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HISTORY
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Popular Elementary
History of New Mexico
Archbishop's House
Santa Fi;, N. M., November 7, 1912.
Hon. B. M. Read.
Santa Fe, Now Mexico.
My dear Mr. Head: I liave looked over the MS. of your " Eloiiieiitary
History of New Mexieo" which yon have i)repareil for the use of sciiools in
tliis state, and I' do not hesitate to say that I am well impressed with the
way you have endeavored to make your history simple enough to l>e yrasped
by the youthful niiiul and at the same time cover the important events as-
sociated witli New Mexico.
I regard it as most important for the youth of our land to stud}' the
history of New Mexico and become thoroughly ac<|iiiiinted with the deeds of
valor and tlie great faith of the heroes who first visited this country of ours.
I note with pleasure the many illustrations you have iirranged to illu-
mine the work and also the review ((uestions at the end of each lesson —
both admirable features — to arouse the interest and stir the enthusiasm of
the pupil.
I wish yon great success with this elementary history which you have pre-
pared with such labor and patience.
Very sincerely yours, f J. B. Pitaval,
Archbishop of Santa Fe.
(From Professor .T. A. Wood, Principal for mauv vears of Santa Fe's
Public Schools)
Saxta Fe, N. M., November IS, 1912.
Mr. Benjamix M. Reap,
Santa Fe. N. M.
My dear Mr. Head: Having spent several days in critically reading your
type-written manuscript for a school history of New Mexico, I desire to
report a few thoughts concerning your work:
1st. Great care has been taken to give clearness of expression and sim-
plicity of diction to be readily understood by old and young.
2nd. It is evident all along that great care has been used in setting forth
the leading facts just as they occurred without any embellishments of the
imagination or any etfort to cater to popular sentiment.
3rd. It is evident all through that original, reliable sources have l)een
sought and carefully sifted to set forth such connected facts as to make the
history intensely interesting and instructive.
4h. I freely recommend it to students in school or college, to teachers
and readers of history everywhere, believing that those who give this work
a careful study will appreciate more and more the comforts and blessings
vouchsafed unto them by the hardships endured and great labors put forth
by those who took possession of this land centuries ago.
A'ery sincerely, J. A. Wood.
(From Brother H. Edward. President of St. Michael's College)
St. Michael's College, Christian Brothers
Santa Fe, N. M., November 23, 1912.
Mr. B. M. Read,
City.
My dear Mr. Bead: I have examined your work entitled "Elementary
History of New Mexico," have admired your painstaking efforts, and am
pleased to say that you have given another proof to the jieople of New Mex-
ico of your straightforward way of telling the truth, and in your ])resent at-
tempt you have made history accessible to all. o'd and young. This latest
work from your gifted pen, I hope, will stand as your monument and be of
lasting interest to many generations yet to be.
Yours very sincerely.
Brother H. Edward.
\9^^ -*'-<f' rv
^^ra?'
CAPTAIN GASPAR DE VILLAGRA
Co-conqueror of Oiiate, 1598, and first historian of New
Mexico. His HMoria de la Nueva Mexico was published in
Spain in the year 1610
Popular Elementary
History of New Mexico
PREPARED BY
BENJAMIN M. READ ^^^^l^L^
Author of ' ' (Juerra JMexico-Americana ' ' '^ - -p -^-
" Historia Ihistrada de Xuevo Mexico" 'tA "^
"History of Education in New Mexico"
' ' Illustrated History of New Mexico ' '
"Digest of Docunientos Tneditos del Archive de las Indias"
' ' Heruan Cortes and his C'onf|uest of Mexico ' '
And other works
^
SANTA FE NEW MEXICO
BENJAMIN M. READ
NINETEEN FOURTEEN
J^^hfJ
Copyright li»14 by
Benjamin M. Kead
7IiS
THE TORCH PRESS
CEDAR RAPIDS
IOWA
PREFACE
My chief purpose in the preparation of this brief pop-
ular history has been to enable the poor and the children
of our State, especially those who are the descendants of
the first explorers and conquerors, to partake of the
interest and enthusiasm one experiences when reading
of the marvelous deeds, the wonderful foresight, the peer-
less valor, and the sublime faith of the men who first
visited, conquered, settled, and christianized this land of
ours.
No other State in the American Union has so romantic
a history as has New Mexico. Yet this is the only State
in the American sisterhood of states where her children
have been made to learn all about the history of every
other part of the world, but have learned nothing reliable,
nothing accurate, about their own history ; and what little
has been taught in the schools of the country about New
Mexico is so inaccurate that it would have been better
to have said nothing about our State history than to have
published inexcusable errors. Responsible writers and
publishers have been, and still are, unintentionally prop-
agating such errors in their school and popular histories.
To illustrate, Barnes's Brief History of the United
States (p. 29), writing of the discovery and naming of
New Mexico and the founding of Santa Fe, makes the
statement that *'New Mexico was explored and named
by Espejo (es pa ho) who (1582) founded Santa Fe."
8 NEW MEXICAN HISTORY
Espejo did not give New Mexico ita iianic, neither did he
found the City of Santa Fe. ''Nueva Andahicia" is the
name given by Espejo to what is now New Mexico, and
Santa Fe was founded by Onate on or about 1606-7, twen-
ty-four years after Espejo 's entry.
Such stories as tliat are also found in all other former
school histories, thus imparting- to our youth incorrect in-
formation regarding a study which, next to the general
history of our country, is the most important to them.
The facts narrated in this small school history are ab-
solutely correct. Thej' are taken from my Illustrated
History of Neiv Mexico, which is based upon the officially
authenticated reports of the actors themselves as official-
ly published in Spain, and upon exact authority regarding
the events not connected with the discovery and conquest
of New Mexico. Consequently, the student who reads
this little book can truthfully say that he is learning the
history of our State from the most reliable sources.
New Mexico has been under three different govern-
ments, to-wit, under the Spanish government from 1539
(date of first entry by Niza) to 1821. From 1821 to 1846
under the Mexican government, and since 1846 under the
American government, its history thus naturally dividing
into three distinct epochs under the three governments.
These three epochs were preceded by the pre-historic one,
ihe coming to this continent of the first inhabitants, the
Indians. This explanation is made as a guide to the four
divisions in which this brief history has been prepared,
each division corresponding to an epoch.
These divisions have been sub-divided in numbered
paragraphs, and at the end of the book will be found the
corresponding numbered questions.
PREFACF: 9
Tlio illiistratioiis have been selected with the view of
impressing' upon the student's mind tlie nieanin.g- and im-
portance of the historical events narrate(l.
After learning the wonderful history of our State, it
is to be hoped that the students of New Mexico and the
Spanish-American children in particular, will realize and
appreciate its importance, and that this knowledge will
assist in developing that patriotism which is essential to
the well-being of every State and Nation.
Bexjamin M. Read
Santa Fe,N.M., 1914
CONTENTS
Pre-historic Epoch
Chapter I
Spanish Regime, 1539-1821
Chapter
II
Chapter
III
Chapter
IV
Chapter
V
Chapter
VI
Chapter
VII
Chapter
VIII
Chapter
IX
Chapter
X
Chapter
XI
Chapter
XII
Mexican Rule, 1821-1846
Chapter XIII
Chapter XIV
American Occupation
Chapter XV
Chapter XVI
Chapter XVII
Chapter XVIII
Chapter XIX
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
XX
XXI
XXII
Review Questions
Appendix .
Index
15
15
22
22
27
31
42
49
56
60
67
73
82
90
95
95
101
105
105
111
113
117
122
128
133
138
145
167
177
ILLUSTRATIONS
Captain Gaspar dp: Villagra .... fron
Facsimile op Title Page of Villagra 's Historia de la
Niuva Mexico .......
Indian Chief on the War-path ....
Church of San Miguel, Santa Fe, N. M.
The Palace of the Governors, Santa Fe, N. M.
Indian Pueblo op T.\os
Most Rev. J. B, Lamy, Archbishop of Santa Fe
Indian Governor op the Pueblo of Tesuque
Hand written Ball(W for the State Election held in
1850
Governor Manuel Armi.jo, last Governor under Mexi
CAN Authority
Charles Bent, first Governor under the American
Government
LoRETTO Academy, first Pioneer Educational Insti
TUTION, 1853
Cliff Dwellers
College of San Miguel, second Pioneer Educational
Institution, 1859
Santa Fe in 1860
University of New Mexico
New Mexico Normal School, Silver City .
Santa Fe in 1867
William C. McDonald, first State Governor
Military Institute ......
New Mexico State School of Mines .
Institute for the Blind
Spanish-American Normal School
New Mexico Normal University, East Las Vega^
School for the Deaf and Dumb ....
Santa Fe in 1912
Capitol of New Mexico at Santa Fe .
Map of New Mexico, 1779
Map of New Mexico, 1912 .....
iispiece
17
19
24
. 30
32
36
42
47
51
54
58
65
71
74
78
84
88
91
96
98
104
109
118
123
130
136
142
165
KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF SPANISH
WORDS
In the Spanish language the vowels have one souiuid only, thus:
a sounds like the English a in far.
e sounds like the English e in thci/.
i sounds like the English double ce in screen.
o sounds like the English o in .so.
u sounds like the English double oo in Jiood.
The consonants g before e and i have the English sound of h, thus ge
and gi in Spanish sound as in hay and liee in English.
The 3 and x sound like the English h in have.
The double U sounds as in our English words miUion, brilliant.
The n (n with a curved mark over it) sounds like 7iy in canyon in English.
The J, if used as conjunction, sounds like the double ee in the English
words, see, deep.
Spanish Accent. — All nouns ending in a consonant, as a rule, have the
accent on the last syllable, thus: Luis, Martin.
Nouns ending with a vowel have the accent on the penultimate syllable,
thus: abrazada, Calzada, etc.
PRE-HISTORIC EPOCH
CHAPTER I
1. America's First Inhabitants. — Asia was the cradle of the
human race, and is separated from the North American con-
tinent by the Strait of Bering. Ancient history records prove
conclusively how the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) was
first settled ; but regarding the coming of the first man to the
American continent, history and science give us mere conjec-
tures, theories, and mystery.
2. First Inhabitants of the Two Americas. — Columbus (who
discovered America in 1492) and the other discoverers and con-
(luerors of North and South America, not only found the entire
continent thickly populated by unknown races, each race differ-
ing in langi^age, customs, and religion, but, to their surprise,
they found in Mexico and South America two great semi-civilized
empires — the Mexican empire under Montezuma, conquered by
Hernan Cortes (1521-25), and the Peruvian empire under the
Incas, Atahualpa, and Huascar, his brother, conciuered by Fran-
cisco Pizarro (1528-88).
8. Mexican and Peruvian Indians. — In Mexico and Peru the
Spaniards found the Indians well advanced in the sciences of
architecture, mining, sculpture, agriculture, astronomy, and
painting.
II
4. First Discovery of American Indian. — It was on Friday,
October 12, 1492, when Columbus discovered an island which he
named. San Salvador. It was here that Columbus first dis-
covered the first American Indian. The principal islands dis-
covered and named by Columbus (1492-93) were the Santa
Maria, Fernando, Isabel, C-uba (first named Juana by Colum-
bus), Puerto Principe, Haiti (named Espauola by Columbus).
The main land he discovered in August, 1/^98.
16 HIST( )KY OP NEW MEXICO
5. Origin of the Name "Indian." — The inhabitants thus
found by Columbus were by liim named "Indians" and the
newl}^ discovered land "India." Columbus was under the im-
pression that he had discovered the India of Asia, which had
been the real object of his voyage. These Indians were all
savages, had no fixed habitations, and differed from those found
by Cortes and Pizarro in Mexico and South America. They had
no knowledge of any of the Jiuman sciences excepting the science'
of agriculture, for they planted maize (Indian corn) and beans;
They had no reli^'ion and went almost naked.
6. Alonso de Ojeda. — The next European to visit America
was Alonso de Ojeda (discoverer of Central America, 1499).
Ojeda visited the coasts of Paria (Central America), where he
found tribes of savage Indians ignorant of all human sciences
but advanced enough to cultivate the land in maize, beans, and
other cereals. These Indians had no religion or fixed habita-
tions.
Ill
7. The Mexican Indians. — Francisco Fernandez Cordova
(1517) and Juan de Grijalva (1518) were the discoverers of
Mexico (New Spain). These explorers found the Maya, Tabasco,
and other Indians semi-civilized, living in villages and greatly
advanced in the knowledge of agriculture, sculpture, astronomy,
and religion. Cordova, in 1517, reached as far as Yucatan, and
Grijalva, in 1518, reached the province of Tabasco.
8. Human Beings Sacrificed. — These Indians worshiped the
sun and the moon. They offered the lives of human beings
m sacrifice to their idols, representing their deities, and were
the subjects of Emperor Montezuma (called also Moctezuma).
9. The Aztecs. — On the 8th day of November, 1519, Hernan
Cortes with his army and friendly Tlascalltecas, entered the City
of Tenochtitlan (Mexico), and was royally received by Em-
peror Montezuma. The unsurpassed scenery, the magnificence
of its temples and public buildings, excited the admiration of
the Spaniards so much that Cortes named it "The Venice of
America." Cortes found Montezuma and his subjects much ad-
vanced in the knowledge of the science of government and fairly
vei*sed in the mysteries of religion — the sign of the cross, and
Christian communion of meal and blood being the principal char-
acteristics of their worship. Human sacrifices were also prac-
PRE-HISTORIC EPOCH
17
ticed, but Cortes soon stopped that practice. From Montezuma
Cortes learned that the Aztecs, the Toltecs, their predecessors,
DF. LA N VEVA
mexico,delcApita>1
GASi'AK. l^C VIl.r.AGKA.
•>. rf^^
f'^
Ano
V161O.
FACSIMILE OF THE TITLE PAUE OF THE FIRST
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
Written by Captain Caspar de ViHagra, one of Onate's
most distinguished captains in the conquest of New Mexico,
1598. Published in Spain in 1610
and the other inhabitants of the empire had centuries before
immigrated from the north, but their origin was unknown to
them.
18 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
IV
10. The Incas and the Peruvian Empire. — When Pizarro con-
quered Peni (ir)28-3.'3) lie found a well established empire under
Atahualpa and his brother lluasear. The Peruvians had reached
the same dej^ree of civilization as had the Mexican Indians; they
were well advanced in the knowledge of government, arts, agri-
culture, architecture, astronomy, and religion.
11. Worship of the Peruvians. — The Peruvians, like the
Mexican Indians, worshiped the sun, the moon, and the elements.
They also offered human beings in sacrifice to their deities.
They weve thrifty and industrious.
12. Origin of the Peruvian Indians. — From the traditions of
these Indians the Spaniards learned that in the beginning of
the twelfth century one Manco Capac and his sister and wdfe.
Mama Oclle, claiming to be children of the sun, with a gi'eat
number of followers, reached Peru, founded the empire, and
taught its people the manner of cultivating the land as well as
the arts and science of architecture, government, and astronomy.
Such was the condition of the inhabitants of that portion of the
American continent discovered and conquered by the Spaniards,
for the knowledge of which the world is indebted to Fr. Bar-
tolome de las Casas and to the Franciscan, Augustinian, Do-
minican, and Jesuit missionaries who accompanied the discoverers
and conquerors, and to whom the w^orld at large owes a debt of
gratitude for the part they took in christianizing and civilizing
that portion of the New World.
13. The Indians of North America. — The aborigines of North
America were found by the first explorers in a state of savagery.
They have been named and known in 'history as "Red Men of
the Forests." When first discovered, according to a legend
which has not the sanction of history, by the Northmen, in the
year 1000, they had not advanced in any of the branches of
human knowledge ; they lived in wigwams and were always wan-
dering from place to place.
14. Domestic Habits of the North American Indian. — From
w^hat w^e know this Indian abhorred labor and made his squaw
(wife) do all the necessary labor, such as putting up his wigwam,
procuring fuel, and carrying the poles and other trinkets when
PREHISTORIC EPOCH
19
traveling. The male Indian contented himself Avith doing the
hunting, fishing, and clearing the land that the squaw might
plant the corn.
Courtesij of J. C. Candelario, Santa Fe, N. M.
INDIAN CHIEF ON THE WAR PATH
15. Their Religion. — The North American Indian had not
the slightest idea of a future life nor of a Supreme Being. His
paradise was his hunting-ground. He had no idols, but wor-
shiped the elements, birds, and all animals.
20 JliJSTORY OF NEW MEXICO
16. Orig-in of the North American Indian. — We know nothing
of the origin ol" llic North Aiiici'ican Indian. V'eiy ancient ruins
have been found which indicate prehistoric settlements. Near
St. Louis great mounds exist which are believed to have be^n
built by the first inhabitants. Similar mounds exist in the State
of Ohio. Regarding the origin of these Indians even the first
explorers of North America do not give us an 3^ plausible evi-
dence. These explorers are: Ponce de Leon, Spaniard, who,
while in quest of the "Fountain of perpetual youth," discovered
Florida in 1512; then the settlers of Jamestown, Virginia, under
Captain Newport, in 1607 ; Samuel de Champlain, founder of
Quebec, in 1608; and the Jesuit, Father Jacques Marquette,
founder of the mission of Saint Marie, in 1666, and discoverer
of the upper Mississippi.
VI
17. The New^ Mexico Indians.— Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca,
Spaniard (about whose wonderful travels the student will be in-
formed further on), was the first white man to cross the Amer-
ican continent, from the coast of Florida to the City of Mexico
(1535-36). It was he who first visited New Me^xico, and ob-
served the habits and mode of living of our Indians, both the
Pueblo Indians and the nomadic tribes.
18. Cabeza de Vaca's Story. — De Vaca's statement regard-
ing the nomadic tribes does not differ in the least from what has
been said with respect to the habits and manner of living of the
North American Indian. Regarding the peaceful Pueblo In-
dians of Nqw Mexico, he informs us that he found them living in
large and well built adobe villages, with houses several stories
high ; that they wore cotton and woolen clothes woven and made
by themselves; that they were industrious, liospitable, and
thrifty, well advanced in the knowledge of agriculture, each
pueblo cultivating large fields of maize (corn), beans, pumpkins,
and other cereals; that they had sheep, dogs, and chickens, and
were very fond of hunting and fishing; that they believed in a
future life and worshiped the sun and the moon, but did not
have the practice of human sacrifice. De Vaca and his three
companions, Andres Dorantes, Alonzo del Castillo and a negro
named Estevanico, visited the Zuni village on their Way to
Mexico. Concerning the origin of these Indians De Vaca does
not say a word.
PREHISTORIC EPOCH 21
19. Fr. Marcos de Niza and Others. — Father Niza was the
next to visit and observe thcsi; Jiulians of New Mexico (1539).
After him came Francisco Vas(iuez cle Coronado (1540), Fran-
cisco de Ibarra (1563), Fr. Augnstin Rodriguez (1581), Antonio
de Espejo (1582), Castano de Sosa (1590), and Juan de Onate
(1598), all of whom confirm what De Vaca has said as to the
lives of the New Mexican Indian, but not a word concerning his
origin and coming to this continent.
20. Archbishop Salpointe's Views.^The Most Reverend
Archbishop Juan B. Salpointe, for many years missionary priest
among the Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, and afterwards
Archbishop of Santa Fe, and author of the very interesting book
on the history of the Catholic church in New Mexico, entitled
Soldiers of the Cross, after a life of study of these Indians was
able to obtain from a very old Indian in Arizona their traditional
story, which was that their fu'st ancestors had come from
another land — far, very far to the north ; that before reaching
this land they met with a very large body of water, which many
of their number crossed, leaving the rest on the other side of the
big river or lake. (More information as to Pueblo Indians is
given in another part of this book.)
21. Accepted Theory. — It is now generally believed by his-
torians, geographers, and ethnologists that the first inhabitants
of North and South America came from the northeastern part of
Asia, which touches the Behring Strait. That theory seems to
agree with the tradition communicated to Archbishop Salpointe
by the Arizona Indians.
SPANISH-REGIME— 1539-1821
CHAPTER II
VII
22. Sketch and Journey of Cabeza de Vaca. — De Vaca's real
name was Alvar Nunez de Vera. He Avas the son of Francisco
de Vera and Tereza Alhaja-Cabeza de Vaca. His parents and
his parents' ancestors were all of illustrious origin. The place
of his birth was Jerez de la Frontera, Spain, but the year of his
birth has never been ascertained. De Vaca 's father was the
conqueror of the Canary Islands (1488). His mother was a de^
scendant of Don Martin Alhaja, a nobleman who, in the year
1212, was surnamed Caveza de Vaca by the king of Navarra, as a
reward for having, by means of a cow's horn, marked out a path
on the rough, rugged mountains for the Spanish army, enabling
the Spaniards to surprise and defeat the Moors at the battle of
Las Navas de Tolosa. On learning the origin of the name
"Cabeza de Vaca," Alvar Nunez changed his surname from "de
Vera" to "Cabeza de Vaca" and is known in history as Alvar
Nuiiez Cabeza de Vaca.
23. De Vaca's Coming to the New World.— On the 7th of
June, 1527, Panfilo de Narvaez, with six vessels and 600 men,
colonists, priests, and soldiers, sailed from San Liicas de Barra-
meda, Spain, to colonize the land discovered by Ponce de Leon
in 1512— Florida. On the 14th day of April, 1528, after the loss
of 300 of his men and two of his ships in wrecks and hurricanes,
Narvaez reached Florida and landed on the shores of the Bay of
Tampa. Soon after, Narvaez began his explorations into the in-
terior of the country, discovering several Indian villages, the
principal one named Ante. After suflfering much from hunger,
sickness, and constant fighting with Indians, the latter part of
July the Spaniards captured Ante, where they found abun-
dance of corn, beans, pumpkins, and other eatables.
24. Aute is Abandoned. — Desperate Situation. — Nai-vaez had
sent his three ships to Puerto Rico and Havana for more men
SPANISH REGIME 23
and pro\asions, which never came, and he was left powerless to
leave the country on that account. Being tlireatened with death
by starvation, or annihilation by the Indians, the Spaniards eon-
stinicted floats and reached the Gulf of Mexico by sailing down a
river nearly as large as the Mississippi. On August 3, 1528,
they left the village amid uncountable sufferings and half dead
with hunger, on their march to the sea. On reaching the large
river they eonstnicted five floats, using the metal of their stir-
rups for nails and the leather of their saddles for roj^es. On the
28th day of September, 1528, after having lost forty men from
sickness and hunger, they killed the last horse to use his flesh
for provisions and his hide for bottle-gourds (bags) to carry
drinkable water and sailed down the river. Before reaching the
Gulf the drinkable water gave out and they were compelled to
drink salt water, three Spaniards dying from the effects. They
were attacked by the Indians, two Spaniards being killed and
Narvaez wounded. They reached the Gulf November 5, 1528,
were met by an angry sea, the floats separated and finally (No-
vember 6, 1528) were wrecked, and all but some forty or sixty of
the Spaniards perished, Narvaez being among them. The few
thus saved were rescued by the Indians of the coast and parceled
out among them. Among the saved were Cabeza de Vaca, Andres
DoraJites de Carranza, Alonzo del Castillo Maldonado, and a
negro slave of Dorantes, named Estevanico. Cabeza de Vaca
and the other Spaniards last named, remained together ^ath the
Indians of an island which they named Isla del Infortunio (Is-
land of Misfortune). De Vaca with other Spaniards remained
on this island for a few months and separated because of their
desperate condition, some of them dying of hunger, and the sur-
vivors having been compelled to eat the flesh of their dead com-
panions. Dorantes and his slave went together. De Vaca used
his knowledge to an advantage, became a trader and a doctor
among the Indian tribes, selling shells and trinkets and making
cures among them.
VIII
25. De Vaca's Journey. — After seven years of wandering
and captivity, De Vaca, Dorantes, Castillo Maldonado, and the
negro Estevajiico met (in 1535) and secretly concocted the plan
for their escape, and in August of that year undertook their
famous journey across the continent, passing through New
SPAN181I REGIME 25
Mexico and reaching tlie City of Mexico on the 25th dav of July,
1536.
26. Hospitable Treatment by Indians. — The route followed
by De Vaca and his companions was, it is believed, across the
State of Texas, entering New Mexico from the southeast, after
having traveled north several days up the Pecos River, from the
confluence of that river with the Rio Grande. On their way they
visited many Indian villages, among them being the Zuni pueblo,
where they remained for some time. All along their route they
were received in a friendly manner by the Indians, who fur-
nished them with corn, beans, and butfalo meat, and with guides
to conduct them from tribe to tribe. This hospitable treatment
was extended to the Spaniards by the Indians as recognition for
the marvelous cures performed by De Vaca and the others among
the Indians. De Vaca assures us that by his undying faith in
Divine Providence he performed miraculous cures merely by the
making of the sign of the cross and reciting some prayers. De
Vaca instructed the Indians in the knowledge of a Supreme Be-
ing and to make the sign of the cross.
27. Hung'er Drives the Spaniards to Desperation. — Before
reaching the inhabited Indian villages of New Mexico, the Span-
iards and their guides were once lost for some days. Hunger
and thirst drove them to desperation and compelled them to eat
dog meat, De Vaca having purchased two from the Indians.
28. Arrest of De Vaca and His Companions. — From Zuiii the
Spaniards traveled due west, expecting to reach the Pacific
Ocean and find Spanish settlements. After having traveled
through what forms today the State of Sonora, the Spaniards met
near Culiacan a party of Spanish explorers under Captain Diego
de Alcaraz. The unexpected meeting of the parties was as start-
ling to De Vaca as to Alcaraz. They soon became acquainted
and soon also enmity separated them. Alcaraz wanted De Vaca
to help him capture the Indians that accompanied De Vaca, to
which proposition De Vaca could not consent. This brought
about the arrest of De Vaca and his companions. Under arrest
they were conducted to San Miguel to be punished by Cebreros,
the alcalde (justice of the peace) of that village. Cebreros made
an effort to coerce De Vaca to obey the orders of Alcaraz, but
De Vaca and his companions declined and were sent to Melchor
Diaz, alcalde of Culiacan, to be punished by him. This was in
May, 1536.
26 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
29. Release of De Vaca and His Party. — Melchor Diaz, on
hearing De Vacuus narrative of the wreck of the Narvaez expe-
dition and the sufferings of the unfortunate survivors, released
them and sent them on to Compostehi, where they were kindly
received by Nuno de Guzman, governor of the i)rovince. From
Compostela, De Vaca and his companions started for the City
of Mexico, which they reached on July 25, ir).36. To Viceroy
Mendoza and Hernan Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, De Vaca
gave a full account of the Narvaez expedition, of his journey
across the country, and of the lands and Indian settlements they
had seen. De Vaca left Mexico for Vera Cniz in April, 1537,
and sailed from Vera Cruz about the middle of the same month
for Spain, where he arrived in August, 1537. In Spain he wrote
and published the history of the expedition and his journey, un-
der the title "Naufragios" (shipwrecks), and the king appointed
him governor of La Plata, South America, for which place he
sailed from Cadiz on December 2, 1540. From La Plata he was
sent to Spain in chains, in 1545, by his own men, under charges
of disloyalty. For eight years he fought in the Spanish courts,
vindicating himself finally but never again returned to America,
thus ending his most eventful life.
CHAPTER III
IX
30. First Expedition — Fr. Marcos de Niza. — In the year
1538 a Franciscan father, named Juan de la Ascencion, dis-
covered the Gila River in what today is the State of Arizona,
and was before part of New ]\Iexico, but he did not reach the
interior of tlie territory now forming the State of New Mexico.
31. Mendoza Sends Niza. — It was in the year 1539 when the
first expedition into New Mexico was made by Fr. Marcos de
Niza. He was sent by Viceroy Mendoza to explore the country
and christianize its inhabitants. The locality was known as the
Seven Cities or Cibola country (Zuiii).
32. Sketch of Fr. Niza. — Niza was a Franciscan monk, a man
of high literary attainments. He had been in America since the
year 1531, having come as superior of the Franciscans, had ac-
companied Francisco Pizarro to Peru in 1532, returning from
Peni to Nicaragua where he remained till 1535, preaching the
gospel and educating the Indians.
33. Fr. Niza's Entry,— Father Niza was in Mexico when
Cabeza de Yaca made his report, in July, 1536, to Mendoza and
Cortes. Mendoza was so moved by what De Vaca said regarding
the Seven Cities that he finally made up his mind to send Fr.
Marcos de Niza at the head of an expedition, with the negro Este-
vanico as guide, to colonize the country and christianize the
Indians. Father Niza accepted the charge and started in 1539.
34. Niza's Expedition to Cibola. — Having selected Fr. Niza,
Viceroy Mendoza gave him strict Avritten authority to effect
the conversion of the Indians by Christian instructions, tempered
Avith merciful treatment ; to teach them reading, A\Titing, and
agriculture ; to stop the capture and sale of Indians by the
Spaniards engaged in that unchristian trade, and to report to
him any cruelties and injustices practiced upon the Indians by
28 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
said tracU'i's, and to form settlements, build churches and con-
vents, if such things were possible.
35. Fr. Niza Leaves Culiacan.— Accompanied by another
Franciscan i)riest named Ornato, the negro guide Estevanico,
and a few friendly Indians, Fr. Marcos de Niza undertook his
journey from Culiacan (now^ State of Sinaloa, Mexico) March 7,
1539. After a fe(w days' travel, they came to an Indian village
called Petatlan. Here Fr. Niza and his party were cordially re-
ceived by the Indians, being the recipients of an abundance of
food, roses, and other presents. Fr. Ornato became sick and was
left at Petatlan.
36. Niza Hears of Cortes. — Niza was traveling close to the
coast of the Gulf of California. He met Indians who had pearls
and who told him that they were from an island which had been
visited by a stranger (Cortes, when discovering California in
1539). On his way to the Cibola country from the place where
he met these Indians, Niza found a tribe of ^\dld Indians who
called him "Sayota" (a man descended from heaven). This
tribe, according to a Jesuit historian. Father Juan Ortiz Zapata,
was from the tribe of Pima Indians. From these Indians Niza
learned that further north in the interior he would find large In-
dian villages where the lands were cultivated, the inhabitants
dressed in cotton and woolen garments, and that the wool was
clipped from small animals. They also informed him that gold,
showing him pieces of that metal, abounded in said country.
Niza was now in what is today the State of Sonora, Mexico.
37. Niza Reaches Vacapa — Sends Estevanico Ahead. —
From the last mentioned place Niza came to an Indian village
called Vacapa. Here he saw that com, beans, pumpkins, and
other herbs were cultivated. From this pueblo, Niza sent Este-
vanico ahead with instructions to explore the country and to
report his discoveries by special couriers.
XI
38. Estevanico Reaches Zuni. — After traveling a few days,
Estevanico reached several Indian settlements. In all of them
he was kindly treated and was the object of many attentions.
Finally, twenty-five days after he left Vacapa, Estevanico
reached the Seven Cities (Zufii pueblos), and from there he
sent word to Niza by some of the friendly Indians that had ac-
SPANISH EEGIME 29
coinpanied hini. He also sent Niza a large wooden cross, and
told the messengers to relate to Niza the wonders of the Seven
Cities, and urge iiiin to make liaste.
39. Niza Continues His Journey. — On receiving Estevanico's
report, Niza thanked God and at once resumed the journey. On
the way to the Seven Cities Niza learned from the Indians that
north of them there were other large settlements called Acueo
(Acoma), Marata, and Tonteac. iJefore reaching the province
of the Seven Cities, Niza met some Indians who, observing the
color of the cloth of his habit, told him that in Cibola and Ton-
teac the Indians had the same kind of cloth, made from wool
taken from small animals. Niza made and planted large crosses
at each village.
40. Niza Leaves His Road to Find the Sea. — Anxious to find
out how near to the coast he was, Niza made a side trip to the west,
reached the coast of the Gulf of California "at 35 degrees" as
he says, and then returned his march to Zuiii, taking possession
of the country as he went.
41. Niza Learns of Estevanico's Death. — In the earlier part
of May, Niza had already reached the Zuni desert, when he met
some of the friendly Indians, who had gone with Estevanico to
the land of the Seven Cities, and from them learned that Este-
vanico and many of the Indians who went with him had reached
Cibola, and had been killed by the Indians of the main pueblo
(Zuni). These emissaries advised Niza not to go any further
or he also would be killed.
42. Niza Reaches Zuni and Takes Possession. — Learning of
the greatness of the Seven Cities, Niza concluded not to return
until he had seen them. He went on until he came to a mound
overlooking the main pueblo (Zuni). From the top of that
mound he viewed the whole country, and making a mound of
rocks, erected thereon a large wooden cross, taking solemn pos-
session of the Seven Cities and all the surrounding country in
the name of the king, and naming it "New Kingdom of San
Francisco." This done, Niza returned to the City of Mexico,
which place he reached in September (1539). The description
he gave of the country by him discovered, its riches, fertility,
and its large and populous cities created such excitement that
Mendoza at once began to formulate plans for further explora-
tions and for the conquest of the whole country.
'A
<
MP
CHAPTER IV
XII
43. Coronado Heads the New Expedition. — Francisco Vas-
quez Coronado was an officer of high standing, a noble, and was
related to the chief officers in Mexico. On that account he was
selected by Mendoza. Having received his appointment as com-
mandant, Coronado proceeded to organize an army of 300
Spaniards and 80Q Indians. Among the officers were Pedro de
Tovar (ensign), Pedro de Guevara, Garcia Lopez de Cardenas,
Kodrigo Maldonado, Diego Lopez, Diego Gutierrez, Juan de Zal-
divar, Francisco Barrionuevo, Francisco de Obando, Juan Galle-
gos, and Tristan de Arellano, all nobles, as captains, and Alonso
Manrique de Lara, Lope de Urrea, Gomez Suarez de Figueroa,
Luis Eamirez de Vargas, Juan de Soto Mayor, Francisco Gor-
ballan y Castaiieda, Pablo de Melgosa, and Hernando de Alva-
rado, as subordinate officers. Melgosa was placed in charge of
the infantry and Alvarado in charge of the mounted forces, both
iwdth the rank of captain. By sea Coronado sent Hernando de
Alarcon with two vessels to carry provisions, Coronado believing
that his journey w^as to be made along the coast. This was in
the earlier part of the year 1540.
44. Oath of Allegiance — Niza Accompanies the Expedition —
Pedro de Castenda. — At Compostela the officers and men gave
before Viceroy Mendoza the oath of allegiance. Fr. Marcos de
Niza, Fr. Juan de Padilla, Fr. Escalona, Fr. Antonio Victoria,
and other Franciscan priests accompanied the expedition. From
Compostela the army went to Culiacan, from which place Coro-
nado set out on a vanguard march with fifty mounted men, some
infantry soldiers, and a number of Indians. The rest of the
army under Tristan de Arellano, followed fifteen days after.
Niza, with some of the other friars, accompanied Coronado.
Among the soldiers was Pedro de Castaiieda who, some twenty
years after, wrote a history of what he remembered of the ex-
pedition.
32
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
45. Coronado Reaches Zufii. — After crossing an Indian Vil-
lage, in wliiil now i'oi'ins Ihe State of Sonora, called Chiehil-ti-
calli, Coronado entered the Znfii deseii, gi-eatly discouraged and
bitterly disappointed in discovering that Niza's report had mis-
represented the country, and coming to the Zuiii River, named it
Rio Colorado (red river), on account of its water being red with
SPANISH REGIME 33
mud. Coronado was now eiglit miles from Zniii. It was the
j&rst of August (1540). At this i^iace Coronado met some of the
Zuni Indians who, on seeing the Spaniards, started promptly to
carry the news to Zuni.
46. Battle Won with the Zunis — Pueblos Surrender — Coro-
nado Wounded. — On August 2d, Zuni Indians (the original In-
dian name of this pueblo was "Ha\Adkuh") came out and gave
the Spaniards battle but were defeated and on the next day
(August 3d) Coronado 's army entered the pueblo, and Coronado
at once named the country Nueva Granada (New Granada), and
the same day A\TOte a letter from that place to Viceroy Mendoza,
which contained a severe censure of Niza's exaggerated report.
The pueblo had some 200 warriors, about 1,000 inhabitants,
adobe houses from three to four stories high. From Zuiii, Coro-
nado visited the other six pueblos of the province which he com-
pelled to surrender, after a somewhat desperate battle in which
Coronado received a stone jw^ound in the head. Coronado then
reprimanded Niza and sent him back to Mexico.
47. Arellano's March — Spanish Settlements. — On his way to
Cibola the. army followed the road traveled by Cabeza de Viaca
four years before, and came to an Indian camp, which De Vaca
named Corazones (Hearts), at or near the place where the City
of Ures, State of Sonora, Mexico, now stands. Here Arellano
founded the colony of San Geronimo de los Corazones (Saint
Jerome of Hearts), but which he afterwards removed further
into the interior and gave it the name of Seiiora (Lady). From
that place Arellano sent Maldonado to the coast in search of
Alarcon, who soon returned Av-ithout finding Alarcon, nor his
vessels. Here also Arellano received, in October, instructions
from Coronado to hasten the march of the army.
