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 LARDNEE'S 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 ALL NATIONS, 
 
 SHOWING 
 
 THEIIi RISE, PEOGEESS, DECLINE, CONTINUANCli 
 
 AND 
 
 PRESENT CONDITION. 
 
 INCLUDING THE AUTHENTIC ANNALS OF 
 
 EVERY RACE AND PEOPLE, 
 
 FROM THE CREATION TO THE PRESENT TIME, 
 
 DESCRIBING 
 
 THEIR PRIMITIVE CONDITION, 
 
 AND THEIR GROWTH IN THE ARTS OF 
 
 PEACE AND WAR. 
 
 FROM THE HUT OF SAVAGERY TO THE 
 PALACE OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 WORLD MANUFACTURING CO., PUBLISHERS, 
 
 122 Nassau Street. 
 
 Copyrighted, 1885, by Would Manufactuking Co.
 
 SRLP 
 URL 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The object of the writer of the present volume has beon 
 to give a correct and comprehensive view of the history of 
 the world, which accuracy of narration and chronology 
 would render valuable as a book of reference, and in whicb 
 general views and reflections would remove the dryness 
 inseparable from a mere enumeration of facia 7<) the 
 separate histories of diflferent countries it is as a general 
 map of the whole combined, representing in connection 
 what they exhibit isolated, and displaying the relative pro- 
 portions and importance of the several parts. So that the 
 attentive reader will find himself conversant and his mind 
 impressed with most of the great characters and events 
 which occur in the history of the world. 
 
 For the plan of dividing the work into periods, the 
 author is indebted to the celebrated MuUer, and has adopted 
 several of the divisions employed by him in his Universal 
 History. That work, with those of Schlosser, Gibbon, 
 Hallam, and others, has been used in the preparation of the 
 work, with constant reference to contemporary and nationsl 
 ystories.
 
 Vl PREFACE. 
 
 To prevent any misconception, the reader is requested to 
 bear in mind that this is a national and political history 
 mankind being regarded in it as divided into great societies 
 Consequently, when religions are treated of, whether the 
 true or the false, they are regarded only in their political 
 relations and their bearings on national progress and 
 character. Theological discussion would be entirely out 
 of place in a work of this kind. 
 
 There is an Index at the end of the work, by consulting 
 which, under the head of any country, the history of that 
 country may be read in its historical and chronological 
 order. This will be done by referring to the pages under 
 its name. The wars and political relations of two countries 
 will be best known by reading the corresponding parts ot 
 the history of each.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 PART I. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Introduction. 
 Of Man, 15. Original Seat of Man — Original State of Man, !•. 
 Ethiopians, 17. Chinese, 18. India, 22. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Ancient States of Central and Western Asia. 
 Bactria, 23. Babylon and Assyria, 24. Egypt, 27. Phoenicia, 29. 
 Philistines, 29. Arabia — Israelites, 30. Medes and Persians, 38. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 Greece. 
 Early State of Greece, 45. Dorian Migration, 49. Sparta, 60. 
 Athens, 51. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 Greece to her Subversion by the Macedonians. 
 Persian War, 66. Peloponnesian War, 58. Lacedaemonian Do- 
 minion, 63. Theban Dominion, 64. Philip of Macedon, 67. 
 
 CHAP. V, 
 
 Alexander and his Successors. 
 Alexander, 69. Division of Alexander's Dominions, 70. Macedon— 
 Greece, 74. Thrace— Bithynia, 75. Pergamus— Pontus, 76. Ar- 
 meniar-Syria, 79. Judea,80. Parthia— Egypt, 81. Carthage, 82. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 Eome till the Punic Wars. 
 Rome under Kings, 85. Tuscans— War with Porsenna, 91. Dicta- 
 tor—Secession—Tribunes, 92. Spiirius Cassius, and the Agrarian 
 Law, 94, The Decemvirs and the Twelve Tables, 97. Spuriua 
 Mffilius, 98. Wars anterior to the Gallic invasion, 101. Gauls- 
 Capture of Rome, 102. Rebuilding of the City— Manlius, 10.3. 
 Licinian Rogations, 104. Samnite War— Latin War, 108. War 
 with Pyrrhus, 109. 
 
 CHAP. VIL 
 Pome till the Time of the Gracchi. 
 First Punic War, 110. Hlyrian War— Gallic War, 123. ^ Second 
 Punic War, 114. Macedonian and Syrian Wars, 115. tonquert 
 
 vU
 
 ?1U CONTENTS. 
 
 ofMacedon — Third Punic War, 116. Achsean War, 119. SptuuBk 
 Wars, 120. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Some till the End of the Republic 
 
 The Gracchi, 121. Jugurthine War — Cimbric War, 125. State ot 
 Rome — Social or Marsian War, 126. Mithridatic and Civil Wars, 
 127 From the death of Sulla to that of Mithridates, 132. Cati- 
 line's Conspiracy — The Gallic War of Caeear, 134. Civil War of 
 Caesar and Pompeius, 139. Events tiU the Death of Caesar, 143. 
 Civil War with Brutus and Cassius, 144. War between Ootavianus 
 and Antonius, 147. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Rome an Empire. 
 
 Emperors of the Caesarian Family, 151. Emperors chosen by the 
 Army, 155. Flavian Family, 156. Good Emperors, 159. From 
 Commodus to Diocletian, 161. Change in the Form of 'Govern- 
 ment, 168. Corruption of Christianity, 170. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Decline of the Empire. 
 
 Successors of Constantino, 174. The Huns, 179. Wars with the 
 Goths, 180. Genseric and Attila, 185. Fall of the Western Em- 
 pire, 187. 
 
 PART II. 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 CHAP. L 
 
 Establishment of the Barbarians in the Western Empire. 
 
 Gotho-Germans, 192. East-Goths in Italy, 192. Lombards in Italy 
 — Burgundians, 194. Allemanni, 195. Franks, 196. Anglo- 
 Saxons, 199. West-Goths in Spain, 200. Byzantine Empire, 201. 
 Persia, 206. 
 
 CHAP. IL 
 
 TTie Times of Mohammed and the Firut Khalifa, 
 
 Mohammed, 208. First Khalifs, 214. Conquestof Syria, 215. Con- 
 quest of Persia — Conquest of Egypt, 219. Invasion of Africa. 220. 
 Ommiyades — Conquest of Africa — Conquest of Spain, 221. Inva- 
 sion of France by the Arabs, 222. France — Lombards, 225. Con- 
 stantinople, 226. Germany — England, 227. 
 
 CHAP. IIL 
 The Times of Charlemagne and Haroon^er-rasheed, 
 Italy, 227. Empire of Charlemagne, 231. Feudal System, 232. 
 England — Constantinople, 234. Abbaaide Khalifs, 237.
 
 CUNITENTS- is 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Dissolution of the Great Empires of the East and West. 
 
 Empire of Charlemagne, 240. Hungarians, 243. Northmen, 244. 
 France — Germany — House of Saxony, 246. Italy, 250. England, 
 251. Russia, 252. Constantinople, 255. Decline of the Arabian 
 Empire — Africa, 256. Decline of the Arabian Empire — Asia, 256. 
 Causes of the Decline of the Power of the KhaJifs, 261. Qaa- 
 nevides, 262. Spain, 263. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Increase of the Papal Power. 
 
 Italy — Normans, 264. Italy — Popes, 269. Italy — Lombard Cities, 
 274. Germany — House of Franconia — France, 275. England, 276. 
 Spain — Constantinople — Seljookians, 280. First Crusade, 285. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 7%e Papal Power at its Greatest Height. 
 
 Italy — Popes, 287. Italy — Lombard Cities, 292. Italy — Naples 
 and Sicily — Germany — Swabian Line, 293. France, 298. En- 
 gland — Plantagenets, 299. Ireland— Spain, 304. Portugal — Al- 
 mohadcs, 305. Persia — Saladin, 306. Mamelukes — Constantino- 
 ple, 309. Crusades, 310. Mongols— Chingis Khan, 315. End of 
 the Khalifat at Bagdad, 316. 
 
 CHAP. VIL 
 Decline of the Papal Power, and Formation of Great Monarchies. 
 Italy— Popes, 317. Italy— Republics, 323. Italy— Naples and Sicily, 
 328. Germany, 330. Switzerland— France, 334. England— Plan- 
 tagenets, 342. Wars between France and England, 349. Scotland, 
 355. Scandinavia, 360. Poland, 361. Hungary— Ottomans, 362. 
 Tatars— Timoor, 367. Spain, 371. Portugal, 372. Discovery of 
 America, 373. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 CHAP. L 
 
 View of the State of Europe. 
 England, 379. France-Germany— Russia, Poland, Scandinariar— 
 Switzerland and Savoy, 380. Italy, 383. League of Cambray- 
 Spain and Portugal, 384. Turkey, 385. Persia, 386. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Times of Charles V. 
 
 Accession of Charles V., 389. Reformation, 390. Wars of Charles 
 
 V. and Francrs I., 391. Affairs of Germany, 396. Renewed War 
 
 with France, 397. Affairs of Germany, 398. England, 402. Spam 
 
 And Portugal— Italy, 403. Denmark and Sweden— Turkey, 407. 
 
 2
 
 S CONTENTS- 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 Times of Philip II. 
 
 State of Europe at Philip's Accession, 408. France, 409. Nether- 
 lands, 416. England, 422. Portugal, 426. Germany — Poland, 
 427. Italy, 428. Turkey, 431, 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Times of the Thirty Years' War, 
 
 Germany, 432. France, 429, Spain, 443. Portugal — Italy — Eng- 
 land—The Civil War, 444, Holland, 448. Russia— Turkey and 
 Persia, 449. 
 
 CHAP. V, 
 
 Times of Louis XIV. 
 
 France to the Peace of the Pyrenees, 450. England to the Restora- 
 tion — Wars tiU the Peace of Nimeguen, 433, England to the 
 Revolution, 459. Wars to the Peace of Ryswick, 460. England — 
 Spanish Succession, 462, North of Europe — Peter the Great — 
 Charles XII., 471. England, 472. 
 
 CHAP. VI, 
 
 Period of Comparative Repose. 
 
 England — Quadruple Alliance, 475. Russia — Turkish Wars, 477. 
 Persia — Nadir Shah, 478. 
 
 CHAP. VII, 
 Times of Frederic II. 
 
 Silesian Wars, 481. England, 487, Russia — Seven Years' War, 488, 
 Suppression of the Jesuits, 493. First Partition of Poland, 494. 
 Turkish War — American Revolutionary War, 495. India — Persia, 
 603, 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Times of the French Revolution and Empire. 
 
 Stdte of Europe, 506. French Revolution, 511, Europe to the Peace 
 of Campo Formio, 515. Affairs to the Assumption of the chief 
 power by Bonaparte, 516. Affairs till the Peace of Amiens, 518. 
 Affairs of Europe to the Treaty of Tilsit, 521. Affairs to the Treaty 
 of Vienna, 522. Progress of the Peninsular War, 524. Invasior 
 of Russia, and Fall of Napoleon, 527, 
 
 CHAP, IX, 
 
 Times of the Restoration and Louis Philippe 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Times of the Continental Revolution. 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 The Old World from 1849 to 1885. 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 The New World from 1849 to 1885.
 
 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 CHAP I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Of Man. 
 
 There are different races of our species occupying the vari- 
 ous portions of the earth, and distinguished from each other 
 in corporeal structure and in mental development. These nu- 
 merous varieties are, by the ablest investigators, reduced to 
 three principal stems, viz. the Caucasian or Europeo-Arabic, 
 the Mongol, and the Negro or Ethiopic. The first contains 
 the people of Asia north and south of the great mountain 
 range of Caucasus and its continuation to the Ganges, of Eu- 
 rope, and of Northern Africa; the second, the people of East- 
 ern Asia and of America ; the third, the tribes vsdth woolly 
 hair and sable skin that people the African continent. Yet 
 many tribes can with difficulty be brought under any one of 
 these divisions: the endless variety of Nature is as apparent 
 in the human race as in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
 
 Original Seat of Man. 
 
 It is, perhaps, a useless inquiry to search after the region 
 in which man was first placed, the paradise of his first days 
 of innocence and happiness. The only historic clew we pos- 
 sess are the names of the four rivers, said in the Hebrew re- 
 cords to have watered the land in which the progenitors of 
 the human race dwelt But as no four rivers can be found 
 on the present surface of the earth agreeing in all points 
 with those mentioned by Moses, our safest course is to con- 
 fine ourselves to the inquiry after the region where those who 
 escaped the great inundation which overwhelmed the earth, 
 resumed their destined course of life and occupation. 
 
 The general opinion, founded on the literal interpretation 
 of Scripture, has long been, that at the time of the flood all
 
 16 HISTORY OP THE WORCD. PART I. 
 
 mankind perished, save Noah and his family. Some, how- 
 ever, contend, that the words of the inspired writer are not 
 to be taken so strictly, and that as his information was des- 
 tined for a particular portion of mankind, it may have been 
 only intended to instruct them in tlie history of the race to 
 which they belonged, while that of other races may have 
 been passed over in silence. Hence they would infer that we 
 are not precluded by the Mosaic writings from supposing, that 
 at the time of the great inundation other portions of mankind 
 may have saved themselves in diiFerent manners and places. 
 They therefore look to the higher regions of the earth, and 
 and three elevated rangc-s m the neighborhood of the three 
 distinct stems into which we find mankind divided. The lofty 
 range extending from the Black Sea to the east of India has 
 been at all times regarded as being, either itself or the landa 
 south of it, the original seat of the Caucasian race. Still 
 more east, beyond Tibet and the desert of Gobi, rises another 
 range, regarded as the original seat of the Mongol race which 
 dwells around it : and the Mountains of the Moon and their 
 branches are thought to point out the primitive abodes of the 
 Negro race. America, it is probable, was not, tUl long after 
 adapted for the abode of man. 
 
 These, however, are all questions of curiosity rather than 
 of historical importance. At the dawn of all history we find 
 the various races of mankind distinct, and no history informs 
 U9 of the origin of the differences. We have therefore only 
 to consider them in their separate states, or as intermingled 
 with and affecting each other. 
 
 Original State of Man. 
 
 Another point which has given occasion to a good deal of 
 ingenious conjecture, is the original state of mankind. Philo- 
 sophers, on surveying the human race in its different situa- 
 tions, have traced out four distinct states, — those of the mere 
 fruit and plant-eater, the hunter, the herdsman, and the cul- 
 tivator, — and have generally inferred that man has pro- 
 gressively passed through all these states, commencing at the 
 lowest. Yet this is still but mere conjecture, unsupported by 
 any historic evidence. No tribe has ever yet been found to 
 civilize itself; instruction and improvement always come to 
 it from abroad ; and experience would rather lead to the in- 
 ference, that the savage is a degeneration from the civilized 
 life." In the very earliest history, that of the Bible, we find 
 the pastoral and agricultural life coexisting almost from the 
 commencement of the world; at all periods we find man 
 possessed of the Hseful and necessary arts, the master of
 
 MAP. L INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 rtocks and herds, the employer of the spaxie, the plow, and 
 the sickle. It is in vain we seek for commencement, — all is 
 progress. In imagination, we may conceive a time, when 
 the human race was in the lowest degree of culture ; but, on 
 inquiry, we everywhere meet the arts, meet men collected 
 into societies, meet property, legislation, and government. 
 
 It may perhaps be collected from the testimony of the 
 Sacred Scriptures, and from the deductions of philosophy, that 
 man has always existed in society, and that the first societies 
 were families, the first form of government patriarchal : and 
 the following may be stated as the most probable hypothesis ; 
 namely, that man commenced his existence in the social state 
 mider the mild and gentle form of government denominated 
 patriarchal ; that his first nourishment was the fruits of trees 
 and plants, which ripened in abundance for the supply of his 
 wants in some temperate and fertile region of the earth, 
 possibly that at the south of Caucasus, or where now extends 
 the paradisal vale of Cashmeer ; that gradually he became a 
 keeper of flocks and herds, and a cultivator of corn; that 
 families spread and combined ; and that from their union 
 ^Tose monarchies, the most ancient form of extended civil 
 government. 
 
 It is in this last state that we propose to consider mankind, 
 and to trace the great and important events that have taken 
 place among the various stems and branches of the human 
 race; to show how, beneath the guiding energy of the 
 Creator and Ruler, the great machme of human society has 
 proceeded on its way, at tunes advancmg, at tiines apparently 
 retrograding, in the path of perfection and happiness. And the 
 final result of our view of the deeds and destinies of man 
 will, we trust, be a firm conviction in the mind of every 
 reader that private and public felicity is the result alone of 
 ^ood education, wise laws, and just government, and that all 
 power which is not based on equity is imstable and transient. 
 
 It is to the Caucasian race that the history of the world 
 must mainly confine itself, for with that race has originated 
 almost all that ennobles and dignifies mankind: it is the 
 chief depository of literature, and the great instructor of 
 philosophical, political, and religious systems. We shall re- 
 Blrict ourselves, therefore, chiefly to the history of that race, 
 briefly premising views of the state and character of the 
 /Ethiopians, the Mongols, and the Indians. 
 
 ^Ethiopians. 
 We have already observed, that under this name are in- 
 9 uded all the inhabitants of Africa whose bodily conforma- 
 2*
 
 18 HISTORY OV THE WORLD. PART t 
 
 tion does not prove them to be of the Caucasian race. The 
 Indefiniteness of the term Ethiopian employed by the Greeks, 
 ind applied by them to all people of a dark complexion, and 
 ihe similar indefiniteness of the Hebrew Cush, prevent our 
 being able positively to say whether the obscure traditions of 
 the Ethiopian power extending along the Mediterranean to 
 the straits of Gades, and of that people having, under their 
 king Tearcho, made themselves so formidable to the inhabit- 
 ants of the coasts of the -^gean, are to be understood of a 
 purely Negro empire, or of, what is much more probable, a 
 state like that of Egypt, where the lower orders of society 
 were of Negro, the higher and dominant classes of Caucasian 
 race. Within the historic period of both ancient and modern 
 times, the ^Ethiopian race only appears as furnishing slaves 
 for the service of the Caucasian, to whom it has been always 
 as inferior in mental power as in bodily configuration. Though 
 modern travel has discovered within the torrid wastes of 
 Africa large communities ruled over by Negro princes, and 
 a knowledge of many of the useful arts, yet civilization and 
 policy have never reared their heads in the ungenial clime. 
 As literature has never been theirs, whatever revolutions 
 may have taken place among them are buried in oblivion, and 
 they claim no station of eminence in the history of the world 
 
 Thp Chinese. 
 
 I'he Mongols stand far higher in the scale of intellect and 
 in importance than the ^Ethiopia ns. As we proceed, we shall 
 find them striking terror into Furope by their arms and their 
 numbers. One nation of this race, the Chinese, has long 
 been an object of curiosity to the western world, from its ex- 
 tent of empire and the singularity of its social institutions. 
 I The Chinese empif ""cuf ies an extent of surface equal to 
 that of all Europe, containii. g within it every variety of soil 
 and climate, and natural production ; thus rendering it in 
 itself perfectly independent of all foreign aid. In its social 
 institutions it has presented through all periods a model of 
 the primitive form of government, the patriarchal, and an 
 exemplification of the evil of continuing it beyond its just 
 and necessary period. In Chii.a all is at a stand-still; sue 
 ceeding ages add not to the knowledge of those that have gone 
 before • no one must presume to be wiser than his fathers : 
 around the Son of Heaven, as they designate their emperor, 
 assemble the learned of the land as his council; so in the 
 provinces the learned in their several degrees around the 
 governor; and laws and rules are passed from the highest 
 down to the lowest, to be by them given to the people. Every
 
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 CHAP. 1. INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 even die most minute, circumstance of common life is rcgvj 
 lated by law. It matters not, for example, what may be the 
 woalth of an individual, he must wear the dress and build his 
 house after the mode prescribed by ancient regulations. In 
 China every thing bears the stamp of antiquity : immovable- 
 ness seems to be characteristic of the nation ; every imple- 
 ment retains its primitive rude form ; every invention haa 
 stopped at the first step. The gradual progress towards per- 
 fection of the Caucasian race is unknown in China ; the plow 
 is still drawn by men ; the written characters of their mono- 
 syllabic language stand for ideas, not for simple sounds ; and 
 the laborious task of learning to read occupies the time that 
 might be employed in the acquisition of valuable knowledge. 
 Literature has been at all periods cultivated by a nation 
 where learning (such as it is) is the only road to honor and 
 dignity, and books beginning with the five Kings of Con-fu- 
 tsee, which equal the four Vedas of India in the honor in 
 which they are held, have at all times been common in this 
 empire. A marked feature in the Chinese character is tlie 
 absence of imagination: all is the product of cold reason. 
 The Kings speak not of a God, and present no system of re- 
 ligion : every thing of that nature in China came from India. 
 The uncertain history of China ascends to about 2500 
 years before the Christian era; the certain history commences 
 about eight centuries before Christ. According to Chi- 
 nese tradition, the founders of the state, a hundred families 
 in number, descended from the mountains of Kulcum, on the 
 lake of Khukhunor, north-west of China; and hence the 
 middle provinces of Chensee, Leong, Honan, &c. were the 
 first seats of their cultivation. These provinces are in the 
 same climate as Greece and Italy. Twenty-two dynasties of 
 princes are enumerated as having governed China to the 
 present day, the actual emperor being the fifth monarch of 
 the twenty-second or Tai Tsin dynasty. Of these dynasties, 
 one of the most remarkable is the Song, which ruled over 
 the southern empire at the time China was divided into two, 
 and fell beneath the arms of the Yver or mingled nomadic 
 tribes, led to conquest by the descendants of Chingis Khan. 
 This line, which reigned from A. D. 960 to 1280, distinguish- 
 ed itself by the encouragement of the arts and sciences ; it 
 cultivated relations with Japan, fostered trade and commerce, 
 and in all things' went contrary to the established maxims of 
 Chinese policy, and while it lasted the empire bloomed be- 
 neath its sway ; but the hordes of the desert levelled its glo- 
 ries, j»nd its fate has been ever since held up as an awfiil 
 warning to those who venture to depart even a hair's breadth
 
 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I 
 
 from the ancient manners. At an earlier period, under the 
 dynasty of Tsin (248—206 B. C), China first received reli- 
 
 fion from India ; but the missionaries were not artful or pru- 
 ent enough to adapt it to Cliinese maxims of state, and they 
 were unsuccessful in the contest between them and the 
 learned. At a later period, when the Buddhism of India had 
 become the Lamaism of Tibet, it entered China as the reli 
 gion of Foe, and by the worldly prudence of its bonzes or 
 priests, succeeded in gaining a favorable reception and be- 
 coming the religion of the state. Every thing that hopes for 
 success in this country must fall in with the national charao- 
 ter. China has often been overcome, and its reigning dynasty 
 changed ; but the manners and institutions of China remain 
 unaltered, as different from those of the Caucasian race aa 
 the features of the Chinese face are from those of the Euro- 
 pean. 
 
 India. 
 
 From the Chinese, a nation of cold reason, almost no reli- 
 gion, monosyllabic, unharmonious language, and literature 
 full of events and valuable matter, we pass to their neighbors 
 of India, whom every thing but color indicates to belong to 
 the same family with the Europeans. Here we find glowing 
 fancy, and in Brahmanism a luxuriant system of religion, a 
 majestic and richly inflected language, and a literature fiall 
 to exuberance of the highest poetry. But India has no his- 
 tory or chronology of its own, and it is in the time of the 
 Persian kings that it first appears in the history of the world. 
 Yet the testimony of antiquity, its proximity to the original 
 land of the Caucasian race, and the primitive character of 
 its social institutions, prove it to be one of the most ancient 
 nations of the earth. 
 
 In India, religion and priestly influence have effected what 
 law and tradition have produced in China — the absolute pros- 
 tration of the intellect of the nation. The system of castea 
 sets a bar to all ambition and to all energy. No development 
 of mind can take place where every man's station in life is 
 immutably marked out for him. The nation presents at the 
 present day the same spectacle which excited the wonder of 
 the Greeks who accompanied Alexander ; an immense, gentle, 
 and peaceful population; abundance of wealth; all the useful, 
 necessary, and ornamental arts of life ; a manifold, intricate 
 system of religion, abounding in rites and ceremonies, many 
 of them of the most lascivious character. 
 
 Like China, India is an instance of the fatal effect of check- 
 ing the free development of mind: here, too, every thing i«
 
 CHAP. I. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 23 
 
 stationary. The love of country is a feeling miknown to the 
 breast of the inhabitants, and India has been at all periods 
 the easy prey of every invader whom its wealtli attracted. 
 Omitting the faBulous expeditions of Sesostris and Semiramis, 
 the earliest account we have of a conquest of any part of this 
 country is of that by Cyrus and Darius I., kings of Persia; 
 next Alexander tlie Great with ease overthrew all that op- 
 posed him, and, but for the refusal of his troops, would have 
 planted his standards on tlie banks of the Ganges. Seleucus 
 Nicator ruled over the provinces conquered by Alexander, 
 reached in conquest the banks of the Jumnah, and subdued a 
 large portion of Bengal. When the feeble successors of Se- 
 leucus had lost their power over other subject nations, their 
 vicegerents were still obeyed during a period of 60 years by 
 a great part of India. A hundred and twenty years after 
 the death of AlexEinder, Antiochus the Great invaded and 
 conquered a considerable portion of India ; and when he was 
 overcome by the Romans, all his possessions west of the Indus 
 fell to Euthydemus, the Grecian sovereign of Bactria, and 
 India cheerfully obeyed him. He was unable to effect the 
 succession of his son Demetrius in Bactria ; but over the In- 
 dian provinces that prince reigned without opposition. Eu- 
 cratides, the fifth of the Grseco-Bactrian kings, reunited to 
 Bactria the Indian possessions, and every succeeding reigning 
 line in Persia had dominions in India, till it was eventually 
 overrun and occupied by Mohammedan conquerors. For the 
 last thousand years it has been the prey of every foreign 
 BpoUer. Thus India seems destined never to enjoy national 
 independence : her countless millions doomed for ever to bow 
 beneath a foreign sceptre, she stands an instructive monu- 
 ment of the evUs iesulting from fettered intellect and priestly 
 dominion. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 THK ANCIENT ft "All* CF CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 
 
 Bactria. 
 
 According to the trac'tions of hoary antiquity preserved 
 in the sacred books of the Parsees, and in the Shah Nameh, 
 the immortal poem of Ferdoosee, there existed in the most 
 remote ages, with sacerdotal institutions akin to tliose of India, 
 a mighty and extensive empire in Bactria or Eastern Persia. 
 Grecian writers confirm this account, and it is farther proved
 
 24 mSTORT OP THE WORLD. PAET 1 
 
 by the route of the Caucasian race, who, in their progress 
 along the mountains, must have been attracted by these fer- 
 tile regions, abounding in every production,* protected by 
 lofty impassable mountains to the north, and bordering on the 
 realms of India and Babylonia. The branch of the Caucasian 
 stem, called the Indo-Persian race, spread over Iran, the 
 country between Babylonia and India. Its chief seat was 
 Bactria. Here, according to Persian tradition, ruled Cayu- 
 marath, the first of men, or of kings, and his descendants, 
 till Jemsheed was overthrown by the Aramaean Zohak. The 
 system of religion named from Zoroaster prevailed in Bac- 
 tria, and the sacerdotal caste stood in rights and privileges 
 nearly on a par with the Bramins of India, who, probably, 
 possessed originally a similar institution. The idolatrous 
 Aramsean priesthood united itself with that of Bactria ; but 
 when the Aramaean or Babylonian dominion sank, and the 
 Iranian revived in the person of Feridoon, the old religion 
 recovered its dominion. . Changes of dynasty affected it not ; 
 it passed to the Modes and Persians, and still was flourishing 
 whpn the disciples of Mohammed extinguished it in blood ; 
 and it yet lingers among the Parsees of India, the descend- 
 ants of those who sought refuge in that country from perse- 
 cution. But the simple religion of Zoroaster, which wor- 
 shipped under the emblem of light and fire the Author of life 
 and happiness, had not the debasing effects of the intricate 
 idolatry and metaphysics of India ; and if Iran fell beneath 
 foreign conquerors, the fault was not in her system of re- 
 ligion. 
 
 Babylon and Assyria. 
 
 We now begin to tread on more solid ground, for in the 
 earliest portion of the far most credible ancient history, that 
 of the Hebrews, we observe a recognition of the empires of 
 Babylon and Assyria. From them, too, we may infer, that 
 Babylon was the more ancient, for the city of that name ia 
 mentioned at a time while the Hebrews were still in the no- 
 fctdic state. We hear not till long after of Nineveh, the 
 Assyrian capital on the Tigris. 
 
 The Babylonians dwelt on the Tigris and the Lower Eu- 
 phrates, and their industry had made their land the garden 
 of Asia. They were a peaceful people, as is shown by their 
 manufactures, and their provisions for watering their lands 
 Herodotus describes them as a luxurious trafficking people, 
 fond of splendid dress and ornaments. Various d3masties o* 
 kings of the surrounding nations are related to have ruled ii 
 Babylon. This wealthy state must have been at all tunes ex
 
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 tHAP. 11. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 27 
 
 posed to the incursions of the nomadic tribes that surrounded 
 it, and sometimes conquered by them. The city is stated to 
 have been built in the most remote ages by the god Bel, and 
 to have been enlarged and adorned by Semiramis, probably 
 also a mythic personage. In the historic period, we find it 
 farther improved and adorned by Nebuchadnezzar and the 
 queen Nitocris. The reign of Nebuchadnezzar was the 
 mosc brilliant period of Babylon. He ruled from the foot of 
 Caucasus to the deserts of Libya. Judcea, Phoenicia, Egypt, 
 all the tribes of the desert, did homage to his power. But 
 the glory was transient : in the reign of his son the Babylo- 
 nian dominion sank, never to rise, beneath the arms of the 
 Modes and Persians. 
 
 The Assyrian empire on the Tigris and the Upper Eu 
 phrates, rose much later than the Babylonian, which it sub- 
 dued, but which under the father of Nebuchadnezzar cast off 
 the yoke, and attained the power we have just described. Of 
 the Assyrian history little is known. 
 
 A caste of priests named Chaldeans, distinguished for their 
 Knowledge of the order and courses of the heavenly bodies, 
 the objects of Babylonian worship, was to be found here ; b- 
 the early establishment of despotism permitted not a divisicii 
 of the people into any other castes. These Chaldeans were 
 divided into several orders under a head appointed by the 
 king. Birth was not a necessary qualification for admittance 
 into their body. We find (as in the case of Daniel) Jews 
 placed in the highest rank among them. They derived their 
 support from lands aosigned to them. The nature of the oc- 
 cupations of the Babylonians made a race of men of import- 
 ance, who pretended to a knowledge of the ways of the gods, 
 who measured the land, marked the seasons, and announced 
 the hours of good and evil fortune : yet almost all their boasted 
 wisdom was mere jugglery and deceit. 
 
 Egypt* 
 
 The valley watered by the Nile, and inclosed between the 
 desert on the west, and barren mountains on the east, was 
 the seat of one of the earliest and most renowned empires of 
 which we have any record remaining. A branch of the Cau- 
 casian race, it would appear, crossed the strait of Bab-el-Man- 
 deb. It mastered the y^'^thiopians whom it met, and founded 
 an empire on the system of castes in Nubia ; then advanced 
 with the stream, and established that of Upper Egypt; and 
 
 • Egypt, thoiiph properly in Africa, has been included in this chapUr. to 
 avoid leetlless subdivision.
 
 lastly, spread over Lower Egypt and the Delta now formed 
 by the Nile. But this was long anterior to the commence- 
 ment of history. So early as the days of Abranam, Lower 
 Egypt was the seat of a rich, flourishing, and civilized state. 
 
 The turn of mind of this branch of the Caucasian stem was 
 similar to that of the branch which established itself in India. 
 Hence some have needlessly supposed that one country waa 
 colonized by the other. Here, as in India, the priestly caste 
 enjoyed high power and privileges. They were the deposi- 
 tories of all arts and sciences ; they not only were the di- 
 rectors of the employments of life, but possessed the awful 
 office of judges of the dead, who were brought before their 
 tribunal ere consigned to the tomb ; and by numerous prac- 
 tices and ceremonies, they for ever kept the idea and the fear 
 of death before the eyes of the people. Their own religious 
 system, known to the initiated alone, was perfectly simple : 
 what they tauglit the people in symbol and figure was com- 
 plex, obscene, and degrading. Independence was secured to 
 the sacerdotal order by the immunity of their lands from im- 
 posts. 
 
 Yet priestly sway never attained the same height here as 
 in India. Egypt was a conquered country, and numerous 
 tribes of nomades and other classes, who never completely 
 amalgamated with the conquerors, roamed the land, some- 
 times independent, sometimes obedient. Hence the king was 
 in a great measure independent of the priests. The history 
 of Joseph informs us, that the king had a fifth of the produce 
 of the land, and, as in the case of this minister, could ap- 
 point a stranger and an uninitiated person to the highest office 
 of the state, and give him in marriage the daughter of the 
 high priest. We therefore read of internal tumults and for- 
 eign wars, the fabulous expeditions of Sesostris, the real 
 campaigns against Judaea and more distant powers. Arabian 
 and Nubian monarchs have ruled over Egypt ; it fell before 
 the Babylonian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman power, yet the 
 castes, as in India, subsisted through every shock. 
 
 Where the system of castes prevails, the inferior castes 
 are always of a peaceful, industrious character. Each per- 
 son's walk of life being marked out for him, he pursues it 
 with the regularity and mechanism of mere matter. All we 
 learn of ancient Egypt corresponds with this principle : the 
 narrowness and fertility of the land caused an excessive pop- 
 ulation ; agriculture could employ but a small portion of the 
 people; the sedentary arts were therefore cultivated to a 
 great extent, and the division of labor was carried almost be- 
 yond any thing similar in modern times. The accounts we
 
 CHAP. H. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 29 
 
 have of emigrations from Egypt are obscure, and many of 
 '.hem not very credible. The plan devised for preventing the 
 3vilsof over-populousness was, to accustom the lower orders 
 to a spare diet, and employ them on tlie construction of huge 
 edifices, destined for tombs, or the temples of religion. Hence 
 the pyramids and excavated temples which still excite the 
 wonder of the vi^orld, and prove what may be effected by the 
 aid of the simplest machinery, with time, numbers, and per- 
 severance. 
 
 The knowledge of the Egyptians has been much over- 
 rated. The great trait of a sacerdotal period is everywhere 
 to be discerned. Every thing advanced to a certain point of 
 perfection ; there stopped, never to advance, but rather to 
 recede. It is remarked, that in design and execution the more 
 ancient monuments exceed the later. 
 
 Phcznicia. 
 
 A portion of the Aramjean race was settled on thb Persian 
 Gulf It was given to trade and commerce, and settled a 
 colony on the coast of Syria. These colonists were named 
 the Phoenicians ; their chief city was Sidon, and they after- 
 wards built Tyre on an island near the coast. Their manu- 
 factures, especially of glass, were celebrated from the most 
 ancient times. While surrounded by nomadic tribes, they 
 seem to have made little advances in wealth and power, 
 though they had extended their settlements to some distance 
 inland. But when the Israelites took possession of Canaan, 
 and applied themselves to agriculture, the trade of the Pha3- 
 nicians rapidly increased ; their ships visited the isles and 
 coasts of the ^gean, and the distant ports of Italy and Spain. 
 Numerous colonies, of which Carthage was chief, were es- 
 tablished by them. In their impregnable island-city they 
 could bid defiance to the might of Israel, Egypt, and Babylon. 
 Luxury flourished in this city, whose "merchants were 
 princes :" their religion was bloody and cruel, their form of 
 government monarchical. 
 
 Philistines. 
 This people, celebrated for their wars with the Israelites, 
 dwelt on a small strip of sea-coast south oftheTyrians. They 
 were originally, it is thought, a colony from Egypt. They 
 possessed five cities under the government of five princes, 
 and confederated together for mutual defence. Trade and 
 piracy were their chief means of subsistence. Their long and 
 sbstmate resistance against the arms of the Israelites testifies 
 3*
 
 30 raSTORY OP THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 their valor and love of independence. A seafaring people* 
 the chief object of their wrorship was a sea-god, Dagon. 
 
 Arabia. 
 
 From the earliest dawn of history the Arabs have led the 
 nomadic life, to which the nature of their country has des- 
 tined them. The numerous tribes, under the government of 
 their sheikhs and emirs, roam the desert apart — now in friend- 
 ship, now in hostility. The camel and the horse are their 
 companions and support. The strangers who penetrate their 
 wilds have always been regarded as lawful prizes. Under 
 the various names of Edomites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, &c. 
 we find their tribes in friendly or hostile relations with the 
 nation of Israel, with whom many of them acknowledged a 
 kindred. Their religious worship was chiefly directed to the 
 heavenly bodies. 
 
 Israelites. 
 
 At a very remote period of antiquity, when the sacerdotal 
 caste in Babylonia had begun to spread idolatry even among 
 the nomadic tribes of the land, a man named Abraham, dis- 
 tinguished by wealth, wisdom, and probity, in obedience to 
 the commands of the Deity, quitted the land of his fathers, 
 and journeyed with his family and his herds towards the land 
 of Canaan. His faith in the only God, and his obedience to 
 his will, were here rewarded by increasing wealth and num 
 bers. His son and grandson continued the same nomadic 
 life in Palestine which Abraham and his fathers had led. By 
 a surprising turn of fortune, one of the sons of Jacob, the 
 grandson of Abraham, became vizier to the king of Egypt : 
 he brought his father and family to that country, and a dis- 
 trict in the north-east of Egypt was assigned to them by the 
 king for the sustenance of themselves and their flocks and 
 herds. 
 
 During 430 years their numbers increased exceedingly. A 
 new dynasty now filled the Egyptian throne, and tliey feared 
 the power of a numerous people attached to the former line, 
 and dwelling in the key of the land towards Asia. They 
 sought, therefore, to change their mode of life, and by impos- 
 ing heavy tasks upon them to check their increase, and grad 
 ually to wear them out. 
 
 During this period of oppression Moses was born. The 
 Egyptian monarch had ordered all the male children of the 
 Israelites to be destroyed at the birth; aid the mother of 
 Moses, after concealing him for some time, was obliged to 
 expose him. Tlie daughter of the king found him, and reared
 
 •,.iiii,i 
 
 "''^^ mm
 
 CHAP. II CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 33 
 
 nim as her owri As he grew up, he was mstructed in the 
 secret wisdom of rhe priests ; but neither knowledge, nor the 
 honors and splendor of the court, could make him behold with 
 indifference the state of his native people. He mourned over 
 their oppression, and panted to behold them in their former 
 happy independence. 
 
 Seeing an Egyptian ill-treat an Israelite, he slew him ; and, 
 fearing the vengeance of the king, fled to Arabia, where he 
 led a shepherd's life, near Sinai, in the service of an Arab 
 sheikh. While here, he received the command of God to 
 lead his people out of Egypt : he returned thither, and, by 
 performing many wondrous deeds, compelled the reluctant 
 monarch to let his slaves depart. But Pharaoh repented, 
 pursued, and he and his whole army perished in the waves 
 of the Red Sea. 
 
 During their long residence in Egypt, the Israelites had 
 gradually been passing from the nomadic to the agricultural 
 life, and had contracted much of the impure religious ideas 
 and licentious manners of the Egyptians. They were now 
 to be brought back to the simple religion of their fathers, and 
 a form of government established among them calculated to 
 preserve them in the purity of their simple faith. It pleased 
 the Deity to be himself, under the name of Jehovah, the King 
 of Israel, and their civil institutions were to resemble tliose 
 of the country they had left, freed from all that might be pre- 
 judicial to the great object in view — that of making them a 
 nation of monotheistic faith. 
 
 In the midst of lightning and thunder, while Sinai re- 
 echoed to the roar, the first simple elements of their future 
 law were presented to the children of Israel. No images, 
 no hieroglyphics, were admitted into the religion now given : 
 ceremonies of significant import were annexed, to employ the 
 minds and engage the attention of a rude people. There was 
 a sacerdotal caste, to whom the direction of all matters relat- 
 mg to religion and law (which were in this government the 
 game) was° intrusted : but they had no dogmas or mysteries 
 wherewith to fetter the minds of the people ; and being as- 
 signed for their maintenance, not separate lands, but a por- 
 tion of the produce of the whole country, their interest would 
 lead them to stimulate the people to agriculture, and thus 
 carry into effect the object of the constitution. As priests, 
 judges, advocates, writers, and physicians, they were of im- 
 portant service in the community, and fully earned the tenth 
 of the produce which was allotted to them. Their division 
 into priests and Levites was a wise provision against that 
 too sharp distinction which in Egypt and India prevailed be-
 
 34 HISTORY OF THE WORLD, PART I. 
 
 tween the sacerdotal and the other castes. The Levites, being 
 assijfned some lands, formed a connecting link between the 
 priests and the cultivators. 
 
 Agriculture being the destination of the Israelites, trade 
 was discouraged ; for the fairs and markets were held in the 
 neighborhood of the heathen temples. But to compensate 
 them for the prohibition against sharing in the joyous festivi- 
 ties of the surrounding nations, feasts were held three times 
 in each year to commemorate their emancipation, the giving 
 of the law, and tlieir abode in the desert. At these festivals, 
 all Israel was required to attend, that the bonds of brotlier- 
 hood might be kept up among the tribes by participation in 
 social enjoyment. 
 
 Thus, many years before Con-fu-tsee gave the Kings to 
 the Chinese, long ere any lawgiver arose in Greece, Moses, 
 directed by God, gave to Israel, in the wastes of Arabia, a 
 constitution, the wonder of succeeding ages, and ever memo- 
 rable for the influence it has exerted on the minds and insti- 
 tutions of a large and important portion of mankind. 
 
 During forty years, till all the degenerate race who had 
 left Egypt had died off, Moses detained the Israelites in the 
 deserts of Arabia, accustoming them to obey their law, and 
 preparing them for the conquest of the land assigned as their 
 possession. At the end of that period their inspired legislator 
 led them to the borders of the promised land, and having ap- 
 pointed Joshua to be his successor, he ascended a lofty moun- 
 tain to take a view of the country he was not to enter : he 
 there died in the 120th year of his age. Under the guidance 
 of Joshua, Israel passed the Jordan ; the God of Moses was 
 with them, and inspired them with valor to subdue their foes. 
 A speedy conquest gave them the land. No fixed govern- 
 ment had been appointed ; the people gradually fell from the 
 service of Jehovah to worship the idols of the surrounding 
 nations ; and Jehovah gave them up into the power of their 
 enemies. At times there arose among them heroes, denomi- 
 nated judges, who, inspired with patriotism and zeal for the 
 law, aroused the slumbering tribes, and led them to victory. 
 Then, too, arose that noble order of prophets who, in heaven- 
 inspired strains of poetry, exalted the Mosaic law, and im- 
 pressed its precepts, its rewards, and threats, on the minds of 
 the people. 
 
 After the time of the judges, the temporal and spiritual 
 
 dignities were, contrary to the intention of the lawgiver, 
 
 B. c. united, and the high-priest exercised the sovereign power 
 
 »156. This lasted but a short time : in the person of the upright 
 
 Samuel, a prophet, the temporal was again divided from the
 
 EGYPTIAN BANNERS. 
 
 1. Hawkhcad, Upj^er and Lower Countries. 
 
 2. King's Head, Upper Country. 3. Ibis. 
 
 4. Jackal. 6. Ark. 6. Sun. 7. Sacred Ark. 
 i. Triumph. 9. Headof Isis.
 
 Suraj-ud-Dowlah and his Sons.
 
 CHAP. II. CENTRAL, AND WESTERN ASIA 37 
 
 (Spiritual dignity. Tlie sons of Samuel trod not in the steps 
 of their virtuous father. The prospect of beinjr governed by 
 them, and the want of a military leader to conunand them in 
 their wars with the surrounding nations, made the people call g ^ 
 on Samu-il to give them a king. He complied with their 1095 
 wishes, warning them of the consequences of their desire, 
 and appointed Saul. This monarch was victorious in war; 
 but he disobeyed the voice of the prophet, and misfortune 
 ever after pursued him. It pleased Jehovah to take the king- 
 dom from him, and Samuel anointed the youthful David to 
 occupy his place. Saul was seized with a melancholy derange 
 ment of intellect. David, wlio was his son-in-law, won the af- 
 fections of the powerful tribe of Judah ; but while Saul lived, 
 he continued in hig allegiance, though his sovereign sought his 
 life. At length, Saul and his elder and more worthy sons fell 10.v. 
 in battle against the Philistines, and the tribe of Judah called 
 their young hero to the vacant throne. The other tribes ad- 
 hered during seven years to the remaining son of Saul. His 
 death, by the hands of assassins, gave all Israel to David. '*^^ 
 
 David was the model of an Oriental prince, handsome in his 
 person, valiant, mild, just, and generous, humble before his 
 God, and zealous in his honor, a lover of music and poetry, 
 himself a poet. Successful in war, he reduced beneath his 
 sceptre all the countries from the borders of Egypt to the 
 mountains whence the Euphrates springs. The king of Tyre 
 was his ally ; he had ports on the Red Sea, and the wealth of 
 commerce flowed during his reign into Israel. He fortified 
 and adorned Jerusalem, which he made the seat of govern- 
 nent. Glorious prospects of extended empire, and of the 
 liffusion of the pure religion of Israel, and of happy times, 
 floated before the mind of the prophet-king. 
 
 The kingdom of Israel was iiereditary ; but the monarch 
 might choose his successor among his sons. Solomon, sup- 
 ported by Nathan, the great prophet of those days, and by 
 the affection of his father, was nominated to succeed. The 
 qualities of a magnificent Eastern monarch met in the son of 
 David. He, too, was a poet; his taste was great and splendid ; 
 he summoned artists from Tyre (for Israel had none,) and, 
 with the collected treasure of his father, erected at Jerusa- 
 lem a stately temple to the God of Israel. He first gave the 
 nation a queen, in the daughter of the king of Egypt, for 
 whom he built a particular palace. He brought horses and 
 chariots out of Egypt to increase the strength and the glory 
 of his empire. Trade and commerce deeply engaged the 
 thoughts of this politic prince: with the Tyrians. his subjects 
 visited the ports of India and eastern Africa: he built tli«' 
 4
 
 .^S mSTOET OP THE WORTB. PART I 
 
 city of Tadmor or Palmyra in the desert, six days' journey 
 from Babylon, and one from the Euphrates — a point of union 
 for the traders of various nations. Wealth of every kind 
 flowed in upon Jerusalem; but it alone derived advantage 
 from the splendor of the monarch: the rest of Israel was 
 heavily taxed. 
 
 On the death of Solomon, the tribes called upon his son to 
 
 B. c. reduce their burdens : he haughtily refused, and ten of the 
 
 3'75. tribes revolted and chose another king. An apparently wise 
 a really false, policy, made the kings of Israel set up the sym- 
 bolical mode of worship practised in Egypt. Judah, too, 
 wavered in her allegiance to Jehovah. A succession of bold, 
 honest, inspired prophets, reproved, warned, encouraged the 
 kindred nations, and a return to the service of the true God 
 was always rewarded by victory and better times. At length 
 
 721. the ten tribes, by tlieir vices and idolatry, lost the divine pro- 
 tection : they were conquered and carried out of their own 
 country by the king of Assyria, and their land given to 
 strangers. A similar fate befell the kingdom of Judah : the 
 house of David declined, and the king of Babylon, Nebuchad- 
 
 585. nezzar, carried away the people to Babylonia. On the fall of 
 that state, seventy years afterwards, Cyrus king of Persia 
 allowed to return to their own land a people whose faith bore 
 some resemblance to the simple religion of the Persians, and 
 whose country secured him an easy access to Egypt. Restored 
 to their country, the Israelites, now called Jews, became as 
 distinguished for their obstinate attachment to their law as 
 they had been before for their facility to desert it. But the 
 purity and simplicity of their faith were gone; they now 
 mingled with it various dogmas which they had learned 
 during their captivity. The schools of the prophets, whence 
 in the old times had emanated such lofty inspiration, simple 
 piety, and pure morals, were at an end ; sects sprang up 
 among them, and the haughty, subtle, trifle-loving Pharisees, 
 the wordly-minded Sadducees, and the simple, contemplative 
 Essenes, misunderstood and misinterpreted the pure ennobling 
 precepts of the Mosaic law. 
 
 Medes and Persians. 
 
 In the west of Asia the ancient sacerdotal constitutions had 
 been now almost wholly abolished. To them succeeded des- 
 potism ; and from the erection of the first great Assyrian and 
 Babylonian monarchies to the present day, the same appear- 
 ance has been repeated with little alteration. One people has 
 constantly succeeded another in the dominion over the lands 
 between the Indus and the Mediterranean. So long as it»
 
 CHAP. II CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 39 
 
 military virtue has remained unenervated by luxury and 
 pleasure, it has retained its sway : each dynasty has sustained 
 itself till it sank in sloth, and a bold and powerful usurper 
 tumbled it from the throne for his own descendants to un- 
 dergo a similar destiny. 
 
 The Assyrian power flourished and ruled over Asia. In the 
 country south of the Caspian, named Media, the people, aa 
 did Israel in the days of Samuel, called for a king ; but for a 
 judge, not a warrior. Dejoces, distinguished for his wisdom 
 and justice, was the first monarch : his grandson Cyaxares 
 was allied to the king of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, and be- 
 neath their united efforts, Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, and 
 with it the power of the empire, fell. At this period the 
 Scythians spread their swarms over Lesser Asia, Iran, Syria, 
 and even Palestine. The king of Media freed Asia from 
 their destructive hordes. In Lesser Asia there had been 
 hitherto numerous little states, attached to temples of dif- 
 ferent gods ; at these temples were held fairs and markets, 
 and they were all closely connected with each other. At the 
 period of the Scythian invasion these states were dissolved, 
 and the kingdoms of Cilicia, Phrygia, and Lydia, were formed 
 from them. Of the history of the two former we are totally 
 ignorant. The two first dynasties of the Lydians, the Atya- b. c 
 des and the Heracleides, are mythic : the history of Gyges, 730 
 the first king of the Mermnade dynasty, is in part fable. In 
 his time began the connexion between the Greeks and 
 Lydians, who differed not much from each other in manners 
 and religion. His successor, Ardys, warred with the Grecian 
 colonies planted on the coast of Asia before there was any 
 extensive monarchy in Asia Minor ; and the Cimmerians, a 
 horde from the Black Sea, poured over Lydia and Phrygia, 
 and possessed them during the reign of his successor, Sadyat- 
 tes. Alyattes, the next king, drove the Cimmerians from 
 Lesser Asia at the time that Cyaxares expelled the Scythians 
 from his dominions. The Lydian monarch ruled Lesser Asia, 
 the Median from Bactria to the Tigris : war arose between 
 them, the king of Babylon became the mediator, and a mar- 
 riage united the rival princes. 
 
 During the reign of Astyages, the successor of Cyaxares, 
 the tribes of the Persians, a nation, in religion, laws, and 
 manners, closely resembling the Medes, and who dwelt, 
 partly stationary, partly nomadic, in the lands between the 
 Persian Gulf and the mountains of Bactria, were united un- 
 der Cyrus their native prince, and gained the dominion over 
 the Medes. Cyrus was grandson to Astyages but his early
 
 iO HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART L 
 
 history is related differently by the Grecian histoiians. Cy- 
 rus led to war the mass of the Persian tribes, united with 
 the more warlike portion of the Medes, and by his conquests 
 founded the Persian empire. He first subdued the nations 
 of the east, next turned his arms against the Sacians and 
 other freebooting hordes of Caucasus, then led his mingled 
 host against Croesus, king of Lydia, who had reduced the 
 Greeks of the coast, who so long had bid defiance to his pre« 
 decessors. Croesus was defeated and taken prisoner, but 
 treated with kindness by the conqueror, whose friend and 
 adviser he ever after continued. The whole of Lesser Asia, 
 including the Grecian cities, submitted to Cyrus. Babylonia 
 had been In alliance with Croesus : its capital shared the fate 
 
 J c of that of Lydia. Here Cyrus found the Jews who had been 
 
 5ft3. transplanted thither when Jerusalem was taken and plunder- 
 ed. Similarity of religious faith, humanity, and policy, co- 
 operated to procure them permission to return and rebuild 
 their city. Cyrus, it is possible, now meditated the conquest 
 of Egypt. Judaea was the key to that country, and a gratefii) 
 people might favor the operations of the Persian troops. The 
 ancient cities of Persia, Pasagarda and Persepolis, where the 
 treasures and chronicles of the empire were kept, and the 
 kings crowned and interred, were considered too remote to 
 be the seat of so extensive an empire as was that of Persia. 
 Babylon was well adapted for that purpose ; but a Persian 
 monarch should reside in Persia, and Cyrus founded Susa on 
 the Persian soil, at a convenient distance from Babylon. The 
 
 521 last expedition Cyrus undertook was against the Scythians 
 or Turks, and in an engagement with their tribes he lost his 
 life. Cyrus possessed all the qualities of a great prince : his 
 memory was long held in honor throughout the East, and his 
 virtues drew forth the praises of the sages of Greece. 
 
 Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who invaded 
 and conquered Egypt, aided by the Phoenicians, jealous of the 
 favor shown by tlie last Egyptian kings to the Greeks. Cam 
 byses attempted farther conquests ; but his troops were driven 
 back by the ^Ethiopians, and an army sent to take possession 
 of the oasis of Hammon perished in the sands of the desert. 
 He died by a wound from his own sword — a divine judgment, 
 according to the Egyptians, for violating their sacred ox Apis 
 — as he was about to return to Persia, where a Magian had, 
 under the name of his brother Smerdis, seized on the throne. 
 
 621. A conspiracy of seven nobles put an end to the life and reign 
 of the Magian, and Darius Hystaspes, one of their number, 
 related to the royal family, was made king. 
 
 Under the reign of Darius, Persia flourished, religion w»p
 
 CHAP. II. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 43 
 
 reformed and purified, ihe empire divided into a certain num- 
 ber of provinces, and fixed imposts established. Babylon 
 had rebelled : the loyalty and treachery of Zopyrus, a Per- 
 sian noble, reduced it to subjection. The Persian governor 
 of Eg-ypt attempted to conquer the Grecian states of Barce 
 and Cyrene ; but Grecian valor daunted the troops of Persia. 
 The monarch in person led an army over the Hellespont 
 against the Scythians ; but their steppes fought for them, and 
 he only conquered Thrace. Master of all the coast cf Les- 
 ser Asia, Darius sought to bring under bis sway the islands 
 and the continent of Greece : his fleet was shattered, and 
 the plain of Marathon witnessed the overthrow of the first „ c 
 Persian host that trod the soil of Hellas. He was preparing 490 
 »nother expedition against Greece : but family-feuds, and a 
 rebellion in Eg'ypt, occupied his thoughts, and death finally 485 
 surprised him. No Persian monarch, save the great Cjrrus, 
 stands on a line with Darius. 
 
 Xerxes, the haughty son of a haughty mother, Atossa, the 
 daughter of Cyrus, determined to wash away tlie disgrace 
 the Persian arms had sustained in Greece. At the head of 
 countless myriads, drawn from all the provinces of his em- 
 pire, he passed the Hellespont. At Salamis he witnessed the 
 destruction of his fleet : his land troops, no longer supplied 480 
 with provisions, perished witli want and disease. The mon- 
 arch, leaving a portion of his army in Bceotia under IMardo- 
 nius, fled to Susa, and abandoned himself to pleasure. The 
 next year saw at Platjea the total defeat of Mardonius, and 
 the Grecian fleet, after the victory at Mycale, sailing in tri- 
 umph along the coast of Asia. Cruelties exercised on his 
 nearest relatives disgraced the latter days of Xerxes, and he 461 
 perished, assassinated by his friends and guards, Artabanus 
 and Spamitres. The assassins accused of the murder Dari- 
 us, the eldest son of the king, and he was put to death by 
 order of his youngest brother, Artaxerxes, who mounted the 
 throne. 
 
 Artaxerxes soon discovered the true murderers of his 
 fiither. Artabanus atoned for his treason with his life. A 
 rebellion raised by his sons was crushed by Megabyzus, L*-^ 
 brother-in-law of the king, who also defeated an elder brother 
 of the king, who was governor of Bactria, and had taken 
 ftrms to assert his claims to the throne. Rebellion still raged 
 in Egypt : an army sent thither by Xerxes, under his brotlier 
 Achsemenes, had been cut to pieces, and Megabyzus was now 
 dispatched to reduce that country. He efltcted his object 
 by neg^"i*.'.ion; but the obedience of the Egyptians waa not 
 durable, and during 100 years we read of kings of Egypt
 
 44 HIiSTORY OP THH WORLl>. PART I 
 
 This prince, eurnamed Long-armed^ was a monarch who pos- 
 
 K a sessed many great and amiable qualities He died after a 
 
 424 long reign, and the history of Persia presents from this, or 
 
 rather an earlier period, the usual scenes of cruelty, treachery, 
 
 fraud, and faction, characteristic of oriental despotism. 
 
 Brothers murdered by brothers, queens exercising every 
 
 species of cruelty on their rivals and their friends, eunuchv 
 
 disposing of the throne, assassinating their sovereign, ant 
 
 perishing in their turn by justice or by similar treachery, are 
 
 ordinary events, till, in the reign of the virtuous and ill-fated 
 
 331. Darius Codomanus, the Persian colossus was thrown to the 
 
 earth by the arms of Greece. 
 
 For when Artaxer.xes II. mounted the throne, his youngci 
 brother Cyrus, who was governor of Lydia, Phrygia, and 
 Ionia, under pretence of quelling some disturbances in Cilicia 
 and Pisidia, collected an army in which were 10,000 Greeks, 
 4i>l and with it marched against him. The armies met at Cu- 
 naxa, in the neigliborhood of Babylon, and victory declared 
 for Artaxerxes, as Cyrus fell in the action. The Greeks had 
 on their side been conquerors : they were now deserted l»^ 
 their Persian confederates, deprived of their leaders by 
 treachery ; yet without guides, they, through the midst of a 
 hostile nation, barbarous tribes, mountains, defiles, and deserts, 
 reached with trifling loss the coast of the Euxine. This, when 
 known in Greece, betrayed the internal weakness of the Per- 
 sian empire. Agesilaus the great Spartan had collected a 
 Grecian army in Lesser Asia, the ax was apparently laid to 
 the root of the Persian monarchy, when Persian gold effect- 
 ed what Persian steel could not : bribery armed a confederacy 
 in Greece against Sparta, Agesilaus was recalled to the de- 
 fence of his country, and tlie fate of Persia was delayed foj 
 a season. 
 
 The Persian dominions at the period of their greatest ex- 
 tent embraced India west of the Indus, and all the countrj 
 between it and the Mediterranean, Lesser Asia, Thract, 
 Palestine, and Egypt: Arabia paid tribute; the mountain- 
 tribes of Caucasus and the Turkish borderers were number- 
 ed among its subjects. Yet, as the instance of the Cardu 
 chians or Koords proves, there were many tribes in the very 
 heart of the empire who yielded but a nominal submission, 
 maintaining nearly total independence. Under Cyrus, each 
 subject state was left its own form of government, only bound 
 to acknowledge the sovereign by tribute and attendance in 
 war. Darius, by attempting to establish an uniformity of ad- 
 ministration tnroughout his dominions, deprived his subjects 
 of all love of independence. They ate, drank, plowed, and
 
 CHAP. III. GREECE 4o 
 
 wove, heedless of who nJed over them ; were dragged at 
 times away from their homes to share in wars they t(X)k no 
 Jitercst in ; passive machines, they paid their taxes, or carried 
 irms; like a flock of sheep on fertile pastures, they fed 
 leedlessly till they became the prey of wolves. They bowed 
 as submissively beneath the sceptre of the Macedonian hero 
 and his successorB as under that of the descendants of ('yrus 
 
 CHAP. IIL 
 
 QREECK. 
 
 Early State of Greece. 
 
 I.MPENETRABLE obscurity covors the early times of Greece 
 Were we to believe ancient tradition, corroborated by the 
 testimony of geology, a country named Lectonia once cov- 
 ered a great portion of the space now occupied by the JFjgcun 
 Sea. An extensive sea was spread over the plain of Scvthia, 
 which burst the Bosporus, and poured into the Mediterranean, 
 pubmerging Lectonia, and overflowing a large part of Greece, 
 tience this country was long under the dominion of water. 
 The tradition of the fertile vales of Thcssaly and Bffotia 
 having been lakes, was long preserved. 
 
 Buildings of gigantic dimensions still to be seen in Greece, 
 testify for its having been in a very remote period tlie seat of 
 a civilized race. These ruins are long anterior to hi.'sfory 
 they are mentioned in the Homeric poems. Tradition a?- 
 cribes the erection of them to the Cyclopes, possibly the name 
 of that ancient people. It is probable these aboriginal colo- 
 nists were, like the nations of Asia, under the government 
 of a sacerdotal order, — this alone raises such works. There 
 can be little doubt of their being of the Cauca.sian race. They 
 entered Greece from Thrace, and spread over the whole 
 country: for their chief remains are in Peloponnesus. Possi- 
 bly tliey were of the same race with the aborigines of Italy. 
 To these succeeded the Pelasgians, a numerous tribe, whc 
 overran Greece, Italy, the islands, and a part of Lesser Asia; 
 they, too, came from Thrace. Agriculture was their chief 
 employment : the arts of peace flourished among them. The 
 eligion of Greece was chiefly Pcla.sgian. The thickly-peopled 
 iigions of Thrace still sent firth its tribes. The Achrrans, 
 Jke race who fought at Troy, next succeeded, and overcame 
 Ihe Pelasgians. Legends of t!ie Lapithin ard CentnnrH, if
 
 43 HISTORY OF THE WOELD. PART I 
 
 credit is to be given to them, may relate to contests between 
 tJie Achaean and Pelasgian races, for the possession of Thes- 
 saly. 
 
 Colonies, it is said, came from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Phry- 
 j^ia, and civilized the barbarous, mast-eating savages who 
 roamed the wilds of Greece. Danaus, an Egyptian, ruled at 
 Argos ; Cecrops, from Sais, at Athens ; Pelops, the Phrygian, 
 gave name to Peloponnesus ; Cadmus, the Phoenician, founded 
 Thebes. Little reliance is to be placed on these accounts 
 there is no evidence of any race of the inhabitants of Greece 
 having been in the savage state. The Phoenicians, undoubt 
 edly, early visited the coasts of Greece, and a colony did, per- 
 naps, settle there ; yet it is unusual for a maritime people to 
 go so far inland as Thebes. With respect to the Egyptian 
 colonies, it is not unlikely that the artful and vain-glorious 
 priests of Sais, and of other towns of Egypt, imposed their 
 fables on the credulous Greeks, who first visited that country. 
 
 The Achaean period is the heroic age of Greece : then 
 flourished, or are said to have flourished, the mythic heroes 
 Hercules, Theseus, Jason, and others: then were the Argo- 
 nautic expedition, the wars of Thebes, and that of Troy, eter- 
 nized by the verses of Homer. As a real historic event, the 
 chief that this period offers is, the erection of a kingdom by 
 Minos in Crete, three generations before the Trojan war 
 This monarch, at once king, prophet, and lawgiver, collected 
 the various tribes of Crete into one state, established a ma- 
 rine, conquered the piratic Carians, who swarmed in the 
 /Egean, and reduced the isles beneath his power. 
 
 Tlie Achaeans, like the Pelasgians, were devoted to agri 
 culture and navigation. Their government was aristocrato 
 monarchic : they possessed numerous slaves, acquired by wa 
 or by purchase, who performed all servile offices. Their chief 
 amusements, like those of the Germans and Scandinavians, 
 were gymnastic exercises, and at banquets listening to the 
 songs of bards, who chanted the deeds of living or departed 
 heroes. Manners, language, religion, were the same in all 
 the states : even between the Achaeans and the Trojans no 
 difference is to be perceived on these points. The Pythian 
 and Dodonean oracles tended to keep up union : no traces of 
 castes appear : the princes and fathers of families were priests. 
 The monarch was distinguished chiefly by his personal quali- 
 ties: he had the command in war, a la/ger share of the booty, 
 orecedence, and a portion of land as&.gned him. The nobles 
 were distinguished as much by their powers of mind and body 
 98 bv birth. The peojile had a voice in matters of war and
 
 CHAP. Ill GREECE. 49 
 
 peace : no law could be made without their approbation. The 
 elements of the future democracy were there. 
 
 The religion of Greece was the worship of deities presiding 
 over the various parts of nature and powers of mind. Under 
 the names of Zeus, Poseidon, Apollo, Hera, Pallas, &c. nameb 
 mostly of unknown origin, these deities were honored by 
 temples, sacrifices, processions: oracles were believed to an- 
 nounce their will and the future. This system of religion 
 was Grecian, and unborrowed. The Phoinicians may have 
 introduced some new deities; and, when an intercourse was 
 opened with Egypt, mysteries and new rites and dogmas were 
 jnported from that country. 
 
 Dorian Migration. 
 The Acha>an race acknowledged a supremo head m the 
 king of MycentB. After the Trojan war, the bonds that 
 united them were loosed. A time of disturbance and revo- 
 lution came: the Dorians, a brave and hardy race, left 
 their abodes in the mountains, and came down on Greece. 
 This movement was followed by great changes: numerous 
 emigrations took place : Grecian colonies covered the coasts 
 of southern Italy, Sicily, and Lesser Asia. The Dorians, it 
 is said, were led by the descendants of Hercules to make good 
 their claim to the throne of Argos, of which their ancestor 
 had been deprived ; and the Dorian immigration is called the 
 Return of the Heracleides. But Hercules is a mythic per- 
 sonage, — one who, it is probable, never had a real existence ; 
 and the Dorians were, doubtless, moved by other causes. They 
 speedily overran the Peloponnesus: her mountains defended 
 Arcadia: Achsea alone remained to the Atreidfe: Laconia, 
 Messenia, and Argolis became the property of the Dorians : 
 yEgina and the neighboring islands fell to tlicni, and a portion 
 of them settled in Crete. That branch of the Achasans named 
 [(mians, retreated to Attica, and joined its inhabitants, who 
 A ere of the same race ; being pressed for room, a portion of 
 these migrated to the banks of the Kermus, in Lesser Asia, 
 and the adjacent isles. Peloponnesians, named j^^olians, had 
 previously settled on the coast from Cyzicus to the Hermu». 
 No great kingdom existed at that time in Lesser Asia : the 
 coaats had been possessed by pirate states of Leleges and 
 Carians. The people of the interior favored the settlement 
 of the lonians; a race of mild manners, less addicted to war 
 than to trade and manufactures. The conquering Doriani 
 afterwards came from Crete, and took from the Carians Cni- 
 dus, Halicamassus, and Rhodes. Thus were formed the Gre- 
 6
 
 60 mSTOBY OJ THB WORLD. PART 1 
 
 cian cities of Lesser Asia, where poetry, philosophy, arts, and 
 science bloomed ere they attained any height in Greece. 
 
