ri HC 
 
 

 
 
 *-.^ '-'^ 
 
 
 ':^»Siy:''>;ir:tM^_ 
 
 
 
[Crmon copyright reserved. 
 
 SOME IMPEESSIONS 
 
 OF 
 
 MESOPOTAMIA IN 1919. 
 
 BY 
 
 Sir JOHN P. HEWETT, G.C.S.I., K.B.E. 
 
 i/i Report for the Army Council on Mesopota/mia by Sir John P. Hetoett has already 
 been published by His Majesty's Stationery Office) 
 
 LONDON: 
 PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. 
 
 To be purchased through any Bookseller or directly from 
 
 H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses: 
 
 Imperial House, Kingsway, London, W.C. 2, and 28, Abingdon Street, London, S.W. 1 ; 
 
 37, Peter Street, Manchester; I, St. Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff; 
 
 23, Forth Street, Edinburgh; 
 
 or from E. PONSONBY, Ltd., 116, Grafton Street, Dubun. 
 
 1920. 
 Price, Od. net. 
 
n 
 
 
SOME IMPRESSIONS OF MESOPOTAMIA 
 
 IN 1919. 
 
 By sir JOHN P, HEWETT, G.C.S.I., K.B.E. 
 
 The area of the two vilayets of Basra and Baghdad is about 108,000 square 
 miles. The extent of the country, including the Mosul vilayet (42,000 square miles), 
 is 150,000 square miles. The population of the vilayets of Basra and Baghdad has 
 not been taken by a regular census. Endeavours are now being made to obtain an 
 approximate estimate of it. Judging from the information available, it may be assumed 
 to be between 1,500,000 and 1,800,000. Even if it approximates to the latter figure 
 after adding the population of Mosul, estimated at about 250,000, a total is reached of 
 only 2,000,000 (1). The area is thus about that of a large province in India. The 
 population is far below that of the smallest province there. 
 
 It was hoped that about 2,000,000 acres of land would come under cultivation in 
 1919, The forecast of the Irrigation Department is that 1,320,000 acres are likely to 
 be harvested this year. My own opinion — for what it is worth — is that the area 
 cultivated was above 1,500,000 but under 2,000,000 acres. The development of the 
 country depends on the extension of irrigation, and the provision of a population 
 adequate to cultivate the land commanded by water. Sir William Willcocks 
 estimated that an area of 7,000,000 acres of wheat and barley could be irrigated from 
 the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates. In addition, 1,000,000 acres of rice and . 
 3,000,000 acres of millet, &c., could be cultivated. Thus, from the point of view of its 
 existing population, and of the area likely to come under cultivation in the near future, 
 Mesopotamia (the term being used to designate the three vilayets of Basra, Baghdad 
 and Mosul) is a comparatively small country. 
 
 It is essentially an agricultural country. Outside oil, its mineral resources appear 
 to be insignificant. The possibilities of its development seem to be jn the production 
 of cereals, oilseeds, cotton, beet and fruit, in the manufacture of sugar from beet, and 
 in the breeding of sheep and, possibly later on, cattle. 
 
 A good deal of currency has been given to exaggerated ideas of the wealth of 
 Mesopotamia. The country should have a great future, but it is not likely to become 
 an El Dorado at once. I could not obtain the figures for the budget of the current 
 year, but understood that the revenue was estimated to be 2,000,000 sterling. If that 
 is really the estimate, it seems to be a conservative one. 
 
 The first impression which one gains on a visit to Mesopotamia is that the country- 
 side is remarkably quiet. The population has in its possession large quantities of arms, 
 but the carrying of arms is discouraged. One sees no one going armed, and over wide 
 tracts there is no sign of a soldier of our own army. One might have imagined that, 
 in a country where life is valued very cheaply and lawlessness has always been rife, 
 there would have been a number of instances of assassination on political and similar 
 grounds. These have been wonderfully rare, and none at all, I believe, for many months. 
 
 It may be that when the size of the army is reducjed, as is proposed, to two 
 divisions and two cavalry brigades, breaches of law and order may become more 
 numerous. But, on the surface at all events, the Arab appears to be pleased that it is 
 no longer necessary for him to go armed. And a good system of village police under 
 the control of the headman, and of armed police drilled to a high state of discipline and 
 stationed at centres from which they can be readily despatched to deal with local 
 troubles, should enable la.w and order to be maintained efiectively in the more settled 
 tracts. Among the nomad tribes the Sheikhs wUl no doubt, subject to the control of 
 the political ofiicers, be vested with a considerable measure of authority. 
 
 The quiet of the countryside is emphasized by the absence of the villages, and the 
 enormous areas of land of very fertile character which lie untouched by the plough. 
 
 (M7080) Wt. 38890— .S12/4752 500 5/20 H&8 7993wo P. 20/53 
 
Old canals and water channels, stretching in every direction, exist all over the country, 
 and there are signs of former cultivation everywhere. One realizes at once that the 
 country is a very fertile one which has not for a long time given the iruits of the earth 
 to anything like the extent to which it should have. In many places the nomad camps 
 on the banks of the river are the only signs of the country being inhabited. 
 
 Another physical feature which impresses itself on one every mile one goes is the 
 extraordinary absence of trees, other than date palms and fruit trees in small orchards 
 round fixed habitations. Both sides of the Shatt-el-Arab, as one approaches Basra, 
 are covered with the most magnificent areas of date palms. As one proceeds north 
 they are limited to the surroundings of the occupied villages, till eventually the date 
 palm comes to an end at Tekrit, where there is a small family of three trees. 
 
 The date palms are said to number over ten millions, and are a most essential 
 feature in the wealth of the country. Oranges, grapes, peaches, apricots, plums, 
 greengages, mulberries, figs and pomegranates grow well, and there are a few indifferent 
 apples. Willows, on the foreshore of the Euphrates, and in other places where they 
 have been able to grow, owing to the dampness in the soil, are almost the only other 
 trees which one sees anywhere. The shortness of fuel — willows are burned for 
 charcoal — is very marked, and the greater portion of the population depends for its 
 fuel supplies on the camel thorn, which grows in profusion in most places. 
 
 The main obstacle to the early development of Mesopotamia is undoubtedly the 
 shortness of the popuLition. Although there is a certain amount of unirrigated cultiva- 
 tion e-s^ery year, and the amount of land sown but unprotected by irrigation is very 
 considerable in a year where the rainfall has been so propitious as it has this year ; it is 
 fair to say, of the Basra and Baghdad vilayets generally, that irrigation is an absolute 
 necessity, not merely an advantage, in production. The ability to develop irrigation is 
 limited by the amount of labour available (l) to dig the canals and (2) to cultivate the 
 new lands which such canals can irrigate. The present Civil Commissioner is of opinion 
 that the area now under cultivation is nearly as much as the existing population can 
 deal with by existing methods. It is the opinion of all the most experienced officers of 
 the civil administration whom he has consulted that the policy of the administration 
 for some years after the war should be to endeavour through the Agricultural 
 Department to improve the quality of the crops grown, and the yield per acre, and in 
 certain cases to improve the local methods of cultivation rather than to seek to open up 
 fresh areas. That there is immense scope for improvement in the methods of cultivation 
 is indisputable ; and it is the fact that, while the area under crop at the present moment 
 is much higher than it has ever been since Babylonian times, there are areas now 
 commanded by canals which have not been cultivated this winter. There is then no 
 advantage in pressing on large schemes such as have been suggested for the irrigation of 
 the country without first looking round to see whether, if more canals are constructed, 
 the land irrigated by them can be cultivated. 
 
 There is a very interesting article by Miss Gertrude Bell on land and labour in 
 Mesopotamia, printed as Appendix VI. to the report by Messrs. Holland and Wilson, 
 on the prospects of British trade in Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. At a meeting 
 of the Royal Geographical Society on 15th November, 1909, at which Sir William 
 Willcock's projects for irrigation in Mesopotamia were discussed. Miss Bell remarked : 
 *' It is difficult to overestimate the mobility of labour in Oriental countries. This 
 points to an economic condition in the Turkish Empire which it is important to bear in 
 raind ; everybody is short of a job. I am inclined to believe that the moment 
 Sir William begins his work, he will find labour coming to him in great quantities, and 
 from very distant parts of the Empire. The rumour of a fixed wage wiU speedily 
 bring people to Mesopotamia and, as the land comes into cultivation, that which is not 
 occupied by the local population will be taken up by these immigrants." Such a 
 movement could not be expected on a scale of any size except in peace time, and 
 Miss Bell, writing in February, 1917, felt that "when all local sources of supply have 
 been taken into account it is unlikely that the amount of labour available in the 
 immediate future will be abundant." Miss Bell insisted on the need for regarding the 
 labour question in Mesopotamia from the political as well as the economic standpoint. 
 This aspect of the case cannot be neglected, though it seems possible that it might 
 claim too much attention. Outside the Government land the tribal Sheikhs seem to 
 claim a right in the land whether cultivated or uncultivated. If a marsh is drained, 
 or some deserted land comes under the command of a new irrigation channel, a claimant 
 to the land seems to appear at once from somewhere. Considering the relatively small 
 amount of land now under cultivation compared to what might be cultivated were the 
 schemes of Sir William Willcocks or some similar projects carried into eflfect, it is 
 
difficult to imagine that the State in Mesopotamia, whatever it might be, would admit 
 so promiscuous a claim. But the existence of a cultivating community, consisting 
 entirely of Shias, constitutes a formidable bar, in the interests of peace and quiet, to 
 the introduction of colonists belonging, in Miss Bell's words, " to an alien and n'on- 
 absorbable civilization." This consideration seems to exclude the idea of any general 
 immigration of Indians as cultivators, though every Indian who sees the land, envies, 
 its fertility. The Mahommedan cultivator from India is just as undesirable as the 
 Hindu. He is usually a Sunni, and religious difference between Shias and Sunnis are apt 
 to develop, as experience at Lucknow and elsewhere proves, into hostility as acute as 
 that which is found between the Musalman and the Hindu. Were the area commanded 
 by canals in Mesopotamia largely extended, Persians might be attracted to cultivate 
 'it, but the population of Northern Persia is sadly reduced, and little aid could come 
 except from Southern Persia for a long time. Any appreciable influx of Mahommedan 
 immigrants from beyond the seas seems dt least uncei'tain. The Sudan needs all its 
 population ; Egypt could spare large numbers. The Arab in Egypt has, I beheve, been 
 singularly tenacious of his home when attempts have been made to induce him to move 
 comparatively short distances, but this may not mean that he would not be ready' to 
 cross the seas were prospects sufficiently attractive. Mesopotamia seems to be a country 
 which the Egyptian might be expected to like. 
 
 The Director of Labouf has favoured me witli some very interesting remarks on the 
 possibilities of local labour in Mesopotamia, which are attached (page 16). I understand 
 that the present Civil Commissioner estimates the amount of labour available for public 
 works of different kinds at about 30,000. At the beginning of March the number of 
 Arabs employed on labour, including 10,000 in the Mosul vilayet, where special 
 measures had to be taken to employ some of the city population owing to local scarcity, 
 was 39,415. This number will be rapidly reduced as soon as men become needed for 
 agricultural operations. The 'rains had been so favourable for agriculture till the 
 beginning of March that very little labour had been needed for irrigation of the crop. 
 The greatest employer of ' labour is the Irrigation Department. It has during the 
 past year never had anything .like as much Arab as imported labour. At the 
 beginning of March it had only 1,950 Arabs working in a force of 15,800. A large 
 amount of flood protection has had to be done on the Tigris this winter. Out of 6,570 
 employed on this work ■ only 300 Arabs could be collected. I have myself seen 
 embankments being constructed on the Tigris between Amarah and Kut without any 
 Arabs at all working on them. Vessels are loaded and discharged at the port of 
 Basra almost entirely by imported labour. The figures* from the port showing 
 how the different classes employed there have worked are interesting as showing 
 how imported labour has to be relied on for this f)urpose. It is difficult to see 
 how Mesopotamia is going to get on in peace time without imported labour in such 
 matters as irrigation, railway construction, other public works and the work of the 
 port of Basra. 
 