48. The Army Starts for Cibola — Alarcon 's Letter — The
Colorado River. — Arellano at once started for Cibola, leaving
Melchor Diaz with eighty soldiers at Seiiora. After Arellano's
departure Melchor Diaz -with l^wenty-five men went to the coast
to look for Alarcon, leaving Diego de Alcaraz in charge at Seiiora.
On reaching the coast, where the Colorado River empties into the
Gulf of California, he found written on a tree these words:
"Alarcon arrived at this place; there are letters at the foot of
this tree." In the letters Alarcon stated that, having in vain
waited there a long time for instructions from Coronado, he had
returned to New Spain (Mexico).
34 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
49. Death of Diaz. — Melelior Diaz followed the opposite
course of tlie ("olorado River, to a point near its confluence with
the Gila. Here he built rafts, crossed to the noi'th side, and ex-
plored the country far into what are now the States of California,
Nevada, and Utah. Not finding: anything of interest he retraced
his steps, but was accidentally killed bcfoi-e reaching Senora.
50. The Army Reaches Cibola — More Discoveries. — It was
after the middle of October (1540) when the army reached
Cibola, Avithout encountering any accident. Acting on informa-
tion given him by the Indians about a group of other pueblos
some twenty-five miles from Cibola, (Joronado sent seventeen
soldiers under Pedro de Tovar and Fr. Juan de Padilla. Tovar
soon found these pueblos, the principal one of which was Tu-
sayan. He had to fight a battle, in which many Indians were
killed, before taking posssession of the pueblos. Here Tovar
heard of a great river (the Colorado, discovered by Melchor
Diaz) inhabited by large pueblos. Tovar returned to Coronado's
quarters and reported what he had done.
51. Second Discovery of the Colorado River. — Coronado at
once sent Garcia Lopez de Cardenas with twelve soldiers to dis-
cover that river, and to take possession of its settlements. They
traveled twenty days before reaching the river, and when they
came to it they found a ravine so deep that the two men charged to
descend to the water traveled down a narrow path from morning
until four o'clock in the afternoon without reaching the water
line. Cardenas and the others remained on the brink of the
precipice until the two men returned. The two men who made
the descent were Captain Melgosa and the soldier, Juan Galeras.
52. Acuco, Tiguex, Cicuye Discovered — Bigotes Submits.—
The discovery of Acuco (Acoma), Tiguex (some ten or more
pueblos lying on either side of the Rio Grande near the town of
Bernalillo with Puara or Puaray as the principal one of the
province), and Cicuye (Pecos) followed. An Indian from
Cicuye visited Coronado at Zuiii and informed him of their ex-
istence. This Indian was from Cicuye, and the Spaniards
named him Bigotes (Mustache), on account of his having
beard and mustache. Bigotes offered Coronado his sub-
mission and the submission of all his people, and made him pres-
ents of tanned buffalo hides and Indian pottery. He told Coron-
ado that the hides were tanned from cow^s found not far from
Cicuye. To verify that information, Coronado sent Hernando
SPANISH REGIME 35
do Alvarado with twenty soldiers and Bigotes, giving Alvarado
eiglity days to explore the whole country.
53. Alvarado 's Journey — Headquarters for the Army —
Turco. — The first pueblo Alvarado eanie to was Aeuco (Acoma)
about fifty miles east from Zuni. Acoma is built on the summit
of a large impregnable rock, and is ascended by a very narrow
path with steps carved in the rock. After some little resistance,
Alvarado took possession of Acoma, receiving presents of turkeys,
bread, deerskins, pinones (pine tree nuts), corn meal, and corn.
Alvarado then went to the Tiguex province, and was joyfully re-
ceived by the Indians of Puaray, the chief pueblo. From Tiguex,
Alvarado informed Coronado that the pueblo of Puaray was the
best place for winter quarters, urging him to come there. From
there Alvarado went to Cicuye, and found its inhabitants ready
for submission. They came out to meet him, and gave him many
presents of woolen and cotton goods, turquoises, and other things.
Here Alvarado met an Indian that looked like a Turk, whom
the Spaniards on that account called Turco. This Indian
claimed to be from Florida. Turco told Alvarado that hisi
country was very rich, thickly inhabited; that gold and silver
could be found in large quantities. Alvarado returned from
Cicuye and on reaching Tiguex, he met Cardenas with a few sol-
diers. Cardenas had come to prepare quarters for the army.
54. Coronado at Tiguex — Other Pueblos — The Gran
Quivira. — Coronado, upon Cardenas' report, sent the army un-
der Arellano to Tiguex, and he went with thirty men and a few
Indians to discover the province of Tutahaco (comprising the
pueblos of Laguna and Isleta). After taking peaceful pos-
session of that province, Coronado went along the Rio Grande to
Tiguex, where he met Alvarado, Turco (the Indian), and Car-
denas. This was in September, 1540. Turco repeated to Coro-
nado what he had told about his country, which is known as
the Gran Quivira. Coronado now made up his mind to make a
.journey to that country, but as it was then winter he remained
there until the spring of 1541. The army reached Tigaex shortly
after Coronado, and the soldiers were lodged in the homes of the
Indians who had been expelled by force from their homes by
Cardenas and Alvarado and deprived of their clothes and pro-
visions that the soldiers might have comfortable quarters. This
cruel and inhuman treatment of the hospitable Indians was
acquiesced in by Coronado, and was the seed which engendered
MOST REV. DON JUAX BAUTISTA LAMY, ARCHBISHOP OF SANTA FE
New Mexico's first Bishop, 1851, under the American Government
SPANISH REGIME 37
in the hearts of the New Mexico Pueblo Indians the hatred
against tlie Spaniards which later (in 1680) cuhninated in the
great rebellion.
XIV
55. First Insurrection — Cruelty of the Spaniards. — Because
of the inclemency of the weather, Coronado ordered Juan -Ale-
man, Indian governor of Puaray, to gather from the Indians
300 garments for the Spanish soldiers. The order was not com-
plied with immediately, and Coi'onado sent soldiers to enforce it.
The Indians were despoiled of all they had, even the clothes
they were wearing, and were, besides, subjected to cruel treat-
ment, and their families abused by the soldiers. These things
brought about a hostile demonstration on the part of the In-
dians, which ended in a bloody fight, in which many Indians
w^ere killed and a large number made prisoners. This was in
March, 1541. To this cruel and unchristian treatment of the
Indians the Franciscan Fathers protested, objected, and repri-
manded the Spaniards.
56. Siege of the Pueblo — Human Holocaust. — On hearing of
the insurrection Coronado sent Cardenas with a large, number
of soldiers with instructions not to leave a single Indian alive.
A siege Avas laid to the pueblo which lasted fifteen days, the In-
dians fighting desperately until hunger and thirst compelled
them to surrender, after losing 200 of their number. The Span-
iards had several soldiers wounded and one- officer, Captain
Francisco de Obando, was killed. While the battle was raging,
some 100 Indians surrendered to Captains Zaldivar and Melgosa
and were sent to Cardenas' quarters. Cardenas, believing that
said Indians had been made prisoners, ordered their immediate
execution. All but two of the unfortunate natives were burnt
alive. When Cardenas became aware of his error, after the
surrender of the other Indians, he made an effort under Corona-
do's orders and the command of the priests, to reconcile the
Indians, but w^as assaulted and w^ounded by them.
57. Coronado Visits Cicuye — Delivery of Bigotes. — While
the Tiguex pueblo was under siege, Coronado, fearing a general
uprising by the Cicuye Indians, made a trip to Cicuye and de-
livered to the natives of that pueblo, their governor, Bigotes,
whom he had kept for six months in Puaray as a prisoner on a
complaint of Turco, Avho had charged the Cicuye Indians with
38 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
having stolen some bracelets from him. The Cieiiye Indians
were pleased when their governor was returned to them, and, on
that account they submitted to Coronado, giving him manj'
presents, among wliieh was an Indian from Qnivii-a, Xave.
Coronado at once returned 1o Tigiu-x.
58. Submission of the Whole Province — The Gran Quivira.
— ^Upon Coronado 's return to Tiguex, preparations were made
for the journey to the nuich lauded Gran Quivira. The Tiguex
Indians had fled to the mountains, but ])e Tovai- had already
discovered and pacified the province of Queres or Quinx (which
included the pueblos named today Cohiti, San I^'elipe, Santo
Domingo, Zia, and Santa Ana, now deserted). All these pueblos
are near Tiguex. The whole province being pacified, and every-
thing ready, the celebrated march of Coronado to the Gran
Quivira was undertaken by the whole army, no Spaniard re-
maining in New Mexico. This journey was undertaken in May,
1541. To the Indians of Zia, Coronado made a present, to show
them his appreciation of their loyalty, of four pieces (cannons)
of artillery which had previously been put out of commission.
XV
59. The Gran Quivira. — From Tiguex Coronado marched,
with Xave and Turco as guides, going by way of Cicuye, thence
in a southeastern direction until they again reached the Pecos
River, at the place where the town of Puerto de Luna, Guadalupe
County, is now. The river was very high and could not be
forded, but the Spaniards built a bridge, and were thus able to
continue their journey into the then limitless prairies (the
staked plains). For several days the army traveled amid great
sufferings for want of water. Food they had plenty, the vast
territorial expanse being literally covered with bisons (buffa-
loes).
60. Trace of Cabeza De Vaca — Ysopete. — In the course of
the journey far into the interior of the wilderness, the Span-
iards came to a large settlement through which Cabeza de Vaca
and his companions had passed six years before. On the ap-
proach of the army the Indians requested the Spaniards to bless
them, the Indians making the sign of the cross and saying they
had learned these things from three white men and a negro, who
went through their land some time before. At this place the
SPANISH REGIME 39
Spaniards were joined by another Indian, wlioni they called
Ysopefe, ■\vho asked to be allowed to go with them as he knew
the eounti-y better than Turco, and charging Turco with having
told a falsehood to the Spaniards regarding the country. These
diarges were supported by Xave, who time and again called
Turco an impostor.
61. Council of War — Turco Arrested. — Coronado being dis-
gusted with not having found, after tiiirty-seven days of constant
travel, anything but wild Indians and wild animals, and being
satisfied that Turco had lied to him, called a council of war, the
result of the deliberations being that the army should return
to Tiguex, and that Coronado, with thirty-six mounted and six
infantry soldiers, should continue further into the interior.
Coronado placed Turco under arrest, took him along, and made
him travel on foot. Ysopete also accompanied Coronado as
guide. Xave returned with the army. The separation of Cor-
onado from his army took place near the southern part of what
is now the State of Kansas.
62. Return of the Army — New Discoveries. — Before start-
ing, Arellano had 500 butfaloes killed and the meat sun-dried to
provision the army. On his return Arellano took for guides some
Indians called Teyas, and the start was made the earlier part of
July, 1541, by a shorter route pointed out by the Indian guides,
the journey to Tiguex having been made in twenty-five days.
At Cicuye the army was received with hostile demonstrations.
Arellano therefore continued his journey without stopping at
Cicuye. On reaching Tiguex, the latter part of July, Arellano
found the pueblos occupied by the Tiguex Indians, who, upon the
arrival of the Spaniards, again abandoned the pueblos, fleeing
to the mountains. Arellano at once sent squads of soldiers in
different directions, to explore the country and to gather pro-
visions for the army. Barrionuevo went by w-ay of Jemez,
where he discovered seven pueblos (only one of them exists to-
day), and gathered great quantities of corn, bread, and other
provisions, which the Indians readily gave him. From Jemez
Ban'ionuevo went northeast, discovering the pueblos of San Ilde-
fonzo, Pojua(iue, Nambe, Cuyanningue, Santa Clara, San Juan,
and Abiquiu, and finally Taos (Braba), which he named Valla-
dolid. Another captain explored the province of the Piros,
Socorro County.
63. The Gran Quivira — Coronado 's Return. — Coronado trav-
40 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
eled forty days after leaving the army without finding anything
of conse(iuence, arriving finally at a large settlement of Wichita
Indians who lived in slender straw huts. This settlement, Cor-
onado was informed, was the famous Gran Quivira. The exact
location of the Quivira is supposed to be on the Arkansas River,
State of Kansas, close to where Dodge City now stands. (Some
reputable authors believe that it was on the Missouri River.)
Coronado, realizing that he had been imposed upon by Turco,
had him executed by strangulation and gave orders for the re-
turn to Tiguex.
64. Battle with the Cicuye Indians. — In the earlier part of
October, 1541, Arellano, having heard that Coronado was on his
way back, started with forty men to meet him. At Cicuye he
found the Indians opposed to his going further and ready to
figh't. A battle followed, in which the Indians were whipped
into siibmission, after many of them had been killed. ' Here
Arellano waited for Coronado, who was not long in reaching the
place. On Coronado 's arrival at Cicuye, the Indians again sub-
mitted to his authority wdth demonstrations of joy. Coronado
then proceeded to Tiguex, where he spent the winter with his
army.
XVI
65. Letter to the Emperor — Coronado 's Failure. — On his re-
turn to Tiguex, Coronado, keenly feeling his disappointment, and
having been made the victim of Father Niza's exaggerations, on
the 20th of October, 1541, made his last report to the emperor of
Spain. In this report, Coronado manfully admits his failure;
gives a full and complete account of his journey ; of his surprise
at Niza 's having wilfully lied to him about the country ; describes
his suffering and what he found the Quivira to be ; states M'hat
discoveries had been made ; relates the inclemency of the weather
and the lack of fuel in the neighborhood of Tiguex ; informs the
emperor of his going back to Mexico in the coming spring, and
closes with these words : ' ' There was nothing of what Fr. Mar-
cos said . . . the best I have found is this river of Tiguex,
where I am, and its towns which are not in position to be peo-
pled. . . The land is so cold, as I have written to your Majes-
ty, that it seems impossible for winter to be spent therein, there
being neither wood nor clothing wherewith men might be shel-
tered."
SPANISH REGIME 41
66. Cold Causes Suffering' — Injury to Coronado. — The win-
ter was spent in extreme poverty, aiul without wood or sufficient
clothing. In going through the country looking for provisions
Coronado was thrown from his horse, the fall inflicting on him a
severe injury which laid him up for some weeks. Cardenas,
who had left Tiguex for Spain immediately upon the return of
the army, returned to Tiguex, not having been able to proceed
very far because the Indians in Sonora had killed all the Span-
iards in the Spanish settlements. This sad news caused Corona-
do much anxiety and prompted him to begin preparations for
the return of the army to Mexico.
67. The Return— The First Martyrs.— In the latter part of
April, 1542, Coronado with his army left Tiguex for Mexico,
taking wdth him all his men except Fr. Juan de Padilla, Fr. de
Escalona, a Portuguese named Andres del Campo, and some few
Indians of those that came with him from Mexico. The Fathers
at once separated to preach the gospel among the Indians.
Father De Padilla, accompanied by Del Campo, went back to the
Gran Quivira, where he was murdered by the Indians while de-
livering a sermon. Del Campo escaped as soon as he saw what
was to happen. Fr. De Escalona remained preaching the gospel
in Cicuye, where he also was killed by the Indians of that pueblo.
The Mexican Indians, some three or four, remained at Zuiii,
where Espejo found them forty years after (1582). Coronado
reached the City of Mexico in August (1542). Mendoza received
him with marked indifference, relieving him of the post of gov-
ernor of New Galicia which he was occuping when sent to New
Mexico. Thus ended the remarkable and eventful, though fruit-
less entry of Coronado.
CHAPTER V
XVII
68. First Mission.-
After the return of Coronado to Mexico
(1542) no other entry of importance
took place until the year 1581, except
an entry made in 1564, by Don Fran-
cisco Ibarra, then governor of New
^Mscaya, who came at the head of an
expedition composed of fifty soldiers
under Pedro de Tovar (one of Coron-
ado 's captains), and several Francis-
can Fathers with Fr. Acebedo as su-
perior. It was in the year 1581,
when two Franciscan Fathers and a
Franciscan Brother, named Juan de
Santa Maria, Francisco Lopez, and
Agustin Rodriguez (known in historj^
as Rodriguez and Ruiz) respectively,
came to New Mexico. These mission-
aries were accompanied by eight sol-
diers under Captain Francisco San-
chez Chasmuscado. The names of the
soldiers were: Felipe Escalante,
Hernando Barrado, Jose Sanchez, Pe-
dro Sanchez de Chavez,
Herrera, and Fuensalido.
The object of these mis-
sionaries was to teach the
Indians the Christian re-
ligion. The soldiers were
sent to escort and protect
the Fathers; eight friendly
Indians from Mexico came
with them as servants.
Thus it was that the first
missions in New Mexico were preached in 1581.
PTESUOl/E
Courtesy of J. C. Candelnrio, Santa Fe, N. M.
INDIAN GOVERNOR OP THE PUEBLO OF
TESUQUE
SPANISH REGIME 43
69. The Journey Along the Rio Grande. — June 5, 1581, the
Fathers and the rest ol" tlic [jarty left San iJarlolonie (then the
northernmost mission in what is now the State of Chihuahua).
They came traveling along the Kio Grande from the confluence of
that river with the Conchos. The Fathers, on reaching the Rio
Grande, named it Guadalquivir, because it looked to them as
large as the Guadalquivir of Spain. On their way they preach-
ed in every pueblo along the river and were cordially received
everywhere. When they reached Tiguex they established their
head(]uarters in the pueblo of Puaray, this pueblo being the
same where Coronado had forty years before made his quarters.
70. Discovery of Mines — The Soldiers Desert the Fathers. —
The missions being thus established, in October, 1581, Cliamus-
cado and his companions made several trips over the country
looking for mines, discovering some in the Piros province (now
Socorro County). Chamuscado and his soldiers, in January,
1582, returned to Mexico (Chamuscado dying before reaching
the City of Mexico), leaving the Fathers in New Mexico wdthout
protection. They took a quantity of silver ore wath them, which
was essayed in Mexico and found to contain fifty per cent of
silver.
71. The Fathers Name the Province New Mexico — Their
Death. — Fr. Eodriguez and his companions made thousands of
conversions among the Indians and were so well pleased with the
country and its inhabitants that they named it New^ Mexico, and
sent a report to Mexico by Father Juan de Santa Maria. The
latter, relying on his knowledge of the stars, and prompted also
by a desire to discover other places, took a different route. He
had traveled only three days when the Indians, while the Father
was asleep by the roadside, killed him, by casting a large stone
over his head. Father Lopez and Fr. Rodriguez and the friend-
ly Indians who came wdth them from Mexico, were a few days
after murdered by the Indians of Tiguex in the pueblo of Puaray.
These murders were committed in the earlier part of 1582. The
Franciscan Fathers at Bartolome soon learned of the fate of
these Fathers. Though these Fathers were the first to apply the
name New Mexico to the province, they were not the originators
of that title. The name had been known in Mexico since 1568.
44 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
XVIII
72. Expedition of Deliverance. — After Chanmscado and the
other sokliei's had reached San Bartolome the force disbanded,
Chamnscado, Pedro de Bustaraente, and Hernando Barrado go-
ing to Mexico City, to report to the viceroy the result of their
trip. Chanmscado died before reaching Mexico ; Bustamente
and Barrado reached the city in May, 1582 ; they made a report
of their discoveries and turned over the silver ore to the royal
assayer. From Barrado 's testimony, Mendoza learned of the
rumors that Fr. Ruiz and his companions had been murdered.
At San Bartolome Father Beltran, upon hearing the sad rumors
at once took steps to organize an expedition to rescue Fr. Lopez
and his companions, if alive. Antonio de Espejo, a rich noble,
who was then at San Bartolome, volunteered to head the expedi-
tion, defraying the expenses himself. The ne.cessary authority
having been obtained. Father Beltran placed everything in Es-
pejo 's hands and agreed to accompany Espejo.
73. Espejo Starts — A Woman in the Party.— Being well sup-
plied with arms, food, provisions, mules, and horses, Espejo
started from San Bartolome November 10, 1582. With him were
fourteen soldiers whose names were Juan Lopez de IbaiTa, Diego
Perez de Lujan, Gaspar de Lujan, Cristobal Sanchez, Gregorio
Hernandez, Juan Hernandez, Miguel Sanchez Valenciano, La-
zaro Sanchez, Miguel Sanchez Nevado, Pedro Hernandez de Al-
mansa, Francisco Barrado, Bernardo de Luna, and Juan de Frias.
Two other Franciscans, besides Father Beltran, namely. Father
Juan de la Cruz and Pedro de Heredia, joined the expedition
for the purpose of taking up the ehristianization of the Indians
with Father Lopez and his companions, if found alive, or by
themselves if said Fathers had been murdered. Follow^ing the
example of the Spanish women Avho fought side by side with
their husbands in the conquest of Mexico and South America,
the wife of Miguel Sanchez Valenciano, with her two sons, ac-
companied the expedition.
74. The Journey — Cabeza de Vaca. — Espejo followed the
same route traveled by Father Lopez and his companions seven-
teen months before. With one exception, the Indians along the
Rio Grande before reaching Tiguez, gave him a kind reception.
Espejo named the Indian pueblos he went through before reach-
ing New Mexico as follows : The Concho Indians, the Pasa-
SPANISH REGIME 45
guates, the Tobasos, and the Patarabueyes, called also Jumanos.
This pueblo was close to the Finos nation. The Jumanos were
the ones that opposed with force the Spaniards in their march ;
but the Spaniards defeated them and made them swear obedi-
ence to the king. At the pueblo of Jumanos Espejo noticed
that the Indians made the sign of the cross and prayed with
their eyes to heaven. On being asked how they knew those
things, they answered that several years before three white men
and a negro (Cabeza de Vaca and his companions) visited them
and taught them the knowledge of a Supreme Being and how to
talk with Him.
75. Espejo Reaches Tig^ex. — From the pueblo Jumanos Es-
pejo went direct to Tiguex, which was near the Jumanos, where
the Spaniards learned of the martyrdom of Fathers Juan de
Santa Maria, Lopez, and Fr. Rodriguez (Ruiz). The Indians
of Puaray, fearing Espejo 's punishment for having killed the
Fathers, deserted the pueblo, going to the nearby mountains,
and leaving in their homes gi*eat quantities of provisions, many
turkeys, and some rich metals. Here the Spaniards remained
for several days before they made up their minds as to whether
they should return or explore the country. Espejo finally got
his companions to agree to further explorations.
XIX
76. Espejo Explores — New Mexico's New Name. — Fixing
his headquarters at Puaray, Espejo began an exploration of the
entire province, which he named Nueva Andalucia. At Zuiii, he
found the Mexican Indians that had remained there from Coron-
ado's expedition, forty-one years before; also the crosses left
by Coronado. Here Espejo was informed that rich metals ex-
isted some seventy days' travel to the west. Coronado had made
a trip to the locality wiiere he was informed the gold and silver
metals could be found. He found the place near the Gila River,
some 135 miles from Zuni.
77. Rich Ore Found — Father Beltran's Return. — The mines
first discovered by Espejo 's men were valuable. Espejo says
that he drew out with his own hands very rich ores. Espejo
then returned to Zuni, where Father Beltran and some of the
soldiers, who already had made up their minds to return to
Mexico, were waiting for him. Espejo did not object to the re-
46 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
turn of Father Beltran and others who wanted to go. The
party was divided, Espejo and eight soldiers remaining in New
Mexico, and the Fathers with the rest of the men returning to
San Bartoloine. This was in May, 1583.
78. Espejo Finds More Mines. — The separation effected, Es-
pejo visited all the pueblos in the province of the Queres, which
he called Cumanes. Here again Espejo found rich silver and
gold ore in the mountains near Zia. From there he traveled
in an easterly direction, visiting the other pueblos as far as the
pueblo of the Tanos (now in ruins near the place where the town
of Galisteo, Santa Fe County, stands), at which place he became
convinced that further explorations with such a small number
of men was dangerous, and concluded to retrace his steps to-
wards San Bartolome, and tit out another and larger expedition
to colonize the country, in which efforts he failed after his return
to San Bartolome.
79. Espejo 's Return. — In the earlier part of July, 1583, af-
ter having received the submission of all the Indians in New
Mexico, Espejo started back to Mexico from the Tanos pueblo,
going by way of the Rio de las Vacas, which name the Span-
iards gave to the Pecos River, on account of the very large
number of bisons (buffalo) found near it, and arriving at San
Bartolome the next month, August, where he found Father
Beltran and the rest of the party. Thus it was that after twelve
months spent in the expedition, its object was not accomplished ;
yet the result was beneficial because of the discovery of more
mines, and because of the spiritual good done by the Fathers
among the Indians. Espejo made further efforts to obtain au-
thority from the king for another expedition to colonize the
country, but failed, as was the case with the efforts made by Cris-
toval Martin and others. These efforts failed because Francisco
Diaz de Vargas, to whom the king referred the petitions of
Espejo and the others, reported adversely.
XX
80. Contention Between Lomas and Velasco. — In the year
1589, Juan Bautista de Lomas y Colmenares had obtained from
Viceroy Villamanrique authority to conquer and colonize New
Mexico at his own expense ; but the king not approving De Lo-
mas 's petition, the effort failed. In 1592 the new' viceroy, Velas-
HAND WRITTEN BALLOT
Above is a list of officials elected by the electoral college in Santa
Fe on the 7th of October, 1845. The first two names are the
ones elected as the regular diputado (delegate) and his proxy.
The five names following are of those elected as the regular mem-
bers of the Departmental Assembly and the last three were elected
as proxies. The original is in the possession of the author of
this work
48 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
CO, granted Francisco de Urdiilola authority to conciuer New
Mexico. This effort failed also by reason of Urdinola's arrest
on the complaint of De Lomas, charging him with the murder
of his (Urdinola's) wife. De Lomas made another effort in 1595
before Viceroy Monterey with the same result: a failure.
81. Castaiio De Sosa. — In the year 1590, there lived in the
city of San Luis Potosi a man of great prestige, with a brilliant
military record. lie was the mayor of the city, a noble, and
very wealthy. The reports constantly made of the fabulous
riches said to exist in New Mexico enthused him to the point of
seeing and colonizing the newly discovered country. Without
asking the king's authority he began to organize an expedition
at his own cost, gathering in men, women, and children, some
170 persons, besides wagons, horses, mules, sheep, and cattle,
and all other things necessary for the founding of colonies.
82. The Entry — De Sosa's Success. — Castaiio de Sosa started
with his colonists from San Luis Potosi July 27, 1590. His
route was partly along the Rio Grande and partly along the Pecos
River, which he called Rio Salado (Salt River). He visited all
the pueblos of New Mexico ; was kindly received by all of them
except one, where he had to use force to overcome the resistance
shown by its inhabitants. It was Castaiio de Sosa who in 1590
established among the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico the pecu-
liar form of government which they have to this date. He was
arrested in the pueblo of Cochiti, 1590, by Captain Juan Moreie,
who had been sent wdth an escort of soldiers by the viceroy for
that purpose, and was taken back to Mexico with the rest of the
party.
83. Humana and Bonilla. — Juan de Humana and a Portu-
guese named Francisco Leyva Bonilla, acting without any re-
quired authority, and while Castaiio de Sosa was in New Mexico,
together with other adventurers and some Mexican Indians,
penetrated into the Gran Quivira countiy and discovered great
quantities of gold, but on their return Humana and Bonilla quar-
reled, Humaria killing Bonilla and being himself killed by the
Quivira Indians with the entire party, except one of the Mexican
Indians, named Jusepe, who escaped and came to Tiguez in New
Mexico, where he was found in 1598, by Oiiate, and told the story
of the fate of Humaiia 's expedition.
CHAPTER VI
XXI
84. The First Conquest — Onate. — For several years after Cas-
taiio de Sosa's entry nothing more was done to concjuer New
Mexico, although the country was ripe for its accomplishment.
In the year 1585, there lived in Mexico Juan de Oiiate, great-
grandson of Herutin Cortes, the con(iueror of Mexico, and of
Montezuma, Mexico's Indian emperor at the time of Cortes'
conquest of that country. Don Juan de Oiiate was the son of
Don Cristobal Ofiate (who during the conquest of Mexico was
one of the most famous of Cortes' captains, and afterwards
founder of the city of Zacatecas) and of Doiia Isabel Tolosa,
granddaughter of Cortes and great-granddaughter of Montezu-
ma. Thus it Avas that New Mexico's first conqueror was of noble
descent on his father's and on his mother's side. With all that,
he was very cruel to his conquered fellow-Indians in New Mex-
ico. Don Juan de Oiiate had a high military reputation and was
immensely wealthy. These circumstances contributed largely to
his success in conquering New Mexico.
85. Onate 's Efforts — His Enemies. — In the year 1595, the
25th of September, Onate presented his petition to Viceroy Velas-
co, agreeing to defray all the expenses and to furnish soldiers,
colonists, and all things necessary for an effective conquest. In
return he asked to be made governor and captain-general, with a
salary of 8000 ducats (about $20,000 ; that he be given a ninety-
mile grant of the conquered land and, further, that he and his
descendants be made hijos dalgos (nobles). He also asked for a
loan of $20,000. Yelasco approved Oiiate 's petition on the 24th
of August, the same year, granting everything he asked. While
Onate, assisted by his ])rothers, Fernando and Cristoval, and his
nephews, Juan and Vicente Zaldivar, were organizing the expedi-
tion, his enemies were at work with Viceroy ]\Ionterey, Velasco's
successor, trying to annul Ofiate 's authority and to have Pedro
Ponce de Leon appointed in his place, in which they partially
succeeded.
50 HISTORY ( )F NEW MEXICO
86. The Fight and Its Result. — On ate was about to start with
his expedition ffoiu Santa r>arl)ara when a royal decree reached
him to suspend the exi)edition and to appear before the viceroy
to answer the charges filed against liini. Tliis was in May, 1596.
Witliout advising bis soldiers and colonists of what had happened,
Oilate took up the fight, retaining his army and headquarters at
Santa Barbara for the eighteen months it took him to overcome
the charges, and have his appointment confirmed. This he
achieved in December, 1597, and at once made ready for his
memoral)le march.
87! The Start and Entry.— Early on the 26th of January,
1598, Ofiate started from San Bartolome with a party of 400, of
which number 130 were colonists with their families; the rest
were soldiers, servants, eleven Franciscan Fathers and three
Franciscan Brothers. The Fathers were Fr. Alonzo Martinez
(superior), Fr. Marquez, Fr. Francisco Zamora, Fr. Juan Rosas,
Fr. Alonzo Lugo, Fr. Francisco de San Miguel, Fr. Andres Cor-
chado, Fr. Juan de San Buenaventura, Fr. Pedro Vergara, Fr.
Cristoval Salazar, and Fr. Juan Claros. The three lay brothers
were Martin, Francisco, and Juan de Dios. The names of the
officers were, besides the governor, Don Cristoval de Oiiate, the
eighteen-year old son of the governor, who was appointed by his
father as lieutenant-governor ; Juan de Zaldivar, aide-de-camp ;
Vicente Zaldivar, chief sergeant; Gaspar de Villagra (who in
1610 published in Spain, in epic form, the first history of New
Mexico entitled, Ilistoria de lu Nuevoa Mexico), solicitor general;
and Pablo Aguilar Aranjo, Ascencion de Archuleta, Ayarde,
Dionicio Barruelos, Juan Benitez, Divero Alonzo Quezada, Juan
Gutierres, Juan Pinero, Marcelo Espinosa, Farfan de los Godos,
Diego Landin, Geronimo Marquez, Diego Nunez, Bernabe de las
Casas, Geronimo de Ileredia, and Leon Zapata, as subordinate
officers. Ohate brought along 7,000 head of cattle and eighty-
three wagons with provisions and tools.
88, Ofiate Takes Possession of New Mexico. — The expedition
reached the Conchos River on the 7th of February. From the
Conchos he took a short ciit, and was lost for four days, during
w^hich time all suffered greatly for lack of water. On the fourth
day they reached the Rio Grande. This great river was forded
with much difficulty, and the march continued on the east side of
the stream until April 30, 1598, when Onate encamped near the
Rio Grande, some few miles below the place where the town of
SPANISH RP^GIME
51
San Marcial stands today. Here, and on that day, he took
formal and solemn possession of the eountiy, and then continued
his march into the interior, along the east shore of the Rio
Grande, visiting all the pueblos on his route until he reached
GENERAL MANUEL ARMIJO
New Mexico's last Governor under Mexican Autliority
the Tiguex province, stopping in the pueblo of Puaray, where
he found painted on the wall of one of the rooms a picture of
the torture suffered by Fathers Francisco Lopez and his com-
panions seventeen years before. In Puaray, Onate met the
Mexican Indian, Jusepe, the only survivor of the Humaiia ex-
52 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
pedition and learned fi-oui him of the riches of the Qiiivira, and
the fatal endiiifi: of lluinana and his people.
89. New Mexico's First Colony — San Juan de los Cabal-
leros. — h'rom l^uai-ay, Ofiale eontinued his inarch to the north,
visiting all the pneblos on the east side of the Rio Grande, until
he reached the pueblo of San Juan de los Caballeros (then known
as Caypa) July 11, 1598. Because of the hospitality with which
the Caypa Indians received the Spaniards, Oiiate gave that
pueblo the name of San Juan de Los Caballeros (St. John of the
Gentlemen). A short distance south of this pueblo, on the east
side of the Rio Grande, Oiiate established his first provisional
colony and named it San Gabriel, parceled out lots among the
colonists, built a chapel for the Indians, and received the sub-
mission of nearly all the pueblos through their respective govern-
ors, who had, in obedience to Onate 's order, gathered at the pueblo
of San Juan for that purpose. Oiiate then divided the pueblos
into missions and assigned priests to each mission as follows :
Father Miguel to Cicuye (Pecos) ; Fr. Zamora to the Queres and
Tiguex provinces ; Fr. Lugo to the Jemez province ; Fr. Cor-
chado to the Zia pueblos, and Fr. Cristoval to the Teguas pro-
vince, with headquarters at San Juan. The Tegua province em-
braced all the pueblos north of Santo Domingo on either side of
the Rio Grande.
XXII
90. Discovery of the Jemez Hot Springs — Foundation of the
First City and Capital. — After having remained for a consider-
able time at San Gabriel, Onate thought it was time to select a
site for a city which was to be the capital. Accordingly, on
July 13, 1599, he started on a visit to all the pueblos from Taos
to Cicuye and Jemez, without finding a suitable place for the
purpose. During that trip Onate discovered the famous sulphur
and hot springs a few miles above the pueblo of Jemez. On the
10th of August he returned to San Gabriel and reported the
result of his explorations. It was then unanimously resolved to
build the capital city at the place where they had provisionally
settled. It was so built and named San Francisco and was
given an organized municipal government.
91. Conspiracy of AguUar. — By the time the Spaniards first
reached San Juan, great discontent existed among them for
want of the necessaries of life, and on account of Oiiate 's ar-
SPANISH REGIME 53
rogance and despotism. Captain Agnilar, with forty-five sol-
diers, had secretly planned a seditious movement, which cul-
minated in a mutiny in which the conspirators were defeated.
Aguilar and most of his followers having implored Ofiate's par-
don, were forgiven, but four of the conspirators escaped, taking
with them several horses. They were pursued by a sciuad of
soldiers under Captains Villagra and Marquez and two of them
(together with the stolen horses) were captured, the men being
executed by strangulation near Santa Barbara.
!>2. Ofiate's Trip to the Gulf of California — Third Discovery
of Mines. — Wliih' ]\Iar(|ue/ and ViUagi-a were absent, in pursuit
of the four fugitives, Onate, accompanied by Fr. Martinez (the
superior), Captains Farfan and Quezada and some soldiers, made
a western trip with the object of discovering the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, and some rich mines which they had heard existed near
Moqui. They discovered the mines west of Moqui and saw that
other Spaniards (Espejo) had already worked them. Before
leaving the settlement Oiiate had sent Vicente Zaldivar to ex-
plore the Quivira country and left Juan Zaldivar in charge of
the colonies, to whom he sent instructions to turn the govern-
ment over to his brother, Vicente Zaldivar, upon his return from
Quivira, and for him, Juan Zaldivar, to follow Onate. Discord
had now become general among the colonists, and Juan Zaldivar
was on that account unable to comply with Oiiate 's order as
soon as he wished, but did so M-ithout much loss of time, leaving
with thirty soldiers for Zuiii, w^here Onate was waiting for him,
November 18, 1599. In the mean time Villagra and his com-
panions were returning to the settlement.
93. Treasonable Acomas — Death of Juan Zaldivar. — On
reaching the pueblo of Acoma, Juan Zaldivar encamped at the
foot of the stone mesa, December 3d, and the next day, acceed-
ing to the urgent invitations of the Indians, he, with six soldiers,
went up the mesa into the pueblo. The moment he was within
the entrance to the pueblo the Indians, in large numbers, rushed
upon Zaldivar and three of the soldiers that were with him, the
other three having remained at the entrance. Zaldivar and the
three soldiers fought desperately, hand to hand, but soon
perished. The three soldiers at the entrance at once rushed
back to the camp and informed their companions of what had
happened. The soldiers at the camp at once sent two couriers
with the news, one to Ofiate and one to the settlement. Upon
54
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
receiving the bad news Ofiate abandoned his trip to the Gulf
and returned to the settlement with his men and with Juan
Zaldivar's squad, in order to take steps for the punishment of
the treasonable Acomas.
