneers ? 5. How have' railroads helped in the settlement and industrial life of this THE NATION AS A WHOLE 101 t*' ■^^-: country ? 6. What natural resource is of the greatest importance to the United States ? 7. Name the natural resources that furnish power. 8. What metal is most useful to man ? Explain. 9. How may the fertility of soils be maintained ? 10. Why should water power be used ? 11. How far do you know electrical power to be transmitted ? 12. How may we conserve fuel re- sources ? metals ? forests ? 13. What institutions for higher education are maintained in your state ? 14. How have the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts proved beneficial to the nation ? 15. Where may we expect our commerce to increase greatly in the next fifty years ? 16. Why should a variable climate with large seasonal change be favorable to a progressive civilization ? Government. The thirteen orig- inal colonies became the first states in the Union. For some time the newly acquired territories were large but thinly settled. As the number of people increased, the new territories acquired were di- vided and local governments were established. Each division was in time admitted into the Union, until there are now forty-eight states. The national Congress is com- posed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Each of the forty-eight states elects two sena- tors, but the number of repre- sentatives elected by each state varies with the population. At present there are four hundred and thirty-five members in the House of Representatives in Con- gress. The people in the terri- torial possessions send delegates to Congress. structures. Large buildings have also been constructed as headquarters for most of the departments. Each foreign nation has a representative or a group of representatives in Washington, and it is an everyday experience to those living in the capital to meet people from various parts of the world. The larger foreign nations have buildings of their own in the city. Recently a large building has been constructed in Washington for the Pan American Union. The efforts of all those associated with this organization are C'dijif i.'.'i'' I rl ingtun-' ndri Fig. 194. This is an aeroplane drawing of Washington. The extent of the District of Columbia, which corresponds with the city limits, is shown by the darker shading. To what states does the adjoining land belong ? George Washington selected this site for the national capital in 1790 and made the first plans for the city. Describe the capital and its surroundings from what you can see in this view The President is elected by the citizens of the United directed toward bringing about a closer and better States to serve for a term of four years. He appoints, relationship between the countries of North and South subject to the approval of the Senate, the members of America. his Cabinet, who take charge of the great departments The National Museum is a place of great historic and of public affairs. At present the members of the Cabinet scientific interest, the Red Cross organization has a include secretaries of State, the Treasury, War, the beautiful home in Washington (Fig. 196), and the head- Navy, the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor, quarters of the National Geographic Society are here, an Attorney-General, and a PostmasterrGeneral. Internal development. Wlien the thirteen colonies Washington and the District of Columbia. The seat of came together to form a nation, they had a total popula- govemment for the nation is the city of Washington, tion of about 1,000,000 people. To-day there are about : situated on the banks of the Potomac River (Fig. 194). 100,000,000 people in the United States. We have had Washington has become a most attractive city, of which a period of most prosperous internal development. The ' every citizen of the United States may well be proud, growth of cities, the construction of railroads, and the It was established as a seat of government and is not establishment of all kinds of educational institutions an industrial center. The chief business in Washington have been remarkable. The nation has grown strong pertains to the conduct of national affairs. The Capitol and powerful. This was most wonderfully demonstrated (Fig. 195) and the Congressional Library are magnificent in our participation in the great World War. 102 THE NATION AS A WHOLE Fig. 195. The National Capitol at Washington is a very beautiful building made of white stone and marble. The dome is surmounted by a statue of Liberty, representing the great ideal of the American nation. In one of the wings is the chamber where the United States Senate meets, and in the other is the Hall of Representatives. The Supreme Court has its room in the main building of the Capitol Maritime expansion. To-day we are moving rapidly to a more and more important position in the commerce of the world. Our great factories need raw materials from distant lands. They also need additional markets where their ever-increasing number of products may be sold. Other nations wish to carry on an exchange of commodities with us. The United States, with the hun- dreds of new vessels built during the World War and the many which will be built each year in the American shipyards, will certainly develop a large international commerce. The United States in world affairs. Each time that we acquired a possession in the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean we assumed the responsibility of governing or assisting in the government of other people. This responsibility has led our government officials to make a careful study of the people living in the Hawaiian, Samoan, and Philippine Islands. We have also the problem of under- standing the people in the West Indies and the native people of Alaska. In each of these countries the geo- graphic conditions that affect the lives of the people are different from those in the United States proper. As the great industries of the United States have developed, the manufacturers have needed more men and more raw materials. Millions of people have come from foreign lands to live in this country, and vast supplies of materials are being imported. These factors have in- creased our interest in the other countries of the world. With our growth in international commerce and the part which we found it necessary to take in the great World War our interest in world affairs has increased. It has become, therefore, more and more important that each citizen of the United States should know the geography of foreign countries. More men must be sent from the United States to foreign lands to repre- sent our business houses. We must have diplomatic and consular represent- atives in all parts of the world, and the number in this service must be increased. We are interested not only in the welfare of the people within the United States and our various posses- sions ; we are interested in the welfare of all peoples and must continue to do our part to preserve peace in the world. Individuals cannot live happily or lead the most useful lives in a community unless order is maintained there, and the different nations cannot continue their growth, and civilization cannot ad- vance, unless peace and order are maintained in the world. Problems and review questions. 1. Who is the highest public official in your home town or city ? How was he elected ? For how long ? 2. How is your state represented in Congress ? Who are the senators ? Who is the representative from your district ? 3. Who are the members of the Cabinet ? 4. Where is the District of Columbia ? 5. How does Washington differ from all other large cities in America? 6. What places should you like to visit in Washington ? 7. About how much larger is the population of the United States now than it was at the time of the Revolutionary War? 8. Why should we be interested now in developing foreign commerce ? 9. Why should we be interested now in helping to maintain peace not only at home but throughout the world ? Fig. 196. This building is the headquarters of the American Red Cross in Washington. The Red Cross is an organization to which every boy and girl in the United States should belong, for its chief object is to relieve the suffering that follows great disasters in all parts of the world CANADA 103 Fig. 197. St. John, the chief city of New Brunswick, has a deep, sheltered harbor on the Bay of Fundy. The tides in the bay are very swift and strong, and at St. John the tide rise is twenty-five feet. This view shows part of the harbor at a time when the tide is high CANADA Our neighbor on the north, with land which extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and north- ward into the Arctic Ocean, is the Dominion of Canada. It is part of the British Empire. Most of the people in Canada are of British descent. A large proportion of them live along the southern border, near the United States. The political divisions of Canada correspond to our states, but they are called provinces. The three farthest east are the Maritime Provinces. Climate. Use map on page 124. Most of Canada has sufficient rainfall for agriculture. The moisture-bearing winds from the Pacific Ocean give up rain on the moun- tains. There, on the coast ranges and Rocky Mountains, dense forests flourish and glaciers are formed. On the Great Plains east of the Rocky Mountains, and in the Far North, there is little rainfall. In those parts there are great extremes in temperature, but the dry air and bright sunshine are bracing and healthful. The whole interior of Canada has what is known as a con- tinental climate, which means that there is a great change in temperature from summer to winter and only moderate rainfall. The air becomes cold as it travels far to the north, and it gives up most of its moisture before it reaches the tundra area on the northern margin of the continent. In that part of Canada the winters are so long and so severe that very few people live there. Bee map oppo- site page 124. In the valleys of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers cold winters are followed by warm and delightful sum- mers. In the Maritime Provinces, which are nearly surrounded by water, there is much less change in Fig. 198. This is the same spot when the tiae is out, and the boats that were afloat are now aground on the reddish-brown mud flat. Why is the harbor of St. John never icebound in winter ? Why is it foggy in summer ? Explain the great rise of the tide here temperature from season to season than there is farther inland. The climate of these provinces is therefore much like that of New England. APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS Beginning at the east {see map, p. 122), the first natural region is part of the Appalachian Highlands. It includes most of the land to the southeast of the St. Lawrence River, as well as the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The mountains in this part are old and worn down. They are rounded, smoothed, and forested. The rest of the land is either plateau-like or forms a part of the Coastal Hilly Belt which we studied in connection with the New England region. New Brunswick has a sunken coast with good harbors, and those on the Bay of Fundy are always free from ice (Figs. 197, 198). Fishing is the chief occupation of the people. This province is partly covered with spruce forests, and that has led to the grinding of wood into pulp, which is also an important industry. Dairy-farming and agriculture are spreading throughout the area where the forests have been cleared away. Prince Edward Island is a hilly land with an irregular coast. The chief occupations of the people are fishing, fruit-growing, and dairy-farming. Cheese and butter are made for export, and the skimmed milk is given to pigs. Nova Scotia. The irregular peninsula southeast of the Bay of Fundy, together with Cape Breton Island, form the province of Nova Scotia. There are many excellent harbors along the coast, because the shore line is sunken (Fig. 199). Halifax has the best harbor on the mainland, and Sydney the best harbor on Cape Breton Island. Bordering the Bay of Fundy are rich orchard lands and many excellent farms. Apples are grown and exported 104 CANADA in large quantities. Lumbering is carried on, and the wood-pulp industry has been established ; and where the forests have been cleared away, farming has been begun. Fig. 199. This is the harbor of Yarmouth, one of the most prosperous towns of Nova Scotia. It is situated on a small bay at the Southwestern end of the peninsula and is the chief shipbuilding center of the province. The lake country back of Yarmouth is much visited by tourists Nova Scotia is fortunate in having a large supply of coal. It produces each year about half of all the coal mined in Canada. Iron is secured from Newfoundland, and these two natural resources give promise of a great commercial and industrial future for Nova Scotia. There are foundries at Sydney, where the Newfoundland iron ore is used in the manufacture of steel rails. Home work. 1. On aii_ outline map of Canada locate and name the chief seaports, the capital of the Dominion, and three impor- tant inland cities. 2. Classify your pictures of Canada by natural regions. 3. Read about Amundsen's and Stefansson's travels among the islands of the Arctic Archipelago. 4. Read and report on the government of Canada. 5. Read and report on the tides in the Bay of Fundy. 6. Read about the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway. LAURENTIAN UPLAND Northwest of the St. Lawrence River, north of the Great Lakes, and extending far into the Arctic Ocean is the Laurentian Upland. See map on page 122. This vast area varies in elevation up to about 2000 feet above the sea. At the extreme northern end of Labrador, in the region east of Ungava Bay, mountains have been reported which rise to a height of 6000 feet above sea level. The far northern part of this natural region is but little known. The Laurentian Upland is a very old land. Indeed, it is probably as old as any land in North America or any other continent. The rocks have been exposed to the weather, broken up, and formed into soils. Rivers have worn down the lands, and the great continental glaciers that formed in this region have assisted in the work (Fig. 14). The Laurentian Upland extends into three of the provinces of Canada — Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba — and into the Provisional Districts of Keewatin, Mackenzie, and Franklin. Throughout the region there are numerous lakes, swamps, marshes, and ponds. Rivers usually connect the small bodies of water, and thus canoe journeys may be planned through most of this country ; in fact, that is the usual method of travel in the country beyond the railroad lines. The province of Quebec has the advantage of a shore line on each side of the St. Lawrence and on Hudson Bay. The best soils are in the St. Lawrence Lowlands and on the narrow terraces, or benches, which border the St. Lawrence River. Most of the settlements are therefore located near the river. The farms are principally on the south bank. Each farm has a little frontage on the river and extends back for some distance to the higher land. In the region of the lower St. Lawrence the majority of the people are of French descent and speak the French language. In their homes, schools, churches, and town organizations they live much as their forefathers did who came to this coast from France hundreds of years ago. Nearly all the streams draining from the uplands toward the St. Lawrence have falls in their courses. In this region there is a fall line such as we found along the east margin of the Piedmont Belt in the United States. The water-power along that line should lead to the growth of manufacturing towns. On the south side of the St. Lawrence there are remarkable deposits of asbestos, which provide nearly all the world's supply. This material is found in great cracks in the rocks. It is sometimes called mineral wool. Fig. 200. OuuJos, li iuoated on a bold headland overlooking the broad St. Lawrence River. The Upper Town is partly walled and has an ancient citadel. This view shows Dufierin Terrace and the Lower Town. Locate Quebec on your map. It has been called the " Guardian of the Gateway to Canada." Can you tell why ? The city of Quebec is a wonderfully attractive place with special historic interests. The city is built in part on the heights above the St. Lawrence and in part on the lowland bordering the river (Fig. 200). The city CANADA 105 was founded as a fur-trading post, and the site was chosen because it was an easy place to defend. The estuary of the St. Lawrence ends at the city, but the Fig. 201. Montreal occupies part of a low island at the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers. The Ottawa River opens up the forested district to the north and west, and the lumbering there has led to the build- ing of pulp mills at Montreal. What are the other industries of Montreal ? tide runs for 90 miles farther upstream. Formerly Quebec was the chief seaport of Canada, but the deep- ening of the river has allowed ocean-going vessels to continue upstream to Montreal. Home voork. Find out all the uses you can for asbestos. Montreal has a wonderful situation. It is a thousand miles from the Atlantic and is on a great navigable river which is the outlet of the Great Lakes. But for one handicap it might rival the greatest Atlantic ports. That handicap is ice, for from the middle of December to near the end of April the river is frozen. The Ottawa River encircles the city, and logs are drifted down that river from the forested areas to the northwest. Montreal is now the metropolis of Canada, an important railway center, and the terminus of many steamship lines (Fig. 201). Large harvests of wheat come to Montreal from the West, in part by way of the Great Lakes and in part by rail. Lumber and wood pulp are made of the logs that are sent down the Ottawa River. The grain coming into the city has led to the establishment of flour mills and brew- eries. The route to the south through Lake Champlain and the Hudson valley to New York City is only 420 miles long. Large trans- Atlantic vessels bring European goods directly to Montreal and take away the raw materials which Canada sends to the Old World. These geographic advantages explain why Montreal has come to have a population of half a million people, — a large number when we remember that the total popu- lation of Canada is not much more than eight million. HUDSON BAY LOWLAND At the southern end of Hudson Bay there is a small coastal plain. See map on parje 122. This is a land of clay soils. It is forested now, and there is an abundance of game in the forests. Some day the trees will be cleared away and this lowland region will probably become an agricultural district. CENTRAL PLAINS North of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie there is a small portion of the Central Plains, a natural region which we studied in connection with the United States. See map on page 122. This land is sometimes called the Lake Peninsula because it is bordered on the south, east, and west by lake waters. It is one of the most favored parts of Canada. The soils are rich, and it was formerly a wheat- producing area. Now that wheat is grown more cheaply on the Great Plains of the West, dairy farming and the raising of swine have become important. Oil has been discovered in the rocks underlying these plains, and this should lead to greater industrial development. The province of Ontario includes the Canadian exten- sion of the Central Plains, a portion of the Hudson Bay Lowland, and some of the Laurentian Upland. In the Laurentian Upland silver, iron, copper, and nickel are obtained. Near Sudbury, an important railway center, are some of the richest nickel mines in the world. Fig. 202. The harbor at Port Arthur on Thunder Bay in take Superior is lull ol lake freighters, some west-bound for Duluth, and others east-bound for ports on the other Great Lakes. Port Arthur and Fort William are receiving and shipping centers for the grain from the prairies. The building of passenger vessels and grain carriers is an important industry at Port Arthur 106 CANADA OO CO 4) 108 CANADA Fig. 205. This is the railroad bridge over the North Saskatchewan River at Edmonton, the capital of Alberta. Two transcontinental railroads pass through Edmonton, making it a very important commercial center. Beyond the bridge you can see the city and the Provincial Parliament buildings. The trappers from the north bring their furs to Edmonton for sale and exchange for supplies Indians (Fig. 206). They collect furs, hunt the caribou, and fish in the rivers and lakes. There are no towns in this part of Canada, but only small trading posts. The white people here are chiefly interested in secur- ing furs. Home work. 1. From the Appendix find out what are the five largest cities of Canada. 2. Locate these cities on an outline map. 3. Learn to name and locate these cities accurately from memory. 4. Find out one important thing about each of these cities. WESTERN MOUNTAINS AND PLATEAUS which we studied in connection with North Dakota and Minnesota. It has a deep, rich soil containing hardly a stone. The mountain and plateau part of Canada is a region of Manitoba includes a part of the Hudson Bay Low- wonderful scenic beauty, with high mountains, hundreds land, some of the Laurentian Upland, and in the south of glaciers, beautiful mountain lakes (Fig. 208), and deep a part of the Great Plains. canyons. A great part of this region is yet almost Winnipeg is the third largest city in Canada. In the untouched by man. early days it was a small fur-trading post, but the location British Columbia. Much of this province is heavily was favorable to the growth of a large city. It is only 400 miles from Lake Superior, in the midst of a pros- perous farming country and halfway between Montreal and Vancouver. To-day it is the largest grain and fur market in the British Empire. It contains one of the largest grain elevators in Canada and is coming to be a great manufacturing center. Saskatchewan and Alberta. These provinces are for the most part within the Great Plains. They include with Manitoba the great wheat and oat-producing lands of Canada. Regina is the chief city in Saskatchewan, and Edmonton (Fig. 205) is the chief city in Alberta. The transcontinental railroads have made possible the rapid settlement and devel- opment of this part of Canada. Provisional districts of Keewatin, Mackenzie, and Franklin. Relatively little is known of this part of the country. It is a wilder- ness. Exploring parties have found their way be- tween the northern islands and passed from Baffin Bay to Bering Strait. They have found a few Eskimos living on the Far-Northern islands. Most of the peo- ple on the mainland are Fig. 206. This is a wandering Indian family of northern Canada. They roam over the cold, treeless plains, living by fishing and by hunting caribou and musk oxen. Why do they not raise crops ? Why are they constantly moving about ? What is their tent made of ? forested, and in the mountains mining has been under- taken. The chief city of British Columbia is Vancouver, which has an excellent harbor and is the western ter- minus of the Canadian Pacific Railroad. Vessels start northward from there along the coast for Alaska, and others leave for Japan, China, Australia, and other parts of the Pacific. See map on page 107. Vancouver exports wheat from Alberta, and salmon caught in the cold streams of British Columbia. Min- erals from the mines of British Columbia and lumber from the wonderful forests of giant Douglas fir are also exported (Fig. 209). Opposite this seaport, on the island of Vancouver, there are coal mines which supply western Canada. Many of the steam- ships which cross the Pacific secure their fuel from these mines. The island of Vancouver has a delightful chmate with but slight changes in tem- perature. The mountain scenery and the lakes and forests add beauty to the country. In the fertile valleys are many comfort- able homes. Victoria, at the southern end of the island, is the capital of British Columbia and an important Canadian port. CANADA 109 Yukon. Those who go to the Yukon country usually follow the coast route to Skagway, Alaska, and then cross the mountains on a railway to the headwaters of the Yukon River. The Yukon country is for the most part mountainous. The famous Klondike Gold Field is located on one of the tributaries of the Yukon River near the city of Dawson. The climate in that part of Canada is severe, with long, cold winters and short, cool summers. Few people would ever go there if it were not for the gold which is found in the stream gravels (Fig. 207). In the mountains there are many mines, and we may expect mining to be further developed in this province. CONSKRVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES Canada's great wealth lies in its natural resources, and the future of the country depends chiefly upon the way in which the re- sources are used. To safeguard against waste of natural resources Canada created a Commission of Conservation in 1909, This com- mission, like our own in the United States, is subdi- vided into differ- ent departments. There are depart- ments of land, forest, mineral, fuel, game, and water-power conservation. It is the duty of the officers of each department to make a study of the natural resources for which that department is responsible. For example, those who have charge of the conserva- tion of minerals have not only made a business of dis- covering what possibilities there are in Canada of greater mineral development but have found out how the differ- ent minerals can be most economically mined. Each of the departments aims to make its services just as valu- able to the nation as possible. It often happens that the work of one department is a help to another. Thus, when the committee on minerals discovered rich deposits of phosphate in the Rocky Mountain Parks, this discovery was of great value to the department of agriculture because it provided a source of fertilizer for the farmers. The work done by the Commission of Conservation will be of great help in the development of Canada. Fig. 207. This man is a gold prospector. He is sifting the river sands and gravels in his pan to find out whether they contain enough gold to make mining worth while Fig. 208. These horsemen are riding along the shore of Lake Louise, one of the most beautiful sheets of water in the Canadian Rockies. The lake is more than a mile above sea level and is surrounded by high, snow-covered mountains. What part of the United States is similar to this region ? Problems and review questions. 1. Why do most of the people in Canada live near the southern margin of the country ? 2. What winds bring moisture to British Columbia ? 3. Why is it dry in the Great Plains region ? 4. How does the Labrador Current affect the climate of the east coast ? • 5. What section has the greatest annual range in temperature, or difference between the hottest season and the coldest season ? 6. What is the general influence of the oceans on the temperature of the lands near them ? 7. How does temperature change with latitude? with altitude? 8. What are the chief products of Nova Scotia ? 9. What condi- tions made possible the steel industry at Sydney ? 10. What is the chief occupation of the people of New Brunswick ? 11. What is the usual way to travel in the northern wilderness of the Laurentian Upland ? 12. What use is being made of the forests of the Laurentian Upland ? 13. In what part of Canada is the French language commonly spoken ? 14. Why should Montreal have become a larger city than Quebec ? 15. What is the capital of the Dominion of Canada ? 16. Where are the prosperous farming districts of Canada? 17. Where are the chief mining districts of Canada ? 18. What geographic con- ditions favored the growth of Winnipeg ? Vancouver ? Dawson ? Fig. 209. The western slopes of the mountains in British Columbia are covered with great forests, and lumbering is very important. The rainfall here is the heaviest in North America. Can you explain this fact ? See map on page 124. Why are oxen used here for hauling the logs ? 110 NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR industry of St. Johns. In the spring the fishing boats start for the Grand Bank, which swarms with cod and other fish during the summer months. In the late summer the fishermen return with their catch. The fish are then carefully dried and prepared for export. To what countries are they sent ? Home work. 1. About how far is it from St. Johns, Newfound- land, to Liverpool ? Use Plate B in Appendix. 2. Compare that distance with the distance from New York to Liverpool. 3. Find out what fraction of an iceberg appears above the water. 4. Make a drawing of an iceberg, in the proper proportion, showing how much is above and how much is below the surface of the water. Labrador is separated from Newfoundland by the Strait of Belleisle, which, is 12 miles wide. Politically ber of deep fiords, long peninsulas, and high chffs, and it is a part of Newfoundland, but local affairs are left producing several excellent harbors. to those who live in Labrador. ' Most of the life in Newfoundland is near the coast. Both Labrador and Newfoundland have been covered Fishing is the chief occupation. Offshore there is an area, by glacier ice, so the rock hills are rounded and smoothed larger than the island itself, where the sea water is less off, and there are many glacial moraines and bowlders than 600 feet deep. This forms the Grand Bank, which on the surface. There are long, deep fiords and rocky Fig. 210. St. Johns, the capital of Newfoundland, is situated on one of the finest harbors in America. The harbor is landlocked and deep, offering anchorage to the largest ships even at low tide. It can be entered only by way of a narrow channel guarded by high cliffs. Fishicp; is the chief NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR Newfoundland is about the size of Maine and New Hampshire combined. It is the northeastern terminus of the Appalachian Highlands. The western portion is mountainous, and the rest of the island is hilly, with small areas of level land in some of the valleys. The eastern coast of Newfoundland has sunk, forming a num- is one of the richest fishing grounds in the world. In the interior, where there are forests, the manufac- ture of paper from wood pulp has been undertaken. Coal, iron, copper, gold, and nickel have been discovered on the island, and these deposits have been worked to some extent. The capital of Newfoundland is St. Johns, on the east coast of the island (Fig. 210). Where the cold Labrador Current passes Newfoundland and meets the warm water of the Gulf Stream, fogs are formed, which often make travel in that part of the ocean very dangerous. Great icebergs from the arctic regions drift southward in the Labrador Current and are often seen by vessels passing from North America to Europe. The icebergs are frequently surrounded by dense fogs, and the captains of the vessels must use great care to avoid hitting them. Even large ocean liners have been sunk by collisions with these great masses of floating ice. Fig. 211. Nine tenths of the people of Labrador depend upon the fishing industry for their living. These men are spreading out the cleaned and salted codfish to dry on the wharf headlands along the coast. About 400 Eskimos make up most of the permanent population. They live chiefly by fishing (Fig. 211); and when there is a poor season, there is danger of a famine. Missionaries have introduced the reindeer as an additional source of food and cloth- ing for the people of this bleak coast. Problems and review questions. 1. AVhafc is the political relationship of Labrador to Newfoundland? 2. To what empire do they both belong ? See map on page 107- 3. What is the chief occuijation of the people in these countries ? 4. What min- erals have been found in Newfoundland ? 5. Why should there commonly be a fog around an iceberg ? 6. Why should there commonly be fogs off the coast of Newfoundland even if there are no icebergs there ? 7. Explain the long, deep fiords on the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador. 8. Why is the Grand Bank an excellent fishing ground ? It is one of the three greatest fishing grounds in the world. The other two are the North Sea and the Japanese waters near Asia. 9. Why is the Grand Bank a dangerous fishing ground ? MEXICO 111 Fig. 212. This is the beautiful cathedral of the City of Mexico. It was built by order of one of the kings of Spain, and although it was started in 1667, it was not completed for more than a century. Its two great towers, 200 feet in height, rise above all the buildings of the city Fig. 213. The view southeastward from the cathedral towers is very beau- tiful. The city, with its low, solid buildings of Spanish architecture, spreads out over the flat-floored Plateau of Mexico. In the distance are the snow-capped volcanic peaks of Iztaccihuatl and Popocatepetl MEXICO Mexico is a Spanish-American country with nearly 15,000,000 inhabitants. The white people, who make up only a small part of the population, are chiefly of Span- ish descent. Most of the inhabitants are native Indians or people of mixed descent, resulting from the marriage of the white people with the natives. Spanish is the official language. This is a country of great variety. In the plateau and on the west coast it is very dry, and in the high moun- tains and on the east coast it is very wet ; there are low plains, high plateaus, and high mountains; there are dense tropical forests, grassy plains, and sagebrush deserts. Near sea level it is always very hot, at inter- mediate elevations there are temperate climates, while some of the mountain tops are always snow-covered. Such geographic conditions present many opportunities for the Mexican people and many interesting problems for us. Gulf Coastal Plain. See maps hetweenpages 117 and 120. Bordering the Gulf of Mexico is a coastal plain which is an extension of the Gulf Coastal Plain that we studied in the United States. In Yucatan the plain widens and takes in most of ^hat peninsula. Eastern Sierra Madre. Rising abruptly from the western margin of the Gulf Coastal Plain is the Eastern Sierra Madre, a young and rugged mountain system which is a continuation southward of our Rocky Mountains. These mountain."} contain rich deposits of minerals. Their east- em slopes are clothed with dense tropical vegetation. Mexican Plateau. Traveling westward, we cross the Mexican Plateau, a region of broad, flat areas and low mountain I'anges. All but the southern portion of this plateau is a semidesert, containing many extremely dry places. In the north is a region of inland drainage like that in our Great Basin region of the United States, where the streams descending from the mountains sink into the sandy soil or flow into salt lakes. Western Sierra Madre and Sonoran Desert. Moving still farther west, we come to the Western Sierra Madre, which is also a young, rugged mountain system. These mountains contain deposits of very valuable ores. On the eastern slopes, toward which the moisture-laden winds blow, they receive a heavy rainfall ; but the rain clouds cannot pass over the summits, and on the western side the land is dry. The Sonoran Desert consists of a foothill belt and a narrow coastal plain bordering the Gulf of California. Lower California is a part of Mexico. It is a rugged land made by the continuation southward of the Pacific Coast Ranges of California. Most of it is a desert. High volcanic peaks. A range of lofty, snow-clad, volcanic peaks bounds the Plateau of Mexico on the south. The three highest peaks of this range are Ori- zaba, the Star Mountain ; Poix)catej)etl, or Smoking Mountain', Iztaccihuatl, or WJiite Wmnan (Fig. 218). Rainfall. Most of Mexico is in tlie belt of the north- east trade winds. As those winds blow toward the equa- tor they become warmer and warmer, and so tend to take up moisture. In blowing over water surfaces they may become very moist, but unless they are forced to rise 112 MEXICO Fig. 214. These Mexican women are making the beautiful drawn work for which their country is famous. Where does their thread come from ? Fig. 215. These men are water peddlers in the City of Mexico. Notice the size of their water jars and the curious way in which they are carried Fig. 216. This ship is being loaded with mahog- any logs at a Mexican port. Where will these logs be sent, and what will they be used for ? or some cold object intervenes, no rain will fall. Both Within a few hours one may pass by rail from sea- ranges of the Sierra Madre force these winds to rise, and level, where the heat is very oppressive, up through the so act as condensers ; rain falls abundantly on their wind- temperate zone and into the cold zone in the high moun- ward slopes. The streams from the western mountains tains. The people of Mexico have the products of the are used to irrigate portions of the dry plateau region. The southern portions of Mexico receive rains in summer, when the sun appears to come northward. Zones of altitude. Because of the great differences in elevation in Mexico, there are three distinct zones which have special Spanish names. The tierra caliente, or hot land, extends from sea level up to 3000 feet. The tem- torrid, warm-temperate, and cool-temperate zones near at hand. Natural resources. Mexico is very rich in natural resources. The mineral wealth consists of silver, gold, copper, lead, and many other metals. Mexico is also fortu- nate in having a large supply of petroleum and some ex- cellent water-power sites (Fig. 217). The fertile lands perature in this zone varies from 75 to 80 degrees, though in the lowlands and on portions of the plateau furnish it sometimes rises to 100 or 105. The winters are warm, but the summers are hot. The eastern coastal plain of Mexico and a part of the adjoining mountain slope are in- cluded in this zone. It is a land of rich foliage, beautiful flowers, and many fruit trees. Along the coast are man- foods, and the forests yield ebony, mahogany (Fig. 216), and rubber. There are also extensive grazing lands. Millions of dollars have been invested in the natural resources of Mexico by people in the United States. Occupations. Mining produces the greatest wealth of grove swamps, and farther inland there are coconut palms, the country (Fig. 219), but agriculture is the occupation mahogany trees, and rubber trees. In the forests there which most of the people must follow in order to earn a are gorgeously colored birds and butterflies, monkeys, living (Fig. 218). The grasslands on the plateau support and prowling beasts that make their homes in jungles, millions of cattle, sheep, horses, and goats. Leather has The next zone, extending up to 5000 or 7000 feet, is called tierra templada, or temperate land. Here the thermometer will reach 60 or 70 degrees, the temperature many peo- ple enjoy in their homes during the winter. The Mexicans like to call this the land of " perpetual spring." This zone includes part of the moun- tain slopes and some of the great plateau. The third zone, called tierra fria, or cold land, is still higher. Evergreens and some deciduous trees grow here. The high mountain tops are very cold, and they rise above the timber line. 5 Ee;st«n« View Co, Fig. 217. The great Juanacatlan Falls of the Santiago River are often called the "Niagara of Mexico." Hydroelectric power is developed here for manufacturing and for use at Guadalajara, twenty miles away long been one of the chief products of this country, and the Mexicans are experts at ornamenting the arti- cles made from it. The great mass of laboring people, who are chiefly Indians and half- breeds, are called peons. They work for very small wages in the mines, in the fields, and on the plains where they care for stock. They are learn- ing to work in some of the factories. Home work. 1. On an outline map of Mexico locate and name the chief natural regions, the capital, and two seaports. 2. Read about the life of the peons. 3. What Spanish explorers reached Mexico ? MEXICO 113 Cities. Tampico and Vera Cruz have the best of the poor harbors along the Gulf coast. The waters are shallow, with offshore bars and reefs. Commerce with the United States and Europe is carried on through these ports. See map betiveen pages 117 and 120. Tampico has been helped by the development of oil wells in Mexico. Vera Cruz has been the leading port since the days of Cortez. The City of Mexico, the capital of the republic, is situ- ated at the southern end of the Mexican Plateau and is nearly surrounded by high mountains (Figs. 212, 213). Puebla is near the City of Mexico, and because of water- power and a supply of raw materials it has become a center for the manufacture of cotton. Guadalajara, San Luis Potosi, and Monterey are important inland cities, and Mazatlan is the chief seaport on the west coast. In the center of a Mexican city is a plaza, or open park, about which many of the most important build- ings are placed. At one side is a cathedral; opposite the cathedral may be a national or city bank and other public buildings. The chief shops and places of amuse- ment are built on the edge of the plaza whenever this is possible, and the public markets are near by. A city home is usually built around a patio, or central garden, which the family enjoys in private. Instead of Fig. 218. Here are the coffee-drying yards on a Mexican plantation. The coffee beans are spread out to dry and are then raked up into piles ready to be put into bags for shipment. What other products do the Mexican planters and farmers grow ? What products are exported ? More well-trained white people are needed to develop the natural resources, and living and working con- ditions for the laboring classes must be improved. Higher standards of education should be estabUshed, and arrangements should be made so that a larger having a front yard, as many homes in the cities of the ^^^^er of Mexicans may own homes and ranch lands. United States have, the houses m Spamsh cities are ^ ^^^^^^g ^„^ j^^^ government must be maintained, built out to the sidewalks and have the yard hidden from the street. Government. The thirty-one states and territories in Mexico are united to form a federal republic, with a constitution modeled after that of the United States. The states have a degree of local self-government, and they unite in the election of a president and other national officers, as we do. The great mass of poor, ignorant, uneducated peons, however, make it difficult to conduct public affairs satisfactorily. In a free country it is important that all citizens become well educated. Future. The remarkable wealth of natural resources may bring pros- perity to Mexico. Mining should be promoted and agri- culture extended by means of irri- gation. Probably Mexico will never become an indus- trial nation, be- cause the people show little abil- ity in mechanical arts or invention. Fig. 219. This is a modern copper-smelting plant in Mexico. The rich copper ore is mined near by and then brought to the smelting works, where the metal is separated from the rock. The production of copper is a very important industry in Mexico and is carried on mostly by American and European companies. In what parts of Mexico is copper found ? What other metals does Mexico produce ? Problems and review questions. 1. What European nation early became interested in Mexico? 2. What is the official language of Mexico ? 3. What natural regions in the United States extend southward into Mexico ? 4. What are the prevailing winds of Mexico ? 6. Where is the rainfall heavy ? Why ? 6. Why is the Mexican Plateau dry ? 7. Explain the Sonoran Desert. 8. What reasons are there for thinking of the mountains as young? , 9. Explain and descrite the zones in altitude. 10. What are the chief natural resources of Mexico ? 11. Name the capital and chief seaports. 12. Describe the plaza of a Mexican city and the patio of a Mexican home. 13. Name the mountain ranges in Mexico. 14. Locate the three highest moun- tain peaks. Find the elevation of these peaks in the Appen- dix. 15. Explain how it is possible for the people of IVIexico to have both torrid-zone and temperate-zone products nearat hand. ' 16. Account for the lack of prosperity in Mexico. 17. What remedies can you suggest for this lack of prosperity ? 114 CENTRAL AMERICA %s - *'-m'}'m r^wm M. '^^ tV"**' 'W- :1- ^ ^ I 73 ^ Us ''1*' l\W '^iwm »%; 5$«i ^SV !■' * 1 wl - 1 M^ 1^1 " !??f W f1 J ^^^^^^v^^S ^ ^Mg^- '!-^J^ J li^i3«* ^i- Mm ^js ^'v^ 'l^M Jf^ m_ .',-' »Tr^ ei ^ jfe p ^- '^'i jl 11 Li^^Z 1 :^^^-. ^^^ ^^W^^<^ Courtcfij' ut tlie P&n Americaa Union Fig. 220. This is a view on a banana plantation in Costa Rica. The men have cut the bunches of bananas from the trees and are loading them upon the ponies' backs. The ponies will carry them to the freight cars in which they will be sent to the place of export CENTRAL AMERICA Between Mexico and South America there are six small republics, — Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Five of these countries extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific, across the narrow neck of land which is called Central America. Salvador, how- ever, is entirely on the Pacific side. Besides the six republics there is British Honduras, the only European possession in this part of North America. It is a small, mountainous country located on the Gulf of Honduras, south of Yucatan. The young, rugged mountains that border the Pacific Ocean in North America continue through Central America and South America. On the east, in Central America, there is a very narrow coastal plain, but on the west the mountains come to the seashore. Climate. Central America lies between the tropic of Cancer and the equator, and therefore the winters are almost as hot as the summers. The heaviest rainfall comes dvu-ing the summer, and more rain falls on the east coast than on the west coast, because the prevailing winds are the northeast trades. See map on j)(ige 124. At Colon, on the east coast, there is a yearly rainfall of 127 inches, and at Greytown the rainfall is 259 inches a PubUsbera' Photo SerTioe, Ino. Fig. 221. These oxcarts are used a great deal in Costa Rica and other Central American countries. Notice the heavy yokes on the oxen, the solid wooden wheels, and the rude framework which supports the canopy. What products do you suppose are hauled in these carts? What are the canopies for? Fig. 222. The docks at Limon have steam conveyors which take the bananas right from the cars to the holds of the vessels. The conveyor is an endless chain of canvas pockets. Each pocket holds one bunch of bananas. To what countries are the bananas of Costa Rica sent ? year. Such abundant rainfall in a tropical region means dense forests, where there are sure to be gorgeously col- ored birds, many insects, and the germs of dangerous diseases. Central America, like Mexico, has three zones of alti- tude, — tierra caliente (hot land), tierra templada (tem- perate land), and tierra fria (cold land) (p. 112). Products. On the lowlands and in the valleys among the mountains immense quantities of bananas are raised (Figs. 220, 222). Tobacco and coffee grow on the hill slopes, and cattle, horses, and hogs are raised. In the mountains gold and silver are mined (Fig. 225) ; these are exported to Europe and the United States. The forests are rich in mahogany. People. The white people in these countries are of Spanish descent, and the Spanish language is spoken almost entirely. In addition to the native Indians there are many negroes in these countries (Fig. 223). Many people from the United States have become interested in developing the coastal lowlands and have gone there to live. In the interior the Spanish-American homes and customs still prevail. WEST INDIES 115 The trade of Central America is now largely with the United States. The countries border the " American Mediterranean," and their development is of immediate interest to the people in North and South' America. They produce many useful articles and foods which we i cannot secure in our own country. Such hot, moist lands are not adapted to very active work. Nowhere in the world do we find much manu- fiictui'ing in the tropics. The imports as shown on the map between pages 117 and 120 indicate clearly that the people send to the countries in the temperate zones for cotton goods, machinery, and other articles made in fac- tories. Wheat cannot be raised in Central America, and wheat foods and flour must therefore be imported. Problems and review questions. 1. Name the countries in Central America. 2. Why is the heavier rainfall on the northeast of the mountains ? 3. What foreign language should you find mgst useful in traveling in the countries of Central America ? 4. What kinds of food are exported ? 5. What are the chief imports ? 6. With what country is most of the trade ? 7. In what I Fig. 223. The natives of Guatemala build their houses by first putting up a few columns made of rough stones plastered together, and then filling the spaces between with thin sticks of wood. The high, pointed roofs are thatched with straw. What do these people do for their living ? j>art is the influence of the United States most clearly shown ? 8. To what part of Central America should you go to see the S[)anish or Spanish-American type of home and life? Home work. 1. Kead about volcanoes in a good reference book. WEST INDIES The West Indian Islands are arranged in a curve from tlie peninsula of Yucatan eastward and then southward to the northern coast of Venezuela. They are the tops of a young and rugged chain of mountains. The water about them is 20,000 feet deep in some places ; and if the sea were withdrawn, there would be, in place of S^'^^S^^^^^^^^^^B H 1 Pill i IHir- ^^M ^ 1 ^^MmI H 1 C^uiieij uf tUe Pan American Unioa Fig. 224. Pineapples are grown very widely in the western part of Cuba. One crop can be raised each year, and each plant bears one apple. What other fruits does Cuba raise ? the islands, one of the greatest systems of moun- tains to be found in the world. Bordering the shores of Cuba and Porto Rico, and in places on the other islands, there are coastal lowlands, but for the most part the West Indies are distinctly moun- tainous. Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and Porto Rico are called the Greater Antilles, and the smaller islands which form the eastern end of the curve are called the Lesser Antilles. Near them are the Leeward Islands and the Windward Islands. The Bahamas are a low group of coral islands north of Cuba. See map between pages 117 and 120. The West Indies form the northeastern margin of the "American Mediterranean " and are convenient stopping places for vessels passing from Europe or the United States through the Panama Canal to Pacific coast ports. The passageways between the islands are rapidly be- coming great thoroughfares for modern traffic, and the islands prove convenient coaling stations for the various navies of the world. Climate. Most of the West Indies lie between the tropic of Cancer and the equator. The temperatures are therefore hot during the summer and warm during the winter. The latitude of these islands brings them into the belt of the moisture-laden northeast trade winds. \iiirrieftn Utilua Fig. 225. These boys are sorting ore at the Rosario mine in Honduras. Thi» mine is near the capital of Honduras, and has been worked continuously for thirty years. It has produced millions of dollars' worth of gold and silver. What are the other important products of Honduras besides its mineral ores ? 116 WEST INDIES Fig. 326. This is a sugar-cane field in Cuba. The cane grows in single stalks and when full grown it stands from eight to twelve feet high. As soon as it ripens, the cane is cut by hand, stripped of its leaves, loaded upon carts, and hauled to the sugar mills to be crushed ) Publishers' Pboco Service, lae. Fig. 227. Here the cane is passing up a belt conveyor into the mill, where it is crushed between great rollers to squeeze out the juice. Then the juice is crystallized, and the raw sugar is ready for export. Cuba is the world's largest exporter of sugar. What countries buy Cuba's sugar ? The southwest, or leeward, sides of the ranges are much drier than the northeast sides. Where there is abundant rainfall, tropical vegetation grows luxuriantly, and such fruits as pineapples, coconuts, and bananas are grown. Products. On the lowlands bordering the coast there are large sugar and tobacco plantations. Coffee is also grown on these islands. The agricultural products are exchanged for manufactured goods made in the United States and Europe. See map hehoeen jyages 117 and 120. The royal palm, which grows luxuriantly in the "West Indies, is a valuable tree to the native people. It reaches a height of from 60 to 80 feet and is covered with great green leaves. A medicine is distilled from the roots, the trunks are used as timber for building houses and furni- ture, and the leaves are often used to thatch houses. The stems of the leaves are made into baskets ; hats and a certain kind of cloth are woven from the fibers of the leaves. The seeds are excellent for fattening hogs, and the bud found at the top of the tree is eaten as a vegetable. Kome work. Read about the uses of other kinds of palm trees. Cuba is the largest of the West Indies, and is an in- dependent republic. Through the center of the island is a mountain range, and the plantations are near the coasts. Habana, the capital and chief city, is located on an excellent harbor (Fig. 228), and from that port ves- sels leave for Europe and the United States (Fig. 230). Santiago also has a good harbor. It is situated on the south side of the island, near the eastern end. Iron has been discovered near by, and this is shipped to the United States. The chief products of Cuba are sugar (Figs. 226, 227) and tobacco. Nearly half of the cultivated land is planted with sugar cane. More tobacco is raised in Cuba than in any other of the West Indian islands. The tobacco raised here is grown on the sheltered southern slopes of the mountain ranges and is valued especially for its fine flavor. Large numbers of cattle, horses, and mules are also raised in Cuba. The forests contain valuable supplies of mahogany and cedar. The cedar is used in the manu- facture of cigar boxes, which are filled at Habana with cigars made from the tobacco grown on the island. -v.^^^If»^^7~ l^^&ii M gi^ ^yr^gjijMKujM S^^l B Bi if m -.-7- ' *' MwEIn ' Fig. 228. This is part of the city of Habana as it looks from the Cabanas fortress. The narrow strait in the foreground leads into the harbor. Habana is the capital and chief port of Cuba. More merchandise enters and leaves Habana than any port of the United States except New York. When Cuba 5 PubUshers' Photo Servlco, Ino. was taken by the United States in 1899, Habana was a dirty, unhealthful city, because the Spaniards had no care for sanitation. The Americans cleaned the city thoroughly, and to-day it is a big modern port, with large, fine buildings, good streets, and excellent docks. Locate Habana on your map WEST INDIES 117 MAP STUDIES — MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES (Between Pages 117 and 120) 1. With what countries is the chief commerce of Mexico ? 2. Is Mexico noted for its industrial life or for its mining and agricultural life ? 3. Wliat climate should we expect to find in countries whose products include sugar, cotton, bananas, coffee, and rubber? 4. What climatic factors prevent many of the Mexican people from being ver}' industrious ? 5. What is the chief kmd of cloth used by the Mexicans? 6. Why do they not buy more woolen clothes ? 7. What are the chief mineral resources of Mexico? 8. What kinds of fuel are found in Mexico ? 9. Name the two most important seaports. 10. In what kind of region is the capital of Mexico located, — mountain, plain, or plateau ? 11. Name and locate seven other important cities in the in- terior of Mexico. 12. From what ports in Central America do great quanti- ties of bananas come ? 13. What other food supplies come to the United States from Central America? 14. What Euro- pean nation possesses land in Central America? 15. What ) Publishers' Phow Service. Inc. Fig. 229. Here is an oxcart such as many Cubans use on their farms. This farmer raises sisal hemp, which you can see beyond the oxen. The sisal looks like a century plant, and its fiber is used to make rope and twine. It is a cheaper rival of Manila hemp countries of Central America extend from the Gulf of Mexico or the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean ? 16. What are the chief food supplies that we receive from the West Indies? 17. What supplies go from these islands to Europe? 18. Do the people of the West Indies do most of their own manufacturing, or do they import manufactured goods? 19. Which is the largest of tlie West Indies? 20. Which of tliese islands belong to the United States ? 21. What other countries have possessions among these islands? 22. What are the principal seaports of the West Indies? 23. What great ocean current passes betweenCuba and Florida? 24. Wliich side of the islands is the better watered? See map on page 124. 2.5. What winds bring the rains ? 26. What large city in Pennsylvania is in about the same longitude as the city of Panama ? 27. What large cities in the United States are about as far west from Greenwich, England, as the city of Guatemala? 28. Which is farther from the equator, — San Juan in Porto Rico or Bombay in India? 29. What capital city in South America is almost directly south of New York? Courtesj of Uia V^a AmeiicftQ tuioa Fig. 230. Ships from all over the world come to Habana, and as many as a thousand of them can anchor in the harbor at one time. The docks are always crowded and busy. The carts in this picture are loaded with Cuban products for export. Name some of these products Jamaica is a British possession. Most of the natives are negroes, but there are some English, some Chinese, and some Hindus living on the island. The exports are like those from many of the other tropical countries, — bananas, coconuts, sugar, and coffee, — and here, as in other tropical countries, cotton goods and flour must be imported from the northern countries. Most of the trade is now with the United States. Bahamas. About twenty of the islands included in the Bahama group are inhabited, but there are many more that are uninhabited. In the waters near the islands sponges and turtles are obtained. On the land pine- apples, oranges, and large quantities of the sisal plant, valuable for fiber, are raised. Some of the pineapples are canned for export. Many of the native people are skillful in weaving the sisal fiber and in making tortoise-shell goods from the shells of the turtles. £» PublLben' Pliun. Servlc*. Inc. Fig. 231. This is the main street of Kingston, the capital of Jamaica. In the distance is the broad, sheltered harbor. Kingston was destroyed by a terrible earthquake in 1907, but it has been rebuilt and is a busy, prosperous city. The new buildings are made of steel and concrete. Can you explain why ? 110° 100° <">m? Tucs.± / V ! V ^sr E •Winnipeg 95° St. Louis • 90° Longitude Q Weat ITENN. ^ Ti E ~^< St. "■An •Waw4i SS^ari reeoB ^^Kv i^^^^*^^ *ag. Madrt *«««»„ A ! /'•^""•"^•P-A-e-^SP.bferetj^*''*"*/. Ma^- » ! - Soto la Marina "-CoZ/ma •Zf.Potlan J:JV- te'^rv ; "■ Malamoroa '^Mttmorelos l!§rn§ndo M E X ,1 * rano/tara Pi. TolJca^ T f V^^Ja^taia^ ""Cf . Naotla "'•"'"'^''PalS^uaro 0-- "'S.""'*-_To'";ca'^ r )' IzamaPyalladolid , , J P E C H E .<»C.f* »i^ 4t\» e^*-^ CampecheTiuCAT AN I Cruz ; Bravo ' ^■'""•NTErio. fy^ SXristobaKP - ' "" (Ouperree) ' S.BtirtOlorae ^onala '■/( ,C' '"^ffL GUATEjilAL a^,^ Coban* i}/.-a6, Totonicapan :^sv Ambergri; OttoK. L„, , TsHUANTErio, fv'i S.CristobaJ'Kp - ..'<»• 7f>Ejot)a (\LB l^^a& SL_^_rehi^antepe • Mts. Quezalten :^^Gi^ten§iU OJQ. ;°30' is^^ borinquenPt./sblG? deseciJeo Agua«*' g '$rtml,M /.t-ajar^o "• S'O^BSn'^ ' v", " '• . Q Qf^- -.^PINEROI. Ilifetonso A'?A^'''■ o•^^ ieques Sound a ^*^^Jy s*^* Isabel II. •;: *^ 'virgin ISLANDS ^€: Cape Rojo ^\.- .fr .>• '<'«. '«*o PORTO RICO AND THE VIRGIN ISLANDS OP THE - UNITED STATES «7°S0' «7° Scale of statute miles Scale of kilometers 10 so 40 60 V oto ^ H O 'N D I' VIEQUES I. tCRAB I.) UNITED STATES B no" 100" 95" 90 Longitude G P' ® Ginn and Cotnpauy 120 WEST INDIES Publiabcra' Photo Service, Inc. Fig. 232. This is a view of Port au Prince, the capital of the Republic of Haiti. It is located at the head of a deep bay on the western side of the island and is the chief port and commercial center of the republic. What are its exports and imports ? Haiti. The island of Haiti is divided into two negro republics. The Dominican Republic, in the east, is a Spanish-speaking country, with Santo Domingo as its chief seaport ; the Republic of Haiti, in the west end of the island, is a Fr^ch-speaking country; Port au Prince is its chief city and port (Fig. 232). These countries have suffered much from misgovernment. The principal occupation of the people in these two republics is agri- culture. Haiti raises coffee of excellent quality for export. Other products are cacao, tobacco, and cotton, but none of them are raised in large enough quantities to be important commercially. Home xoork. 1. Find out how sponges are obtained and prepared for the market. 2. Find out what you can about the Gulf Stream. TRINIDAD This island is a British possession located just off the coast of Venezuela. The moist, warm, tropical climate is favorable to the growth of sugar, coconuts, and the cacao tree. The seeds of the cacao tree are used in the prepara- tion of cocoa and chocolate, and the oil in the seed is called cocoa butter (Fig. 233). Trinidad is, however, remarkable for a very unusual lake. It is a lake of nearly solid asphalt. A crust (0 Publiihera' Photo Seirice, Inc. Fig. 233. Trinidad has many cacao plantations. These boys are plantation bands at work husking cacao pods. They cut open the pods with their long, sharp knives, and scrape out the seeds, which are allowed to ferment for a while and are then dried in the sun. What other countries raise cacao ? Fig. 234. These men are digging asphalt from the great pitch lake on the island of Trinidad. The lake covers 90 acres and is at least 100 feet deep. Its surface is covered with a crust of asphalt ; but when this is removed, the liquid pitch oozes out. Of what use is asphalt ? forms on the asphalt, which is broken up and shipped to many countries of the world, where it is tised in paving streets (Fig. 234). BERMUDA ISLANDS This group of low coral islands is located in the Atr lantic Ocean, about 600 miles southeast from New York. They are British possessions and are used as a naval station. Corals grow here in the warm, shallow sea water on a platform which is probably part of an ancient volcano cut off a little below sea level by wave action. The coral skeletons have been broken by the waves and ground into sands, and at a time when the sea water was lower, such coral sands were blown into dunes. The soil of the Bermuda Islands is not very fertile, but it is used for gardening the year round. Fresh vege- tables from Bermuda are supplied to the United States markets during the northern winter season. These islands are a very attractive winter resort. On days when the sea is calm one may go out in a glass- bottomed boat and see the living corals. Their homes appear like a fairyland, and swimming in and out among the delicate coral forms there are hundreds of the bril- liantly colored fish that also like to live in warm waters. THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA 121 Problems and review questions. 1. If the sea waters were withdrawn, what would the West Indies appear to be ? 2. What is the origin of most of the West Indies ? 3. How were the Bahama Islands made ? 4. What winds bring rain to these islands ? 5. What foods do we secure from the West Indies ? 6. What uses ai-e made of the royal palm ? 7. Which of the West Indies belong to the United States ? 8. What Ian guage is most commonly spoken in these islands ? 9. What nations now have possessions among them ? 10. For what is the island of Trinidad most famous ? 11. How far are the Bermuda Islands from New York ? 12. To what country do they belong ? 13. Of what value are they to that country ? 14. Why is it possible to raise vegetables the year round in the Bermuda Islands ? 15. At what season of the year should you most enjoy visiting Bermuda? Why ? Fig. 235. Telluride, Colorado, is typical of the many pros- perous mining towns which have grown up in the young, rugged mountains of western North America because of the wealth of mineral ores which they contain. Can you describe the life of the people here ? THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA Now that we have traveled into the various portions of North America and studied the life in each nation, factories and for making f umitm-e and many other useful articles. Alaska, British Columbia, our western states, Mexico, and Cen- tral America have all benefited from the rich stores of gold, cop- per, silver, lead, zinc, and many other minerals near the western margin of the continent (Fig. 235). The water-power in many parts of North America suggests great possibilities for the future. Farming and grazing lands. All the lowlands except those in the extreme northern latitudes are agricultural lands (Fig. 236). A nation in the temperate zone, with a large, well- watered plain where there are fertile soils, is fortunate. Both Canada and the United States have broad ex- panses of such fertile lands. Mexico and Central America are less fortunate. Most of the nations in North America have excellent pasture lands. The irrigation of semiarid lands is open- ing up vast areas to settlement and making it possible LnJsrwoud j( Lti'Ierwciod we can make a more intelligent study of the continent for the people to raise larger and larger supplies of food. Life in the Far North. The extreme northern parts of North America are in the north frigid zone, and most of the people who live there are Eskimos. Life is very difficult in this cold region, where food is often scarce (Fig. 237). These people must depend largely upon game and fish for their food, but some of them are fortunate and Mexico, through the great interior of the continent, now in having herds of reindeer, which furnish them as a whole. This will be in some ways a summary. Physical features. The map on page 122 shows the arrangement of the natural regions. All of the old, worn-down mountains are in the eastern section. In the west there are young, rugged mountains and high plateaus. Along the Atlantic coast in the United States and on a portion of the Arctic coast, there are lowlands. The Atlantic coast has been depressed. This has raused islands, deep inlets, bays, and estuaries, and has ixiven the coast many excellent harbors. North of San Francisco the Pacific coast has been depressed, and another series of inlets with harbors has been the result. Natural resources. In the mountain regions and in some of the neighboring plains and plateaus of the east- 1 rn part of North America are some of the large sup- plies of coal, iron, oil, and gas. These resources, with w ater-power, waterways, and railroads, have made possi- l)le a gi-eat industrial development near the Atlantic sea- l)oard. The iron and copper of the Lake Superior region have played a very important part in the development of industries in Canada and in the United States. The coal, oil, gas, lead, and zinc of the Mississippi Valley liave been immensely valuable. The forests have fur- nished lumber, which was used for building houses and with food. In addition the skins of the reindeer are used by the Eskimos for clothing and for making their huts. Fig. 236. These men are harvesting oats on one of the lowland plains of the United States. Why is such a region particularly favorable to agriculture ? What zone is the most fortunate location for such plains ? Why ? What North American country has the greatest agricultural possibilities ? Giiin and Company THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA 123 Life in the Far South. A part of Mexico, all of Central America, Panama, and most of the West Indies are in the torrid zone. The climate here is very hot, except in the mountainous regions. Food plants grow in abun- dance, and the inhabitants can make a living with little effort (Fig. 238). As a result most of the native people do not work hard, and the white people who migrate to these lands soon learn to take life very easily. On the windward sides of these lands the heat and moisture are so exces- sive as to produce conditions un- attractive to white people. Life in the temperate zone. Most of North America is in the temperate zone, where the climate is variable. The cold winters and warm summers quicken the thoughts and actions of the people. In this zone it is neces- sary to provide warm homes and to store up food for the winter season. This helps to make the people industrious. The comforts of life are more readily obtained than in the arctic countries, and yet life is not so easy that the people become lazy. Work must be done, but there is time for recreation and pleasure. The beautiful lakes, the mountains, and the seashore draw the people away from city homes during their vacations. Future. As yet much of North America is not densely populated, though most parts have been explored. There are places in the deserts, among the high mountains, and far to the north where white men have never been, but such places will not be needed until the other lands are much more crowded. Forests may be cleared from vast areas, and thus more agri- cultural lands may be secured. Thou- sands of acres may yet be brought under inngation and made attractive for settlement. More swamp lands will be drained. With a greater knowledge of soils and crops a much larger protluction to the acre will be secured. More mines will certainly be opened, larger factories will be Fig. 237. This Eskimo, wlio lives in the Far North, is harpooning a seal. Notice his fur cloth- ing. Contrast his everyday life with that of the people shown in Fig. 238 Fig. 238. These are natives of the Far South, where life is easy. They live out of doors most of the time, and their clothing consists of simple cotton garments MAP STUDIES I. Where are the young, rugged mountains of North America? 