 So far as agriculture is concerned the shortness of labour may be neutralized to 
 some extent by the Introduction of agricultural machinery. Mesopotamia is, indeed, 
 not so favourable a country for the use of tractors and harvesters as Arablstan is, as it 
 is much cut up by water channels. But in spite of this, it offers considerable scope for 
 the utilization of all kinds of agricultural labour-saving processes, and the more 
 intelligent Arab is keenly alive to the advantages of adopting such processes. 
 
 But other measures are necessary if the country is to progress as it ought to do. 
 
 The doctrine of the survival^of the fittest is well exemplified in the population of 
 Mesopotamia. The Arabs who grow up, male and female, are a strong sturdy race though 
 syphilis Is prevalent. The women are healthy and prolific. In the absence of vital statistics 
 reliable figures are unobtainable. But medical opinion calculates that there is a birth 
 rate of about 26 per mille, that 12 to 15 per cent, of the children born die before they 
 are a month old, and another 50 per cent, within the year. The death rate among 
 children between birth and 15 years of age is thought to be as high as 75 per cent. 
 The greatest need of Mesopotamia is an efficient civil medical ser-«ice. Its function 
 should be to improve the general health of the population and to raise the standard of 
 health and physique. A rapid increase of the population should accompany the growing 
 prosperity of the country, and the working capacity per head of the population is 
 certain to increase as the result of improvement in the personal health of the individual. 
 One error to be avoided in the creation of such a service is the unnecessary multiplica- 
 tion of administrative officers. No scheme is likely to succeed which does not depend 
 in the first Instance on the keenness of those directly in contact with the people whom 
 
 * Appendix E, page 19, shows tbis best. 
 (7!I93) A 2 
 
it is designed to benefit, and the introduction of any machinery calculated to check 
 initiative or to cause obstruction and delay is to be deprecated. The civil surgeons 
 shquld be chosen for their wide experience in medicine and surgery ; their efficiency will 
 be much enhanced by a knowledge .of bacteriology ; the influence will depend on their 
 character and personality. To induce good men to join the service the conditions of 
 employment in it must be made attractive. Any rule restricting private practice is 
 likely to discourage men from joining it. There seems to be great work for lady 
 medical officers. The Arab seems very keen to get advice of a good doctor. They seem 
 quite ready to go to hospitals under the charge of British officers and are not reluctant 
 to submit to operations. I have seen them, men and women, thronging the dispensary 
 of an Indian Sub- Assistant Surgeon in whose advice they had reason to feel confidence. 
 
 The health of the outlying communities, of the tribes on the river banks, and of the 
 population in the desert could be provided for by a system of travelling dispensaries in 
 specially equipped motor ambulances and motor launches. The popularity achieved by 
 travelling dispensaries in India leads one to feel sure that they would be much 
 appreciated in Mesopotamia. Special attention is required for the treatment, both in 
 stationary hospitals and in peripatetic dispensaries, of eye diseases, which are 
 ■distressingly prevalent. 
 
 Medical officers of health will be necessary in the large towns who should have 
 under them medical inspectors, sanitary inspectors and women inspectors, whose special 
 charge would be the improvement of infant hygiene. The employment of trained 
 British women would be an experiment, and it seems certain that their help would be 
 appreciated, and that they would be able to give most valuable assistance. 
 
 These matters have no doubt already received consideration at the hands of the 
 •civil authorities, and these very general suggestions are not made with the idea that 
 there is any originality about them, but with the .conviction that the creation of a 
 medical organization designed to provide as far as possible for the efiective treatment of 
 the sjck, and to raise, with as little delay as possible, the general standard of hygiene 
 and comfort, is the first and most important problem which demands settlement from 
 the point of view of the Arab population of Mesopotamia. 
 
 The great dlfierence between Egypt and Mesopotamia is that in the former country 
 water is most abundant in the Nile during the summer weather, whereas the floods 
 come in Mesopotamia in the winter and spring, the rivers being at their lowest in the 
 summer and autumn. Therefore, while Egypt depends mainly on cotton and other hot 
 weather crops, Mesopotamia depends in large degree, and will continue to depend on the 
 cereals produced by the crops sown in the autumn and winter, and reaped in the early 
 summer. Water for irrigation being chiefly available during the months favourable for 
 the growth of wheat and barley, these two staples are the main crops of Mesopotamia. 
 Barley is the more prevalent crop in the lower part of the country. The proportion of 
 wheat on the Euphrates increases in Hamadi and Hit, and west of the latter place little 
 or no barley is cultivated. In the Basra and Baghdad vilayets the amount of barley 
 to wheat was recently calculated at about 9 to 1. In the vilayet of Mosul wheat is a 
 much more common crop than barley. A very good macaroni wheat is grown in the 
 neighbourhood of Kirkuk, Alton-Kupri, Erbil and Mosul itself ; practically it may be 
 described as unirrigated. In the Karun Valley in Arabistan, whence grain for export 
 goes to Basra, there is very little irrigation. The proportion of wheat to barley 
 there is 2 to 1. Some of the wheat is of an excellent quality. In 1908 the export 
 ■of grain from Basra amounted to 126,000 tons, in 1909 to 36,000 tons, in 1910 to 64,000 
 tons, in 1911 to 148,000, and in 1912 to 231,000. In 1911-12, 92,700 tons of grain 
 were exported from Basra to London, and 63,300 to Hamburg and Antwerp. In 
 1912-13 there was a bad harvest, and the exports fell 20,350 tons for London and 
 4,800 tons for the other two ports ; mostly barley, some rice, paddy and seeds. The 
 trade has naturally died during the war, but this year there should be a great deal of 
 grain for export. The. difficulty this summer will be to lift the crop, both in 
 Mesopotamia and in Arabistan. Prices in both places are at the moment very much on 
 the downward grade, having been for some time at an artificial height. In the 
 Baghdad vilayat in the hot weather of 1918, the price of wheat rose to over lis. 1,000 
 a ton ; by the middle of 1919 the price varied from Ks. 240 to Es. 275 a ton, and that 
 -jf barley from Rs. 60 to Rs. 90. 
 
 The Arab cultivator is the worst of whom I have had any experience. The Indian 
 raiyat as a rule does not cultivate to a high standard of efficiency, but he is far ahead 
 of the Arab. He has to work to get his land to yield him a good return. The 
 Arab in Mesopotamia and Arabistan has not. Colonel Evans, the Director of 
 Agriculture in Mesopotamia, has examined a large number of samples of both wheat and 
 
Isarley from all parts of the country, and hag no hesitation in saying that they are 
 the worst commercial samples he has ever seen. The chief fault which he finds 
 is that wheat and barley, as at present produced, are too mixed to be of real value, 
 lie has found that a sample of wheat will often contain so much barley that it is 
 difficult to judge on first inspection whether it could be more accurately described as a 
 dirty sample of wheat or a dirty sample of barley. It was this defect which led to the 
 army ceasing this year to, buy wheat produced under the agricultural development 
 scheme. The purchase of wheat was not allowed if it contained over 17^ per cent, of 
 barley. It was found impossible to get wheat of this purity, and when the figure was 
 raised to 25 per cent, it was still not found feasible to make satisfactory purchases. In 
 addition to the excessive amount of barley in the wheat, samples are usually found 
 contaminated with the seeds of the 'wild oat and other weeds, and often contain a 
 high proportion of dirt. Weeds are common in the winter in Mesopotamia, but 
 systematic weeding is not practised. In Arabistan the wheat-fields are full of such 
 growths as mallow and a kind of charlock, and no attempt seems to be made to 
 extirpate them. Apparently the hot sun during the ripening of the crop kills them. 
 The miller does not want to find barley or wild oats in his wheat, nor the distiller to 
 find wheat in his barley. There is another serious fault, in that diiferent varieties of 
 wheat and barley are too much mixed. The miller will want one kind of wheat and the 
 distiller one type of barley. Colonel Evans finds that in the best of the samples five or 
 six different types can always be picked out. They would include hard and soft 
 grains, grains of different colours, and would vary in shape and size. The haphazard 
 system of cultivation being largely responsible for these results, the remedy to be 
 sought is the means of improving the methods of the grower. His practice is to sow 
 the seed first and to plough it after irrigation. The land may have been cropped with 
 barley in the previous year and much spent grain be in it. This is ploughed under with 
 the wheat seed sown, and naturally a mixed crop results. It is easy to remedy this. If 
 the land is irrigated so that the barley and wild oats dormant in the soil germinate and 
 are then ploughed under, a clean seedbed on which the pure seed can be sown will 
 result. The Agricultural Department, ui:der the direction of Colonel Evans, has issued 
 leaflets in Arabic explaining this to th(^ cultivator. It is also endeavouring to ascertain 
 what types of wheat and barley are likely to find the best markets, and is testing by 
 experiment what varieties are likely to give the biggest yields. An improvement 
 ought then to be speedily effected but the grain produced from the crop now on the land 
 will necessarily be very mixed and very dirty. Colonel Evans' testimony gives very 
 strong support to the contention of the Civil Commissioner that there is plenty of work 
 for the Agricultural Department to do in improving the local methods of cultivation, 
 bettering the quality of the crops grown and raising the yield per acre. This all points 
 to the need for a strong and efficient Agricultural Department, a matter which will be 
 returned to later. Improved methods of cultivation should certainly lead to increased 
 out-turn. When he prepared his scheme of agricultural development in 1918, Mr. Garbett, 
 then First Revenue Officer, calculated that the out-turn of the harvest should be f ths of 
 a ton per acre for barley and '^ of a ton for wheat. Our conclusions in respect of the 
 out-turn of the harvest produced under the scheme in 1917 were that the area under crop 
 was from 550,000 to 600,000 acres, and the produce from ;J60,000 to 300,000 tons. The 
 out-turn was according to these calculations, less per acre than Mr. Garbett had 
 anticipated. In the estimate framed by Mr. Ward, Inspector- General of Irrigation in 
 India, of the prospects of the crop now on the ground he took the out-turn of wheat 
 and barley at an all round figure of f ths of a ton per acre. When I saw Mr. Garbett in 
 December last he appeared to favour thi^ figure. According to our calculations of the 
 results of the 1918 harvest it would be an under-estimate. It represents 840 lbs. an 
 acre. This seems a very low figure for irrigated wheat and barley, considering that the 
 soil of Mesopotamia is of such excellent quality. 
 
 In the statistical tables for the out-turn of wheat the standard of out-turn in India 
 is taken as 12*8 bushels (100) = 768 lbs. But a large amount of the wheat produced 
 in India is not irrigated. Mr. Moreland, late Director of Agriculture in the United 
 Provinces, in his work on " The Agriculture of the United Provinces" (p. 203) writes 
 that the out-turn of irrigated wheat in those provinces averages 1,200 lbs. or more to the 
 acre. Mr. Morrison, at one time Inspector-General of Agrictilture in India, referring to 
 the cultivation of wheat in certain parts of the Bombay Presidency, estimated that a 
 good irrigated crop of wheat might give 2,000 lbs. of grain, and over a ton of straw 
 per acre, and a good dry crop 1,000 lbs of grain and the same weight of straw. The 
 out-turn of barley would be rather higher than that of wheat, but there is much husk 
 ^nd less barley than wheat is watered. The average would, of course, be lower than 
 
these figures, but they are sufficient to show that there is a great margin for improve- 
 ment in the out-turn of wheat and barley in Mesopotamia. 
 
 In paragraph 36 of their report, the Trade Commissioners write : " but our 
 greatest hopes for the future of Mesopotamia are founded upon its possibihties as a 
 cotton producing country." And, in accordance with their suggestion, an expert in the 
 Indian Agricultural Service, Mr. \\. Thomas, B.S.C, was sent to conduce experiments 
 with varieties of Egyptian, American and Indian seed. These experiments were, owing 
 to the short time available to Mr. Thomas for making his arrangements, confined to 
 one plantation in the neighbourhood of Baghdad instead of being, as the Commissioners 
 recommended, undertaken in different localities. The results are extremely interesting. 
 It must not be forgotten that the land was specially fertile, the soil being a sandy ioam 
 with good natural drainage, but uncultivated for the previous three years. The number 
 of waterings given was 17. Ten are given in Egypt and 12 in the Sudan. Colonel 
 Evans considers that the plants were over-watered, and that 10 waterings would have 
 been sufficient. The late arrival of some of the imported seed depreciated the value of 
 some cf the tests. The plants were withered by two frosts early in December. When I 
 saw the plantation on 18th December I was much struck by the very large number of 
 bolls in some of the plots which had, while still immature, been destroyed by the frost. 
 