94. Fathers Advise War Against the Acomas. — Once back
in the settlement, Ofiate asked the Franciscan Fathers for an
immediate opinion on the causes that w'ould justify a declaration
of war against the Acomas. The Franciscans held a consulta-
tion. After a thorough investigation of the killing of Zaldivar
and the three soldiers, and in a very able document (published
in full in Read's Illustrated Histonj of New Mexico) they in-
formed Onate of all justifiable grounds for a war. The opinion
fitted the treasonable conduct of the Acomas. It is signed, ' ' Fray
Alonzo Martinez, Apostolic
Commisary. ' ' Ofiate lost
no time in fitting an expe-
dition composed of the
cream of his army, with
eight of the most distin-
guished of his captains, un-
der Vicente Zaldivar, who
was thought the proper
person to avenge the death
of his brother and country-
men, with seventy soldiers.
XXIII
95. The March to Aco-
ma. — The preparation for
a vigorous campaign being
completed, the little army
of seventy-eight set out on
a war expedition, to give
battle to a pueblo defend-
ed by the impregnable
Acomo rock and 6,000 sav-
age Indians. Oiiate gave
to Vicente Zaldivar eight
of his most famed captains,
namely, Zubia, Romero, Aguilar, Farfan, Villagra, Marquez,
Juan Cortez, and Juan Velarde. The soldiers and officers were
CHARLES BENT
First Governor under the American
Government
SPANISH REGIME 55
all well mounted. January 12, 1599, the attacking army left
the settlement for Acoma and arrived at the Acoma Rock on
the 21st.
96. Zaldivar's Effort to Avoid Battle Fail. — The same day
Vicente Zaldivar got things in readiness for the storming of the
pueblo, but thought it more advisable, in order to avoid the shed-
ding of blood, to demand first the surrender of the Indians who
had murdered Juan Zaldivar and his soldiers. He accordingly
sent a messenger to the Indian governor, who for answer scorned
the messenger and told him to tell the Spaniards that they
would all be killed if they dared to assault the pueblo. The
answer inflamed the spirits of the Spaniards and the order was
given to storm the pueblo at daylight the next day, January 22d.
97. The Assault — Fall of Acoma — Schools Established. —
At peep of day (January 22d) the Spaniards made the assault,
and before midda.y they had gained the entrance to the pueblo,
for which they had to fight inch by inch. Once inside of the
pueblo the battle raged furiously all day, the Spaniards gain-
ing more and more until darkness compelled both sides to cease
fighting. The next day at dawn, the Spaniards renewed the as-
sault, fighting that day and the next so fiercely that, notwith-
standing the great odds they were fighting against, by midday
the 24th the Indians had been completely overcome, 600 of them
surrendering ; the rest, with their families, fleeing from one place
to another, were either killed or captured. The loss of the
Spaniards was considerable, and that of the Indians very great.
The surrender of the Acomas placed the wdiole province of New
Mexico in the complete control of the Spaniards, who then turned
their attention to the advancement of the colony. The Fran-
ciscans, on the return of the Acoma expedition, at once estab-
lished in most of the pueblos schools for the teaching of reading,
writing, agriculture, music, carpentry, and other arts, this being
in February and March, 1599.
CHAPTER VII
XXIV
98. Report and Requisition. — Satisfied with tlic victory of
the Spanish arms over the I'elx'l lions Aconuis, Onate tiiouglit it
proper to report to the royal authorities tiie result of his journey
and to ask for reenforcenients in order to continue the conquest
of the Quivira country. He wrote a report giving the details of
all his achievements, sending one copy each to the King of
Spain and the viceroy in Mexico. In March, 1599, Don Vicente
Zaldivar nuide the trip to Spain, and Captains Villagra, Farfan,
and Pinero went to the City of Mexico. Fathers Martinez and
Salazar accomi^anied the captains, to bring more priests and to
expose the criminal conduct of Oiiate, which had already become
intolerable, both in his private and in his ])ubHc official life.
99. Sad Situation of the Colonists — Onate 's Despotism. —
The departure of the emissaries to Spain and Mexico left only
100 soldiers to retain control of New ]\Iexico, and a very scant
quantity of provisions. The condition of the colonists was
pitiable; they had little to eat and as they had no crops the year
before they were constrained to partake of what little corn the
Indians had, which did not last long. In the meantime Oiiate
was occupied wdth efforts to enhance his military fame and dis-
cover mines, regardless of the suffering he was causing the
colonists and the Indians by his neglecting them. The Fathers,
seeing that Oiiate 's heart had become hardened by his licentious
life and insatiable thirst for gold, reprimanded him, but that
only resulted in his becoming a true despot and taking every-
thing the colonists and the Indians had, in provisions and cloth-
ing, to give to the soldiers that were to accompany him to the
Gran Quivira, a journey he was about to undertake.
100. Oiiate 's journey to Quivira — Battle with the Escan-
jaque Indians. — Infatuated by Jusepe's exaggerated reports of
the riches of Quivira, Oiiate closed his eyes to everything else
and organized his expedition to the country of his dreams, and
set out in June, 1601, taking with him all the soldiers, including
SPANISH REGIME 57
the reeiiforcemeiits lie had received the year before from Mexico,
and Fathers Vehisco and Vergara and the Indian Jusepe. On
reacliing Quivira, he found the Quiviras at war with the Es-
canjaque Indians, their neighbors. One of the priests under-
took to reconcile the warring tribes and was assaulted by one
of the Escanjaques, whereupon the Spaniards rushed to his de-
fense, thus precipitating one of the most disastrous battles of
those times. The battle lasted the entir-e day with a loss of
1,000 Indians and a few wounded Spaniards. On account of the
fierceness of the battle, the Spaniards called the place El Llano
de la Matanza (The Plain of the Massacre). Not finding the
gold he was seeking, Onate in October returned to the settlement
and found the colony almost deserted, the greater part of the
colonists and Franciscans having gone back to Mexico rather
than starve to death.
XXV
101. Charges Against Onate. — For the reasons above stated,
Father Juan de Escalon, who had succeeded Father Martinez,
wrote to the mother-house on October 1, 1601, a very strong
letter against Onate. It was a severe arraignment, a shocking
exposure of Onate 's conduct, and a full report of the conquest
and success of the labors of the Franciscans to that date. This
letter was taken to Mexico by Fathers de San ]\Iiguel, de Zamora,
Izquierdo, Gaston, and Peralta, who accompanied the colonists
back to Mexico. (That letter and another written at Santa
Barbara by Fr. de San Miguel will be found in Read's Illus-
trated Hisiory of New Mexico, pp. 237-242.)
102. Zaldivar Defended Onate — Royal Decree. — In Spain,
Zaldivar defended his uncle Onate. The hearing and investiga-
tion resulted in a reconciliation and the issuing of a decree by
the king, dated at San Lorenzo, Spain, July 8, 1602, by which
the conquest was officially acknowledged. Oiiate and his rela-
tives, together with all his soldiers and colonists, were given the
rank of nobility; more Fathers, more soldiers, and an abundance
of provisions were sent to New Mexico. These reenforcements
and supplies reached the settlement in New Mexico the earlier
part of 1604, restoring thus the much needed harmony and as-
suring the development of the country.
103. Onate 's Visit to the Gulf.— In October, 1604, Father
Francisco Escobar (who had succeeded Fr. Escalona), Onate,
SPANISH REGIME 59
and the other Franciscans, agreed on a friendly settlement of
their ditificulties, which resulted in Father Escobar consenting
to acouipany Onate on his journey to the Gulf of California,
which Onate was about to undertake. Accordingly, October 7th,
Oiiate set out from the settlement with thirty soldiers and
Fathers Escobar and Buena Ventura, visiting Acoma, Zuni, and
Moqui, and traveling over practically the same path traversed
by Cardenas thirty years before, when he discovered the Colo-
rado River. On the 28th of January, 1605, Onate arrived at
the Colorado River and gave it the name of Rio Grande de Buena
Esperanza (Large River of Good Hope). Following the course
of the river, he reached the Gulf on the 25tli of February and
named the harbor Puerto de la Conversion de San Pablo (Port
of Saint Paul's Conversion). For several months Ofiate occu-
pied himself resting and making explorations from the Gulf, re-
turning to the settlement April 25, 1605, where he remained un-
til the following year.
104. Founding of Santa Fe. — In 1606 Onate, with nearly all
the colonists, moved to the site where Santa Fe is today, and at
once founded the village which has from that date been the
capital of New- Mexico. Oiiate, after founding the city, built
the palace and the chapel of San Miguel, both buildings being
in use to this day, the chapel being used by the Christian
Brothers, and the palace being used by the archaeological and
historical societies, after having served for centuries as the of-
ficial residence of the governors under the Spanish, the Mexican,
and the American governments. Oiiate ceased to be governor in
1608, and was succeeded by Don Pedro de Peralta.
CHAPTER VIII
XXVI
105. Good Work of the Fathers — Troublesome Governor. —
With the advent of Govenioi- Peralta the Fi-aiiciseans renewed
their efforts to spread Chi-istiaiiity and civilization among the
Indians. Their work was giving good results, the nuiuber ol"
conversions from 151)8 to 1608 having i-eached 8,000, so that when
tile new commissary (superior), Father Peinado, with nine otiier
missionaries, came with Peralta, he found in New Mexico a good
field, so far as the Indians were concerned, but the Spaniards
had almost disappeared. In 1617 the entire Spanish population
was reduced to forty-seven men, between soldiers and colonists.
Governor Peralta at this time was ruling the Indians despotically,
until the Franciscans could stand it no longer, the trouble cul-
minating in 1620 in a decree of excommunication issued by
Father Peinado against Peralta, from which the governor ap-
pealed to Mexico, the affair terminating in a reprimand to the
governor by the viceroy and Fr. Peinado 's censure by his su-
perior, and the removal of both, Father Geronimo Zarate Sal-
meron (famed historian) succeeding Peinado and Felipe Zotylo
succeeding Peralta. This happened in 1621.
106. Father Benavides's Report. — Fr. Alonzo Benavides, first
regular commissary (custodio), succeeded Salmeron in 1626, and
he gave the province a great forward impulse in the year 1630
by appearing in person before the king in Madrid, Spain, and
presenting a complete and comprehensive memorial which showed
the true condition of things in New Mexico. Father Benavides's
report (published as Appendix I in Read's lUusfratrd Histor]i
of New Mexico) shows that he had visited all of New ]\Iexico and
the Gran Quivira, of which country he gives a complete and
very interesting description, mentioning its riches, inhabitants,
latitude, and topography, and describing the sufferings he and
his companions had to undergo while preaching the gospel to
those far-off wild tribes of savages. Regarding New Mexico
proper, Father Benavides's report shows that there were in 16-30
SPANISH REGIME 61
fifty Franciscans scattered amoii^ the Pueblo Tiidians and the
savage tribes in New ^Mexico and Quivira : that more than 7,000
Indians liad been converted; that there were twenty-five missions
with an industrial school and a church in each niis.sion; that the
ecclesiastical, the military, and the civil governments were sup-
ported by the voluntary contributions of the Indians and the
Spaniards, which consisted of a share each man gave of his
harvest and stock; that the capital, Santa Fe, had a population
of 250 Spanish families and that the province Avas being de-
veloped by the fruitful efforts of the missionaries with the co-
operation of the colonists.
107. Zotylo and His Successors. — Zotylo was succeeded in
1629 by Governor Manuel Silva, who in 1640 was followed by
Fernando de Argliello and next by Luis Rosas, in 1641. Noth-
ing important happened during the occupancy of the last named
governors, except an occasional fight with the Apache or the
Comanche tribes, but the feeling against the Spaniards was bitter
among the Pueblo Indians, who were given daily proofs that
they were not any longer the friends of their conquerors. Here
and there indications of a coming uprising were observed, the
Franciscans being the first to suffer the consequences, as they
W'ere the first to be killed.
XXVII
108. Murder of Fathers Arvide, Letrado, and Porras. — The
hatred of the Indians against the Spaniards, caused by the in-
human holocaust consummated by Cardenas in 1540, and fanned
by Onate's cruel conduct, 1598-1606, had ripened into a general
conspiracy to annihilate the Spaniards. The saintly Francis-
cans, being more exposed to this danger, on account of their re-
siding alone among the Indians, Avere the first victims. In the
earlier part of the year 1632, Father Arvide and Father Letrado
were murdered near Zufii, and Father Porras was poisoned the
next year by the Moqui Indians at Moqui. The civil authorities
failed to respond to the supplication of the Franciscans, for the
protection of the missionaries, and a disagreement between the
Franciscans and the civil authorities residting therefrom cul-
minated, years after, in a partial uprising of some of the Pueblos
and the assassination of Governor Rosas.
109. Death of Governor Rosas. — Things went from bad to
62 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
worse; the difficulties between Rosas and the Franciscans had
reached the climax of discord to the detriment of the Spaniards
and the Indians, llosas accused the Fathers of being the cause
of the tr-ying crisis the country was undergoing, and of being at
tlie ])ott()iii of the sedition which was being tlift'used. These ac-
cusations the Fathers were able not only to disprove, at the hear-
ing had in Mexico, but they met them by an exposure of Rosas'
scandalous life, which exposure showed Rosas in such bad light
that his prestige disappeared, hastening thus the uprising he so
miich feared and in which he was assassinated. This happened
in 1642. The uprising was finally checked.
110. Penaloza the Impostor. — Seven governors presided over
New Mexico from 1G42 to 1660, namely: Valdez, Argiiello (re-
appointed), Ugarte, Concho, Samaniego, Pacheco, and Mendi-
zabal. Nothing out of the ordinary happened between those
dates. Mendizabal's successor was Penaloza, who made his mark
in history as a clever impostor. Mendizabal was removed for
malfeasance in office, and Penaloza assumed charge of the gov-
ernment in 1661, and remained in office until 1664. lie, too, was
removed from office because of his lascivious conduct, and be-
cause he had become a despot, imposing inhuman treatment up-
on the Indians, and depriving them of their earnings and
property. This conduct the Fathers exposed, causing thereby
Penaloza 's suspension and punishment in 1665, in Mexico, from
which place he went to England and France, where he published,
in 1671, a pamphlet narrating Onate's romantic trip to the
Quivira; substituting his name for Oilate's name and changing
the dates, he made himself appear as the hero of that journey.
111. Villanueva, Medrano, Miranda— Indian Uprisings — Fr.
Ayeta. — Fernando de Villanueva, Penaloza 's successor, came as
governor of New Mexico in the year 1664. Between 1664 and
1679, two other governors, besides Villanueva, filled that office;
these were Medrano and Miranda. During this interval of fif-
teen years the country was retrograding by reason of the con-
stant uprisings of the Pueblo Indians, the daily incursions and
depredations of the Apaches, the Navajos, and the Conianches on
the unprotected Spanish settlements. In the year 1672 the
Apaches destroyed several pueblos, and a war between them and
the Zunis was the result. During this war several priests and
colonists were killed by the Pueblo Indians. For these crimes
four of them were put to death, forty others publicly whipped,
SPANISH REGIME 63
and many others were imprisoned. The situation became more
and more critical every daj-, and the annihilation of all the Span-
iards had been discussed and agreed to in 1676. The Apaches,
who were in the agreement, attacked the Spanish settlements
from different directions, causing great loss of life and destruc-
tion of property. Father Francisco Ayeta, then superior of the
Franciscans in New Mexico, seeing the desperate situation of
the Spaniards, made a hasty trip to Mexico in quest of succor,
which he obtained, but could not bring into New Mexico because
the whole country was in rebellion at the time (1679-80). That
uprising is known as the Great Revolt, of which an account is
given hereafter.
XXVIII
112. End of the First Conquest — The Insurrection — Gover-
nor Otermin. — By the end of the year 1679, all the Pueblo In-
dians, except the Pecos pueblo, had hatched the conspiracy and
agreed on a day and hour for a general and simultaneous upris-
ing. The secret was kept so well that the Spaniards never dis-
covered the plan until too late. Juan Pope, an Indian from
San Juan, then residing in Taos, was the leader of the insurrec-
tion. The 13th day of August, 1680, was the day agreed upon
for the massacre of the Spaniards. Don Antonio de Otermin
was at that time governor of New Mexico, having succeeded
Miranda the previous year (1679).
113. Tw^o Faithful Governors Give Warning. — Juan Ye, gov-
ernor of Cicuye (Pecos) declined, with all his people, to join in
the conspiracy, and was the first to notify both Governor Oter-
min and Father Velasco, the priest at Cicuye, of the impending
danger, offering his assistance in helping the Spaniards to either
fight the rebellious Pueblos or to leave the country in time.
Father Velasco answered Ye by saying that he would rather die
a martyr than abandon the souls God had placed in his hands.
Otermin did not believe Ye and went on with his ordinary duties
until the latter part of July, when he received a secret message
from Jac^, governor of Taos, advising him of the seditious agree-
ment, and informing him that Pope had fixed the 13th of August
for the commencement of the insurrection, and had sent two In-
dians to notify the other pueblos to strike the blow on that date
at daybreak ; that the two emissaries of Pope were then on their
way back to Taos, and were resting at the pueblo of Tesuque
64 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
(nine miles from Santa Fe) Otenuin now became alarmed, had
the two Taos Indians arrested at once, at Tesu(|ne, and from
them learned that Ye and Jaea had told him the truth. With-
out loss of time Otermin sent couriers to all the pueblos and
Spanish settlements, ordering the priests, soldiers, and colonists
to i)roceed at once to Santa Fe. Some came, but others did not
receive the message and were murdered.
114. Breaking out of the Rebellion — Assault on Santa Fe. —
Pope having learned that the Spaniards had discovered his plans,
ordered that hostilities be commenced on the lOtli instead of the
13th of August. He had as j^rincipal captains, Catiti, Tupatii
(who afterwards became a true friend of the Spaniards), and
Jaca, governors of Santo Domingo, Picuris, and Taos, respec-
tively. On the day fixed (August 10th) all the priests, soldiers,
and colonists Avho had not heard of the insurrection, were taken
by surprise and killed, before they had a chance to escape. From
every direction thousands of Indians rushed to Santa Fe and
made a sudden assault which was repulsed by the 150 soldiers
and the colonists had already reached Santa Fe. The great
historical revolt was carried into effect all over New Mexico.
115. Siege of Santa Fe — Great Battle — Escape of the
Spaniards. — Pope now" laid a siege, surrounding the city on all
sides with an immense horde of savages, but remaining inactive
until the 15th, when he sent an ultimatum to Otermin. This
consisted of two wooden crosses, a white and a black one, asking
him to select his liberty or his death by retaining one of the
crosses, the white one indicating surrender and the black one
death ; that by selecting the white cross the Spaniards would be
allowed to leave the city unmolested under promise never to re-
turn, and if the blaek cross was retained it would mean death
to all the Spaniards. Otennin rejected Pope's proposition and
began to force his way out early the next morning. At break
of day, August 16th, the soldiers and colonists formed in battle
line, with the women and children in the center, and Otermin
with his officers at the head, one thousand in all. The Indians
met them with a terrific rush and the battle was commenced,
lasting all day. At night the Spaniards retreated into the
city and all crowded into the Palace building. The loss on the
side of the Indians was very large and on the side of the Span-
iards some few dead but many wounded. The siege lasted until
the 23d day of August when the Indians cut otf the water supply
SPANISH REGIME
65
of the city, thus forcing the Spaniards to either escape or perish.
Oterrnin, finding himself and his people in the extreme necessity
of making a death struggle, resolved to fight or die in the effort.
He ordered the Fathers, Gomez, Duran, and Farfan, to give
everybody absolution. The priests obeyed, encouraging the
.Spaniards to stand firm by Otermin till the escape was effected
or the last one of them had died.
116. Bloody Battle— Otermin Wounded — The Escape. — The
imposing jeligious ceremony ended, the army formed in battle
s-.j
CANDELARIO.
cifff wi£\iim
Courtesy J. C. Candelnrio, Santa Fe, X. M.
array, and made an assault upon the Indians Avith such fierceness
that after a few hours' battle, they won the day with 300 Indians
killed, the Spaniards losing one soldier only, though many had
been wounded, among the latter being Otermin. This happened
August 23, 1680. Thus were the Spaniards able to leave Santa
Fe, all afoot and carrying on their shoulders the archives and
their scant provisions, arriving at El Paso (now Juarez) Decem-
ber 20, 1680. On their sad .journey the Spaniards, especially the
women and children, suffered greatly. From friendly Indians,
66 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
\\\\o had followed the S|)aiiiafd.s, Otcniiiii Icaiwicd llial ai'lcr the
Spaiiiai-ds had left Saiila Fv, the Taiios ((Jalislco) Jiidiaiis had
taken possession of tlie city and that all the churches and all other
property had been destroyed. One of tlie saddest duties im-
posed upon the Spaniards by the force of circumstances was the
picking up for burial purposes, of corpses all along the road. At
Santo Domingo they found the bodies of the Franciscan Fathers,
Juan de Talaban, Fr. Antonio de Lorenzana, and Fr. Jose Monies
de Oca. The other Fi-anciscans killed were Fr. Domingo de
Vera, at Galiteo; Fr. Fernando de Velasco, at Pecos, and Fr.
Manuel Tinoco, at San Marcos. Some 150 Spanish women and
girls had remained captives and some were compelled to marry
Indians and the others were murdered. Thus ended the achieve-
mert of the first con(iuest of New Mexico.
CHAPTER IX
XXIX
117. Otermin Again. — The loss of New Mexico to Spain was
a thing Otennin thought it his duty to avoid, at k^ast during his
ineuuibency. Acting on that belief he again made an eflfort to
reconcjuer the country by reentering it next year, 1681, at the
head of 200 mounted soldiers, but did not succeed in accomplish-
ing his object, for on reaching Cochiti he saw that it would re-
quire a larger force to subdue the Indians, and went back to
El Paso (now Juarez), where he heard that Domingo Gironza
Petriz de Cruzat had been appointed to succeed him as governor
of New Mexico.
118. Cruzat 's Expedition. — Don Domingo Gironza Petriz de
Cruzat, like his predecessors, had a brilliant militaiy record as
a great general and he proved it by his fre(iuent expeditions in-
to New Mexico. He had only the title of governor of New
Mexico, however, for he ne\^r succeeded during his first incum-
bency in eft'ecting a permanent concjuest. Between 1683 and
1687 he made seventeen journeys into New Mexico, fighting every
time all along the road from El Paso to New Mexico and being
always victorious. In 1687, Cruzat was succeeded by Pedro
Reneros de Posadas, who desolated the pueblo of Santa Ana,
killing nearly all of its inhabitants, but before the year closed
Cruzat was returned to the governorship, and he again made
several expeditions into New Mexico, the last being in 1689,
when he reached the pueblo of Zia, and was met by a hostile
demonstration, which ended in one of the most severe battles of
the conquest. He was opposed by nearly all the Indians from
that province. The battle lasted the entire day, with a loss to
the Indians of 600 killed and the capture of manv prisoners.
The battle was fought the first day of August, 1689. This last
effort of Cruzat fills the gap between the expulsion of the Span-
iards under Otermin, 1680, and the time of the second and per-
manent conquest by De Vargas.
68 HIST( )RY ( )F NEW MEXICO
XXX
11!). De Vargas. — Don l)iep:o dc \'iirgas Zapata Liijan Ponce
de Leon's record of great military achievements was the reason
Viceroy Galva had for entrusting to his hands the reconcjuest of
New Mexico. Besides being a great general De Vargas was a
man of generous disposition, a good diristian, and a true friend
of the Indians, lie it was who saved the country to the crown of
Castille, with the assistance and coilperation of the Franciscan
Fathers, and paved the way for future genei"ations to enjoy life
in this splendid climate. He above all the explorers and con-
querors of New ]\Iexico, deserves the highest praise for his great
work in pacifying and effecting the permanent concpiest of New
Mexico. He is entitled to the everlasting gratitude and admira-
tion of the people of New Mexico and the entire United States.
120. De Vargas' First Entry. — Immediately after his ap-
pointment, De Vargas began to organize his people, making the
city of Juarez, then known as El Paso, the place of rendezvous.
August 16, 1692, De Vargas ordered the march of a squad of
soldiers under Captain Roque de Madrid, he remaining in El
Paso waiting for an auxiliary troop of fifty soldiers that he was
expecting from the interior. These soldiers not having arrived
on the 21st day of the month, he started without them, early in
the morning of that day, leaving El Paso accompanied by three
Franciscan Fathera, namely, Fr. Corvero, Fr. Nimez and Fr.
Alonzo, some fifty soldiers, and a few friendly Indians. Orders
were left for the expected auxiliary soldiers to follow him. On
the 24th day of the month De Vargas overtook Captain Madrid
and his men, and the journey was continued Avitho'ut accident,
along the Rio Grande, until they reached Tiguex, on the 9th of
September. Here, a little to the north of the city of Albuquer-
que, they came to a ranch formerly owned by a Spaniard known
as Mexia, who had been murdered by the Indians in the great
revolt of 1680. De Vargas selected that place for his center of
operations, and left Captain Telles, with fourteen Spaniards and
fifty Indians, to guard the baggage and provisions, he, De Var-
gas, continuing the march with the Fathers, forty soldiers, and
fifty Indians.
121. De Vargas Reaches Santa Fe. — Having traveled cau-
tiously for fear of an ambuscade he entered the pueblos of San-
to Domingo and Cochiti, w'hich he found deserted, the Indians
SPANISH REGIME 69
having abandoned them since the time Cruzat had destroyed Zia,
August, 1689. This was September 11th. The next day De Var-
gas encamped at CieneguiHa, some twelve or fifteen miles w^est of
Santa Fe. Here De Vargas gave his men a patriotic exhorta-
tion. Next morning, being near Santa Fe, he ordered a stop to
enable Father Corvero to preach an exhortation and to give ab-
solution to the party. The small army continued its march until
four o'clock in the morning, when they came in sight of Santa
Fe, which the Indians had walled and fortified. The Indians
had already learned of the coming of the Spaniards and were
ready to give them battle. At sunrise, September 13, 1692, De
Vargas noticed a large number of Indians on horseback on the
hills to the northeast of the city. He sent a squad of mounted
Spaniards who had no trouble in capturing many of them, the
rest escaping to the mountains. Among the prisoners was the
governor of the Indians named Domingo.
122. Santa Fe Retaken. — The entire day the 13th was taken
up by De Vargas in trying to persuade the Indians to surrender
and submit to his authority. The Indians were obstinate until
De Vargas gave them to understand that he was going to kill
them all and that the water supply had already been cut off.
The next day at sunrise the Indians gave in, but requested
De Vargas to enter in company with six disarmed soldiers and
the superior of the Fathers that the Indians might be convinced
of De Vargas' sincerity. To this De Vargas answered, "That
is nothing; who Avill not risk himself in order to obtain with
perpetual glory an illustrious name?" Calling on Father Cor-
vero, the ensign, and five soldiers, all unarmed, to follow him,
De Vargas entered the village of Santa Fe, walking to the center
of the square, where the Indians had already planted a large
cross. Here De Vargas uncovered his head, the royal ensign
being unfurled, and in a loud voice and in the name of his
sovereign. King Charles II, forgave the Indians, received their
submission, and then took possession of New Mexico in the fol-
lowing words: "The Villa of Santa Fe, Capital of the King-
dom of New Mexico, I now take possesion of, and with her, her
provinces and all the pueblos, for the Catholic Majesty of the
King, Our Lord Charles II, long live him for the protection of
all his vassals and of his dominions many long years." The
Father and soldiers answering, "Long live, long live, long live
that we mav all seiwe him as we ought to." The rest of thn
70 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO
soldi(M-s and tlu'ir Iiulian coinpanioiis llion came into tlie S(iuare
and the Fallicrs at once bc^an llir woi-k of Ijaptizing the In-
dians and pi'cacliintf the ijfospcl lo lliciii.
XXXI
123. Tupatu Surrenders — Best Friend of De Vargas. — After
the surrender of Sania Fc, l)c \'ar<ia.s jH'avc his lime and at-
tention to rehiiihling' llic town, and especially tiie repaii'ing of
the chapel of San ^Miguel, which nee(h^d a new roof. l)e Vargas
entrusted this woi-k to the Indians, giving them axes and other
tools, and then issued a call to all the pueblos to come to Santa
Fe to swear allegiance to the king. Don Luis Tupatu, then
governor of San Juan and successoi' of Pope and C'atiti, was
the first to come and to i)ledge obedience for himself and the
entire province, which was under his power since the death of
Pope and Catiti, except the pueblo of Pecos, the Queres, the
Taos, and the Jemes, all of w^iich had refused to recognize Tu-
patu 's authority. De Vargas gave Tupatu a most cordial re-
ception, and not only confirmed his authority but promised him
to compel the rebellious pueblos to submit to his ( Tupatu 's)
commands.
124. De Vargas' Trip of Inspection. — The promise of De
Vargas made Tupatu shed tears, and filled him with a desire to
witness the surrender of the obstinate pueblos, for which he ob-
tained permission to accompany De Vargas, he (Tupatu) offer-
ing to furnish 800 Indians armed and w-ell provisioned, wdiich
promise he faithfully kept. On the 21st day of September
(the same day of the arrival of the fifty auxiliary soldiers whom
De Vargas was anxiously awaiting) De Vargas with his small
army, and Tupatu and his 300 w-arriors, marched to Pecos, by
the way of Galisteo, reaching that pueblo September 23d, early in
the morning. The pueblo had been deserted, but De Vargas
found the Indians in the mountains near by, and by presents
and kind words induced most of them to return, resettle in the
pueblo, and submit to the king and Tupatu. De Vargas re-
turned to Santa Fe on the 27th of the month, wdiere he remained
until the 29th, leaving then for the north. On the 30th he visited
the pueblos of Cuyamungue and Jacona ; October 1st, Pojoaque
and San Ildefonso ; October 2d, he visited Santa Clara and San
Juan; on the 4th, he visited San Lazaro and San Cristoval;
SPANISH REGIME
71
from which \)\nee he went to Piciii'i and Taos, Tupatu going with
him. In all these pueblos De Vai'gas made the Indians swear-
allegiance to the king, and l)y the Fathers all of them were again
received into the fold of the church. Then De Vargas returned
to Santa Fe.
125, Reduction of the Other Pueblos — Tupatu Keeps
Faith. — Leaving Santa Fe on the ITlli of Oclohei-, lGi)2, De
Vargas, with all his men and accompanied by Tui)atu and his
brother, Don Lorenzo Tupatu, who had gathered some 800 In-
dian wai-rioi's to go with the Spaniards, started his march of
COLLEGE OF SAX MIGUEL
Stcond Pioneer Educational Institution, Santa Fe, X. M., 18.59
peaceful coiKpiest, visiting first the pueblos of Cochiti, Santo Do-
mingo, and San Felipe, finding them already repeopled by the
Indians Avho had deserted them since 1689. These Indians came
back to their pueblos on hearing the heartiness of De Vargas. So
that when De Vargas arrived he was met with demonstrations
of joy, all the Indians promising obedience to him. The pueblos
of the Queres province nearly all gave in also, without much
trouble, and so did the rest of the pueblos, except the Jemez In-
dians, who made a show of resistance but were overcome by De
Vargas' firmness and kind demeanor. From Jemez, De Vargas
went to the place of rendezvous, the Mexia ranch, to obtain pro-
72 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
visions and for a consullalion wilh Captain Telles. This was
on the 2i)th of OctobcM-.
120. Council of War — Some Spaniards Return to Mexico —
De Vargas Travels West. — Some of the S{)aniai'(ls thoiiglit it was
time to return to Mexico, and a council of war decided that those
wishing to return could do so. Accordingly some fifteen or
twenty left for El Paso, and the three Fathers, Avith the rest of
the soldiers and the two Tupatiis and their warriors, started for
the western provinces with De Vargas. The Acomas and Zunis
submitted willingly to De Vargas, and so did all the pueblos
of the Mocjuis except Aguatubi, the .first i)ueblo of the Mocjui
province, where De Vargas was forced to demand the surrender
under penalty of complete annihilation. A strange occurrence
induced the rebellious Indians to surrender ; this was that when
De Vargas in loud and indignant tones demanded their surrender
a peal of a lightning bolt fell near them. The coincidence hor-
rifying them, they knelt down and received De Vargas with sub-
mission and a promise to be obedient subjects of the king. Hav-
ing secured the peaceful reduction of the entire country, De
Vargas and his loyal friends, the Tupatus, parted company, De
Vargas starting for El Paso to bring colonists to settle the
country, and the Tupatus and their warriors going back to their
pueblos. This was about the middle of November. De Vargas
arrived at El Paso the 20th of December, 1692, having traveled
over 1,200 miles since the 21st of August of that year, when he
left El Paso.
CHAPTER X
XXXII
127. Preparations to Resettle New Mexico. — Immediately
after his arrival at El Paso, I)e Vargas sent to the viceroy a full
and complete report of his accomplishments in New Mexico, ask-
ing for permission to resettle the country. The report was well
received, the viceroy at once authorizing the enlistment of
families of colonists which were to proceed without delay to El
Paso and report to De Vargas. Sixty-one families were soon
listed and prepared to leave the City of Mexico. De Vargas was
ofificially notified of that fact by letter from the viceroy, dated
September 4, 1693, which reached De Vargas on the 20th of
that month. De Vargas then issued his formal proclamation,
and soon some twenty families from other parts of Mexico came
to him. In El Paso he gathered seventy families and 100 sol-
diers, making a total of 800 persons in troops, colonists, priests,
women, and children. Among the colonists came several arti-
ficers, mechanics, and men of all trades, also many miners and
many farmers, all well provided with the necessary tools and im-
plements. On October 12th of the same year, the order was
given to start the next day, De Vargas having left instructions
for Father Farfan and the families coming from ]\Iexico to fol-
low him.
128. De Vargas Starts on His Epoch-Making Journey.— At
daylight October 13. 1693, the most celebrated of the Spanish-
New Mexican expeditions started from El Paso, with its dis-
tinguished general, De Vargas, at its head. Seventeen Francis-
can Fathers accompanied De Vargas, namely, Fr. Salvador de
San Antonio (superior), Fr. Juan de Zavaleta, Fr. Francisco
Jesus Maria, Fr. Juan de Alpuente, Fr. Juan Munoz de Castro,
Fr. Juan Diaz, Fr. Antonio Carbonela, Fr. Francisco Corvera,
Fr. Geronimo Prieto, Fr. Juan Antonio del Corral, Fr. Antonio
Vohomondo, Fr. Antonio Obregon, Fr. Jose Maria, Fr. Buena-
ventura Contreras, Fr. Jose Narvaez, Fr. Velarde, and Fr. Diego
Zeinos.
SPANISH KEGIME 75
129. Suffering Causes Death of Women and Children. — The
ai'raiig'cnu'iils foi- food supplies wci-c uiisal isi'aetoiy, and after
suffering untold hardships from hunger and thirst, thirty per-
sons, mostly women and children, perished of hunger. De Vargas
made an advance march from Socorro with the soldiers to col-
lect provisions from the pueblos for the relief of his people. The
pueblos of the i)rovinces of Tutuhaco (Isleta now) and Tiguex
were visitetl, and their Indians immediately furnislied De Vargas
with an abundance of corn and other pi'ovisions, which he at
once sent to the caravan, notifying the priests and people that
he, De Vargas, would wait for thenr at Santo Domingo, at which
place the caravan arrived in the earlier part of December. At
Santo Domingo De Vargas was informed that the Tanos Indians,
who were in possession of Santa Fe, aided by the Teguas (Te-
suque, Pojoafpie, Xambe, San IldefonsO, Santa Clara, and San
Juan) were prepared to fight the Spaniards at Santa Fe. The
information so given De A'argas was false.
180. First Taking of Santa Fe.— December 15th, De Vargas
with his people resumed the march, reaching Santa Fe the same
day. The Spaniards camped at the entrance of the village to
observe the conduct of the Indians, and in order to arrange the
formalities for the act of possession the next day. The ceremony
began early December 16, 1693, by De Vargas, accompanied by
the superior of the Franciscans, a few soldiers, and the ensign,
entering the town with the royal banner unfurled. The Tano
Indians received the Spaniards in the center of the plaza (the
square), where De Vargas made them plant a large cross, and
then proceeded to take formal possession of all New Mexico.
After De Vargas got through reading his proclamation (pub-
lished in full in Read's III ust rated History of N.ew Mexico, pp.
298-300), the entire force entered in procession, with the Fran-
ciscan Fathers chanting the Te Deum Laudamus, at their head.
De Vargas then moved his camp to the hills, near which stands
today the Rosario Chapel (which some writers have erroneously
affirmed was built by De Vargas), in order to give the Tanos
time to move out and resettle their pueblo.
XXXIII
131. Frightful Conspiracy Discovered by Juan Ye. — While
the Spaniards were thus encamped, their families suffering from
the severe cold weather, heavy snowstorms, and smallpox, the
76 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
Tajios, the I'icuris, and tlic 'i'cgiia Indians were secretly forming
a plot to fall at night on the Spaniards and murder them all.