 Sparta. 
 
 The Dorian state of Laconia was, at this period, the great- 
 est state of Greece. Two kings were at the head of it ; under 
 them stood the Dorian nobility, the Spartans ; then the Pe. 
 rioeci or Laconians, and, lastly, the Helots, or descendants ol 
 the conquered people, a body of oppressed, ill-used serfs. 
 Disputes and unfixed relations among these orders made the 
 want of a settled system of legislation apparent. Lycurgus^ 
 brother to one of the kings, and guardian of his infant heir, 
 saw this necessity, and resolved to remedy it. He went to 
 Crete, whose constitution, originally established by Minos, 
 and renewed by the Dorians, was then in the highest repute ; 
 made himself acquainted with its institutions, and formed a 
 code of laws, such as he deemed fitted for Sparta. The Del- 
 phic oracle, so highly venerated by all of Dorian race, ap- 
 plauded his project, and pronounced him inspired. 
 
 The object of all Dorian legislation was the maintenance 
 of a martial character in the upper and dominant classea To 
 crush and grind down the ill-fated serfs, and give leisure for 
 the practice of military exercises to the warlike race of the 
 conquerors, was the aim of both Cretan and Spartan legisla- 
 tion. In Crete there were but two orders, the lords and the 
 serfs : in Laconia there were three ; the Perioeci or Laconi- 
 ans, whether Dorians of mingled marriages, or Achseans who 
 had been left some privileges by the conquerors, forming a 
 link between the two former. Lycurgus divided the lands 
 of Laconia into 39,000 lots ; 9000 large ones for the Spartans, 
 and 30,000 smaller for the Perioeci, all to be tilled for them 
 by the miserable serfs. The government was in the hands of 
 the Spartans alone. Both Spartans and Perioeci were alike 
 engaged in unceasing military exercises. By a fatal error in 
 legislation, the number of the Spartan families was closed, 
 and in default of male issue, daughters could inherit landed 
 property ; hence there arose an inequality among the leading 
 families, and a pernicious oligarchy, where women had pow- 
 erful influence. At the time of the Theban war, the greater 
 part of the land was in the hands of females. 
 
 The Spartan government consisted of the two kings of the 
 race of Hercules, and a senate of twenty-eight old men (the 
 Gerusia,) chosen by the people. The kings were leaders in
 
 OIIAP. IIL GREECE. 61 
 
 war, and out of Laconia their power was unlimited. The peo- 
 ple (i. e. the Spartans) were assembled every full moon to 
 decide on measures proposed by the senate, which they could 
 only accept or reject ; they decided on all crimes against the 
 state, on the succession of the kings, and the election and 
 dismissal of magistrates. If peace or war was the question, 
 the Perioeci were called to the council, as they were to share 
 in the danger. The Helots had no part in legislation, or even 
 in religious festivals. 
 
 As a counterpoise to the power of the kings, a magistracy, 
 the Ephorate, was introduced in the time of king Thcopom- 
 pus. The Ephori were five men selected from the people 
 (the Spartans,) without regard to age. They alone were al- 
 ways in connexion with the people ; they had the inspection 
 of aFx magistrates, were present at every transaction, always 
 attended the kings, directed all foreign affairs, accused kings 
 and magistrates before the people, where they were them- 
 selves both judges and accusers. At length they completely 
 crushed all other power, and became the tyrants of the state. 
 
 The greatest rigor of manners was enjoined by Lycurgus. 
 He established syssitia, or public meals, at which all the male 
 part of the citizens ate together. The most implicit obedi- 
 ence and regard to age was impressed on the minds of youth ; 
 the most inflexible endurance of pain inculcated ; most things, 
 even slaves, horses, and dogs, were possessed in common. 
 The chase was their favorite enjoyment; every species of 
 trade was prohibited ; money was huge masses of iron. 
 
 The natural result of such an education was a sternness 
 of cnaracter, a pride and haughtiness, and love of command. 
 While the institutions of Lycurgus continued in vigor, the 
 Spartan character was distinguished for the sterner virtues; 
 when it relaxed, profligacy and corruption of every species 
 roke m amongst them. 
 
 Athens. 
 
 Athens did not rise into importance till long after Sparta. 
 Argos was a large city ; and Corinth, the entrepot of trade 
 Oetween the Mgea.n and Ionian seas, was abounding in wealth 
 before Athens became of any consequence ; but they and the 
 other states of Peloponnesus offer at this period little to at- 
 tract attention. 
 
 The tale of the Egyptian Cecrops coming to Attica w a 
 manifest fable. Attica had numerous petty princes, each 
 ruling his own village. A prince, named Tlioseus, is said Xn 
 have united severaf of these little states into one, and col- 
 lected the people to Athens. But his power could not have
 
 52 flISTORY OF THE WORLD. eh, 1 1 
 
 been great, as Mnestheus, the second from him, led but forty 
 ships to Troy. At the time of the Dorian irruption into Pelo- 
 ponnesus, the family of Theseus lost the throne ; and Melan- 
 thiua, of Ach^an race, fn^n Messenia, coming to Athens, ob- 
 tnined the chief direction of affairs: his son Codrus drove back 
 the Dorians, and forced them to be content with Megara, at 
 that time united with Attica. The legend says, Codrus of- 
 fered himself up for his country, and that the royal dignity 
 was abolished out of honor to him. The republican spirit had 
 however, from various causes, been on the increase at Athens. 
 Towards the end of the sixth olympiad,* a regular aristocracy 
 was established : the chief magistrate was called Archon, and 
 his office was annual. A farther change augmented the num 
 her of archons to nine, three with peculiar rank and titles, 
 six as presidents of courts of justice. This was the foundation 
 of a rigid aristocracy ; but as the people had all along retained 
 the right of assembling to pass laws, it was in a condition, 
 whenever it could get a leader, to assert its rights and better 
 its condition. 
 
 But the aristocracy, being in possession of the administra 
 tion of justice, and being also invested with the sacerdotal 
 dignities, the people had no sure place of refuge when ao-- 
 «. c grieved. Matters fell, therefore, into turmoil and confusion. 
 Draco, in the first year of the thirty-ninth olympiad, sought a 
 remedy in the revival of an ancient species of divine law; but 
 its general maxims were too rigid and severe. It suited not 
 the spirit of the times, and became generally detested. The 
 internal troubles still continued ; and twelve years afterwards, 
 in a struggle between two aristocratic parties, Cylon, the 
 head of one of them, attempted, by the aid of the tyrant or 
 ruler of Megara, to raise himself to similar power in Athens. 
 His project failed ; the nobles, headed by the AlcmjEonides, 
 the chiefs of the rival faction, summoned their vassals from 
 the country, and besieged Cylon and his adherents in the 
 citadel. He and his brother escaped ; but his followers were 
 dragged from the altars and slam. This offence brought down 
 vengeance from the gods; and though the chief agents were 
 exiled, defeat and sickness visited the city. A prophet, Epi- 
 nienides of Crete, was summoned to purify and atone for the 
 city. He regulated the religious worship, and prepared the 
 way for the system of legislation projected by his friend 
 Solon. 
 
 In the third year of the 46th olympiad, Solon being archon, 
 the land-owners and citizens, debtors and creditors, were in 
 
 ♦ The olympiads were periods of four years. The first be/jan l«. C. TTfi. 
 
 f)-.i3
 
 UHAP. III. GREECE. 55 
 
 open feud, Solon was called upon to legislate. His firel 
 step was to arrange matters between debtor and creditor, 
 which he accomplished by altering tlie standard, and lower- 
 bg the rate of interest He then deprived the nobility of 
 a portion of their former power, by dividing all the people 
 into four classes regulated by property : thus, while he intro- 
 duced a democracy, founding a new aristocracy. The nobil- 
 ity, as possessors of tlie largest properties, as the sole mem- 
 bers of the court of Areopagus, as possessed of the priesthoods, 
 and directors of religious ceremonies, still retained an ample 
 degree of influence. By the establishment of the Council of 
 Four Hundred, an annually rotating college, he at once gave 
 so many families an interest in the new order of things, that 
 there remained no chance of its being totally subverted. He 
 finally made all the people swear not to make any alteration 
 during the next ten years, deeming that period sufficiently 
 long for habituating them to the new constitution. 
 
 Solon's laws did not put an end to the internal broils. The 
 nobility, being the owners of tlie largest properties, were in 
 the first classes, and the contests for honors and dignities 
 raged among them as hotly as ever. The lowest class, the 
 Thetes, who were excluded from office, and were not liable 
 to taxes, or to serve in heavy armor, formed in the popular 
 assembly a portion of the sovereignty, and sat in courts of 
 justice. They were a ready weapon for any one who knew 
 how to employ it. The old local parties of the Paralians and 
 the PedifBans also still subsisted. Solon had travelled to the 
 East: Megacles, the chief of the Alcmeeonides, who had now 
 returned to Athens, was at the head of the Paralians ; Ly- 
 curgus was the leader of the Pediteans, or country gentle- 
 men ; Peisistratus, a descendant of the ancient kings, sought 
 the favor of the lower class. He obtained by their means the 
 supreme power: his rivals, however, united and expelled 
 him. Megacles then gave him his daughter in marriage, and 
 restored him, but again drove him away. After eleven years' 
 absence, Peisistratus returned at the head of an army, ana 
 governed Athens till his death. His sway was mild and be- 
 nsficent; the laws of Solon were observed, and Athens flour- 
 ished under hun. His sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, who 
 succeeded him, trod in his steps ; but an act of private re- 
 venge deprived the latter of life, and conferred an unmerited 
 immortality on the assassins, Harmodius and Aristogeiton. 
 Hippias grew suspicious and cruel. The Alcmceonides had 
 devoted their wealth to the rebuilding of the temple of Delphi: 
 the priestess, gained by them, incessantly commanded the 
 Spartans to restore liberty to Athens. The latter, gla<] of
 
 56 mSIORY 0* THE WORLD. PART L 
 
 B. c. the pretext, obeyed the oracle. Hippias abandoned Attica, 
 510. and retired to his estates in Asia. Solon's constitution re- 
 mained ; but the heads of parties, to obtain influence, attached 
 themselves to the aristocracy or the people. Isagoras, of an- 
 cient lineage, headed the former, favored by the Spartana 
 Cleisthenes, the AlcmEeonide, sought to win the people. 
 When archon, four years after the banishment of Hippias, he 
 shook the whole Solonian constitution, and opened the way 
 to all the future evils of unbridled democracy, by dividing the 
 four original tribes into ten, and altering in like manner all 
 the inferior divisions, and increasing the senate to 500 mem- 
 bers, 50 from each of the new tribes. Prompted by Isagoras, 
 the Spartans sent a herald to demand the banishment of those 
 stained with the blood of Cylon's adherents. Cleisthenes waa 
 obliged to yield and retire. The Spartans attempted to re- 
 store the old aristocracy ; the Athenians sought aid of Per- 
 sia; Cleomenes, the Spartan, marched an army against 
 Athens ; but his allies abandoned him, and his colleague, De- 
 maratus, refusing to join in his project, the Spartans retired, 
 and the democracy of Athens was fully established. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 GRE£C£ TO H£A SUBVERSION Br THS UACEDONIANIi 
 
 The Persian War. 
 
 Greece and Persia now first came into conflict. Cyrus had 
 conquered the Grecian colonies in Lesser Asia : the love of 
 liberty however was not extinct, and the secret advice of 
 Histiseus, tyrant of Miletus, whom Darius detained at hia 
 court, threw the Ionian cities into revolt. They called on 
 Athens, as head of the Ionian race, to assist them. The aid 
 was granted, and the anger of the Great Kmg tliereby in- 
 curred. Darius meditated the conquest of Greece and the 
 islands ; he sent his ambassadors to demand homage : many 
 islands, especiaRy ^Egina, delivered earth and water. A 
 large army, under Datis and Artaphernes, was sent to subdue 
 190 the refractory. The plain of Marathon witnessed the defeat 
 of the Persian vassals by 9000 Athenians and 1000 Platseans. 
 Datia and Artaphernes returned to Asia with the discomfited 
 host 
 
 The Athenians resolved to punish those who had submit- 
 ted to the Persian king. Their first enterprise against Naxos,
 
 CHAP. rV. GREECE. 57 
 
 under Miltiadcs, foiled ; the general was condemned to pay 
 the costs, and being unable, was treated according to Athe- 
 nian law, like any other citizen. Aristides, Xanthippus, and 
 Themistocles, took the place of Miltiades, and by employing 
 the proper methods of managing a democracy, raised Athens 
 from a petty town to the rank of a leading state. The threat- 
 ening war of the Persians showed that Athens' only hope lay 
 in the augmentation of her navy. Themistocles awaked the 
 jncient grudge against iEgina ; and the produce of the sil- 
 ver mines of Laurium, which had been hitherto divided 
 among the citizens, was appropriated to the building of a 
 fleet. Athens and ^Egina were in conflict when intelligence 
 arrived of the immense preparations of Xerxes, the Persian 
 king, for the conquest of Greece. All enmity ceased ; a bond 
 for common defence was established among the Grecian j. c 
 states. In the spring of the first year of the 75th oljonpiad, 480 
 Xerxes led, as is said, two millions of Asiatics over the Hel- 
 lespont. A fleet of 1200 vessels attended the march of this 
 huge multitude. The progress of the Persian monarch was 
 unimpeded till he reached the ever-memorable pass of Ther- 
 mopyljB, leading from Thessaly into Proper Greece. The 
 narrow passage between the mountain and the sea was guard- 
 ed by a resolute band of Spartans, Phocians. Locrians, and 
 others, under the command of Leonidas, the Spartan king. 
 Division after division of the Persian army were repulsed 
 with immense loss in attempting to force their way. At 
 length, a traitor revealed another passage through the moun- 
 tains: Leonidas, on hearing it, dismissed his allies, and, at 
 the head of his Spartans, attacked the Persian multitudes, 
 and fell, covered with wounds, amidst the heaps of slain. 
 Monuments, song, and story, have conspired to exalt thia 
 deed of heroes. Meantime, the Persian fleet had suffered 
 from a storm, and had been roughly handled by the Greeks 
 in an engagement off" the promontory of Artemisium. 
 
 The Persian army marched on to Attica, took and burne<l 
 Athens. The Grecian fleet lay in the strait between Salamis 
 and the continent ; the Persian imprudently attacked them 
 there: a total defeat was the consequence. Xerxes, who 
 had from the land beheld the destruction of his fleet, hasted 
 back to Asia, leaving an army of 300,000 under Mardonius. 
 The following year the Greeks, to the number of 110,000, 
 fought and defeated the Persians at Platjea, and but 40,000 
 of the latter returned to Asia, On the same day (Sept. 22.) 
 the Grecian fleet totally defeated that of the Persians at the 
 promontory of Mycale, in Ionia. 
 
 Athens got a large share of the Persian spoils ; the cit\
 
 6J» HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I, 
 
 was rebuilt, and the port of PirsBus fortified. The insolence 
 of Pausanias, the Spartan chief, having disgusted the allies, 
 the command was transferred to Athens. It was resolved to 
 prosecute the war against Persia ; each of the allies was 
 bound to supply a certain number of men and ships ; they 
 compounded with the Athenians for the payment of an annua 
 Bum of money, instead of furnishing their contingent; the 
 Athenian treasurers received each year the contributions 
 of the cities on the isles and coasts of the iEgean; and Athens, 
 at the expense of the allies, maintained a powerful army and 
 navy. The jealousy of the Spartans was excited ; they were 
 on the point of declaring war, when an earthquake levelled 
 Sparta ; the Helots and Messenians rose in rebellion, and the 
 haughty Spartans were forced to call on Athens for aid. But 
 they distrusted their allies, and the Athenians joined the Ar- 
 gives, the hereditary foes of Sparta. The rebellion of the 
 Helots lasted ten years, and was ended by a composition with 
 the rebels. Athens was now in the height of her power ; she 
 sent 200 ships to Egypt to assist the natives against the Per- 
 sians, took a part in the affairs of Cyprus, beat the -^ginetes, 
 and established a democracy at Megara. The great men of 
 Athens at this period were, Aristides, Themistocles, and 
 Cimon ; all of whom, like Miltiades, experienced popular in- 
 gratitude, and were driven from their country. 
 
 The Peloponnesian War. 
 
 Pericles was now the leading man at Athens. An Alc- 
 masonide by the mother's side, and son of Xanthippus, who 
 won the victory at Mycale, he sought power by bringing in 
 the wildest democracy. All barriers of the constitution were 
 thrown down, and power given to the lowest rabble, by whom 
 and over whom he hoped to rule. Of commanding eloquence, 
 he swayed the people ; handsome, rich, generous, and brave^ 
 he was master of their affections. Magnificent in his taste, 
 he adorned the city with stately buildings at the cost of the 
 allies, and all the arts flourished beneath his patronage. 
 
 Pericles reduced Euboja and Samos ; he covered the coasts 
 and islands with Athenian colonies ; he made the Athenians 
 masters of the sea, ann already those dreams of distant con- 
 quest, which caused their overthrow, began to float before the 
 imagination of the vain-glorious people. He sought to en- 
 feeble the Doric confederacy, and an opportunity soon offered. 
 Corinth and her colony Corcyra were, after Athens, the most 
 considerable naval powers. United, they were able to cope 
 with her; but commercial jealousy prevented their co-ope- 
 rating, and, at last, they went to war with each other. Cor-
 
 wit i iK 
 
 ""^^ 'W^
 
 CHAP. IV. GEEBTIE 61 
 
 cyra addressed herself to Athena for aid ; the Corinthiani 
 complained to Sparta of the breach of the truce by tlie latter 
 power: other events occurred to increase the odium against 
 Athens, and, at length, war was declared against her by tlie 
 Doric confederation, and an army, under Archidamus, one of «• c 
 the Spartan kings, invaded Attica. The plan laid down by 3' 
 Pericles for carrying on the war was, to abandon the country 
 to the Lacedfiemonian army, and then retaliate by descents on 
 Peloponnesus, by which they would soon weary the confede- 
 rates of the war. Unfortunately, destiny fought alst) against 
 Athens : in tlie second year of the war the plague broke out, 
 and swept away numbers of citizens ; amongst tiiem, Pericles 
 himself The war was still carried on with various success. 
 The most remarkable event of it in Greece, was the gallant 
 defence of Plataea against the Peloponnesians. The greatest 
 man that appeared among the Spartans was Brasidas, who, to 
 the severe virtues of a Spartan, united mildness and gentle- 
 ness of manners. Among the Athenians, Nicias and De- 
 mosthenes were the most distinguished of tlie nobles ; Cleon, 
 the leading demagogue ; but Alcibiades, of noble birth, im- 
 mense wealth, extreme beauty, and eminent talents, far 
 eclipsed all the men of his tune. He was the ward of Peri- 
 cles and the pupil of Socrates; but, hurried away by his am- 
 bition, he waited not till years had matured his judgment, 
 engaging in politics he took the popular side, and plunged his 
 country into the fatal expedition to Sicily. 
 
 Numerous Grecian colonies had settled in Sicily, and had 
 risen to great wealth and power : they were almost all democ- 
 racies ; but tyrants occasionally ruled them. Syracuse was 
 the most distinguished of these cities. Gelon had possessed 
 himself of the tyranny, and governed with justice and mild- 
 ae.ss: after his death, the people fell into divisions: the 
 smaller cities, which were oppressed, applied to Athens for 
 elp. Alcibiades, who was then in the plenitude of his influ- 
 nce, warmly exhorted the people to attend to the call, and 
 drew a brilliant picture of the glorious prospect of universal 
 empire that now seemed destined for Athens, In an evil 
 hour the people, though warned by Nicias and other men of 
 age and experience, yielded their assent, and an expedition 
 against Syracuse was decreed. The finest fleet that ever 
 left Athens sailed under the command of Alcibiades, Nicias 
 and Lamachus, and success at first attended its operations , 
 but the enemies of Alcibiades accused hun of profaning the 
 mysteries ; he was recalled, and fled to Sparta : a Spartan 
 general, Gylippus, was dispatched to Syracuse, and though 
 the Athenians augmented Uieir army in Sicily to 40,000 men, 
 6
 
 62 BISTORT OP THH WORLD. PART 1 
 
 ■.a and seut out Demosthenes, their ablest general, it was de> 
 412- feated, and men and generals lost life or liberty. 
 
 The news of this misfortune was at first not credited at 
 Athens: when its truth was confirmed, the people looked 
 around and saw themselves without horse, or heavy infantiy, 
 or ships, with an empty treasury, their subjects in rebellion, 
 their allies fallen off, the enemy m tlieir country, and before 
 their port ; yet they lost not courage, but vigorously prepared 
 for defence. The Lacedaemonians, by the advice of Alcibia 
 des, instead of making annual incursions into Attica, ha 
 taken and fortified Decelia, a post half-way between Athen 
 tnd Boeotia, and from thence wasted the country : still the 
 Athenians held out for seven years : and, but for the party- 
 spirit that prevailed, which drove again into exile Alcibiades, 
 •Jid unjustly put to death most of their other good generals, 
 they might have come off victorious in the struggle. The 
 vanity and inexperience of the Athenian commanders (warned 
 JO! 01 vain by Alcibiades) gave a decisive victory to the Lacedae- 
 monian Lysander, at the river iEgos, and Athens' last hope, 
 her renewed fleet, was lost. Lysander soon appeared in the 
 Piraeus; the people made a gallant resistance, but hunger 
 compelled tliem to sue for peace. The Thebans and Co- 
 rinthians insisted tliat the city should be burnt, and the in- 
 habitants reduced to slavery. The Lacedaemonians declared 
 they would never submit to the destruction of a city which 
 had merited so well of Greece. But to cramp her power 
 effectually, she was allowed to possess but twelve ships ; the 
 Long Legs, the walls between the oity and the Piraeus, were 
 broken down ; and the government placed in the hands of an 
 oligarchy of thirty persons. 
 
 Thus ended the Peloponnesian war, after a continuance of 
 twenty-seven years, and with it the dominion of Athens, in 
 the seventy-fifth year after the battle of Salamis. Durin 
 that period Athens had acquired another and more lasting 
 empire, of which Lysander could not deprive her : she had 
 become the mistress of Greece in all the arts and sciences 
 that embellish and ennoble life. Poetry, philosophy, archi- 
 tecture, sculpture, attained during the time of Athenian sway 
 an eminence never surpassed. The philosophy of Socrates 
 and his disciples, the dramas of Sophocles and Euripides, the 
 stately Parthenon, and other works of the immortal Phidias, 
 drew thither all Greece ; and nowhere were religious festivals 
 celebrated with equal taste and splendor. Commerce flour- 
 ished ; good taste was difiused among all ranks of society
 
 OHAP. IV. OHEECE. 63 
 
 Lacedccmonian Dominion. 
 
 When Athens fell, Sparta remained without a rival : she 
 commanded at sea as at land : her Harmosts, somewhat like 
 the English residents at the courts of Indian princes, directed 
 the policy of the mdependent towns of Greece and Asia. 
 The pride and arrogance of Sparta lost her this empire. The 
 oligarchy established and protected at Athens by her became 
 odious ; Athenian exiles, headed by Thrasybulus, returned to n < 
 their country in arms, and overthrew the thirty tyrants: the t"' 
 Long Legs were rebuilt. Conon, the Athenian, was admiral 
 of the Persian fleet ; Persian gold was employed to raise tlir 
 city to independence, and Athenian fleets again appeared ai 
 sea. Sparta still sought to establish an oligarchy in every 
 town ; and wherever, as at Olynthrs, popular liberty est-ib- 
 lished itself, the Spartan commanders iiad orders to extin- 
 guish it. 
 
 During this period, Persia exercised considerable influence 
 in the affairs of Greece. The memorable retreat of the Ten 
 Thousand, who, opposed by all the arts of oriental treachery, 
 by all the forces of the empire, and the difficulties of an un- 
 kiiown, mountainous country, had forced their way to the 
 Euxine, revealed the secret of the internal weakness of that 
 vast empire. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, had meditated con- 
 quests in Asia, and had for two years carried on war with 
 success in that country. The Persian court saw its danger, 396 
 and adopted the policy of subsidizing the different states of 
 Greece, and keeping up such a balance of power among them, 
 as would prevent any projects of invasion of Asia. Hence, 
 as in modern times two Turkish pashas may have difl^erent 
 foreign policies, so of the two satraps of Lesser Asia the one 
 would support the Lacedaemonians, the other their enemies. 
 By these means the influence of the Persian monarch was 
 become so great in Greece, that he dictated the terms of a 
 peace among the contending states ; in which he declares the 
 cities of Lesser Asia, nnd the islands of Clazomense and 
 Cyprus, to belong to himself, and pronounces the indepen- 
 dence of all other cities, great and small, with the exception 
 of Lemnos, Imbrus, and Scyrus, which should belong as of 
 old to Athens, and menaces with war such as refuse to nc- •,{>*. 
 cept it This peace, called that of Antalcidas, from the 
 name of the Spartan who was the chief agent in bringing it 
 lo bear, was viewed with indignation by every man of noble 
 mind, who compared it with the terms whicli Greece, wiien 
 at unity with herself, had imposed on the Persians, iiini siiw
 
 B. r 
 
 04 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART L 
 
 in it loss of honor and independence by the permission of 
 foreign interference. 
 
 Theban Dominion. 
 
 Sparta had humbled Athens; her own turn was to come 
 from a quarter whence it was least expected. A Spartan 
 general, Phcebidas, had, in the midst of peace, made himself, 
 by treachery, master of the citadel of Thebes ; his govern- 
 ment punished him, but retained the fortress, and established 
 an oligarchy in that city. Sparta seemed at this period i 
 the height of her power. Her kmg, Agesilaus, was victo- 
 rious in Asia, she had dissolved the Olynthian confederacy, 
 and reduced Olynthus to that state of subjection, from which 
 Athens alone was exempt, and never less dreaded decline, 
 when a conspiracy was formed by some of the democratic 
 party in Thebes ; the principal oligarchs were murdered, the 
 citadel besieged, and the garrison forced to surrender. 
 
 Two great men now appeared to guide the Theban affairs, 
 Pelopidas and Epaminondas ; the Athenians joined them ; the 
 Thebans recovered their supremacy over the other Boeotian 
 towns. The Lacedsemonians were now forced to recall Affesi 
 laus from his conquests m Asia, to oppose the Theban and 
 Athenian generals. The power of Thebes continually in- 
 creasing, the Athenians grew jealous, and sent ambassadors 
 to the Great King, who directed the Greeks to make peace 
 among themselves on the basis of that of Antalcidas. Athens 
 and Sparta obeyed — it was for the advantage of both — and 
 Sparta, who had lost all influence out of Peloponnesus, will- 
 ingly withdrew her harmosts. Cleombrotus was marching 
 his troops out of Phocis, when he received orders to make the 
 Thebans restore the other Boeotian cities to independence. 
 The Thebans, who were dissatisfied at the peace by which 
 they were the only losers, refused compliance; the armies 
 _ met on the plain of Leuctra, and the Spartans were for the 
 371 first time defeated in a pitched battle. The charm was now 
 dissolved. It was proved that the Lacedsemonian arms were 
 not invincible. 
 
 Epaminondas and Pelopidas now invaded the Peloponnesus 
 at the head of 40,000 men ; the Argives, Elians, and the 
 democratic party in Arcadia, joined the Thebans, who entered 
 and ravaged the LacedEDmonian territory. Epaminondas ad- 
 vanced mto Messenia, called the oppressed inhabitants to lib- 
 erty, recalled tne exiles, and raised a town named Messene, 
 in which he placed a Theban garrison. Athens joined Sparta. 
 Ambassadors from all the parties hastened to the Persian 
 court. Pelopidas headed the Theban embassy, peace was

 
 CHAP. IV. GREECE. 67 
 
 dictated on the Theban terms and the stream of gold thai 
 previously flowed to Sparta was directed to Thebes. The 
 Arcadians had now become powerful in Peloponnesus. Lyco- 
 medes, one of their leading men, sought to detach them from 
 the Thebans : the latter, fearing to lose their influence in Pe- 
 loponnesus, sent an army thither under Epaininondas. A 
 second battle for the supremacy in Greece was fought at » c 
 Mantinca between the Tiiebans and Lacedsmonians, and ■^''- 
 Epaminondas died in the arms of victory. 
 
 Philip of Mace don. 
 
 The republican spirit was now extinct m Greece : no state ' 
 was in a condition to take the lead; no man of any eminence 
 was to be found except in Athens. The republican virtues 
 had fled from those who had sunk to be the pensioners of 
 Persia, A monarchical was the only form of supremacy 
 suited to the present state of Greece, and Providence had 
 provided such in a constitutional monarcliy — that of Macedon. 
 
 Jason, the tyrant of Pheree in Thessaly, had conceived this 
 design. The Thessalians were a strict aristocracy, with a 
 numerous body of vassals called Penestse, resembling the 
 barons of the middle ages. Occasionally there rose a prince 
 in some town among them who gradually united several towns 
 under him. At this period, Jason was such in Pherae, and 
 Polydamas in Pharsalus. Both were men of virtue, only tliat 
 of Jason was not proof against ambition. They united in the 
 project of turning the quarrels of Thebes and Sparta to the 
 advantage of Thessaly, and by the influence of Polydamas, 
 Jason was chosen Tagus, or commander-in-chief of Thessaly. 
 He took tlie samo road to power afterwards so successfully 
 trodden by Philip; but he was unfortunate in three circum- 
 stances : his troops were chiefly mercenaries, and therefore 
 not to be depended upon ; he was not an hereditary prince, 
 and his nobility were jealous of him ; he appeared at a time 
 when the great Theban generals were in the height of their 
 glory, and when Athens had generals far superior to those 
 she opposed to Philip. Fate seemed rgsolved to deprive Thes- 
 saly of the glory of becoming a great power. Jason perished 
 by the daggers of conspirators : his brothers and his nephew 
 Alexander were tyrants, in the modern sense. The last was 
 murdered by his own relations, and Thessaly fell into confu- 
 sion and disorder. 
 
 At this^eriod, the celebrated Holy War broke out, and 
 greatly contributed to the farther demoralization of Greece, 
 when all reverence for the gods and every thing sjicred was 
 'oet, and the holy offerings collected for so many yeaia in the
 
 68 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 temple at Delphi, were scattered through Greece, the pre- 
 cious metals melted and coined, the crowns and other votive 
 offerings profanely worn by women and boys of loose life. 
 
 The BcEotians and Thessalians formed the great majority 
 in the Amphictyonic Council. They caused a decree to be 
 passed, inflicting a heavy fine on the Lacedeemonians for their 
 ravages in Bceotia ; and when these refused payment, uiey, 
 from private motives, did the same to the Phocians for having 
 occupied the land tlmt once belonged to tlie Cirrhseans, and 
 had been consecrated to the god. Relying on the aid of 
 Athens and Sparta, the Phocians refused obedience, and by 
 the advice of Philomelus, one of their chief men, seized on 
 the temple and its treasures. Greece at that time abounded 
 in soldiers of fortune, men who made war a trade, who served 
 any one who was able to pay them. Masters of the immense 
 wealth of the temple, the Phocians, therefore, easily collected 
 an army, and they carried on the contest for a space of ten 
 years. 
 
 In this war the Thessalians, being hard pressed by the Pho- 
 cians, called Philip king of Macedon to their aid. This tal- 
 ented prince, who had been brought up at Thebes in the time 
 of Epaminondas, had, from the day he ascended the Macedo- 
 nian throne, all his thoughts occupied on the means of strength- 
 ening and extending his hereditary kingdom. He aided the 
 Thessalians, and, after a variety of changes of fortune, the 
 Phocians were at length destroyed, Philip made himself 
 master of Olynthus and all the cities on the coast of Thrace, 
 and in spite of all the efforts of Demosthenes, who did all that 
 was in man to rouse the Athenians to energy while it was 
 yet time, contiimally advanced in his plans of power and ag- 
 g B grandizement, and at length, on the field of CliEeronea, saw 
 3.J8 the independence of Greece prostrate at his feet. 
 
 Philip v/as now at the height of his power : the Spartans 
 had been excluded from the Amphictyonic Council, and the 
 votes of the Phocians transferred to him : he had the right 
 of priority in consulting the Delphian oracle, and was presi- 
 dent of the Pythian games. He called a general assembly 
 of the Greeks to Corintli ; and was there appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Grecian forces in the war now to be 
 undertaken against Persia, under pretext of avenging her 
 former violations of the Grecian temples. The Macedonian 
 monarch thus occupied the station for which he was fitted, 
 and which the present state of Greece required, — that of 
 head of the Grecian confederacy ; from which the ill-judging 
 oatriotism of Demosthenes so long sought to exclude him. 
 The idea of re<li cing Greece to a province of his kingdom
 
 CHAP. V ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 69 
 
 he was too wise to entertain. In the midst of his projects 
 for the conquest of Asia, he fell by the hand of an assassin. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Alexander. 
 
 Alexander was in his twentieth year when his father was i. o 
 slain : he had been educated by Aristotle, and his naturally 337 
 great talents sedulously cultured. Difficulties environed him 
 on his accession : the Athenians and Thebans, on the intelli- 
 gence of the death of Philip, were flyirfg to arms, when 
 Alexander appeared in Bceotia at the head of an army. They 
 were terrified, and desisted. The Illyrians and Triballi had 
 made inroads into Macedon: the young prince marched 
 against them, and conquered to the Danube. A report was 
 spread in Greece of his death : Thebes rose in arms ; but 
 Alexander suddenly returned, entered Boeotia, and took and 
 levelled that city. All Greece was now at his devotion. He 
 called on the different states for the contmgents they had 
 voted his father for the invasion of Asia ; and, at the head of 334 
 30,000 foot and 4500 horse, passed the Hellespont. At the 
 river Granicus the Persian army opposed his progress : it met 
 a total defeat, and all Lesser Asia fell to the conqueror : he 
 restored the Grecian cities to independence, and pursued his 
 march through Cilicia. At Tssus, in the pass of the mountains 333 
 leading into Syria, he again encountered and defeated the 
 Persian army. He continued his progress southwards, took a?2. 
 Tyre, after an obstinate resistance, and reduced all Egypt to 
 subjection. He here founded the most permanent monument 
 i>f his fame, the city of Alexandria, — a place that has exer- 
 ci»3d such influence on the political and moral relations of 
 the world as ever to render it memorable, — marched with a 
 select body of men to the oasis containing the temple of Am- 
 mon, and obtained from tlie priests of the god a declaration 
 of his divinity ; acting in this, perhaps, with policy, — perhaps, 
 with vanity. 
 
 The conquests of Alexander can only be compared with 
 those of the Arabs or Mongols in rapidity. Darius having 
 assembled anotlier army, his rival hastened from Egypt. On 
 he plain between Gaugatiiela and Arbela, at the foot of the 
 Armenian and Koordish mountains, he encountered the host 
 of Darius, composed, it is said, of a million of men, while ^t
 
 70 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART I. 
 
 the Grecian troops were, at most, 50,000 men. The Per- 
 sians were utterly routed ; Darius fled to the north-eastern 
 provinces of his kingdom, and Babylon and Susa fell into the 
 hands of the conqueror. Persepolis and Ecbatana shared 
 their fate. Meantime Darius was murdered by Bessus, gov- 
 ernor of Bactria. According to oriental maxims, Alexander 
 was now king, and he resolved to avenge the death of his 
 predecessor : he invaded Bactria, put to death Bessus, who 
 had assumed tlie diadem, and conquered the whole of those 
 northern provinces of the Persian empire. He founded cities 
 in Bactria and Sogdiana, and then directed his course towards 
 India. From the southern part of Balkh he marched through 
 Candahar,* Ghizni, and Caubul, to the Indus. Though val- 
 iantly opposed by the natives, the predecessors of the modern 
 Seeks, he was victorious, and still advanced, till the discon- 
 tent of his troops obliged him to return : he proceeded south- 
 wards along the river, sent a fleet under Nearchus from the 
 [ndus to the Persian Gulf, and, with a great loss of men and 
 beasts, made his way across the deserts into Persia. Shortly 
 5. c afterwards he met his death from drunkenness, or poison, at 
 324 Babylon, in the thirty-second year of his age. 
 
 Alexander's great object seems to have been the establish- 
 ment of one great and permanent empire, of which the dif- 
 ferent parts would be united by mutual political and com- 
 mercial advantages. Hence he sought to do away all national 
 prejudices, and make his different subjects feel themselves 
 one people. To attain this object, he founded those numerous 
 Grecian cities in various parts of his oriental dominions, and 
 had he lived a few years longer he might possibly have, in a 
 great measure, accomplished what he aimed at. But his 
 early death frustrated aJl these great projects, and the am- 
 bition of his generals speedily pulled down the fabric he was 
 erecting. 
 
 Division of Alexander's Dominions. 
 
 Alexander died without appointing a successor. The queen 
 Roxana, was pregnant, and he had a half-brother, named 
 Philip Aridseus, who was simple. When dying, he had given 
 his ring to Perdiccas. After much warm dispute among the 
 generals, they came to the resolution that Alexander (Rox- 
 ana's son) and Philip Aridseus should be proclaimed kings ; 
 that Perdiccas should be guardian, and that each general 
 should take the charge of a province. The partition of offices 
 
 • The city of Candahar is said to have been founded by Alexander. Ita 
 name seems evidently derived from his. He is called in the East Iscander, 
 and, rejecting the first syllable, Candtr and Candahar are not unlike.
 
 o 
 a 
 
 ■r-t 
 
 .5 
 '3 
 
 < 
 
 c 
 
 J2 
 o 
 o 
 
 +3 
 
 a 
 <
 
 CHAP. V. ALEXANDEU AND HIS SUCCESSORa 73 
 
 and provinces was thus made: — Perdiccas had no prov- 
 ince, but was commander-in-chief of the army: Anti pater 
 and Craterus had charge of the European dominions ; Seleu- 
 cus, of Babylon ; Ptolemy, of Egypt, Libya, and part of Ara- 
 bia ; Leonatus, of Mysia ; Antigonus, of Phrygia, Lycia, and 
 Pamphylia ; Lysimachus, of Macedonian Thrace ; Laomedon 
 had Syria; Python, Media; Menander, Lydia; &c. &.c. To 
 the valiant Eumenes was assigned Cappadocia, whose inhab- 
 itants were yet to be subdued. 
 
 The kings were only such in name, and these Grecian sa- 
 traps saw and grasped at the opportunity of making them- 
 selves independent princes. A period of unceasing tumult, 
 war, and murder, formed the first sixteen years that succeed- 
 ed the death of Alexander. Perdiccas first conceived the 
 plan of gaining the empire by destroying the governors, one 
 after another. This plan was facilitated by their mutual 
 animosities, or their contests with those over whom they 
 ruled. Ptolemy, the most powerful of the governors, was 
 singled out as the first object of attack. Perdiccas led an 3 ^ 
 army into Egypt, but was murdered by his own mutinous 321 
 troops. 
 
 Craterus fell in a battle against Eumenes, and Antipater 
 remained sole regent of Macedon. He died shortly after, 319 
 having appointed Polysperchon to succeed him. Polysper- 
 chon joined the party of Olympias, the mother of Alexander. 
 Aridaeus and his wife were put to death, and the friends of 
 Antipater persecuted. The nobles clung to his son Cassan- 
 der, and Olympias expiated her crimes by a violent death. 315 
 
 Antigonus took and put to death Eumenes, who maintained 
 the rights of Alexander's family. He now ruled over all 
 Lesser Asia, wrested Syria and Phoenicia from Ptolemy, and 
 drove Seleucus from Babylon. His valiant son Demetrius 
 passed over to Greece, and restored tJie cities to freedom ; 
 then collected a fleet, and defeated that of Ptolemy off Cy- 3(n 
 prus. His father now assumed the title of kinfr, and his ex- 
 ample was followed by the other governors. The family of 
 Alexander was now extinct, Roxana and her son having been 
 put to death by Cassander. But Antigonus's reign was of 
 short duration : his ambition was too inordinate ; and a league 
 was formed against him by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, 
 and Cassander. Antigonus fell, in his 80th year, in battle 301 
 against his rivals, on the field of Ipsus, in Phrygia, and the 
 victors shared his dominions among them. 
 
 The dominions of Alexander were now divided into ioni
 
 74 mSTORY OB THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 great kingdoms. Macedon, with a part of Greece ; Thrace ; 
 Syria, wiSi all Upper Asia ; Egypt, with Cyrene and Cyprus. 
 
 Macedon. 
 
 Cassander, when he had destroyed the femily of Alexan- 
 der, took the title of king. His vicious and feeble sons los 
 their lives and the throne, which was seized on by Deme 
 rj, trius, son of Antigonus: he was expelled by Pyrrhus, th 
 87! Epirote ; and Pyrrhus, by Lysimachus, king of Thrace. Du 
 ring sixteen years, twelve kings of different houses governed 
 the paternal dominions of Alexander. In the time of these 
 kings, an army of Kelts devastated Macedon, penetrated into 
 Greece, and advanced to pillage the temple of Delphi. The 
 Greeks rolled down rocks from the heights ; thunder roared 
 through the mountains; — the terrified barbarians fled, and 
 the god got the renown of defending his temple. 
 
 Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, a man of prudence 
 and humanity, raised Macedon out of the ruin into which it 
 had been plunged ; and, during a reign of forty years, he was 
 the protector of Greece. His son, Demetrius II., who suc- 
 
 243. ceeded him, emulated his virtues. Demetrius dying, left an 
 infant son, Philip, whose uncle and guardian, Antigonus, sur- 
 named Doson, married the widow of the late king, and usurp- 
 ed the kingdom, which he governed with ability for eleven 
 years, and then left to the lawfiil heir, Philip. This prince 
 
 298. mixed himself in the affairs of Greece, and was recognized 
 as sovereign lord of that country. War took place, in conse 
 quence, between him and the Romans, and Philip was d» 
 feated, obliged to withdraw his garrisons from Greece, reduce 
 
 243 his shipping, and pay the expenses of tne war. His son Per- 
 seus renewed the war with Rome, but was taken, and died 
 in prison ; and Macedon was shortly afterwards ^-educed to a 
 Roman province. 
 
 The Macedonian kingdom extended from the Propontis, 
 through Thrace, to the mountains of ^Etolia, lying at the 
 aorth of the coimtry of Greece. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 We have seen all Greece submit to Philip and Alexander. 
 After the death of the latter, some unavailing efforts had 
 been made, especially by Athens, to re-establish the ancient 
 freedom ; but they were always obliged to bow their necks, 
 once more, to the JMacedonian yoke. There was no union 
 among them ; they pursued their old feuds and petty contests, 
 instead of combining for a common object ; and their country
 
 CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORa 75 
 
 was continually ravaged by the armies of the contendmg 
 generals of Alexander. 
 
 Sparta, which had sulkily refused to take part in the con 
 quest of the East, and had waged aii unsuccessful war against 
 Antipater, had long since seen the decline of her Lycurgean 
 constitution. In vain the patriotic A.gis sought to bttng his 
 country back to her former state ; his life atoned for his op- 
 position to the tyrannic oligarchs. Sparta became the do- 
 minion of the most odious of tyrants; she joined the Romans 
 against Macedon, and then changed sides, and she ended by 
 becoming, like the other Grecian states, a part of the Roman 
 dominions. 
 
 The cities of Achsea renewed among themselves an old 
 confederacy, named the Achijean league, which, under the 
 guidance of Aratus, labored with vigor for the freedom of 
 Greece against Macedon: gradually, other states, and 
 amongst them, Athens, joined the league. The ^tolian towns 
 formed a similar union ; but their enmity with the Achaeans 
 and Sparta prevented their arriving to any importance. Civil 
 discord, the perpetual bane of Greece, gave the Romans the 
 wished-for opportunity of intermeddling in its affairs. Corinth 
 was taken and destroyed ; and Greece reduced to a Roman 
 province, under the name of Achaea. The last of the heroes 
 of Greece was PhilopcEmen, the Arcadian general of the b c 
 Achfean league, justly styled the last of the Greeks. Two 183 
 thousand years have rolled away since the death of Philopce- 
 men, without Greece, till of late, producing a warrior for in- 
 dependence. May she derive wisdom from the past, and 
 avoid the errors by which she lost her freedom ! 
 
 Thrace. 
 
 Lyeimachus made himself king of Thrace ; he conquered 32a 
 Macedon, and was also master of a part of the countries 
 about the Euxine. His reign was the flourishing period of 
 Thrace; but it was of short duration. Lysimachus fell in 
 oattle against Seleucus : the Gauls ravaged the land, which 
 sometimes obeyed Syrian, sometunes Egyptian, princes. The 
 native chiefs recovered their power. King Cotys, one of these 
 princes, formed an alliance with the Romans : king Sasales 4i3 
 gave up Thrace to them. 
 
 At this period, some independent states arose in Lesser 
 Asia, which we shall notice in this place. 
 
 Bithynia. 
 
 This country, stretching along the Black Sea to tlio Pro- 
 •KHitis and the Hellespont, was, at one time, tributary to the
 
 76 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART L 
 
 Lydians, and then to the Persians. After the death of Alex- 
 ander, a native chief, named Bas, expelled Calanthus, the 
 Macedonian governor. Internal troubles continually agitated 
 this state. Nicomedes I., to keep his throne, allied himself 
 with the Gauls, to whom he assigned a district, called, from 
 them, Galatia. Prusias is known by Annibal's having sought 
 in vain a refuge at his court. Nicomedes II. was expelled by 
 « c Mithridates, and restored by the Romans; to whom Nice 
 75. modes IV., having no children, made over his dominions. 
 
 Pe7-gaTniis. 
 
 The ancient Mysia vanished in the Lydian and Persian 
 empires. While Lysimachus, king of Thrace, ruled this part 
 of Asia, nis lieutenant, an eunuch named Philetferus, made 
 himself independent, and established a kingdom, called Per- 
 2y3 gamus, from its capital. He was succeeded by his nephew, 
 Eumenes, who extended his dominions considerably. Attalus 
 II. was the first who took the title of king. The most cele- 
 brated of these kings was Eumenes II., in whose reign the 
 pergament, or parchment, was invented. His dominions em- 
 braced the Thracian Chersonese, and Asia tliis side of Tau- 
 rus, consequently, JNIysia, Lydia, the two Phrygias, and Ly- 
 83. caonia. His son, Attalus III., having no heirs, lefl his king- 
 dom to the Romans. 
 
 Pontus. 
 
 This country, named from the Pontus Euxinus, on which 
 it lay, formed a part of northern Lesser Asia, east of Bithy- 
 nia. It was included in the Persian dominions, and was 
 given as an hereditary fief by Darius I. to his son Artabazes. 
 Ariobarzanes, one of his successors, having obtained also 
 
 d65 Lydia, Phrygia, and Ionia, became so powerful, that he cast 
 off the Persian yoke. Mithridates II. voluntarily surrendered 
 his kingdom to Alexander. When, after that monarch's 
 death, Antipater attempted tp seize this state, the Pontic 
 prince resisted, and maintained his independence. Succeed- 
 
 124. ing princes enlarged their dominions. Mithridates VII., the 
 greatest of them, was talented and ambitious: yet, though 
 desirous of conquest, he sought to avoid a conflict with the 
 Romans, at that time masters of a great part of Lesser Asia. 
 He therefore turned his arms eastwards, and conquered the 
 tribes round the Euxine as far as the Tauric Chersonese. But 
 two such powerful neighbors could not continue long without 
 a rupture ; war broke out between them on account of Pam- 
 phylia and Cappadocia, and during a space of thirty years tlie 
 gallant and indefatigable king of Pontus sustained a war

 
 r 
 
 CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 79 
 
 against the arms of Rome, conducted by Sulla, Lucullus, and 
 Pompeius. Poison, administered by his own hand, terminated Gl 
 his eventful life. His grandson Darius reigned over Pontus ; 
 but its glory and its power were gone, and it was finally, by 
 the emperor Nero, reduced to tlie form of a Roman prov- 
 ince. 
 
 Armenia. 
 
 This mountainous but fruitful country appears not till late 
 in the history of Asia. It was divided into Great and Little 
 Armenia, and had obeyed successively the Assyrian, Persian, 
 and Syrian empires. In the reign of Antiochus III., Artaxias, 190 
 the governor of Great, and Zariades of Little Armei 'a, made 
 themselves independent. Tigranes, a descendant of tlie 
 former, united the two Armenias, and was superior lord of 
 Syria and Cappadocia. His father-in-law, Mithridates VII., 
 involved him in a war with the Romans, and he lost Little 
 Armenia and Syria. Tigranes II. was put to death by order 
 of the Roman emperor Tiberius. little Armenia had been 
 given after the fall of Mithridates to Dejotarus, a Galatian, 
 and then to other foreigners. After this period it vanishes 
 out of history, and Great Armenia becomes the apple of dis- 
 cord between the Romans and Parthians. After many con- 
 flicts between the contending parties, it had again kings of 
 its own in the time of the emperor Hadrian, and was finally 
 absorbed in the Persian empire of the Sassanides. 
 
 Syria. 
 
 Seleucus, named Nicator, was, after the death of Alexan- 
 Aer, governor of Babylon. He extended his power eastwards 
 into India, and, after the battle of Ipsus, he became master of 
 Syria, and possessor of all or nearly all the countries that had 
 composed the Persian empire. Seleucus was an active, pru- 
 dent prince, an encourager of trade, and a founder of cities. 
 With him the Syrian empire rose ; after his death it gradually 
 declined. His son Antiochus obtained the name of Soter, the 
 Saver, from having delivered Lesser Asia from the Gauls ; 
 but he was forced to acknowledge the independence of Bi- 
 thynia and Pergamus. Antiochus II., named, by his flatter- 
 ers, Theos, the "God, was weak and efl^eminate. The Parthi- 2i>j 
 ans cast off the yoke of Syria, and their example was fol- 
 lowed by the Bactrians. Seleucus II., seeking to regain the 
 lost supremacy, died a prisoner in Parthia. Antiochus the 
 Great fought in vain against the Parthians and Bactrians: he 
 reduced the rebel governors of Media and Persia; but his do- 
 feat by the Egyptians at Raphia lost him Palestine and Coelo
 
 so HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I 
 
 B. c Byria. Engaging in war with the Romans, he invaded 
 190 Greece, but was repelled ; and the battle of Magnesia checked 
 his career of ambition. The terms on which the haughty 
 senate dictated peace were, the surrender of all the countries 
 on this side Taurus, payment of 15,000 talents to the Romans, 
 and 400 to Eumenes of Pergamus ; the delivery of Annibal, 
 and the sending of his son as a hostage to Rome. 
 
 The Syrian power was now at an end. Roman influence 
 was paramount, all efforts to shake it off were futile. Murder 
 and treason disputed for the throne : neighbors and subjects 
 took advantage of its weakness. Parthia rapidly extended its 
 conquests. Judea and the Armenias asserted their indepen- 
 dence. The empire was finally contracted to Proper Syria 
 and Phoenicia. Tigranes of Armenia seized on Syria; and 
 54 the Romans gave the empire of the Seleucides its coup de 
 grace, by declaring Syria a Roman province, 
 
 Judea. 
 
 Only a small portion of Israel took advantage of Cyras s 
 permission to return to their own country. Those that did 
 return were chiefly of the tribe of Judah ; and hence the na- 
 tion is in future called Jews. They were feeble, and they 
 continued in humble obedience to the Persian monarchy. On 
 its destruction, they obeyed Alexander and his successors, 
 first the king of Egypt, and then of Syria. 
 
 Their rulers had hitherto respected their religion. Antio- 
 chus Epiphanes attempted to force them to adopt Grecian 
 rites. The Maccabees, a race of heroes, like the judges of 
 old, arose. Mattathias assembled bands in the mountains, and 
 thence fell on the Syrians. His valiant son, Judas Macca- 
 beus, continued the warfare, defeated several Syrian armies, 
 and entered Jerusalem in triumph. He formed an alliance 
 with the Romans. The brothers of Judas, Jonathan, Simon, 
 and John Hyrcanus, followed up his successes so ably afler 
 his death, that the Syrians were forced to acknowledge the 
 independence of Judea. 
 
 Uniting in his own person the dignities of high-priest and 
 prince, John Hyrcanus extended his dominion over Galilee, 
 the country beyond Jordan, Idumea, &c. ; and the Jewish 
 state became under him of greater extent than it had been 
 since the days of David and Solomon. His son Aristobulua 
 
 107 took the title of king. 
 
 The Jewish power was not of long continuance. Factions 
 and feuds broke out: th6 throne was oflen disputed. The 
 Romans interposed to settle the succession. Pompeius led 
 
 fi2. Aristobulus and hif sons to Rome, and gave the throne and
 
 D 
 
 CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SU XESSORS. 81 
 
 priesthood to his brother Hyrcanus, pbcin^ a Roman governor b c 
 by his side. The troubles, however, ptill continued ; and the -^ 
 Romans at last set tl)e Idumean Antipn.ter over Judea, wliose 
 son Herod became king-, a prince weil known for his cruelty. 
 On the death of Herod, the Romans divided his kingdom 
 among his three sons. The whole wt-d reunited unde'r his 
 grandson Agrippa, and after his death reduced to a Roman 44 
 province. 
 
 Parthia. 
 
 Parthia is the country lying between Media and Ana, 
 south of Hyrcania, Its inhabitants had obeJ■^d the Persian 
 and Syrian monarchs: the tyranny of a governor cf the 
 latter drove them mto rebellion. Arsaces, a man of humble 
 birth, but military talent, placed himself at their head, and 
 achieved their independence. The succeeding Arsacidcs, as 
 the kings were named, enlarged their dominions, which 
 gradually extended from India to the Euphrates, from the 
 Caspian to the Arabian sea. When the Romans became 
 masters of Lesser Asia, proximity produced enmity, and the 
 Parthians were the only people who resisted Rome with suc- 
 cess. Crassus, who led the first Roman army over the Eu- 
 phrates, was defeated and slain. In the civil wars of the Ro- 
 mans they also took a share, siding with Pompeius against 
 Csesar; and with the latter's murderers against Octavianua 
 and Antonius. Ventidius, the general of the latter, gave 
 them a decisive overthrow. 
 
 The remaining history of the Parthians offers only, exter- 
 nally, continued wars with various success against the Ro- 
 mans ; internally, the usual series of murder, usurpation, and 
 cruelty, which characterize the monarchies of Asia. The 
 twenty-ninth of the Arsacides was driven from his throne by 
 Artaxerxes, a descendant of the ancient line of Persia ; and 
 a new dynasty, that of the Sassanides, so named from Sassan, 
 the founder's father, was established. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Egypt was the most fortunate of the provinces in the char- 
 acter of its governor. Ptolemy, son of Lagus, was a man of 
 prudence and moderation : his first object was to firm there a 
 Grecian state without oppressing the original inhabitints. 
 Peace was necessary for the execution of his judicious plana, 
 and he never, but when constrained, took part in the quarrels 
 of the other governors. After the battle oflpsus. to the gain- 
 ing of which he had mainly contributed, he also assumed the 
 title of king. He then turned all his thoughts to the benefit-
 
 82 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 1?ART I 
 
 ing of his kingdom ; he beautified Alexandria, built the Pharua 
 light-house, encouraged every kind of trade, collected a li- 
 brary, and invited learned men from all parts to Alexandria. 
 His empire included Egypt, Libya, Cyrene, part of Arabia, 
 Palestine, and Coelosyria ; and flourished each day more ai.d 
 more, in consequence of his wise regulations and just govern- 
 ment. Ptolemy II., named Philadelphus, trod in the foot- 
 steps of his father, and equalled or excelled him in his pat- 
 ronage of learning. He much extended and facilitated the 
 trade to India, by repairing the canal from the Nile to the 
 Red Sea; and, still more, by forming the harbor of Berenice 
 B. c. on that sea. Ptolemy III., Evergetes, imitated his father and 
 221 grandfather, and closed the series of the virtuous Ptolemies. 
 After the death of Evergetes, there reigned in Egypt ten 
 degenerate descendants of Ptolemy Lagus. Discord agitated 
 this royal house, like otliers ; murders vi^ere perpetrated for 
 empire. The constant interference of the Romans alone 
 preserved it from dissolution. With their consent, and by the 
 will of his father, the last Ptolemy espoused his sister Cleo- 
 patra, and shared his empire with her. Driven from Egypt, 
 she sought the protection of Csesar, who re-established her as 
 sole ruler. After his death, she united herself to Antonius 
 and, on his death, poisoned herself, rather than grace the 
 30 triumph of Octavianus. Egypt was then reduced to the forre 
 of a Roman province. 
 
 The kingdoms of Europe and Asia, whose destinies wj 
 have traced in the preceding pages, fell, as we have seen 
 almost all into the spreading empire of Rome ; a state which 
 as will soon appear, grew up from the smallest origin, and, 
 gathering strength from every storm that assailed her, at 
 length embraced nearly the whole civilized world beneath 
 her shade. To her we now hasten, previously sketching the 
 early history of her first transmarine rival, 
 
 Carthage. 
 
 At an early period of history a colony of Tyrians, said to 
 have been conducted by Dido, sister to the king of Tyre 
 founded on the coast of Africa the city of Carthage. Pos- 
 sessed of the commercial enterprise and dexterity of their 
 countrymen, they rapidly extended their trade and their 
 dominions. Numerous cities on the coast of Africa were 
 founded by them: they trafficked with the interior: their 
 ships sailed to the south beyond the Canary isles ; northwards 
 tbey visited the shores of Gaul and Britain, and, perhaps, 
 those of the Baltic : they wrought the silver mines of Spain: 
 their colonies occupied tiie isles of the Mediterranean.
 
 JO 
 
 "a 
 B 
 
 v\WS*'S'«''^»"'' I'l'ilt'*'' '
 
 CHAP. VL ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 85 
 
 The political constitution of Carthage claimed the admi- 
 ration of Aristotle. Two magistrates, named Suffetes, or 
 judges,* chosen annually from the most distinguiahed families, 
 were at the head of the government : under them were five 
 persons who managed the chief affairs. All these magistrates 
 were unpaid. The senate was composed of 100 members : if 
 they and the five agreed on any matter, it was put into exe- 
 cution; if they disagreed, it was brought before the as- 
 sembly of the people : the decision of the last was conclu 
 sive. Morals were more attended to in Carthage than in 
 most Grecian cities, and there was a magistrate there cor- 
 responding with the Roman censor. The popular power was 
 not so dangerous in Carthage as in Greece, the people bemg 
 of a grave and solemn character, and not to be led astray by 
 the arts of demagogues. Their manners were rugged, their 
 religion dark and cruel. 
 
 Six wars were waged by the Carthaginians in Sicily. The h c 
 first was caused by the people of Egesta calling on them for 413 
 aid against Dionysius of Syracuse. In this war fortune 
 favored the Punic arms. A second and a third war ensued 
 between them and the prince of Syracuse, still to the advan- 
 tage of Carthage. During a fourth, Dionysius died, £md his 
 son made peace. The Carthaginian arms were, for the fifth 
 time, directed against Syracuse, in support of Icetas, tyrant 
 of Leontium. Timoleon, the Corinthian, commanded the 
 Syracusan troops, and forced Carthage to restore the Grecian 
 towns to freedom, to recognize the river Halycus as their 
 boundary, and to engage not to meddle with the affairs of 
 Sicily. Agathocles was the occasion of the Carthaginians 
 again engaging in hostilities with Syracuse ; and the latter 
 was so hard pressed as to be forced to call on Pyrrhus, king 
 of Epirus, for assistance. Carthage was successfiil against 
 Pyrrhus ; but this war involved her in hostilities with Rome, 
 and thereby caused her ruin. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 ROUK TUX THE PUNIC WAR& 
 
 Rome under Kings. 
 
 Whilb empire after empire was flourishing and fallinf]r in 
 Asia, while the various states of Greece were contending 
 with each other, or occupied by internal changes, there waa 
 
 • Shofctim is the Hebrew name -f the Judges of Iprncl. 
 
 8
 
 86 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 growing up, from the smallest beginnings, a nation destired 
 to be the future mistress of all these states and empires. 
 
 Italy, the peninsula westward of Greece, was originally 
 inhabited by tribes of an unknown race. The Pelasgians, 
 that extensive people who settled in Greece, also Cftablished 
 themselves in Italy. They inhabited the plains and the 
 coasts, and were peaceful and agricultural : the mountain 
 tribes gradually encroached upon them and conquered them. 
 On the banks of the river Tiber, a portion of this people, 
 named Siculans, was established : a tribe of the mountains, 
 named Aborigines by the historians, invaded their country, 
 expelled a part, and conquered and settled themselves among 
 the remainder; and the united people were called Latins. 
 A portion of them lived in villages, on some hills adjacent tc 
 the Tiber. Another mountain-race, called the Sabines, after- 
 i. c. wards advanced towards the sea, and wrested from the in- 
 '53. habitants of the banks of the Tiber a part of their territory 
 These nations finally coalesced, and formed one people ; theii 
 joined city was named Rome, possibly its old P' 'nsgian ap- 
 pellation, and it was governed by kings, chosen aiiuiuately by 
 one of the combined nations out of the other. 
 
 Such is the most probable account of the origin of Rome 
 which the researches of modern times have be* able to 
 give.* A different and more romantic tale appears in the an- 
 cient historians ; for the early history of Rome was not writ- 
 ten till she had become a great and powerful state, and then 
 inquirers could meet no narratives of the days long past, 
 save what was contained in popular tradition and popular 
 poetry, which recorded marvels of Rome's descent from wide- 
 famed Troy, the landing of Ji^neas in Latium, the love of 
 the god Mars for the vestal Rhea, her bearing twins by the 
 god, their exposure in the Tiber, their being saved and 
 suckled by a wolf, and fed by a woodpecker till found by the 
 shepherd Faustulus, their finally restoring their grandfather 
 to the throne of Alba Longa, the city founded by Ascanius, 
 the son of ^neas, and then collecting their fellow-shepherds 
 and an indiscriminate rabble, and founding a town named 
 Rome, from Romulus, the elder of the twins, on the hills 
 where they had been miraculously saved and educateo. 
 
 The religion of Rome having, probably, had a similar ori^ 
 with that of Greece, strongly resembled it ; and the Greciah 
 system was, in a great measure, afterwards adopted by tbf* 
 Romans. Religion was, however, in Rome, at all times, 
 much more an afiair of state than in Greece. 
 
 * Niebuhr has been followed in this view of the early history of Rome.
 
 JHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 87 
 
 The first constitution of Rome, whatever her origin, waa 
 monarcnical. Romulus the warrior, and Nunia the legislator, 
 who appear in history as her two first kings, it is possible, 
 never existed. The first undoubted historic fact of this early 
 period, is the migration of the Albans to Rome when their 
 city was destroyed, the Roman writers say, by Tullus, the 
 king of Rome ; strong circumstances intimate, by the Latins, 
 who afterwards possessed her territory. Ancus, the suc- 
 ceeding monarch, extended the Roman dominions to the sea, 
 and built the port of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. His 
 successor was named Tarquinius. The legendary history 
 says he was a Tuscan of Greek descent, and, in its usual 
 style, marks his arrival at Rome by a miracle : probability is 
 on the side of the supposition of his having been a Latin, or 
 of some kindred nation. He greatly extended the Roman 
 power, increased and beautified the city of Rome, embanked 
 the Tiber, built the huge sewers for the drainage of the city, 
 which still exist, and commenced the erection on the Capitol 
 of the united temples of the three great gods of Rome. 
 
 Tarquinius fell, it is said, by assassination ; and the vacant 
 throne was occupied by an Etrurian named Mastarna, a con- 
 dottiere, or leader of mercenary troops, who had come to 
 Rome and entered the service of Tarquinius. Having changed 
 his appellation, he appears in history under the name of Ser- 
 vius Tuliius; but the legend of Servius, born of a maid-ser- 
 vant who had conceived by the fire-god, and around whose 
 infant brows lambent flames had played, bears not the slight- 
 est resemblance to the history of the Etrurian captain Mas- 
 tania. Servius continued the works commenced by Tarquin- 
 ius, and immortalized his memory by the constitution which 
 bears his name. A conspiracy of the principal citizens, who 
 were displeased at the changes he had introduced, deprived 
 Servius of his life ; and his throne was occupied by a grand- 
 jn of Tarquinius. This monarch was magnificent and princely 
 n his ideas ; he was successful in war, and raised Rome to a 
 high degree of power; but he is said to have been haughty, 
 cruf?l, and tyrannic. An act of violence done by one of his 
 sons is related to have roused the indignation of the people ; 
 Tarquinius and his family were expelled, and the kingly au- 
 thority abolished. 
 
 The Romans were originally divided into three Tribes, 
 each tribe subdivided into ten Curite, and each of thcpe latter 
 into ten Gentes, or houses. A representative of each gens 
 eat in the senate. In the time of the earlier kings we find, 
 howevei , but two tribes sending members to the senate ; the 
 third was subsequently admitted to that privilege. These
 
 88 mSTORY OF THE WORLD. PAST L 
 
 three tribes were the orig-inal citizens of Rome, the Populus ; 
 and tliere were, besides them and their slaves, a body of peo- 
 ple called Clients, foreigners, who, from various causes, had 
 removed from their own country to Rome, and settled there 
 under the protection of Roman citizens, who, as their patrons, 
 are called Patres and Patricians, words originally synony- 
 mous. In the reign of Tullus, a new body began to be formed 
 by the migration of the Albans to Rome ; this was called the 
 Plebs. It contained all ranks of society, both nobles and com 
 mons, of the migrating people, and mostly retained its prop- 
 erty in its lands ; but it had no share in the government, or 
 in the public lands, which were enjoyed by the patricians on 
 the payment of a tenth of their produce to the state : it formed 
 the infantry of the army, had no right of intermarriage with 
 the patricians, lived apart from them, and was opposed to them 
 in interest. 
 