2. What are the chief ranges of young, rugged mountains? Make a list, beginning at the north. 3. What are the names of the plateaus between the western mountain ranges? Make a hst of the great plateaus, beginning at the north.' They have hills and moun- tains rising above the general plateau level, and in places there are very deep canyons. See map opposite page 134. 4. Where are the old, worn-down mountains of North America ? 5. Name and locate the coastal plains of this continent. 6. Jjfi what country is the greater part of the Central Plahis region located ? 7. Into what countries do the Great Plains extend? 8. What country in North America has the most extensive lowlands ? 9. Why are there so many lakes in the northern part of the continent? See Fig. 14. 10. Explain the islands and the irregular coast of British' Columbia and Alaska. II. If you were approaching Greenland, what kind of scenery should you expect to see? 12. What cape in- North America is nearest to Asia? 13. What land connects North and South America? 14. Along what part of the Atlantic coast are there clear signs of sinking of the land ? 15. Where are the best harbors of North America? 16. Be- ginnmg in Alaska and following around the continent, select the five largest rivers in North America. Look in the Appen- dix and see if you have chosen the right ones. 17. What is the longest tributary to the Mississippi River? See tables in Appendix, 18. Where is the north magnetic pole? 19. Where is life for the native people very difficuh? Why? 20. Where is life for the native people very easy? Why? 21. Why do white people prefer the temperate climates ? 22. How may North America he made more suitable for an increasing population ? 23. Where are the well-watered farm- ing lands in North America? 24. Where has farming been made possible by means of irrigation ? 25. What cape near Boston is in about the same longitude as Cape Horn ? 20. What country in North America is in about the same latitude as the Sahara Desert ? Is any part of that country a desert region ? kiilt, seaports will be improved and commerce increased. See map opposite paqe 124. 27. What n,ountain peaks in the Ihe continent offers white people unusual opportunities United States are about as far north of the equator as Mt. for the advancement of civilization, and with good Vesuvius in Italy ? 28. What point in Alaska is about as governments these nations should continue to grow in near the north pole as North Cape, Norway ? 29. Through strength and prosperity. what countries in North America does the arctic circle pass ? 124 COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES I I Under 10 inches r~1 10 to 20 " fTl 20 to 40 •• 40 to 80 '• ^H Over 80 y^/^ Prevailing coast winds Lanqit\i^€ Wfni 100° /rom Oreftiwieh Average annual rainfall in North America COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES 1. What is the annual rainfall on tlie Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain ? 2. Why should the Appalachian Mountains be covered with forests, in contrast to many of the western and southwestern mountains ? 3. What is the annual rainfall in the Central Plains ? 4. Why should there be so many rivers in the Central Plains ? 5. What occupations do the geographic conditions in the Central Plains favor? 6. In going from Lake Michigan to the Rocky Mountains, what large rivers must be crossed ? 7. Why do the plains become semiarid near the mountains ? 8. What places in the United States seem to be most favor- able for crossing the mountain area to the Pacific coast ? 9. Which would take you through the drier districts, the northern route or the southern route ? 10. Why is there so little rainfall in the Great Basin ? 11. Explain the presence of forests among the Rocky Moun- tains of the United States. 12. What is the average rainfall along the Pacific coast of British Columbia ? Why is it so heavy ? The prevailing westerly winds bring moisture to this coast. 13. When is the rainy season on the Pacific coast ? 14. Why do the trees not extend to the northern edge of the continent ? 15. Explain the extent of the tundra. 16. Asiatic wolves have been seen in Alaska. How do you suppose they reached there? 17. Why are there not more extensive forests in the interior of Alaska ? 18. Explain the presence of glaciers Distribution of people in North America © Ginn and Compsny in Alaska. 19. Why is the route from Hudson Bay to Europe open only a few months in the year ? 20. Where is the rain- fall in Greenland the heaviest ? Why ? 21. Explain the dry condition of the Mexican Plateau. 22. Why should the forests of Central America and the northern portion of South America be different from those of our southern states ? 23. What winds bring rain to Central America and to the West Indies ? 24. The relief and vegetation map represents summer con- ditions. If a map had been made for the winter, what bodies of water should have been shown as frozen ? About how far south should a covering of snow have been shown? 25. Does any part of the United States remain green in winter ? 26. In what parts do people live out of doors in winter ? Where are the winter resorts in this continent ? 27. The rainfall is in general heaviest near the coasts. Explain this. 28. What prevents the moisture-bearing winds from getting into the northwestern interior ? 29. Which winds would com- monly have moisture in them, those that start over the ocean and move toward the land or those that start over the land and move toward the ocean ? Why ? 30. What parts of North America are too dry for agricul- ture without irrigation ? 31. Where is the growing season too short to encourage agriculture ? 32. Why should certain places have a dense population ? Give examples. 33. Why should certain places have a sparse population ? Give ex- amples. 34. Explain each of the areas of dense population. NORTH AMERICA Scale of miles too 40O , 600 Water less than 500 feet deep Floating ice Glacial ice Tundra Grasslands Temperate forests Tropical forests Semideserts 'i Deserts and barren mountain ■^ slopes Fig. 239. The great falls of the Iguassii Riyer, on the boundary between of these falls will be used for industry. When that time conies, Brazil and Brazil and Argentina, are often called the Niagara of South America. They Argentina will have to make some international agreement about the use are nearly two miles wide, and their height varies from 208 feet on the of the water, just as the United States and Canada have agreed about Brazilian side to 176 feet on the Argentine side. Some day the water-power Niagara. Locate these falls on your map. Where does the Iguassu rise ? SOUTH AMERICA INTRODUCTION South America to-day is a land of great opportunities. People. On Plate A in the Appendix find the part of It is a land with varied resources, with many products South America where Columbus landed, the countries which the world demands, without a dense population, that the Spanish explored, and where the Portuguese and with much land awaiting settlement. There are first came to settle. Many of the native peoples of South rich resources of gold, silver, copper, iron, and nitrate. America are uncivilized as yet, and very few have been Some coal and oil have been discovered, and more will educated. There are many negroes, especially in the probably be found. Most of the people there live near tropical countries. They were brought from Africa in the seacoast, much as people did in North America one the early days of European colonization to work on hundred and fifty years ago. the sugar plantations of Brazil. The white people are In order that South America may be fully developed, descended from Europeans, — for the most part from harbors must be improved, more railroads must be built the Portuguese who first settled Brazil and from the into the interior, harmful insects must be killed off, Spanish who colonized the rest of South America. In greater use must be made of the wonderful hard woods the last thirty years thousands of Italians and Germans of the forests, and more people must go to live there as have emigrated to South America. There are many miners, farmers, or stock-raisers. people of mixed blood in South America, for some Eirro- The people of the United States and Europe are be- peaus married the native Indians in the early days of coming more and more interested in South America, settlement, and in the tropical countries the negro blood and many are studying Spanish and Portuguese, so that is mixed with the European and Indian. The white they may understand and trade with the people there. Trade routes. The eastern ports are about as near to Europe as they are to New York ; but now that the Panama Canal has been opened, the western ports are quickly reached by steamer from our eastern cities. Plans have been made for a great railroad to go from the United States through Mexico, Central America, and South American countries as far as Chile. It will follow the high plateaus between the ranges of the Andes. Certain sections of this road have been built. Turn to Plate B in the Appendix and note the position of South America, and see how the trade routes connect South America with all other parts of the world. people and those of mixed descent have charge of affairs, and they are rapidly improving the social, political, and industrial conditions in the different countries. Governments. South America is a land of ten repub- lics and three small colonies, British, Dutch, and French Guiana. The form of government in each of the repub- lics is somewhat like that of the United States. Physical features. The natural regions of South America are arranged like those in North America. See map on paf/e 120. In the west there are bold, rugged mountains that are very youthful. Between the moun- tain ranges there are plateaus, although , they are not so extensive as the great plateaus of western North 126 ^""f, C f^ y^rSoi~ p /^\ i>XH iftude D West from 50° Greenwich E" gf^"„'g|"' 40° 80° Lona'Bitttde 70° West C from 60° GreenJiwich 50 ) Giua and Compaay NATURAL REGIONS 127 • ■a*«'^ ■•^?.;>'r'/. . -^y 'Jf-.'^iSS^ CounMj of Um Pad Antri«fta Ubka Fig. 240. The Strait of Magellan is bordered by high, snow-capped mountains which descend 'abruptly into the sea, making some of the most beautiful scenery in South America. The strait is very dangerous for navigation, and many ships are wrecked here. How should you travel from New York to Valparaiso? America. In the east and northeast, just as in North America, there are areas of old, worn-down mountains ; and between the mountain regions, extending north and south for the full length of the continent, there are lowlands. The west coast is bold and rockv like the west coast of North America. Far to the south the coast ranges have sunk and now form an archipelago and irregular coast, just as the coastal ranges of British Columbia and Alaska have sunk and formed groups of islands and wonderful inlets (Fig. 240). Climate. Most of South Amer- ica is between the tropics of Can- cer and Capricorn, where there are hot winters as well as hot summers. The most densely set- 6. Which continent has the more irregular coast line, North America or South America? Which has more good harbors ? 7. What is the general elevation of the plateau of Bolivia? of the great lowland areas? of the Brazilian and Guiana highlands ? 8. Between the high mountain ranges of Ecuador and Colom- bia there are narrow, plateau-like areas too small to show on the map. 9. Name five of the higher peaks of the Andes Range. 10. Name five of the larger rivers of South America. 11. Give the names of the three great lowland areas. 12. In which country is the Pampa? 13. Locate on the map the Iguas.su Fulls (Fig. 239). 14. Where is the highest lake in the world which is navigable for commercial purposes ? 15. Locate two large deltas and one estuary. 16. Which coast has the better harbors ? 17. What is the name of the land connecting South America with North America ? 18. Trace the route of Magellan around the southern end of this continent. See Appendix, Plate A. 19. Fix in your mind the name of the southernmost cape in South America. ■•'■.-,^^^*5!!JS'»i Natural Regions Andes Mountains. The giant ranges of the Andes are at the western margin of the continent. Many of the peaks rise to 14,000 feet above sea level, and a few to more than 20,000 feet (Fig. 242). The highest peaks are volcanoes, and in the region of the vol- canoes and throughout most of the length of these young, rug- ged mountains, earthquakes are common (Fig. 243). Volcanoes and earthquakes are signs of tied portion, which is progressive and developing rapidly, youth in mountains, and they usually mean that the is in the temperate zone. No part of the continent except mountains are still growing. near the tops of the high mountains has a long period of Brazilian Highlands. The Brazilian Highlands are a frosts. In the equatorial belt the rainfall is heavy, and great forested tableland, from 2000 to 5000 feet high. Keystone View Co. Fig. 241. This is the Laguna del Inca, one of the beautiful lakes high up in the heart of the Andes, on the line of the Trans-Andean Railway it is also heavy where winds from over the oceans blow against mountains or highlands. On the lee side of mountains there are deserts or semideserts as in northern Chile, in Peru, and in southern Argentina. See maps on and opposite page 156. MAP STUDIES 1. How have the rivers assisted in the exploration of this continent? 2. Where are the young and rugged mountains of South America? 3. Give the names and locations of the old, wom-uij Fig. 259. This is an aeroplane drawing of the country bordering the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Explain the irregularity of the coast line here. Why is such a coast line favorable for Rio ? Describe the land surface on which Rio is built. What is the vegetation here ? See map oppos'te page 156. Why has Rio become a more important port than Belem, Recife, or Sao Salvador? What are its chief exports and imports ? With what countries does Brazil trade most ? Can you explain your answer ? 134 THE GUIANAS 5^ H^ ^ QH ^^^^^^^^^KZ_ I^^^^B^ Mtm 1 ii ml (Cj Fubliihera' Pboto S«rTice, Inc. Fig. 263. The railroad between La Guaira and Caracas has to climb 3000 feet from the port to the capital. The straight distance is only 8 miles, but the railroad zigzags up the slopes of the mountain range, covering 23 miles. A British company constructed this railroad and still owns it breeze is starting, and it will continue to blow during the rest of the afternoon, and even until sunset. At La Guaira, the chief seaport, the air is moist and very warna, but at Caracas, the capital, the climate is cool and pleasant (Fig. 265). The temperature at Caracas seldom rises above 85 degrees or falls below 60 degrees. There is not a stove, nor a fireplace, nor a chimney in the town. The cooking is done in out-of-door ovens. Occupations. Most of the white people of Venezuela live in the mountain area in the north (Figs. 263, 264). This is because the hot, moist lowlands, like those in the Guianas, are unattractive to white people. Between the ranges in the north, in a broad, valley-like belt from 70 to 100 miles wide, coffee, cacao, and sugar are raised. These products are exported in large quantities to the United States and Europe. The lowland valley of the Orinoco is an excellent pasture land, on which great herds of cattle graze. The cattle must often be driven long distances to reach points on the river for shipment. Here they may wait for days for a boat. Better shipping conditions are needed in order to make the most of these pastures. Large steamers go for 260 miles up the Orinoco, and there, at the head of tidewater, is the city of Ciudad Bolivar. In certain of the tributaries of the Orinoco vast numbers of turtles live, and each year the natives collect thousands of turtle eggs, from which they extract an oil. The shells of the turtles are often used as dishes in the houses of the natives. Although the mountains contain coal, iron, copper, .silver, gold, and other minerals, as yet there is little mining. Some gold is produced and exported. Along the coasts there are valuable pearl fisheries. Future. Some day railroads will be built far into the interior of Venezuela, and then it will be possible to © I>ubliali«r8' Pbttlo SoiTk«. Inc. Fig. 264. The railroad carries the passengers and express freight, but the pack-train donkeys are used to carry the slow freight. Here is a group of them, heavily laden, plodding along the road from La Guaira to Caracas, a distance of 25 miles. Why are the donkeys used for this purpose? bring the cattle and other products more quickly to the seaports. Farming may also become important, and thus this country may be much more prosperous. Some think that Venezuela is more promising than any other country of equal area in South America. As yet there are too few white people in the country, and the Indians and black people are lazy. This country is within such easy reach by water from the United States that many people in North America will probably take part in the development of its natural resources. Problems and review questions. 1. "What winds bring mois- ture to Venezuela and to the Guianas ? 2. Could these winds have helped Columbus to discover America and reach the mouth of the Orinoco? 3. What kind of ships did he have? 4. Where do most of the white people of Venezuela live ? 5. What do they raise to sell ? 6. Of what value are the great Orinoco Low- lands ? 7. What does this country need in order to develop its re- sources ? 8. With what disadvantages must the people contend ? S?^ ^BnT'i^LlK^^fc^^&^^P .^<-i- .^^^^^^^^B V ^^H ^^H ^^^^H'^^HHHD^B^ w^. F ^^^^ WBS^ 5" ^ Fig. 265. This is tlie paUu, ui open court, of the capitol at Caracas. The Capitol is a large building, divided by the patio into two parts. One part is occupied by the president, and the other is used for the meetings and business of the legislature 138 COLOMBIA COLOMBIA Colombia is fortunate in having an Atlantic and a Pacific coast line. It is one of the countries that should be greatly benefited by the opening of the Panama Canal. Vaitntoodt Undenruud Fig. 266. Colombia has very few railroads, and the Magdalena River is the great commercial highway through the country. The flat-bottomed boats which are used on the river burn wood for fuel and are propelled by a great stern wheel. Whenever they need wood, they load it from one of the many wood stations along the river Vessels may now easily reach either shore or go from Colombian ports directly to other Atlantic or Pacific ports. Natural regions. On the coastal lowlands in the north there are dense jungles. In places these have been cleared for plantations of sugar cane and cacao. Farther south along the western portion of the country are the moun- tains and plateaus, where the climate is cool and delightr ful. Nearly all the cities and towns are located in the higher part, and most of the people live and work there. The eastern slopes of the Andes and the great eastern lowland area of Colombia are as yet little known. To reach the plateau district among the mountains one must sail up the Magdalena Eiver (Fig. 266). Rapids prevent the boats from going more than 600 miles, so after four or five days' travel one must change and go by rail around the rapids, and then return to the river in order to go farther into the interior. Cities. A railroad climbs to the plateau where Bogota, the capital of Colombia, is located. This city is between 8000 and 9000 feet above sea level, and, like many other South American cities, is built in a fashion similar to those of Spain. The houses stand on either side of the narrow streets. They have no front yards, but are built around private gardens, or patios, which are hidden from the street. The walls of the houses are so thick that they keep out the sun's heat, and most of the buildings are only one story high. Puerto Colombia (the port for Barranquilla) and Santa Malta are the chief seaports on the Caribbean Sea, and Buenaventura is the chief Pacific port. Resources. Colombia is a land which produces coffee^ gold, silver, bananas, and hides. A great deal of platinim is also mined for export ; in fact, Colombia produces more platinum than any other country in the world (Fig. 267). More emeralds are found in the mountains of Colombia than in any other country. The forests on the east slopes of the Andes contain thousands of rubber trees and undoubtedly many other valuable trees. Future. The rich soils, the mineral resources (which as yet have been little developed), and the forests, all point to this country as another region where progress will be rapid as soon as more railroads and more capital are provided. Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief exports from Colombia ? 2. In what part of the country do most of the people live ? 3. Is this a warm or a cold country ? 4. What does this country chiefly need in order to make possible greater develop- ment ? 6. Where is the capital ? 6. How is the capital reached ? 7. How may the Panama Canal benefit Colombia ? ECUADOR Land of the equator. This is a small country on the equator, famous for its panama hats, for its cacao, and for the vegetable ivory from which most of our buttons are made. It is a land of volcanoes and has almost every variety of climate. Natural regions. Ecuador is easily divided into three parts: (1) the Pacific slope, where there is some flat land and a coastal range of old, worn-down mountains ; (2) the high mountains and plateaus ; and (3) the eastern slope, where some of the headwaters of the Amazon rise. The eastern slope passes into the great Amazon Low- lands and is covered with a dense forest growth. The Courtesy of the Pan American Union Fig. 267. This is a new platinum-mining town near the Pacific coast of Colombia. Here the platinum grains are washed out of the sands brought down from the mountains by the rivers. What other mineral resources has Colombia ? In what countries does Colombia find a market for its mineral products ? ECUADOR 139 western slope also has forests, and it is an excellent grazing countrj' for cattle (Fig. 268). Climate. If we were in Ecuador and at sea level, we sliould find it very hot all the time and with enough rain for agriculture. If we went up to an elevation of one mile above sea level, the temperature and vegetation would change as much as if we traveled 1500 miles north or south. If we climbed to a height of two miles, the change in temperature and vegetation would be about the same as if we traveled 2500 miles north or south. If we climbed from sea level to the tops of the highest i _ fs --..•h-iTT*"""^- ^.r^'j V ^Sb^'F ^"i^B ^ y ' '^_^M ^^'k^ PiHiPI?^ PD^^^^taflsss ^^1 iiT f ^''^^f&WWf ii • m^ Q 1 CooTtaj of Um Pan Amerieui Unioa Fig. 268. Here is one of the comfortable estancias, or ranch homes, in the lowland region north of Guayaquil. The head of the family raises cattle, and all, even the women and children, ride about the country on horseback. Why can the products of every climate in the world be grown somewhere in Ecuador ? mountains in Ecuador, it would be somewhat like traveling from the torrid to a frigid zone. The different altitudes explain the variety in climate and vegetation. Resources. On the Pacific Lowlands there are rich soils, and wonderful crops of sugar and cacao beans are raised. The toquilla plant grows here and fmniishes the straw used in the manufacture of panama hats. Here also grows the plant that yields the vegetable ivory (Fig. 2tj9). The native people make great use of the century plant. The broad leaves are used for paper and for thatching huts. The sirup obtained from the leaves is used in making soap. The fibers of the leaves and the roots are woven into sandals and sacks, and the sharp spines are used for needles. In the mountains there are mineral resources yet to be developed. Cities. Guayaquil is the only seaport of Ecuador. The people in this city have recently learned a wonder- ful lesson in sanitation from the work that was done in the Panama Canal Zone. They have cleared away old buildings, put in sewers, paved their streets, and exter- minated many of the insect pests, thus making their city much more healthful. From Guayaquil there is a railroad into the plateau district. At 9000 feet above sea level and almost at the equator is Quito, the capital of Ecuador (Fig. 270). Courtwj of ttie Pmn Ameiicui Untua Fig. 269. The tagua palm, which grows abundantly in Ecuador, has nuts so hard and white that they are commonly called ivory nuts. Ecuador exports millions of pounds of them every year, to be made into buttons. This view shows the great round burrs in which the nuts are inclosed Future. Ecuador has been slow to develop its resources. We may expect mining to be increased, rail- roads to be constructed, the rubber trees in the forests of the eastern slope to be tapped, and many more plantations to be established in the narrow plateau belt between the lofty ranges of the Andes. The climate, especially on the lowlands, is not favorable to hard work, and as yet there are too few white people in Ecuador to make it progressive. Problems and review questions. 1. State five interesting and important facts about Ecuador. 2. How can you explain tlie backwardness of the country ? 3. What is the capital ? 4. AYhat is the one seaport ? 5. What portion of the country is most attractive to white people ? 6. Explain the presence of gla- ciers in Ecuador. 7. What are the chief exports ? the chief imports ? 8. What is the meaning of the Spanish word ecuador ? C'>uMe.y ul tt). fin Am.rlcwi Vw Fig. 270. This is the main plaza, or square, in Quito, the capital of Ecuador. Around it are grouped the public buildings, of typical South American archi- tecture. Quito is nearer the equator than any other national capital, yet it has a delightfully temperate climate. Can you explain this ? 140 PERU £. M. Newmiin Fig. 271. This is one of the plateau towns of southern Peru, situated on the high, level land between the mountains. The land is used for raising grain, and this view shows the mud walls, often five or six feet high, which separate the fields. Can you explain the climate here ? PERU Much of our interest in Peru comes from the stories of Spanish explorers, or from the history of the wonderful Inca civilization. The Incas were the rulers of the native Fig. 272. Paita has a fine sheltered harbor and is one of the ports at which steamers from Panama call, on their way down the South American coast. The houses of Paita are made of split bamboo, sometimes covered with plaster. Why is this material used ? Locate Paita on your map the Pacific Ocean. Such winds become warmer and collect moisture instead of giving it up, so the long western seacoast of Peru is a desert. The rainfall in a year is usually less than five inches. In some places rain comes only about once in seven years. See map opposite jjage 156. Indian people who lived in the high plateau portions of Narrow strips of the coastal lowland are watered by Peru and Bolivia when the Spaniards first visited these countries (Figs. 274, 276). When the Spaniards came to Peru, they found that the Inca people had vast quantities of gold and silver which were used to ornament their temples and public buildings. This led the invaders, who had a great advantage because of their firearms, to conquer the Incas and take the treasures of gold and silver back to Spain. For many years the Spanish people controlled this country, but in 1821, at about the same time that Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia secured their freedom, the Peruvians also obtained independence and founded a republic. The natural regions of Peru are (1) a desert strip along the coast; (2) a high plateau with lofty moun- tain ranges, known to the natives as the sierra (Fig. 271); and (3) the eastern slope and lowland, known as the montana. Peru is in the earth- quake belt, and all the houses are built low and very strong, so that they may not be shaken down. When young, rugged mountains grow, little but sudden slips of a few inches, or at most a few feet, take place along great cracks, or fissures, in the earth, and these movements shake the earth. The dry coastal belt is on the lee- ward side of the high mountains. After .the southeast trades have crossed the Andes, they begin their descent toward Fig. 273. These are Indian workeii planting sugar cane in one of the irrigated valleys of the coastal region of Peru. How is the water obtained for irrigation in this arid region ? streams from the mountains, and near these streams there are settlements where irrigation is practiced (Fig. 273). Cities in the coastal belt. Callao and MoUendo are the chief seaports of Peru. See map on page 135. Callao is the port for Lima, for the central portion of the coastal belt, and for much of the plateau country. MoUendo serves the southern portion of the Peruvian plateau and the plateau of Bolivia. Both of these ports are connected by rail with the high lands of the interior. Paita (Fig. 272) is the city from which the petroleum of northern Peru is exported. Inland, but still on the Pacific slope, is Lima, the capital of Peru ; it is located on a river and has a good supply of water. In colonial days this city was the center of Spanish authority in South America and was the home of many wealthy and well- educated people. Arequipa, the second city of Peru, is 6000 feet above sea level, and there- fore has a cool climate. Like Lima, it is situated on the banks of a small mountain stream which provides power for a number of cotton and flour mills and a few chocolate factories. They are smaller than the mills and factories in the United States, but have modern machinery. On Mount Misti, near Arequipa, is located a famous astronomical observatory. PERU 141 The ascent to the plateau. The railroad that runs from Lima to the plateau is one of the highest in the world. When it reaches the great western range of the Andes, it climbs to an elevation of 16,000 feet and then passes through to the other side in a tunnel. Most people cannot go quickly to such great altitudes without becoming sick. The higher air is thinner than the air near sea level, so each breath taken in has less oxygen than a breath taken at a low altitude. To avoid sick- ness and fainting, passengers are supplied with tanks of pure oxygen, from which they breathe in the oxygen through rubber tubes. The mountain and plateau region. Most of the people of Peru are in the high mountain and plateau region (Fig. 271). There, where the Incas led their strange and marvelous life, the Peruvians of to-day have made their greatest progress. Mining has been developed on a large scale in the plateau region. Copper, silver, tin, and gold have been found, and there is coal near by. To-day copper is the most important of the min- eral products of Peru (Fig. 275). Cerro de Pasco, at an elevation of over 14,000 feet, is one of the greatest mining camps in the world. Cuzco was once a large city. It is located in one of the high valleys in the plateau, and was the chief city of the Incas. They obtained gold from the mines and stream gravels of the region, but there is much less gold-mining there now. Grazing. In the pla- teau region grazing is next to mining in importance. The chief domestic animals are the llamas and the alpacas, which wander about on the plateau and on the mountain slopes to the east and west. The owners of the flocks have great estates that are called haciendas. The native people serve as herders and laborers for the owners of the large estates. The llama (Fig. 279) is really a species of camel, and stands about 4 feet 6 or 8 inches high. The males are trained to carry burdens. They will carry about 100 pounds, but if more is put on their- backs they v.. M. Newmu Fig. 274. This old water-carrier of Cuzco ia a descendant of the great Indian race which, under the Incas, controlled all Peru before the Spanish conquest Fig. 275. This is a great copper-smelting plant on the high plateau of Peru. It is 14,000 feet above sea level and is reached by a railway from the coast. Where is the copper sent from here ? What other metal ores are found in Peru ? Why is copper the most important ? will lie down, and no power on earth will move them until the extra load is taken off. They travel from 10 to 12 miles a day. They must be allowed to feed before night comes, because they will not graze when it is dark. They always walk slowly, gazing on every side and holding their long necks arched. The Indian masters become very fond of them and treat them kindly. Their hair is used to make cloth. The llama is often spoken of as the most useful animal in South America. It is to the native what the reindeer is to the Eskimo, the camel to the inhabitants of great deserts, and the yak to the people of the high plateau of Tibet. The alpaca and the llama are both domesti- cated forms of the wild guanaco. Here in South America the guanaco lives in the high mountains and among the foothills east of the southern Andes, and is hunted as wild game, but the alpaca and llama Uve with the people just as our sheep and cattle do. This is a very surprising fact, for most of our domesticated animals are descended from wild breeds that disappeared long ago. The alpaca is smaller than the llama, standing a little over 3 feet high. The fleece of the alpaca is white or black, and it is beautiful, soft, and very long. Another wool-bearing animal of Peru is the vicuna. This animal, like the llama, alpaca, and guanaco, belongs to the camel family. The vicuna runs wild at high alti- tudes; in fact, it is not found below an elevation of 13,000 feet. In its habits the vicuna resembles the wild guanaco. It is small and fleet-footed and lives in herds. Because the vicuna lives so high up in the mountains, it has not been domesticated, and for this reason the supply of wool obtained from this animal is scanty. Home work. 1. Look up the history of the Incas. 2. Read and report about the llamas, alpacas, vicufias, and guanacos. 142 BOLIVIA Fig. 276. This is part of an old Inca palace on Xiticaca Island. It was built nearly a thousand years ago^by the first Inca. The huge stone blocks were hewn and set without any machinery, and they fit so exactly that it is hardly possible to get a knife blade between them The eastern slope of the Andes. This region of Peru consists of the lower slopes and foothills on the eastern side of the Andes. Here the rainfall is very heavy, and there is a dense tropical forest like that near the Amazon River in Brazil. The forest is wonderfully rich- in rubber and hard woods. Rubber is being exported from Iquitos, which is nearly 3000 miles from the mouth of the Amazon and at the head of navigation for ocean-going vessels. Wild native people live in the forests, but the few whites who live in eastern Peru stay near the towns which are located on the banks of the rivers. Future. Peru has been much more prosperous in the past than it is to-day. In 1884, as the result of an un- fortunate war, Peru lost to Chile the southern part of her country, where there were rich deposits of nitrate. In that transfer Peru lost the greatest source of her prosperity. There remained, however, the rich metal ores of the high plateau region, which have always been mined extensively. Peru will undoubtedly continue to be an important mining district. Grazing may be still further developed, and the great forests of the eastern slope should some day be of much greater value to the people than they are to-day. Problems and review questions. 1. What are the three natural regions of Peru ? 2. What are the rainfall conditions in each region ? See map on page 156. 3. Explain the scanty rainfall in tlie coastal belt. 4. Where do most of the people live ? Why ? What do they do ? 5. What are the chief products for export ? 6. What do the Peruvians import ? 7. From what countries do the imports come ? 8. Why is Peru not a manufacturing country ? 9. Name the capital and chief seaports. 10. What route should you follow from New York to Callao ? to Iquitos ? 11. How should you travel from Lima to Rio de Janeiro ? 12. What kind of business might take you to Cerro de Pasco ? 13. Why might you like to visit Cuzco ? 14. Of what value is the llama to the Peruvians ? 15. Of what value is the alpaca to the Peruvians ? Fig. 277. These boys are poling their balsas on Lake Titicaca. The boats are made of rush straw plaited and tied together, and are often fitted with straw sails. Before the steamer line was established on the lake, all trans- portation was by balsa. Why are the boats not made of wood ? BOLIVIA About half of Bolivia is a high plateau surrounded by lofty mountains ; here Lake Titicaca is located (Figs. 244, 277). The other half of Bolivia is a lowland. See 77iap on jjage 135. The plateau is between 12,000 and 13,000 feet above sea level, and in elevation it is second only to the great plateau of Tibet. Bolivia is now one of the two countries in South America without any coast line. The coastal portion of Bolivia was taken by Chile after a war in which Chile defeated Bolivia and Peru. Life in the high plateau. In the mountains great supplies of gold, silver, tin, and copper have been found. Bolivia ranks second in the world in the production of tin, the Straits Settlements, in the region of the Malay Archipelago, being first (Fig. 278). See Appendix, Plate B. Most of the tin from Bolivia is shipped by way of the Panama Canal to New Jersey. The people who live on the plateau use Mollendo in Peru and Antofagasta in Chile for their seaports. These Fig. 278. The dry, barren highlands of Bolivia are very rich iu minerals, and mining is the principal industry. This is one of the tin-mining centers. In late years tin has replaced silver as the chief export of Bolivia. How is the ore taken to the coast ? To what countries is it exported ? BOLIVIA 143 coast cities are connected by railroads with the largest settlements ou the Bolivian Plateau. In some parts of the high plateau there are small farms where wheat, com, barley, and potatoes are raised. Irrigation is usually necessary. Many of the people who live on the plateau care for sheep, llamas, alpacas, and I goats (Fig. 279). There is very little wood on the plateau, either for building material or for fuel. The houses are therefore made of stone or mud. The people use out-of-door ovens, where they burn brush, cacti, and moss. They plan to bake once a week. If someone should discover coal in or near Bolivia, it would be a great help to the people. Eastern lowlands. The larger part of Bolivia lies to the east of the crest of the Andes. This section of the country is a great lowland area which merges with the Amazon Lowlands in the north, and which extends south to the plains of Paraguay and Argentina. The northern part of this lowland area has developed faster than the southern part. Here are forests of rubber trees and many varieties of tropical hard woods. Besides the forest lands there are great areas of rich agricultural lands. Coffee and cacao are the chief prod- ucts. This part of Bolivia has access to the Atlantic Ocean by way of the Amazon River. By using the rail- road which has been built around the Madeira Falls, connection can be made with the Amazon, and thus ) E. M. .Nfwiaan Fig. 280. This view of La Paz shows its location in a deep pocket between the mountains. In the background is snow-capped Illimani, one of the highest Andean peaks. Locate La Paz on your map. What is the climate here ? Why is La Paz better suited to be the capital of Bolivia than Sucre ? railroads must be built from the river port of Asunci6n in Paraguay to points in eastern Bolivia, or, better still, direct from Rosario or Buenos Aires in Argentina. Cities. Potosi is one of the principal mining centers for both silver and tin. The city is located so high that the air there is always cool, or even cold. Oruro is an- other mining city on the plateau and the terminus of one of the railroads. Sucre is the legal capital of Bolivia, but La Paz, which has a railroad connection and is an important business center, is used as the seat of govem- cargoes of rubber can be transported down the river ment. La Paz is the largest city of Bolivia and is two to Belem. and one half miles above sea level (Fig. 280). The southern part of Bolivia, a region of great rolling Future. The future of Bolivia is somewhat uncertain, plains, has as yet no means of communication with the About half the population is Indian, and native Indians outside world. Before much progress is possible here. Fig. 279. Oraxing is important on the high pl&teaus of Bolivia and Peru. Here is a flock of young alpacas and, in the center, one white llama. They are grazing on a treeless upland pasture 1S,000 feet above the sea. The alpacas are raised for their soft, thick wool, which is used to make the finest woolen fabrics. The male llamas are beasts of burden in this part of South America are the only people there who can work at high altitudes. There is a scarcity of labor. The mines might well be further developed, for in mineral resources Bolivia is very wealthy. The lack of a seaport is an- other great disadvantage, and the lack of railroads to the east is holding back development. Problems and review questions. 1. Divide Bolivia into two natural regions. 2. Which of these regions has most of the people to-day ? 3. What are the chief occupations ? 4. What seaports Serve Bolivia ? 5. Name the largest lake in South America. 6. Why should there be little rainfall on the plateau? 7. With little rain falling on the plateau, how do you account for the large lake there ? 8. What would help Bolivia most to increase its po{)ulation and promote industries ? 9. Name the official capital of Bolivia. 10. Where are the government meetings held ? 11. Name an important mining city in Bolivia. 144 CHILE . p -Tj !-( n r3 M-l -tJ )-l •43 3 !>^ ni ■-1 OJ f— I O Jd TJ ce -t-j 3 p m •(-1 > !h 0) K* ^ M 8 -P -hj CS a ^ a 03 •J t3 ^ no O a 0} o «« >> ^ n3 -^ . "^ •2 S =4-1 oj _ o X a ^ '^ O M '^ boPn !-( O 0) t*^ 05 -H O) t+H K* -IJ OJ g c3 3 2 bcG PI f^ 3 0) O d •? rj g t; .2 -d Ttl > a,^3 O t~ -u ^ S d H .S a -S .sag 4J s ■« "S- ■*-> _ - ed O ^ H -^ 3 O o ^ S b« 2 « " 2 .a "C-d « S g ^ 2 » "2 S S 2 V 01 cr 'U ho tj OJ C3 u C4 o c3 at OJ TT 03 b -^ ^ 15 -d _d oq 03 d 05 d 6 CO ^ s C3 !^ 1—1 a, o t^ a. 0) bco. a--d d 05 > S o '-C !^ ^ *-" -^.^ ^ 03 OJ d »fi£ r7-J "73 .rH l-H fc ^ ? P^ . 2 a CO c» '=^ *^ S> rf 03 pC "tJ -tJ 0) CO ^^+3 I -(1) ^ i) J3 M ^ ^ "Ti ^ 0) S5 oj o o3 o « a< '^ ^ S^ 05 J -^ ^ ril a ^^ s te .5 o 'S a -S B 03 d 146 CHILE Fig. 283. This is Taltal, one of the nitrate ports of Chile. The coast is rugged, barren, and forbidding, and the nitrate export is the only reason for the location of a city at this point. What are the other nitrate ports? Why is there so large a demand for Chilean nitrate ? east of the mountains in southern Argentina is dry. The dry belt in South America crosses the mountains in cen- tral Chile, passing from the west coast to the east. See maps on and opposite page 156. A remarkable resource. The most valuable natural resource of Chile is found in the desert at the north. It is a nitrate of soda which is used in almost all the countries of the world to fertilize soils. This resource has made Chile rich and famous. Railroads have been built into the desert, and hundreds of men are at Avork producing nitrate for market. Everything they use must be brought in. All the building material for their houses and the mining plants, all the food, and all the water are brought from a distance. Sometimes the water must be brought more than a hundred miles to supply the men and horses and to use at the nitrate works. The nitrate is found in the earth. Great lumps of this mineral are dug out of the ground and placed in tanks of hot water (Figs. 281, 282). The nitrate is dissolved, and later the water, with the nitrate in it, is allowed to cool, and the pure nitrate comes out. It looks a good Courtesy (.f til'- i' !!■ Air t n. .ui Lulun Fig. 285. This is a small seaport town south of Valparaiso. The farmers of the surrounding agri- cultural country bring their products into town on the backs of sturdy little donkeys & JLIftwiaMi Fig. 284. The man at the plow is a Chilean farmer of the central valley. He makes a good living on his little farm, and provides a comfortable home for his wife and children. What products does he raise ? In what months of the year are his planting and harvesting seasons ? deal like coarse salt. It is then put into bags and sent off to one of the seaports to be loaded on vessels and taken to various parts of the world (Fig. 283). Now that we understand that water will dissolve the nitrate of soda, we can understand why the Chilean people do not want it to rain in the Atacama Desejrt. If rain fell abundantly, the water would sink into the ground, dissolve this valuable mineral, and little by little take it away . to the ocean. It is because of the exceedingly dry condition of the soil that these de- posits have been left here. Almost all the world's supply of nitrate is pro- duced in the Ata- cama Desert of northern Chile. The government places a heavy tax on all of the product that is sent out of the country. Because of these export taxes the Chilean people have very few other taxes to pay. In addition to the great natural resource of nitrate of soda the Chilean people have discovered large deposits of copper ; they have also extensive forests and some rich soils in the valley belt. Nitrate mining is, however, the chief occupation. Life in the central valley of Chile. The central valley of Chile is from 600 to 700 miles long, and is very much like the rich valley of California. Here the people have made a good start at farming (Fig. 284). Many tropical fruits and some sugar cane, cotton, and rice are raised, and this valley is becoming famous for its vines and the wines that are made from the grapes. Wheat and corn are also raised here. The forests yield timber, and lumber is an important product of export. Cities. Santiago, the capital of Chile, is situated 1800 feet above sea level. It is a very attractive city with a delightful climate, beautiful parks, and a rapidly growing industrial life. In Santiago, as in other South American cities, almost no chimneys are seen, but be- cause of its high elevation more and more of the people are having heating plants put into their homes. There are no good harbors on the Chilean coast, but at very great expense improvements are being made offshore at Valparaiso, so that vessels may anchor and unload cargoes into small boats (Fig. 287). CHILE 147 The journey from Valparaiso to New York, a distance of about 4600 miles by way of the Panama Canal, now takes two weeks. The route is very near to a north-and- south line. The distance fiom Valparaiso eastward across the Andes to Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, is 900 miles. The journey was formerly a very difficult one, and rather than cross the high mountains most travelers went around Cape Horn or through the Strait of Magellan. To-day there is a railroad connecting the two cities, with excellent modern equipment for the passenger trains. Punta Arenas, a Chilean port on the Strait of Magellan, and the southernmost city in the world, ships wool, hides, whale oil, and furs to Europe and the United States. It is a coaling station, and has shops where repairs may be made for steam vessels. Summary. The present prosper- ous condition of Chile is largely due to its one great natural re- source from the Desert of Ata- cama. This one resource affords employment for a large number of people in Chile. Some of them are engaged in mining the ni- trate, others in preparing it for market, and still others serve as carriers and take provisions and water to the workers in the mines. Chile is mining and exporting the nitrate at an ex- travagant rate. Although it has been estimated that the present supply is sufficient to last from thirty to one hundred years longer, the day will come when the nitrate deposits will be exhausted. Then Chile must depend upon other resources for its prosperity. Because Chile extends so far north and south, it is a land of many and varied resources. In the Central Valley farming has already been well established, and the value of the agricultural products is increasing each year. Many cattle, sheep, and goats graze on the fertile grass- lands, and the people who are not engaged in tilling the soil are occupied in stock-raising. One of the greatest future resources of southern Chile lies in the rich forest Fig. 286. This is the " Christ of the Andes," the great statue erected on the boundary line between Argentina and Chile as a pledge of everlasting peace between the two nations Courw.j i>f (Le Fat Fig. 287. The harbor of Valparaiso is open to the north and west, and heavy gales often make anchorage very dangerous. Therefore the government is planning to build a great breakwater and to improve the harbor in other ways. What are the exports and imports of Valparaiso ? With what countries does Chile trade most ? lands which have as yet been little used. The discovery of coal and the presence of water-power may lead to the development of manufacturing. If that happens, Chile may become, like the New England region, an industrial district, and her manufactured goods may be sold in Argentina, a great agricultural country, or in Peru, a great mining country. Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief occupa- tions of the Chilean people ? 2. What is their chief seaport ? their capital ? 3. Why is the northern part of the coast dry and the southern part wet ? 4. Explain why the Chilean people do not want it to rain in the Atacama Desert. 5. Why should they develop farming and manufacturing ? 6. What advantages has Chile for promoting manufacturing in- dustries ? 7. Where could Chile expect to sell manufactured gootls ? 8. Describe the routes of travel from Valparaiso to Buenos Aires ; from Valparaiso to New York. 9. Why was Valparaiso so named? 10. Describe the process of nitrate mining. 11. Why does Chile put a tax on all its nitrate exports ? 12. What other mineral is found in Chile ? 13. What effect has the Panama Canal had on the trade of this country ? E^Sb^iEifikiAiiiiihiiEBHi 1 — ', , Fig. 288. This is the main plaza of Santiago, laid out by the founder of the city in 1S43. Santiago is situated in a beautiful valley where semi- tropical plants and trees grow in great abundance. East of the city rises the snow-capped wall of the Andes, separating Chile from Argentina 148 ARGENTINA Courtegjr of Walter S. Toner Fig. 289. The Argentine Pampa is a vast, unbroken expanse of level plain, covered, except in the cultivated parts, with long, luxuriant prairie grass. There are no trees, and one can travel a thousand miles without finding a single natural variation of the monotonous flatness. The Pampa has long been a great grazing area. This is a typical herd of Argentine cattle on thfr Pampa. They are splendid specimens, and the breed is being constantly im- proved by the importation of foreign stock. The Pampa is nearly as large as England and France combined, yet it forms only about one fourth of Argentina ARGENTINA Argentina is the second largest country in South America and has the largest population, about 8,000,000, It is a vast, rich land which offers great opportunities. Natural advantages. Turn to the maps on pages 145 and 156 and notice the natural advantages of Argentina. (1) Most of the Parana Lowlands belong to Argentina. (2) Over much of the country there is enough rainfall for grazing and farming. If the rainfall were notably heavy, there would be a dense forest ; if there were much less rainfall, the lowland would be a semidesert like the region farther south. (3) This country is in the temper- ate zone, so it is not too cold or too warm for white people. (4) There are good harbors in the estuary of the Plata River and farther south at Bahia Blanca. (5) There are great navigable rivers in the northern portion, and in certain of the rivers there are opportunities for developing water-power. (6) Gold, silver, copper, and iron have been found in the plateau portion at the northwest. (7) The levelness of the land surface makes railroad building easy. Occupations and products. These great natural advan- tages have given the country a wonderful start. Argen- tina is one of the great producers of cattle, horses, and sheep (Fig. 289). Wheat and corn are produced in great quantities (Figs. 297, 299). In the northern and northwestern parts of Argentina there are forested areas which are being developed more and more. Lumbering has become an important industry. Many of the woods are extremely hard, and one is known as quebracho, which means ax-breaker (Fig. 290). The wood of the quebracho is so heavy that it will not float. Besides being valuable for timber the tree has been found to yield tannin, which is used in making leather. In the plateau region at the northwest the life is quite different from that in the lowland region. There the people are interested in mining. Formerly the ores were sent on the backs of mules over the high mountains and across the desert of Chile to the Pacific coast. Now there is a railway into the district, by which most of the met- als are taken to Rosario for shipment to other countries. tuunes; o( Walter B. Tower Courtesj of Walter S. Xowar Fig. 290. These cars are loaded with logs of the quebracho tree, which grows in northern Argentina. Quebracho is a very hard wood, useful for cabinet- making, railroad ties, and paving blocks. The quebrachos are being cut so fast that laws must soon be made to conserve the supply Fig. 291. This is a little village in arid San Juan Province, where the people earn their living by gathering the woody roots of drought-resisting bushes, which they dig out of the ground. The sticks in the foreground will be used to make charcoal or sold to the railroads for fuel ARGENTINA 149 Near the mines many people are engaged in raising Tegetables and fruits for the use of the mining popula- tion. Peaches, figs, pears, grapes, and oranges are pro- duced. Some wheat also is raised here, but not in such large fields as in the lowlands. El Gran Chaco. West of the Pai-aguay River and ex- tending through a part of northern Argentina, across western Paraguay, and into Bolivia there is a vast area called El Gran Chaco, of which little is known. Indian tribes live there, and a few of the rivers have been ex- plored. Railroads have been planned to cross it. At the western margin, where there are streams from the moun- tains, some agriculture has been started. In places cattle are raised (Fig. 293), and from the forests in the south Courtesy of Walter 8. Tower Fig. 292. This is a typical town ui iiuiiiivvestern Argentina, barricaded on the west by the barren ridges of the Andes, and open on the east to the great Argentine plain. The days are always sunny here, and irrigation is needed for agriculture. Why is there little or no rain ? fjuebracho wood and tannin are secured in large quanti- t ies. The quebracho wood and tannin exported each year are worth more than ten million dollars. Over 4000 men are now engaged by one company in this business. The Pampa. The greatest single natural resource of this country is the extensive lowland area of rich soils called the Pampa, west and southwest of Buenos Aires. The term " pampa " comes from the Indian language, and means any flat country, whether it is high or low, dry or wet; but the term "the Pampa" seems most appropriately applied to the great rich lowland coun- try of Argentina, stretching from the Salado River on the north to the Negro River on the south, and from the Parana and Paraguay rivers to the base of the Andes Mountains. p The Pampa is one of the most remarkably flat places in the woi'ld. The soils of which it is composed were washed from the mountains into an interior sea by rivers, and spread out eastward in the form of delta deposits. Little by little the sea disappeared, leaving the broad delta plains exposed as dry land. The Pampa is the wonderful wheat land of South America, and the land where millions of sheep and cattle roam as they feed on the tall, waving grasses of CwjrtMj of Walter 3. Tower Fig. 293. These men are herdsmen of the Argentine Chaco. They wear enormous stiffened leather guards to protect them from the dense under- growth as they ride through the forests. How does the plain of the Chaco differ from the plain of the Pampa? Do the Pampa herdsmen have to wear leather guards ? the fertile plains. There are railroads which run in perfectly straight lines for miles and miles across the Pampa. In many parts no bridges, no tunnels, no rock- cutting or filling were necessary in constructing the rail- roads. Over broad areas there are no hills or elevations of any kind as far as the eye can reach (Figs. 289, 295). The largest objects seen may be a few trees around some ranchman's home, or possibly a windmill, which is the common sign of one of the better homes in the country. With these exceptions the horizon is unbroken. CourtMj or WsJ(»r S. Tnwer Fig. 294. The west central part of Argentina is a semidesert country, similar to the desert of Arizona. The picture shows the rough, bowlder- strewn ground, the scrubby bush growth, and the twisted locust tree. What do you suppose the boy has in the tin can hung from his saddle ? 150 ARGENTINA Courlesj of Waller B. Towor Fig. 295. This great steam plow is breaking rich, new soil on a part of the Pampa which has never been cultivated before. The levelness, the fertility of the soil, and a sufG.cient rainfall make the Pampa a great agricultural region. What are the important crops ? Life on the Pampa. The Pampa is a land where every- body learns to ride horseback. The ranchmen go on horseback to visit the men who care for the great herds of cattle or flocks of sheep, and the children soon learn to ride the swiftest of horses. The weather at times becomes very warm ; and if rain fails to come, as it sometimes does, the farmers lose their crops. This is especially true through the western portion of the lowland ; here conditions are similar to those in western Kansas, Nebraska, or Oklahoma, where there are occasional dry seasons that make the farmers very un- happy. In any country, people who have their farms at the margin of the well-watered land and near poorly watered land must count on losing a crop every few years because of a dry season or because of drying winds. Unfortunately there are portions of this lowland region where the miserable little ticks, fleas, and mosquitoes are so numerous that life is unendurable. Dragon flies, which feed on mosquitoes, have been seen flying in. clouds from 10 to 12 feet thick, so that they even darken the sky. There is another very serious pest which the farmers on the Pampa dread, and that is the locust. As they pass over the country they eat the com and wheat, and some- times an entire crop is destroyed in twenty-four hours. Such great migrations of the locust do not come every year, and some day scientists will learn how to fight them and perhaps how to exterminate them. Life in southern Argentina. This part of Argentina was formerly called Patagonia. It was really " no man's land," but in 1881 the southern portion of the continent, including Tierra del Fuego, was divided be- tween Chile and the republic of Argentina. Since then railroads have been built and many people have gone there to live. The cli- mate is dry in summer, but by irrigating the soils it is now possible to raise vegetables and fruits. Grazing is the chief occupation. The native Patagonian people are large, strong Indians, who still live in a primitive way. They are great hunters, and as yet they do not use firearms as white men do. Instead, they have holas, which are made of two or three small stones covered with skin and fastened together by strings or rawhide. They become very skill- ful in throwing these about the legs, neck, or body of an animal and tripping it up. Even birds are sometimes caught in this way just as they are rising from the ground. The Indians kill great numbers of the guanacos Louneay of Walter S. Tower Fig. 296. This is a clump of the tall, flowering grass which is known as "Pampa grass," but which grows on the hills and mountain slopes of Argentina Fig. 297. These wagons are loaded with grain raised on the Pampa, and are on their way to the nearest market or shipping point. Each wagon is drawn by six horses, and some of the traces are attached to the hubs of the wheels. Compare the size of the wheels with the horses. These Courtesy of Waller S. Tower high-wheeled carts are typical of all South America and are well adapted for traveling over the muddy roads which are so common in the regions of abundant rain. What different kinds of grain might these bags contain ? During what month is wheat harvested in Argentina ? See Appendix, p. io- ARGENTINA 151 for food, and use the skins for clothing and bedding. They depend also upon the rhea, or South American ostrich, for food. This bird has short wings and cannot fly well. It counts on running away from its enemies. Home work. 1. Place the chief seaports of South America on your outline map. 2. Read about the Patagonian Indians in a good reference book. 3. Rea^- ^TIF^^^ ■IMk' ^'^^Ts^MlHWte »*"■ i PMi Counetj ot Wftlter 8. Towv Fig. 299. These canvas-covered stacks contain more than two million bushels of grain waiting to be shipped to Buenos Aires by rail. Why is grain stacked in the open in Argentina instead of being stored in grain elevators ? Where will it be sent from Buenos Aires ? in profits for those engaged in raising cattle and sheep. It has increased the value of the lands, caused railroads to be built, and brought many more people to Argentina. Farther south along the coast is Bahia Blanca, and from there railroads extend to different parts of the coun- try. That city has been growing very rapidly, and large quantities of wool and wheat are shipped from there to the United States and Europe every year. Mendoza is one of the most important inland cities. Here, by means of irrigation, the people have cultivated large vineyards, and a great deal of wine is made. Now that Mendoza has a railroad connection -with the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, more of the products of this part of the country are reaching the larger markets of South America. Cdrdoba is a thriving city on the western margin of the richest wheat district in Argentina. It is also in the midst of the flax-raising area and has a number of mills where the oil is extracted from the flax seeds. Tucumdn, another inland city, is the center of the Argentine sugar-producing area and has sugar refineries. Fig. 800. The docks at Buenos Aires are lined with elevators in which grain is stored awaiting shipment. The harbor is man-made, and the port one of the best equipped in the world, ranking second among the ports of the two Americas. What is the first port ? 152 PARAGUAY Summary. When thinking of Argentina, remember that it is, first, a wonderful farming and grazing countrj^, and that the raising of stock has led to meat-packing, dairying, and the refrigerating of meat for export. If we visited this country, we should see the farmers using the same kind of implements and machines as are used in the United States; and about their homes and in the pastures we should see windmills that were shipped from the United States. These are indications of the large trade which we are building up with Argentina. ^1 Walter S. Tower Fig. 301. In Buenos Aires tlie milkman drives his cows from house to house, milking them for each customer. The little girl in the picture is waiting to have her pitcher filled. The boy is the milkman's son. His duty is to hold the calf, which insists on traveling with its mother The notable contrast with the United States is that there is very little industrial life in Argentina. The mechani- cal arts have not been developed, and it is not likely that Argentina will become a great industrial country. Fuel is scarce and the people are not mechanics. Argentina imports coal. There are flour mills, sugar mills, and some weaving mills, but most of the machinery and manufac- tured goods that are needed are brought to Argentina in exchange for raw materials. Argentina is undoubtedly destined to become a great agricultural nation. More and more people will emi- grate from the crowded industrial centers of Europe to the farming lands of the Pampa. With the increase of population, the extension of railroads, and the develop- ment of more routes of communication with the markets of Europe and North America, Argentina should become one of the richest countries of the world. Problems and review questions. 1. What are the great natural ad vantages, of Argentina? 2. What are its chief disadvantages? 3. Make a list of the chief exports ; the chief imports. 4. What is the largest city in South America ? 5. Why is there a great grassland in the Parana Lowlands and a dense forest in the lowlands of the Amazon ? 6. Why is a por- tion of Argentina a semidesert ? 7. From what country do the people import their farming machinery ? 8. How did the improvements in refrigerating meats help Argen- tina ? 9. What does the country need ? 10. What especially in- teresting facts about Argentina have you learned from the pictures ? PARAGUAY Paraguay is a little larger than the state of Missouri, and is one of the two countries in South America without any seacoast. It is an extensive lowland country, a part of the Parana Lowlands, where most of the land is from 100 to 500 feet above sea level. The Paraguay River divides this country into two somewhat distinct parts. In the east there are forests, and also large groves of orange trees and many banana trees. The forest is broken here and there by open pas- ture lands and fields of brilliant flowers. On the west is the Chaco, a land of broad, open fields with here and there quebracho forests. A few palms are scattered about on the plains. In the western part of the country the rivers wind about through such long channels that much t- Paa Auieiic:.a Lii.