De Vargas had some of his men helping the Indians repairing
the riiapel of San Miguel, and to inspect the work he rode there
every day. It was in one of these visits tiiat he met his loyal
friend, Juan Ye, the governor of Cicuye (Pecos), who not only
uncovered the conspiracy, but offered J)e Vargas his assistance
in conquering the traitorous Tanos and co-conspirators. De Var-
gas feigned indifference, but jn-oceeded at once to the camp and
held a council of war. While thus engaged there came to De
Vargas' tent an old blind Tano Indian, whom De Vargas had be-
friended, led by the hand by a small Indian boy, who, crying,
told De Vargas that next day all the Spaniards were going to
be murdered, advising the Spaniards to leave the place or to
prepare to fight the battle of their lives. The advice of the blind
Indian was heeded by the Spaniards, they moving that very day
to the entrance of the city and spreading out in battle array.
Ye had already gone to bring reenforcemeuts from Cicuye, ar-
riving at midnight with a great many of his warriors.
132. De Varg-as Storms the Village — Final and Last Sur-
render. — As if Providence was helping the Spaniards, that very
night a force of 200 Spanish soldiers arrived, giving De Vargas
a formidable army. The Tanos had also received, during the
night, heavy reenforcemeuts from the Teguas and Picuris, and
had besides walled all the entrances to the town and otherwise
fortified themselves. The traitorous Indians were all under the
leadership of Bolsas (Pokets), a name given him by the Span-
iards because of his large moon-like face. The 28th was spent
by De Vargas in forming his different divisions. Ye was given
charge of his warriors, the position assigned to them and taken
by De Vargas being the most important, and, consequently, the
most dangerously exposed. At dawn next day, December 29th,
all efforts to obtain a peaceful surrender having failed, the en-
tire army, following De Vargas' example, knelt down to listen
to a sermon of absolution by Father De San Antonio, after which
the order of assault was given, and in a moment the most terrific
battle in the history of New Mexico's conquest was on. The
rebels, fighting furiously, specially concentrated their fight on
the Pecos Indians, who stood their ground nobly. At noon an
immense multitude of mounted Teguas and Picuris appeared on
the hills to the north of Santa Fe. The Spanish cavalry charged
SPANISH REGIME 77
with such impetuosity that in less than two hours the mounted
Indians had been completely routed, losing heavily by death and
by capture, -few escaping. It was now dark, the 8])aniards
ceased fighting for the night, sleeping on their anus and burying
their dead, which nuudjered many. At break of day, the :]Oth,
the order to storm the fortified village was given, De Vargas be-
ing the first to set foot within the walls. The rebels became so
scared at seeing the Spaniards within the walls that instead of
offering resistance they ran in disorder from place to place, giving
the Spaniards such an advantage that in a short while a very
large number of them were killed, few escaping. Their govern-
or, seeing the inevitable, hanged himself before the Spaniards
reached his hiding place. The victory was complete, Santa Fe
was once for all retaken, and New Mexico's permanent conrjuest
assured. Seventy warriors of the enemy were made prisoners,
Bolsas among them, and they were all shot in the center of the
plaza. Four hundred women and children were captured and
divided among the Spanish families by De Vargas, who gave
them strict and very explicit instructions to treat them not like
slaves but humanely until the king should detennine otherwise.
133. Assignment of Lands — New Instructions — Battle of
the Mesa Prieta. — De Varga's next move was to send some of his
captains to all the pueblos to gather provisions for the Spaniards,
and then the land in and around the town was partitioned among
the colonists, each of whom received sufficient corn for food and
seed. In the mean time the revengeful Teguas and their allies,
the Picuris, were occupied in hatching further conspiracies
against the Spaniards, and making night raids. De Vargas now
ordered a constant guerrilla warfare, thus fighting the Indians by
their own tactics. The guerrilla warfare became so effective that
in a short time all the Teguas and most of their allies left their
pueblos, fleeing to the famous Mesa Prieta (about eighteen miles
west of Santa Fe), which is as impregnable as the Acoma Rock.
De Vargas thought it to his advantage to assault them by storm-
ing the mesa. Father Farfan having just arrived wath the ex-
pected families and more soldiers. De Vargas was greatly en-
couraged. He organized a force of 100 men, with two pieces of
artillery, and February 10, 1693, laid siege and began the as-
sault. The siege and continuous fighting lasted until the 19th
of the month, when De Vargas, having dislodged the Indians, re-
turned to Santa Fe. The Indian loss was forty killed, but many
SPANISH REGIME 79
were made prisoners; 100 horses aiui mules were captured, and
about 150 fanegas (450 bushels) of corn taken from the Indians,
but those that had not nuide their escape remained hidden in the
mesa.
XXXIV
134. War Between the Pueblos — De Vargfas Takes Sides. —
Beleving that the Teguas antl the Picui'is had been well [)nnished,
De Vargas, in March, 1693, turned his attention to the Apache
and Comanche tribes, who had come as far as Cicuye to render
obedience to De Vargas. While occupied receiving a peace em-
bassy from the Apache and Comanche tribes, word reached him
that the Jemez, the Cochiti, the Acoma, the Moqui, and the Zuni
pueblos had united in a war against the Queres, the Zias, and
Santa Ana pueblos, because of the friendship of the last men-
tioned pueblos to the Spaniards. The Queres asked De Vargas'
protection, and De Vargas not only granted their petition but
he placed himself at the head of the expedition that was to pro-
tect the friendly pueblos.
135. Battles of Cieneguilla and Mesa Prieta. — The confed-
erated forces of the rebels had met on the mesa of Cieneguilla
(some fifteen miles west of Santa Fe), where De Vargas routed
them in battle, killing twenty-five of them and capturing 300
women and children, seventy horses, and 1,000 head of sheep and
cattle. This engagement took place the 16th of April, 1694.
While the victory was complete, De Vargas sent emissaries from
Santa Fe to all the rebel pueblos offering amnesty if they would
submit. His efforts proved fniitless, and he therefore turned
his attention to Santa Fe which, in his absence, had been at-
tacked by the Teguas, who were defeated by the small garrison
under the leadership of Captain Jaramillo. De Vargas, with a
strong force of Spaniards and Indians from Pecos and Queres,
went after the Teguas, who, with their allies, had again en-
trenched themselves on the Mesa Prieta (called also Mesa de San
Ildefonso), where they were again defeated by the Spaniards.
This last battle took place in May, 1694. While the Spaniards
and friendly Indians were thus fighting the Teguas, the Zuhis
made a raid on the Queres pueblos, but were worsted, leaving
many dead and a large number of prisoners on the battle-field.
136. Remains of Father Juan de Jesus Recovered. — Among
the Jemez and Zuhi Indians captured by the Queres were five
80 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
Avlio knew llic ])hi('(' in Jcmcz where the reiuains of Father Juan
(le Jesus (killed in the revolt in KisQ) were hidden, and having
promised to show the place it" their lives were spared, De Vargas
granted their petition and took them with him and Fathers Al-
l)uente, Ohregon, and Cai'honela, to -lemez, those Indians having
already submitted lo De Vai'gas. At Jemez the I'emains of Fr.
Juan de Jesus, and the ornaments he had on (he was undoubtedly
killed while saying Mass), were disinterred and brought to Santa
Fe, Avhere they were buried with great religious ceremonies. This
was done in August, 1694. The next two months, September and
October, Vargas received the voluntary submission of all the
pueblos north of Santa Fe except San Juan and Picuris, which
finally had to surrender when De Vargas enforced his order by
capturing some 184 of theii' number. With the submission of
these last-mentioned pueblos the entire province was pacified,
temporarily at least, for, partial uprisings continued for niany
years in all directions.
137. Reassignment of Priests — Santa Cruz Refounded. — De
Vargas and the Franciscans now began the work of refounding
the colonies formerly founded by his predecessors, and also the
opening of missions in the different pueblos to the north. Fr.
Corvero was sent to San Ildefonso, Fr. Prieto to San Juan, Fr.
Obregon to Taos. Priests were afterwards sent to the other
missions. After that the refounding of settlements was com-
menced. Santa Cruz (twenty-five miles north of Santa Fe) was
the first town, out of Santa Fe, to be repeopled by Spaniards,
with Father Antonio Moreno in charge. This was in 1694.
138. Another Insurrection — Cubero Arrives — De Vargas Ar-
rested — His Trial and Vindication. — In Xovem])er, 1695, De
Vargas sent to the viceroy a full report of what had been ac-
complished. He assured the viceroy that the countiy was ready
to receive more colonists without danger of any further out-
break. He was mistaken. In June of 1696 a secret insurrection
broke out against the Spaniards in the pueblos of their former
enemies, in which seven priests and twenty soldiers were mur-
dered, the pueblos of Cochiti and Tanos being the initiators. The
uprising was promptly suppressed. Just one month after the
checking of this uprising, in July, 1696, Don Pedro Rodriguez
de Cubero arrived to succeed De Vargas. Cubero assumed the
government at once, and immediately ordered an investigation of
certain charges made against De Vargas by his own ofificers. Af-
SPANISH REGIME 81
ter a hearino; of tlie cliarg-es Cubeio seiittnict'd Do Vargas to i)ay
a fine of .t4,000 and held liim in jirison in Santa Fe nearly three
years. De Vargas appealed to ]\Iexico, where he went and vindi-
cated his name in the year 1700, obtaining, besides, the endorse-
ment of the high tribnnal that tried him, for his reappointment
as governor of Xew ]\Iexico.
CHAPTER XI
XXXV
i:V.). First Official Census — Failure of Crops Causes
Famine. — One of Cubi'i'o's first official acts was an iiisi)ection of
the entire province, with tlie view of ascertaining tlie exact num-
ber of Spanish inhabitants and their precise condition. He
found, after a careful listing of families, the Spanish population
to be 1,500 souls, greatly scattered and at the point of starvation,
this sad condition having been brought upon the Spaniards by
failure of crops and by the greed of the merchants who had
gathered nearly all the corn and wheat of the country and shipped
it to Durango and Chihuahua, where they sold it at exorbitant
prices. To save his people, Cubero gathered what corn and
wheat was left and prohibited the further exportation of the
cereals, and distributed what he had collected among the colo-
nists and soldiers.
140. French Expedition — Founding of Cubero and La-
guna. — In the year 1698 a French expedition from Louisiana in-
vaded the Navajo territory to recover from the Navajoes a large
number of horses and some boys and girls, which the French
claimed had been stolen from them by the Navajoes the year
before, while the French were trying to establish a colony near
the land of the Quiviras. The Navajoes fought the French, but
were routed, the French killing a large number of Indians, but
failing to recover either the stock or the children. The following
year, 1699, Cubero founded two pueblos, Cubero (named in his
honor) and San Jose de la Laguna, respectively. These pueblos
he peopled with Indians he found scattered, belonging to the
Queres nation. The pueblo of Laguna still exists ; that of
Cubero was afterwards abandoned by the Indians and resettled
by the Spaniards under the same name, and is today a large town
in the county of Valencia.
141. End of Cubero 's Administration — De Vargas His Suc-
cessor. — Nothing important occurred between 1699 and 1703,
which last mentioned year saw the close of Cubero 's administra-
SPANISH REGIME 83
tion, De Vargas having l)eeii appointed to succeed hiin. De
Vargas arrived at Santa Fe in Xovendjer, 1703, and found that
Ciibero had left secretly, fearing punishment at the hands of
De Vargas on account of the unjust and cruel punishment he
had inflicted on his rival in 1696. De Vargas, who had been
honored mth the title of Maniuis of the Nava of Brazinas, en-
tered npon the discharge of his duties at once.
142. Death of De Varg-as — His Last Will. — Upon De Vargas
taking charge of the government, tlie very men who had caused
his imprisonment and sufferings were the first to come forward
and ask his forgiveness, Avhich De Vargas granted with the mag-
nanimity which was characteristic of his noble heart. The next
year, 1704, in April, De Vargas while on a trip of inspection, was
taken ill near Bernalillo, at which place he died on the 14th of
that month, leaving instructions in his last will and testament for
Juan Paiz Hurtado to assume charge of the government and to
notify the viceroy, the Duque of Alburquerque, of his demise,
and instructing his only heirs (he had no wife in New Mexico at
the time of his death), Don Juan and Don Alonzo, to return to
Mexico and to grant the slave, Andres, his freedom upon their
return to Mexico. De Vargas' body was brought to Santa Fe,
where his remains were buried. Francisco Cuervo y Valdez was
De Vargas' successor.
XXXVI
143. Cuervo y Valdez. — Valdez became governor of New
Mexico on the day of his arrival in Santa Fe, March 10, 1705,
until which date Hurtado had been acting governor. Valdez 's
administration was of short duration (1705-1707). In his first
year of government he did little excepting the trips of inspection
he made, visiting all the pueblos, during which time he secured
the unconditional surrender of the provinces of the Zuiii and
Moqui Indians, which had not to that time ceased to trouble the
Spaniards. In one of these trips of inspection the Apaches un-
expectedly pounced upon him and his troops, but he succeeded
in defeating them.
144. Founding of Alburquerque — End of Valdez 's Term. —
The last thing Governor Valdez did was the founding of the vil-
lage of Alburquerque (now spelled Albu(iuerque). This event
took place in the year 1706, the Duque of Alburquerque being at
this time viceroy of Xew Spain (Mexico). He made a settlement
84
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
of OKI Albui'(iu('r(|iu' willi thirty i'ainiiics, giving tiie scttluineut
the diKiue's name in honor of tlie viceroy. Tiie (lu(|ue refused to
honor the settlement with his name, but instructed Vahlez to
name it San Felipe dc All)ur(|uer(|ue. The name San Felipe
was so given in honor of thi' then sovereign of Spain. Next
year, 1707, Cuervo y Valdez was succeeded as govei-nor by Don
Jose Chacon ]\Iedina Salazar y Villasenoi-, Martpiis of La Pefi-
uela.
145. Salazar y Villasenor's Administration — Battle with the
Navajoes. — The principal features of Villasenor's administration
are here numbered. (1) His war with the Navajo nation,, which
took place in 1709. The fre(juent raids of these Indians on the
NEW MEXICO NORMAL SCHOOL, SILVER CITY, N. M.
Spanish settlements had reduced the colonies to the last degree
of poverty, besides the loss of nearly all their sheep, cattle, and
horses, and hundreds of their girls and boys made captives by the
Navajoes. Villasenor started for the Navajo country at the head
of a large force of soldiers and volunteers, met them in battle
in their own country, and routed them after a stubborn resistance,
compelling them to sign a treaty of peace and to restore to the
Spaniards all their stock and children. (2) The next year,
1710, Villaseiior finished the repairs he was making to the Chapel
of San Miguel at the time the war wath the Navajoes broke out,
causing his name to be engraved in one of the joists, which sup-
ported the choir, still standing. (3) Villasenor secured of Father
SPANISH REGIME 85
Pena (superior of the Pi-aneisciins in New Mexico) cooperation
in repeopling, with waiKk'i'ing Indians, several of the deserted
pueblos, and founded the pueblo of Isleta, which is today one of
the largest and most progressive of the pueblos in the State.
(4) The last feature of Villasenor's administration was his re-
moval from office and sentence to pay .^2,000 fine, in the year
1712, on charges made against him by Father Pena. Don Juan
Ignacio Flores ^logoUon succeeded him.
146. Mog-ollon's Administration — Battle with the Yutes —
San Lorenzo. — The administration of Governor Juan Ignacio
Flores MogoUon lasted from October 5, 1712, to October 30, 1715.
P)etween those dates he was able to put down a general uprising,
in 1713, of all the nomadic tribes against the Spaniards and the
Pueblo Indians by a most decisive battle fought in the land of
the Yute Indians, MogoUon himself being at the head of the
army. He established, in 1714, in what is now Dona Ana
County, at a place near Las Cruces, a town which he named San
Lorenzo. That same year he inflicted a very severe punishment
on the Acoma and the Navajo nations, the greater part of which
started a seditious movement by the killing of Father Carlos
Delgado at the Acoma pueblo. It was during this campaign that
the MogoUon range of mountains, in New Mexico, was named
by MogoUon himself. The next year MogoUon got in trouble
with the Franciscan Fathers. MogoUon, having decreed the dis-
arming of all the Pueblo Indians, the Fathers remonstrated
against the decree on the ground that the Pueblos needed their
arms to defend their homes, property, and families from the fre-
quent incursions of the wild tribes. The case was appealed to
Mexico, the Fathers were sustained, and MogoUon resigned.
XXXVII
147. Government of Martinez — MogoUon Under Arrest —
Battles with the Moquis. — Don Felix Martinez, by virtue of his
office of mayor of the village of Santa Fe, became the governor
de facto upon MogoUon 's declining to act. Martinez was un-
educated and of humble birth, but De Vargas rewarded him, as
stated, for his valuable services, as captain, during the reconquest
of New Mexico. Martinez's promotion made him proud and
cruel, MogoUon being the first to object to his pride. He placed
him under arrest, and, following Cubero's example (when he kept
86 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
De Vargas three years in prison ineomunkado), put him in jail,
and then left Santa Fe on a campaign against the Motjuis, with
whom he fought two battles, defeating them and compelling their
submission to liis autlioi-ity.
14S. Taos Attacked by the Yutes — Battle of Cerro de San
Antonio — Captain Cerna the Hero. — While Marthiez was in the
Mo(jui province, news of the attack on Taos, and its partial de-
struction by the Yute Indians, reached Santa Fe. Captain
Cerna, mth a large force of Spanish soldiers, rushed out in pur-
suit of the Yutes, overtook them at the Cerro of San Antonio,
near Conejos, State of Colorado, where he defeated them after a
terrific slaughter of Indians, recovei-ing all the stock and cap-
tives the Indians had taken. Among the captives were fifty
Spanish women and girls from Taos and many Indian women
and girls from the pueblo of Taos.
149. Martinez Removed by Force — Hurtado Acting Gover-
nor — Cosio Succeeds. — The outrageous doings of Martinez reach-
ed the ears of the Viceroy Mar(iuez de Valero, who at once sent
Captain Antonio Velarde y Cosio to assume charge of the gov-
ernment in New Mexico as governor ad interim. Upon the ar-
rival of Cosio at Santa Fe, Martmez refused to turn the govern-
ment over to Cosio, whereupon the viceroy peremptorily removed
him, commanding him to proceed to Mexico to answer charges
of insubordination. j\Iartinez obeyed the order so far as going
to Mexico, but declined to recognize Cosio 's authority, leaving
Juan Paiz Hurtado as governor ad inierhn, while he was absent
in Mexico, for which place he started January 20, 1718, taking
Mogollon with him as a prisoner. Martinez's trial lasted nearly a
year, ending with his removal and a peremptory order on Hur-
tado to deliver the government to Cosio, which order reached
Santa Fe in December of that year, at which time Cosio took
formal possession of New Mexico, remaining in office until the
earlier part of the year 1721, when he w^as succeeded by Juan
Estrado y Austria.
150. First Public Schools in New^ Mexico — End of Cosio 's
Term. — In the month of August, 1781, a decree from the king
reached the superior of the Franciscan Fathers in New Mexico
directing him to establish free-for-all schools in New Mexico.
The Father Superior in September of that year, held a council
in Santa Fe in which all the priests in New Mexico were present.
This council established that year free schools in all the Spanish
SPANISH REGIME 87
towns and in all the Indian i)U(^l)los, assigning to each town,
and to each pueblo a large tract of land to be cultivated by the
resident parents of children, the crojjs raised therefrom to be
paid to the teachers for their labors as such. This important
step occurred during Cosio's time, although his successor, Juan
Estrado y Austria, had already been appointed but did not
reach Santa Fe until the end of the year. Judge Estrada y
Austria was sent to investigate the differences between Mar-
tinez and Mogollon, with the power to act as governor until
Cosio's successor was appointed, in which capacity he acted un-
til March 2, 1722, when Cosio's successor, Don Juan Domingo
de Bustamante, arrived in Santa Fe.
151. Occurrences in Bustamante 's Time — Other Governors —
Jesuit Missionaries. — Ihistamante's incumbency in office ex-
tended from 1722 to 1781, when he was succeeded by Don Ger-
vaeio Cruzat Gongora. In 1780 occurred the tirst visit of two
Jesuit missionaries, Fathers Francisco Archundi and Father
Jose Navaez, who established a mission among the Moquis, which
they did not keep very long because the Franciscans objected,
claiming Moqui as territory belonging to their Society. A little
later (1780-81) it was discovered that Bustamante had been
secretly conducting an illicit ti-ade with the French traders from
Louisiana. This criminal conduct was exposed by the Fran-
ciscans, with Bustamante 's removal as the conse(|uence and the
incoming of Gongora, who entered upon his official duties, in
the year 1736, when he was succeeded by Don Enrique de Ola-
vide y Michalena, who governed until 1739, during whose time
of office Bishop Elizacoechea visited New Mexico. Peace and
prosperity reigned during the incumbency of Gongora and
Michalena, both governors having suppressed the vices of im-
morality, gambling, and vagrancy.
XXXVIII
152. Governors Mendoza, Rabal, Capuchin. — Don Caspar
Domingo de Mendoza governed from 178!) to 1743. It was in
the last year of his administration (1743) that the iSrst foreign
French colonists, nine in number, came into New Mexico. All
of them returned except Jean d'Alay and Louis Marie. Alay
settled in Santa Fe, marrying a Spanish lady. Marie settled
in Taos, where he paid the penalty of his criminal life by death
88
HISTORY OF NP]W MEXICO
on the gallows. It was cluriug JMciidoza's time (1742) tliat
F'ather Mota gave the luiinber of Spaniards- in New Mexico at
9,747, exclusive of soldiers, the number of Spanish towns being
twenty-four. From 1748 to 174i), Don Joa<|uin Codallos y Kabal
governed. Duriiiu' his time (174")) tlii'cc ejcsuit missionaries,
S.VXTA FE IX 1867
(1) Santa Fe's Old Cathedral. (2) Stone Arch of Xew Cathedral in process of
oonstruetion. (3) Simon Del^ado's Store and Residence, on which site was the old
Spanish Military Church. (4) Spiegelberg Block. (5) Seligrman's Store. (6) Ex-
change Hotel. (7) Lamy corner
Fathers Delgado, Irrigoyen, and Toledo, visited the Motiuis, but
did not establish a mission, contenting themselves with preaching
for a few months. Don Tomas Vellez Capuchin succeeded Rabal
(1749) and acted until 1754. Capuchin's term of office de-
veloped nothing out of the ordinary, except a fight on the staked
SPANISH REGIME 89
])l;iiiis with the Coniaiiche Imli;ins, in whicli he recovered forty
Spanish captives, women and chihli'en, wliieh the Indians had
just taken from (lalisteo.
153. Martin del Valle — Bishop Tamaron. — Francisco An-
tonio Martin del VaHe governed from 1754 to 1760. His gov-
ernment resulted in a complete failure, because of his under-
taking to nuike radical changes in the established order of
things, coming near plunging the country into a bloody revohi-
tion. Bishop Tamaron, of Durango, visited New Mexico in 1760.
At this time Del Valle went to Mexico, leaving Mateo Antonio
de Mendoza acting until the arrival of Urrizola, his successor.
Don Manuel Portillo de Urrizola arrived in the beginning of
the year 1761, but was succeeded before the end of the next
year by Capuchin, who had been reinstated.
154. Capuchin Again — Discovery of Silver in Colorado. —
Capuchin resumed his gubernatorial duties in Felnniary, 1762,
remaining in office until 1767, when he was succeeded by Don
Pedro Fermin de Mendinueta. Capuchin did much to develop
the industries of New Mexico. It was through his eflforts that
Captain Juan Maria Rivera discovered rich silver mines in the
mountains of Colorado, near the confluence of the Gunnison and
Uncompaghre Rivers, which they named Rio de la Plata, giving
a similar name to the range of mountains near the river.
CHAPTER XII
XXXIX
155. Historic Flood — Harmony between Church and Civil
Governments. — Don Pedro Fenuin tie Mendinueta's term of
office eoinmenced in 1767, and ended in 1778. Mendinueta was
the peer of De Vargas in greatness, foresight, tact in govern-
ment and nobility of soul. His administration stands out in
glorious contrast with the governments of his predecessors and
of his successors. He governed under more trying circumstances
than the former governors. Under him Santa Fe sutfered the
greatest calamity in its history, an almost total destruction by a
veritable deluge in 1767, which caused a loss of property amount-
ing to $200,000, and the loss of fifty lives. This desolation Men-
dinueta, by prudence and good management, was able to sup-
plant by a prompt rebuilding of the city, for which purpose he
placed his soldiers at the disposal of the civil authority. The
discord between the ecclesiastical and military authorities, wdiich
had reached the point of danger, was ended by Mendinueta, who
brought peace and harmony between the two governments, thus
fostering the welfare of the coimtry.
156. Treaty of Peace with the Comanches — Historical Re-
port. — Having established unity between the fighting elements,
Mendinueta's next move was to insure permanent peace with the
most dangerous enemy of the Spaniards, the Comanches, with
which nation he executed a treaty of peace, which was scrup-
ulously kept by the ferocious Indians, and was celebrated by the
Spaniards by a day of thanksgiving, so declared by a proclama-
tion of Mendinueta. This took place in 1771. The next year,
1772, in obedience to an order from Viceroy Urisua, Mendinueta
made a very complete report of the lamentable condition of New
Mexico, setting forth the abandonment of the colonies by the
central government ; how the neglected inhabitants were exposed
to the daily incursions of the savage Indians, having suffered the
loss of so many small settlements ; making the necessary recom-
mendations to insure the uplifting of the people, and asking for
SPANISH REGIME
91
more soldiers to afford them the much needed protection. This
report of Mendinueta is a conipk'te history in itself of New
Mexico to that date, March 26, 1772. (It is published in full
in Read's lUnsiratcd Htsfori) of Nfw Mexieo, pp. 336-.'M0.)
157. Discovery of Salt Lake— The Cliff Dwellings.— In the
fall of 1776 Mendinueta sent two Franciscan Fathers, Escalante
and Doniing'uez, A\nth an escort of nine soldiers, to discover a
shorter route to the Pacific Ocean. The Fathers traveled north-
wiLLiAM c. McDonald
First State Governor, inaugurated at Santa
Fe January 15, 1912.
west until they reached the salt lake, where today stands the
capital of the State of Utah, from which place they returned,
being unable to go further because of the deep snows which ob-
structed their march. The Fathers gave the lake the name of
Lago Salado (Salt Lake). They returned by way of Yuma,
crossing the Colorado River near that place. It has been as-
serted by some writers that Fathers Escalante and Dominguez
92 HISTORY OF NP^W MEXICO
visited the cliff (Iwelliuj^s in Sau Juan County, New IMexico, and
in Colorado. Hut the assertion is a mere conjecture ; no authority
can be found to support it.
158. Government Changed — Mendinueta's Successor — Bat-
tle with Cuerno Verde,— In the year 1777 the form of govern-
ment was ehant>:ed by consolidating New Mexico, Durango,
Sonora, and Chihuahua into one province, with a commandant-
general over the entire province. The change deprived Nevy
IMexico 's governor of the title and rank of captain-general. Men-
dinueta did not like the change, his time not having expired.
He placed New Mexico in charge of Don Francisco Trevol and
left for Mexico the next year, in May, 1778. Trevol acted as
governor until August 1778, when Mendinueta's successor, Don
Juan Bautista de Anza, arrived, and governed the country until
June, 1789, when Don Fernando de la ('oncha succeeded him.
De la Concha was in office until 1794, at which time he was suc-
ceeded by Don Fernando Chacon, whose term of office lasted
until 1805. It was Governor Anza who, with a large force of
men' and Indians from the pueblos, at a place near the city of
Hutchinson, State of Kansas, in 1779, met the much dreaded
Comanche chief, Cuerno Verde (Green Horn), in a bloody hand-
to-hand tight, in which Cuerno Verde and five of his captains
were killed, the Spaniards capturing 200 Comanche warriors.
The loss on the Spanish side was great in killed and wounded.
De la Concha's government was devoid of any important events.
XL
159. Governor Fernando Chacon — First American Mer-
chants. — The government of Don Fernando Chacon (1794-1805)
experienced no drawbacks of consequence. It was of great bene-
.fit to the country, because he gave a new and lasting start to
the industries and a great impulse to the cause of education.
The Navajo nation, having declared war against the Spaniards
(1804), Chacon lost no time in smothering the seditious move-
ment before it had been put into execution. This same year
(1804) commercial trade with the United States was introduced
into New Mexico by the arrival in Santa Fe of John Baptiste
(Juan Bautista) Lalande, who had been sent with merchandise
by a merchant named Morrison from Kaskaskia, Illinois. La-
lande married a Spanish lady in Santa Fe and never went back
SPANISH REGIME 93
to Illinois, iieitlK'r did he return the money to Morrison. The
next year Chacon was succeeded ))y Don Joa(|uin del Real Ah-n-
caster, who administered the ii^overnment until the year 1S08.
160. Arrival of James Pursley— Arrest of Zebulon Pike. —
In June, 1805, another Xorlh American, a carpenter named
James Pursley, arrived and settled in Santa Fe. In the year
1807 Colonel Zehulon Pike, at the head of an escort of American
soldiers, was captured by Sj)anisli soldiers while encamped close
to the Rio Grande, near tlie site of the town of Alamosa, State
of Colorado, where he had built a fortification and raised the
American flag. Pike was not an invader; he had been sent on
an ex[)loring expedition and was not aware that he had reached
Spanish territory. Pike and his party were brought to Santa
Fe, and from there they were sent as prisoners to Chihuahua
where they were tried and ac(iuitted. This event marked thg
close of Alencaster's administration, Don Alberto Mainez suc-
ceeding him as acting governor for a very short while only, Don
Jose Manrique, Alencaster's successor, having assumed his of-
ficial duties before the end of the year 1808, and governed New
Mexico until 1811:.
161. Pino's Election as Delegate to Spain — His History of
New Mexico and Great Speech before the King-. — The admin-
istration of Governor Manri(jue was rich in valuable incidents,
the first occurrence of unusual importance taking place in 1810.
This was the election, under a royal decree, of the first and last
delegate from New Mexico to the Spanish Parliament (Cortes)
in Spain. In the absence of a city council that year in Santa
Fe, Governor Manri((ue called a meeting of all the justices of
the peace at Santa Fe to select the delegate. There were six
candidates voted for, the vote resulting in a tie between three
of the candidates receiving the highest number, namely, An-
tonio Ortiz, Juan Rafael Ortiz, and Pedro Bautista Pino, the
last named being selected by lot. Don Pedro Bautista Pino
started for Spain shortly after his election (1810) and remained
there as delegate until 1820, when the independence of Mexico
separated New Mexico from the mother country. While in
Spain, Pino published a very interesting pamphlet on New
Mexico entitled, Noticias Historicas de Nuevo Mexico (published
almost entire in Read's lUustrated History of New Mexico).
November 28, 1812, Pino delivered, before the Parliament and
king at Cadiz, Spain, a most touching address on the extreme
94 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
sufferings of his people, telling tiie king tiiat unless conditions
were changed for the better New Mexico was sure to join the
American I'nion. (This speech is also partly i-<'produee(] in
Read's III usi valid Ilislori/ of N(ic Mexico.)
162. McKnight, Glen, Becknell, and Cooper. — In 1812 an
expedition came from !St. Louis, ^iissouri, to Santa Fe under
McKnight, bringing along with them a pack of mules loaded
with merchandise. At Santa P'e they were looked upon as spies,
their effects were confiscated, and they were sent to Chihuahua
as prisoners. The same year two other strangers came, one of
them named Glen (from Ohio), who came to sell merchandise,
and the other called Becknell. These were followed the same
year by others to the number of fifteen, under the command of
an individual called Cooper, also with merchandise. With this
last expedition of merchants, the trade between New Mexico
and Missouri became established, and from New Mexico it ex-
tended down to Chihuahua.
MEXICAN RULE— 1821-1846
CHAPTER XIII
XLI
163. End of Spanish Regime. — Alberto Mainez succeeded
Manriqiie in 1815, and governed nntil 1817, when he was suc-
ceeded by Pedro Marie AUande (1818), who acted until 1821,
when Facundo Melgares succeeded him. During these six years
(1815-1821) nothing was accoini)lished by the governors because
the war with Mexico, which was then on against Spain, did not
permit it, the country being greatly excited over the war and
the frequent Indian depredations in New Mexico, which came to
an end in 1821, when JMexico became an independent nation,
Melgares' term closing the Spanish regime, which had lasted
223 years in New Mexico.
164. New Mexico Under an Emperor. — At the end of the
war Mexico became an empire, with Don Augustin de Iturbide
as its first emperor. This imperial form of government lasted
from March 4, 1821, to the year 1824, when the nation became
a republic with Guadalupe Victoria and Nicolas Bravo as presi-
dent and vice-president, respectively. The new imperial gov-
ernment was represented in New Mexico by Governors Francisco
Xavier and Antonio Viscarra. At the beginning of the repub-
lican fonn of government, Don Bartolome Baca became Vis-
carra 's successor and the next year, 1825, was succeeded by An-
tonio de Narbona, who governed until 1828, with Viscarra and
Manuel Armijo acting at short intervals ad interim between
those dates (1825-28).
165. The Territory of New Mexico — More Foreigners — Real
de Dolores — First School Law. — New Mexico became a Territory
of the Republic of Mexico, l)y decree of the Mexican Congress,
in the year 1824. Between the years 1822 and 1827 the foreign
population of New IMexico was increased by the coming of many
more North Americans, among them being Ceran St. Vrain, Kit
Carson, and Charles Bent, the last three figuring afterwards
MEXICAN RULE 97
prominently in Nt'w ^Mexico liistory. Towards the close of the
year 1827 the rich mining placers known as Real de Dolores,
in Santa Fe County, were discovered by Don Ignacio Cano (ma-
ternal grandfather of the author of this work). Between those
dates the Provincial Deputation was organized in Santa Fe, and
at its first meeting (1822) the Assembly passed the first public
school law under the new government.
166. List of Governors. 1827-1846— Bishop Zubiria— The
First Newspaper — The Territory Abolished. — From Xarbona's
time to the year 1816, New Mexico had the following governors:
Jose Antonio Chavez, 1828-1881 ; Santiago Abreu, 1881-18:38 ;
Francisco Sarracino, Juan Rafael Ortiz, and Mariano Chavez
(the last two acting ad interim), 1888-1884; Albino Perez, 1885-
1887; Pedro Munoz, 1887-1888; Manuel Armijo, 1888-1844;
Mariano Martinez Lejanza, 1844-1845 ; (ad interim a short time),
1845; Manuel Armijo, 1845-1846; Juan Bautista Vigil (for a
few days when the annexation took place), 1846. This last
named was succeeded by Governor Bent, first governor under
the American government. Between those dates, 1828-1846, the
following events transpired : the last otficial visit to New Mexico
of Bishop Zubiria (1848) ; the publication of the first newspa-
per at Taos (1885), by Rev. Antonio Jose Martinez, the paper's
title being EI CrepuseuJo (The Dawn) ; the territorial form of
government was abolished and New Mexico made a Department
(1885), its Assembly (Provincial Deputation) changing its
name to "Departmental Assembly." The commercial relations
with the United States became established (as shown in another
part of this book) and the industries were greatly advanced.
XLII
167. The Chimayo Rebellion — Governor Perez's Assassina-
tion. — Don Albino Perez came to New Mexico as successor of
Governor Francisco Sarracino in April, 1885, and at once as-
sumed charge of the government. Governor Perez was a colonel
in the Mexican army, highly cultured, and of an amiable dis-
position. He was appointed governor under the new constitu-
tion which had just been adopted in Mexico. Under this change
of government New Mexico was made a Department, and given
authority to enact laws imposing a tax for governmental pur-
poses. New" Mexico's treasury was then without funds, and
MEXICAN RULE 99
Governor Perez reeoiuinended the passage of a revenue law,
which was passed and signed by Perez June 9, 1836. This law
imposed a tax on merchants, stock raisers, peddlers, theatei-s,
and on all business occupations. Its enforcement brought about
in 1837 the rebellion of the northern part of New Mexico, the
Pueblo Indians of northern Xew Mexico taking part, which re-
sulted in the assassination of Governor Perez, and other pul)lic
officials August 9, 1837, and the taking of Santa Fe by the
rebels the same day.
168. Jose Gonzales Made Governor — Manuel Armijo made
Commandant. — The rebels, after taking possession of Santa Fe,
elected Jose Gonzales as governor. Gonzales immediately took
charge of affairs and began his activities by ordering the con-
fiscation of the property belonging to Perez and his subordinates
and dividing it among his men. In the meantime the loyal
citizens met at Tome (Valencia County) and in a public meeting
adopted a "Proclamation of War" against the rebels, naming
Don Manuel Armijo (General Armijo) as commandant of the
volunteer forces, which he was authorized to enlist. The Procla-
mation is dated at Tome (published in Read's Illustrated His-
tory of Nciv 3Icxico), September 8, 1837, and is signed by Man-
uel Armijo (the general), Jose Salazar, Pablo Salazar, J. Fran-
cisco Montoya, Miguel Olona, and Manuel Madariaga.