 The patrician gentes, being a closed body, did not admit 
 of their vacancies being filled up, and they continually dimin- 
 ished in number. The plebeians were, on the other hand, 
 receiving constant accessions. Tarquinius I., after a good 
 deal of opposition, succeeded in forming three new tribes out 
 of the plebeians, and adding them to the patrician tribes. His 
 successor went still further ; he divided all the plebeians into 
 thirty local tribes, independent of the patrician ones; and 
 then, to combine the two orders more effectually, constituted 
 a mingled aristocracy and timocracy, by dividing all the peo- 
 ple into Centuries, for the purposes of war, and of passing 
 laws and electing magistrates. It was thus composed : the 
 three original tribes and the three formed by Tarquinius were 
 first ; to these Servius added twelve centuries, composed of 
 the most wealthy of the plebeians ; and these eighteen were 
 to supply the cavalry of the army : hence the whole were 
 called Equites. The remainder of the plebeians were di 
 vided, according to their property, into five Classes, subdi 
 vided into centuries ; and the rest of the people were put into 
 other centuries. The classes fiirnished the infantry of the 
 army ; those not in the classes, the baggage-train, &c. When 
 the centuries were assembled in the Field of Mars, their place 
 of meeting, laws, and other matters, previously prepared by 
 the senate, were laid before them ; the equestrian centuries 
 voted first, and tlien the first class : and the number of cen- 
 turies in this class was so great in proportion to those in the 
 remaining ones, that if they agreed with the equestrian cen- 
 turies, the majority was attained, and there was no necessity 
 for calling up any more of the classes. The patricians had 
 afterwards, in their curiae, the power of adopting or rejecting
 
 a 
 8 
 
 G 
 
 
 c3
 
 Afliarch of LaodicBa.
 
 CHAP. VL ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 91 
 
 the measure which had passed the centuries. The legislator's 
 object of giving- power to wealth and birth was thus fully at- 
 tained ; and but for the useless injustice of the patricians, who 
 could not endure to part with ever so little of their privileges, 
 Rome might have become, long ere she did, the mistress of 
 the world. 
 
 The form of government adopted by the Romans on the 
 expulsion of their kings, was that of placing the executive in 
 the hands of two magistrates, to be chosen annually from the 
 patricians. These magistrates were originally called Praetors, 
 afterwards Consuls, and tliey held the full kingly power, only 
 divested of its priestly dignity. 
 
 Rome had attained a high degree of power under her kings. 
 By a treaty made in the first year of the republic with the b. c. 
 Carthaginians, which has fortunately been preserved, it ap- 609- 
 pears that she was mistress of the whole coast from Ostia to 
 Terracina, and traded with Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. 
 
 The Tuscans — War with Porsenna. 
 
 The country to the right of the Tiber was inhabited by a 
 people called Etrurians, or Tuscans. Manners, language, and 
 religion distinguished them from the neighboring nations. 
 They possessed twelve cities in the country called Etruria, 
 and an equal number in northern Italy, about the Po. The 
 current opinion was, that they were a colony from Maeonia, 
 who came by sea and conquered the inhabitants of Etruria, 
 and then extended their conquests northwards: the more 
 probable supposition is, that they were a nation who entered 
 Italy on the north-east, and spread their conquests southwards. 
 At the period we now treat of, they were fast approaching 
 the acme of their power, which, though brilliant, was tran- 
 sient ; for liberty was not in Etruria : no free land owners, 
 like the Roman plebs, formed for her an invincible infantry. 
 The Tuscan Lucumones, or nobles, ruled over vassals similar 
 to the Helots of Laconia, or the Penestse of Thessaly. 
 
 It was to this people that the Tarquinii addressed them- 
 selves for aid to regain their lost dominions, after an attempt 
 to recover them by treachery, in which even the sons of 
 Brutus, the expeller of the tyrant, were engaged, had failed. 
 The Veientians are said to have taken arms in their favor; 
 a battle took place, in which the consul Brutus, and Aruns, a 
 son of the banished tyrant, fell by mutual wounds, and vic- 
 tory declared for Rome. The legend relates, that Tarqtiinius 
 then invoked the aid of Porsenna, king of Clusiuin, a powerful 
 Tuscan prince, who marched against Rome ; and though his- 
 tory seeks to veil the disgrace of surrender, by marvelloiia
 
 92 filSTOET OF THE WOBLD. PAST I. 
 
 tales of the valor of Codes, the intrepidity of Miaciua, the 
 heroism of the female hostages, and the magnanimity of Por- 
 senna, the ungrateful truth is still apparent, that Rome was 
 amerced in one-third of her territory, and prohibited the use 
 of iron, except for agricultural purposes. The Etrurians now 
 extended their dominion into Latium ; before Aricia they met 
 a defeat from Aristodemus, the Greek tyrant of Cuma; 
 and Eome seized this opportunity of regaining independ- 
 ence. 
 
 Tarquinius and his claims had been neglected by Porsenna. 
 
 15 (,_ He now roused the Latins to arms in his cause. A great and 
 
 4'.)5 decisive battle is said to have taken place on the banks of the 
 
 lake Regillus, in which the fortune of Rome again triumphed, 
 
 and the bafied tyrant fled to Aristodemus at Cuma, where 
 
 he died. 
 
 Dictator — Secession — Tribunes. 
 
 The constitution devised by Servius was just and equita- 
 ble, calculated to unfold and bring to maturity the various 
 elements which composed the Roman state ; but it was check- 
 ed and nearly smothered by Tarquinius the Tyrant. On his 
 expulsion, the patricians, who felt their need of the cordial 
 support of the plebeians, restored it in some measure. The 
 consuls were elected by the centuries, and the Valerian law 
 secured the plebeians in their life, property and honor. 
 
 But when Tarquinius was no longer an object of terror, 
 and the Etrurian and Latin wars were ended, the patricians 
 sought to bring back matters to their former state, or rather 
 to a worse; for during the monarchy, the king was the natu- 
 ral protector of the plebeians. By the Valerian law, the ple- 
 beians had been given the same right of appeal from the sen- 
 tence of a magistrate, and of trial by their peers, which had 
 always been possessed by the patricians; but this extended 
 to only a mile from the city. This right of appeal lay even 
 jgg against the sentence of the consuls. To evade this law and 
 deprive the plebeians of their safety even within the citj^ a 
 magistracy named the Dictatorship was instituted, an office 
 of Latin origin. The dictator was chosen by the senate, and 
 approved of by the patricians: his power while in office was 
 regal; no ajjpeal lay from his sentence. At first even the 
 patricians had no appeal, though they afterwards obtained it. 
 It was, in fact, a power directed against the plebeians, who 
 were always terrified at the creation of this magistrate. 
 
 The patricians kept exclusive possession of the public do- 
 mains. Having the government in their own hands, they no 
 longer paid a tenth to the state. Taxes, wars, famine, re- 
 duced great numbers of the plebeians to distress; they were
 
 CHAi. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC VVAHS. 93 
 
 forced to borrow money at an usurious inte.ost ^'he p«tri 
 cians, or their clients in their name, were the prii^cipai credi- 
 tors. The law of Servius, forbidding pledging of the person 
 for debt, had been abolished. The Nexi* were continuallj 
 brought before the prtetor's tribunal, and made Addicti. 
 Every patrician house was a jail for debtors ; and after everj 
 court-day, in times of distress, droves of sentenced debtors 
 with their sons and grandchildren, might be seen driven off 
 in chains to these dungeons. 
 
 The grievances of the plebeians were intolerable, yet then 
 appeared no remedy. While they were in this state of un- 
 certainty, an old man one day broke from his prison in chains, 
 and covered with rags : he appealed to the Quirites to pro- 
 tect him, enumerated the battles he had fought, recounted 
 the causes of his misfortunes, and showed the bloody marks 
 of his creditor's cruelty. The pity and indignation of the 
 people were excited ; all were clamorous for relief. The 
 senate knew not what to do ; they ordered a levy against the 
 Volscians ; the people refused to enlist Tlie consul Serviliua 
 issued a proclamation allowing those who were in slavery foi 
 debt to serve, and declaring that as long as a soldier was un 
 der arms, his family should remain in undisturbed enjoyment 
 of his property. The legions were filled up, and the army 
 soon returned covered with conquest and laden with booty i 
 but the hopes of the plebeians were disappointed. Next year 
 they again refused to serve in the legions. Valerius was 
 made dictator, and he issued a proclamation similar to that of 
 Scrvilius. The people trusted in the character of Valerius, 
 and the power of the dictatorship. The army was victorious; 
 but even Valerius could not overcome the obduracy of the 
 senate, influenced by the unbending tyrannic spirit of Appius 
 Claudius. 
 
 The dictator's army had been disbanded ; those of the con- 
 suls were still in the field. An msurrection broke out The 
 legions ippomted L. Sicinius Bellutus their leader, crossed 
 the Anio, and occupied the Sacred Mount. The plebeians in 
 the city and its vicinity retired to the Aventine and Esquiline 
 hills of the city: the patricians and their clients occupied the 
 Palatme, Capitoline, Quirinal, and Cclian : these were all 
 separate and fortified. Matters might have come to blood- 
 shed, but that the power of the two parties was pretty nearly 
 balanced, and the dread of external enemies made them 
 averse to weaken themselves. The patr icians formed an al - 
 
 • Those who were in debt under oblication to pay after a ct-rlain period 
 were called JVeii , Ihoee who failed to pay and were by the prator delivered 
 •ver to their creditors were called Jlddicti.
 
 B. C 
 
 94 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. 
 
 liance with the liatms : they then deputed ten of the princi- 
 pal memberB of their body to treat with the plebeians, and 
 peace was ultimately established and sworn to between the 
 two orders. By this the patricians sought to separate the in 
 terest of the multitude from that of the men of rank : to the 
 latter they conceded nothing, gave them admittance to none 
 of the honors of the state ; to appease the former, they con- 
 sented to give force to the Valerian law, to cancel all debts, 
 and releise all enslaved debtors. But the law of debt re- 
 mained unaltered. 
 
 This secession and treaty were rendered memorable by the 
 183 institution of the Tribunate, an inviolate popular magistracy, 
 established for the protection of the plebs, which proved a 
 salutary check on the excesses of either party ; was the chief 
 mean of preserving Rome so long from bloody dissensions ; 
 but, like every human institution, growing pernicious when 
 it had outlived its original purpose, afterwards became a chief 
 instrument in the overthrow of liberty. 
 
 Spurius Cassius, and the Agrarian Law. 
 
 The bonds of alliance were now^ drawn closer between the 
 Romans and the Latins, and a third nation, the Ilernicians, 
 was taken into the alliance. According to the terms of it, all 
 spoils and conquests were to be divided, share and share 
 alike, among the three nations. 
 
 Sp. Cassius Viscellinus, the Roman consul, was the person 
 who concluded this league. He, some time after, brought 
 forward the first Agrarian law, was accused before the curiae 
 of aiming at the sovereignty, was condenmed, and thrown 
 from the Tarpeian rock, his house razed, his goods sold, and 
 the produce dedicated to Ceres. 
 
 The Roman Agrarian laws have frequently been repre- 
 sented as unjust and iniquitous. A moment's consideration 
 of their nature will prove such a supposition to be groundless. 
 It was the practice of Rome, and the Italian states in general, 
 on making a conquest, to take a portion, generally a third, of 
 the enemy's land. This then became public land, and waa 
 occupied for tillage or grazing, by the citizens of the state 
 which had acquired it ; they paid a tenth of the produce by 
 way of rent, and the land was subject to resumption by the state. 
 While the Roman citizens consisted of the three patrician 
 tribes alone, there was no cause for murmur ; but when the 
 plebs gradually grew up, and as the mfantry of the army was 
 the chief instrument m the acquisition of public land, they 
 naturally claimed to have a share m what was gamed. The 
 kings, therefore, were in the habit of assignmg small portions
 
 
 
 us 
 a 
 
 
 
 CIS 
 in 
 
 10 
 41

 
 -HAP. VI. ROME TllAu THE PUNIC WARS. 97 
 
 jf the public land jis property to the plebeians, and thus the 
 latter grew, by degrees, to be the only or principal land-own- 
 ers in the state. After the expulsion of the Tarquinii, a dis- 
 tribution of the crovvn lands was made among the plebeians; 
 but the loss of the lands beyond the Tiber, and tlie heavy 
 weight of taxation which fell almost entirely on them, now 
 that the patricians, having gotten the government into tlieir 
 own hands, no longer paid the tenths off the public land, 
 made the plebeians more clearly discern the injustice with 
 which they were treated, and be clamorous for an Agrarian 
 law, i. e. a law which was not, as has been erroneously sup- 
 posed, to take their property from the rich and give it to the 
 poor, but which would make the patricians give up a portion 
 of the public land which they occupied without paying any 
 rent or taxes, to be divided in small lots among those whose 
 blood had purchased it 
 
 The Decemvirs and the Twelve Tables. 
 
 After the death of Cassius, the struggles between the 
 orders continued. The Romans were, in fact, two nations 
 within the same walls, so distinct as not even to have the 
 cannubium or right of intermarriage. The plebeians saw 
 that political equality was not yet attainable ; but they felt 
 the absolute necessity of legal equality, and they insisted on 
 a general code of laws being formed. After a most obstinate 
 resistance on the part of tlie patricians, it was, at length, 
 agreed to appoint ten persons to form a code ; and deputies, 
 it is added, were sent to the Greek cities in Italy to collect b c 
 tlieir wisest laws, and bring them home for the use of tlie <5j 
 legislators. 
 
 Tlie legislators were in number ten, hence called Decem- 
 virs. They were all patricians, and invested with unlimited . 
 powers ; the consulate, tribunate, and quaestorate, were sus- 
 pended during their magistracy. The decemvirs proved 
 themselves worthy of this confidence. They governed ten 
 days alternately, and each member of the college rendered to 
 those who appealed from the sentence of his colleagues the 
 assistance which the tribunes used to give. They collected 
 all the former traditionary laws, selected those tliat were 
 salutary, and formed a general code, instead of the former 
 partial and local rights. The two orders were formed into 
 one nation, tlie patricians and their clients being received 
 into the plebeian local tribes. The Comitia of the centuries 
 were declared to be the sole jurisdiction in capital ca.sos, and 
 ai.y charge affecting liberty' and civic rights, and Lhus tlie 
 I)
 
 98 HISTORY OF THE WOELD. PAKT I 
 
 equality of the citizens was decidedly pronounced; for all or 
 ders were comprised in these comitia. 
 
 The decemvirs having, with honor to themselves and ad- 
 vantage to the state, performed the duties imposed upon 
 them, and drawn up a code in ten tables, laid down their 
 office. But, under pretext of something still remaining to be 
 done, the office was continued for another year, and ten per- 
 sons, five patricians and five plebeians, chosen. These enacted 
 two more tables, thus making the whole twelve. But they 
 governed with haughtiness and tyranny ; the senate stood in 
 awe of them ; the people, having now no tribunitian protec- 
 tion, trembled before them, while the younger patricians ex- 
 ulted in the license given to them, and maintained the cause 
 of the decemvirs. The year passed, — no sign of their laying 
 down their office : the tyranny seemed intended to be perpet- 
 ual. The lust of Appius, the chief of them, saved the state. 
 He had seen Virginia, the daughter of Virginius, a centurion, 
 crossing the forum in her way to school ; a freedman of his, 
 suborned by him, claimed her as his slave ; her lover hastened 
 to the camp to inform her father, who hurried to Rome. Vir- 
 ginia was brought before the tribunal of the decemvir, and by 
 him assigned as a slave to his freedman : her father, seeing 
 the honor of his family about to be stained, caught up a 
 butcher's knife and plunged it into the bosom of his innocent 
 child ; then, with the bloody weapon reeking in his hand, has- 
 tened to the camp, told his comrades what he had done, and 
 invoked their aid. The army marched to Rome, and posted 
 itself on the Aventine : the decemvirate was abolished, and the 
 tribunate of the people restored. Appius and Oppius, the 
 most guilty of the decemvirs, died in prison by their own 
 hand • their colleagues went into voluntary exile. 
 
 Spurius Mcelius, 
 
 The consulate was restored ; two members of the illustrious 
 houses of the Valerii and the Horatii were the first consuls. 
 They carried laws in favor of plebeian liberty. When their 
 year expired, the tribunes brought in a bill to enable the peo- 
 ple to choose, at their option, patrician or plebeian consuls. 
 The chief patricians assembled to consult how to obviate the 
 fancied danger of their order ; C. Claudius even proposed to 
 murder the tribunes ; his project was rejected with indigna- 
 tion, and the two orders agreed, that, instead of two consuls, 
 there should be six military tribunes, three from eacVf ordei , 
 placed at the head of the government. But the people, as 
 yet, gained not much ; for the patricians, by management and 
 union, generally contrived to procure for themselves tlie
 
 Albuquerque.
 
 CHAP. VL aOME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 101 
 
 whole, or the greater part, of the tribunarian authority. Con 
 suls, too, were frequently chosen, and they and military tri- 
 bunes alternated. 
 
 On the whole, during this period, the rights of the plebe- 
 ians were advancing; some of their order beca/iiU military 
 tribunes, the connubium between them and the patricians 
 was established, and thus the bonds of amity and kindness be- 
 tween the orders were drawn more closely. Yet patrician 
 party-spirit and cruelty still occasionally exhibited them- 
 selves. A crying sin of the senate of this period was the 
 murder of Sp. Mff;lius, a plebeian knight, who, in a time of 
 dearth, expended his private fortune in the purchase of com 
 in Tuscany to distribute among the poor of his order. The 
 senate dreaded the influence of Mselius, and feared that he 
 might make good the claims of his order to a share in the 
 government. He was accused of aiming at the tyranny. 
 The venerable Cincinnatus was created dictator to avert the 
 pretended danger. Maelius was summoned before his tribu- 
 nal ; he saw his enemies bent on his destruction, and took 
 refuge among the people ; C. Servilius Ahala, the master of 
 the knights, pursued and cut him down, when he might have 
 seized him and brought Iiim before the dictator's tribunal. 
 Party-spirit applauded the deed ; succeeding ages blindly ac- 
 quiesced in the applause : the enlightened inquirer now be- 
 holds it in all its atrocity, and condemns the illegal and in- 
 iquitous procedure. The voice of history cries without ceas- 
 ing, Do no evil, for a time will arrive when the truth, how 
 artfully soever veiled, will come forth and be apparent 
 
 Wars anterior to the Gallic Invasion. 
 
 During the period whose internal history we have just 
 been tracing, Rome was not free from external disturbance. 
 In the year 272, a bloody war broke out between Rome and 
 Veii, one of the most powerful of the Etrurian cities. For- 
 tune was rather favorable to the latter, for volunteers flocked 
 from all parts of Etruria to recruit her forces. The Romaiw 
 saw the advantage to be derived from fixing the seat of war 
 in the enemies' country. A fort was raised on the banks of 
 the Cremera, a stream in the Veientian territory. The Fabian 
 gens undertook the defence of it. They marched out of Rome 
 to the number of 306, with their clients, amounting to 4000 
 err 5000, and settled there. Notwithstanding a peace, they 
 ravaged the country. By a display of bo«ty, the Veientians 
 lucceeded in drawing the greater part of them into an am- 
 bush, where they were cut to pieces; the fort was then 
 •tormed, and the remainder of the garrison put to the sword. 
 9*
 
 102 HISTORY OF THE WOELD. ^^"^ ^ 
 
 Tradition relates that of the entire Fabian gens, but one sur- 
 vived-^ child who had been left at R«me The Veientiana 
 now carried on the war vigorously against Rome : they feed 
 their camp on the Janiculum, but were defeated, and their 
 well-stored camp became the prey of the victors. 
 
 Almost unceasing warfare prevailed at this period between 
 the Romans, the Latins, and Hernicians on the one side» and 
 theVolscians and the .Equians on the other, without either 
 party acquiring much advantage A Sabme war, too, termi- 
 nated in favor of Rome; for a kmdred stem, the Samnites, 
 was now extending itself southwards, and drawmg to its ban- 
 ners the active and adventurous spirits oi" le nation. 
 
 The truce with Veii having expired, the war agam raged. 
 Fiden^ revolted, and joined Veii. The seat of war was now 
 the left bank of the Tiber. The Etrurians advanced to the 
 gates of Rome; they were repulsed, and forced to retire be- 
 londthe Anio. Fidens was besieged and taken. Another 
 truce for twenty years was made with Veil, and indefinitely 
 nrotracted. Veii was a peaceable, trading town ; her desire 
 was tranquillity. Rome was a nation of soldiers. Veil sought 
 to prolong the truce. Rome, as a hostile race, havmg burst 
 over the°Alps, and overrun the Circumpadanian Ltruria, 
 thought she had now a favorable opportunity for conquering 
 her rival, who could not look for aid to the more distant citiea 
 of Etruria: she therefore refused to protract the truce, ^th 
 sides took arms. Capena and Falerii alone aided Veil Con 
 quest of territory was the object of the Romans: regular pay 
 was ^iven to the army; a line of forts was drawn around the 
 hostile town; the siege was extended to a duration equal to 
 that of Troy. Camillus, one of the greatest names m Roman 
 I94 tory, commanded, and Veii at length fell, entered by a mine 
 secretly wrought by the besiegers. The Romans were en- 
 riched by the spoil. CamQlus sullied his glory by secretmg 
 a part, for which he went into exUe. The Jakmg o^ Veil is 
 an historical fact; the details are poetic fiction. Who can 
 now believe that the formation of the Emissarius, which still 
 carries off the superfluous waters of the Alban lake a passage 
 of 3700 paces in length, six feet m height, and three and a 
 half in width, was the work of a smgle year, and executed by 
 a people who had little or no interest m the adjacent lando, 
 and tha*. the fate of a city beyond the Tiber depended on the 
 emission of the waters of that lake 1 
 
 The Gauls— Capture of Rome 
 Mistress of the Veientian territory, Rome now looked for- 
 ward to farther conquest in Etruria: but a storm, whose first
 
 CnAr. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIU WARS. 103 
 
 effects she probably contemplated with complacency, was des- 
 tined to crush her for a season to the earth. Rome was tc 
 fall before the Gauls. 
 
 The Kelts now first appear in history. This race, one Ot* 
 the first that occupied Europe, inhabited, at this period, Gaul 
 and Britain, and a great part of Iberia. Attracted by the 
 accounts of the climate and fertility of Italy, a large body 
 of the Gauls passed the Alps, and poured down on the coun- 
 try about the Po ; they quickly conquered the Etrurians who 
 dwelt there ; the Umbrians submitted ; the Gauls extended 
 themselves to the Adriatic, crossed the Apennines, and laid 
 siege to Clusium in Etruria. The Clusians called on the 
 Romans for aid, who sent an embassy to the Gallic camp to 
 offer their mediation. This was rejected by the Gauls. The 
 Roman envoys entered the town, and, neglectful of the laws 
 of nations, took part in a battle. Q. Fabius, one of them, 
 slew a Gallic chief, and was recognized. The Gauls dis- 
 patched an embassy to Rome to demand the surrender of the 
 offenders. This was contumeliously refused. Breathing 
 vengeance, they broke up from before Clusium, and marched 
 for Rome. At the AUia, eleven miles from the city, they 
 met the Roman army. A signal defeat rendered the place b. e 
 and the day ever detested in the Roman annals. The Gauls 38i 
 speedily appeared before the walls of the city, forced the 
 gates, and found it deserted, except by a few aged men of 
 consular rank. These they slaughtered in cold blood. The 
 remainder of the people had sought refuge in the neighboring 
 towns: the Vestal virgins and the sacred things had been 
 conveyed to Caere ; the Capitol was occupied by the senate, 
 and about 1000 of the bravest of the patrician youth. An 
 attempt to take the Capitol failed ; the Gauls burned the city 
 and employed themselves in plundering excursions into the 
 surrounding country. Autumn, then and now the sickly sea- 
 son at Rome, came on ; the besiegers died in heaps, a compo- 
 sition was proposed, and the Gauls finally agreed, for a thou- 
 sand pounds weight of gold, to evacuate Rome, and itfl ter- 
 ritory. Roman vanity invented a tale of Camillus, who had, 
 though in exile, been appointed dictator, coming up with his 
 army as they were in the act of weighing the gold, and so 
 signally defeating the Gauls, that not one survived to carry 
 home the news. 
 
 Rebuilding of the City — Manliu$. 
 
 Rome was a heap of rums. Veii equalled it in magnitude, 
 and exceeded it in beauty. It was proposed that the Roman 
 oeople should migrate thither : the senate opposed this pro-
 
 104 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 iect; the people were wavering, when a casual word, taken 
 aa an omen, decided them to remain. Within a year the 
 city rose from its ashes with little of beauty or regularity 
 Veii was demolished to furnish building materials. 
 
 War was renewed. The Tarquinienses, a people of Etru- 
 ria, took the field against tlie Romans: the Volscians and 
 iEquians were again in arms : the Latins and Hernicians, 
 though a century had elapsed since Sp. Cassius had formed 
 the league between them and the Romans, separated from 
 them, and were sometimes opposed to them : the Gauls again 
 invaded the Roman territory ; yet the fortune of Rome pre- 
 vailed, and her generals triumphed. 
 
 But Rome was internally agitated: the heavy rate of in- 
 terest, the odious laws of debt, the poverty of the people, 
 and the cruelty of creditors, nearly produced desperation. 
 Touched with compassion, Manlius, the savior of the Capitol, 
 a man of generous nature, stood forward as the protector of 
 the unfortunate, and even sold a patrimonial estate to relieve 
 their wants. He was charged with defaming the govern 
 ment, and thrown into prison. He was afterwards released, 
 and whether he then meditated plans of vengeance is uncer 
 tain ; but he finally fell a victim to the envy and tyrannica 
 spirit of his order, who now lorded it uncontrolled over the 
 broken-spirited people. Rome was on the very point of 
 sinking into utter insignificance under the dominion of the 
 short-sighted patricians, when two men arose, who, by firm- 
 ness and temperance, raised her from her dejection, and 
 placed her in the road which led with certainty to her future 
 grandeur. 
 
 The Licinian Rogations. 
 
 874 In the year of Rome 378, C. Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius 
 «rere chosen tribunes of the people, and they immediately 
 brought forward their celebrated rogations, which operated 
 such a mighty change in Rome. The supreme magistrates 
 were in that year military tribunes ; the people were full of 
 hope, the senate of fear. If the rogations passed the comitia, 
 it might not be safe to refuse assent to them. They sought 
 to avert the danger, and gained over the colleagues of Li- 
 cinius and Sextius to interpose their veto on the measure. 
 Its authors were not dejected. When the year expired, they 
 refiised to allow the election of military tribunes to proceed. 
 The republic remained for five or six years under Interregcs 
 Licmius and Sextius were re-elected every year, and each 
 year more and more of the friends of the rogations were 
 chosen to be their colVagues. The people were firm to their
 
 4il ' « 
 
 \i^ mJit. jtimi|l]u! lii.ii„ I |.,i ||l|
 
 CHAP. VI. EOMt riLL THE PUNIC WARS. 107 
 
 popular tribunes. The clients had, in the time of the decem- 
 virs, been admitted into the tribes ; the influence of the pa- 
 tricians waa thereby diminished ; the office of the interrex 
 being but for five days, no wars could be carried on : the 
 tribunes allowed no one to be imprisoned for debt. Though 
 the neighboring states remained at peace, yet such a condition 
 of affairs was unsafe. All parties wished to see an end of 
 it, yet the senate would not yield. Twice was the venerable 
 Camillus created dictator against the people, twice did the 
 dictatorial power fail before the tribunarian. Arts, menaces, 
 force, were tried in vain. The senate would willingly have 
 conceded some of the demands. The tribunes incorporated 
 all into one bill, and would have all or none. Camillus, at 
 length, became convinced of the inutility of protracted re- 
 sistance. He mediated between the orders, and the senate 
 gave their consent to the rogations. 
 
 These rogations were, 1. that no more military tribunes 
 should be chosen, but consuls only, and of these one to be a 
 plebeian ; 2. that one half of the guardians of the Sibylline 
 books should be plebeians ; 3. that in cases of debt, all the 
 interest already paid should be deducted from the capital, and 
 the residue paid in three equal annual instalments; 4. an 
 Agrarian law : of which the principal provisions were, tnat 
 the public land should have its boundaries marked out ; that 
 every Roman citizen should be entitled to enjoy it; that no 
 one should hold more than 500 jugera of it in arable or 
 plantation land, or feed more than 100 head of black, or 500 
 of small cattle, on the public pasture ; that a tenth of the 
 produce of corn-land, a fifth of that of vineyards and planta- 
 tions, and so much a head grazing-money for cattle should be 
 paid to the state ; that this tax should be farmed out every 
 lustrum by the censors, and the produce of it appropriated to 
 the payment of the army ; that the possessors of the public 
 land should be bound to employ free laborers on their land 
 in a rated proportion to their possession. 
 
 The plebeians consented that the consular power should be 
 diminished. The jurisdiction was separated from it, and com- 
 mitted to a praetor, whom the patricians insisted should of 
 right belong to their body; and as the praetor ranked with 
 the consuls, and might be styled their colleague, they that 
 kept two out of three places to themselves. The first plebeian 
 consul was L. Sextius Lateranus, the fellow-tribune of C. 
 Lickiius Stola
 
 108 fflSXOET OF THE WOELD. PABT t 
 
 Samnite War. 
 
 The period from 389 to 411 was internally spent in efforts, 
 on the side of the patricians, to do away with the Licinian 
 law ; externally in various wars with the Gauls, Etruscans, 
 Hernicians, and others; and victory was, as usual, on the 
 side of the Romans. 
 
 The Samnites, a mountain race, descended, it is said, from 
 the Sabines, certainly akin to them, had been for some tim 
 spreading themselves to the south. They had long since 
 made themselves masters of Capua, the wealthy capital of 
 Campania, where they rapidly degenerated, and sank into 
 luxury. Their mountain brethren became their bitterest 
 enemies. In the year 412, the Campanians, being hard 
 pressed by the Samnites, called upon Rome for alliance and 
 aid. Aid was not refused ; the Romans sent an embassy to 
 the Samnites, requesting them to abstain from injuring the 
 allies of Rome. Their interference was haughtily rejected ; 
 a combined Roman and Latin army entered Campania. Mount 
 Gaurus, which overhangs the Lucrine lake, was the scene of 
 the first conflict between these two great nations, who fougiit for 
 the empire of Italy. After a furious conflict, victory declared 
 for Rome. The war was obstinately continued, though to the 
 advantage of the latter. At last Rome, jealous of Latium, 
 made a peace with the Samnites, in which the Latins refused 
 to join. 
 
 The Latin War. 
 
 The Latins had long been in close alliance with Rome. In 
 all wars they composed one half of the legions; they were 
 mingled in the manipuli, or companies, and their general 
 commanded alternately with the Roman. Feeling their 
 power, they deemed it just that they should be placed on a 
 rooting of perfect equality; their ambassadors repaired to 
 Rome, and proposed to the senate that the two nations should 
 form one, in which Rome should have the supremacy, and 
 which should be denominated from her; that half the senate 
 should be composed of Latins, and one of the consuls be of 
 that nation. These just propositions were rejected witn 
 scorn and indignation by the haughty Romans, and war, little 
 less than civil, broke out between the long-united nations. 
 
 The Latins and Campanians were still at war with the 
 Samnites, who were now in alliance with Rome. Four Ro- 
 man legions, by a rapid march through the mountains, arrived 
 •n Campania, and joined the Samnite army. At the foot of 
 Vesuvius, the decisive conflict took place: Samnites were
 
 CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 109 
 
 arrayed against Campanians, Romans against Latins, similar 
 arms and tactics against each other. Victory long being 
 doubtful, the front ranks in the left wing of the Romans fcU 
 back. The plebeian consul iJecius, who had vowed to sacri- 
 fice himself for Rome, now performed his vow : consecrated 
 by the pontifex, and clad in a magnificent robe, he rushed 
 on horseback amidst the ranks of the enemy, and fell covered 
 with wounds. The Latins gave way before the renewed 
 valor of the Romans ; and the other consul, Manlius, waa 
 equally successful on his side. Scarcely a fourth of the 
 Latin army escaped. 
 
 The loss of the flower of her troops effectually debilitated 
 Latium: town after town submitted to the Romans, and a 
 bloody and cruel vengeance was taken by that haughty people. 
 The people of Latium were divided ; some obtained the rank 
 of Roman citizens, others were deprived of their lands and 
 their rights. They were forbidden to hold national diets, or 
 to intermarry or acquire lands in each other's territories; 
 they no longer served in the Roman legions. With the 
 Volscians and Hernicians they formed separate cohorts. 
 
 About this time, Q.. Publilius Philo, being dictator, had 
 three laws passed which completed the constitution. One of 
 these included the censorship in the higher offices, which 
 were common to the two orders; a second took from the 
 curiae the power of putting their veto on any law ; the third 
 made the plebiscita, or decrees of the tribes, binding on 
 all citizens. By these means, internal discord was ended; 
 and Rome, unretarded by domestic dissensions, could now ad- 
 vance rapidly in the career of universal empire. 
 
 War with Pyrrhus. 
 
 Rome was now mistress of Etruria, Latium, and Campania. 
 The Samnites had aided her to conquer the Latins ; a gene- 
 ral league of the Samnites and their kindred mountain tribes 
 was formed against the menacing power of Rome, and a 
 fierce war broke out, in which a Roman army endured the 
 disgrace of passing under the yoke at the Caudine pass ; but 
 the disgrace was speedily effaced, and Samnium reduced to 
 submission. 
 
 Tarentum, a rich and luxurious city of Southern Italy, b «• 
 had taken part in this war, and grievously insulted the Ro- '^'^'■i 
 mans. Unable to defend themselves, the Tarcntines sought 
 the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a prince of courage and 
 talent, ready to ser/e whoever could pny. He had just 
 gained and lost Macedonia; and he now fed himself with the 
 nopes of becoming the Alexander of the West ; reckoned on 
 10
 
 110 HISTORY OF THB WORLD. PART L 
 
 a speedy conquest of Italy; and already, in his ambitious 
 views, anticipated that of Gaul, Spain, and Africa. He there- 
 fore willingly acceded to the desire of the Tarentines, and 
 passed over to Italy. 
 
 For the first time the arms and tactics of Greece and Rome 
 came into collision. In the first two battles, fought at Pan- 
 dosia and Asculum, his military skill and his elephants gained 
 the victory for Pyrrhus ; yet with so much loss, that he made 
 proposals of peace to the Romans. They would treat only 
 on condition of his quitting Italy. A third battle was fought 
 near Beneventum, in which Pyrrhus was so roughly handled, 
 27£ that he gave up all hopes of conquest in Italy, and passed 
 over to Sicily, and thence to Greece, where he met his death, 
 in an attempt on the city of Argos, in the Peloponnesus. 
 The Romans now reduced all Southern Italy; and from the 
 Arno to Rhegium, the whole peninsula obeyed the city. 
 
 «. V. 
 
 CHAP, va 
 
 ROME TILL THE TIME OF THE GRACCHI. 
 
 First Punic War. 
 
 The island of Sicily had originally been colonized by the 
 peo})le who inhabited Italy. The Greeks early began to es- 
 tablish colonies there, and many of these rapidly grew up to 
 be powerful states. The Carthaginians also settled there. 
 They held at this period one half of the island, and their 
 power was formidable to the remainder.* 
 
 Syracuse was the chief of the Grecian colonies. Ita 
 founders were Dorians ; its constitution was therefore at first 
 aristocratic ; but it was a trading city, and did not long con- 
 tinue to be so governed. The beneficent Gelo, at tlie time 
 when Greece was assailed by Persia, possessed the supreme 
 
 106. power in Syracuse. Six years after the fatal expedition of the 
 Athenians against it, Syracuse fell under the dominion of 
 Dionysius, an able, talented, and, if we credit a modern his- 
 torian, a useful prince. He left his power to his son, of the 
 
 J67 same name, who inherited not his good qualities. His cousin 
 Dion, and then the Corinthian Timoleon, overthrew his 
 power. The Syracusans had not virtue enough to retain their 
 recovered freedom. Agathocles, a man of splendid talents, 
 seized the supreme power. He was the terror of his foes, 
 ard fbrmidablS even to the Carthaginians. Close pressed in 
 
 Sec Carthage, p. 59.
 
 PI!"'l!E!III!i!!!!!!i!!;rh!"!ll'"'l 
 
 I 
 
 
 ■■\ 
 

 
 CHAP m. ROME TILL THE TIME OP THE GRACCHI. 113 
 
 war by them, he adopted the bold resolution of carrying the 
 war into their own country. He passed over to Africa, and 
 appeared before the walls of Cartilage. He died in a good b c 
 old age, full of fame, but childless. id'^ 
 
 On his death Syracuse fell into confusion. Pyrrhus wa.« 
 invited over from Italy to no purpose. The Mamertines, a 
 portion of the mercenary troops whom Agathocles had had 
 in pay, seized on the city of Messina, and murdered the in- 
 habitants : the Syracusans allied themselves with the Car- 
 thaginians against them ; the Mamertines applied for support 
 to the Romans. After some delay, occasioned by the flagrant 
 injustice of the Mamertine cause, interest prevailed over 
 principle, and the required aid was promised. Thus began 
 the first of those wars called Punic. 
 
 Rome was mistress of all Italy, except what was held in 266 
 the north by the Gauls : Carthage was in the height of her 
 power, possessed of a large portion of Africa, Spain, and 
 Sicily, and of Sardinia, and other islands. Rome's civil con- 
 stitution was in its vigor ; that of Carthage in its decline : 
 Rome's troops were free-born citizens; those of Carthage 
 mercenaries : Rome had no fleet ; that of Carthage was nu- 
 merous. Such was the relative state of the two nations when 
 they descended into the arena. 
 
 The Romans determined to have a fleet. A Carthaginian 
 ehip of war, that was driven on shore, served as a model : the 
 crews were taught to row on land. Inferior to their foes in 
 the art of manoeuvring their vessels, they invented machines 
 for grappling, and bringing a sea to resemble a land-fight 
 The consul Duillius won the first naval victory. The Romans 
 were already victorious in Sicily. The consul Regulus, in 
 imitation of Agathocles, carried the war into Africa, and 
 spread terror to the gates of Carthage. A Spartan merce- 
 nary, named Xanthippus, was opposed to him. Roman courage 
 failed before Grecian skill, and Regulus and his army surren- 
 dered. National hatred invented a lying tale of Punic cru- 
 elty and Roman virtue, in the person of this unhappy general. 
 A signal defeat, off" the iEgatian islands, forced the Cartha- 
 ginians to sue for peace, and a war of twenty-three years ter- 
 minated by their giving up all Sicily, and paying a large sum 14.' 
 of money. 
 
 lllyrian War — Gallic War. 
 The niyrians, a people inhabiting the north-eastern coast 
 of the Adriatic, were addicted to 'piracy. The Italian mer- 
 chants complained of their losses at Rome : ambassadors were 
 ■ent to Illyria to remonstrate: the ambassadors were ill
 
 114 flISTORT OV THE WORLD. PART i 
 
 treated, and some of them murdered. Rome took up arms tf 
 avenge them, and to put down piracy. The Illyrian queen, 
 Teuta, was compelled to surrender a large portion of her do- 
 mmions, to reduce her shipping, and to pay an annual tribute. 
 The Senonian G^auls possessed the rich plains watered by 
 the Po ; the Ligurians, the rugged hills west and south of 
 them. Rome engaged in war with both : the former were 
 completely subdued, after a hard contest, in which they were 
 B. c. aided by their kindred tribes from beyond the Alps. The 
 224. battle of Clusium decided the fate of Cisalpine Gaul. De- 
 fended by their mountains, the Ligurians, often overcome, 
 were long unconquered. They were a hardy, active race, 
 who lived by feeding cattle, and by hiring out their services 
 in war. 
 
 Second Punic War. «, 
 
 The Carthaginians now turned their views to conquests in 
 Spain. Their troops were commanded by Asdrubal, one of 
 the ablest generals they had ever possessed. On his death 
 the troops chose for their commander his son Annibal, now 
 but twenty-six years old, who had been reared in the camp, 
 and was the sworn foe of Rome. All his thoughts were 
 219 turned on war against that republic : he attacked Saguntum, 
 a city in alliance with Rome, took it, after an obstinate but 
 unavailing defence, marched with a numerous, veteran, and 
 well-appointed army through the Pyrenees and Gaul to the 
 confluence of the Rhone and Saone, passed through the coun- 
 try of the Allobroges, crossed the Alps, and descended into 
 the modern Piedmont. He defeated the Romans on the banks 
 of the Ticmus, then on those of the Trebia, next at the Tra- 
 simene lake in Tuscany, and finally gave them an overthrow 
 at Cannee in Apulia, worthy to be compared with those of 
 Syracuse, Leuctra, and Arbela. But here his career of vic- 
 tory ended. The Roman armies hitherto opposed to him had 
 been militia, their generals rash and inexperienced. The 
 chief command was now given to Fabius the Delayer, who 
 would never come to a general engagement, but hovered 
 about and harassed the Punic army, and raised the courage 
 of his own. Yet Annibal, though opposed by a faction at 
 home, and ill-supplied with men and money, kept possession 
 of the fairest portion of Italy during seventeen years. 
 
 Rome gradually recovered her strength ; her courage had 
 never failed : she sent an army to Spain, which was at first 
 resisted with success ; but imder the command of the youth- 
 ful, virtuous, and heroic Scipio, overcame the troops of Car- 
 tnage. Annibal was repeatedly checked in Italy : Gracchui
 
 CII \P VII. ROME TILL THE TIME OF THE GRACCHI 115 
 
 conquered Sardinia ; Syracuse, which had now gone against 
 Rome, was, though defended by the macliines of t?ie great 
 Archimedes, taken by Marcellus ; and Annibal's last hope, — 
 the army led to his assistance from Spain by his brother As- 
 drubal, — was annihilated on the banks of the Metaurus by 
 Tiberius Nero. Scipio at length passed with hia victorious 
 army over to Africa, and Annibal was recalled to the defence 
 of his country. On the plains of Zama a battle was fought b. c 
 between the two greatest generals of the age, and the fate 202 
 of Carthage was decided. Annibal was defeated for the first 
 time ; Carthage was forced to sue for peace. Rigorous terms 
 were imposed ; she was confined to Africa, obliged to surren- 
 der her ships, prohibited engaging in war, and compelled to 
 yield Numidia to Masinissa, the ally of Rome. 
 
 The Macedonian and Syrian Wars. 
 
 Rome now possessed all Italy, Sicily, and the other islands, 
 and a part of Spain. Her arms now, for the first time, show 
 themselves in Greece. Carthage being reduced, Philip, king 
 of Macedon, was the prince who could give Rome most dis- 
 turbance. Philip, though he had made an alliance with An- 
 nibal, imprudently neglected to assist him; he wasted hia 
 strength in petty conflicts in Greece, and, instead of uniting 
 the people of that country, unwisely put them in fear for tlieir 
 . independence. The ^Etolians called on the Romans for aid, 
 who came forward as the champions of Grecian liberty. The 198 
 battle of C3mocephale overthrew the power of Macedon. 
 Philip had to sue for peace, and Rome proclaimed liberty to 
 Greece — a nominal, deceptive liberty, like the independence 
 she had left to Carthage : she would fain be mistress of the 
 world, without the world discerning its subjection. 
 
 Thoas, the ./Etolian, thought himself not sufficiently re- 
 warded for his services by the Romans. He betook himself 
 to Antiochns the Great, king of Syria ; represented to him 
 the danger to be apprehended from suffering the Romans thus 
 to go on extending their power, a power the more to be sus- 
 pected, as they were the known foes of kings ; and exhorted 
 the monarch to lose no time in opposing their farther pro- 
 gress. His representations were enforced by Annibal, who, 
 driven by a faction favorable to Rome from his own country, 
 where he was endeavoring by salutary reforms and wise regu- 
 lations to restore Carthage to a condition of resuming her 
 former rank, was now at the court of Antiochus. Their sug- 
 gestions were listened to with a willing ear; war waa de- 
 clared: Asia arrayed against Rome; but fortunately for t>»e
 
 116 mSTORT OP THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 latter, the counsels of Annibal, respecting the mode of con- 
 ducting the war, were not attended to. 
 
 Antiochus was by far the most powerful monarch of Asia 
 his sway was acknowledged from the Troas to Caucasus, 
 Media, Syria, Phcenicia, Palestine, obeyed him. With an 
 army estimated at 400,000 men he entered Greece. Asiatic 
 luxury attended this second Xerxes: pomp and splendor 
 shone in his purple and silken tents ; but he, too, had to en 
 counter an iron race, who fought, not indeed for liberty, bu 
 B. c. for empire. A defeat at Thermopylae drove him from Greece 
 I'.il The Romans pursued him into Asia. Another decisive vic- 
 tory at Magnesia reduced the Syrian monarch to seek a peace, 
 the conditions of which were the surrender of all Lesser Asia, 
 as far as Mount Taurus, and of the half of his ships. 
 
 Conquest of Macedon. 
 
 Philip had put to death the better of his two sons : learn- 
 ing when too late his innocence, he died of grief. His suc- 
 cessor, Perseus, vainly hoped to restore Macedon to its pris- 
 tine strength and dignity, and he wanted to engage its forces 
 once more in conflict with those of Rome. But Paulus iEmi- 
 lius, the Roman general, overcame all obstacles presented by 
 the nature of the country. The battle of Pydna, in which 
 20,000 Macedonians fell, was decisive. Perseus was seized 
 with a panic ; he fled from his kingdom, and sheltered him- 
 self in Samothrace, where he meanly surrendered himself to 
 his enemies. In the 156th year after the death of Alexander 
 
 (69. the Great, the last king of his paternal kingdom walked in 
 the triumphal procession of the general of a nation which 
 had not, at that time, attracted the attention of Greece. Per- 
 seus died in prison. Macedonia was declared free, under the 
 protection of Rome. Fifteen years afterwards, a commotion 
 was raised in that state by one Andriscus, who called himself 
 the son of Perseus. The Romans were obliged to send an 
 army thither, and the kingdom was reduced to a Roman 
 province. 
 
 In these times Rome began to interest herself in the af- 
 fairs of Egypt. Egyptian ambassadors appeared in the senate- 
 
 167 house, imploring the interference of Rome to prevent An- 
 tiochus, king of Syria, from making a conquest of that coun- 
 try. Ambassadors were dispatched thither by the senate, and 
 at their mandate Antiochus withdrew. 
 
 Third Punic War. 
 
 The period fixed by Providence to the duration of Carthage 
 now approached. Civil dissensions, the sure forerurmers of
 
 l'B.i, 
 
 'l!| 
 
 if' 
 
 a s 
 
 
 ^i:'^i|;il!;i!ll'' 
 
 ::i!'iiil' 
 
 •H" 
 
 
 
 *?"iii|:iiii' 

 
 i^AP. Vn. ROME TILL THE TIME OF THE GEACCHI. 119 
 
 oational ruiii, ran high. Forty senators, driven from the city, 
 besought Masinissa, of Numidia, to effect their restoration. 
 His mediation was spumed by the dominant faction. The 
 affair was brought before the Roman senate, who decided ac- 
 cording to the wishes of Masinissa, and the pretext was 
 gladly laid hold on for destroying their once formidable rival 
 The Carthaginians were ordered to surrender all the ships 
 they had built: they obeyed, and saw them burned before 
 their faces. They were then ordered to quit Carthage, and to 
 build for themselves a new city in the interior, afar from the 
 sea. This ruthless command to leave their temples and the 
 tombs of their fathers, and the scene of all tlieir ancient 
 glory, was too much ; the people were driven to desperation • 
 the senate swore to stand or faU with Carthage ; and war, 
 now inevitable, was prepared for. Every exertion was made 
 to replace the lost navy ; all the timber that could be collected 
 was brought to the dock-yards ; all metals, noble and ignoble, 
 holy or profane, were melted down for the making of arms ; 
 even the women cut off their long hair, that it might be 
 twisted into bow-strings for the defenders of their country, 
 and into cordage for the ships; all ages, ranks, and sexes 
 took share in the common danger. Three years long did the 
 ill-fated city hold out with amazing perseverance against all 
 the efforts of the Romans. More than once were the legions 
 defeated ; two walls were taken, the besieged defended the 
 third ; the harbor was lost, they dug a new one. At length,- 
 the younger Scipio was appointed to the command of the be- 
 sieging army, and his genius triumphed over the ingenious 
 devices of the besieged. By stratagem he gained the new 
 harbor ; yet the city, though now open and defenceless, main- 
 tained, for six days and nights, an obstinate resistance. A 
 party at length declared for the Romans ; the city was set on 
 fire by its own citizens, as it would appear, that it might not 
 ecome a provincial town to Rome. The inhabitants slew 
 hemselves on the tombs of their fathers, in the citadel and in b. c 
 the temples of their gods : the city burned seventeen days ; 147 
 and the heretofore mistress of the sea, the town which had 
 numbered 700,000 inhabitants, which had flourished for nearly 
 1000 years, sank, never again to rise with independence. 
 
 Achaan War. 
 
 Greece, though nominally free, very soon saw that she hao 
 made an ill exchange, in getting the Roman instead of the 
 Macedonian power into her neighborhood. When Macedon 
 had bceu reduced to a Roman province, the Romans sought 
 y«/ f f to make themselves masters of the strong place*
 
 120 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 throughout Greece. They called on the Acheean league to 
 surrender such places as the Macedonian kings had held in 
 the Peloponnesus. Their embassy was insulted and abused 
 by the populace in Corinth, and a pretext for a war was gladly 
 laid hold on. 
 
 Greece fought with her ancient heroism, but m vain ; her 
 star had set, her troops could not resist the legions led by 
 able and experienced commanders. Critolaus, the Achaean 
 general, was defeated at Thermopyl©, and slew himself. 
 Diseus, like another Leonidas, vainly attempted to defend, 
 with 614 brave men, the isthmus of Corinth. He hastened 
 to his own country, satisfied that resistance was vain ; col- 
 lected his wife and children; distributed poison among them; 
 and he and they perished, not to behold the slavery of their 
 ,. c. country. Corinth was taken by L. Mummius, in the same 
 147. year that Carthage fell before Scipio. Its pictures, statues, 
 plate, and treasures, were shipped for Rome ; all the grown 
 men were put to death, the women and children sold for 
 slaves, and the city itself burned. A similar fate befell Thebes 
 and Chalcis in Euboea. Greece became, under the name of 
 Achaea, a Roman province; her glory departed; and for 
 nearly 2000 years she has been a stranger to independence. 
 
 TTie Spanish Wars. 
 
 Spain was origmally inhabited by nations of Keltic and of 
 Iberian race. Its people were distinguished by valor, talent, 
 steadiness, and perseverance: it had been, from the most 
 remote ages, resorted to by the Phoenicians for the produce 
 of its mines and its soil; the Greeks early visited it; the 
 Carthaginians made themselves masters of a considerable 
 portion of it. During the second Punic war, all their pos- 
 sessions in Spain fell to the victorious Romans. 
 
 After the conquest of Carthage and Corinth, the Roman 
 began to turn their view to Spain. They attacked the Lusi 
 tanians ; but this valiant people, headed by Viriatus, a man 
 of distinguished bravery, prudence, and virtue, long bid de- 
 fiance to the arms of the Romans, who now were so far degen- 
 erated from their pristine virtue, as not to blush at employing 
 treachery to accomplish their objects, and Viriatus perished 
 by assassms hired by Rome. The tovra of Numantia, with a 
 garrison of but 4000 men, long withstood some of Rome's 
 ablest generals, and often compelled the legions to withdraw. 
 Even the great Scipio, the conqueror of Carthage, could 
 hardly boast of havmg taken this heroic town. Famme 
 preyed on the inhabitants; the Roman general would give 
 ao opportimity for battle ; in despair they set fire to the town,
 
 CHAP. Vril. ROME TILL THE END OF THE REPUBLIC. 121 
 
 and threw themselves into the flames. The Romans stormed 
 the walls, and found all desolate and silent 
 
 In several parts of Spain, various tribes maintained their 
 mdependence for another century. They fought long and 
 obstinately ; but they had no confederacies. Each tribe fought 
 and fell alone ; and gradually the whole country fell under 
 the dominion of Rome, now grown thoroughly corrupt and 
 tyrannical. 
 
 CHAP. vm. 
 
 ROUE TILL THE END OF THE REPUBLIC. 
 
 The Chracchi. 
 
 Rome had conquered Greece. The last wDl of Attains, 
 king of Pergamus, gave her Lesser Asia. The gift was de- 
 structive. Grecian and Asiatic corruption and vice proved 
 too strong for Roman virtue. We are no more to look for 
 the noble qualities that adorned the golden ages of the repub- 
 lic. Wealth and power are henceforth the claims to the high 
 offices of the state ; corruption and extortion the characteris- 
 tics of magistrates and governors. Blood, which for centuries 
 had not stained the streets of Rome, was now shed without 
 remorse. Even his virtues could not save the conqueror of 
 Carthage, the elegant and accomplished friend of LbrHus and 
 patron of Terence and Polybius, from the hands of his own 
 relations, who dreaded his being elevated to the dictatorship; 
 and the friends of justice feared to institute an inquiry into 
 the causes of his death. Now it became usual at Rome to 
 carry a dagger beneath the robe. 
 
 In the early days of the republic, when the Roman people 
 were divided into the two separate orders of patricians and 
 plebeians, nothing could be more just than the Agrarian laws, 
 such as we have described them above.* It was but reasona- 
 ble that the plebeians should share in the lands purchased 
 with their blood ; it was but just that all orders should con- 
 tribute to the public revenue. But, in the present period, tlie 
 distinction between patrician and plebeian could hardly be 
 said to exist ; and if there was a difference, it was, that the 
 g'eat preponderance of landed property wa=i on the side of 
 tne latter. This property had been possessed undisturbed for 
 
 H • See p. 66.
 
 122 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART L 
 
 generations ; it had often been acquired by purchase, by in- 
 heritance, or by marriage. Yet, though their estates might 
 have been legally acquired, the unfeeling rapacity of the no- 
 bles, in cruelly expelling the old tenants, whose fathers had 
 for generations dwelt on their lands, to throw their little farms 
 into pasture-land, was such as must have excited indignation 
 m any generous bosom. The Romans were now, like a 
 modern nation, divided into rich and poor, without the latter 
 having the resource which the poor of modern times have, 
 of following a trade or going to service. Trade was esteemed 
 beneath a free-born citizen ; slaves precluded the necessity of 
 hired labor. No remedy remained but a violent and unjust 
 one. 
 
 B. c. When the treasures of Attains came to the Romans, Tib. 
 
 132 Sempronius Gracchus, nephew to Scipio, one of the tribunes 
 of the people, proposed that they should be divided among the 
 people.. This was unjust ; for, since the conquest of Macedon, 
 the Roman people had been tax-free; and the wealth now 
 brought into the treasury was merely sufficient to enable the 
 government to be carried on without oppressing the provinces. 
 Gracchus farther brought in a law to prevent any citizen 
 whatever from holding more than a certain quantity of land. 
 Gracchus was a man of many noble qualities, but, looking 
 to the end, he was not sufficiently regardful of means. He 
 ejected by force, from the tribuneship, one of his colleagues, 
 who was, in his eyes, too moderate. He then proceeded to 
 require, that civic rights should be communicated to all Ital- 
 ians. The senate and nobles thus saw themselves at once 
 menaced with spoliation of their property, and loss of all influ- 
 ence, by the admission to the legislature of such a multitude, 
 •who might be swayed to the most ruinous resolutions. They 
 resolved to resist; Scipio Nasica, a man of the purest virtue, 
 placed himself on the steps ascending to the Capitol, and 
 called on every one who valued his country to come to him. 
 The senate, all the principal citizens, the knights, and a con- 
 siderable portion of the people, ranged themselves on his side. 
 A tumult arose, in which Tib. Gracchus lost his life, and blood 
 was shed in civil contention for the first time since the enact- 
 ment of the Twelve Tables. 
 22 Ten years after the death of Tib. Gracchus, his brother 
 Caius, a man of genius and eloquence superior t o his, renewed 
 bis plans. He proposed, that, in conformity with the Li- 
 cinian law,* no citizen should hold more than five hundi-ed 
 
 * See p. 72. It is almost needless to observe, that the Licinian law related 
 only to possession in tlie public land. It set no limit to the acquisition of 
 landed or any other species oi ■property.
 
 :.!'iil,!|'lf 
 
 
 
 • filiiilil'i, --M 
 
 m i .ill. 
 
 liifii 
 
 ;G' IT'*,,,.* ■-?/. 
 
 J-'l-^',r;li!|J::i;';:i;i •>-■ 
 
 •'.;,t'-:i;iii;~i;:;!jiS'i 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 us 
 
 IB 
 < 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 IB
 
 CHAP. VIII ROME TILL THE END OF THE REPUBLIC. 125 
 
 jugera of land ; that all Cisalpine Gaul should be reckoned 
 part of Italy, und have the same rights ; that corn should be 
 sold to the people at an extremely low price ; that six hundred 
 knights should be admitted into the senate ; that the right of 
 sitting as judges should be taken from the latter and trans- 
 ferred to the knights. It is difficult to conceive how the 
 plain consequences of such measures could have escaped tlie 
 penetration of a man of the genius of C. Gracchus. His views 
 may have been personal ; he may have been led away by pas- 
 sion ; possibly he was only attempting a desperate remedy 
 for an evil that was inevitable — the corruption and debase- 
 ment of the Roman people. 
 
 His plans seemed calculated to engage the knights, the 
 people, and all Italy, in his favor ; yet he met with little sup- 
 port The consul, Opimius, his personal enemy, set a price 
 on his head ; the knights, and even Latium, and the allied 
 towns, declared for maintaining the constitution. Cams 
 Gracchus also lost his life, and his fate was shared by three 
 thousand of his adherents. 
 
 Jugurthine War — Cimbric War. 
 
 Micipsa, son of Masinissa, king of Numidia, when dying, 
 left his- kingdom to his sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, and to 
 his nephew, Jugurtha. The latter murdered his cousins, and 
 seized on the whole kingdom. War was declared against 
 him by the Romans. At Rome, whither he had come, during 
 the lifetime of Adherbal, on the summons of the senate, he 
 bribed to a great extent; and having become convinced that 
 every one there had his price, the conduct of the first gene- 
 rals sent agamst him confirmed him in his belief But, at last, 
 the command was conferred on Metullus, a man of noble birth. 
 The arts of Jugurtha failed against him ; he had reduced the 
 Numidian to the last extremity, when party-spirit at home 
 transferred the consulate, and the glory of terminating the 
 war, to his lieutenant Marius, a man of mean extraction, son 
 ')f a peasant of Arpinum. Jugurtha was led in triumph, and 
 then starved to deatii in prison. 
 
 Now began those irruptions of the northern nations, which b. c 
 were destined, at length, to overturn the empire of Rome. 106 
 The Romans had already made themselves masters of the 
 principal passes of the Alps; a Roman province extended 
 from the foe of the Alps to that of the Pyrenees; the Allo- 
 broges and the Arvemi, nations inhabiting the present Savoy, 
 Dauphine, and Auvergne, had been reduced. While the arms 
 of Rome were employed against Numidia, northern tribes, 
 named Cimbri, Teutones, Ambrones, and Tigurini, laid vnate 
 11*
 
 126 mSXORY OF THE WORLD. PART 1. 
 
 the banks of the Danube, and Gaul. They were encountered 
 by the Roman legions under the consul Carbo. The Roman 
 arms met a defeat Armies commanded by Silanus, Scaurus, 
 and Cassius, shared a similar fate. Caepio and Manlius were 
 overthrown with prodigious slaughter ; and Italy trembled a» 
 in the days of Annibal. 
 
 Rome's only hope lay in Marius : he was chosen consul 
 
 He marched in person against the Teutones who were in 
 
 Gaul ; his colleague, Catulus, went against the Cimbri, who 
 
 B. c. were entering Italy by the Rhaetian Alps. Marius encoun 
 
 '03. tered and defeated the Teutones with tremendous slaughtei 
 
 at Aquae Sextiae (Aix), and then marched to the assistance 
 
 of his colleague. At Vercellae, on the Athesis, the combined 
 
 Roman armies engaged the wild hordes of the Cimbri. Thi 
 
 conflict was long and bloody. Victory declared for Rome, 
 
 140,000 Cimbri lay on the plain, numerous prisoners wer* 
 
 02. taken and sold for slaves, and the consuls entered Rome i« 
 
 triumph. 
 
 State of Rome — Social or Marsian War. 
 
 The demagogues were now dominant at Rome. They had 
 made Marius consul in opposition to the noble Metellus. 
 Marius allied himself closely with the tribune Sfaturnius, 
 who had murdered his competitor on the day of election 
 Metellus, fearing for his life, quitted Rome. The hopes of 
 the nobles were in Memmius : a tribune of the people mur- 
 dered him on the day of consular election. Marius, however, 
 took the side of justice, and the tribune was torn to pieces 
 Such was the state of Rome : no man's life was safe who op- 
 posed the demagogues. In the provinces matters were not 
 much better. The knights, who now formed a distinct order 
 in the state, were in number 3900 : since the time of C. 
 Gracchus, they had exercised the judicial power. They, 
 moreover, farmed the revenues of the provinces, and extorted 
 and oppressed the people in the most nefarious manner, while 
 no redress could be obtained, as it was to themselves, in their 
 capacity of judges, that all appeals for justice lay. 
 
 A private quarrel between Caepio and Drusus brought the 
 senate and the knights into conflict. The knights warmly 
 espoused the cause of the former. Drusus saw the necessity 
 of endeavoring to deprive them of their power, and of re- 
 storing the constitution. It was of importance to gain the 
 people to his side ; he proposed the formation of new colonies, 
 the division of some districts. The morals of Drusus were 
 pure, his views were noble : but the senate, for whose ad- 
 trantage he was laboring, dia not comprehend his object, and
 
 CHAP. VIII. ROME TILL THE END OP THE REPUBLIC. 127 
 
 opposed him. Finding senate and knights united against him, 
 he saw tliat he must look abroad for support. He promised 
 the freedom of tlie city to all Italy ; he brought in a law for 
 the assignment of lands, another to regulate the price of 
 com, and a third to divide the judicial power between the 
 senate and the knights. As he was returning home, attended 
 by an immense concourse of people, lie was stabbed by an 
 unknown hand. 
 
 The Italians came to Rome to claim their civic rights. 
 They had been a chief mean of extending the dominion of 
 the city, as their contingents had always far out-numbered 
 the legions: tliey deemed it, therefore, but just they should 
 share in its advantages. Their desire was haughtily rejected. 
 Seeing they had no hopes from the justice and generosity of „. 
 Rome, they resolved to become independent of her. An e.\- 'J: 
 tensive confederacy was formed among the nations of Um- 
 brian and Sabellian race, which was afterwards joined by the 
 people of Tuscany, Campania, and Calabria. War was de- 
 clared against Rome. Corfinium was made their capital. 
 Large armies were sent against the confederates : the Roman 
 generals were defeated. Never was a war more obstinate 
 or more bloody. The greatest generals of Rome were sent 
 against the enemy : victory and defeat alternated. Cruelties 
 and massacies of the most barbarous character w^re exer- 
 cised. Tie war, which cost the lives of 300,000 men, was 
 only ended by a concession which, in the first instance, would 
 have prevented it. One by one the allies were granted ftdl 
 civic rights, and all Italians became citizens of Rqfne. 81 
 
 Miihri<Jatic and Civil Wars. 
 
 Mithridates VJI., king "f Pontus,* the ablest and most 
 powerful enemy Rome ever encountered, now appears as her 
 opjionent. This monarch was respected and admired for his 
 great gifts of mind, and he iiad an army habituated, in its 
 conflicts with tlie nations round the Euxine, to privation and 
 danger. 
 
 Just as the Romans were terminating the Social War, in- 
 telligence arrived of the massacre, in one day, of 80,000 
 Roman citizens, resident in the towns of Lesser Asia. The 
 Roman army in that country was unable to stand before the 
 troops of Mithridates; its generals were taken and put to 
 death with insult. The isles of the TEgean and Greece it» 
 ■plf were reduced by the Pontic monarch. 
 
 L. Sulla, a member of a reduced patrician family, had beei 
 
 * See p. 54.
 
 128 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. 
 
 the lieutenant, and was now the rival, of Marius. He was 
 besieging the city of Nola, one of those of the allies, when 
 he was appointed to conduct the war against Mithridates. 
 Marius, though now seventy years old, could not endure that 
 his rival should have this honor. He had the decree recalled, 
 and himself appointed. Sulla, on receiving this intelligence, 
 broke up from before Nola, and, for the first time, a Roman 
 army marched against the city. At the head of 26,000 men 
 he entered Rome, which he had called for torches to set fire 
 to. Marius was forced to fly ; ho, his son, and ten of his 
 adherents were, by orders of Sulla, declared public enemies. 
 Marius concealed himself in the Minturnian marsh, but was 
 taken and thrown into prison at Minturnum. A Cimbrian 
 slave was sent to put him to death ; but, terrified at the look 
 and the voice of the conqueror of his countrymen, he cast 
 down his weapon and fled. Marius escaped to Africa. 
 
 Sulla hastened over to Greece, all of which submitted tc 
 him. Athens alone shut her gates, and was gallantly de- 
 fended by Archelaus, Mithridates's general : he, however, 
 soon retreated to Boeotia, and an engagement took place near 
 Chseronea, in which the Pontic troops were totally defeated. 
 Another battle followed at Orchomenus, in Thessaly, equally 
 fatal to the interests of Mithridates, who now sued for peace , 
 and Sulla, who, in consequence of tidings from Italy, was in 
 haste to return thither, readily consented, promising to secure 
 Mithridates in his paternal dominions, and have him entitled 
 a friend and ally of Rome, that monarch agreeing to surren- 
 der Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia. 
 