 The results of Mr. Thomas' experiments are excellent ; in considering them it is 
 desirable to remember that it is highly probable that the returns would be appreciably 
 less on land representative of the average Iraq soils irrigable by direct flow. The 
 greater part of the soils in Upper Mesopotamia are stiff rather heavy clay loams, which 
 will need careful cultivation and skilful irrigation if they are to grow good cotton. 
 Cotton is being sown on these soils this year and the results will be interesting. The 
 plots were -i-oth of an acre in size, the figures have been calculated to the acre yield 
 from these plots. The best results were the following : — 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Origin. 
 
 Number 
 of plots. 
 
 Average leugth. 
 
 Average yield of 
 seed cotton in 
 lbs. per acre. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Webber 49 . . 
 Punjab 47 . . 
 Punjab 2.55F .. 
 Black Eattier 
 Triumph 
 
 Turkish 
 Allan's Staple. . 
 
 American . . 
 Punjab-American . . 
 Punjab-American . . 
 Sind-Americau 
 Sind-American 
 
 Egyptian . . 
 Long Sind-American 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 inches. 
 
 H -ItV 
 
 IA-'tV 
 
 1 -H 
 
 mostly ly\ 
 
 2,420 
 2,107 • 
 2,057 
 1,982- 
 1,906 
 
 l,492i 
 1,486 
 
 Pure type. 
 »» 
 
 Rather mixed. 
 Very mixed. 
 
 Mixed. 
 
 Mr. Thomas was able to sell the dead plants for firewood for three times the amount 
 of the rent. 
 
 The results above are for seed cotton. The handbook on " Cotton and other 
 Vegetables Fibres," by Dr. Goulding, pubhshed by the Imperial Institute in 1917, gives 
 (p. 55) the average yield per acre in Egypt in the triennial period 1910-11 to 1912-13 
 as 424 lbs., and that in India in 1913-14 (p. 64) as 85 lbs. It is undoubtedly sown 
 there on much bad and unsuitable land. There are thus great variations ; 150 to 
 200 lbs. would probably be regarded as a fair return. Experiments in the Sudan give, 
 I understand, somethnig like 250 lbs. an acre. These figures are for lint, which weighs 
 approximately one-third of seed cotton. The spinning and weaving results with last 
 year's crop of cotton are not yet known. While it would not do to generalize too much 
 from Mr. Thomas' figures, they can certainly be regarded as proving that a good long- 
 stapled cotton can be grown in Mesopotamia. In Egypt cotton is sown between the 
 middle of February and the middle of April. The first picking in upper Egypt is in 
 August, and in the Delta in September. Dr. Goulding says, " the last pickings are 
 picked in November." At the beginning of November, 1918, there was very little left 
 on the ground. 
 
 In Mesopotamia sowings should be finished by the middle of April, but the weather 
 is too cold to enable them to be begun as early as in Egypt. Seed will not do much 
 more than germinate in March. Frost may be expected in Baghdad by the beginning 
 of December. The crop must mature without the hot moist atmosphere which is so 
 beneficial to it in Lower Egypt. The boUworm is a serious pest but the only one yet 
 encountered. The problem of the selection of the best variety of cotton for different 
 tracts has to be solved. On lands commanded by perennial irrigation from the canals 
 
takin<T off from the Hindiyah Barrage and the Digalah, as well as on lands supplied 
 ■with water by pumps on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, it might be possible to 
 cultivate cotton of a very good quality at a considerable profit provided that two 
 difficulties can be overcome. The first is the inferiority of the Arab as a cultivator. 
 He must develop much more interest and energy in the labours of the field than he has 
 yet displayed if he is to make a success of the cultivation of cotton. The second 
 trouble ahead is the difficulty of collecting bands to do the picking of the cotton. In 
 Egypt, with its narrow strip of cultivation and its abundant population, the fellah 
 who wishes his cotton picked. has only to hold up his hand to get as much labour as he 
 needs. In Mesopotamia this difficulty will not be easy to overcome. Something might 
 perhaps be done by organizing at centres of population labour corps of children, who 
 might go picking from place to place under proper supervision. Arab children are very 
 intelligent and would do the picking very well. 
 
 It has been suggested that Mesopotamia might be suitable for the cultivation of 
 sugar cane on a large scale. The soil is probably suitable; but other factors which have 
 to be considered, at all events in the Baghdad and Mosul vilayets, are not so encouraging. 
 Cane requires a long period of growth. In the United Provinces the area under cane 
 is about 1,250,000 acres — ;half the area under cane in India. It is sown in February 
 and March, and the thicker and softer varieties do not ripen at a place like Bareilly, 
 which is a great cane centre, till the following February. 
 
 I have be-n District Officer of Bareilly, where there is now a Government Experi- 
 mental Sugar Factory. Bareilly is near the Himalaya, and has a cold winter, with 
 frost occurring in December and January, just at the time when the cane is ripening. 
 Growth is stopped and glucose keeps high. The cane crushed before February is found 
 to be " high in glucose, low in sucrose, and the density of juice low." These conditions 
 improve in the cane which is crushed after the begipning of February. In Bareilly 
 there are short spells of very cold weather, perhaps twice or even three times after 
 rainfall in the plains, and falls of snow in the Himalaya in December and January, 
 when the wind is very bitter. Ordinarily the wind is from the west, and the heat of 
 the sun is encouraging to growth. In Mesopotamia the conditions are less favourable 
 to the cultivation of sugar cane. It would not start growth after being planted as 
 quickly as in India. There, while it is comparatively young, it gets the benefit of the 
 rainy season ; in Mesopotamia it would after germination be exposed for 6 months of 
 its young life to continuous heat, some of it very intense. A month or two later it 
 would have to endure the weather produced by the winter rains with considerably 
 more frost than in India, and, after each bout of rain, with a piercing north wind which 
 checks all growth. It seems likely that, if it survived the severe hot weather of its 
 earlier days, the violent cold would prevent it from ripening. This can, however, only 
 be settled by experiment. If such experiment proves to be favourable, the Arab will 
 have, if he is to make the cultivation of sugar-cane a success, to mend his present' ways 
 even more tlian will be necessary in the case of cotton. 
 
 The cultivation of beet for the manufacture of sugar seems to offer a better prospect. 
 Beet does well everywhere from Mosul to Arabistan. At Mosul a considerable amount 
 of it is cultivated. It may be that the kind now cultivated would be useless for the 
 production of sugar. But all roots seem to grow well in Mesopotamia, and a suitable 
 kind of beet could doubtless be grown. Why should it not be possible for Mesopotamia 
 to manufacture all the sugar required for herself and for Persia ? In 1911-1912, out of 
 124,000 packages landed by the Germans, 70,000 were sugar from Belgium. During 
 the war Egyptian sugar and Hong Kong sugars (the latter imported by Japan, but 
 having their origin in Java or Mauritius) seem to have held the market. 
 
 Between 1900 and 1905 the average value of seeds exported was about 90,000Z., 
 but it fell off later, and of recent years but for a little sesamum and linseed the 
 cultivation of oil seeds seems to have been negligible. India has her linseed, cotton 
 seed, cocoanut, gingelly, rape seed, sesamum and ground nuts ; Egypt her cotton and 
 sesamum, and Japan her soy beans. The soil in Mesopotamia is very suitable, and an 
 agricultural country with its advantages ought not to neglect a crop of the commercial 
 value of oil seeds, which may confidently be expected to bring very large profit to the 
 cultivator. A small experiment by the Department of Agriculture in the cultivation of 
 ground nuts at Fallujah gave most encouraging results, and endeavours are being made 
 by means of demonstration farms to popularize their cultivation. Large quantities of 
 ground nuts are at present imported into Mesopotamia for use in making sweetmeats. 
 It ought not to be long before they and other oilseeds are exported in substantial 
 'quantities. 
 
 It may be inferred from what has been already said that perhaps the most urgent 
 
8 
 
 necessity for the economical development of Mesopotamia is the establishment of a. 
 Department of Agriculture manned by a staff of officers fully equipped with technical 
 and scientific Ijnowledge. A Directorate of Agriculture was appointed by the Army in 
 July, 1918, under Colonel G. Evans, a member of the Department of Agriculture in 
 India. This Directorate was transferred to the Civil Administration with effect from 
 1st March. Colonel Evans was just the man to direct agricultural matters in 
 Mesopotamia, being qualified alike by knowledge, administrative capacity and 
 temperament, as well as being enthusiastic about the potentialities of tlie country. But 
 sufficient inducements in respect of a programme of operations were not offered to him 
 to remain in Mesopotamia, and he has resigned the appointment of Director in order to 
 return to India. A general outline of his idea as to the development of l^he Department 
 is contained in his memorandum of IStli December, 1918 (attached, page 30), which 
 he was kind enough to amplify for me in his letter of 28th idem (also attached, page 29). 
 His views on the subject seem to be very sound. Without a Department of Agriculture 
 developed on the lines sketched out by him there is no chance of the resources of 
 Mesopotamia being properly developed. 
 
 The Trade Commissioners (paragraph 63 of their report) urged that "tree planting 
 on river banks, if only for the production of firewood, should be taken in hand at the 
 earliest possible moment and a forest officer should be deputed to discover suitable 
 species by experiment and to select localities for irrigated plantations." 
 
 The Director of Agriculture was under the Army Order appointing him given 
 the control of afforestation, and the Board of Agriculture instructed him to advise the 
 Civil Commissioners on forest matters. He has started several nurseries, among them 
 a central one at Baghdad on an area of 10 acres, and spasmodic efforts have been made 
 elsewhere to plant willow bush and other seedlings. An agricultural expert is not 
 expected to understand about sylviculture, and it was not till the beginning of 1919 
 that a forest officer was placed a\ Colonel Evans' disposal. There were a number of 
 officers belonging to the Indian Forest Service in the force in Mesopotamia and the 
 planting of trees might have been started much earlier under the direction of one of 
 them. There is no greater need in Mesopotamia and it is to be hoped that a 
 comprehensive scheme for treeplanting -^ill be developed without further delay. 
 There are many trees which seem to be suitable for Mesopotamia and which grow 
 rapidly. They are needed for agricultural implements, firewood, charcoal and shade 
 for man atid beast. A great deal could be done in no time and a start has been made 
 in a few places in tending and improving the willow plantations on the banks of the 
 Euphrates and Tigris. Countless seedlings are lost every year in the flood water, 
 which could be usefully transplanted to other places on the river banks or on the 
 canals. The wood is useful for many purposes. Among others it produces charcoal 
 though of indifferent quality. A number of trees such as eucaly-ptus, casnarina,. 
 shisham (dalbergia sissoo) acacia, (arJibica and catechu) and poplar suggest theniselves 
 as likely to be suitable. This can, however, only be determined by experts after an 
 examination of the climatic conditions and the soil. There is a variety of acacia lining 
 both banks of the White Nile between Kosti and Dueim which grows very fast and 
 will stand being submerged for months. The wood is heavy, sinks in water, is 
 exceptionally hard and is said to be good for boat building and roofing timber. It 
 might be suitable for growth in the many areas in Mesopotamia which are under 
 water for a considerable period every year. 
 
 Cattle, as indeed do all domestic animals, thrive in Mesopotamia. The Arab 
 buffalo is a large-framed animal with long horns, somewhat like the Indian buffalo found 
 in Berar and the Southern Mahratta country, but larger. They are bred in large 
 quantities along the rivers and in the marshes. The Arabs will not sell thefn. The 
 Arab bullock is small, but hardy. The cow resembles the Jersey cow, except in the- 
 yield of milk. The likeness to the Jersey cattle is typical of the cattle throughout 
 Arabia and Egypt where it has not been inbred with European stock. The local cattle 
 are very susceptible to rinderpest. They have little to live on during much of the year. 
 The es.sential means of improving the breed is by the introduction of fodder crops, 
 such as lucerne and berseem (trifolium Alexandrinum), as rotation crops. At present 
 there is no attempt at rotation of crops. The Arab goes in for' rotation of soils : what 
 is sown this year is left fallow next and produces the same crop in the third as in the 
 first year. There is great demand for plough cattle especially in the Mosul vilayet 
 where the Turks have left few. Sindhi bullocks have been introduced to some extent 
 and the Arab farmers are eager to get more. 
 