^J Fig. 302. The forest on both sides of the Paraguay River is rich in valuable quebracho trees, and lumbering is extensively carried on. These lumbermen are resting while they cook their mid-day meal. The quebracho logs are carried down the river in boats, because they are too heavy to float of the water is evaporated before the streams reach the Paraguay River. It is a region of little rainfall, but there is enough to nourish a tall grass that serves for pasture. The Parana and Paraguay rivers are navigable, and shipments may be made down the river to Rosario, Buenos Aires, and Montevideo. Boats can sail 1300 miles on the Paraguay. Occupations. The chief occupation is just what would be expected in a grassland region without severely cold weather. It is grazing. Lumbering is important and will increase as the hard woods of the South American forests are used more and more in building (Fig. 302). Many people are interested in extracting tannin from the quebracho tree, and many others are engaged in selling the wood of that tree as lumber. PARAGUAY 153 Paraguay tea is known in Spanish as yerha mate (Fig. 304). It was here that the Indians introduced this tea to the Spaniards. The native people and many others in South America prefer the mate to coffee or to the varieties of tea from Japan or Ceylon that are so commonly used in North America and Europe. They drink the mate through a little tube. The tea is held in a cup made of a gourd, and it is the custom of the people to take a little drink of tea every few hours. It is a very common sight to see them stand around with the gourds and the little tubes through which they draw the tea up into their mouths. This tea is now being exported to distant lands. It is for sale in the larger cities of the United States. Oranges are so common in Paraguay that a traveler can get a dozen for a cent. Almost every Paraguayan will suck the juice of twenty or thirty oranges a day. The trees grow on the banks of the rivers, in the gorges, near the ranches, far back in the forests, — in fact, almost everywhere in Para- guay. Great carts drawn by three yokes of oxen, each cart carrying about 5000 oranges, are used in bringing the fruit to the banks of the river for shipment to Buenos Aires and Montevideo. The oranges grow in such abundance that it is impossible to use all of them. Thousands are devoured by birds, monkeys, and other animals, and yet each year tons and tons of oranges drop to the ground and rot. Insect pests. Paraguay is a land where the mosqui- toes, fleas, and flies are terrible pests. Scientific methods should be used to kill off these insects, so that life here may be more bearable. Cities. Asunci6n is the capital of Paraguay. It is reached by boats that come up the river from Rosario and Buenos Aires (Fig. 305). Villa Rica, the second largest city in Paraguay, is situ- ated on the one important railway in the state. It serves as a collecting center for the agricultural products of southern Paraguay, Ojurteiji ol the Fko Adicmcsh CnioD Fig. 303. This Paraguayan woman is at work making the fine lace for which her country is famous. Where does the thread which she uses come from ? Councaj ot Utt fui Amtrieaa Unltta Fig. 304. These men are Paraguayan mat6 gatherers. The yerba mat6 Is South American holly, which grows abundantly in Paraguay and southern Brazil. Each day the gatherers pick the leaves and twigs of the mat6, bring- ing it in on their shoulders to the camp, where it will be cured over a fire Concepci6n is the third city of importance in Paraguay- It is situated on the Paraguay River at the head of navi- gation for large river vessels and is therefore a commercial center of some importance. Future. Paraguay will undoubtedly develop its rich agricultural lands ; but before it can really become pros- perous, more railways must be built and more white people must come to live in the country. Problems and review questions. 1. Name the two countries of South America that are without coast lines. 2. How does Paraguay carry on commerce ? 3. How would a traveler reach the capital? 4. What two crops are most remarkable? 5. What product from Paraguay is important to the shoe business ? 6. How may living conditions be improved in Paraguay? 7. On what does its future progress depend? Fig. 305. Asuncidn, the capital of Paraguay, stands at the head of naviga- tion on the Parani River. Paraguay has no seacoast, and the ParanA is the most important highway into the country. Asuncion is therefore an impor- tant river port. What products of Paraguay are sent down the river to Buenos Aires for export ? 154 URUGUAY Courtesy o£ Walter S. Xowcr Fig. 306. This is one of the modern steam threshing outfits in use in Uruguay. Although nearly all the land of the republic is suited to agri- culture, only about one twentieth of it is under cultivation to-day. What conditions throughout the world will cause Uruguay to change gradually from stock-raising to agriculture? URUGUAY This country is a great pasture land. Like much of Argentina, Uruguay is fortunate in its surface features, in the richness of its soils, and in its good harbor and its one large navigable river. The prevailing coast winds are from the southeast, and they bring in an abundance of moisture, so that all of Uruguay is well watered. The climate is mild and healthful. In January, which is the warmest month, the average temperature is about 80° Fahrenheit, and in July, the coldest month of the year, the temperature is commonly about 55°. The lowest temperature that has been observed is not down to the freezing point. Everything that will grow in temperate or subtropical climates will grow in Uruguay. The grazing of sheep, cattle, and horses is the chief occupation of the people (Figs. 307, 308), but general farming is becoming more and more important (Fig. 306). Large quantities of grain and fruit are raised. Commerce. The grazing has led to the establishment of certain industries which grow naturally out of the raising of stock. Meat-packing and the refrig- erating of meat for shipment occupy the time of a large number of people. Great quantities of beef extract are made for export. Cities. Montevideo is a modern, healthful city with a very pleasant climate (Figs. 309, 310). The name " Montevideo " comes from the hill, or mount, which rises to a height of 505 feet and is the most prominent feature about the city. It can be seen for 12 miles out to sea. There is a lighthouse on the mount, and the revolving light in the top can be seen for 25 miles. The city is built on a point of land between the Atlantic and a large bay. The people of Uruguay all seem to. want to live in Montevideo. The city now has about one third of the entire population of the country. Farmers and ranchmen either have city homes or look forward to having them. Montevideo is the capital of Uruguay, and from its harbor ships leave with their great cargoes of wool, beef, and hides for ports in the United States and Europe. The sea breezes pass through the city from one body of water to the other. In the bay there is room for 500 ves- sels. Opposite Montevideo the Plata estuary is 64 miles wide, and at Buenos Aires, 210 miles farther upstream, it is 34 miles wide. There are numerous shoals and sand bars in the river, so that navigation is difficult. Occasionally the pampero, or storm wind of the Pampa, sweeps across this estuary of the Plata with great vio- lence and whips the shallow water into a very rough sea. At such times vessels are in great danger of being driven upon sand bars and wrecked. Future. For its size Uruguay is the most fortunate country in South America. Its location, climate, soils, surface features, and harbor promise a prosperous agri- cultural life with an ever-increasing commerce. Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief occupa- tions of the jjeople ? 2. Name and give the location of the capital. 3. What has Uruguay to export ? 4. How does the climate of Uruguay aifect the occupations ? 5. What are the prevailing coast winds ? 6. Why is navigation in the Plata River difficult ? Courtesy of Walter S. Tower Fig. 307. Most of Uruguay is rolling, grassy country dotted with scattered clumps of trees. The soil, temperature, and rainfall are all favorable to agriculture, but at present more than four fifths of the total area of Uruguay is devoted to grazing. Sheep-raising is the greatest industry, and thousands of flocks like this one graze over the country FALKLAND ISLANDS 155 FALKLAND ISLANDS The Falkland Islands belong to the British. They are in a very stonu}- part of the ocean; no trees grow there, and all the wood which the people use in building their homes or in shipbuilding must be imported. Peat has been found and is used as fuel. Very httle agricul- ture is carried on. A few vegetables are grown, but they are poor in quality. Most of the food must be brought in from other countries. Sheep-raising is the chief industry, and in spite of the stormy conditions the sheep thrive remarkably. Some cattle are raised ; fish are abundant in the waters sur- rounding the islands, but because of the heavy winds and stormy weather very little fishing is done. These islands have long served as a repair sta- tion for sailing vessels that have found difficulty in rounding Cape Horn or in pass- ing through the Strait of Magel- lan. Nowthatthe Panama Canal is open for traffic, fewer vessels will go this way. Fig. 308. Cattle-raising is second only to sheep- raising in Uruguay. These cattle are herded in a typical corral, which is very roughly but strongly made by using the crooked limbs of trees COLON ARCHIPELAGO (GALAPAGOS ISLANDS) A group of ten islands, 600 miles west of Ecuador and H")0 miles southwest of Panama, have appeared for years on almost all maps as the Galapagos Islands. In 1892 they were officially renamed the Colon Archipelago in honor of Columbus. These islands belong to Ecuador. The Spanish word "galapagos" means turtles. When the islands were discovered, there were no people living there, but there were many giant turtles, some large and strong enough to carry a man. Pirates are supposed to have used these islands as a meeting place, and they may have buried stolen treasure there. PROBLEMS AND GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. In wliat part of South America did Columbus land? 2. Where was the land of the Inca.s? 3. What languages are most commonly spoken in South America ? 4. What is the commonest form of government in South America? 5. What South American countries are colonies of European nations ? To what nations do they belong ? ir* V ■■■— ;^Bi^B*W *■■* , 1 T • ' ' Jli IflL 1 1 i.' 1 Ib^^AI , 1 \ ^^^■y<--^-'"*"5jg >■ rpl-'l JP' S^- ^^ -^ i [Tik^trffi-if f^' \ 0^"^ JgbiH'%^ Fig. 309. The docks at Montevideo are always busy, for Montevideo is the great port of Uruguay and handles three fourths of the exports and imports of the country. From what countries have the ships in the picture come ? What have they brought to Montevideo ? What will they carry away ? 6. Where is the greatest coffee-producing area? 7. Where are the best grazing lands ? 8. What countries produce large quantities of fruit ? 9. In what country are oranges most abundant? 10. What is the largest country? 11. Where is the greatest rubber-producing area? 12. What country is famous for its tin? 13. What coun- try is famous for its nitrate ? 14. What country is famous for its Panama hats? 15. What improvements would be of the greatest help to South America? 16. What country of South America may rival the United States? 17. What country sends us wool? 18. What prod- ucts do the people living on the lowland plains raise in such abundance that they can export them? 19. What products from the great forests of South America are shipped to other countries ? 20. What do the people get from the mountains and sell to other people ? 21. What prod- uct is raised on the slopes of the Brazilian Highlands and shipped from Santos? Where is it sent? See map on page 145. ® E. M. Kvnua Fig. 310. This is one of the plazas in Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay. Montevideo is the only large city in the republic. Can you account for this ? Locate Montevideo on your map. How should you travel from Montevideo to Asuncion ? to S3o Paulo ? to Santiago ? 156 COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES I t Under 10 inches 10 to 20 •' ^5' I I 20 to 40 •' 40 to 80 •• ^B Over 80 ^ / Prevailing coast winds 90° longitude 75" IKf«f/.-om 60° Qreenwi'^h 45' 30^ y Uinn and Comitaiiy Average annual rainfall in South America COMPAKATIVE MAP STUDIES I. Where is the great tropical forest of South America ? How much raiu falls there each year ? Is it a good place for white people to live in ? Why ? 2. Where is the rainfall more than is favorable to agriculture ? W^hat winds bring such heavy rains ? 3. Where is the rainfall about right in amount and seasonal distribution for agriculture ? Do the people practice agricul- ture in these parts ? 4. Where are the extensive grasslands in South America ? How much rain do they receive ? 5. To which coast do the southeast trades come ? 6. To what coast do the northeast trades come ? 7. To what coast -do the prevailing westerly winds come ? 8. In what months does the rainfall of southern Brazil come ? 9. What are the summer months in southern Brazil ? 10. Where are the tem- perate forests in South America? II. How do you explain the very dry conditions on the west coast from 5 to 35 degrees south latitude? 12. Why should this dry belt cross the mountains at about 35 degrees south latitude ? Why is it dry farther south on the east side ? This explains why central and southern Chile luive heavy rainfall. 13. Why should it be very dry on the Bolivian Plateau? 14. What months are included in the rainy season in Chile ? 15. What portion of the Pacific coast of North America has its rainy season during the winter months ? What months are these? 16. What semiarid land in South America is crossed by rivers that may be used for irrigating the soils? CARIBB^I'^^ SB A A I-FrWARD IS. ^ »C.Hi>rn 90' Lon(,iiH^ a, ^ O o o CO (•■) •■-< a r^q o § O -= Q o ;- (N- .4. O rj O 35 (!) § -S -^ -rS ^ .s -^ -^ -a c 2 a o a a m -> CD a •-" CO I-. 05 cS ^ 05 oj c« O 5W '^ o c o •fi 01 .a 05 ri3 '0 r t: fi o n •—' a W o 05 t< ^ rS ^ -1-) ^ 05 o =3 05 72 CO 1 OJ 5 oo tH m 1-1 (>• ^ 05 05 CO 3 O ■*^ :) 05 -M rt 43 .3 OJ to rS a o -.q c3 Ti ■55 ^ -^ ^ tH 05 ^ O -w S3 E-i ™ o «= S M ^ g 05 ^ bo-*^ 05 tH tM fe ^ >-, 05 q3 c3 05 OJ o !* ri3 o a § 05 ►->. .S CO l> ±; <1 05 cj3 S -►^ 3 cS rK 43 -3 ce P3 =3 C 43 e3 ^:3 s a »« 05 43 O 43 O O -^ IS "^ "i-i ^ bX)° t-i ® 5 o O -u o CO O 05 ^-'rO ^ c« o; '^.. i 05 -tj to n .s «5 ^ o 2 =« Q o; c3 15 fcS ■"■ Oh O ?S c 2 tH a c3 "3 0) ^ CO c« C 02 .2 j^ Pho CO C3 cc t— < g a h d c3 il' QJ 43 a> h t* c^ ctf 0) OJ U tH > 03 > > Ph o C/J 1 43 CO 'be C 7? (^ J OJ !zipqWMt> I -2 "^ 3 c C <0 C3 43 ft P^ ^6 43 ^ CO a ■S o o s tq a C3 'p ft o ' OJ OJ a m 05 •—1 >-> o 05 a CO a c3 C3 cS ^ HJ -a ss P50Q U Ph Ph d c3 O fH K 05 .a c3 -k^ a> a 43 3 -W DO § a CD S "^ 05 00 tH 05 05 tH '^ 05 05 Oh o ■*^ 05 -^^ ^ 43 § I C5 tH 03 <]5 4a 43 O c CO F, W a 1— 1 ft 05 t^ SJh H tH rr> y W Pm <»5 'S s -t= t< a &, a- ,5 O tH t- 2-, 05 c3 .-H 05 '5 05 43 «8 H CO TO o;> eu O Q 05 (>H 05 Oh 2 3 C£ CO O tH o 05 'd 3 43 -4J 3 o CO tH O (D Oh o ^ 5 w V ^ o s I CO a O" 05 ^3 -^ 08 •« Oh 05 Oh O tH 3 I 3 o CO tn 03 C5 HO. -(J ^ d c3 tH P5 O 43 05 Oh p ;#j tH c8 a> •-^ tH 03 05 3 3 03 43 03 a tH 05 03 "-I 05 tH 3 05 g be g 05 Oh O g= tH- i ° S cd 3 cr* 03 O !0 tH 03 =4H CO c8 § I .3 w aj 6 J a 43 03 , 3 05 43 CO «« Ttl 3 » a w « I S ^ W oj O tH 03 3 CO 1^ Ch43 3 tH H •" 3 CO 05 a ''^ iC 43 . 3 . t^ 03 00 3 o CO C g 05 05 53 g 43 bb " '- bD 05 cj rn g 00 CO «J 05 ■»r rH a 09 a 9 o a -^^•^ 05 O Z, tH 03 O! i=i a S ^ »— H ,(_3 C3 ffi Oh 05 '= *^ --J T3 05 PI -5 ^ ° 05 ^ -H^ a; O^ o I 03 a, ^ O 5 -^ ^ a O Ph -U e+H a 05 o tH 13 tH 05 43 -4i pi o CO 03 05 tH CO bO fl -, <^ 03 O 02 05 05 tH be ^ a tH Q 03 43 d '+H CO d o bO a d d o a CO cS tH be -^^^ 05 O SR ^ o o 03 • -H CZ2 03 H o ;::h 03 • rH 03 -d CC 05 tH !h rS 05 bO Ph 0^-^ a d O Z 03 g M d d CQ (i3 d d o ^^ i o ce g Ph Ph t; 03 43 s| a ^ ^ p^ d ,^ o ^ oS 05 03 tH ^H c« C3 03 a. !^ d S 33 03 .t^ -^ .23 HJ tH ce o 05 "+H tH , bJO'^ 03 OQ d =^ 03 a CQ I oe o .a d 05 02 43 d i^ 05 42 Ph 03 d ^ .fH ^ a ^ I ^ -^^ 9 d 03 05 43 "Ph-H o 05 PhTS 03 a o CO 03 "5 Sht3 03 CO d tH CO d T3 cS 05 05 SI rP ;d tH '^ O CO I— I o ^^ g 05 CO hJ T! 03 s -^ CS -4.^ 05 bC tH C« <— ( d 03 03 05 > c« 43 CO 05 d 'd d 03 Ph 05 tH ce CO c3 Ph tH 05 bC S d Ph. in O 0« ^ 8 05 '^ II 03 § ^ O cS d CO d a » cS 03 -- tH tH OD ^ S-L 05 CO bO S d d c3 cc c« _ 1^ S ^ 2 « s s H T3 ^ 05 . ->J 05 02 SR 43 05 g :tj tH 5 d be 00 CO O tH 05 t3 c« o tH 03 d o d o d to d 03 03 CQ tH O 05 cS -2 d ce 05 >^ d cS a d cS 2 • 05 2 ee a 'bb s3 05 > 05 tH 05 ce 05 tH cS 03 tH 05 43 H d -tJ c« d - d 05 o bc a d « u 2 cc -^ 3 d 02 w I— ( ft H S a. CO 05 03 3 05 tH >-> PU 03 43 hJ 05 c3 tH c3 Oh o 03 43 • CO CO 3 05 "^ 3 'i^ £ "3 S 3 -■■ 05 43 -t:> 03 ff Ph 03 be 5^ 03 .2 43 ' cu a, s o CO 03 ^ bCk* CO 05 O 'd 3 o CO c8 05 CO CO 43 ■" ^ 3 .ki .2 < bo 05 ^ tH 03 tH 05 LO 3 a 05 O 43 00 « s CO •OS auuaa ^ °3 n"o»a >vn m rn'Oono °S (O ■•»K r» usqjuaix °g y^fnjitfg o* JO sqjnow ^ O 162 COAST LINE Southern lowlands. In the valley of the Danube is the Plain of Hungary. It is a bi^oad, river-made land formed of the fine soil materials washed from the sur- rounding mountains. This is one of the best farming and grazing regions in the world (Fig. 316). Vast sup- plies of food are produced on this plain. South of the Alps and north of the Apennines in the valley of the Po there is another river-made land. Here the soils washed from the neighboring mountains have filled in the head of the Adriatic Sea. This is a well-watered land with rich soils. Most of it is under cultivation, and it supports a large population. The narrow low- lands on the coast of Portugal, Spain, Italy, and the coun- tries in the Balkan Peninsula are or- chard lands, where large supplies of subtropical fruits, such as oranges, lemons, olives, and figs, are raised. MAP STUDIES £xcliuiT« Newf Agencj, Ra«huiipton Fig. 316. The great plain of the Danube and its tributaries is one of the richest agricultural regions in Europe. This view of the river was taken on the frontier between Jugoslavia and Hungary. In the distance the level plain extends as far as the eye can see. On the opposite bank is a herd of the cattle which are raised extensively in this region Use map ; between pages 207 and 210. 1. What mountains surround the Plain of Hungary ? 2. Into what countries does this plain extend ? 3. What river drains tlie lowland of northern Italy ? 4. Where do narrow coastal lowlands border the Mediterranean Sea ? Coast Line The North and Baltic seas and the Mediterranean and commercial nafions. The peoples of western Europe have led the world in seafaring occupations. Home tvork. 1. On an outline map of Europe shade or color the area that is more than five hundred miles from an ocean or an arm of an ocean. 2. Find out what parts of the world are now controlled by Europeans or descendants of Europeans. Shade or color those parts on an outline map of the world. Problems and review questions. 1. Why should the people in America be especially interested in the people of Europe ? Give at least five good reasons. 2. What nations of Europe are represented in the population of your school district ? of your city or town ? 3. How does the size of Europe compare with that of Canada ? of Asia? 4. How far is Europe separated from Africa at Gibral- tar '/ Use scale on map between jmges 207 and 210. 5. Why do irreg- ular coast lines lead men to become seamen and explorers ? 6. To what race do most of the people of Europe belong ? 7. What people in Europe belong to the Mongolian, or yellow, race ? 8. Why did so many distinct nations develop in this conti- nent? Give examples. 9. Give a brief de- scription of the five large natural regions of Europe. Influence of the Ice-Sheets In studying North America we learned of great ice- sheets that formed in Canada. Europe also had great ice-sheets during the same glacial period (Fig. 317 ). They formed on the highlands of the Scandinavian Black seas extend far into the continent of Europe. Peninsula and spread in all directions, advancing east- These great irregularities of the coast line, as well as the smaller irregularities, are of very great importance to the life of the people. No part of Europe except central and eastern Russia is very far from the coast. The continent is landlocked on one side, and still its coast line of about 50,000 miles is longer than the coast lines of South America and Africa combined, though South America is nearly twice ward into central Russia, southward across the Baltic Lowland and the plains of Germany to the margin of the Central Highlands, and southwestward until they invaded the British Isles. In all the high mountains there were glaciers, and those that remain to-day are but remnants of much longer glaciers of the great ice age. Over most of the land where the ice was there is a and Africa three times as large as Europe. Europe is covering of glacial soils. The deposits left by the ice con- fortunate in having many excellent harbors. The inhabitants of the lands bordering the seas natu- rally became skillful fishermen and sailors. They first followed the sea as traders and explorers ; later they made good colonists, and in time they developed great tain bowlders and look much like the glacial deposits in North America. Thousands of small lakes in northwestern Europe and in the high mountains of southern Europe are in valleys blocked with glacial deposits. CLIMATE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 163 ■Climate Jj^ general the mountain areas receive more rain than The sm-face waters of the eastern part of the North the lowlands. Far to the north the rainfall decreases, as Atlantic Ocean are warmed by the Gulf Stream Drift it does in all countries in high latitudes, because the air (see maj}, p. 275), and the winds that blow over those is too cold to carry much moisture, waters help to warm the air over the lands of western Europe may therefore be divided into three climatic Europe during the winter season. Except in the Far regions : (1) the west, with only slight changes in tem- North the countries of western Europe do not have long perature and with rain during all seasons of the year ; periods of frosts ; that is, there are no very long periods (2) the east, where the changes in temperature from dming which the temperature falls below the freezing summer to winter are great and rain comes chiefly in point of water. This is a great advantage to agriculture, the summer ; and (3) the Mediterranean region, with dry, In eastern Germany and in Poland there are over two months of frosts, and in eastern Russia there are over four months of frosts each year. In the bleak tundra region bordering the Arctic Ocean there are frosts for more than six months, and the temperature re- mains continuously below the freezing point for a great part of that time. In summer eastern Europe has a period of between two and four months when the temperature each day rises to over 70° F., while in western Europe the winds that come from the west and have passed over the Fig. 317. This map shows the extent to which the continental ice-sheets spread over Europe. From what center did they come? Through what countries does the line of the southern limit of glaciation pass ? What European countries have never been covered by an ice-sheet ? What moun- tains of Europe still contain glaciers ? hot summers and mild and somewhat rainy winters. Natueal Resources Europe is fortunate in its mineral resources, in the ex- tent and quality of its forests {see map opposite page 216), and in the rich soils of the lowlands suitable for agricul- ture. The waterways, the water-power, the harbors, and the fish of the shallow seas are very valuable. The beautiful scenery and the places of historic and artistic interest are of great educational value, and they bring thousands of tourists to the different European countries each year. Atlantic Ocean tend to prevent such a long warm period. In each of the countries of Europe the occupations The large seas that extend far into the continent help and the prosperity of the people have been determined to keep the temperatures of western and southern Em"ope largely by the climate and natural resources of the warmer in winter and cooler in summer than they would regions in which they live. otherwise be. Changes in temperature are always less marked in lands surrounded, or nearly surrounded, by ocean waters. Home work. Find out in how many months there are frosts in your home region. "What part of Europe is similar to your home region in this respect ? In the Mediterranean lands, except in the high moun- tains, the winters are without long periods of frosts, and for over two months of the year the daily temperature averages more than 70° F. In the extreme south of Spain and Italy there are over four months when the average daily temperature is 70° F. or more. The winds from the Atlantic bring rain to the western lands each month of the year. As they pass on eastward they have less and less moisture to give up, so the rain- fall decreases as we go from west to east across the continent of Europe. See map on page 216. Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief occupa- tions of the i)eople who live in the Northwest Highlands of Europe ? 2. Why do the mountains of northwestern Europe differ from those of southern Europe ? 3. How may the hills of England, Ireland, and Brittany be explained ? 4. Where did the great continental ice-sheet of Europe form ? 5. How did the ice change the surface of the country that it invaded ? 6. What are the chief occupations of the people in the different parts of the Central Plains, — (a) in the tundra district ? (h) in the great forests ? (c) in the grassland areas ? (d) in the dry steppe region ? 7. What part of Europe has the shortest period of frosts ? Why ? 8. How do the inland seas affect the temperatures of the neighboring lands of Europe ? O.'In what natural regions of Europe are there large supplies of coal and iron that have led to the growth of industries ? 10. Why do great numliers of tourists visit Switzerland ? 11. How does the life in the high mountains differ from that on the plains? 12. Where are the chief lowland plains of southern Euiope? 164 BRITISH ISLES Court«8j of Joseph W. Wortheo , Urown, ftnd Earl* Fig. 318. This isthehomeof George Washington's Fig. 319. In England there are many beautiful Fig. 320. Many of the farmers of the lowland of ancestors in England. The quaint old house was homes like this, which are often called manor England live in low, thatch-roofed cottages like built several hundred years ago and stands in the houses. Such a house is usually the home of the this. Study the map on page 171 and name some midst of a fertile farming country owner of the estate, or manor of the products which they raise BRITISH ISLES mouths, like those of the Thames and Mersey, are wide and bordered by lowlands. They are called bays. In the The British have become a great industrial and com- north, where the river mouths are narrow and bordered mercial people. In the early days of active geographic by hills or mountains, they are called firths. The bays exploration their mariners were among the most daring and adventurous. They visited almost all the lands of the earth, and to-day the British Empire is the largest and most widespread in the world. Physical features. The British Isles consist of Great Britain and Ireland and nearly 5000 smaller islands near by. They are often called the United Kingdom. Great Britain includes England, Scotland, and Wales. The total area of all of these islands is about 120,000 square miles, which is nearly twice as much as the area of the New England states. The shallow sea around the British Isles is nowhere over 600 feet deep. If the sea bottom should rise 300 feet, the British Isles would be connected with Europe. Formerly they were a part of the mainland, but the western portion of Europe sank, and the sea, advancing over the lower portions of the land, sepa- rated the British Isles from the rest of the continent. There is now a plan to con- nect England with France by a tunnel under the Strait of Dover. At the narrowest place this strait is about 20 miles wide. Coast. The shore lines of the British Isles are very irregular, owing to the sink- ing of the land (Fig. 321). The mouths of the rivers are drowned. Some of the river Fig. 321. This view on. the coast of southwestern England shows the irregularity of the coast line. How do you explain this irregularity ? Of what advantage is it to the nation ? Notice the level land at the head of the little cove in the foreground, and on the upland. For what purposes may these level stretches of land be used ? and firths allow vessels to go far inland with raw material, and have therefore become very valuable in the industrial and commercial growth of Great Britain. Some of the drowned river mouths have been bridged, and in large cities like London tunnels have been made under the rivers. Highlands. Most of the British Isles are a part of the Northwest Highlands. See map on page 161. In northern Scotland there are low, picturesque mountains and many beautiful lakes (Figs. 322, 323). In southern Scotland, in Wales, in southwestern England, and in Ireland the upland hilly districts are all that is left of an old mountain region. Lowlands. The lowland of England, which extends from Birmingham to Liverpool, is a busy industrial dis- trict and the most produc- tive part of the country. In central Ireland the lowland area, which covers about a third of the whole island, is an agricultural land. The lowland extending across Scotland is located in a belt where the land dropped down, forming a deep valley. This is an industrial district, but there are many culti- vated fields here. The south- eastern lowland plain of England is a part of the Central Plains of Europe. It is a grazing and agricul- tural region. BRITISH ISLES 165 Influence c-f the ice-sheet. The portion of the European ice-sheet (Fig. 317) which moved south westward from Scandinavia crossed the area where the North Sea now is and invaded the British Isles. In time the ice covered almost all of these islands. When later the climate became warmer, the great ice-sheet melted away, but the deposits of bowldera, the many lakes, and the glacial markings on the rocks remain as proofs that the ice was once there. Climate. There is some variation in temperature in the various parts of the British Isles because of the differences in latitude and in eleva- tion ; that is, in general it is colder in the north and on the small islands north of Scotland than it is in the south of England and Ireland, and colder in the highlands than in the lowlands. The presence of the sea, however, prevents any great extremes of temperature. No part of this land at sea level has a temperature as Fig. 322. This is a view of Loch Lomond, one of the beautiful lakes in the Scottish Highlands. To what type of mountains do these highlands be- long ? About how high are they ? Natural resources. The irregular coast line of the British Isles affords many excellent harbors. The shallow waters about the coast abound in fish, and the British fisheries are now among the richest in the world. In the British Isles there are many rivers which have been of great im- portance in the industrial growth of the islands. Large ocean vessels can go fifty miles up the Thames to London. The Clyde is also navigable, and ocean vessels pass upstream as far as Glasgow (Fig. 324). There are many smaller streams throughout the British Isles which, because the rain- fall is heavy and much of the country is hilly, furnish good water-power. In the ground men have found coal, iron, lead, copper, and tin. Coal is the most important mineral prod- uct ; and becavise of the nearness of the coal to the ports, Great Britain exports more coal than any other country. The tin has been largely worked out. The finding of iron and coal low as 32 degrees F. even during January, which is the close together {see map, j}- 171) has made possible the development of mannfacturing in England, southern Wales, and southern Scotland. Such big industries as the shipbuilding of the Clyde have developed because of the presence of coal and iron in the same locality. Excellent building stones have been found, including marble and slate. These building stones are next in importance to coal and iron. In southeastern England there is a formation of chalk which is used in making cement. There are also excellent deposits of clay in England, which have led to the manufacture of pottery. Fig. 323. A broader view of Loch Lomond shows how beautiful the scenery is in the Scottish Highlands. The lakes are surrounded by low, wooded moun- tains and dotted with islands of different shapes and sizes. On account of its beauty this region is visited every year by large numbers of tourists coldest month of the year. The warmest part is around London, and the temperature there during July is about 1 degrees F. The seas about the British Isles never freeze, and the rivers seldom freeze. When snow comes, it remains but a few days, except on the higher lands in the north. The prevailing winds are from the southwest. They bring an abundance of moisture, and fogs and mists are very common. The rainfall is heaviest on the western slopes of the higher lands. See map on page 316. Fig. 324. The Firth of Clyde, near Glasgow, is lined with wharves where at any time great ocean-going vessels may be seen loading and unloading their cargoes and taking on coal and supplies. Locate Glasgow and the Firth of Clyde on your map. Why has Glasgow become the leading port of Scotland ? 166 BRITISH ISLES Fig. 325. The men in this picture are Scotch fishermen whose home is on the northern shore of the Firth of Forth. The old man is mending one of their wicker fish-baskets Fig. 326. These fishing boats are being towed out to the'fishing banks from one of the Scottish ports on the North Sea. What different kinds of fish will be found in their catch ? Fig. 327. This is the fish market on the wharf at Aberdeen, where the fishermen bring their catch to be sold. Why has Aberdeen become an impor- tant center for the fish business ? Occupations. The lowlands invited the early inhabitants and other raw materials began to be imported. More of these islands to undertake farming. In many places the ships were built and more and more of the British people land is still under cultivation. At the present time more and more of the agricultural land is being used for manufacturing plants. Fishing was also one of the earliest occupations and has con- tinued to grow in importance as the population has increased. Large quantities of cod, herring, mackerel, and sole are brought in by the fishermen (Figs. 325, 326, 327). From the earliest days the highlands and uplands have been used for the grazing of cattle and sheep, but for a time the people sent the wool from their Fig. 328. The Manchester Ship Canal connects the city of Manchester with the mouth of the Mersey River. It is deep enough to allow large ocean vessels to reach the city, making Manchester an important port entered commercial life. In time the manufacturing industries and commerce became the chief occupations in the British Isles. Home tvork. On an outline map of the world, name and color the differ- ent parts of the British Empire. See pages 168 and 169. This will bring - out clearly the interest which the British people naturally have in all parts of the world. British commerce has been developed largely with the British colonies. See Appendix, Plate B. Cities. At the eastern base of the Pennine Mountains are Leeds and Bradford, where woolen goods are manufactured. Water- power was first used to run the flocks over to Flanders, and the busy looms of Bruges mills, but now coal is brought from the neighboring coal and Ghent manufactured most of the English wool, fields. Manchester, connected by canal with the sea, is also During the time of religious persecutions in northern Europe many skillful weavers sought safety across the Channel, and weaving soon became a very common occupation in England. Large quantities of wool are now produced in the British Isles and manufactured in the home mills. England supplies many other countries with a high grade of woolen cloth. With the great increase in population, and with the dis- covery of coal and iron, the manufacturing plants increased in number and size, and cotton Fig. 329. The landing stages at Liverpool are always busy' and are often crowded with people. Liverpool is the leading port of Great Britain for the trade with America. What are its chief exports and imports ? a manufacturing center (Fig. 328). Cotton brought here in large quantities from our Southern states and from other parts of the world is manufactured into cloth. The dampness of the air on the western side of the Pennine Range is favorable to this industry, for the cotton fiber can be made into cloth more easily if it is a little moist than if it is dry. Liverpool, the coast city nearest to this remarkable manufactur- ing district, is one of the greatest ports in the world and does a tremendous business (Fig. 329). BRITISH ISLES 167 Sheffield is famous for its iron-and-steel industry. Coal is near at hand, and when the industry first started there was a supply of ii'on. This is now largely exhausted, but iron is imported from other countries. Excellent grind- stones are made near Sheffield; they are very important in the manufacture of cutlery. Birmingham, centrally located in England, is in another manufacturing dis- trict. It has an abundance of coal, and its iron-and-steel industries occupy the time of many thousands of people. advantage, for the commerce with the countries of westr ern Europe naturally comes to this port. The river is lined for miles with docks, and yet there are not places enough for the vessels that are in this port at one time. It is commonly reported that London is the largest city in the world, but that is not true unless the population of a very large suburban district is taken into consider- ation. The population of London proper is now a little smaller than that of New York City. See Appendix. Fig. 330. This is an aeroplane drawing of London and its surroundings. The numbers show the location of the following places of interest: 1, Regent's Park ; 2, Kensington Gardens ; 3, Hyde Park; 4, Buckingham Palace ; 6, British Uuseum ; 6, National Gallery ; 7, Trafalgar Square ; London, the seat of the British government, is located at the head of the estuary of the Thames. It is one of the most interesting cities in the world (Figs. 330, 831, 833). Its location was first determined by some high ground on the banks of the Thames, where a bridge could be built across the river. Modem London has grown up around this bridge. The city is far inland and is sur- rounded by plains. Easy means of transportation has been one of the great natural advantages of its location, and it has become a railroad and manufacturing center. Its position on the eastern side of the islands is a natural ^C^ (linn xDii Cotnji^Dy 8, Charing Cross ; 9, Westminster Abbey ; 10, Houses of Parliament ; 11, St. Paul's Cathedral; 12, London Bridge; 13, Tower of London; 14, Victoria Park. At Harrow-on-the-Hill is a famous school for boys which was founded fifty years before the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Picture study. Fig. 330 shows the city of London and its sur- roundings. Study this figure carefully and answer the following questions : 1. On what river is London situated ? 2. In what direction is the river flowing ? 3. Describe the country around London. 4. Notice the large number of railroads. Why is London such an important railroad center ? 5. Find London Bridge. This is near the spot where the first settlement of London was made. 6. Find the Greenwich Observatory. What meridian of longitude passes through Greenwich? See mop on page 171. The Green- wich Olservatory was built in 1675, and all English-si>eaking people measure longitude by the number of degrees eiist or west of it. 7. Find the location of the Houses of Parliament. This is where the House of Lords and the House of Commons. meet. 168 BRITISH ISLES Fig. 331. This is the Tower Bridge in London, so named because it spans the Thames near the famous old Tower of London. Notice the way in which the parts of the bridge are raised to allow the boats to pass through. Name some of the raw materials which are brought to London by water. From what places do they come ? Aberdeen, in Scotland, is a university town. It is also an important fishing port (Fig. 327) and the center of a manufacturing district. There are important granite quarries close by. Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, is beautifully situ- ated about a picturesque crag on the margin of the Scottish lowlands, and its busy seaport, Leith, connects this region with the North Sea and the European ports (Fig. 332). It is best known for its advanced methods in banking and insurance and for its excellent medical school. A trip from Edinburgh to Glasgow takes one through the lake region of Scotland. Glasgow is located on the Clyde River, in the lowlands of Scotland, near rich coal and iron fields. It is in the midst of one of the greatest ship- building regions in the world. As a commercial cen- ter Glasgow ranks first in Scotland and second in the United Kingdom. Since the Clyde has been deep- ened Glasgow has become a great modern port, and Fig. 333. This beautiful church is Westminster Jt is also an im- Abbey in London. It was built more than seven _+ i. *■ f hundred years ago and contains many monuments PO^tant center lOr to famous men. Find its location in Fig. 330 railroad traffic. Fig. 332. Princes Street is the principal thoroughfare in Edinburgh. In the foreground of this view are the beautiful public gardens. Beyond the gardens is the tall monument erected in honor of Sir Walter Scott, the great Scottish writer. On the hill at the left is the castle which used to be the home of the Scottish kings Belfast, in northeastern Ireland, has developed a large ship-building business. There is an abundance of labor and excellent facihties for launching vessels at this port (Fig. 336). Iron, steel, and coal are easily brought by water from Great Britain. Belfast is also the center for the manufacture of the wonderful Irish linens. Flax thread is usually kept moist during the process of spin- ning and weaving, and the climate of Belfast is most favorable to this industry (Fig. 335). Much of the flax used in the manufacture of the linen is grown in north- em Ireland, but large quan- tities are imported from Belgium, Russia, and the Baltic countries. Dublin, the capital of Ire- land, is near a deep bay facing England. It is situ- ated on the east margin of the central plain of Ireland, and the produce of this region is brought by way of canals to Dublin for shipping. This city has also be- come a center for the manufacture of silk and wool. Cork, an important city on the south shore of Ireland, is the port from which are shipped the cattle and dairy products of southern Ireland. The British Empire includes (in Europe) the United Kingdom, Gibraltar, and Malta (Fig. 337) ; (in Asia) India, Cyprus, Aden, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, Feder- ated Malay States, Borneo, Hongkong, and a few other small areas of lesser importance ; (southeast of Asia) i)£ejsU)DO Tiflw Co. Fig. 334. Blarney Castle is a pictur- esque ruin near Cork in Ireland ; it is visited by large numbers of tourists BRITISH ISLES 169 Australia, Papua, New Zealand, Fiji, the Tonga Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Gilbert Islands ; (in Africa) St. Helena, Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sieri-a Leone, Gambia, Soraaliland, East Africa, Uganda, Nyasaland, Union of South Africa, Rhodesia, Bechuaualand, Egypt, Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, and other areas in Africa of lesser importance; (in America) Canada, Newfoundland and Labi-ador, British Honduras, British Guiana, Bermuda, British West Indies, and the Falkland Islands. Since the World War (1914-1918) the British people have control and direction of affairs in most of the former colonies of Germany. The British colonies have been, and continue to be, of very great value to the people living in the British Isles. They have served as countries to which British people could emigrate, and where British capital could be in- vested. Foods and large quantities of raw material are Fig. 335. The man in this picture is spreading out linen on a bleaching green near Belfast. Here the linen will grow white as it lies on the grass in the sun. Why is the Irish linen industry located in the neighborhood of Belfast ? Where do the linen manufacturers get their flax ? imported from the colonies, and manufactured goods are sent in return. A serious defeat at sea would mean dis- aster to England's industries, and possibly starvation to her people. The great merchant marine, the cables, wireless teleg- raphy, and the habit of travel have helped to hold the different parts of the empire together. Government. The British government is a limited monarchy. The king inherits his position, but his power is limited. The executive power is in the hands of a Cabinet headed by a Prime Minister. Parliament, which controls most of the affairs of the nation, consists of a House of Lords and a House of Commons. The members of the House of Lords inherit their positions, ])ut the members of the House of Commons are elected by the people. Problems and review questions. 1. What great explorers came to America from the I5ritish Isles ? 2. What countries are in- cluded in Great Britain ? 3. What is meant by the United King- dom ? 4. How wide is the strait between England and France ? Fig. 336. This is a view in one of the shipbuilding yards at Belfast. The hull of a great ocean liner has been completed and it is ready to be launched. When the signal is given, it will slide off backward into the water. After it is afloat the workmen will install the machinery and build all the upper parts of the ship 6. What natural regions extend into these islands ? 6. What is the highest mountain in Scotland ? See Fig. Sll. 7. Why should there be heavy rainfall, with many mists and fogs, in these islands? 8. Why are the changes in temperature during the year less thaa on the mainland ? 9. W^hy did manufacturing become so important in these islands ? 10. What have you seen that was manufactured in England ? in Ireland ? 11. What natural advantages has London ? Liverpool ? Sheffield? Belfast? 12. Of what value are the colonial possessions to the people living in the British Isles ? 13. What advantages are there for the colonies in belonging to the great British Empire ? 14. What city is the capital of the British Empire ? 15. About how long does it take to make the ocean voyage from New York to Liverpool ? PubiiatMn' Pboto 8«nl«e, Ibo. Fig. 337. This is the harbor at Malta. See map on page 161, H 8. Tho large ship in this picture has stopped here to take on coal. It is on its way from England to Sydney in Australia. Turn to Appendix, Plate B, and trace its route. How long does this voyage take ? What products will this ship bring back to England ? 170 NORWAY AND SWEDEN ^ -^ -3 S -^ -^ "S 5s 3 35 p .2 o ^ o a. 5 -2 — r-( »*■ (D a> ~ i S ^ I ;| 2i s a 05*sai>i < tfi ^w w m "-^ Ctf BH hZ -«U3 O O z;<^ l«S|J!3||5fl ^^■Sadiuuij^ I 172 NORWAY AND SWEDEN At Trondhjem during two of the summer months the nights are light. The sun goes below the horizon about midnight, butnotfar enough to cause absolute darkness. During two of the winter months the days are dark, for the sun is below the horizon except for a short time about noon. Natural resources. 1. Turn to the map opposite page 216 first. Where is the tundra of Scan- dinavia ? 2. Is there any other part of Scandinavia without forest ? 3. Turn to the maps on pages 171 and 201. AVhere are there iron deposits ? 4. What Fig. 339. Here is a family of Laplanders whose home is in the northern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Notice the shape of their house. Of what materials do you suppose it is made ? At the left are two reindeer. What other people who keep herds of reindeer have you studied about ? lowland area near the coast, where there are a number of settlements. The Swedish people live chiefly in the southern portion of their country. Occupations in Sweden. On the Baltic Lowland of Swe- den agriculture is carried on. The chief crops are oats, rye, barley, potatoes, and sugar beets (Fig.- 340). A small amount of wheat is raised. Much of Sweden is good pasture land, and a large part of the population is engaged in caring for the cattle and in dairying. Both of these occupations are increasing in importance. Lumbering and the manufacture of woodenware and kinds of fish are found in the shallow waters of the Baltic ? 5. Where in the vicinity of Norway are cod and herring found? 6. From a study of the two maps referred to, where should ' , • • , , • t, » n t you expect to find the best agricultural lands? 7. Where is- 'P^P^^ ^^« '^^^^ ^" importance to agriculture. A Swede water-power likely to be abundant ? 8. From a study of the ; named Lundstrom mvented friction matches, and the maps make a list of the natural resources of the Scandinavian "^ manufacture of matches has become an immense indus- Peninsula. 9. How may the beautiful scenery of Norway be made try in Sweden. Logs are imported from Finland and a valuable natural resource ? Distribution of people. In the Far North tribes of Lap- landers wander about with their herds of reindeer or live in small fishing villages. During the winter they often travel southward into the forested region, and some- times a few of them even reach Stockholm (Fig. 339). The mountainous portion of the Scandinavian Penin- sula is but thinly populated. Most of the Norwegian people live in cities or villages near or at the heads of the great fiords. In southeastern Norway there is a little Russia to supply the need of wood in the match factories, and thousands of tons of matches are exported each year. Many of the Swedish people are engaged in the herring fisheries of the Baltic Sea. Large numbers of workmen are needed at the iron mines. The iron ore is so valuable that a railroad has been built across the Kiolen Range of the Northwest High- lands to a point on the Norwegian coast where the harbor is never ice-bound. Much of this ore is shipped to England to be smelted, because of the lack of coal in Scandinavia. m m ' '^t^StSSi ^Mm^^^'T I -^ .ateV.P^^^^ """"^mm -- V, i^S^i ■'. JM M I r^5^.-)3^- ^- -J 1^.. .^5« ^^-' ^' K 5 Ee;8CoDe View Co. Fig. 340. These women are weeding a field of sugar beets in the southern part of the Baltic Lowland. What kind of soil is found here ? What other crops are raised in this region ? Fig. 341. The passenger and freight boats steam far up the Norwegian fiords, stopping here and there at the little fishing villages. Describe the life of the people in these villages Fig. 342. This Norwegian farmer has been cut- ting hay in the mountain valley above his home. The bundles of hay are fastened to a trolley and allowed to slide down to the barn NORWAY AND SWEDEN 173 Fig. 343. The city of Bergen has grown up at the head of a deep fiord which forms an excellent harbor. Locate Bergen on the map on page 171. What is its latitude ? How does its climate compare with that of the east coast of North America in the same latitude ? What are the leading exports ? Occupations in Norway. About 70 per cent of Norway is barren, and about 20 per cent is forested ; therefore the occupations of the people are chiefly connected with the sea. Life along the fiords makes the people thor- oughly familiar with the water. Everyone there knows how to use a boat, and nearly every man knows how to build one. Here shipbuilding is a very important industry. At the heads of many of the fiords there are small areas that are cultivated. Here vegetables and a little grain and hay are raised. In the small lowland area in the southeast there are good farms. High in the moun- tain valleys some hay is made, for it is very important to provide fodder for the cows (Fig. 342). Many Norwegian fishermen go each year to the Arctic Ocean to engage in seal and whale fishing, and others go to the North Sea for cod and herring or to the waters around the Lofoten Islands to fish for cod. Norway has furnished many excellent seamen, and Norwegian ships are seen in all ports of the world. The beauti- ful coasts and wonderful mountain scenery bring thousands of tovtrists to Norway, and the care of these people has become an important occupation. Cities. Nearly all the cities of the Scandinavian Peninsula are along tlie coast. Christiania. the capital of tlie kingdom of Norway, is in the most fertile part of that country, on Christiania Fiord. Bergen, the next city in size, is an important fish-curing center. Enormous quantities of fish are shipped from this port (Fig. 343). In the north Fig. 345. This is a view in a Swedish peasant's home. The beds are built into the walls like berths, and are hung with curtains. Notice the fireplace and the old grandfather's clock Fig. 344. Stockholm is an important port and shipbuilding center. This is a view of the shipping district of the city. At the left is the railroad. Along the water-front are the business buildings and warehouses. Why is the location of Stockholm less ;f ortunate for a port than that of Bergen ? are Hammerfest and Tromso. The chief interest of these cities lies in the whale and seal fisheries. Stockholm, the capital of the kingdom of Sweden, is located on Lake Malar. It is built upon islands and is sometimes called " The Venice of the North." It has wide streets, large buildings, and many bridges (Fig. 344). The palace of the king is on one of the islands. Upsala, the former capital, is a university town. Gdteborg, the chief port for exports, is connected with Stockholm by canal and rail. Its harbor is rarely frozen, while the Baltic ports are blocked with ice for three or four months each year. Norrkoping, where there are cotton, woolen, and flour mills, is the chief industrial center of Sweden. Machinery is also manufactured at Norrkoping. The port of Malmo is a busy railway center. Problems and review questions. 1. What part of Norway should you most like to visit? 2. When should you prefer to go there ? 3. What should you expect to see ? 4. Why has Norway not become a great manufacturing country ? 6. Why is Swe- den more of an agricultural country than Norway ? 6. Why has Sweden a drier climate than Norway ? 7. Why should the ports of Sweden freeze, while those of Norway re- main open throughout the winter? 8. What industries have the Swedish people devel- oped ? 9. Locate Lapland on the map on page 201. What are the chief occupations of the Laplanders ? 10. How is the rein- deer valuable to the Laplanders ? 11. Why are there no large inland cities on the Scandinavian Peninsula ? 12. What is the capital of Norway ? of Sweden ? 13. Why have so many Norwegians become seafaring people ? 14. What natural resource of great importance in manufacturing is almost lacking in Sweden? 174 DENMARK DENMARK lacking. There are also large plants where engines and The kingdom of Denmark comprises the peninsula of steel ships are built, and factories where gloves are made. Jutland and a group of islands lying at the entrance to the Baltic Sea. The islands, which are more thickly settled than the mainland of Denmark, are close to the most densely populated portions of Norway and Sweden, and the people of the three countries have many interests in common. Physical features. Denmark is a lowland country. See map on page 171. Most of the coast is sandy, and bordering the shore the waters are very shallow and there are lagoons shut in by shifting sand bars. There are, therefore, no very good harbors here. The harbor at Co- penhagen is the only one that can be entered by the largest ocean-going vessels. The sur- face of the land is a gently rolling plain dotted with marshes and ponds . Almost every- where the soils consist of glacial deposits left by the melting of the great European ice- sheets (Fig. 317). Fig. 346. This is a view of the harbor of Copenhagen. Study the location of Copenhagen on the map on page 171, and notice how near it is to Malmo in Sweden. Trains from Stockholm are ferried across the water between Malmo and Copenhagen. Why is the location of Copenhagen favorable to commercial growth ? What things have the ships in this view brought to the city ? What will they carry away ? Climate. Cold, raw, misty winds bring an abundance of moisture to Denmark, and there is sufficient rainfall for agriculture and stock-raising. Natural resources and occupations. Four fifths of Den- mark is farm land, and about one half of this is being used for pasture. Dairy-farming is the chief occupation of the people. Cooperative creameries have been estab- explains why the Danish explorer, Eric the Red, who Denmark has a large commercial fleet, and many of the people are engaged in the shipping trade. Copenhagen (trading haven), the capital and the only large city of Denmark, is located on the narrow sound which separates Denmark from Sweden. It commands the important trade route from the Baltic to the North Sea (Fig. 346). Colonial possessions. Greenland and the Faroe Islands are possessions of Denmark. The Faroe Islands supply the home country with wool and mutton, as well as with large quan- tities of fish. Greenland is an ice-capped island. The interior is a vast plateau of ice, 9000 feet high in some places. The ice is probably thousands of feet thick, and moves outward toward the shore, where in some places it breaks off and forms icebergs. It is like the great ice-sheets which were formerly on the North American continent and on northwestern Europe. About the shore of Greenland there is a fringe of old, worn-down mountains. Off the east coast there is a cold current, making the climate so severe that the east coast is not inhabited. On the west coast there is a narrow belt of green tundra country, which hshed by the farmers, and they are carried on most sys- tematically. Large quantities of butter are exported. The skim milk is used for fattening hogs, which are later sent to cooperative packing-houses. The productive land is Denmark's greatest resource, and farming will always be of first importance to the country. The fishing grounds near Denmark furnish an addi- tional food supply and a profitable occupation for a large number of men. A supply of clay, some of which is of fine quality, is the only valuable mineral resource, and it has led to the manufacture of pottery. The peat of the marshes provides some fuel, but coal is entirely discovered this land, gave it the name " Greenland." The native people are Eskimos. They fish and hunt the seal, walrus, and other fur-bearing animals. The largest settlement is Julianehaab, which has a population of 2500. Problems and review questions. 1. Describe briefly the physi- cal features of Denmark. 2. Why are there not many good har- bors ? 3. Where is the best harbor in Denmark ? 4. With what countries do the Danish people naturally trade and have many interests in common ? 5. Why should there be an abundance of moisture in Denmark ? 6. Why has dairy farming become the chief occupation of the people ? 7. What other occupations are followed ? 8. What is the capital and largest city of Denmark ? 9. What colonial possessions has Denmark ? THE NETHERLANDS 175 Fig. 347. Scattered along the shores of the fiords of Iceland are little fishing Tillages like the one in this view. Nearly all the people of these villages depend upon fishing for their living. Except for a few small vegetable gardens they do no farming, but most of them own a little live-stock ICELAND Iceland was for a long time a colonial possession of Denmark, but in 1919 the mother country granted inde- pendence to the people of this island. It is a very large mountainous island with a coast indented by fiords except on the south side. It rises to an elevation of 6400 feet, and the greater part is covered with snow or ice. In the southwest there is a very small lowland area where the few inhabitants live. There are over one hun- dred volcanoes on the island and many geysers and hot springs. The country is too cold for agriculture, but there are rich pastures where sheep, cattle, and ponies are raised. Fishing also is an occupation followed by many of the people (Fig. 347). Large quantities of down are seciu-ed from the eider duck. The capital of Iceland is Reykjavik, which is on the western side of the island. Fig. 348. This is a typical scene on the polders of the Netherlands. In the distance are the Dutch windmills. In the foreground are a few of the many cattle which feed on the grasses of these fertile meadow lands. Find out what the word "nether" means, and explain why this country is called the Netherlands THE NETHERLANDS The Kingdom of the Netherlands is also known as Holland. It is a small country, about the size of Massa- chusetts and Connecticut combined, but commercially it is ver}' important. Physical features. The low, marshy lands are the delta of the Rhine. Tidal currents coming from the north and south along the west coast meet opposite the mouth of the Rhine. The water here is therefore almost quiet, allowing the sands and silts brought by the river to settle and make a delta. Elsewhere about the shores of the North Sea the tides rush into the mouths of the rivers and then out again, clearing away the sands and silts. The Rhine has the only large delta in this part of Europe. Reclaiming the land. A large part of the Nether- lands was of little real value to man until the Dutch people constructed strong dikes and 'sea walls which keep the sea out. They drained por- tions of the wet meadow land by cutting drainage canals that car- ried the waters to lower swamps and to lagoons. A number of the meadows were in- closed with dikes, and by pumping the water out they made these meadows fit to cultivate. Little by little Holland has been made into a fertile country, three fourths of which is very productive. Thousands of windmills are still used in pumping the water from the low meadows, or polders (Fig. 348), but electric pumps are rapidly replacing the large, picturesque Dutch mills (Fig. 349). Although the reclaiming of land from the marshes and lagoons has steadily continued, more food-producing land is needed. The privations which resulted from the great World War have spurred the Dutch nation to renew their efforts to drain a large part of the Zuider Zee. The Zuider Zee is an inland body of water so nearly inclosed that it looks like a lake. Plans are now being made for work that will cover a period of thirty years and will reclaim 400,000 acres of land for farming and grazing. See map on 2)age 171. C'ourteaj of Williamo, Browa, and £uU Fig. 349. A nearer view of a Dutch windmill shows how large these mills are. Compare the size of the mill with the buildings beside it. What use is made of these windmills ? 176 THE NETHERLANDS Floods. At times the storm waves have succeeded iu breaking through the line of dunes that border the coast, and terrible floods have resulted. In many places, however, the sand dunes, where they form a sufficiently broad belt, serve as natm-al dikes. Natural resources and oc- cupations. About two fifths of Holland is pasture land, and dairy farming* has very naturally become the lead- ing occupation (Fig. 348). Butter and cheese are among the chief exports. Courtesy dI Jusepli W. Wfrttiea Fig. 350. Along the shores of the Zuider Zee are little Dutch fishing villages. The fishermen build their trim little houses along the water-front and moor their boats close by. What kinds of fish do the Dutch fishermen catch ? Why is the North Sea such an excellent fishing ground ? and chocolate have become important in the industrial life of Holland. Great mills for making woolen and cot- ton goods and for manu- facturing linen have been established. The lowlands contain ex- cellent clays, and Dutch pottery, especially delft- ware, has become famous throughout the civilized world. The loose, rich soil is excellent for raising flower bulbs, which are ex- ported in large quantities. Fishing and shipbuilding are also important occupa- Excelleut breeds of cattle are raised, and large quantities tions of the people of Holland (Figs. 350, 353). of cottonseed meal and corn are imported to feed the Colonial possessions. The Dutch early realized that cattle. In this portion of Europe the climate is always they had no great natural resources in their country, mild, and the pastures remain green throughout the year, and many of them followed the sea or became fishermen. There are no coal or iron deposits in this country,* When the overland routes through Asia Minor to the and yet, since Holland is so favorably situated in the Orient were closed on account of troubles with the Turks, midst of the densest populations of Europe, manufac- turing has become important. Windmills are used to run the machinery in many of the factories and saw- mills. Coal and iron are imported from England and the Dutch traders undertook to go around Africa to reach the lands where spices, sugar, and rice could be obtained. They followed the routes of Portuguese ex- plorers and established several colonies among the East Belgium, and raw materials are brought in large quan- Indies. See Appendix, Plate A. These islands are now the titles from the Rhine valley and from the Dutch East most valuable Dutch possessions, and four fifths of their Indies. Sugar refining and the manufacture of cocoa trade is with the mother country. See map on page 2G0. Courteaj o( WiUiams, Brown, and £arle Ctiuriesj of Joseph W. WortLea Fig. 351. This boy is a Dutch street merchant. He harnesses his faithful dog to a little cart, loads it with the baskets containing his wares, and goes through the streets selling them Fig. 352. These Dutchmen are wearing the pictur- esque native costumes which are now seen only in the small villages. In the cities the people wear clothes very much like our own Fig. 383. The boys and girls in this picture live in a Dutch fishing village. Their fathers are all fishermen. Notice their wooden shoes and tho white caps worn by the little girls BELGIUM 177 Fig. 354. Rotterdam is a city of many canals. The larger canals are deep enough to allow the passage of the heavily laden ships from the Dutch East Indies. What tropical products do these ships bring to Rotterdam ? To what countries are these products exported ? Fig. 355. Amsterdam is also a city of canals. The land on which it is situated is so low and so water-soaked that all the houses are built on piles to keep them from sinking. The canals divide the city into nearly a hun- dred islands, all connected by bridges BELGIUM The Dutch also hold a few islands in the West Indies and have a colony on the north coast of South America. Through their efforts to own other lands they now Belgium has twenty times as many people per square control an area sixty times as great as that of their mile as has the United States, and ii^ the most densely home country. populated country in Europe. With England's busy Cities. Rotterdam is the leading commercial city of mines and factories to the west, the industrial por- Holland. Some manufacturing is done there, and the tions of Germany and northern France to the east and excellence of the shipping facilities makes it one of the south, and commercial Holland to the north, Belgium is busiest ports in Europe. A great part of the foreign in the heart of industrial Europe. trade of Rotterdam consists in re-exporting the products Physical features. This country is smaller than either which come from the East Indies, such as spices, sugar, Holland or Denmark. It contains about 11,700 square coffee, and rubber. In addition to its vast overeeas commerce it is the natural. outlet for the valley of the Rhine (Fig. 354). Amsterdam, the village built on the dike of the river Amstel, was for three centuries a port of the Zuider Zee and commanded much of the commerce of the Baltic. Its harbor began to fill with sand, and dredging was found to be of no avail, so a ship canal was cut to the North Sea. The Zuider Zee lost its commercial importance, and Amsterdam became a North Sea port (Fig. 355). It is an important banking and manufactur- ing center and is particularly noted for its diamond-cutting industry. Between Rotterdam and Amsterdam is The Hague, the capital of the king- dom. Leiden has a large publishing trade. Utrecht, the chief inland town, is an important railroad junction. Fig. 356. The city ball at Brussels faces the market place. The part of the building which can be seen in this view was completed nearly fifty years before Columbus discovered America miles, which is a little less than the area of the state- of Maryland. Along the coast there is a belt of sand dunes, and offshore the waters are shallow. The lowland of Belgium is a part of the Cen- tral Plains of Europe, which widens southward into France and eastward into Germany. It is an agricultural land. The upland area in the south- east is a part of the Central High- lands. The elevations here reach to about 2000 feet, and on the hills there are pastures and forests. Climate. The climate is much like that of southern England, with cool summers and mild winters. Since the hills are on the eastern side, the effect of the moist winds from the ocean is felt throughout Belgium, and the rainfall is greater than that of Germany and the countries farther east (m the continent. 