 Sulla had left the consulate in the hands of Octavius and 
 Cinna. The latter introduced confusion anew into the city: 
 he was expelled by his colleague : he collected an army, and 
 menaced the senate. Eight new tribes had been formed out 
 of the citizens of such towns as had abandoned the Marsian 
 league, and Cinna, by promising to distribute them into the 
 old tribes, so that these should have no pre-eminence, soon 
 saw himself at the head of a numerous army. To strengthen 
 himself still more, he recalled Marius, and various motives 
 armed almost all Italy in favor of the veteran general. The 
 army of the elder Pompeius was defeated near the gates of 
 Rome. Marius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius entered the city. 
 The consul Octavius still defended the Vatican hill ; but his 
 head was soon seen borne on a spear through the streets. 
 Marius then issued his orders for the slaughter of the prin- 
 cipal senators : some were slain in their own houses, some 
 betrayed by their clients. The high-priest of Jupiter was 
 slaughtc-ed at the altar of his goo. Catulus, the colleague

 
 CHAP. VIII. ROME TILL THE END OF THE REPUBLIC. 131 
 
 of Marius in the Cimbric war, was compelled to be his own 
 destroyer. The head of Antonius, the great orator, waa 
 brought to Marius as he sat at supper : he t«»ok and handled 
 it, and embraced with joy the murderer. Having thus, witli 
 tiger-ferocity, glutted his vengeance and made himself with 
 Cinna consul for the seventh time, he expired in the 70th b 
 year of his age, fortunate in thus escaping the vengeance of 8: 
 his rival. 
 
 Sulla, having ended the Mithridatic war, was now return- 
 ing home in triumph. He landed in Apulia, and marched 
 his troops with good order and discipline towards Rome. He 
 was met by the flying consulars, and professed his intention 
 to restore the senate to their legal rights. Cinna led an 
 army against him, but was slain in an uproar by his own sol- 
 diers. Sulla overthrew the army of Norbanus, near Capua : 
 the army of L. Scipio went over to him. Cneius Pompeius 
 joined him with his father's clients. One of his officers gained 
 possession of Sardinia. The Marian praetor of Africa was in 
 an insurrection burnt in his own house. Meanwhile, at the 
 desire of the younger Marius, the praetor Damasippus assem- 
 bled the senate of Rome to make proposals of peace. All the 
 citizens of rank then in Rome met in the Hostilian curia. 
 The Marians fell upon and slaughtered the whole assembly ; 
 no age, or station, or place, was sacred : the chief pontiff" 
 ScoBvola fell in presence of the holy fire of Vesta. 
 
 Sulla entered Rome : his entrance was the signal for the 
 slaughter of all the Marian party, of all whom he himself or 
 any of his partisans hated. That the slaughter might pro- 
 ceed regularly, proscription-tables were now introduced into 
 Rome: these presented to view the names of at first 80, then 
 500 men of rank, whose murder was enjouied, and whose 
 murderers were to be rewarded by the possession of their es- 
 tates, while their children were to lose all claims to public 
 office. Wealth soon became crime, where murder was gain. 
 Blood had flowed in the days of Marius ; it now streamed. 
 Eight thousand of the Marian party had surrendered : by 
 order of Sulla, they were massacred near the senate-house. 
 The cries of the victims were so loud, that the senate could 
 not go on with their deliberationa "They are only," sajd 
 Sulla, " some wrretches who are punished for their crimes." 
 
 Young Marius defended Pra;neste with a heroism worthy 
 of his father. His brother, the praetor, was put to death with 
 wanton barbarity, and his head flung over the walls into Pr»- 
 neste. Marms and a friend voluntarily slew each other : the 
 town was taken, and its defenders put to the sword. CneiuB 
 Pompeius defeated the consul Carbo in Sicily. Norbanus wa*
 
 132 HISTORY OF TUB WORLD. PART I 
 
 driven to suicide in Rhodes. The sole authority of Sulla waa 
 undisputed, save in Spain : he exercised it with ruthless 
 atrocity. One of his most zealous adherents, the preetor 
 Ofella, who had taken Prsneste, venturing to stand for the 
 consulship without the permission of Sulla, was slain in the 
 forum by his command. When the people testified marks of 
 indignation, he stepped forward and merely said, " I ordered 
 . it" The proscription still raged ; wives shut the doors agains 
 their own husbands ; children slew their own fathers : deat 
 was the only refuge from cruelty. 
 
 The war between Marius and Sulla cost the lives of 'i'S 
 consulars, 7 praetors, 60 sediles, 200 senators, and 150,000 
 Roman citizens, and thousands v\ ere stript of their paternal 
 possessions, and driven forth to wander in misery. Sulla di- 
 vided among his legions the lands and properties of the Ma- 
 rians: he renewed and made perpetual in his own person the 
 dictatorship, now out of use 120 years ; sought to bring back 
 the republic to its old form, when all power lay with the pa- 
 tricians ; deprived the tribunes of the people of the right of 
 proposing laws, completed the reduced senate from the eques- 
 trian order, increased, for the advantage of his friends, the 
 colleges of pontiffs and augurs. Suddenly, in the very pleni- 
 tude of his power, he abdicated it, and retired into private 
 g. (, life. He resigned himself undisturbed to mental and sensual 
 75. enjoyments, employing his leisure in writing the history of 
 his own life. He died just as he had completed the 22d book. 
 His resignation of power is an act almost unexampled : it 
 gives a strong idea of the man and the times, thus to behold 
 him, who had made blood run like water, passing his latter 
 days in tranquillity at PuteolL 
 
 From the Death of Sulla to that of Mithridntes. 
 
 Sertorius, one of the Marian party, had retired to Spain : 
 he put himself at the head of the Lusitanians, whose respect and 
 affections he had gained, established among them a miniature 
 of the Roman republic, and during eighteen years defeated 
 every army sent against him by the Romans. Neither Me- 
 tellus nor Pompeius availed to subdue him ; treachery alone 
 could free Rome from this enemy. Perpenna, one of his offi- 
 ^ cers, conspired against hun, and slew him at a banquet. 
 
 While Sertorius maintained himself in Spain, a furiou 
 war raged in the south of Italy. A few gladiators broke ou 
 of their school at Capua ; their leader was Spartacus, a Thra 
 cian by birth ; slaves, pirates, peasants, flocked to them ; they 
 soon increased to such a number as to be formidable to Rome. 
 Consular armies were sent against them withe ut success,
 
 CHAP. VIII. ROME TILL THE END OF THE REPUBLIC. 133 
 
 four Roman armies were defeated by the gladiator. At length 
 Cracsus was sent to oppose him ; victory was long dubioua, 
 but finally declared for Rome. The whole of the rebel army 
 was cut to pieces or dispersed : its leader fell on heaps of 
 slaughtered Romans. The bodies of 40,000 rebels lav on the 
 field. ^ 
 
 At this period arose in Lesser Asia a pirate-society, re- 
 sembling the buccaneers of modem times. Cilicians, fsauri- 
 ans, and people of other Asiatic regions, engaged in piracy 
 on an extensive scale : their ships swarmed in tlie Mediter- 
 ranean ; the coasts of Italy were infested by them. No Ro- 
 man was safe at his country-seat ; no magistrate on his jour- 
 ney. They ventured even to attack the Roman legions, put 
 a stop to foreign commerce, and reduced Rome to danger of 
 famine, by intercepting the supplies of corn. Several Ro- 
 man commanders were sent against them ; they were beaten, 
 but not conquered. At last Cneius Pompeius was intrusted 
 with the conduct of the war, and with unlimited power over 
 the Mediterranean and its coasts. He swept the sea of them 
 in the short space of forty days, pursued them to their re- 
 treats, forced them to submit, and transported them far inland 
 into the continent. ^ 
 
 During the lifetime of Sulla, a second war had broken out 
 with Mithridates, and been terminated to the advantage of 
 Rome. When Nicomedes of Bithynia bequeathed his king- 
 dom to the Romans, Mithridates disputed their right to it, and 
 entered it with a large army. The command of the Roman 
 army was intrusted to Lucullus, a man long retired from 
 military affairs, and devoted to the arts of peace. He is said 
 to have acquired his knowledge of this war, and the mode of 
 conducting it, from books and conversation on his way to Asia. 
 His deeds prove that a mind used to thinking can soon mas- 
 ter any difficulties. The war was a constant succession of 
 victories on the side of the Romans. Mithridates was forced 
 to apply to Tigranes, king of Armenia. Lucullus, in a bloody 
 battle, overthrew, with hardly any loss on his own side, the 
 troops of Armenia, and made himself master of Tigranocerta, 
 the capital of Tigranes. He now had the full prospect of 
 bringing to a glorious termination the war against one of the 
 ablest enemies Rome had ever encountered, when Pompeius 
 arrived to rob him of the honor. The new general carried 
 on the war with vigor : he reduced Tigranes to sue for peace, 
 and drove Mithridates to take refuge among the wild tribes 
 ncilh cf the Eu.xine. The spirit of the Pontic monarch was 
 not yet broken : he meditated a union of the nations dwelling 
 from the Tanais to the Alps, and of invading Italy at the hear 
 12
 
 134 HISTORI OF THE WOELD. PART 1 
 
 of them. His troops were terrified at his projects ; his son 
 8 c. conspired against him, and Mithridates, justly styled the 
 '>4. Great, died by poison administered by his own iiand, in the 
 72d year of his age. During 25 years he had carried on an 
 obstinate war against Rome, had withstood the fortune of 
 Sulla, the zeal of several consuls, the wisdom of Lucullus, 
 and the rapidity of Pompeius, and was finally overcome only 
 by ingratitude and treason. 
 
 Pompeius deprived Tigranes of Syria, Cilicia, and Phceni- 
 cia, which became subject to Rome. He marched southwards, 
 and reduced Judaea. All Asia bemg now subdued, he re- 
 turned to Italy, where he disbanded his troops on landmg, to 
 quiet the apprehensions of the people. He was honored with 
 a splendid triumph, and he brought into the public treasury 
 a sum of 20,000 talents. 
 
 Catiline's Conspiracy. 
 While Pompeius was absent in the East, Rome ran immi- 
 nent risk of seeing days worse than those of Marius and 
 Sulla, and crimes of equal or greater enormity perpetrated 
 L. Sergius Catilma, a man of patrician extraction, but of 
 profligate manners and ruined fortunes, conceived hopes of 
 bemg able to overthrow the constitution. Several men of 
 high rank were concerned in this conspiracy. Catiline stood 
 for the consulship, but faUed, M. TuUius Cicero, the illustri- 
 ous orator, bemg chosen. His designs bemg discovered, he 
 became desperate, and resolved on the murder of the consul 
 and the principal senators, and setting fire to the city; but 
 information of all his projects was given to the consul, and 
 Catiline was at length obliged to leave Rome, and put him- 
 eelf at the head of such forces as he had been able to brmg 
 together. His accomplices at Rome were meanwhile dis- 
 covered and executed, and he himself engaging with the 
 army sent agamst hun, fought and feU with a heroism worthy 
 *3. of a better cause. 
 
 The Gallic War of Ccesar. 
 At this period the leading men in Rome were Pompeius, 
 named the Great, and flushed with his victories; Crassus, 
 distino-uished for his riches, and the conqueror of Spartacus: 
 Cfesar, a man of noble birth, distinguished talents, ruined for- 
 tune, and now father-in-law of Pompeius ; Cato, of pre-emi- 
 nenl virtue, unstained character, and only to be blamed (if 
 blame could atlacli to sucn a principle) for not being able to 
 accoimnodate himself to the manners of the Umes, and of 
 thus bemg unable to render more real service to his country
 
 B-oTTisn cois. 
 
 conr OS erbeet- 
 
 COIir 0? ETHELBEET. 
 
 COIK OB AlPEEDr 
 
 COIH OP •THELSTAN. 
 
 COIIT OB ■WILLIAil I. 
 
 COIB ov HENET ABD srErnEir. 
 
 OOIIf OB IIESET U.
 
 CHAP. VIII. ROMV TILL THE END OP THE REPUBLIC. 137 
 
 and, lastly, Cicero, the crusher of the projects of Catiline, 
 the ablest orator, the most accomplished and virtuous states- 
 man, only unhappy in a want of firmness and decision of 
 character. 
 
 The ambilion of the three former could not be restrained 
 by the virtue and moderation of the two last Already Cesar 
 and Crassus had been more than suspected of being privy to 
 the plans of Catiline, trusting that, through their superior 
 character, talents, and influence, they might bo able to seize 
 on the supreme power, when his ruthless ferocity had re- 
 moved all obstacles and all competitors. CiEsar had been 
 afterwards prtetor in Spain, and had there repaired his dilapi- 
 dated fortune. On his return to Rome he had been made 
 consul, and while in office he caused several laws to be passed, 
 which gratified and increased his influence with Pompeius, 
 the knights, and the people. He took occasion to reconcile 
 Pompeius, who was married to his daughter, with Crassus, 
 whose wealth gave him great power with the people, and the 
 three formed among themselves that coalition or secret com- 
 pact of mutual support and mutual regard to each other's in- 
 terest, known under the name of the Triumvirate. 
 
 CfiBsar, on the expiration of his consulate, had himself ap- 
 pointed for five years to the government of the Gauls. Cisal- 
 pine Gaul had long been a part of Italy. The Romans had 
 first entered Transalpine Gaul, B. C. 123., and shortly after 
 reduced the south-eastern part of it to the form of a province. 
 
 Gaul was divided into a number of independent states, 
 some ot a more, some of a less warlike character. The most 
 powerful race were the Belgians, who dwelt from the Alps 
 northwards to the sea, mingled witla tribes of Germanic race. 
 The Helvetii, a portion of these, dwelling at the foot of b. c 
 Mount Jura, gave the Roman governor the wished-for oppor- 57 
 tunity of increasing his military fame and power, and of 
 securing the tranquillity of Italy. United with several Ger- 
 man tribes, they set fire to their dwellings, and in an im- 
 mense body set forth to pass the Jura in search of more 
 smiling lands. Caesar hastened to Geneva, pursued them, 
 and brought them to an engagement, in which Roman tactics 
 and discipline speedily triumphed over ignorant courage. He 
 followed their enfeebled forces, and compelled them to sur- 
 render. They were received as allies, and a colony was 
 placed, for future security, at the principal pass of Jura. 
 
 In some parts of Gaul conrcc!eracies were formed against 
 the Romans, in others oppressed states called on Cnsar for 
 protection : one after anotner the confederacies and tlie sUites 
 fell before his genius. Uurmg a command of ten years (lor 
 12*
 
 138 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 bj tJie influence of Pompeius. it nad been prolonged) he re- 
 duced the entire of Gaul, crossed the Rhine, carried the arms 
 of Rome into tiie gloom of the Hercynian forest, and passed 
 the channel which divides from the continent the island of 
 Britain, hitherto known only by name to the mhabitants of 
 Italy. 
 
 Each day filled Rome with wonder by the mtelligence 
 that arrived of the victories of Csesar in Gaul. His influence 
 and the number of his partisans in Rome were great. He 
 aided Pompeius and Crassus to get the consulate: he was 
 continued in his Gallic command. Pompeius took Africa and 
 Spain as his province ; Crassus preferred the wealthy, luxu- 
 rious Syria. Pompeius remained at Rome, and administered 
 his provinces by lieutenants. Crassus hastened to Asia, where 
 the Parthians were now in arms against the republic. He 
 marched against them, crossed the Euphrates, and was near 
 Carrhse defeated with great loss by Surena, the Parthian 
 c. commander. He surrendered, and was put to death, and his 
 64. skull filled with molten gold as a reproach of his avarice. 
 
 Julia, the wife of Pompeius, was also dead; the bonds 
 which had kept the two most powerful and ambitious men of 
 Rome from discord were now both removed. Pompeius could 
 not endure a rival, Ctesar a superior. All prudent men saw 
 that the sword must be the arbiter. The nobility all looked 
 up to Pompeius as the chief support of the aristocracy. He 
 was appointed consul without a colleague. He remained still 
 at Rome ; and the troops in his province were commanded by 
 able and faithful officers. He sought to have the dictatorship 
 renewed in his person. Csesar and his friends required tliat 
 he should be nominated consul in his absence, as more ex- 
 traordinary transgressions of usage had been done in the case 
 of Pompeius. Ceesar having now completed the conquest of 
 Gaul, and thus established a frontier against the Germans, the 
 people whom Italy had now most to dread, was meanwhile 
 returning to Rome. All the towns of the province of Cisal- 
 pine Gaul vied in rendering honors and hospitality to the 
 amiable conqueror and tranquillizer of Gaul. Pompeius sent 
 to demand of Ceesar that he should give up two legions which 
 he had lent him : they were given up. The senate then de- 
 creed that Cffisar should disband his legions, and seek the 
 consulate like any other private man. The heads of the state 
 and senate, from various motives, concurred in this decree. 
 Cato, who never looked to expediency, but to right, supported 
 it. Cicero in vain sought to mediato. Curio, a man of talent 
 and eloquence, but profligate morals, and M. Antonius, his 
 colleague in the tribunate, whose character resembled his, but
 
 GHAP, VIM. EOME TILL THE END OF TirE REPUBLIC. 139 
 
 who excellod him in military skill, were zealous partisans of 
 Ceesar. All the other public officers were on the side of 
 Pompeius, who maintained tliat the army was averse to Ciesar, 
 and reckoned himself certain of the attachment of ten legions. 
 Without waiting for the declaration of Caesar, the senate, in 
 an evil hour for them, issued their decree, that all the mem- 
 bers of the executive should exert themselves for the defence 
 of the republic, that troops should be raised, and Cn. Pom- 
 peius supported out of the public treasury. Meantime Caesar's 
 answer arrived, offering to disband his army, all but one 
 legion, and to come and seek the consulate as a private citi- 
 zen ; but even his presence was dreaded in Rome. When 
 the news reached Caesar, he had but five cohorts with him ; 
 the rest of his troops were dispersed in numerous towns. He 
 was near Rimini, on the banks of a little stream called the 
 Rubicon, where Proper Italy was considered to end, and 
 which no general could venture to pass without permission 
 of the senate, under penalty of being declared a public 
 enemy. It was a moment of importance, not to Csesar only, 
 but to the future world. Should he submit, or should he lead 
 his army against Rome, against his country ] On horseback, 
 in the open air, Ctesar all night long pondered this weighty 
 question. At daybreak, his anxious soldiers found him still 
 riding to and fro, deep sunk in thought. At length he cried 
 " The die is cast," gave his horse the spurs, and sprang across 
 the stream, followed by his troops. 
 
 Civil War of CcBsar and Pompeius. 
 
 All the towns of Italy opened their gates to Caesar as he 
 approached them ; the garrisons all joined his standard. Cor- 
 finium alone resisted ; but its garrison also passed over to 
 Caesar, and Domitius, its governor, and his officers, entered 
 Lhe camp of the conqueror as captives, and experienced only 
 clemency. On receiving intelligence of the approach of 
 Caesar, Pompeius, Cicero, Cato, the consuls, and the senate 
 abandoned Rome in haste, and fled to Capua. Caesar still ad- 
 vanced, making every day proposals of peace. When he 
 drew near to Brundusium, Pompeius and his friends passed 
 over to Greece : he marched to Rome, assembled the senate 
 and people, and declared tliat he was driven by the conduct 
 of his enemies to act as he was doing. Then knowing that 
 the main strength of Pompeius lay in the army in Spain, com- 
 manded by Afranius and Petreius, he resolved to march against 
 it without delay. He took money out of the treasury, and 
 set out for Spain. Massilia opposed his passage, but soon was 
 forced to open her gates. The obstacles presented by the
 
 140 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I, 
 
 rivers and mountains of Spain were surmounted by the genius 
 of Cffisar. The Pompeian generals, notwithstanding their 
 advantageous positicn, were forced to surrender llieniseives 
 and their armies, without fighting a single battle. Having 
 conquered the army, he hastened to engage the general, 
 passed rapidly through Gaul and Italy, embarked at Brundu- 
 sium, and landed his troops at Dyrrhacliium. 
 
 Pompeius had summoned to his standard the troops of the 
 kings of the East, whom he had formerly vanquished; (Jreece 
 and Africa contributed to augment his forces; the majesty of 
 the senate was in his camp ; he himself called back the vig()r. 
 energy, and skill of his younger days. But he was not allowed 
 to follow the dictates of his wisdom and experience ; his cause 
 was regarded as that of the republic; and each unwarlike 
 senator fancied he had a right to blame and reproach the in- 
 activity of the general. The army of Cffisar was less nu- 
 merous, but better composed ; his plans were controlled by 
 none ; his soldiers placed implicit confidence in his talents and 
 fortune. 
 
 The judicious plan adopted by Pompeius was to protract 
 the war, to weary out and exhaust by delay his adversary. 
 The taunts of his associates mdiiced him to quit his fortified 
 camp. Instead of returning to Italy, where the name of the 
 republic might have operated powerfully in his favor, he de- 
 scended into the plains of Thessaly. He drew up his forces 
 near Pharsalus. The Csesarians fell on with rapidity sword 
 in hand. The cavalry on one of the wings of the Pompeians 
 pursued a body of Caesarian cavalry, who had fled ; they 
 passed the three ordinary ranks of a Roman army, when, to 
 their surprise, they encountered a fourth : without a moment's 
 deliberation, they fled to the neighboring heights. The op- 
 posite Cffisarian wing attacked that which was now denuded 
 of its horse ; the three ranks of the Caesarian army fell into 
 one ; the Pompeians could not resist the shock ; they gave 
 way; Pompeius fled, and the day was irrecoverably lost. 
 Caesar, with his usual humanity, rode through the field, call- 
 ing on liis men to spare the Roman citizens. All the letter.^ 
 and papers he found in the tent of Pompeius he committed 
 to the flames, without reading them. Next day the rest of 
 the Pompeian army surrendered. Cato, not yet despairing 
 of the fortune of the republic, passed over to Corcyra, and 
 thence to Africa, to renew the conflict now, not for Pompeius, 
 but for the laws and constitution. 
 
 Pompeius fled to the sea, and embarked for Lesbos, where 
 his wife, Cornelia, was awaiting the event of the war. The 
 maxims o*^ philosophy which he had always cultivated, were
 
 / - O C-- 
 
 THE MESSENGER OF Till: ARVERNI SENT TO THE ROMAN CAMP.
 
 o 
 
 s
 
 ^HAP. VIII. ROME TILL THE END OF THE REPUBLIC. 143 
 
 now his consolation. In doubt whether he had better Kx)k to 
 the Parthians, to Juba, king of Numidia, or to Ptolemy of 
 Egypt tor support, he preferred the last, whose father his 
 power had reatared to his throne. He sailed for Egypt the 
 ministers of the feeble young monarch dreaded his arrival ; 
 and by their treacherous contrivance, the great Roman w:is b. c 
 murdered in sight of his wife, and his naked body cast on the 49, 
 strand, where it was indebted for funeral honors to the grati- 
 tude and humanity of an old Roman soldier. Cffisar, who 
 speedily arrived in Egypt, shed tears over the head of his 
 rival which was presented to him. 
 
 Events till the Death of Ccesar. 
 
 The charms of Cleopatra, the fair queen of Egypt, detained 
 Caesar in Alexandria. In a tumult, excited by his partiality 
 for that princess against her brother, he narrowly escaped 
 death by throwing himself into the sea, and swimming to a 
 ship. A battle soon after took place ; the Egyptians were 
 worsted, and Ptolemy lost his life in the waters. Cssar be- 
 stowed the entire kingdom upon Cleopatra, who had two chil- 
 dren by him. 
 
 From Egypt Csesar proceeded to Lesser Asia against Phar- 
 naces king of Pontus, probably to give the Pompeiaiis an op- 
 portunity of drawing together all their forces. Veni, vidi, 
 vici was his account to the senate of the war against the 
 Pontic prince. He soon made his appearance in Africa, and 
 defeated all the armies opposed to him. Cato, no longer con- 
 fiding in the republic, slew himself at Utica : his example 
 was followed by Scipio, who had commanded the army. Juba i 
 and Petreius slew each other after supper. 
 
 The other Pompeian commanders retired to Spain. At 
 Munda the two sons of Pompeius gave battle to Cajsar, who 
 never ran greater risk of seeing fortune desert him. Despe- 
 rate effort gained him the victory, and one of the sons of 
 Pompeius remained slain on the field. The Pompeian party 
 was now completely crushed ; all opposition to Ca;sar was 
 at an end. He returned to Rome, and triumphed over ail 
 the countries he had subdued. He vv;is entitled father of 
 his country, and made dictator for life. Mild and clement, 
 lie persecuted none ; and Rome, beneath his sway, was en- 
 joying tranquillity. As high pontiff, he undertook and ac- 
 complished the reformation of the calendar, and formed the 
 plan of a new legal code. Employment being necessary for 
 tlie legions, war was meditated against the Parthians, to 
 avenge the death of Crassus, or against tlie people on tlie 
 coasts of the Black Sea.
 
 a 
 
 144 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I 
 
 In her present state of corruption, the government of such 
 a man as Ccesar was the greatest blessing that could befal 
 Rome. The virtues requisite in a republic were no longer 
 to be found in her ; it was now her destiny to receive a mas- 
 ter, and the world could not match the man into whose hands 
 the power had fallen. But the old Roman sentiments still 
 smouldered in some bosoms ; the lessons and acts of Cato 
 were still remembered with approbation; and a conspiracy 
 was formed, in which some of the noblest and most virtuous 
 men of Rome took part. Men who owed their lives to his 
 clemency, their fortunes to his favor, impelled by a false idea 
 of patriotism and public virtue, armed their hands against 
 c him ; and on the ides of March, in the 708th year of Rtnae 
 '•^- Caesar fell in the senate-house, pierced by three-and-twenty 
 wounds. 
 
 Civil War with Brutus and Cassius. 
 
 The two principal of the conspirators were Brutus and 
 Cassius. Of tlie purity of their motives, especially of those 
 of the former, there can be little doubt: the wisdom of them 
 is more questionable. They removed a mild despot; they 
 brought back on their country the days of Marius and Sulla. 
 
 Cicero sought to establish concord by making the senate 
 ratify all the acts of Caesar, by bringing in an amnesty, and 
 by sending the conspirators away to their respective prov- 
 inces. But Marcus Antonius had, by a culpable lenity of the 
 conspiratfjrs, been spared, and he now aimed at establishing 
 his own power amidst the general confusion. Against him 
 Cicero and the senate found it necessary to set up the young 
 Octavianus, the nephew and adopted son of Ctesar. Anto- 
 nius began the war by attempting to drive Decimus Brutus, 
 one of the conspirators, out of his province of Cisalpine Gaul, 
 He besieged him in Mutina. The consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, 
 marched to the relief of Brutus ; Octavianus joined them, 
 and Antonius was forced to fly into Transalpine Gaul. The 
 two consuls fell before Mutina, not without suspicion of 
 treachery on the part of Octavianus, whose dissimulation and 
 want of moral principle early began to display themselves. 
 But the senate dreamed, that they would find no difficulty in 
 keeping hun down, if by his means they could get rid of 
 Antonius 
 
 Lepidus and Plancus commanded armies in GauL Anto- 
 nius gained them over to his side. He wrote to Octavianus, 
 who, though appointed consul in the room of Pansa, was now 
 every day on worse and worse terms with the senate, to show 
 him that it would be more for his advantage to join him. A
 
 OHAP. VIII. ROME TILL THE END OP THE REPUBLIC. 14? 
 
 meetino- was held between tlie two and I.epidus, in a little ^ g 
 island formed by two streams, near the i.;odern Bolog'na, and 43 
 a second triumvirate, of a far more odious character than the 
 former, was agreed on. Tables of proscription were drawn 
 up, containing the names of 300 senators, 2000 knights, and 
 many other distinguished citizens. All ties of friendship and 
 kindred were postponed to the gratification of ambition and 
 revenge. In the fatal list were L. Caesar, the uncle ot Anto- 
 nius; Paulus, the brother of Lepidus; and Cicero, the friend 
 and supporter of Octavianus. A man whose life and honor 
 •^had once defended was base and ungrateful enough to be 
 the murderer of the grea. orator ; his head was brought to 
 Fulvia, the widow of Clodius and wife of Antonius; and witli 
 the mean revenge of a profligate woman, she pierced witli 
 her bodkin tiiat tongue which had described in true and lively 
 colors the vices and enormities of her husbands. 
 
 The triumvirs resolved to destroy Cassius, wno governed 
 Syria, and Brutus, who commanded in Macedonia. The united 
 army of the latter amounted to seventeen legions. The ar- 
 mies engaged on the plain of Piiilippi, in Macedonia. Brutus 
 was successful on his side, and took the camp of Octavianus. 43 
 Cassius, who was opposed to Antonius, was not so fortunate. 
 He thought, deceived by his short sight, that all was lost, and 
 slew b jnself. A few days afterwards, Brutus, feeling that 
 the fortune of the republic was gone, followed his example, 
 and many other Romans of noble birth and lofty sentiments 
 disdained to survive Brutus, Cassius, and the republic. 
 
 War between Octavianus and Antonius. 
 
 Sextus Pompeius alone remained to oppose the victors. 
 His power was on the sea, and he long continued to give 
 them uneasiness. Fulvia soon excited disturbance among 
 the triumvirs themselves. Lepidus wavered which side to 
 take ; but Octavianus gained over his legions, and deprived 
 hii 1 of his rank and power. The unfortunate citizens were 
 the victims of these quarrels between their masters. Octa- 
 vianus's forty-seven legions must have lands, and the paternal 
 properties of numerous respectable families were confiscated 
 to gratify their cupidity. 
 
 Antonius was in Asia, Pacorus the Parthian had invaded 
 Uie Roman dominions there, but was repelled by Ventidius. 
 Antonius would avenge the honor of Rome by reciprocal in- 
 vasion. He was ignorant of the nature of the country he en- 
 tered, and was forced to retire with loss. He went to Egypt; 
 and in the arms of Cleopatra ^ibaufloned himself to the licen 
 tiou3 indulgences he delighted in, and ofTended and insulted
 
 148 rasTonY oir the world. pakt l. 
 
 his wily colleague by divorcing his virtuous sister, Octavia. 
 Both sides prepared for war. Octavianus, wliose policy from 
 the commencement had been to identify his own cause and 
 that of the republic, and who, all his life long, affected to 
 govern in the name of the senate, and under the ancient 
 forms, gave out, that he took arms solely to prevent the re- 
 public being subjected to an Egyptian. He proceeded to 
 Greece with eight legions and five cohorts, and he had a fleet 
 of 250 ships. His principal officer was M. Agrippa, a man 
 of experience and ability. The engagement took place oft 
 the cape of Actium in Epirus. Cleopatra was there, and set 
 the example of flight. She was followed by Antonius: the 
 rout was total. Octavianus exercised clemency, and the 
 greater part of the hostile army surrendered. He pursued 
 the love-sick Antonius to Egypt, who, on a false report of the 
 death of Cleopatra, threw himself on his sword ; and the 
 Egyptian queen, having in vain essayed her arts on the cold 
 calculating Octavianus, sooner than be led in chains to adorn 
 the triumph of the victor, and glu*^ '■Hie eyes of the populace 
 of Rome with the sight of the okugnZer and the ^ast of the 
 Ptolemies preceding tlie chariot of the adopted son of him 
 who had done aomage to her charms, gave herself voluntary 
 death by *he oite of an asp, or the prick of a poisoned needle. 
 Egypt, in the 295th year from the death of Alexander the 
 Great, became a Roman province. 
 i c. In the same year, the 479th from the establishment of the 
 29- republic, the 724th from the building of the city, was Csesar 
 Octavianus, now styled Augustus, invested with all the power 
 heretofore exercised by the consuls and tribunes of the peo- 
 ple. He was a monarch, without appearing such. Every 
 tenth year he affected to lay down and again receive his ex- 
 traordinary powers from the senate and people. His sway 
 was mild and beneficent ; stately edifices rose to adorn the 
 city ; public spectacles and abundance of food satisfied the 
 people ; peace was enjoyed by all the empire. The memory 
 of the republic was nearly obliterated ; old men only retained 
 a recollection of its worst period, and shuddered as they called 
 to mind the horrors of the civil wars, and the blood-tiaced 
 tables of proscription. The reign of Augustus was halcyon 
 days after those storms ; but, unhappily for Rome, this state 
 was of no long and steady duration. The government was 
 one of power, not of law ; it was a despotism ; and soon, be- 
 neath the tyranny and caprice of the emperors, even the tur- 
 bulence of the latter days of the republic was looked bick to 
 with a sigh of regret.
 
 CHAP lit. ROME AN fcMPJRB. 151 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 ROME AN EMPIRE. 
 
 Emperors of the Ccesarian Family. 
 
 Among the titles of Augustus was thatof Imperator, whence 
 emperor, a word derived from the ancient language of Italy," 
 and signifying general of an army. It was retained by hi*, 
 successors, as was also that of Caesar, his family name. 
 
 The empire over which Augustus now ruled extended, in 
 Rurope, to the ocean, the Rhine, and the Danube; in Asia, to 
 the Euphrates; in Africa, to Ethiopia and the sandy deserta 
 Its population was estimated at 120 millions. Satisfied with 
 this extent of dominion, Augustus sought not himself to ex- 
 tend it, and advised his successors to be guided by his exam- 
 ple. He therefore abstained from wars, except such on the 
 frontiers as were deemed necessary to keep up the skill and 
 discipline of the legions, and inspire the barbarians with a 
 salutary dread of Rome. In these slight wars the imperial 
 arms were usually successful : one memorable defeat alone is 
 recorded : the legions of Varus were cut to pieces by the 
 German leader, Herman, or Arminius. The praetorian guards, 
 afterwards so fatal to the empire, were instituted by Augua 
 tus to protect his person, and to crush the first germs of re 
 bellion. But he dispersed them tliroiigh Italy, and they kne\' 
 not then their own strength. 
 
 The temple of Janus, to close which in time of peace hor 
 been a ceremony in use from the origin of the state, w&t 
 three times closed during the reign of this pacific prmce. The 
 arts and sciences wliich adorn peace were warmly patronizef 
 by him and his minister the accomplished Mecffina.s. Thf 
 house of Augustus, for he dwelt not in a palace, was the re- 
 ort of the poet and the scholar. The monarch hinibclf wai 
 
 writer, and he enjoyed tlie felicity, rare in his station, ol 
 possessing friends. By the people he was adored as a god. 
 
 Yet the happiness of Augustus was not without alloy. He 
 could not, though he might seek to palliate by the plea of 
 necessity, efface the recollection of the proscription-tables of 
 his younger days, and the base surrender of his friend the 
 virtuous Cicero. The defeat of Varus haunted his dreams by 
 night. He had no male issue to succeed him; he had to 
 mourn over the untimely death of tne promising youth Mar- 
 cellus and of the valiant Drusus ; and the profligacy of hi* 
 
 • Embratur is the term in the Samnite langumf«.
 
 152 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 daughtei Julia, and the insatiable ambition of his wife Livia, 
 D. embittered his declining days. Augustus died at Nola in 
 
 L4. Campania, in the 76th year of his age, having governed Rome 
 with absolute sway during forty-four years. 
 
 In the year of Rome 753, while the world was enjoying 
 peace under Augustus, and the " fullness oi' time" was come, 
 it pleased the Almighty to send forth his Son Jesus Christ, 
 as the announcer of a religion more pure and holy than any 
 he had yet given to man. To relate the circumstances of the 
 life and death of the Son of God (with which every reader 
 must be supposed familiar) would be here superfluous. His 
 religion, though persecuted, gradually spread over the Roman 
 world. Uniiappily, it is in its corrupted state that it becomes 
 a prominent object in history. 
 
 Tiberius, the son of Livia, and stepson of Augustus, was 
 
 ! i- appouited by him to succeed. This prince was now in his 
 55th year. All the bad qualities of his predecessor were 
 united in him ; liis good ones were absent. A dark and 
 crooked policy characterized all his acts : the establishment 
 of perfect despotism, the abolition of all forms of the republic, 
 was his object. Restrained at first by fear of the noble Ger- 
 manicus, when that check was removed by death, not with- 
 out suspicion of poison, he gave a loose to all his cruel and 
 
 11 sensual propensities. In his later years, he retired to the 
 island of Caprea m the bay of Naples, where he wallowed in 
 every species of beastly and sensual gratification. His cruel- 
 ties at Rome were meantime directed by his minister Sejanus, 
 until, grown suspected by his master, he was by his order put 
 to death. Tiberius dying left the world to a monster still 
 more ferocious than himself 
 
 37 Caius Caligula, the son of Germanicus, and grandnephew 
 of Tiberius, displayed tyranny in its most appalling form. 
 His reign commenced with mildness ; but at the end of the 
 first year, after a violent fit of illness, which, perhaps, disor 
 dered his intellect, a cruelty, the most absurd and capricious 
 that can be conceived, commenced. While he meditated 
 raising his horse to the consulship, and fed him out ;f gold, 
 he slaughtered the noblest men of Rome without mercy, 
 drove men in herds before the judgment-seat to receive sen- 
 tence of death, and hunted the spectators of a public show 
 into the waters of the Tiber. Four years the empire groaneo 
 beneath the cruelty of this frantic savage. At length the 
 dagger of Chtereas delivered the world of him. 
 
 On the death of Caius, the senate, detesting the tyranny 
 
 41, of the Cajsars, deliberated on restoring the republic, and 
 abolishing' the imperial power. But ere two days had elapsed
 
 ^f'iiil,
 
 JHAP. DC. ROME AN EMPIRE. 155 
 
 they had to learn, to their mortification, that there was now 
 in existence a power g^reater than theirs or that of the em- 
 perors. Tiberius had collected the prjBtorian guards, a body 
 of 10,000 men, from the quarters in which the policy of Au- 
 gustus had kept them dispersed; and, under pretext of re- 
 fieving Italy and of improving their disciphne, had fixed them 
 in a strongly-fortified camp on the Viminal and Quirinal 
 hills. The guards now first exhibited their power: they 
 proclaimed Claudius, the weak-minded brother of Caius, em- 
 peror, and the senate received with submission their feeble 
 ruler. Not naturally bloody, yet the instrument of women 
 and freedmen, the annals of his reign exhibit thirty-five sen- 
 ators and three hundred knights falling by the hand of the 
 executioner during the thirteen years that he filled the thrune. 
 Claudius was poisoned, to make room for his successor. \. t 
 
 Domitius Nero was the son of Agrippina, and pupil of 54 
 Seneca. The first five years of his reign were mild and just. 
 But his furious passions soon grew impatient of restraint. He 
 put to death his mother, his brother, his tutor; set fire to the 
 city, charged the Christians with the crime, and began the 
 persecution of that sect. He prostituted the dignity of his 
 station, and the majesty of Rome, by appearmg as a singer 
 on the public stage. The patience of mankind could no 
 longer endure this combination of cruelty, insult, debauchery, 
 ami meanness: several conspiracies were formed against 
 him, but without success; the tyrant discovering them in 
 time. At length Galba was declared emperor, and Nero by 
 the senate pronounced a public enemy, and sentenced to 
 death more majorum, which sentence he avoided by a volun- 
 tary death. Yet, vile as he was, there were those who loved his 
 memory, and raised monuments to the monster who had per- 
 petrated so many crimes. It is not undeserving of notice, that 
 within a century after the death of Cato, the senate, which 
 once gave laws to the world, was convoked on the solemn 
 occasions of the marriage of Nero with two of his own sex. 
 So utterly can the greatest institutions be degraded ! 
 
 Emperors chosen by the Army. 
 
 Galba, a rnan of honorable birth and advanced age, was "'8 
 raised to the throne by the army which he commanded iu 
 Spain. The senate confirmed the choice of the army ; but 
 he sought to restrain the prtetorians, and he atoned for his 
 boldness with his life. 
 
 Otho, the partaker of the guilty pleasures of Nero, was 69 
 placed on the throne by the party which murdered Galba. 
 The army of the Rhino had meantime proclaimed tlieir gen-
 
 156 mSTORY OF THE WORLD. PARI 1 
 
 eral Vitellius. Otho, though a voluptuary, still retained some 
 noble feelings ; and when in the battle at Bedriacum victory 
 had declared for the generals of Vitellius, Otho, to spare thr 
 blood of citizens, put a voluntary termination to his own life. 
 A. D. Vitellius, devoted to the pleasures of the table, viewed the 
 70. imperial power only as atlbrding the means of unbounded in 
 dulgence. But he was soon roused from his dream of luxury, 
 by tidings of the Syrian army having proclaimed their gene- 
 ral Flavins Vespasianus worthiest of the throne. Vitellius 
 tprminated his brief reign by a cruel death. 
 
 During this period the tranquillity of the empire was dis- 
 turbed in every quarter. The Jews, oppressed by tiieir gov- 
 ernors, torn by parties, deceived by a false interpretation, but 
 flattering to their national vanity, of their ancient prophecies, 
 broke out into rebellion, which, persisted in with obstinacy 
 and judicial blindness, cost their nation the remnant of their 
 independence, the lives of three hundred thousand men, their 
 noble city, and the magnificent temple of Jehovah, the point 
 of union and pride of Israel. Rome, too, witnessed, at this 
 period, a second conflagration of the splendid temple of Jupi- 
 ter Optimus Maximus, which crowned the Capitol. It seemed 
 as if the wrath of Heaven was now poured out on guilty man 
 and his works. At Rome were to be seen each flay the ex- 
 cesses of the soldiery, the clash of arms, and false charges 
 brought before judicial tribunals; war menaced or devastated 
 the provinces; Civilis raised Gaul in rebellion; the Germans 
 passed the Rhine ; the Parthian cavalry hovered ready to 
 descend on Syria. 
 
 The Flavian Family. 
 
 70 Vt«pasian was at the head of the army acting against the 
 rebellious Jews, when he was proclaimed emperor. He re- 
 paired to Rome, leaving his son, the mild and virtuous Titus, 
 to carry on the war. Though raised to the throne by the 
 army, he would receive his power from the senate, who be- 
 stowed on him all the offices, rights, and powers held by Augus- 
 tus, Tiberius, and Claudius, in as full and unlimited a maimer 
 as they had possessed them ; and by his conduct during the 
 nine years he reigned, he showed himself deserving of the 
 absolute power he possessed. 
 
 The empire now enjoyed peace. Titus had ended the 
 Jewish war. The Parthians, seeing no internal discord, ab- 
 Btained from hostilities. Judicial persecution ceased at Rome. 
 The emueror and his son hved on terms of intimacy with the 
 best anu wisest men. The senate regained its consideration. 
 The finances were put into a proper condition ; military dis-
 
 TRAP. IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 159 
 
 cipline restored: cities built, and roads constructed. An 
 excessive frugality, hardly, in such times, to be retarded as 
 a fault, was the blemish most observed in the character of 
 Vespasian. His deatii would have been an irreparable loss 
 to Rome, had he not left such a successor as Titua 
 
 Titus, the Delight of Mankind, amiable, just, generous, a e 
 and brave, reigned but for two short years, and in t^at space ''^• 
 this virtuous prince had to witness many calamities. His , 
 heart was torn with anguish at being obliged to part with the 
 Jewish princess Berenice, whom he loved so tenderly ; Vesu- 
 vius raged with unwonted fury, and buried beneath its ashes 
 the towns of Hercuianeum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, and wasted 
 a large portion of Campania; a conflagration broke out in 
 Rome, and destroyed a great part of the city, and this was 
 followed by a destructive pestilence. 
 
 Domitian, the brother of Titus, succeeded. Tlie happiness 8i 
 of the empire seemed to have expired with liis father and 
 brother, and Nero to have returned to life. Yet Domitian 
 dreaded to venture on the excesses of this last-named tyrant, 
 and fear set some bounds to his cruelty. He exhausted the 
 treasury, while he embellished the city with magnificent 
 buildings, and engaged in expensive and inglorious wars. 
 His reign was, however, distinguished by the real conquest 
 of Britain by the gallant Agricola, whose death the jealous 
 emperor, if he did not occasion, did not regret. After a tyran- 
 ny of fifteen years, his life and reign were terminated by 
 a conspiracy, in which his own wife shared. 
 
 The good Emperors. 
 
 The senate was assembled on the death of the tyrant, and 96 
 the purple was oflfered to Nerva, one of their body, a just 
 and virtuous man, but far advanced in life. To give security 
 to his authority, and assure a virtuous successor to the empire, 
 he adopted the valiant and upright Trajan, who then com- 
 manded a large army in Lower Germany. The aged em- 
 peror, at the same time, declared Iiim his colleague for life in 
 the empire. Nerva, during his short reign, reduced the 
 taxes, and made a distribution of lands among the poor. 
 
 Trajan was forty years of age when adopted by Nerva: pc 
 of his virtue a decisive evidence was exhibited, for more tl an 
 250 years after his death, in the acclamation of the senate 
 to each new emperor, wishing him to be more fortunate tlian 
 Augustus, more virtuous than Trajan. The military and 
 pacific virtues were united in this accomplished prmce. Just 
 and upright, he listened to the meanest suitor; afliiblo, he 
 •vas accessible to the lowest citizen. Durinjr a Tci'sv o'
 
 160 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I 
 
 nineteen years but one senator suffered death, and he was 
 condemned by his own order. He lightened the burdens of 
 the provinces, declaring that the hearts of loving subjects 
 Bhould be his treasures. He selected his ministers and friends 
 from among the virtuous and the good : he perfected the 
 code of laws, adorned Rome with stately buildings, and 
 founded a magnificent library. In war he extended the bounds 
 of the empire beyond the limits set to it by Augustus ; con- 
 quered the fruitful plains and hills of Dacia; curbed the 
 wild hordes of Caucasus; bowed to submission the emirs of 
 the Arabian deserts; avenged the fate of Crassus, and took 
 Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital. The ships of Trajan visited 
 the coasts of India. He died at Seleucia, in Cilicia; whence 
 his body was brought to Rome, where it was received by the 
 whole senate and people, and buried in the forum, which 
 bore his name, beneath the lofty pillar which rises to the 
 height of 140 feet, adorned with his deeds. 
 
 4 0, Hadrian, it is thought, had been adopted by Trajan. He 
 
 117. was also an able and virtuous prince, though not the equai 
 of his great predecessor. Hadrian wisely gave up several 
 of the conquests of Trajan, and reduced the empire to its old 
 bounds of the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates, and 
 
 121. raised in Britain a barrier against the incursions of the un- 
 tamed Caledonians. During his reign a formidable insurrec- 
 tion of the Jews, under an impostor, named Barchochebas, 
 broke out, which was extinguished in the blood of thousands 
 of that obstinate and misguided people. This emperor made 
 a progress through his dominions, redressing grievances and 
 diminishing taxes; and he regulated his court in the most 
 exact manner. He was devoted to the fine arts, though his 
 taste was none of the purest. As age came on, he grew 
 peevish and cruel ; but the effects of these ill qualities were 
 mitigated by the mildness and gentleness of Antoninus, whom 
 he had adopted on the death of his favorite Lucius Verus. 
 
 [38 Antoninus, surnamed the Pious, from his affection for his 
 adoptive father, was one of those rare combinations of perfect 
 virtue which the visions of philosophy, rather than real life, 
 present as seated on a throne. His reign flowed on, for a 
 space of twenty-three years, in dignified tranquillity : wara 
 interrupted not the repose of the empire : neighboring na- 
 tions submitted their differences to the arbitration of the 
 virtuous Antoninus. He closed his beneficent career by 
 leaving the guidance of the empire to an accomplished phi- 
 losopher 
 
 161. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus would willingly have trodden 
 the tranquil course of his predecessor ; but the restless ene-
 
 CBAP IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 161 
 
 niies of thy empire summoned iie philosophic monarch to 
 the defence of the frontiers, and to give a proof that the study 
 of philosophy does not disqualify for action. Nations of Ger 
 manic race united, as in the days of Marius, to pour in upon 
 Italy ; but Aurelius showed them, that the legions of Rome 
 still retained their discipline and valor. The Parthians broke 
 into Syria : the emperor speedily drove them back within 
 their own limits. Foreign war was not the only calamity 
 that afflicted the empire in this reign ; famine and its constant 
 attendant pestilence, ravaged various provinces. The Ger- 
 mans, though beaten, still renewed their attempts, and the 
 emperor died during his eighth winter campaign against the 
 Marcomanni. Aurelius was, like Augustus, unhappy in his 
 family: his wife Faustina disgraced hira by her licentiousness; 
 and the disposition of his son Commodus afforded slender 
 grounds for ijleasing hope. 
 
 From Commodus lo Diocletian. 
 
 The most vicious succeeded the most virtuous of mankind. *• » 
 Commodus, the son of Aurelius, was a profligate, foolish boy. ^^ 
 His delight was in the indulgence of low sordid propensities; 
 he sought for glory in gladiatorial skill ; while he degraded 
 the majesty of the empire, by setting the example of pur- 
 chasing peace from the barbarians. His father had made the 
 Marcomanni feel the edge of the Roman steel ; his degene- 
 rate son bestowed upon them Roman gold. Oppressive taxa- 
 tion once more galled the subjects; the blood of the virtuous 
 was once more seen to flow ; the favor of his father availed 
 not to save ; Salvius Julianus, the great lawyer, whom Au- 
 relius had honored, died by the order of Commodua The 
 emperor had nothing to fear from the Praetorians, whom he 
 indulged in all their excesses. These were his protectors 
 against all others, and he might mock at all plots of the sen- 
 ate or people ; but he carried his tyranny, whither it was 
 rarely carried with impunity, into his own household, and a 
 conspiracy delivered the Roman world of the wretch who 
 oppressed it. 
 
 Murder thus, after a long interval, again made its appear- 
 ance in the palace of the Ca;sars, and now seemed to have 
 made it its permanent abode. Helvius Pertinax, the prefect 191 
 of the city, a man of virtue, was placed on the throne by 
 the conspirators, who would fain justify their deed in the 
 eyes of the world, and their choice was confirmed by the 
 senate. But the Prsetorians had not forgotten their own 
 pf>wcr on a similar occasion; and they liked not tlie virtue 
 14*
 
 162 mSTORY OP THE WORLD. PART T 
 
 and regularity of the new monarch. Pertbax was, tliere- 
 fore, speedily deprived of throne and life. 
 
 Prcetorian insolence now attained its height. Regardless 
 of the dignity and honor of the empire, they set it up to auc- 
 tion. The highest bidder was a senator, named Didius Ju- 
 
 .. D. lianus, a nephew of that very Salvius who had suffered for 
 
 i93. law and virtue in the reign of Commodus. The legions dis- 
 dained to receive an emperor from the life-guards. Those ot 
 Britain proclaimed their general Clodius Albinus ; those of 
 Asia, Pescennius Niger; the Pannoniau legions, Septimius 
 
 l'J4 Severus. This last was a man of bravery and conduct : by 
 valor and stratagem he successively vanquished his rivals. He 
 maintained the superiority of the Roman arms against tlie 
 Parthians and Caledonians. His reign was vigorous and ad- 
 vantageous to the state ; but he wanted either the courage or 
 the power to fully repress the license and insubordination of 
 the soldiery. 
 
 211. Severus lefl the empire to his two sons. Caracalla, the 
 elder, a prince of violent and untamable passions, disdained 
 to share empire with any. He murdered his brother and col- 
 league, the more gentle Geta, and put to death all who ven- 
 tured to disapprove of the deed. A restless ferocity distin- 
 guished the character of Caracalla : he was ever at war, now 
 on the banks of the Rhine, now on those of the Euphrates. 
 His martial impetuosity daunted his enemies; his reckless 
 cruelty terrified his subjects. But the army loved the prince, 
 who set no value on any but a soldier. Alexander the Great 
 was the model this profligate fratricide dared to set before 
 him. No greater insult could be offered to the memory of 
 the Macedonian. During a Parthian war, Caracalla gave 
 offence to Macrinus, the commander of his body-guard, whc 
 murdered him. 
 
 218. Macrinus seized the empire, but had not power to hold it 
 He and his son Diadumenianus, an amiable youth of but 
 eighteen years, were put to death by the army, who pro- 
 claimed a supposed son of their beloved Caracalla. 
 
 •iiti This youth was named Elagabalus, and was priest of the 
 Sun in the temple of Emesa, in Syria. Every vice stained 
 the character of this licentious, effeminate youth, whose name 
 is become proverbial for sensual indulgence : he possessed no 
 redeeming quality, had no friend, and was put to death by his 
 own guards, who, vicious as they were themselves, detc sted 
 vice in him. 
 
 822 Alexander Severus, cousin to Elagabalus, but of a totall} 
 opposite character, succeeded that vicious prince. All es 
 timable qualities were imited in the noble and accomplLshoc'
 
 CHAP. IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. lo3 
 
 Alexander. He delighted in the society of the learned and 
 the wise ; the statues of the sages of all countries adorned 
 his library; and their works, destined for the improvement of 
 tnankind, formed his constant study. But the love of learning 
 and virtue did not in him smother military skill and valor; 
 he checked the martial hordes of Germany, and led the Ro- 
 man eagles to victory against the Sassanides, who had dis- 
 placed the Arsacides in the dominion over Persia,* and re- 
 vived the claims of the house of Cyrus over Anterior Asia, 
 Alexander, victorious in war, beloved by his subjects, deemed 
 he might venture on introducing more regular discipline into 
 tlie army. The attempt was fatal, and the amiable monarch 
 lost his life in the mutiny tliat resulted. 
 
 Maximin, a soldier, originally a Thracian shepherd, distin- ^ i, 
 guished by his prodigious size, strengtli, and appetite, a 235 
 stranger to all civic virtues and all civic rules, rude, brutal, 
 cruel, and ferocious, seated himself on the throne of the noble 
 and virtuous prince, in whose murder he had been a chief 
 agent. At Rome the senate conferred the vacant dignity on 
 Gordian, a noble, wealthy, and virtuous senator, and on hia 
 son, of the same name, a valiant and spirited youth. But 
 scarcely were they recognized, when the son fell in an en- 
 gagement, and the father slew himself. Maximin was now 
 rapidly marching towards Rome, full of rage and fury. De- 
 spair gave courage to the senate; they nominated Balbinus 
 and Pupienus, one to direct the internal, tlie other the exter- 
 nal affairs. Maximin had advanced as far as Aquileia, when 
 his horrible cruelties caused an insurrection against him, and 
 he and his son, an amiable youth, were murdered. The army 
 was not, however, willing to acquiesce in the claim of the 
 senate to appoint an emperor. Civil war was on the point 
 of breaking out, when the conflicting parties agreed in the 
 person of the third Gordian, a boy of but thirteen years of age. 
 
 Gordian III. was an amiable and virtuous youth. In affairs 23f 
 ■jf state he was chiefly guided by liis father-in-law, Misitheus, 
 who induced him to engage in war against the Persians. In 
 the war Gordian displayed a courage worthy of any of his 
 predecessors ; but he shared what was now become tlie usual 
 fate of a Roman emperor. He was murdered by Philip, the 
 captain of his guard. 
 
 Philip, an Arabian by birth, originally a captain of free- 2Ji 
 looters, seized on the purple of his murdered sovereign. Two 
 rivals arose and contended with him for the prize, but accom- 
 plished nothing. A third competitor, Decius, the commander 
 
 * See p. 57.
 
 164 mSTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. 
 
 of the army ot the Danube, defeated and slew him nea? 
 Verona. During the reign of Pliilip, Rome attained he» 
 thousandth year ; and the games to commemorate the dura- 
 tion of the city of'Romuln?;, Brutus, and Caesar, were cele- 
 brated by the native of a ountry scarcely known, even by 
 name, to tlie kings and con. uls ! 
 
 ^ o Decius, a prince of rigid virtue and primitive simplicity jf 
 
 249. manners, sought to restore its ancient tone to the Roman 
 cliaracter; but the time for reformation was long gone by; a 
 new character was now completely and fixedly formed. Tlio 
 well-meant projects of the emperor failed, and himself fell in 
 battle, in defence of his country against the invading Goths. 
 
 251. In the space of two years reigned and fell four emperors, 
 
 253. Gallus, Volusian, Hostilian, son of Decius, and .^milian. 
 The Germans still pressed on Italy, the Persians on Syria. 
 
 853. Valerian succeeded. His rigor and virtue as a censor had 
 been applauded ; as an emperor, he showed feebleness and in- 
 capacity. He associated his son Gallienus in the empire with 
 him. In the war against Shahpoor of Persia he was defeated 
 and taken prisoner. The haughty Persian subjected the cap- 
 tive emperor to every indignity. The Roman spirit was 
 gone; he submitted with patience, and his luxurious col- 
 league revelled heedless of his father's sufferings. 
 
 2(50. Gallienus, devoted to sensual indulgence, lived tranquilly 
 in Italy, But in tlie various provinces, Britain, Gaul, Spain 
 Syria, Africa, &c., and even in Italy, numerous claimants of 
 the imperial dignity arose. Some of these were men of merit, 
 almost all persons of military skill and valor. Though the 
 empire was thus torn and confused, its constant enemies, 
 the Germans and Persians, were unable to seize any part 
 This is usually denominated The time of the thirty tyrants, 
 though (as far as we can collect from coins) they did not ex- 
 ceed twenty-one, and are unjustly designated as tyrants. But 
 some fancied analogy to Critias and his colleagues at Athens 
 presented itself, and mankind love analogies and round num- 
 bers. None of these rivals gave much uneasiness to Gallie- 
 nus, who would have been well content with Italy alone, till 
 Aureolus threatened to deprive him even of that. He then 
 marched to battle against him at Milan ; but ere he took the 
 city, he was murdered, naming, with his last breath, the most 
 worthy to be his successor. 
 
 -;5S Claudius was tlie most worthy. He delivered Italy from 
 the Goths, by a victory such as Rome had not seen since the 
 days of Marius. But his reign was of short duration, and 
 would have been more deeply lamented were it not for the 
 virtues and talents of his successor
 
 CHAP. IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 167 
 
 Aurelian, a man bred in camps, brought to the throne the *• » 
 valor, activity, and vigor that it required. He introduced or- ^^ 
 der into the state, and restored the empire to internal tran- 
 quillity. He defeated the Germans, and even pursued them 
 intc Iheir forests, vanquished all his rivals, and among them 
 Zenobia, or Zeinab, the heroic queen of Palmyra, who, in 
 chains of gold, adorned the triumph in which the emperor 
 entered Rome. Aurelian never lost a battle : he was clement 
 ja the conquered, indulgent to the people and the army, but 
 averse to the senate. He was murdered on his way against 
 the Persians. 
 
 The army was now either satisfied with the long exercise 
 of its power in appointing emperors, or it saw the evils likely 
 »o arise to the empire in general from each army investing 
 its leader with the purple. Accordingly, on the death of 
 Aurelian, they restored its privileges to the senate, who, 
 after an interreign of eight months, bestowed the purple on 275 
 Tacitus, a man of virtue and probity. Tacitus was far ad- 
 vanced in years when he was placed on the throne, which he 
 occupied for a few months with honor, and then died a natu- 
 ral death. 
 
 After the death of Tacitus, his brother Florianus, who lit- 
 tle resembled him, aspired to the empire. Neither senate 
 nor army approved of him, and the latter bestowed tlie pur- 
 ple on their virtuous and able commander, Probus, who, to 
 the more rigorous virtues of Aurelian, united a gentleness ^"6 
 and moderation, to which that able prince had been a stranger. 
 The senate approved of the choice of the army. Probus de- 
 feated the Germans on the Danube and the Rhine. He in- 
 troduced into tlieir country the culture of the vine, and em- 
 ployed tlie legions in the labors of the field and the vineyard. 
 This, united with the strict discipline he sought to revive, 
 excited their indignation: they rose in munity, murdered, 
 and then lamented their excellent emperor. 
 
 Caras, the commander of the body-guard, was raised to the S82 
 empire, in which he associated with himself his two sons, 
 Carinus and Nuinerian, the former of a dissolute, the latter 
 of a more gentle and cultured disposition. Cams was es- 
 teemed a good general, but his reign was short ; he was killed 
 by lightning in his tent, or possibly murdered by those who 
 spread that report. His son Numerian was shortly afterwards 
 murdered by his father-in-law Aper, the praetorian prefect. 
 The traitor expiated his crime by death. Carinus was slain 
 by a man whose conjugal honor he had insulted.
 
 168 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART I 
 
 Change in the Form of Government. 
 2m' After the death of Carus and his sons, the reigns of empire 
 ' fell into the firm hands of Diocletian, by birth a Dalmatian, a 
 wise and able prince. The enemies of the empire pressed 
 now with redoubled force on the frontiers, and Diocletian 
 saw that the vigilance and activity of one mind could not 
 suffice to attend to the multifarious concerns of the state. 
 The events of the last reigns had also taught him the danger 
 of committmg the command of the legions to ofiicers who 
 might so readily become competitors for the throne. He 
 therefore resolved to share the imperial dignity with his 
 friend and comrade in arms, Maximianus Herculius, to whom, 
 as being of a rugged active character, he committed the 
 West, while hunself took charge of the East. Each bore the 
 tit-e of Augustus, and each appointed a successor under that 
 of Csesar. The Caesars were younger and more active men, 
 and the more exposed parts of the empire were committed to 
 them. Diocletian administered Asia; his Casar, Galerius, 
 rough and soldierly, governed Thrace and the countries on 
 the Danube. Maximian retamed Italy, Spain, Africa, and 
 the islands; his Csesar, Constantius Chlorus, a worthy de- 
 scendant of the late emperor Claudius, governed Gaul and 
 Britain. Rome ceased to be an imperial residence : that of 
 Maximian was mostly at Milan ; Diocletian resided chiefly at 
 Nicomedia. A farther innovation made by this emperor was 
 the introduction of the oriental splendor of attire and adora- 
 tion of the emperors. He and his colleague with great so- 
 lemnity assumed, on the same day, the diadem and other 
 insignia of eastern royalty. 
 
 Perhaps nothing better could have been devised for main- 
 tainmg the empire than this partition of power. The expe- 
 rienced monarchs could give attention to internal affairs, 
 while the younger and more active emperors elect, away 
 from the corruption of capitals, might keep up the discipline 
 and military virtues of the legions. Accordingly we find that 
 the Goths were held m check, the AUemanni defeated, Brit- 
 ain, where Carausius had in the late reign raised a rebellion, 
 reduced to obedience, and the Persians forced to a peace ad- 
 vantageous and honorable to the empire. But it was not to 
 be expected that four princes could reign together in una- 
 nimity, or that Cffisars would patiently wait till death made 
 way for them to the higher rank. It was not long, therefore, 
 before contention and war broke out among them. 
 
 While Diocletian ruled, he kept his colleagues in bounds, 
 exerting over them the influence of a superior mind. Bu
 
 OHAP. IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 169 
 
 after a reign of twenty years, feeling the infirmitiea of age 
 approach, he resolved to abandon the cares of empire, and 
 retire to pass the evening of his life in seclusion in his native 
 province. He signified his intention to Maximian, who re- 
 luctantly assented to a joint abdication. The Caesars were 
 raised to the rank of Augusti: Constantius was assigned 
 Severus for his Caesar ; Galerius conferred that dignity on 
 his nephew Daza. 
 
 Constantius did not long enjoy the dignity he adorned. Ga- a. d 
 leriua soon became odious to the Romans ; and Maximian 30*". 
 took advantage of this circumstance to make his son Maxen- 
 tiXiB master of Italy. Severus was forced to yield. In the 
 mean time, Constantine, the son of Constantius, had com- 
 
 Sletely won the hearts of the British and Gallic legions, by 
 ia military and civil virtues, and he soon forced Galerius and 
 Muxentius to acknowledge him as joint-emperor. 
 
 The debauchery and cruelty of Maxentius were now grown 
 intolerable to the Romans. The nobles fled from the city ; 
 the labors of agriculture were neglected; his own father was 
 forced to fly from him and take refuge with Constantine, who 
 had married his daughter. But the restless tmd depraved 
 old man could not abstain from machinations against his son- 
 in-law and protector ; and Constantine, not to be himself the 
 victim, compelled him to end his unquiet life by voluntary 
 deatli, the mode of which was left to his own choice. Invited 
 by the Roman nobles, Constantine marched against Maxen- 312 
 tius. A battle took place in the neighborliood of Rome : Max- 
 entius fell, and the whole West obeyed Constantine. 
 
 Galerius was now dead, and his nephew, Maximianus Daza, 
 whom he had raised to the rank of a Caesar, had follow- 
 ed him. Constantine associated with himself Licinius, a 
 man who by military merit had risen to the dignity of a 
 Csesar. They named their sons, Crispus and Licinius, to be 
 u-eir Caesars. The old emperor Diocletian died, as was said, 
 by his own hand, about this time. 
 
 Constantine now openly professed himself a Christian. He 311 
 put an end to the persecution whicn had raged against that 
 sect for the last ten years with all the violence of the ex- 
 piring storm. His conversion, perhaps, was sincere: possibly 31i 
 he saw that the Christians were become the most powerfiil 
 body in the empire, and that the wisest policy was to give 
 way to what could not be resisted without imminent danger. 
 He issued two edicts; one assigning them the temples of the 
 gods, in places where they had not suitable churches; iha 
 other, giving them the preference in all appointments to civil 
 and military oflices; and thus, in less than three centuriei 
 15
 
 170 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 1. 
 
 from its origin, Christianity became, in effect, the established 
 religion of the empire. Constantine, however, deferred his 
 baptism till a little before his death. 
 
 Unanimity did not long subsist between the emperors. 
 Wars broke out, and Licinius was eventually deprived of hia 
 A. D. dignity and life by his victorious colleague, who now reigned 
 324. alone. Seeing that the North-east, where the powerful nation 
 of the Goths was settled, was the quarter from whiclFmos! 
 danger was to be apprehended, and also the growing strength 
 of Persia, Constantine deemed Rome too remote a residence 
 330 for the sovereign, and he fixed on Byzantium, %vhich he en- 
 larged and named from himself, as the seat of imperial 
 power. This measure has been blamed, as leaving Italy ex- 
 posed to the irruptions of the barbarians ; but continuance at 
 Rome, or any other plan to ward off the inevitable evil, would 
 have been equally exposed to censure. The virtue and energy 
 which had gained the empire were gone ; the tribes of the 
 North had added skill and discipline to their numbers, strength, 
 and courage. 
 
 Corruption of Christianity. 
 
 The Christian religion, as given to man by its divine Au- 
 thor, was perfect in truth and simplicity; but it was sent 
 forth into a world in which error abounded, and the stream 
 had hardly left the fountain when it became defiled with 
 mundane impurities. Earnestly and repeatedly does the 
 zealous Paul inveigh against those who mingled what he 
 called the "beggarly elements" and the " fables" of Judaism 
 with the spiritual precepts of the Gospel ; and strongly does 
 he warn to avoid " profane and vain babblings, and oppositions 
 of knowledge, falsely so called." But the evil was not to 
 be checked, and Oriental and Grecian philosophy rapidly 
 mingled with Gospel simplicity. 
 