 Dairy farms were organized over two years ago to supply the hospitals. They . 
 have supplied about 15,000 lbs. of milk daily, and the demands of hospitals for cream. 
 
and butter in Basra, Amarah, Kut, Baghdad, Nasariyah, Eamadi and Hillah. With 
 the reduction of the demands for hospitals, milk, cream and butter has become 
 available for sale. The dairies are built on the latest plan with the most up-to-date 
 pasteurizing and chilling plants and cold storage rooms. All the cattle sheds are 
 temporary structures. 
 
 It was originally intended to purchase cattle in the country, and some 350 head 
 were bought. It was found that the average yield of milk was about 3 lbs. per head, 
 so the experiment was made of introducing Indian cattle (chiefly from Sind), and 
 buffaloes of the Murrah or Delhi kind. This has proved most successful. The strength 
 of the herd at the beginning of the year was 2,324 Indian cows, 28 Arab cows, 
 43 Indian buUs, 16 Ayrshire bulls, 2,105 young stock and calves, 449 bufialoes, 
 15 Indian buffalo bulls and 593 Indian bullocks. 
 
 In addition to the supplies for the stock on the dairy farms, 800 tons of fodder are 
 supplied monthly to the transport and other Army animals. The Indian cows are 
 partly Sindhi and partly Gujarati. The former are much the better milkers. The 
 average yield of the Indian cow is 8 lbs. a day. I saw one Sindhi cow in the Ba,ghdad 
 farm which had given over 5,000 lbs. of milk. The yield of each cow daily is registered 
 with great care. After a fall of rain when it is very damp and cold, the cows suffer 
 greatly in temporary buildings. When I saw the farm at Baghdad it was a day or two 
 after rain, and its condition was indescribable. This is unavoidable — when the rain falls 
 the soil (which contains no stone in it) is for several days reduced to a sticky mire. 
 This occurs at frequent intervals during the winter. During the fall of the rain the 
 wind is in the south — the change of the wind to the north results in the clouds being 
 dispersed, and the weather becomes very cold. This is a very trying time for cattle. 
 I saw the Amarah farm in March when the weather had been settled for a fortnight, 
 and the winter rains seemed to have passed away. The cows could not have been in 
 better fettle. 
 
 Twenty-four Ayrshire bulls have been imported. They shoiJd be as successful 
 here as in India. Out of 24 imported 8 have died. This compares very favourably 
 with the results of their importation into India, and considering the lack of comfortable 
 stabling and the difficulty of complete isolation under war-time conditions, is very 
 encouraging. They had, in many cases, had rinderpest and piroplamosis. They look 
 extremely well and have been serving cows freely. There are already a few young 
 calves by Ayrshire bulls out of Sindhi cows, and they are charming little creatures. 
 Gujarati cows have been crossed with Ayrshire bulls, but no calves have been born as yet. 
 The calf by the Ayrshire bull from the Sindhi cow loses the hump, which the latter 
 possesses, entirely. 
 
 The young stock that I saw was almost entirely by Sindhi bulls out of Sindhi cows. 
 At a year old it looked extraordinarily well. It is intended to retain the females 
 from the best milking dairy to improve and increase the Government herds. The milk 
 yield of each individual cow is registered and poor milkers ruthlessly eradicated. The 
 most select young bulls will be sold to Arabs to improve the stock in the country, and 
 the rest castrated and sold as plough cattle. There should be a very material 
 improvement in a few years in the size and yield of indigenous cattle if the Arab will 
 only realize that it will pay him to feed his cattle well. At present so far as one can 
 judge he does little for either his milch cows or his plough bullocks. 
 
 The common breed of sheep in the Basra and Baghdad vilayets of Mesopotamia 
 is the fat tailed sheep which is similar to the Dumba sheep of the north-west frontier 
 province of India and the neighbouring countries. The breed is apparently found 
 throughout most parts of Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia and Arabia. The type 
 varies with the locality, probably as the result of environment and pasture. This sheep 
 has a large frame and has long somewhat coarse wool. The male is horned. The 
 colour varies between all shades of white, brown and black, the two latter pre- 
 dominating greatly in Baghdad and Basra vilayets. The Arabs say that the black 
 sheep stand the rigours of the climate better than the white one. The sheep seem to 
 suffer a good deal during the excessive cold of the winter, and they have been described 
 to me as collecting in the heat of the summer and turning their faces inwards to avoid 
 the sun and glare and thus losing at the same time all chance of benefiting from what 
 air there may be. The total absence of shade and shelter must be very bad for sheep. 
 Trees are required to give them shade in the hot weather. Reeds abound in the 
 marshes which could be used to form a rough shelter for them both from the cold and 
 heat, at very small cost indeed. 
 
 A good sheep, as sold to the Armj?^, will weigh, dressed, about 50 lbs. This weight 
 is often exceeded and perhaps 80 lbs. is reached. But the best sheep of course remain 
 
 (7993) B 
 
10 
 
 at the disposal of the tribal Sheikhs. A small flock of specially selected white sheep is 
 kept on the Amarah farm. Tiie fleeces of six of the whitest sheep were sent to the 
 Cawnpore woollen mills for valuation in June, 1918. The report on them was to the 
 efiect that no wool of an exactly similar type is procurable on the plains of India, but 
 wools similar to it are imported from Nepal, Tibet, Turkistan and Baluchistan. The 
 defects found in the samples were : — 
 
 (1.) Most of the fleeces were very dirty and contained a large amount of burr and 
 
 dung. 
 (2.) The colour was not good. Fleeces, which appeared to be white, contained a 
 
 high percentage of grey or yellow wool. Only one sample was found to be 
 
 throughout even approximately white. 
 (3.) The samples varied considerably in fineness, one or two containing a considerable 
 
 percentage of fine wool. 
 
 The length ot the wool is good, and it seems quite clear that the sheep of 
 Mesopotamia is capable of great improvement by judicious breeding and more careful 
 treatment. I have spoken to many Australians who are much impressed with the fine 
 prospect of sheep breeding in the country. The climate of New South Wales seems 
 from the range of its temperatures to approximate most closely to that of Mesopotamia. 
 The smaller Merino from the warm parts of that country ought to do well in 
 Mesopotamia, and its introduction, coupled with improved treatment of the sheep, 
 ought to lead to greatly improved results from sheep breeding. The introduction of 
 the Merino strain into India has been found to have a very beneficial effect in point of 
 weight and all-round richness. As a country for breeding sheep India can bear no 
 comparison with Mesopotamia. The country will carry a large head of sheep, and at 
 ■certain seasons of the year the grazing which they get is ideal. Very little labour' is 
 required to manage them. They are nomadic like their masters, and, pei'haps, for this 
 reason, do not seem to suffer much from epidemic disease. At . present the flocks have 
 been very much depleted owing to the demands of the Arm}' on them. The Arab does 
 not shear his sheep properly. Wool is often used as a currency and, when the Bedouin 
 wants a little wool to pay tor anything, he will pluck a handful of it from the back of the 
 nearest sheep. Nor is it the practice to wash the sheep. Such wool as gets to the 
 market gets to it in the worst possible condition. The skins of the local sheep are 
 bighly regarded. Were some sheep shearing stations established along the rivers it 
 would 1 e very easy to introduce a regular time for the clip, and to ensure that the 
 sheep were properly washed before being sheared. Ma\' and June would perhaps be 
 the best time for the clip as the sheep need their wool in the winter and hottest weather 
 {July to September) to protect them at one time from the cold and at the other from 
 the heat. The Arabs will fall in with the requirements regarding shearing of their 
 sheep as soon as they realize that it will pay them. The introduction of careful methods 
 of shearing and dipping, and of packing the fleeces, should enable Mesopotamian wool 
 to gain a high place in the market. 
 
 There are two lambing periods, one in the autumn and the other in the spring. 
 Success depends very largely on the food available for the flock. Last year the fodder 
 w^as better than it had been for years and lambing was consequently very good. It 
 could be greatly improved if the owners of flocks would grow some fodder for them. 
 The time of greatest need is the autumn when the country is almost entirely denuded 
 of natural herbage. Berseem would cost little to grow, while as a rotation crop it 
 would be of much value. In the drieil form — known as dries in Egypt — it ought to be 
 very useful for feeding sheep. On the whole the prospects of sheep breeding in 
 Mesopotamia seem to me to be most encouraging. The Arab if left to himself will 
 never initiate the changes that are required. But he would follow the lead shown to 
 him by the European, and, provided that the authorities do not discourage the latter, 
 he ought to find the roll of pioneer in the improvement of sheep breeding, not 
 unremunerative. The amount of wool exported from Basra in 1918 was 4,125 tons of 
 the value of 306,000^. 
 
 The sheep in the Mosul vilayet are of different types from those in Basra and 
 Baghdad. The chief varieties are (1) a large-legged white sheep with a brown face and 
 brown legs. The males have long and curved horns like the black-faced mountain 
 sheep of Scotland. This sheep has rather coarse wool on the leg, and is not good for 
 mutton. (2) A small black-faced sheep with a long nose and a tuft of brown wool 
 between the ears. This type is a very fine small sheep, short in the legs with a fine 
 thick heavy fleece and producing good mutton. 
 
 The country round Mosul city has limestone hiUs and good turf, and there are 
 
11 
 
 enormous areas which had in February, when I was there, splendid grazing for sheep. 
 The flocks appeared to be very few. There are very few black and brown sheep in the 
 Mosul vilayet, and in this respect the flocks there present a striking contrast to those 
 of the two southern vilayets, where black and browns largely predominate. By careful 
 selection and bv importing rams, probably the small merino would be the best, here 
 too it ouyht to be possible to breed a very good type of sheep there. 
 
 On my way home through Persia I saw a sheep which is the mascot of the band of 
 the 2nc] Bn. Gurkha Kifles. This was served out as a lamb for rations to the regiment 
 at Baqubah in August, 1917. The band was allowed to keep it as a pet. It is now 
 the most magnificent sheep which I have ever seen, and has a splendid fleece. One can 
 imagine from this how the breed in Mesopotamia can be improved if it is only looked 
 after and fresh blood is imported. 
 
 Colonel Garrow, the Acting-Director of Irrigation, has recently prepared a scheme 
 of irrigation having in view "not only the requirements of the immediate future, but 
 also the complete restoration of the country." It would be vain for anyone not 
 equipped with the necessary technical knowledge to express an opinion on the merits of 
 his scheme. But as it raises a general issue of a most important character it will 
 perhaps be as well to attempt some description of the general principle on which it is based. 
 
 Colonel Garrow has had experience of irrigation problems in Egypt, and speaks 
 with avithority. According to his view neither the Tigris nor the Euphrates is in 
 natural regime. The bed of the former has, he says, been raivsed so that flood-spills occur 
 the whole of its length and it is unable to carry a maximum flood discharge. Water has 
 been withdrawn wholesale along its entire length ; in its lower reaches its carrying 
 capacity has been much reduced. In the flood season cultivation is menaced — this I 
 have seen myself especially above Kut and between Kut and Amarah. The river is 
 flanked by marsh areas, many of which are permanent throughout the year, and which, 
 with the river in its present condition, cannot be drained. The Euphrates is in a worse 
 state than the Tigris as, while the latter preserves its identity to the sea. the former 
 loses itself in flood time in several enormous marsh areas, and it is not navigable in the 
 low water season throughout its length. The river is now changing its character 
 rapidly below the Hindiyah barrage. As a preliminary to the development of irrigation 
 Colonel Garrow proposes "in its interests as well as those of conservancy, gradually to 
 augment and concentrate the supply, in the rivers commencing at their downstream ends 
 by closure of all superfluous side channels and escapes and by the erection of flood 
 bunds.' " The rivers," he contends, " will accommodate themselves to the increased 
 discharge, sink themselves into their beds, and ultimately be capable of carrying their 
 maximum flood discharge to the sea instead of dissipating them over the face of the 
 country as at present: The water levels in the riffers being thus lower it will be possible 
 to drain the marsh areas into them, put the land now covered by water under the 
 plough and arrange for a co-ordinated irrigation system. Not only so, but drainage 
 water from irrigated tracts can then be led back to the rivers which will act as the 
 main drains of the country instead of, as at present, as principal though ill-begotten 
 canals." 
 