178 BELGIUM (E> Rejewae View Co. Fig. 357. The rich pasture lands of Belgium have made it possible for the people to raise the finest draft horses in the world. What other kinds of live-stock do the Belgians raise ? ) Underwood k Uoderwood Fig. 358. These men are putting bundles of flax to soak in the river Lys. This soaking process, which is called retting, separates the flax fiber from the softer parts of the stalk Fig. 359. Belgian dogs are wonderfully intelli- gent. This dog is his mistress's faithful helper, drawing her cart through the streets every day as she delivers milk to her customers Natural resources. The soils of the lowlands and the Cities. Antwerp, near the mouth of the Scheldt, is the timber and pastures of the uplands are valuable resources, great seaport of Belgium and is connected by railroads Belgium is also fortunate in having a remarkable network and canal systems with all parts of the country (Figs. of navigable streams connected by canals. The coal located near the French border is the princi- pal mineral resource. Farther east, iron and zinc have been found. The local iron supply is nearly exhausted, and iron is now imported for the modern industrial plants. There are beds of excellent sands along the seacoast, which have led to the growth of large glassworks. 361, 363). Brussels, the capital of the kingdom, located in the central part, is a city of beautiful buildings and modern streets (Figs. 356, 362). It has become the lead- ing market for the laces and gloves made in Belgium. Near the eastern margin of Belgium is the city of Li^ge. It is the chief industrial center of Belgium. The most important manufactured articles are firearms, Occupations. The farms of Belgium, although usually cutlery, glass, and many kinds of machinery. Ghent is small, are very carefully cultivated. The principal crops the center of the textile industries. Large quantities of are grains, flax, hemp, fruit, and sugar beets. Sheep- cotton and woolen goods are manufactured here, raising is a second important occupation of this country. Colonial possessions. Belgian Kongo, in central Africa, More than half of the people are engaged in farming is a state of Belgium and a very valuable possession. It or in the care of stock (Fig. 357). It is impossible, however, to produce in Belgium enough food for so large a population, and large numbers of people are engaged in commerce in order to bring the necessary food and raw materials into the country. Coal-mining and the manufactur- ing of cotton, wool, linen, iron, steel, and glass occupy the time of another very large portion of the population. Belgium produces much of the world's best linen. Some of the flax is grown at home, but much of it is imported. The waters of the Scheldt and the Lys have been found excel- lent for retting and bleaching the flax (Fig. 358), and the moist climate, due to the westerly winds, is espe- cially favorable for handling the flax in the process of spinning. Fig. 360. This is the tamous old belfry at Bruges, in Belgium. It is older, even, than the City Hall of Brussels. In the belfry are some beautiful chimes which visitors always wish to hear exports each year great quantities of gold, copper, and other minerals, as well as large supplies of crude rubber, palm nuts, palm oil, and ivory (p. 229). Problems and review questions. 1. De- scribe briefly the physical geography of Holland. 2. Tell how the Dutch have re- claimed for agriculture lands that were covered by the sea. 3. How do the people of Holland make use of the winds ? 4. Why should dairy farming be so profitable in the Netherlands ? 5. Explain how Holland has become an important manufacturing country. 6. Where are the colonial possessions of the Dutch people ? 7. What are the im- portant seaports of Holland? 8. What is the capital of Holland ? 9. Describe the physical features of Belgium. 10. Why has Belgium become an important industrial center ? What are the chief manufactures ? 11. Name the capital and the chief seaport of Belgium. MAP STUDIES 179 LUXEMBURG The duchy of Luxemburg is located in the Central Highlands of Europe and just southeast from Belgium. It is a small country of about 1700 square miles. Iron ore is abundant, and this has led naturally to mining, smelting, and some manufacturing. The hilltops are in part forested, but in the valley bottoms and on the lower, gentler slopes the lands are cultivated. Luxemburg is the capital and chief city of the duchy. i) ExcliuiTe ^ewB Ageaoj. Koebampton Fig. 361. This is a view along the wharves at Antwerp. At the right is the old castle of Antwerp, called the Steen. The mouth of the river Scheldt has been deepened to admit large ocean vessels, making Antwerp one of the chief ports of Europe. What are the exports and imports of Antwerp ? MAP STUDIES (^Use map between pages ISl and 184) 1. Prepare the following table, which shall have four col- umns: In the first column place the names of the countries entirely included within the area of this map ; in the second column, opposite the names of the countries, write the names of their chief seaports ; in the third column, opposite the names of the chief seaports, place the name of the river on which each por>-is located ; in the fourth column write the name of the capital of each of the countries. 2. What seaport serves Paris ? 3. With what countries is most of the trade of that port carried on ? 4. Judging from tlie exports from Bordeaux, what should you think are the leading occupations of the people in soutlieni France ? 6. In which country is a part of the land below sea level and not covered by water? The dotted area northeast of Amsterdam shows the land that the Dutch people are plan- ning to reclaim from the Zuider Zee. 6. Judging from the products in the Netherlands, what should you think are the chief occupations of the people in the country districts ? 7. In what portion of Germany are the coal and iron deposits ? 8. Where are the supplies of potash in Germany? 9. What seaport serves Berlin best through- out the year? 10. Describe the location of the Kiel Canal. t Soma AijeDcj, KocLampton Fig. 362. This is the Palais de Justice (Palace of Justice) in Brussels. It is a very large modern building, in contrast to the many very old buildings which the city contains. Judging from its name, what use do you think is made of this great building ? 11. What inland water route could you follow from Rotter- dam to Marseille ? 12. Describe an inland water route from Havre to Bordeaux by way of Lyon. 13. Describe the inland water route from Rotterdam to Vienna. If you went on down the Danube, what capital cities should you pass ? To what sea should you finally come ? 14. Describe an inland water route from Hamburg, through Berlin, to Warsaw. 1 5. Judging from the products of Poland, what must be the occupation of most of the people ? 16. In what part of Poland is there a supply of coal? 17. What geographic advantages has the location of Prague ? 18. What resources are found in the mountains of Austria ? 19. Judging from the chief products of Hungary, what should you think is the principal occupation of the people in that country ? 20. What advantage can you see in the loca- tion of a seaport as far inland as ocean vessels can go? 21. What seaports in Europe clearly illustrate this advantage ? 1 i • M ^ J ^w '■^^t^^^^^ ■■'■■■.^ T >ii^.- -.4 nl.v ^^r *■* ^i*!*, _- _^^iadmAi>^^^'l^ ' -m Fig. 363. The Cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp is the largest and most beautiful church in the Low Countries. It contains many beautiful paintings. Among them are the original works of some of the greatest European painters. For many years Antwerp has been the center of Belgian art 180 FRANCE Fig. 364. This is a view of part of the harbor of Dunkirk on the northern point for the manufactured goods of this district. How should you describe coast of France. Dunkirk has extensive wharves and docks and has become the surface of the land here ? Locate Dunkirk on the map on page 171. the chief importing center for the raw materials that are needed for the In what natural region is it situated ? Explain how the geographical industrial district of northern France. It is also the principal exporting location of Dunkirk has influenced its development as an industrial port FRANCE Physical features. Use map on page 161. There is no natural division between Belgium and France ; it is a purely political line. The lowland plain of Belgium con- tinues southward, widening to include the Paris Basin, and farther south widening again in the valley of the Garonne. The uplands of southeastern Belgium continue into northern France and are connected by a narrow upland belt with the Central Plateau of France. The Upland of Brittany is a hilly region. It is an old, worn-down mountain country. The Vosges Mountains in eastern France are an old, worn-down range. Farther east are the rich lowlands in the valley of the Rhine. The part of these lowlands that is west of the Rhine belongs to France. South of the valley of the Garonne are the young and rugged Pyrenees Mountains that form the boundary between France and Spain. In the south- east beyond the valley of the Rhone are the Jura and Alps. MAP STUDIES 1. Use map between pages 181 and 184. Locate the uplands of Brittany. 2. Locate the lowland of the SaSne-Rhone valley. 3. Where are the Jura Mountains of France ? 4. The boundary line between France and Italy is along the crest of what mountain range ? How high is Mt. Blanc ? In what country is it located ? 5. The boundary line between France and Spain is on the crest of what mountain range ? 6. Locate the Vosges Mountains and determine whether or not they are forested. See map opposite page 216. These mountains rise over 5000 feet above sea level, and yet they are only the stumps of mountains which were formerly lofty peaks. 7. Locate the Central Plateau of France. In this region great volcanoes broke forth many years ago and built up cones, some of which rise to elevations of 6000 feet above the sea. Floods of lava have come from these volcanoes and flowed out over the surrounding country. 8. What part of the lowland of the middle Rhine belongs to France ? 9. What river systems have been connected by canals? More than half of France is less than 600 feet in elevation. This has made the building of roads, canals, and railways relatively easy. 10. The sinking of western Europe, which also affected Eng- land and Scandinavia, caused the drowning of the mouths of the French rivers which flow into the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay. Make a list of the large estuaries along these shores. 11. What state in the United States is of about the same size as France ? Climate. The winds from the Atlantic Ocean bring moisture and also help to prevent great extremes in temperature in France. Since the higher lands are not near the coast, the effect of the winds is felt far inland. In no part of France except on the high mountain peaks is there a long period of winter frost, and only in the south, Avhicli has a Mediterranean climate, are the sum- mers very hot. The annual rainfall over most of France is about 30 inches, which is enough for agriculture. The heaviest rainfall, about 70 inches, is received in the western part of the Pyrenees. In the higher parts of the Central Plateau and in the Vosges Mountains about 60 inches of rain falls each year. Western and northern France receive rain during each month, but in the area border- ing the Mediterranean the summers are dry and the rain comes during the winter. MODERN FARMING IN THE FIELDS OF FRANCE FRANCE 181 Underwood A Undenrooil Fig. 365. This French f^lrmer and his boys have Fig. 366. This French woman of Brittany is busy harvested their wheat and brought it in from the mending one of her husband's fishing nets. What fields. One by one the bundles are put through the kinds of fish are caught in these nets ? What are threshing machine, which is turned by hand other occupations of the people of Brittany ? Fig. 367. Along the Brittany coast many acres of tidal flats are used for raising oysters. The flats are divided into square beds where the oysters are planted and grown for the Paris market Natural resources. France is a land of much variety but without great wealth in mineral resources. There are coal and iron fields in the north along the Belgian border and in Lorraine, and France owns the coal mines in the Sarre valley. See map on page 171. There is also a good supply of coal and iron in the eastern part of the Central Plateau near St. Etienne. These resources have naturally encouraged manufacturing and have given rise to important industrial centers. Water-power from the Vosges, the Jura, and the Alps is of great value in the industrial development. The soils are fertile, and the broad lowland areas have helped to make France an agricultural country. The rivers have furnished an easy and cheap means of transportation, and France's position, bordering on three important seas, affords distinct advantages for the development of foreign commerce. Home work. 1. Find out all you can about the life of the French peasants. 2. Ask some acquaintance who was a soldier ill France to tell you of the country and of his experiences with the French people. Occupations. The mining and manufacturing in north- ern France have led, to the growth of several industrial centers. In Lille, Valenciennes, St. Quentin, and Amiens woolen, cotton, and linen goods are manufactured. Dunkirk is the French outlet for this industrial district (Fig. 364). On the coast are the fishing towns of Calais and Boulogne ; these towns are also stations for the channel boats In the vicinity of the Vosges, where there is water- power and easy commimication with coal fields, the manufacture of cotton has been promote^. Lorraine is the leading cotton-manufacturing center of France. Much of the cotton is brought from the United States and carried far up the Seine and thence by canals to the manufacturing towns. 1 Some of the cities located on the larger navigable streams of the lowlands (notably Paris and Rouen) are important manufacturing centers. Raw materials and coal are easily brought to those cities. The broad, open lowlands of the Paris Basin are used for agriculture. Here it has been possible to raise a large part of the wheat needed by the French people (Fig. 365). Many other cereal crops and large quantities of sugar beets and flax are also raised here. Over half of the population of France is engaged in agriculture. Those who do the farming commonly own their farms but do not live on them. They live in small villages and each morning walk out perhaps two or three miles to work. They are a happy people, who enjoy their work in the fields and also the social side of village life. In the uplands of Brittany the soil conditions "are not very favorable to agriculture. Dairy-farming, market- gardening, and sheefhraising are commonly carried on. Along the coast fishing is the usual occupation of tho people (Figs. 8(5(), 3G7). In the highlands the quarrying of granite, for use as building stone, is of importance. The Central Plateau is far enough south so thai the lower slopes can be used for the cultivation of i^rapes, and the manufacture of wine is carried on ui re. The high tracts of poorer land are used for tlie grazing of cattle, sheep, and goats. 8° Faroe C Islands 6° 1 c 54 CENTRAL ElJR^i^^^^^if^^M^ -- ^ ' ' — =^ — ' — •■ ' Ji ' "wj^ — ^^1 *•■'' ' — ' — *— ' — ^ I -* ■' ' D Lmiuitudt 4" Weet E from 2° Greenwich Y Gold O^'Coast G toi'UitudeZ'^ £"««I H /'"'"» i° Greenwich J Settled boundaries Unsettled boundaries 12° K 14° 16° P t»«h^^"B 80° {L 82° T"''";?,'i^'24° IT 86° •iiua Ho;^'^co] iTTLf (foRNH^i^ -BiJOEN L Grelfs ■i ;-3^ubeclfc _/l R Y. Y^,E '<^=_«Jl^ I^dsbeK u*.AFgi,yK: •5^^ V'?' coo — *" S / (i !lk •N ^,— ^ p8 r ^ii- --i33»« tV- *">en Pot ft* i^i^-'inSPr ^ \> giedto BraYidenlXIr r r » »->^WSili "X^ x-^sj ^ ^ "^ Ve' inN T*c idshut_^ ^ — e^ _ ., \A. V f"fl^"^^M'^ N 52 50 i®i»sfa5^ Co..- _ ,.^ .'nth I A . \ / , ,„, (l) =K ' \ _XV'V^T^ Atad\ J^--iif^^'*J^ ^' 3t* '14'. ^^'''rt^ A V t- Versec*' tp.' \>^^^ 44 DiWusn""^ A^Y^^'^ '' A^r'Vi ■' ^. „ r'*\^^^vu-ia. T Athem* Soverelsnty to be determined by popular vote l!»!»y.V«V| Territory controlled by Leaame of Nations O Cion and Company 184 FRANCE Fig. 368. This is a thriving silk-manufacturing town southeast of Lyon. It is situated on the western edge of the highlands. The long, low buildings in the foreground are the silk mills. Why has this district become an im- portant silk-manufacturing center ? Where does the raw silk come from ? Near Limoges, on the western slope of the plateau, there are excellent clays, which have led to the manufacture of china. In the eastern part of the Central Plateau, between the Loire and the Rhone, where coal and iron have been found, there is an industrial center. The best French steel is produced in the region of St. Etienne. Large quantities of raw silk are easily brought from the Rhone valley, and silk goods and ribbons are manufac- tured here on a large scale. A little farther north, in the valley of the Loire, is a center for the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods. The lowland of the Garonne valley is another agri- cultural district where wheat and maize are raised. The grapevine flourishes in this warmer climate, and great quantities of wine are shipped from Bordeaux to various parts of the world. Southern France has the Mediterranean climate, and here, in addition to the grape- vine, the people cultivate the olive, plum, walnut, and, in some parts, orange and lemon trees. The mulberry is raised for the silkworm, and Lyon has become one of the most important centers in the world for the manufacture of silk goods (Fig. 368). Some of the silk used at Lyon is produced in the Rh8ne valley, but the home supply is not nearly enough. Great quanti- ties of raw silk are imported every year from Italy, China, and Japan. In the Alpine district the soils are poor, the fields are very limited, and the climate is not suitable for growing cereals ; but cattle, sheep, and goats are raised, and manu- facturing has been undertaken. Water-power, which the French call white coal, is abundant in this part of the Fig. 370. The wharves at Marseille are always crowded with freight. Some of the goods are imports which will be sent by train to different parts of France. Others are exports ready to be loaded on ships for various parts of the world. Name some of these goods OooHMj of Juaepb W. Wunhi-ii Fig. 369. The building with the two towers is the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. It is situated on the small island in the Seine where the first settlement of Paris was made. Find its location in Fig. 371. The construc- tion of this cathedral was begun over seven hundred years ago country and has helped the cities near the high mountains to develop into manufacturing centers of importance. Principal rivers and cities. The navigable rivers of the world have always been great highways of travel, and most of the large cities of the world have developed near those rivers. By far the greater nvmiber of the large cities of France are located on the waterways. Paris, the capital of the French republic, is a very beautiful city, with broad boulevards and numerous buildings of unusual interest (Figs. 369, 371). In its great museums are many of the world's most precious works of art. This city is located on the Seine and is in the midst of a rich agri- cultural country. It is also on the highway of travel from the Mediterranean countries northward through the valley of the Sa6ne-Rh8ne system and down the valley of the Seine. Paris is an important railroad center and is also a port for the smaller ocean- going vessels. Many different industries were established here because it was easy to bring in raw material and to distribute manufactured goods from this center. FRANCE 185 Picture study. Fig. 371. 1. On what river is Paris situated ? 2. How should you describe the country surrounding Paris ? 3. What river joins the Seine southeast of the city ? 4. What can you tell about the Marne ? 6. Notice the ring of forts which sur- rounds Paris. How many forts are there ? These forts, like the wall, were built many years ago, when it was believed that every great city should be strongly protected against attack. To-day they have no military value. 6. Find the Bois de Boulogne. " Bois " is the French word for forest. The Bois de Boulogne (Forest of Boulogne) is a beautiful wooded park. Among the Parisians it is a favorite spot for walking, driving, and horseback riding. Bordeaux is another city at the head of an estuary. In addition to being a port for the shipment of wine it is an important manufacturing center. Lyon has been referred to as a leading city in the manufacture of silk ; it is one of the important cities on the Rhone. At the mouth of this river is Marseille, one of the largest ports on the Mediterranean. It is an ancient city which has grown so rapidly of late years that its harbor facilities have been greatly increased to Fig. 371. This is an aeroplane drawing of Paris and its surroundings. The numbers indicate the location of the following places of interest: 1, Hont- martre ; 2, Arc de Triomphe ; 3, Avenue des Champs Elys^es ; 4, EiSel Tower; 6, Champ-de-Mars ; 6, Place de la Concorde; 7, Palais des Tuileries; 8, Louvre; 9, Palais du Luxembourg ; 10, Notre Dame ; 11, Jardindes Plantes; 12, Place Rouen, below Paris on the river Seine, is a center for cotton-manufacturing. The largest ocean steamers ascend the river to this point. At the mouth of the estuary is Havre, the " haven," or port, of Paris. Here there are over eight miles of quays, and a flourishing trade is carried on with the chief seaports of the world. Along the Loire, which is the longest river in France, Orleans, Tours, and Nantes are located. Nantes is at the head of the estuary of the Loire and serves as a seaport. Orleans and Tours are small manufacturing cities. On the banks of the Garonne are Toulouse and Bor- deaux. Toulouse is in the midst of good farming country. It is connected by a canal with the Mediterranean Sea. Gtan tod CompuiJ de la Bastille. The first settlement of Paris was made on the island in the Seine where the Cathedral of Notre Dame now stands. Notice the wall which surrounds the city. It was built many years ago in the days when cities were walled for safety against the attack of enemies. It is now being torn down, and in the future its site will be marked only by a boulevard accommodate the vessels which come there (Fig. 370). Grenoble, the largest city in the French Alps, is an industrial center and the market for the gloves manu- factured in many of the neighboring villages. East of Marseille, on the Mediterranean coast, is Toulon. The coast beyond there is commonly known as the Riviera; it is a region of great beauty, with a delightful winter climate. The city of Nice is a noted health resort on the Mediterranean coast (Fig. 373). At Grasse a large part of all the flowep perfumery used in the world is made. On the hillsides roses and other flowers are raised, and the perfumery is made from the oil which is pressed from the blossoms. 186 FRANCE UuderwouU ii Underwood Fig. 372. Strasbourg is the chief city of Alsace, one of the provinces lost by France in a war with Germany many years ago, and restored to France at the end of the World War in 1918. This view shows one of the public squares in Strasbourg. In what lowland is the city located ? Colonial possessions. Like most of the countries of western Europe, France has sent expeditions to various parts of the world and helped to colonize distant lands. Her possessions now include Corsica, Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco, a large part of the Sahara and the Sudan, Upper Nigeria, and the country north of the Kongo, the island of Madagascar, a part of Somaliland, the island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean, five cities in India, French Indo-China, and French Guiana. The islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon off the shore of Newfoundland, a few small islands in the West Indies, and a few in the Pacific Ocean also belong to France. Several of the colonies send representatives to the French parliament, and Algeria is treated in many ways as a part of France. The colonies furnish markets to which the manufac- tured goods from the French factories can be sent, and in return the French receive large quantities of raw material and certain tropical foods which they cannot raise in their own country. Home work. 1. On an outline map of the world, color in the colonial possessions of France. 2. Mark the chief lines of travel be- tween these colonies and the home country. See Appendix, Plate B. The Sarre Basin is a small area lying southeast of Luxemburg and northeast of France in the valley of the Sarre River. Although small in size, this area is very important because of the rich beds of coal which it contains. For many years before the World War this basin with its valuable coal mines belonged to Germany. France now owns the coal supply, but in 1934 a popular vote is to be taken to decide whether the people wish to become a part of France or to be under the political control of Germany. Until that vote is taken the gov- ernment of the Sarre Basin will be directed by a commission appointed by the League cf Nations. Problems and review questions. 1. What natural regions of Europe extend into France ? 2. What advantage is it to the coun- try to have the highlands and mountains in the east rather than in the west ? 3. In what part of France are the chief coal fields ? 4. In what part is the water-power most abundant ? 5. On what seas does France border ? 6. Why should farming be one of the chief occupations of the French people ? 7. In what parts of France are the growing of grapes and the manufacture of wine especially important ? 8. From what port is much of the wine shipped ? 9. Of what advantage to France is a Mediterranean seaport ? 10. Name five large cities in France and explain the location and growth of each. 11. Explain why so many of the larger cities are on the rivers. 12. In which continent are most of the colonial pos- sessions of France located ? 13. Of what value are they to France ? iiroHii. luiij hftrle Fig. 373. This is a view of the harbor of Nice on the Riviera coast of France. Besides being a popular health resort Nice is also a port of some importance. Here on the wharf are barrels of olive oil and wine ready to be shipped away. Many people from northern Europe go to Nice each winter to enjoy the mild cUmate and the clear blue skies, just as people from the cooler parts of the United States like to spend their winters in the warmer parts of the coun- try. Locate Nice on the map between pages 181 and 184. Can you explain the mildness of the climate in the winter months on this Riviera coast ? SWITZERLAND 187 SWITZERLAND In the high mountains east of France and south of Germany, among most beautiful surroundings, live the Swiss, a strong, brave, liberty-loving people. Their land is with- out large mineral re- sources, without broad fields for agriculture, and without any coast line; yet Switzerland has become one of the most prosperous of the small nations. Because of the wonderful moun- tain scenery afforded by the Alps, Switzer- land is probably vis- ited by more travelers from foreign lands than any other country in the world. Physical features. Fig. 374. This is a view among the high summits of the Alps, where there is snow throughout the entire year. Can you explain why the snow does not melt here in summer ? Are the Alps old, worn-down mountains or young, rugged mountains ? What other moun- tains of Europe are of the same type as the Alps ? What is the highest peak in the Alps ? At the same time that the continental ice-sheet melted away, the mountain glaciers became shorter. They left sand, gravel, and bowlders strewn on the surface where they had rested. Some of this material blocked the drainage and thus formed beautiful lakes high in the mountains (Fig. 375). A number of the rock basins which were gouged out by glaciers also contain lakes. Almost all of the soil of Switzerland is of glacial origin. Climate. Because of the altitude of Switzer- land there are heavy rains and heavy snow- falls and no very warm weather. The slopes that face to the south are much warmer than those that face to the north. The The Jura mountains extend into the northwestern part of Switzerland, and in the south- summer climate attracts many visitors who are looking east are the lofty peaks of the Alps. Between these two for a cool region, while the winter climate calls those who mountain ranges there is a narrow plateau belt where enjoy the brisk, cold air and the skating, tobogganing, there are many hills and many beautiful lakes (Fig. 375). and skiing. The Alps rise to elevations of from 10,000 to 15,000 feet Natural resources and occupations. There is not much above sea level. Among their summits snow remains agricultural land in Switzerland, but the small areas throughout the year, and little by little the snow-fields become so thick that ice forms at the bottom and moves down the valleys as glaciers (Fig. 374). These Alpine glaciers freeze about the stones and loose material be- neath them on the canyon floors, and shod with such sharp tools they deepen the canyons and gouge out great basins as they move forward. Stones and soil rattle down the mountains and come to rest on the top of the ice. When northwestern Europe was covered by a great ice-sheet, the glaciers in Switzerland were much longer than they now are. They extended through the canyons in the mountains to the plateau country northwest of the Alps and southward beyond Switzer- land to the plain of northern Italy. Fig. 375. Lake Geneva is one of the several beautiful lakes which occupy the plateau between the Alps and the Jura Mountains. This view was taken from the hill overlooking Montreuz, a city located at the eastern end of the lake that are suitable for agriculture are cultivated intensively. The steep, sunny hillsides are terraced and used for raising grapes. Many of the Swiss people have taken up dairying, and each summer they send their cattle, sheep, and goats high into the mountains in order to save the grass which grows in the valleys for hay (Fig. 376). The young boys of the family often go with the stock to these high pastures, called alps, and remain there until fall, caring for the animals and making the butter and cheese (Fig. 379). The flocks and herds are brought to the lower lands for the ^\inter, and the return to the home is accompanied by great rejoicing. It is a festival time, when friend- ships are renewed after a long period of separation. 188 SWITZERLAND Di^oalil MuLouh, Loudaa Fig. 376. This Swiss farmer is hauling home a load of hay which he has cut in one of the moun- tain valleys. The hay will be used to feed his cattle during the winter months Fig. 377. The Swiss wood-carvers are very skill- ful. This man is carving little models of animals from solid blocks of wood. Why have the Swiss developed so many home industries ? Fig. 378. Here is a Swiss peasant with his alpen- horn. Years ago these great horns were blown to sound the charge in battle, but now they are used to call the cattle from the pastures Besides the butter and cheese made from the milk of the cows and goats the Swiss people produce large quan- tities of condensed milk and manufacture milk chocolate for export. The skins of the goats and kids are used in the manufacture of gloves. Coal is not found in Switzerland, but the forests yield abundant fuel and also huge logs for timber and for or trails. Hotels and resting places have been built high among the mountains, and every arrangement is made for the comfort of the traveler. Special guides are su}> plied to those who wish to cross the glaciers or climb the high peaks. Government. The Swiss have a republican form of government, and each of the twenty Swiss cantons, building homes (Fig. 380). Most of the forests are na- which are political divisions somewhat like our states, tional reserves, controlisd by the government as the sends representatives to the national congress. Switzer- national forests in the United States are. The plentiful supply of hard wo'^ds has led many of the people to take up the art of wood-carving, for which they have ample time during the cold winter months (Fig. 377). Water-power is abundant, and Switzerland has long been famous for the manufacture of small, light articles which can be easily transported, such as jewelry, lace, toys, watches, and clocks. The water- power is now transformed into elec- tricity and used in cotton and silk mills. The Swiss have undertaken another remarkably profitable industry in which they use electricity. They have learned to take nitrogen from the air and make a fertilizer which is sold to the neighboring agricultural peoples in large quantities. This was very clever of the Swiss people, for there is plenty of air, and plenty of power, and plenty of limestone, which is used in making this fertilizer. Other people also make a fertilizer in this way. The caring for travelers gives occu- pation to many of the inhabitants. Where travel was at first very difficult the Swiss have built excellent roads Donald McLeisb, LomJon Fig. 379. Here are some of the Swiss dairy cattle grazing over an upland pasture. At what season of the year do you think this picture was taken? Why has dairying become an important Swiss industry ? land is one of the oldest republics in the world. Cities. Bern, the capital, has a picturesque location on a bluff, about the base of which flows the river Aar. Its old fortifications have been transformed into prome- nades, which command wonderful views of the snowy Alps. Zurich is the largest city and an important rail- road center, where connections are made for France, Austria, and Germany, and by way of the St. Gotthard tunnel for Italy. It is also a center for the manxifacture of cotton and silk and of textile and electrical machinery. Basel is the second largest Swiss city. Its ribbon manufacture is important. Merchan- dise from all parts of central and northern Europe is brought here for shipment over the St. Gotthard rail- way to Italy and to the Balkan States. Geneva, beautifully located at the lower end of Lake Geneva and near the point where the KhSne enters France, is an educational and indus- trial center. Jewelry and scientific in- struments are manufactured here on a large scale. Geneva has long been famous for its watches and clocks. Formerly these were made by hand, but now they are made by machinery. J GERMANY 189 Waterways. Germany is fortunate in having access to the North and Baltic seas and in having a remarkable system of inland waterways. The Rhine rises in the Alps, flows through the fertile low- land of its middle course and the beautiful gorge in the Central Highlands, and then crosses the open lowlands of western Germany. The Weser, Elbe, and Oder rise in the Central Highlands and flow northward across the lowland plain of Germany. The first two flow into the North Sea, but the Oder reaches the Baltic. Each of these three rivers has a broad estuary, or drowned mouth, which has made it possible for ocean-going vessels to go far inland. The cities of Bremen, Hamburg (Fig. 381), and Stettin, at the heads of these estuaries, while enjoying all the advantages of inland positions, are thus important seaports. There are 1500 miles of canals in Germany (see map Europe, which is here often called the Plain of North between pages 181 and 184), and with the rivers they Germany ; (2) a large portion of the Central Highlands, make a network of water routes that furnish a cheap where there are many old, worn-down mountain ranges ; means of transportation throughout the lowland country. (3) some of the rich Middle Rhine Plain ; and (4) a small From the Rhine a boat may pass by means of canals portion of the northern slope of the Alps. The coast line into the Danube. From the Elbe it is possible for a is low and sandy and offshore the waters are shallow, boat to pass to the Vistula, and then to the Black Sea. Problems and review questions. 1. What t'ouutries border Switzer- land ? 2. Name two rivers of com- mercial imi)ortance that rise in the Alps of Switzerland. 3. What dis- advantages do the Swiss people have to contend with ? 4. W^hat is the local supply of fuel in this country ? 6. Why should water-power be so abundant in this country ? 6. Why have the Swiss people engaged in manufacturing small, light articles? 7. Tell something of interest about each of the four leading cities of Switzerland. 8. How do the many visitors to Switzerland help the country ? 9. What advantages would there be in visiting this country during winter? during summer? 10. What do you suppose the children of Switzerland do for recreation? ^ Exclusife NewB Agcocj, Hoeti&mptoa Fig. 380. The streams that tumble down the mountain sides in Switzerland provide a large amount of water-power. The waterfall in this view is being used to run a small sawmill, where the logs which are cut on the mountain slopes are sawed into boards. For what other purposes is the water-power used in Switzerland ? Home tDork: 1. Head the story of William Tell. 2. Look up the names and descriptions of the great tunnels through the Alps. GERMANY Natural regions. Germany includes parts of four natu- ral regions : (1) a broad stretch of the Central Plains of Fig. 381. This is a view along one of the canals in Hamburg, the second city and chief port of Germany. Locate Hamburg on the map on page 171. How has its location led to its development as a great commercial city ? What landlocked nation of central Europe may use Hamburg as a seaport ? Fig. 382. This is Humboldt's Harbor in Berlin. This harbor is part of the extensive canal system which connects Berlin with the Oder and Elbe rivers. Locate Berlin on the map between pages 181 and 184. In what natural region is it situated ? How is its location advantageous for trade and transportation? 190 GERMANY Fig. 383. This i8 a view of the Rhine near Bonn. Notice the terraced hillsides and the location of the city on the narrow strip of low, flat land immediately bordering the river. The Rhine is a very important commercial highway, and small vessels ascend the river as far as Strasbourg. From Strasbourg the Rhone-Rhine Canal connects the Rhine with the Saone-Rhone waterway to Marseille. Trace this water route between the mouths of the Rhine and the Rhone on the map between pages 181 and 184 Internationalized waterways. In 1919, by the terms of the peace treaty that closed the World War, certain navigable rivers that could be used by several nations were internationalized, or declared open and free for the use of all nations on equal terms. This arrangement Lowland plain. This is the most exten- sive agricultural region of Germany. It is covered with glacial material left by the ice-sheet. These glacial deposits, especially in eastern Germany, are in places very sandy, but even in these light soils pota- toes, sugar beets, and rye are important crops. Germany has been the greatest pro- ducer of sugar beets in the world. Along the shores of the Baltic flax and hemp are raised. In the region bordering Denmark the lowlands of Germany are favorable to the grazing of cattle, and here dairy farming is an important occupation. In the north- east German lowlands large numbers of sheep and goats are raised. In places the sands of the lowlands are used in the manufacture of glass. Central Highlands. These highlands consist of very old rocks, which contain rich mineral deposits. It is the resources found in the ground, such as coal, iron, was made so as to give the countries in the interior of zinc, lead, copper, and potash, which have had the most Europe an easy means of shipping goods by water and profound influence upon the development of Germany engaging in foreign trade. Those people now have the during the last fifty years. The coal and iron ore are right to use these rivers just as much as if they flowed usually found together ; this fact has helped the growth entirely through their own lands. of great iron and steel manufactures. The Rhine is internationalized as far as it is navigable. As the resources were discovered and men invented and is a great highway of trade (Fig. 383). The Elbe is machinery western Germany rapidly became one of the internationalized upstream to its junction with the Mol- leading industrial districts of the world (Fig. 385). The dau River, on which Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia, manufacture of all forms of cutlery, hardware, and is located. The Oder is internationalized to the mouth of machinery was actively promoted. Textile industries the Oppa. In the south the Danube is internationalized expanded as machinery was invented, and now large as far as Ulm. The peace treaty also requires that the quantities of raw cotton, wool, and silk are brought Kiel Canal and its approaches shall be maintained free up the German rivers to the manufacturing centers. and open to vessels of all nations at peace with Germany, on equal terms (Fig. 384). At Hamburg and at Stettin free zones have been established and leased to Czecho- slovakia so that this inland state may have some of the advantages of these seaports. Climate. The rainfall throughout Germany is suffi- cient for agriculture, but there is more rain in the west- ern part than in the east. Because of their elevation the higher lands in the south have about the same tempera- ture as the lowlands in the north. North Sea ports are open all the year, but the bays and inlets of the Baltic and the estuaries of the rivers which flow into the Baltic are frozen during a part of the winter. That is because the Baltic Sea is shallower, less salty, and much more nearly inclosed by land than the North Sea. We may now consider the resources in each of the ^^2- 38*. The harbor at Kiel forms the e«.uia euuuu.c ,. lu. ...ei Canai, , 1 e r^ 1 iio!,.! which connects the Baltic and North seas. See map on page 171, J/l i. The natural regions of Germany, and see what effect they ^^^j ^3 gj^y^ne miles long and is deep enough to allow the passage of have had on the occupations of the people. good-sized ocean vessels. To what nations is it of the greatest use ? GERMANY 191 Deposits of excellent clay have been found, which is used in the manufacture of china and porcelain. Potash is also obtained in the highland region. It is used in making fertilizers, and thus has helped to promote agriculture. The forests in the region of the Central Highlands have long received scientific care. The supply of timber has led to lumbering and the manufacture of paper, woodenware, and toys. On the plateau north of the Alps many excellent cattle are raised. Farming is also a profitable occupation of the people here (Fig. 386). Fig. 385. In spite of the fact that Germany has many great industrial cities where manufacturing is carried on upon a large scale, many of the people are still engaged in home industries. The members of the family in this picture, who live on the edge of the Black Forest, earn their living by making rug-beaters from rattan The Danube, which rises in the Black Forest only a few miles from the Rhine, flows through this highland region, receiving several large tributaries from the south. At the head of navigation on the Danube is the old town of Ulm, where there is a beautiful cathedral and many buildings of historic interest. Munich is located on one of the tributaries of the Danube not far from the north base of the magnificent Alpine Range. It is in the midst of a forested region, where the lower slopes are used as pasture lands. It is an important railway center. The Rhine flows through the Central Highlands in, a picturesque gorge, ^oblenz, a very busy river port and manufacturing city, is located in this gorge at the point where the Moselle joins the Rhine (Fig. 387). Cologne is near the place where the Rhine leaves the gorge in the highlands and enters the lowland plain of Germany. Middle Rhine Plain. The Rhine receives its headwaters from the melting snows of the Alps, and turning north- ward from Basel flows into a fertile valley from 20 to 25 miles wide. To the west are the Vosges Mountains, and to the east the Black Forest. This lowland portion of the middle Rhine is a valley bordered by two great JL jki wi /fltysts^^ i ^gJj^lWWinS .i;wi^g^s.»ffl.aji- iF*i -H^^^ Fig. 386. These high-roofed houses are the homes of German farmers who raise hops in the hop district southwest of the Bohmer Wald. The lower stories are the living quarters of the families. The floors above are used for drying the hops after they have been picked and brought in from the fields cliffs. It was formed in the same way as the lowland of Scotland, that is, by the sinking of the land between the two bordering highlands. The part of this plain that is east of the river belongs to Germany, and it is the best agricultural land in the country. Cereals, hops, and tobacco are the principal crops, but almost any crop that can thrive in a temperate climate can be grown here. The winters are cold, but the summers are hot and the autumns are dry and warm. Fruit is grown, and the simny southern slopes of the hills are terraced for grapevines. Freiburg, on the eastern margin of this plain, is situ- ated at the mouth of one of the beautiful valleys of the Black Forest. It is a university town with a beau- tiful cathedral. Karlsruhe is a manufacturing center; Fig. 387. This is a view on the lower course of the Moselle River, where it flows through the region of the Central Highlands. This part of the Moselle Valley is a famous grape-growing district. In the left foreground of thi* view you can see some of the vineyards wlucb cover the hillsides 192 GERMANY Frankfort-on-the-Main is an important trading and bank- ing city on a tributary of the Rbine (Fig. 389) ; and Mainz is a river port and manufacturing city. North slope of the Alps. The Austro-German frontier extending eastward from the beautiful lake of Constance lies on the crest of the Bavarian Alps, and a small por- tion of this rugged mountain region is therefore included in Germany. The highest summit is nearly 10,000 feet above the sea. The mountain slopes are heavily forested. Several swift streams, tributary to the Danube, flow across this area (Fig. 388). Cities. In this country it will be most interesting to follow each one of the large rivers and thus associate the important cities with the main drainage lines of the country. If we start at the headwaters of the Oder and travel downstream, the first large city w^e reach is Breslau. Fig. 389. Frank£ort-on-the-Main is so called to distinguish it from another German city of the same name, Frankfort-on-the-Oder. This view shows the river Main with the buildings of the city in the distance. Locate the two cities of Frankfort on your map. What is the chief importance of each ? industries is the manufacture of the famous Dresden china. Leipzig, on a tributary of the Elbe, is a center for Not far from the margin of the highlands, it is near one printing and publishing, and Halle, a little below Leipzig, of the important coal fields, and the manufacture of cotton, woolen, and linen fabrics has been developed here. Next is Frankfort-on-the-Oder, which is a sugar- manufacturing city in the center of a great sugar-beet district. At the head of the estuary is Stettin, also a manufacturing center, where many of the largest ocean liners have been built. The Elbe rises in Czechoslovakia and flows northward is an important university town. Magdeburg is another sugar-manufacturing center. At the head of the estuary of the Elbe is Hamburg, the leading port in northern Europe (Fig. 381). Hamburg is connected by canals with ports on the Baltic Sea. The Elbe is the most impor- tant river of Germany, because it is the outlet for so much of the interior country. Near its headwaters are several of the mining regions on the northern margin through a magnificent gorge in the old mountains bor- of the Central Highlands. The products from eastern dering the Bohemian Plateau, and then passes out into Germany are brought by means of the canals from the the Plain of North Germany. Dresden is located a little valley of the Oder westward to the Elbe, downstream from the gorge. It is a beautiful city with Berlin, the capital of Germany, is located on a tribu- art galleries and public gardens. Among its various tary of the Elbe. This is a city of imposing buildings, broad streets and promenades, and beautiful gardens. Many industries have been established here, and manu- factured products can be carried by canals to the Oder and thence to Stettin or down the Elbe to Hamburg. The railroads of Germany, which are owned by the government, radiate in all directions from Berlin, and this city has become the greatest railroad center of the country (Fig. 382). Along the upper course of the Weser there are several industrial centers, but the city of greatest importance on this river is Bremen. This is another city at the head of an estuary ; it has the advantage of being within easy reach of the sea and yet in the midst of an Fig. 388, This is a modern castle in Germany, located in the beautiful mountain country on the agricultural district. It competes with north side of the Alps. It is much like the old German castles which were built at a time when Hamhnrcr and the norts on the Rhine the home of each wealthy nobleman was a strong fortress as well as a dwelling-place. There are v, j e n many of these old castles in Germany, especially in the mountainous parts of the country tor the trade 01 westem LrCrmany. ik ..^Mimsi^ 1 m _;i^=,j,T«7^^^^pp -^ ^ '■ "^^^'-Tf-*.^, - f ' "A AUSTRIA 193 On the banks of the Rhine just beyond the upland belt is Cologne, a city with the largest Gothic cathedral in Europe. It is a port to which ocean steamers come, making it one of the busiest places in western Germany. Essen is on a tributary of the Rhine which rises in the highlands and flows through coal and iron fields. Essen has become an important center of the iron and steel industry. East Prussia is separated from the rest of Germany by a narrow strip of land that belongs to Poland, but the German people have the right to ship goods across this Polish territory. Konigsberg is the capital and sear port of East Prussia. Government. Beforethe World War Lrermany was organ- ized as an empire. At the end of the war the people over- threw the imperial government and set up*a republican form of government. The people now elect their own representatives and control the affairs of the nation. Problems and review questions. 1. What natural regions extend into Germany ? 2. What is the best agricultural portion of this country ? 3. Where are most of the mineral resources ? 4. Why do the North Sea ports remain open and the Baltic ports remain frozen during the winter ? 5. Why is there more rainfall in western than in eastern Germany ? 6. In what part of this country is the grapevine commonly grown ? 7. Where are the best forests of Germany ? 8. What natural resources have led to manufacturing? 9. What are the leading manufacturing cities of Germany ? 10. What rivers in Germany have large cities near their mouths? 11. What water routes connect Berlin with the sea? 12. What rivers have been internationalized ? Why was this done ? 13. At what seaports have the people of Czechoslovakia special rights ? 14. What part of Germany is entirely separated from the rest of the country ? 15. What form of government has Germany to-day ? i ■BP*^^ WT-? — ?^ toTt !P' 1 U yfi ■T ■■■k sa t ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^■H'. J- Fig. 390. This is a view in the Austrian Alps. In tlie foreground is one of the great glaciers which wind their way down the valleys between the Alpine peaks. These glaciers move very slowly, fed by the snow in the mountains and always melting at their lower ends Fig. 391. These are the government buildings at Vienna, where the laws of the nation are made. Vienna is noted for the beauty of its buildings, streets, and parks. Locate Vienna on your map. What advantages can you see in its location ? What other national capitals are situated on the Danube River ? AUSTRIA Austria is a small country in central Europe without any seacoast. It includes a portion of the Alps and a portion of the Central Highlands northeast of the Alps (Fig. 390). On the lower slopes of the mountains there are forests, and in the valley bottoms, especially in the Central Highlands, there are fertile soils. The streams from the high mountains furnish water-power, and there are mines that supply iron, lead, copper, salt, and mercury. Lumbering, grazing, and some agriculture are carried on, and in the cities there are many industrial plants. Vienna is the capital and chief city (Fig. 391). It is beautifully located on the Danube River and is laid out witii broad avenues that are planted with trees. Just below the city the Alps and the Little Carpathians come to the banks of the river and form a narrow pass known as the Austrian Gate. The museums in Vienna have wonderfully valuable art and natural-history collections, and this city has long been one of the leading musical centers of the world. The Danube River is a natural highway of travel from east to west, and the railroad routes from north to south, connecting Berlin with the Italian and Balkan peninsulas, cross the river where Vienna is located. The crossing of these routes of travel and trade has led to the growth of Vienna as an industrial and commercial center. Problems and review questions. 1. What state in the United States is about as large as Austria ? See Appendix. 2. What natural regions extend into this country ? 3. What are the chief natural resources of Austria? 4. What navigable river may be used by the Austrian people in trading with other countries ? 5. What are the chief occupations of the i)eople ? 6. What are the reasons for' the location and growth of Vienna ? 7. Where is the Austrian Gate ? 8. Why is it so named ? 194 HUNGARY Bm ^ B| ^ ^ f£ Sii HH|p hB LJWg BSlffl S5 ^^^ ^mi !- ^^!^H ^^^ fln fa ;) £zcluBiv« News Agencj, KoehamptoD Fig. 392. Budapest, the capital of Hungary, is divided by the Danube River into two cities, Buda and Pest. This view shows one of the bridges which unite the two cities. Locate Budapest on the map between pages 181 and 184. How should you describe its location ? What advantages for trade has it ? HUNGARY Physical features. Most of this country is included in the lowland called the Plain of Hungary. This low- land and the surrounding mountains form a basinlike area within which the streams from the mountains have spread out fine materials and in this way have built up a very fertile land. Hungary is a country without a coast line, but it has free use of the Danube River. The Danube River crosses from the northwest to the southeast. Just upstream from Budapest the mountain ranges come close to the river, forming in the valley of the Danube a narrow pass which is called the Hungarian Gate. Farther downstream, where the Danube flows through the Carpathian Mountains, is another narrow place in the valley, which is known as the Iron Gate. Fig. 393. These Hungarian farmers are harvesting hay on their farm in the rich, fertile plain of the Danube. About how much rainfall does this plain receive during the year ? See map on page 216. Why is it so favorable for agriculture ? What are the chief products grown in this region ? Climate. In the mountains that surround the Plain of Hungary there is abundant rainfall, amounting in places to 80 inches a year ; but in the lowland the rainfall is un- certain, and there are often long periods of dry weather. The rain of the lowland comes chiefly in May and June, when the cereal crops, especially wheat, are getting a good start. The latter part of the summer is dry, and this is favorable to the ripening and harvesting of the wheat. Since Hungary is far from the sea, there are great changes in temperature. The summers are very warm and the winters are very cold. During July the range of temper- ature is usually between 65° F. and 70° F., and in January, *the coldest month, it is from 22° F. to 30° F. Resources and occupations. The fertile soil of the lowland of Hun- gary is its chief natural resource. For this reason agriculture has become the chief occupation of the people (Fig. 393). Corn is the principal crop of the Plain of Hungary, and large quantities of excellent wheat and tobacco are grown. Swine are raised in large numbers, and dairy-farming and the raising of poultry are also important occupations of the people. In the east and south there are extensive grasslands that have encouraged many to raise cattle and sheep. The forests about the base of the mountains have led to lumbering. Budapest is the capital of Hungary. Buda is located on the high western bank of the Danube River, and Pest is on the lowland bordering the stream on the east. The two cities are joined by bridges (Figs. 392, 394). Budapest is located at the margin of the great wheat- producing district and has naturally become the center for the shipment of grain and the manufacture of flour. Problems and review questions. 1. AYhy should farming be the chief occupation of the people of Hungary ? 2. Where did the fine alluvial soils of the Plain of Hungary come from ? 3. Why has the lowland a light rainfall ? 4. What is the chief crop of the lowland ? 5. What other products are raised in the lowland ? 6. What can you tell about Budapest ? 7. What internationalized river may be used for commerce by the people of Hungary? 8. Into what sea does it flow ? Fig. 394. This is a view on the wharves at Buda- pest. In the foreground is a Hungarian woman selling vegetables. On the river are some of the boats which carry passengers and freight up and down the Danube CZECHOSLOVAKIA 195 Fig. 395. This is one of the steel-manufacturing centers in Czechoslovakia. This country is very fortunate in possessing large supplies of coal and iron, and its importance as an industrial nation is sure to increase in the future. Locate the coal and iron areas on the map between pages 181 and 184 CZECHOSLOVAKIA This country contains about 50,000 square miles, and is therefore about the size of the state of New York. It is in central Europe and has no coast line. In the west are the mountains and plateau of Bohemia, and in the east is a portion of the Carpathian Mountains. Climate. The mountains cause variety in the climate. The temperature varies with the elevation. The distance from the sea causes considerable change in temperature from summer to winter. In the mountain areas the Fig. 396. Briinn is the second largest city in Czechoslovakia. This view shows a public square in Briinn on market day when the farmers of the surrounding agricultural country bring their products to the city to sell them. What agricultural products are grown in this part of Czechoslovakia ? ground up and used in the manufacture of glass ; wood pulp is made into paper; hides and skins are made into leather ; and in the V?dJey of the Elbe, where there is good water-power, cottoii^ woolen, and linen goods are made. Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia, is situated in the most productive part of the country. It has become one of the chief industrial and trading centers in central Europe (Fig. 397). Prague is on a tributary of the Elbe River. Czechoslovakia has free use of the Elbe, Oder, rainfall is plentiful, giving rise to many good streams and Danube rivers, and harbor privileges in Hamburg, that furnish water-power. Resources and occupations. Forests cover much of the mountain slopes, and the valley and plateau lands have fertile soils suitable for farming and grazing. The Bohe- mian district contains rich stores of coal and iron and large supplies of high-grade clays that are used in making porcelain. The Car- pathian Mountains are also rich in min- eral wealth. Iron, gold, and silver are obtained from the mines in' this range. The natural resources of this country have led to lumbering and mining in the mountains, to farming and grazing in the areas of fertile soils, and to manu- facturing in the cities. The supplies of iron and coal are used in the making of steel and in the manufacture of machinery (Fig. 395). The clays near Karlsbad have made possible the estab- lishment of a porcelain industry that is known throughout the civilized world. Some of the sandstones of Bohemia are Stettin, Trieste, and Fiume. Briinn is a second industrial city. Its location and growth are due to certain rich deposits of coal and iron that have helped it to become a leading city in the manufacture of agricultural and industrial machinery. Fig. 397. This is a view of part of the city of Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia. Prague is located on the Moldau River and is a busy industrial city. Its factories include paper mills, machine works, sugar-refining plants, and breweries. Locate Prague on the map between pages 181 and 184. Why has Bohemia developed so many manufacturing industries ? 196 POLAND Fig. 398. The free city of Danzig is located on the Baltic Sea at the mouth of the Vistula River, and is the chief commercial port of the republic of Poland. This is a view along the water front at Danzig. Locate Danzig on your map. Why is this port the natural outlet for Poland ? Pilsen, in the rich grain-growing section of Czechoslo- vakia, is famous for the beer brewed from the barley and hops which are raised chiefly for this purpose. Pilsen is also well known for the manufacture of glassware. This country is organized as a republic. Problems and review questions. 1. What are the chief natural resources of Czechoslovakia ? 2. How has each one of the natu- ral resources influenced the occupations of the people ? 3. What internationalized rivers may be used for transportation ? 4. What ports are available ? 5. Name and give the location of the capi- tal. 6. Name two other important cities and state the leading industries of each one. 7. Will this country become chiefly agricultural or manufacturing? Give reasons for your answer. POLAND This country, now organized as a republic, is located between Germany and Russia and has access to the sea through the free city of Danzig (Fig. 398). It is a low- land area included within the Central Plains of Europe. Much of the land is marshy, and there are a great many lakes. The lakes and marshes are due to the work of the PresB Ulustratin^ Service, Inc. Fig. 399. This is the city hall at Warsaw. The city is located at the head of navigation for steam vessels on the Vistula, and is also an important railroad center. Locate Warsaw on your map. How far is Warsaw from Danzig by water ? Why has Warsaw become an important commercial and industrial center ? ) Fr«8s Illustrating Senice, Inc. Fig. 400. Many years ago Poland was one of the most powerful kingdoms of Europe. The country was much larger than it is now. This building, which is still standing in Warsaw, was the palace of one of the kings who ruled Poland more than two centuries ago. How is Poland governed to-day ? continental ice-sheet that long ago invaded this region (Fig. 317). Most of the soils here are of glacial origin. The Memel, or Niemen, River, which forms a part of the northeastern boundary of Poland, has been inter- nationalized as far upstream as Grodno. This river is navigable and is an important highway for the transpor- tation of farm products. The Vistula is the largest and most important river of Poland. The rainfall is enough for agriculture, although it is less than the amount received in western Germany. Resources and occupations. The soils are the most valuable of the natural resources of Poland. Most of the people are farmers, and large crops of potatoes, rye, oats, wheat, and sugar beets are raised. Poultry-raising and dairy-farming are also important occupations. Many are engaged in raising cattle, sheep, and horses. There are excellent supplies of coal in southern Poland, and there are mines that produce iron and others \vtere lead and zinc are obtained. The mineral re- sources, especially the good supply of fuel, have led to manufacturing. Cities. Warsaw, the capital of Poland, is on the west bank of the Vistula, and in the midst of a broad, fertile plain (Figs. 399, 400). There are coal fields in the vicinity of Lodz, and both Warsaw and Lodz have become im- portant manufacturing centers. BALTIC STATES AND FINLAND 197 Krakow is the leading city in southern Poland. A few miles from this city there are great underground caves in salt. Some of the rooms are so large that they are used for dance halls. Problems and review questions. 1. In what natural region of Europe is Poland located ? 2. What is the explanation of the numerous swamps and lakes in this country ? 3. What free sea- port may be used by the people of Poland ? Is that port open all winter ? 4. What internationalized river is available ? 5. What is the chief river of Poland ? 6. What are the leading occupations of the people ? 7. Name and give the location of the capital. Fig. 401. Libau, on the Baltic Sea, is the second largest port of the Baltic States. Its harbor is free from ice in winter, which adds greatly to its usefulness. This view shows part of the harbor of Libau. What products have the Baltic States for export ? What do they need to import in return ? BALTIC STATES The small countries of Esthonia, Latvia, and Lithu- ania are on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea south of the Gulf of Finland. They are partly forested, and timber-cutting is therefore one of the chief occupations of the inhabitants. Some of the land is used for grazing, and dairy-farming is carried on. Many of the people are engaged in agriculture ; flax is one of the chief crops. Riga, the capital of Latvia, is located near the mouth of the Diina River and is the chief seaport for the Baltic States (Fig. 402). The exports of Riga are flax, timber, and dairy products. Coal is imported from England and cotton from the United States. Reval, the leading city of Esthonia, is also an important seaport. Vilna, in Lithuania, is a growing industrial center. FINLAND Finland is a hilly country, and among the hills there are thousands of lakes and marshes. It is an old, worn- down land somewhat like New England, and like New England it has been invaded by great ice-sheets. There are stony soils, and on the surface are many bowlders. The winters are long and the summers are short and hot. The rainfall is about 10 inches a year in the north and about 25 inches a year in the south. Fig. 402. This picture shows the railroad bridge across the Diina River at Riga, and in the distance the buildings of the city. Notice the log rafts under the bridge. Nearly one third of the area of Latvia is forested, and each year thousands of logs are floated down the rivers to the ports Forests cover a large part of Finland, and they have led to lumbering, to the making of paper, and to the manufacture of woodenware. Quarrying is important, and there is some mining of copper ; many of the people are engaged in fishing and a few in farming. Most of the people live in the southern part of the country, near the Gulf of Finland or on the shore of the Gulf of Bothnia (Fig. 403). Helsingfors is the capital and chief seaport. Finland is organized as a republic. Problems and review questions. Where are the small Baltic States located ? 2. What is the chief seaport of this group of countries ? Is this port open all the year ? 3. What are the chief occupations of the people in the Baltic States ? 4. Describe briefly the physical features of Finland. 5. What disadvantages must the people of this country contend with ? 