 The heat of eastern climates inspires indolence and thu 
 love of contemplation. The human mind becomes absorbed 
 in rapturous visions of light and expanse, and men learn to 
 regard the soul, the commencement of whose existence they 
 cannot conceive, as having descended from the realms of su- 
 pernal light into the body, its present darksome dungeon, 
 whence it was to reascend to its former blissful abode. Hence 
 the body being a prison, and matter evil, the object of the 
 soul was to emajicipate itself from their influence. This 
 was to be best effected, it was thought, by mortification of 
 the flesh and senses ; and hence the voluntary mutilations, 
 the corporeal tortures, rigid abstinence, and all that system 
 of self-torment which distinguiches the yogee, the ftkeer, and
 
 Tbyatira^ Aaia Minor*
 
 JOHN GUTENBERG,
 
 CHAP IX. fiOME AN EMPIRE. 173 
 
 the monk. Others, but fewer in number, d rew a contrary 
 conclusion, and maintained that the acts of its impure com- 
 panion were indifferent to the pure soul ; and they freely in- 
 dulged in the practice of the grossest sensuality. 
 
 This eastern doctrine, mixed with the Persian one of the 
 two principles, entered, under tije name of Gnosis, or know- 
 ledge, into Christianity, even in the days of the apostles; and 
 it was, perhaps, already not unknown to the Essenes. All 
 the heiesiea of which we read in the early days of the church 
 were founded, more or less, on the Gnosis ; and one of the 
 favorite doctrines of these sects was, that this world and its 
 creator were evil, and that Jesus was a being produced by 
 wisdom, who took the appearance of a body, in which he was 
 apparently crucified by the agents of the creator of the world. 
 
 With this knowledge of the East the fhilosophy of the 
 West combined to debase the truth of the Gospel. This phi- 
 losophy was the New Platonism, which had fixed its chief 
 seat at Alexandria, in Egypt, a country ever fertile of error 
 and corruption. Its followers undertook the defence of the 
 old religion ; they allegorized all its uidecent and extravagant 
 legends, and set it in opposition to the new faith. Some of 
 these philosophers became Christians, and retained their love 
 of mystery and word-straining artifices: some Christians 
 were educated in their schools. The Jews of Egypt had, as 
 the works of Philo sliow, long since been familiar with the 
 allegorizing system, which was now unsparingly applied to 
 the simple precepts and narrations of the Old Testament: 
 and the sober Christian of the present day would stare with 
 amazement at the numerous and marvellous senses they were 
 made to bear in the writings of the learned Origen. By this 
 system any words could be made to bear any sense; and 
 what a field for corruption this gave, is too evident to need 
 proof Yet, as evil has always its attendant good, this very 
 corruption of Christianity may have aided its diffusion, by 
 procuring it a more ready acceptance among tlie educated 
 classes of society, whose taste had long lost all relish for 
 truth and simplicity. 
 
 A veneration for departed excellence is one of the most 
 natural and praiseworthy principles of our nature ; hence no 
 one can blame the early Christians for visiting with respect 
 the tombs of those who died beneath heathen tortures rather 
 than renounce their faith. But, gradually, simple respect 
 was converted into religious adoration; the bodies and relics 
 of the martyrs and confessors were taken from their peaceful 
 and ODa'Ture places of rest, and solemnly enshrined in stately 
 churches, where, by the devout, they were viewed with aw 
 15*
 
 174 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART L 
 
 fill veneration, and to whose sanctity they were held largely 
 to contribute. 
 
 If such honors were paid to the mortal remains of the 
 champions for Christ, of how much greater were they them- 
 selves to be held worthy! It soon became an established ar- 
 ticle of faith, that the apostles and other eminent saints were 
 at once admitted to the beatific vision and immediate presence 
 of God, where they enjoyed an extent of knowledge and a 
 measure of power to which limits could not easily be set. 
 The transition was easy to an invocation of them, to exert 
 their own power for their suppliant, or intercede with God 
 in his favor; and the icorship of saints was speedily dissemi- 
 nated through the Christian world. The bodies which the 
 saints had occupied when on earth were supposed to retain 
 or to have acquired a portion of this power : they too were 
 adored ; and, shortly after, this honor was extended to their 
 images. Each saint was held to be most easily propitiated at 
 the place where his relics lay, or his life had been spent, and 
 hence the origin of pilgrimages. 
 
 In effect, the theory devised by Euhemerus, to account for 
 the origin of Grecian polytheism, was exactly applicable to 
 a great part of the religion now called Christianity ; and we 
 shall have completed the picture when we add the number 
 of pretended miracles that were every day asserted with the 
 most unblushing assurance, and the quantity of Jewish and 
 heathen ceremonies that was rapidly mtroduced into the 
 church. 
 
 This is the religion which will appear in the next twelve 
 centuries of our history, and to which our future remarks 
 will apply. We must, however, in justice add, that the tor- 
 rent of corruption was nobly stemmed by some, such as 
 Vigilantius ; that many of the corrupters knew not what they 
 did ; and that much of the gold still remained among the 
 dross. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 DKCLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Successors of Constantine. 
 
 337" Constantine TI. obtained Gaul and Britain : Constans Italy, 
 lllyria, and Africa ; Constantius had the East. Their cousins, 
 Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, had been made Caesars by their 
 uncle : the former governed Thrace. Macedonia, and Greece 
 the latter, Armenia.
 
 CHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 175 
 
 The Ctettirs were murdered by their soldiers, not without 
 the approbttdon of the emperors, each of whom thirsted for 
 absolute sway. Constantine attempted to deprive his brother 
 of Italy, and lost his life in a battle against him near Aqui- x. d 
 ieia, Constana, a prince not devoid of talent, was devoted to 340 
 and passed his days in the practice of unnatural lusts. Mag- 
 nentius conspired against him, and he was surprised and slain 
 in a wood at the foot of the Pyrenees, whither he was in the 350 
 habit of retiring with his favorites. Magnentius attempted 
 to seize his dominions; but lUyria refused obedience, and 
 made Vetranio, an old and worthy officer, emperor. 
 
 Constantius, committing the war which he was waging, 
 witli little success, against Shahpoor, king of Persia, to his 
 cousin Gallus, whom he had made Caesar, marched to the 
 West. Vetranio cheerfully resigned his dignity for an annual 
 pension. Italy declared for Constantius ; and Rome suffered 
 a cruel vengeance from Magnentius, ere he marched to meet 
 his rival. A series of bloody engagements ensued. On the 
 plains of Hungary the last decisive one was fought, which re- 
 united the empire under a single sceptre. Magnentius, to 
 save them from disgrace, slew his own mother, and one of 
 his brothers, and then himself; and his example was followed 
 by his brother Decentius. The Cgesar Gallus was executed 351 
 shortly afterwards for some offences, by order of the emperor. 
 
 Julian, the brother of Gallus, had been reared up at the 
 court of Constantius. His habits were studious, his senti- 
 ments virtuous. Disgusted with what he saw around him, 
 lie sought relief in the contemplation of the noble characters 
 of Greek and Roman story, whom he made his models. He 
 carried his veneration for his loved antiquity so far as to re- 
 nounce the Christian religion in which he had been reared, 
 and secretly to embrace the ancient system of Greece and 
 Rome, refined by the allegorizing subtilty of the school of 
 the New Platonists ; and resolved to restore it to its former 
 dignity, if ever the empire should fall to him. 
 
 The Franks and Allemanni were now causing extreme un- 
 easiness to Gaul, and the emperor was obliged to send thither, 
 with the rank of Csesar, his nephew, whom he held cheap as 
 a book-learned dreamer. But Julian showed, as other men 
 of mental power often have done, that study and learning 
 disqualify not for action. He arranged the most judicious 
 plan for conducting the war, and gave the Allemanni, whose 
 troops under their chief Chnodomar were three times the 
 number of his army, a most decisive defeat in the neighbor- 
 hood of Strasburg. He marched all through their territory, 
 -educed them and the Franks to sue for peace, and restored
 
 1^ D 
 
 176 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 the frontiers of the empire. He diminished the burdens of 
 Gaul, and caused justice to be administered with speed and 
 impartiality. His army saluted him Augustus ; and Constan- 
 tius, on receiving the mteliigence in Cilicia, died, it is said, 
 of grief and mortification. 
 
 Julian, when seated on the throne, openly professed the 
 m'. ancient religion of the empire. The temples of the gods were 
 again opened, the priests restored to their ancient dignity, 
 and the zealous emperor sought to purify their morals. All 
 practices and institutions to which Christianity appeared tfl 
 him to have owed its success were engrafted on the old reli- 
 gion : preachers were placed m the temples ; excommunica- 
 tion employed agamst obstinate smners ; large sums distributed 
 m alms among the poor. An example of strict and rigid mor- 
 als was set by the emperor ; the utmost moderation prevailed 
 in the palace; the eunuchs and other mmisters of luxury 
 were removed. Favor in the distribution of employments 
 was naturally shown to those who agreed in sentiment with 
 the monarch ; but Julian, though superstitious, was too politic, 
 if not too humane, to persecute the Christians. Toleration 
 prevailed ; bishops who had been deposed from their sees were 
 restored ; the cessation of mutual persecution for opinion en- 
 joined ; Arians and Athanasians— for the dispute respectmg 
 the divine nature of Jesus Christ had split the church mto 
 these parties— compelled to live in peace. The politic em- 
 peror hoped, perhaps, by division to weaken his opponents. 
 
 From these cares Julian was called away to the defence of 
 the eastern frontier against Shahpoor, who, probably aware 
 of the growing disaffection of the Christians, had begun to 
 make inroads. Julian marched to Mesopotamia, where, de- 
 ceived by a pretended deserter, who undertook to lead him by 
 a nearer road, he got into the deserts, where his army was 
 exposed to the attacks of the light cavalry of the enemy. He 
 resolved on giving battle ; but just as he was preparmg for 
 action, he was mortally wounded, and he died, encouraging 
 his officers to do their duty. 
 A D On the death of Julian, the army invested with the purple 
 363 Jovian, a Pannonian, a man of talent, and so zealous a Chris- 
 tian, that he had thereby incurred the displeasure of the late 
 emperor. He was compelled to surrender the strong fortress 
 of Nisibis to Shahpoor, as the condition of peace. Before he 
 reached Constantinople, he died. 
 864 The army chose another Pannonian, Valentinian, to suc- 
 ceed ; and he, with their assent, shared the dignity with hu 
 brother Valens, to whom he committed the care of the eastern 
 part of the emoire. himself taking charge of the West Va-
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 01 
 
 a 
 p 
 w 
 
 
 
 (D 
 CD 
 
 Q 

 
 OilAP. X. DECLINE OP THE EMPIRE. 179 
 
 lentinian was a valiant prince ; and he distinr;uislied himself 
 in war against the Saxons, Allenianni, and Sarinalians, and 
 built fortresses along the Rhine. Want of self-command was 
 his great defect. Valens was of a less noble character, and 
 he exercised great cruelty against those who set up claims to 
 his empire, or differed from his theological sentiments. 
 
 The internal corruption and weakness of the empire still 
 increased ; the court more and more every day approximated 
 to the idle pomp, the secret influence of women and eunuchs, 
 the inaccessibleness of the monarch, the horrid cruelty which 
 distinguished those of tlie East. Barbarous punishments, such 
 as Rome had hardly seen under the worst of her heathen 
 monarchs, were inflicted by tliese emperors. The discipline 
 of the legions continually relaxed ; their armor was lightened, 
 the infantry diminished, and cavalry increased. The garrisons 
 of frontier towns took to civil occupations. The best of the 
 legions were composed of barbarians, who had been taken into 
 the imperial pay. These often refused to fight against their 
 own countrymen : often betrayed tlie Romans ; mocked at all 
 discipl'.me, roooea and plundered the country; forced tneir 
 emperors to give battle when it pleased them, how unfavora- 
 ble soever the circumstances might be. When military virtue 
 was lost, all was gone, for civil virtue had long since departed. 
 The view given by contemporaries of the then state of the 
 empire is heart-rending. Corruption, injustice, and oppres- 
 sion, in the government and its officers ; swarms of barbarians 
 continually pouring in and devastating the provinces; and 
 famine and pestilence to fill up the picture of misery 
 
 The Huns. 
 
 A new enemy now appearec m Europe. Wars and com- 
 motions in the distant East caused a tide of mingled Turks 
 and Mongols to pour itself on the West. In the reign of 
 Valens, the Romans heard of tribes of Mongol deformity, be- 
 gotten, some reported, by the devil, who in countless swarma 
 pressed on the eastern frontier of the Goths. This dreadftii 
 people was named the Huns. 
 
 All the country from the Black Sea to Livonia was then 
 ruled by the venerable Hermanric, chief of the Goths. He 
 was shortly afterwards murdered. The Goths were divided 
 into two great portions, the West-Goths (Visigoths,) governed 
 by the house of t!.e Balti : the East-Goths (Ostrogoths,) by 
 that of the Amali. The Huns rarely venturing to meet the 
 West-Goths in battle, continually carried off their wives and 
 children. In the confusion that ensued on tiie death of Her- 
 jnanric, and the invRsiors of tiie Huns, the West-Gotliic
 
 180 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART L 
 
 princes, Alavi\ais and Fridigern, proposed to the emperor Va- 
 lens, that if he would give their nation lands south of the 
 Danube, they would undertake the defence of that frontier 
 Valens consented ; he gave the lands, and, through Ulphilas, 
 had them instructed in the Arian form of Christianity. During 
 a period of fifty years the Huns pastured their herds, and pur- 
 sued the chase, in the woods and plains of Russia, Poland, 
 and Hungary, without molesting the West-Goths. The 
 East-Goths were among their subjects ; but Safrach and Aleth 
 led a portion of them over the Danube. 
 
 Wars with the Goths. 
 
 The Goths soon found themselves straitened for room in 
 their new abode. They applied to the emperor for permission 
 to trade. He gave orders to the neighboring governors to 
 conduct it, which they did in such a spirit of monopoly, that 
 the Goths had soon sold their cattle and slaves, and were re- 
 duced to part with their children for food. The governors 
 attempted treachery against Fridigern, the Gothic prince ; he 
 summoned his countrymen to arms ; blood and devastation 
 tracked the march of the Goths from Mcesia towards Con- 
 stantinople. The orthodox emperor of the West refused aid 
 to the Arian Valens ; Terentius, governor of Armenia, did 
 the same ; the imperial general, Trajan, was defeated ; the 
 populace despaired of victory under an emperor who weis the 
 enemy of the Son of God. Meantime the Goths advanced ; 
 the flames of the villages were seen from the walls of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 Valens marched and encountered the Goths in the plains 
 of Adrianople. Cavalry now composed the main strength of 
 the Roman armies. They could not stand against the firm 
 Gothic infantry ; the imperial troops gave way and fled. Va- 
 lens, wounded, sought refuge in a peasant's cottage, which 
 
 4 D. was set fire to, along with the rest, by the pursuing Goths, 
 
 37*3 and the emperor perished in the flames. 
 
 The Goths approached the walls of Constantmople, and 
 the empress Domnina prepared for a vigorous defence. Un- 
 used to sieges, and daunted by the strength of the walls, they 
 retired. Fridigern marched into Greece. Safrach and Aleth 
 turned bacK to ravag-e Pannonia. 
 
 375. Valentinian was dead, and his sons, Gratian and Valentin- 
 ian n., a child of four years, had succeeded him. Gratian 
 associated in the empire Theodosius, a Spaniard by birth, a 
 descendant of Trajan, whose virtues he emulated. The East 
 
 379. was committed to the new emperor. His first efforts were to 
 excite discord among the Goths, and to gain them over U
 
 CHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 181 
 
 himeelf, Fridigem shortly after died, and the emperor pro- 
 post^i a conference with his successor Athanaric: a peace 
 was agreed on, a regular subsidy assigned the Goths, and a 
 num()er of them taken into pay as auxiliaries. The Gothic 
 chief died at Constantinople ; and i*uch was the idea the (Jotha 
 had conceived of the talents and virtues of the emperor, that 
 they declared that so long as he lived they would not appoint 
 another prmce. 
 
 Gratianus was an able and enlightened prince : he fought 
 with valor and success against the Allemanni ; but his army 
 disliked him, because he gave a preference to foreign troops. 
 They set up Maximus against him, and Gratian was treache- a. d 
 rously murdered. 383 
 
 Maximus drove the young Valentinian out of Italy. He 
 secured the passes of the Alps, and posted himself with a 
 large army near Aquileia ; but Theodosius took advantage of 
 his neglect, and defeated him. Maximus fell in the action. 388 
 
 The two emperors now reigned undisturbed, till Valen- 
 tinian was murdered by the Count Arbogastes and the secre- 
 tary Eugenius. Theodosius speedily came to avenge him, 
 and defeated his murdereifs at the foot of the Alps. 394 
 
 A few months after he had obtained the sole power, Theo- 395. 
 dosius died, to the great misfortune and grief of the empire, 
 which he had governed with justice, moderation, and pru- 
 dence. He was the last who ruled over the whole Roman 
 world. 
 
 Theodosius had two sons : Arcadius, the elder, a youth of 
 eighteen, was left the East ; and Rufinus, a native of Gaul, 
 became his director : Honorius, a boy of eleven years, held 
 the West, under the guardianship of Stilicho, a Vandal 
 These ministers, for private ends, introduced confusion into 
 the empire. 
 
 The Goths, on the death of Theodosius, had appointed 
 Alaric, of the house of the Balti, their prince. Finding their 
 aubsidy Ul paid, and perceiving that the justice and valor of 
 Theodosius no longer swayed the sceptre, they meditated war. 
 Rufinus deemed it a great stroke of policy to throw the evil 
 on Italy. He secretly advised the Goths to turn their arms 
 that way, promising to send no aid to that country. Stilicho, 
 on the other hand, rejoiced at the prospect of war ; he took 
 no pains to secure the passes against Alaric, and a Gothic 
 prince was surrounded and slain in the mountains near Fie- 
 sole. 
 
 The nation of the West-Groths, with wives and children, 403 
 flocks and herds, broke up from their seats in Mccsia and 
 Ilither-Dacia, and advanced through Illyrium, Istria, and the 
 16
 
 182 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. 
 
 north-east of Italy, without meeting any opposition. They 
 arrived within a few miles of Milan, at tliat time tlie impe- 
 rial residence, and sent a message to inform the emperor that 
 the West-Gothic nation was arrived in Italy, and prayed him 
 either to assign them land, or to try the strength of the two 
 nations in the field. Honorius replied, that they might take 
 land in either Gaul or Spain. Alaric accepted the permission, 
 though in the one country he might have to contend with the 
 Franks, in the other with the Vandals and Suevians. With- 
 out committing any act of violence, he marched towards the 
 Alps leading into Gaul, and the Goths celebrated Easter in 
 the mountains of Piedmont. In the midst of the festival, they 
 were astonished to see that they were followed by a Roman 
 army. The Goths were attacked and defeated by the assail- 
 ants, and Alaric, filled with rage, turned back on Italy. 
 
 He ravaged Liguria and all the country to Tuscany, and 
 hastened towards Rome. Her fate was averted for a season ; 
 but on the 26th August, of the year 1164 from the supposed 
 era of her foundation, Rome surrendered for the first time to 
 
 4 R a foreign e^emy, and saw herself at the mercy of Alaric. 
 
 V)9. The imperial palace and the houses of the great were plun- 
 dered ; much blood was spilt, and many houses fired. He 
 bestowed the purple on one Attalus, then stripped him of it, 
 marched southwards, and subdued Campania and Calabria, as 
 far as the strait. He was meditating, it is said, a passage to 
 Sicily and Africa, and the conquest of that country, when 
 death surprised him at Cosenzo in his 35th year. The whole 
 West-Gothic nation mourned for him, and the neighboring 
 river was diverted from its course to aflbrd a grave for the 
 Gothic monarch in its bed, and then turned back to its usual 
 channel, that tlie tomb of Alaric might never be discovered. 
 His brother-in-law, Adolf, (Athaulf) was chosen to succeed 
 him. 
 
 Adolf marched back to Rome, where his troops did great 
 injury to the public buildings and works of art The empe- 
 ror was forced to give him his sister in marriage. He con- 
 tinued his march to Gaul. All opposition gave way before 
 
 410 Gothic valor. The country bounded by the Rhone, Loire, and 
 Pyrenees, submitted to the West-Goths, and Toloza (Toulouse) 
 became their capital. They crossed the Pyrenees, and drove 
 the Vandals, Suevians, and the Slavonian Alans to the moun- 
 tains of Gallicia and Portugal. The Spaniards retamed their 
 ancient valor ; but the government of the empire was not so 
 beneficial as to deserve to be defended. This kingdom of the 
 West-Goths in Spam lasted till the year 711. 
 
 The Caledonians meantime pressed upon Britain ; Phara- 
 mond (Warmund) and his Franks had settled in the Nether
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 ■0
 
 OHAP. X. DECLINE OP THE EMPIRE. 185 
 
 lands ; Gundicher (Gunther) and his Burc^ndians, seized the 
 countxy on the Upper Rhine. His capital was Worms. Heru.i 
 and Rugians came down into Noricum (Austria;) the Lanoro- 
 bards took Pannonia (Hungary and a part of Austria ;) the 
 East-Goths, a part of Thrace. Sebastian and Jovinus raised 
 the standard of rebellion in the empire. Heraclianus, gov- 
 ernor of Africa, kept back the corn-ships destined for Rome. 
 In this state of the public affairs Honorius died, leaving the ^^ ^ 
 throne of the West to his nephew Valentinian, a child of six 42a 
 years of age. 
 
 Genseric and Attila. 
 
 In the reign of Valentinian III. Africa was lost to the 
 western empire; the cause was the ambition and art of 
 ^tius, the imperial general. Galla Placidia, the mother of 
 the young emperor, governed for him witli wisdom. Boni- 
 facius was governor of Africa. ^Etius wished to cause en- 
 mity between him and the regent. He wrote to Bonifacius, 
 telling him he had been traduced to her, and that she would re- 
 call him and put him to death ; he represented to Placidia that 
 Bonifacius was meditating rebellion, and that the only way 
 to check was to recall him : she did so; ho refused obedience : 
 it was resolved to make war on him. Bonifacius, diffident of 
 his own resources, cast his eyes on the Vandals, now masters 
 of Andalusia : he offered land on the coast of Africa, as the 
 price of their assistance, to their princes Genseric and Gon- 
 deric. Genseric, an able, enterprising, and ambitious youth, 
 immediately crossed the strait. Terror and devastition tracked 421 
 his route. B^jnifacius perceived his error : aided by some forces 
 sent by Theodosius II. emperor of the East, he armed in de- 
 fence of the country. Genseric defeated both him and the im- 
 perial general Aspar. He took Carthage, plundered it, de- 
 stroyed the nobility, and tortured all ranks to make them 
 discover their treasures. Being an Arian, he relentlessly 
 nersccuted the orthodox. 
 
 His son Hunneric was married to a West-Gothic princess. 
 As Genseric grew old, he became suspicious: he took it into 
 nis head that his daugliter-in-law meditated poisoning him, 
 and he cut off her nose and ears, and sent her home to her 
 own country. Then, fearing the vengeance of the West- 
 Goths, and a union between them and the Roman emperor 
 igainst him, he sent ambassadors to Attila, king of tlie Huns, 
 to induce him to invade the western empire. 
 
 The whole nation of the Huns was united under this noie 
 
 Erince. He ruled from the Volga to Hungary; Gepida*. 
 jangobards, East-Goths, and nations of southern Gerin;iny 
 obeyed him ; the emperor Theodosius paid him tribute 
 
 16
 
 186 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART t 
 
 700,000 warriors marched beneath his banners, each Hiinxiish 
 tribe under its chief. One soul animated the whole; all 
 yielded implicit obedience to the * mandate of their great 
 Tanjoo. Attila was generous, and not averse from mercy. 
 
 Attila resolved on w^ar. He prepared the way by artifice; 
 he wrote to Theoderic (Dietrich,) the West-Gothic king re- 
 siding at Toulouse, inviting him to unite in a partition of the 
 empire of the Romans, his sworn foes. He wrote to the im- 
 perial court, exaggeratmg the fidelity of the Huns, and pro- 
 posing to restore the integrity of the empire by a union of 
 their forces to expel the West-Goths from Gaul and Spain. 
 The imperial court saw through the artifice. Valentinian 
 called on all the barbaric monarchs of the West to join in 
 averting the common danger : his call was attended to. The 
 valiant West-Gothic monarch, the Burgundians who dwelt ia 
 the modern Burgundy, Dauphine, Savoy, and West Switzer- 
 land, Sangiban, king of the Alans, on the Loire, the towns 
 of Armorica, the community of Paris, the Ripuarian Franks 
 between the Maese and Rhine, the Salian Franks ruled by 
 Meroveus, and the Saxons beyond the Rhine, all took arms 
 to repel the Huns. 
 
 From his village-court on the banks of the Theiss, Attila 
 pursued his march through Austria, Styria, the borders of 
 Rhsetia and Allemannia, passed the Rhine, defeated at Basil 
 the king of the Burgundians, rapidly advancing, till on the 
 Marne in the plains of Croisette, not far from Chalons, he en- 
 countered the army of the confederates. 
 \. D The left wing of the confederates was commanded by 
 450. iEtius, the Roman general, the right by Theoderic, the centre 
 by king Sangiban. One wing of the army of AttUa was led 
 by the king of the Gepidas, the other by the princes of the 
 East-Goths. Attila ordered the principal efforts to be directed 
 against the West-Goths and Alans, and desired all to fix their 
 eyes on him. The fight was long and bloody. Theoderic 
 fell, encouraging his men. At the approach of night, Attila 
 found it necessary to retreat. The West-Goths burned to 
 avenge the death of their king. ^Etius judged it more politic 
 to reserve the Huns as a counterpoise to them: he also 
 wished to prolong the war, and his own command. Attila, as 
 the country was unable to support his troops, returned home. 
 i52. Vengeance, or, as is said, the invitation of a sister of the 
 ernperor, who offered him her hand, drew Attila to Italy. 
 Aquileia resisted in vain : it was levelled to the ground ; its 
 male inhabitants put to the sword, the women and children 
 led into slavery. All the towns of northern Italy were taken 
 and plundered. He entered Ravenna through a breach made 
 by the citizens m tlieir walls, to testify their submission. Leo
 
 CHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. .187 
 
 the venerable bishop of Rome, came to meet him, bearing 
 gifts, and accompanied by nobles. He besought him to spare 
 the city where the apostle had preached, and which Alaric 
 had not violated. Attila was moved : he drew off his army, 
 laden with spoil, to pasture their herds once more beyond the 
 Danube. Dreaded by the East and West, Attila died soon ^_ ^ 
 oSter, on the night of his marriage with the fair Hildichunde, 453 
 and with him expired the power of the Huns. 
 
 Fall of the Western Empire. 
 
 Valentinian HI. was a luxurious and superstitious prince. 
 He had violated the wife of Maximus, a noble Roman. Bent 
 on vengeance, Maximus, to deprive the emperor of support, 
 contrived to make him put the brave ^tius to death. This 
 incensed the guards, who.se prefect ^Etius had been, and 
 Valentinian was murdered by them. Maximus was made 45S 
 emperor, and he married Eudoxia, the widow of his predeces- 
 sor. In a moment of unguarded confidence he revealed to 
 her the secret of his being the chief agent in tlie death of 
 Valentinian. Eudoxia, who had loved the husband of her 
 youth, resolved to avenge him. She wrote to Africa to Gen- 
 seric, calling upon him to avenge the murder of him, who 
 had so many years left him in undisturbed possession of the 
 fertile regions of Africa. Genseric obeyed the summons. 
 On intelligence of his approach, all the principal citizens of 
 Rome fled to the Sabine and Tuscan mountains. Maximus 
 was put to death by the people. No resistance was offered 
 to the Vandals. Fourteen days they abode in Rome, which 
 Leo, its bishop, with difficulty saved from conflagration. The 
 empress and her daughters, the flower of the youth, the 
 artists and mechanics, were brought to Africa. The works 
 of art were embarked for the same place, but were lost on 
 the passage. All the south of Italy was wasted by the 
 Vandals. 
 
 Avitus, a man of noble descent and virtuous life, was ele- 456 
 vated to the purple in Gaul, but almost immediately laid 
 down his dignity. The Romans then chose Majorianus, a 45"; 
 brave warrior. He marched against the Alans, who were 
 threatening a descent into Italy, but was murdered by his own 46J 
 soldiers. His successor was Severus. The Alans, who were a 
 tribe of Slavonian race, had settled on the Loire in Gaul. 
 Finding themselves straitened between the Franks and the 
 West-Goths, they abandoned that country, passed the Alps, and 
 reached Bergamo. Here they were defeated by the imperial 
 general, Richimir, who shortly afterwards deposed the em- 
 peror, and raised his own father-in-law, Anthemius, to the 467
 
 188 mSTORT OF THE WORLD. PART 1 
 
 throne. He designed to govern under the name of tlie em 
 peror. Anthemius was refractory : a battle was fought near 
 Rome. Richimir was victorious ; he put Anthemius to death, 
 wasted and plundered the city in a dreadftil manner, and sur- 
 i. D. vived but forty days. Olybrius, married to a daughter of 
 4'73. Valentinian, was raised to the throne, which he occupied but 
 seven months. Glycerins, a lord of the court, was chosen by 
 the Romans; but the Eastern emperor set up Julius Nepos 
 474. against him, and Glycerins retired and took orders, and be- 
 came bishop of Porto. 
 
 The emperor sent his general, Orestes, to defend the pas- 
 sage of the Alps against the barbarians, who were continually 
 advancing. By means of his army Orestes forced him to re- 
 sign, and he invested with the purple his own son, Romulus 
 
 175. Augustus, a youth of amiable manners and cultivated mind. 
 
 The Heruli, a people whom we first find seated in Pome- 
 rania, on the shores of the Baltic, had gradually proceeded 
 southwards. They fed their herds in Pannonia, then roved 
 into Noricum, and now appeared in Italy, with other tribes, 
 headed by the valiant Odoacer. Pavia, defended by the father 
 of the young emperor, resisted. It was taken, and Orestes 
 beheaded. All the cities opened their gates at the approach 
 of Odoacer. Romulus laid down sceptre, purple, and crown, 
 and entered the camp of the Herulian chief. His life was 
 spared, and he was sent to a castle in Campania. 
 
 176. Thus, in the days of a prince of the same name as her 
 supposed founder, in the 1229th year of the city, fell the 
 empire of Rome. She had by valor and prudence risen from 
 the smallest beginnings ; had step by step enlarged her do- 
 minions, absorbed one after another all the nations of the 
 civilized world that surrounded the Mediterranean, had 
 adopted their vices, had lost her strength by internal corrup- 
 tion. The mighty colossus had long tottered on it£ base ; each 
 tribe of the Gotho-German stock had by turns agitated it : 
 the last and decisive eiibrt was reserved for the dwellers of 
 Riigen and Pomerania, a tribe unheard of in her days of 
 glory. 
 
 We here quit the ancient world. New scenes open, new 
 manners appear ; the gods of Greece and Rome have vanish- 
 ed : a different religion is dominant, before which anothet 
 ancient system also gives way ; while the wilds of Arabia 
 send forth another religion, which, in its rapidity of diffusion 
 and extent of dominion, will vie with that which emanated 
 from its vicinity six centuries before. We shall meet limitea 
 monarchy the prevalent form of government ; view the amaz 
 ing fabric of ecclesiastical dominion ; and contemplate feu- 
 dalism, with its chivalry and its martial spirit.
 
 OXBV ANTBS
 
 VraneiB I.
 
 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 ■STA4LI8IIHENT OF THE BARBARIAN'S IN THE WESTZXW EtfPniK 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Hitherto the stream of history has run m one nearly- 
 continuous channel, varying its appellation as the chief power 
 fell into the hands of a diflerent people. Assyrians, Medes, 
 and Persians, have succeeded each other in the possession 
 of Asiatic empire. Greece has risen on their ruins ; and all 
 have been finally absorbed in the wide dominion of Rome. 
 The minor streams of smaller states have only contributed 
 to swt '1 the current of empire. The face of history now 
 alters; the last great empire is dissolved; no state will ap- 
 pear of such magnitude as to absorb all others ; numerous 
 states will run a parallel course, mutually affecting each 
 other. Our plan must suit itself to the altered condition of 
 tlie world : henceforth we shall divide the course of events 
 into periods, under each of which we shall view the then 
 state of human affairs. 
 
 The middle ages occupy ten centuries of the history of 
 man. Of these, tlie six first are justly denominated the dark 
 ages. A long night succeeded to the brilliant day of Rome 
 whose sun had set in blood and gloom. In the four last cen- 
 turies of this period, it will brighten more and more into tlie 
 perfect day of mooern cultivation and refinement. Religion 
 will purify, law will resume its empire, manners will soften 
 literature and science will revive. 
 
 The Gotho- Germans. 
 
 The tribes that overturned the western empire were all 
 of this great race, which overspread nearly all tiie northern 
 part of Europe. Their original seat was probably ca.-^t of the 
 Caspian. The affinity between their languages and those of 
 
 191
 
 192 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 11 
 
 India and Persia is striking; but the date of their migration 
 is anterior to occidental history. They were distinguished 
 by their huge stature, blue eyes, and fair complexions. Their 
 religious system was a deification of the powers of nature ; it 
 still subsists in the Icelandic Eddas. 
 
 We shall now give a concise view of the states founded by 
 them on the ruins of the empire of Rome. 
 
 East- Goths in Italy. 
 
 On the death of Attila, the East-Goths threw offthtir sub- 
 jection to the Huns. Under their princes of the house of 
 the Amali, they dwelt from the Danube to the Save. They 
 received gifts from the Eastern emperors ; they gave hostages 
 in return. Among these was Theoderic (Dietrich), a natural 
 son of their king Theodemir, a youth of talent and hope. 
 Theodemir extended his conquests to the Alps. His son re- 
 turned at the age of eighteen, accomplished in the knowledge 
 of the Romans, and, unknown to his father, defeated a Sar- 
 matian prince. The Goths now extended into Illyria and 
 Macedonia, and Theoderic succeeded his father. The em- 
 peror Zeno, a weak prince, feared the ruler of the Goths : he 
 invested him with the consular robe, and allowed him to tri- 
 umph. But the Goths still felt themselves straitened ; and 
 Zeno adopted the resolution of formally bestowing on Tlieo- 
 deric Italy, now bowed beneath the sceptre of the king of the 
 Heruli. 
 
 The Gothic nation, accompanied by their families, flocks, 
 and herds, joyfully set forth under their prince, of twenty- 
 four years of age, to take possession of the blooming region 
 issigned them. Twice on the borders of Italy were the sub- 
 jects of Odoacer defeated. The Gothic warriors marched 
 through the future Venetian territory. Odoacer fled to 
 Rome, but found its gates closed against him. He shut him- 
 self up in Ravenna, defended by its morasses, works, and 
 20,000 men. In the third year of the siege, Odoacer was mur- 
 dered, and the city surrendered. Theoderic forthwith assum- 
 193. ed the Roman purple. 
 
 At Rome, where he was received with every demonstration 
 of honor, he sought to restore every thing to its state under 
 the emperors. He governed with justice : though an Arian, 
 he persecuted not the orthodox, but testified all becoming 
 respect for their bishopa Though so illiterate as not to 
 write, he encouraged learning : his chancellor was the learn- 
 ed Cassiodorus; the philosophic Boetliius was one of his min- 
 isters. Allied to most of the barbaric princes, he was a father 
 and mediator among them. His wife was daughter to Childe- 
 
 \ D
 
 t'HAP. I. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 193 
 
 bert, king of the Franks; his sister was married to Hunneric, 
 king of the Vandals ; his niece, to the king of the Thurin- 
 gians; his daughters to the monarchs of the Burgundians 
 and West-Goths. Theoderic left no son. When he felt the 
 approach of death, he summoned his nobles and officers, com- 
 mended to them his daughter Amalaswinde, and her son 
 Athalaric, a child of ten years ; advised regard to order, and a. a 
 to the senate and people of Rome, and the maintenance of ^26. 
 peace with the Eastern empire. 
 
 The ambition of the mother of Athalaric induced her to 
 associate with her in the regency her cousin Theudat. Her 
 son died of disease, and her ungrateful colleague deprived 534. 
 her of life. 
 
 Meantime the Vandal kingdom in Africa had fallen beneath 
 the arms of Belisarius, the able general of the emperor Justi- 
 nian, and Gelimir, its last sovereign, had been led in triumph 
 in Constantinople. Orders were now "issued to Belisarius to 
 avenge the daughter of Theoderic. Theudat was dethroned 536. 
 by the Gothic nation, and Vitig seated on the throne of the 
 Amali. Belisarius denied the right of the Goths to elect a 
 king over a country originally Roman. From Sicily, which 
 had already submitted, he passed over to Italy, took Naples, 
 then Rome, which he fortified ; advanced into Tuscany, and 
 defeated the Gotlis at Perusia. Milan and the neighboring 
 towns rebelled against the Arian Goths , and Vitig called 
 from Burgundy, now under the Franks, 10,000 volunteers 538 
 agfamst them. The defence of Milan was lonof and obstinate: 
 the inhabitants endured the extremities of famine; but at 
 length the Frankish arms were successful, and neither age 
 nor sex was spared in the carnage. Vitig lay fourteen months 
 before Rome, which was relieved by Belisarius; Ravenna 
 was taken, and Vitig led a captive to Constantinople. 539 
 
 The Franks fought in Italy with the success which has 
 always attended their arms in that country — victory, then 
 defeat. The Gotns were still animated by their usual heroism: 
 two kings were elected and dethroned. In the person of 54(1 
 
 Totila, the third monarch, the fame of Theoderic revived. \^ 
 
 Victory attended his arms ; he took the towns, and levelled "^ 
 
 their walls. Belisarius was absent quelling an insurrection 
 in Africa : he returned to see Rome taken before his eyes. 
 Her fortifications were destroyed ; her inhabitants of all ranks 
 driven from their homes, that she might never again be able 
 to resist the Gothic arms. Master of Italy, Totila now emu- 
 lated the mildness of Theoderic ; he recalled her population 
 to Rome, and lived as a father among his people. 
 
 Court intrigue had recalled Belisarius; the conduct of the 
 17
 
 194 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART U 
 
 Italian war was committed to the valiant eunuch Narsei 
 With the title of proconsul, and with Langobardic auxilia- 
 i. IX ries, he entered Italy. The Goths were defeated near Tajina, 
 W2. and Totila slain. The nobles of the nation raised Teias to 
 the throne in Pavia; but Nocera soon beheld his end, and 
 that of the Gothic dominion. A feeble attempt on Italy waa 
 made by the Allemanni, now subject to the Franks. 
 
 Under the admmistration of Narses, Italy enjoyed abun- 
 Jance, tranquillity, and happiness. Rome, too, gradually rose 
 again. But Narses fell under the displeasure of the emperor 
 Justin II. He left Rome and retired to Naples, whence he 
 568. sent letters inviting Alboin (Albwin), king of the Lombards, 
 to the invasion of Italy. 
 
 The Lombards in Italy. 
 
 The Longobards or Lombards had occupied the abandoneo 
 seats of the East-Goths in Pannonia. Alboin had lately con- 
 quered the Gepidse, a kindred tribe, drunk from the skull of 
 their king Kunimund, and married his daughter, Rosamund, 
 when he received the invitation of Narses. On the 22d 
 April, 568, the whole nation of the Lombards, with 20,000 
 Saxon confederates, abandoned Pannonia. On a lovely morn- 
 ing of Spring, they with rapture first beheld, from the summit 
 of the Alps, the magnificent region which was to becomv? 
 their own. Their march through the country was orderlj' 
 and peaceful ; no plunder or devastation took place ; nothing 
 was omitted to conciliate the affections of the inhabitants 
 Pavia fell before their arms, and became their capital. In a 
 short time no part of Italy remained to the empire but Ra- 
 venna, Rome, and some of the eastern sea-coast. This prov- 
 ince was governed by exarchs or proconsuls. The authority 
 of the emperors gradually diminished in Rome, and was trans- 
 ferred to the popes, of whom the virtues of many rendered 
 them worthy of the authority they enjoyed ; and Rome might 
 justly esteem herself happy, when directed by tlie meekness, 
 piety, and zeal of her more distinguished pontiffs. 
 
 The Burgundians. 
 
 Bordering on the Lombards were the Burgundians, who 
 possessed the ancient country of the Allobroges. On entering 
 this country the Burgundians had required of the former pos- 
 sessors to give up to them two-thirds of the lands, one-half of 
 the woods, houses, and gardens, and one-third of the slaves. 
 Agriculture and pasturage were the occupati ya. of the free 
 Burgundians ; the arts were exercised by the servile classes 
 They were one of the first of the barbarian nations to form a
 
 CHAP. I. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 195 
 
 eode of laws ; and the Burgundian code is distinguished from 
 that of the other nations, by not allowing a composition for 
 blood. When they entered Gaul, they had themselves in- 
 structed, during seven days, in the principles of Christianity ; 
 on the eighth &ey were baptized. 
 
 The princes of the Burgundians sought and obtained from 
 the court of Constantinople the Patriciate or government over 
 the original inhabitants : their office and their large posses- 
 sions assured them authority over their own countrymen. A 
 powerful nobility controlled their authority. Gondebald, one 
 of their sovereigns, attempted to raise his Roman subjects to 
 an equality with the Burgundians, to diminish their influence; 
 but all ranks of the latter assembled at Geneva, and forced 
 him to abandon his project. 
 
 To secure the crown to his son Sigmund, his father, Gon- 
 debald, had him, during his own lifetime, elevated, after their a. u 
 ancient manner, on the shields of the Burgundians, and pro- 515 
 cured for him the patriciate from the emperor. Sigmund was 
 married to the daughter of the great Theoderic, the East- 
 Goth. After her death, he sacrificed her son to the calumnies 
 of his second wife. Theoderic sent troops to avenge his 
 grandson, and he roused the sons of Clovis (Chlodvig) the 
 Frank to gratify the vengeance of Clotilda, their mother, 
 whose father had been put to death by his brotlier Gondebald, 
 the father of Sigmund. The Franks entered the country : 
 Sigmund fled to a convent he had founded ; he was taken 
 and slain. His brother Gondemar and the nation carried on 
 the struggle during ten years. At last Gondemar was over- 
 come, and the race of Clovis ruled over Burgundy. The 534 
 national independence, the laws, and manners stiU remained. 
 
 The Allemanni. 
 
 Northwards of the Burgundians, the Allemanni had estab- 
 lished themselves along both sides of the Rhine, from its 
 source to its confluence with the Moselle and Maine. They 
 neglected the arts of civil life; their herds' occupied and sus- 
 tained them : they loved the agitation of war, and their rude 
 policy caused them to demolish the walls of conquered towns. 
 
 Cologne, the territory of the Ripuarian Franks, having <96 
 been invaded by them, Clovis, the Salian, marched to the aid 
 of his allies. He met the Allemanni near Ziilpich. A long 
 and desperate battle ensued ; victory was declaring for tne 
 Allemanni, when Clovis, still a heathen, raised his hands to 
 heaven, and invoked the God of the Christians. His Roman 
 soldiers were stimulated to increased exertion ; they threw 
 themselves impetuously on the foe. The Allemanni were
 
 196 mSTOBY OF THE WORLD. PART H. 
 
 broken, their king waa slain, and the people submitted to the 
 rule of the king of the Franks. 
 
 The Franks. 
 
 In the third century, the warlike association of the Franks, 
 seated on the marshy confines of the Lower Rhine, began to 
 overrun Gaul, They had been gradually acquiring a firm 
 footing in that country. They were divided into several tribes, 
 governed by different chiefs of the family of Meroveus. Clovia 
 (Chlodvig) son of Chilperic, succeeded, at the age of fifteen, 
 to the command of the Salian tribe. Ambitious of conquest, 
 he led his warriors from his little kingdom of the Batavian 
 island into Graul. Numerous auxiliaries crowded to a stand- 
 ard which held forth the prospect of conquest and plunder. 
 Clovis, with rigid impartiality, divided the booty of each vic- 
 i. n tory among his followers ; but indiscriminate plunder was se 
 486 verely prohibited and punished. Syagrius, who ruled as king 
 over Soissons and the neighboring country, and whose equity 
 and justice had gained him a mild and beneficial influence 
 over the Burgundians and Franks, was the first potentate at- 
 tacked by the Frankish chief A battle decided the fate of 
 Syagrius, who fled to the court of Toulouse, where his life 
 was sacrificed to the menaces of Clovis. The district of 
 Tongres was the next acquisition of Clovis, made in the tenth 
 year of his reign. The battle of Ziilpich, just narrated, gave 
 him the sovereignty over the AUemanni. His queen, Clo- 
 tilda, was a Burgundian princess, and a Christian : her en- 
 treaties, the victory at Ziilpich, or politic views, perhaps a 
 union of all these motives, led Clovis to yield a willing ear 
 to the arguments of the Christian bishops, and he was fol 
 lowed to the font by 3000 of his warriors. 
 
 The form of Christianity embraced by Clovis, was the Cath* 
 olic. Nothing could have been more advantageous to him, 
 at least in a temporal point of view. The West-Goth and 
 Burgundian princes were Arians ; and though they treated 
 their Catholic clergy and subjects with the utmost gentleness, 
 the latter could not endure patiently the dominion of here- 
 tics. A large portion of their subjects, therefore, looked up 
 to the orthodox king of the Franks, and were ready to aid his 
 enterprises against their Arian sovereigns. Alaric, king of 
 the West-Goths, was young ; his subjects had for many yeara 
 enjoyed the luxury of peace ; his realms were fair and fruit- 
 ful ; he and his Goths were Arian sectaries. In an assembly 
 of his nobles and warriors at Paris, now the seat of his gov- 
 ernment, Clovis expressed his grief, that the fairest part of 
 Gtiul should be in the hands of Arians, and invited his war-
 
 EGBERT. 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 CANUTE. 
 
 WILLIAM I. 
 
 WILLIAM II, 
 
 HENRY I.
 
 CHAF. L BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 199 
 
 riors to join in the conquest and division of it. Such motives 
 were not to be resisted ; a numerous army soon took the field. 
 Alaric roused his Goths to arms : his troops outnumbered the 
 Franks; but the influence and the arts of the clergy were 
 with Clovis. Miracles, it was even said, came in aid of the 
 righteous cause. The river of Vienne was swollen ; but a 
 white hart appeared to conduct the Catholic army to a ford. 
 A bright meteor hung each night over the cathedral of Poi- 
 tiers; and its flame, like the pillar in the wilderness, served 
 to guide the true believers towards the station of the infi- 
 dels. Ten miles beyond that city the armies encountered. 
 Alaric fell by the hand of his rival, and the rout of the Goths 
 was complete. The whole of Aquitain was conquered and 
 colonized by the Franks, and the Gothic dominions in Gaul 
 reduced to the province of Septimania, a strip extending 
 along the Mediterranean. The emperor of the East conferred 
 on Clovis the dignity of consul and patrician; titles of no in- 
 trinsic value, but which gave him estimation in the eyes of 
 flis Gallic subjects. 4. ^ 
 
 On the death of Clovis, his extensive dominions were di- 511 
 tided among his four sons. Thierry (Dietrich) had Austrasia, 
 the eastern portion, embracing a great part of western Ger- 
 many : his capital was Metz. Clodomir resided at Orleans ; 
 Childibert, at Paris; Clotaire, at Soissons. These princes 
 -'educed Burgundy, in the conquest of which Clodomir fell. 
 The dominions of Clovis had again a single master, in the 
 person of Clotaire, his youngest son by Clotilda. The valor 558 
 of Thierry, the eldest, had added Thuringia to his domin- 
 ions. The empire was again divided, and again reunited, in 
 the person of another Clotaire, great-grandson of Clovis. His 
 eon, Dagobert I., was an able prince; but after him the sove- 613 
 reigns of the Merovingian house became utterly insignificant. 
 Their dominions were divided into two portions, Austrasia 
 and Neustria ; the latter containing the former kingdoms of 
 Paris, Orleans, and Soissons. Burgundy was dependent en 
 Neustria; but Aquitain was separated from the time of Dago- 
 bert, and governed by dukes descended from his brother Ari- 
 bert Officers, called Mayors of the Palace, whose original 
 employment had been the presentation of petitions, gradually 
 usurped all power, and eventually the throne. 
 
 The Anglo- Saxons. 
 
 On the decline of the empire, the Roman legions were 
 withdrawn from Britain. The inhabitants, enervated by civili- 
 zation and a long peace, were as.«ailed l)y the Picts and Scota. 
 and their coasts were infested by the inmrsions of the tribei
 
 200 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. P-^T " 
 
 of the north. Vortigern, who at that time enjoyed the su 
 premacy over the Britons, deemed it the wisest pohcy to gain 
 8ie alliance of some of these last, and he engaged Hengist 
 . ^ and Horsa, two Saxon chiefs, who were sailing with three 
 uf. ships along the coast, to enter his service With their aid 
 the Caledonians were reduced to peace The isle of Thanet 
 was assigned to these useful allies. A large body of Saxons 
 sailed frSm Germany and joined them m that place The 
 Saxon chiefs then persuaded the British kmg to mv te over 
 more of their countrymen, and plant them in the north. He 
 assented, and a third fleet sailed from Germany Peace did 
 not long continue between Vortigern and his allies. Saxons, 
 Jutes, Angles, poured over in vast numbers : adventurers from 
 all parts j^oined them. A long and bloody contest ended m 
 eiving the Saxons possession of all the plain country of Brit- 
 ain: the original natives could only mamtam themselves in 
 Cornwall, Wales, and the district along the western coast, m 
 the north: a portion passed over to Armonca, and gave that 
 country its present name-Bretagne. In the conquered dis- 
 tricts, the original natives were reduced to a%tate of thral 
 682. dom, and nearly exterminated. 
 
 Their conquests were divided by the Saxons into a num- 
 ber of separate and independent kingdoms. The greates. 
 number at any time was eight; but conquest, mheritance, o. 
 other causes, frequently reduced them to seven, six, five, four, 
 three, which were again dissolved, and the number mcreased. 
 The usual train of murders, usurpations, tyranny, and op. 
 pression that accompanied the various Imes of barbariaa 
 princes settled in the Roman empire, distinguished the Anglo- 
 Saxon monarchies ; but, with their barbarism and their vices, 
 they retained their freedom, and the germs of those mstitu- 
 tions of which England is now so justly proud. 
 
 The West-Goths in Spain. 
 
 The nature of the country has always favored the defence 
 of Spain. Its conquest engaged the Rx)man legions during 
 171 years; and the same period elapsed from the arrival of 
 ti 4 the Gothic king Adolph in Catalonia, before the ast king of 
 the Suevi in that country was taken, and the whole penmsula 
 submitted to the Gothic rule. , . o • • ♦icc,^ „f 
 
 The history of the Gothic monarchs in Spain is a tissue of 
 murders, usurpations, and all the eyUs attending elective 
 monarchy among an uncivilized people In 117 years, Leu- 
 vigild, the first monarch of all Spain had seventeen succe^ 
 sore \Vlien the monarchs embraced the Catholic faith, the 
 influence of the clergy greatly increased ; and though the ar
 
 CHAP. I. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 201 
 
 dent zeal of the prelates, in their numerous councils, incul- 
 cated persecution, many laws beneficial to the people in gen- 
 eral were enacted in them ; and the Visigoth code breathes a 
 more enlightened policy than those of the other states founded 
 on the ruins of Rome. 
 
 During a great part of this period the coast of Spain was 
 under the dominion of the Byzantine emperors, who encour- 
 aged the disaffection of the orthodox subjects of the Arian 
 Goths. When Recared, one of these monarchs, embraced 
 the Catholic faith, the pretext for refusing allegiance was re- 
 moved, and the Gothic monarchy had only its own internal 
 weakness to dread. 
 
 The Byzantine Empire. 
 
 The eastern or Byzantine empire, so called from the an- 
 cient name of its capital, continued to exist to the end of the 
 middle ages ; but greatly declined from the rank of the Roman 
 empire, and now only one among many of equal power and 
 dignity. Through tJie early part of tliis period it possessed 
 nearly all that was apportioned to it by Theodosius ; and, in 
 the reign of Justinian, Africa, the greater part of Italy, and 
 the coast of Spain, were annexed to it Its external enemies 
 were the Persians, the Huns, and other tribes on its northern 
 frontiers ; internally it was agitated by the contention of reli- 
 gious parties, for which a remedy was vainly sought in the 
 assembling of general councils of the prelates to settle by 
 tlieir votes what was incapable of being determined; and the 
 conduct and character of the majority of those who met in 
 solemn assembly at Ephesus, Chalcedon, and Constantinople, 
 to decide on the nature of the Son of God, showed how small 
 a portion of his spirit was abiding among them. The city of 
 Constantinople was continually thrown into disorder by the 
 furious contentions and mutual massacres of the blue and 
 green factions of the Hippodrome, and their respective parti- 
 sans and favorites. 
 
 ArcJidius, the son of Theodosius, was a weak, insignificant a. i 
 prince, entirely governed by his empress and his faithless ^^^ 
 minister RufUnus. His son, Theodosius II., partook of hia 408 
 father's weakness of character; and eunuchs and monks ex- 
 ercised unlimited power over his mind. The powerful Attila 
 threatened the throne of Byzantium, and the feeble successor 
 »f Constantino trembled and paid tribute ; but his father had 
 lad the good sense and magnanimity to commend his tender 
 fouth to the regard and protection of Yczdejird, the able 
 monarch of Persia, the enlightened tolerator of Cliristianity ; 
 md during his reign the empire was unmolested on tliat sido.
 
 202 HISTOEY OF THE WORLD. PART II. 
 
 The hours of Theodosius were devoted to study, to the chase, 
 and to the occupations of his court; and he has the honor of 
 beinf^ the first monarch who caused a collection ot the laws 
 of the empire to be made. The repose of his latter days was 
 disturbed by the first council of Ephesus; wherem the trjbu- 
 lent CyrU of Alexandria, by violence and cruelty, settled the 
 disputed question of the nature of the meek and lowly Jesus, 
 in opposition to his rival, the less fortunate, but perhaps more 
 . n pious, Nestorius, of Constantinople. 
 
 450 Pulcheria, the wise and talented sister of Theodosius, suc- 
 ceeded. Feeling the necessity of masculme energy at the 
 helm of the state, she gave her hand to Marcian, a senator, 
 who had in early life distinguished himself m the Persian 
 and other wars. With true Roman spirit, Marcian refused to 
 continue the tribute of his feeble predecessor to the kmg ot 
 the Huns. AttUa stormed and vowed vengeance; but his 
 attention being at that time drawn towards the West, he con- 
 ned himself to threats against the Byzantme monarch. 
 tS-J On the death of Marcian the throne was filled by Leo, a 
 prince not unworthy of it; but he stained his fame by his in- 
 gratitude to Aspar, to whom he owed his elevation. His in- 
 fant grandson succeeded, whose father, an Isaurian by birth, 
 but who had taken the Grecian name of Zeno, governed m 
 his stead. The infant emperor dying prematurely, suspicion 
 fell on his father; and Verina, the widow of Leo, drove him 
 from his throne, which she bestowed onher brothei Basilicus. 
 But this prince, having offended his sister, a conspiracy de- 
 livered him and his family into the power of the relentless 
 491 Zeno, who recovered his throne. On the death of Zeno, his 
 widow, the virtuous Ariadne, bestowed her hand and the em- 
 pire upon Anastatius, a domestic of the palace, whoso charac- 
 ter is expressed by the popular cry at his accession : " Keign 
 as you have lived !" . , 
 
 After a reign of twenty-seven years, Anastatius diefl, leav- 
 ing no heirs. The eunuch Amantius determmed to give the 
 purple to some one in whose obsequiousness he might confide. 
 To assure his measures, he intrusted a large sum of money, 
 to be distributed by way of donative among the guards, to 
 Justin their commander, originally a Dacian peasant Justin 
 was false to his trust : he gained the suflrages of the soldiers 
 518 for hunself; and the Uliterate peasant was seated on the 
 throne of the Caesars, which he occupied not discreditably 
 durinar a reign of nine years. 
 627 Justinian succeeded his uncle Justm. The talent of this 
 prince lay in the selection of fit persons to execute his plana 
 of war and legislation ; for he never himself appeared in the
 
 
 Ivan IV. the Trrbiblb.
 
 Don John of Austri*.
 
 CHAI i. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 205 
 
 field, and his mind was narrow and confined. Yet Justinian 
 haa the fame of formir.g a regular and copious body of juris- 
 prudence, embracing, digesting, and simplifying tlie mass of 
 judicial wisdom, wlich had accumulated under the kings, 
 consuls, and emperors. This important work was executed 
 by the ablest lawyers of the age, under the superintendence 
 of the great Tribonian. The emperor discerned also in tlie 
 camp the merit of Belisarius, a general worthy to stand in 
 competition with those of any age. The Roman arms, under 
 the conduct of Belisarius, checked the pride of Persia; over- 
 turned the Vandal ic kingdom in Africa, and reduced that 
 country to a province of the empire ; conquered the East- 
 Goths of Italy, and led their king a captive to Constiintino- 
 ple. But the great military and private virtues of Belisarius 
 were shaded by too slavish a submission to the arbitrary will 
 of an ungrateful court, and too great blindness to the vices of 
 his wife, the wanton and vindictive Antonina. The emperor 
 himself was the slave of his passion for the empress Theo- 
 dora; who, from the condition of the vilest of prostitutes and 
 most shameless of pantomimists, had been elevated to a share 
 of the imperial throne. Justinian had a thirst for fame; he 
 adorned the capital with stately buildings. The church of 
 St. Sophia, now a mosch, remains a monument of his taste. 
 
 One of his nephews, Justin II., was the successor of Jus- a.n 
 tinian. In his reign Narsos, the valiant eunuch, offended, as ^^^ 
 is said, by an expression of the empress Sophia, invited the 
 Lombards into Italy ; and that country was lost to the empire. 
 Disease afflicted Justin: lie was unable to leave his palace 
 and attend to the affairs of his people ; his mind was over- 
 whelmed with the rntignitude and responsibility of his office; 
 he resolved to appoint a successor, and abdicate. The em- 
 press recommended Tit)erius, the ca])tain of his guard. Justin 
 transferred to him his diadem, in the presence of the patriarch 
 and the senate ; and during the four years he survived, he ex- 
 perienced every attention from the worthy object of his gen- 
 erosity. 
 
 Tiberius governed with every Idngly virtue. Success 57^ 
 cniwned the arms of his generals in the Persian war; but a 
 fatal di-sease seized on the excellent monarch, and, in four 
 years afler the death of Justin, carried him off, amidst tlie 
 tears of his people. He gave his daughter and his diadnm 
 to Maurice, a prince worthy to occupy his throne. But in a 582 
 war against the Avars, a tribe of Turkish race, Maurice re- 
 fused to redeem the prisoners who had fallen into their hands. 
 The army mutinied, Mm! invested Phocas, a centurion, with 
 18
 
 k. D. 
 
 206 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART 11 
 
 the purple ; and by his order Maurice and his children were 
 murdered. 
 
 602. The vices and tyranny of Phocas disgraced the throne 
 which had been adorned by the virtues of his predecessors. 
 Every province was ripe for insurrection. Heraclius, the 
 exarch of Africa, refused tribute and obedience to the tyrannic 
 centurion. Crispus, the son-in-law of Phocas, who trembled 
 for his life, joined the senate in calling upon Heraclius to save 
 the empire. The task was committed by Herac'ius to his 
 son of the same name. An African fleet appeared before 
 Constantinople : the tyrant was deserted, taken, and put to 
 death. 
 
 "iio. The reign of Heraclius was a series of struggles against 
 ^reign enemies. Chosroes (Khosroo), the Persian monarch, 
 under pretext of avenging the death of Maurice, had made 
 war on Phocas. The first intelligence Heraclius received 
 was that of the capture of Antioch. Jerusalem was next 
 taken by the victorious Persians ; they poured into Egypt, 
 and the Persian standard was carried as far as Tripoli An- 
 other Persian army lay during ten years encamped on the 
 Rosphorus, in view of Constantinople. The Avars occupied 
 Thrace, and pressed tiie capital ; and Heraclius narrowly es- 
 caped becoming the victim of their perfidy. A peace was a 
 length granted by the Persian king, on the condition of a 
 most enormous tribute. During the time allotted for the col- 
 lection of it, Heraclius prepared for a desperate struggle : he 
 put forth the soul and energy of a hero, and in six glorious 
 campaigns retrieved the honor of the empire ; Assyria, and 
 the re<)ions beyond the Tigris, then beheld, for the first time 
 the victorious standards of Rome. Meanwhile the heroism 
 of the emperor was caught by his people, and the Avars ana 
 their allies were driven with loss from before Constantinople. 
 But while Heraclius and Chosroes were thus mutually ex- 
 hausting their strength, a new enemy, who meditated the 
 overthrow of both, was looking on with secret satisfaction ; 
 and in the heart of Arabia a storm was preparing to burst 
 over both their empires. 
 
 Persia. 
 
 We have seen that the Parthians had recovered the greater 
 part of the original dominions of the Persian kings from the 
 descendants of Seleucus, and had long proved the most for- 
 midable enemies of them and of the Romans. Their empire 
 had gradually declmed; and Ardeshir, or Artaxerxes, a Per- 
 sian, and an officer of reputation in the army of Artaban, the 
 Pnrthian king, and who was. or gave himself out to be, »
 
 CHAP 1. BARBARIANS IN THE WESfERN EMPIRE. 207 
 
 lineal descendant of the ancient Persian monarchs, thruugli 
 his valor and conduct succeeded in wresting the sceptre from ^ ^ 
 the feeble grasp of the Arsacides, and tlie empire again be- 2iifi 
 came Persian. 
 
 The restoration of every thing to its original state in the 
 glorious days of the ancient monarchs, was the first object of 
 Ardeshir. The Mobeds or priests of the national religion 
 were summoned from their retirement to consult on the re- 
 establishment of the worsliip of Ormuzd in its original purity ; 
 for though the ancient religion had not undergone any perse- 
 cution from the Arsacides, it had not been held in honor, and 
 its ministers had languished in obscurity. But now, under a 
 prince who regarded himself as the son of the Kaianides, the 
 ruligious system, which had animated tlie soul and nerved 
 the arm of that illustrious house, was again to flourish ; the 
 disciple of Zerdusht (Zoroaster) again to combat beneath the 
 banner of Ormuzd, against Ahriman and the powers of dark- 
 ness ; and the sacred fire to flame once more on a thousand 
 altars. 
 
 By the side of religion stood military renown. Ardeshir 
 put forth a claim to all the countries once contained in the 
 Persian empire, and carried on heavy wars with the Romans 
 'or Anterior Asia, where, in Armenia, they still maintained 
 on a throne the remnant of the Parthian royal family. Shah- 
 poor (Sapores,) the son of Ardeshir, continued the wars of his 
 father, and extended his empire towards the west. The Ro- 
 man emperor Valerian ended his days a captive in the hands 
 of this monarch. Galerius, whom Diocletian raised to the 
 dignity of Cfcsar, forced tlie Persifin king, Narses, to a peace, 
 which lasted forty years, and gave Osrhoene and Nisibis to 
 the empire. 
 
 The Persian Yezdejird was the friend of the emperor Ar- 
 cadius, and was suspected of Christianity by his orthodox sub- 
 jects. Bahram, tlie succeeding king, was one of the best and 
 greatest of the Sassanides. Feroze made war on the Neph- 
 thalites, or White Huns, whose king had been his friend and 
 protector, and lost his life in battle against them. His son, 488 
 Cobad, waged war witli the emperor Anastatius. His more 
 illustrious son and successor, known in the West as Chosroes, 
 in the East as Noosheerwan the Just, continued the wars of 
 his father through the reign of Justinian; but in Belisarius he 
 met an opponent such as the empire had never yet opposed 
 to the generals of the Persian kings. The struggle was 
 maintained throughout tlie life of Noosheerwan with mutual 
 loss, and the final gain of neither. Hormuz, his son, in despite 57* 
 of he careful education bestowed by his father, became a
 
 208 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART It 
 
 tyrant: the provinces rose in rebellion; the Roman arms ad 
 4. IX vanced on one side, the Turkish Khan on another. A hert^ 
 590. Bahram, saved his country, and usurped the throne. Hormui 
 died in prison ; his son, Khosroo, fled to the protection of 
 Maurice ; the Roman arms and his faithful subjects restored 
 him to the throne of his fathers : Bahram fled to the Turks, 
 and there died by poison. Khosroo, as we have just seen, 
 took arms to avenge the murder of his protector Maurice, and 
 ■♦28. carried on a long and bloody war with Heraclius. Defeated 
 by the Romans, he was murdered by his son Siroes. The 
 parricide enjoyed the fruit of his crimes but eight montha 
 Twelve years longer tlie empire was agitated by anarchy and 
 bloodshed, till the victorious arms of the Arabian khalifs ended 
 the dominion of the house of Sassan in the person of Yezde- 
 lird III. 
 
 CHAP. n. 
 
 THE TIMES OF MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHAUFS. 
 
 Mohammed. 
 
 While Chosroes of Persia was pursuing his dreams of re- 
 covering and enlarging the empire of Cyrus, and Heracliua 
 was gallantly defending the empire of the Csesars against 
 him ; while idolatry and metaphysics were difiusing their 
 baleful influence through the church of Christ, and the sim- 
 plicity and purity of the Gospel were nearly lost beneath tlie 
 mythology, which occupied the place of that of ancient Greece 
 and Rome, the seeds of a new empire, and of a new religion, 
 were sown in the inaccessible deserts of Arabia. 
 Sfiy- At the time when the sceptre of Constantinople was swayed 
 by the pious nephew of o ustinian, and that of Persia by the 
 vigorous hand of Noosheerwan the Just, was born in the city 
 of Mecca, in Arabia, Mohammed, the son of Abdallah, and 
 grandson of Abd-ul-Motallib, one of the richest and most gen- 
 erous chiefs of the Koreish. Mohammed was early left an 
 orphan ; his uncles were numerous and powerful, and, in the 
 division of his grandfather's property, his share was but five 
 camels and a female slave. His uncle A boo Taleeb reared 
 him : at the age of twenty-five he entered the service of Kha- 
 dijah, a rich widow of Mecca ; and with her merchandise ac- 
 companied the caravans to Damascus. The honor and fidelity 
 of the factor to his mistress was exemplary ; the person of 
 Mohammed was handsome and dignified, his aspect majestic;
 
 CHAP, n MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. 209 
 
 his eye penetrating', his smile irresistible, his voice harmoni- 
 ous, and eloquence flowed from his tongue. Khadijah admired 
 and loved ; the generosity of Aboo Taleeb made up the defi- 
 ciency of his nephew's fortune : she gave him her hand and 
 her wealth, and thus raised him to his proper rank in society. 
 The gratitude and affection of the son of Abdallah caused the 
 noble matron never to regret her act. 
 