 His policy aims at — 
 
 (1.) Getting the rivers to do their work as rivers by carrying the full discharge in 
 the flood season, and acting as the main drains of the country, and 
 
 (2.) Arranging fo¥ the withdrawal of supplies for irrigation purposes through the 
 medium of principal canals at infrequent intervals with fixed discharges for 
 the rivers at the points of ofi'-take. 
 
 Colonel Garrow has developed a scheme based on these principles to embrace — 
 
 (a.) The consolidation and development with increased efficiency of areas at present 
 
 provided with best controlled irrigation systems. 
 (6.) The remodelling of channels in areas where, owing to deterioration and neglect, 
 
 irrigation has to be practised in a wasteful manner and at the expense of the 
 . rivers. 
 (c.) The maintenance, improvement and extension where necessary of existing 
 
 channels in categories {a) and {h) and of river flood bunds. 
 {d.) The survey of areas and the collection of data to enable future projects to be 
 
 presented, including proposals as to flood escapes. 
 
 This is an attractive programme. It manifestly, however, depends on the 
 suggestions for the control of the rivers being sound. On this point Dr. A. B. Buckley, 
 who went with me to Mesopotamia, and is, like Colonel Garrow, a^ distinguished 
 
 (7993) B 2 
 
12 
 
 member of the Irrigation Department in Egypt, joins issue with him. He points out that 
 Sir William Willcocks has stated that the confinement of the rivers between certain 
 limits is not feasible. Mr. Buckley contends that on the inference that the changes in 
 the rivers are attributable to the acts of man, it is fair to argue that the Tigris if left 
 to itself would not have undergone a change and would now return to its natural state. 
 This position he urges " requires careful examination, for, while it might be 
 comparatively easy to induce the river to return to its natural state, it will probably be 
 the reverse if the river is now in its natural condition and had to be artificially 
 confined to a limited and definite channel." Sir William Willcocks, holding that the 
 two rivers cannot be confined between banks, proposed to escape the excess water into 
 the Habbaniyah (near Ramadi) and the Aggar Quf (near Baghdad) Lakes. 
 
 Mr. Buckley holds that, unless Sir William Willcocks' investigations are radically 
 
 incorrect, the amount of water which may pass the Fatha Gorge where the Tigris issues 
 
 from the Jebel-Hamriu is nearly double the amount which can pass Baghdad when the 
 
 I'iver is at its maximum level of 35 metres on the Residency gauge. Moreover, the 
 
 discharge at that gauge is given by Sir William Willcocks as 5,500 M. 3/Sec., while 
 
 he computed the flood discharge from the sections of the river near Beled, where the 
 
 delta begins, at about 9,000 M. 3/Sec. The only canal, Mr. Buckley says, which could 
 
 have brought a great artificial change above Baghdad is the Nahrawan taken ofi" the 
 
 river near Tekrit. Sir W. Willcocks estimates that the canal has been out of use for 
 
 from 600 to 700 years. Mr. Buckley contends that the inference is that the river from 
 
 Baghdad upwards at the present time is in its natural condition, and that to confine it 
 
 within banks would be an operation which might be accompanied by considerable 
 
 difficulties and must involve heavy expenditure. It would be unprofitable to follow 
 
 Mr. Buckley's arijuments regarding the Lower Tigris, the Euphrates and the general 
 
 programme based ou the assumption that it is possible to confine the rivers between 
 
 definite limits. Enough has been said to show that an issue of the first importtince — 
 
 capable of settlement by experts only— has been r.aised by Colonel Garrow's programme 
 
 — questions relating to irrigation, navigation and drainage are all involved. The Trade 
 
 Commissioners proposed the establishment of an Irrigation Board, consisting of at least 
 
 two highly qualified irrigation officers, to collect detailed information in regard to the 
 
 rivers and existing canal systems with a view to making recommendations for the 
 
 restoration of the regime of the rivers — -a board more representative of the different 
 
 interests involved seems to be required. For the time being the Irrigation Department 
 
 has been placed in charge of the ( 'onservancy of the Tigris. Sir George Buchanan 
 
 expressed the opinion that a prolonged study of the conditions of the Tigris is 
 
 required. Such a study seems necessary, but in view of the urgent need of 
 
 utilizing the river to the best purposes it should not be too prolonged. There are 
 
 many interesting subjects which would need to be considered by such a board 
 
 and which could not be properly disposed of by one constituted only of experts in 
 
 irrigation. For instance, the efiect on the Fao bar of large quantities of silt scoured out 
 
 of the beds of the Tigris and Euphrates by preventing the dispersal of their flood 
 
 waters would have to be considered. It would perhaps be not more unreasonable until 
 
 the matter had been thoroughly investigated, to assume that a large increase in the 
 
 volume of water entering the estuary at high tide would inhance the intensity of the 
 
 ebb, and might counteract any tendency to the increase of the Fao bar by the deposit 
 
 of additional silt, than to anticipate a contrary result as being likely to result from the 
 
 fact that more silt would be moved by the two rivers. Again some irrigation officers 
 
 feel very strongly that the cultivation of rice in those parts of Mesopotamia, especially 
 
 the Shamiyah district, where it involves the supply of water from the rivers at a time 
 
 when it is scarcest, cannot be justified from an economic point of view. Certainly, as a 
 
 _general principle, the utilization for the cultivation of rice, of water, which by another 
 
 arrangement of distribution from the river, could be made available for the cultivation 
 
 of larger tracts of wheat and barley, would not be regarded favourable by those who 
 
 have studied revenue and agricultural questions, in the East. But, on the other hand, 
 
 the political authorities feel very strongly about the need for maintaining this rice 
 
 cultivation. Rice is much consumed among the Arabs botli in Mesopotamia and in the 
 
 adjoining Syrian desert. It is, although none that I have seen appeared at all equal to 
 
 the best Indian qualities, exported to a considerable extent. In 1911 the value of 
 
 the export was as high as (17,000Z.) and paddy (109,000?.). It is evident that this 
 
 question could not be left entirely to the decision of a Board of Irrigation Officers who 
 
 might resent the cultivation of rice, in a country of such scanty rainfall as Mesopotamia 
 
 being allowed in special tracts to be the dominating factor as regards canal 
 
 •development (2). 
 
13 
 
 The remarks so far made relate directly or indirectly to the production in 
 Mesopotamia, and, before leaving this subject a word or two might be said about the 
 system of Civil Administration in the country. At present there are 14 divisions each 
 in charge of a political officer with political assistants under him. The political officers 
 and their assistants have been recruited from the political service in India, the Indian 
 civil service the Sudan civil service and the army. Each political officer is in direct 
 relations with the Civil Commissioner, who has as his Revenue and Financial Secretary, 
 a member of the Indian Civil Service of some twenty years standing, who was formerly 
 in the North-west Frontier Province. My short experience in Mesopotamia dogs not 
 justify me in expressing any opinion on the system of the administration in force which 
 has naturally been developed in war time, and doubtless bears the impress of its birth 
 having taken place during war conditions. I may, however, perhaps express my 
 general impression that the existing system of administration will prove too centralized 
 for peace time, and that its personnel is generally not adequately equipped with 
 administrative experience, or knowledge of such very important branches of tlie 
 administration in* an oriental country as revenue and police. The determination — for 
 such I believe it is — to exclude persons from Great Britain and the Dominions from 
 taking part in the development of the country seems to me to be very regrettable. I 
 understand that it is based on the view that the country should be developed in the 
 interest of the Arab population. On this very ground the introduction of Englishmen 
 and Australians will be very beneficial. There are large areas of crown lands which 
 they could develop without in any way trenching on tribal rights. If Mesopotamia 
 is to take the place it ought to in such enterprises as cotton cultivation, the 
 manufacture of beet sugar, and sheep breeding, the impetus will, in my judgment, have 
 to come from the white man. A large and intelligent landowner was, in conversation 
 with me, very emphatic on this point. He told me that he intended to appoint an 
 Englishman to control and manage his estates. 
 
 To turn to the prospects of commerce in Mesopotamia. The value of the imports 
 to, and exports from, Basra for the years 1908-1912 was : — 
 
 
 1908. 
 
 1909. 
 
 1910. 
 
 19li. 
 
 1912. 
 
 Imports . . 
 Exports . . 
 
 £ 
 
 2,411,568 
 1,784,382 
 
 £ 
 2,360,102 
 1,504,004 
 
 • £ 
 2,634,596 
 1,668,714 
 
 2,855,677 
 2,525,937 
 
 £ 
 
 2,653,984 
 3,246,560 
 
 Total 
 
 4,195,950 
 
 3,864,1116 
 
 4,303,310 
 
 5,-381,614 
 
 5,900,540 
 
 Excluding the value of goods consigned to Government, or imported on behalf of 
 Government, the imports during the past four years have been : — 
 
 £ 
 
 1915 629,000 
 
 1916 2,711,000 
 
 1917 4,067,800 
 
 1918 7,401,700 
 
 The figures of imports for the past two years are remarkable and merit some 
 • consideration. They compare as follows : — r 
 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 Textiles and piece goods 
 Grain, flour and pulse . . 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Tea 
 
 Wood and timber 
 Tobacco and cigarettes 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Matches . . 
 Spices . . 
 
 £ 
 
 1,920,000 
 
 473,000 
 
 380,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 186,000 
 
 180,000 
 
 153,000 
 
 17,300 
 
 14,600 
 
 £ 
 
 3,620,000 
 
 960,000 
 
 946,000 
 
 440,000 
 
 193,000 
 
 186,000 
 
 133,000 
 
 86,000 
 
 73,000 
 
 'J'he increase in the imports of textiles, piece goods, tea and sugar is due to the 
 brisk demand anticipated in Persia as soon as the roads opened and transport became 
 more readily available. The road from Baghdad to Kasvin and Enzeli is now open. 
 If funds are given to complete it, it will be an excellent trade route. 
 
14 
 
 The condition of this road compares very favourably with other roads, e.g., that 
 from Kasvin to Teheran still under the management of the Russian Company. No- 
 better surface could be found anywhere than that between Hamadan and Kasvin after 
 descending on to the plain from tlie Ahoa Pass. The run from Hamadan to Kasvin in 
 a Vauxhall car took 6 hours and 20 minutes. 
 
 The exports from Persia to Baghdad in the last six months of 1918 are valued at 
 742,000Z. This figure does not fall far short of the total export trade (837,000^.) from 
 Baghdad in 1906, and the value of the exports in the half-year exceeds the value for a 
 whole, year in 1911 (711,000^.) and 1912 (546, 000^.). There is a considerable demand 
 for British piece goods needed in Russia through both Resht and Meshed. Pack 
 transport is very scarce, and it does not look as if any material increase of it is likely 
 to become available in the immediate future. A carrier can, it is said, recover the 
 whole value of his animals for a single journey between Baghdad and Hamadan. 
 Arabs, who usually do not go beyond Kermanshah. are taking their camels to 
 Hamadan. The road throughout its length is thronged with transport. The rates per 
 ton at present charged — kindly ascertained for me by Colonel Moens, D.S.O. 
 (commanding the lines of communication in Persia) — are remarkable — 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Prom Ruz railhead to- 
 Kermanshah . . 
 Hamadan 
 Teheran 
 
 feuinmer. 
 