6. What are the principal resources and the resulting occupations in Finland ? Fig. 403. This is one of the locks in the Saima Canal in Finland. The canal connects Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland at Viborg, making it possible for the people of the interior of the country to send their products easily and cheaply to the coast. Locate Viborg and Lake Saima on your mao 198 RUSSIA Fig. 404. This is a view of the Volga River as it winds across the level plain of Russia. The Volga freezes over in winter and becomes very shallow in summer, yet it is an important commercial highway. On the map on page 201 trace the route by water from Astrakhan to Petrograd RUSSIA Lowlands. Most of Russia is in the vast lowland that stretches from the Black Sea to the Arctic Ocean and from the Ural Mountains to the Baltic Sea. Within this great lowland there are a few hilly places, and about the margins there are several mountain ranges. See map on page 201. Mountains. The Ural Mountains and the Timan Range, in the northeast, are old and worn down. They are like the Northwest Highlands in being the stumps of mountains that once were higher. On the southern border of the lowland, between the Black and Caspian seas, is the young and magnificent range of the Caucasus. The lofty peaks of the Caucasus rise to even greater heights than the summits of the Alps, and there are longer glaciers in the Caucasus Mountains than in the Alps. Area below sea level. See map on page 201. The southeastern part of Russia, near the mouth of the Volga and about the north end of the Caspian Sea, is below sea level. It is a part of a former sea floor. The Caspian was once part of a great inland sea which included the Black and Mediterranean seas and extended northeast- ward over the lowlands of western Siberia to the Arctic Ocean. Later the lands rose and most of the waters of the inland sea drained off into the ocean basins, leaving the Caspian Sea without an outlet. Since that time the Caspian Sea has been slowly drying up. As its waters have evaporated, more and more of its sea bottom, which is below sea level, has become dry land. Lakes. The numerous lakes in the northern and western portions of Russia are due to the continental ice-sheet which formed on the Scandinavian Peninsula and spread until it covered a large part, of Russia. The deposits left by the ice have formed many basins Avhere Fig. 405. This picture was taken on the banks of the Dvina River near Archangel in the month of October. Notice the snow on the ground. The harbor of Archangel is icebound from seven to nine months in the year. Locate Archangel on the map on page 201. On what sea is it ? rain waters have collected, and in many places streams have been blocked so that lakes have been formed. Rivers and canals. Several of the larger streams of Russia are navigable and of very great value as trans- portation routes. The Volga, the longest river in Europe, flows into the Caspian Sea (Fig. 404). The Don and the Dnieper reach the Black Sea, and the Dvina flows northward to the White Sea. Since the land is low, many canals have been made, connecting different river systems, until now there are water routes from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. See map on page 201. The water- ways were developed before there were many railroads, and yet they are still very important in commerce. Coast line. Russia is unfortunate in not having more good harbors. The ports in the Far North and on the Gulf of Finland are frozen for a large part of each year (Fig. 405). By means of the long, navigable rivers and the railroads the Black Sea ports may be used, for they are open throughout the year, but it is a long, indirect route from the Black Sea to the great seaports of the leading nations of the world. Natural resources. Use map on page 201. Russia is fortunate in having large areas of most excellent soils, extensive forests, and great mineral wealth. Coal is found in several places in the lowland and in the foot- hills of the mountains. There are also rich supplies of oil. One of the leading mining districts is in the Ural Mountains, where platinum, gold, copper, and iron are obtained. All these metals are very important in modern industries. Over 90 per cent of the world's supply of platinum comes from the Ural Mountains. Petroleum is abundant around the shores of the Caspian Sea. The fur-bearing animals of the forests and the fish in the streams and seas are also valuable resources. RUSSIA 199 Climate. Russia is so far inland and extends so far but agriculture is possible. Timber is cut and flax, rye, from north to south that there are great extremes in barley, oats, and large quantities of potatoes are raised temperature and great variety in the climate. The rain- fall is greatest in the west and decreases to the east and southeast until in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea there is a large semidesert area. In the Far North the ground never thaws for more than a few inches below the surface. There are frosts for six months of the year, and all the streams and harbors are frozen over in winter. In the extreme south the climate is very warm. For several months the tempera- ture averages 70 degrees or over. This means that dur- ing the warmest part of the day the temperature will be much above 70 degrees. In the central part, and especially near the eastern boundary of Russia, the winters are cold, more like those in the northern part of the country, and the summers are warm. Here the ex- tremes in temperature during the year are the greatest. \ ' ' > lb '■ i Fig. 406. The city of Petrograd was founded more than two hundred years ago by a Russian emperor who wished to have a great Russian city on the Baltic Sea. Locate Petrograd on your map. Why is the location of Moscow more favorable for the capital of the nation ? What are the exports of Petrograd ? Home work. 1. In the best reference book available read about the peasant life in Russia. 2. Find out all you can about the present government of Russia. Occupations. The occupations of most of the Russian people are directly dependent upon the climatic condi- tions. In the tundra of the Far North, fishermen, hunters, and reindeer herders live a wandering life. On the south- em margin of the tundra belt there are low, stunted trees ; farther south is the great evergreen forest. Here timber is cut and wild animals are trapped for their furs. South of the evergreen forest, where the climate is less severe, is the forest of broad-leaved trees. Here frosts are common for from two to four months of the year. where the forest has been cleared away. The famous black-soil belt of Russia, where immense crops of wheat are raised, is south of the forested area. Fig. 407. In the foreground of this view is the Moskva River, on which Moscow is located, and in the backgroimd are some of the public buildings of the city. At the left rise the towers of the old fortress which is known as the Kremlin. Locate Moscow on your map and explain its commercial importance Here the people appreciate the advantages of labor- saving devices, and American harvesting machines have been introduced. The dry steppe country to the southeast is a grassland, where the herding of cattle and sheep is the most profit- able occupation. Near the shores of the Caspian Sea the land is so dry that very little will grow there. The mining of metals in the mountains, the discovery of coal and oil, and the cutting of timber have led to the development of manufacturing in several of the cities. The raw materials from the farms and the wool and hides that are supplied from the grazing districts have also encouraged the manufacturing industries. Cities. All the large cities of Russia are on the rivers or on the coast. Petrograd, the former capital, is built largely on piles in a swampy region at the mouth of the Neva River. It is a city with magnificent buildings (Fig. 406). Archangel, the oldest Russian port, is on the White Sea. It is at the mouth of the northern Dvina (Fig. 405). Moscow, the capital of Russia, is much more centrally located than Petrograd. It is on one of the tributaries of the Volga and in the midst of forests which have furnished an abundance of fuel and building material. The rivers have made it possible to bring to this center raw materials, such as flax and grains from the agricul- tural districts. Coal is obtained a little south of the city. L- 200 MAP STUDIES and Moscow has become a manufacturing center. Cotr ton, linen, and woolen goods are made here. This city- is also an important trading center and one from which machinery is distributed to the great farming regions of Russia (Fig. 407). Tula, a little south of Moscow, on a At the eastern end of the Caucasus Mountains, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, is Baku, in the midst of one of the greatest oil-producing regions in the world. Much of the oil is pumped through pipes up the valley of the Kur to Batum on the Black Sea, and shipped from there still smaller tributary stream in the Volga system, is in to various ports of Europe and to Egypt. Some of the the midst of a coal field, and by importing iron this city Baku oil is used as fuel on boats in the Caspian Sea. has developed industries like those in Sheffield, England. At the junction of the Oka and the Volga is Nizhnii Novgorod, a city built partly on a hill and partly on the lowland bordering the stream. It is famous for its an- nual fair, to which come merchants and traders from all parts of Europe and Asia, and some from more distant lands. Perm is located near the western base of the Ural Mountains on a tributary of the Volga and is the center of one of the great mining districts of Russia. It is on the railroad that starts from Petrograd and joins the transcontinental line across Siberia. Samara is a river port situ- ated at a very sharp bend in the Volga River, and from here another railroad, which starts at Riga and goes by way of Moscow, crosses east- ward and joins the great Siberian road. Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga, is the chief port on the Caspian Sea and the center of the sturgeon fisheries (Fig. 408). Fig. 408. These men are Caspian Sea fishermen. They have just brought ashore two large sturgeon which they have caught. The sturgeon are valu- able chiefly for their eggs, which are salted and packed in oil for export. In this form they are known as caviar, a product which finds a large market in Europe and the United States Problems and review questions. 1. Explain the great difference in temperature from north to south in Russia. 2. Explain the difference in rainfall from east to west. 3. What portion of this country has soils of glacial origin ? 4. What sources of fuel and power are there in Russia ? 5. How does the climate affect the occupations of the people in this country ? Give examples. 6. What is the occupation of most of the people in Russia ? 7. In what ways have the rivers of Russia proved to be of great value to the country ? 8. What large cities are located on rivers ? 9. In what part of Russia are there rich mineral deposits ? 10. Where are the small republics of Georgia, Azer- baijan, and Erivan ? 11. What disadvantages have the people of Russia to contend with? MAP STUDIES 1. What European coun- tries are shown on this map ? 2. What navigable river flows into the White Sea ? 3. What navigable river flows mto the Caspian Sea ? 4. Name three large navigableriversthat flow into the Black Sea. 5. What is the chief river of Poland ? 6. Describe an inland water route from the White Sea to SMALL COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE CAUCASUS The people living south of the Caucasus Mountains and north of the highlands of Armenia speak many different languages and have such different customs that they have organized three small republics. These republics are called Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Erivan. Georgia includes part of the Black Sea coast, and Azerbaijan extends to the Caspian Sea. The people of Erivan are Armenians, and it is probable that they will join the Armenian republic. Here the summers are warm and dry, but the winters are cold and rainy. To the north are the magnificent snow-covered peaks of the Caucasus that furnish an abundance of water to the streams that flow southward and then to the Black and Caspian seas. Cattle, sheep, and goats are raised on the foothills of the mountains, while cereals, cotton, and fruits are produced in large quantities on the lowlands. the Caspian Sea ; from Danzig to the capital of Ukraine. 7. What are the chief ports on the Baltic Sea? 8. Describe the water route from Odessa to Athens. 9. What cities appear to be important railroad centers? 10. From this map locate the chief forest area. Refer to the map opposite page 216 to see if you are correct. 11. Locate areas where sugar beets are raised ; where wheat is produced ; where flax is grown. 12. Where are the Russian mines that produce metals? 13. Has Ukraine a supply of oil? Where is it found? 14. Where does the oil that is shipped from Batum come from ? 15. Where are the Russian supplies of coal and iron ? 16. What is the chief food fish in the Caspian Sea ? 17. If a canal were made from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, which way would the water flow ? 18. Is New York or Constantinople farther from the equator ? 19. Is Paris or the capital of Ukraine nearer the north pole ? 20. Is London or the capital of Poland farther from the equator? 21. What port in northern Russia is in about the same latitude as the capital of Ittgland ? 8° A 10° B 15° C 20° D 25° E 80° r 86° G 40° H 46° J 60° K 55' L 60° M 66° K 70° 75° P ?■•»»• tioj. ' V«' ARC COD ■Or J ^^^L.''^^''i/i W kit * 1MB pp&Jl 1l - ^^p"^ g^sr^i^SO ^^>*^^ ^i ryteiJTa I, 1^ V>' KOI/W^'T ,\ A /^ v^-^ ^' .ot*'*' -c-'V'' t >Archsii * l'*..„T I 1 . l3V ?fti^'=f«- '-*»;#- MJf b 65 ^O ^ R Y ^Kostroma « ^ ^-'^■^?-^|vi.^if.-l -71 -7\ '^<^vno -^ S U Q Ivknovo ^ OATS ■Y:^^^r% 'J \ . „>' v^^. mope \f 9 ^'^ 56* "'<^^ -c>- ^„9un B«tumAgt.«^*\l^^:^^ '^'**- I '■ •z. Ie5tali'e*a .\etncj, K«ebaiD[>tOD Fig. 422. The men in this picture are threshing wheat in the fertile lowlands of the Tagus River. The threshing machine is in the background. Notice the nets with which the carts are fitted, to prevent the grain from falling off. What other products do the farmers of the Tagus lowlands raise ? Wheat, rice, olives, lemons, figs, and grapes are grown on the lowlands in the vicinity of the Tagus River (Fig. 422). In the hills bordering this lowland there are copper deposits. Lisbon, located on the Tagus, twelve miles above its mouth, is the industrial center of south- ern Portugal and the capital of the republic (Fig. 420). It contains iron works, woolen factories, an^ shipbuild- ing yards. Sardine factories are common in "this part of Portugal. Sardines form one of the chief sources of food, and many of the children carry them about in baskets to sell. The growth of Lisbon is due to its position on the Tagus, its nearness to the cork forests, and the impor- tance of the sardine factories. Foreign possessions. The Portuguese were once ex- plorers and visited many foreign shores. See Appendix, Plate A. To-day Portugal has small colonies in Asia and larger possessions in Africa {]>. 229) ; the Azores, Madeira, and the Cape Verde Islands, off the west coast of Africa, belong to Portugal. Problems and review questions. 1. Why does Portugal have a milder climate, with more rainfall, than Spain ? 2. How are the hillsides in Portugal used ? 3. What is cork ? . 4. Why should this country be a good region for raising grapes, lemons, figs, and olives ? 5. What are the two chief cities of Portugal ? 6. Where are the Portuguese colonial possessions ? ITALY 207 ^^H 1 i^l^^^^^l VPB HH9RH ■ill rii^ '^ "' ■I'J^H ■HI M 1 - ^ a* HIM. 1 1 \ Jl **^^3d^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l l^^l \ ^^1 ,r^ ^^HN^^^'^^^^^^H ^^^^^^.. ^^^HH Fig. 423. Lake Haggiore is one of the most beautiful sheets of water in Europe. Locate this lake on your map. To what group of mountains do the peaks in this picture belong ? Notice in the foreground the picturesque washing-cart which the Italian women push into the water in order to do their washing ITALY Physical features and climate. The chief lowland of Italy is in the valley of the Po. Here the rivers have filled in the upper end of the Adriatic Sea with fine materials from the bordering mountains and made a broad, fertile plain. The summers are warm through- out this lowland, but in the west, near Milan and Turin, the winters are cold. The presence of the sea causes mild winters in the vicinity of Venice and Padua. The rain- fall near Milan is about 40 inches a year and near Venice about 30 inches. The south slope of the Alps belongs to I taly . Here there are magnificent peaks, great, deep canyons, and many beautiful lakes (Fig. 423). The moun- tains keep off the cold winds from the north, and therefore the valleys on thi! south slope of the Alps are warmer than those on the north slope. The Alps curve southward, and at the point where they reach the Mediterranean Sea the Apennine Range begins. This range follows the coast of the Gulf of Genoa and then turns southward through the central portion of the Italian Penin- sula. Tliese mountains commonly have elevations of from 5000 to 8000 feet above the sea. They are not high enough, in the latitude where they are located, to have an extremely cold climate. Their eleva- tion is .sufficient to cause the winds Fig. 42S. This picture of Mt. Vesuvius was taken when the volcano was in eruption. The dark cloud which it sends forth is made up of steam, ashes, and bits of lava Fig. 424. The gardens of the Vatican Palace at Gome are very large and beau- tiful. This palace is the residence of the Pope and takes its name from the hill upon which it is built. In the background of this view rises the dome of St. Peter's, the great Roman church which stands close by the Pope's palace to give up moisture, and there is enough rainfall to support forests. In the southern portion of Italy the temperature seldom falls as low as the freezing point. The narrow coastal lowlands on the east and west of the Apennine Mountains never have very cold weather, and during the summer the temperature is usually 70° F. or higher. Sardinia, Sicily, and a number of smaller islands in the Mediterranean belong to Italy. Sardinia is for the most part mountainous, but there is a little lowland area in the south- western part of the island, and in the valley bottoms there are lands that can be cultivated with the help of irrigation. Sicily is an extension of the Apen- nine Range and was formerly con- nected with the mainland. In the narrow Strait of Messina, which separates the island of Sicily from the Italian Peninsula, there are great cracks in the earth where the lands often slip a little and thus cause earthquakes. Mt. Etna, which is an active vol- cano, is in Sicily, and Mt. Vesuvius, one of the most famous active volca- noes in the world, is located near the Bay of Naples (Fig. 425). The earthquakes and volcanoes which are common in this regic^n indicate that the Apennine Mountains are young and that they are still growing. 10° QueenstoWD 3 Longitude 5 Settled boundaries Unsettled boundaries •'"'J3 Sovereismty to be determined by popular vote © (iinn and Company mmi^;i 210 ITALY MAP STUDIES (C7se map between pages 207 and SIO") 1. What continents border the Mediterranean Sea ? 2. What three large European peninsulas extend into the Mediterra- nean Sea? 3. What is the Atlantic gateway into the Mediter- ranean Sea called ? 4. About how wide is that gateway ? 5. Describe an imaginary journey from the Mediterranean to the Hlack Sea. 6. How do vessels p ;„. Villa / ■9>' - '-^^t^ ' . T."0''>= or CANc^B- 2 c M-Q X 20 l^ IS »tIKITANlA NIJTSF RIe N C H GU^J[s WeU* • ,^,<^'>/» • TROPio«r.?A'?-?V-ii-\— — • y OSTFft0HES DATES *Airades Desert (IMl es^ . w »»">" <' iL- — OpiaurmanJ ..•^"Abtshf ANGLO. -''E q y Pj^A N •f^Ba.lT*^ \ 30 , 1 ^*so«oI«i 1. '^!^^^. •L»,Vtl^'"^U I M7-3 ElObc-idr- j.f"a lt^» Cciiardafui YCHELLCS la (^ (JiiiTi Biid Coiiipttriy 228 OTHER EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS Tunis is the name of a country and of a city. The city is connected by a canal with the sea. The people in this colony are chiefly Arabs, but there are many settlers who have come across the Mediterranean from the countries of southern Europe. The Europeans are the agriculturists, and they raise wheat, barley, oats, and fruits. Many of the grapes are used for making, wine. The native people do some weaving. They make carpets and are skillful in embroider- ing leather goods. There are cork factories in Tunis, and the cork forests might well be further developed. Jibuti, ivory and hides are exported. These products are brought to Jibuti by rail from Abyssinia. Madagascar. In 1896 the entire island of Madagascar was placed under French control. The popula-, tion consists of natives of France, " a few other European people, some Chinese and Malay people, and many native Africans. Agriculture is the chief occupation in Madagascar. Much rice is grown in the moist low- lands, and cattle are raised in great numbers on the uplands. Home work. 1. On your outline map of Africa, shade or color the French posses- sions. 2. Find out what different tropi- cal products are obtained from the various kinds of palm trees Fig. 466. This is a native Arab family of the Algerian Sahara. They are traveling, and all their possessions are loaded on the backs of the two little burros. Can you describe their life ? French West Africa and the Sahara. Most of French West Africa is a part of the Sahara.. On the southern margin of the desert there are grasslands where cattle are being raised. In parts of French West Africa there are modern improvements, such as good roads, railways, telephones, and telegraphs, and a telegraph line is nearly completed across the great desert from Timbuktu to and a few white people. Algeria. The Ivory Coast and Dahomey on the Gulf of Those parts that are near the equator produce coco- Guinea are also French possessions. Rubber and palm oil nuts, coffee, rubber, ivory, and palm oil. In the grass- Problems and review questions. 1. Name the French possessions in Africa. 2. How do the French improve conditions in their colonies ? 3. "Why are large portions of the French colonies unattractive to white people ? 4. What products are shipped from the P'rench colonies ? 5. What colony has a good supply of cork that should be developed? OTHER EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS Former German Possessions. Togo, Kamerun, Southwest Africa Protectorate, and Tanganyika Territory. These colonies are inhabited by millions of native negroes are the chief products. French Equatorial Africa. The name " French Kongo" was formerly given to this country. It is so near the equator that the climate is exceedingly hot and damp.. It is estimated that there are 9,000,000 negroes in this colony, and many of the tribes are only half civi- lized. The southern portion is densely forested, and to the north, on the margin ', bR ^^^^^^^^^^^^^■^^^Hl^ZjtS ^^ ^ j^ 3'l^^^^^^^Hl^T rill w 1 1 -^ *'"^"^"""^* . ^ssi^s^. of the forest, is Fig. 467. The people who live in the green oases along the northern edge of the Sahara Desert raise the finest dates in the world. In this view they are packing the dates in boxes for shipment. Can you explain the presence of these oasis gardens in the midst of the dry, sandy desert ? grassland, or savanna. Somaliland. On the east coast of Africa, bordering At the present time officers from the French or British the Strait of Bal>el-Mandeb, is French Somaliland. colonies in Africa are administering affairs in these Some coffee is raised here, and from its only port, areas which were former German possessions. land belts north and south of the great tropical forests, sheep, cattle, and goats are raised. Many beauti- ful diamonds have been obtained from the sands of the west coast, and the miners believe they have located the old vol- cano where these dia- monds were formed. These colonies have been but little devel- oped. There are only a few miles of railway, and the telegraph and telephone are just be- ginning to be used. INDEPENDENT COUNTRIES 229 Portuguese Possessions. Angola. Because of its location on the plateau, from 3000 to 4000 feet above sea level, Angola has a pleasant climate. It is the largest of the Portuguese colonial possessions, and contains rich plantations of rubber trees, coco palms, and coffee. The trade is largely with Portugal, and in exchange for their native products the inhabitants import textiles. There are several hundred miles of railroads here, and tele- graphs and tele])hones are also in use. Mozambique (Portuguese East Africa). About half of Mozambique is a low coastal plain, and the southeast trades coming to this region bring an abundance of moisture. Sugar and coconuts are raised, and in the moun- tains gold and coal are mined. The trade is chiefly with Europe and India. The Portuguese also hold Portu- guese Guinea, the Madeira and Cape Verde Islands, and several other small islands near Africa. Review questions. 1. Name the Poitu- guese colonies. 2. What one is most suit- able for white people ? 3. What products do the A!igola colonists send to Portugal ? 4. What are the chief imports of Angola ? It.\lian Possessions. Libia. Much of the interior of this land is a desert, and so the population is confined chiefly to the coastal region. Olives, lemons, and fruits are raised, and esparto grass is grown. Esparto grass is used to make ropes, baskets, shoes, paper, and cloth. Caravan routes from the Sudan lead to Tripoli. Large quantities of ostrich feathers from the Sudan, and dates from the desert oases, are brought to Tripoli for shipment. Eritrea and Somaliland are both populated chiefly by negroes, who make their living by agriculture or the care of stock. Review questions. 1. Where are the Italian colonies in Africa ? 1'. Wliat jjnxlucts are sliipjjed from these colonies? 3. What is 'liH chief Italian seajwrt in northern Africa? 4. What products ;ich Tripoli from the Sudan ? Belgian Possession. Belgian Kongo. This is the land of the jungles and dense tropical forests described on page 221. There are at least 7,000,000 natives and about 5000 Europeans in this colony. Ships can go 100 miles from the coast up the Kongo River. At this ix)int is the little village of Matadi. For the next 200 miles there are rapids, and a railroad has been built along the side of the river. At the upstream end of the belt of rapids is Leopoldville, and from there 1^^ Lutleniouit A CDdfroutMl Fig. 468. This engine is used on the railroad which crosses the equator near Stanley Falls in Belgian Kongo. What kind of fuel is burned in this engine ? Why has the railroad been built in this particular place ? See map on page 227 for 1600 miles the Kongo River is navigable. This brings the traveler to Stanley Falls, named in honor of the great English explorer. Study the map on page 227 for products. Spanish Possessions. Just south of the Strait of Gibraltar is a small area which was once a part of Morocco, but which has been left by treaty to the con- trol of the Spanish people. A little farther south, on the west coast, is Rio de Oro. This is a land with some rich soils. It consists chiefly of a coastal plain, but the rainfall is not sufficient to make it a good agricultural country. The Canary Islands belong to Spain, and the governor of the islands has charge of the colony on the mainland. East of the Gulf of Guinea there is a small country known as Rio Muni. This and a number of little islands in the Gulf of Guinea are under Spanish rule. Review questions. 1. Where is the Bel- gian colony in Africa ? 2. What people live there ? 3. What are the products of the tropical forest ? 4. How far may boats go up the Kongo ? 6. Where are the chief Spanish possessions in or near Africa ? INDEPENDENT COUNTRIES Liberia. The Republic of Liberia was established in 1847 by people in the United States as a land for freed American slaves. The constitution and form of government are modeled after those of the United States of America, and the flag of Liberia is quite similar to ours. The flag has red and white stripes, and in the blue field where we now have forty-eight stars Liberia has one large star. The people of Liberia all belong to the black race. Part of the country is populated by the free, or American, Liberians and the remainder by the original native tribes. The natural resources of this little republic are almost wholly undeveloi^'d. Coffee, cactvo, and cotton are pro- duced in small quantities. Gold, iron, tin, and copper have been mined a little. There are no railroads in Liberia, and with the exception of ox-carts there is no means of tmnsportation. Monrovia is the capital and chief seaport. Abyssinia is the other independent country in Africa. It is organized as an empire. Most of the people are farmers or are engaged in raising cattle, sheep, or goats. The chief exports are hides, coffee, and ivory. Cotton goods form the chief import. Jibuti, in French Somali- land, serves as the port for Abyssinia. 230 COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES I 1 Under 10 inche3 ^Wropjcof Sa 10 to 20 ■• Y''''"'"' ^H 40 to 80 " H[| Over 80 yy Coast Winds in '^^ ^ Northern Sununec ,''*'' Coast Winds in O O f 30 Northern Winter 5' Longitude 2o'''^Ea»t from 36' Greenwich 5o'' \ 1 Under 2 persons per Bq.[nlle r~n 2to2S m2Stol26 ■■l25to2S0 " |H|Over2S0 io:_ r^rl^°r„1kp*'^rt Eliz.l/eth C.of Good Hope^AguHjj 7 S° Longitude 20" East from 35° Greenwich 50' Average annual rainfall in Africa 10 tiuui tad Compaaj Distribution of people in Africa © UiDn uid t'cmpaaj COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES I. From a study of the three maps before you, describe the country through" which the equator passes in Africa. 2. De- scribe the geographic features of the Sahara. Are there any mountains in tills desert ? Are there any permanent streams ? If so, how can that be explained ? What is meant by " wet- weather" streams? How can there be wet-weather streams in a desert? 3. Where do people live in this desert ? 4. What is meant by an oasis ? 5. How can an oasis be explained ? 6. Can you locate any oases on the population map ? 7. How are routes of travel laid out across the desert? 8. How do the Atlas Mountains influence the amount of rain that falls on the northwestern coast of Africa? 9. How much is the rainfall there ? 10. How does the amount of rain on the north coast of Africa affect the distribution of popula- tion in that part of the continent ? II. Notice that there is very little continental shelf about Africa. This means that the great continent of Africa is almost all above water. North America and Europe are in part under the water and have wide continental shelves. 12. The number of square miles in each of the continents is shown in the Appendix. Which continent is larger than Africa? Which continents are smaller than Africa? See maiy on page 275. 13. Name four large rivers in Africa and, from a stud)- of these maps, describe the country through which each flows. 14. What is the most striking difference between the coast line of Africa and that of Europe? What disadvantages are there in a coast line like that of Africa ? 15. How do the mountains of Madagascar affect the distribution of rainfall on that island? 16. What winds bring the rain to Madagascar? 17. What is the annual rainfall in the region where the great African lakes are located ? 18. Explain the location of the tropical forests. 19. What is the annual rainfall in these forests ? 20. What products should you expect to find in the great tropical forests? 21. What are the best routes of travel iir those forests ? 22. What is the annual rainfall in the grasslands north and south of the tropical forests ? 23. P^rom these maps what should you think the chief occupations of people m these belts must be ? 24. Why has the coastal region north of the Gulf of Guinea a tropical forest ? 25. Explain the presence of forests in the Abyssinian High- lands. 26. What great valley in South America has a tropical forest like that in the Kongo Basin ? 27. Why is there so little rainfall in southwestern Africa and on the west coast of South Africa ? 28. In what parts of Africa do most of the people live ? 29. How in general is the distribution of population in Africa related to the distribution of rainfall? 30. How can you explain the dense population in the valley of the Nile ? 31. What winds come to the southeastern coasts ? 32. What portions of Africa will prove most attractive to permanent white settlers? Why? Q Qinn aod Company Fig. 469. This is a view in the Himalayas, the highest mountains in the world. Notice the steep slopes and the sharp, snow-covered peaks. In the center and foreground of this view is a great glacier which is winding its way down the valley between the high mountain slopes. The black bands in the glacial ice are composed of rock material which the ice has ground ofi the mountain sides and is carrying along with it. Locate the Himalayas on your map. Are they young and rugged mountains or old and worn- down mountains ? Why are their summits always covered with snow ? ASIA Asia is the largest of the continents. It is a land of there is not sufficient rainfall to support forests, but just very ancient civilizations ; Mesopotamia and the plains about enough for grasses ; this has led very naturally of India and China were inhabited by civilized races long to the grazing of cattle and sheep as one of the chief before the beginning of the great migrations of white occupations of the people. Dry farming and irrigation people from Asial into Europe. In southwestern Asia, around the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, there were highly civilized nations of white people fi-ora three to four thousand years be- fore the birth of Christ. Palestine, Syria, and most of the places referred to in the Bible are in this part of the continent. To-day more than half the people of the world live in Asia. The lowlands of China, Manchuria, and India are all densely populated. In the eastern part of China, in an area less than half the size of the United States, are practiced. The Lowland of Turan is the southward extension of the Siberian Plains. It is a desert and semidesert region between the Caspian Sea and the lofty mountains of the Pamir. Here many of the people wander about with their cattle and sheep. Some of them make beau- tiful rugs and carpets, which they carry to the bazaars in the large cities and sell. Near the rivers the lands are irrigated, and many different crops are raised. The East Siberian Uplands are from 1000 to 2000 feet above sea level. This is an old land with rich soils and a there are nearly 300,000,000 people ; in the valley of the dense forest, called by the Russians the taiga. The climate Ganges and on the coastal lowlands of India there are is so severe in winter that few people live here. Many about 300,000,000. wild animals with heavy fur coats inhabit the forest India, China, and Japan have recently adopted many and are sought by hunters, of the ways of European or Western civilization. Rail- The central mountains of Asia are a continuation east- roads are being built, mines are being opened, modern ward of the high mountains of southern Europe. Most buildings are being erected, and new governments are of the ranges are young and rugged. They include the being established. The industries of these countries are developing rapidly, and the United States, as well as the nations of Europe, is interested in establishing and maintaining commercial relations with these countries. Natural Regions The Siberian Plains are a continuation eastward of the wonderful farm lands of European Russia. See map on page 2S2. Tliese Asiatic lands have rich soils, but here the climate is rather dry. In much of this area highest mountains in the world (Fig. 409). Far to the northeast the ranges are lower. They are old and have been worn down much like the Ural Mountains and the Appalachian and Brazilian highlands. The Great Khingan Mountains, just west of the plains of China and Manchuria, are chiefly of volcanic origin. The East China Highlands are old, worn-down mountains rising only from 2000 to 4000 feet above sea level. Many of their slopes are forested, and in the valleys of that portion of China there is a dense population. 281 2 ^--^^vJ. {_ JO gmnow° y JO smno w »-< MAP STUDIES 233 * S^ 234 CLIMATE Climate Because Asia extends so far from north to south, because it is so very large, and because it has such high mountains, there is great variety in the climate. The tip end of the Malay Peninsula is very near the equator, and at the extreme north the lands are within the arctic circle. When these cold winter winds leave the central part of the continent and blow eastward over the plains of Manch\iria and China, the temperature falls in those countries. This is the reason why such places as Peking have very cold weather during the winter. Rainfall. Use the map on page 256. The inflowing monsoon winds of the summer season bring most of the Temperature. The southern part of the continent has rain to Asia. When they reach the coast they begin to warm weather throughout the year. In the interior rise ; the air and the moisture in the air become colder, the changes in temperature from winter to summer are clouds form, and soon the rain begins to fall. The greater than they are in any other place in the world, lowlands bordering the coast are thus well watered, and In the Siberian Uplands the tem- perature often falls to 70° F. below zero in winter and rises to 80° above zero in summer. Most of the land north of the Himalaya Mountains has a temperature below 32° F. in January. Only those lands to the south and east, near the coasts, are free from frosts during the coldest months of the year. When summer comes, all but the high regions and the lands far to the north are warm. The Iran and Arabian plateaus are the hottest portions of Asia, because, in addition to being in the south, their climates are very dry. If there were more moisture, more of the sun's heat would be used up in evaporating the moisture, and the temperature would not be so high. Monsoons. There is a remarkable seasonal change in the winds about Asia, which can be very clearly un- derstood. In summer the great land mass becomes very warm, and the warm air over it expands and begins to rise. The colder air over the oceans to the north, east, and south is heavier, and therefore it settles and flows in over Asia. The colder inflowing air forces itself under the warmer air and helps to make the warm air rise. The inflowing winds coming from the oceans bring the rains which fall on the mountain slopes. During the winter the land becomes very cold. The air over the land becomes even colder than that over the oceans, so the movements of the air are reversed. See map on page 256. The cold, heavier air over the land area settles and flows outward or seaward. Such winds, coming from the interior of the continent, cannot have much moisture. Winds that blow toward the land in summer and from the land in winter are called continental monsoons, and these winds have a great influence over the living con- ditions in Asia. UndetwooU 4 Underwood Fig. 471. The bare, rocky peninsula of Sinai is one of the driest parts of western Asia. This view shows the monastery of the Mount Sinai Monks. Can you explain the climate here ? as the air continues to flow inland the seaward slopes of the mountain ranges receive an abundance of rain and snow. The heavy rains on the mountain slopes explain the large rivers which make it possible, where it is neces- sary, to irrigate the rich soils of the lowland plains and thus raise food for the millions of people who live there. Just over the tops of the moun- tains, in the interior of Asia, are the desert regions. When the monsoon winds descend the leeward sides of the mountains and cross the plateaus of Tibet, East Turkestan, or Mongolia, they have little moisture, and there- fore those lands are arid. Iran and Arabia do not get strong monsoon winds from the ocean. They are exceedingly dry. Western Turkestan is a semidesert, because moisture-bearing winds can- not reach it. The tundra portion of Asia has little rain or snow, because the air in very high latitudes is always cold and cannot have much moisture. While the deserts of Asia are among the driest places known, no other place in the world receives so much rain as the southern slopes of the Himalaya Mountains. Equatorial rainy belt. All the way around the world, near the equator, there is an equatorial rainy belt. Dur- ing the year the rainy belt moves northward and south- ward, following the vertical rays of the sun. It goes north during the northern summer and south during the southern summer. In its belt the air rises and carries with it moisture that commonly forms clouds and then falls as rain. This is the belt where rain usually falls every afternoon. Ceylon, a part of the Malay Peninsula, and many of the East Indian islands have two rainy seasons, because the equatorial rainy belt passes over them twice each year. COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN ASIA 235 Problems and review questions. 1. Why should there be such very different climates in the different parts of Asia ? 2. What parts of Asia are the hottest ? 3. Where is there the greatest dif- ference between the summer and winter temperatures ? 4. What are the monsoons ? Explain them. 5. In what part of Asia is the rainfall heaviest ? 6. What dis- advantages are there in having a very heavy rainfall ? 7. Why are the high plateaus of Asia dry ? 8. Explain the coming of two rainy seasons in one place in a year. COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN ASIA One of the most interesting parts of Asia is the por- tion between India and the iEgean Sea. It includes much rugged, inaccessible mountain country, the two extensive desert plateaus of Iran and Arabia, the semi- desert plateau of Anatolia, and the rich lowland area of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. Three or four thousand years before Christ several great nations flom-ished in this part of Asia. They were composed almost entirely of people of the white race, and their civilizations have contributed a great deal to the nations which later grew up about the Mediterra- nean shores. In this part of the world the Jewish nation passed through its eventful history (Fig. 473). In the thirteenth century Mongolian invaders from the northeast, of whom the Ottoman Turks are the present representatives, swept over these lands and almost oblit- erated the civilizations which they found. They adopted the worship of Mohammed, which had originated in Arabia, and during their rule Mohammedanism became the accepted religion in most of southwestern Asia. Since the Mongol invasion the Jews have had no coun- try of their own, and the Armenians, who have held to the Christian re- ligion, have been crowded into a mountain region and subjected to cruel persecution. The countries of western Asia made very little progress under the weak govern- ment of Turkey. Great irrigation works were aban- doned, few rail- roads were built, ^ i«i„.««i . Li»i.™.«i and many of the Fig. 472. The wharves at Smyrna are crowded inhabitants emi- with camels loaded down with figs and grain for i A t t-V, export. Where will these products be sent ? What g^^tCQ tO Otner things do the foreign ships bring to Smyrna ? COUntneS. Fig. 473. Jerusalem, the center of the Jewish nation in Biblical times, is now a typical oriental city of flat-roofed, whitewashed houses, with a mixed population of Jews and Mohammedans. At the left in this view is the dome of the Mohammedan Mosque of Omar, and in the distance is the Mount of Olives Under Turkish administration little was done to in- troduce modern methods in agricultural or industrial life. During the World War Turkey was overcome by the forces of the Alhes, and several distinct and independent nations have been established here. Turkey retains control of the western part of the pen- insula between the Black and Mediterranean seas. Most of this country is very rugged. Along the coasts there are a few narrow lowland belts, and here the summers are hot and the winters warm. On the higher lands of the interior, where the Plateau of Anatolia is located, the winters are cold, but the summers are hot and drv. Some portions of the plateau are dotted with tall cypresses and umbrella pines, but most of this region is treeless. Where streams come from the mountains, irrigation is practiced and agriculture is carried on, but in most primitive ways. The soils are rich, and the chief products are tobacco, cereals, cotton, figs, and many varieties of fruit. The cotton industry is increas- ing. The climate is favorable to mulberry trees, and many people raise silkworms. Sheep and cattle are raised among the mountains. The Angora goats which live on the plateau supply the hair for mohair cloth. Many beautiful shawls and rugs are woven in Anatolia. On the coastal lowlands large quan- tities of figs and other Mediterranean fruits are raised. Smyrna is the chief ceaport (Fig. 472). The narrow straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles were under the control of Turkey before the World War. They are now governed in such a way as to provide for the free passage of the ships of all nations. 236 COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN ASIA Armenia. This part of Asia is characterized by gloomy mountains and fertile valleys. It is very hot in summer and extremely cold in winter. Fully two million people live in this country. Their chief occupations are the care of sheep and goats, the cultivation of grapes, and the raising of maize, cot- ton, and tobacco. It is not a country of great possibili- ties, but with a strong and just government the people may live happily in the val- leys between the mountain ranges. Most of the inhabitants are Armenians, but there are also many Turks living here, and Kurdish shepherds make their homes in some of the mountain ranges. There are few roads, and therefore travel is not easy, and it is difficult to main- tain a good government. Erzerum is the leading city of Armenia. Syria and Palestine . Syria is a tableland bordering the Mediterranean Sea and slop- ing gently eastward into the Syrian Desert. The south- ern portion of this table- land is called Palestine or the Holy Land (Fig. 47i). Near the coast the people raise olives, oranges, lemons, and grapes. They also pro- duce large quantities of silk, most of which is sent to France. Farther inland there is some agriculture, but the farming methods are very old-fashioned. Large numbers of the people in these lands are shepherds. Most of the people in Syria are Arabians, and in Palestine the inhabitants are Arabians and Jews. Mesopotamia, or the land between the rivers, was once the "Garden of the World." It was the site of the rich and powerful Babylonian Empire, but for hundreds of years this fertile land was almost abandoned. Ruins now mark the sites of the ancient cities of Nineveh and Babylon. PALESTINE Scale of miles 10 20 30 © flinn and Company Fig. 474. Relief drawing of Palestine. Locate the great trough in Palestine. What river and what seas are in this trough ? Compare the elevation of the surface of the Dead Sea with that of the Mediterranean. Describe the location of Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Damascus. What are the chief occupations of the people on the western plains ? on the heights of Judea ? Bagdad, familiar to us in the Arabian Nights, lies on both sides of the Tigris River, which is crossed by a bridge of boats. It has a population of about 200,000. This country has need of a strong government and men with capital and energy to construct and maintain irri- gation works. The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates could reclaim the lands of Mesopotamia, and a large population could be sup- ported here. Great Britain now administers the affairs of this country. MAP STUDIES 1. Make a list of the coun- tries that border on tlie east- ern end of the Mediterranean Sea ; on the Black Sea ; on the Caspian Sea ; on the Persian Gulf; on the Red Sea. 2. Why are there so few navigable rivers in this part of the world ? 3. Where do the larger riv- ers shown on this map get their water? Give at least two examples. 4. What be- comes of some of the rivers that flow from the mountains into the deserts ? 5. Judging from the loca- tion of the cities, do most of the people live near the coast or inland ? How should you explain the distribution of set- tlements ? 6. Why are there so few railroads in this part of the world ? 7. How do people travel in these lands where there are no railroads and no navigable rivers? 8. How should you explain the location of settle- ments at the base of moun- tain ranges ? 9. Judging from the products and natural resources, what should you think are the chief occupations of the people in these countries ? 10. What products from these countries reach the I'nited States? 11. Should you expect manufacturing to become a leading industry in these countries? Why? 12. Locate the Holy Land on this map. Home work. 1. Locate on an outline map Smyrna, Damascus, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Mount Ararat, Bagdad, the Dead Sea, tlie river Jordan, the Suez Canal, and the Bosporus. A ts" B SO'tPetroirad C 36° D 40° . Archangel E 45 Long. T East 60 from 6 Green 66 wick H TsaritF" 'ifi^'..-. «6° K «tJjL,, 7a.„, WsBl AC i? -A > is \ Deir 30 ^^^ r. .^ort Said > J"f;!,*'-"s#irm Kfey 5 m ''*' %k.,y^^ '^'^ ^ 11 A M M A R \ ! \ \ • 'fuua . ^ Hail" ^ I STURGEON Hamadan^- imanshah . 'V, \ .Kaahan ^ •< Ispahan^ Chusht^ ^'^ S iJl F P o r-Afc-coSX-^""**, ' - S ^ E E P DAtES^'U .^4^^ (^^. s |„ , E K 25 ^__ ^'^'".*>^K,„^j^ K,Aiat\ LSt ^JCoweit I .BushireSi C A M E LSI ^i^oweit I ' .Bushire V Bereide • . "" , HORSES .Anuyzah Sliakia. E. D •''' 4Iof a C A ME L Sufeineh' I"'' Cataract U ■,C. Elba ,>J r V , * Er Riad El Hauta* BAHREIN tS ^1 J?h A^ *«* nfifTiaCe>ic/ 1 / •.^^"'^^XiNiri liut^. i 'V^«d iS-ort Sudan I- V ^ n 10 OmJurman -,\Suakin -^ I \\(^,? 'l * I Kunfuda I I . Gb Selail ,ih\ . ,. ^ 7f spi I THE NEAR EAST^ToJS^h^'"* ""<> ECONOMIC AND COMMCItl lAL MAP ^^ V^is- ^'^'^F Scale of (tatuta miles fto too aoQ ^, aoo Scale of kiU ftO too 900 900 J Oil li II II Dear rl ot A h k a f Shuj.-m, pB^ Wrttk BaM KHORVA MOBYA IS * Capital cities DAI ti • Chief aeaporti Principal railroads . — i— ' .' Navisrable rivers 1 Uplands > ^O ^^^ ^» « — .V. _,..., land plateaus ^'■'■'/,y/,^^ Land below sea level I I Lowlands "ICld. worn-dow -J mountains "TTo »Lourcnco/, ^^ Marq uea v Yountr, rugged mountains .hi. ,«.. iJ Zanzibar • 40 /. .FarUk A^RA^i ^^ S\E A SOKOTBA I. > (Br.) *• T iNDlX^ oci:A K /rem 46 Greenwich F Tananarivo 60" N IS IS" s«" H Mauritius 60 Settled boundaries Unsettled boundaries ^^ Sovcreisnty to be determined by popular vote G Qinn And Company 238 COUNTRIES OF SOUTHWESTERN ASIA Fig. 475. This is a street scene in Yanbo, one of the coast towns of Hejaz. Of what materials are the buildings made ? Why are they not built of wood ? Notice the camels in the background. Of what use are the camels to the Arabians ? What other animals do they raise ? Problems and review questions. 1. For what reasons are the lands in western Asia especially interesting ? 2. What are the chief occupations of the people ? 3. Why is this a good region for raising silkworms ? 4. Why are there no large cities ? 5. Why is there little manufacturing ? 6. What are the chief disadvantages of these lands? 7. What do these countries most need to attract more settlers ? 8. Describe the great, deep valley of the Holy Land. 9. What religions were founded in this part of the world ? 10. Where did the Mongolian invaders who belonged to the yellow race come from ? 11. How were the rich soils of Mesopotamia formed ? 12. How could the lowlands of Mesopotamia be again reclaimed for agriculture and made to support a large population ? Arabia is a country without a strong or well-organized central government. Most of the people have their homes in the cities or towns in the small and somewhat independent states about the margin of the country (Fig. 475). Those living in the vast desert interior usually follow a nomadic, or wandering, life (Fig. 476). Where springs or wells occur in the desert, there are oases, and in each oasis date palms are grown. The wandering Arabs drive their sheep, cattle, goats, and donkeys from one pasture to another. They ride beautiful horses, which are famous for their speed. Thousands of the Arabian people make annual visits, or pilgrimages, to Mekka and Medina. Mekka was the birthplace of Mohammed, the founder of their religion. Every Mohammedan wishes to visit Mekka at least once during his lifetime. There is now a railway from Da- mascus to Medina to help these pilgrims on their journey. In the extreme south of Arabia the mountain slopes have been terraced, and large crops of coffee are raised, which are exported from Mokha. Sea fogs help out the scanty rainfall of this coastal belt. Fig. 476. These wandering Arabs have pitched their tent just outside the walls of an old fort in one of the desert oases. Can you describe the life of these people ? How does it differ from that of the Arabs in the villages and towns ? How do these people earn their living ? Hejaz. The people of this country are Arabians. In 1916 they threw off the Turkish yoke and established a kingdom. A national flag was then adopted and a national army formed. Hejaz includes the cities of Mekka and Medina, and is the most progressive of the independent Arabian countries. Aden and Oman. The British have a small possession at the southwest corner of the Arabian peninsula, called Aden, which they use as a coaling station. Oman, at the southeast comer, is a small independent state bor- dering on the Persian Gulf. It has become known for its pearl fisheries. Some of the largest and most beautiful pearls in the world are found in the waters of the Persian Gulf. Maskat is the seaport of Oman. Persia occupies the western part of the Plateau of Iran and the mountain ranges to the north and south. Most of the plateau is so dry that few people can live there. Grazing is the chief occupation, and the shepherds must wander about to find pasture for their sheep and goats. Many of the mountains are of limestone, into which the rain water sinks easily and flows underground. Wherever an underground river, which may have started in the mountains, comes to the surface, there is a spring, and that means an oasis. In desert places the people can sometimes secure water by digging deep wells. To convey the water long distances without loss by evapora- tion under the hot sun, they have dug underground channels called kanats, into which the water is turned when it is drawn up from the wells. These channels may be traced many miles by the mounds of earth thrown up in excavating them. Trees that need dry air for their tops and water at their roots grow to perfection in parts of Persia. The COUNTRIES OF WEST-CENTRAL ASIA 239 date palm is an excellent example ; it seems to flourish in a scorching sun if its roots are wet. Its fruit is spoiled by a single shower. The Persian apricot and mulberry are regarded as the finest in the world. Since good mulberry leaves can be raised, the Persian people have developed a flourishing silk industry. Persian rugs and tapestries are famous. Many of the Persian rugs are named after the places where they are made. Teheran is the capital and lies at the southern base of the Elburz Mountains, in sight of their snow-capped summits (Fig. 477). Afghanistan. In the northeastern corner of the great desert plateau of Iran, and extending into and a little beyond the rugged Hindu Kush Mountains, is Afghan- istan. Early each summer, when the snows melt in the mountains, the streams bring rich alluvial soils to the lower lands. Near the rivers there are irrigated fields and a few small settlements, but the inhabitants can do little more than raise enough food to live on. Some cattle, sheep, and goats are raised. Kabul is the capital and is located on the Kabul River, which flows to the Indus. This valley is part of the overland route to India, but in its lower course it is impassable, and travelers must go through a very narrow notch in the mountains, known as Khyber Pass. Problems and review questions. 1. What makes it diflBcult to live in Arabia, Persia, and Afghanistan ? 2. Why do so many people want to visit Mekka? 3. What is Mokha famous for? 4. What articles from Persia are found in American homes ? 5. What do most of the people on the Plateau of Iran do for a living ? 6. Locate from memory Mekka, Medina, Mokha, Teheran, Aden, and Maskat. Home work. 1. Read a sketch of the life of Mohammed. 2. Find out some reasons why the camel can live on the desert. COUNTRIES OF WEST-CENTRAL ASIA The central part of western Asia contains a number of small states which were part of the Russian Empire before the World War. They occupy the semidesert lowland of Turan. Here the streams from the moun- tains flow to inland seas. They never reach the ocean. Transcaspia is north of Persia and east of the Caspian Sea. It is a very dry district, where the wandering life of shepherds is about all that is possible. It is a thinly settled province. Bokhara is a prosperous state which has long been somewhat independent. It is famovis among Americans and Europeans for the beautiful Bokhara rugs which are woven there. It also produces large quantities of corn, fruit, silk, tobacco, and cotton. The city of Bokhara is a center of Mohammedan learning, containing over one hundred colleges and no less than three hundred and sixty mosques. Khiva is a small state, west of Bokhara, where cotton and silk are produced in large quantities, and where beautiful rugs are made. Western Turkestan extends northward from Bokhara to the southwestern boundary of Siberia. It is a land of broad, dry steppes, crossed here and there by rivers. Along the rivers are narrow strips of irrigated lands where the water brings many crops to perfection, gives rise to settlements, promotes trade, and leads to the growth of wealth. Tashkend is the capital of Western Turkestan. Samarkand is a second important city. In the bazaars of these cities the merchants sell the goods brought by camels over the long caravan routes, as well as the carpets, rugs, and skins brought in by the steppe- dwellers, and the products from the irrigated farm lands. Fig. 477. The government gate at Teheran is a very fine example of Persian Fig. 478. This is a formal Persian dinner party. The guests are seated on architecture. Its decoration shows the same beauty of design which is found beautiful oriental rugs, and the dishes are set on mats of Persian tapestry, in the Persian rugs. Locate Teheran on your map. Why is the Persian capi- The servants stand in the background, ready to attend to their masters' tal less important commercially than Tabriz, the chief city of the country ? needs. All the men wear close-fitting caps, according to the Persian custom 240 SIBERIA SIBERIA The completion of the railway from European Russia to Vladivostok marked the beginning of modern Siberia (Fig. 480). This great railway is between 5000 and 6000 miles long. It crosses a land of great opportunities. For convenience in study Siberia may be thought of in four divisions : (1) the tundra far to the north ; (2) the taiga, or great for- ests, just south of the tundra; (3) the steppes, or grassy plains, in the west ; and (4) the high- lands in the south. Tundra. In the tundra belt in Asia, just as in the belts of similar latitude in Europe and North America, there are two seasons, — a Fig. 479. This is a picture of Nizhnii Kolymsk, one of the little villages of the Siberian tundra. The photograph was taken at noon on a winter day. Can you explain why it is so dark in the middle of the day ? Study the extent of the Siberian tundra on the map opposite page 256. How much rainfall does this region receive ? What are the occupations of the people ? work in the forest. Here the wolf, bear, silver fox, sable,, and squirrel live ; and since it is a very cold country^ these animals have heavy coats and yield many of the- best furs in the world's fur market. Along the southern margin near the railway there- are small clearings, and as the population increases, the forest will prove to- be a valuable source of timber, and the cleared land will undoubtedly prove good for farming^ (Fig. 482). Steppes. Large areas of the Sibe- rian grasslands, or steppes, are good agricultural lands. In the district cen- tering about Omsk there are extensive wheat fields, where modern American long, dark winter, when temperatures fall many degrees harvesting machinery is being used (Fig. 483). Much of below zero, and a short summer, with almost unbroken daylight (Fig. 479). The frozen ground thaws out in the spring after the snow has disappeared, but the melt- ing extends less than two feet below the surface. The tundra is overgrown with mosses, lichens, and many dwarf plants. Red berries are abundant on the low bushes, and brilliant Alpine flowers bloom there. the grassland serves as a pasture for dairy cattle, and the rich cream produced is used for making butter. This is the most flourishing of Siberian industries, and ship- ments of butter are made to points as far away as England. The drier parts of the steppes are suitable for grazing sheep and goats. Highlands. In the southern part of Siberia there are There are also swarms of mosquitoes, and many birds young, rugged mountains, and in the east a series of old. that fly far to the north. The native people of northern Siberia have domesticated the rein- deer, and they live partly upon rein- deer milk. For food they gather berries, catch fish in the rivers, and kill some of the game birds. These people are wanderers, and as they move southward on the approach of winter they take many of the rein- deer with them. Taiga. Stretching east and west across Asia south of the tundra belt is one of the greatest forests in the world. For the most part it is a dark, cold wilderness about 4000 miles long and from 1000 to 2000 miles wide. A few native huts are scattered along the stream courses, and in winter there are hunters and trappers at Fig. 480. This view shows a group of Chinese coolies at work on the eastern end of the Siberian I^ailroad. Trace the route of this railroad on your map. Explain its importance worn-down mountain ranges. See map ' on page ^32. The mountains contain rich stores of minerals that have not yet been worked, and they furnish pasture for stock during the summer season. The eastern and northeast- ern portions are heavily forested. The forests include many varieties of fir, oak, pine, and spruce which have a high commercial value. Rivers. In Siberia there are three very long rivers which rise in the central mountains, where the melt- ing of the snows furnishes water, and flow northward to the Arctic Ocean. To the west is the Ob ; next, to the east, is the Yenisei ; and farther east is the Lena. Their mouths are north of the arctic circle, and during the winter their lower courses freeze. SIBERIA 241 As summer advances, the snows anelt in the high mountains to the south before the ice has left the mouths of the rivers. The waters come down the valleys until they reach the ice ; there ponds are formed, and as the waters rise vast areas are flooded. During that time travel east and west by land becomes almost impossible in northern Siberia. These great rivers are used as highways of travel in summer and winter. During the summer, when the streams are all open, it is pos- sible to go east or west across northern Siberia in boats, using the tributaries and certain canals. In winter the tx-avelers use sledges. The Amur is a large and impor- tant river highway in the east, and forms the boundary between Siberia and Manchuria. Cities. The four most important cities in Siberia along the route of the Siberian Railroad are Omsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk, and Vladivostok. The ending sk on a name means that the city or town is on a river of similar Fig. 481. The Russian Cathedral at Omsk is the center of the religious life of the city. Locate Omsk on your map. Why is it important com- mercially ? What are the products of the country surrounding Omsk ? Irkutsk is the chief city in the Yenisei Basin and one of the largest cities in Siberia. The smelting of gold ores has become an imjx)rtant industry here. Vladivostok, the eastern terminus of the Siberian Railroad, is a very important city. It has an excellent harbor and is protected by a fortress. There are flour mills, factories where machinery is made, and plants where bricks are manufactured. The city has a large export and import trade, although the harbor is icebound for three months of the year. Future. The future of Siberia lies in developing its wealth of natural resources. There are rich beds of coal and iron, deposits of gold, and extensive tracts of forests that have as yet been untouched. Before these products can be given to the world, more people must go to live in Siberia, and means of transportation must be improved. Problems and review questions. 1. Describe briefly the physical features of Siberia. 2. Where do most of the people live ? 3. What are the leading occupations ? 4. What resources as yet remain undeveloped ? 5. What are the four leading cities ? 6. Why is Siberia a land of great opportunities ? 7. What does it need, to hasten settlement and development ? 8. Name three large rivers of Siberia. 9. What use is made of the mountain streams when they have become rivers in the lowlands ? 10. What products has Siberia for export ? Home work. 1. Read an account of a railroad journey across Siberia, 2. Find out about the building of the Siberian Kailroad. Fig. 482. This is a view in one of the many small villages which are found along the southern edge of the taiga. The wooden houses in these villages are nearly all alike. The sledge is the common means of transportation in the winter. Can you describe the life of the people here ? name. Thus Omsk is situated on the Om River, Tomsk on the Tom River, and Irkutsk on the Irkut River. Omsk is in the center of a wheat-producing district and good grazing country. Very naturally, it has be- come an important center for dairy products, and the farmers bring their butter and cheese here to be sold. Omsk is also a junction for the east-and-west traffic on the railroad and the north-and-south traffic on the river (Fig. 481). Tomsk is in a gold-mining district. It has a university and many other excellent institutions. Fig. 483. This man is a progressive Siberian farmer of the southern steppes. He has purchased an American mowing machine, and by harnessing his pair of camels to it he can cut his grain in a much shorter time than he could when he mowed by hand. What kinds of grain does he raise ? 242 CHINA Fig. 484. Shanghai is the largest port of China and a city of a million people. This view shows Soochow Creek at Shanghai, with public build- ings and factories in the distance. What things are being made in these factories ? What are the exports and imports of Shanghai ? Fig. 485. This is the government technical institute at Shanghai. It is a modern school of the best kind, where the young Chinese students are trained to be scientists and engineers. Many of the teachers in this school have received part of their education in the United States THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA China is entering the industrial and commercial life of the world, and with its large population, which gives China is one of the countries that the world will watch it wonderful man-power, it is destined to play a very with the greatest interest during the next fifty years, important part in the affairs of the world. The people belong to the yellow race ; they are patient, careful, and very industrious ; they have been very slow and unwilling to change their customs, but wonderful changes are now taking place in the country. It is a land shut in on the west by high mountains and deserts, which have prevented easy intercourse with other people by land. It is bordered on the east by the Pacific Ocean, which until recent times has been a barrier to travel. Thus the Chinese people have been isolated and have developed a civi- lization quite different from that of the Europeans, who could easily mingle with other peoples. In many ways their early civili- zation was remarkable. Its records go back more than two thousand years before Christ was born. They invented paper, gunpowder, and the art of printing, and learned to make and use silk. They were keeping historical records before civiliza- tion had begun in Europe. Now the Chinese are beginning to open up their great stores of coal and iron. Railways and steamships have been built, modern schools and universi- ties have been established (Fig. 485), and the larger cities begin to look like the cities of western Europe and North America (Fig. 484). Fig. 486. The great Chinese Wall is 1600 miles long and was built two hundred years before Christ to defend the empire against invaders. Trace this great wall on your map. Does it form the northern boundary of China to-day ? Home work. 1. Compare the size of China with that of the United States. Which is the larger ? 