 Mohammed was of a serious contemplative mind. He had 
 long been convinced of the great truth of the unity of the 
 Deity, and he mourned over the idolatry of his countrymen. 
 [n the solitude of a cavern near Mecca, whither he used to 
 retire for meditation, he reflected on the best mode of bring- 
 ing them to an acknowledgment of the truth. Arabian tra- 
 dition spake of ancient prophets sent to reclaim men from 
 error; Moses and Jesus were, he knew, commissioned from 
 heaven to teach ; he may iiave expected a similar commission; 
 his enthusiasm may .have beguiled his imagination, and in 
 ecstatic vision tlie angel Gabriel possibly may have appeared 
 to descend to him : but it is far more probable that he con- 
 ceived that the end justified the means ; that the arguments 
 of reason, which he had, porhaps, already tried, would have 
 no eflfect on the obtuse minds of the adorers of 860 idols ; that 
 only as the envoy of heaven could he look for attention, and 
 that his first vision of Grabriel was as fictitious as his latter 
 ones notoriously were. 
 
 In the 40th year of his age, Mohammed announced to his t!09 
 wife Khadijah, his slave Zeid, his pupil Ali, and his friend 
 Abof^ Beker, a direct commission from God to preach the 
 doctrine of his Unity. They may have believed, they may 
 have seen the distant prospects of temporal power and glory 
 that awaited them ; they acknowledged the prophet. During 
 tlie ne.xt three years, ten of the principal citizens of Mecca 
 mbraced the new faith. In the fourth year, he offered the 
 lessing to his own kindred, the race of Ilashem; and was 
 warned in vain by Aboo Taleeb, the father of Ali, to abandon 
 his impracticable project. Ten years longer he preached 
 pul)licly and privately in Mecca to the inhabitants and as- 
 sembled pilgrims, warning them to embrace the truth, and to 
 remember the fate of the tribes of Ad and Thamood, whose 
 impenitence had brought down the vengeance of offended 
 heaven. 
 
 Persecution was at length employed against him and his 
 disciples. As long as Aboo Taleeb lived, he protected his 
 nephew, though he rejected his prophetic claims; but he 
 died: the faithful Khadijah soon followed him; Alxv) Sofian, 
 % declared enemy, succeeded to the place and power of Aboo 
 18* 
 
 A E
 
 210 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART 11 
 
 Taleeb ; and the death of Mohammed was resolved on. Timely 
 information enabled him and his friend Aboo Beker to fly to 
 the concealment of a cavern; where, durmcr three days, they 
 escaped the perquisitions of their enemies. They then mount- 
 ed their camels and fled towards Yatreb : on the road they 
 
 ». D. were overtaken ; but by prayers and promises they escaped. 
 
 622. This memorable event, denominated tlie Hejira, or Flight, 
 gave name and origin to the era by which years are counted 
 in all countries professing the tenets of Islam. 
 
 At Yatreb, henceforth called Medinat-en-Nabi (the City 
 of the Prophet), he was received with every testimonial of 
 respect. Its principal citizens had already formed with him 
 at Mecca a treaty of conversion and alliance; and the people 
 had ratified the compact, and now submitted to his rule as 
 prophet and king. War ensued between his new subjects 
 and his foes at Mecca : the white banner of the prophet was 
 soon seen to float before the gates of Medina ; and his sacred 
 person was not unsparingly exposed in the tumult of the 
 conflict 
 
 Mohammed may have been originally only an enthusiast, 
 and have dreamed of no other weapons for the diffiision of his 
 faitli than those of eloquence and persuasion. At the head 
 of an army he became a fanatic. The sublime doctrine of 
 the Unity might, he saw, be made the foundation of temporal 
 dominion. The Koran — the book of his law — now breathes 
 a fiercer tone, and the sword is to be called to the aid of the 
 truth. Henceforth we are to contemplate the prophet as a 
 
 62a prince and conqueror at the head of armies. The battle of 
 Beder was the commencement of his career of victory. Aboo 
 Sofian was, with only thirty or forty followers, conducting a 
 caravan of 1000 camels : a party of the troops of the prophet, 
 in number 313, lay in wait for it; the Koreish, to the amount 
 of 100 horse and 850 foot, advanced to its protection. The 
 prophet and his troops lay between the caravan and the 
 troops of Mecca : he determined to assail the latter ; exhorted 
 his men, ascended a pulpit, and called on God for the aid of 
 Gabriel and 3000 angels. His troops were yielding; the 
 prophet mounted his horse, cast a handful of sand into the 
 air, crying, "Let their faces be covered vi^ith confusion." 
 The Koreish were panic-struck, and fled ; 70 were slain, an 
 equal number taken prisoners. A second battle was fought 
 a,t Mount Ohud, near Mecca. The Koreish were 3000 strong, 
 the followers of the prophet numbered hut 950; and, notwith- 
 standing his military skill and valor, he was forced to abandon 
 the field, and the bodies of 70 of the saints. Next year 10,00C 
 
 625 men sat down, in vain, before the wails of Medina; tempests
 
 MicHAKL Romanoff.
 
 :HAP. tl. MOHAMMED AND THE FIRS" KHALIFS. 213 
 
 and dissension forced them to reiire without fame, and the 
 Korrish lost their hopes of overcoming the exile. 
 
 Tiifi Jews fonned several tribes in Arabia. Mohammed at 
 first sought to gain them to his ^ith ; but, finding them in 
 flexible, he unsheathed the sword against them. Everywhere 
 their resistance was overcome, and their treasures divided 
 among tlie victorious Mussulmans. The conquest of Mecca 
 was the object next the prophet's heart : he advanced against 
 it ; but awed by the martial appearance of the Koreish, he 
 negotiated and concluded a truce for ten years, stipulating a 
 permission to enter the city the following year to perform 
 his devotions. In the pilgrimage made in consequence by 
 him and his followers, Khaled and Amroo, the bravest war- 
 riors of the Koreish, embraced the faith of Islam. The Kore- 
 ish were soon accused of breach of truce ; 10,000 Moslems 
 marched against the holy city ; resistance was not to be at- 
 tempted ; and Aboo Sofian in person presented the keys to ^ ^ 
 Mohammed, and confessed him to be the prophet of the one 6W 
 true God. 
 
 The last great efl^ort in the sinking cause of the idols was 
 made in the valley of Honain, in the war called that of the 
 Idols. A confederacy was formed, at the head of which 
 stood the people of Tayef, a strong fortress, sixty miles south- 
 east of Mecca : 4000 of the confederates occupied the valley 
 of .onain; 12,000 Moslems advanced with rash confidence, 
 anci were speedily thrown into confusion : the prophet was 
 surrounded, and only saved by the devotedness of ten of his 
 disciples; his own voice, and that of his uncle Abbas, re- 
 stored the battle. The idolaters were finally routed ; Tayef 
 taken, and their temples destroyed. The whole of Arabia 
 now acknowledged that " there was but one God, and thac 
 Mohammed was his prophet ;" and a train of 114,000 True 
 Believers attended his last pilgrimage to the Caabah. 
 
 When the Moslem ambassador waited on Heraclius to 
 invite him to the profession of Islam, a degree of amity en- 
 sued between the emperor and the prophet. The murder of 
 a Moslem envoy in tlie empire gave the Arabs the wished-for 
 pretext for invading the country east of the Jordan. The 
 command of 3000 men was intrusted to Zeid, and in case of 
 his death to Jaaifer, and then to Abdallah. In the battle of 
 Muta the three leaders fell gallantly fighting. Kiialed re- 
 stored the battle, and repulsed the Christians. At the head 
 of 10,000 horse, and 20,CKH) foot, the prophet advanced 
 towards Syria, in the hottest season of the year. Thoir suf- 
 ferings were intolerable ; and when lliey reached the fountain 
 of Tabook, midway between Mecca and nnniascii!». he do-
 
 k.D 
 
 214 ' BISTORT OJ- THE WORLD. PART n. 
 
 clared himself satisfied of the peaceful intentions of the em- 
 peror; perhaps he dreaded the number and vabr of the 
 
 _. „ Roman troops. 
 
 630 In the 63d year of his age, Mohammed, after beholding his 
 religion spread over the Arabian peninsula, felt the approach 
 of death: he comforted and instructed his friends and the 
 people, manumitted his slaves, gave orders about his funeral, 
 appointed Aboo Beker to pronounce public prayer in his place, 
 and then calmly expired. The disconsolate Moslems wouk 
 not believe him dead till their clamor was silenced by the 
 
 632. scimitar of Omar and the arguments of Aboo Beker. 
 
 The First Khalifa. 
 On the death of the prophet, it might have been expected 
 that Ali, his cousin and earliest disciple, and who was mar- 
 ried to his daughter Fatema, would have been appointed 
 Khalif, i. e. successor ; but Ayesha, the favorite wife of Mo- 
 hammed, was his mortal enemy. Discord was on the point 
 
 632. of breaking out, when Omar proposed the election of the 
 venerable Aboo Beker: he was accepted, and durmg two 
 years governed with justice and impartiality. In his reign, 
 the indefatigable Khaled continued his conquests m Syria, 
 and from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean the khalif was 
 obeyed. 
 
 634. The sceptre was bequeathed by the khalif to Omar, one of 
 the oldest of the companions of the prophet. In the twelfth 
 year of his reign, Omar perished by the dagger of an assas- 
 sin. Ali still forbore putting forward his claims; and sa 
 electors, of whom he himself was one, chose Othman, the 
 
 644. secretary of the prophet 
 
 Othman was unequal to his high situation : old age had 
 enfeebled his mental powers. The subjects became discon- 
 tented. A large army assembled before Medina ; the khalif 
 was forced to surrender, and he fell with the Koran in hig 
 lap. The brother of Ayesha headed the assassins. The public 
 
 555. choice now fell on Ali. 
 
 Ali in old age displayed all the daring courage of his youth. 
 Two powerful chiefs, Telha and Zobeir, erected the standard 
 of revolt in Irak : they were joined by Ali's implacable enemy, 
 Ayesha, and, mounted on her camel, she appeared in the 
 thickest of the battle, encouraging the rebels, but in vain ; 
 they were slain, and she was taken. The khalif reproached 
 her, and then dismissed her to pass the remainder of her days 
 at the tomb of the prophet. A more formidable enemy now 
 appeared in Moawiyah, son of Aboo Sofian, and governor of 
 Syria, who assumed the title of khalif, and gave himself o •
 
 A D 
 
 iJHAP. II. jtfOHAMMED AND THE FIKST KHALIFS. 215 
 
 as the avenger of Othman, wliose Woody shirt he exposed in 
 the inosch of Damascus. I'he cause of Moawiyah waa em- 
 bcaced by Amroo, llie conqueror of Egypt Ali took the field 
 with an inferior force, and during 110 days a war waa wao-ed 
 on the plain of Siffin, on the western bank of the Euphrates, 
 to the advantage of Ali, till the superstition and disobedience 
 of his troops forced him to yield to a treaty. Ali did not long 
 .survive. Three fanatics met in the temple of Mecca, and 
 agreed to murder Ali, Moawiyah, and Amroo, as the only 
 means of restoring peace to tlic church and state. Each chose 
 his victim: he alone succeeded who selected Ali, who fell by 
 his dagger in the mosch of Cufa, in tlie 63d year of his age. 
 Moawiyah was now acknowledged khalif, and the seat of em- ^ „ 
 pire transferred to Damascus. 6oO 
 
 The virtues of the first four khalifa are acknowledged ; 
 but, by a large portion of the Mohammedan church, the first 
 three are looked on and cursed as usurpers. Those that hold 
 this opinion are denominated Sheeahs, and it is an article of 
 their faith, that Ali is the vicar of God. This is the estab- 
 lished religion of Persia. The Soonees, or orthodox, to whom 
 the Turks belong, regard all the four as rightful successors 
 of the prophet, but they assign the lowest degree of sanctity 
 to Ali. It is almost needless to add, that the hatred of the 
 rival sects is most cordial and intense. 
 
 Conquest of Syria. 
 
 During the reign of the first four khalifs, Syria, Persia, 
 and Egypt were conquered by their lieutenants, and the law 
 of the Prophet embraced, or tribute yielded, by tiie inhabit- 
 ants. 
 
 On the accession of Aboo Beker, he dispatched an army, 63t 
 under the command of Aboo Obeidah, for the conquest of 
 Syria. The first object of their attack was the fortress of 
 Bozra, eastward of the Jordan. The false confidence of the 
 people, and the treachery of the governor, delivered it into 
 flic hands of the Moslems. Damascus was distant but four 
 flays' journey ; its siege was undertaken ; but intelligence of 
 the approach of a large army to its relief, induced the Mo- 
 hammedan chiefs to suspend their operations till they had 
 encountered the imperial forces. All the forces scattered on 
 the borders of Syria and Palestine were summoned to tlie 
 standard of the faith. 
 
 On the plains of Aiznadin, the troops of the khalif, 45,000 633 
 in number, and guided by Khaled, Amroo, and their most dis- 
 tinguished leaders, encountered the Christian host of 70,000 
 naen. Liberal offers of peace were made by tlie Greeks, and
 
 216 HISTORY OF TUB WORLD. PART n. 
 
 disdained by the Arabs. The conflict began; it continued 
 throughout the day with doubtful success; in the evening, 
 Khaled made a furious onset, and victory declared for the 
 Moslem arms : the field was covered with the bodies of the 
 Christians, and inestimable booty rewarded the victors. Da- 
 mascus was again invested. Animated by their brave gov- 
 ernor, Thomas, a nobleman allied to the emperor, the garrison 
 and citizens offered a gallant resistance ; till after experienc- 
 ing the inutility of all the efforts of valor, they capitulated to 
 the mild and upright Aboo Obeidah, on condition of those who 
 chose being permitted to depart with as much as they could 
 , t carry of their effects, and those who stayed being allowed to 
 6 retain their lands, houses, and seven churches tributary to 
 the khalifs. A large number departed. Urged by the im- 
 portunity of a Syrian renegade, whose mistress was among 
 the fugitives, Khaled pursued them with 4000 horse. The 
 ill-fated Damascenes were overtaken ; not a soul, save one, 
 escaped the Arabian scimitar ; but the traitor to his country 
 and his faith perished by the dagger of his indignant mistress 
 at the moment he attempted to embrace her. 
 63> The following year saw Heliopolis, or Baalbek, the capital 
 of the rich valley of Hollow Syria, and Hems, or Emessa, the 
 chief city of the plain, in the hands of the khalirs lieuten- 
 ants. 
 
 636 The banks of the Yermuk, a stream that flows from Mount 
 Hermon into the lake of Tiberias, was the scene of the last 
 great battle for the possession of Syria. Eighty thousand of 
 file imperial troops stood with 60,000 Christian Arabs of the 
 tribe of Gassan against the Moslems. It was the most doubt- 
 fiil day the faithful had yet seen ; but the Sword of God (so 
 Khaled was styled) was victorious. Countless was the loss 
 of the Christians ; 4030 Moslems lay on the plain. 
 
 After a month spent at Damascus, to recruit their vifi^o 
 and divide the spoil, the impatient host marched to invest tii 
 sacred walls of Jerusalem. The siege lasted four months ; 
 a surrender was then offered to the khalif in person. The 
 sanctity of the place moved Omar, and he undertook the jour- 
 ney from Medina through the waste. The holy city received 
 the khalif, and on the site of the temple he laid the founda- 
 
 637 tion of the mosch named from himself. 
 
 538 Aleppo and Antioch, the only remaining places of strength, 
 submitted to the victorious arms of the Arabs, and aU Syria 
 obeyed the successor of the prophet. Heraclius abandoned 
 that portion of his dominions in despair, and the ravages of 
 the Moslems extended to withm view of Constantinople.
 
 Ill ;iliMtii"''' 
 
 ■7: '. 
 
 ^^X
 

 
 CHAP. IL MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIF8 219 
 
 Conquest of Persia. 
 
 In the first year of Aboo Beker, Khaled appeared on the g32 
 banks of the Euphrates. In the same year with the conquest 
 of Syria, 30,000 Moslems engaged the numerous host of Yez- 6.S8 
 dejird III., the youthful grandson of Khosroo, on the plains 
 of Cadesia, on the edge of the desert, 61 leagues from the 
 future Bagdad. The troops of Persia were commanded by 
 Roostem, a namesake of the national hero; the Direfsh-e- 
 Kawanee, or Apron of Kawah, the banner of the empire, 
 blazed in their front. On the fourth day of the battle, the 
 flying Roostem was overtaken and slain, and the jewel-set 
 Direfsh-e-Kawanee was captured. All Irak, the ancient As- 
 syria, submitted, and the city of Bassora was founded, to com- 
 mand the trade of Persia. 
 
 In the third month after the battle, the Tigris was passed ; 
 iVIadain or Ctesiphon, the capital of the empire, waa taken 
 by assault, and immense plunder enriched the faithful. Yez- 
 dejird had fled to Holwan, at the foot of the hills of Media. 
 The loss of the fortress of Jaloola made him fly to the moun- 
 tains of Farsistan, the country of Cyrus. At Nahavend, to 
 the south of Hamadan, 1.50,000 Persians made a final effort 
 for their country and their religion. The appellation, Victory 
 of victories, bestowed on this battle by the Arabs, proves the 
 fatal result All the cities and towns of Persia submitted to 
 the conquerors. Their banners approached the Caspian and 
 the Oxus. Vezdejird had fled to Chorasan, and taken refuge 
 in Merv. The governor of that city invited the khakan of 
 the Turks to take possession of his person. The Turks en- 
 tered, and made themselves masters of Merv. Yezdejird es- 
 caped during the confusion, and sought shelter with a miller, 
 who murdered him while he slept, for the sake of his rich 651 
 irms and robes. 
 
 Conquest of Egypt. 
 
 The year in which the conquest of Syria was completed 638 
 *Jiat of Rgypt commenced. Aniroo marched from Gaza with 
 4000 Arabs. After a siege of thirty days, Pelusium surren- 
 dered. Memphis held out seven months against the Saracen 
 army, now double its original number. It was taken by as- 
 sault. The city of Cairo rose on the spot where tlie Arabs 
 had encamped. 
 
 Religious enmity fiicilitated the conquest of the country. 
 The Egyptians hated the creed and the government of the 
 emperors. A treaty was entered into between Amroo and 
 Mokawkas, a noble Egyptian. It was agreed that, for a mod-
 
 220 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART U. 
 
 erate tribute, the Christian inhabitants should be left in the 
 <\ill enjoyment of their religion and their property. The 
 whole nation fell off from the Greeks, and every assistance 
 was rendered to the Arabs. The city of Alexandria remained 
 to be conquered; an achievement, perhaps, surpassing in 
 difficulty any the Arabs had yet attempted. Its inhabitants 
 were numerous and resolute, its supplies abundant, the sea 
 was open, affording a facility of relief. The Saracens strained 
 every nerve ; the tribes of the desert crowded to the standard 
 t. n. of Amroo ; the Egyptians labored strenuously, and, at the 
 ^■'39 end of fourteen months and the loss of 2.3,000 men, the Mos- 
 lems saw themselves masters of the capital of Egypt. The 
 khalif rigidly forbade pillage ; a tribute was imposed on the 
 inhabitants. The truth of the destruction of the library of 
 the Ptolemies has been questioned. The loss of Alexandria 
 hastened the death of Heraclius. In the space of four years 
 two fruitless attempts were made to recover it. 
 
 Invasion of Africa. 
 
 5-47. Under the reign of Othman the conquest of Africa was 
 attempted by the Moslem arms, led by Abdallah, the foster- 
 brother of the khalif At the head of 40,000 men, he ad- 
 vanced from Egypt into the west. After a toilsome march 
 they appeared before the walls of Tripoli; but tlie approach 
 of the prefect Gregory, with a numerous army, called the 
 Saracens from the siege to the field. For several days the 
 two armies encountered from morning till noon. The daugh- 
 ter of Gregory fought by his side, and her hand and 100,000 
 pieces of gold were offered to the warrior who should bring 
 the head of the Arab general. Zobeir, who afterwards feil 
 in rebellion against the khalif All, joined his brethren : hia 
 stratagem defeated the army of Gregory, who fell by hia 
 hand. The town of Sufatula, 1.50 miles south of Carthage, 
 was taken. The country on all sides implored the clemency 
 of the conqueror ; but his losses and the appearance of an 
 epidemic disease prevented a settlement being formed, and 
 after a campaign of fifteen months, the Saracen army re-en- 
 tered Egypt with their captives and their booty. 
 
 From the battle of Beder till the death of AH, a period 
 elapsed of 37 years, during which the arms of the Arabs had 
 penetrated from the heart of Arabia to the banks of the 
 Oxus and Indus, and the shores of the Euxine and Caspian. 
 The Nile ro led within their dominions ; Africa, Cyprus, and 
 Rhodes, had jeen visited and plundered by their victorioua 
 warriora
 
 CHAP II. MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFA. 221 
 
 The Ommiyades. 
 
 When Ali was murdered, his rights passed to his son Has- 
 san, who was induced by Moawiyah to abandon his claim 
 and retire to Medina. The khalifat was now established in 
 the house of Oininiyah, in which it continued during seventy 
 years through fourteen khalifs, and extended its sway from 
 the Pyrenees and the Atlantic to the borders of Turkestan 
 and India, the largest empire and most powerful monarchs of 
 the globe. This dynasty derived its appellation from Oinmi- 
 yah, one of the chiefs of tlie Koreish : Aboo Sofian, his de- 
 scendant, long resisted the prophet ; his son, Moawiyah, be- 
 came his secretary, and Omar made iiim governor of Syria. 
 The first Ommiyah Khalif was a man of courage, though he 
 declined the proposal of the chivalrous Ali, who offered to 
 decide their dispute by single combat: his son Yezid, and his 
 successors, were princes of little merit, and never partook in 
 the toils and glories of war. 
 
 Conquest of Africa. 
 
 Oppressed by the exactions of the court of Byzantium, the 
 people of Africa invoked the aid of the Arabs. The lieuten- 
 ant of Moawiyah entered Africa, defeated an imperial army 
 of 30,000 men, and returned laden with booty. Akbeh, a . 
 valiant warrior, marched from Damascus with 10,000 Arabs ; 
 his army was joined by numerous African auxiliarits; victory 
 led him to the shores of the Atlantic, and he founded the 
 city of Cairoan, fifty miles south of Tunis, to secure his con- 
 quests. But Akbeh fell in battle against the revolted Greeks 
 and Africans. His successor, Zuheir, shared his fate. The 
 final conquest was reserved for Hassan, governor of Egypt, 
 who took and destroyed Carthage, and subdued the Berbers 4. l 
 of the desert. Musa, his successor, broke their power ef- Toy 
 fectually when they rose in rebellion. 
 
 Conquest of Spain. 
 
 The Gothic monarchy in Spain was now utterly enfeebled 
 Having no foreign foes, military discipline had been neglect- 
 ed, and luxury had quite altered the descendants of Theo- 
 deric. Roderic, a nobleman, had, on the death of Witiza, 
 ascended his throne, to the exclusion of the two sons of that 
 monarch: their uncle, Oppas, was arclibishop of Toledo: 
 Count .Julian, a partisan, was governor of Ceuta and Andalu- 
 sia; the malcontents were numerous. It is added, tliat Rod- 
 eric had given farther ofTencp- hv violating Cava, tJie daughtet 
 of Julian. 
 19*
 
 222 HISTORY OF THB WORLD. a <f 11 
 
 Julian had repulsed Musa from the walls a - < ita, but 
 soon after he entered into correspondence »• « .*;,e Arab 
 
 \ i>. chief, and offered to give him entrance into Sp .««. The per- 
 
 • ^" mission of the khalif, Walid, was obtained. A sniail body 
 of troops, commanded by Tarif, passed over and advanced to 
 the castle of Julian, at Algeziras, where they were hospita- 
 
 711 bly entertained and joined by the Christians. The following 
 spring 5000 Moslems, under the command of Tarik, passed 
 over and landed at Gibraltar, named from their chief They 
 defeated the Gothic commander sent against them. Roderic 
 collected an army of near 100,000 men ; the Saracens were 
 augmented to 12,000, besides their Spanish and African aux- 
 iliaries. On the banks of the Guadaleta, near the town of 
 Xeres, the battle was fought which decided the fate of the 
 Gothic monarchy. Three days were occupied in bloody but 
 undecisive skirmishing, the fourth was the day of general 
 conflict. The Saracens were yielding to multitudes ; Tarik 
 still animated his men, when Oppas and the sons of Witiza, 
 who occupied the most important post in the army of the 
 Goths, passed over to the enemy, and turned the fortune of 
 the field. The fliglit and pursuit lasted three days. Roderic 
 fled on the back of his swiftest horse, but escaped the battle 
 only to be drowned in the waters of the Guadalquivir. 
 
 The whole country submitted without resistance to the 
 victorious Tarik. Toledo, the Gothic capital, opened her 
 gates, stipulating only for freedom of religion and internal 
 government. Within almost as short a time as a traveller 
 could traverse Spain, the general of Musa beheld the bay of 
 Biscay. Envious of the fame of Tarik, Musa hastened his 
 passage to Spain at the head of 18,000 men : the cities of 
 Seville and Merida resisted ; and the defence of the latter 
 ■ was obstinate, and only subdued by famine. The Tarrago- 
 nese province was speedily overrun by Tarik, and the Gotha 
 were pursued into their Gallic province of Septimania. A 
 valiant remnant of the Goths maintained their independence 
 
 'II- in the rugged mountains of Asturia. All the rest of Spain 
 obeyed the successors of the prophet. 
 
 At the same time that the klialif Walid received intelli- 
 gence of the conquest of Spain, messengers from the East 
 arrived to announce the first successes of the Mussulman 
 arms in India. 
 
 Invasion of France by the Arabs. 
 
 668 The Arabs of the East had twice besieged Constantmople • 
 <fe eacn time they had retired with dishonor. The commandei 
 of the faithful had even paid tribute ^ the Eastern emperor.
 
 LONG-HAIRED KING, WITH HIS MAJOR DOMI.
 
 Peasants of Finland..
 
 CHAP. II. MOHAMMEU AND THE FIRST KUALIFS. 225 
 
 Five years after the raising of the second siege of the a. d. 
 Eastern capital, the kingdom of the Franks was menaced ''21 
 with destruction by the khalif's viceroy in Spain. Eudes, 
 duke of Aquitaine, was a prince nearly independent of the 
 feeble successors of Clovis. The Moslems claimed Septima- 
 nia from him as a part of tlie Spanish monarchy. An army 
 passed the Pyrenees, but was defeated, and its leader slain, 
 before the walls of Toulouse. A second appeared, and re- 
 duced all France from the Garonne to the Rhone. The valiant 
 Abd-er-rahnian resolved on the conquest of the whole of tlie 
 dominions of the Merovingians : he laid siege to Aries, and 
 defeated an army sent to its relief: to the north of Bourdeaux 
 he encountered and slaughtered the army of Eudes. The 
 Moslems appeared before Tours and Sens in Burgundy : their 
 troops were beheld from the walls of Lyons and Besan^on 
 Fortunately there was a hero in France. Charles the son of 
 Pepin was mayor of the palace in Neustria : he collected an 
 army of French and Germans, and encountered the Arabs on 
 the plains between Tours and Poitiers. On the seventh day 732 
 of the conflict victory declared for the Europeans : Abd-er- 
 rahman fell ; the Saracens retired, fell into dissension, and 
 evacuated the country, to which they never returned. More 
 than 300,000 Moslems are said, with gross exaggeration, to 
 have fallen ; and the epithet of Martel, the Hammer, bestow- 
 ed on Charles, proves the vigor of his arm in the conflict. 
 
 France, 
 
 The degenerate descendants of Clovis had during this period 
 sunk into utter insignificance. All power was in the hands 
 of the mayors of the palace : these officers headed the armies, 
 and disposed of lands and offices. The kmgs, retired m their 
 palace, enjoyed the luxury of a wcll-furnished table, and on 
 the May meetings (Champs de Mai) of the nation, tliey were 
 drawn in their chariot by four oxen to receive the homage ot 
 their people, and follow the directions of the mayor, llic 
 diirnity of mayor was transmitted from father to son. Pepin 
 Heristal appointed his illegitimate son Charles to succeed 
 bim, in preference to his lawful issue; and the field of Tours 
 "ustified his choice. 
 
 The Lombards. 
 
 Authar, king of the Lombards, governed his people with 584 
 ^risdom and equity, and fought with success against the .m- 
 serial exarchs and the Franks. His widow, Theudehnda, 690 
 married AjriU.lf, duke of Turin: the nation received him a* 
 kkig Pope Gregory 1. mediated peace between h.m and 5W
 
 226 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PAUT IL 
 
 the exarchs; and he also cultivated peace with tiie Franks 
 and Avers. His queen encouraged the beneficent sway of 
 
 ^. u the Christian religion, and gradually brought the Lombards 
 
 616 to relish the delights of peace. Agilulf was succeeded by his 
 son Adelwald; but losing his senses by drink, the sceptre 
 
 625 was transferred to his brother-in-law Ariwald. On the death 
 of Ariwald, Rother, another son-in-law of Agilulf, was elect- 
 
 636. ed. This prince first collected the laws of the Lombards into 
 a code. His son and successor, Rodwald, was murdered by 
 man whose wife he had abused ; and the nation elected An 
 
 652. bert, nephew of queen Theudelinda, Aribert sought to leav 
 his sons Perthari and Godibert joint sovereigns : they fell into 
 
 661. discord. Godibert was slain by Grim wald, duke of Benevento, 
 one of his own partisans : Perthari, on hearing this, fled to 
 Hungary. Grimwald reigned with justice, and defeated the 
 Franks who came in aid of Perthari : this latter succeeded 
 
 671. him, and reigned with great mildness and equity. After va- 
 rious transitions, the crown was placed on the head of Ans- 
 
 710. brand, a Bavarian, a man advanced in years and wisdom. Hia 
 son, Liiprand, was the most powerful and one of the ablest of 
 the Lombard monarchs. Great friendship prevailed between 
 him and Charles Martel, who sent his son to have his hair 
 first cut by the Lombard king, who thereby, according to the 
 ideas of the Franks, became a second father to the young 
 Pepin. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 641 . Heraclius was succeeded by his son Constantine 11., with 
 vvhom the queen Martina had her own son Heraclionas asso- 
 ciated. Constantine died after a short reign of 103 days. 
 Heraclionas and his mother were banished, and Constans IL, 
 the son of Constantine, a boy of twelve years, placed on the 
 throne. He caused his brother Theodosius to be murdered , 
 passed over to Italy ; waged an unsuccessful war against the 
 Lombards ; plundered Rome and several other cities of . taly 
 
 "162. and Sicily of the works of art, which he collected in Syracuse, 
 and embarked for Constantinople ; but the ships which car- 
 ried them were taken by the Saracens and brought to Alex- 
 andria. Their precious freight was dispersed and lost Con- 
 
 668. Btans was murdered, after a six years' residence in Sicily. 
 
 In the reign of his son Constantine IV. Africa was lost, and 
 
 ea"). Constantinople besieged. Justinian II. succeeded, was ex- 
 pelled, returned, and exercised the most savage cruelty. 
 Pnilippicus Bardanes avenged humanity on the tyrant ; bul 
 
 711 was himself dethroned and blinded. Anastatius followed 
 
 ^13 The army raised a native of Adramyttium tc. the throne, b^
 
 CHAP. 111. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. 227 
 
 cause his name was Theodosius : he laid down his dignity as ^ 
 soon as he safely could ; and Leo, an Isaurian, a brave man, ', i 
 was placed on the throne of Constantinople, which he gal- 
 lantly defended two years against the arms of the khalifs. 
 
 Germany. 
 Germany received during this period the first beams of the 
 beneficent light of the Gospel. An Englishman, named VVin- 
 fred, went tlirough the country preaching the faith, and 
 drawing the people from the worship of idols : he collected 
 them into towns, where afterwards cities rose. The pope 
 Gregory II. beholding his zeal, bestowed on Winfred, now 
 called Boniface, tlie dignity of a bishop, and the office of 
 ">egate. Mentz became the see of this first bishop, whence, 
 as the sword of Charles Martel smote the rude tribes of Ger- 
 many, the bishops inviied them to receive the religion of 
 Rome, and the more polished manners of the Franks. The 
 sword and the Gospel went together in Germany, as the 
 sword and the Koran in Asia. Monasteries, those asylums 
 of peace, amidst the storms of the middle ages, were founded 
 in Germany by the labors of Boniface. 
 
 England. 
 In the pontificate of Gregory the Great, the Gospel was 
 preached to the Anglo-Saxons by Augustine and his com- 
 panions, sent by the zealous pontiff from Rome with that de- 
 sign. Their first efforts were in the kingdom of Kent, whose 
 king, Ethelbert, was married to a Christian princess of the 
 house of Meroveus. The king and his nobles embraced the 
 newTaith, which was gradually extended to the other king- 
 doms into which the Anglo-Saxons had partitioned the island. 
 It is a remarkable feature in the character and piety of the 
 Anglo-Saxon princes, that continually the world was edified 
 by the sight of one of them quitting his throne, and all the 
 pomps and cares of royalty, and retiring to pass the evening 
 of his days in the shade of a monastery, or in the holy citv 
 ->f the supreme pontiff 
 
 CHAP. m. 
 
 THK TIMES OF CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASlIlKa 
 
 Italy. 
 Among other practices of the ancient heathenism which 
 oad gradually crept into the church of Christ, was that of the 
 worship of images. When Leo, the Isaurian, mounted the
 
 228 mSTOBY OS THB world. part II 
 
 imperial throne, either guided by reason, or by early preju- 
 dices, he warmly espoused the side of the Iconoclasts, image- 
 breakers, who opposed their worship, and a council assembled 
 at Constantinople pronounced it to be heretical. When the im- 
 
 A D. psrial edict arrived in Italy, obedience to it was reflised ; and, 
 
 728. at the exhortation of Pope Gregory U., all Italy, save Naples, 
 rose in arms to oppose the profane emperor : his troops were 
 massacred when they landed in that country ; and the pope 
 in the plenitude of his power, was about to direct the election 
 of a new emperor. 
 
 The authority of the Byzantine emperors in Rome was- 
 little more than nominal : the city had nearly returned to its 
 republican form ; the bishop was considered as the first 
 magistrate ; and thus the temporal power of the popes was 
 founded on the best of grounds, the free choice of the people. 
 A series of able, enterprising, and dignified pontiffs, the three 
 Gregories, Zachary, Stephen, Paul, firmly established this 
 sacerdotal dominion. 
 
 Liitprand, king of the Lombards, took Ravenna, and men- 
 aced Rome. This prince aimed at uniting all Italy under one 
 Bovereign ; but the policy of the popes, and the resistance of 
 the princes and states, prevented the execution of his designs. 
 
 744. The iron crown passed, after the death of his nephew and 
 successor Hildebrand, to Rachis duke of Friuli, who shortly 
 after, with his wife and daughter, abandoned the cares of 
 
 749 royalty, and retired to the monastery of Monte Casino. The 
 choice of the nation fell on his brother Astolfo (Aistulf). This 
 prince made the final conquest of the exarchate of Ravenna, 
 and summoned Rome to acknowledge his sovereignty. The 
 pride of Rome and the pope disdained submission,; but their 
 strength was unequal to the conflict : they turned their eyes 
 for aid beyond the Alps ; and Stephen III. in person crossed 
 those mountains to implore the compassion of the pious Franks^ 
 and of Pepin, the illustrious son of Charles Martel. He im 
 plored not in vain : an army, led by Pepin in person, entered 
 Italy, and Astolfo swore to respect the possessions of the 
 church ; but hardly was Pepin gone, when the Lombard forgot 
 his vow. Pepin was again called on, and Astolfo was again 
 
 756. reduced to submission. 
 
 Astolfo was succeeded by Desiderius, duke of Tuscany. 
 Falling into a dispute about their frontiers with pope Hadrian 
 n., the latter called on his powerfiill ally, Charlemagne, son 
 of Pepin : the passes of the Alps were betrayed, the vassala 
 fell off, the Lombard king was shut up in Pavia, his capital, 
 his valiant son Adelgis vamly implored, in person, aid at By- 
 
 T74 zantium. After a siege of two years, treachery gave Pavia
 
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 CHAP. 131. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER RASHEED. 231 
 
 to the French, and Lombardy became a part of the empire of , „ 
 the son of Pepm. A grateful pope (Leo) crowned the Frencl, SbS 
 monarch emperof of the West Rome did homage to his 
 power: the duke of Benevento, whose duchy embraced the 
 nriodem kmgdom of Naples, acknowledged himself his vassal- 
 the Venetians, who, since the days of Attila, had dwelt in 
 tlieir isles and lagunes, revered his authority. 
 
 The Lombards retained their laws and usages; each person 
 and each district of Italy was governed by local or adopted 
 laws. Ihe great cities were governed by dukes, aided by a 
 council of bishops, abbots, counts, knights, and gentlemen. 
 Ihe pope exercised at Rome the power possessed by the 
 dukes m the other cities. He was chosen by the clertry and 
 oeople, and the choice confirmed by the emperor. 
 
 Empire of Charlemagne. 
 On the death of Charles Martel the kingdom of the Franks 
 was thrown into some confusion. The German provinces 
 armed m favor of his son Grypho, against his brothers Carlo- 
 man and Pepm. The latter were victorious in the contest, 
 and an end was put to the duchy of AUemannia. Chilperic 
 occupied the seat of Clovis; the power of the monnrchy was 
 wielded by Pepin. Pope Zachary pronounced Ihat it waa 
 lawful for the title to follow the power ; and at Soissons, 
 where, 266 years before, the empire of the Franks had been 
 founded by Clovis, his last descendant was formally deposed 
 in an assembly of the nation, and sent to end nis days in a 752 
 convent, and Pepin crowned in his place. The new monarch 
 quickly destroyed his brother Carloman, and humbled the 
 great His chief e.xploits were against the Lombards in de- 768 
 fence of the popes. At his death he divided his dominions be- 
 tween his sons Charles and Carloman. The latter lived but 
 three years, and suspicion of having hastened his end fell 
 upon his brother. 77] 
 
 Charles, afterwards called Charlemagne, or Charles the 
 Great, early in his reign overturned the kingdom of the Lom- 
 lurds. During thirty years he carried on an obstinate war 
 against the Saxons, on whom he sought to impose his yoke 
 and Christianity. Headed by Wittikmd, a second Arminius, 
 the gallant nation resisted with vigor and oerseverance. Gott- 
 fried, king of Denmark, aided and gave refuge to them ; but 
 the Obotrites of Mecklenburg joined the Franks, and Witti- 
 kind and his people were at last forced to receive the religion 
 and the law of Charlemagne. Several abandoned their coun- 
 try and took refiige in Denmark, whence tlioir desccndtuita 
 uQ'ted with the Northmen issued, and avenged the blood of
 
 23^ HI8T0BI OF THE WOELD, PARI D 
 
 their fathers on the descendants oi liii^ir oppressors. lu Spain 
 Charles appeared as the ally of the emir of Zaragoza, and es- 
 tablished the Spanish March, extending from the Ebro to the 
 Pyrenees. Barcelona was the residence of the French gov- 
 ernor. In Germany, he extended the French dominion to tiie 
 Elbe, and added the kingdom of Bohemia to the Germanic 
 body. A conflict of eight years against the Avars of Pan 
 nonia gave him the possession of that country. His empire 
 tlius extended from the Ebro to the Elbe, from the ocean to 
 the Vistula, and the Teyss and Save, The duke of Bene- 
 vento acknowledged his supremacy; the king of England 
 was his friend ; the Christian princes of Spain regarded him 
 as a patron. Haroon-er-Rasheed honored him by gifts as an 
 equal. Master of two-thirds of tlie Western Roman empire, 
 he was crovmed emperor of the Romans by Leo, on the fes- 
 tival of Christmas, A. D. 800, in the sacred temple of St. 
 Peter. His dynasty, called the Carlovingian, from Charles 
 Martel, formed the second in France. After a long and vic- 
 . D. torious reign he left his empire, which he had widely ex- 
 814. tended, and to which he had given a code of laws, to his 
 eon Louis the Debonair. 
 
 Feudal System. 
 
 As France was the chief seat of this celebrated system, the 
 present period seems not unsuitable for giving a slight view 
 of it. 
 
 The Franks, like the Burgundians, Lombards, and others 
 of the barbarous nations, carried their original Germanic 
 ideas with them into the countries they conquered. The land 
 was divided into a number of districts, over each of which 
 was a count to administer justice and collect the revenue in 
 peace, to lead the military contingent in war. Several of 
 these counties were under a duke. These offices were ori- 
 ginally precarious, but gradually became hereditary in fami- 
 lies, and the foundation of power and independence. 
 
 At the conquest, the lands which had been seized were 
 distributed mto portions, according to the rank of the occu- 
 pant. That of the king was considerable, and those of the 
 principal officers proportionably large. These lands were 
 allodial, held in propriety on the sole condition of serving in 
 the defence of the country. The owner of three mansi^ was 
 obliged to serve in person ; where there were three posssessors 
 of single mansi, one served, the others contributed ^c equip 
 
 • A mansni contained twelve iueera of Ian J. Oucang»-
 
 CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGNK AND HAROON ER RASHEED 233 
 
 him. All served at their own expense, and the period of ser- 
 vice was limited. 
 
 Of the Romans, or original inhabitants, some retained their 
 lands in propriety ; others farmed those of the Franks. They 
 were governed by their own laws. But the Franks stood 
 higher in the eye of the law, and the Weregild, or compoei- 
 tion for homicide, was always much greater in the case of a 
 Frank than of a Roman. 
 
 The demesne lands of the crown were very extensive. 
 They were the private estate of the sovereign, whence he 
 was to support his dignity. Portions of these lands were 
 frequently granted by the kings to favorites, under the name 
 if benejires, under the usual condition of military service, 
 S'hich service appears to have differed from that of the allo- 
 dial proprietors in this, that that of the latter was rather na- 
 tional, that of the former rather due to tlie monarch person- 
 ally. These benefices were granted for life, and then re- 
 turned to the crown ; but the son of the beneficiary was gen- 
 erally continued in his benefice, and under the feeble Mero- 
 vingians the benefices mostly became hereditary. The hold- 
 ers of hereditary benefices now began to bestow portions of 
 their benefices on others to hold of themselves, under a simi- 
 lar tenure of military service. This practice, called sub-in- 
 feudation, spread greatly after the deatli of Charlemagne, 
 and we have here the germ of the whole feudal system, with 
 its burdens and obligations. 
 
 The dukes, counts, and marquisses, or margraves, who 
 guarded the marches or frontiers, gradually encroached on 
 the royal dignity. They made their dignities hereditary; 
 they sought to appropriate to themselves the crown lands 
 within their jurisdiction ; they oppressed the free proprietors. 
 These last were hitherto the strength of the state, and shared 
 in the legislature, owing no duty but military service against 
 the public enemy. They now were exposed without protec- 
 tion to the tyranny of the count or duke. The protection of a 
 powerful man was the only security; the allodial lands were 
 surrendered and received back as feudal ; their owner ac- 
 knowledged himself the vassal of a suzerain, and took on him 
 the feudal obligations. 
 
 These obligations were mutual, as those between patrons 
 and clients at Rome : the vassal was bound to follow his lord 
 to war during a limited period, usually forty days, and that 
 even against a si'penor lord or the king; he was not to di- 
 vulge his lord's counsel, to ir.Jure his person or fortune, or the 
 honor of his family. In battl" he was to give his horse to liia 
 jord if dismounted, to give tunself as a hostage for hira if 
 20*
 
 234 HISTORY OF THE WOELD. PABT U. 
 
 taken in battle for enabling him to celebrate the marriage of 
 his eldest son with proiDer pomp, and to provide a suitable 
 dowry for his daughter. But in almost every European coun- 
 try where the feudal system prevailed, it differed greatly in 
 its details. Indeed there were more than eighty different 
 tenures enumerated in the statutes governing its holdings. 
 In case of a non-fulfilment of his duties or non-payment of 
 his fines, the vassal could be deprived of his land. In some 
 cases the vassal held his property by some trivil service, in 
 others he had to pay a heavy rent, this latter was generally in 
 kind, wheat, cattle, &c. 
 
 England. 
 
 Ethelbert, King of Kent, w^as married to a Christian Prin- 
 cess. When therefore, some of her countrymen landed at 
 the Isle of Thanet, permission was readily accorded to them. 
 At first the King hesitated to embrace the new religion; but 
 af ter'a long discussion and inquiry into the new tenets,he gave 
 them leave to preach to his subjects, and soon after the ruler 
 became a convert, and his sixbjects followed him. So rapidly 
 did the religion of the cross win its way that ten thousand 
 converts were baptized on one Christmas Day. He gave up 
 his own palace to the missionaries, and Canterbury Cathe- 
 dral was shortly after built. For a while his successor aban- 
 doned the Christian faith, but finally became a steadfast be- 
 Uever. 
 
 The various petty Kings who had ruled in different parts of 
 England, one after another, embraced the true faith, and 
 their si;bjects generally followed the example of their rulers. 
 But Christianity was not allowed to become firmly established 
 without many violent struggles. The priests of the idola- 
 trous beliefs died hard, and fought sturdily for the fanes ''of 
 their ancient superstitions. The aim of the different petty 
 Kings was to bring all the divisions under one King, and to 
 attain this end never hesitated at assassination. Meanwhile 
 much of the time of the religious orders and the ardent be- 
 lievers was given to 'the building of churches and monaste- 
 ries, and they, also, taught the people many useful employ- 
 ments. 
 
 Constayitinople. 
 
 After Leo (717), a number of Emperors succeeded; many 
 only rulers in name. The Eastern Empire, though nominally 
 ruled from Constantinople was virtually in the hands of Vice- 
 roys, who were engaged in almost perpetual wars with savage 
 assailants. Internal dissentions occupied the little warlike zeal 
 that was left, various sects sprang up, and angry discussions 
 prevailed between the Latin and Greek faiths. At length an 
 emperor arose who tried to enforce uniformity. He decreed
 
 ill _ ai; 
 
 •«.* 
 
 '•T-.'^^^SKxy
 
 Wallenitein.
 
 CHAP 111. UllARJ.EMAUNE AND HaUuo.n Ck R ISIIEEU. 237 
 
 against the image worship; the evil had come to too ereat a 
 ^eacl. His son and son-m-law possessed the throne but three . „ 
 pars. A soldier, Leo Bardanes, next ascended the throne • 813 
 but court intrigfues and monkish arts impeded his judicious 
 policy. His successor, Michael of Amorium, was feeble and 
 unfortunate. ^ 
 
 The external enemies of the empire durino- this period 
 were the Arabs under the Abbasside khalifs, who ravacred 
 Lesser Asia, and the Bulgarians, a Slavonian tribe, wholid- 
 vanced southwards towards the Adriatic, where they subse- 
 quently occupied Dalmatia. They were now on the southern 
 bank ot the Danube, in the country named from them Tlie 
 emperor Nicephorus lost his life in a battle with this nation. 8l(i 
 
 The Abbasside Khalifs. 
 
 The house of Ommiyah failed in gaining the affections of 
 its subjects. The family of the prophet was esteemed best 
 entitled to his throne and pulpit. Of the line of Hashem, the 
 Fatemites, or descendants of Ali by Fatema, the dauo-hter of 
 the prophet, had the prior claim ; but they were wanting hi 746 
 courage or talent. The Abbassides, the family of the proph- 
 et 8 uncle, Abbas, were numerous, prudent, and united : their 
 partisans were chiefly in Persia, where Aboo Moslem, their 
 chief support, first gave them dominion by the conijuest of 
 Khorassan. Persia was from east to west a perpetual scene 
 of conflict between the rival parties of the while and the black, 
 as they were styled, from the colors of their ensigns. The 
 Ommiyades unfurled the white banner of the prophet; their 
 rivals displayed the opposite hue. Ibrahim, the ohiuf of the 
 house of Abbas, was waylaid on his pilgrimage to Mecca by 
 the troops of Damascus, and he expired in the dunn-eons of 
 Haran: his brothers, Saffah and Alinansor, escaped" to Cufa. 
 SafTah was there proclaimed khalif Mervan IL, the Ommi- 
 yade khalif, collected a large army, and met the host of Saffah 
 on the banks of the Zab. The Abbasside troops were least 
 in number; but fortune favored them. Mervan fled to f^gypt; 
 and in another engagement at Busir, on the banks of the Nile, 
 he lost both life and empire. 75t) 
 
 The unfortunate race of Ommiyah was now sought out 
 and slaughtered. One youth alone, Abd-er-rahman, escaped 
 the perquisitions of the Abbassides, and he fled to Africa. He 
 was invited over to Spain by tlie friends and servants of his 
 house. The governor, Yu.ssuf, was forced to yield to his arms; 755 
 and from the city of Cordova the scoplre of the Ommiyades 
 ruled during 2^3 years over the eight provinces into which 
 Spain was divided.
 
 238 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IL 
 
 After a short reign, Saffah was succeeded by his brother 
 Altr.ansor. The royal residence had at first been Medina . 
 Ali transferred it to Cufa; and Moawiyah to Damascus. Per- 
 sia was the chief seat of the Abbusside power ; and Almansor 
 
 4. D. laid, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, the foundations of 
 
 762. Bagdad, the royal seat of his posterity /or five hundred years. 
 The arms of Almansor were successful against the nomades 
 of Toorkistan ; but his expedition against the Ommiyade khalif 
 of Spain encountered only disgrace and defeat. 
 
 The Greeks had taken advantage of the civil dissensions 
 of the Moslems to recover a portion of their dominions. Mo- 
 hadi, the successor of Almansor, retaliated during the reign 
 of Irene and her son. Haroon, his second son, at the head 
 of 9.5,000 Persians and Arabs, invaded Lesser Asia ; and from 
 the heights of Scutari, within view of the imperial city, dic- 
 tated the terms of an ignominious peace. 
 
 'SI. Five years after this war, Haroon-er-Rasheed, or the Just, 
 ascended the throne of his father and his elder brother. Du- 
 ring a reign of twenty-three years, this active prince eight 
 times invaded the Grecian territories. In vain the emperor 
 Nicephorus sent haughty defiances and denials of tribute 
 in vain he assembled large armies: his troops fled in dismay 
 before the disciplined bands of the commander of the faithful 
 and the Byzantine gold was annually poured into the treasury 
 of Bagdad. The memory of Haroon is renowned alike in 
 both the East and West, as the hero of history and tale ; but 
 it is indelibly stained by the slaughter of the princely and 
 guiltless Barmecides. 
 
 ^4. On his death his throne was disputed by his three sons; 
 and, in the civil conflict, Al-Mamoon, the son of the filthy 
 slave of the kitchen, triumphed over the issue of the haughty 
 Zobeide. The memory of this prince is dear to literature 
 and science, of which he was the zealous patron ; and his 
 peaceful acquisitions eclipse tlie martial deeds of his father. 
 
 Under the first khalifs and the house of Ommiyah, no 
 literature was attended to but the Koran and their native po- 
 etry. Almansor began to encourage the acquisition of foreign 
 literature : it was also patronized by Haroon ; but Al-Mamoon 
 far outstripped all his predecessors in its cultivation. At his 
 command, his agents and his ambassadors collected the best 
 works of Grecian science, and his translators gave them an ■ 
 Arabic dress. The astronomy of Ptolemy, the medicine of 
 Galen, the n)etaphysics of Aristotle, were read and commented 
 on in the language of Arabia. The Ommiyade khalifs of 
 Cordova, the Fatemites of Africn, vied with those of Bagdad 
 in the collecting of books, and the encouragement of science;
 
 CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGNE AND IIAROON ER RASHEED. 239 
 
 and from the scliools established by them proceeded chiefly 
 the medicine, physics, and metaphysics of Europe during the 
 middle ages. But the poets, the orators, and the historians 
 of the Grecian republics, never learned to speak the language 
 of Mohammedan despotism. 
 
 In the reign of Al-Mamoon, Crete and Sicily were con- 823 
 quered by the Moslems. A piratical fleet of ten or twenty 
 gaLeys from Andalusia entered Alexandria at the solicitation 
 of a rebellious faction. They spared neither friends nor foes ; 
 they pillaged the city, and it required the forces and the pres- 
 ence of the khalif Al-Mamoon to expel them. They ravaged 
 the islands to the Hellespont. The fertility and riches" of 
 Crete attracted them : they invaded it with forty galleys. 
 They entered and pillaged the country ; but as they returned 
 to their vessels, they found them in flames by the orders of 
 their chief, who exhorted them to seize and keep the fertile 
 land. They obeyed from necessity, the island submitted, and 
 for 138 years their depredations harassed the eastern em- 
 pire. 
 
 A youth had stolen a nun from a cloister in Sicily, He wa« 827 
 sentenced to the loss of his tongue. He fled to Africa, and 
 exhorted the Arabs to invade his country. They landed, in 
 number, 700 horse, and 10,000 foot They were repulsed be- 
 fore the walls of Syracuse, and reduced to great straits, when 
 they received a reinforcement from Spain. The western part 
 of the island was quickly reduced, and Palermo became the 
 Saracenic capital. Fifty years elapsed before Syracuse sub- 879 
 mitted, after a siege worthy of her old renown. The Gre- 
 cian language and religion were eradicated throughout the 
 is and. From the ports of Sicily and Africa the Mohamme- 
 dan fleets issued to ravage and pillage the cities and prov- 
 inces of Italy. 
 
 While the Arabs were engaged in tlie conquest of Sicily, Bio 
 one of their fleets entered the Tiber, and the Moslems plun- 
 dered the temples of St Peter and St Paul. Fortunately 
 for the Romans, their pope died, <and Leo IV., a man of the 
 old Roman spirit, was chosen to succeed. By his care the 
 city was fortified, and an alliance formed with Gaieta, Na- 
 ples, and Salerno. Soon after, a large fleet of Saracens came 
 from Africa, and cast anchor before the Tiber. The allies of 84;: 
 the pope soon appeared ; the engagement commenced, and a 
 tempest finally decided it in favor of the Christians. The 
 Saracen fleet was utterly destroyed, and those who escaped 
 to shore were slaughtered, or reduced to slavery.
 
 240 HISTORY OF TUE WOBLD PAET U. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES OF THE EAST AND WEST. 
 
 Empire of Charlemagne. 
 
 814. Charlemagne was succeeded in his dominions by his non 
 Louie the Debonair, or good-natured. His eldest son, Pepin, 
 had died before him, leaving an illegitimate son, Bernard, who 
 retained the kingdom of Italy, which his father had held. Re- 
 
 317. belling against his uncle, he was sentenced to the loss of his 
 eyes, which caused his death. liOuis associated his eldest 
 son, Lothaire, in the empire, and conferred Bavaria and Aqui- 
 taine on his two other sons ; but having had a son, Charles, 
 by his second wife, Judith of Bavaria, he was naturally anxious 
 to provide for him also. This could only be done at the ex- 
 pense of Lothaire and his brothers. They rose in rebellion, 
 and deposed their father : their discord caused his restoration. 
 
 810. At his death, all his sons were in arms against each other. 
 A bloody battle at Fontenoy, in Auxerre, forced them to come 
 to an agreement, and the empire was, by the treaty of Ver- 
 dun, divided among them. 
 
 843. In this partition, Lothaire got Italy, Provence, and the 
 country running along tlie Rliine, afterwards called Lorraine. 
 Louis had all the German dominions eastward of the territo- 
 ries of liOthaire ; and Charles, surnamed the Bald, had 
 France. Pepin, tlieir nephew, had Aquitaine, which his father 
 had held ; of this he was afterwards robbed by his uncle 
 Charles. 
 
 855. Lothaire, filled with remorse for his rebellions against his 
 father, retired to a convent. His three sons took arms to di- 
 
 Si39. vide their inheritance. By the treaty of Orbe (in the Vaudois,) 
 Louis got the crown of tlie Cffisars, Italy, and Rhfetia; Lo- 
 thaire 11., Burgundy, Alsatia, and Lorraine ; Charles had 
 Provence. 
 
 fi88. Lothaire II. dying the victim of a lawless amour, without 
 legitimate issue, his two uncles made a treaty of partition of 
 his dominions, which was finally decided in favor of the king 
 
 879. of Germany. Lothaire II. had already divided with his 
 
 863 brother, Louis II., the dominions of Charles of Provence, who 
 
 87a had died without heirs ; and on the death of Louis II. Rhaetia 
 came to the king of Germany ; but his younger brother, the 
 king of France, contrived to make himself master of Italy 
 and the imperial crown. 
 
 g7g The two brothers soon died. Louis the Stammerer suc- 
 ceeded his fether, Charles the Bald ; but followed him to the 
 tomb within half a year after his accession. The legitimacy
 
 iiJ'ii'l': . 
 
 I -fl^juj^^j!
 
 CHAP. rV. DISSOLUTION OP THE GREAT EMPIRES. 243 
 
 of his children was doubted ; and in a council of Burgundian 
 bishops, held at Geneva, the sovereignty of that country was 
 offered to Boson, who was married to Imogene, daughter of ^ „ 
 Louis II., and he was crowned king of Burgundy" by the 879 
 archbishop at Lyons. 
 
 Charles the Fat, the son of Louis of Germany, united Italy 880 
 to his German dominions ; and on the death of the elder sons 
 of Louis the Stammerer, and the minority of their brother 
 Charles the Simple, he was made king of France, and Boson 
 received his kingdom of him as a fief The empire waa now 
 once more under one head ; but Charles becoming deranged, 
 he was deposed, and the unity of the empire of the Franks 8Sti 
 dissolved for ever. 
 
 The German dominions of Charles were taken possession 
 of by Arnulf, the illegitimate son of his brother Carloman, a 
 prince deeply imbued with the best spirit of the Carlovingi- 
 ans; but he died, leaving a son of only seven years. Eudes, 
 count of Paris, which he had gallantly defended against the 
 Normans, was chosen king of France ; but on his death it 
 came to the rightful but incapable heir, Charles the Simple. 
 After the death of Boson, two kings reigned in Burgundy ; 
 his son Louis, and Rodolph, son of the powerful Count Con- 
 rad, and that kingdom was divided, never to be reunited. In 
 Italy, Widon, duke of Spoleto, and Berenger, duke of Friuli, 
 contended with each other for the restoration of the kingdom 
 of the Lombards, and discord and turbulence agitated the 
 whole country. 
 
 Such was the internal state of the empire of Charlemagne 
 at the close of the ninth century : externally it was harassed 
 by the Arabs, the Hungarians, and the Northmen. 
 
 The Hungarians. 
 
 Beyond the Ural mountains a tribe of Turks, it is thought, 
 had intermixed with the Finns, the original race of Northern 
 Asia and Europe. Pressed on from the East by other tribes 
 set in motion by war or want, they broke up their camps, and 
 advanced towards the West. They forced their way through 
 the Russian tribes, penetrated the passes of Mount Krapak, 
 •and spread themselves over Pannonia, their future country. 
 They called and still call themselves Majars: by the Euro- 
 peans they were termed Turks and Hungarians. Their gov- 
 ernment had been hitherto administered by a council of Voi- 
 vodes, or hereditary chiefs ; they now chose a sfvereign in 
 the person of Almus, the father of Arpad. 
 
 The empire of Charlemagne had extended *o Transylva 
 nia. The king of the Moravians, who dwelt in we8tf>m
 
 244 HISTORY OV THE WORLD. PART II. 
 
 Hungary, refused obedience to Amulf, king of Germany, 
 and even invaded his dominions. Unable tx) reduce him, 
 V. D Arnulf invited the aid of the Hungarians, and the Moravian 
 WO prince was speedily humbled. Arnulf being succeeded by 
 his infant son Louis IV., all restraint, which gratitude or fear 
 had laid on the Hungarians, was removed. They rushed 
 into and wasted Bavaria, overthrew the Christians at Augs> 
 burg, swept over Swabia and Franconia, spread to the Baltic, 
 and laid the city of Bremen in ashes. During a period of 
 more than thirty years Germany paid tribute to these bar- 
 barians. 
 
 The Hungarians passed the Rhine, and ravaged southern 
 France to the P3rrenees. Italy attracted them : they encamp- 
 ed on the Brenta; but, dreading the strength of the country 
 they asked permission to retire. The king of Italy, Beren 
 ger, proudly refused, and the lives of 20,000 men were the 
 penalty of his rashness. Pavia was soon in flames, and all 
 Italy, to the point of Reggio, was ravaged. The Bulgarians, 
 a Slavonic tribe, had been converted to Christianity, and 
 they formed the north-western barrier of the eastern empire. 
 Their resistance was overcome, and the rapid bands of the 
 Hungarians were soon seen before the gates of Constantino- 
 ple. By arts and presents they were induced to retire. 
 
 The ravages of the Hungarians extended through a period 
 of nearly half a century (889 — 934). The valor of tlie Saxon 
 princes, Henry the Fowler and his son Otho the Great, at 
 ength delivered Europe from them. 
 
 The Northmen. 
 
 Scandinavia had been originally peopled by the Finnic 
 race. In very remote ages, the Goths, whose primitive seat 
 was, probably, the great central mountain-range of Asia, lad 
 penetrated thither, and expelled the less warlike Finns. >Ve 
 have already seen tliem recross the Baltic, and eventually 
 establish themselves in Spain and Italy. Everywhere they 
 appear as conquerors. In Scandinavia they were generally 
 divided into small independent states : their land was poor 
 they had little agriculture and less trade to occupy them 
 they loved war, were bold mariners, and early began to com- ' 
 mit depredations on each other and on strangers. 
 
 In this period, Gorm the Old in Denmark and Harold p'air- 
 hair in Norway had reduced several of the independent 
 chieflams of these countries, and established their respective 
 monarchies. Several of the high-spirited reguli scorned to 
 own as masters those whom they had regarded as equals; 
 they embarked in their ships, sought and colonized the dreary
 
 1/flAP. IV DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIREfl. 245 
 
 shores of Iceland or the Feroe, Shetland, and Orkney island*, 
 whence they annually ravaged the coasts of their forsaken 
 country. By these and by the youmjer sons of the Yarls 
 {earls) of the north, piracy was graouaUy committed on a 
 more extensive scale than hitherto : the coasts of England 
 and France were now richer and more inviting, and annually 
 the fleets of tlie Northmen spread desolation along them. 
 
 Towards the time of Charlemagne their depredations on 
 these countries had begun. The date of their appearance 
 in England is the year 787, and shortly afterwards they rav- 
 aged the coast of France. During the reign of Ijouis they 
 were more frequent Ln their visits. The unsettled state of 
 cue country in the reign of Charles the Bald favoring them, 
 they grew more bold, sailed up the navigable rivers, and 
 plundered the interior. In 872 they pillaged Anglers ; in 
 ?88 they laid siege to Paris, which, but for the efforts of 
 Gosselin, the bishop, and Eudes, the count of that city, would 
 have been their prey. But the number and boldness of their 
 invasions continually increasing, Charles the Simple was 
 finally forced to cede to Rolf, or RoUo, one of their leaders, a. d 
 the large province suice called from them Normandy. This 918 
 was a wise measure, for Rolf and his subjects embraced the 
 Christian religion, and guarded the kingdom from farther in- 
 vasion. 
 
 In England, where they were called Danes, they harassed 
 the coasts in a similar manner, and gradually formed perma- 
 nent settlements. Even the great Alfred was obliged to yield 
 to them the kingdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia, and 
 at length they placed monarchs of their nation on the throne 
 of England. 
 
 But the Northmen also extended their name and their 
 power eastwards. The coasts of the Baltic were among the 
 scenes of their depredations ; and the Russians, a Slavonian 
 tribe, who had subdued the original natives of its eastern 
 ahores, admired and feared them. As allies they employed 
 thetii in their wars against the tribes of the interior. These 
 Varangians, as they were called, like their Anglo-Saxon 86a 
 brethren, made themselves masters of tlie people that invited 
 their aid, and Ruric, one of their chiefs, established a dynasty 
 which endured for seven hundred years. The house of Ru- 
 ric, at first depending on the arms of the Varangians for sup- 
 port and safety, new adventurers continually flocked to them, 
 and were rewarded by grants of lands and subjects; but 
 when they felt themselves firmly seated, tlicy found they 
 could dispense with these expensive auxiliaries, and Vladimir 
 I. recommended to them the service of the Greek empcrorfc 
 21*
 
 246 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART Ii. 
 
 KB more profitable. They followed his advice, and from that 
 period till the end of the empire, the Varangians were the 
 faithful guards of the throne of the Byzantine Csesara 
 
 France. 
 
 The power and authority of the Carlovingian princes con- 
 tinually decreased. PVance was now divided among several 
 dukes and counts, who, though acknowledging themselvea 
 vassals of the crown, exercised all the rights of independent 
 sovereigns. Louis IV. and Lothaire, the successors of Charlei 
 the Simple, though of more energetic character, were unable 
 to restore the royal dignity ; and on the death of Louis V., a 
 feeble youth, thougli his uncle Charles duke of Lorraine was 
 heir, Hugh Capet, son of Hugh duke of France, Orleans, and 
 Burgundy, and descended from Eudes and Robert the Strong, 
 who had defended Paris from the Northmen, had himself 
 ^. 1). crowned king at Rheims, and when Charles of Lorraine came 
 987. in arms to claim his right, he met with defeat and captivity. 
 Thus, afler a period of 235 years from the deposition of 
 Chilperic (752) to the coronation of Hugh Capet (987), the 
 Carlovingian, like the Merovingian dynasty, expired by its 
 own feebleness. Would it not appear that great families, like 
 fruit-trees, become with time effete, and incapable of pro- 
 ducing the similitude of those powers to which they owed 
 tlieir original elevation 1 So little reason is there to be proud 
 of a long line of noble ancestry ! 
 