 £ 
 
 40 
 
 65 
 
 110 
 
 The contractors assert that they have lost on the rates charged in the winter, but 
 make a profit in the summer. Railhead was to be moved from Ruz to Quareta (about 
 30 miles) on 15th April. The distance from Kasvin to Teheran is 92 miles and ta 
 Enzeli (road in parts more difficult and at times even dangerous) 145 miles. The cost 
 to Enzeli should be taken at a little more than the cost to Teheran. Piece goods 
 shipped at Basra and exported to Baghdad have to pay freight from Great Britain 
 and import duty 10 per cent, at Basra. The freight by river charged by Messrs. 
 Lynch & Co. before the war as a regular charge was, according to the Trade 
 Commissioners' Report (page 94), 40s. a ton, and they sometimes charged as high as 
 80s. a ton. We were informed by the Deputy iJirector of Telegraphs at Baghdad that 
 the Department was charged by the firm not long ago Rs. 55 a ton for the conveyance 
 of telegraph materials. The charge from Baghdad to railhead would be small ; at 
 Kermanshah there is an import duty (perhaps 5 per cent.), but it seems to be often 
 evaded. The Chief Manager of the Imperial Bank of Persia at Teheran told me that 
 this must be the case, as the receipts deposited with the bank did not nearly represent 
 what the goods transported, according to the official figures which I gave him, should 
 have paid. Some time ago the Persian Government, in order to stop the influx of 
 roubles into Persia, prohibited export of goods into Russia. The prohibition- has been 
 withdrawn, but in its place there is the requirement that the exporter must deposit 
 30 per cent, of the value of the goods he exports to be liable to forfeiture unless he 
 brings back to Persia goods of equal value within 17 days. The oU imported into 
 Persia cannot, judging from the traffic on the road, at all approach in value the piece 
 goods being exported, and yet exporters are, in spite of all the other heavy charges, 
 said to submit readily to the confiscation of their deposits at Enzeli, and are said to be 
 making 100 per cent, on the top of it all. It is difficult to comprehend the whole afiair 
 if one remembers that the kran is worth about half a, rupee at present, that the 
 exchange value of the rupee is Is. 6cZ. and that you can on an English note easUy get 
 100 roubles (Azerbaijan issue). 
 
 The value of the sugar imported into Basra before the war was — 
 
 £ 
 
 295,000 in 1908. 
 
 359,000 in 1909. 
 
 449,000 in 1910. 
 
 539,000 in 1911. 
 
 292,000 in 1912. 
 
 The exports of sugar from Baghdad in the last six months of 1918 amounted in value to 
 168,000^., and of tea to 119,000Z. The latter figure is double that of the whole import 
 
15 
 
 of tea into Basra in 1917. The exports from Baghdad in the last six months of 1918 
 amounted in value to 1,293,000Z. The available pre-war figures for the whole year 
 were— 1909, 765,000^.; 1910, 853,O00Z. ; 1911, 746,000^. ; 1912, 981,000Z. 
 The value of the principal exports from Basra in 1918 was — 
 
 £ 
 
 Wool 306,000 
 
 Dates ... ... 266,000 (incomplete, as duty on 5 steamer loads shipped at 
 
 the close of the year had not been paid. Total 
 value of exports is estimated at 933,000^.). 
 
 Textiles ... 140,000 
 
 Skins and hides 26,000 
 
 Tea 16,000 
 
 The tea and textiles were re-exported to Persia (Mohammerah). The export of 
 ■wool and cereals ought to increase very considerably in 1919. The export of the chief 
 cereals was prohibited in 1918. The exports of grain before the war (chiefly barley and 
 wheat) were 126,000 tons in 1908, 36,000 in 1909, 64,000 in 1910, 148,000 in 1911 
 •and 231,000 in 1912. 
 
 It is anticipated that there will be, as soon as peace conditions come in, a consider- 
 able demand in Mesopotamia for pumps and agricultural machinery, milling and 
 building materials (especially timber) and luxuries such as European furniture, motor 
 -cars, launches and bicycles. 
 
 Trade should boom in Mesopotamia after the war. The import trade has been 
 mainly transit trade. Not only ought it to change its character in some respect, but 
 with Persia, north and south, alike demanding British goods now that Bussia can 
 provide none, the volume of trade between Great Britain and Persia ought to increase 
 enormously. It is unlikely that Mesopotamia will supply the greater part of the 
 demands north of Hamadan if arrangements can be made to use the Trans-Caspian route 
 without destructive transit duties, but the state of the railway between Batoum and 
 Baku is so bad at present that for the time Basra must remain the chief centre of 
 import. So far as Persia up to Hamadan is concerned, the situation might be allowed 
 were a line constructed from Baghdad via Hit, Anah, Deir-a-Zor, Tadraur, Horns to 
 Tripoli or Haifa, This would tap the rich grain-producing country on the Euphrates 
 (a line already runs from Baghdad to Hillah, the centre of this tract, and another to 
 Dibban on the Euphrates on the road to Hit) and, if the metre-gauge line, which now 
 touches the Persian frontier from Baghdad, were prolonged to Kerraanshah, it would 
 carry all the goods required from Europe for that part of Persia. The residents of 
 Kermanshah and all the surrounding country appear most anxious for a railway. All 
 along the journey through Persia the people were most friendly. They have cultivated 
 their lands on, considering the way in which the population has been decimated, a 
 wonderful scale, relying on us to see that, contrary to past practice, the man who sows 
 a crop shall rciap it. It would be a bitter disappointment to the cultivators were we to 
 withdraw, and the men with a larger stake in the country would regret it just as much. 
 It is hard to believe that the British ever exercised so great an influence in Persia as 
 they do at present, and almost impossible to conceive that the influence could be 
 enhanced. There is only one man in Persia and that is Sir Percy Cox. He very 
 modestly attributes our position in there to-day to the behaviour of the British soldier, 
 and doubtless this has had much to do with it. The spectacle of two Russian Armies 
 and one Turkish Army going down the great road and up again carrying fire and 
 sword wherever they went and burning and pillaging every village or homestead to 
 which they came, has been succeeded by that of a small British force by which 
 payment was made for every article supplied, and the men of which were not only 
 exemplary in committing no acts of violence on their way, but showed active kindness 
 to the inhabitants. Such a spectacle could not be without its effect, but it needed the 
 personality and influence of a Percy Cox to raise British prestige in Persia to the point 
 at which it now stands. It would be the greatest act of folly not to take advantage of 
 it without delay to establish and consolidate commercial relations 'with I'ersia. From 
 ■& commercial as well as a strategic point of view the prompt extension of the 
 railway to Kermanshah seems the first step to take, and it seems hard to believe that 
 the Persian Government would not readilv assent to it. 
 
 :Notes. — (1.) The census returns record this estimate to be too low. The population is, I believe, taken 
 officially as 2,000,000 in the Basra and Baghdad vilayets. 
 (2.) There has been a considerable amount of discussion on this subject since this Memorandum was 
 written. — J. P, H. 
 
16 
 
 MEMORANDUM BY THE DIRECTOR OF LABOUR. {See page 11.) 
 The Possibilities or Local Labour in MEsoPorAMiA. 
 
 The following notes may be useful in determining the amount of imported labour 
 that will be required in Mesopotamia after the war and will help to dispel the idea that- 
 we shall be able to rely more on local labour than during the war : — 
 
 Number of Arabs employed. — The largest number of Arabs that have ever been 
 employed in Mesopotamia since the Occupation is 45,058 in April, 1918. This figure 
 had gradually increased from May, 1917, after the Occupation of Baghdad, and there is 
 no doubt that we were then employing a large number of the agricultural population 
 who had left the land to seek employment and food after several months of starvation. 
 
 The prospects of a good harvest caused the Sheikhs to ask, through the political 
 officers, for the return of cultivators. 
 
 By July, 1918, we had been obliged to release 13,000 men, reducing our total to 
 32,22G between Basra and Samarrah. See Appendix (A). 
 
 In November, after the Armistice was signed, we were further asked to release 
 Arab labour for cultivation, and I disbanded three Arab Labour Corps at Basra, which 
 were composed entirely of Felaheen, which brought the total for the same area down to 
 28,526. 
 
 To-day, including the whole of the Mosul area in which we employ some 10,000 
 Arabs, the Arab labour return stands at 39,405. 
 
 More releases are contemplated, and we even expect to disband Local Corps, who 
 are not actual cultivators, iu areas where cultivators are required. 
 
 Labour for irrigation work. — To-day the Irrigation Department employs far more 
 labour than any other department and most of their work is done by imported labour. 
 See Appendix (B) and (C). 
 
 This alone is sufficient to prove that the local labour is far from adequate to meet 
 the ordinary post-war needs of the country. 
 
 I quote two examples of the most important works — 
 
 The Mahmusiyeh Canal. — In the case of the Mahmusiyeh Canal, the greater 
 portion of the work had to be done by Indian labour, owing to there being insufficient 
 population in that district. 
 
 The average number of Indians employed daily between 1st May and 31st 
 December, 1918, was 2," 14, whilst the highest figure was 4,267 in July. 
 
 The only Arab labour available for which we were given figures were 500 during^ 
 May. 
 
 There are still 500 men of the 17th Labour Corps finishing off this canal. 
 
 I did not recruit any Arab labour from that district for any other works during^ 
 that time. 
 
 The Khalis Canal. — In the case of the Khalis Canal, the Arab labour figures were 
 more satisfactory, although far below what I anticipated would be available. Before 
 the project was undertaken, I was asked if I could provide sufficient local labour for 
 the work. I replied in the affirmative, judging by the previous year's figures of Arab 
 labour employed in that area. 
 
 Unfortunately for my estimates, the Political Officer of the district required far 
 larger numbers in 1918 for agriculture, and I was unable to bring pressure to bear on 
 the inhabitants to produce sufficient men, and again the work had to be done mostly by 
 imported labour. 
 
 We had great difficulty in keeping what Arab labour we had on the work, even 
 by giving them rations and fairly high wages. It was obvious that they wanted to go 
 to their cultivation, although the extra cultivation with a more reliable supply of water, 
 which the new canal would open up, was no inducement for the Sheikhs to make their 
 men work. 
 
 Appendix D shows the average number of Arabs and other labour employed 
 during each month, and there are still 250 Indians remaining on the Khalis until 15th 
 March. 
 
 Flood protection on the Tigris. — There is far from sufficient Arab labour even for 
 the protection of the country from floods. Of the total 6,573 men employed on bunding 
 the Tigris only 300 Arabs could be collected for this work. The remainder consists of 
 Turks and Indians. 
 
 Between Kut and Ah Gharbi there are a few Arabs working on bunds round their 
 own camps or villages, but they probably only amount to about 300. I know that 
 part of the country particularly well, having spent six months among the Arabs there 
 in 1916, and the population cannot provide more labour than it does at present. 
 
17 
 
 Remarks on Arab labour. — Most of tlie Arab labour controlled by this department 
 is round the towns and military stations, and consists of men, women and children of 
 all ages. 
 
 Tribal labour is sometimes called upon by political officers to assist in irrigation and 
 railway works, but these cannot be counted as part of the labouring population. They 
 are all cultivators and will on no account leave their own tribal area for work which 
 does not concern them. 
 
 We have sometimes called upon Sheikhs to supply a certain number of men for a 
 labour corps, but they have always been disbanded when required for agriculture. 
 
 All the heavy porterage is done by Persians and Kurds, whose numbers keep fairly 
 steady, but they are only suitable as porters. 
 
 Possibility of increase. — I do not think we can hope to increase the Arab labour 
 for at least a generation unless the desert tribes come into the cultivated areas and 
 settle down under a peaceful administration. 
 
 Amount of imported labour required. — Without knowing what the programme of 
 development of this country will be in the future, it is impossible to say how much 
 imported labour will be required. 
 
 It is safe to assume that the -present numbers of imported labourers cannot be 
 reduced if the country is to be protected from floods ; even in the ordinaiy way, railways 
 and roads are to be maintained and cantonments built. 
 
 We shall shortly lose 10,000 Turks and 2,000 retugee labourers, and our Arabs are 
 decreasing as agriculture increases. 
 
 A reduction of the present labour force by 20,000 after the surplus garrison has 
 .^one is all that we can allow. 
 
 (Signed) J. W. Frost, Brigadier-General. 
 
 Director of Labour. 
 
 ^791-3) 
 
18 
 
 Appendices to the Memorandum by the Director of Labour, 
 
 Mesopotamia. {See page 16.) 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 SHOWINft THE STRENGTH OF ARAB LABOUR AT ITS HIGHEST, ITS LOWEST, AND TO-DAY 
 
 COMPARED WITH OTHER LABOUR. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Indians. 
 
 Turks. 
 
 Refugees. 
 
 Persians. 
 
 Arabs. 
 
 April, 1918 
 July, 1918 
 March. 1919 
 
 32,553 
 36,640 
 32,381 
 
 17,899 
 
 2,818 
 
 12,571 
 13,410 
 21,369 
 
 45,058 
 32,226 
 39,415 
 
 Note. — Persian labour includes Kurds and the labour on Persian lines of communication. 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION OF LABOUR AMONG EMPLOYERS. 
 
 Department, 
 
 Indians. 
 