2. Look up the lengths of the three longest rivers of China. Where do they rank in a list of the ten longest rivers of the world ? Climate. The lowlands on the east receive rains from the southeast monsoon winds dui-ing the northern sum- mer. See map on page 256. The summer monsoons are warm, and so help to increase the temperature of China during the growing season. When winter arrives, the winds are fitojn the northwest, or interior of the con- tinent, where it is very cold in win- ter. These winds bring cold weather, especially to Manchuria and the northern part of the Plain of China. The high mountains to the west have heavy snowfalls, and the melting snows provide water for the rivers. The plateau portions of China are so shut in by mountains that they receive very little rain- fall, and they are all deserts or seraideserts. Rivers. The Yangtze is the long- est river in China (Fig. 490). After leaving the mountains, where it flows through a deep canyon, it crosses the broad lowland plain to the East China Sea. " Yangtze " is the Chinese word meaning tea. CHINA 243 The Hwang, or Tellmo, river is 80 named from the great amount of yellow mud that it carries. It has been called "China's Sorrow"; for when it overflows, thousands of people are drowned and vast areas of crops are destroyed. In 1887 a great flood occurred and a million people were drowned. The Amur is another very long river. The rivers of China brought the fine materials from the mountains and made the lowlands. For nearly four thousand years the rivers were the chief highways of travel in China. Even to-day there are but few railroads for so large and so densely populated a country, and the rivers therefore continue to be of great importance in the domestic, or inland, commerce of the nation (Fig. 490). Natural resources. The rich soils of the lowlands are UDd.rwood k Underwood Fig. 487. At this point an opening has been made in the ancient wall around Peking, to allow the railroad to enter the city. China has more than 6000 miles of railroads. Why are they necessary to China's progress? Occupations. Where there are so many people the great problem is to raise enough food, and therefore most of the Chinese are farmers or gardeners. The farms are very small indeed, commonly but three or four acres. Millions are engaged in raising rice (Fig. 489) ; many work on sugar plantations ; others raise wheat, tobacco, or hemp ; the gathering of tea employs many hands, and likewise the care of gardens. Rice, wheat, the large and small millet, and the soya bean are so important to the life of the Chinese that they are sacred plants and no one may injure them. Millet is a coarser grain than wheat and not as nourishing. Chinese people raise a great many hogs, for those animals eat coarse food, which is cheap. While agriculture remains the most important of all China's greatest natural resource, and it is the industry occupations in China, in the last few years there has of the people and their care of the soils that has made been a notable increase in manufacturing, and we may it possible for so many people to live in the country for look forward to a great industrial development in the centuries. In the south valuable forests cover parts of cities of northern China. the mountain area. Unfortunately, large areas of China have been stripped of their forests. In those areas much of the soil has been washed away, floods have occurred, and the lands are of little use. Along the seacoast there are several good harbors. Cities. Peking is a very ancient city. It was the cap- ital of the Kingjlom of China for three thousand years ; for over eight hundred years it served as the capital of the Chinese Empire ; and now it is the capital of the Republic of China. The history of this city reflects the China has large supplies of coal and iron. Coal seams history of the nation through a long period of time, 40 feet thick have been reported. Natural oil, or petro- during which the people have secured more and more leum, has been found, and deposits of gold, silver, and freedom. About the city there is a wall sixty feet in many other minerals have been located. Mining is certain height. The gates in that wall were formerly locked to develop very rapidly in China during the next few years, at night, as was the custom in other walled cities of i „ . - - The mule litter is often used for travel In China, where good roads are very rare. The passenger sits cross-legged under the canopy, and tbe little mules trot safely over the narrowest paths Fig. 489. This man is plowing his rice fields with a rude wooden plow drawn by a water buffalo. The fields are flooded during the planting season, because rice grows best if planted under water Fig. 490. These boats are Chinese freight junks sailing down the Yangtze River to Shanghai. What products are they carrying ? Why are the Chinese rivers of such great importance to the country? 244 CHINA Kiaochow is a seaport on the east coast of China and was formerly a German possession. Japan now holds that port and a large part of the neighboring Shantung peninsula, but the Japanese have promised to return that territory to China. Manchuria is a large province in the northern part of China. It is a part of the Republic of China but has a large degree of independence. The western part of the country is dry, and little but grass grows there. The Fig. 491. The broad, steep-walled harbor of Hongkong is one of the best in the world. It is a British naval base and a great commercial center. What do you think is the business of the different boats in the harbor ? Why is Hongkong a very valuable British possession ? Asia and Europe. The wall about Peking has now been broken, and a modern railroad comes into the city (Fig. 487). _ Tientsin is the port of Peking and the outlet of a large part of Manchuria. It is also the northern terminus of the Grand Canal. Hankow is the great tea market of China. Shanghai, the port of the Yangtze River, is an important commercial city (Fig. 484). The increase in foreign trade at Shanghai has been due largely to the British. Canton, located on the delta of the Si River, is the chief sea- £. M. Newman Fig. 492. These stone elephants guard the avenue leading to the tombs of the kings at Nanking. The stones on their backs have been tossed there by passers-by to find out whether their wishes would come true. If the ston» stays on the elephant's back, it is a sign of good luck eastern portion is well watered and suitable for agri- culture ; it has become very prosperous. In the high- port of southern China. It is the largest city in China lands rich deposits of gold, copper, and lead have been and an important manufacturing center (Fig. 493). found. Many Chinese farmers live in Manchuria, where The island of Hongkong (Fig. 491) is a possession of they raise millet, wheat, and beans. Mukden is the capital. the British nation. Victoria is the cap- ital. This little island is located at the mouth of the Si River and is about 90 miles south of the city of Canton. The British people who live here have established mills for cotton spin- ning and sugar refining, and ship- building and re- pairing are also carried on. The Chinese silk and tea trade is con- trolled to a great extent by Hong- kong merchants. £. H. Neinuui Fig. 493. The Si River at Canton is crowded with boats of all kinds. Many of the junks serve as homes for the poorer Chinese families, especially those whose daily work is connected with the river in some way. When the children play on the decks, they are tied with long ropes, and each has a strange sort of life-preserver strapped to his back. If he falls overboard, the life-preserver keeps his head above water until someone pulls him out by the rope Mongolia. West of Manchuria is a vast territory, not very well defined, which is known as Mongolia. It is chiefly a desert country, because it is surrounded by high mountains. There are oases at the foot of the mountains, where springs are located or where streams from the moun- tains make it pos- sible to irrigate the land. Many of the people raise sheep and horses, which they must drive from place CHINA 245 to place to find good pasturage. Urga, the largest town, is the holy city of the northern Buddhists. Mongolia has been quite independent in its govern- ment, and many Russians came into this territory to help develop its resources. Recently, however, Mongolia has asked for a closer association with the government of China proper, and the request has been granted. Sinkiang. Just east of the Pamir is a dry region known as Eastern Turkestan or Chinese Turkestan. This land and some adjoining districts form the Chinese province of Sinkiang. This province is so shut in by mountains that rain-bringing winds do not reach it. For the same reason it is difficult for people to reach this land. The little towns are near the base of the mountains, where oases are found and water is available. Kashgar and Yarkand are two walled cities, each located in an oasis. Fig. 494. This woman is tishing with her trained water birds, called cormo- rants. At her command they dive, catch the fish, and fly back with them to the boat. About each cormorant's neck is a ring or piece of string to keep him from swallowing the fish. Why are fish so important to the Chinese ? Tibet is a large, semi-independent province of China. It includes the highest plateau in the world. Tibet is completely surrounded by high mountains, and on the south are the magnificent Himalayas (Fig. 4G9). Lassa, the capital, is a picturesque city with many beautiful temples. The temples are gilded and the roofs of the buildings are very commonly red. Lassa is the center of the Buddhist religion and is considered a sacred city. There is a short, dry summer and a long, cold winter in this plateau country, and therefore little use can be made of the rich soils. The people raise yaks, sheep, and goats. The yak is as important to these people as the reindeer is to the people of the tundra, or the camel to the people of the desert. It has a thick, woolly coat, and the hide is used in various ways, sometimes for clothing, sometimes for making tents or utensils. The people use the milk of the yak and have trained these animals to be beasts of burden. The yak is one of the few animals that can work as beasts of burden at great heights. Fig. 495. The sacred Temple of Heaven near Peking is a beautiful triple- roofed tower standing on the highest of three marble terraces. Once a year the emperor used to go to the temple to make a sacrifice to heaven. Since China has become a republic the president stiU observes this custom Home work. 1. Read Sven Hedin's description of his travels in Turkestan and Tibet. Get one of his books from some library. 2. Look up Peking in some good reference book and learn about the Forbidden City. Problems and review questions. 1. Why should the people of the United States be interested in China ? 2. What trade have we now with China ? 3. What have you seen that surely came from China ? 4. What have you eaten that may have come from China ? 5. What have you worn or seen other people wear that probably came from China? 6. From what American seaports are vessels sent to China ? 7. What are the chief seaports of China ? 8. What is the capital of the Republic of China ? 9. What is the largest city ? 10. What is the British port on the east coast of China ? 11. What are the chief natural re- sources of China? 12. What prevents the Chinese from migrating into the less crowded parts of their country ? 13. What is the chief food of the poorer people of China? 14. Kama three large rivers of China. 15. What river is called " China's Sorrow " ? Why ? 16. What are the occupations of the people in the high mountains and pla^ teaus of western China? 17. What does China need most at present? £. U. Newmu Fig. 496. These Chinese children spend part of each day in school. After school they cannot play until they have collected wood enough for the family to burn the next day for cooking and boil- ing water for their tea 246 JAPAN GO W P P EH Ph C O a o J3 a> 3 c3 EC o a, 03 J3 J -2 o « o o S ^ -^ "S O e3 a o o ^ &,= CQ -f^ «8 • S 09 O >i o § o . a cS ® « -G C r5 c -^ ^ [^ 3 3 be -^ 3 OI .a — o a CO -w -g "^ -U TO ^ X .2 ■» oe oj S 'S 3 03 -3 ^ 3 3 § O 3 ° > -^ bc_S .2 » s ^ 3 -w 03 be •+J 3 o o r3 (N. to 3 -^ ;3 ^ 'E o3 aj tH a; I s a eS -'-^ CO S-i c^ .3 ^ H .3 - & ^ s 03 O s be 03 3 =i -2 .ao o ^ '^ ^ CD 4J O J3 o3 o ^ (2 ^ H oj 3 o 2 bcr" o '^ S • "^ 00 J^ TO eS o3 -^ 1-1 g 3 «« 2| S. O - 0) -" be.i: bc'3 '^ S -^ o o °? aj S -S t^ u cS ^ ^ .52 cooJociQjajcoooOfl 02 be o <" ~r '^-1 aj S £ «s P is ^ TO %4-t be cl, o "5 ^ CO .2 to •:; O * -3 3 ^ to p I S-I (E g ctf 3 O T3 c^ OQ c^ bC & fl O eg — ' C o fl 31 oj a; s .2 c 3 o S 2 S ^ a c« o So jq o -J cd ^ ^ >->•'-• ""S =4-1 (U O Oh . -a >< 2 3 fa 31 3 O 3 " O a> J3 J C 1-§ o t- ^ o o 3 o 03 -3 =« CO O -tJ 0) OJ -3 ..3) .is *• o oa O ^3 & =3 ce bc (K > a o CO ro 3 o) ce 3 cs b ^ -^ g 3 s-> 3 oj o -a h CO '^ 3 a £ a 3 to O § Si ^ -3 CM g j3 * ce Oh O no r~^ T3 H C (Sl , m 1 00 -i-> > ce (V a o OQ Ph i-5 O CB t3 « ,5 -a .2 o o ce ^ ^ =«■ 00 <+H r3 ce CO ^ .1-1 -t^ H 05 .2 =* CO 'S o Ph ce ce o i-s <:^ «4-l CO o ce Ph -t^ a a a> o O S 1-^ ce -a a ce -a ce o^ ^- ^-^ 3 a J '~ Sh ce TO .rH a o •a " ^^ 0) CO 05 > 05 .y 05 ,.3 a 3 tD o aj Oh -3 -i-i ^^ s -^ =e ce ^-^ ce"-*" 'e i o MH 05 •ri3 bC ce is 05 O ce Sh 'oJ 05 -a -1-3 o +3 -a a ce T3 05 -+^ ce f— I o be 05 a '-I ?^ 05 05 o ^4-1 a 05 Sh 05 5tt 05 CO 05 a ce 05 Ph sf; 05 -3 ce 1-5 05 -3 H 05 3 la o 05 -3 05 > 3 .2 ce 6 £ --d 05 S 3 1 g| a ^ 4^ ce CO CO Sh i-n 3 05 .in .2 a a ^ ce 05 ^ ^ ^ 05 x^ S ^ sT ."S ^3 "^ 05 ^ a 05 "" ^\ -a ^ |hcS 05 Ph Ph ce I o a CO a ce .2 5 Q ^ '^ 00 bC a a 3 o Sh Sh 3 CO t3 a ce S > ^1 !-i '^ bO 05 05 a M ^ 05 05 ^ o t^, ^ 05 ce -3 ^" •§ ^ '-I ce CO '^ a !^ .3 o ce ' — ' >> 3"^ 05 S 0= O •73 05 a J ce -t^ • rt o t4 CO H 05 05 r;3 -3 ce -'^ -a 00 rj3 05 05 -3 a -^^ S 05 ^ ce § ^ CO a 3 o -p PhPc5 ce be a bb ^ a ce 'Ph i O 05 05 f» Ph. O; .2^ H-i -l-i "^ _ s -►^ == ce QO O Ti a -3 ^ o ce o •.31, 05 3 -a fa ^ ce s§ -a -a 2 a 05 S ^ o -^^ -^ .a a O 05 Oh 05 ■^ CO >~> 05 05 '^ 05 '73 ce 05 f1 3 ^ fa ri 00 ce 05 O go's 3 ce CO Ph _r -►3 a O 3 "^ a CO " T3 05 « ce CO ^ '-^ O '♦H •4-1 ^2 ce 3 05 ce Oh be 05 a 3 p s^ 3 CO 05 a ce o 05 05 O P ce o -a p: 05 >^ ^^ T3 05 S-l a '2 O -P «H-( s-l 05 O CO 05 OJ -►^ S '05 •" ►-5 -tJ OQ 02 05 £? -a a '^ gi 05 ^ 3 1^ O 3 05 05 J3 « -to 00 -3 ce -e 05 -a 05 ^ ^ o o •73 05 •3 a 05 r-2 ^ O 'a ^ ►-^ ^ 00 05 a ce Ph ce 05 -a -t=i 05 T3 ce 3 orj Sh 05 P. a-^-? .2 i3 ' -a "^ H 05 be . a a 3 05 3 H HH CO O ITS n. Q 05 05 05 S-i Sh U O 05 G a ^ J rH ^ '^ ce 3 "^ -10 ce '^ in ^•^ t3 05 3 05 -3 hJ a o 3 Sh 2 o 3 a 05 ... CO o 05 !» o3 '^ -a HO CO 3 O .pH HO o3 f-H 05 Sh ce be a • f-H a a -3 a •t-i be 05 ^ 05 05 3 HO a 05 rr m 4^ ^ Ph 3 O O 05 S 05 -3 ^ £ 13 tH ^^ 05 -Q 05 ..H O CO a'g a 3 -|0 O « 05 i^^ 2 3 t< 05 •- 05 HO •+3 o o 03 Oh O^ 3 Oh -^3 r-H O H > «^ 5§| -*£ bD a a ce o "0 ,a -^ o 01 ce !*: O^ 05 •^ HO fa be g S a o! On-a ^ 05 -is O T3 Sh ce S p 05 '^ ^H Sh 05 «> !« 05 PI 3 05 J a a .2 3 -?. -^ 3 j^ ce ce -ko o a 05 -^ T3 .3 2 S <=> ce ce o ^ J 3 r3 o •a a ^ be '^ =« =* 1e « q § ce += S bo r-i bD 05 o; ^ ^ " 05 §- a a Eg g a S 05 ce ''O 03 GO S a 05 Oh 05 ce a ^ 05 ^ 05 tS j3 ^ a ^ HO ce 05 «+H ^ ce ° T3 .2 a ^ ce o a o •i-t 05 OQ _r- 05 •^ -to 00 a ?^ n ,5 =S Oh /^ 248 JAPAN ) H. C. White Co. Fig. 600. These Japanese laborers are setting out young rice shoots in even rows in the mud and water of an irrigated field. Here the rice will grow until it is ready to harvest Climate. The spring and au- tumn are the most desirable seasons to make a trip through Japan. June is the wet month, and July, Au- gust, and the first weeks of September are very hot in the lowland areas. In general the climate of the islands is mild throughout the year. This is because Japan is surrounded by a great ocean, and weather changes are not so extreme or so sudden as in the interior of great land areas. Occupations. The population of Japan is very dense, and in order to provide food for the people the soil is cultivated in a most intensive way. Even the mountain slopes are terraced, and walls are built to prevent the earth from sliding. The Japanese produce many varieties of rice, which is the chief food for most of the people (Figs. 500, 501). The tea from Japan is famous (Fig. 502). Indigo, cotton, hemp, flax, and tobacco are also raised. Very. few animals are kept on the islands, because ani- mals use large quantities of food. There are abundant fish in the shallow waters around the islands, and fish is one of the chief foods of the Japanese people. Mulberry trees are grown to pro- vide food for the silkworms. Japan supplies about 30 per cent of the total amount of silk raised in the world, and more than half of all that we receive in the United States (Figs. 497, 498, 499). The manufacture of paper, matr ting, pottery, metal goods, and straw braids has long been carried on in Japan. The spinning indus- try is rapidly becoming H^pre and more important. Silk is manufac- tured around Tokyo, and large cot- ton mills are located at Osaka. The raw cotton is imported mostly from India and the United States. Cities. Tokyo is the capital of the empire, with a population of over 2,000,000 (Fig. 504). It is one of the foremost cities in the Orient. It has electric cars, modern stores, and excellent train service. The beautiful imperial palace, the home of the emperor of Japan, is in Tokyo. The imperial university is also located in this city, and there are numerous parks, temples, and shrines here. Fig. fiOl. The Japanese thresh rice by drawing it through wooden rakes. The rice grains drop into the baskets, leaving the straw in good condition for thatch- ing roofs and making hats, baskets, sandals, and mata Q) K. M. Newman Fig. 602. The tea pickers in Japan are mostly women and girls, who work on the hillsides plucking the tender green leaves from the bushes. After they are picked, the leaves are wilted over a fire, rolled to squeeze out the sap, dried, sorted, and packed for export. Why is tea grown on the hillsides in Japan ? Yokohama is the port of Tokyo (Fig. 503) and has an excellent harbor with protected waters. It is the first port reached by trans-Pacific liners from America. In the harbor of Yokohama the traveler will see vessels from America, China, Australia, India, and Europe. Osaka is the largest commercial center and one of the most progressive indus- trial centers. Its population is over 1,000,000. The harbor at Osaka is poor, and most of the trade of this city is carried on through the neigh- boring port of Kobe, which has an excellent harbor. Nagasaki is an in- dustrial center and a very old port, where vessels commonly stop to get a supply of coal. Kyoto, the former capital of Japan, is an important manufacturing city and one of the chief railway centers. There are three densely populated areas : the first near Tokyo and Yokohama, the second in the vicin- ity of Kobe and Osaka, and the third near Nagasaki. See map on page 256. JAPAN 249 Chosen (Korea). This part of the Japanese empire is chiefly an agricultural land, but the methods of cultivating the soil are backward and primitive. Rice, wheat, beans, tobacco, and cotton are the more impoi-tant crops. In the mountains gold mining is carried on, and copper, iron, and coal are known to be abundant. The means of com- munication are poor, and this condition is delaying industrial development. Keijo (Seoul) is the largest city and Fusan, on the southern coast, is the chief port. The Koreans belong to the Mongolian race but form a nationality distinct from that of the Japanese or Chinese. Formosa was ceded to Japan by China in 1895. There are dense forests on this island, and some of the forest tribes are still uncivilized. Camphor is the chief prod- uct, and nearly all the camphor in the world comes from this island. On the lowlands bordering the coast the inhabitants raise large crops of rice and sugar cane. Uiul«rwou<] & Uoderwowl Fig. 503. This is a street scene in Yokohama. Notice the curious signs over the shops and the jinrikishas which the Japanese use for riding about the city. What is the population of Yokohama ? Can you explain its commercial importance ? as years go on it is likely that a larger and larger proportion of the Japanese people will be engaged in industiial work. Problems and review questions. 1. Why do Japanese young men come to our universities for an education ? 2. What are the chief occupations of the Japanese ? 3. What does Japan most need ? 4. What industries have the Japanese undertaken ? 5. Name three important cities. 6. What winds bring rain to Japan ? 7. What land on the continent of Asia does Japan possess ? 8. Where does the emperor live ? 9. What cities are leading in- dustrial centers ? INDO-CHINA , i.. AL tiemo&a Fig. 504. Many of the streets in the i a ol Tokyo have a very modern appearance. The ofSce buildings, stores, electric-car lines, and telegraph poles are not unlike those of an American city. Locate Tokyo on your map. How does its population compare with that of the largest cities in the United States ? Future. There is every reason to believe that Japan is destined to become one of the world's great industrial The only settle- nations. The Japanese people have already proved them- ments are near selves very skillful in the industrial arts, and the amount of manufacturing increases every year. Power is provided by the coal fields, the natural oil, and the many streams, some of which are already harnessed to produce hydroelectric energy. Agriculture will always yield bamboo and be important in such a densely populated country, but other woods. Indo-China comprises a group of small countries between the South China Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The countries on the east are under the protection of France. Siam is an independent kingdom, and Burma is a part of India and so under British rule. French Indo-China. In the northern part of French Indo-China there are several mountain chains, and the rivers which flow southward bring rich soils to the low- lands. In the mountains the rainfall is heavy because of the monsoon winds of the summer months. Most of the people live on the lowlands, where many of them are engaged in raising rice, fruit, cotton, and sugar. These are just the prod- ucts that would be expected on a warm, moist low- land. Coffee and tea are the chief products raised on the higher lands. Some fishing is carried on in the lakes and streams of the deltas and along the coasts. the rivers. These villages are shut in by dense tropi- cal forests which © tQ.i«rw 5 a aj ^"^ S-S aj -S i^"^ S .2 3 g a; .°° o S 8h 03 •- 03 '-3 a, =« X/1 =^ J 5 &SH '^ "IS a s !3 S a; a; & o 13 S o u -a a> hi ee aj o a Ed 03 ~ _5 .be ^ "S o oj be g bJD 2. % a C8 J- -a a aj 3} bc 2 .2 a .s - § g -a -s a; ^ " Ji! M a §£^ 13 a 8 ^.1 a aj fcC 03 y, aj aj -^ a, (c ?! ea 3J St W -^ aj a — -a o t:3 H a . 03 3 .2 3 03 — ed CI . o O 03 '■2 33 ^ (>• C3 W 03 03 -*-> r eS 03^ a s- O 03 2 C E <> £ o 03 .S i^ c» 72 (4-1 ^-1 "" -- «^ C« 33 r. S 00 E -s O 3 [>,_« ^-- ^ S 3 03 g 2 > t^^"^ o b fi- 2 -ts 03 -a t: » 3 O U 03 03 O ^ 4= tx -i-i +-» ft^ 3 3 ^ O 13 (^. ^ •3 ^ c 03 M ■j: "■3 s "^ 3 o S a. s >-> o a. c 03 3 03 2 ly^ •« O t« CJ 3 !5 52 .^ P a. 252 INDIA 4^ I'ubliahera' Photo Serrice, Inc. Fig. 507. These are Hindu pilgrims at the ghats, or bathing places, of Benares. Many of them have come from distant parts of India, for Benares is theii holy city, and every good Hindu must bathe at least once in the sacred waters of the Ganges to wash away his sins INDIA The Indian Empire includes the great peninsula of India and those adjacent lands which are directly or in- directly under British control. Burma on the east, Balu- chistan on the west, and the small state of Sikhim in a pass to Tibet are thus parts of India. People. There are many British people in India. Most of them are government officials or soldiers, but some are tradesmen. The king of Great Britain and Ireland has the title of " Emperor of India," and he appoints a governor-general, or viceroy, of India, who usually serves for a term of five years. About 70 per cent of the inhabitants of India are Hindus (Fig. 50 7), who belong to the white race and follow in their religious beliefs the teaching of Brahma. This religion teaches the doctrine of caste, or class distinctions. Some are born in a high caste, others in a low caste or in some intermediate caste. Those who are members of one caste cannot associate with members of another caste, or class. This doctrine is quite opposed to our belief that all men are born free and equal. Brahmanism has helped also to keep many superstitions alive among the people. Tropical jungles. In the great jungles of India there yet remain many tigers, leopards, bears, and elephants. There are poisonous snakes here, too, and thousands of people and millions of animals die each year from snake bites. The cobra, one of the most dangerous snakes in the world, is a sacred animal. The native people, because of their religion, would not kill an animal, but they like to have other people kill this snake. The cow and the monkey are also sacred animals in India. There are numerous insects in this hot, moist land, and they carry disease just as they do in all tropical regions. Climate. When the monsoon winds of the summer season strike the high Himalaya Mountains, they cause heavy rains. Forty inches of rain falling in one day has been recorded at one place on the southern slopes of the mountains. The rainfall during a year on the southern slopes of the Himalaya Mountains measures from 400 to 500 inches, and in very wet years it has been known to reach 600 inches. Such heavy rains mean that in places all of the soil is washed from the mountain slopes, leav- ing them so bare that nothing can grow there. The soils washed from the Himalayas are spread out over the lowlands of northern India. The heavy rains on the mountain slopes explain the large rivers which make it possible to irrigate the rich soils of the plains and thus raise food for the millions of people who live there. During the summer season rains fall on the higher parts of the Plateau of India. Before the people of India learned to store the water and to irrigate the lands, terrible famines often occurred. Famines are not so bad now, because of the reservoirs and because more railroads have been built and help can be sent to the people. The part of India which lies south of the Himalayas is never very cold, because its latitude is low and it is sheltered from the cold north winds by the mountains. It is never so hot, however, as the plateaus of Iran and Arabia, because of the sea breezes which always help to moderate a climate. Above 7000 feet the climate in India is suitable for Europeans and Americans. Natural regions. The natural divisions of India are very clearly defined. In the north are the bold and rugged slopes of the Himalaya Mountains. These are the highest mountains in the world, and they rise abruptly Fig. 508. The oxcart is a common sight in the streets of Bombay, where the humped oxen are used very generally as draft animals because of their great strength. Notice the modern public buildings in the background of this view. How does Bombay rank in size among the cities of India 7 INDIA 253 from the broad lowland plain of northern India. This fertile and very densely populated lowland plain extends fi'om the base of the Hima- laya Mountains southward to the Plateau of India, spreading out eastr ward to the mountains of Burma and westward to the highlands of Baluchistan. The three great rivers of India — the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Indus — rise in the Plateau of Tibet and, after leaving the Hima- laya Mountains, cross this lowland plain to the sea. In the portion of the plain made by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers the climate is sufficiently moist to permit agriculture, but irrigation is practiced to supplement the rainfall. (jy PuhljjlirM' Pt.oto btniet, lac. Fig. 509. This man is at work at his bench carving an elephant out of ivory. The people of India have been famous always for their delicate carving and exquisite metal work The seaward portion of the Plain of the Indus is dry, and as great quantities of food cannot be raised there, this district is not so densely populated as the Plain (Fig. 509), and others who do beautiful work in embroid- of the Ganges, ery and in making fine silk and cotton cloth. Excellent articles. Next in importance is the pasturing of stock. Forestry also furnishes employment to a great number of men. Nearly two hun- dred and twenty-five million people engage in agriculture, stock-raising, or forestry. That is more than twice the number of people living in the United States. In plowing and cultivating the soil the water buffalo and humped cattle are generally used. Elephants do the heavy work, much as horses do in some countries. Horses are used for riding, and cattle are used almost entirely as draft animals or as beasts of burden. The buffalo is the common draft animal in the very wet places, but the camel is used in the very dry places. There are many people in India who have learned the decorative arts. There are those who do carving in ivory fuLliBliCt*' PbuUi Serii«e, laa> The vast Pla- teau of India, or the Dekkan, as it is often called, forms the greater part of the pen- insula of India. In some parts of this plateau the surface is flat, but Fig. 510. These elephants, which belong to the sacred temple at Kandy, Ceylon, are having their afternoon bath. The elephants in India are trained by the natives to do many kinds of hard work Natural resources. The rich soils washed from the highlands by the rivers and spread out to make the lowlands are the most valuable of the natural resources of India. Coal, gold, and petroleum are the three most impor- tant mineral resources. There are, however, many other minerals in this country. The forests of India are also very valuable. Occupations. The cultivation of the soil is of first importance and occupies the time of most of the people. The raising of large quantities of sugar, rice, tea, wheat, and cotton makes it possible for so many people to live here. Jute fiber made from the jute plant is used in man- ufacturing burlap, twine, paper, and many other useful carpets are also made in India. The cotton and jute mills employ half a million people. Most of the arts have been conducted in a very primitive way, but to-day machinery is being introduced. Cities. Calcutta is the largest city and the most im- portant seaport (Fig. 511). Until 1911 it was the capital of India, but Delhi is now the capital (Fig. 512). Bombay- is a very busy cotton-manufacturing center (Fig. 508). The cotton comes from the lowland northwest of the Dekkan. Madras, which is located on the eastern side of in many places the peninsula, serves as the port for southeastern India. it is broken by rugged ridges of bare rock. that have been C«urte«j of Wiillaou. Bruwu it Eiitt* Fig. 511. This is one of the beautiful parks in Calcutta. In the background is the temple, built in the elaborate style which is characteristic of the native Indian architecture. Calcutta was formerly the capital of India and is noted for its fine buildings. What is the present capital of India? 254 INDIA D Pubtishers' Photo 15«rTioe, Inc. Fig. 512. This is a street in Delhi, the capital of India. In the background are the domes and minarets of the famous Jama Masjid Mosque, said to be the oldest mosque in the world. In summer the residence of the government is moved from Delhi to Simla. Can you explain why ? Burma. Burma is a land of narrow valleys and heavily forested mountains, with, a population of about twelve million people. Far back in the mountains there are un- civilized tribes and wild beasts like those in the forests and jungles of other parts of India. Teak, rubber, and rice, but chiefly rice, are the leading products of Burma, and rice is the chief export. The lowlands are hot and moist, and near the coast the rainfall is from 100 to 200 inches a year. See map on page 256. Baluchistan. The plateau portion of western India is a part of the Plateau of Iran ; it is a stony desert, frozen in winter and very hot in summer. There are a few oases near the base of the mountains, and each oasis is marked by palm ti'ees. Where the land is well watered, excellent crops are raised. Large quantities of dates are produced and packed for shipment. Sheep and goats are cared for by the native people, who drive them from place to place in search of grass. Both Burma and Baluchistan have prospered under Brit- ish rule. Railroads have been built, irrigation works improved, and disease and famine checked, and the populations have increased. Ceylon. The island of Ceylon has a small lowland in the north where the climate is tropical, and rice, rubber, cacao, and coconut palms are raised. The cen- tral and southern parts of the island are occupied by a mountainous plateau. On the southwestern slopes of the plateau are great tea plantations. The abundant rainfall on these slopes is so favorable to the growth of the tea that the leaves can be gathered every two weeks. The plateau is also rich in minerals and precious stones. The chief mineral is graphite, and Ceylon is the leading graphite-producing country of the world. Colombo is the principal city of Ceylon (Fig. 514). Problems and review questions. 1. In what part of India do most of the people live ? 2. What are the chief foods ? 3. What are the chief products for export ? 4. When is the rainy season ? Why does it occur then ? 5. Why are there very heavy rains on the south slopes of the Himalaya Mountains ? 6. In what part of India is it best for Europeans or Americans to live ? 7. What are the chief occupations of the people in India ? 8. Why are there famines in India? 9. How could they be avoided ? 10. Name the capital and the leading seaports. 11. Why is it never very cold in southern India ? 12. What have you ever seen that came from India ? Home work. 1. Read " Kim," by Rudyard Kipling. 2. Find out how sago grows ; how the native people prepare it ; how we use it in the United States. SMALL COUNTRIES IN THE HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS Nepal is an independent kingdom in the Himalaya Mountains, 500 miles long and 150 miles wide. The inhabitants are a very busy people. They raise cattle, wheat, rice, tobacco, and spices. They export some of these products and take in exchange sheep, goats, sugar, oils, and manufactured goods. Bhutan is another independent state among the Himalaya Mountains which is closed to Europeans. It has wonderful mountain peaks and glaciers and a great variety of vegetation. It is very interesting to find in the highest moun- tains of the world small groups of people who would rather be independent than to belong to a large and powerful nation. Home work. Find other examples of liberty-loving people who have established independent nations in mountain countries. Courtea/ of Wiliiftma, Diijwu, & Eulo Fig. 513. This is the market place at Quetta in Baluchistan. Quetta is a strongly fortified British military station and is connected with the port of Karachi by a railroad. Locate Quetta on your map. What things should you expect to find on sale in the bazaars of the market place ? EAST INDIES 255 EAST INDIES Most of the islands southeast of the Malay Peninsula and north of Australia belong to the Dutch people. See map on page 250. The islands are mountainous, and most of the moun- tains are of volcanic origin. The forests yield rubber and spices, and are the homes of very primitive tribes. On the narrow lowlands, where it is always warm, the people are more civilized ; in many places they grow the sago palms from which they get a large proportion of their food. People who live on islands naturally be- come traders. They are good boatmen, and they love to migrate from place to place. It has not been uncommon for them to add piracy to their occupations. The island of Java is the most advanced in the group. The soil is very fertile, and every tropical and temperate crop can be grown on the island if land high enough above sea level is selected. Coffee and cinchona are the most important products, but spices, sugar, rubber, and cotton are cultivated. The capital of Java is Batavia (Fig. 515). It is always hot and moist in this part of the world, and Europeans do not enjoy the climate. A few, how- ever, must Uve here to direct the native laborers. Review questions. 1. What European nations hold possessions in the East Indies ? 2. Describe the physical form, or relief, of the islands. 3. Describe and explain the climate. 4. What are the chief occupations ? 6. What are the chief exports ? Home work. 1- Make a list of the common domesticated animals of Asia, and indicate what each one is valuable for. 2. Bring your pictui'es of Asia to school and plan a picture exhibit. tf 1 ^ * ^PH^I ^ gn^^. ^^^B^^^^r wN^fl^a^ '- -iri^^^is y/////fh. - ' ""^^^i>-; ''^^'OiSS .^ LiHicOinj.1 ft Un Fig. 614. This is the passeogei landing and customhouse at Colombo. Beyond is the harbor, which is protected by three great breakwaters. The southwest one breaks the force of the waves in the southwest monsoon Mason. In what months is this ? What are Ceylon's exports ? Where are most of them sent ? What are its imports ? Fig. 515. This is a canal in Batavia, the capital of Java. Batavia is the great trading center for the Dutch East Indies. Its canals are full of little boats laden with the products of the other islands, waiting to be exported. What are some of these products ? GENERAL REVIEW FOR ASIA 1. What is the most nourishing cereal grown on the steppes ? 2. What conditions are favorable for raising rice? 3. Where is the taiya ? 4. What palm thrives in rainless regions but needs water at its roots ? 5. What part of Asia lias conditions favorable for raising grapes, olives, and figs ? 6. Rice, wheat, the large and the small millet, and the soya bean are the five sacred plants in what country ? 7. In what country are cows, monkeys, and the cobra sacred ? 8. On the leaves of what tree are silkworms fed? 9. What country produces most of the silk sent to the United States ? 10. What is the most important animal on the tundras? on the richer 8t«ppes? on the poor steppes? in the high mountains ? in the desert ? on the high Plateau of Tibet ? 11. What animal can bear extreme cold ? What one can bear extreme height ? What one can bear extreme drought ? 12. What animals can best bear intense heat? 13. What are the two chief occupations of the people of Asia? 14. Ex- plain the oases in the deserts. 15. Name and locate five impor- tant seaports. 16. Why are there so few large interior cities? 17. What countries have good industrial prospects ? 18. What parts of Asia will remain unsettled? Why? 19. What winds are most helpful to agriculture in Asia? Why? 20. Where do the greatest extremes in temperature occur ? Why ? 21. Where are the highest mountams in the world ? 22. Where is the " Roof of the W^orld " ? 23. Name and locate five long rivers in Asia. 24. In what country is there coal and iron in abundance and plenty of cheap labor ? 25. In what countries of Asia are beautiful rugs made ? 2G. What European nations have large possessions in Asia? 27. What country owns mo.st of the East Indies? 28. Where is nomadic life common? 29. Where are the chief settlements in Siberia? 30. Wliat are the chief prod- ucts that the United States imports from Asia ? 31. From what part of Asia does most of the world's tin come ? 32. What will be of the greatest help to Asiatic countries in their industrial and commercial development? 33. From what American ports do vessels start for Asia ? 256 COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND PACIFIC ISLANDS AUSTRALIA The Victorian Highlands extend in an east-and-west direction near the southern end of the East AustraUan Australia, the smallest of the continents, is part of the Highlands, and just south of the Victorian Highlands is British Empire and a land from which we receive large quantities of wool, hides, skins, and copper. It is the only continent, except uninhabited Antarctica, which is entirely within the southern hemisphere. Study each of the pictures from Fig. 516 to Fig. 520. People. Most of those who have gone to live in Australia are English-speaking people, and they have discouraged the importation of negroes from Africa and of laborers from India and China. More help is needed in order to develop the great natural resources of the country, but the white inhabitants prefer to develop them less rapidly and to keep the country for those who use the same language and have similar ideals of social, industrial, and political life. In central and western Australia there are many tribes of native people who live in most primitive ways. Their relation to the native peoples of New Zealand, of the islands of the Pacific, of Asia, and of Africa is not known, but they are usually classed with the black race. Natural Regions Australia is easily divided into a few distinct natural regions. See map on page 2.58. Fig. 616. Australia raises more sheep than any other country in the world. This view shows a group of the famous merino rams which are pastured there. The thoroughbred merinos have the longest, finest, and heaviest fleece of any breed of sheep. Such rams as these yield from thirty to forty pounds of fine wool each. Why does Australia lead the world in the production of wool ? the broad, rich Valley of Victoria. The Great Plains, with a general elevation of from 500 to 1000 feet above sea level, occupy a central posi- tion in the eastern half of the continent. Fine materials have been washed from the higher lands and spread out on these plains, so that now there is a rich alluvial soil in this region. When white people first came to Australia, they found a scanty growth of poor grass on the plains; but most of this land has been planted with European seed , and now a great part of the Great Plains region is an excel- lent pasture land (Fig. 516). Over this region graze flocks of merino sheep, which yield the finest wool in the world. Much of this fine wool is used in the mills of England and America. Dairy farming is being rapidly developed in the southern portion of these plains (Fig. 517). The plains have a native plant, the saltbush, that is very valuable in stock-raising. The plant contains so much salt that the animals eat it for their salt supply. This bush is being introduced into the United States in the dry sheep-raising lands of the Southwest. In the northern portion of the plains it is possible to The East Australian Highlands are made up of a series get water by drilling deep wells. Several wells reach of low mountain ranges that are heavily forested. The as far as 5000 feet below the surface, and the waters Great Dividing Range, the New England Range, and the secured are used for irrigating the lands. In the southern Blue Mountains are included within this highland region. The mineral resources and the water-power of this region encourage mining and manufactviring, and have led to the great industrial development of New South "Wales, Queensland, and Victoria. Most of the white people of Australia live in this por- portion of the plains, which is shut off from the south- east rain-bringing winds by the highlands, ii-rigation is necessary. The South Australian Highlands are low mountains from 1000 to 2000 feet high. They are old and worn down, and contain, considerable quantities of gold, silver. tion of the continent, and it is rapidly becoming more lead, and copper. One of the country's chief seaports, and more densely populated. See map on page 265. Adelaide, is on the southern margin of this region. 267 o TdoH pooo ,- JO BdB Q ^ ^ AUSTRALIA 259 •-I % .BUITT N UMOX a<3B0 • AUSTRALIA 261 262 AUSTRALIA Fig. 521. These Maori girls do not need stoves to cook their food. They live on North Island, New Zealand, where there are geysers, hot springs, and boiling pools. At any time they can put their pots and kettles over the steaming cracks and cook all they wish New Guinea. A portion of New Guinea belongs to the Commonwealth of Australia. See map on page 260. Like most of the islands between Australia and Asia, it is mountainous, and the mountains are young and rugged. The interior of New Guinea has not been explored on foot, but very recently airplanes have been used to assist in the examination and mapping of the island. Since New Guinea is so near the equator, the climate is very hot and the rainfall is heavy. The narrow low- lands near the coast, and also the mountain slopes up to a height of 6000 feet, are covered with forests. On the slopes above the forests there are grasslands. The island is rich in minerals, but as yet little mining has been done. Plantations of sugar cane and rubber trees have been introduced, and the vanilla bean is also raised. Such industries are under the direction of Europeans, but labor is scarce and it is difficult to get work done. The western half of New Guinea belongs to the Dutch, and the northern part of the eastern half was formerly a German possession. It is now under British control. The native people of the island, who make up most of the population, are Papuans. Tasmania is also part of the Commonwealth of Aus- tralia. This island is the southern continuation of the eastern highlands. It is mountainous, and in the moun- tains there are rich deposits of coal, tin, silver, and other minerals. Sheep-raising is the chief industry of the uplands. In the fertile valleys fruit is raised, and Tasmanian apples are famous for their flavor. Cities. Sydney, the oldest town in Australia, is the capi- tal of New South Wales and its chief seaport (Fig. 520). It has an excellent harbor and the supplies of coal and iron close by have greatly increased its importance. Melbourne is the capital of Victoria and one of the principal seaports. This city has become an important manufacturing and railroad center. The country about Melbom-ne produces the finest merino wool in the world. Melbourne is the city from which the great butter exports of Australia are sent to New York. Brisbane is the capital and chief port of Queensland. It is 25 miles from the coast at the head of navigation on a small river. This city is near certain of the great supplies of coal and gold; railroads on the north and south connect it with other important centers. Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is nearer Europe than the other eastern capitals and has a large export and import trade. Perth is the capital of Western Australia and the port of export for the gold of the state. Government. The Commonwealth of Australia con- sists of six states : New South Wales, Victoria, Queens- land, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. British New Guinea is called the Territory of Papua. In the Commonwealth there is a Federal Parliament consisting of a Governor-Genefal, who represents the king, a Senate, and a House of Representatives. Each of the states elects six senators for terms of six years. The number of representatives depends, as in the United States, upon the population in each state. They are chosen for three years. Equal suffrage prevails in Australia. Problems and review questions. 1. Name the four chief natural regions of Australia. 2. What mountains in North America do you think may be like the eastern and southern highlands ? 3. Where did the rich soils of the Great Plains come from ? 4. Why is most of Australia warm throughout the year? 5. What breed of sheep furnishes the finest grade of wool? 6. Of what value is the saltbush ? 7. Why is it dangerous to cross a great desert ? 8. Of what empire is Australia a part ? Fig. 522. Here is a group of native Maori men in front of one of their curious carved houses. They are dressed for a war dance. Fifty years ago the Maoris were cannibals, but since the. coming of the English to New Zealand they have become civilized citizens of the British Empire NEW ZEALAND 263 NEW ZEALAND New Zealand consists of North Island, South Island, and Stewart Island. Together with a number of the smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, they form a Brit- ish possession known as the Dominion of New Zealand. Most of the inhabitants are English-speaking people. Physical features. The islands are mountainous, with small lowland areas in a few places near the coast. In North Island many of the mountains are active or ex- tinct volcanoes, and in that region there are geysers and hot springs like those in Iceland and Yellowstone National Park (Fig. 521). In South Island are the beautiful Southern Alps, which rise to a height of over 12,000 feet. There the scenery is magnificent. There are waterfalls and swift mountain streams with rapids. On the western coast are long, winding fiords as beau- tiful and remarkable as many of the fiords of Norway ; these fiords were once filled with glaciers. Climate. Since the mountains are so high and these islands are in the belt of the prevailing westerly winds, the brown-skinned people (Fig. 522), came to New Zealand Fig. 524. Auckland is one of the leading seaports of New Zealand. Like Sydney it has an excellent harbor, and the largest ships can anchor at its wharves. With what countries does New Zealand chiefly trade ? Can you find any points of likeness between New Zealand and the British Isles ? rains fall chiefly on the western slope. When the winds descend on the east, they tend to dry up the country, though not enough to make it a desert. This is another case of a mountain range with a wet windward slope and a dry leeward side. At the weather station of New Zealand which reports the least rainfall there is usually about 23 inches in the year, while in the mountain areas the rainfall amounts to as much as 200 inches during some years. in great canoes. They probably came from other islands in the Pacific Ocean, and finding no other inhabitants they decided to stay. Many of the natives have now be- come civilized and are well educated. They are allowed a representative in the government. Pasture lands. New Zealand is a pasture land. When you look at the map (p. 260), notice that some product from the sheep is being exported from each of the large seaports. The sheep have no natural enemies on these Except in the high mountains the temperature in islands, and it is not necessary to have the flocks watched New Zealand is mild and without great changes from summer to winter. Native people. Hundreds of years ago a group of people, known as the Maoris, who were tall, handsome, Fig. 523. New Zealand is especially well fitted for the raising of cereals, and there is not one variety which will not grow in some part of the islands. This is a harvest scene on South Island. New Zealand cannot compete with Canada, the United States, Argentina, or Russia in supplying the European grain market. Can you explain why ? day and night, as in our western mountains, where there are bears, mountain lions, and coyotes. The eastern side of the islands was overgrown by coarse, wiry native grasses, but little by little the British people who have settled there have plowed up the land and sown the seeds of better grasses. ^ Cities. The chief cities are Auckland ■J/^^M and Wellington, which have the best ^^H harbors. Auckland is the largest city " (Fig. 524), but Wellington is the seat of government. Both are u{>to-date cities with all modem conveniences. Christchurch, on South Island, is the third city in size. The outlook. Gold, coal, and some silver have been found in the moun- tains, but as yet mining is not much developed. Some day, when there are more people living in New Zea- land, manufacturing industries will 264 PACIFIC ISLANDS Fig. 526. North of Australia, in the tropical seas, are hundreds of volcanic islands. This is Gunong Api, which means "fire mountain." It is an active volcano, rising straight out of the sea as an almost perfect cone. During the last three centuries Api has erupted many times, causing terrible destruction undoubtedly be developed . Most of the people live near the coast, and with their available water-power, and with good supplies of coal, timber, wool, and hides, electrical plants and such industries as shipbuilding and the manufacture of woolen and leather goods may easily be developed. PACIFIC ISLANDS We have considered the Aleutian, Hawaiian, Japa- nese, and Philippine Islands, the Dutch East Indies, New Zealand, and many other islands in the Pacific, and still there are hundreds of islands in this ocean that we have not mentioned. Most of them are the forested tops of volcanic peaks (Fig. 525). Many are surrounded by fring- ing or barrier reefs built by corals (Fig. 526), and some have been made entirely by corals. A fringing reef is built at the coast line, but a barrier reef is far enough out to sea to leave a lagoon between the mainland and the coral reef. See map opjyosite page 265. Some of the islands that are made entirely of coral are circular in form, and in the center of the cii'cle there is a lagoon of shallow water. Such coral islands are called atolls. The volcanic islands have the richer soils, and sugar and tropical fruits are raised there. The coconut palm is abundant on these islands and is very widespread, for the coconut, when washed into the sea, will float for a long time and may drift to some distant island and there start a new tree. Most of the natives of these islands belong to the brown race. They are good fishermen and clever sailors. Of late years many Chinese and Japanese have gone to the small islands of the Pacific to work on plantations. Great Britain, France, Japan, and the United States are the countries chiefly interested in these islands. Problems and review questions. 1. Of what nation is New Zealand a part ? 2. What prevailing winds come to these islands ? 3. In what part of New Zealand is the rainfall greatest ? 4. In what part of New Zealand is the rainfall least ? 6. What is the chief occupation of the people ? 6. What are the chief exports ? 7. How far is New Zealand from Australia ? 8. What three countries in the world have geysers ? 9. Ex- plain the presence of glaciers in New Zealand. 10. What resources in these islands encourage settlers to go there ? 11. Why is New Zealand a good country in which to raise sheep ? 12. What industry may be develoi^ed ? 13. Name the two largest cities of New Zealand. 14. What is the explanation of many of the small islands in the Pacific Ocean ? 15. Why are coconut palms abundant on these islands ? 16. Of what value are the island possessions to the great nations of the world ? Fig. 626. This island is the top of an old volcanic peak. It is partly forested, but here and there the bare volcanic rock stands out in steep cliSs. The slopes of the volcano have been cut away by the waves, leaving the top resting on a platform covered by shallow water. The steep sides of the volcano drop abruptly to the depths of the ocean. On the outer rim of the platform the corals have built a fringing reef, which is broken only in one place (at the left). This is the only passage by which ships may enter the lagoon and reach the small village which is on the inner island COMPARATIVE MAP STUDIES 265 PW;uitai)ti bj DuualJ MaoMUl^i l1 Hisn^rj Counesj til i,uturat Uisturj Fig. 536. This is an unusual photograph of the midnight sun, taken near Etah, Greenland, in the month of July. The photographer exposed the plate every twenty minutes from 11 p.m. to 1.20 a.m., thus showing the path of the sun in the arctic region during the season when it is above the horizon night and day. Which view of the sun shows true north? Problems and review questions. 1. Do you believe that the earth turns on its axis ? Why ? How long does it take to make one ro- tation ? 2. Why, at a given moment, is it later at Washington, D. C, than at San Francisco ? 3. About how much difference in time is there between Paris and the city of Washington ? 4. How do we know that the earth rotates from west to east on its axis ? 5. How long does it take the earth to revolve about the sun ? Zones of latitude. Between the tropic of Cancer and the tropic of Capricorn is the torrid zone, extending 23 1 degrees north and south of the equator. North and south of that zone are the temperate zones, and around the poles are the north and south frigid zones. Seasons and length of day and night. If the axis of the earth were upright, there would always be twelve hours of day and twelve hours of night everywhere on the earth except at the poles, where the sun would always appear at the horizon. Since the axis of the earth is inclined and the north pole is turned slightly toward the sun during a part of the year and away from it during another part (Fig. 538), the day and night are not of equal length in any place except at the equator. During the northern summer, when the sun's rays strike vertically north of the equator, the days are longer than the nights in the northern hemi- sphere. At that time the southern hemisphere is having winter, with short days and long nights. When winter comes to the northern hemisphere, the nights are longer than the days, while in the southern hemisphere the people are having summer, with long days and short nights (Fig. 538). On the arctic circle there is a short period of each summer when the sun stays above the horizon for twenty- four hours. Those who live still nearer the north pole may see the sun above the horizon day and night for weeks or even months, and at the pole itself the sun stays above the horizon for six months. The same gen- eral facts hold for the region about the south pole dur- ing the southern summer. When winter comes within the arctic or antarctic circle, the days become shorter and shorter, and for a time the sun does not rise above the horizon. When the nights are long in one polar region, they are short in the other. The winter seasons in the frigid zones are so long and so severe that living condi- tions become very difficult. Throughout the torrid zone the day and night do not differ much in length, and at the equator the day and night are always equal in length. This is because just half of the equator is in darkness all the time. The tem- perature in the torrid zone does not change much from season to season, and the hot, moist climate of that zone is weakening to all people. In the temperate zones a few hours mark the differ- ence between the length of the winter day and the length of the summer day. As the days in the north temperate zone become shorter those of the south temperate zone become longer. The changes in seasonal temperature are not so marked as they are in the Far North or in the Far South, but there is sufficient change to give great variety to the climate. That variety has been very bene- ficial in the development of civilized people ; it has led them to build good homes and to store up food, clothing, and fuel for the winter. They have found it necessary to look ahead and provide for the cold season. Angle of the sun's rays. The higher the sun is above the horizon, the more nearly vertical are the rays of heat and light. Oblique rays of heat must pass through more atmosphere, which takes out some heat, and they also spread over more surface than vertical rays (Fig. 537). Since a bundle of vertical rays warms a smaller area of the earth than an equal bundle of ob- lique rays, it warms that area more. This is one reason why the summer, when the sun's rays are nearly vertical Fig. 637. Two equal bundles of the snn'E rays overhead is much ^'^ ^^^^ shown striking different parts of the , , , . earth's surface. As many rays strike over the \ warmer than tne ,jjjg g ^g ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ where win the tem- winter season. perature be the higher, over A or over B ? Why? 272 WORLD GEOGRAPHY Problems and review questions. 1 Between what circles is the torrid zone ? 2. What circles limit the temperate zones ? 3. Where are the frigid zones ? 4. Why are the days longer in summer than in winter at points north or south of the equator ? 5. Where are the day and night always equal in length ? 6. Describe the different seasons in the north polar region. 7. Why is it warm at sea level in the tropics throughout tlie year ? 8. What difference have you observed in the temperature when the sun is high above the horizon and when it is low ? 9. Durnig what month at your home is the sun highest at noon ? During what month is it lowest ? Home work. 1. IMake a diagram with the axis of the earth upright. 2. How would that position affect the length of day and night ? 3. Where would the rays of the sun strike the earth verti- cally all the time ? How would such a position of the axis affect the seasons ? Winds of the world. Often, in our study of the different coun- tries of the world, we have re- ferred to the prevailing westerly winds in both northern and south- ern hemispheres, and we have referred to the northeast and southeast trades. These great wind belts extend around the earth (Fig. 539). Where the air is greatly heated, as in the equato- rial region (Fig. 539), it expands and rises. In that region there are few winds, and it is therefore known as the belt of equatorial calms. When air rises slowly, we are not conscious of any motion. The air on either side of the equator in the trade-wind belts moves in toward the equatorial calm belt and then begins to rise, helping to force the air in the calm belt upward. The other two calm belts, one about 30 degrees north of the equator and the other about 30 degrees south of the equator, where the air descends (Fig. 539), are known as the horse latitudes. From these belts of calms the trade winds start toward the equator, and the westerlies start toward the poles. Monsoons. In connection with the study of Asia, Australia, and some of the islands of the Pacific, special mention was made of monsoon winds, and on page 234 they were explained. Land and sea breezes. About the shores of all the con- tinents and islands there are land and sea breezes. Dur- ing the day, when the land becomes warm, the colder air over the water flows inland, making what is known as a sea breeze. At night, when the air over the land known as a land breeze. In each case the colder and thus heavier air moves in under the warmer and lighter air and forces the warmer air to rise. Uses of the winds. The winds are of very great im- portance to man. They are carriers of rain ; they help to equalize the temperature of places near the shore ; they hasten evaporation and dry the land after a rain. Wind power is now utilized to some extent, and it may be used more fully when new devices are invented for storing up the energy as electricity. The winds have a most beneficial effect in purifying the air, and have always been of the greatest significance in navigation. Problems and review questions. 1. Where are the calm belts ? ^Vhat are they called ? 2. What winds blow from the horse latitudes toward the equator ? 3. In what parts of the world do the prevailing winds come from the west ? See Fig. 539. 4. Ex- plain land and sea breezes. 5. How do the winds help in commerce ? 6. In what other ways are the winds helpful to the activities of man ? Ocean currents. The prevailing winds of the world set the sur- face waters of the seas in motion. The trade winds on either side of the equator blow the waters on the surface toward the equa- tor and in a westward direction. See maji on page 275. In the Atlantic Ocean the equatorial stream flowing westr ward reaches Cape St. Roque and divides. The northern part flows through the Carib- bean Sea, and some of it follows the shore of the Gulf of Mexico. The surface water that leaves the Gulf through the Florida Strait and starts northeastward is called the Gulf Stream. As it crosses the north Atlantic Ocean, helped along by the prevailing westerly winds, it spreads out, moves more slowly, and is called the Gulf Stream Drift. When this current approaches Europe, its waters divide ; some flow to the northeast by Scandinavia, and some turn southward and rejoin the equatorial current. The part of the Equatorial Current that flows south from Cape St. Roque is known as the Brazil Current. When it reaches the belt of the westerlies in the south- em hemisphere, it turns eastward, but a part of the water circles northward along the west coast of Africa as the Benguela Current and joins the equatorial current again. In both the north and south Atlantic, therefore, there are cools more rapidly than the air over the sea, the wind great circling masses of water called eddies. In one the is reversed. It moves from the land to the sea and is motion is clockwise and in the other counterclockwise. Fig. 839. Which way does the air move in the belt of equa- torial calms ? in the calms of the horse latitudes ? Does the upper air over the trade winds move toward the poles or the equator ? Those upper air currents are called antitrades WOULD GEOGRAPHY 273 "Waters that flow from the equator toward the poles are warm currents, because they carry warm waters iucO regions where the water is cold. The waters that flow from the polar regions toward the equator are cold currents. When the Gulf Stream flows northward into the arctic regions, it must return by such ways as it can find. Some comes back as the Greenland Current, some as the Labrador Cvurent, and some through Bering Strait. In the Pacific Ocean there is an Equatorial Current which flows westward and divides when it reaches the islands between Asia and Australia. The part which taras north we call the Japan Current, or the Kuro Siwo. It crosses the Pacific to the northeast with the prevailing westerlies, and divides when it reaches North America. The south- em part follows the coast of California and is known as the California Current. The northern part is known as the Alaska Current. The'portion of the Pacific Equatorial Current which turns southward and flows between New Zealand and Australia is known as the East Australian Current. When it reaches the belt of the westerlies, it turns eastward, and these winds help it along. As this current approaches South America part of it turns northward and is known as the Peru Current, which in time joins the Equatorial Current and thus completes the South Pacific eddy. During the days of sailing vessels the ocean currents were of very great importance in commerce. The cap- tains chose to travel with the currents, and thus had the advantage of moving with the winds and the water. The traders in the north Atlantic during the early colonial days would start out from New England with their cargoes and sail for England. From there they would coast southward by France, Spain, Portugal, and the Canary Islands, stopping perhaps in Africa, and on their return westward they would head for the islands of the West Indies. There they might exchange some of their cargoes and secure additional articles for trade with the Atlantic coast colonies when they returned. The great ocean currents will always remain of some commercial importance, although they do not affect the movements of the great steamships as much as they do the movements of sailing vessels. Fig. 540. This picture was taken from the top of Mt. Washington and shows the appearance of the cloud-banks which often surround this and other mountain peaks. Can you explain why clouds gather about the slopes of mountains in this way ? The greatest importance of the currents is their effect upon climate. We have frequently noted that the winds from over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream make the climate of western Europe much milder than that in the same latitude on the western shores of the Atlantic Ocean. The Alaska Current, which comes from the Japan stream, always carries warmer waters to the coast, and the air from over those waters blows inland and thus keeps the climate warmer than it would otherwise be. Owing to the cold current on the west coast of South America the air near the coast of Peru is cool, although Peru is in the equatorial region. The Labrador current chills the water and air along the northeast coast of North America. Sea bath- ing northeast from New Hampshire is not enjoyed by many, because the water is cold ; but the cold waters abound in fish. Rainfall of the world. Even Aristotle and Plato, the great philosophers of ancient Greece, believed that the waters of the sea must be connected in some way with the waters of the land. They noticed that the rivers were constantly flow- ing toward the sea, and they thought there must be some return from the sea to the rivers. They believed that the waters of the sea came back through the ground, rising in great cracks, or fissures, through the earth. In that process the sea waters were supposed to have lost their salt. Centuries passed before the true process was understood. As we now know, the waters from the seas are evapo- rated. They pass up into the air as an invisible vapor. This vapor cools and condenses. If the temperature where the vajior condenses is below 32° F., tiny particles of ice form, which may fall as snow. If the vapor con- denses at a temperature above 32°, it forms tiny globules of water, and when they fall we have rain. Thus the cycle between the waters of the sea and the waters of the land is completed by the moisture passing through the air instead of through the ground. Over and over again we have studied rainfall condi- tions. They have a controlling influence upon life in all parts of the world. When we j^ut all the facts together and look at the rainfall chart of the world, certain facts stand out very sharply. First, the heaviest rainfall is 274 MAP STUDIES near the equator. This is where it is always hot, where the air is rising and taking much moisture with it. In the hot belt, where there is abundance of rainfall, the great tropical forests are found. Vegetable growth is so dense that we think of those regions as countries of plants rather than as countries for men to live in. The largest tropical forests are in the valley of the Amazon and the valley of the Kongo, but the East Indies also have exten- sive tropical forests. See maps opposite pages 156 and 230. To the north and south of the belt of heavy equatorial rains are belts of lesser rainfall, where there are grass- lands. In South America, north of the Amazon jungle, are the grasslands of the Orinoco, and south of it are the grasslands of the Parana. In Africa, north of the tropi- cal forest of the Kongo, are the grasslands of the Sudan, and south of the Kongo basin are the grasslands of the southern plateaus. In Australia the great central plain is a grassland, and in Asia the lowlands of India and Siam are in part grass-covered. The next most striking general fact is that the. wind- ward side of all high mountains has heavy rainfall. Prove this by an example from North America; from South America ; from Europe ; from Asia. Now look at the distribution of the great deserts of the world. Many of them are on the leeward side of a mountain range. The great desert belt which stretches through northern Africa, across Arabia and Persia, and into central Asia is a land which moistm-e-bearing winds do not reach. In the far northern country within the arctic circle the amount of rainfall is light. That is because the air, being chilled in its northward journey, gives up its mois- ture before it gets so far north. The temperature is so low, and there is so little moisture, that the growth of vegetation is stunted. Mosses, grasses, shrubs, and trees a few inches high make up the vegetation of the tundra country. See map opposite page 2G6. The temperate zones are the most favored. They have variety in temperature from summer to winter, variety in vegetation from place to place, and variety in rain- fall, so that almost all kinds of crops can be raised and nearly all occupations can be followed. There are deserts in the temperate zones, but most of the land in these zones is well watered. The civilized nations of the world have come to occupy the lands of the temperate zones. They seem to have chosen those lands, but it is also true that the climatic conditions in the temperate zones favor the advancement of civilization. The geography of a country, including climate, phys- ical features, and natural resources, determines the activities of the people, and in part the degree of civilization which they may attain. MAP STUDIES Rainfall of the world. On the map on the opposite page, showing the distribution of rainfall, the continents are repre- sented in their correct relative sizes. 