 Hugh, though king of France, was in reality only master 
 of his own demesnes, and feudal superior of the great vassals 
 of the crown. Even this superiority was not acknowledged 
 south of the I^oire, and in his own fiefs of Paris and Orleans, 
 which by his accession were regarded as reunited to the 
 crown, he and his successors were frequently defied and 
 made war on by their refractory barons. He used the pre- 
 caution of getting his son Robert crowned during his own 
 lifetime, a plan which was followed by his two successors, 
 Robert and Henry I. Under the reign of Philip L the 
 monarchy was grown sufficiently strong to dispense with this 
 custom. 
 
 Germany — House of Saxony. 
 
 On the death of Louis, son of Amulf, the German branch 
 of tlie Carlovingians was extinct. Charles the Simple, king 
 of France, was doubtless of that race ; but the present situa- 
 tion of Germany demanded a sovereign of more energetic 
 character. The Germans were divided into five nations, 
 Franks, Swabians, Bavarians, Saxons, Lorrainers. These
 
 e 
 
 o 
 Q 
 
 t4 
 U 
 
 'fMM
 
 CHAP. 249 
 
 nations met to appoint a successor, and the choice of the as- ^ ^ 
 serably fell upon Conrad of Franconia, descended through 911 
 females from Charlemagne. 
 
 Conrad did not long enjoy his dignity. Feeling the neces- 
 sity there was for the sceptre being grasped by a vigorous 
 hand, he sought not to perpetuate it in his own family ; but 
 when dying, he recommended, instead of his brother, Henry 
 duke of Saxony, also descended on the female side from 
 Charlemagne, to the choice of tlie electors. 
 
 Henry, sumamed the Fowler, was son of Otho, who had SIS' 
 reduced Thuringia, and extended his dominicn to the Elbe. 
 This able and politic prince was at first obliged to continue 
 the tribute to the Hungarians ; but he surrounded the hitherto 
 open towns and villages with walls and ditches, obliged every 
 tenth man in each district to reside in them, gave them privi- 
 leges, and encouraged industry and arts of every kind : the 
 courts of justice were held in them, and they were the de- 
 positories of a third of the produce of the lands of tiie disiricL 
 He established the march of Meissen against the Slaves, and 
 erected bishoprics there for their conversion. Thus preparea, 
 when the years of truce with the Hungarians were expired ; 
 he suffered them to come with arms to demand tribute ; and 
 he rose from his bed of sickness to meet them, and drove 934 
 them out of his dominions with slaughter. 
 
 On the death of Henry, the princes and people assembled y.if< 
 at Aachin, and elected his son Otho, deservedly styled the 
 Great It being a principle of the German empire, that an 
 emperor should neither retain a fief nor add one to Uie domain, 
 Otho bestowed Saxony on Herman, a brave warrior ; but he 
 sought to indemnify himself by granting archbishoprics and 
 dukedoms to his own family ; a policy that availed him but 
 little, as they were frequently in rebellion against him. 
 
 In the discord that pervaded Italy at this period, Adelaide, 
 widow of Lothaire, son of Hugh of Provence, who had been 
 king of Italy, invoked the aid of Otho against Berenger II., 
 who had seized on the throne. Otho crossed tlie Alps, married 
 Adelaide, and Berenger did homage to him for his kingdom. 952 
 Troubles afterwards breaking out in tliat country, Otho, at 
 tlie call of Pope John XII., ajrain descended from tJie Alps, 
 deposed Berenger, and was crowned by the Lombards. The 
 next year he visited Rome, and was there received and 
 crowned as Charlemagne had been. But the pope, seeing 
 ihe power of his ally, sought to raise up enemies against him. 
 Otho sent ambassadors to complain, and at last came himself 
 to Rome. The pope fled, and the people swore never to ro- •..., 
 ceive a pope without the consent of Otho and his succefisors
 
 250 HISTORY OV THE WORLD. PART II 
 
 Three days after, the emperor in an assembly of bishops and 
 nobles, had John deposed, and Leo VIII. chosen in his place. 
 The party of John was, however, still strong : the Romans 
 rose against the Germans and their friends. Otho came a 
 third time to Rome : an injured husband had slain John ; 
 famine forced the Romans to surrender ; and thus originated 
 the right of the emperor to nominate the pope. 
 
 During the reign of Otho I. the Hungarians, assisted by 
 domestic faction, penetrated to the heart of Flanders. Al 
 the forces of Germany and all the aids of superstition were 
 arrayed against this dreadful enemy ; and the neighborhood 
 ^ o of Augsburg, which some years before had witnessed their 
 ,55. triumpli, now beheld the final ruin of the Hungarian might 
 rf74. Otho II., son of Otho the Great, married Theophano, step- 
 daughter of the Byzantine emperor, Nicephorus Phocas, 
 who made over to him all the imperial rights and claims on 
 Lower Italy. Otho was an able prince ; but he had many 
 enemies to contend with, and sometimes endured the mortifi 
 cation of defeat 
 383. Otiio III., educated by his mother TheophEino, was a prince 
 of amiable temper and cultivated mind. He loved to reside 
 in Italy ; but the turbulence of the Romans gave him con- 
 tinued uneasiness and occupation. During his minority they 
 rebelled against him and the pope; but when he came of 
 age he besieged and took the city. He treated it with se- 
 verity, and hung the consul Crescentius, the leader of the 
 popular party. 
 02. Otho dying without issue, his kinsman, Henry, duke of 
 Bavaria, was elected to the vacant dignity. Henry II. was 
 successful in his foreign wars. He passed less of his time in 
 Italy than his predecessors had done. With him ended tlie 
 IJ24. Saxon line of emperors. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 The great vassals had in Italy succeeded in making them- 
 selves independent Of these the principal were the dukes 
 of Benevento, Tuscany, and Spoleto, the marquises of Ivrea, 
 Susa, and Friuli: the pope ruled the turbulent Romans: 
 Apulia and Calabria were governed by the Catapan of the 
 eastern emperors: the republics of Amalfi and Naples ac- 
 knowledged their supremacy ; and Salerno and Capua were 
 under their ovAm princes. 
 
 When the Carlovingian princes had lost their power, the 
 dukes of Spoleto and Friuli contended for the kingdom oi 
 Italy. Berenger of Friuli governed with the title of king, 
 but amidst continual factions, for thirtv-six vears. H's advcr
 
 CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 251 
 
 saries called in Rudolf 11., king of Bur^indy. In a battle 
 Berenger defeated him; but in the pursuit, Boniface of Spo- *. c 
 leto, Rudoira nephew, fell on him ; and Rudolf turning, Be- 9'23 
 renger was defeated, and soon after murdered. Rudolf waa 
 now made king of Italy, but did not long enjoy his crown. 
 Hugh, count of Provence, who had driven the grandson of 
 Boson out of the kingdom of Aries, laid claim to Italy ; and, 
 supported by the clergy and the great, he forced Rudolf to 926 
 resign, and accept a part of the kingdom of Aries in exchange. 
 Hugh reigned over and oppressed the nobles of Italy for six- 
 teen years. Berenger II., of the house of Ivrea, succeeded, 
 and was nearly as tyrannical ; and, as we have seen, the aid 
 of Otho the Great was invoked against his oppression, and ^-i^ 
 the German monarchs became kings of Italy. 
 
 The dukes of Spoleto and Tuscany generally directed the 
 election of the popes. Virtue and piety were little considered 
 in the candidates : political motives and female influence de- 
 cided each election. The infamous Theodora and her daugh- 
 ter Marozia disposed of the chair of St. Peter at their pleasure : 
 mere boys were chosen : sons succeeded their fathers : scanda- 
 lous vices disgraced the heads of the church; and some suffered 
 shameful deaths. Among the charges against John XII. were 
 several wnich would disgrace the most licentious layman in 
 the most barbarous age of history. 
 
 The duchy of Benevento had been greatly diminished by 
 the formation of the states of Salerno and Capua ; and at 
 tliis time the Normans established themselves at Aversa, a 
 town given to them by the duke of Naples. The Saracena 
 possessed Sicily, and had settlements in Calabria. 
 
 England. 
 
 Egbert had united all England under one sceptre ; and, in- 828 
 ternal warfare being thus checked, the country might have 
 advanced in civilization and the arts of peace ; but the Danes 832 
 now began to visit the coasts with large fleets, carrying havoc 
 and desolation wherever they appeared. The reigns of liis 
 successors are chiefly marked by their struggles with these 87 
 formidable foes. When Alfred mounted the throne, they 
 were masters of the greater part of England. This monarch, 
 one of the ablest that ever adorned a diadem, spent a great 
 part of his reign in doubtful conflict with them, which ended 
 by the Danes embracing Christianity, and Alfred ceding to 
 them Northumbria and East Anglia. Peace being restored, 
 the wise king turned all his thoughts to the formation of such 
 institutions and regulations as might increase the power, the 
 wealth, and the civilization of his subjects. He establLihe*'
 
 252 msTORT OF the world. part n. 
 
 Bchools, regulatcfl the police, built ships of war, and encour- 
 ag^ed trade and navigfation Three able princes, Edward, 
 Athelstan, and Edmund, pursued the victories of Alfred : under 
 them the monarchy became coextensive with the present 
 England ; and Edgar the Peaceable was the most powerful 
 of the Anglo-Saxon kings. 
 
 The Danes still continued their hostilities. The successors 
 of Edgar were feeble, the great subjects intractable, the Danes 
 in the kingdom numerous : the custom was introduced of 
 buying them off, and then of employing the Normans against 
 tbem. In the reign of Ethelred II. the savage and fatal mea- 
 sure of murdering the Danes throughout England was adopted. 
 Filled with rage at this base treachery, Sueno, king of Den- 
 mark, invaded and conquered the kingdom. His son Canute 
 (Knut) was king of both Denmark and England, and he is 
 justly placed in the list of great princes. He was succeeded 
 by his sons Hardicanute and Harold. On the death of tlie 
 last, the English nation returned to the Anglo-Saxon line, in 
 the person of Edward, surnamed the Confessor, an amiable 
 3Ut feeble pripce. 
 
 An injudicious practice had been introduced of giving the 
 government of large provinces, the former kingdoms, to par- 
 ticul*r noblemen^ Hitherto Ocach shire had been governed by 
 its alderman, and the moderate size of a shire prevented its 
 governor acquiring any very formidable power. But a man 
 who wielded the forces of such a state as Mercia or Wessex, 
 might easily defy his sovereign. Godwin, a man of ability, 
 had gained for himself and his sons the government of seve- 
 ral provinces; and on the death of Edward, his son Harold, a 
 man of many noble qualities, had himself chosen king by the 
 Witena-gemot, or great council of the nation, to the exclu- 
 sion of the lawful heir. He was opposed by his own brother 
 Tosti, by the king of Norway, and by a still more formidable 
 rival, William duke of Normandy. The former two he van- 
 quished : in the battle of Hastings he lost to the latter botl^ 
 life and crown. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Russia under her Scandinavian princes became known to 
 Europe. The Russians appeared at Constantinople at first as 
 traders, exchangmg the furs, hides, bees'-wax and honey of 
 the North for the productions and manufactures of the em- 
 pire. Their cupidity was excited, and they sought to take by 
 force the wealth of which they got but scanty supplies by 
 trade. Their fleets repeatedly assailed Constantinople, and 
 their armies invaded the empire and Bulgaria. Nicephorua
 
 
 I Hiil
 
 CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 255 
 
 fought in vain against them, but the heroic John Zimisces 
 vindicated the honor of the empire and the wrongs of Bulga- 
 ria, and the Russian grand-duke Svatoslof and his army, sur- ^ u 
 rounded by the galleys and the legions, was forced to eurren- 973. 
 der, and retire on honorajle terms, 
 
 Olga, the mother of Svatoslof, a princess of mind as mas- 955 
 culine as the Catherines or Elizabeths, had come to Constan- 
 tinople and received baptism. At Kiov and Novogorod she 
 persisted in her new faith. Her grandson Vladimir, at first a 980 
 zealqjis votary of the gods of his country, at length embraced 
 the religion of his grandmotlier, and a marriage with Anna, 
 sister of Theophano, wife of Otho II., confirmed him in his 
 new faith Olga had sought to improve her country: she 
 made roaas, built bridges, and introduced social order. Vladi- 
 mir erected schools, opened new sources of trade, had rela- 
 tions with foreign courts, was active in tin' iiitniduction of 
 the Christian religion, — was, in fact, the I'ncr of the tenth 
 century, 
 
 Yaroslof, son of Vladimir, was the legislator of Russia. 1015 
 He caused books to be translated from the Greek. He was 
 the ally of the German emperors against the Hungarians, 
 and his daughter Anna was married to Henry I. of France, 
 Alexius Commenus, the Byzantine emperor, sent the impe- 
 rial insignia to the grandson of Yaroslof, Vladimir Monoma- 
 chus, and Kiov swore always to choose the Tsar from his 
 house. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Theophilus, son of Michael the Stammerer, was a virtuous 82i» 
 prince, and an enemy to the images. On his death his widow 
 Theodora, like Irene, during the minority of her son Michael 842 
 III., finally re-established them. Michael was a weak prince; 
 but his uncle Ctesar Bardas administered the empire with 867 
 prudence and ability. Basilius murdered them both, and 
 mounted the throne. His government was vigorous and ac- 88t 
 tive. His son Leo followed his ma.xinis. The sceptre passed 911 
 to the infant son of Leo, Constantino Porphyrogenitus, under 
 whoso name first liis uncle Alexander and then his nioflier 
 Zoe governed. By perjury Romanus Lacopenus obtained the 91 y 
 direction of atfairs ; hut he guided them with ability. Con- 
 Btantine, apparently devoted to books and wine, managed to 
 deprive Romanus of his power, iiiu! became sole ruler. Ro 9r>'.' 
 manus II. reigned after him with little credit. 
 
 Nicephorus Phocas distinguished iiim.-elf in war nguinst 
 the Persians, the Saracens of Crete. Hiifl thf Riis.>;ian.s. liis 
 successor, John Zinsisces, was the coihjiMKtr of the Hii.-.-ian 'ic'i
 
 256 BISTORT OF THE WORLD. PART II 
 
 ». D. duke Svatoslof. The mns of Romanus 11., Basil II. and Con- 
 975. BtantiTie VIII., reigned in conjunction, with reputation. Basil 
 
 completely broke the power of the Bulgarians, and dying after 
 1025. a reign of fifty years, left the sole dominion to his brother, 
 
 who left it to his daughter Zoe and her husband, the patrio.an 
 1028. Romanus Argyrus, a man of some ability. Romanus was un 
 
 fortunate in a battle against the Saracens at Aleppo. The 
 !034 empress fell in love with a handsome youth. Romanus was 
 
 murdered, and her favorite raised to the throne under tiie 
 
 name of Michael IV. ; but, goaded by remorse, he abandoned 
 
 the palace to shut himself up in a convent. The empress 
 041. then placed his cousin Michael Calaphates on the throne. 
 
 Finding him disobedient to her will, she dethroned and blinded 
 i042. him, and then gave the dignity to Constantine Monoma- 
 
 chus, who had been her first love, who governed with order 
 1054. and regularity. On his death, Theodora, the sister of Zoe 
 
 (now dead) seized the reigns oi government, and held them 
 
 1056. for a short time with no steady hand. With her ended the 
 dynasty of Basil I., which had occupied the throne nearly two 
 centuries. 
 
 Michael VI., a soldier, was chosen emperor, and gave one 
 among the many examples there are of the unfitness of a 
 man for the supreme station who may have been distinguished 
 in an inferior one. He was dethroned, and Isaac Comnenus 
 
 1057. put in his place. Isaac ruled with wisdom, vigor, and justice; 
 but bodily infirmity made him retire after a short reign. Con- 
 
 1059. stantine Ducas, his successor, was just, but no soldier. His 
 
 1068. widow married and raised to the throne Romanus Diogenes, 
 
 a man of noble mind and military talent. Ho warred against 
 
 the Seljookian Turks ; but by the treachery of his nobles he 
 
 fell into the hands of the sultan Alp Arslan, by whom he was 
 
 honorably treated and set at liberty. On his return he found 
 
 1071. treachery, revolt, and murder awaiting him. Michael VII., 
 
 the son of Ducas, was weak and incapable ; he was the slave 
 
 of a vicious minister, and he took orders, and attained to dig- 
 
 1078. nity in the church. Nicephorus Botoniates was a soldier, but 
 
 1081. unfit to be emperor. He gave way to the d3masty of the 
 
 Comnenians, with whom a new state of things commenced. 
 
 Decline of the Arabian Empire — Africa. 
 
 789. The Abbasside khalifs had never possessed Spain. In the 
 reign of Haroon-er-Rasheed, Edris, a descendant of Fatema, 
 fled from Arabia to the extreme west, and declared his inde- 
 pendence. His son, also named Edris, built the city of Fez 
 the capital of a state which soon became populous and flour 
 ishing
 
 CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OP THE GREAT EMPIRES. 257 
 
 During the reign of Edris II. of Fez, Ibrahim, the 6on of *. „ 
 Aglab, governor of Cairoan, oneof tlie lieutenants of Haroon- 805 
 er-Rasheed, established an independent dominion in the an- 
 cient territory of Carthage, of which Tunis became the capital. 
 
 About a century later, Mahadee Obeid Allah, a real or pre- 908. 
 tended descendant of Fatema, founded a state on the coast of 
 Africa, of which the city of Mahadiah, built by him on a pen- 
 insula, running out into the Mediterranean, was the capital. 
 He made war on and defeated both the Aglabites and the 
 Edrlsites, whose kingdoms lay to the west of his, and added 
 their territories to those he already possessed, 
 
 Moez-lad in- Allah, tlie great-grandson of Mahadee, had ^9 
 wells sunk in the desert, and then marched an army to Egypt, 
 which had ceased to obey the khalifs. He took possession of 
 that country with little opposition, wiiere he founded the city 
 of Cairo (Al Cahira) henceforth its capital. His reign was 
 one of mildness and gentleness. Armies conducted by skilful 
 and victorious generals conquered Syria, and Dam.ascus and 
 Jerusalem were among the cities which obeyed the khalif of 
 Egypt, whose dynasty— the Fatemite- ruled for two centu- 
 ries from the Euphrates to the deserts of Cairoan. 
 
 Moez, aware of the impossibility of retaining distant prov- 971 
 incea, separated by sandy deserts from the seat of govern- 
 ment, wisely abandoned all thoughts of seeking to retain his 
 conquests on the north-western coeist of Africa. He therefore 
 gave up to Yoossef Belkin, the son of Zeiri, the western con- 
 quests of Mahadee. Zeiri was of a noble Arab family, and 
 had headed a troop of warriors, who were solely devoted to 
 him. His dynasty— the Zeirides— reigned till 1148 over the 
 north-western coast during 177 years. 
 
 A prophet, named Abdallah, rose among the tribes subject l05b 
 to the Zeirides. He taught Islam in greater purity. His 
 followers became numerous. Under the command of Aboo 
 Bekr, son of Omar, they took arms to spread tlie faitli, and 
 carried on successful wars against the princes of Fez, Tan- 
 gicrs, and the other states. Yoossef, the successor of Aboo 
 Bekr, founded Morocco at some springs of water, and it be- 
 came during his lifetime the capital of a state reaching to the ioC9 
 Straita of Gibraltar. Almoravites was the appellation of the 
 followers of Abdallah: they led a pastoral life, and their 
 princes Yoossef and his successors were both powerful and 
 peaceable. 
 
 Decline of the Arabian Empire — Asia. 
 
 Thus were Spain, Africa, and Syria lost to the house of 
 Abbas, and at the same time their eastern possessions were 
 •npidly reduced in extent. 
 22*
 
 258 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART II 
 
 4. D. Taher, an able general, had essentially served Mamoon in 
 
 813. the contest with his brother. He was dismissed in honorable 
 exile to command in the province of Khorassan ; but here he 
 made himself independent, and his descendants, the Taher- 
 ites, to the fourth generation, governed that province with 
 wisdom and justice. 
 
 872. The Taherite dynasty was overthrown by the Suffaree 
 founded by Yacoob ben Leis, the son of a pewterer in Seistan 
 (hence the name Suffaree,) who abandoned his trade for that 
 of a robber. An accident gave occasion to his being em- 
 ployed by the prince of Seistan, in whose service he led an 
 army which he turned against his master, whom he sent pris- 
 oner to Bagdad : obtaining in reward the government of tha 
 province, he gradually made himself master of Khorassan, 
 and nearly all Persia. The khalif instigated Ismael Samanee, 
 a Turkish chief, to seize on Transoxiana. Amer, the brother 
 and successor of Yacoob, marched against him ; but was de- 
 feated, taken, and sent to Bagdad, where, after some years' 
 confinement, he was put to death. Transoxiana, Bulch, Kho- 
 rassan, and Seistan now formed the dominions of the Sama- 
 nians. 
 
 8'J2. The Arabian princes of the tribe of Hamadan made them- 
 selves masters of, and held for 109 years (892 — 1001) Meso- 
 potamia, with the cities of Mosul and Aleppo. They were 
 extolled by their poets for their beauty and their noble quali- 
 ties. Their history presents the usual series of crimes. 
 
 J"" The power of the Samanee princes extended over the north 
 of Persia. The south obeyed the Dilemee, so called from 
 their native village Dilem, as they were styled Buyah from 
 one of their ancestors. A fisher of Dilem, Abul-Shujah-al- 
 Buyah, entered the service of the governor of his native prov- 
 ince. Under the conqueror and successor of that governor 
 Ali Buyah, the son of Shujah, rose to high military comiai nd , 
 and he defeated Yacoot, the governor of Isfahan, and gaine*! 
 thereby great wealth and reputation. Ali pursued and agaji 
 defeated Yacoot, and made himself master of Fars, Kerman, 
 Khuzistan, and Irak. He advanced to Bagdad, and obliged 
 the khalif to bestow on him the government of Fars and Irak, 
 and to make his younger brother Ahmed his vizier ; his sec- 
 ond brother Hussun acted under himself 
 
 Ahmed dethroned the khalif, and raised Mothi to his place 
 over whom he exercised unlimited authority during his life 
 Ali dying, universally regretted, was succeeded by his brother 
 Hussun, who left his authority to his son, the able and excel 
 lent Azed-e-Dowlat, who united in his person the offices of 
 vizier to the khalif and viceroy of Fare and IraL
 
 jHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 261 
 
 After the death of Azed, one of the brightest cliaractera 
 •n oriental history, the power of the Dilemee gradually de- 
 clined. Mahmood of Ghizni stripped them of all their pos- 
 sessions but Fars and Kerman. They retained these and the 
 office of Ameer-ul-Omrah {chief of the nobles) conferred on 
 Ali Buyah, which gave them authority over the country round x. \ 
 Bagdad, till that capital was taken by Toghrul-beg-Seljookee. 1055 
 
 Causes of the Decline of the Power of the Khalifs. 
 
 An obvious cause of the dissolution of the empire of tlie 
 Arabs was its extent, the consequent distance of several ol 
 the provinces from the seat of empire, and the absolute 
 power with which the lieutenants of a despot must be in- 
 vested. Hence the assumption of independence waa easy, 
 the means of punishing slight ; no principle of loyalty bind- 
 ing the subject to the sovereign. Thus Spain was lost at 
 once, Africa speedily afterwards. 
 
 But in the case of the Abbas.sides there were some particular 
 causes. Like their predecessors, their title was bad. The 
 descendants of the son-in-law and earliest disciple of the 
 prophet were naturally regarded as having a better claim to 
 the khalifat than those of any other branch of the family. 
 The rights of Ali's family were still, therefore, openly or 
 secretly maintained by a numerous party. We have seen 
 how easily Edris, and afterwards Mahadee, founded empires. 
 The Fatemite khalifs of the latter house always affected to 
 regard themselves as the rightful successors of the prophet. 
 These khalifs were, it is said, at the head of a secret society, 
 whose object was the overthrow of tlte khalifat of Bagdad; 
 and its missionaries continually pervjided the dominions of 
 the house of Abbas, making convertij to the claims of Ali. 
 The various sectaries who aimed at private aggrandizement 
 frequently put forward these claims, and thereby attracted 
 followers. The Ismailitcs were a sect founded expressly on 
 this principle, and out of them arose the society of the As- 
 sassins, one of the most dreadful scourges of the East 
 
 Yet the house of Abbas might, perhaps, have retained the 
 empire of Asia, were it not that, like tlie contemporary Car- 
 lovingians, the Abbassides gradually degenerated, and fell 
 into weakness and incapacity, and at the same time formed a 
 priEtorian guard. Motasscm, the eighth khalif of this family, 
 with whom its glory c.vpircd, perceiving how the valor and 
 virtues of the .Arabs had decayed, adopted the plan of forming 
 a body-guard from the martial hordes of tiie Turks who dwelt 
 beyond tlie Jihon. Their youth;?, taken in war or purcliased 
 as slaves, were trained to arms, and instructed in the prin- 
 
 84
 
 262 HISTORY OF THE WOBLD. PAKT n 
 
 ciples of Islam. Motassem collected 50,00( of them around 
 his throne at Bagdad. Their tumultuous conduct incensed 
 the citizens, and he and they retired to Samara, a city twelve 
 leagues from Bagdad, on the Tigris. Motawakkel, the son 
 
 1- o. of Motassem, was a cruel tyrant : he favored and relied solely 
 
 "'''^- on his Turkish guards, and they murdered him at the insti- 
 gation of his son Mostanser, whose remorse for his crime 
 abridged his life. The guards had now felt their own power : 
 their numbers were kept up by regular recruiting in Turkis- 
 
 Si\2. tan : they forced Mosteyoo, uncle of Mostanser, to whom 
 they gave the throne, to surrender to them the right, not 
 only of nominating their own commander, but the emir-ul- 
 omra of the empire. They treated the commander of the 
 faithful with every indignity and insult ; and these unhappy 
 princes were by them beaten with clubs, dragged by the feet, 
 and exposed almost naked to the burning rays of the sun. 
 
 W7. Mohtadi Billah made a bold effort to curb them. He seized 
 Moones, their commander, one of his ablest generals, and 
 when they assailed the palace, flung his head out to them. 
 They, however, burst in, and the unhappy khalif expired be- 
 neath their feet. His brother and successor Moktader, to 
 rid himself of them, placed them, as his best troops, on the 
 different frontiers, and thereby hastened their becoming in- 
 dependent. 
 
 86». A Turkish governor of Egypt, named Tooloon, had some 
 time before made himself independent. He had, it is said, 
 found a large treasure, and thereon raised his power. His 
 son and successor Ahmed was the father of the poor, but in- 
 exorable in the punishment of crime, and 18,000 persons 
 were executed during his reign. The commander of the 
 faithful, Motedad, married Cotr-en-neda (Dewdrop) the daugh- 
 ter of Khemeruyah, son of Ahmed, and on her road to Bag- 
 dad, she found each evening a tent splendid, and furnished 
 as the palace of her father, prepared for her reception. Ha- 
 roon, the grandson of Ahmed, fell in defence of his kingdom, 
 
 S05 and with him ended the dynasty of the Tooloonides. Egypt 
 was reunited to the dominions of the khalif Mohtadi Billah. 
 But twenty-nine years afterwards another Turk, Akhsheed, 
 
 934. separated it anew, and it never again obeyed the khalifs of 
 Bagdad. 
 
 The Gasnevides. 
 
 997. Sebuktajee, a slave of a minister of the Saraanians, by 
 valor and prudence obtamed tlie government of the city and 
 district of Gasna or Ghizni. His son Mahmood gradually 
 extended his power irom the Caspian to the Indus, and the
 
 CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE (MIEAT EMPIRES. 263 
 
 Wialif honored him with the title of Sultan. The power of 
 Mahmood increased witli eastern rapidity. India attracted 
 his cupidity : since the days of Seleucus Nicator she had not 
 been penetrated to any extent by a foreign conqueror : she 
 abounded in treasure ; her people were unwarlike : Mahmood 
 and his Moslems poured down on her from her northern fron- 
 tier : he reached the Ganges ; resistance was ineffectual ; all 
 submitted. His religious zeal was displayed in the destruc- 
 tion of the idols of India, and an incredible treasure rewarded 
 his holy warfare. Twelve times did the Gasnevide monarch 
 march to the pillage of this rich and feeble country. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Family dissensions and the revolt of governors diminished 
 Lhe power of the dynasty founded by Abd-er-rahman, and 
 the Christians gradually extended their possessions from the 
 jiountains to the plain. ^_ n 
 
 After a contest of two hundred years a Christian kingdom 914 
 was founded under Ordofio, of which Leon was the capital 
 The laws of the Goths were re-established ; and this was the 
 commencement of the heroic age of Spain, when she put 
 forth every manly virtue, and fought with religious zeal, 
 patriotic feeling, and knightly honor. 
 
 A county had beep formed at Burgos by Fernando Gon- 933. 
 zales. On the failure of his posterity it was formed into the 
 kingdom of Castile in favor of Fernando, son of Sanchez, 1033 
 king of Navarre. This Last kingdom had been formed by the 
 descendants of the valiant Gascon, count Acnor, who had 
 (831) crossed the Pyrenees to conquer lands from the infidels. 
 They had also made themselves masters of the fruitful plains 
 of Catalonia. 
 
 At the time when the empire of the khalifs of Cordova 
 was falling to pieces, almost the entire of the Christian states 
 were united under Sanchez of Navirre. But he again sepa- 
 rated them, giving only Navarre to his eldest son, leaving 
 Castile to Fernando, who had acquired Leon by marriage, 
 and forming in the mountains about the little stream of the 
 Aragon, the kingdom so denominated for his natural son Ra- 
 mirez; a kingdom which, by wise laws and able rulers, 
 eclipsed all in the Peninsula. 
 
 Bernhard, of the family of the dukes of Aquitaine, whom 
 Charlemagne had made count of Barcelona, became, in a 864. 
 great measure, independent: his son VVinfred became com- 
 pletely so. Count Raymond Berenger obtained by marriage 1137 
 (he kingdom of Aragon. 
 
 All these sovereigns pressed on the Mohammedan emirs.
 
 264 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 11 
 
 A u. who were less united. The latter, unable to withstand. 
 
 1086. called over Yoossef-ben-Takhfin the Almoravide, who hm! 
 just founded the empire of Morocco. He came, repulsed tlie 
 Christians ; and all Spain, south of the mountains of Cajstile, 
 wag united under his dominion. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 
 
 Italy. — The Nortnans. 
 
 After the Normans had embraced Christianity, they be 
 came distinguished for their devotion according to the fashior 
 of the times. Of this, pilgrimage formed a principal part, 
 and the variety and the dangers of it were pleasing to tht 
 valiant Normans. On a visit of a number of them to the cav- 
 
 1016. em of Mount Garganus, in Apulia, they were accosted by 8 
 citizen of Bari, who held out large hopes if they would assist 
 in expelling the Greeks from Italy. They consented, and 
 the following year, a large body passed the Alps in small par 
 ties, and united in Apulia. They were unsuccessful against 
 the Greek troops ; but they kept together, and were employed 
 by the neighboring princes in their quarrels. The duke of 
 
 1029. Naples built for them the town of Aversa. Numbers of every 
 nation flocked to their standard. Count Rainulf was their 
 commander. 
 
 1038. The Saracens had now held Sicily for two centuries. They 
 were fallen into disunion, had throvni off their allegiance to 
 the king of Tunis : each petty chief aimed at independence. 
 The court of Byzantium was always anxious to recover the 
 island : the present opportunity seemed favorable. Two 
 brothers of the Saracens being at enmity, one applied for the 
 aid of the Christians. The Grecian governor of Italy was 
 directed to engage the Normans, and five hundred of their 
 knights were enrolled. On landing in Sicily, the Saracens 
 were found united ; but nothing could resist Norman valor, 
 and thirteen cities and a great part of the island were re- 
 duced to the obedience of the emperor. In the division of the 
 spoil the Normans were unjustly treated, and on their return 
 
 1040. to Italy they invaded Apulia, to indemnify themselves. Their 
 whole forces were 700 horse and 500 foot; the imperial 
 troops are stated at 60,000 ; yet, in the course of three years, 
 the empire retained only the towns of Bari, Otranto, Brundu- 
 
 1043. sium, and Tarentum. The Normans divided their conquests
 
 1. Shobk Lapiandkb. 2, 3. Mountain Laplan-debs.
 
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 CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 267 
 
 into twelve districts, over each of which was a count, one of 
 whom, under the title of count of Apulia, presided in tlieir 
 councils, held in the town of Melfi. The first count of Apulia 
 was William of the Iron Arm, equally distinguished in the 
 virtues of war and peace. 
 
 The rapacity and injustice of the Normans made them 
 hated. The court of Byzantium sought to deliver Italy from 
 them, by inducing them to take a settlement in Asia, on the 
 frontiers of Persia ; but the wily Normans saw through and 
 rejected the imperial munificence. The Byzantine agent 
 Arg)rrus thus foiled, determined on force, and a league waa 
 formed between the pope Leo IX. and the emperors of the * a. 
 East and West, against them. The pope travelled to Ger- 1M9 
 many to seek aid. Argyrus caused a number of the Normans 
 to be assassinated. On the return of the pope, with a small 
 band of German auxiliaries, a force considerable in number 
 was collected. The Normans were deserted by all; they 
 could only muster 8000 horse ; they were reduced to great 
 straits for want of provisions, were dispirited by famine and 
 superstition, and offered to submit The alternative of death 
 or exile was given by the pope : — they resolved to die as sol- 
 diers, engaged the enemy, defeated them, and took the pope 
 prisoner at Civitella. The warriors knelt and implored his 
 forgiveness; the well-meaning pontiff lamented his error: by io5S 
 his right, derived from the grant of Constantine, he bestowed 
 on them their present and future conquests in Apulia and 
 Calabria, as a fief of the holy see, which relation the kingdom 
 of Naples has ever since retained. 
 
 Tancred de Hauteville, a valvassor of Normandy, had 
 tw elve str.s , and his patrimony was small : ten of them, at 
 various times, crossed the Alps, and joined the Normans in 
 Apulia Robert, surnamed Guiscard, (Wizard 7) the fourth 
 of them, soon became distinguished. He commanded a di- 
 vision at Civitella, and gained there the prize of valor. His 
 three elder brotliers, William of the Iron Arm, Drogo, and 
 Humphry, had successively attained to the rank of count of 
 Apulia. On the death of the last named, leaving his sons 
 minors, their claims were postponed to those ( f Robert and 
 he was chosen count of Apulia. The pope Nicholas conferred 
 on him and his posterity the title of duke of Apulia ; but he 1060 
 waited till the next campaign had achieved the conquest of 
 Reggio and Cosenza, and then he called on his victorious 
 troops to confirm what the pope had bestowed. The soldiers 
 joyfully hailed him duke, and he henceforth entitled himselfj 
 " By the grace of God and St Peter duke of Apulia, Gala- 
 bria, and hereafter of Sicily." But many years elapsed before
 
 268 HISTORY OF TUE WORLD. PART U. 
 
 he was master of all these dominions. The Normans were 
 few ; the counts were not attached to him, and often conspired 
 against him ; the sons of Humphry asserted their claims, and 
 plotted against him ; the Greeks and Lombards defended the 
 towns on the sea-coast with skill and courage, and the Nor- 
 mans were unused to sieges. Twenty years were spent in 
 giving his dominions the extent of the present kingdom ot 
 Naples. 
 
 The conquest of Sicily was achieved in the reign of Ro 
 \bert Guiscard. Roger, the last of the twelve brothers, having 
 arrived in Apulia, Robert admired, then envied his noblf 
 qualities. The Greeks had abandoned Sicily, and its con 
 quest was proposed to Roger. With sixty followers, he 
 crossed the strait, and drove the Saracens to the gates of 
 Messina. The spoils acquired attracted others to his standard ; 
 his brother aided ; small bodies of Normans overthrew large 
 1090. armies of the Moslems; and at the end of thirty years Roger, 
 with the title of Great Count, was master of the island. His 
 government was liberal and judicious beyond the age. The 
 Moslems were protected in their persons, religion, and prop- 
 erty. 
 
 The ambition of Robert aimed at conquest in the Greek 
 empire. His daughter had been betrothed to the son of the 
 emperor Michael; but the youth had died, and his father 
 been deposed. Robert affected to be the avenger of his 
 friend : a pseudo-Michael appeared at Salerno, and was ac- 
 knowledged by the wily duke and the able Gregory VII. An 
 army was collected during two years, and assembled at 
 Otranto. Robert landed near Vallona, at the head of 30,000 
 men, of whom the kernel were 1300 Norman knights. Siege 
 was laid to Durazzo, which was vigorously defended. The 
 Norman fleet suffered from a dreadful storm ; it was defeated 
 by that of Venice, and a reinforcement was thrown into Di> 
 razzo. The able emperor Alexius Comnenus advanced a 
 the head of a large army ; the English, who had left their 
 country, now enslaved by the Normans, increased the number 
 of the brave Verangians ; with them were joined some com- 
 panies of Latins or Western Europeans ; and the rebels who 
 had fled from Robert, and a body of Turkish horse, obeyed the 
 commands of the Grecian emperor. Despair added to the 
 courage of the Normans ; the emperor injudiciously gave bat- 
 tle ; the troops of Robert at first yielded ; the Varangians, 
 who occupied the van, imprudently advanced too far, and ex- 
 posing their flanks to the lances of the* Norman knights, they 
 were slaughtered. The Turks fled, and Alexius now saw
 
 C«AP.V INCUEASE OF THE PAPAL POWER lllj'J 
 
 the battle was lost. On the valor of his own gubjects he *• ■ 
 placed no reliance. 1081 
 
 Durazzo was taken by treachery. Robert advanced through 1082 
 Epirus into Thessaly ; but his army was reduced to a third. 
 The cities of Apulia were m revolt. Henry king of Germany 
 was advancing against him. He passed over to Apulia, leav- 
 ing the command of the army to the gallant Bohemond, hia 
 son by his first wife. Bohemond besieged Larissa. Alexius 
 collected another army ; various indecisive engagements took 
 place ; the counts betrayed and deserted Bohemond ; his camp 
 was pillaged, and he was forced to evacuate the country, and 
 return to his father. Meanwhile Henry had entered Rome, 
 and created an anti-pope. Gregory was besieged in the 
 Vatican : he invoked the aid of his Norman vassal. Robert 1084 
 displayed the holy banner ; 6000 horse and 80,000 foot marched 
 beneath it to Rome. Henry retired, and Gregory was lib- 
 erated. Thus Robert, in the space of three years, had the 
 glory of making the emperors of the East and the West fly 
 before him, and of delivering the greatest of the popes from 
 captivity. 
 
 Robert prepared agam to attack the eastern empire. Alex- 1084 
 lus had collected a fleet to oppose him ; the Venetians joined 
 their vessels to those of the empire. The Norman troops 
 were, however, landed in safety in Epirus, and then Robert, 
 with twenty galleys, sought the allied navy. Three battles 
 were fought off Corfu : in the first two the Normans were 
 repulsed ; in the third their victory was complete. Winter 
 came on. In the spring Robert renewed his operations, in- 
 tending to turn his arms against Greece ; but an epidemic 
 disease seized him in Cefalonia, and he died in his tent in the 1083 
 70th year of his age. The army dispersed and retired. Ro- 
 bert was succeeded by his second son ; Roger Bohemond 
 being regarded as illegitimate, as his father and mother had 
 been within the prohibited degrees of kindred : his claims, 
 however, disturbed the nation till the crusades drew him off 
 to Asia. 
 
 Italy — The Popes. 
 
 The pretensions of the popes during this period advanced 
 with rapid strides. In their contests with the emperors of 
 *he house of Franconia they had to rely on the aid of a strong 
 party in Germany, of the great countess Matilda in the north 
 of Italy, and of their Norman vassals in the south. Extent 
 of the papal dominion, and emancipation from the superiority 
 of the emperors, were the great objects in view : the daring 
 
 23*
 
 270 raSTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IL 
 
 temper and lofty genius of Gregory VII. almost assured the 
 victory. 
 
 Leo IX. and Stephen IX. had adorned the chair by theii 
 birth and virtues. In the pontificate of Nicholas II. it was 
 established in a synod that the popes were to be chosen by 
 the cardinal bishops (those whose sees were near Rome), and 
 approved of by the cardinal priests and deacons (ministers of 
 the parish churches at Rome) and the people, and then pre 
 sented for confirmation to the emperor. Hildebrand, arch 
 deacon of Rome, was the author of this plan, the object of 
 which was gradually to free the papacy from imperial con- 
 trol. On the death of Nicholas he had Alexander II. chosen 
 and consecrated without waiting for the imperial sanction, 
 and on the death of Alexander he was himself raised to the 
 pontificate under the title of Gregory VII., yet he refused to 
 be consecrated till he had obtained the emperor's consent. 
 
 The emperor was Henry IV., a dissolute, arbitrary prince 
 The Saxons were in rebellion against him, and the princes 
 in general disaffected. Gregory commenced his attack by 
 excommunicating some of his ministers for simony : he then 
 published a decree against lay investitures, or the investing 
 of spiritual persons with the ensigns of their rank by laymen 
 The ring and crosier were, it was said, the emblems of z 
 power which monarchs could not bestow ; and though the 
 estates of the church might be temporal, yet, by their insepa 
 rable union with the spiritual office, they might be regarded 
 as partaking of its sanctity. 
 
 The pope, afler long treating with the disaffected party ir 
 Germany, saw he might advance a little, and he sumnioneo 
 Henry to appear at Rome. Henry was enraged : he assem- 
 bled at Worms a number of bishops and other vassals, and 
 had a decree passed that Gregory should not be obeyed aa 
 pope. Gregory, when he heard this, summoned a council at 
 the Lateran, excommunicated Henry, deprived him of the 
 kingdoms of Italy and Germany, absolved his subjects from 
 their allegiance, and commanded them not to obey him. 
 Gregory acted advisedly in this unheard-of stretch of power. 
 Henry's subjects rejoiced at being told that what was their 
 inclination was also their duty : conspiracies ripened into re- 
 bellion ; the bishops were terrified at the sentence of excom- 
 munication ; and Henry found himself alone. He adopted 
 the resolution of going to Italy, and casting himself at the 
 feet of the pontiff. In the midst of a severe winter he crossed 
 the Alps, and travelled to the seat of the countess Matilda, 
 at Canossa, near Reggio. Here, with naked feet, in the 
 woollen shirt worn by penitents, he stood in the outer court
 
 Loots XIT.
 
 OBAP. V. INCREASE OP THE PAPAL POWER. 273 
 
 for three days, exposed to the piercing cold. On the fourth, 
 Gregory admitted and gave him absolution ; but ordered him 
 to appear at a certain time, to know whether he should be 
 restored to his kingdom. 
 
 By this pusillanimous step Henry had disgusted his friends. 
 He saw his imprudence, broke off the negotiation, and took 
 to his arms : his friends rallied about him : he was victorious 
 in Germany and Italy ; and he drove Gregory to die in exile 
 at Salerno. Urban II. and Pascal II. carried on the contest 
 with him : tliey excited his children to rebellion, but gained 
 nothing by the unnatural contest; for Henry V., who had 
 rebelled for the popes against his father, when he ascended 
 his throne, clung as obstinately to the right of investiture as 
 he had done. Being on good terms with his vassals, it would 
 not have been safe to try with liim the measures which had 
 been adopted against his father ; and after a contest of fifteen 
 years, the matter was settled by a compromise between him a. d 
 and pope Calixtus 11. The emperor renounced the right of 1122 
 investing bishops with the ring and crosier, and recognized 
 the liberty of elections; but the election was to take place in 
 the presence of him or his officer, and he was to confer the 
 temporalities by the sceptre. A similar contest had been 
 carried on and was terminated in the same manner between 
 Pascal II. and Henry I. of England. 
 
 The popes had a plausible pretext for thus seeking to free 
 spiritual offices from lay influence. The grossest simony had 
 been practised, and the church, as far as was possible in that 
 age of gross superstition, thereby deprived of its sanctity. 
 They had not tHe same pretext for their next measure, the 
 injunction of celibacy. Mankind have always attached a 
 mysterious effijct to this virtue. We find it in religious honor 
 in Peru and in Rome. The oriental doctrines early introduced 
 a reverence for it into the church. It gradually was extolled 
 and enjoined ; but human nature was too strong for it, and 
 marriage was generally practised among the clergy. Leo 
 IX. set vigorously about enforcing it: his successors followed 
 up his measures : tlie laity, as might be expected, took part 
 against the married priests, who were the most virtuous of 
 the order ; but the abuse as it was termed, could not be remov 
 ed without tolerating greater evils. It is plain what a pow 
 erful engine this was calculated to make the clergy in the 
 hands of a pope, by detaching them from all tJie ties of social 
 iife, and leaving them no attachment but to their order and 
 »ts head. Yet we should err if we supposed all tlie popes to 
 nave been profound calculators or unprincipled graspers at 
 power. Maoy of them were men of eminent virtue, and few
 
 274 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 11. 
 
 or them saw clearly the ultimate effect of their projects. The 
 growth of the papacy was like that of a plant, the necessary 
 effect of predisposing causes ; and, in the state of the human 
 mind in the middle ages, its progress was as natural as that 
 of any phenomenon in the physical world. 
 
 The arms employed by the popes to effect their purpose 
 were excommunication and interdict. By the former an in- 
 dividual, no matter what his rank may have been, was cut 
 off from society ; it was sinful to hold any intercourse with 
 him, and temporal disadvantages were annexed to the sen- 
 tence. But this extended only to one person. Interdict 
 visited the crime of one, usually a sovereign, on all in any 
 way connected with him. When a state was laid under an 
 interdict, the churches were closed, the dead unburied, the 
 bells silent, no sacraments administered but baptism and ex- 
 treme unction. The operation of this on the minds of a su- 
 perstitious people, who attached such mysterious efficacy to 
 masses and sacraments, may easily be conceived ; and few 
 monarchs had courage to dare this last effort of pontifical 
 vengeance. 
 
 With such arms, and at the head of such an army, the 
 popes seemed almost secure of universal empire ; and we 
 shall soon behold their power at its very climax, but yet on 
 the point of declension, from causes that were in operation 
 against it 
 
 Italy — Lombard Cities. 
 
 The principal cities in the north of Italy had, under the 
 Lombard and French kings, been subject, With their districts, 
 to counts, and these again to dukes. The Saxon emperors 
 separated from them the greater part of the territory, and 
 the authority of the count was usually confined to the town ; 
 the bishop often obtained the government. The feudal law 
 of Italy was not so definite as that of France ; there was 
 frequent war between the vavassors and their superior lords; 
 the cities were strong and populous ; bishops were elective 
 and not hereditary, and less bold and energetic than lay 
 princes. From all these causes the cities gradually increased 
 in strength and power, made war on each other, obtained 
 charters from the emperors — became, in fact, perfectly inde- 
 pendent As the possessions of the rural nobility had been 
 originally part of their territory, they reclaimed them, reduced 
 the castles of the nobles, and compelled them to reside in the 
 towns. Here the nobles aimed at obtaining the municipal 
 offices, and the government was at this period chiefly in their 
 hands. The policy of the citizens was liberal: they encour
 
 CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 275 
 
 aged settlement among them. Their mutual and bitter war« 
 and animosities were the great blemish tliey presented 
 
 Germany — House of Franconia. 
 
 On the death of Henry II. the house of Saxony became a. d 
 extinct Conrad, surnamed the Salic, a nobleman of Fran- 1024 
 conia, was chosen to succeed. This prince endeavored to 
 increase the power of his family by bestowing several duchies 
 on his relatives. In his reign Burgundy was annexed to the 
 empire. His son, Henry III., trod in his steps : he disposed, 1039 
 at his will, of duchies, controlled the papal power, and may 
 be regarded as the most powerful and absolute of the German 
 emperors. Henry IV., his son, was left a minor : his mother 1056 
 Agnes administered the government : the nobles thought the 
 opportunity good for recovering their power ; the archbishop 
 of Mentz carried away the young king, and governed in his 
 name : the education of Henry was neglected, and he grew 
 up dissolute and addicted to low company, but brave and good- 
 natured. The Saxons rebelled: the quarrel about investitures 
 broke out between the pope and the emperor. Henry was 
 excommunicated and deposed by Gregory VII., and Rodolf 
 duke of Swabia was raised to the throne. Henry defended 
 his rights with vigor : Rodolf was slain in battle. The pope 
 excited Henry's son to rebellion against him ; and at the end 
 of thirty years of continued war, in which he had fought 
 sixty battles, the unhappy emperor sunk in death, and his 
 body lay for years unburied, as he had died excommunicated. 1106 
 Henry V., a rebel to his father, at the instigation of the holy 
 see, was as tenacious as any of his predecessors of the right 
 of investiture. After a long contest the matter was, as we 
 have seen, settled by compromise between him and the pope. 1125 
 With Henry V. ended the house of Franconia. 
 
 France. 
 
 Robert, son of Hugh Capet, neglected his father's projects 997 
 for extending the royal power. His successor, Henry I., at- 
 tempted to recover Normandy during the minority of Wil- 103L 
 liam, afterwards the Conqueror, but without success. Philip 
 I. took advantage of the crusades to enlarge the limits of the 1060 
 royal power; yet so narrow were these limits, that at tlie 1 108 
 accession of Louis VI., the Fat, it was almost confined to the 
 cities of Paris, Orleans, Bourges, and their districts; and it 
 cost the king no little trouble to reduce the lords of Mont 
 Chery and other places near Paris. In the reign of thi» 
 monarch properly began the wars between France and Eng- 
 »and, which lasted three centuries and a half; Ixiuia takinj
 
 o^ 
 
 ^'& aiSTOUTr OP THE W0RL1>. PART H 
 
 the part of William, son of Robert duke of Normandy, against 
 Henry I. of England, who had usurped that duchy. 
 
 England. 
 
 A n. After the battle of Hastings, William's claim to the crown 
 
 066 was admitted, the inutility of opposition being apparent. He 
 was crowned at Westminster, and took the usual coronation 
 oath of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs. His reign was at first 
 moderate ; only, as it was necessary to gratify the rapacity 
 of his Norman followers, the estates of those who fought 
 against him at Hastings were unjustly confiscated as those 
 of rebels. But these were halcyon days. In the following 
 year he returned to Normandy : his Normans, whom he left 
 in England, oppressed and insulted the people in the most 
 
 I0G7 opprobrious manner. The English rebelled. William, who, 
 when he left the kingdom, probably knew what would take 
 place, returned, crushed the incipient insurrection, confiscated 
 estates, and bestowed them on his followers. The following 
 year another rebellion, produced by the same cause, had the 
 
 OSa same result; and William, if he ever had any regard for his 
 English subjects, now manifested nothing towards them but 
 hatred and aversion. Many of the English nobles fled from 
 their country to Scotland, to Constantinople, and elsewhere,- 
 all places of trust were in the hands of the Normans, ano 
 gradually they were becoming possessed of all the landa 
 Aided by the Danes and Scots, the people rose once more in 
 arms ; but the vigor and policy of the king proved too pow- 
 erful for them. He now increased his rigor ; he laid waste 
 the country between the Humber and the Tees, to curb the 
 Northumbrians, and 100,000 people are said to have perished 
 by this odious policy. Having now seized almost the whole 
 of the land of England, he introduced all the rigors of the 
 feudal law; he divided the kingdom into 60,000 knights' 
 fees, which he chiefly bestowed on his Normans, to hold im- 
 mediately of himself. A large portion of them were formed 
 into 700 baronies, for the principal of his Norman lords, and 
 such of the English as retained their lands found themselves 
 subjected to the feudal burdens. Besides these baronies, 
 1422 manors constituted the royal demesne, the rent of which 
 was the chief revenue of the crown. All the dignities of 
 the church were bestowed upon the Normans ; an attempt 
 was even made to abolish the English language, which m 
 part unfortunately succeeded, and hence arose the mingled 
 dialect we now speak. 
 
 Great as was the suffering caused by the Norman monarchs 
 and their barons, it is to the tyranny cf these princes that
 
 STEPHEN. 
 
 HENRY II. 
 
 RICHARD I. 
 
 JOHN. 
 
 HENRY UI.
 
 CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWEK. 279 
 
 England ia in a ^eat measure indebted for her having pre- 
 ceded the other nations in the establisliment of popular hberty 
 and constitutional monarchy. For while elsewhere the no- 
 bles could defy the king and oppress the people, here they 
 were obliged to call the people to their aid against the enor- 
 mous power of the crown. Hence arose the dignity and in- 
 fluence of the commons of England. 
 
 William left three sons, Robert, William, and Henry. To a. ik 
 the first he left Normandy ; to the second, England. William 1087 
 II. was an oppressive, tyrannical monarch. His brother 
 Rx)bert at first contested the crown of England with him, but 
 was forced to desist from his claims. Robert was a brave, 
 generous prince; he was inflamed with the general mania 
 of the crusades, and he mortgaged Normandy to William for 
 10,000 marks, to equip him for the expedition. William earl 
 of Poitiers and duke of Guienne made a similar agreement 
 with him ; but as he was preparing a fleet and army to go to 
 take possession of these provinces, he was accidentally shot 
 by an arrow, while hunting in the New Forest, for the form- 
 ation of which his father had laid waste the greater part lioo 
 of Hampshire. 
 
 Henry on the death of his brother hastened to Winchester 
 to secure the royal treasure, and he married Matilda, niece 
 of Edgar Atheling, the last of the Anglo-Saxon royal family. 
 On his return from the East, Robert claimed the kingdom ; 
 but Henry was too strong for him ; and in consequence of the 
 indolence and remissness of Robert, Henry soon afterwards 
 made himself master of Normandy, and took his brother and 
 confined him for life in the castle of Cardiff. Henry had a 
 long contest with the popes about the right of investiture, 
 and the matter was compromised as in Germany. This king 
 had the misfortune to lose his only son. His daughter Ma- 
 tilda was married to the emperor Henry V. ; and Henry dying 
 ithout issue, she was again married to Geoflrey son of Fulk, 
 ount of Anjou, by whom she had a son. Henry left Matilda 1135 
 heiress of all his dominions. 
 
 Stephen count of Blois was grandson of the conqueror, by 
 hia daughter Adela. Henry I. had greatly favored and en- 
 riched him and his brother Henry, whom he made bishop of 
 Winchester. On the death of Henry, Stephen hastened to 
 England, secured the royal treasure, and was crowned. The 
 rights of Matilda were upheld by her natural brother, Robert 
 of Gloucester, and several barons. Nearly twenty years 
 elapsed in civil war between the two parties ; the power of 
 the crown was greatly diminished ; the great barons were 
 rapidly attaining to independence ; the papal power waa en-
 
 280 HISTORY OJ THE WORLD. PART II. 
 
 croaching ; and all the evils of relaxed government were felt 
 A compromise was at last made between Stephen and Henry, 
 son of Matilda, to whom she had made over her rights, that 
 
 4 D. Stephen should reign during his life, and Henry succeed, 
 
 llii Stephen did not long enjoy his reign. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 In Spain the Christian states continued gradually to ga' 
 on the Mohammedan territories. Alfonso VI. of Castile an 
 
 085. Leon had recovered from the Moslems Toledo, the ancien 
 Gothic capital. Alfonso I. of .Aragon pushed his conquests to 
 
 1118. the Ebro, and made hunself master of Saragossa, which he 
 now made the capital of his dominions. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 1081. We have seen Alexius Comnenus valiantly defending his 
 dominions against the Normans. With equal wisdom and 
 good fortune he maintained himself against the Russians who 
 assailed the empire in Europe, and the Seljookian Turks who 
 pressed on it in the East. He also knew how to derive advan- 
 tage from the passage over into Asia of the formidable mul- 
 titudes of the crusaders. 
 
 HIS. John, the son and successor of Alexius, was also a prince 
 of valor, ability, and magnanimity, and while he reigned he 
 
 il43. bravely defended all the frontiers of the empire. His son 
 Manuel partook not of the noble qualities of his family, but 
 he transmitted the empire unimpaired to his son. 
 
 The Seljookians. 
 
 The Turks had from the most remote ages led a pastoral 
 iife in the plains beyond the Oxus and Jaxartes, whence they 
 continually made inroads into the empire of Persia. In the 
 decline of the powers of the khalifs, they encroached mor 
 and more, and pastured their herds south of these rivers. 
 They were encouraged by their countrymen, who were domi- 
 nant at the court of the khalifs ; and Mahmood of Ghizni 
 placed several of their tribes in Kliorassan. On his death, 
 these Turks made inroads into Persia, and ravaged to the 
 i038 Tigris. Massood, his successor, collected an army and gave 
 them battle on the plains of Zendecan. The Ghiznivide was 
 defeated and driven out of the greater part of his dominions. 
 
 The Turks now proceeded to elect a king. The decision 
 was committed to the lot of arrows ; and Toghrul Beg, the 
 Bon of Michael, the ^son of Seljook, gained the prize, Togh- 
 rul, having made himself master of Khorassan, advanced into 
 Ink, subdued it, and then took Bagdad, where he was, by
 
 OHAP. V INCEEASB OP THE PAPAL POWER. 281 
 
 thefeeblekhalif, appointed vicegerent ofthe vicar of the propli- ^ d. 
 et, and lord over all Mohammedans. The conquest of Ader- 1056. 
 bijan (Media; brought the Seljookians into contact with the 
 Romans, who had gradually recovered their former possessions 
 as far as the eastern frontier of Armenia, and their ambassa- 
 dors appeared at Constantinople, to demand tribute and obedi- 
 ence. The Turkish cavalry ravaged the country to the city 
 of Erzeroom, and massacred 130,000 Christians; but Toghrul 
 was not able to make any lasting impression. 
 
 Toghrul and his subjects were zealous in the faitli of Islam, 
 and he entertained the highest reverence for the successors 
 of the prophet. He restored to his dominion Bagdad and its 
 district ; and the khalif enjoyed a degree of ease and inde- 
 pendence to which he had been long a stranger. Yet it was 
 with reluctance that the khalif Cayem bestowed his daughter 1063. 
 on the Turkman shepherd, though monarch of Asia. 
 
 Toghrul was succeeded by his nephew, Alp Arslan ( Val- 1065. 
 iant Lion). This monarch invaded the Roman empire : the 1068. 
 conquest of Armenia was rapid ; the Georgians of Caucasus 
 offered a braver though as unavailing a resistance. The 
 Turks penetrated to Phrygia : Romanus Diogenes, the val- 
 iant husband of the empress Eudocia, marched against them. 
 In three campaigns he drove them beyond the Euphrates; in 1071. 
 a fourth, he attempted the recovery of Armenia. But fortune 
 here deserted the Roman emperor ; treachery or cowardice 
 caused the overthrow of his army ; after long fighting with 
 desperate valor, he was forced to surrender on the field of 
 battle, and was led captive into the presence of Alp Arslan, 
 whose magnanimity and generosity on this occasion may al- 
 most vie with that of the Black Prince to the king of France. 
 Romanus, after the kindest treatment, was set at liberty, on 
 condition of a large ransom and an annual tribute. Alp Ars- 
 an now turned his arms against his countrymen beyond the 
 Oxus : the dagger of a Carismian, maddened by the severity 
 of the sentence threatened him, pierced the heart of the Sel- 1072. 
 jookian in the midst of his guards, and the remains of Alp 
 Arslan were entombed at Merv. 
 
 Malek Shah, the son of Alp Arslan, was, in noble qualities 
 and extent of dominion, the greatest prince of his age. The 
 Turkman tribes aclcnowledged his supremacy ; and from the 
 confines of China to those of Constantinople and Egypt his 
 mandates were obeyed. Learning was encouraged and the 
 calendar reformed in the reign of Malek ; but the praise must 
 be shared with his illustrious vizier, tjie great and good 
 Nizam-ul-mulk, who directed tlie government under him and 
 big father. Alp Arslan. At the age of ninety-three veart, 
 24*
 
 282 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. 
 
 Nizam was disgraced, and lie perished by tht dagger of one 
 of the followers of his schoolfellow, Hassan Sabah, who had 
 just now organized the society of the ASsassins. Malek did 
 not long survive his minister, and the brief remainder of his 
 
 A. D. reign was inglorious. He died suddenly at Bagdad, and hia 
 
 i092 death was imputed to Hassan. 
 
 On the death of Malek, his empire, after the usual course 
 of civil war among his sons, was divided, but finally reunited 
 in the person of Sanjar, the survivor of them, and the last 
 great monarch of the Seljookians of Persia. Sanjar ruled 
 from Cashgar to Antioch, from the Caspian to the Straits of 
 Babelmandeb. 
 
 During tlie time of these princes, the power of the Sel- 
 jookians was established in Rx>om, i. e. Lesser Asia. Kootel- 
 mish, grandson of Seljook, had attempted to form an inde- 
 pendent dominion in that country, but was defeated and slain. 
 His son, Mansoor, paid tribute to Alp Arslan and Malek Shah, 
 till, by the command of the latter, he also was put to death. 
 His younger brother, Suleiman, would have had a similar 
 fate but for the interference of Nizam-ul-mulk, on whose re- 
 presentations he was not only granted his life, but given an 
 
 1074. army, with commission to make conquest in Room. Suleiman 
 crossed the Euphrates : soon almost the whole of Lesser Asia 
 obeyed the Turkish sultan, who fixed his seat of empire at 
 Nice in Bithynia : his aid was implored by rival candidates 
 for the purple ; and even Alexius Comnenus sought his sup- 
 port against the Normans. By treachery Antioch fell into 
 the hands of Suleiman. Constantinople was menaced, and 
 Alexius sent through Europe supplicatory epistles. Jerusalem 
 was in the hands of the Turks. 
 
 Jerusalem had long been the resort of pious or zealous 
 Christians. In the times of the early khalifs and the first 
 Abbassides their access had never been impeded; and Ha- 
 roon-er-Rasheed had even presented Charlemagne with the 
 keys of the holy sepulchre, perhaps of the city. The pil- 
 grimages were advantageous to the subjects of the khalifs, as 
 they brought money and trade to tlieir coasts. When the 
 Fatemites of Egypt got possession of Palestine, they were 
 far from throwing any impediments in the way of western 
 devotion, and it was only for a time interrupted by the mad 
 
 009. freaks of the khalif Hakem. Sat Atsiz, one of the .ieu- 
 tenants of Malek Shah, marched into Syria, took Damascus?, 
 and reduced the province : he advanced into Egypt, and the 
 Fatemite khalif was about to fly into Nubia before the troops, 
 who maintained the cause of the Abbasside, when the people 
 of Cairo and the negro guards valiantly repelled the Turks
 
 v'»t'JS3iM»Mf'.»''M ,.. 
 
 
 'p. 
 
 ;;;'■- -It 
 I ■ 
 
 '.i V
 
 o
 
 CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 285 
 
 froan the frontiers. But Tootush, brother of Malek Shah, a. o 
 now appeared, and Syria and Palestine obeyed for twenty 1076 
 years tlie hoiif e of Seljook ; and the rude Turks treated with 
 the utmost insolence and cruelty tlie Christian pilgrims, who 
 now flocked to the Holy Land in greater numbers than ever. 
 
 First Crusade. 
 
 The pilgrims filled Europe with complaints of the profana- io<€ 
 tion of the sepulchre. The letters of Alexius portrayed the 
 power of the Turks, and the danger of the Greek empire : 
 Gregory VII. had already meditated the union of Christen- 
 dom against Islam ; Europe was full of ardent enthusiastic 
 warriors, Peter the Hermit proposed to Urban II., the then 
 pope, a project of leading armies into Asia, and conquering 
 the Holy Land. A council was summoned at Placentia ; it 
 was numerously attended by both clergy and laity, and war 
 was resolved on. Another council was held at Clermont in 
 Auvergne, and, on hearing the exhortations of the pope and 
 the hermit, the whole assembly cried. It is the will of God ! 
 and each champion devoted himself to the holy war by ai&x- 
 ing a cross to his right shoulder. 
 
 The kingdom of heaven was promised to all who fell in the 
 war against the infidels : the acquisition of earthly kingdoms 
 in Asia, of whose wealth and fertility they had heard such 
 marvels, was to crown success. Piety, curiosity, every feel- 
 ing was roused : all sins were forgiven to the crossed ; hos- 
 tilities were prohibited against the states of those who warred 
 for Christ. Robert duke of Normandy, Hugh, brother of the 
 king of France, Raymond count of Toulouse, Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, and his brothers Eustace and Baldwin, Stephen 
 count of Blois, were the chief leaders, and an immense num- 
 ber of all ranks and ages crowded to the sacred standard. 
 Three hundred thousand, under the guidance of Peter the 
 Hermit, Walter the Moneyless, and others, straggled on be- 
 fore. In their passage through Hungary and Bulgaria, part 
 were massacred by the inhabitants, whom they pillaged ; and 
 the rest, on entering Asia, were slaughtered by the Turks. 
 The great army followed, and poured into Constantinople, to 
 the dismay of Alexius, who lost no time in passing them 
 over into Asia. When assembled before the walls of Nice, loy 
 they numbered 600,000 combatants. They besieged and took 
 Uiat city, defeating the Seljookian Kilij Aralan in two great 
 battles, and took every town which lay in tlieir way to An- 
 tioch, of which city Bohemond, the son of Robert Guiscardt 
 waa made prince. Baldwin, at the call of its Christian m-
 
 286 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IL 
 
 habitants, passed the Euphrates, and assumed the sovereignty 
 of Edessa. 
 