169. Rebel Leaders Executed — End of the Revolution —
Armijo becomes Governor. — Immediately after his election Ar-
mijo organized an army of volunteers, and with the scattering
regular soldiers which were at Santa Fe under their captain
(Caballero) began an energetic campaign. The rebels surren-
dered without much fighting, and General Armijo ordered the
execution of the four rebel leaders, Desiderio Montoya, Antonio
Aban y Montoya, Jose Esquibel, and Juan Vigil, who were shot
in Santa Fe January 24. 1838, at nine o'clock in the morning.
That ended the revolution. Armijo was proclaimed governor,
and his election was speedily confirmed by the central govern-
ment at Mexico, and Armijo made a general of the army.
XLIII
170. American Consulate. — The constant coming of Amer-
icans gave New Mexico increased impulse; her mercantile trade
with the United States attracted the attention of the United
100 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
Stales govenunent to tlie oxtout of cstnblishiiig in Santa Fe a
consulate, wliicli it did in the veai- 1825, with Augustus Storrs
as fii'st consul. Don ]\Ianuel Alvares was appointed American
consul March 21, 18.'5f), and renuiined as such until March 18, 1846,
when the consulate was discontinued on account of the war
which the United States declared on Mexico (March 13, 1846).
Alvarez was retained in office in charge of a bureau created by
the United States under the name, "Conunercial Agency of the
United States."
171. Texan Invasion. — Texas, after it ceased to belong to
Mexico, claimed New Mexico as i)art of her territory, and her
citizens made several efiforts to annex it to Texas. The first at-
tempt was an invasion made in the year 1841, by an expedition
of 320 armed men, which left Austin June 18th, under the com-
mand of General McLeod. The expedition entered New Mexico
near Fort Sumner (now Guadalupe County), and traveled as
far as Laguna Colorada (Red Lake), near Tucumcari, where
General Armijo, then governor of New Mexico, met them with
a large army and captured all without firing a shot, in October,
1841. Armijo brought his prisoners to the town of San Miguel,
where the vanguard of the Texan expedition were in jail: Cap-
tain Louis Van Ness, Howard Fitzgerald, and Kendall, who had
been previously captured at Antonchico (near San Miguel) by
Salazar, one of Armijo 's captains; and from there sent them
all on foot to Mexico (October 17th). Armijo 's conduct in cap-
turing the Texans is worthy of all praise, but his treatment of
them after he made them prisoners deserves severe condemna-
tion. Other expeditions, in the nature of banditti, were made
by Texans. One in 1843, under John McDaniel, which only at-
tacked the freighting caravans, killing a prominent man, Don
Manuel Chavez, while on his way to the Missouri. The same
year (1843) another bandit from Texas named Wordfield, with
twenty-four men, attacked the town of Mora at night, killing
five men and stealing many horses. The third and last raid
was made by another Texan, Snively, which resulted in the killing
of Captain Lovato by Snively 's men, near Fort Bent, and the
capture of Snively and his force by Captain John Cook, of the
American army, then stationed at Fort Bent to escort the cara-
vans and protect them from the Indians.
CHAPTER XIV
XLIV
172. .Narrow Escape of Governor Lejanza. — Governor Mar-
iano Martinez de Lejanza, while sitting in his office in the Gov-
ernor's Palace at Santa Fe, in the year 1844, was assaulted by a
party of Ynte Indians who had come to Santa Fe in large num-
bers, ostensibly to make a treaty of peace. The Indian chiefs
became excited while discussing the treaty and unexpectedly
made a murderous assault upon the governor, who, while fight-
ing for his life, was saved by the timely interference of his wife,
who rushed into the room and with a chair in her hands kept
the Indians from murdering her husband until her outcries at-
tracted the soldiers outside. A general fight followed, in which
many Indians were killed, the rest escaping with great difficulty.
173. Last Election Under Mexican Rule. — On October 7,
1845, the commission — electoral board — which under the law was
charged with the election of the deputy to the National Congress
and the members of the Departmental Assembly, met in Santa
Fe and elected Tomas Chavez y Castillo as delegate and Vicente
Vergara as substitute. For the Assembly, the Rev. Antonio Jose
Martinez, Tomas Ortiz, Juan Perea, Juan Cristobal Armijo, and
Felipe Sena were elected as regular members, and Serafin Ram-
irez, Vicente Martinez, and Santiago Armijo as substitutes. This
was the last set of officials named under the authority of the
Mexican government, and they acted until the invasion of New
Mexico and the taking of Santa Fe by the American forces, which
took place in the month of August the next year, 1846.
174. Preparations to Fight the Invaders. — The time was ripe
for a change of government. The war between the United
States and Mexico was on, and New Mexico was made the objec-
tive point of the third division of the American army. The al-
most criminal neglect and cruel apathy with which New Mexico
had been treated by the governments of Spain and Mexico had
made the change inevitable, yet the love for the mother countiy
had not died in the hearts of the descendants of the conquis-
MEXICAN RULE 103
tadores; many there were who wanted to resist the rumored
invasion; others thought it unwise to make any resistance, not
having an army or munitions of war, nor funds to organize a
volunteer force, nor money to pay the patriots who would want
to fight for Mexico; General Armijo tried to borrow from the
city council $1,000 with which to buy provisions for the few
soldiers he had, and the volunteers he could bring together, but
the council refused to extend the asked-for funds. With all that
the preparations were made by Armijo, who, on the 8th of Au-
gust, 1846, issued his last proclamation (published in Read's
Illmirated History of New Mexico) calling on all New Mexicans
to respond to the call of the country. The proclamation had the
desired effect, and Armijo raised an army of Spaniards and In-
dians, each man furnishing his own arms.
XLV
175. Invasion by the American Army. — The annexation, or
rather the admission of Texas into the American Union, in the
year 1845, was one of the principal causes that brought about
the war wath Mexico. There was another reason which made
that war imperative, being the desire on the part of the pro-
slavery party, then in power in the United States, to extend
slavery into New Mexico, in order to perpetuate that inhuman
institution in the American Union. The United States having,
declared war against Mexico (May, 1846), there was no alterna-
tive left to Mexico other than to declare war also against the
United States, which she did in June, 1846. The same month
the Third Division of the American army, under Colonel S. W.
Kearny (known in history as the "Army of the West''), set out
from Fort Leavenworth, to invade and conquer New Mexico.
This army consisted of 300 soldiers of the regidar army, a cav-
alry regiment under Colonel Doniphan, and 700 volunteers, mak-
ing a total of 1,700 men. This army was followed afterwards
by another army of 1,800 men, under Colonel Sterling Price,
making a total of 3,500 men — infantry, cavalry, and artillery.
176. March of the American Army — The Taking of Las
Vegas. — The army reached Fort Bent, on the Arkansas River,
August 2d, where Lieutenant Colonel Emory, chief of the corps
of topographical engineers, Avas awaiting for Kearny. Here
Kearny issued a Proclamation of Annexation. From Fort Bent
104 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
tlie iiuiix'li was contiiuu'd witlioul delay. On llic r)tli of August
Kearny sent by Captain Cook a copy of the Proclamation to
Armijo at Santa Fe. Cook delivered his message to Armijo
and brought Armijo's answer to Kearny, without loss of time.
Armijo 's answer was a refusal to surrender the Territory to
Kearny. On the 15th day of August, at 8 o'clock in the morn-
ing, the Americans reached Las W'gas and Kearny took formal
possession of the town in the name of the American government ;
administered the oath to the alcalde and two military officers and
a few soldiers of the Mexican anny, and to the rest of the people,
continuing the alcalde in office. In the course of his address
Kearny said: "Mr. Alcalde and people of New ]\Iexico; I have
come amongst you by order of my government to take possession
of your country and extend over it the laws of the United
States. We come amongst you as friends not as enemies; as
protectors not as conquerors ; we come among you for your bene-
fit not for your injury. ' '
177. The Taking of Santa Fe — Vigil's Proclamation. — After
establishing his authority at Las Vegas, Kearny continued his
march on to Santa Fe, expecting to meet Armijo's army in bat-
tle at Canon del Apache, eighteen miles from Santa Fe, where
Armijo, with a large army of men and Indians, was waiting for
the invaders. On the 18th of August, early in the morning, the
American army reached the Canon del Apache, arrayed in line
of battle; but to Kearny's surprise it w'as found that Armijo and
his men had deserted, leaving the road open to Santa Fe. Ar-
mijo's men, on learning how well equipped the American army
was, and they having no arms or disciplined army to oppose, had
concluded to disband. Kearny soon received an official invita-
tion from Juan Bautista Vigil, the acting governor, inviting him
to proceed to Santa Fe, stating that he was ready to turn the
country over to the American government, and advising Kearny
of Armijo's flight. Vigil at the same time had issued a procla-
mation, advising the citizens of Santa Fe of the approach of the
American army, and nrging them not to leave their homes.
Kearny entered Santa Fe at 3 o'clock in the afternoon at the
head of a column of American soldiers August 18, 1846, receiving
a cordial reception from Governor Vigil and the other officials.
At sundown that day the American flag was hoisted over the
Palace, and a salute of thirteen guns was fired. Thus ended the
third epoch of New Mexico's history and Mexican rule.
AMERICAN OCCUPATION
CHAPTER XV
XLVI
178. Annexation Accomplished. — Four days after his arrival
in Santa Fe, August 22, 1846, General Kearny, in the public
plaza, in the presence of the American officers and the citizens of
Santa Fe, published his Proclamation declaring the official an-
nexation of New Mexico, with its name and original boundaries,
as a Territory of the American Union, promising that the gov-
ernment of the United States would "give the people of New
Mexico, without delay, a free government identical with the gov-
ernment of the other States of the American Union." All the
officials in office under the ]\Iexiean government on August 18th
(except Armijo) were temporarily retained by General Kearny.
179. Territorial Officials Appointed— The Bill of Rights.—
One month later (September 22, 1846) General Kearny made
public the appointment of Territorial officials as follows:
"Being duly authorized by the President of the United States
of America, I do, by these presents, make the following appoint-
ment of officers for the government of New Mexico, as a Terri-
tory of the United States. The officers so appointed shall be
respected and obeyed as such. Charles Bent for governor ; Don-
aciano Vigil for secretary of the Territory; Richard Dalam for
marshal ; Francis P. Blair, for United States district attorney ;
Charles Blumner, for treasurer; Eugene Leitendorfer, for audi-
tor of public accounts; Joah Houghton, Antonio Jose Otero,
Charles Beaubien, for justices of the supreme court.
' ' Given in Santa Fe, the capital of the Territory of New Mex-
ico, today, the 22d day of September, 1846, and in the 71st year
of the Independence of the United States.
"S. W. Kearny, Brigadier General."
On the same day General Kearny gave New Mexico its first
code of laws under the American government under the title of
"Bill of Rights."
106 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
180. Kearny Leaves for California — Kit Carson — Doniphan
Goes to Mexico — Battle of Brazito. — On tlu' 25th day of Septem-
ber, 1846, General Kearny, after leaving instructions for Colonel
Doniphan to continue with his division on to Chihuahua, and for
Colonel Price to follow to California, started for California with
a large portion of the American army. At Socorro he met Kit
Carson, Avho was on his way from California to Washington with
ot^cial messages from General Fremont. Kearny took Carson
with him as guide, and sent Fremont's messages on to Washing-
ton by another escort. Doniphan leit Santa Fe with his divi-
sion for Chihuahua, on the 17th day of October, 1846, meeting
a Mexican army of 900 men at Brazito, in Dona Ana County,
New Mexico, under Captain Ponce de Leon, where a battle was
fought, in which Doniphan defeated Ponce de Leon.
XLVII
Rebellion and Massacre
181. Anti-American Pronouncement. — Notwithstanding the
seemingly well established peace after Kearny had left for Cali-
fornia and Doniphan for Chihuahua there were quite a number
of prominent Mexicans who had not recognized the new govern-
ment, remaining loyal to Mexico. After Kearny's taking of
Santa Fe these men did not cease one moment from secretly fos-
tering a revolution. The movement was headed by Diego Arch-
uleta (who afterwards became a useful American citizen), of
Rio Arriba County, and Don Tomas Ortiz and Jose Manuel
Gallegos (the last two mentioned, like Archuleta, becoming af-
terwards prominent American citizens, Gallegos serving one term
as delegate in the United States Congress), both of Santa Fe.
The uprising had its supporters in Santa Fe, Taos, Mora, and
Las Vegas. The conspiracy was hatched in Santa Fe, December
12, 1846, and the plan in the four towns mentioned was to
assassinate simultaneously all the Americans in New Mexico, on
the 19th of the month; but at another meeting held fourteen
days after (December 16th), it was agreed to postpone the blow
untl the 24th of the month. The conspiracy was discovered by
Governor Bent, but not in time to prevent the massacre. The
conspirators, on learning that their plans had been discovered,
postponed the execution until January 19, 1847.
182. Killing of Governor Bent and Others. — Governor Bent,
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 107
being well aware of every move made by the conspirators, left
Santa Fe for Taos, where his family resided, on the 14th of
January, 1847, and on the night of January the 19th (the day
fixed for the blow) was assassinated by the rebels and the In-
dians from Taos pueblo. The same night, Don Cornelio Vigil,
prefect of Taos, Pablo Jaramillo, and Narcizo Beaubien were
also assassinated in Taos. One American named Lee and the
American families of Taos escaped assassination by fleeing at
midnight to Father Antonio Jose Martinez's house, where they
received the shelter and protection of the Father. Another
party was assassinated, the same night, at Arroyo Hondo (close
to Taos), Simon Turley, Turbush Hartfield, one Austin, and
John Albert. At Mora the same night, seven Americans, named
Waldo, Cavanaugh, Praett, Colver, Noyes, Howard, and Head
were killed. None were killed at Las Vegas, because of the
timely protection given the Americans by the justice of the
peace of that place, Don Juan de Dios Maes. No one was killed
in Santa Fe.
183. Price Punished the Insurrectos — Battles of Santa Cruz,
Embudo, Taos, and Mora. The next day (January 20th) the
news of the massacre reached Santa Fe. Colonel Sterling Price,
then commanding in New Mexico, at once took energetic measures
to check the rebellion. With 300 men, comprising soldiers of the
United States army and a company of Spanish Amencan volun-
teers under Captain Ceran St. Vrain, he left for Taos January
23, 1847, after ordering Captains Hendly and Morin to proceed
to Mora and Las Vegas with a company of eighty soldiers.
Price was met by an insurrecto force at Santa Cruz (twenty-five
miles north of Santa Fe) and at Embudo (some sixty or seventy
miles from Santa Fe). At both places battles were fought, re-
sulting in the defeat of the insurrectos \^dth a loss (at Santa
Cruz) of thirty-six killed. The Americans lost two killed and
several wounded. No casualties were reported from Embudo.
Febniary 3, 1847, Price reached Taos and found the rebel In-
dians and the insurrectionists entrenched in the church of the
pueblo, where he fought them, compelling them to surrender after
a very stubborn resistance. The loss of the rebels was 150 between
dead and wounded. On the American side six soldiers and one
officer were killed and forty-six wounded. At Mora a battle was
fought January 30, 1847, Hendly and two soldiers being killed.
That was the last attempt made against the American govern-
108 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
iiic'iit. On the 2(1 of February, 1848, the Territory of New
Mexico was formally ceded to the United States by Mexico, by
a ti'eaty of peace signed in the city of (luadaiupe Hidalgo,
Mexico, on that tlay. Ti\e treaty iiad the effect of admitting all
New IMexicans into the American Union, thus ])utling a stop to
future seditious movements.
XLIII
Military Legislature — Civil Government
184. First Legislature. — On the Gtli day of December, 1847,
New Mexico being still under the military government, with
J. M. Washington as connnandant of the Department, the first
legislature met in Santa Fe by permission of the military au-
thorities, M'ith the following members; Antonio Sandoval, presi-
dent ; Henry Henrie, secretary ; James Hubbell, porter ; Jose
Francisco Baca y Terros, Jose Andres Sandoval, Juan Tullis,
Nicolas Lucero, Pascual Martinez, Juan Otero y Chavez (all these
gentlemen being the members of the Council) ; the members of
the House were William C. Angney, president ; James M. Gid-
dings, secretary; E. J. Vaughn, porter; Manuel Alvarez, An-
tonio Martinez, Tomas C. de Baca, Jesus Sandoval, Miguel San-
chez, Antonio Saenz, Levi J. Keithly, Jose Ramon Vigil, Antonio
Jose Manzanares, Mariano Lucero, Jose Martinez, George Gold,
Antonio Jose Ortiz, Juan Perea, Rafael Armijo y Maestas, Wil-
liam Skinner, Juan Cruz Baca, Juan Cristibal Chavez, Rafael
Luna, and Juan Sanchez y Carillo.
185. First Convention — Effort to Establish Territorial Gov-
ernment. — On the death of Governor Bent, Colonel Price ap-
pointed Donaciano Vigil, of Santa Fe, civil governor. Vigil and
the citizens at once began a movement for the establishment of a
Territorial government. On the 10th of October, 1848, in ac-
cordance with the proclamation of Governor Vigil, a convention
met in Santa Fe, with Father Antonio Jose Martinez as presi-
dent, and J. M. Giddings as secretary. The members of the
convention were, the said Antonio Jose Martinez, Ellas P. West,
Antonio Saenz, Juan Perea, Donaciano Vigil, Santiago Archu-
leta, Francisco Sarracino (who had been governor under the
Mexican government), Gregorio Vigil, Jose Pley, James Quinn,
Ramon Luna, Carlos Beaubien, and Manuel A. Otero. The
AMERICAN OCCUPATION
109
labors of the convention were limited to the H|)i)roval of the
followinuf ]\Ieniori;il :
186. Memorial to Congress Adopted. — The Memorial adopted
by the convention and signed by all the members October 14,
1848, reads thus:
"Petition to Congress made by New Mexico, through its in-
habitants in convention assembled :
"We the people of New Mexico, respectfully ask of Congress
that we be given a civil territorial government without delay.
"We respectfully ask of Congress the establishment of a gov-
ernment of a pur<>ly civil character.
SPAXISHAMERICAN KORMAL SCHOOL, P:L RITO, N. M.
Destroyed by fire in 1912
"We respectfully submit that the organic law and the statute
law proclaimed under military order on September 22, 1846, with
some changes, are not acceptable.
"We recommend that the following offices be occupied by
persons appointed by the president, with the cooperation and
consent of the Senate, toMdt : Governor, secretary of govern-
ment, judges, United States attorney, and marshal.
"We wish to be given the right of appeal from the courts of
the Territory to the supreme court of the United States.
"We respectfully, but firmly, protest against the dismember-
ment of our territory in favor of Texas or for any other cause.
"We do not wish domestic slavery within our confines, and
110 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
we ask tlie protection of Congress against tlie introduction of
slavery into the Territory until we are formed into a State.
"We ask authority to ek>ct our local legislature in accordance
with what is i)reserii»ed hy the law of New Mexico, of Septem-
ber 22, 1846, which will remain subject to tlie approval of Con-
gress.
' ' We ask to be represented in Congress by a delegate or deputy.
"As new Mexico has a population of from 75,000 to 100,000
inhabitants, we believe that what we ask is reasonable, and we
entertain the hope that Congress will decree to us laws as liberal
as those decreed for other Territories. ' '
The signatures of all the persons previously named appear in
this document with date at Santa Fe, October 14, 1848. Con-
gress denied the petition at first, but afterwards granted what
was asked.
CHAPTER XVI
XLIX
Two Governments in New Mexico
187. Second Convention — Delegate to Congress Elected. —
In the year 1849, on a call of Colonel Beal, who was in charge
of the military forces while Washington was away, a second
convention met in Santa Fe in the month of September. This
convention was antagonistic to the party of civilians which was
striving to organize a Territorial government. The convention
adopted a Memorial to Congress, analagous to the one adopted
by the first convention, and elected Hugh C. Smith as delegate
in Congress from New Mexico. The action of this convention
was repudiated by Congress refusing to recognize Smith as dele-
gate.
188. State Government — State Officials Elected. — In JNIay,
1850, the two fighting elements agreed to form a State govern-
ment and this was the beginning of the fight for statehood. A
constitutional convention met in Santa Fe, and, after adopting
a constitution, authorized Governor Monroe (the military com-
mandant) to issue a proclamation for the election of a governor,
lieutenant-governor, two representatives, and four members of the
local legislature. The election was held in June, and Henry
Connelly was elected governor, Manuel Alvarez, lieutenant-gov-
ernor, and William Messervy representative in Congress. A
state legislature was also elected.
189. Cunningham and Weightman Elected Senators — The
Election Nullified. — The State legislature met in Santa Fe July
1, 1850, over the protest of Governor Monroe, who refused to
recognize the State government before Congress had approved
the constitution and the election of State officials. The alleged
State legislature refused to recognize Monroe's authority, and
proceeded to elect two United States senators, Francis Cunning-
ham and Richard Weightman. This effort to erect a State gov-
112 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
eminent failed, Congress having the same year established a
territorial form of government, as appears in the following:
New^ Mexico a Territory
li)0. New Mexico and Utah Admitted as Territories. — By a
law of Congress a|)proved Septendjer !J, 1850, Calif oi-nia was ad-
mitted as a State and New Mexico and Utah as Territories of the
American Union, and March 8d of the year following (1851) New
Mexico was formally organized as a Territory of the United
States. James S. Calhoun and Donaciano Vigil were appointed
by the President of the United States as governor and secretary
of the Territory, respectively. The other officials appointed by
the president were E. P. West, attorney general; G. Shons,
marshal ; C. Baker, chief justice : J. S. Watts and H. Mow^er, as-
sociate justices; Charles Blumner, treasurer; Eugene Leitendorf-
er, auditor.
191. County Officials and Legislature — The Gazette. — Upon
authority of a proclamation issued by Govei-nor Calhoun, a dele-
gate in Congress, county officers, and a legislature were soon
elected, and the first lawful legislature of New Mexico met in
Santa Fe June 1, 1851, mth the Rev. Antonio Jose Martinez,
cure of Taos, as president of the Council, and Theodore Wheaton,
of Taos, as speaker of the House. William Messervy was New
Mexico's first member of Congress elected at the State election,
and Richard H. Weightman, the first delegate under the Or-
ganic Act. That same year (1851) there was published the first
English and Spanish newspaper (a weekly), the Santa Fe Ga-
zette, although two other papers had already been published in
Santa Fe, namely the Repuhlicau and El Nuevo Mejicano.
192. Era of Peace and Prosperity. — The Territorial govern-
ment being now officially organized, all New Mexicans turned
their attention to the development of the Territory's industries,
without giving up the fight for statehood, which is discussed in
a separate chapter of this book.
CHAPTER XVII
LI
New Territory Acquired
193. The Mesilla Valley Taken by Lane.- — For some time af-
ter the war between the United States and Mexico, the Mexican
State of Chihnahna chiimed and exercised jurisdiction over that
part of New Mexico covered by the connty of Dona Ana, the val-
ley of Mesilla and Las Cruces, but the resulting conflict of au-
thority was not settled officially until 1853, when William Carr
Lane, then governor of New Mexico, heeding the petition of the
people who lived in that part of New Mexico for protection
against the depredations of the Navajo and the Apache tribes,
took upon himself the responsibility of provisionally annexing
the territory in dispute, in order to save the lives and property
of the people therein residing. This he accomplished by a formal
ofificial proclamation dated March 13, 1853.
194. The Gadsden Treaty. — The territory thus taken by Gov-
ernor Lane was the subject of considerable friction between the
United States and JMexico until the American government pur-
chased the strip of land in dispute, paying j\Iexico $10,000,000
therefore. This was done under a treaty known as the Gadsden
Treaty, signed on the 30th of December, 1853.
LII
195. Industrial Progress — Boundaries — History of Agricul-
ture. — From the little History of Neiv Mexico, published in Spain
by Don Pedro Bautista Pino (reference to which has already
been made), we learn the true condition of agriculture in New
Mexico up to that time. Pino says : ' ' Agriculture is entirely
abandoned, for the inhabitants of that country do not dedicate
themselves considerably to planting, from which labor doubtless,
they would derive many benefits. They scarcely plant as much
as they believe necessary for their maintenance during a portion
of the year, thus exposing themselves for the remainder of it to
114 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
a thousand miseries; lieiice tlie reason that the price of grain
values suffers many changes. In the article, vegetable produc-
tions, an idea is already given concerning vegetables and vege-
table gardens, wherefor it is useless to repeat that corn, wheat,
beans, etc., are raised : a veiy good grade of cotton and plenty
of tobacco ai'c also grown."
From that date to the present time agi'icultui'e has been de-
veloping gradually, especially since the American Occupation so
that now (1914) no less than forty-eight per cent of New Mexican
I)eople are engaged in cultivating the land ; there are over 11,834
farms in which 5,739,878 acres are cultivated. The value of
these farms has ben reckoned at !|>20,888,814. All kinds of vege-
tables, susceptible of cultivation in cold countries, are raised.
196. Stock Raising. — In the year 1827 Governor Narbona's
Official Report (published in full in Read's Illustrated History
of New Mexico) shows that New Mexico had then 5000 head of
cattle, valued at $40,000 ; 240,000 head of sheep, valued at $120,-
000; 550 head of horses valued at $5500; 2150 mules, valued at
$63,750; 300 mares, valued at $2400. In 1912, per the latest
official statistics, there are over 1,050,000 head of cattle, over
5,875,000 head of sheep, more than 150,000 goats, no less than
100,000 head of horses, the sheep yielding annually a total pro-
duct of nearly 25,000,000 pounds of wool, from which over
$8,000,000 is realized.
197. Boundaries. — Tn Pino 's time (1812) the original boun-
daries of New Mexico were, ' ' from 33° to 40" latitude ; 185 leagues
from north to south, and almost the same from east to west;"
its confines on the north were ' ' by land absolutely unknown ; on
the east, the States of Coahuila and Texas and the Territory of
Arkansas belonging to the United States of America; on the
south by the State of Chihuahua, and on the west, by that of
Sonora. ' ' In the year of 1863, all that portion of territory west
of longitude 109° was segregated b.y Congress to form the now
State of Arizona, and in 1867 all the territory north of latitude
37° was annexed to Colorado, leaving the present boundaries of
New Mexico as follows: On the north parallel 37° ; on the south,
parallel 32° ; east, meridian 103° ; west, meridian 109° ; or, geo-
graphically speaking, on the north by the States of Colorado and
Utah ; on the east by Texas and Oklahoma ; on the south by
Texas and old Mexico; on the west by Arizona.
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 115
LIII
Wars
198. The Civil War.— During the Civil War (1861-66),
the sons of New Mexico proved their patriotism to the Amer-
ican government even more than did the other States and
Territories of the Union. Scarcely thirteen years had come and
gone from the date in which fate had separated them from the
mother eonntry, the IMcxican Republic, when the bloody fratri-
cidal war between the northern and the southern States broke
out, and the sons of New jMexieo, to the number of 6,000, un-
hesitatingly threw themselves into the field of honor, to help fight
the battles for the preseiTation of the American Union, to which
they adhered voluntarily, sealing with their blood the oath they
had given for the perpetuation of the American Union. Many
were the native officers of New Mexico who acquired distinction
in that war. Among them were Colonel Don Francisco P. Abreu,
Jose Francisco Chavez, Captain Don Rafael Chacon, Captain
Nicolas Quintana, Captain Saturnino Baca, and Major J. D.
Sena, Sr., and among the old American residents of New Mexico,
the one who most distinguished himself during the war was Col-
onel Kit Carson.
199. Indian Wars — Capture of Geronimo. — In order to sub-
due the tribes of the Navajo and Apache Indians, the American
government was obliged to go to an expense of more than $50,-
000,000, and keep up an army for continuous warfare, from the
year 1849 to the year 1886, when the Navajoes finally surrender-
ed in New Mexico, as did the Apaches in New Mexico and Ari-
zona ; that is to say, the final submission of the Navajoes was
effected in the year 1868, and that of the Apaches in 1886, when
General Nelson A. Miles succeeded in capturing the dreaded In-
dian chief, Geronimo, who. with all his captains and other In-
dians was in that year taken to Fort IMarion in the State of
Florida. From that time the incursions of the Indians ceased
forever, and the people of New Mexico were enabled to enter
iTpon the most complete development of its industries.
200. Spanish-American War. — On April 21, 1898, war was
declared between the United States government and the govern-
ment of Spain, occasioned by the destruction of the battleship
Maine in the waters of Havana Bay. That war closed April
11th of the year following (1899), with the defeat of Spain and
116 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
the loss to that power of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Pliilippine
Ishiiuls. In that war, too, the sons of New Mexico again demon-
strated their disinterested pati-iotisni to the American flag — a
patriotism that has, perhaps, no parallel in the annals of uni-
versal history, for the sons of New Mexico, the Spanisii-Ameri-
cans, who went to that war, were all descendants from the first
Spaniards who eoncjuered New Mexico, and it was but natural
to expect that they should at least cherish in their hearts, the
natural sympathy inherent in persons of tiie same race. De-
spite all that, they did not hesitate in responding with a good
Avill to the call made upon them to take up arms in defense of
their flag, by sending to the field of battle more soldiers, in pro-
portion to their population, than any other State in the Union,
and having sent from among them the famous mounted company
known as Roosevelt's Rough Riders who fought with distinction
in the battle at Santiago de Cuba.
CHAPTER XVIII
LIV
Churches
201. First Protestant Church. — Up to the date of the change
of flags (1846), the Catholic church was the only church existing
in New Mexico, and to that church is due, to a great extent, the
civilization and christianization of the Indians in New Mexico.
The first Protestant church in New Mexico was erected in Santa
Fe in the year 1849, by Rev. Henry W. Reed, of the Baptist de-
nomination, the Catholic church Joeing then under the charge
of Rev. Juan Felipe Ortiz, vicar-general of New Mexico under
the Mexican government.
202. The Catholic Church Under the American Flag. — The
change of government placed the Catholic church iu New Mex-
ico under the Catholic authorities in the United States. On
April 23, 1850, Pope Pius JX appointed the Rev. Juan B. Lamy,
then a priest at Cincinnati, as vicar apostolic with the title of
Bishop of Agathonica. On November 24th of that year Bishop
Lamy was consecrated in Cincinnati. Early in 1851 he started
for New Mexico, reaching Santa Fe during the summer of that
year. Immediately after his arrival in Santa Fe he made a trip
to Durango, Mexico, to present his credentials to Bishop Zubiria,
Avho was in charge of New Mexico at the time of the change of
government. Bishop Lamy was afterwards made archbishop.
He died in Santa Fe February 14, 1888, and was succeeded by
Archbishop J. B. Salpointe, who died on July 15, 1898, and was
succeeded by Archbishop P. L. Chapelle. The last named was
transferred to New Orleans December 1, 1897, M^iere he died a
victim of yellow fever, August 6, 1905. Archbishop Peter Bour-
gade succeeded Chapelle and died at Chicago May 17, 1908, the
actual incumbent, Archbishop John B. Pitaval, succeeding him.
The Catholic church has forty-seven parishes, including a few
private chapels, in Ncav Mexico.
AMERICAN (OCCUPATION 119
20:1 Religious Communities — Full Statistics — Membership.
^The Catholic eliurt'li has tlic following coimnuiiitics in New
Mexico: Jesuit Fathers, Albur(|uerque and Las Vegas; Fran-
ciscan Friars, Farniington, Gallup, Jemes, Pena Blanca, aud
Roswell ; Brothers of Christian Schools, Santa Fe, Bernalillo, and
Las Vegas; Sisters of Lorretto, Santa Fe, Bernalillo, Las Vegas,
Mora, Socorro, and Taos; Sisters of Charity, Las Vegas, Santa
Fe, and Albur(juer(|ue; Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament, Santa
Fe; Sisters of St. Francis, Jeniez, Peiia Blanca, and Roswell;
Sisters of the Sorrowful Mother, RosM^ell. The personal mem-
bership, educational, charitable, and orphanages of the said
church in New Mexico are as follows : Bishop, 1 ; priests on
duty, secular, 48 ; priests on duty, regular, 20 ; priests on leave,
sick or retired, 7 ; churches wdth resident priest, 46 ; missions,
stations, chapels, 840 ; Brothers, Christian, 23 ; Brothers, S. J.,
8; Brothers, 0. F. M., 6: total, 87; religious women, 124; colleges
and academies for boys, 8 ; academies for young ladies, 6 ; schools,
14 ; boarding schools for Indians, 2 ; inmates, 315 ; orphan asylum,
1 : orphans, 95; total of young people under Catholic care, 3,570;
hospitals, 3; Catholic population, white, about 115,000; Catholic
Indians, 12,000.
204. Other Denominations.— The Protestant churches, and
other denominations, in New Mexico, according to Prince,
have ninety-five churches or congregations, with a mem-
bership of 15,449. This membership includes 218 Adventists,
2,403 Baptists, 6 Plymouth Brethren, 10 Christadelphian, 270
Congregationalists, 1,092 Christian Disciples, 867 Episcopalians,
30 Independents, 120 Jews, 738 Mormons, 100 Lutherans. 3,513
Methodists (North), 2,882 Methodists (South), 165 Methodists
(colored), 2,935 Presbyterians, 70 Reformed Dutch, and 30 Sal-
vationists. The Protestant denominations, like the Catholic
church, have missions and mission schools in divers towns, and
two large educational institutions (mission schools) in Santa Fe.
LV
Indians — Mines and Minerals
205. Pueblo India^ns.— The Pueblo Indians of today, with
two or three exceptions, are practically in the same condition
they were when first seen by the Spaniards, but the number of
pueblos now is smaller than it was at the time of the conquest.
IJO HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO
There are now only tlie ioUowing: Taos, Jeiuez, iSMnta Clara,
Picuris, San lldefonso, San Juan, Pojoa(|ue, Xainbe, Tesuciiie,
Cochiti, Zia, Santa Ana, Santo Dominj^o, San Feliix', Sandia, Is-
leta, Znni, and Aconia. Tlie pueblos of Peeos, Taiios (Galisteo),
and others no longer exist. These Indians are all nominally
Catholics, but they tenaciously adhere to the superstitions of
their ancestors. The population of these pueblos and the other
Indians, is given in the chapter on population. Under the Mex-
ican government the Pueblo Indians exercised the rights of citi-
zenshij:), but under our government they have not done so.
206. The Savage Tribes. — The Indians of the savage tribes
who still live in New Mexico, under reservation, and under the
protection of the government, are the Apaches and the Navajoes.
These tribes, like the Pueblo Indians, are engaged in stock
raising and in the cultivation of their lands, performing the lat-
ter task with reluctance and on a very limited scale.
207. Mining- and Mines. — Although the discovery of mines in
New Mexico is older than the conquest (for the 'first mines as
hereinbefore stated were discovered by Chamuscado in 1581,
and the next discovery was made by Espejo in 1582-83), the
mining industry remained almost paralyzed during the entire
Spanish and Mexican eras, because of the perpetual raids and
incursions of the savage Indians. In many parts of New Mexico
are found rich mines which were closed by the Spaniards for the
reason stated. The State is one of the richest in minerals in the
American Union. In the mountains are veins of gold, silver,
copper, iron, zinc, lead, etc. ; in the counties of Grant, Santa Fe,
Doha Ana, Rio Arriba, San Miguel, Otero, Luna, Valencia, So-
corro, Colfax, Sandoval, Union, Taos, and Mora rich copper mines
are being worked. The output of these mines up to 1897 was
only 700,000 pounds, but from 1897 to 1912 they produced
75,000,000 pounds. The cash value of this production has been
$1,000,000. Silver and gold mines are also worked, in the above
named counties, and in nearly every other county in the State.
Up to 1812, the production of other minerals has been as follows:
Silver, nearly $12,000,000 ; zinc, about $900,000 ; iron has been
mined to the extent of 100,000 tons a year, and lead about 12,000
tons a year. Mica is also found and mined, in several parts of
the State. Coal mines are plentiful in New Mexico, the coun-
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 121
ties of Santa Fe, Bernalillo, Colfax, and MeKinley, being the
richest in this i)ro(lnction. The coal within the State has been
officially reckoned to be at 9,000,000,000 tons.
CHAPTER XIX
LVI
Education
208. Primitive Teaching. — The first instruction given to the
original inliabitants of New Mexico was imparted by Cabeza de
Vaca in the year 1535-.'56, followed by Father Marcos de Niza in
1539, Beltran in 1840, and by Father Juan de Santa Maria, Fr.
Francisco Lopez, and Fr. Agustin Rodriguez (Ruiz) in 1581,
these last mentioned Fathers having established the first mission
in New Mexico in that year. The first schools were established
by the other Franciscans who came with Ofiate in 1598-99, and
these schools were made industrial schools afterwards, so that
in the year 1626, according to Fr. Benavides, there were schools
in New Mexico in all the Spanish settlements, and in nearly all
of the Indian pueblos. Thus it is that education in New Mexico
antedates the conquest. The great revolt of 1680 destroyed much
of the good accomplished, and it was not until the time of the
permanent reconquest by De Vargas (1693-94), that education
was formally implanted in New Mexico by the Catholic church.