1. Which is the largest? Which is the second largest? Which is the smallest? See Appendix, page viii. 2. Where are the most extensive desert lands of the world? Give the names of these deserts. 3. Are the tundras of the world, as shown on the various relief maps in this book, in wet or in dry regions ? 4. Is the rainfall heavier near or far from the equator? 5. Where there is very heavy rainfall at a distance from the equator, what special explanation is there ? 6. In general, is the rainfall heavier near the margins of the continent or in the interior? Give examples. 7. In general, is the rainfall heavier in mountainous regions than in lowland regions? Give examples. 8. Which continents have the larger areas of heavy rainfall ? 9. Are those places of very heavy rainfall densely populated ? 10. What is the general average amount of rainfall in the re- gions of the world that are most densely populated ? 11. Select three or four places where grazing is an important occupation. What is the usual amount of rainfall there ? Oceans. The map on the opposite page, showing the ocean currents, is drawn so that the oceans appear in the correct relative sizes. 1. Which ocean is clearly the largest ? 2. Esti- mate how many times larger the Pacific Ocean is than the Atlantic. See Appendix, page v. 3. Which way do most of the surface waters move in the equatorial regions of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans? 4. What winds cause these currents ? 5. Compare the surface circulation in the north Atlantic Ocean with that in the south Atlantic. 6. Which motion is clockwise? Which one is counterclock- wise ? 7. Is the general circulation in the north and south Pacific like that in the north and south Atlantic ? 8. The monsoon winds in the northern part of the Indian Ocean change the direction of the surface currents from season to season. 9. Compare the temperature of the surface waters on the east and west sides of South America in the latitude of Buenos Aires. Why is it warmer on one side than on the other in the same latitude ? 10. Compare the surface temperatures of the water near Newfoundland and in the same latitude on the w^est coast of Europe. Why is there a difference ? 11. In what part of the north Atlantic west of Europe is the temperature about the same as it is at the surface near Newfoundland? 12. What is the name of the cold current that comes south- ward along the northeastern coast of North America, and reaches to the New England states ? 13. What current affects the climate of Alaska and British Columbia ? 14. Where are the surface temperatures of the sea the greatest ? 15. How warm is it in those places ? 16. How does that temperature compare with the temperature of the water which you would use for a warm bath ? 17. What is the temperature of the water near Cape Horn ? 18. What is the temperature of the water near the southern tip of Africa? 19. How caa the difference in these temperatures be explained ? ti««»dt't iBMrrvfUd UaaalagnfUc Fioj — ( ton UiiiD uiii Compftoj Average annual rainfall of the world O wii»'> lalwiiyml aoa.ti9iT*iitia FiojMtM* «'*' pp-*r~ 1. How does the amount of cultivated land in the United States compare with that in other large countries ? 2. Why is the cultivation of the soil so important to the welfare of a nation ? 3. What are our chief food crops? 4. Which of the food crops are so large that we have some of the raw material to export ? 5. What nation is our largest customer for foods ? 6. What are the chief foods imported by the United States ? From what countries do most of them come ? 7. Which of the foods imported in large quantities come from the Eastern Hemisphere ? 8. How may the amount of land avail- able for farms be increased ? 9. How may the production of food crops per acre be increased ? Home work. 1. What kinds of soil are there in the vicinity of your home ? How thick are they ? Have they been fertilized ? If so, how ? 2. What are the chief products from the soils in the vicinity of your home city or town ? Conservation of soils. Plants receive much of their nourishment from the soils, and the animal life of the world depends upon the plant life. It takes but a moment's thought to make us realize that we are abso- lutely dependent upon the soils from which most of our food and all of the raw materials for our clothes come directly or indirectly. Human beings could not live on this earth if there were no soils here, and the prosperity of a nation usually depends chiefly upon the extent and quality of its soils. Therefore the preservation of the soils and the Fig. 649. The low flood plains along the rivers are among the richest agri- cultural lands in our country. They are flat, extremely fertile, and easily cultivated. Such lands must be protected against the spring floods which wash the seeds out of the ground and make it necessary for the farmers to plant their fields a second time ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ To preserve the soils we must see, in the first place, that they are not washed away (Fig. 549). The rivers are very active, and each year they gather up millions of tons of the very best of soil-making material and carry it to the ocean or to the lakes. In some places in our country, where the forest or other native vegetation has been re- moved from steep slopes and the land cultivated, the soils have been washed away in from ten to fifteen years. That is a great mistake. China has ruined thousands of acres of good land in that way, and we should not be guilty of such foolishness. Slopes that are too steep to hold their soils when cultivated should be left forested or should be used as pasture land. In plowing lands that are not level or nearly so, care should be taken not to have the furrows run with the slope. When they run with the slope, rain water col- lects and flows in the furrows, increasing in amount and speed until streams form which carry away the soil. On lands that have even a gentle slope, that is, from 5 to 15 degrees, contour plowing should be practiced. In contour plowing the furrows follow around or along the hillsides. Each furrow is at a definite level. Such fur- rows do not make runways for the rain water, and the soils are not washed away. In addition to saving the soils, contour plowing forces more of the rain water maintaining of their fertility are the most important of to sink into the ground, and that water is absorbed by the problems of conservation that are before this nation, the plants and helps to produce larger or better crops. Fig. 5S0. Among the mechanical inventions of recent years none has been more useful to the farmer than the motor tractor. This tractor is driven by an automobile engine and is used to draw the different farm machines over the fields, thus doing the work which formerly was always done by horses Fig. 561. This man is spreading lime on his farm land before planting. Lime is an important fertilizing substance. By mixing it with such soils as need it the farmer can increase the amount of crops which his land will yield per acre. What would happen if farmers never fertilized their land ? 282 SOILS WS0^i^""W^ Fig. 552. Here is a Kentucky hemp field after the harvest season. The hemp is stacked up to allow the straw to decay enough so that the fiber can be separated easily. This process is called retting. Hemp-growing in the United States is not important as compared with the European industry Slopes that are steeper than 20 degrees should ordi- narily be used for forests or some tree culture. Orchards may be planted on such hillsides. If a field is not used, it should have some protective covering, such as clover or soy beans, to help hold the soil and to enrich it. To maintain the fertility of the soils we must follow the advice of intelligent, experienced farmers, of trained students of agriculture, and of other scientists who have made special studies of this problem. The air, water, and soil contain in abundance most of the food elements needed by plants. There are, however, three elements — nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus — that plants use up very rapidly ; and if we wish to use the lands continuously in farming, we must assist in returning these elements to the soil (Fig. 551). Nitrogen. Certain plants such as the grains, cotton, and tobacco take large quantities of nitrogen compounds from the soil. After such crops have been raised, other plants that help to restore nitrogen to the soil should be planted. A group of plants that include clover, alfalfa, peas, and beans have little nodules on their roots, where bacteria live. The bacteria take nitrogen from the air and combine it with other elements to make compounds called nitrates. The nitrates are stored in the roots, stalks, and fruits of those plants. The farmer who "plows under" such a crop will therefore enrich his soil with nitrogen. By choosing wisely and changing the crop on a field each year, the fertility of the soil may be maintained or even improved. The practice of changing the crop on a given field each year is called the rotation of crops. Repeating the same crop on a given field year after year will result in poorer crops and in injury to the soil. By using electricity nitrogen may be taken from the air and combined with other substances, such as lime- stone, to make fertilizers. This is now being done. Certain nitrate deposits in Chile are imported and used to fertilize worn-out soils, and manures are also used ou the fields so as to return nitrogen compounds to the soil. 3 INCHES ANNUAL PRECIPITATION Fig. 653. Many boys in Ohio and southwestern Pennsylvania have learned to take care of sheep. This district, with its good pasture lands, has become famous for its pure, high-bred stock. See map, Fig. 556 D. S. Dept. of Agricuttut* Fig. 554. Each dot on this map represents 5000 acres of land where cotton is raised. Very little is grown where there are less than 200 days without frost or less than 23 inches of rainfall each year. The places where the dots are thickest have very rich soils. The shaded areas in California and Arizona are places where the especially fine Egyptian variety of cotton is being raised Potassium is another important element in the food of plants that we must help to keep in the soils. Potas- sium salts are sometimes imported for use as fertilizers. Kelp, which grows in large quantities on the surface of the Pacific Ocean west of North America, has been used to produce potassium compounds, and some deposits of potassium salts have been discovered in the western part of our country. Phosphorus is the third food element of plants that is important for us to assist in returning to the soils. Phosphate rock has been found in large quantities in Florida, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Wyoming, and Idaho. More phosphate rock is quarried in Florida each year than in any other state. The rock is ground up and used in the manufacture of a very good fertilizer. Phosphorus compounds are made from the bones of animals and other by-products from the great slaughter- houses. Those compounds are returned to the farmers as fertilizers. Manures also contain phosphorus compounds and are therefore doubly valuable as fertilizers. They contain both nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. SOILS 283 V. B. Depi. o( A^rtcultur* Fig. 555. Each dot on this map represents 5000 cattle. In what states are the largest numbers raised ? Explain the clear spaces in northern Uaine, northeastern New York, southern Florida, southern Nevada, southeastern California, and western Arizona. Why is cattle-raising more general in the eastern half of the United States than in the western half ? U. S- Dtpt. of Arrleulttm Fig. 556. Each dot on this map represents 10,000 full-grown sheep. Most of the sheep in the United States are in the Rocky Mountains and the semi- arid or mountainous parts of the states on the Pacific coast. The hilly pas- ture lands of Ohio and the neighboring parts of Pennsylvania and West Virginia are also used for sheep-raising (Fig. 553) Other uses of the land aside from the production of portions of Iowa and Illinois, in New York State, in food crops. The crops of cotton, flax, and hemp are also eastern Pennsylvania, and in the New England states, of great importance to the people of the United States. About half of the cheese factories in the United States The cotton is used for making cloth, and the cotton seeds are in Wisconsin, and over one fourth are in New Yox-k yield an oil that is being used more and more as a food. State. Dairy farming is most prosperous in regions with It is taking the place of olive oil in many ways, and it rich pastures near large markets (Fig. 557). is used in making soap. After the oil has been ex- Hogs are produced chiefly in the corn belt, although tracted, the rest of the seed is used as a food for cattle they are common throughout the more thickly settled, or sometimes as a fertilizer (Fig. 554). Flax is used in making linen, and the seed furnishes linseed oil, which is used in the making of paints, oil- cloths, and other useful things. The chief use of hemp is in the manufacture of rope (Fig. 552). Live stock could not be raised if it were not for the grasses and grains that are supported by the soils. Horses, mules, cattle, sheep, and goats are needed in large numbers. Many of the lands that are semiarid or have soils too poor to be cultivated are used for graz- ing. Among the mountains there are excellent pasture lands for sheep and cattle (Figs. 555, 556). Dairy cattle are raised very generally throughout the country to supply local needs. Near each of the larger cities there are many dairy farms. Creameries are very common in the south- em parts of Minnesota and Wisconsin, in the northern Fig. 657. These are dairy cows. They are tended with great care, so that they may produce rich, pure milk. After the morning milking'they are turned into a good pasture to graze. Toward evening they are driven into a barn, where they are milked ; then they are turned out for the night well-watered portions of the United States east of the Great Plains. Poultry-farming is also an important industry, and near each of the large cities the poultry farms are numerous and cover considerable areas of land. Problems and review questions. 1. Why is it of the greatest importance to the nation to maintain the fertility of the soils ? 2. How do the plants secure their food ? 3. What food ele- ments needed by the plants should we help to keep in the soil? 4. What kinds of fertilizers do you know of ? 6. What plants help to restore nitrogen to the soils ? 6. What is meant by rotation of crops ? 7. Aside from the production of food crops, what uses are made of the land ? 8. What industries are directly dependent upon the raisingof cotton, flax, and hemp? 9. What industries depend directly upon the raising of animals? 10. What arguments can you now give in supjwrt of the statement that the soils are the most important of the natural resources of the nation ? 284 FORESTS FORESTS Original extent. The original forests of the United States were among the most valuable in the world. They covered a large area and contained a great variety of useful trees (Fig. 558). and those who are engaged in building houses have not always been careful to use up the small pieces of lumber. The old-fashioned way of tapping certain pine trees to get the sap, or resin, from which turpentine is made, usually killed the trees within five years. If modern Destruction of our forests. Nearly half of the more methods are used, the trees will live much longer and valuable timber in this country has been cut. We have been a most extravagant people in the use of wood. It is estimated that on the average we now use per person ten times as much wood as the people in France and about twenty times as much as the people in Great Britain. even more resin will be secured. Forest fires have been one of the chief causes of loss. Some of the fires have been unavoidable, such as those caused by lightning, but many have been due to careless- ness. It is of the greatest importance that campers should In the early days of settlement in the eastern half of not leave fires burning. Everyone who visits our forests the country the forests were often considered objection- should take care not to cause a forest fire, and should able. It took a great deal of hard work to clear the fields volunteer, if possible, to help put out such a fire. forcultivation. Manytimes there was no market for the wood, and great piles of logs were burned. With the rapid increase in our population came a very large demand for lumber. More wood was used as fuel than in any other way ; but millions of homes were built, great factories were constructed, and fences, barns, furniture, and thou- sands of useful articles were made of wood. Of late years large quantities of wood are being used in the manufacture of paper. In some places where the forests have been destroyed © Amerivaii Ueographjoal Sflcietj of New York Fig. 558. This map shows the forest areas of the United States. Originally the forests were almost unbroken from the Atlantic coast to the eastern margin of the Great Plains. To-day much of this great area has been cleared. Where are the evergreen forests ? Where are the hardwood forests ? Why are there 80 few trees in the Great Plains and the Western Plateaus ? Lumbering districts. The forests in New England were the first center of the lumbering business ; later Michigan became the lead- ing producing region ; and as settlement pushed west- ward Wisconsin and Minne- sota each had a turn at first place. When the Northern forests had been largely used, those in the Southern states were turned to, and then the forests of the Northwest. To-day Wash- ington produces more lum- ber than any other state, and Oregon ranks third. Each one of the states bordering upon the Gulf the soils have been washed away, and that has increased of Mexico is a large producer of lumber. Mississippi the danger of river floods. The forests bind the soils, and the soils help to retain the rain-water in the ground, or allow it to flow away slowly and evenly. If our forests had not been removed, the flow of many of the streams in this country would be more uniform, and that would make the streams more valuable in developing water-power. Waste in the use of wood. While we have used wood freely and for the most part for excellent purposes, we have been guilty of wasting large quantities of very valuable timber. Many times, when the trees were cut during the winter and heavy snows were on the ground, high stumps were left. Thousands of trees that have been blown down have been left in the forest, and many undersized trees have been taken for lumber. Each tree should be allowed to mature and thus gain its full size before it is cut down. Men in sawmills and in factories stands fourth of all states in production (Fig. 559). A permanent supply of lumber. It is of real impor- tance to us to have, here at home, a permanent supply of lumber that will meet our needs. Most of the Euro- pean countries import wood. Russia, Sweden, Norway, Czechoslovakia, and Austria are the only countries in Europe with wood to spare. Those countries are cutting more each year than can be grown ; their surplus will therefore become less, and undoubtedly it will all be needed in Europe. The countries of Africa, South America, Central America, and Mexico have little but tropical woods, which are more difficult to work than the softer woods of the temperate zone. Canada is now selling some lumber to us, but it cannot help very much. China, Australia, and India now have less lum- ber than they need. Siberia has the one large unexplored and almost untouched temperate forest in the world. FORESTS 285 BILLIONS OF BOARD FEET 2 3 1 Washinston 2 Louisiana 8 Oregon 4 Hiasiasippi 5 Arkansas - 8 Texaa T California 8 Wisconsin 9 Alabama 10 North Carolina 11 Uinnesota 12 Florida 13 Michigan 14 Virgfinia U Idaho 16 West Virginia 17 Maine 18 Tennessee 19 South Carolina 20 Pennsylvania 21 Geortria 22 New Hampshire 23 Kentucky 24 Montana 25 New York 26 Missouri 27 Indiana 28 Ohio 29 Oklahoma 80 Massachusetts 31 Vermont All other states (17) Fig. 859. This table shows the order of importance of the states in the pro- duction of lumber. A board foot of lumber is a piece of wood 12 inches square and not over 1 inch thick. How does your state rank in lumber production ? If its name does not appear, explain why its production is so small There are, however, several ways by which we may help to provide a good permanent supply of lumber in this country. 1. So far as possible we must stop the various wastes already mentioned. 2. Burned-over areas should be reforested. 3. Many areas where the forests have been cut off have soils too poor to cultivate. Such areas should be reforested. 4. Many forests are not fully stocked with trees. In such places more trees should be planted. No soil is too poor and no slope too steep for trees if they can get hold with their roots and receive enough moisture throughout the year. Experiments have shown that a mixed forest will produce more cubic feet of wood per acre per year than a forest of only one variety of tree. Some trees are very eager for the sun, and others do fairly well in partly shaded places. This is illustrated in the natural forests of Washington and Oregon. There the great Douglas fir is the tall tree, and with it are the much lower hemlock and red cedar. By study and experiment we must learn how to secure the maximum production of wood per acre, just as we strive to secure the maximum production of wheat per acre. 5. The life of much of the timber that we use may be extended by dipping it into creosote. That is a tarry liquid which will fill the pores of th^wood and prevent water or insects from entering and causing decay. Posts, railroad ties, paving blocks, shingles, and the wooden piles of wharves and bridges, when properly treated with creosote, last many years longer than they otherwise could. 6. "We must keep up a constant battle with the insects that injure and may kill the trees. 7. In many cases substitutes for wood may be used. This is being done on a large scale. Natural stones, bricks, concrete, terra cotta, tiles, and steel are now commonly used in building. Steel cars are taking the places of wooden ones, and steel furnishings in offices and libraries are in use. These substitutes for wood also offer a great advantage in reducing the losses by fire. That helps in the conservation of resources. The public and private forests all need to be carefully guarded, and men must be trained for this work. Scien- tific forestry must be promoted. It is a profession that offers great opportunities to young men. Problems and review questions. 1^ What portions of the United States were originally forested? 2. Why were there no forests in the other parts ? 3. How have the forest trees been used ? 4. How have the timber resources been wasted ? 6. Where are the chief lumber-producing regions to-day? 6. How may we plan to have a sufficient permanent supply of lumber in this country ? 7. Why is it very important that we maintain forests in the United States ? 8. State some of the problems that scientific forestry may solve. Home work. 1. Find out the retail price of one thousand feet of pine lumber. 2. What kinds of trees grow in your home region ? 3. How are wood substitutes used in your home city ? 1 BILLIONS OF BOARD FEET 3 < 5 6 - 1 Yellow pine { 2 Douglas fir 8 White pine 4 Oak 6 Hemlock 6 Western yellow pine 7 Spruce 8 Maple 9 Gum 10 Cypress 11 Redwood 12 Chestnut 13 Birch 14 Larch 15 Beech 16 Yellow poplar 17 Cedar 18 Tupelo 19 White flr 20 Basswood 21 Elm 22 Cottonwood 23 Ash 24 Sugar pine it Hickory 26 Walnut All others .-; - ^^^^^^^* U. 8. ForMt 8«rT)c« Fig. 560. This table shows the order of importance of the different kinds of wood in the lumber production of the United States. Which of these kinds of trees are hard woods ? Which are soft woods ? Which of the two, hard woods or soft woods, furnish the larger part of our lumber supply ? Great quantities of soft wood are used to make wood pulp for the paper-manufacturing industry 286 MINERAL RESOURCES Pres-i Illustrating Serrice, Ino. Fig. S61. These two miners are using an electric coal-mining machine. This machine makes a deep cut under the layers of coal, which loosens them from the mass beneath. Then a small charge of powder is set off, causing the coal to fall. By using this machine two men can do the work of twelve MINERAL RESOURCES Fuels The chief natural fuels other than wood are coal, oil, and gas. These resources are stored in the ground. They were millions of years in forming, and when used they are gone forever. The origin of coal. Coal is made of vegetable matter. Wherever we find a layer of coal to-day, we may imagine there was once a swamp forest. There vegetable mate- rial accumulated for thousands of years. The water of the swamp kept the air from reaching the plant mate- rial and thus prevented decay. Later that region sank and the sea came in and flooded the area. Sands, gravels, and clays were washed into that sea and in settling to the bottom buried the vegetable matter. More and more sediments were deposited until the vegetable matter was under a great weight. In many places the cover was hundreds of feet thick, and in some places it was thousands of feet thick. In time, by compression and by the loss of water and gases, the vegetable matter was changed into coal. All stages in this process are known, and samples that illustrate each stage have been found, from the peat in the bog to the coal as it is mined. Exhibits of these materials have been placed in the large museums. In some regions, where mountains have been made by the folding of rocks, layers of soft coal have been so com- pressed that they were changed into hard coal. This is the explanation of the anthracite in the Appalachian Mountains of northeastern Pennsylvania. The supply of coal. The United States is the richest of all the nations in the world in coal. There is more coal in this country than in all of Europe. China is probably our nearest rival in coal supply. We are Pregs IlIuBtrKtinit Senice. Ino. Fig. 562. The next step in the mining process is to load the coal on the little cars which are run along the galleries and hoisted to the surface. On the car the miner hangs a metal check bearing his number. When the car reaches the surface, the coal is weighed and the amount is credited to the miner fortunate not only in the immense supply but in the widespread distribution of the coal beds (Fig. 563). The anthracite of northeastern Pennsylvania is not surpassed by any coal in the world, and the great Appa- lachian soft-coal field, which stretches from northern Pennsylvania to northern Alabama, contains the finest bituminous coal lands in the world. The eastern interior coal field of Illinois, Indiana, and Keritucky is second only to the Appalachian field in the quality of its soft coal. This field is of very great importance to industrial and commercial development in the Mississippi Valley states. Coal beds underlie much of Iowa and extend southward through Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma and into Arkan- sas. Texas and the Dakotas contain extensive beds of coal that are coming more and more into use. The Rocky Mountains states contain a large supply of coal, and a portion of the coal in Colorado is of anthracite grade. The western plateau states and the Pacific coast states are not well supplied with coal, but the discovery of oil in southern California has, for the present at least, fur- nished the western part of our country with an abun- dance of fuel. The chief coal fields in the Pacific coast states are near Tacoma. There large quantities of coal are mined each year, and Tacoma has become an im- portant coaling station for vessels. Many of the coal fields in the western half of the country are owned by the government. They may be leased by individuals, or companies, that wish to develop them. Alaska contains several coal fields. There are large supplies of anthracite and bituminous coals and vast areas underlain with a low grade of coal called lignite. Some day Alaskan coal will be shipped to the western states and used in steamers on the Pacific Ocean. MINERAL RESOURCES 287 5. Substitutes for coal may be used. Oil, gas, and water-power are the best substitutes we now have. 6. Each person who uses coal can be careful and thus avoid waste. It is estimated that if each pei"son in the United States who used coal should save one shovelful of coal out of ten, about 50,000,000 tons could be saved each year. Problems and review questions. 1. What are the three leading mineiul fuels ? 2. Explain briefly how coal is made. 3. Why are some coals made harder than others ? 4. Where are the best coal fields in the United States ? 5. Which of all the nations in the world has the most coal ? 6. Describe some of the things that would happen if we were suddenly prevented from using coal. 7. What are the best sub- stitutes for coal ? 8. How may our supply of coal be conserved ? 9. Why should the coal be The use of coal. To-day most of our locomotives and most of the vessels at sea are coal-driven. In almost all of our factories coal is used to generate steam. Our modern travel, manufacturing, and transportation of goods would be paralyzed if we could not use coal. Many of our cities and homes would be dark at night, and when winter came there would certainly be great suffering in the world if we were suddenly deprived of coal. The people of the United States use more coal than any other people in the world. It is estimated that we now consume, on the average, over five tons per person each year. The rate at which the amount used has in- creased is amazing ; and unless that rate is lowered, our vast supplies of coal will not last but a few hun- dred years. But that rate must not go on increasing so rapidly. By properly conserving our coal it may be made to last for thou- sands of years. In spite of the immense production of coal in the United States, relatively little is exported. Canada buys more coal from us than any other country. Small quantities of coal are sold to Cuba and other islands of the West Indies and to Mexico. Coal is shipped from Norfolk, Virginia, to Tampico for use on the Mexican railroads and at the Mexican mines. The conservation of coal. There are various ways in which we can make our supply of coal last longer. 1. Prevent loss in mining. It was estimated that in the days before we appreciated the importance of con- serving coal as much was wasted as was used each year. That was a tremendous and a disgraceful loss, but it is gases went on deep in the earth and where the pressure being corrected. was great and the temperature higher than near the 2. Make little bricks, called briquettes, of coal dust, surface. These changes must have taken a very long Tar may be used to bind the very fine coal and coal time, probably millions of years. More oil and gas may dust together. be fonning to-day, but we are using up these valuable 3. Save by-products. In making coke it is possible resources many times faster than they are being formed, by modem methods to save the gases that are driven They are resources that can be used but once. off from the coal and to secure ammonia used in certain The natural oils and gases are commonly found to- fertilizers, tar from which dyes are made, and hundreds gether in the ground, and with them there is often some of other useful products. salt water. The gas is the lightest and is nearest the 4. Improve methods of burning coal so as to secure surface of the earth ; tlien comes the oil ; and below the more heat from it. This calls for the invention of new oil is the salt water. When a well is driven, gas corn- kinds of engines, new furnaces, and new stoves. monly comes off first, then oil, and later the salt water. Fine ruling » Known coal fields Coarae rnling- Doubtful coal fields i'-'--'-'-:'-'':^ L._=Coel under deep cover Court«j of eilubeth F. Fltb«r Fig. S63. This map shows the location of the coal beds in the United States. What states have large supplies of coal ? What states have no coal ? How does the coal in the Rocky Mountains differ from the coal in the Appalachian Highlands ? The coal under deep cover is buried too far in the earth to be mined with profit conserved ? Home voork. Find out from what fields most of the coal used in your home town comes. Natural oils and gases. The origin of the natural oils and gases in the ground is somewhat of a mystery. We do not know just how they were made, but most scientists agree that they must have come from the vegetable or animal matter that was buried in rocks. It is certain that large numbers of plants and ani- mals were buried while the sediments that make the sandstones, shales, and other rocks were being deposited in lakes or inland seas. It is certain that the plants and the bodies of animals con- tain the elements necessary to form our natural oils and gases. It is difficult, however, to discover just how the change took place. We are certain that the process of making the oils and 288 MINERAL RESOURCES Distribution of oils and gases. The map shown in Fig. 564 gives the location of the chief fields where the natural oils and gases are obtained. The first discoveries were made in western Pennsylvania. That field extends southward into West Virginia and northward into New Conservation of oil. As in the use of wood and coal, we have been very extravagant in the use of natural oil. Those engaged in producing the oil have been guilty of wasting large quantities by letting it run away or allowing free evaporation from open storage tanks. This York. The Ohio-Indiana field has been a great producer should be corrected (Fig. 565). riiJ-^ — fS^--i.-^--J — Pipe lines — Projected pipe lines ^ Oil and eas fields of these valuable fuels, and Kentucky and southern Illinois have also yielded large quantities of oil and gas. Louisiana has rich supplies of these fuels, California has produced and is producing large quantities, and the late development in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas has been marvelous. Successful oil wells are located in Wyoming and Colorado, and additional discoveries are reported every few years from many different parts of the country. A remarkable experience in this country has been the discovery of new fields as fast as the old fields were nearing exhaustion. It stands to reason that this cannot go on forever, and therefore we must face the problem of con- serving our supplies of oils and gases. Uses of oil. Natural oil, or petroleum in a crude state (that is, just as it comes from the ground), is used as a fuel. In some portions of the country where coal is not abundant oil-burning locomotives are used. Many ocean liners and ships of war are equipped with oil-burning engines. Most of our lubricating oils come from petroleum. They are absolutely essential in the running of ma- chinery, and therefore our' manufacturing industries are dependent upon this natural resource. Kerosene is obtained from petroleum, and it is com- monly used throughout the world for light. American kerosene is shipped to almost every country. It reaches Greenland and New Zealand and goes far into the in- terior of China, to places where few, if any, white men have ever gone. It is distributed more widely than any other product from America. Gasoline, which is now used to drive automobiles, motor trucks, motor boats, submarines, and aeroplanes, is obtained from natural oil. Naphtha, benzine, paraffin, and vaseline are among the many other iiseful by-products obtained from petroleum. A large part of the paraffin that is obtained from petroleum is used in the manufacture of common candles. Courteaj of £liK»beth F. Fuber Fig. S64. This map shows the location of the oil and gas fields in the United States. What natural regions produce the largest quantities of oil and gas ? Notice the pipe lines. Along these lines pipes are laid underground through which the oil is sent from the fields to the places where it is used or refined The lighter oils can be taken from the crude petroleum before it is used as a fuel. That will save very valuable products. Where water-power is abundant, electricity could be generated and used in many ways instead of oil. Individuals can always be careful not to waste oil, gaso- line, or any of the products that come from petroleum. Use and conservation of gas. Natural gas is the best of all the fuels. It is used near the producing fields in western Pennsylvania, southern Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, Texas, and Illinois. Many people use it for cooking and for lighting and heating their homes. Although natural gas is so valuable a fuel and so limited in amount, no other natural resource has been so recklessly wasted by the American people. In many cases, when wells were driven for oil, large quan- tities of gas came pouring out into the air, and no effort was made to prevent this or to save the gas. Sometimes the gas was lighted and burned for years as great torches. This was a most inexcusable waste. These great torches burned day and night, and it seems strange that they did not awaken the American people to the wisdom of conservation. It has been stated by one state officer in this country that the amount of natural gas lost in his state during twenty years was equivalent to throwing away forty-five tons of coal every minute. At best the supply of natural gas will not last many years. It is nearly exhausted in many of the fields now, and every means should be taken to conserve what is left. Problems and review questions. 1. What is probably the origin of the natural oils and gases ? 2. Where are the chief oil and. gas fields in the United States ? 3. What products that come from petroleum have you seen ? What are they used for ? 4. In what ways is petroleum transported from the wells to the refineries ? 5. How may the supply of natural oil be con- served ? 6. Of all the natural fuels, which is the best? Why? 7. How are natural gases lost or wasted ? Home work. 1. Find out how a deep oil well is made. 2. What oil field is nearest your home ? MINERAL RESOURCES 289 Fig. 565. This view shows a number of petroleum-storage tanks. They are located in a field not far from the wells where the oil is produced. One of the tanks has been struck by lightning, and the oil is burning. This is one of the ways in which petroleum is wasted Ikon Iron is the most important of all our metal resources. It is not the highestrpriced metal, but because of its abundance and great usefulness it ranks first in im- portance. There is a little iron in most soils, in most rocks, and in most of the waters that flow through the ground. In many places near the surface of the earth there are large deposits of iron, and where that iron can be mined at a profit it is called iron ore (Fig. 566). Distribution of iron ore in the United States. In this country the region that produces by far the greatest amount of iron ore each year is near Lake Superior. There the ore is of high grade and can be mined very easily. The surface covering of glacial soils and subsoils is removed, and the ore is then taken out by steam shovels, just as great excavations are made. This rich ore is loaded on lake steamers that take it to the leading industrial centers on the Great Lakes (Figs. 567, 568). Much of it is taken to Chicago, Gary, Detroit, Cleveland, Erie, and Buffalo. Large quantities are reshipped from Lake Erie ports to the Pittsburgh district and to points farther east. It is cheaper to ship the ore to the coal than to send the coal to the place where the ore is mined, for it takes nearly two tons of coal to make a ton of iron. Furthermore, the manufacturing centers that are near the coal fields are leading markets for the iron when it has been made. The Appalachian iron fields are next to the Lake Supe- rior district in importance. There the iron on-.s have been found in several lociJities from northern Pennsylvania to northern Alabama. The iron and steel industries were first established in Pittsburgh, and as the better ores in that district were exhausted Lake Superior ores were imported. The Pittsburgh district is still the leader in the production of iron and steel, but the cities on the Great Lakes have been rapidly increasing their produc- tion of these articles. At Gary in northern Ilidiana the United States Steel Corporation has constructed the largest steel plant in the world. In the Birmingham district of northern Alabama iron ore, coal, and limestone are by good fortune found close together. The coal and limestone are both used in making iron. Here there are no heavy transportation ex- penses, and the Birmingham region is becoming a strong rival of the region about Pittsburgh. It is the center of the iron and steel industries of the South, and it is certain -to increase in importance as manufacturing is promoted in the Southern states. Iron ore is mined in the Adirondack Mountains of New York and in a few places in the western part of tlie United States (Fig. 566). Importation of iron ore. Although we have great stores of iron ore in this country, we import large quan- tities of iron ore each year. The mixing of certain ores has been found to produce qualities in steel that are suitable for special purposes. Foreign ores are now being brought to our eastern ports, and especially to Baltimore and Philadelphia. Most of the imported iron ore comes from Cuba, and some comes from Newfoundland, Sweden, Spain, and the island of Elba. We are expecting iron ores from Chile, for Americans have recently purchased ore properties in that country. The Brazilian Highlands contain remarkably rich deposits of iron. American capi- tal has been invested in these deposits, and some day iron ore may be shipped from Brazil to the United States. Fig. 566. This map shows the distribution of the chief deposits of iron and copper in the United States. Where are most of the iron deposits ? Where are most of the copper deposits ? The dot on the south shore of Lake Superior and the one in Tennessee represent very important supplies of copper 290 MINERAL RESOURCES Fig. 567. The boat in this view is a Great Lakes freighter which has come from Lake Superior to Cleveland loaded with iron ore. It has anchored at one of the railroad wharves, where the ore is being unloaded and transferred to freight cars by means of a number of powerful unloaders oper- ated by electricity. In what cities may this iron ore be used ? Iron in world trade. The United States and Great Britain are the two leading nations in the iron and steel industries. They now produce more than half of the world's supply of iron. France, Germany, Belgium, and Russia come next in importance. In addition to the iron ore these industries require many laborers, much capital, good transportation facil- ities, and a large market. Deposits of iron are widely distributed throughout the world {see Appendix., jj. v), but only a few countries can yet develop the iron and steel industries on a large scale. Rails, bridges, girders and pipes, plows, mowers, reapers, farm tractors, windmills, and hundreds of other American articles made wholly or in part of iron or steel are in use in the most distant countries of the world. American rails are used on the railroad to the African lakes in Uganda ; they are also used in Manchuria, in Japan, and on the roads that cross the Andes Mountains in South America. The trade in iron is world-wide. The better grades of iron ore will be used first, and then the vast supplies of lower-grade deposits of iron will be needed. The amount of iron in the world is very great, and as yet but a small fraction of the total supply has been used. Conservation of iron. The problem of conserving iron is quite different from that of conserving coal, oil, or gas. Iron may beused several times, but coal, oil, and gas can be used but once. The iron-mining companies realize the value of the ore, and therefore are not likely to waste it in mining. The conserving of our iron will be chiefly accomplished by saving that which has been produced. Our chief problem is to prevent the rusting of iron or steel. This may be done by using paint or a coating of zinc or tin. Iron coated with zinc we call galvanized iron, and iron coated with tin is called tin plate. Sometimes expensive pieces of iron are covered with enamel or coated with lacquers or japans. The steel frames of large city buildings are protected with stone, brick, or terra cotta. Problems and review questions. 1. Where are the chief iron-mining regions in the United States ? 2. Name five important industrial centers where iron and steel are made. 3. Why do we import iron ores ? 4. Where do our imported iron ores come from ? 5. What nations lead in the iron and steel industries ? 6. Why do not small nations develop the iron and steel industries ? 7. What are some of the American iron and steel products that are sent to distant parts of the world ? 8. How does the problem of conserving iron differ from that of conserving coal ? 1. Find out why limestone and eoal are placed in 2. Find out all you Home work. the furnace with the iron ore in making iron. can about what actually takes place when iron rusts Copper Our chief supplies of copper come from Arizona, Montana, Michigan, Utah, and Nevada. Arizona and Montana produce more than half of the copper mined in the world each year, and the total production of copper in the United States and Alaska is far beyond that produced by any other nation (Fig. 566). In the Michigan mines, which are located on the south shore of Lake Superior, the ore is in the form of pure metallic copper. This is very uncommon, for copper is usually found with other minerals. The mines in the u.pper peninsula of Michigan were for a long time the greatest producers of copper in the Fig. 668. ihis IS a view in the hold ot a freighter which is being loaded, with iron ore. Notice the two great buckets which have just opened and dropped their contents into the ship. These buckets are part of the machin- - ery for loading and unloading which you can see at a distance in Fig. 567.' MINERAL RESOURCES 291 Fig. 669. This large copper and zinc smelter is located at Great Falls, Montana. At the left is the Missouri River, which has just come from the Rocky Mountains and has started on its long journey across the plains to join the Mississippi. The water-power at the falls is utilized to generate world. Some of these mines are a mile deep, and the copper is not yet exhausted. After a while the mines at Butte, Montana, surpassed the Michigan mines in the production of copper, and then the mines in Arizona took first place. There are rich supplies of copper in Alaska, and several million dollars' worth of copper has already been sent from Alaska to the Western states. In the Rocky Mountain and Plateau states the copper is commonly found with silver, lead, and zinc, and sometimes with gold. Many of the copper ores contain sulphur. When the different metals occur together or the ore contains other elements, such as sulphur, it is necessary to use heat and to invent mechanical and sometimes chemical ways for securing the pure metals. Many ores are first roasted to drive off impurities. Then they are put into great furnaces and melted, and the metals are drawn off and allowed to cool in small molds. Some ores are crushed to a powder and then washed to separate the hghter and useless rock material from the metals before they are roasted and sent to the furnaces Fig. 570. This is a view in the manufacturing plant of a great electric com- pany at Schenectady, New York. There are many other such electrical plants in different parts of our country, where all kinds of machinery for generat- ing and transmitting electricity are made. The use of copper wire in trans- mitting electricity has made possible the widespread use of electric power electricity that is used in many parts of this great plant. To this smelter are brought train-loads of ores that have been mined in the mountains. Some of these ores are crushed and washed, and some must be roasted. The large chimney located on the hilltop is connected with the main part of the plant to be melted. The sulphur gas driven off from the copper ores is used in making sulphuric acid (Fig. 569). Finally, when the different metals have been separated and pure metallic copper has been secured, it is shipped to industrial centers in this countiy or in foreign lands. Uses of copper. Copper ranks next to iron in usefulness to man. It makes possible our electric lights, telephone, telegraph, electric engines, and electric-car lines, and the distribution of electricity from the power plants (Fig. 570). Copper is used in the manufacture of boilers, lamps, and many other useful articles for the home. Brass is made by combining copper with zinc, and a kind of bronze is made by combining copper and tin. Importation of copper ore. Although we mine more copper in this country each year than is mined in any other country, we import large quantities of copper ore. The imported ore comes chiefly from Labrador, New- foundland, Spain, Italy, Peru, Cuba, and Canada. It is brought to this country largely because of the coal avail- able, which is used in extracting the metal from the ore. The cost of importing the ore is usually rather small, for many of the vessels returning from those countries find it difficult to secure full cargoes, and therefore give a low rate on the copper ore. Conservation of copper. This metal is so valuable that few if any people need to be told to save it. The miners are careful of the ore, and those who purchase the pure metal try to prevent any waste. The amount of copper in the world is limited, and the production cannot, there- fore, continue on the same basis indefinitely. It is per- fectly reasonable to expect that the amount produced in the world each year will decrease. Our chief duty is to prevent the destruction of the copper already produced. It can be used over and over again. The world will not need to go on producing such large quantities as it now produces if the copper already in use is kept in use. New methods of mining, new methods of extracting the metals from the ores to make profitable the use of lower-grade ores, and the discovery of more copper ore may help out the supply of copper for the future. 292 MINERAL RESOURCES Fig. 571. This map shows the distribution of the chief deposits of lead and zinc in the United States. What states in the Rocky Mountain region con- tain important deposits of lead or zinc ? What minerals are found in southwestern South Dakota ? See Figs. 566 and 575 Problems and review questions. 1. What states produce large quantities of copper? 2. In what state is pure metallic copper found in large qiiantities in the ground ? 3. Which one of our distant possessions contains, and furnishes each year, large sup- plies of copper ? 4. Where do we rank with the other nations of the world in the production of this metal ? 5. Name all the ways you can in which copper is used. 6. Why is copper ore im- ported into the United States ? 7. From what countries does it come ? 8. Discuss the problem of the conservation of copper. 9. Where may we expect new discoveries of copper ore to be made in the United States ? See Fig. 566. Lead and Zinc Lead and zinc are also very useful and therefore very valuable metals. They are found deep in the earth in mineral veins and very commonly occur together. In places these minerals form beautiful crystal linings to small cavities in the rocks. In other places they fill cracks, or fissures. Sometimes the fissure becomes so narrow and the supply of ore so small that the miners barely get enough, to pay them for their work. Then, as they dig on thn|ugh the rocks, the crack, or fissure, in which the ores are found may become larger, and the miners may find, deep under the ground, large supplies of these valuable minerals. The ores of lead and zinc usually contain sulphur, and that makes it necessary to roast them so as to drive off the sulphur. The sulphur gas is captured and used in making sulphuric acid. Lead and zinc deposits have been discovered in many of the states. Missouri, Idaho, Utah, and Colorado pro- duce large quantities of lead, and Missoviri, Montana, New Jersey, and Colorado (in the order given) lead in the production of zinc. Missouri produces much more lead and zinc than any other state. Southwestern Mis- souri, northwestern Arkansas, and northeastern Okla- homa form one of the chief producing areas in this country. There is another lead and zinc mining district in southwestern Wisconsin and northwestern Illinois (Fig. 571). In the Rocky Mountain states the lead and zinc occur with ores of copper, silver, and gold. Uses and conservation of lead. More than half the lead produced in the United States is used in the manu- facture of paint. It is an excellent substance to have in paint, but satisfactory substitutes should be found, and lead should be used in ways that permit it to be used over and over again (Fig. 572). Lead pipes are some- times used in our plumbing, but iron pipes are now more common. Type metal contains some lead, but the type may be remelted and the metal used again. Uses and conservation of zinc. This metal is most commonly used to galvanize iron. The zinc covering prevents the air and moisture from reaching the iron and causing it to rust. In this way zinc is helping in the great problems of conservation. It is helping to preserve a more valuable metal. Zinc, as was mentioned under copper, is used in making brass, and sheets of zinc are often placed beneath or behind stoves as a protection against fire. Zinc is also used in making paint. The conservation of lead and zinc will depend chiefly upon preventing loss in mining, improving methods of extracting the metals from the ores, preventing waste, and finding substitutes. Additional supplies of the ores may from time to time be discovered. Problems and review questions. 1. Where are the chief supplies of lead and zinc ore in the United States ? 2. What articles have you seen that were made of lead ? of zinc ? 3. Wliat ways can you suggest for conserving the present supplies of lead and zinc ? Fig. 572. The men in this picture are workers in a mill where lead paints are manufactured. This is the room where the materials of which the paint is made are ground and mixed. Why is it wasteful to use lead in paint- making ? What could be done to prevent this waste? MINERAL RESOURCES 29S; Plioto berttc«, Ino. Fig. 573. Years ago, when men first discovered that gold could be washed from the stream gravels in our Western states, they invented clumsy wooden machinery to help them in their work. This view shows one of these early machines, which was operated very simply by the turning of a wooden handle Gold and Silver The ores of gold and silver are usually found together. They are commonly associated in the ground with lead, zinc, and copper. Gold and silver are called precious metals. They are very valuable, chiefly because of their beauty. Most of the gold produced in the United States comes from the mountain, or plateau, states in the western part of the country. California, Colorado, and Nevada each produce large quantities of gold. South Dakota also ranks high in the production of gold. The gold mines in South Dakota are in the Black Hills, which are a part of the Rocky Mountains (Fig. 575). Since 1900 Alaska has been producing large quanti- ties of gold each year. Much of this gold is obtained from stream gravels, just as it was in the early days of most of the gold-mining camps (Figs. 573, 574). At Nome, Alaska, millions of dollars' worth of gold have been taken from the sands and gravels of the present beach and from old beach lines that the miners have found several miles inland. The United States does not lead the world in the production of gold. South Africa has first place, and United States is second. Montana, Utah, Idaho, Nevada, and Arizona lead in the production of silver, Fig. 575. This map shows the distribution of the chief deposits of gold and silver in the Cnited States. In which of the natural regions of the United States are most of these deposits located ? What states are known to con- tain gold ? What states contain silver ? In what hills are the gold and silver deposits of South Dakota ? Fig. 574. To-day placer mining (the name given to the method of obtaining gold or other ores by washing them from stream gravels) is carried on by means of dredges operated by electricity. The dredge in this view is dig- ging out the gold-bearing gravels from the bottom of a river in California the first place being held by one or another of these states each year. The United States produces much more silver than any other nation. Mexico ranks second, Canada is third, and then comes Peru. The four nations that lead in the production of silver are in the Western Hemisphere. The fifth place is held by Japan. Uses of gold. The chief use of gold is in making coins, but large quantities are used in the manufacture of jewelry and ornaments. Gold is a soft metal, and often a small amount of copper is mixed with it when they are both in a molten condition. The copper adds hardness, and the combined metals last much longer than would the gold alone. Uses of silver. Silver was formerly very important in making coins, but now it is much less used for that purpose. Tableware, jewelry, and many utensils are made of silver. Conservation of gold and silver. The conservation of these precious metals can best be accomplished by pre- venting waste in mining, by improving methods of extracting the metals from the ores, and by using the metals over and over. There are good chances that other discoveries of valuable ores may be made and that scientists may in- vent cheaper ways of treat- ing the ores, so that in the future poorer ores may be mined at a profit. 294 MINERAL RESOURCES Building Materials other thak Wood ^ost of the granite used in this country (Fig. 577) ; the In addition to the very valuable metals found in the next largest supply comes from the southern division of ground, man has discovered other substances that are the Appalachian Highlands in Maryland, North Carolina, and Georgia. Texas also furnishes granite. Granite contains many beautiful crystals of different shapes and colors. These crystals formed when the rock was cooling from a molten condition below the surface of the earth. Later, when the covering was worn away, the granite was left at the surface where man could make of it. perhaps equally useful. Sands and gravels are so widely distributed in the United States that almost every community has a local supply. These materials are com- monly used together in building roads and in making concrete. Sand is used in making plaster and in the manufacture of glass, bricks, sand- paper, and special roofing papers. When sand is blown by the winds against wood or stone, it cuts the surfaces wherever it hits. When men wish to remove paint from iron or steel structures, sand is sometimes blown against the metal surfaces by compressed air, making an artificial sand blast which will cut off the paint. A sand blast is also used in making ground glass, and sands are placed in large artificial water filters. It takes but a few minutes of thought to realize that these materials are very valuable. Clays and certain soft rocks that can be crushed to clays are also widely distributed in this country. Almost every community has some clay available. The clays have made possible the manufacture of tile, terra cotta, Fig. 676. This view shows a great cement block being lowered into place as a part of the founda- tion for a wharf. Cement is one of the most widely used building materials to-day use Slate is quarried chiefly in Maine, Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Georgia, and Virginia. Some slate is produced in Minnesota, California, and Arkansas. It is a very useful stone. We may know it best as a roofing material, but it is used for billiard-table tops, school blackboards, school slates, slate pen- cils, wash tubs, and many other things. Marble is another very useful stone. It is used chiefly for ornamental pur- poses. Vermont produces more marble than any other state, and yet large quantities of marble are quarried in Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, Georgia, and Tennessee. Colorado has a large supply of marble, and Publishers' Photo Service. Inc. pottery, washbowls, sinks, doorknobs, many different Texas and California produce some marble each year, kinds of bricks, and hundreds of other useful articles. The conservation of building materials. The formation Limestone occurs in almost every state in the Union. It is a building stone, a source of lime, and, when crushed, an excellent material to use in concrete construction. Certain limestones are used in making cement (Fig. 576). Home work. 1. Find out how concrete is made. 2. What uses are made of concrete near your home ? 3. Find out how lime is obtained from limestone. Sandstones are used in building, and some varieties are crushed and used in making glass. Certain kinds of bricks are made largely of sand obtained by crushing sandstone. Granite that is suitable for build- ing purposes and as ornamental stone is found chiefly in the Appalachian Highlands. New England furnishes Fig. 677. This is one of the quarries which have given New Hampshire its name of "The Granite State." What natural region furnishes most of the supply of granite in the United States ? of our building stones and of clays, sands, and gravels has taken millions of years. There appears to be an abundance of these materials in the United States, and yet it is in the true spirit of conservation to prevent their waste or destruction. When stones have been cut and trimmed, when clays have been made into useful articles, and when sand and gravels have been assorted and made available for man's use, they represent a certain investment of human energy. We should remem- ber that it is important to conserve not only raw materials but manu- factured articles, and the structures that men have erected should be con- stantly kept in repair in order to preserve their usefulness. WATER 295 Problems and review questions. 1. Name at least five natural resources that are found in the ground and are not metals. 2. In what ways are sands used ? 3. What industries are dependent upon clays ? 4. What building materials other than wood may be used in regions where there are no firm, hard stones that can be quarried ? 5. What stones are most commonly used for ornamental and monumental purposes ? 6. What are some of the most common uses of cement? Home work. 1. Make a list of the kinds of articles in your home that are made of clay. 2. What building stones are used in your home region ? Where do they come from ? WATER Water as a natural resource suggests at once the water supply for our cities and towns ; the ground waters that nourish plants and enter the common wells in the country ; streams that furnish power and streams that may be used for irrigating lands ; navigable rivers, harbors, lakes, and ice. Water is absolutely necessary to life. One who has never visited a dry region may find difficulty in realizing the importance of water. In arid climates the plants may be separated five, ten, fifteen feet, or more, and yet be crowded. They are as near together as the ground water makes it possible for them to live. Few if any animals can live in such a region. The trails in a desert or even a semiarid region may be found coming together, and one might expect that he was approaching a settlement, but the trails lead to a water hole or to a spring. That little water hole or spring becomes the stopping place for every wild animal and every man that travels that way across the desert. The wandering people of the desert meet at such water- ing places and often camp there overnight. In regions where water is abundant we fail to realize what a real luxury it is to those who live where it is scarce (Fig. 578). Fig. 678. This is a view in the southwestern part of the United States, where there is so little rainfall that the country is a desert. Notice the rippled sand dunes which the wind has piled up. Is there any way in which such a region may be made suitable for the habitation of men? Fig. 579. The building in the foreground of this view is an electric-power plant in California. The water from the stream is brought to a point on the valley bluff and then allowed to run back to the river through the plant. As it rushes through the building its great force is used to make electricity Water-power was early used in the establishment of industries in this country. In those days the mills were placed near the water-power sites, and the water-power was used directly to turn the mill wheels. This was especially true in New England. Then there came a demand for power at a distance from the water-power sites, and the steam engine, with cheap coal, was used. Now, with the modern methods of generating and trans- mitting electricity, the water-power sites have again become very valuable (Fig. 579). Those streams that have falls or rapids in their courses and have a constant or nearly constant flow throughout the year are most serviceable in developing water-power. The uniform distribution of rainfall helps to make the flow of streams uniform. Lakes, swamps, and marshes serve as reservoirs and control the supply of water to certain streams. The Niagara River, with four of the Great Lakes for reservoirs, has a remarkably even flow of water throughout the year. If those falls are ever completely utilized, they should develop from 5,000,000 to 7,000,000 horse-power day and night. Many of the small lakes in this country serve as natural reservoirs for power-producing streams. Several states have planned artificial reservoii-s to help solve the problem of a uniform flow in the streams that are used for power. Glaciers and snow fields serve as good reservoirs for streams. In the Pacific-coast states, where the rain comes in the winter, the melting of the glaciers and snowfields supplies the streams in the summer. In those states the streams descend through the mountain canyons with many falls and rapids in their courses, and offer wonderful opportunities for the development of water-power. 