 Turks. 
 
 Persiane. 
 
 Arabs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Irrigation. . 
 Railways . . 
 Roads 
 
 Works 
 
 Inland Water Transport. . 
 Porterage. . 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 5,226 
 
 5,375 
 3,909 
 3,523 
 283 
 6,219 
 3,988 
 
 8,677 
 1,809 
 989 
 301 
 164 
 2,415 
 658 
 
 3,430 
 
 6,622 
 
 631 
 
 805 
 
 6,893 
 
 2,077 
 
 1,960 
 ■ 2,470 
 1,158 
 3,327 
 442 
 8,838 
 5,430 
 
 15,853 
 14,084 
 23,102 
 7,782 
 1,694 
 24,0 65 
 12,153 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF LABOUR— IRRIGATION MAJOR WORKS. 
 
 Work. 
 
 Indians. 
 
 Turks. 
 
 Arabs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Khalis Canal 
 
 1,915 
 
 963 
 
 
 2.878 
 
 Heraniyeh Head . . 
 
 700 
 
 . . 
 
 250 
 
 950 
 
 Kifl Kufa Canal 
 
 615 
 
 1,931 
 
 • • 
 
 2,.546 
 
 Sakhlawiyeli 
 
 , , 
 
 , , 
 
 800 
 
 800 
 
 Hibbaniyeh 
 
 417 
 
 . . 
 
 400 
 
 817 
 
 Qarradah . . 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 • • 
 
 Revetment .. . < 
 Tigris Bunds 
 
 932 
 646 
 
 2,802 
 
 
 1,578 
 
 
 
 2,802 
 
 Hammer Lake 
 
 , , 
 
 884 
 
 500 
 
 1,384 
 
 Nasiriyeh . . 
 
 , , 
 
 400 
 
 
 400 
 
 Tigris Right 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 Bank Escape 
 
 1,700 
 
 • • 
 
 •• 
 
 1,700 
 
19 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 DAILY AVERAGE NUMBER EMPLOYED ON THE CONSTRUCTION OP THE KHALIS CANAL. 
 
 Daily average for 
 
 Indians. 
 
 Turks. 
 
 Arabs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 July 
 
 1,091 
 
 
 1,137 
 
 2,228 
 
 August 
 
 890 
 
 
 1,425 
 
 2,315 
 
 September. . 
 
 1,157 
 
 
 1,141 
 
 2,289 
 
 October . . 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 1,019 
 
 3,519 
 
 November 
 
 2,-132 
 
 
 1,042 
 
 3,474 
 
 December . . 
 
 2,856 
 
 2,330 
 
 397 
 
 5,583 
 
 January, 1919 
 
 1,992 
 
 868 
 
 . , 
 
 2,869 
 
 February 
 
 1,540 
 
 873 
 
 •• 
 
 8,413 
 
 APPENDIX E. (Seepage 13, footnote.) 
 
 DAILY AVERAGE TOTALS EMPLOYED RY IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT DURING THE PERIOD 
 
 2kd FEBRUARY, 1918, TO 2nd FEBRUARY, 1919. 
 
 Daily average for Imported labour. 
 
 Arab. 
 
 Total. 
 
 February 
 
 5,603 
 
 5,230 
 
 10.833 
 
 March 
 
 6,068 
 
 5,242 
 
 11,310 
 
 April . . 
 
 . .. .. 4,141 
 
 2,513 
 
 6,654 
 
 May .. 
 
 4,028 
 
 1,585 
 
 5,613 
 
 June . . 
 
 3,.S09 
 
 1,052 
 
 4,361 
 
 July . . 
 
 4,711 
 
 1,77:j 
 
 6,483 
 
 August 
 
 5,090 
 
 3,589 
 
 8,679 
 
 September . 
 
 4,455 
 
 3,317 
 
 7,762 
 
 October 
 
 4,834 
 
 3,860 
 
 8,694 
 
 November . 
 
 5,165 
 
 3,732 
 
 8,897 
 
 December 
 
 7,312 
 
 2,749 
 
 10,062 
 
 January, 1918 
 
 7,259 
 
 2.420 
 
 9,679 
 
 2nd February 
 
 ,1919.. ,. 10,783 
 
 2,395 
 
 13,178 
 
 Note. — In every month the imported labour has exceeded the Arab labour; the amount of imported 
 labour has greatly increased, while the Arab, although on work which benefits himself, has considerably 
 decreased. 
 
 This deciease is due to lack of population in some places and cultivation having prior elaim on the labour 
 in others. 
 
 Chinese 
 Indians 
 Turks. . 
 
 Persians 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF LABOUR VALUES. 
 December, 1918. 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Day. 
 
 
 
 Night. 
 
 Kind of labour. 
 
 ri 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 a u 
 
 
 
 
 a- 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 .« 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 a e 
 
 m OS 
 
 §■-5 
 
 
 
 o 
 -J 
 
 a S 
 
 " .2 
 
 r 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 High 
 
 i 
 ^ 
 
 
 General, 
 
 Ordnance, 
 
 .Supply 
 
 and Tr 
 
 ansptrt, <J- 
 
 ;. 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 1,178 
 
 •34 
 
 •72 
 
 •14 
 
 2,724 
 
 6,337 
 
 •30 
 
 ■76 
 
 5,496 
 
 9,032 
 
 . -21 
 
 •60 
 
 •05 
 
 4,598 
 
 6,115 
 
 •19 
 
 •40 
 
 1,720 
 
 6,210 
 
 •49 
 
 •93 
 (2 hrs.) 
 
 •16 
 
 •• 
 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 1,187 
 
 2,310 
 
 •23 
 
 •80 
 
 •11 
 
 74G 
 
 1,722 
 
 •27 
 
 •47 
 
 •09 
 •07 
 
 •07 
 
 (799?,) 
 
 C 2 
 
20 
 
 - 
 
 Day. 
 
 Night. 
 
 Kind of labour. 
 
 -i 
 
 t 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 -s 
 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 B !3 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 ^i 
 
 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 
 a B 
 
 r 
 
 1^ 
 
 •a 
 
 ^ 
 a 
 
 a B 
 53 n) 
 
 Tons 
 dis 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 Chinese 
 Indians 
 Turks. . 
 Persians 
 
 Fodder. 
 
 340 
 
 743 
 
 •30. 
 
 •36 
 
 •23 
 
 1,727 
 
 4,900 
 
 •41 
 
 1^12 
 
 385 
 
 706 
 
 •30 
 
 •49 
 
 •22 
 
 385 
 
 451 
 
 •16 
 
 •26 
 
 1,524 
 
 5,462 
 
 •45 
 
 1-00 
 
 •24 
 
 , , 
 
 , , 
 
 , , 
 
 , . 
 
 56 
 
 170 
 
 •43 
 
 •43 
 
 •43 
 
 • • 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 •17 
 •13 
 
 Chinese 
 Indians 
 Turks. . 
 
 Grain. 
 
 220 
 
 841 
 
 •66 
 
 ■80 
 
 •46 
 
 475 
 
 • 
 
 1,862 
 
 •57 
 
 1-25 
 
 371 
 
 2,000 
 
 •78 
 
 1^30 
 
 •56 
 
 256 
 
 865 
 
 •40 
 
 •50 
 
 720 
 
 4,219 
 
 •87 
 
 1^28 
 
 •61 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 
 •18 
 •30 
 
 Chinese 
 Indians 
 Turks 
 Persians 
 
 Firewood. 
 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 230 
 
 423 
 
 •20 
 
 •30 
 
 1,817 
 
 2,669 
 
 •20 
 
 •40 
 
 ■08 
 
 1,225 
 
 1,720 
 
 •20 
 
 •40 
 
 170 
 
 507 
 
 •63 
 
 •72 
 
 •51 
 
 , . 
 
 . , 
 
 . , 
 
 
 170 
 
 536 
 
 •36 
 
 •54 
 
 ■18 
 
 377 
 
 500 
 
 •14 
 
 •20 
 
 •07 
 •11 
 
 •09 
 
 Chinese 
 Turks 
 
 Timber. 
 
 720 
 
 2,776 
 
 ■52 
 
 ■89 
 
 •30 
 
 1,084 
 
 2,179 
 
 •27 
 
 •40 
 
 80 
 
 179 
 
 •35 
 
 •35 
 
 •35 
 
 •• 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 •21 
 
 Indians 
 Turks 
 
 Royal Engineers, 
 
 Railways, Inland Water Transport. 
 
 
 
 1,621 
 250 
 
 5,222 
 923 
 
 
 •49 ' 1-22 
 •44 ■62 
 
 •15 
 
 •29 
 
 1,536 
 
 2,817 
 • • 
 
 •30 
 
 •66 
 
 • • 
 
 .08 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Indians 
 
 1,974 
 
 3,903 
 
 •23 
 
 •40 
 
 •11 
 
 1,565 
 
 2,881 
 
 •18 
 
 •30 
 
 •08 
 
 Turks 
 
 1,356 
 
 2,536 
 
 •26 
 
 •35 
 
 •11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Persians 
 
 784 
 
 1,525 
 
 •22 
 
 .36 
 
 ■05 
 
 1,412 
 
 2,986 
 
 •20 
 
 ■30 
 
 •07 
 
 January, 1919. 
 
 Persians 
 (jhinese 
 
 Indians 
 Turks. . 
 
 General, Ordnance, Supply and Transport. 
 
 372 
 
 727 
 
 •30 
 
 •50 
 
 •03 
 
 312 
 
 1,553 
 
 •64 
 
 1^03 
 
 970 
 
 2,405 
 
 •27 
 
 •72 
 
 •22 
 
 1,795 
 
 3,986 
 
 •32 
 
 P40 
 
 5,429 
 
 11,103 
 
 •24 
 
 •66 
 
 •06 
 
 4,633 
 
 6,239 
 
 •25 
 
 •60 
 
 1,045 
 
 4,826 
 
 •63 
 
 1^27 
 
 •11 
 
 
 • - 
 
 
 • • 
 
 •23 
 •08 
 •11 
 
 Chinese 
 Indians 
 Turks . 
 
 
 
 
 Fodder. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 300 
 
 •27 
 
 •34 
 
 •21 
 
 1,545 
 
 3,464 
 
 •26 
 
 •25 
 
 1,255 
 
 3,915 
 
 • • 
 
 •46 
 
 i-'vi 
 
 •11 
 
 •• 
 
 • • 
 
 •• 
 
 • • 
 
 •08 
 
21 
 
 Kind of labour. 
 
 a 
 
 "a- 
 a 3 
 
 S 
 
 Day. 
 
 ? 
 
 -s 
 
 a a, 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 "04 
 
 Night. 
 
 bo 
 a 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a. 
 
 S. 
 
 -a 
 s 
 
 I 
 
 Orain. 
 
 Chinese 
 Indians 
 Turks. . 
 
 Chinese 
 Indians 
 Turks 
 Persians 
 
 Chinese 
 Indians 
 Turks 
 
 Chinese 
 Indians 
 
 815 
 
 , , 
 
 • • 
 
 • a 
 
 • • 
 
 795 
 
 3,457 
 
 •47 
 
 •86 
 
 4,637 
 
 •92 
 
 1-66 
 
 •44 
 
 • • 
 
 -•• 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 Firewood. 
 
 Timber. 
 
 Railways, Royal Engineers, Inland Water Transport, ^c. 
 
 Coal. 
 
 -18 
 
 65 
 
 180 
 
 •34 
 
 •34 
 
 •34 
 
 246 
 
 580 
 
 •22 
 
 •39 
 
 398 
 
 653 
 
 •20 
 
 •22 
 
 •17 
 
 747 
 
 1,238 
 
 •17 
 
 •22 
 
 678 
 
 1,125 
 
 •23 
 
 •34 
 
 •13 
 
 • • 
 
 , a 
 
 , . 
 