209. First Public Schools. — In 1721 the first public schools
were established in every settlement and pueblo in New Mexico
by the Franciscans, by authority of a royal decree. The teachers
were all Franciscans, and their salaries were paid in corn, wheat,
and other cereals, raised by the Spaniards and the Indians from
lands given to the church for that purpose.
210. Private Schools — Salaries of Teachers. — In the earlier
part of the nineteenth century the vicar of New Mexico, Rev.
Juan Rafael Rascon, established a private high school in Santa
Fe, under the direction of Don Guadalupe Miranda. In this
school the elements of Latin and Spanish grammar and the rudi-
ments of philosophy were taught. This school was kept in oper-
ation for a number of years and was supported by private con-
tributions. The teachers of the public schools began at that time
AMERICAN OCCUPATION
123
to receive regular cash salaries in Santa Fe, San Miguel, Santa
Cruz, Taos, and Helen, the remuneratiou being from !|^250 to
$500 a year.
211. First Public School Laws. — In 1822 there were pri-
vate schools in several towns supported by private contribu-
tion. Api'il 27th of that year, the Diputaeion Provincial passed
the first public school law, and the year following (182'3) the said
Assembly adopted another for the establishment of a grammar
school at El Paso (then under New Mexico jurisdiction), with
Don Luis de Lujan as principal. Another law for the fostering
of popular education was adopted in April, 1825, and a further
law was passed by said Assembly December 27, 1826.
SCHOOL FOR DEAF AND DUMB
Santa Fe, N. M.
212. Private Colleges. — The same year (1826) Father Agus-
tin Fernandez, vicar of New Mexico, established a private college
in Santa Fe, and Father Antonio Jose Martinez established his
famous private college at Taos. The principal men who after-
wards figured prominently in local history received their educa-
tion in these institutions.
LVII
213. Condition of Schools at Time of Annexation. — The
schools enumerated above, including the schools conducted by
the Franciscans, were all the schools existing in New Mexico up to
the time of the American invasion (1846). One year after the in-
124 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
vasion all the public schools, except one in Santa Fe, had been
discontinued, as shown by the official message of Governor Don-
aciano Vigil to the legislature, dated December 6, 1847. In his
message Governor Vigil makes urgent api)eal for the establish-
ment of public schools "to give all an equal chance of being
educated."
214. First Schools Under the American Government. — The
appeal of Governor Vigil had no effect, and New Mexico went
without schools, except an insignificant private school here and
there, until Bishop Lamy esta])lished the first English school in
Santa Fe, in 1851, with an English })rofessor named E. Noel.
The next year (1852) a woman named Howe estal)lished in
Santa Fe the second English school. These were at that time
the only schools in New Mexico where English was taught.
215. ^ The Sisters of Loretto.— The first day of 1858 witnessed
the opening of New Mexico's pioneer educational institution.
The Sisters of Loretto, brought by Bishop Lamy to Santa Fe
from Kentucky in September of the preceding year, 1852, opened
that great institution which to this day stands as one of the
greatest benefactors of New Mexico. This school was established
for the education of girls. Its first mother w^as Sister Magdalena
Hayden. This institution has today schools in many of the im-
portant towns in New Mexico and there is hardly a home in New
Mexico whose lady of the house does not take pride in saying
that she is a "Loretto girl."
216. The Christian Brothers. — While the girls of New Mexico
had been provided with one of the finest schools in the land,
the boys had not been forgotten by Bishop Lamy. In 1858 Bishop
Lamy sent his vicar. Father Peter Eugillon, to France to bring
the Christian Brothers. The Brothers sailed for America Au-
gust 17, 1859, and arrived in Santa Fe October 27th, and on
November 9, 1859, the college, which was to be the second pio-
neer educational institution, iind whose alumni today are seen
in all parts of the great Southwest, occupying prominent posi-
tions in all the walks of life, opened its doors to the poor and to
rich children of New Mexico, with Brother Hilarion as superior
or president of the college. This last mentioned institution did
not confine its usefulness to Santa Fe ; like the Sisters of Loretto
it has established branches in other parts of the State.
217. Parochial and Mission Schools. — These are conducted
by the Catholic church in Santa Fe and in all the important
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 125
towns of the State, under the Sisters of Loretto, the Sisters of
Charity, the Sisters of the ] Messed Sacrament (this last for the
Indians), the Jesuit and the Franciscan Fathers, and other re-
ligious orders. The other denominations also have many and very
l)rosperous mission and private schools in Santa Fe, in all the
principal towns of the State, and in nearly all the pueblos.
LVIII
218. Public Schools Under U. S. Government— The First
Law. — The first public school law under the American regime
was passed by the Territorial legislature in 1863. That is a
unique law in that it placed the management of the schools in
the hands of Bishop Lamy, the governor, and the secretary of
the Territory. From that date nearly every legislature made a
new law perfecting more and more the school requirements, un-
til the system of popular education reached its present state of
etificiency. Educational matters are now in the hands of the
State board of education, consisting of five members, besides
the governor and the superintendent of public instruction, who
are made members by virtue of their office. The five members
are named by the governor.
219. Government of the Public Schools. — Tlie i)rincipal of-
ficer in the active management of the public schools is the super-
intendent of public instruction, who is assisted by a county
school superintendent in each county, and by a board of school
directors in each district. All these oiificers are elected by the
people. In municipalities, public education is in the hands of a
municipal board of education and a principal or superintendent
of city schools.
220. Students and Funds. — The official census of 1910 showed
in Xew Mexico 93,815 persons of school age (5 to 21 years) ;
42,286 attend the public schools, the rest attend private and de-
nominational schools. The school funds in the public treasury
from school taxes in 1911 amounted to $585,445.05. This money
is divided or apportioned yearly by the superintendent of public
instruction among the different counties in the State, in propor-
tion to the school population of each county.
221. Additional Funds.— I besides the amounts that enter into
the treasury from the collection of taxes, the State educational
institutions received, according to the last annual report of the
126 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO
couimissioner of public lands of the State, the following sums
as proceeds from the sales and leases of the pu))lic lands of the
State: The general public school fund, $r),l)29.95 ; the univer-
sity, $2,758.84; the agricultural college, ^^1,::{8;}.70; the two
normal colleges, $1,619.03; the mineralogical school. $647.42;
military academy, $752.58; the reform school, $808.32; the
college for the blind, $836.97 ; the college for the deaf and
dumb, $575.
222. , Private and Sectarian Schools. — There are in the State
attending these schools, 1127 i)upils in the mission schools, 2181
pupils in the non-sectarian private schools, and 1626 in the
government Indian schools. These figures are taken from the of-
ficial report of the superintendent of public instruction.
223. State Pedagogic Institutions. — The State's educational
institutions are : A university at the city of Albuquerque, un-
der the charge of five regents; a school of agriculture and me-
chanic arts at Las Cruces, with an e(iual number of regents; a
normal school at Silver City, another at Las Vegas, each with
five regents; a mineralogical school at Socorro; a deaf and
dumb college at Santa Fe, and another for the blind at Alamo-
gordo ; an orphan asylum at Belen ; a military academy at Ros-
well : a penal and reform school at Springer for young men ; and
the Spanish-American normal school at El Rito.
LVIX
Other Public Institutions — Population
224. Penal and Other Institutions.-r-Besides the institutions
already noted the State has the following: A penitentiary, a
hospital for sick miners, an insane asylum, and these received
funds from the State treasury and out of the sales and lease of
the State lands, in the year mentioned the following sums :
The hospital for sick miners, $1,101.42 ; the penitentiary, $155.46 ;
the insane asylum, $638.87 ; the capital building, $1,250.34.
225. Population — Spanish and Mexican Eras. — The Spanish
official statistics show the population of New Mexico during the
Spanish regime as follows: In 1697 there were 1,500 Spaniards;
no official figures are given of the Indian population, but from
reports of the Franciscan Fathei*s the Indian population at that
time was over 25,000, in Pueblo and savage Indians. In 1750
the population was 3,779 Spaniards and 15,921 Indians. In
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 1:27
1789 there were 16,059 Spaniards and 8,806 Indians (savages
not included). Under the Mexican government the census was
taken twice, once in 1827, under Governor Xarbona, which showed
a total population of r);},8()6, and the second in 1840, under Gov-
ernor Armijo, which shows a total of 54,704.
226. Population Under United States Government. — Gover-
nor Monroe caused a census to be taken of the Spanish popula-
tion, by counties, in 1850, which shows the following: Taos,
11,683; Rio Arriba, 9,946; Santa Fe, 7,701; San Miguel, 7,568;
Santa Ana, 6,444; Bernalillo, 6,663; Valencia, 5,917; Socorro,
5,067; total 60,984. The official census taken in 1860 shows
73,856 natives; 1,168 from other places and 5,479 foreigners, total
80,503. The census of 1870 shows a total of 90,573. The census
of 1880, shows a total of 119,493. The census of 1890 shows a
total of 140,413. The census of 1910 shows a total of 327,695,
including Indians, which are given as, Pueblo Indians, 9,000;
Apaches, 1,500 ; Xava joes, 7,500 ; total 18,000.
CHAPTER XX
LX
Commerce
227. Under Spanish and Mexican Regimes. — Don Pedro Bau-
tista Pino, in his valued little history, shows that up to 1804,
the "Passive Commerce" coming through Mexico was: Goods
from Europe, valued at $61,000; goods from Asia, valued at
$7,000 ; goods from America, valued at $34,000 ; horses and mules
for the military service $10,000; total $112,000. In that year
(1804) New Mexico's commercial traffic with the United States
began by the coming of Lalande, already mentioned. He was
followed by Pursley (1805), Knight, and Glenn the same year,
Becknell in 1821, and the Coopers in 1822.
228. Commerce Under United States Government. — Up to
1822, commerce with New Mexico was carried on from points on
the Missouri River, by means of mule caravans, the amount of
merchandise amounting to about $50,000 per year. It was in
1824 (according to Barreiro in Pino's history) when "a company
of 80 intelligent Missouri merchants" brought into Santa Fe
about $30,000 in merchandise, "which they conveyed partly on
mules, partly in wagons, and partly in carts."
229. United States and Mexico's Troops Protect Traders. —
The wild Indians on the plains were often troublesome, interrupt-
ing the caravans every year and occasionally killing the freight-
ers, their object being mainly the stealing of oxen and mules. To
remedy this evil Governor Bartolome Baca, in 1825, sent Don
Manuel Simon Escudero to Washington to interest the govern-
ment in escorting the caravans on American territory. Escudero
was successful, the United States stationing a military force at
Fort Bent from 1827 to 1833, from which place the freighters
were escorted by American soldiers to the Missouri points, the
Mexican soldiers escorting them, going and coming, as far as Fort
Bent.
AMERICAN OCCUPATION
129
LXI
Commerce, Wagons, and Railroads
280. Tabulated Statement. — A cU'tailed statement is given
here to acMjiiaint tlie student with the gradual growth of New
Mexico's eomnieree from 1825 to 1846, the date the Territory
became part of the American Union :
NO WAGONS
YEAR VALUE EMPLOYED
1825 $ 65,000 35
1826 90,000 60
1827 85,000 55
1828 150,000 100
1829 60,000 30
1830 120,000 70
1831 250,000 130
1832 140,000 70
1833 180,000 105
1834 150,000 80
1835 140,000 75
1836 130,000 70 •
1837 150,000 80
1838 90,000 50
1839 250,000 130
1840 50,000 30
1841 150,000 60
1842 160,000 70
1843 450,000 230
Between the years 1843 and 1846 the trade amounted to
$1,752,250.
231. Commerce before Advent of Railroads. — Up to 1846,
duties had to be paid for merchandise introduced from the
United States into Mexico, and that Avas the reason an account
was kept of the value of importations. These duties ceased with
the change of governments, so that from 1846 to 1876, when
freighting by wagon trains ceased because of the coming of the
railroads, it has been said that commercial traffic reached the
sum of .$3,000,000 per year. The Territory's advance during
that lapse of thirty years is unprecedented in every industry,
and at the present time (1914) it is over $6,000,000 a year.
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 131
232. The Railroads— Trade Enhanced.— Tn 1876 the Atchi-
son, Topeka aiul Santa Fe Railroad Company's lino reached New
Mexico, and its coming enhanced the valne of property and gave
a great impnlse to the principal industries: stock raising, min-
ing, and agriculture. At the present time (1914) there are the
following railroads, telegraph, and telephone lines in operation:
Trunk and auxiliary railroad lines 13
Mileage of these 13 lines 2,758
Industrial railroad lines 9
Mileage of industrial lines 165
Total railroad lines 22
Total mileage in operation 2,923
Total mileage of telegraph and telephone lines 4,734
The actual valne of said lines reached up to $77,000,000.
From that sum a tax is collected at the rate of an appraisement
upon 20 per cent of said snm of $77,000,000. Accorfling to the
traveling auditor these railroad lines represent 24.218 per cent
of the whole property of the State subject to taxation.
LXII
Corporations — Banks — Real Estate
233. Corporations. — From an official communication ad-
dressed to the author of this work by Nathan Jaiifa, then secre-
tary of the Territory of New ]\Iexico, dated ]\Iay 19, 1910, there
were at that time 1358 companies or corj^orations, divided as fol-
lows :
Companies for certifying real estate titles 25
Banks and trust companies 39
Loan and building associations 12
Construction and building associations 14
Mercantile companies 219
Manufacturing companies 125
Irrigation companies 70
Mining and foundry companies 380
Stock raising and farming, agricultural companies 103
Railroad companies 45
Telegraph and telephone companies 28
Hotel companies 6
Light, gas, and fuel companies 41
132 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO
Savings eompanies 149
Pul)lishiug companies 21
Miscellaneous 71
284. Banks and Banking. — The number and condition of the
banks shows a healtiiy development of economic conditions in
the State. May 11), 1910, according to an official statement made
to the author by the traveling auditor of New Mexico, there were
then 41 national and 39 territorial banks representing, in cash
capital, resources, and liabilities, in the aggregate, $25,266,487.
235. Real Estate. — Official reports show that the real estate
•subject to taxation reached in 1881, the value of $14,088,554; in
1882, $20,441,395; in 1883, $27,137,003. The value increased
yearly, and in 1910 reached the sum of $62,800,000. At the
present time (1914) judging the rate of increase by the preced-
ing years, the value can be safely put at $100,000,000.
CHAPTER XXI
LXIII
Societies — Press — Santa Fe Trail
236. Historical Society.— The Historical Society of New
Mexico was organized in the year 1859, Colonel J. B. Graysen
being its founder and first president. It became disorganized
during the Civil War, and was not reorganized until the year
1880, in December, when it celebrated its twenty-first anniver-
sary by electing L. B. Prince as its president. In 1884 the Ter-
ritoiy assigned to it the rooms which were formerly used for
legislative purposes — the two eastern halls of the "Old
Palace." It owns a collection of gems and antique relics of
priceless historical value, from prehistoric times, among which is
found a public collection of very old Spanish manuscripts. Its
library comprises most rare works of great merit.
237. Archaeological Society. — This society was founded in
Santa Fe as a branch of the Archaeological Institute of America,
in 1907. It conducts a yearly school in Santa Fe attended by
students from every civilized nation in the world, for the study
of ancient civilization of America. It occupies, in conjunction
wdth the Historical Society, the ancient Palace of the Governors
in Santa Fe, and the legislature appropriated a yearly sum of
$5,000, "to enable the Society to care for the improvements of
the Palace and for procuring a collection of books, the equipment
for the museum, and the preservation of archaeological sites in
New Mexico. ' '
238. The Press. — The first printing press that is known for a
certainty, was brought to Taos from Mexico by Father Antonio
Jose Martinez, in 1835, in which year Father Martinez published
in Taos the first newspaper named El Crepusculo (The Dawn).
Father Martinez printed at that time, and as late as 1843, the
school books needed for his school and for his ministry'. In 1843
he printed a Memorial to the Mexican government. From that
time to the present (1914) the number of newspapers has grown
134 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
to more than 138, in weekly and daily publications. Many of the
printing establishments are large and well e(iuipped with mod-
ern machinery.
239. The Santa Fe Trail. — The dedication of a marble monu-
ment (slab), bearing the inscription which marks the end of the
famous Santa Fe Trail, took place in Santa Fe August 21, 1911.
The slab is placed near the southeast corner of the park (the
plaza) , and Avithin the park enclosure. Over this trail passed all
freighters, troops, mails, arid passengers from the time of La-
lande in 1804, to the coming of the railroads. Over it marched
nearly all the pioneer merchants of New Mexico, many of them
traveling in the celebrated Sanderson and Barlow stage coaches
from Kansas City to Santa Fe, making the trip in thirteen days
and six hours. The passengers had to pay $175 (in gold) fare,
and forty pounds of baggage and a pair of blankets were allowed
to each passenger. The charges for carrying money were $85 per
$1,000 or $1 per pound of gold or silver bullion, most of the
money being in the form of gold dust.
LXIV
Grants, Government
240. Spanish and Mexican Grants. — To encourage the settle-
ment of the country, extensive tracts of land were granted by the
governments of Spain and Mexico to the colonists and their im-
mediate successors. By the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo the
United States government bound itself to protect the rights of the
owners of these grants. Accordingly, on July 22, 1854, Congress
passed the law which established the office of surveyor-general in
New Mexico, for the purpose of ascertaining what lands were
covered by such grants. Upon a general survey made by this
official it was found that the total area of New Mexico was
77,568,640 acres (this included Arizona and part of Colorado) or
121,291 square miles. Of this number of acres only 2,293,142
acres was found to be public land ; the balance, 75,275,498 acres,
was claimed by private individuals as grantees, or purchasers
from the grantees. In 1891 Congress created a special tribunal
to settle the much-vexed question of such grants in New ]\Iexico,
Arizona, and Colorado. This tribunal was designated as the
court of private land claims. It held sessions in Santa Fe, Colo-
rado, and Arizona, from 1891 to 1904, its labors resulting in the
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 135
approval of 2,051,526 acres and the rejection or disapproval of
33,439,493 acres. In this number are not included those grants
which had been approved by Congress before the creation of this
land court.
241. Government Under the Spanish Regime. — The whole
province was divided into seven alcaldeships, the alcaldes (jus-
tices) serving without salaiy, one military and political governor,
his secretary, two lieutenants, and two ensigns. This was the
government of the king. The church had its own ecclesiastical
government which was recognized as such by the king. At
Guadalajara first, and at Chihuahua afterwards, sat the appel-
late tribunal called Audiencia, the only tribunal the litigants
and accused could appeal to from the decisions of the governor.
Under this government New Mexico had in Spain a delegate
(Pino) from 1810 to 1820.
242. Government Under Mexican Rule.— From 1822 to 1846,
New Mexico was governed under the laws of Mexico, and the or-
dinances passed by its Diputacion Provincial (Provincial Depu-
tation) afterAvards made Asamblea Departmental (Departmental
Assembly), and the execution of these laws and ordinances was
placed in the hands of the governor or political chief, and the
alcaldes. The governor was also the head of the militia and of
the volunteers. Under the Mexican government, New Mexico was
given representation in the Mexican Congress and, up to 1846,
it sent its representative to Mexico, also to Durango and Chihua-
hua during the short time New Mexico, Chihuahua, and Durango
were one political entity.
243. Government Under the United States. — The first govern-
ment in New ]\Iexico under the American union was a pro-
visional military government established by General Kearny
in 1846, and then changed into a civil government (pro-
visional) with Charles Bent, and the other officials appointed
by Kearny, in charge of civil and political affairs. After-
wards, 1849-50, the military assumed the functions of gov-
ernment until Congress made New Mexico a Territory, by
the Organic Act of 1850, under which act the Territorial govern-
ment was organized in 1851. Under that act the governor and
secretary, also the judges of the supreme and district courts were
appointed by the President of the United States. By this act
New Mexico elected its own county officers and its legislators, and
the governor, by and with the consent and advice of the Terri-
136
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
toi'ial Legislative Council, appointed the rest of the Territorial
officials.
244. Administration of Justice — County Governments. —
The administration of justice ^\'as vested by the Organic Act in a
supreme court, several district courts, and justices of the peace
courts. Each county has its board of county commissioners, a
(ini,ii,.-,,i ,,j J. c.. L uiidtiaiiu, Santa I'e, X. M.
CAPITOL OP NEW MEXICO, SANTA FE, N. M.
sheriff, and a constable in each precinct, a county treasurer and
tax collector, a probate judge, assessor, superintendent of schools,
and a sui'veyor, besides a board of school directors in each school
district. All these officers were (and are under the State laws)
elected by the people.
245. Political Division. — In 1914 New^ Mexico was divided
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 137
into twenty-six counties, namely : Bernalillo, organized January
6, 1852, with its county seat formerly at Bernalillo now at the
city of Albuquerque; Chavez, organized February, 1867, county
seat, Roswell ; Colfax, organized January 25, 1860, county seat,
Raton ; Curry, organized February 25, 1900, county seat, Clovis
Dona Ana, organized February, 1857, county seat, Las Cruces
Eddy, organized February 25, 1887, county seat, Carlsbad
Grant, organized January 30, 1868, county sccit. Silver City
Guadalupe, organized February 23, 1905, county seat, Santa
Rosa; Lincoln, organized February 13, 1880, county seat, Lin-
coln ; Luna, organized March 16, 1901, county seat, Deming ; Mc-
Kinley, organized Februaiy 23, 1899, county seat, Gallup ; Mora,
organized January 6, 1852, county seat. Mora; Otero, organized
January 30, 1899, county seat, Alamogordo; Quay, organized
Febniary 28, 1903, county seat, Tucumcari ; Rio Arriba, organ-
ized January 6, 1852, county seat, first at Plaza del Alcalde,
actually at Tierra Amarilla; Roosevelt, organized February 28,
1903, county seat, Portales ; Sandoval, organized March 10, 1903,
county seat, Bernalillo ; San Juan, organized February 24, 1884,
county seat, Aztec; San Miguel, organized January 6, 1852,
county seat. Las Vegas; Santa Fe, organized January 6, 1852,
county seat, Santa Fe; Sierra, organized April 3, 1884, county
seat, Hillsboro ; Socorro, organized January 6, 1852, county seat,
Socorro; Taos, organized January 6, 1852, county seat, Taos;
Torrance, organized March 16, 1903, county seat, Estancia ;
Union, organized February 28, 1895, county seat, Clayton; Va-
lencia, organized January 6, 1852, county seat, Los Lunas. Each
of these counties is governed by a board of commissioners elected
by the electors (voters) of each county. These counties re-
mained as such at the time of New Mexico's admission to the
Union (1912). For judicial purposes these counties are divided
into eight judicial districts with a district judge for each district,
now elected bv the voters of the State.
CHAPTER XXII
LXV
Statehood
246. History of the Struggle. — The promises of autonomy
made by Kearny, August, 1846, and by the United States govern-
ment in Article 9 of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Februaiy,
1848, formed the basis for statehood claims. The struggle com-
menced when the first legislature, in 1846, adopted its statehood
memorial to Congress. Then came the statehood convention and
election of State officials in 1850. In 1870 the legislature
adopted a constitution, but the matter got no further. Again,
in 1875, the United States Senate passed an enabling act which
was killed in the House by reason of a mistake made by New
Mexico's delegate in Congress, S. B. Elkins. Another enabling
act was introduced in Congress in 1888, with the same result.
In 1889 a constitution was adopted in Santa Fe, by a constitu-
tional convention which was approved by a majority of the vo-
ters of New Mexico, but rejected by Conress. Another constitu-
tion was adopted in 1890, but disapproved by the voters. In 1901
a convention met at Albuquerque, and adopted a constitution
which was submitted to Congress, without results. In 1906 Con-
gress passed a joint statehood act admitting New Mexico and
Arizona as one state ; an election was held in both Territories,
New Mexico voting for joint statehood, but Arizona voting against
the proposition. As a result, statehood was lost again. These
constitute the main efforts of the people to obtain statehood from
1847 up to 1911.
247. The Act that Operated. — Through the valuable assist-
ance of President William H. Taft, the Congress of the United
States, June 20, 1910, passed the enabling act which finally ad-
mitted New Mexico as a State of the American Union. Upon the
passage of that act the governor of New Mexico, on June 29,
1910, by proclamation ordered an election of 100 delegates to
frame a constitution. The election was held on September 6th,
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 139
the same year, and the delegates met in convention at Santa Fe
October 3, 1910, with Charles A. Spiess as president, G. W.
Armijo as secretary, and Father Julius Hartman as chaplain,
and adopted a constitution which was approved January 21,
1911, by a majority of the voters. The total vote cast was
45,141 ; 31,742 votes were cast in favor and 13,399 against the
constitution.
248. The Fight in Congress.— February 6, 1911, Governor
Mills left Santa Fe for AVashington, and on the 9th of that
month delivered to President Taft the constitution and the of-
ficial certificate of the result of the election. On the 24th of the
same month President Taft approved the constitution and on
the same day sent it with a favorable message to the Congress.
In Congress a bitter fight was made. The house on March 3d,
by resolution adopted the constitution, but the Senate the next
day, March 4th, adjourned after having adopted an amendment
to include Arizona with New Mexico. The Senate having ad-
journed, the amended resolution did not reach the House until
April, 1911, and the matter was taken up day by day from April
to July, when the House adopted another resolution providing
for a more easy way of amending the constitution. This resolu-
tion was at once sent to the Senate and that body, after another
fight, on other resolutions, finally, on August 10th, adopted the
House resolution (known as the Flood resolution). President
Taft refused to approve the resolution, and the matter was again
taken up by Congress. The resolution was at last approved by
the Senate, with Arizona eliminated, on August 17th, and by
the House the next day, August 19, 1911, and at 3 p. m., on the
21st day of that month, it was signed by the President, who, on
the 29th of August, 1911, gave official notification to New Mexico's
governor of what had been done.
249. Election of State Officers— The Blue Ballot.— Upon re-
ceipt of President Taft's official notification. Governor Mills is-
sued a proclamation (on August 30th) for an election of State
officers, fixing the 7th of November, 1911, for the election. Both
political parties took steps to hold their nominating conventions.
The Republicans held their convention in Las Vegas in Septem-
ber, and the Democrats in Santa Fe in October, 1911. The elec-
tion was held, as per the proclamation, and the total vote cast for
State officers was as follows: For governor, W. C. McDonald,
Democrat, 31,036; H. 0. Bursum, Republican, 28,019; Mc-
140 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
Donald's plurality, 3,017. For congressmen, George Curry, Re-
publican, 80,162; H. B. Fergusson, Democrat, 29,999; Elfego
Baca, Republican, 28,836; Paz Valverde, Democrat, 28,353; Cur-
ry's plurality, 1,809; Fergusson 's plurality, 1,163. For lieu-
tenant-governor, Malaquias Martinez, Republican, 28,906 ; E. C.
de Baca, Democrat, 29,642; De Baca's plurality, 1,736. For
secretary of state, Secundino Romero, Rei)ublican, 28,392 ; An-
tonio Lucero, Democrat, 29,692; Lucero's plurality, 760. For
state auditor, William G. Sargent, Republican, 29,574; Fran-
cisco Delgado, Democrat, 29,133; Sargent's i)lurality, 441. For
state treasurer, Silvestre Mirabal, Republican, 28,977 ; 0. N. Mar-
ron. Democrat, 29,867; Marron's plurality, 890. For attorney
general, Frank W. Clancy, Republican, 30,162; W. R. McGill,
Democrat, 28,721; Clancy's plurality, 1,441. For superinten-
dent of public instruction, A. B. Stroup, Republican, 29,411 ; A.
N. White, Democrat, 29,522; White's plurality. 111. For com-
missioner of public lands, R. P. Ervien, Republican, 29,706 ; J. L.
Emmerson, Democrat, 29,242; Ervien 's plurality, 464. For
justices of the supreme court, Frank W. Parker, Republican,
29,583; C. J. Roberts, Republican, 29,681; E. R. Wright, Repub-
lican, 29.541 ; R. H. Hanna, Progressive Republican, 29,674 ;
Summerrs Burkhart, Democrat, 29,453 ; W. A. Dunn, Democrat,
29,423; Parker's plurality, 130; Roberts's, 258; Hanna 's, 133.
For corporation commissioners, G. W. Armijo, Republican, 29,-
808 ; H. H. Williams, Republieau, 29,835 ; M. S. Groves, Repub-
lican, 29,783 ; G. H. Van Stone, Progressive Republican, 29,451 ;
Owen, Democrat, 28,509 ; Seferino Martinez, Democrat, 28,577 ;
Through a mistake in printing, 1,033 votes were cast for "Sol
Owen" and could not be counted for 0. L. Owen. WilUams's
plurality, 1,326; Groves, 1,206; Van Stone's, 343. Mr. Van
Stone was afterwards ousted on contest proceedings and Owen
declared elected. The blue ballot providing for an easier way of
amending the constitution received a total of 57,728 votes, of
which 34,897 votes w^ere given for it and 22,728 against it.
LXVI
Admission — State Government — Roca Del Moro
250. Statehood Accomplished. — The result of the State elec-
tion was certified by the governor at once, and on January 4, 1912,
was delivered to President Taft. Two days after (January 6,
AMERICAN OCCUPATION 141
1912) the President signed his proelaniation admitting New
Mexico as the forty-seventh State of the American Union, and
on the 8th day of that month our two eongi-essmen were seated
in the national House of Rejiresentatives, in Washington, D. C.
251. State Government Organized. — On the 15th day of
January, 1!)12, the State govennuent was oi^cially inaugurated
at the capitol in Santa Fe, all the newly elected officials assum-
ing the duties of their respective offices, and the Territorial of-
ficials stejiping out. Thus ended the life of New Mexico as a
ward of the nation, and its new life as a mend)er of the great
American Union was connnenced.
252. First State Legislature — U. S. Senators. — The first
legislature of the State of New Mexico (see list of membership
in Appendix) met in Santa Fe, March 11, 1912, with Ezequiel
Baca, the lieutenant-governor, as president of the State Senate,
and Roman Liberato Baca, as speaker of the House, the Senate
consisting of twenty-four members (the president not included)
and the House of forty-nine members (the speaker included),
and on March 27th, Thomas Benton Catron and Albert B. Fall
were elected, in joint session. United States senators from New
Mexico. The two senators were seated in the Senate of the
United States on the 2d day of April, 1912.
253. La Roca Del More. — There is in the western part of
New Mexico, and near the dividing line between New Mexico and
Arizona, a monstrous rock, which, like a tower or light house,
shoots up from the bottom of a valley rising to the height of
225 feet and commanding a view of all the countiy for many
miles around. That rock forms, undoubtedly, one of the most
important pages in the history of New Mexico, as it was, for the
conquerors, or at least the greater part of them, what the light-
house is for sailors. Many miles before reaching the valleys of
Zuiii, the conquerors beheld the rock, to which they gave the
name of La Roca del Moro (the Rock of the Moor), and so it
was that it came to be the guiding object of the Spaniards in
their entries into New Mexico. In this rock there is a very large
cave in which the Spanish conquerors were wont to lodge, each
of them leaving graven in the rock their names and dates of their
passing the rock. Among the names thus engraven are the
names of Onate (1605), De Vargas (1692), and Juan Paiz Hur-
tado (1736). Archbishop J. B. Lamy visited the Moro Novem-
ber 10, 1863, and inscribed his name on the rock.
' A»» '.C.'» JW«» O^
A*
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MAP OF NEW MF:XIC0, 1779
TRANSLATION
"Map of tlie internal Province of New Mexico made by Don Bernardo de Miera y
Pacheco, distinguislied soldier of the Real Presidio de Santa Fee, by order of Lieu-
tenant Colonel of the Cavalry, Governor and Captain General of said Province, Don
Juan Bautista de Anza, showing its settlements and their condition at the present
time, being badly formed and far apart; the numlxT of houses inhabited by colonists;
the bad location thereof, each individual having built his house upon the tract of land
to him granted, that being the reason why great damages, lamentable disasters and
desolation of whole settlements have been caused by the enemy, the Comanches and
the Apaches, who roam around the Province killing many colonists and carrying away
the families as captives, which facts makes imperative the prompt compliance of the
wise, timely and charitable mandate which the zeal in pro of the Royal Service
prompted said Governor to issue, after visiting settlements, and after familiarizing
himself with their sad condition, the obedience of which is the only remedy to insure
their stability, civility and a Christian policy, which commands the colonists to build
their settlements compactly and in rediiubtsquare form ; each settlement to consist
of at least twenty families, the smallest to have two bastions and the largest four in
the centre and well arranged to facilitate the proper use of fire arms; it not being
advisable to construct ancient turrets ('"torreon; s"), for under them the enemy finds
a hiding place, bores holes through their walls and then sets them a fire, as experience
has demonstrated. At a short league from the pueblo of Taos, along the edge of the
river called 'De Don Fernando' there was a settlement of twelve families, their
houses were scattered, as it was their habit to have them; these families upon learning
that the Comanche Indians were coming to insult them gathered in a large house,
which was turreted, of Paijlo '\'ilhilpando, among thtm being fourteen men well armed
with fire arms and a large quantity of ammunition; the enemy made an intrepid and
vigorous attack upon said house safely sheltering themselves under the breast works
of the turrets, then they battered breaches in dififerent parts of the turrets and built
fires therein. The besieged in order to prevent such manaeuvre on the part of the
enemy bent their bodies over the parapet, to better discharge their guns, thus giving
the Indians the opportuuity to inflict on them arrow and bullet wounds from which
all perished, the Indians then capturing seventy-four persons, grown and small, of
both sexes. The Indians lost over eighty killed. I have narrated this event to make
plain the tenacity with which these enemies fight. The pueblos of Christian Indians
remain to this day living under the same policy, union and civility they were living
under when the Spaniards first found them in their original pueblos: with their
houses built together, two and three stories high, their settlements forming a square
(plaza) ; their houses having portable ladders which are lifted upon the approach of
the enemy; their roofs and terraces, high and low, being well protected with loop-
holes in the parapets, to in.iure the enemy and for their own defence.
"Done in the "\'illa de Sta. Fee, Capital of said Province, In the year 1779."
EXPLANATORY GUIDE
"Villa"
"Spanish scattered settlements" CH C7G3
"Ditto, destroyed by the enemy" ^£^ CD r I'B
"Pueblos of Christian Indians' _
"Ruins of Ancient i)ueblos" .
"Water springs"
"Lands occupied by tlie Gentiles" J^ ' t ^ J _
Review Questions
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Where was the craiUe of the Ininian race? How is Asia separated
from America? What part of the world was first settled by man? Have
we any proofs of the eoming of the first man to the American continent?
L'. What did Columbus and the other discoverers and conquerors find in
America? What did they find in Mexico and South America? By whom
and when was Mexico conquered? By whom and when was Peru conquered?
Pi. How far advanced did Cortes and Pizarro find the Indians of Mexico
and Peru?
II
4. When and by whom was America discovered? Name the first island
discovered by Columbus. Name the other islands subsequently discovered
by Columbus. Where did Columbus first discover the American Indian?
5. By whom and why was the name ' ' Indian ' ' given to the first inhabitants
of America? Describe the condition of the aborigines (Indians) so found
by Columbus. 6. Name the next European who visited America. What
part of the continent did Ojeda visit? Did he find Indians? Describe the
condition of the Indians so found by Ojeda.
Ill
7. What did C(3rdova and Grijalva accomplish? What was the condition
of the Mexican Indians? How far into Mexico did Grijalva reach? 8.
Describe the worship and degree of knowledge of and manner of sacrifice of
these Indians. 9. Name the date Cortes entered the City of Mexico. What
was the Indian name of the city? Name the emperor of Mexico. State
the degre* of knowleilge in the science of government, industries and re-
ligion of Montezuma and his subjects.
IV
10. When did Pizarro conquer Peru? Name the rulers he found govern-
ing the country. Describe the condition and advancement in which the
Spaniards found the Peruvians. 11. Give the traditions of the Peruvians
as to their origin, the founding of their empire, and their manner of wor-
ship. 12. Who taught them the sciences of agriculture, arts, architecture,
and astronomy? To whom are we indebted for what we know of these first
inhabitants of this portion of our continent?
V
13. In what condition were the North American Indians found? How
and by what name are tliey known in history? Describe their mode of liv-
148 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
ing. . 14. Doscribo their <loiiiostic li;il>its. Describe tlieir iiiMiiiicr of travel-
ing. 15. What was their religion? What was their paradise? 16. What
is known of their origin? What evidences have been found, and where, of
prehistoric occupation? When was Jamestown settled and by wiioin? Who
was Ponce de Leon? Wlio was the founder of Quebec ? Who was Captain
Newport? What did tlie Jesuit, Father Marquette, accomplish?
VI
17. Who was the first white man to cross tlie continent? Name the year
and places where the journey was commenced and where it ended. 18. Give
an account of De Vaca 's story of the lives of the New Mexican Indians.
19. Wlio followed De Vaca into New Mexico? 20. Who was J. B. Sal-
points? What had he to say regarding the origin and coming of the first
inhabitants to our continent? What do historians and ethnologists (ex-
plain the word ethnologists to the student) say on that point?