296 WATER ^5^^B!G?5^^r^S??;^^^^S^^R5WEB5^5:!S5:^!55?rT!B0DUCINa BEGIONS OP THE- WORLD Fig. 586. Is most of the world's silk produced in thickly or thinly settled countries ? in cold or warm regions ? Why is so much of the raw silk sent to distant lands to be manufactured ? Notice that South America, Africa, and Australia neither produce nor manufacture silk. Why are the chief American centers of silk manufacture in the eastern part of the United States rather than in the western part ? manufactured each year. Silk fibers are now being produced artificially in France, Germany, Switzerland, England, and the United States. It is a wonderful invention. Chemists have dis- covered a way to make a jellylike substance from cotton or even from sawdust which, when forced by compressed air through tiny holes in a glass plate, forms very delicate fibers. These fibers are so fine that from ten to twenty must be twisted together to form a single thread. The manufacture of rubber goods. The United States leads the world in the production of rubber goods and yet must import the neces- sary crude rubber from distant lands. The chief producing areas for crude rubber are Brazil and West Africa, including the Kongo Basin. In those regions the two largest tropical forests in the world are located. In the East Indian islands, in Mexico, and in Central America there are also tropical forests, 300 INLAND COMMERCE and crude rubber is pro- duced in those regions also. It is made from a milky- juice obtained from certain tropical trees. For many 'years crude rubber was used only to make erasers. In 1823 Macintosh invented a way to mix sulphur with rub- ber, and the product which he obtained was used in the manufacture of waterproof clothing, boots, and shoes. In 1842 Goodyear improved those inventions, and since then there has been a rapid increase in the rubber- manufacturing industry in this country and in the countries of western Europe. Since the invention of rubber tires for bicycles, car- riages, and automobiles the demand for more rubber has been enormous. Rubber tubing is used in all civi- lized lands, and large quantities of rubber are used to cover electric wires and in the manufacture of many useful articles. The increased demand for rubber has led to the devel- opment of great rubber plantations. It has led also to the invention by chemists of certain substitutes for rubber which are coming more and more into use. It is estimated that the rubber industry in this coun- try requires each year an amount of crude rubber about equal to one pound for every man, woman, and child in the United States. The manufacture of rubber boots and shoes is centered in southern New England. New England factories also produce rubber tires, but the manufacture of rubber D Pubtiahera' Photo Scrrioe, Inc. Fig. 588. This is a view in a hemp mill in the United States where strong ropes and cords are made. In the foreground is the raw hemp. Although the United States produces some hemp, it is not enough to supply the rope factories, and a large amount must be imported. From what countries is hemp obtained ? tires is now a very large business, which is carried on in many different centers. Akron, Ohio, is one of the very important producing centers (Fig. 587). Problems and review questions. 1. What large industries in the United States are absolutely dependent upon raw materials from foreign lands ? 2. Are they the only industries for which raw materials are imported into the United States ? 3. How is raw silk produced ? 4. From what countries do we import large quantities of raw silk? 5. Why does it not cost much to produce raw silk in those countries ? 6. Where are some of the leading centers for the manu- facture of silk in this country ? Why were the silk factories located in those cities ? 7. What parts of the world are the chief producers of crude rubber ? 8. Why should the United States take the lead in the manufacture of rubber goods ? 9. What Ohio city is especially well known for the production of rubber goods ? 10. What inventions have helped develop the rubber industry ? Home work. 1. Make a list of all the articles you know of in which there is rubber. 2. Of what is satin made ? INLAND COMMERCE With the increase in population and with the spread- ing of the people from the Atlantic to the Pacific there came the necessity for inland commerce. The settlers in the interior and Far West wished to exchange foodstuffs and precious metals for articles manufactured in the East or imported from abroad. The farms of the Central Plains and the ranches of the Great Plains increased in number and size, and their total output of grains, cattle, sheep, horses, mules, and hogs became enormous. Fig. 589. These lake freighters are being loaded with grain at Superior, Wisconsin. They anchor close to the great elevator, and the grain runs down through pipes directly into their holds. These vessels will carry the grain to the eastern lake ports. Of what will their return cargoes consist ? Trace the route of these freighters on the map between pages 95 and 98 Fig. 590. This train, drawn by an electric locomotive, is crossing the Conti- nental Divide on the boundary between Montana and Idaho. This is one of the railroads which climb the Rocky Mountains, making it possible to travel without change from the Pacific-coast states to the Central Plains. Trace the route of this railroad on the map between pages 95 and 98 INLAND COMMERCE 301 Fig. 591. This view shows a muddy, unimproved road over which trans- portation is slow and costly. As the inland commerce of the United States has increased, all the states have taken measures to improve the roads in order that products may be transported quickly and easily. Contrast this road with the one in Fig. 592 Fig. 692. The road in this view has been improved. Its surface is now hard and smooth, and wagons and motor trucks may pass over it with speed and safety. The two traction engines are drawing cars of road- building materials. Of what advantage is it to the nation to have good roads in place of bad roads ? Waterways. At first the waterways were the chief Our neglect may in time be corrected. In the early days routes for the transportation of freight and the chief routes of travel. The rivers of the Mississippi system directed the movements of people and of goods in the interior of the country. The Great Lakes became im- portant routes of transportation, and since the opening of the canals between Lakes Superior and Huron the traffic on these lakes has been very heavy. More tons of freight now pass from Lake Superior to ports on the other Great Lakes than are handled at New York, London, and Liverpool put together, and that is in spite of the fact that the canals at the Sault St. Marie are frozen for a period of three or four months each year. The Great Lakes will continue to be an impor- tant route for the shipment of copper, iron, and grain eastward, and of coal west- ward (Fig. 589). Large quantities of lumber are now being carried on the lake steamers, and that will continue to be so for some years to come. River transportation has not been promoted or devel- oped in this country as it might have been. The coun- tries in the Central Plain of Europe make a much greater use of their rivers as high- ways than we do of our rivers in the interior plains. 3 frou IlluftntlDf SnrTlc*. Inc- Fig. 593. Motor trucks now play a very important part in the inland com- merce of the United States. The trucks in this view are lined up in front of a great freight terminal in New York City, waiting to be loaded with goods for delivery. Of what value are motor trucks to inland commerce ? of settlement the movement of goods and of people was chiefly along east-and-west lines. Our foreign trade was, and continues to be, chiefly with the countries of western Europe. See Ajjjjendix, Plate B. It was very natural, therefore, that for a time the rivers flowing toward the Gulf of Mexico should be largely neglected. Now the trade of the United States with South Amer- ica and with all the countries bordering the great Amer- ican Mediterranean is rapidly increasing. The American Mediterranean includes the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. It lies between North and South America. The opening of the Panama Canal has made the countries of western South America and those to the west of the Pacific Ocean more easily accessible from the eastern part of our country. This should lead also to a greater use of our inland water- ways in the Mississippi River system, so that manu- factured goods from the in- terior of our country can go by way of New Orleans, rather than by way of New York, to Central America and South America. This use of the rivers should relieve the railroads of a great burden of work and reduce the cost of trans- porting certain articles. 302 FOREIGN COMMERCE Fig. 694. To-day all the large cities of the United States are important railroad centers. Each city has at least one and often several great railroad stations, and a network of tracks over which passenger and freight trains are arriving and leaving at all hours. This view shows the new railroad station at Detroit. Name ten great railroad centers in this country. See map between pages 95 and 98 Railroads. The development of our rich interior and Western states came just at the time when the American locomotive was being perfected and during the era of great railroad construction. It would be very difficult to say what stage in the settlement and development of our vast territory we should have reached by this time We have been sending bulky cargoes of cotton, wheat, FOREIGN COMMERCE Our foreign trade began in a very simple way. The planters in Virginia and neigh- boring colonies shipped their tobacco directly from their wharves to England and received in trade manufactured goods. For some time the colonists in this country looked to the mother country for manufactured articles. The settlers in New England had an abun- dance of timber from which to build ships, and they had a surplus of lumber and fish. These natural resources led to the opening of foreign trade. Vessels left the New England ports with cargoes of lumber for England and fish for Spain. They traded their cargoes for manufactured goods and started for the coast of Africa. There they took on cargoes of slaves and sailed westward for the West Indies. Some of the slaves were left on the islands of the West Indies in exchange for sugar and molasses that were brought to New England and there made into rum. The sailing vessels took advantage of the ocean cur- rents and of the prevailing winds on that circuit. When the steamboat was invented, the traffic east and west across the north Atlantic increased rapidly, until to-day it is the route of heaviest ocean traffic in the world. if no railroads had been constructed. These roads have made it possible to transport the products of the farms and ranches quickly, to send ores from the Western mines to smelters, to bring to markets in the Mississippi Valley the sheep and cattle from the mountain and plateau regions, and to ship westward the manufactured goods from the eastern and central industrial districts. Great railroads bind together the northern and southern por- tions of our country, giving to the people living in each portion the advantage of using products raised or pro- duced in the other. The railroads have bound the country together. They have made it convenient for business men to travel from one part of the country to another and meet those with whom they are trading. The railroads have invited people to travel for pleasure and thus see and appre- ciate the value of the different parts of our country. They have made it possible for representatives to come easily from the most distant parts of the country and take part in the government of the nation at Wash- ington. The United States is a large country, but the American systems of railroads have removed the diffi- culties that great distances presented and have enabled us to develop as a strong and united people (Figs. 590, 594). corn, meat, lumber, and copper over this route to Europe. We have been receiving less bulky shipments of manu- factured articles and, in addition, thousands and thou- sands of emigrants from Em-ope. We have produced more food than we needed and have taken in exchange products from European factories. ) PresB Illustrating SerTice, Inc. Fig. 595. The newest means of transportation in the United States is the aeroplane. The plane in this picture is a government machine which is used for carrying mail. At present aeroplanes are not used very generally for freight or passenger service, but it is believed that in the future they will be serviceable for this purpose FOREIGN COMMERCE 303 Fig. 596. Enormous quantities of raw materials from foreign countries arrive at our seaports every week. Piled up in the foreground of this view are logs from a species of hardwood tree which grows in the West Indies. These logs will be sent to a factory where they will be used in the manu- facture of furniture Since 1850 there has been a remarkable change in the foreign trade of the United States. In 1850 about 62 per cent of our exports were raw, or crude, materials, to be used in manufacturing, and about 17 per cent were manufactured products. In 1916 about 12 per cent were raw materials, and about 62 per cent were manufactured articles. Ovur imports in 1850 were about 6 per cent raw mate- rials and 70 per cent maniifactured articles ; and in 1916 about 43 per cent of our imports were raw materials for our factories, and about 30 per cent were manufactvu'ed products. This change has a very important meaning. We are not a land to which the crowded nations of Europe may always look for foods and crude materials for manu- facture, and we are not a country where the European nations can always expect to unload their surplus of manufactured articles. We shall need the food we produce, and more; and we shall manufacture all or most of the articles that we need. Our demands from foreign lands are therefore going to be certain foods and various other raw materials which, for different reasons, we cannot pro- duce in this country or which we can secure more economically from foreign countries in exchange for our exports (Figs. 596, 597). We shall want to import coffee, sugar, cacao, rice, spices, and bananas ; and we shall want silk, rubber, Manila hemp, jute, and a few other fibers. Palm oil and other products from tropical forests will be imported also. We shall probably continue to import large quantities of wool and great numbers of hides and skins. All this means that in the future we shall look more to the countries in the tropics, and to sparsely settled countries such as those in South America, for trade relar tions. We shall have manufactured goods in excess of our needs, to send to the new agricultural countries of South America. The trade may then be expected to increase more rapidly along north-and-south lines than along the east-and-west routes across the Atlantic. We may also look forward with confidence to a great increase in the trade across the Pacific Ocean. The people of eastern Asia and of Australia, New. Zealand, the Philippines, the Hawaiian Islands, and certain of the smaller islands of the Pacific are sure to want some of the wonderfully useful articles invented and manufac- tured in the United States; and in exchange they will send raw materials, foods, and many articles from their factories that we enjoy having in our homes. Problems and review questions. 1. How, in general, does the westward-moving freight differ from that moving eastward in this country? 2. What inland waterways are now much used? 3. What ones oiler great opportunities for future development and usefulness ? 4. What reasons are there for expecting the Mississippi River system to come into gi'eater use in the transfer of freight? 5. In what ways have the railroads helped in the development of the United States ? 6. With what countries is most of our foreign ti-ade now ? How may this be explained ? 7. How has our foreign trade changed in the last seventy years ? Why ? 8. Why do we now expect to increase our trade with South American countries and countries across the Pacific ? 9. What kinds of articles shall we probably always want to import ? From what countries can we get them ? Home work. 1. What parts of this country and what foreign lands are represented by the food used in your home ? 2. What articles have you seen that were manufactured in a foreign country? Fig. 597. This ship is in dock at Charleston, South Carolina. It has come from the west coast of South America by way of the Panama Canal. On its way north it stopped at Limon, Costa Rica. What products has it brought to Charleston ? Now it is being loaded for a trip to Europe. What will its cargo be ? What things will it bring back from Europe ? 304 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION SUMMAEY AND CONCLUSION A remarkable development of industries and com- The first colonists who settled on the Atlantic coast merce followed. We needed more raw material. Certain of North America came from the countries of western manufacturing plants required material grown only in Europe. Most of them were English, although there the tropics. Foreign commerce became more and more were many Dutch, some French, some Swedes, and important, and foreign travel became more and more some Spanish. common. In time, and in a most natural way, we came They came for greater freedom. Some wanted greater to have a real interest in almost all parts of the world, religious freedom; others wanted greater opportunities We should appreciate but not boast of the fact that to develop estates of their own ; many wanted greater we are now the wealthiest nation in the world. That political freedom. great wealth has brought with it a great responsibility. These people were fortunate in settling in a land in We must help other people and do more good in the the north temperate zone, with a climate that was suit- world than any other nation. Our great natural resources able for active lives. The temperature was not too cold have made it possible for us to become the leading manu- or too warm for men to work in ; the rainfall was not facturing nation. We must now supply manufactured too little or too much, but just about right for agricul- goods to distant lands and especially to people in newly ture ; the changes from day to day and from month to settled parts of the earth and in parts where coal and iron month gave variety to the weather and kept the set- are scarce. Our farming implements and our machinery tiers active and energetic. The change from summer should go to other lands to help other people to gain to winter compelled the settlers to use foresight. They prosperity in the development of their resources, found it necessary to look ahead and provide food, The people came to this new country with a willing- clothing, shelter, and fuel. ness to work hard, to put up with some difficult condi- The Appalachian Highlands helped for some time to tions, and to work together so that a new country might keep these early settlers near the Atlantic coast. Here be established, with greater freedom for the inhabitants, they had many interests in common and soon developed Many of those who came to the New World were people a strong and independent nation. with enthusiasm and with high ideals and great powers As time passed, these people found that they were in of imagination. They saw here the possibilities of devel- a country of vast natural resources. The fishing grounds, oping a great nation of free people. The descendants of the harbors, the soils, and the timber and other building those people have grown up in an atmosphere of free- materials encouraged the colonists to establish perma- dom. A great system of public schools has been devel- nent homes and to engage in foreign commerce. oped, and in those schools all children have learned the Little by little the settlers pushed farther and farther history of the founding of this nation, the ideals of the west. After crossing the Appalachian Mountains they early colonists, and about the people who have been followed the navigable rivers or the shores of the Great the leaders from time to time as the nation has grown. Lakes. The rich farm lands of the great interior of this In time we came into possession of foreign lands. We country were largely brought under cultivation. In time assumed new responsibilities in caring for those lands the farming and grazing lands between the Missouri and in governing, or helping to govern, other people. River and the Rocky Mountains were settled. Many In the World War of 1914-1918 we took an important prospectors went far west and explored the mountain part in order that peace might be made secure in this and plateau regions until all the land in the United world and that other peoples might enjoy freedom. States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, came to bo known. We now have a great responsibility, with other nations, Discoveries of coal, oil, and gas, and of iron, copper, — to help maintain peace and freedom in the world. To gold, silver, lead, zinc, and numerous other minerals meet these responsibilities we must maintain order and were made, and as a result mining and manufacturing prosperity in this country. We must conserve the great have been developed on a large scale. natm-al resources and work together in the friendliest The wonderful prosperity of those living in this country spirit to produce food and the raw materials used in the led millions of other people to come here. Immigrants making of clothing and in the building of houses. We came from nearly every country in the world. Each of must, however, do much more than merely support life ; the larger nations of Europe is represented in the popu- we must aim to promote the higher and better education lation of the United States. Most of the nations of Asia of all people, to promote the fine arts of music, painting, also are represented. Negroes from Africa were brought and sculpture, and in every way possible to make tlie here, and natives from many of the islands of the Pacific social conditions in the community where we live, and Ocean have found their way to this country. in the whole world, more pleasant. REFERENCE BOOKS The names of the following publishing houses are abbreviated as below : Amerioan Bk Company, New York (A. B.C.) ; American Geographical Society, New York (Am. G. S.) ; D. Appleton and Company, New York (Appleton) ; Asia Publishing Company, New York (Asia) : .\dam and Charles Black, London (A.&C. Black) ; The Century Company, New York (Cent.) ; Dopleton) ; Salis- bury, K. D., Physiography (Holt) ; Salisbury, Barrows, and Tower, Modern Geography (Holt); Semple, E. C, Influences of Geographic Environment (Holt); Smith, R. J., Industrial and Commercial Geog- rapliy (Holt); Staneord, E., Compendium of Geography — North Amer- ica, Central and South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Au.stralia (Edward Stanford, London) ; The Statesman's Year Book, an annual (Mac). Standard Atlases and Charts. Bartholomew, J.G., An Atlas of Eco- nomic (ieography (Oxford); The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, Vol. X, Atlas (Cent.) ; (ieography of the World's Agriculture (Dept. of Agriculture); Siiepherw, W. R., Historical Atlas (Holt); United States Geological Survey Maps (Address : The Director, United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C); Vidal-Lablache, P., Atlas G6n6ral (.\. Colin). Standard Magazines. Aula — Journal of the American Asiatic Assuciation (.\sia) ; (ieoi/raphicalJimrnal (R. G. S.) ; Geof/raphical Review (Am.G. S.); Journal of Geograpk;) (Am. G. S.); National Geographic Mauntries of North America. • Bishop, F., Panama, Past and Present (Cent.) ; The Canada Year Book, an annual ; Enock, C. R, Mexico (Scrib.) ; Koebel, W. H., Central America (Scrib.). South America. *Allen, N.B., South America (Ginn); Bowman, I., South America (Rand); Bryce, J., South America (Mac); Bi'Ley, E. C, Brazil (Appleton) ; * Carpenter, F. G., South America (A. B. C.) ; Enock, C. R., Ecuador (Scrib.) ; Enoik, C. R., Peru (Scrib.) ; • Her- bertson, F. D. and A. J., Central and South America (A. & C. Black) ; Koebel, W. II., Paraguay (Scrib.) ; Koebel, AV. II., Uruguay (Scrib.) ; Mart/nez and Lewandowski, The Argentine in the Twentieth Cen- tury (Scrib.); Scott Elliott, G. F., Chile (Scrib.). Europe. * Allen, N.B.,The New Eurojie (Ginn); *CARPENTER,F.(i., Euroj)e (A.B.C.); *Ciiamberlain, J. F., The Continents and their Peo- ple — Euroj* (Mac.) ; • Herbertson, F. D. and A. J., Eurojie (A. & C. Black) ; Lyde, L. W., Tlie Continent of Eiiroj* (Mac.) ; Mackini>er, II. J., Britain and the British Seas (Appleton) ; Partsch, J., Central Euroi)e (Appleton). Africa. * Carpenter, F. G., Africa (A. B.C.); • Dr Chaii.h-, P., Adventures in tlie Great Forest of Equatorial Africa (Scrib.) ; • Her- bertson, F. D. and A. J., Africa (A. & C. Bhu'k). Asia. * Allen, N. B., Asia (Ginn); •Carpenter, F. (i., Asia (A. B.C.); * Chamberlain, J. F., Asia (Mac); •Finnemore, J., Homes of Many Lands — India (A. &C. Black); • Herbertson, F. D. and A. J., Asia (A. & C. Black) ; Hogarth, D. (}., The Nearer East (Appleton) ; HoLDiCH, T., India (Appleton); •Hi-ntington, E., Asia (Rand); Little, A., The Far Ea.st (Appleton); 'Lyde, L. W., A Geography of Asia (Mac;.); • Redway, J. W., All Aniund Asia (Sorib.). Australia. • Carpenter, F. G., Au.stralia, Our Colonies and Islands of the Sea (A. B. C.) ; • Fox, F., Australia (A. & C. Black) ; • Gilson, J. C, Wealth of tlie World's Waste Places and Oceania (Scrib.) ; •Herbertson, F. D. and A. J., .\ustralia and Oceania (A. & C. Black); •Kellogg, E. M., The World and its People — Book VIII, Australia and the Islaiuls of the Sea (Burdett). Polar Regions. •Horton, The Frozen North (Heath); •Hutton, S. K., Among tlie Eskimos of Labrador (Lip.); MacMillan, D. B., Four Years in the Whitt^ North (Harpers); Peary, R. E., The North Pole (Stokes); • Rasml'ssen, K.,The People of the Polar North (Kegan Paul); •ScHWATKA, F., The Children of the Cold (Ed. Pub.); StekAnsson, v.. My Life with the Eskimo (Mac). World (jCOgraphy. • Herbertson, F. D. and A. J., Man and his AVork (A. & C. Black); Herbertson, F. D. and A. J., World (ieography (The Clarendon Press, Oxford) ; * Lyde, L. W., Man and his Markets (Mac). A 160° C Loni. 120° WeM D from 100° G^en E >r^ 60 N T A B C T I C . ANTAACTIC CtnCLE O C E A N .?^^S.TtEfaRA D£L FUEGU Cape Horn/ \ ./ V-- ' " THE WORLD MAP SHOWING GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATIONS Mercator's Projection Scales alone the Equator °f° "^ Statute miles soo 1000 laoo -SS°° Nautical miles ?y Kilometers A 160° 140° 120° 100° 80° i^W F l*"*"' 60° Z™™ G Green. 40° 20° Plate A ®Ginn and Comiiany IV APPENDIX el bourn ey WHEAT- PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD With dates of harrest.and export routes HEIGHTS OF PEINCIPAL MOUNTAINS NORTH AMERICA Most of the wheat of the world is grown in temperate climates where the rainfall is not more than 30 inches. What countries seem to be of world importance in the production of wheat ? What countries seem to produce more wheat than they need ? During what months is wheat harvested in the different parts of the world ? CATTLE-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD With routes of exporting beef The three countries that lead in the production of cattle are India, the United States, and Argentina. Although India ranks first in number, the cattle in that country are used very little for meat or milk but mostly as beasts of burden. Which of the cattle-raising coun- tries are exporters of beef to other parts of the world ? Name Mt. McKinley Mt. Logan . Mt. Orizaba . Mt. St. Elias Mt. Popocatepetl . Mt. Iztaccihuatl Mt. Whitney . . Mt. Kainier (Tacoma Longs Peak . Mt. Shasta . Pikes Peak . Mt. Holy Cross Lassen Peak Mt. Washington Mt. Marcy . . Location Alaska . Canada . Mexico . Canada . Mexico . Mexico . California Washington Colorado California Colorado Colorado Oregon . New Hampshire New York . . Mt. Aconcagua . Mt. lUimani Mt. Chimborazo Mt. Cotopaxi . Mt. Misti . . . Mt. Tolima . . Mt. Itatiaya . . Mt. Roraima . Mt. Elbruz Mt. Blanc Monte Rosa Mt. Etna . Ben Nevis Mt. Vesuvius Mt. Everest . . Mt. Kanchanjanga Mt. Dapsang Mt. Demavend Mt. Ararat . Mt. Hermon . Mt. Sinai . . SOUTH AMERICA . Argentina . Bolivia . . Ecuador . . Ecuador . . Peru . . . Colombia . Brazil . Venezuela EUROPE Transcaucasia France . Italy . . Sicily . Scotland Italy . . ASIA India . . . India . . Tibet . . Persia . . Transcaucasia Palestine Sinai Pen . Height IK Feet 20,300 19,540 18,242 18,000 17,782 17,343 14,501 14,408 14,255 14,162 14,110 13,978 10,465 6,293 5,844 22,812 21,188 20,702 19,498 19,200 18,432 8,898 8,635 18,525 15,780 15,215 10,742 4,406 4,260 29,003 28,146 26,477 18,603 16,925 9,052 8,593 WOOL-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD With dates of clippins^and export routes JROPIC 0F_ -•"^O; K-Jff Sy d ney We)fington The three countries that lead in the production of wool are Australia, Argentina, and the United States. What countries are the chief exporters of wool ? Where is the wool used ? Compare the months in which sheep are clipped in the northern hemisphere with the months of clipping in the southern hemisphere. At what season are sheep clipped all over the world ? Mt. Kilimanjaro Mt. Kenia . . Mt. Tenerife Mt. Miltsin . . AFRICA . East Africa . East Africa . Canary Islands . Morocco . . . AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA Mauna Loa Hawaiian Islands Mt. Kosciusko .... Australia . . . Kilauea Hawaiian Islands 19,718 18,373 12,172 11,400 13,675 7,328 4,039 PEINCIPAL RIVERS NORTH AMERICA Length Basin Area in Name in Miles ' Square Miles' Missouri-Mississippi . 4,200 1,250,000 Mackenzie .... 2,400 440,000 Yukon 2,050 440,000 St. Lawrence ... 2,000 350,000 > Estimated APPENDIX NORTH AMERICA (Continued) Name Nelson . • Rio Grande Columbia . Lenutii IN Miles Basin Akea in Square Miles 1,800 355,000 1,800 180,000 1,400 250,000 Colorado 1,100. SOUTH AMERICA Amazon 4,000 . . . ParaniS-Plata . . . . 2,300. . . Sao Francisco . . . 1,680. Orinoco 1,500. . . 250,000 2,500,000 1,250,000 190,000 300,000 EUROPE Volga, 2,300 500,000 Danube 2,000 300,000 bniejier 1,230 175,000 Rhine 960 65,000 Dvina 700. Elbe 550. Sa6nerUh6ne . . . 550. Seine 497. Thames 215. ASIA Yangtze 3,300. Hwang 2,700. Lena 2,550. Ob 2,500. Brahmaputra' . . . 2,000. Indus 2,000. Ganges ..... 1,800 . Amur 1,500. 140,000 42,000 33,000 23,000 6,000 500,000 540,000 600,000 920,000 425,000 320,000 450,000 600,000 AFRICA Nile 4,000 1,400,000 Niger 3,500 600,000 Kongo 3,300 1,500,000 Zambezi 1,800 440,000 NATIONAL PARKS — UNITED STATES National Parks Hot Springs, 1832 . Yellowstone, 1872 . Sequoia, 1890 . . Yosemite, 1890 . . General Grant, 1890 Mt. Rainier, 1899 . Crater Lake, 1902 Wind Cave, 1903 . Piatt, 1904 . . . Sullys Hill, 1904 . Mesa Verde, 1900 . Glacier, 1910 . . Rocky Mountain, 1015 Hawaii, 1916 . . Lassen Volcanic, 1910 Mt. McKinley, 1917 Grand Canyon, 1910 Lafayette, 1919 . Location Middle Arkansas . . . Northwestern Wyoming Middle eastern California Middle eastern California Middle eastern California West central Washington Southwest<;rn Oregon . South Dakota . . . Southern Oklahoma . North Dakota . . . Southwestern Colorado Northwestern Montana North middle Colorado Hawaiian Islands . . Northern California . South central Alaska . North central Arizona Maine coast .... Square Miles n 3,348 252 1,125 4 324 249 17 77 1,.')34 398 118 124 2,200 058 8 AREA OF OCEANS Pacific . Atlantic . Indian . Square Miles 65,688,000 38,640,000 25,500,000 Antarctic Arctic . Square Miles 9,000,000 . 4,636,000 COTTON-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD With dates of pickinK.and export routes The United States produces about three fifths of the world's cotten. India and Egypt are also important cotton-raising countries. Egypt produces an especially fine quality of long- fibered cotton. The United Kingdom imports more cotton thaff any other country. During what months is most of the cotton-picking done ? What countries are exporters of cotton ? What are the chief ports of coUoiV^xport ? COAL-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD Is there any continent without some coal ? What continent seems to have the largest supply of coal ? What one seems to have the least coal ? The United States and Great Britain are the two leading coal-producing countries of the world. The amount of coal used per person is larger in the United States than in any other country IRON-PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE WORLD Iron is a very widely distributed mineral resource. Is there any continent where iron has not been discovered ? The production of iron in the United States is greater than in any other country in the world. The iron deposits in southern Brazil are very great, but as yet they have not been extensively mined. What countries produce both iron and coal ? I A 160° B 100° Lona E t'Mde 80° West F from 60° Green G wich 40° H THE WORLD MAP SHOWING GREAT TRADE ROUTES Mercator'8 Projection P BO V^ t^ ^M : Scales alons the Equator 600 lOOO 1600 ' Nautical mil« 600 lOOO 20OO 3000 Kilometeij A 160° 120° 100° Long E ilude 80° West F from 60° Green G tuich 40° 20° K 20 Plate B 0° Long H itude 80° Ea$t from 100° Green P wieh 120' ) Ginn and Coinpuiiy VUl APPENDIX THE UNITED STATES Area in Popplatton NAMES OF Square Estimateu, S'lATEs Miles 1919 Alabama 51,998 2,426,602 Arizona 113,950 280,280 Arkansas 53,335 1,819,587 California 158,297 3,209,792 Colorado 103,948 1,040,842 Connecticut .... 4,965 1,307,103 Delaware 2,370 218,722 District of Columbia . 70 ' 379,886 Florida . . . . . . 58,666 . 961,569 Georgia . ■. . . . . 59,265 2,975,394 Idaho . . . . . . 83,888 478,356 Illinois 56,665 6,400,473 Indiana 36,354 2,872,842 Iowa ....... 56,147 2,224,771 Kansas , . ' . . . . 82,158 1,890,520 Kentucky 40,598 2,423,001 Louisiana 48,500 1,912,603 Maine 33,040 , 787,042 Maryland 12,327 1,395,405 Massachusetts . . . 8,200 3,889,007 Michigan 57,980 3,173,089 Minnesota 84,682 2,378,128 Mississippi 46,865 2,026,361 Missouri. ..... 69,420 3,467,401 Montana .... . 140,997 499,810 Nebraska 77,520 1,309,027 Nevada 110,090 118,745 New Hampshire ... 9,341 448,274 New Jersey .... 8,224 3,140,547 New Mexico . . . - . 122,034 450,381 New York 49,204 10,833,795 North Carolina . . . 52,420 2,497,008 North Dakota .... 70,837 817,554 Ohio • . 41,040 5,335,.543 Oklahoma 70,057 2,405,402 Oregon 90,099 914,493 Pennsylvania .... 45,120 8,936,091 Rhode Island .... 1,248 648,964 South Carolina . . . 30,989 1,678,664 South Dakota .... 77,615 753,897 Tennessee 42,022 2,337,879 Texas 265,896 4,687,136 Utah 84,990 463,431 Vermont 9,504 307,439 Virginia 42,627 2,255,036 Washington .... 69,127 1,723,757 West Virginia . . . 24,170 1,465,729 Wisconsin 50,060 2,580,800 Wyoming 97,914 195,791 PRINCIPAL COUNTEIES AND COLONIES NORTH AMERICA 10,050,000 143,000,000 VEAB AREA POPl'LATIO.N 1918 Bahama Islands . 4,404 59,928* 1917 Bermuda I-slands . 19 21,029 1917 British Honduras . 8,598 42,732* 1918 Canada . . 3,729,065 8,593,000* 1917 Co.sta Rica . . . 23,000* 454,995* 1916 Cuba 44,215 2,627,530 1913 Dominican Republic 18,045* 708,000* 1911 Greenland . . . 40,740 13,449 1915 Guatemala . . . 48,290* 2,003,579* • Estimated, YEAR 1912 1910 1911 1912 1917 1917 1917 1917 1919 Haiti (republic) Honduras Jamaica . Mexico Newfoundland Nicaragua Panama Salvador . United States I South America 1918 1915 1917 1917 1917 1912 1918 1915 1911 1917 1908 1917 1917 Argentina Bolivia Brazil . British Guiana Chile . . . Colombia . Dutch Guiana Ecuador . French Guiana Paraguay . Peru ... Uruguay . Venezuela AREA 10,204* 44,275* 4,431 707,198 42,734 49,2005 32,380 7,225 „,026,789i 7,S00,000 1,153,119 . 514,155 3,290,564* . 89,480 . 289,829 . 440,840* . 40,000 . 110,000* . 32,000* . 165,000* . 722,461 . 72,153 . 398,594* POPULATION 2,500,000* 613,758* 831,383 15,501,684* 252,464 800,000* . 401,554* 1,287,722* 100,871,294*1 59,000,000 8,284,200* 2,889,970* 27,473,579* 313,999* 3,870,002 5,071,101 92,284 2,000,000* 49,009 1,000,000* 4,500,000* 1,407,247* 2,250^000 EUROPE 3,900,000 470,000,000 1918 1919 1919 1917 1919 1910 1011 1919 1919 1919 1919 1919 1919 1917 1911 1919 1919 1919 1919 1910 1917 1910 1919 1911 1919 1919 1911 1916 1917 1915 1913 1919 1911 Albania . Austria Belgium . Bulgaria . Czechoslovali Denmark . England . Esthonia . Finland France Germany . Greece Hungary . Iceland Ireland Italy . . Jugoslavia Latvia . Lithuania Luxemburg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal . Rumania . Russia . Scotland . Spain . Sweden Switzerland Turkey(in E Ukraine Wales . . 10,900 . 30,000* . 11,755 . 47,750* . 50,000* . 17,000* . 50,874 . 17,500* . 125,689 . 212,659 . 175,000* . 51,000* . 46,000* . 39,709 . 32,586 . 124,000* . 100,000* . 24,700* . 46,000* . . 998 ' . 13,196 . 124,642 . 135,367* . 35,490 . 110,000* 1,300,000* . 30,405 . 194,783 . 173,035 . 15,976 urope) 10,882 300,000* 7,466 Alaska .... Guam .... Hawaii .... Panama Canal Zone Philippine Islands Porto Rico . Samoa .... Virgin Islands . 900,000* 6,500,000* 7,593,864 5,517,700* 13,000,000* 3,000,000* 34,045,290 1,750,000* 3,300,000* 41,470,272* 50,000,000* 7,000,000* 11,000,000* 92,000* 4,390,219 38,000,000* 13,000,000* 2,000,000* 0,000,000* 259,891 0,724,003 2,391,782 36,234,727* 5,957,985 15,000,000* 05,000,000* 4,700,904 20,747,893* 5,800,847* 3,880,500* 1,891,000 35,000,000* 2,025,202 > Exclusive of outlying possessions. AREA POPULATION ASIA 16,000,000 YEAK AKEA 1911 Aden ... 75 1919 Afghanistan . 250,000* 1913 Arabia . . . 1,200,000* 1919 Armenia . . 80,000* 1911 Baluchistan. . 134,038 1918 Bhutan '. . . 20,000* 1918 Bokhara . . . 83,000 1917 Ceylon . ;. . 25,481 1914 China ... . 3,913,500 1917 Chosen (Korea) 84,738 1917 Dutch E. Indies 735,000 1919 Hejaz ., . ' , . 96,500* 1917 India . . . 1,802,629 1914 Indo-China . . 256,000 1917 Japan ... 148,756 1917 Java (also under Dutch E; Indies) 50,557 1918 Khiva 1913 Mesopotamia 1918 Nepal . . . 1919 Oman . . . 1913 Palestine . 1918 Persia . . 1918 Siam . . . 1915 Siberia . 24,000 . 143,250 . 54,000 . 82,000* . 10,000* . 628,000 . 195,000 .4,831,882 690,884 210 . 6,449 442 115,026 . 3,435 77 132 64,912 14,142 219,580 23,295 8,925,812 1,231,880 7X>M) 26,051 1918 Syria .... 37,000* 1915 Transcaspia . 235,120 1916 Turkey (in Asia) 699,342 AFRICA 12,170,000 1918 Abyssinia . . 350,000 1912 Algeria . . . '343,500 1914 Angola . . . 484,800 1910 Belgian Kongo 909,654 1918 Br. East Africa 246,822 1917 Egypt . . . 350,000 1915 Fr. Equat. Africa 609,000* 1917 Fr. West Africa 1,745,000* 1913 Former German Possessions . 931,210 1918 Liberia . . . 40,000* 1911 Libia .... 400,000* 1917 Madagascar . 228,000 1918 Morocco . . . 231,500* 1918 Mozambique . 428,132 . 1918 Nigeria . . . 336,000* 1918 Rhodesia . . 440,000 1918 Somaliland (I tal.) 139,430 1917 Sudan (Br.) . 1,014,400* 1913 Tunis . . . 50,000* 1911 Union of South Africa . . . 473,075 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 3,000,000 1918 New Guinea (Br.) 157,786 1918 NewSouth Wales 309,432 1918 New Zealand . 103,581 1918 Northern Territory 523,620 1918 Queensland . . 1918 South Australia 1918 Tasmania . . 1918 Victoria . . . 670,500 380,070 20,215 87,884 1918 Western Australia 975,920 860,000,000' POPULATION 46,165 6,000,000 3,500,000* 3,000,000* 834,703 250,000* 1,250,000 4,632,400* 325,000,000 16,913,224 47,000,000* . -800,000* 315,156,000 16,990,229 . 56,550^348* 34,157,383* 640,000* 2,000,000 5,000,000 500,000*- 500,000* 9,500,000*- 8,827,000* 10,377,901 1,000,000* 552,500 19,382,000 130,000,000 8,000,000 5,563,828 4,119,000 15,500,000 2,807,000*- 12,710,120*- 9,000,000*- 12,206,889 11,404,023 2,000,000* 523,176 3,545,264* 6,000,000* 3,011,600* 17,500,000* 1,689,065* 450,000* 3,400,000* 1,953,000* 5,973,394 5,000,000 451,274 1,897,084* 1,106,677* 5,043* 705,588* 439,275* 202,842* 1,416,982* 311,121* ANTARCTICA 5,000,000 APPENDIX IX CITIES AKD TOWNS OF THE UNITED STATES HAVING A POPULATION OF OVER 25,000 IN 1917 Akron, O. . . . Alameda, Calif. . Albany, N.Y. . . AUentown, Pa. Altoona, Pa. . . Amsterdam, N.Y. Asheville, N.C. . Atlanta, Ga. . . Atlantic City, N.J. Auburn, N.Y. . . Augusta, Ga. . . Aurora, 111. . . Austin, Tex. . . Baltimore, Md. Bangor, Me. . . Battle Creek, Mich. Bay City, Mich. . Bayonne, N.J. Beaumont, Tex. . Bellingham, Wash. Berkeley, Calif. . Binghamton, N.Y. Birmingham, Ala. Blooming^n, 111. Boise, Ida. . . . Boston, Mass. . . Bridgeport, Conn. Brockton, Mass. . Brookline, Mass. . Buffalo, N.Y. . . Burlington, la. Butler, Pa. . . . Butte, Mont. . . Cambridge, Mass. Camden, N.J. Canton, O. . . . Cedar Rapids, la. Central Falls, R.I. Charleston, S. C. . Charleston, W.Va. Charlotte, N.C. . Chattanooga, Tenn. Chelsea, Mass. Chester, Pa. . . Chicago, 111. . . Chicopee, Mass. . Cincinnati, O. . . Cleveland, O. . . Clinton, la. . . Cohoes, N.Y. . . Colorado Springs, Columbia, S. C. Columbus, Ga. Columbus, O. . Council Bluffs, la. Covington, Ky. Cranston, R.I. Cumberland, Md. Dallas, Tex. . Danville, 111. . Davenjxjrt, la. Dayton, O. . . Decatur, 111. Denver, Colo. . Deg Moines, la. Detroit, Mich. Dubuque, la. . Duluth, Minn. Colo, 93,604 Durham, N.C. . 28,433 East Chicago, Ind. 106,032 Easton, Pa. . . 65,109 East Orange, N.J. 59,712 East St. Louis, 111. 38,043 Elgin, 111. . . . 23,650 Elizabeth, N.J. . 196,144 Elmira, N.Y. . . 59,515 El Paso, Tex. . . 37,823 Erie, Pa. ... 50,642 Evanston, 111. . . 34,795 Evansville, Ind. . 35,612 Everett, Mass. . . . 594,637 Everett, Wash. . 26,958 Fall River, Mass. 30,159 Fitchburg, Mass. . 48,390 Flint, Mich. . . 72,204 Fort Smith, Ark. . 28,851 Fort Wayne, Ind. 34,362 Fort Worth, Tex. 60,427 Fresno, Calif. . . 54,804 Galveston, Tex. . 189,716 Gary, Ind. . . . 27,402 Grand Rapids, Mich 35,951 Green Bay, Wis. . 767,813 Hagerstown, Md. 124,724 Hamilton, O. . . 69,152 Hammond, Ind. . 33,520 Harrisburg, Pa. . 475,781 Hartford, Conn. . 25,144 Haverhill, Mass. . 28,077 Hazelton, Pa. . . 44,057 Highland Park, Mich 114,293 Hoboken, N.J. . 108,117 Holyoke, Mass. . 62,500 Houston, Tex. 38,033 Huntington, W.Va. 26,101 Indianapolis, Ind. 61,041 Jackson, Mich. 31,060 Jackson, Miss. 40,759 Jacksonville, Fla. 61,575 Jamestown, N.Y. 48,405 Jersey City, N.J. 41,857 Johnstown, Pa. . 2,547,201 Joliet, 111.' . . . 29,950 Joplin, Mo. . . . 414,248 Kalamazoo, Mich. 692,259 Kansas City, Kans. 27,678 Kansas City, Mo. 25,292 Kenosha, Wis. . 38,905 Kingston, N.Y. . 35,165 Knoxville, Tenn. . 20,300 La Cros.se, Wi.s. . 220,135 Lancaster, Pa. . . 31,8.38 Lansing, Mich. . 69,623 Lawrence, Mass. . 26,773 Lewiston, Me. . . 26,686 Lexington, Ky. . 129,738 Lima, O. . . . 32,969 Lincoln, Nebr. . 49,618 Little Rock, Ark. 128,939 Long Beach, Calif. 41,483 Lorain, O. . . . 268,439 Los Angeles, Calif. 104,052 Louisville, Ky. . 619,648 Lowell, Mass. . . 40,096 Lynchburg, Va. . 97,077 Lynn, Mass. . . 26,160 McKeesport, Pa. . 30,286 Macon, Ga. . . . 30,854 Madison, Wis. 43,701 Maiden, Mass. 77,312 Manchester, N. H. 28,562 Medford, Mass. . 88,830 Memphis, Tenn. . 38,272 Meriden, Conn. . 69,149 Milwaukee, AVis. . 76,592 Minneapolis, Minn. 29,304 Mobile, Ala. . . 76,981 Moline, 111. . . . 40,160 Montclair, N.J. . 37.205 Montgomery, Ala. 129,828 Mount Vernon, N.Y 42,419 Muncie, Ind. . . 57,386 Muskegon, Mich. 29,390 Muskogee, Okla. . 78,014 Nashua, N. H. . . 109,597 Nashville, Tenn. 36,314 Newark, N.J. . . 42,650 Newark, O. . . 56.000 New Bedford, Mass, 132,861 New Britain, Conn. 30,017 New Brunswick, N. 26,125 Newburg, N.Y. . 41,338 Newcastle, Pa. 27,016 New Haven, Conn. 73,276 New Orleans, La. 112,831 Newport, Ky. . . 49,180 Newport, R.L 28,981 New Rochelle, N.Y. 33,859 Newton, Mass. 78,324 New York, N.Y. . 66,503 Niagara Falls, N.Y. 116,878 Norfolk, Va. . . 47,680 Norristown, Pa. . 283,622 Norwalk, Conn. . 35,990 Oakland, Calif. . 31,104 Oak Park, 111. 79,065 Ogden, Utah . . 37,431 Oklahoma City, Okla 312,557 Omaha, Nebr. 70,473 Orange, N.J. . . 38,549 Oshkosh, Wis. . 33,400 Paducah, Ky. . . 50,408 Pasadena, Calif. . 102,090 Passaic, N. J. . . 305,810 Paterson, N.J. 32,833 Pawtucket, R.I. . 20,910 Pensacola, Fla. . 59,112 Peoria, 111. . . . 31,8.33 Perth Amboy, N.J. 51,437 Petersburg, Va. . 44,499 Philadelphia, Pa. . 102,923 Pittsburgh, Pa. . 28.001 Pittsfield, Mass. . 41,997 Portland,. Me. . . 37,145 Portland, Oreg. . 46,957 Portsmouth, O. . 58,716 Portsmouth, Va. . 29,163 Poughkeepsie, N.Y. 38.206 Providence, R.L . 535,485 Pueblo, Colo. . . 240,808 Quincy, 111. . . 114,306 Quincy, Mass. . . 33,497 Racine, Wi.s. . . 104,534 Reading, Pa. . . 48,299 Richmond, Va. . 46,099 Roanoke, Va. . . 31,315 Roche.ster, N.Y. . 52,243 Rockford, 111. . . 79,607 Rock Island, 111. . 26,681 Sacramento, Calif. 151,877 Saginaw, Mich. . 29,431 St. Joseph, Mo. . 445,008 St. Louis, Mo. . . 373,448 St Paul, Minn. . 59,201 Salem, Mass. . . 27,970 Salt Lake City, Utah 27,087 San Antonio, Tex. 44,039 San Diego, Calif. . 37,991 San Francisco, Calif. 25,653 San Jose, Calif. . 27,434 Savannah, Ga. . . 47,173 Schenectady, N.Y. 27,541 Scranton, Pa. . . 118,130 Seattle, Wash. . 418,789 Sheboygan, Wis. . 30,317 Shenandoah, Pa. . 121,022 Shreveport, La. . 55,385 Sioux City, la. 25,855 Somerville, Mass. 29,893 South Bend, Ind. 41,915 Spokane, Wash. . 152,275 Springfield, 111. . 377,010 Springfield, Mass. 32,133 Springfield, Mo. . 30,585 Springfield, O. . 39,192 Stamford, Conn. . 44,345 Steubenville, O. . 5,737,492 Stockton, Calif. . 38,400 Superior, Wis. . . 91,148 Syracuse, N.Y. . 31,969 Tacoma, Wash. . 27,332 Tampa, Fla. . . 206,405 Taunton, Mass. . 27,810 Terre Haute, Ind. 32,343 Toledo, O. . . . 97,588 Topeka, Kans. 177,777 Trenton, N.J. . . 33,630 Troy, N.Y. . . . 36,549 Tulsa, Okla. . . 25,178 Union, N.J. . . 49,020 Utica, N.Y. . . 74,478 Waco, Tex. . . 140,512 Walla Walla, Wash. 60,000 Waltham, Mass. . 26,802 Washington, D.C. 72,184 Waterbury, Conn. 42,016 Waterloo, la. . . 25,817 Watertown, N.Y. 1,735,514 West Hoboken, N.J. 586,196 Wheeling, W.Va. 39,678 Wichita, Kans. . 64,720 Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 308,399 Williamsport, Pa. 29,356 Wilmington, Del. 40,693 Wilmington, N.C. 30,786 Winston-Salem, N.C. 259,895 Woonsocket, R.I. 56,084 Worcester, Mass. . 36,832 Yonkers, N.Y. . . 39,022 York, Pa. . . . 47,405 Youngstown, O. . 111,607 Zanesville, O. . . 158,702 40,282 264,714 56,739 29,452 68,984 56,469 80,498 768,630 252,405 49,.346 121,623 128,215 56,412 471,023 39,810 69,250 103,774 149,.541 366,445 28,907 29,753 37,064 58,568 88,618 70,967 157,656 62,623 108,668 41,109 52,296 31,810 28,259 36,209 47,167 158,559 117,446 56,251 30,610 67,361 202,010 49,538 113,974 78,094 32,507 25,370 89,272 34,015 26,067 31,011 369,282 89,201 36,987 30,404 44,386 43,657 73,597 78,334 34,123 93,369 30,400 33,136 45,365 100,106 103,066 52,770 112,282 31,320 APPENDIX POPULATION OF PRINCIPAL FOREIGN CITIES NORTH AMERICA British America Montreal Toronto Winnipeg Hamilton Quebec Ottawa Vancouver St. John Calgary Edmonton Halifax Victoria Central America Guatemala San Salvador Leon Panama Mexico Mexico City Guadalajara Year 1917 1916 1916 1916 1917 1916 1918 1916 1916 1916 1911 1918 1910 1917 1917 1915 1910 1910 West Indies Habana 1916 Port au Prince 1914 Camagiiey 1910 Santiago 1916 Kingston 1911 San Juan 1910 POPfLATIOK 700,000* 463,705* 163,000 104,491* 103,000* 100,561* 99,000* 60,000* 56,514 53,846 46,619* 45,000* 90,000* 65,148 62,509 60,028 471,006 119,468 360,517 100,000 93,057 63,041 57,379 48,716 SOUTH AMERICA Argentina Buenos Aires 1918 1,637,155* Rosario 1914 222,592 Cdrdoba 1914 104,894 Bolivia La Paz 1915 Sucre 1915 Brazil Rio de Janeiro 1913 Sao Paulo 1913 Sao Salvador (Bahia) 1913 Belem (Pard) 1913 Recife (Per- nambuco) 1913 ChUe Santiago 1916 Valparaiso 1916 Colombia Bogotd 1912 Barranquilla 1912 Ecuador Guayaquil Quito Guiana Georgetown Paramaribo Cayenne Paraguay Asunci6n A 1915 1915 1917 1918 1911 100,097* 29,686* 975,818* 450,000* 348,130* 275,167* 216,484* 397,550 201,507 139,237 48,907 105,000* 70,000* 54,434* 37,051 13,527 Peru Lima Arequipa Callao Uruguay Montevideo Venezuela Caracas Valencia Maracaibo Year Population 1913 143,500 1913 37,500 1913 36,000 1918 378,993 1915 86,880* 1915 54,387* 1915 48,500* EUROPE Austria Vienna 1914 Gratz 1914 Balkan States Constantinople 1916 Athens 1915 Saloniki 1915 Sofia 1910 1917 120,000 • Estimated Baltic States Riga Vilna Reval Belgium Brussels Antwerp Liege Ghent British Isles Loudon Glasgow Birmingham Liverpool Manchester Sheffield Leeds Dublin Belfast Bristol Edinburgh Bradford Cardiff Czechoslovakia Prague Brunn Denmark Copenhagen Finland Helsingfors France Paris Marseille Lyon Bordeaux Lille Nantes Havre Germany Berlin Hamburg Munich Leipzig Dresden Cologne 1913 1913 1013 1912 1912 1912 1912 1017 1918 1917 1917 1917 1917 1917 1917 1917 1917 1918 1917 1917 1914 1914 1010 1915 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 1916 1912 1912 1910 1910 1910 2,149,800 156,000* 1,000,000* 170,000 157,889* 102,812 569,100 204,290 137,600 663,647 312,884 170,634 167,477 4,026,901* 1,111,428* 870,211* 716,140* 660,143* 469,293* 417,051* 399,000* 393,000* 334,814* 333,883* 266,338* 169,440* 541,500* 131,800* 500,390 176,521 2,888,110 550,619 523,796 261,678 217,807 170,535 136,159 1,779,107 986,804 606,014 589,850 548,308 516,527 Hungary Budapest Italy Naples Milan Rome Turin Palermo Genoa Trieste Florence Venice Fiume Jugoslavia Belgrade Zagreb Year Population 1910 880,371 1915 1915 1915 1915 1915 1915 1914 1915 1915 1910 1911 1910 Netherlands Amsterdam 1917 Rotterdam 1917 The Hague 1917 Norway and Sweden Stockholm 1918 Christiania 1918 Goteborg 19l8 Bergen 1918 Poland Warsaw 1918 Lodz 1918 Lemberg 1914 Krakow 1918 Portugal Lisbon 1911 Oporto 1911 Rumania Bucharest Russia Petrograd 1915 Moscow 1919 Spain Madrid 1917 Barcelona 1917 Valencia 1917 Switzerland Zurich 1918 Geneva 1918 Bern 1918 Ukraine 697,917* 663,059* 590,960* 451,994* 345,891* 300,139* 246,500* 242,147* 168,038* 49,806 90,890 79,038 640,993 500,221 344,636 413,163* 259,445* 196,994* 90,733* 704,054 393,526 212,000* 151,886 435,359 194,009 1917 308,987 2,318,643 1,121,000* 648,760* 621,419* 245,871* 213,900* 139,500* 105,000* Odessa 1912 631,040 Kiev 1913 610,190 Free City Danzig 1910 ASIA 170,337* Central Asia Tashkend 1913 272,300 Bokhara 1917 75,000* Khiva 1917 4,500* China Hankow Peking Shanghai Canton Tientsin Dutch East Indies Year Batavia 1917 Surabaya 1915 French Indo-China Hanoi 1915 Saigon 1915 India Calcutta 1911 Bombay 1911 Madras 1911 Hyderabad 1911 Rangoon 1911 Lucknow 1911 Delhi 1911 Japan Tokyo 1916 Osaka 1916 Kyoto 1916 Kobe 1916 Yokohama 1916 Keijo (Seoul) 1917 Philippine Islands Manila 1914 Siam Bangkok 1918 Siberia Omsk 1913 Irkutsk 1913 Tomsk 1913 Uralsk 1913 Southwest Asia Smyrna ' 1918 Teheran 1918 Aleppo 1918 Damascus 1918 Bagdad 1918 Jerusalem 1918 Erzerum 1918 Mekka 1918 Medina 1918 Straits Settlements Singapore 1911 AFRICA Cairo 1917 Alexandria 1917 Johannesburg 1911 Tunis Algiers Fez Port Said Tripoli Cape Town Tananarivo Tangier Freetown Kimberley Monrovia 1915 1912 1912 1917 1911 1911 1911 1916 1911 1911 1916 Population 231,463 157,202 150,000 100,000 1,222,313 979,445 518,660 500,623 293,316 259,798 232,837 2,244,796 1,460,218 539,153 498,317 428,663 302,686 266,943 541,000* 135,800 129,700 116,664 47,880 375,000* 350,000* 250,000* 250,000* 225,000* 85,000* 80,000* 80,000* 40,000* 311,985 790,939 444,617 237,104 182,000 172,397 100,000 91,090 73,000 67,159 63,115 46,000 34,090 29,525 6,000* AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 1917 1917 1917 1917 1917 1,321,284 1,000,000* 1,000,000 900,000 800,000 Sydney Melbourne Adelaide Brisbane Auckland 1917 1917 1917 1917 1916 777,300* 708,240* 225,317* 173,504* 133,712 Wellington 1916 92,235 Ker: ale, ftt, c4re, senate, ask, arm, final, all; eve, tad, her, Svent, recent; ice, 111, admiral; 5ld, on, for, 6bey, anchor; use, Op, fur, ftnite, awful; food, fSSt; eh as in chop ; g cm in go ; ng as in sing ; n as in ink ; th tis in thin ; til as in the ; n as in banyan ; oi as iti oil ; ow as in cow ; N nearly like ng in sing (French nasal) ; K like German ch ; ii tw in German griiu ; ^ as in nature. Note. Map references are given thus : (171, F 3). The number in italic type, 171, = the map page ; F 3 = the letter and number on the margins of the map. The F refers to the area iMstween two meridians of longitude, and the 3 refers to the area between two parallels of latitude. The letter and the figure are to be used as guides in locating each place. The most important pages are indicated by heavy type. The abbreviation App. = Appendix. Abaca, a-bS^kS', 94 Aberdeen, Scotland, Sb-gr-den', 168, {171, F3) Aberdeen, S.D., 64, {55, D3) Abyssinia, Sb-Is-slu'I-^, 220, (i'-'7, G 4) Abyssinian Highlands, 220, {218, G 3) Adelaide, ad'e-lad, 257, 262, {260, D5) Aden, a'dgn, 238, {350, C 7) Adirondack Mts., Sd-i-rSu'dgk, 36, (35, E 1) Adriatic Sea, a-3, {232, G 6) Hudson, 30, 31, {35, F 3) Hwang, 243, (232, K 5) Illinois, 52, (43, B 4) Indus, 253, (232, E 0) James, 17, (33, C 5) Jordan, 236, (208-209, L 4) Kongo, 229, (218, E 5) Lena, 240, (232, J 3) Loire, 185, (161, F6) Mackenzie, 106, (107, B 3) Madeira, 130, (126, C 3) Meniel (Niemen), 196, (161, K 5) Merrimack, 8, (IS, D 5) Missis.sippi, 42, 130, 296, (2-3, H 4) Missouri, 42, 130, (2-S, G 2) Mohawk, 81, (35, E 2) Monongahela, 32, 33, (35, B 4) Niagara, 41, (35, C 2) Niemen, 196, (161, K 5) Niger, (218, D 3) Nile, 223, (218, G 2) Ob, 240, (232, E 2) Oder, 189, (161, J 5) Ohio, 42, (2-3, J 3) Orinoco, 137, (126, C 2) Plata, 151, 154, (i^6, D6) Po, 207, (161, G 7) Potomac, 82, 101, (35, D 4) Red, 106, (122, E 10) Rhine, 175, 189, 191, (161, G 5) Rio Grande, (2-3, G 5) St. Lawrence, 52, 104, (107, H 6) St. Marys, 41, (4.5, E 1) SSo Francisco, 131, 133, (126, E4) Seine, 184, (161, F 6) 81, 244, (232, J 6) Snake, 66, (73, E 2) Susquehanna, 33, (35, D 3) Thames, 166, (171, G 6) Tigris, 236, (232, C 5) Uruguay, (126, D6) VLstula, 196, (161, J 6) Volga, 198, (161, P 5) Weser, 189, (161, G 6) White, 38, (25, J 2) Yangtze, 242, (232, J 6) Yenisei, 240, (232, H 3) Yukon, 80, 109, (84, G 2) Zambezi, 219, (218, G 6) Rivers, navigable, 15, 17, 42, 130, 184, 296 ; ."tee also economic maps Rochester, r6oh'es-t§r, 34, (33, D 2) Rockford, 44, (45, C 3) Rock Springs, 72, (73, K 5) Rocky Mountain Nat. Park, 63, App., v Rocky Mts., 59, (^-5, 122) Rome, 211, (208-209, F 2) Rosario, rO-sa're-O, 151, (145, C 6) Rotterdam, rot'er-dam, 177, (171, K6) Rouen, rod'ox', 185, (182-183, G 4) ' Rubber, 131, 221, 299 Rubber manufacture, 300 Rumania, roo-ma'ni-a, 202, (208-209, HI) Rumford Falls, rfim'f frd, 9, (13, E 4) Rus-sia, riish'a, 198, (201) Rutland, riit'land, 9, (13, C 5) Ruwenzori, Mt., roo-w6n-zO'r4, 220, (218, F 4) Saco, sales, 8, (13, E 5) Sacramento, sak-rg-mfin'tO, 78, (76, C2) Saginaw, sag^-na, 44, (43, F 3) Sahara Desert, sa-ha'ra, 220, (218, C2) Saint Croix Island, sitnt kroi', 91, (118-119, M 4) Saint Elias, Mt., sant ^-U'gs, 85, (122, C 6) Saint Etienne, saN-ta-tyCn', 184, (182-183, J 6) Saint Francis Mountains, sftnt fran'- sls, 38, (2-3, 113) Saint John, New lirunswick, 108, (107, H 5) Saint John Island, 91, (118-119, F 6) Saint Johns, Newfoundland, 110, (107, J 5) Saint Joseph, 64, (35, F 6) Saint Lawrence River, 52, 104, (107, H5) Saint Louis, loiils, or l6o% 48, 54, (■55, H 6) Saint Marys River, 41, (43, E 1) Saint Michael, s4nt mrkgl, 86, (84, F2) Saint Paul, 48, (55, G3) Saint Quentin, san kax-tax', 181, (182-183, H4) Saint Thomas Island, 91, (118-119, M4) Salem, sa'lgm, 9, (13, E6) Salmon, 74, 75, 297 Salt, 27, 41, 68, 197 Salt Lake City, 68, (76, H 1) Salvador, sal-va-dOr', 114, (118-119, G5) Samara, sa-ma'ra, 200, (201, K 4) Samarkand, sam-Ar-kant', 239, (230, E5) Samoan Islands, sfi-mO'an, 95, (93, El) San Antonio, san an-tO'nI-6, 24, (25, E6) San Francisco, san fran-sls'ko, 77, 78, 79, (76, B3) San Jose, ht-nS,', 78, (76, C 3) San Juan, hOo-an', 91, (118-1 19. Dli) San Luis Potosi, san liio-es' p6-t6-s6', 113, (118-119, D3) San Marino, ma-r«'n6, 212, (208- 209, F 2) Sante Marta, m&r'tS, 138, (135, Bl) Santiago, Chile, san-te-a'g6, 146, (145, B 6) Santiago, Cuba, 116, (118-119, 3 \) Santo Domingo, san'to dd-mbi'gO, 120, (118-119, L4) Santos, sSn'toosh, 132, (145, E 5) Sao Francisco River, 131, 133, (126, E4) Sao Paulo, soujj pou'loo, 132, (146, E6) Sao Salvador, sal-va-dOr', 132, (1S5, F4) Sardinia, sar-dlnl-a, 207, (208-209, E2) Sarre Basin, sar, 186, (182-183, K4) Saskatchewan, sa.s-kach'g-wan, 108, (107, D 4) Savanna,^S5-van'a, 129, 221 Savannah, Georgia, 18, 22, (23, G3) Sayan Mountains, sa-yan', (232, H 3) Scandinavian Peninsula, skan-dl- na'vl-an, 170, (161, H 8) Schenectady, skg-ufik'ta-de, 31, (S5, F2) Scottish Highlands, (161, D 4) Scranton, skran't^n, 29, 33, (35, E 3) Seas Adriatic, 162, (161, H 7) ^ean, 235, (161, K 8) Aral, (2S2, D 4) Baltic, 172, 190, (/6/, J4) Bering, 80, (122, C 2) Black, 198, (161, M 7) Caribbean, (122, H 12)' Caspian, 198, (161, P 7) Dead, 236, (232, B 5) Marmora, 215, (161, L 7) Mediterranean, 185, 203, (161) North, 189, (161, F 4) Red, (232, B 6) AVhite, 199, (161, N2) Seasons, 270 Seattle, se-at"l, 78, (75, C 2) Seine, san, 184, (161, F6) Seoul, sa-ool, (250, L5); «ee also Keijo Sequoia National Park, s^-kwoi'9, App., V Seville, s6v'Il or sS-vIl', 205, (208-209, B3) Seward, sQ'ard, 86, (84, 3 2) Shanghai, shang-ha'I, 244, (250, L 6) Shasta, Mt., sluls'ta, 80, (2-S, B 2) Sheep, 56, 60, 154, 166, 204, 257, 263, 283, App., iv Sheffield, shef'feld, 167, (171 , G 5) Sheridan, shfirl-d^n, 57, (73, L 8) Shipbuilding, 26, 165, 168, 173 Shoe manufacturing, 8, 9, 33 Si River, s€, 244, (232, 3 6) Siam, sl-am', 249, 2151, (250, 3 7) Siani, Lowlands of, (232, 3 7) Siberia, sl-be'rl-^, 240, (250) Siberian Plains, (232, E 2) Sicily, slsa-tt, 207, 211, (208-209,V S) Siena, syg'na, 211, (208-209, F2) Sierra Leone, sl-6r'a \t-6'ui, 222, (227, B 4) Sierra Madre, s€-6r'9 ma'dra Eastern, 111, (122, G 9) Southern, (122, H 10) Western, 111, (122, F8) Sierra Nevada, Spain, 160, 204, (161, E8) Sierra Nevada, U. S., 79, (2-S, B 8) Sikhim, sikim, 252 Silk, 184, 239, 248 Silk manufacture, 184, 185, 211, 244, 248, 299 Silver, 83, 141, 293 Silverton, sH'ver-t^n, 60, (76, K 8) Singapore, sln'g^-pOr', 251, (250, 3 8) Sinkiang, sin-kyiing', 245, (247, B 4) Sioux City, soo, 54, (.55, E 4) Sioux Falls, 64, (55, E 4) Sisal hemp, s^-sSI' or sis'gl, 117 Skagway, skag'wft, 109, (84, L 8) Smyrna, smflr'ng, 286, {S50, A 6) XVI INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS Snake River, 66, (B-S, C 1) Sofia, so-f6'a, 214, {208-209, H 2) Soils, 28, 40, 57, 278 Solar system, 276 Somaliland, s6-ma'l^-land British, 223, (227, H 4) French, 228, (227, H 3) Italian, 229, (227, H 4) Sonoran Desert, s6-nC'ran, 111, i F8) Soo Canals, 41, (45, E 1) South Africa, Union of, 222, 224, (227, F 8) SouthAfricanPlateaus,220,(ai5,E6) South America, 125, (126, 135, 146, 156) Animals, 128 Climate, 127 Government, 125 Natural regions, 127, (126) Natural resources, 125 Physical features, 125 Population, (156) Rainfall, (156) South Australia, 262, (260, D 4) South Australian Highlands, 257, (258, D 5) South Bend, 43, (45, D 4) South Carolina, 22, (2S, G 3) South Dakota, 54, (55, C 3) Southern Mountains and Plateaus (Europe), 160 Southern states (eastern), 22, (23) Southern states, (western), 24, (25) South Island, 263, (260, G 6) South Manchester, 9, (13, C 7) South Pole, 266, (opp. 266) Southwest Africa, 228, (227, E 6) Southwestern states, 77, (76) Spain, 204, (208-209, C 2) Spanish Guinea, see Rio Muni Spanish possessions, 205, 229 Spokane, spO-kSn', 68, (73, F 2) Springfield, 111., 47, (45, C 5) Springfield, Mass., 9, (13, C 6) Springfield, Mo., 38, (55, G 7) Stanley Falls, 229, (218, F 5) Stanovoi Mts., sta-n5-voi', (332, "blZ) Stars, 276 Steel, see Iron Steppes, steps, 159, 190, 240 Stettin, sht6-ten', 189, 192, (182-183, 2) Stewart Island, stu'grt, 263, (260, G 6) Stockholm, stok'holm, 173, (201, C 3) Stockton, stok'tun, 78, (76, C 3) Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, bab-61- man'dgb or b5b-€l-man'd6b, 217, (232, C 7) Strait of Belleisle, b61-Il', 110, (107, J 4) Straitof Gibraltar, 205,217, (i6i,D8) Strait of Magellan, ma-j61'an, 127, (126, C 8) Strait of Messina, m6s-s6'na, 207, (161, J 8) Straits Settlements, 251, (250, J 8) Strasbourg, strSz'bfirg, 186, (132- 183, K 4) Sucre, soo'krg, 143, (135, C 4) Sudan, soo-dan', 221, (S18, C 3) Sudbury, Ont., sfid'bgr-I, 105, (107, F5) Suez Canal, s6o-6z', 217, (218, G 1) Sugar, 15, 90, 116, 132, 190, 279 Sully Hills Nat. Park, App., v Sulphur, 15, 211 Sun, 270 Superior, 44, 47, (45, A 1) Superior, Lake, 41, 52, (45, D 1) Susquehanna River, sQs-kwg-hSn'a, 33, (35, D 3) Sweden, swe'dgn, 170, (201) Swine, 48, 49, 243, 283 Switzerland, swit'zgr-l^nd, 187, (182-183, K 5) Sydney, Australia, sid'nl, 262, (260, F5) Sydney, Canada, 103, 104, (107, H 5) Syracuse, sir'a-kQs, 31, (35, D 2) Syria, sir't-a, 286, (250, B 5) Tacoma, ta^ko'mii, 78, (73, C 2) Taiga, ti'ga, 231, 240 Tampa, tSm'pa, 18, 22, (23, F6) Tampico, tam-p6'k5, 113, (118-119, E3) Tanganyika Territory, tan-gan-ye'- ka, 228, (227, G 5) Tangier, tSn-jer', 226, (227, C 1) Tashkend, tash-kgnt', 239, (250, E 4) Tasmania, taz-ma'nl-a,262, (260, E 6) Taurus Mts., ta'riis, \232, B 5) Tea, 243, 248, 254, 279 Teheran, te-h'riin', 239, (250, D 5) Telluride, t61'4-rid, 60, 121, (76, K 8) Temperate zone, 270 Temperature, 66, 272, 274, (275) Tennessee, t6n-nes-se', 22, (23, D 2) Terre Haute, tfir-g hot', 44, (45, D 5) Texas, tfik'sas, 24, (35, E 4) Thames River, t6mz, 165, (171, G 6) Tibesti Mts., tl-b6s't*, 220, (318, E 2) Tibet, ti-b6t' or tlb'6t, 245, (250, G 5) Tibet, Plateau of, 233, 245, (232, G 5) Tien Shan Mts., te-iin' shan, (232, F 4) Tientsin, te-6n'tsen, 244, (250, K 5) Tierra del Fuego, te-6r'ra d61 f wa'go, 150, (145, C 8) Tigris River, ti'grls, 236, (232, C 5) Timan Range, tg-man', 198, (i6i, P2) Tin, 142, 251 Titicaca Lake, tit-6-ka'ka, 128, 142, (126, C 4) Tobacco, 5, 48, 90, 116, 205 Togo, tO'gO, 228, (227, D 4) Tokyo, t5'k6-o, 248, (250, M 5) Toledo, Ohio, to-l6'd5, 44, 47, (45,F4) Toledo, Spain, to-la'tho, 204, (208- 209, C 3) Tomsk, tomsk, 241, (250, G3) Tonopah, to'no-pa, 68, (76, E 2) Tornadoes, tor-na'doz, 53 Toronto, to-r6n't5, 106, (107, G 5) Torrid zone, 270 Toulon, too 'Ion, 185, (182-183, J 7) Toulouse, too-looz', 185, (182-183, G7) Tours, toor, 185, (183-183, G 5) Trade winds, 259, 272 Transcaspia, trSns-kas'pi-a, 239, (250, D 4) Transportation, 300 Canal, 31, 41, 89, 189, 198 Internationalized waterways, 190, 196, 215 Lake, 41, 47, 100 Ocean, 102, 157, App., Plate B Railroad, 48, 90, 99, 125, 302 River, 42, 167, 181, 189, 193, 198 Transvaal, trans-val', 224, (227, F7) Transylvania, Plateau of, trSn'sIl- va'nl-a, (161, K 6) Trebizond, tr6b'I-z6nd, (250, B 4) Trenton, trgn'tun, 17, (35, E 3) Trieste, tr^-6st' or tre-6st'a, 212, (308-209, F 1) Trinidad, Colorado, trin-i-dM', 57, (76, L 3) Trinidad Island, 120, (126, C 1) Tripoli, trip'o-li, 229, (227, E 1) Tromso, troms'a, 173, (301, C 1) Trondhjem, tron'ygm, 172, (301, B 2) Tropics, 269 Troy, troi, 31, (35, F 2) Tsaidam Basin, tsi'dam, (332, H 5) Tucumdn, too'koo-man', 151, (145, C5) Tula, too'la, 200, (201, G 4) Tulsa, tul'sa, 24, (25, G 1) Tundra, toSn'dr^, 86, 103, 158, 199, 240 Tunis, tu'nis, 228, (327, D 1) Turin, tQ'rIn, 211, (208-209, E 1) Turan, Lowland of, 231, (232, D 4) Turkestan, toor-kfi-stan' Eastern or Chinese, 245, (350, G 4) Western, 239, (250, E 4) Turkey, 235, (250, A 6) Turks, 157, 215, 217, 235 Tutuila, too-too-e'la, 95, App., viii, (93, E 1) Ukraine, uTcrSn, 202, (201, E 5) Ulm, oolm, 191, (182-183, M 4) United Kingdom, 164, (171) United States, 1-82, 98, 277, (3-3, 96-97) Climate, see under each natural region Commerce, 300, 302 Early settlements, 46, 47, 98 Education, 100 Government, 101 Natural regions, 1-81, (2-3) Natural regfurces, 1, 99, 278 ; see also under difierent natural re- gions Population, 98, App., viii, (82) Possessions, 83, 102 Railroads, 102, (96-97) Rainfall, 6, 29, 53, 65, (S3) Westward expansion, 56, 59, 99, (2-3) Uplands Brittany, 180, (161, E 6) East Siberian, 231, (232, H 2) Finland, (161, L 3) Laurentian, 104, (123, D 10) Upsala, up-sa'la, 173, (301, C 3) Ural Mts., u'ral, 198, (161, S 3) Urga, Oor'ga, 245, (250, J 4) Uruguay, 6o-roo-gwi', 154, (145, D 6) Uruguay River, (126, D 6) Utah, u'ta or u'tjv, 77, (76, H 2) Utica, fi'tl-ka, 31, (35, E 2) Utrecht, u'trgkt, 177, (171, K 5) Valdai Hills, val'dl, (161, M 4) Valencia, va-16n'shi-a, 205, (208-209, C3) " Valenciennes, va-laN-sygn', 181, (182-183, H 3) Valley of California, 71, (3-3, B 3) Valley of Chile, central, 140, (7^6,B 6) Valparaiso, val-parri'so, 144, 146, (145, B 6) Vancouver, van-koo'ver, 108, (107, B5) Vancouver Island, 108, (107, B 5) Varna, var'na, 214, (308-209, J 2) Venezuela, vSn-g-zw6'la, 136, (135, C2) Venice, vgnls, 212, (308-309, F 1) Vera Cruz, va'ra kroos', 113, (IIS- 119, E 4) Vermont, vgr-m6nt', 12, (13, C 5) Vesuvius, Mt., v6-su'vl-us, 207, (161, H7) Vicksburg, vlksOjflrg, 22, (33, B 3) Victoria, Australia, vik-to'ri-a, 262, (360, E 5) Victoria, Canada, 108, (107, B 5) Victoria, Hongkong, 244, (350, K 6) Victoria Falls, Africa, 219, (318, F6) Victoria, Valley of, 257, (258, E 5) Victorian Highlands, 257, (258, E 5) Vicuna, vi-koon'ya, 141 Vienna, ve-6n'a, 193, (182-183, P 4) Villa Rica, vel'ya rg'ka, 153, (145, X) 5) Vilna, v^l'na, 197, (301, E 4) Virginia, ver-jlnl-a, 34, (35, C 5) Virginia City, Montana, 60, (73, 3 Z) Virginia City, Nevada, 68, (76, D 2) Virgin Islands, 91, (118-119, M 4) Vistula River, vis'tu-la, 196, (161,3b) Vladivostok, vla-dg-vos-tok', 241, (350, M 4) Volcanoes, v61-k5'n0z, 80, 85, 87, 95, 127, 207 Volga River, vol'ga, 198, (161, P 5) Vosges Mts., vozh, 180, (101, G 6) Waco, wa'ke, 24, (25, F 4) Warsaw, war'sa, 196, (201, D 4) Wasatch Mte., wa'sSch, 68, (3-3, D2) Washington, wosh'Ing-t^n, 32, 101, (35, D 4) Washington, Mt., 10, 12, App., iv, (73, D 4) Washington, state of, 72, (73, E 2) Water, 295 AVaterbury, w6'tgr-bgr-I, 9, (13, B 7) AVaterfalls, 10, 39, 64, 68, 80, 125, 134, 219 Waterloo, Iowa, wa-t§r-l66', 54, (55, G4) Water-power, 5, 8, 21, 27, 42, 62, 112, 189, 295 Waterways, see Transportation Welland Canal, wgl'and, 41, (35, C 2) Wellington, wgl'Ing-tjjn, 263, (360, H6) Wenatchee, w^-nSch'*, 68, (73, D 2) Weser River, va'zgr, 189, (161, G 5) Westerly winds, 71, 272 Western Australia, 262, (260, B 4) Western plateaus Australia, 259, (358) Canada, 108, (133) United States, 66, (2-3) West Indies, In'dgz, 115, (118-119) West Virginia, 34, (35, B 4) Wheat, 49, 106, 149, 194, 199, 211, 279, App., iv Wheeling, West Va., hwgHng, 29, 34, (35, B 3) Whiting, hwitlng, 40, (45, D 4) Whitney, Mt., hwit'nT, 79, (2-3, CZ) Wichita, wich'I-tiv, 54, (.55, E 7) Wichita Mts., 38, (2-3, G 4) Wilkes-Barre, wllks' bSr-I, 29, 33, (35, E 3) Willimantic, wll-l-man'tik, 9, (13, C7) Wilmington, Del., wIl'mTng-tpn, 34, (35, E 4) Wilmington, N. C, 22, (23, 3 2) Wind Cave Nat. Park, App., v Winds, 272 Windward Islands, wind'wgrd, 115, (118-119, M 5) Wine, 184, 204, 211 ; see also under Grapes Winnipeg, wlnl-pgg, 108, (107, E 4) Winnipeg, Lake, 106, (107, E 4) Wisconsin, wis-kon'sin, 44, (45, C 2) Wool, see Sheep Wool manufacture, 7, 9, 166, 176 AVoonsocket, woon-sok'gt, 9, (13, D 7) Worcester, woos'ter, 9, (13, D 6) Wyoming, wl-5'mlng, 72, (73, L 4) Yangtze River, ySng'tzg, 242, (232, J 6) Yarkand, yar-kand', 245, (250, F 5) Yellow race, see People Yellowstone Nat. Park, 63, 64, App., V, (2-3, D 2) Yenisei, ygn-g-sa'e, 240, (333, H 3) Yokohama, yo-ko-ha'ma, 248, (250, M5) Yonkers, yonk'ers, 31, (35, F 3) Yosemite Nat. Park, yS'sfim'I-te, 79, 80, App., V, (3-3, C 3) Yucatan Peninsula, yoo-ka-tan', 111, (132, G 11) Yukon, yoo'kon, 109, (107, A 3) Yukon Delta, (122, C 3) Yukon Plateau, 86, (133, C 4) Yukon River, 86, 109, (122, C 4) Zambezi River, zam-ba'zg, 219, (21S, G6) Zinc, 38, 41, 292 Zones of altitude, 112, 114 Zones of latitude, 270 Zuider Zee, zoi'dgr za', 175, (171, K 5) Zungarian Basin, zoon'ga-rl-an, (232, G4) Zurich, tsu'rik, 188, (208-209, El) YF 02129 «HB '^ S{ - - - ,''■•■' ^ ''■.'■■ ;:,i::: ■f .■ \ "■ ;■ 1 ^^H ■■■'■.: 1 j '■ 1 ; -'J; r^r.''>;;:\nj ;,;- w.^;.M-,fcj