 • ■ 
 
 46 
 
 66 
 
 •18 
 
 •18 
 
 •18 
 
 97 
 
 35 
 
 •11 
 
 •11 
 
 444 
 
 1,053 
 
 •29 
 
 •45 
 
 •14 
 
 515 
 
 707 
 
 •22 
 
 •44 
 
 748 
 
 966 
 
 •19 
 
 •33 
 
 •02 
 
 548 
 
 655 
 
 •16 
 
 •40 
 
 240 
 
 262 
 
 •16 
 
 •20 
 
 •13 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 • • 
 
 •• 
 
 •14 
 •10 
 
 •ii 
 
 •43 
 
 •06 
 
 480 
 
 1,226 
 
 •31 
 
 •43 
 
 •25 
 
 465 
 
 727 
 
 •19 
 
 •37 
 
 108 
 
 216 
 
 •25 
 
 •25 
 
 •25 
 
 108 
 
 135 
 
 •25 
 
 •25 
 
 •15 
 •25 
 
 Indians 
 
 2,696 
 
 6,230 
 
 ••24 
 
 •68 
 
 •02 
 
 4,262 
 
 7,666 
 
 •21 
 
 •51 
 
 •02 
 
 Turks 
 
 2.674 
 
 6,124 
 
 •32 
 
 •58 
 
 •17 
 
 
 , , 
 
 
 , . 
 
 * • 
 
 Persians 
 
 80 
 
 257 
 
 •35 
 
 •40 
 
 •30 
 
 307 
 
 482 
 
 •34 
 
 •41 
 
 •21 
 
 LETTER AND MEMORANDUM BY THE LATE DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE, MESOPOTAMIA. 
 
 {See page 4.) 
 
 Agricultural Directorate, 
 
 New Street, Baghdad, 
 To Sir J. P. Hewett, G.C.S.I. 28th December, 1918. 
 
 Dear Sir John, 
 
 I am returning my note on the future organization of the Agricultural Department in this country with a 
 few amplifications as requested by you. 
 
 With regard to research, its importance is evident. Plant selection offers immediate prospects of 
 success, as the crops grown in this cotmtry contain so many different varieties that they are nearly useless 
 from a commercial point of view. The best prospects of success are likely to accrue from the careful plant 
 to plant selection of existing field crops in the country. An economic botanist is, therefore, urgently 
 required who would deal, in the first place, with suitable crops such as wheat, barley and rice. 
 
 Cotton is a special crop which, to all intents and purposes, is not yet grown in the country, but which 
 holds forth such vast possibilities that a specially qualified officer is warranted. It is possible that a grant 
 in aid to cover the cost of cotton experimental work could be obtained from the British Cotton Growing 
 Association or a similar body. 
 
 Another line of work which offers great possibilities is the improvement of the indigenous fruits of this 
 country. Certain centres appear to be excellently suited for the production of the citrus fruits and also 
 stone fruits. Local cultivators, however, have very little idea of pruning, grafting and budding, and 
 instruction on these points to the cultivators and the introduction of improved varieties would liave 
 immediate' results. A proper system of grading and packing is also wanted. The economic botanist, 
 therefore, would require a section on his own to deal with : — 
 
 1 . The improvement of staple crops by selection and hybridization. 
 
 2. Introduction of cotton. 
 
 3. Improvement of the fruit industry. 
 
 4. A mychological sub-section to deal with fungoid diseases. 
 
 An entomologist is also urgently required, as insect pests are extremely abundant. I need only quote 
 the date diseases, the stem borer, and the various varieties of locusts as a few of the instances which have 
 already been brought to my attention in the last few months. 
 
22 
 
 Also, an agricultural chemist for the department will be required, whose duties, apart from the ordinary- 
 analysis of soils, crops, manures, &c., will be fully occupied iu dealing with the problems of salt and 
 drainage. Another important section which will be necessary is that of agricultural machinery. Already, 
 in this country, the local cultivator shows far more desire to invest in water lifts and labour-saving devices 
 than he has ever done in India Much pioneer work is required in this direction, especially with regard to 
 tractors and to harvesting, threshing and winnowing machinery.. The officer in charge of this section 
 would be made responsible for training local mechanics in the erection and management of pumps and other 
 agricultural machinery. 
 
 I need say little about the necessity for demonstration farms. The need is obvious. The real cultivator 
 seldom travels far from his home and must have some place fairly close by where he can go and see the new 
 variety actually growing or a new method being put into practice. It has been abundantly proved in India 
 and Egypt that the issue of leaflets or the giving of lectures are, by themselves, of little value unless tliey 
 can be backed up by a practical demonstrati'm in the field. The danger of sending out new seeds bafore 
 they are thoroughly tested has already been abundantly brought home in this country. 
 
 I may quote the case of Indian wheat whicti was imported last year and which failed, partly owing to 
 the fact that it was of the wrong variety, and the case of potatoes, the cultivation of which was not 
 understood by the Arabs, and which were also much too late a variety for this country Indian maize 
 also was issued for seed in large quantities last spring and failed to Sf t cobs as it came into flower during 
 the middle of tlie hot weather. Further experiment has proved that if sown iu A gust, it gives a satisfactory 
 outturn in October. 
 
 These mistakes were, of course, due to war conditions and were perhaps unavoidable to a certain extent, 
 but we must take.cire to avr.id such mistakes in the future and the on'y way to do so is by insisting on 
 preliminary experimental and demonstration work in the field. 
 
 In conclusion, the staff at Headquarters (where we should have an agricultural school, combined with 
 laboratories for research and an experimental farm) would consist of a Principal who would be an 
 agriculturist and would also be manager of the experimental farm ; of an economic botanist; a cotton expert; 
 an entomologist, and an Officer in Charge of Agricultural Machinery ("Agricultural Engineer). It will 
 probably be necessary also to have a special officer to deal with sheep and cattle. Apart from Headquarters 
 Staff, District Officers in charge of circles, who must be trained all-round agriculturists, are required 
 at present. 
 
 Yours sincerely. 
 
 (Signed) A. Evans, Colonel, 
 Director of Agriculture, 
 
 Mesopotaviia Expeditionary Force. 
 
 Agricultural Directwate, 
 
 New Street, Baghdad, 
 
 18th December, 191?. 
 To 
 
 Memorandum. 
 
 Subject: The Reorganization of the Agriculturai Department. 
 
 1. The abrupt cessation of hostilities has naturally led me to consider the reconstruction of the 
 Agricultural Department. The immediate and urgent necessity for supplying food and fodder for the Army 
 of Occupation has, up to the present, occupied our chief attention. It is now time to consider the future 
 lines of development of the Department. The rough scheme I am attempting to describe below is the 
 result of much serious thought and of consultation with the more senior members of my Department, some 
 of whom have had considerable experience in Agriculture Departments in other parts of the Empire, viz., 
 India, Ceylon, Egypt and the Colonies 
 
 2. I am assuming that Government is not itself likely to undertake cultivation on a large scale. Direct 
 cultivation by Government is rarely profitable and, in addition, it is presumably undesirable that the State 
 should enter into competition with private individuals. Our work therefore should aim at raising the 
 standard of cultivation among lue iocai agriculturists. 
 
 3. In the first place, it is essential that we must have something really better to offer the cultivator 
 than he has at present This entails the necessity for experiment and research. I cannot too strongly 
 insist on this point. I have seen the confidence of cultivators in a Department upset by well-meaning, but 
 misguided, attempts to introduce new methods before they have been thoroughly sifted and tested on a practical 
 scale. Once the confidence of the cultivator is lost, it is verv difficult to re-estabUsu as he is, in most 
 countries, very conservative and difficult to move unless he is absolutely convinced that the new method is 
 likely to pay him better than the old. 
 
 Research is, therefore, needed in the first place to invent remedies for dealing with insect and fungoid 
 pasts, of which this country appears to be the favoured habitat, to breed better varieties of crops and 
 domestic animals, to deal with problems concerning salt, drainage, &c., and to try new types of agricultural 
 machinery. 
 
 After research comes experiment, iu which the work of the research experts should be tested in the 
 field under natural conditions. 
 
 Finally comes demonstration work, in which the new methods, machines or crops recommended can be 
 practically demonstrated (against the corresponding local method) to the cultivator of the country. No 
 real cultivator will adopt a new method or seed unless he has actually seen for himself, in his own particular 
 tract, that method successfully tried or the new seed growing and giving better yields than his own. 
 
 Trained men will be required by the Department to carry out this programme. At present we are 
 working with soldier subordinates, British and Indian. These are nearly all likely to leave, and we must 
 face the eventuality that we have got to rely in the main on the local population for our trained personnel. 
 The sooner a central farm and school of agriculture is started to train this staff the better. 
 
 I have attempted very briefly to sketch a policy which, if it leads to nothing else, will at least start a 
 ■discussion in the right direction. 1 wish now to state what, in my opinion, is immediately required. 
 
 Baghdad, the capital of 'Iraq, should be the locality fixed for the School of Agriculture and the Research 
 laboratories. This institute should have an experimental farm attached, on which the economic botanist 
 and the cotton expert could conduct their plant breeding experiments and in which their selections could be 
 
23 
 
 tested and compared on a field scrde by the farm manager. Now varieties will have to be . propagated on a 
 considerable scale and a see3 farm should be attached. Probably l,.50O acres would suffice, but if sheep 
 breeding is contemplated, a larger area of dt^sert land would also have to be acquired. At Baghdad every 
 staple crop in Mesopotamia can be grown with the single exception of rice, and therefore the educational 
 value of tlie farm for students at the schnol would be great. In addition, this site should, if possible, l»e 
 close to the Military Dairy Farm, where dairying and the stock breeding could be observed by the student. 
 The land between Waziriyah and the Tigris would provide a suitable stretch. Flow irrigation for the shitwi 
 (summer) crops could be obtained Iroin the Waziriyah, which is the tail end of the Khalis. and a pumping 
 station could be established on the river to demonstrate lift inigation. 
 
 Demonstration farms of about 300 acres e;ich will be necessary at the headquarters of each Agricultural 
 Circle Officer, whose headiiuarters now coiucide with those of the Divisionaf Political Officers. I have 
 already managed to start farms at the following centies : — 
 
 Nazariyah. 
 
 Amarnh. 
 
 Ilillah. 
 
 Baqubah. 
 
 Eadhiinain. 
 
 Suwairah. 
 
 Samarrah. 
 
 Khaniqin. 
 
 The sites of all these, with the exception of Klianiqin, which is too remote, are excellent. Khazimain 
 when the Baghdad Farm is started, will not be required. 
 
 I have not attempted much this season, and work on the farms is practically confined to testing 'Uraq 
 and Indian wheats and in the production of clean wheat and barley seeds. The foundation has beea 
 laid in each case, however, for suitable permanent farms. Hillah, Baqubah and Xhaniqin are irrigated by- 
 flow. Amarah is partly flow and partly lift. 
 
 On the others, pumping installations have been established. The Shamiyeh district could probably best 
 be served by a rice farm, as that is the staple crop in the tract. 
 
 I have not touched on the subject of the superior staff of the Department. Until the terms of service 
 which are to be ofTeied after the war are known, it is impossible to make any forecast 
 
 Meanwhile, if my proposal regarding the establishment of a Central Research Institute, School and 
 Experimeutal Farm be approved, I suggest that a small committee be appointed to select a suitable site. 
 
 (Signed) A. Evans, Colonel, 
 
 Director of Agriculture. 
 
 Printed under the authority of His Majesty's Statiokebt Oppiob, 
 By Harrison and Sons, St. Martin's Lane, W.C. 2. 
 
UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, 
 BERKELEY 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 BbokB- not .returned on time-Are silT)j('cnb~"a fine of 
 5t)c per volume after tire tttrd-Uay^ifyerdue. increu^ing 
 to $1.00 per volume ifli i 11^; jij illi Ann flllllll'T fiiil in 
 demand may he_i»m,i»i!(r' if application is ma^~tiefore 
 expiration *t)f loan period. 
 
 FEB 25 V'. 
 
 RECTD i-U 
 
 ^0V18 1S37 
 
 iv^^^ 
 
 SEP 3 193! 
 
 tlOctSlLU 
 
 
 10m-4,'2S 
 
Photomount 
 
 Pamphlet 
 
 Binder 
 
 Gay lord Bros. 
 
 Makers 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 m. m :i. \m 
 
 
 
 
 ■ f-'.''^''"' 
 
 
 
 
 'SSB 
 
 502886 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 
 OxiC^*™ 
 
 ijiV"* ">-■■'■ ' ■ , '■■■ 
 
 y&^j? 
 
 t:«^,''-'-t-.-'..'-'--f^. ■■■'■ 
 
 
 ■#^*#-|i^S^ 
 
 
=w .»