VII
22. Who was Panfilo de Nanaez? How were he and De Vaca connect-
ed? What was the real name of De Vaca? W^hat was the origin of the
name Cabeza de Vaca? 23. Repeat the story of De Vaca 's coming to
Florida. State what you know of the landing in Florida of the expedition
and its end. 24. What important village did the Spaniards capture?
Wlien and under what circumstances did they leave Ante? State the suf-
fering the Spaniards had to undergo. What means did they use to reach
the Gulf? How many of them survived, and how were they saved? Name
some of those saved.
VIII
25. How long did De Vaca and his companions remain in captivity?
"^Tien did they escape? 26. What route did they follow? Did they visit
New Mexico? Wliat kind of treatment did the Indians give De Vaca and
his companions? Why did they treat them kindly? What means did the
Spaniards use to cure the sick? W^hat did De Vaca teach the Indians?
27. What became of De Vaca's two dogs? Why did the Spaniards eat the
meat of the dogs? 28. W^ho did De Vaca and his party meet near San
MHguel? Why did Alcaraz arrest De Vaca and his companions? State
what was done to De Vaca and his companions. 29. By wdiom were they
released? When did De Vaca reach Mexico? What did he do there?
Wlien did he reach Spain ? Where was he sent by the king after he had
reached Spain? How did De Vaca end his life?
IX
30. Who was the discoverer of the Gila River? 31. In what year and
by whom was the first expedition into A'^ew Mexico made? 32. Wlio was
Fr. Marcos de Niza? When did he come to America? What part of Amer-
ica did he visit, and for what purpose, before coming to New Mexico? 33.
By whom was he sent to New Mexico? In what year? With what object
did Mendoza send Niza to the land of Cibola? ^\1io was Niza 's guide?
Who was Estevanico?
REVIEW QUESTIONS 149
3-1. What were the instructiims jjiven Niza by Mendoza'? 35. Who ac-
companied Niza? From what i>laee and on what date did Niza start? Name
the first Indian settlement reached by Niza. WHiat became of Father
Ornato? 36. \Muit did Niza learn regarding Cortes? From whom did he
receive the information? What name did these Indians give Niza and what
did it mean? What other information did these Indians give Niza? 37.
Name the next village found by Niza? What did he find there? What did
Niza do with Estevanico?
XI
38. Did Estevanico reach Zufii? How was he treated by the Indians?
Wliat kind of report did he make to Niza? 39. What other information
did Niza receive, and from whom? What did Niza do at the villages hfl
went through? 40. Did Niza visit the coast? How far did he go along
the coast? What coast did he visit? 41. When did Niza hear of Este-
vanico 's death? W^hat advice did Niza receive from the emissaries? 42.
Did Niza reach the Seven Cities? How near to the main pueblo did he go?
What was the name of that pueblo? What did Niza do at the mound?
How and in what manner did Niza take possession of New Mexico? What
name did he give to the country? What did he do then? What kind of
report did he give to the viceroy? When did he reach the City of Mexico?
XII
43. Why did Mendoza select Coronado? Name some of Coronado's of-
ficers. How many men did Coronado have? In what year did he start,
and from what place? 44. What did the officers and men do at Comjjostela
before the start was made? Name some of the friars that accompanied
Coronado. WTio was Pedro de Castaiieda? 4.5. Was Coronado pleased
with the Cibola country? Wliat name did he give to the Zuiii River? 46.
What was the original Indian name of Zuiii? What sort of reception did
Coronado get? Wlien did Coronado enter Zufii? What name did he give the
province? Describe the pueblo's condition. How was Coronado wounded?
47. What did Arellano find on his way to Cibola? What settlements were
founded by Arellano ? What was the object and result of Maldonado 's trip
to the coast? 48. What did Melchor Diaz do then? What did he find on
reaching the coast? 49. Who discovered and explored the Colorado Eiver?
How far inland did Diaz go? Why did he return? What happened to him?
XIII
50. When did the army reach Cibola? What was the next province dis-
covered, and by whom? What was the result of the battle of Tusnyan?
What did Tovar hear at Tusayan? 51. Who made the second discovery
of the Colorado Eiver? Describe the efforts of Melgosa and Galeras. 32.
Who discovered Acuco, Tigiiex, and Cicuye? Under what names are these
pueblos now known? Where was Tignex? What was Puaray? Who was
Bigotes? Why was he driven that name? What did Bigotes say to Coronado?
What did Coronado do then? 53. Describe Alvarado 's journey. Wliat in-
formation did he send Coronado from Tigwex? How was he received at
Puaray? Wlio was Turco? What did he say to Alvarado? 54. Who dis-
150 HISTORY UP NEW MEXICO
covered Tutahaeo? What pueblos did Tutahaco eomprise? Wlien did
Coronado and the army reach Tifjuex? Wliat did Turco say to Coronado?
How did the S|)aiiiar(lK treat the Indians? Wliat was their object in being
cruel?
XIV
55. How did Coronado return the hosjiitality of the Tiguex Indians?
Wliat brougiit about tiie first fight between the Tiguex Indians and the
Spaniards? When was that? 56. How long did the siege of Puaray last?
What did Cardenas do to the Indians who had voluntarily surrendered?
Tell about the siege and the losses of the two sides. 57. What was
Coronado 's object in going to Cicuye while Tiguex was besieged? Who
did he take with him? Why had he kept Bigotes in prison? 58. What
happened after Coronado 's return to Tiguex ? What became of the In-
dians of Tiguex? Wliat about the province of the Queres? What pueblos
made up that province? When did Coronado 's army undertake its journey
to the Quivira?
XV
59. Describe Coronado 's march to the Quivira. What did he find on the
desert? Did he suffer? 60. What did Coronado learn about Cabeza de
Vaca? Who was Ysopete? What did Ysopete tell the Spaniards about
Turco? 61. What happened to Turco? What became of Coronado and
the army? 62. Describe the return of the army and the time of travel.
What did Arellano do after reaching Tiguex ? Name the new discoveries.
63. Did Coronado find the Quivira? Where w-as it? 64. Why did Arel-
lano meet the Cicuye Indians in battle? Where was Arellano going?
"Wlien did Coronado reach Tiguex again?
XVI
65. How did Coronado feel when he returned to Tiguex from Quivira?
When did he return? What did he report to the emperor? 66. Where
did Coronado and his army spend the winter in 1.541? What happened to
him while riding on horseback? 67. When did Coronado leave Tiguex
for Mexico? Who, if anyone, remained in this country when Coronado
left? Where did these fathers go? What became of them? Where did
the Portuguese go? What was his name? Who found afterwards the Mex-
ican Indians? Where did Espejo find them?
XVII
68. Who was Ibarra? When was the first mission after Coronado 's
time, and by whom, established in New Mexico? Name the soldiers that
came Avith Fr. Eodriguez (Ruiz) and his companions? 69. Give the date
and place of start on this journey. What name was first given the Bio
Grande? Name the place where these Fathers made their headquarters.
70. Where, when, and by whom were the first mines discovered in New
Mexico? What did Cliamuscado and his soldiers do after discovering the
mines? 71. Who gave New Mexico its name? Why was Father Juan de
Santa Maria sent to Mexico? Did he reach Mexico? Why? What became
of Father Lopez and Fr. Rodriguez? What became of the Mexican Indians
who came with the Fathers?
REVIEW QUESTIONS 151
XVIII
72. What became of Chaimiscado 's force after reaching San Bartolonie?
Did any of Chanuiscado 's jiarty readi the City of Mexico? What did Bus-
taniente and Barrado do at Mexico City? What did Fatlier Beitran do on
hearing rumors of tlie killing of Father Lopez and his companions? Who
was Antonio de Kspe.io ? 73. When and from where did he start? Who
accompanied him ? What was the object of this expedition? 74. Name the
Indian pueblos visited by Kspejo before reaching Tigiiex. What did Es-
pejo learn with reference to Cabeza de Vaea? 75. What did Esjiejo learn
at Tiguex regarding the fate of Father Lopez and his companions? What
did the Puaray Indians do on Esjejo's arrival? What did the Spaniards
then resolve to do?
XIX
76. Wliere did Esjiejo establish his headquarters? Wliat name did he
give to the country? What did he find near the Gila Biver? 77. What did
Espejo say about the metals discovered? What happened to the party at
Zuiii? 78. What did Espejo then do? Did he find more mines? ^^here?
What other places did Esjjejo visit? 79. When did he return to San Bar-
tolome, and by what route? Who did he find at San Bartolome?
XX
80. Who was .Juan Bautista de Lomas y Colmenares? How many ef-
forts did he make to conquer New Mexico? Why did he fail? Wliat can
you tell about LTrdifiola? 81. Who was Castano de Sosa? Did he pene-
trate into New Mexico? How many persons did he bring with him? 82.
Why. by whom, and where was he arrested? What service did he perform
in favor of the Pueblo Indians? 83. Tell us the story about Humaiia and
Bonilla. What was the end of that expedition? Who was Jusepe?
XXI
84. Give genealogy of Oiiate. W'hat kind of reputation did he have be-
fore coming to New Mexico? 8.5. When did he obtain authority to con-
quer New Mexico? Did he succeed at once? W\\j not? 86. What was
the result of the dispute? 87. Give the date and place of his journey of
conquest. How many persons did he bring? How many Franciscans?
Name some of the priests and officers. 88. When and where did Ofiate take
possession of New Mexico? Where did he go next? What did he find at
Puaray? 89. Wlien did he reach the pueblo of Cayjia? What name did
he give that pueblo and why? Where did he establish the first colony?
What did he do next?
XXII
90. What did Ofiate do with reference to founding New Mexico's first
capital? WHiat did he discover in his trip of inspection? What was done
on his return to the settlement? What was -the name given to the first cap-
ital of New Mexico? WHiere was it located? 91. Eelate all you know
about the conspiracy of Aguilar. What became of it? Were any of the
conspirators executed? Where and by whom? 92. What efforts did Onate
make to discover the Gulf of California? How far did he go? Why did
ir)L> HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
lie iKit loacli tlio (iiilt .' Dill lio disi-ovor iiiiiies.'' Wliere? 93. Make a
statoiiient rcyardiiifr tlio death of .liian Zaldivar. Who else was killed be-
sides Zaldivar? What happened then? 94. What did Onate do upon re-
ceiving the oi)iMi<)M of the Franciscans? Wlio did he send in cliai-<^e of the
expedition?
XXI II
9.'). On -what day did the expedition start for Aconia? What was the
date of their arrival there? 96. What did Vicente Zaldivar do on reaching
Acoma? What was the result of his efforts? What orders did he. give?
. 97. Was the pueblo taken by the S])aniards? How was it taken? What
happened after the fall of Aconia? When ^nd by whom were the first
schools established? Wiiat was taught in them?
XXIV
98. What did Onate do after the battle with the Acoinas? Who were
his emissaries? What did the Franciscans do? 99. What was the condi-
tion of the colony at that time? What did the Fathers do with reference
to Onate 's conduct? 100. Did Oiiate go to Quivira? What took place on
his arrival at Quivira? What was the cause of that battle? Why was the
battle-ground called El Llano de la Matanza?
XXV
101. Why did the Franciscans file charges against Oiiate? What Fathers
made the charges? 102. What was the residt of the charges? When did
the reenforeemen'ts arrive? Were Oiiate and the Fathers reconciled?
Wlien? 103. State all about Ofiate's journey to the Gulf. When did he
start? When did he reach the Colorado River? How did he name it?
Wlien did he reach the Gulf and what name did he give the harbor? What
did he do on his return to the settlement? 104. When did he found Santa
Fe? What buildings did he erect? Who was his successor?
XXVI
105. Up to 160S how many Indians embraced Christianity? Wliat was
the Spanish population in 1617? What took place in 1620 between Gov-
ernor Peralta and Father Peinado? What was the result of their difficulty?
Who succeeded Peralta and when ? 106. Who was the first regular father
commisary? What for, and what year, did Father Benavides go to
Spain? Give a concise statement of his report to the king. 107. Give
the nam'es of the successors of Zotylo. Who was governor in 1640?
XXVII
108. Give the name of the Franciscans murdered by the Indians in 1632.
Where and how were they killed? 109. What was the cause of the trouble
between Governor Eosas and the Franciscans? What was the result of the
charges made against Rosas? What became of Rosas? 110. Who was
Rosas 's successor ? Name the other governors of New Mexico after Valdez
to 1660. WHien did Penaloza arrive? Why were Mendizabal and Peiialoza
removed? What became of Penaloza after he went to Mexico? What did
he do in Europe? 111. Give the names of the other governors from 1664
REVIEW QUESTIONS 153
to 1679. Wliat was the condition of tlie country ijetween 1607 and 1679?
What liai)i)ened in 1672? Wliat did the Ajjaches do in 1676? Wiio was
Fatlier Ayeta"? What did he do to Ijriny relief to the Bpaiiiards? Did lie
accomplish his object? Why not?
xxvjir
111'. When was the consjiiracy finally hatched? Who was the leader of
the Insurrection? What was the date fixed for the opening of hostilities?
113. Give the names of the Indian governors who advised Otermin of the
seditious movement. When was it that Otermin found out that Ye and
Jaca had told him the truth? 114. When did the rebellion break out? De-
scribe the assault on Santa Fe, giving date and result of first battle. How
many days did it last? 115. What was Pope's ultimatum to Otermin?
116. When was the last battle fought? What was the result? Give a de-
scription of that battle and of the manner in which the Spaniards effecteil
their escape. What did Otermin find on his road? Name the priests whose
bodies were so found. What did he do with the bodies? What efifect "did
that revolt have on New Mexico?
XXIX
117. Did Otermin make another effort to reconquer New Mexico? Why
did he resolve to quit? Who succeeded him? 118. Who was Domingo
Gironza Petriz de Cruzat? How many times did he come into New Mexico?
Give the years he was governor. Did he succeed in effecting the reeonquest
of the country? Who succeeded him? How long did Pedro Eenaros de
Posadas remain as governor? Did he come to New Mexico? What did
he do? Who was his successor? How was Cruzat met by the Indians in
1689? Did he give the Indians battle? What was the result of the battle?
XXX
119. What brought about De Vargas' appointment? What do we owe
De Vargas? 120. Give the dates of Captain Madrid and De Vargas' start.
What did De Vargas do when he reached the Mexia ranch? Who were the
priests that aeeomjmnied De Vargas? 121. Describe De Vargas' journey
from Coehiti to Santa Fe. When did he reach Santa Fe? 122. What hap-
pened at Santa Fe on the 13th of September? What great event occurred
the next day? Eecite De Vargas' words used in taking possession of Santa
Fe. Describe the occurrence. After retaking Santa Fe what happened?
XXXI
123. What occui>ied De Vargas' attention after the taking of Santa
Fe? Who was Don Luis Tui)atu? What brought him to Santa Fe? Of
what service was he to the Spaniards? 124. Where did De Vargas go first?
From Pecos where did he go? Who accompanied him? 125. What other
pueblos did De Vargas visit when he left Santa Fe October 17th? Who
was Lorenzo Tupatii? How many warriors did the Tupatus furnish De
Vargas? What took place after the surrender of the Jemez province? 126.
From the Mexia rancli where did De Vargas go? W^ho went with him?
What haj)pened at Aguatubi? What became of the Tupatus and their war-
riors after the surrender of the INIoquis? When did De Vargas reach El
154 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
Paso? How many miles did the Spaniards travel from August 21 to De-
cember 20, 1692?
XXXII
127. What was De Vargas' first act after reaching El Paso? How was
his report received by the viceroy? Of how n;any persons was the caravan
composed? 128. What day did De Vargas and his people leave El Paso?
How many Franciscan Fathers were in the j)artyf Name some of them.
129. What was the result of the suffering experienced by the caravan?
How were they saved? I'M). On what day did the Spaniards reach Santa
Fe? When did L'e Vargas take jiossession of the village? Describe the
act of possession. What did De Vargas do next?
XXXIII
131. Who discovered the conspiracy? What Indians were involved in
it? Who, besides Ye, told De Vargas of the conspiracy? What did De
Vargas do after his blind Indian friend had told him about the conspiracy?
Did any of the Indians remain loyal to the Spaniards? From what pueblo
were they, and who was their leader? 1.32. When did De Vargas lay s'ege
to Santa Fe? Who was the leader of the traitorous Indians? Why was he
called Bolsas? What did Father de San Antonio do before the assault?
How did Ye and his warriors behave during the fight? Describe the battle
of the 29th of December. What year was it? What hapjiened at daylight,
December 30th? Who was the first Spaniard to set foot within the walls?
What followed? 133. W^hat did De Vargas do after his victory? WTiat
Indians remained hostile to the Spaniards? Where did the Spaniards fight
them? What was the result of the Mesa Prieta siege? How long did the
siege last?
XXXIV
134. What was De Vargas' next move on his return to Santa Fe?
Where did he go after sending his embassy to the Apaches? What pueblos
were at war? 135. Where did the battle, of Cieneguilla take place? What
was the result? Where and when was the next battle fought? How did it
end? 136. How were the remains of Father .Tuan de Jesus discovered?
What was done with the remains? When was that? 137. When did the
refounding of the colonies take place? Which was the first place repeopled,
and under whose charge? 138. What did De Vargas do in November, 169.5?
What happened in June of the next year? Who was De Vargas' successor?
When did Cubero assume charge of the government ? What did he do to
De Vargas? What did De Vargas do after the sentence? What was the
outcome of the trial?
XXXV
139. What was Cubero 's first oflSeial act? What was New Mexico's
Spanish population then? What brought about the famine? What did
c4ibero do to remedy the sad situation? 140. What happened in 1698?
Why did the French invade the land of the Navajoes? What was the re-
sult of their invasion? When were Cubero and San Jose de la Laguna
founded by Cubero? Are these two pueblos still existing? 141. Wlien did
Cubero 's administration end? Who was his successor? When did De
REVIEW QUESTIONS 155
Vargas arrive in Santa Fe .' Where was Cubero then ? 142. What hap-
pened to the accusers of De Yarj^as? What did De Vargas do next? Where
did he die? W'hat instructions did he leave in his will and testament?
Who was his successor?
XXXVI
143. When did Cuervo y Valdez become governor? What did he accom-
plish the first year of his administration? 144. By whom and when was
AJburquerqiie founded? Why was it given the name of San Felipe de Al-
burquerque? W'ho, and when, succeeded Valdez? 145. What was Villaseiior's
full name and title? What great battle did he fight in 1709? What good
came out of that battle? What improvement did he make to the Chajtel
of San Miguel ? Did he leave us any record of it? In what manner did he
leave that record? What did he do with reference to repeopling deserted
pueblos? When and why was he removed from office? Who succeeded him?
What year? 146. When did Mogollon assume his official duties? What
great battle did he fight during his tenn of office? What town was found-
ed by him? Wlien and where? Why did he punish the Acomas and Nava-
joes? Why did he resign?
XXXVII
147. Who was Felix Martinez? How did he become governor of New-
Mexico? What kind of governor did he make? What did he do to Mogol-
lon? What battles did he fight? 148. What captain fought the Yute
Indians at Cerro San Antonio? Where is the Cerro San Antonio? "Wliat
was the result of the battle? 149. Who was Martinez's successor? Did
Martinez recognize C-osio 's authority? What then happened to Martinez?
W^hom did he take with him to Mexico? In whose charge did Martinez
leave the government ? Did Cosio finally take charge of the government ?
When and under what circumstances? Who was Juan Estrado y Austria?
What offices did he fill in New Mexico? 150. When and by whose authority
were the firet public schools established in New Mexico? Describe the man-
ner in which these schools were established. What was the teachers' pay?
When did Estrado y Austria reach Santa Fe? In what capacity did lie
come? Until what time did he act as governor? Who succeeded him? 1.51.
Who was Bustamante's successor? What took place between 1730 and
1731? WHiy did not the Jesuit missionaries remain in Moqui? Why was
Bustamante removed from office? Who was Gongora's successor? What
happened during the administrations of Gongora and Michalena?
XXXIII
152. W^hat years did ]\Iendoza's term cover? What occurred during
his administration? Where did D 'Alay settle? What became of Marie?
What was the Spanish population of New Mexico in 1742? Does that
number include the soldiers? How many villaoes were there then in New
Mexico? What missionaries visited New Mexico in 1745? W^hy did they
leave New Mexico? Who succeeded Mendoza? Who succeeded Eabal?
What did Capuchin recover from the Comanche Indians? 153. Who suc-
ceeded Capuchin? What years did Del Valle's government cover? Why
was his government a failure? What bishop visited New Mexico in 1760?
Who was Mateo Antonio de Mendoza? Wlien did Urrizola arrive? Who
156 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
succeeded liiin ? \V1umi did ( 'npiicliiii a^uiii In-come jioveinor? lo4. Wliat
did Cainudun ae('oiii|ilisli duiiii<; his last term of otHce ? Wlio was liis suc-
cessor?
XXXIX
155. Give tlie dates of Mendinueta's term of office. Wiiat unusual
occurrences ciiaracterized liis administration in 1767? Wliat otiier gi'eat
acliievements does liistory record in ins favor after the flood? 156. When
did he execute Ids peace treaty with the Comanclies? What facts did lie
mention in his report to the viceroy in 1772? 157. Who discovered the
salt lake? When and under whose orders? Why did Fathers Esealante
and Domingnez return from Salt Lake? 158. Why did Mendinueta quit
his office before his time had expired? Who did he leave in charge of New
Mexico? Who was Mendinueta's successor? Who was Anza 's successor?
Who succeeded de La Concha? Who fought Cuerno Verde? W^hen and
where? What was the result of that battle? Did De la Concha accom-
plish anything? Give the date of his administration.
XL
159. How did Chacon's government affect New Mexico? When was
commercial trade with the United States started? Who was the first
North American merchant to visit New Mexico? What became of Lalande?
160. When did Pursley and Pike come to New Mexico? State the cir-
cumstances under which they came, respectively? What became of them?
161. Who was Pedro Bautista Pino? When was he elected delegate to
Spain? Who was governor of New Mexico then? Describe the manner in
which his election was brought about. What book did he publish in Spain?
What else did he do there? 162. Wlio was McKnight? When did he come
to New Mexico? What was his business? Who followed him the next
year? What object did Glen and Becknell have in coming to New Mexico)?
Who followed Becknell? What was the result of these expeditions of
American merchants?
XLI
163. Who was the last governor of New Mexico under the Spanish
regime? When did the Spanish rule end? What had been its duration
in New Mexico? 164. What was Mexico's form of government after its
independence? Who was Mexico's emperor? 165. Wlien did Mexico be-
come a republic? Who was its first president? How did these changes
atfect New Mexico? What was the condition of the foreign (American)
population in New Mexico in 1827? Name the three Americans who after-
wards became prominent in New Mexico's history. When and by whom
were the mining placers discovered in Santa Fe County? What was the
name given to the new discovery? When was the first Assembly established
in New Mexico? What important law did it pass at its first session? 166.
Name some of the persons who acted as governors from 1828 to 1846.
When did Bishop Zubiria make his last official visit to New Mexico? When
and by whom was the first newspaper published in New Mexico? What
was its title? What year was New Mexico's form of government changed,
and how? What was the name given its Assembly then? What were then
the conditions of New Mexico's trade?
REVIEW QUESTIONS 157
XLTI
167. Who succeeded Governor Sarnvcino? When did Perez take charjie
of the government? What became of (iovernor Perez? When and by
whom was he assassinated? What brought about that rebellion? 168.
Who was Jose Gonzales? Who made him governor? What took jilace at
Tome? What did Arniijo do after he was made commandant? 109. Who
were the four leaders executed by Armijo? Where, and when, were they
executed? WHiat effect did the execution of these rebel leaders have on
the rebellion? What reward did Arniijo receive for his loyalty and pa-
triotism?
XLIII
170. When was the .American consulate established in New Mexico?
Who was named American consul? What Avas AJvarez's nationality?
What about the creation, at Santa Fe, of a United States commercial
agency? 171. Wlien was the first Texan invasion made? Who was at
its head? How many men were in that expedition? What was the result?
What became of McLeod and his men? What do you think of Armijo's
conduct in cajituring the Texans? What was the treatment he gave them?
Who was John McDaniel? What was the result of his raid? Who was the
next bandit from Texas? What did Wordfield accomplish? Who was
Snively? What success did he have? What became of him? Who was
Captain Cook? Why was he stationed at Fort Bent?
XLIV
172. Who was Mariano Martinez de Lejanza? What happened to him
in 1844? W^hat Indians made the assault? How was he saved? 173.
When was the last election held under Mexican authority? What officials
were elected? 174. What circumstances made the change of governments
inevitable? What was the military situation in New Mexico at that time?
What efforts did Arniijo make to organize an army? What did he do on
the city council's refusal to assist him?
XLV
l75. What were the causes that provoked the war with Mexico? When,
from where, and under what officer, did the American army of invasion
start? What was the strength of the army? Who was Emory? Who was
Doniphan? Who was Sterling Price? 176. What did Kearny do at Fort
Bent? When did the American army reach Las Vegas? Describe the man-
ner of Kearny's act of possession. 177. Where did Kearny go from
Las Vegas? Did Arniijo oppose his march to Santa Fe? Where were
Arniijo and his men when Kearny reached Canon del Apache? What did
Kearny do next? At what time did he reach Santa Fe? At what time
and hour and in what name did Kearny take possession of Santa Fe? Who
was Juan Bautista Vigil?
XLVI
178. On what date did Kearny proclaim New Mexico's annexation in
Santa Fe? Wliat promises did he make to the people? 179. ^Vlien did
Kearny appoint the first Territorial officials ? Whom did he appoint as
158 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
governor? Name the otlier officials ai)i)()inte(l by General Kearny. What
else did he do, besides making these appointments? 180. When did Kearny
leave for California? What instructions did he leave for Doniphan and
Price? Where did General Kearny meet Kit Carson? Where was Carson
going, and on wliose orders? What did Kearny do with Carson? When
did Doniphan leave for Mexico? Where did he meet the Mexican army?
What was the result of the Battle of Brazito?
XLVII
181. What happened after Kearny and Doniphan's departure? Give the
names of the chief conspirators. What towns were involved in the conspir-
acy? What day was originally set to strike the blow? 182. What did
Governor Charles Bent do upon discovering the conspiracy? What l^ecame
of him at Taos? Who else were murdered at Taos? When was that?
Wlio gave shelter to Lee and the American families in Taos? Name those
murdered at Arroyo Hondo? Name those killed at Mora. 18.3. What did
Price and St. Vrain do upon learning of the massacre? What battles were
fought between Santa Fe and Taos? What was the result of these two
battles? When did Price reach Taos? How did he find the enemy? What
kind of reception did the enemy give Price? What was the result of the
battle? When was New Mexico formally ceded by Mexico to the United
States? Wliat effect did the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo have on the
citizens of New Mexico?
XLIII
184. When did the first legislature - under American government meet?
Under whose authority did it meet? Name some of its members. 185.
When did the first convention meet in Santa Fe? Who was then the civil
governor? Name some of the members of that convention. 186. What
M-as done by the convention? On what day was the Memorial adopted?
Give the substance of the Memorial. By whom was it signed?
XLIX
187. When did the second convention meet? What did it do? What was
the result of Smith's election? 188. When did the first constitutional
convention meet? What was the result of its labors? When were the State
officials under that constitution elected? 189. When did this first unau-
thorized State legislature meet? Who were selected as United States sen-
ators? Why did the whole affair fail?
190. What year \\-as New Mexico admitted as a Territory of the United
States of America? Wliat other Territory was then admitted? Wliat
about California? W^ho were New Mexico's first officials a]ipointed and
e'eeted under the Organic Act? 191. When was the first election held un-
der the Organic Act? What officials were then elected? When did the
first Territorial legislature meet? Who were its presiding officers? 192.
What did the people of New Mexico do after the Territory had been offi-
cially organized? Did they overlook their right to be admitted as a State
of the Union?
REVIEW QUESTIONS 159
LI
193. Who was governor of New Mexico in 1853? What did Lane do
with referenee to the MesiUa Valley? What was the outcome of Lane's
action? What was the date of liis proclamation? 194. What treaty re-
sulted? How much did the United States pay for the strip of land? When
was the treaty signed?
LII
195. What was the condition of agriculture in Pino's time, 1S12? What
was the condition in 1912? Give the number of farms in 1912. Give the
number of acres at that rime. Give the value of farms in 1912. 196. De-
scribe the condition of stock raising in New Mexico in 1827. What was
the condition in 1912? Give the number of cattle, horses, and sheep in
1912-13. 197. Give the boundaries of New Mexico in 1812. What are
the present boundaries?
LIII
198. When did the Civil War break out? How long did it last? How
many soldiers did New Mexico furnish the government? Name some of the
New" Mexican officers who served with distinction in that war? What was
Kit Carson's record as a colonel? 199. When were the Navajoes subdued?
When were the Apaches compelled to surrender? What was the amount spent
by the United States government in these Indian wars? Who was Geronimo?
Wlio captured him? 200. When was the Spau'sh-American war declared?
What brought about that war? When did it end? And what was the re-
sult ?
LIV
201. WHiieh was the only church existing in New Mexico at the time of
the American Occupation? What Protestant denomination was the first to
come to New Mexico? WHiat was the name of its minister? 202. W^ho
was 'New Mexico's first Catholic bishop under the American government?
Name Archbishop Lamy's successors to date? Where did Archbishop Cha-
pelle die? What was the cause of his death? How many parishes has the
Catholic church in New Mexico? 203. How many religious communities?
What is the Catholic population of New Mexico? 204. Wliat other denom-
inations are there in New Mexico? Give the membership of some of these
denominations. Have these denominations any mission schools in New Mex-
ico? How many such schools have they in Santa Fe?
LV
20o. What is the present condition of the Pueblo Indians with reference
to their status when seen and conquered by the Spaniards? Have we today
the same nuumber of puel^los in existence as at the time of the conquest?
Name the pueblos existing now. 206. Name the savage tribes of New Mexi-
co. Under whose care, are these tribes? What is their occupation? 207.
Wlien and by whom were the first mines discovered in New Mexico? In
what counties are copper, silver, and gold found? What was the output of
copper up to the year 1897? From 1897 to 1912 what was the output of that
mineral? Give the value of the silver output. Also of zinc. V.liat is the
official report regarding the coal tonnage in New Mexico?
160 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO
LVI
, 208. When and by whom was instruction first imparted to the Indians in
New Mexico? When did the Friars Niza, Beltran. llodri^uez, Lopez, and
Juan dc Santa Maria coninience to instruct the Indians of New Mexico?
209. When and by whom was tlie first i)ublic school in New Mexico estab-
lished? How were the teachers i)aid? 210. What other schools were estab-
lished in the earlier part of the nineteenth century, and by whom? What
were the cash salaries paid to the teachers of the public schools? 211.
When was the first ])ublic school school law of New Mexico passed? What
other, laws did the Provincial Assembly pass between 1822 and 1826. 212.
Were there any private colleges established in New Mexico in 1826? By
whom and where?
LVII
213. How many public schools were there in New Mexico at the time of
the annexation? How was the fact that there was but one ])ublic school in
New Mexico at that time made known? 214. Who established the first two
English schools in New Mexico? At what date? 215. Who brought the
Sisters of Loretto to New Mexico? When did they open their school? Who
was the first mother? 216. Where did the Christian Brothers come from?
W^ho went to France to bring them? When did they arrive in Santa Fe?
W^hen did they open the college? 217. What other schools has the Catholic
church in New Mexico? Under whose care are these schools? What other
private schools are there in New Mexico besides those of the Catholic church?
LVIII
218. When was the first public school law under the United States govern-
ment passed by the New Mexican legislature? In whose hands were edu-
cational matters placed by that law? In whose hands are State educational
matters at the present time? 219. Who is the officer in charge of the man-
agement of public instruction in the State? What officers are in charge
of educational matters in counties and school districts? In whose charge are
the public schools in incorporated cities and villages? 220. W\mt was the
school population of New Mexico in 1910? What is the total attendance or
enrollment in the public schools? To what other schools do the rest of the
children go? What is the amount of State school funds collected from
taxes? How is that amount apportioned? 221. What other income, for
school purposes, has the State? How is that money distributed? 222. How
many pupils attend the private and denominational schools? 223. Name all
the State educational institutions. What other funds are received for
educational purposes? How are these funds apportioned?
LVIX
224 NJame the penal and other public institutions mentioned in this
chapter. Give in round numbers the amounts assigned to each of these in-
stitutions from the public treasury. 22.5. How many Spaniards were there
in New Mexico in 1697? How many Spaniards and how many Indians in
1750? And how many of each race, Spaniards and Indians, in 1789? What
was the total population in 1827? What in 1840? 226. What was the
REVIEW QUESTIONS Ull
poimlation by counties in 1850? What was it in 1860? What in 1870?
What in 1880? What in 1890? Wliat in 1910? What was the Pueblo
Indi.-in popuhition in 1910? What was the jiopuhition at that time, of
Xavajoes? What of Apaches?
LrX
227. Give the total value of importations up to 1804. When did New
Mexico's commercial relations with the United States begin? Who were
the first American merchants that came to New Mexico? 228. How was
commerce carried on uj) to the year 1822? When were wagons first used?
By whom? 229. What prompted both governments to use escorts in pro-
tecting the caravans? When were escorts first used, and throuyh whose
efforts? State the manner in which these military escorts were used.
LXI
230. What was the number of wagons employed from 1825 to 1843?
Give, as near as you can. the number employed each year between those
dates. Give the value of merchandise so brought into New Mexico in 1825,
in 1830, in 1840, and in 1843, res[)ectively. 231. Why is it that an ac-
count was kept of merchandise brought into New Mexico up to 1846?
AVhy has it not been kept since. 232. \^Tien did the first railroad reach
New Mexico? What line was that? What effect did the coming of rail-
roads have on New Mexico? How many railroad lines had New Mexico in
1914? How many miles of telegraph and telephone lines?
LXII
233. How many legal companies and corporations were there in New
Mexico up to 1910? Name some of said corporations and companies. 234.
How many national banks were there in New Mexico in 1910? How many
territorial banks? What amount of money did these banks, in the aggre-
gate, represent? 235. What do the official reports show regardnig the
value of real estate subject to taxation up to 1881, and since that year?
LXIII
236. When, and by whom was the New Mexico Historical Society found-
ed? When and on what account, did it cease to act? When was it
reorganized? What is its object? 237. When was the Archaeological So-
ciety organized in New Mexico? By whom? What are its objects? What
amount docs this society receive from the public treasury of New Mexico
each year? For what purpose is that allowance made? 238. Name the
first newspaper published in New Mexico. Where and by whom was it
published? Wlien and by whom was the first printing press brought into
New Mexico? What other things did Father Martinez publish? 239. ^Mien
and where was the end of the Santa Fe trail dedicated? What marks the
end of this trail? Where is that monument? ,How long did it take pas-
sengers coming by the overland coach, to make the trip from Kansas City
to Santa Fe? What was the fare charged? How much was each pas-
senger allowed in baggage? What were the charges for carrying money?
162 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
LXIV
240. Why were the Spanish and Mexican governments so generous in
giving land grants? What was i)rovided by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
with reference to these grants? Wlien was the office of surveyor-general
for New Mexico created? What was the total area of New Mexico as
found by the surveyor-gencr;il? Of that number what was found to belong
to private individuals'? For what ])urpose was the court of private land
claims created? What was the result of its lalwrs"? 241. State the system
of government given to New Mexico by Spain. 242. Give the system of
government of New Mexico under Mexican rule. 24.3. What was New
Mexico's form of government from 184(5 to 1851? What under the United
States? 244. How was justice administered under the Territorial form of
government? Give the form of county and precinct governments. 245. How
is New Mexico divided for ])olitical purposes? Into how many districts
is New Mexico divided for judicial purposes?
LXV
246. When was the struggle for statehood commenced? Make a state-
ment of the struggle from 1846 to 1912. 247. Tlirough whose efforts was
•the last enabling act passed? When was that? AVhen and where was the
last statehood convention held? Who were its principal officers? Was
the constitution adopted by that convention approved by the people? By
what majority? 248. What was done next? Give an account of the
fight made in Congress against the constitution. What was the ultimate
result? 249. What had the blue ballot to do with our constitution? When
was the election held for State officers? Was the blue ballot submitted
to the voters at the same time? Name some of the State officers elected
and by what jjlurality? Was the blue ballot adopted? By what majority?
LXVI
250. When did President Taft issue his proclamation admitting New
Mexico? When did the two representatives take their seats? Who were
they? 251. When was the State government organized? 252. When and
where did the first State legislature meet? Wliat was its membership?
Give the names of the presiding officers. What did the legislature do March
27, 1912? Who were the senators elected? When did these senators take
their seats in the United States Senate? 253. What do you understand
by the Eoea del Moro? What inscriptions are found engraved on that
rock?
v^ta*'^^*'*
Appendix
APPENDIX
GOVERNORS OF NEW MEXICO UNDER THE THREE
GOVERNMENTS— 1598-1912
List of Governors of New Mexico under Spain — 1598-1822
Onate 1598-1(508
Peralta .... 1G09-1620
Zotylo 1(321-1629
De Silva .... ] (3:! 0-1 6.39
De Rosas (assassinated
1642) .... 1(340-1(542
ArjriieMo . . . . 1642
Valdez . . . . 1643
l}e Heredia . . . 1644
Argiiello, again . . 1645-1649
De Guzman, Ugarte, and
La Concha . . . 1650-1652
Avila y Pache<'o, Sama-
niego .... 1653
Mendizabal . . . 1653-1660
Penalozn . . . . 1661-1661
Villanueva, Medrano, and
Miranda . . . 1665-1679
Trevifio .... 1679
Otermin (expc'led in
1680) .... 1679-
Jironza de Cmzat . 1683
De Posada and De Cruzat
(reappointed) . . 1687-
De Vargas . . . 1692
Eodriguez de Cubero . I(i96-
De Vargas (reaj^pointed
— death of)
Hurtado (named by De
Vargas, as his succes-
sor) . . . . . 1704
Cuervo y Valdez . . 1705
1683
1686
1691
1696
1703
1703-1704
Chacon Medina Salavar y
Villasenor, Marquez of
La Peiiuela . . . 1707-
riores Mogob'on . . 1712-
Martincz and Hnrtado 1715-
Velarde y Cocio . . 1718-
Estrado y Anstria and De
Bustamante . . . 1722-
Cruzat Gongora . . 1731-
De Olavide y Micha'ena 1736-
Doniingo de Mendoza 1739-
Codallos y Rabal . . 1743-
Vel'ez Capuchin . . 1749-
Martin del Valle and De
Mendoza (ad interim to-
wards end 1760) . 1754-
Portillo Urriola . . 1761-
Vellez Capuchin (reappoint-
ed) 1762-
Fermin de Mendinueta 1 767-
Trevol (acting) . . 1778
Bautista de Anza .
De la Concha .
Chacon
Del Peal Alencaster
Mainez — ad interim
Manrique .
1712
1715
1718
1721
1731
1736
1739
1743
1749
1754
1778
1789-
1794
1805-
1808
1808-
1815
1818
1760
1762
1767
1777
1789
1794
1805
1808
1814
1817
1 705
1707
Mainez
Allande
Melgares (last Spanish
governor) . . . 1818-1822
170
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
List of Governors of New Mexico under the Mexican
Government— 1822-1846
Xavier Chavez and Visfiirra Perez ..... 1835-1837
(ad interim) in 18:22) 1822-1823 Mufioz and Gonzales (rev-
Viscarra .... 1823 ohitioiiarv {governor) 1837-1838
Baca 1823-1825 Armijo ". . . . 1838-1844
Narbona. Ainiijo, and Vis- Martinez de Lejanza (ad
earra (ad interim) . 1825-1827 interim) . . . 1844-1845
Chavez .... 1828-1831 Armijo and Bautista Vigil
Abreu 1831-1833 (ad interim') continuing
Sarracino. with Ortiz and from August 18 to Sep-
Chkvez (ad interim) 1833-1834 tember 22, 1846) . 1845-1846
List of Governors under the U. S. Government — 1846-1912
Under military goverxmext:
S. W. Kearny, August 19
to September 22 . 1846
Chas. Bent . . . 1846-1847
Donaciano Vigil . . 1847-1848
J. M. Washington . . 1848-1849
John Monroe . . . 1849-1850
Under Organic Act:
James S. Calhoun . 1851-1852
John Greiner, secretary of
the Territory (ad in-
terim)
1852
William Car Lane
1852-1853
Davis Meriwether .
1853-1857
Abraham Rencher .
1857-1861
Henry Connelly
. 1861-1866
Robert B. Mitchell
. 1866-1869
William A. Pile .
. 1869-1871
Marseh Giddings .
. 1871-1875
William G. Ritch (see
retary
of government (ad
inter-
im) ....
. 1875
Samuel B. Axtell .
. 1875-1878
Lew Wallace .
. 1878-1881
Lionel A. Sheldon . . 1881-
Edmund G. Ross . . 1885-
L. Bradford Prince . 1889-
William T. Thornton 1893-
Miguel A. Otero, Jr. . 1897-
Hebert J. Ilagerman . 1906-
James W. Raynolds (sec-
retary of government ad
interim) . . . 1907
George Curry . , . 1907-
W. J. Mills" . . . 1910-
who was succeeded by
Wm. C. McDonald, first
State governor, Januarv
15, 1912
Ezequiel C. de Baca (lieu-
tenant-governor) ad in-
terim'- a short time in
1913, McDonald being in-
capacitated by sickness.
In Febniary, 1914, Eze-
quiel C. de Baca, ad in-
terim, Governor McDon-
ald being absent from
the State
1885
1889
1893
1897
1906
1907
1910
1911
CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT
Joab B. Houghton (ap
pointed by General Kear
ny) . [ .
Grafton Baker
J. J. Davenport
Kirby Benedict
John P. Slough
John S. Watts
Joseph G. Palen
Henry L. Waldo
Chas. IMcCandless .
L. Bradford Prince
S. B. Axtell .
1882
W. Vincent
1885
1846
E. V. Long
1885
ISol
James 'Brien
1889
1858
Thos. J. Smith
1893
1858
Wm. J. Mills .
1898
1866
W. H. Pope . .
1910-1911
1868
(last under Territorial
1868
government )
1876
Clarence J. Roberts (first
1878
State chief justi
^e).
1879
elected November 7 ,1911
LIST OF MEMBERS OF STATEHOOD CONVENTION,
1910
FraiK-is E. Woo-l, Herbert F
Eaynolds, Nestor Montoya, E. S
Stover, A. A. Sedillo, M. L. Stern
Anastacio Gutierrez, H. B. Fergus
son, Green B. Patterson. G. A. Eich
ardson, John I. Hinkle, Emmett Pat
ten, C. J. Roberts, Norman Bartlett
Geo. Brown, T. H. O'Brien, Chas
Springer, Francisco Gauna, T. J
Mabry, J. W. Childers, Frank W
Parker, Isidore Armijo, W. E. Gar
rison, C. E. Miller, M. P. Skeen, G
E. Briee, W. D. Murray, A. H. Harl
lee, J. B. Gilerist, W. B. Walton
J. G. Clancy, Raymond Harrison
Salome Martinez, Tranquilino La-
badie, John Capping, J. J. Aragon,
A. H. Hudspeth, J. N. Upton, George
Page, Juan Navarro, Daniel Cassi-
dy, Anastacio Medina, Emanuel Lu-
cero, Fred S. Brown, A. B. Fall, J.
A. Lawson, George E. Moffett, Reed
Hollonian, Charles Kohn, C. F. Sax-
son, J. L. House, C. C Davis, T. D.
Burns, V. Jaramillo, J. A. Lucero,
Perfecto Esquivel, Samuel Eldot. J.
H. Crist, W. E. Lindsey, James Hall,
Alejandro Sandoval, Epimeneo Mi-
era,' R. W. Heflin, M. D. Taylor, C.
i\r. Crampton, J. M. Cunningham,
H. W. Kelly, S. B. Davis, A. Roy-
bal, Luciano Maes, C. A. Spies, E.
Romero, Margarito Eomero, N. Se-
gura, T. B. Catron, J. D. Sena, G.
W. Prichard, B. F. Pankey, V. Or-
tega, F. H. Winston, E. D. Titman,
A. Abeytia F. Romero, H. O. Burs-
sum, H. M. Dougherty, O. G. Mar-
tinez, W. Mcintosh, A. B. Macdon-
ald, Acasio Gallegos, E. Gallegos, C.
C. Vigil, F. C. Fields, G. W. Baker,
Salomon Luna, J. Becker, Silvestre
Miraval
MEMBERS OF THE FIRST STATE LEGISLATURE, 1912
John S. Clark, East Las \'egas, Re-
publican
Jnan Navarro, Mora, Republican
Louis C. llfeld. Las Vegas, Rei)ubli-
can
Thomas D. Burns, Tierra Amarilla,
Republican
Joseph F. Sulzer, Albuquerque,
Progressive Republican
Epinienio A. Miera, Cuba, Republi-
can
Isaac Barth, Alburquerque, Demo-
crat
E. C. Cranipton, Raton, Republican
Eugenio B. Gallegos, Clayton, Re-
publican
Benjamin F. Pankey, Lamy, Repub-
lican
Squire Hartt, Jr., Ranchos of Taos,
Republican
Boleslo Romero, Los Lunas, Repub-
lican
Charles J. Laughren, Republican
Albino Romero, San Marcial, Pro-
gressive Republican
William M. McCoy, Mountainair, Re-
publican
Herbert B. Holt, Las Cruces, Repub-
lican
George Page, Gallup, Republican
John M. Bowman, Alamogordo, Re-
publican
James F. Hinkle, Roswell, Democrat
Fred F. Doepp, Carlsbad, Democrat
A. J. Evans, Portales, Democrat
C. H. Alldredge, Tucumcari, Demo-
crat
T. J. Mabry, Clovis, Democrat
W. B. Walton, Silver City, Democrat
REPRESENTATIVES
Zacarias Padilla. Los Lunas, Repub-
lican
Miguel E. Baca, Los Lunas, Repub-
lican
Conrad N. Hilton, San Antonio, Re-
jiublican
Thomas F. Cooney, Mogollon, Re-
])ublican
Tonias A. Gurule, Albuquerque, Dem-
ocrat
John Barron Burg, Albuquerque,
Democrat
Rafael Garcia, Albuquerque, Dem-
ocrat
Roman L. Baca, Santa Fe, Repub-
lican
Charles C. Catron, Santa Fe, Repub-
lican
Julian Trujillo, Chimayd, Rei)ubli-
can
J. P. Lucero, Lumberton, Republi-
can
George W. Tripp, East Las Vegas,
RejHiblican
Jose Lobato, Tecolote, Republican
Francisco Quintana, Las Vegas, Re-
publican
Bias Sanchez, Wagon Mound, Re-
publican
Remigio Lopez, Roy, Democrat
J. R. Skidmore, Raton, Republican
M. C. Martinez, Raton, Democrat
Manuel Cordova, Taos, Republican
liuis R. Montoya, Taos, Republican
Marcos C. de Baca, Bernalillo, Pro-
gressive Republican
174
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
O. T. 'r()()Jiil)S, Oliiytoi), l\i'|iiilili('aii
J. D. C'asados, (,'laphani, Democrat
James W. Chavez, Willard, Eepubli-
ean
Juan J. Clancy, Puerto de Luna,
Republican
John Voun<j, Gallup, Re])ul)lican
Duncan I\Ic(iillvray, Crown Point,
Kepublican
W. 11. 11. Llewellyn, Las ('ruces, Ke-
])ublican
Presiliano Moreno, Las Cruces, Re-
publican
James V. 'Tnlly, Gleneoe, Republican
Charles P. Downs, Alaniogordo, Re-
publican
J. W. Mullens, Roswell, Democrat
J. T. Evans, Roswell, Democrat
W. E. Rogers, Roswell, Democrat
Hugh M. Gage, Carlsbad, Democrat
I>"'ioronce Love, Loving, Democrat
P. K. Carter, Portales, Democrat
A. 8. Goodell, Silver City, Democrat
Robert H. Boulwaere, Silver City,
Democrat
George H. Tucker, Hillsboro, Dem-
ocrat
W. H. Chrisman, Aztec, Republican
J. W. Campbell, Tucumcari, Demo-
crat
J. L. House, House, Democrat
Antonio D. Vargas, Ojo Caliente, Re-
]iublican
Tran(iuilino Labadie, Santa Rosa,
Republican
Manuel P. Manzanares, Fort Sum-
ner, Republican
W. E. Blanchard, Arabella, Repub-
lican
W. W. Nichols, Clovis, Democrat
DELEGATES IN CONGRESS, 1847-1912
Messervy and We-ightmau already
mentioned
Jose Manuel Gallegos . 1 853-1855
Miguel A. Otero, Sr. . 1856-1861
John L. Watts . . 1861-1863
Francisco Perea . . 1863-1865
J. Franco Chavez . . 1865-1869
Charles P. Clever . . 1869-1871
J. Franco Cliavez . . 1871
(contested Clever 's elec-
tion and was successful)
Jose Manuel Gallegos . 1871-1873
Stephens B. Elkins . 1873-1877
Trinidad Eomero .
Mariano S. Otero .
Tranquilino Luna .
F. A. Manzanarez .
Antonio Joseph
Thomas B. Catron .
H. B. Fergvisson .
Pedro Perea .
Bernard S. Eodey .
William H. Andrews
(last delegate under
Organic Act)
1877
1879
1881
1883
1885
1895
1897
1899
1901
1905
1879
1881
1883
1885
1895
1897
1899
1901
1905
1911
the
Index
II
I
i
INDEX
Acomas, visited by Alvarado, 53 ;
murder Zaldivar, 93 ; refuse to sur-
render murderers, 96 ; conquered,
97
Agriculture, history of, 195
Aguilar, Captain, heads mutiny, 91
Alarcon. Hernando de, sails ■woth
provisions for Coronado 's expedi-
tion, 43
Alburquerque (now spelled Albu-
querque), founded by Yaldez. 144
Alburquerque, Duke of. viceroy, no-
tified of death of De Vargas, 142;
refuses to honor settlement with
his name, 144
Alcaraz, Captain Diego de, arrests
De Yaca and companions, 28 ; at
Sefiora, 48 ; returns to Mexico, 48
Aleman, Juan, governor of Puaray,
55
Alvarado, Hernando de. commands
expedition, 52; visits Acoma,
Puaray, and Cicuye, 53
Alvarez, Don Manuel, American con-
sul Santa Fe, 170
America, first inhabitants, 1. 2
Americans, first merchants. 159 ; sol-
diers under Pike arrested, 160 ;
first expedition with pack mules,
162; many newcomers. 165; jdan
to assassinate them, IS]
Annexation accomplished, 178
Anza, Don Juan Bautista de, battle
with Comanches in Kansas, 158
Archuleta, Diego, heads movement
against Americans, 181
Argiiello, Fernando de, governor,
107; reappointed, 110
Arizona, visited by La Ascencion,
30; votes against joint statehood,
246
Armijo, Don Manuel, mad , com-
mandant of volunteers, 168 ; pro-
claimed governor, 169 ; captures
Texas invaders, 171; raises army
to resist U. S. troops, 174; re-
fuses to surrender to Kearny.
176; flees before U. S. army, 177
Arrelano, Tristan de, commands part
of Coronado "s army, 44 ; founds
colony of San Geronimo de los
Corazones, 47; at Tiguex, 54; kills
500 buffaloes, 62 ; returns with
army, 62
Arvide, Father, murdered by Indians,
108
Ascencion, Juan de la, discovers Gila
River, 30
Assassination, of Gov. Bent and oth-
ers, 182
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe,
builds railroad to New Mexico, 232
Austria, Juan Estrado y, succeeds
Cosio, 149 ; investigates differ-
ences between Martinez and Mo-
gollon, 150
Ayeta, Father Francisco, goes for
succor, 111
Aztecs, visited by Cortes, 9 ; make
human sacrifices, 9; origin un-
known, 9
Baca. Gov. Bartolome, sends Escu-
dero to Washington. 229
Banks and banking, 234
Beltran. Father, organizes expedi-
tion, 72; accor.ipanies Espejo, 73;
returns to Mexico, 77
Benavides, Fr. Alonzo, reports on
New Mexico, 106
Bent, Charles, arrives from United
States, 165 ; first governor under
* -nencans. 166 ; discovers conspir-
acy 181; assassinated, 182
ISO
ISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO
Bijjotos, Indian from Cicuye, sulj
niits to Coronado, o2; released
from j)rison, 57
Biy of Rifjhts, extended to New
Mexico. 178
Blue ballot, provides easier way for
ainendinjf State constitution, L'49
Bolsas (Pokets), leader of Indian
conspiracy, ];^2; captured and shot,
132
Bonilla, Francisco Leyva. visits
Gran Quivira, 8.3; killed by
Humana, 8.3
Boundaries, of New Mexico, 197
Brazinas, Marquis de, see Vargas,
Don Diego de
Brothers, the Christian, see Chris-
tian Brothers
Bustamante, Don Juan Domingo de.
succeeds Austria, 1.50; conducts il-
licit trade, 151
Calhoun, James S., appointed gov-
ernor, 190
California, admitted as State, 190
Cano, Don Ignacio, discovers rich
mining placers, 165
Capuchin, Don Tomas Vellez, gover-
nor, 152 ; reinstated, 153 ; develops
industries, 154
Cardenas, Garcia Lopez de. redis-
covers Colorado River, 51 ; at
Tigiiex, 53 ; burns Indians alive,
56; wounded. 56
Carson Kit, arrives from United
States, 165; goes with Kearny as
giiide, ISO; distinguished in war,
198
Casas. Bartolome de las. 12
Castaiiada, Pedro de, 44
Castillo. Alonzo de, 18 ; survivor of
expedition of Narvaez. 24; journey
across continent, 25
Castillo, Tomas Chavez y, last dele-
gate under Mexican rule, 173
Catholic church, under American
flag, 202
Catiti, captain in insurrection, 114
Catron, Thomas Benton, one of first
U. S. senators. 252
Census, first official, 139; under
Mexican goveriunent, 225; under
U. S., 226
Cerna. Cai)tain, defeats Indians, 148
Chacon, Don Fernando, succeeds
Concha, 158; his government, 159
Champlain, Samuel de, founder of
Quel>ec, 16
Chasmuscado, Ca[)tain Francisco San-
chez, accompanies first mission,
68; death of, 72
Chavez, Don "Manuel, killed by Mc-
Daniel expedition, 171
Chimayo rebellion, 167-169; leaders
executed, 169
Christian Brothers, found school for
boys, 216
Churches, 201-204
Cibola, see Seven Cities
Cieneguilla, battle of, 135
Columbus, Oiristopher, discovers
America, 4
Commerce, under Spanish and Mex-
ican regimes, 227 ; under U. S..
228; troops protect traders, 229;
statement of, 230; before advent
of railroads, 231; enhanced by
railroads, 232
Congress, nullifies State election,
189; admits New Mexico as a Ter-
ritory, 190; rejects statehood, 246;
passes enabling act, 247 ; passes
statehood bill,' 248
Conquerors, Oiiate's expedition, 87;
conquest acknowledged, 102; Span-
iards driven out by Indians, 1 12-
116; expedition of De Vargas, 119
Convention, to establish Territorial
government, 185; adopts Memo-
rial, 186; second convention, 1S7
Cook, Captain John, captures Snive-
ly and his men, 171
Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, 19;
heads expedition to New Mexico,
43 ; reaches Zuiii, 45 ; wounded in
battle, 46 ; at 1 iguex, 32 ; orders
Indians killed, 56; visits Tiguex
and releases Bigotes, 57; starts for
Gran Quivira. 58; suffering on tl'e
march, 59; arrests Turco, 61; or-
ders Turco executed and returns to
INDEX
181
Tiguex, 63; reports to the emier-
or, 65; injured, 66; returns to
Mexico Mith army, 67
Corporations, 233
Cosio, Captain Antonio Velarde y,
appointed governor ad interim, 149
Cubero, Don Pedro Rodriguez de,
succeeds De Vargas, 13S ; inspects
province, 139; founds Cubero and
Laguna, 140 ; succeeded by De
Vargas and leaves secretly, 141
Cuerno Verde (Green Horn), Co-
manche chief, 15S
Cruzat, Gironza Petriz de, succeeds
Oterniin, 117; expedition to New
Mexico, 118
Diaz, Melehor, releases De Vaca and
companions, 29 ; at Seiiora, 48 ; ac-
cidentally killed, 48
Doniphan Colonel, commands cavalry
regiment, 175; invades ^lexico, ISO
Dorantes, Andres, 18; survivor of
expedition of Narvaez, 24; journey
across continent, 25
Education, 208-223; see Schoos
El Crepusculo, first newspaper, 168
Election, first State oflScers, 249
Escanjaque Indians, battle with
Spaniards, 100
Escaion, Father Juan de. arraigns
Ofiate. 101
Escalona, Fr. De, killed by Indians,
67
Escobar, Father Francisco, accom-
panies Ofiate, 103
Escudero, Don Manuel Smion, per-
suades U. S. to protect traders,
229
Fspejo, Antonio de, 19
Espejo, Antonio de, 19; heads ex-
pedition, 72; defeats Jumanos. 74;
reaches Tiguex, 75 ; calls Xew Mex-
ico Nueva Andalucia, 76; discovers
rich mines, 77 ; visits many pueb-
los, 78; returns to Mexico, 79
Estevanico, a negro, accompanies Pe
Vaca. 18 ; survivor of expedition
of Nar\'aez, 24; journey across
continent, 25; guides Fr. Niza, 35;
reaches Zuni, 38; killed by In-
dians, 41
Fall, Albert B., one of first U. S.
senators, 252
Florida, discovered by Ponce de
Leon, 16
French, expedition from Louisiana,
140; first colonists, 152
Gadsden Treaty, 194
Gallegos, Jose Manuel, heads move-
ment against Americans, 181
Gazette, first English and Spanish
newspaper, 191
Geronimo, Indi'^n .chief, captured,
199
Gongora, succeeds Bustamanto, 157
Gonzales, Jose, made governor by
rebels, 168
Government, under Spanish regime,
241; under Mexican rule, 242; un-
der U. S., 243; county, 244; State
organized, 251
Governors, list of, 166
Gran Quivira. described by Turco,
54; location, 62; visited by Hu-
mana and Bonilla, 83; bv Ouate,
100
Grayson, Col. .7. B.. founder Sta^e
Historical Society, 236
Grijalva, Juan de, 7
Guadalupe Hidalgo, treaty signed,
183
Guzman, Nmlo de, receives De Vaca
and comi^anioEs kindly, 29
Historical society, 236
Humana. .luan de. visits Gran Qui-
vira, 83; kiPs Bonilla, 83; killed
by Indians, S3
Hurtado, Juan Paiz, assumes charge
on death of De Vargas. 142 ; left
in charge by Martinez, 149
Ibarra, Francisco de, 19
Ibarra, Don Francisco, heads expedi-
tion, 68
Incas, rulers of Peru, 10
Indians, in Mexico and Perii, 3 ; first
discovery of. 4; origin of name, 5;
domestic habits, 14; religion, 15;
origin of, 16; visited by De Vaca,
182
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
17; cuiiie from Asia, lil ; i'X|n'll(".l
from tlieir liomos, ;j4 ; iiisiirnvtion
and cniol troatmeiit. ;")."); shiiitjli-
tcred and l)iirnoil alive. 5(i; kill
Spaniards, (50; murder three Fran-
ciscans, 108; war between Apaches
and Zufiis, 111; insurrection of,
llL'-llfi; siege of Santa Fe, 115;
capture of Santa Fe, 116; submit
to De Var^ras, 12:M2G; i)Iot to
murder all Sjianiards, 131; war
among the Pueblos, 184; insurrec-
tion, 138; condition of Pueblos
today, 205; the savage Indians,
206 '
Insurrection of 1780, 112-116
Institutions, see State iii.stitntioiift
Iturbide, Don Augiistin de, first em-
peror of Mexico, 164
Jaea, governor of Taos, warns Oter-
min, 113; captain in insurrection.
114
Jemez Hot Springs, discovered, 90
Jesus, Father Juan de, remains taken
to Santa Fe. 136
Jusepe. sole survivor of Humana 's
expedition, 83
Justice, administration of, 244
Kearny, Col. S. W.. commands
"Army of the West." 175; issues
proclamation of annexation. 176;
takes possession of Las Vegas,
176; captures Santa Fe. 177; pro-
claims New Mexico a Territory of
U. S. ; appoints Territorial of-
ficials. 179 ; starts for California,
180
Lalande. John Baptiste, first Amer-
ican trader. 159
Lamv. Eev. Juan B., vicar apostolic,
202
Land grants. 240
La Roca del Moro (the Eock of the
Moor), guiding object of early
comers, 253
Las Yesas. captured by Kearny. 176
Lane. William Carr, annexes disputed
territory, 193
Legisl.-iture, first lawful meets, 191;
first State, 252
Lejanza. (iovernor Mariano Marti-
nez de. assaulted by Yutes, 172
I>e<)n, Don Diego de Vargas Zapata
Lujan Ponce de. see V<ir(/(is, Don
Diego de
Leon. Pedro Ponce de. 85
Leon, Ponce de, discovers Florida, 16
Leon, Cai)tain Ponce de, defeate<l by
Doniphan, 180
Letrado. Father, murdered by In-
dians, 108
Lomas v Calmenares, Juan Bautista
de, 80
Lopez, Francisco, one of the first mis-
sionaries. 68; killed by Indians, 71
Loretto. Sisters of, see Sisters of Lo-
retto
Lovato. Captain, killed by raiders,
171
McLeod, General, heads Texas expe-
dition, 171
Madrid. Captain Roque de, enters
New Mexico. 120
Morete, Captain Juan, arrests De
Sosa. 82
Marquette. Jacques, 16
Martinez, Father Alonzo. advises war
on Aeomas, 94
Martinez. Rev. Antonio Jose, pub-
lishes first newspaper, 166
Martinez, Don Felix, becomes acting
governor. 147 ; arrests ^Motrollon,
147; removed by Valero, 149
Medizabal, governor, removed for
malfeasance, 110
Melgares, Facundo M., last of the
Spanish governors, 163
Memorial to Congress, adopted, 186
Mendinueta, Don Pedro Fermin de,
succeeds Capuchin, 154; the peer
of De Vargas, 155 ; makes peace
with Comanches, 156; reports the
lamentable condition of New Mex-
ico. 156; leaves for Mexico. 158
Mesa Prieta. battle of, 133; another
battle. 135
Mesilla Valley, taken by Lane, 193;
INDEX
183
purchaseil by Aiiiorifan govern-
ment, U)4
Mexico. Citv of, onteroil bv ('oi'tes.
9
Michalena, Don Knri'iiie ile Olavide
y, succeeds Gongora. 151
Mills, Gov., goes to Washington, 24S ;
issues proclamation for first State
election, 249
Mining and mines, "207
Mission, first, OS ; establisli headi|nar-
ters in Puaray. 09 ; deserted by
soldiers, 70
Mogollon, Don Juan Ignacio Flores,
succeeds Penuela, 145; puts down
uprising of Indians, 146 ; resigns,
140; arrested by Martinez. 147
Monterey, viceroy, 85
Montezuma, emperor of the Aztecs, 9
Moro, see La Boca del Moro
Narvaez, Panfilo de, sails from Spain
to Florida, 23 ; unable to leave
Florida, 24 ; wrecked and killed, 24
New Mexico, first visited by De
Vaca, 17; named, 71; first history
of, 87; first colony. 89; first cap-
ital, 90; lost to Spaniards, 112-
116; reconquered by De Vargas,
120-126; resettlement. 127; neg-
lected by central government, 156 ;
consolidated with other provinces,
158; trade established with Mis-
souri, 162; end of Spanish regime,
163; under Emperor Iturbide. 164;
Territory of Eepublic of Mexico,
165; made a Department, 166; last
election under Mexican rule, 173;
invaded by army of U. S.. 175 ;
under American flag, 177; becomes
Territory of U. S.; ceded by Mex-
ico, 183; first legislature, 1S4;
State officers ejected, 188; election
nullified, 189; admitted as a Ter-
ritory, 190 ; officials elected, 191 ;
development of industries. 192;
boundaries of, 197 ; patriotism of,
198, 200; schools of, 208-223;
public institutions, 223. 224; popu-
lation of, 225, 226 ; commerce of,
227-232; votes for joint statehood,
246; adopts constitution, 247;
elects first State officers, 249
Newport, Captain, 10
Xe\vs|)apers, first jiublication, 100;
first Knglish and Spanish, 191 ;
growth of, 238
Niza, Marcos de, visits Indians, 19;
explores Zuni, 31; sketch of, 32;
enters New Mexico, 33; cordially
received by Indians, 35 ; hears of
Cortes in California, 30; reaches
Vacapa, 37; reaches Zuiii, 42; re-
turns to City of Mexico, 42; ac-
companies Coronado 's expedition,
44; reprimanded and sent back to
Mexico, 40
Obando, Captain Francisco de, killed
at Puaray, 50
Ojeda. Alonso de, 6
Onate, Don Cristoval de, lieutenant
governor, 87
Oiiate, Juan de, first visits New Mex-
ico. 19 ; hears story of Humaiia
expedition, 83; sketch of, 84; of-
fers to conquer New Mexico at
his own expense, 85; answers
charges, 86; his expedition, 87;
takes possession of New Mexico,
88; selects site for capital, 90;
plans trip to Gulf of California,
92 ; abandons trip, 93 ; war on Aco-
mas, 94; asks for reenforcements,
98; reprimanded by Fathers, 99;
journey to Quivira, 100; arraigned
by Father Escalon, 101; defended
bv Zaldivar, 102 ; given rank of no-
bility and reenforcements, 102 ;
visits Gulf of California, 103;
founds Santa Fe, 104; ceases to
be governor, 104
Ortiz, Don Tomas, heads movement
against Americans, 181
Otermin, Don Antonio de, succeeds
Miranda. 112; warned by Ye, 113;
and by Jaca, 113; rejects Pope's
ultimatum. 115; wounded. 110;
fails to reconquer country, 117
Padilla. Fr. Juan de, killed by In-
dians, 07
184
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO
I'oiiiiido, Fatlicr, 10')
IVfia. Fiitlicr, makes cliarges against
Pefuicla, 14;")
iVfiiiloza, jitniTiior, iinposler, 110
I'ofiiiola, Mai(|iiis de, siK-ceeds Val-
(lez, 144; liis administration, 14o;
removed and fined, 145
Peralta, Don Pedro de, succeeds
Onate as governor, 104; despotic
niler, 105
Perez, Don Albino, governor, assas-
sinated, 167
Peruvians, 11; origin of, 12
Pike, Colonel Zebulon, arrested ai;d
taken to Santa Fe, 160
Pino, Pedro Bautista, sent as dele-
gate to Spain, 161 ; history cited,
227
Political divisions, 245
Pope, Juan, leader of insurrection,
112; assault on Santa Fe, 114;
sends ultimatum to Otermin, 115
Population, first official census, 189;
Spanish and Mexican eras, 225;
under U. S., 226
Porras, Father, murdered by In-
dians, 108
Posadas, Pedro Eeneros de, succeeds
Cruzat, 118
Press, the, 238 ; see Newspapers
Price, Col. Sterling, commands second
army of invasion, 175; punishes
insurrectos, 183
Prince, L. B., president State H's-
torical Soc'ety. 236
Protestant church, first erected in
Santa Fe. 201
Provincial Deputation, organized in
Santa Fe, 165; becomes Depart-
mental Assembly, 166
Pueblo Indians, 205; see Indiuns
Purslej, James, second American to
settle in Santa Fe, 160
Quivira, see Gran Quivira
Religious communities. 203
Rivera, Captain Juan Maria, discov-
ers rich silver mines in Colorado,
154
Rodriguez, Augustin, 19
Rodriguez, Agustin , one of the first
missionaries, 68; killed by In-
dians, 71
Rcsas, Luis, governor, 107; assassin-
ated, 109
Salmeron, Cieroninio Zarate, histor-
ian, 105
Salpointe, Archbisliop Juan B.,
priest and author, 20
Salt Lake, discovered by Franciscans,
157
San Francisco, first capital, 90
San (iabricl, first colony in New Mex-
ico. S9 ; made first capital and
called San Francisco. 90
San Miguel, palace and chajjel, built
by Onate, 104
Santa Cruz, refounded, 137
Santa Maria, Juan de, one of the
first missionaries, 68; kil'ed by
Indians, 71
Santa Fe, founded by Onate. 104;
assaulted by Indians, 114; sie^e
of, 115; recaptured by De Vargas,
122;. formal possession taken by
De Vargas, 130; attacked by Te-
guas, 135; loss by flood. 155; re-
bui't by Mendinueta. 155; trade es-
tablished with Missouri. 162;
American consulate established,
170; captured by Kearny, 177;
first legislature meets, 184
Santa Fe Trail, dedication of monu-
ment, 239
Schools, established, 150; first school
law, 165; early schools. 208; first
public schools, 209 ; private schools,
210; first public school laws, 211;
private colleges, 212; condition at
time of annexation, 213; first un-
der American government. 214;
pioneer educational institution,
215; Cliristian Brothers' collei^^e,
216; parochial and mission, 217;
under U. S. government. 218; gov-
ernment of, 219; students and
funds, 220, 221 ; private and sec-
tarian, 222 ; state pedagogic insti-
tutions, 223
Senators, of U. S., elected, 189; elec-
INDEX
185
tion nullified, ISS); plootod, 2.12;
seated, 252
Seven Cities (or Cibola), visited by
Estevanieo, 38; by Niza, 42; by
Coronado, 46
Silva. Manuel, governor, 107
Sisters of Loretto, pioneer edueatois,
215
Smith, Hugh C, selected delegate to
Congress by convention, 187
Soldiers of the Cross, by Archbislioii
Sali>ointe, 20
Sosa, Castafio de, 19; organizes ex-
jiedition, 81 ; visits all the pueblcs
of New Mexico, 82; arrested, 82
Statehood, Ix'ginning of fight, ISS;
history of struggle, 24(1-248; battle
won, 248; accomplished, 250
State institutions, pedagogic, 223;
])enal and other, 224
Stock raising, growth of, lOG
Taft, President William II., assists
in passage of enabling act, 247;
signs statehood bill, 248 ; issues
proclamation, 250
Tenochtitlan (Mexico), City of, 9
Texas, visited by De Vaca and com-
panions, 25
Texas, claims Xew Mexico, 171 ; in-
vaders arrested, 171 ; other raids,
171
Tovar. Pedro de, battle with In-
dians, 50
Trail, the Santa Fe, see Santa Fe
Trail
Tupatu, captain in insurrection, 114;
friend of De Vargas, 123
Tiirco, Indian who looked like Turk,
53; charged with falsehood, GO;
arrested, 61 ; executed, 63
United States, consulate established,
170; war with Mexico, 174; army
invades New Mexico, 175
Urdinola, Francisco de, 80
Utah, admitted as Territory, 190
Vaca, Alvar Nunez Cabeza de, first
white man to cross American con-
tinent, 17; tells of the Indians,
18; sketch of, 22; survivor of ex-
pedition of Narvaez, 24; becomes
trader and doctor among the In-
dians, 24; journey across continent,
25; friendly treatment by Indians,
26; eats dog meat, 27; arrested by
De Alcaraz, 28; released l)y Mei-
chor Diaz, 29 ; reaches City of Mex-
ico, 29; sai!s for Spain, 29; aji-
pointed governor of La Plata, 29;
sent to Spain in chains, 29
Valdez, Francisco CHiervo y, succeeds
De Vargas, 142; trips of inspec-
tion, 143; founds Alburijuerque,
144
Valero, Marquez do, viceroy, removes
Martinez, 149
Vargas, Don Diego de, sketch of,
119; first entry, 120; readies San-
ta Fe, 121; trip of inspection,
124; reeonquest completed, 125,
126; reports to viceroy, 127; re-
entry, 128, 129; takes formal ])os-
session of Santa Fe, 130 ; hears of
Indian conspiracy, 131; final con-
quest of Santa Fe, 132; jiartitions
land among colonists, 133 ; pro-
tects friendly pueblos, 134; re-
founds settlements, 137; reports
country pacified, 138; fined and
imprisoned, 138; succeeds Cubero
and given title of Marquis, 141;
death, 142
Vargas, Francisco Diaz de, 79
Velasco, Father, warned by Ye, 113
Velasco, viceroy, 80; approves
Onate 's petition, 85
Vigil, Donaciano, member first con-
vention, 185 ; apjiointed secretarv*
190
Vigil, Juan Bautista, invites Kearny
to Santa Fe, 177; appointed civil
governor, 185
Villagra, Caspar de, first historian
of New Mexico, 87
Villamanrique, viceroy, 80
Villaneueva, Fernando de, succeeds
Peiialoza, 111
Villaseiior, Don Jose Chacon Medina
Salazar y, see Penuelu, Marquis
de
186 IliSTOKV OF x\K\V MEXICO
Viiiin, Ceran St., arrives from United asoo of iiisurroPtion, IK!; tells ol'
States, 1(5;"); cominaiKls volunteers, jiiot to De N'arj^as. D'.l
1S;{ ^'s(lI)ete, Indian ti"'de, GO, Gl
Wars, tlie Civil, lilS; Indian, I'.t'.t; Zaldivar, .Iiian de, aide-de-canij) to
S|ianisliAnHMican, L'(t() Onate, 87; in charge of colonies,
\Veij,ditni:tn, Kiciiard, elected senator, 9l^ ; killed by Aconias, 93
189; first delegate to Congress, Zaldivar, Vicente, chief sergeant of
191 Qnate, 87; explores Quivira, 92;
Wichita Indians, the (!ran (^nivira, marches on Acoinas, 95; demands
G',\ surrender of murderers, 9G; goes
Wordfield expedition, attacks town to Spain, 98; defends Onate, 102
of Mora, 171 Zotyio. J'Vlipe, succeeds Peralta as
governor, 105
Xave, calls Turco an imposter, GO Zuni, visited by De Vaea, 26
Zapata, Juan Ortiz, Jesuit historian,
Ye Juan, warns Otennin and \'el- .'56
V-
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