 Afdel the vizier of the Fatemite khalif Mostaali, had re- 
 covered Jerusalem from the Turks : the crusaders were in- 
 formed that they might now perfonn their vows, if they came 
 unarmed, and that pilgrims would henceforth meet the good 
 treatment they had hitherto experienced. The offer was re- 
 \. D. jected: the champions of the cross appeared before the holy 
 1099. city. Thirty-nine days they besieged it : on the 15th of July 
 it was stormed : no age or sex was spared : 70,000 is said tc 
 have been the number of the victims. Various circumstances 
 had so reduced the Christian host, that of the vast multitude 
 that crossed the Bosphorus but 1500 horse and 20,000 foot 
 marched from Tortosa to Jerusalem. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen king by his fellow-wai- 
 riors ; but he refused to bear that title in the khigdom of the 
 Son of David : the land was partitioned into fiefs, and a code 
 of feudal regulations, called the Assizes of Jerusalem, drawn 
 up for the administration of it. Two religious military orders 
 were afterwards f9rmed for its farther defence. Before the 
 time of the crusade there had been a society for attending 
 118 sick pilgrims in the hospital of St. John. Hugo des Payens, 
 of the house of Champagne, Godfrey of St. Adomer, and 
 seven other knights formed themselves into an order named 
 Templars, from their house near the site of the temple of 
 Solomon. Their vows before the patriarch were to defend 
 pilgrims against robbers, obedience, celibacy, and poverty. 
 St. Bernard, at the desire of the king of France and other 
 lords and princes, drew up a rule for them. In battle they 
 vowed to be the first in action, the last in retreat : this ex- 
 ample was followed by the brethren of the Hospital ; and a 
 new order, the Teutonic, was soon added to these military 
 and religious associations. The Christian empire at this pe- 
 riod extended from the borders of Armenia to those of Egypt ; 
 but it was feeble, and encompassed by powerfiil enemies. Ita 
 population, though brave, was few ; and its reliance, an on 
 stable one, was on the West.
 
 . HAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 287 
 
 CHAP. VL 
 
 THI PJUPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT 
 
 Italy — The Popes. 
 
 F^ROM the time of Gregory VII, his successors faithfully 
 adhered to his principle of extending the power of the holy 
 see. After him no pope dreamed of waiting for the imperial 
 confirmation. It was even hinted that the emperor should, 
 in right, be confirmed by the pope. In their intercourse witli 
 the German emperors, the pope and his legate used language 
 respecting the imperial dignity which seemed to imply that 
 it was a fief of the holy see ; and Adrian, when granting Ire- 
 land to Henry II., spoke of all islands as being the property 
 of St. Peter. 
 
 This last and other monarchs made a resolute opposition 
 to the exorbitant claims of the pontiffs ; but the latter knew 
 so well how to take advantage of circumstances, and had such 
 a well-disciplined army in the clergy, and so powerful a ma- 
 chine to work with in the gross superstition of the laity, that 
 they were seldom foiled in any of their measures. The pon- 
 tiff who carried his pretensions the highest, and exercised 
 them most effectually, was Innocent III., who, of noble birth, 
 lofty and powerful mind, and in the prime of life, ascended a a 
 the papal throne in 1194. Availing himself of the einbar- 1194 
 rassments of the Saxon emperors of Germany, of the ambition 
 and interestedness of Philip Augustus of France, and of the 
 vices and cowardice of the infamous John, and the feebleness 
 and folly of his son Henry III. of England, Innocent raised the 
 papal power to a height scarcely dreamed of by his predeces- 
 sors. He acquired independent sovereignty in Italy, estab- 
 lished the control over temporal princes, and supremacy over 
 the church. 
 
 The popes, in consequence of real or pretended grants from 
 Constantine, Pepin and his son, and Louis, had always laid 
 claim to extensive dominions; but in reality they possessed 
 hardly any. In Rome the imperial prefect and the turbulent 
 spirit of the people held them in check, and all the little 
 places about Rome were as independent as in the days of 
 Romulus. The countess Matilda, the great friend of Gregory 
 VII., had left the reversion of her large possessions to the 
 holy see. These were the imperial fiefs of Tuscany, Mantua, 
 and Modena, of which she had certainly no right to dispose: 
 tlie remainder, the duchy of Spoleto, and the march of Anco 
 
 k
 
 288 HISTORT OF THB WORLD. PART H 
 
 na, she held under a somewhat different title, and might ap- 
 pear to have more power over. However, the emperors dis- 
 k D. regarded the claims of the pontiffs, and disposed of Spoleto 
 1177. and Ancona as parts of the empire. Frederick Barbarossa 
 promised to restore them after fifteen years ; but Henry VI. 
 granted them away as imperial fiefs. At his death, a dis- 
 puted succession engaging the Germans in civil war, Italy 
 was left to herself; and Innocent now put forth the claims of 
 the holy see, and produced a true or false will of Henry VL 
 in its favor. The cities of these states had, like those of Lorn- 
 bardy, become independent, but were harassed by German 
 partisans settled in Italy by the emperors, and they glad.y 
 put themselves uider-the protection of the holy see. Thus 
 Spoleto and Ancona submitted, and, a few years afterwards, 
 Innocent, not feeling himself strong enough to hold them, 
 prudently granted Ancona in fief to the marquis of Este. At 
 home he forced the prefect to swear allegiance to him, and 
 not to the emperor, and curbed as far as he was able the spirit 
 of the people. Thus the holy see became a temporal power. 
 The superiority of the pontifical over the royal power was 
 strongly put forth by Innocent : the kingdoms of the earth 
 were Christ's, and consequently, by the logic of those days, 
 his vicar's ; and the little, mean, selfish policy of the princes 
 prompted them, on every occasion where, they had any object 
 to attain, to submit to and forward the pretensions of their 
 common enemy. The submission of Henry II. cannot be 
 blamed : he struggled nobly, and had all the world against 
 him. The baseness of John, in surrendering his kingdom, 
 and receiving it back as a fief, is unparalleled. Peter II. of 
 Aragon, it is true, did the same ; but with certainly a better 
 motive — to secure it against ambitious neighbors. The pope 
 was, in fact, become suzerain, censor, and conservator of the 
 peace of Europe : his weapons were interdict and excommu- 
 nication. These were effectual, and, when the interests of 
 the holy see were not involved, were often beneficially em- 
 ployed. Philip Augustus, for example, when in the zenith 
 of his power, having divorced his wife, the Danish princess 
 Ingeborg, under tlie pretext of consanguinity, and espoused 
 another. Innocent, who, when his own interest was not con- 
 cerned, loved social order, directed him to take back his 
 queen. Philip demurred ; France was laid under interdict, 
 and Philip submitted. The papal thunder rolled over every 
 kingdom in Europe, enjoining peace, and punishing public 
 and private offences. 
 
 National churches had originally possessed a good deal of 
 independence and the clergy had shown every disposition t<
 
 
 ■<i 
 
 F" 
 
 •< 
 i> 
 
 M 
 
 b 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 o 
 p 
 
 a 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ..JA'
 
 CHAP. VI. PAPA.. POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 291 
 
 exercise a despotic power over the laity ; but the popes A'ere 
 bent to draw all power to themselves. It had been their 
 policy to support bishops against their metropolitans, and 
 thereby break the power of the latter ; they now prohibited 
 any bishop to exercise his functions till he had received ron- 
 finnttion from the holy see. Gregory forced bishops to ap- 
 pear in person at Rome, to receive the pallium, and all pre- 
 lates were harassed with citations thither. Legates were sta^ 
 tioned in every kingdom, as the representatives of the popes, 
 with extensive powers. The popes levied taxes on the clergy 
 to an enormous extent : they assumed the right of appointing 
 to bishoprics, and all other benefices. 
 
 The chief bases on which the papal dominion rested were, 
 after the gross superstition of the people, 1. The canon law 
 originating in the false decretals of Isidore, which had been 
 brought forth, towards the end of the eighth century, with 
 the view of lowering the authority of metropolitans, by allow- 
 ing of appeals to Rome, and forbidding national councils to 
 be held without its consent. These decretals purported to be 
 the decrees of the early bishops of Rome. About 1140, Gra- 
 tian, a monk, published his Decretum, in which the decretals 
 of Isidore, and the rescripts of pontiffs and decrees of coun- 
 cils, were arranged under heads, like the Pandects : various 
 additions were made to this; the civil law was followed; the 
 papal power extolled, and, in the professors of this law, a 
 powerful body of partisans raised for the papacy. — 2. The es- 
 tablishments of the mendicant orders, who by a greater strict- 
 ness of manners, a professedly purer system of faith, and an 
 abuse of the secular clergy, gained the esteem of the laity, 
 always caught by these qualities. Devoted to the pontiffe, 
 they were supported in return by them, and exempted from 
 episcopal authority : for as the secular clergy became disaf- 
 fected on account of the manner in which they were pillaged 
 by the papacy, the latter was glad to raise up rivals to them. 
 The great schoolmen, such as Thomas Aquinas, were of these 
 orders, and they elevated the papal authority to the utmost 
 Two other causes increased the papal influence with princes 
 and the great: — 3. Dispensations of marriage. The ascetic 
 maxims, which had so early gotten into the church, extended 
 the prohibition of marriage to the seventh degree of consan- 
 guinity ; this was afterwards extended to affinity, and then to 
 spiritual affinity, or gossipship. The royal and great families 
 were so connected with one another, that it was difficult for 
 tlieni to. marry without the canonical limits; and hence all 
 ♦Jie divorces we read of under this pretext, but caused by pas- 
 sion or ambition. Innocent III. laid it down as a maxim, that
 
 292 HI8T0EY OJ THE WORLD. PAET 11 
 
 he was empowered to dispense with the law : money soor 
 flowed rapidly into the papal exchequer, and princes looked 
 up to their spiritual father, who could allow them to gratify 
 their passions. — 4. The dispensing power which legitimated 
 bastards, and released men from their most solemn oaths and 
 engagements, on the ground that oaths extorted by violence, 
 or injurious to the church, are not binding. 
 
 Such was the papal power when at its zenith ; a power, no 
 doubt, not unfrequently exerted for beneficial purposes, but, 
 from its very nature, prejudicial to the best interests of man. 
 The world never will witness such another dominion ; for it 
 is hardly within the limits of possibility that such a state of 
 society as the middle ages presented can return. 
 
 Italy — the Lombard Cities. 
 
 The cities of Lombardy all acknowledged the superiority 
 of the emperor. When Frederic Barbarossa ascended the 
 throne, he claimed all the power possessed by Augustus. The 
 independence of the Lombard cities appeared to him rebellion, 
 and he resolved to chastise it. The injustice of Milan, which, 
 in 1111, had taken and razed Lodi, gave him a pretext Two 
 citizens of the latter implored him to avenge its wrongs. He 
 entered Italy, held a diet at Roncaglia, where complaints 
 poured in against the Milanese. He took the field against 
 them and their allies ; but the nature of a feudal army, and 
 the ill terms he was on with pope Adrian IV., prevented his 
 effecting much. He assembled another army, to which al- 
 most every city of Lombardy was forced to send its mUitia, 
 and Milan was reduced to surrender. 
 
 ^ D Frederic held another diet at Roncaglia, in which the cities 
 
 1158. were forbidden to make war on each other, to coin money, or 
 levy tolls ; and an imperial magistrate, called Podesta, was to 
 administer justice with the consuls, as their own chief magis 
 trates were styled. The Milanese were more severely treated 
 than any others : they saw the utter destruction of their liber 
 ties was intended : they took arms ; but were only aided by 
 Crema, their Platsea. But Crema was taken and razed, and 
 
 1162 soon after Milan experienced the same fate. 
 
 The emperor now proceeded to establish the most absolute 
 power all over Lombardy. In vain the citizens" implored; 
 they only got vague hopes of redress. But the principle of 
 liberty was strong, and the Lombard league was secretly 
 
 167. formed. Frederic, in his attempt to make an anti-pope, was 
 besieging Rome ; the flower of his army fell victims to the 
 malaria of the autumn, and he was obliged to recross the Alps. 
 After some years of indecisive warfare, he invaded the Mi
 
 CHAF. Vr. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 293 
 
 ianese, and the confederates gave him battle and a signal de- a. n 
 feat at Legnano. A truce was made through the mediation H'd 
 of Venice, for six years; and at length, by the peace of Con- 
 stance, the cities were reinstated in their independence, re- 
 serving the imperial superiority. llSi 
 
 The Lombard cities were afterwards split into the Guelf 
 and Ghibilm factions, which we shall presently explain : they 
 generally sided with the popes against the emperors, and 
 were continually engaged in wars with one another. 
 
 Itali/ — Naples and Sicily. 
 
 The family of Roger count of Sicily had gotten the regal 1166. 
 dignity, and also the Italian dominions of the family of Rob- 
 ert Guiscard. William the Good was the last of these princes. 
 Constantia, his aunt, was married to the emperor Henry VI. ; 
 but on the death of William, the nobles, who dreaded the 1186 
 power of Henry, raised Tancred, William's natural cousin, to 
 the throne ; a«d, on his death, his infant son William III. 1189. 
 The emperor hastened over to Sicily ; defeated his opponents ; 1194. 
 took the young king prisoner ; led him to Germany, and there 
 treated him with the greatest barbarity. On the birth of 
 Frederic II., Constantia governed Sicily in his name, and on 
 her death, the pope. Innocent III., becoming guardian to the 1200 
 young monarch, endeavored to derive from that circumstance 
 all the advantages he could for the holy see. 
 
 Germany — Swabian Line. 
 
 With Henry V. ended the male line, of the Franconian 1129 
 emperors. Frederic duke of Swabia, grandson, by his mother, 
 of Henry IV., had inherited their estates. But the princes 
 were anxious to make the crown really elective, and many, 
 besides, entertained a strong dislike to the late emperor. The 
 crown was, therefore, bestowed, with some opposition, on Lo- 
 thaire duke of Saxony. As chief of a nation, the bitter ene- 
 mies of the house of Franconia, Lothaire did every thing in 
 his power to depress Frederic and Conrad of Hohenstauffen, 
 'he heads of the Swabian family, and to secure the empire 
 ror his son-in-law, Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, de- 
 scended from Welf, fourth son of Azzo, marquis of Este, by 
 Cunegonde, heiress of the Welfs of Altorf in Swabia. Henry 
 so possessed, through his mother, Luneburg, the patrimony 
 of the Billungs, the ancient dukes of Saxony ; and by his 
 marriage with the only child of Lothaire he got Hanover ajid 
 Brunswick, the patrimony of Henry the Fowler, and Lothaire 
 tdded the duchy of Saxony. 
 
 But the extent of his possessions was prejudicial to Henry. 1138 
 
 25*
 
 294 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IL 
 
 On the death of Lothaire, Conrad of Swabia was hastily 
 elected by the partisans of his house, and the Saxon party 
 was forced to submit. Conrad, taking advantage of the jeal- 
 ousy caused by the large possessions of Henry, pretended 
 that two duchies could not legally be held by one person, and 
 summoned him to surrender one of them. Henry refusing, the 
 diet pronounced both to be forfeited, and Henry was speedily 
 stripped of all he possessed. The factions of the Guelfs and 
 Ghibilins date from this period : the former, from Welf, de- 
 note the partisans of the house of Saxony ; the latter, from 
 Wibelung a town in Franconia, whence the emperors of 
 that line sprang whom the house of Swabia was held to re- 
 present As the latter possessed the imperial dignity when 
 these names were transmitted to Italy, the Ghibilins there 
 were the partisans of the emperor, the Guelfs those of the 
 
 A. D pope and his other opponents. 
 
 1158 Conrad III., when dying, though he had a son, recom- 
 mended to the electors his nephew, Frederic duke of Swabia, 
 surnamed Barbarossa (Red-beard,) and he was elected em- 
 peror. Frederic was an able, politic prince. His contests 
 with the 'ities of Lombardy we have already noticed, in 
 which the triumph of liberty over power was glorious and 
 
 lisa. complete. At Rome the opposite factions had elected two 
 rival popes, Victor IV. and Alexander III. Frederic sided 
 with the former ; the kings of France and England, and the 
 Lombard cities, with the latter. After the battle of Legnano 
 the emperor was forced to acknowledge Alexander, by kissing 
 his feet, and holding his stirrup as he mounted his mule — 
 new inventions of the servants of the servants of Christ. 
 
 The emperor Conrad had restored Saxony to Henry the 
 Lion, son of Henry the Proud. Bavaria had been bestowed 
 on the margraf of Austria, Henry's guardians having re- 
 
 1156. nounced it in his name. He now applied to Frederic, who was 
 his first cousin, and whose life he had saved at Rome, to have 
 it restored. Frederic complied with his desire, and they 
 lived for several years in harmony. But when the emperor 
 was leadmg into Lombardy the army which was defeated at 
 Legnano, Henry, prompted by jealousy or ambition, refused 
 to assist. On his return, Frederic summoned him to answer 
 charges in a diet. Henry refused compliance, and his pos- 
 181. sessions were confiscated and shared among his enemies. He 
 now implored the emperor's mercy, who advised him to re- 
 tire to England till the present possessors could be prevailed 
 on to relinquish them. The duke passed three years at the 
 court of his father-in-law Henry II., and at length his allodial 
 estates of Saxony were restored to him. Fifty years after.
 
 PHILLIP AUGUSTUS AT ELM OF GISORS.
 
 I 
 
 s. 
 
 8
 
 CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 297 
 
 these were made imperial fiefs, and became the two duchies 
 of Brunswick, whose dukes are the representatives of Henry 
 the Lion, and inherit the name of Guelf. 
 
 Saladin having now taken Jerusalem, a crusade was preach- a. d 
 ed. Frederic took the cross, and passed over to Asia with a 1188 
 large army ; but, bathing on a hot day in a cold mountain- 
 Btream, like Alexander in the Cydnus, in the same vicinity, 
 he caught a disorder, and died in the 69th year of his age. 
 
 Henry VI., the Severe, succeeded his father. The power 1190 
 of Henry was so great in Germany, that, but for the vigorous 
 opposition of the Saxons, he would have made the empire 
 hereditary in his family. His short reign was chiefly occu- 
 pied in making himself master of Naples and Sicily, where 
 he exercised the most atrocious cruelty against his opposers. 
 
 Frederic II. was but two years old at the death of his father. 1 1*)8 
 Though Henry had had him elected, a strong party of the 
 princes, backed by Innocent III., who wished to reduce the 
 house of Swabia, showed a disposition to retract Philip 
 duke of Swabia, brother to the late emperor, unable to secure 
 the succession of his nephew, got himself chosen by one 
 party ; the other chose Otho, son of Henry the Lion. A civil 
 war ensued, in which Philip was victorious, and drove Otho 
 out of Germany ; but being shortly afterwards assassinated 
 by the count palatine of Bavaria, Otho IV. returned, married 
 the daughter of Philip, and was crowned at Rome, resign- 
 mg the inheritance of the countess Matilda to the holy see. 
 But Otho, feeling himself strong, revoked his concessions, 
 and the pope supported Frederic 11., now grown up, against 
 him. Otho was generally deserted, except by his Saxons, 
 and Frederic was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. Otho's death 1813. 
 in 1218 left the young emperor at peace in Germany. 
 
 But it was in Italy that Frederic passed the greater part 
 of his reign. On his accession to the imperial dignity he had 
 taken the cross. The pope was continually urging him to 
 perform his vow; but, engaged in improving and benefiting 
 his Neapolitan and Sicilian dominions, he neglected to comply. 
 Honorius III. threatened to excommunicate him, but Frederic 1226 
 despised the threat. He and the pope were afterwards recon- 
 ciled. Greirory IX. having declared him incapable of tlie im- 
 perial dignity for his disobedience, Frederic ravaged the 
 patrimuxiy of the church. He was then actually excommuni- 1228 
 cated, and tjie usual course of bloodshed, jwisoning, war, and 
 assassination took place in Italy. At length Frederic resolved 
 to perform his vow ; but the pope piv>hibited his departure till 
 he should be absolved. Frederic went in contempt cf the 
 cliurch, and was more successfid than any of the preceding
 
 298 mSTORT OF the world. part II 
 
 4. J,, crusaders, for Jerusalem and its territory were ceaed to him 
 
 1230 by the sultan of Egypt. 
 
 The remainder of Frederic's reign was a continued struggle 
 with tlie holy see. All Italy was split into the Guelf and 
 Ghibilin factions ; the pope preached a crusade against Frede- 
 ric, and excited the Lombard cities to war, and his son Henry 
 to rebellion against him ; but the emperor was everywhere 
 successful. The succeeding pontiffs, Celestine FV. and Inno- 
 245. cent IV,, followed up the measures of Gregory. On the death 
 of Henry, who had been king of tlie Romans, the German 
 bishops, by the direction of Innocent, who had deposed Frede- 
 ric, elected Henry landgraf of Thuringia, and, on his death, 
 
 1248. William count of Holland. Fortune was now adverse to 
 Frederic ; he was defeated before Parma, and, retiring to 
 
 1250 Naples to raise an army, he there died of a fever, in the 57th 
 year of his age. Frederic was a prince of great endowments, 
 and a zealous patron of learning. 
 
 Conrad, son of Frederic, and his rival William, did not 
 survive many years. Richard duke of Cornwall and Alfonso 
 X. of Castile, were chosen by opposite parties of the electors ; 
 but for twenty-three years there may be said to have been an 
 interreg7ium, and the empire without a recognized head. 
 
 1255. During this period, the cities on the Rhine entered into a 
 league for mutual defence in their commerce. A few years 
 
 1241. before, the northern cities had entered into the celebrated 
 Hanseatic league for a similar purpose. 
 
 France. 
 
 Louis Vn., the Young, contrary to the advice of his wise 
 minister the abbe Suger, undertook a crusade with the em- 
 
 1147 peror Conrad III. Both were equally unsuccessful. Eleanor, 
 queen of Louis, had accompanied him ; but having had an 
 
 1149. amour with a young Turk, Louis, on his return, divorced her, 
 and resigned the rich territories he had obtained with her. 
 Henry 11. of England then married Eleanor. 
 
 lieo. Philip II. Augustus, son of Louis VII., was the ablest 
 monarch France had seen since Charlemagne. He raised 
 the crown of France from the state of degradation it had been 
 in, by reuniting to it several of the great fiefs. He took from 
 the count of Flanders the Vermandois and Artois. When 
 John of England had murdered his nephew Arthur, Philip 
 summoned him as his vassal to be tried by his peers, and, on 
 his not appearing, he seized on Normandy, Maine, and Anjou, 
 which were never restored to the English crown. Philip had 
 accompanied Ricliard I. to tlie Holy Land, and his behavior to 
 that prince does his memory little credit
 
 CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 299 
 
 Louis VIII. had, during the lifetime of his father, been in- *. d 
 vited over to England against king John by the barons, who 1223 
 offered him the crown. He met in that expedition but slender 
 success. On coming to the throne, he attempted the con- 
 quest of the remaining dominions of the English kings in 
 France, made himself master of Poitou, and was on the point 
 of subjecting Guienne, when he was drawn away to Langue- 
 doc, where the pope had preached a crusade against the Al- 1208 
 bigeois, and Raymond count of Toulouse who protected them. 
 More than the usual quantity of blood had been shed and de- 
 vastation committed by the pope's warriors, led on by the 
 fanatic hypocrite Simon de Montfort. This chief was now 
 dead ; but the pope was unrelenting, and Louis VIII. was 
 called on to take the cross against the son of Raymond, and 
 he gave up the conquest of Guienne for this purpose. But 
 he died after a short though successful war. 
 
 Louis IX., St. Louis, was only twelve years old on the 1226 
 death of his father ; but his mother, Blanche of Castile, gov- 
 erned during his minority with wisdom and vigor. The great 
 vassals made several attempts to recover their former mde- 
 pendcnce ; but the address of the regent always triumphed 
 over them. When Louis came of age, he fully displayed his 
 estimable qualities. Such were the moderation and justice 
 of this good king, that, so far from encroaching on his neigh- 
 bors, he even made restitution of what they had been unjustly 
 deprived of He restored to Henry lU. a great part of what 
 he had lost in France, and he always sought to mediate be- 
 tween that prince and his barons. Louis administered justice 
 personally to all who sought it; and he drew up his Establish- 
 ments, the first code compiled by the Capetian family. The 
 sole blemishes of this excellent prince's character were, his 
 too great deference for his mother, and his superstition, which 1248 
 last led hun to undertake two crusades, in one of which he 
 lost liis army, and was made prisoner ; in the other he ex- 
 pired on the torrid coast of Africa. Yet France has surely 1270 
 reason to be proud of St Louis ; for a monarch his equal has 
 rarely, if ever, adorned any throne. 
 
 England — the Planlagenets. 
 
 Henry II., son of Matilda, daughter of Henry I., and of \\V 
 Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, inherited by his mother, 
 England, Normandy, and the feudal superiority over Britany; 
 by his father, Anjou, Touraine, and Maine ; and, by marrying 
 Eleanor, heiress of Guienne and Poitou, whom I^ouis Vlf. 
 had divorced, he became master of these extensive provinces. 
 He was young, brave, talented, amiable, and ambitious, a
 
 300 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART H. 
 
 formidable rival to the king of France. Henry gave the 
 feudal system a blow, by substituting, in the beginning of his 
 reign, the practice of levying a scutage, or tax on each 
 knight's fee, instead of personal service, and with that nionej 
 
 A. D. pa^ying ^ mercenary army. He sought to check the encroach- 
 
 1164. ments of the papacy, by procuring tlie Constitutions of Cla- 
 rendon to be passed, by which the permission of the king 
 was ojade requisite to the taking effect of any papal act, and 
 for appeals to Rome ; and the clergy w^ere to be tried for their 
 crimes in the lay courts. The king's chief opponent was 
 Thomas a Becket, whom he had made archbishop of Canter- 
 
 '170. bury, and the contest ended in the murder of that violent but 
 sincere prelate. Henry invaded and partly conquered Ire- 
 land. The latter part of his reign was spent in opposing the 
 rebellions of his own sons, actuated by the king of PVance. 
 Henry II. was perhaps the ablest king that ever sat on the 
 throne of England. 
 
 I1(S9. Richard I. succeeded, as his brother Henry had died before 
 his father. The reign of this monarch was almost wholly oc- 
 cupied by his crusade to Palestine with Philip of France. In 
 the East he performed prodigies of valor ; but, on his return, 
 was seized and imprisoned by the duke of Austria. He was 
 ransomed by his subjects, but soon after died of a wound he 
 received before the petty fortress of Chains. Military skill 
 and valor formed the most conspicuous part of Richard's char- 
 acter. Hence he was named Cceur-de-Lion, Lion-hearted. 
 
 .199. John was nominated successor by his brother Richard ; but 
 Geoffrey, duke of Britany, an elder brother, had left a son 
 named Arthur. As John was detested, the claims of Arthur 
 were put forward ; and the barons of Anjou, Maine, and Tou- 
 raine declared for him, backed by the king of France. John 
 ifterwards, happening to take his nephew, stabbed him with 
 his own hand. For this crime the king of France, as supe- 
 rior lord, summoned him to answer before his peers. On his 
 not appearing, his fiefs were declared forfeited, and Philip en- 
 tered and took possession of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and 
 Touraine, which were thus united for ever to the French 
 crown. John now quarrelled with the pope, the intrepid Inno- 
 cent III. : his dominions were laid under interdict, himself de- 
 posed, and his kingdom bestowed on the king of France. The 
 213 pusillanimous John submitted to hold his dominions as fiefs 
 of the holy see, to do homage for them, and to pay 1000 
 marks of silver annual tribute. His subjects, despising and 
 detesting him, seized this occasion for restraining the enor- 
 mous prerogative of the crown. At the instigation of the 
 primate Langton, the barons took arms, and forced the king
 
 
 cai:r of edwaed hi 
 
 COIK OF UE5""' 17. 
 
 COIS or EDWAED HI. 
 
 COIJJ op EXHBY V.
 
 CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 303 
 
 to sign, at Runnymead, the Magna Charla, tlie great charter a. d 
 of hberty of all ranks of the people. Some time after, having 1216 
 taken into pay a body of mercenary troops, John attempted to 
 annul the great charter. The barons in their despair offered 
 the crown to Louis, son of the king of France, who invaded 
 England ; but John dyin^, the barons returned to their alle- 
 giance, and crowned his infant son Henry. The character of 
 
 John may be summed up in the words of the Roman satirist, 
 Monstrum a vitiis nulla virtute redemptum. 
 
 Henry III. beiiig but nine years old, the government was 1216 
 administered by the earl of Pembroke, mareschal of England, 
 and a new charter of liberties was granted, which conciliated 
 all orders. As Henry grew up, the defects of his character 
 became apparent : he was weak, inactive, and, imprudently 
 attached to his relations and to foreigners, he heaped riches 
 and estates upon them with tlie most lavish prodigality : for a 
 share of the spoil, he concurred in the monstrous exactions 
 of the court of Rome, which attained their height in this 
 reign. The foolish king, being offered by the artful pontiff 
 the crown of Naples for his second son, lavished great sums 
 of money in that wild project. The barons were incensed at 
 all his acts of folly and injustice; they forced him to renew 
 in the most solenm manner the great charter ; but hardly had 1255 
 the weak monarch sworn to observe it, when he was mduced 
 by his favorite to transgress it as before. Simon de Mont- 
 fort, earl of Leicester, himself a foreigner and son of the 
 general in the crusade against the Albigeois, called on the 
 barons to take arms in defence of their rights thus trampled 
 on by the king's foreign favorites. The barons appeared in 
 arms in the next parliament : the king was terrified, and si.b- 
 mitted ; the Provisions of Oxford were made, and unlimited 1258 
 power was given to twenty-four barons, with Leicester at 
 their head, to reform the state. This body, like the decem- 
 virate of old, sought to make itself the absolute terror of 
 
 .ng and people : the tide of popularity turned against it ; * 
 the pope released Henry and his subjects from their oaths to 12^2 
 it, and the king resumed his authority. Leicester, who had 
 left the kingdom, returned : his party was still strong, espe- 
 cially in London and the towns; he formed an alliance with 
 the Welsh, and had recourse to arms. At the battle of Lewes ISM 
 he king was taken prisoner, and his son, prince Edward, 
 giving himself in exchange for him, Leicester detained both. 
 Edward afterwards escaped, and defeated and slew Leicester 
 at the battle of Evesham, and put an end to the ci/il war. 1265 
 The poor old king passed the rest of his days in peace. His 
 reign was .onger than that of any English king except
 
 304 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 11. 
 
 4 D George III. In this reign the house of comm\ ns dates its 
 
 ■*i5 origin ; Leicester, in the 49th year of the king, previously to 
 
 a parliament being held in London, having issued writs to the 
 
 dherifS, directing them to return two knights from each shire, 
 
 and two burgesses from each city or town. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Ireland was originally peopled by a portion of the Keltic 
 race, who we may suppose passed over to it from Britain, ft 
 had always been divided into little independent states. The 
 manners of the people were like those of all others in the 
 same condition of society. Everlasting petty warfare, murder, 
 abduction, and similar acts of violence were exhibited. It had 
 been converted pretty early to Christianity by Patricius, a 
 native of Britain. Like its neighbors, it was exposed to the 
 ravages of the Northmen, who, invincible there as every- 
 where else, had conquered a part of the country. Henry II. 
 had cast an eye of cupidity upon it ; and the pope Adrian IV., 
 as the Irish church was not remarkable for obedience, readily, 
 in the plenitude of his power, conferred the dominion of it 
 on the English monarch. An occasion for interposing soon 
 occurred. Dermot M'Murrough, king of Leinster, carried 
 off the wife of O'Ruarc of Breffhey (Leitrim and Sligo) : the 
 latter applied to Roderic O'Connor, king of Connaught, the 
 chief of the five provincial monarchs, and Dermot was de- 
 feated and chased out of his dominions by their united forces. 
 He repaired to Henry II., then in Guienne, and sought his 
 aid, offering to acknowledge himself his vassal. Henry, 
 being then engaged, gave him letters, empowering any ot 
 his English subjects who pleased to engage in the enterprise. 
 Richard earl of Pembroke, surnamed Strongbow, and tsome 
 other adventurers, embarked in the enterprise ; and thuugli 
 their numbers were small, such was the superiority of tlieii 
 arms and their skill, that they overpowered all resistance. 
 Henry himself appeared in Ireland, and received the homage 
 172 of its princes. But the conquest was merely nominal ; and ages 
 elapsed before Ireland was really subdued. It is, perhaps, 
 not unworthy of observation, that the king of England in- 
 vaded Ireland in defence of adultery, and by virtue of a re- 
 cognition of the power of the pope to dispose of kingdoms. 
 So little scrupulous about means is ambition, so heedless of 
 remote consequences ! 
 
 Spain. 
 
 212. Malik-en-Nasir Mohammed, the Almohade prince of Mo- 
 rocco, crossed the sea with 100,000 warriors, and he was
 
 CHAP VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. Ow 
 
 joined by the Moors of Andalusia. On the Navas de Tolosa, 
 near Ubeda, his army was engaged (July 16) by the united 
 force of the Christian states of the peninsula, under Alfonso 
 VIII. of Castile ; and the victory of that day established the a t 
 superiority of the Christians for ever. St. Ferdinand, grandson 123d 
 of Alfonso, united Castile and Leon. He conquered Baeza 124a 
 and Cordova, and, eighteen months afterwards, Seville, in 
 which last he fixed his residence. Cadiz was soon obliged to 125tt 
 submit ; and the Moors were now confined to Granada. 
 
 Jayme I. of Aragon, called the Conqueror, drove the Moors 1229 
 out of the Balearic Isles, and conquered the kingdoms of 
 Valencia and Murcia, the latter of which he gave, according 1238 
 to agreement, to the king of Ceistile. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Henry, a knight of the house of Burgundy, having distin- 
 guished himself at the siege of Toledo, Alfonso gave him his 1085 
 daughter in marriage, and the government of the conquests 
 of the kings of Leon in the mountains to the west. Henry 
 settled himself at Guimaraens, whence he continually harassed 
 the Moors, and conquered the city of Porto. His son, count 
 Alfonso, emulated his military fame, and conquered Alemtejo. 1112. 
 The Moorish princes collected all their forces on the plains 1139 
 of Ourique. The troops of Alfonso were greatly inferior in 
 number ; but a hermit comforted him by a vision, and the 
 faith of the leader was communicated to his soldiers. The 
 Moors were totally routed, and Alfonso was saluted king of 
 Portugal by his army on the field of battle. Sancho, son of 
 Alfonso, was valiant as his father. With the aid of some cru- 
 saders from Germany and Holland, who put into the Tagus, 
 he took Silvas, the capital of Algarve; but the Emir-el-Moo- 
 menim, or prince of the Almohades, forced him to resign it 
 
 The Almohades. 
 
 A man, named Mohammed, being driven out of Morocco, 1119 
 where he professed to preach Islam in greater purity, having, 
 with the aid of his disciple, Abd-el-Moomen, a young man at 
 Tremessen, persuaded the Berbers that he was himself the 
 Mehedee, or doctor of the law, who, he preached, was to be 
 sent to purify the faith, assumed the title of Mehedee, and at 
 the head of his followers waged war successfully against AH, 
 the Almoravide king of Morocco. His followers were called 
 Almohades. He fortified the city of Tinmal, on an elevated 
 and inaccessible position on Mount Atlas, and made it the 
 Beat of his dominion. They were called to the defence of the 
 Zeirides, against Roger of Sicily, and relieved them. Abd-
 
 306 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. 
 
 el-Moomen now laid siege to Morocco ; the Almoravides de- 
 fended it with their usual spirit ; 100,000 lives were consumed 
 in the siege ; the Almohades took the city, and extended their 
 A D. dominion from the deserts of Barca to the Atlantic. They 
 J 17. passed over to Spain, and conquered the Almoravide domin- 
 ions in that country. 
 
 Persia. 
 
 During the decline of the house of Seljook, a number of petty 
 princes, governors of provinces, and others, made themselves 
 independent. The title of these princes was Atta-beg ;* they 
 ruled over Aderbijan, Fars, and Laristan, and each line of Atta- 
 begs presents the uniform character of eastern rule. These 
 dynasties, with that of the Assassins, established about the end 
 of the eleventh century by Hassan Sabah, were gradually over- 
 thrown, some by the sultan of Kliowaresm, and all finally ter- 
 minated by Hulagoo, the grandson of Chingis Khan. 
 
 Saladin. 
 
 A vizier of the feeble Fatemite khalifs called on Noor-ed- 
 deen Mohammed, attabeg of Moussel, who had conquered 
 Syria, to come to the support of the Fatemite empire. The 
 1171. Turks sent by him under Sheerkoo conquered Egypt. The 
 army made Saleh-ed-deen (Saladin,) nephew of Sheerkoo, 
 governor, on the death of his uncle, and Noor-ed-deen con- 
 firmed him in his office. Saladin, who was a Koord by nation, 
 placed himself on the throne of the last Fatemite khalif, and 
 founded his dynasty, called the Ayubides. He conquered 
 Syria from the family of Noor-ed-deen. He also reduced the 
 Happy Arabia, and took Tripoli and Tunis from the Almo- 
 hades. He now turned his arms against Jerusalem. He en- 
 tered the country at the north ; and as he was besieging Ti- 
 berias, Guy de Lusignan, with all the forces of his kingdom, 
 <ame against him. Saladin surprised them, cut them to 
 pieces, and took Guy prisoner. All the cities submitted at his 
 approach; and on the fourteenth day of the siege Jerusalem 
 1188. opened her gates. The conqueror acted with the greatest 
 mildness ; the Christians were left in possession of the holy 
 sepulchre ; free egress was given to all. 
 
 The news filled Europe with consternation : a crusade was 
 preached, and a large army collected, which sailed for the 
 Holy Land, under Richard I. and Philip Augustus. But the 
 genius and resources of Saladin, and the discord of the con- 
 
 • Atta-beg signifies fathcr-priiicc, and was the title assumed by those, 
 who, like the mayors of the palace, iiiidor the Merovingian line in Francn 
 governed under the name of some legitimate prince.
 
 CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 309 
 
 federates, prevented the accomplishment of its objects. Sala- k. d. 
 dm died in his 57th year at Damascus. The virtues of this ^19* 
 prince have been alike celebrated in Europe and Asia. 
 
 The Mamelukes. 
 
 Malek-el-Adel, the brother of Saladin, dispossessed hia 
 children of the dominions of their father. After ascending 
 the throne he resigned it to his own sons. In the reign of 
 Malek-el-Moattam, the last of tlic descendants of Malek-el- 
 Adel, St Louis undertook the crusade in which he and his 1249 
 army were made prisoners in Egypt. The sultan released 
 them for a heavy ransom, and the towns tliat had been taken. 
 
 The Mamelukes (guards formed by Saladin from Cauca- 
 sian slaves,) who had long felt their own power, and whose 
 commanders were offended at any measure of importance 
 being taken without their consent, were highly incensed at 1250 
 this peace. They murdered the sultan, and set in his place 
 one of their own commanders, Az-ed-deen Aybeg. They 
 then arranged the government, so that the sultan and vizier 
 should consult the emirs in all matters of importance ; that 
 there should be a great cadi, and a cadi for each of the four 
 orthodox sects of Islam, to administer justice. Their num- 
 bers were kept up by supplies fi-om their native country ; and 
 for two centuries and a half the Mamelukes ruled over Egypt. 
 Rarely a son lived to succeed his father: often a favorite * 
 slave or a brave soldier was seated on the vacant throne. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Alexius, the young son of Manuel Comnenus, was mur- 1183 
 dered by his relative Andronicus, who reigned two years, 
 and was then dethroned and put to death by Isaac Angelua . J85 
 Isaac, a prince of some good qualities, was robbed of the em- 
 pire, and blinded by his own brother, Alexius III. His son 119 
 Alexius fled to the West to seek for aid ; and as the fourth 
 crusade was then preparing to set out for Asia, he persuaded 
 its commanders to assist in restoring his father to Ais throne, 
 engaging, in case of success, to supply them vith provisions, 
 and to pay them a large sum of money. His offers were ac- 
 cepted. Constantinople was taken, Isaac released, and his 
 son, Alexius IV., placed on the throne. Alexius and his 
 father were murdered by his cousin, named Murzufle (Alexius 1204 
 v.). Under the pretext of avenging Alexius, the crusaders 
 took and plundered the city, and placed Baldwin count of 
 Flanders on the vacant throne, assigning him a fourth of the 
 empire, and dividing the remainder among themselves. 
 
 Three states were formed by the Greeks. Theodore La*
 
 310 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II 
 
 caris, son-in-law of Alexis III., established himself in Nice. 
 and, under the title of emperor, governed a great part of 
 Lesser Asia. One of the Comnenian family settled at Tre- 
 bisond, on the eastern end of the Black Sea, and was also 
 styled emperor. Another Comnenian, of the family of Ai- 
 gelus, ruled, mider the title ot" despot, over a principality in 
 Epirus, ^tolia, and Thessaly. 
 4,. D. Baldwin reigned but one year ; he was taken prisoner and 
 1205. cruelly put to death by the Bulgarians. His brother and suc- 
 1216 cessor, Henry, an abler prince, died by poison. The throne 
 then came to his brother-in-law, Peter de Courtenay, grand- 
 son of Louis VL, and his children. 
 
 John Lascaris and his son governed their Asiatic empire 
 
 with prudence and valor. His grandson, of the same name 
 
 came to the throne a minor, and was murdered by Michael 
 
 4261. Palseologus, one of whose generals retook, in one night, the 
 
 imperial city, which the Latins had held but fifty-seven years, 
 
 The Crusades. 
 
 The kingdom of Jerusalem was continually harassed by 
 its Mohammedan neighbors in Syria and Egypt. The forma- 
 tion of the orders of the Templars and the Hospitalers, and 
 the constant accession of volunteers from Europe, enabled it 
 to resist its enemies ; and prodigies of valor equal to any in 
 romance were achieved by the warriors of the cross. But in 
 less than half a century after the conquest, the state of Edessa 
 having been subdued by the attabeg of Moussel, more power- 
 ful aid was deemed requisite, and St. Bernard preached a new 
 crusade. At his persuasion, the cross was assumed by Loui» 
 
 147. VIL of France and Conrad III. of Germany. The number 
 of all ranks engaged in this crusade is estimated at 300,000. 
 The Germans went first, and the same ravages which had 
 disgraced the first crusade occurred also in this. The Greek 
 emperor, Manuel, was terrified at their numbers, and em- 
 ployed artifice to get rid of them. They passed over ; and 
 the imprudence of Conrad caused him to march into the hear! 
 48. of Lesser Asia, where his troops were cut to pieces by the 
 sultan of Iconium. Conrad fled to the French army, and 
 then returned to Constantinople. Louis pursued his march • 
 near Laodicea he sustained a partial defeat; but he reached 
 Antioch, and thence proceeded to the Holy Land, and he and 
 his troops aided at the unsuccessful siege of Damascus. 
 
 18f When intelligence arrived in Europe of the capture of Je- 
 rusalem by Saladin, the utmost grief and indignation pre- 
 .iSa vailed; and Clement III. ordered a crusade to be preached 
 everywhere. The emperor, Frederic Barbarossa, assembled
 
 CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 311 
 
 a diet at Mentz, where he and his son Frederic, and the 
 greatest of the German nobles, took the cross. The same 
 was done by Richard I. and Philip Augustus. It was not now, 
 as in the first crusade, piety that actuated these kings and 
 nobles, — that motive had given place to the passion for mili- 
 tary fame and glory. 
 
 The emperor, on marshalling his forces, found them to 
 amoimt to 100,000 fighting men, care having been taken to 
 keep off the beggarly rabble which had attended the former 
 expeditions. He marched through Hungary into the Greek 
 territories, where the emperor, Isaac Angelus, harassed the 
 crusaders as far as he was able. Frederic laid the country 
 under contribution, cut to pieces the Greek troops, and made 
 the emperor sue for peace. He wintered at Adrianople, passed 
 over to Asia in spring, defeated the Turks in several battles, 
 took Iconium, and crossed Mount Taurus. But coming on a 
 sultry day (June 10th) to the Selef, a gelid mountain-stream, a. d 
 he threw himself into its waters, and was unfortunately 1190 
 drowned. 
 
 Richard of England, Philip of France, Henry count of 
 Champagne, Thibaut of Blois, Philip of Flanders, and numer- 
 ous other princes and nobles, collected their forces on the 
 plain of Vezelay, and found them to amount to 100,000 fight- 1190 
 ing men. Aware of the evils that had attended tlie former 
 land expeditions, they resolved to convey their forces by sea. 
 Richard led his troops to Marseilles, Philip his to Genoa, 
 where they embarked. The appointed place of rendezvous 
 was Messina ; and while they staid there, various incidents 
 occurred to excite jealously and disunion between the mon- 
 archs. Driven by a storm to the isle of Cyprus, Richard de- 
 posed, for his cruelty to the crews of some of his ships, Isaac 
 Comnenus, who tyrannized over the island, and sold the sove- 
 reignty of it to Guy de Lusignan, the king of Jerusalem, in 
 whose family it continued for three hundred years. 
 
 An army of Christians, aided by the slender remains of 
 that of the emperor Frederic, was besieging Acre, or Ptole- 
 mais. After a heroic resistance, it was forced to surrender to 
 the emulative valor of Richard and Philip. But the latter, 
 instead of pursuing this success, jealous of the superior fame 
 of the English monarch, returned to Europe, under the pre- 
 text of ill health, leaving 10,000 of his troops, under the duke 
 of Burgundy. The siege of Ascalon was now resolved on 
 The Chri-stian army marched along the sea-coast: Saladin 
 collected all his strength to opj)ose them : a bloody and well- 
 contested battle took place. Nothing could resist the valor 
 and imoetuosity of Richard; 8000 of the Moslems were left li"'2
 
 312 HISTORY OF THE WORIiD. PART EL 
 
 dead. Ascalon and Joppa were razed by Salad in al their ap- 
 proach ; the crusaders came within sight of the holy city ; 
 but the fickle king of England was weary of the war, and 
 anxious to return home. A truce was concluded with Sala- 
 dm, by which the Christians were to hold Ptolemais, Joppa, 
 and other sea-ports, and to visit the holy sepulchre unmolested. 
 The gallant Richard was, on his return through Germany, 
 basely thrown into prison by Leopold duke of Austria, whom 
 he had offended at Ptolemais. 
 
 A D The fourth crusade was composed of French and Germans 
 
 1202. led by Baldwin count of Flanders. The Venetians fiimished 
 ships. Its first efforts were directed against the city of Zara 
 in Dahnatia, which had revolted from Venice, and, in spite 
 of the pope's excommunication, it was reduced. The arms 
 of the faithfiil were now directed against Constantinople, 
 
 1204. which, as we have seen, they took, placing their leader on 
 the throne. In the partition, Venice got the island and the 
 Morea, the marquis of Montferrat Thessaly, Ville Hardouin 
 (the historian of this conquest) Achaia, and Otto de la Roche, 
 a Burgundi£in, became duke of Athens. 
 
 1216. The fifth crusade was chiefly composed of Germans and 
 the neighboring people ; Andrew II., king of Hungary, was 
 its commander. The main body marched to Italy, to embark 
 in its ports ; others sailed from the ports of Saxony, and, being 
 driven by a storm into Lisbon, were prevailed on by Don 
 Sancho to assist him against the Moors. The king of Hun- 
 gary and his troops, with the king of Cyprus, landed at 
 Ptolemais, where John de Brienne, the titular king of Jeru- 
 salem, gladly received them. They attempted in vain to take 
 Tabor ; were obliged to divide for subsistence ; the king of 
 Cyprus died, and the king of Hungary found it necessary to 
 return home. On being joined by the fleet from Portugal, it 
 was resolved in council to besiege Damietta, in Egypt. An 
 
 i219. army, led by the sultan to its relief, was defeated. The duke 
 of Austria and his forces now returned home ; but a rein- 
 forcement arrived, under the cardinal Albano, to whom, as 
 the officer of the pope, John de Brienne was obliged to re- 
 sign the command, and the military priest injudiciously led 
 his army between two branches of the Nile, at the season 
 that river was beginning to overflow. The sultan opened the 
 sluices, and burned the ships of the Christians, who were 
 221. forced to restore Damietta, and bind themselves not to serve 
 for eight years against the sultan. 
 
 1228. The emperor Frederic II., who had long promised, at 
 length sailed to the East. He did not spill any blood ; but he 
 made an advantageous treaty with Malek-el-Kamel, sultan of
 
 EDWARD II. 
 
 EDWARD III. 
 
 RICHARD II. , 
 
 HENRY IV. 
 
 HENRY V. 
 
 HENRY VI.
 
 CH/v* VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. ol5 
 
 Egypt, wno ceded to him Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and all the 
 villages between the former place and Jaffa, and Ptolemais. 
 
 The Khowaresmians, flying before the Mongols, had poured j^ p, 
 down on Lower Asia, and had seized on Syria and Palestine. i2M 
 St. Louis, having in a fit of sickness vowed a crusade, he 
 collected a fine army, and sailed for the East. He resolved 
 to commence by reducing Egypt, and landed at Damietta, 
 which was abandoned to him. But his troops were wasted 
 by sickness, and defeated at Massoor, where his brother Rob- 
 ert of Artois was killed at his side, and himself, his two bro- 
 thers, and all his chief nobility taken prisoners. At the price 
 of a large ransom and the city of Damietta they were set at 
 Uberty. 1250 
 
 Twenty years afterwards, this excellent monarch, whose 1270 
 only defect almost was superstition, sailed with another expe- 
 dition for the Holy Land ; but hearing that the king of Tunis 
 was inclined to embrace Christianity, he directed his course 
 thither. Finding the intelligence to be false, he laid siege to 
 the city ; but he here caught a fever and died, and with him 
 died the spirit of the crusades. Edward, son of our Henry III., 
 revived the fame of Richard ; but the Latin power gradually 129] 
 declined, and Acre, its last seat, fell to the sultan of Egypt. 
 
 The crusades, though originating in folly and superstition, 
 and productive of a large quantity of positive sufl^ering to 
 both Europe and Asia, have, in the order of Providence, been 
 also productive of good. They awoke the mind of Europe 
 from its slumber of ignorance and barbarism, by bringing it 
 into contact with the more polished nations of the East ; they 
 enlarged the sphere of ideas, gave a taste for elegance and 
 refinement, extended navigation and commerce, and thereby 
 increased the wealth and power of cities ; they diminished 
 the property and influence of the factious and tyrannic nobles, 
 and enlarged the authority of monarchs. The degree of in- 
 tercourse that prevailed between Europe and Asia, during 
 the period of the crusades, was far beyond what we usually 
 conceive. It has not become adequately known until very 
 recently. 
 
 The Mongols — Chingis Khan. 
 
 In the ancient country of this race, a great khan who hail 
 ruled over .30,000 families on the banks of the Selinga had 
 died, leaving his son Temujin a child. The horde separated, 
 and Temujin, when he grew up, found only thirteen families 
 adhering to him. He distinguished himself by valor, talent, 
 and generosity. In an assembly of the nation on the Selinga, 
 one of their wise men arose and said, ho had had a vision, jn
 
 $16 msTORT or thb woslo. past n. 
 
 which he saw the great God of lieaven sitting on his tlirone 
 A D. in council, and heard sentence given that Temujin should be 
 1206. Chingis Khan, i. e. Greatest Khan. The Mongols raised 
 their hands, and swore to follow their Chingis Klian whither- 
 soever he went. 
 
 He first invaded China, overthrew the dynasty of Song 
 and took Yen King, their capital. He conquered Corea, then 
 turned westward, subdued Tibet, penetrated to Cashmeer, 
 and to the borders of Khowaresm, whose sultan had van- 
 quished the dynasty of Ghaur, and ruled over nearly all Per 
 sia, and a great portion of Hindostan. The sultan Ala-ed-deen 
 Mohammed took the field at the head of 400,000 men, was 
 defeated, and his country subdued. His son, Jellel-ed-deen 
 Mohammed, heroically, but in vain, resisted the conquerors. 
 The shores of the Caspian were conquered. The tsar of Rus- 
 sia advanced with a large army to the Galea, was defeated 
 1227. and put to flight. Chingis Khan gave laws and regulations 
 to the Mongols, and died in the 64th year of his age. 
 
 The sons of Chingis, Octal, Joojee or Tooshee, Toolee, and 
 Jagatai, and their sons, Gooyookh, Batoo, Hoolagoo, and 
 Kublai, followed up his conquests. Resistance was every- 
 1241. where overborne. Alexander Nevski, the great duke of Rus- 
 sia and conqueror of Livonia, was overthrown ; his successor 
 was forced to fly to Poland, and tlie house of Ruric reduced to 
 such dependence, that for two hundred years it paid tribute 
 to the khan of the golden horde. 
 
 This conquest was achieved by Batoo, son of Joojee, who 
 then led his army to the confines of Europe. Poland offered 
 no resistance. Batoo took and burned Cracow. Bela IV., 
 king of Hungary, gave him battle, but was utterly defeated. 
 The Mongols advanced and burned Breslau. The emperor 
 Frederic II. and the pope called on all Europe to aid. Crowda 
 of volunteers joined the standard of Henry duke of Lower 
 1245 Silesia. The battle, one of the bloodiest ever fought against 
 the orientals, was given at WoUstadt, near Lignitz, and lost. 
 The whole country was deserted ; but the Mongols cculd not 
 form sieges, and they retired. 
 
 Kublai, son of Toolee, completed tlie conquest of China. 
 
 End of the Khalifat at Bagdad. 
 
 Hoolegoo, the grandson of Chingis, undertook the conquest 
 of Bagdad. The Mongols advanced, treachery aided, and the 
 City of Peace was taken. In the 656th year of the Hegira, 
 the 56th successor of the prophet was trodden beneath the 
 feet of the horses of the Mongols. Bagdad was plundered 
 during forty days, and 200,000 persons slaughtered. Th
 
 L.IAF Vll. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 317 
 
 Btroiig-holds of the Assassbs were taken, and that sect de- 
 stroyed. The Mong-ols took Aleppo and Damascus, and en- a. q 
 tered the Holy Land. Seif-ed-deen, the Mameluke sultan of 1260 
 Egypt, defeated them there, and his successor, Bibers, drove 
 them out of Syria. 
 
 Hakem bi-emr-illah Ahmed Mostaser of the house of Abbas 1262 
 fled to Bibers, who received him kindly, and gave him an es- 
 tablishment at Cairo ; and for two centuries and a half tlie 
 soiccessors of the prophet lived on the bounty of the Mameluke 
 ultana 
 
 CHAP. VIL 
 
 DECLINK OP THK PAPAL POWER, AND FORMATION Or GREAT 
 MONARCHIES. 
 
 Italy — The Popes. 
 
 The high assumptions, the intolerable rapacity, and the 
 extreme corruption of the court of Rome, were gradually 
 ilienating from it all orders of men. Tlie clergy were in- 
 censed at the heavy taxes imposed on them, the invasion of 
 tlie rights of patronage, and the favor shown to the mendicant 
 orders ; and even some of the latter began to declaim against 
 ts corruption and vices. In this state of affairs Boniface VIII. 
 obtained the triple crown, and, not attending to the signs of 
 the times, endeavored to raise the papal power to a higher 
 point than it had yet attained, but thereby only showed its 
 real weakness. 
 
 Edward I. and Philip the Fair began to attack the revenues 
 af the church. The pope left the former and his clergy to 
 themselves ; but when Philip t<axed those of France without 
 their consent, Boniface issued a bull, forbidding the clergy of 
 every kingdom to pay any thing without his permission. But 
 the French clergy adhered to their Iting, and he and the pope 
 became reconciled. Somf years afterwards the bishop of 130 
 Pamiers, as legate of the pope, behaved with great disrespect 
 to the king, and, as he was his subject, Pliilip put him under 
 arrest. Boniilice, in a rage, issued several bulls, in one of 
 which he asserted that the king was subject to him in tempo- 
 ral as well as in spiritual matters. Philip had the bulls pub- 
 licly burnt at Paris, and summoned the states-gejipral of his 
 kmgdom, who disclaimed, in the fullest manner, tire temporal 
 luthority of the pope. 
 
 Boniface held a council at Rome, m which he promul^ted 
 27*
 
 ' 318 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART n 
 
 his constitution of Unam sanctam, by which he declares the 
 church to be one body under one head, possessing two swords • 
 one spiritual, to be wielded by the pope himself; the other 
 temporal, to be used by kings and knights at his will, and 
 with his permission. But the latter must be subject to the 
 former, for every human being is in subjection to the see of 
 Rome. He concludes another bull thus: — "Since such 
 our pleasure, who, Dy divine permission, rule the world. 
 Finding Philip still refractory, he excommunicated him, giv 
 ing his kingdom to the empercv- Albert I., and was then abou 
 to absolve his subjects from their allegiance. Philip now as- 
 serted that Boniface was not legally elected, and appealed to 
 a general council and a lawful pope. But he at the same 
 time ventured on an act of fortunate temerity : he secretly 
 sent into Italy a gentleman named Nogaret, who, with the 
 aid of Sciarra Colonna, who was persecuted by the pope, 
 seized him in the town of Anagni, whither he was gone with- 
 out guards. On the third day the neighboring gentry came 
 to his rescue ; but the haughty pontiff was so mortified at 
 
 A. D. what had befallen him, that his rage brought on a fever, 
 
 i302. which terminated his days. His successor, Benedict XL, re- 
 scinded the bulls against Philip, and thereby showed tlie real 
 decline of the papacy since the days of Innocent. 
 
 1305. Clement V., who had been archbishop of Bourdeaux, re- 
 moved, at the desire of the king of France, the papal chair to 
 Avignon, where it continued under his six successors, all of 
 whom were French, for a space of seventy years. 
 
 The Avignon pontiffs were engaged in a long contest with 
 the emperor Louis of Bavaria, in which they asserted, that 
 though the power of choosing an emperor had been trans- 
 ferred to certain electors, the popes still retained the right of 
 approving the choice, and of receiving an oath of fealty from 
 the emperor on his coronation. This quarrel originated in 
 the attempts of tlie emperors to regain their imperial rights 
 
 1323. in Italy. In the course of the contest Louis was excommu- 
 nicated, and his subjects released from their allegiance ; but 
 they remained firm to him, and if Louis himself had acted 
 with more vigor, he would have come off victor in the con- 
 test. 
 
 1338 But though thus apparently triumphant over the emperor, 
 the papal power was gradually losing ground. The diet of 
 Frankfort positively denied all right of the pope to interfere 
 in imperial elections. Scholastic science had inured men to 
 thought, and tliey began to employ their mother-tor gues as 
 its organ : men of learning and patriotism assailed the found- 
 ations of the oapal edifice, and the ballad and the ale ex-
 
 PUNISHMSNT OB THE RnoOT.
 
 POPE EONIFACE VIII. ATTACKED IN THE CHURCH.
 
 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OP THE PAPAL POWER. 321 
 
 posed the profligacy and corruption of the church. A portion 
 of the Franciscan friars, whom John XXII. persecuted for 
 some follies, loudly proclaimed the pope to be Antichrist, and 
 supported the emperor Louis. The rapacity of the papal court 
 now passed all bounds. John XXII. imposed the tax of an- 
 nates, or first-fruits, on all benefices, to be paid into the papal 
 chancery ; the same pontiff reseruetZ to himself all the bishop- 
 rics in Christendom. Benedict XII. assumed the right of dis- 
 posing of all benefices vacant by cession, translation, or de- 
 privation. Empire had been the object of tlie former popes: 
 money that of tliese more low-minded pontiffs. 
 
 The wishes of Italy and of Europe, joined with the evils a. d. 
 arising from absence from Rome, induced Gregory XI. to re- 1376 
 move the papal chair back to that city. Soon after occurred 
 the famous schism. On the death of Gregory, the cardinals, 1378 
 who were mostly French, assembling to elect a successor, the 
 populace collected and insisted on his being an Italian. The 
 archbishop of Bari, a Neapolitan, was elected, and he took 
 the name of Urban VI. For some weeks the cardinals obeyed 
 him ; but, disgusted with the harshness of his temper, they 
 conspired against him, and he threw several of them into 
 prison : the rest fled to Fondi, and, with the opinion of Nic- 
 colo Spinelli, the great Neapolitan lawyer, they proceeded to 
 a new election, under the pretext of the last having been ef- 
 fected by intimidation. They chose the cardinal Robert, who 
 took the name of Clement VII., and fixed his seat at Avignon. 
 Urban tortured and even executed some of the cardinals -and 
 prelates who were his prisoners. 
 
 Italy, Germany, England, and the North adhered to Urban; 
 France, Spain, Scotland, and Sicily to Clement. All wished 
 both to resign, and the cardinals to proceed to a new elec- 
 tion ; but neither party would recede. Three pontiffs suc- 
 ceeded Urban; Benedict XIII. was the only successor of 
 Clement. The cardinals on both sides at last deserted their 
 heads, and a general council was summoned to meet at Pisa. 1409. 
 In this assembly the two pontiffs, Gregory XII. and Benedict 
 XIII., were deposed, and Alexander V. elected ; but Spain 
 adhered to Gregory, and Benedict was supported by others, 
 80 that now there were three rival pontiffs. Another council 1414 
 was held at Constance, in which, under the pretext of his 
 enormous vices, John XXIII., Alexander's successor, was 
 leposed ; Gregory submitted, and the obstinate Benedict was 
 deposed. Otto Colonna, a man of great prudence, was elected 
 under the name of Martin V. 
 
 To curb the papal power, to reduce the government of the 
 church f-om an absolute to a limited monarchy, was the ob-
 
 322 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART IL 
 
 ject aimed at in the council of Constance ; and it declared 
 that a council has received, by divine right, a power in mat- 
 ters concerning religion, to vi^hich every other, even the 
 papal, must submit. This council, it is to be observed, was 
 composed not merely of bishops, like the ancient ones, but of 
 abbots, deputies of universities, ambassadors of princes, theo- 
 logians, and doctors of law. To obviate the influence of the 
 numerous Italian bishops, the council was divided into four 
 nations, Italian, German, French, and English, with equal 
 rights, and the majority of the four was to decide each ques- 
 tion, A committee of reformation was appointed ; but the 
 art of the Italians, by taking advantage of the national jeal- 
 ousies, prevented any thing effectual being done. Martin V., 
 when elected, lost no time in dissolving the council. 
 
 It was decreed that another council should be held in five, 
 a second in seven years, and then one every ten years. The 
 
 A. D. ^^^* ^^^ called at Pavia, but owing to the plague was re- 
 
 1433. moved to Siena, and nothing effected in it. The second was 
 convoked to Basle ; but Martin dying before it met, Eugenius 
 IV. attempted to transfer it to Italy, where the papal strength 
 lay. After several years' contest, Eugenius, by his preroga- 
 tive, removed it, under pretext of the union he was nego- 
 tiating with the Greek church, to Ferrara, and thence to 
 Florence. But the assembly at Basle still sat, and proceeded 
 in the work of reformation, abolishing annates, reservations, 
 
 439 and other papal abuses. They proceeded so far as to depose 
 Eugenius, and elect Amadous, the first duke of Savoy, who 
 had laid down his dignity, and retired into private life. Few 
 states concurred in this assumption of power ; the party of 
 the fathers of Basle became weaker every day; and Nicholas 
 
 449. v., the successor of Eugenius, easily prevailed on Felix V., 
 as Amadous was called, to resign. The popes ever after 
 dreaded the idea of a general council, of which Europe has 
 since seen but one, and that called greatly against the incli- 
 nation of the pontiff All the future popes, but one, were 
 Italians ; they learned to confine their views to Italy, where, 
 as a temporal power, they established their influence in their 
 own states, and engaged in the political projects of their 
 neighbors. 
 
 A general spirit of opposition to the encroachments of 
 Rome, and of the church in general, prevailed throughout 
 Europe, urecursive of the reformation. England in this led 
 the way : her kings and parliaments set barriers to ecclesias- 
 tical encroachments: the tenets of Wickliffhad many favor- 
 ers ; and parliament even went so far as to press Henry IV 
 to seize the temporalities of the church. Opinions similar tr
 
 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 323 
 
 those of Wickliif were preached in Bohemia by Huss and 
 Jerome of Prague ; and the base act of treachery sanctioned 
 by the fathers at Constance against the former, tended to cast 
 an additional odium on the church. 
 
 Italy — The Republics. 
 
 In the 13th century the republics of Italy were numerous 
 and independent. They may be regarded as forming four 
 great clusters, according to their situation. 1. Central Lom- 
 bardy, containing Milan, Cremona, Parma, Pavia, Brescia, 
 Bergamo, Piacenza, Mantua, &-c. 2. The march of Verona, 
 in which were Verona, Vicenza, Padua, and Treviso. 3. 
 Romagha, where were Bologna, Imola, Modena, Faenza, 
 Ferrara, &c. 4. Tuscany, containing Florence, Pisa, Lucca, 
 Siena, &-c. All of these were split into the Guelf and Ghibilin 
 factions. In the first, Milan was Guelf, and her influence 
 made the whole except Parma and Cremona such : in the 
 second, Ezzelin da Romano, a nobleman of the country, to 
 whom Frederic II. had given his natural daughter in mar- 
 riage, by his talents and his merciless cruelty made the Ghibi- 
 lin cause triumphant : in the third, the Guelf party predomi- 
 nated : in the fourth, Florence headed the Guelf, Pisa the 
 Ghibilin party. To these we are to add the great maritime 
 republics, Genoa on the west, and Venice on the east, and 
 we have a view of the state of northern and central Italy. 
 
 Under their republican forms of government these cities 
 were opulent, industrious, and powerful ; but they were 
 harassed by external and internal discord, and before the end 
 of the thirteenth century all those of the first three classes 
 were under the rule of signori, answering to the Greek 
 tyrants. In Milan the Torreani and then the Visconti ruled ; 
 in Verona tlie Delia Scala ; at Ferrara and Modena the Este ; 
 at Padua the Carrara ; at Mantua the Gonzaga. Of these by 
 far the most powerful were the Visconti ; and though mur- 
 der, assassination, and every crime were freely perpetrated 
 by all, none equalled them in atrocity. 
 
 Florence, like the other cities, was divided into Guelfsand 
 Ghibilins. She had a farther division of parties, called the 
 Neri and Bianchi. There were here, as elsewhere, powerful 
 noble families, the Donati, Amidei, Uberti, Buondelmonti, 
 whose feuds filled the city with confusion and rioL The 
 citizens were divided into arts, or companies of the different 
 trades, each of which had its own council, consul, and gon- 
 faloniere, to whose standard all the members repaired in any j^. £, 
 commotion. The government had been in tlie hands of the 126fi 
 oobles; but in 126G it was thrown chiefly into tlie hands d
 
 324 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II 
 
 tht commons. Feuds ran high between the two orders. A 
 A. n. new order of plebeian nobility arose, and chiefly administered 
 1336. the government : the people disliked both. An officer, named 
 the Captain of Defence, was appointed with great criminal 
 1342. jurisdiction, but was speedily expelled for his tyranny. Soon 
 after, Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was intrusted wit 
 unlimited military and judicial power, with a view to hi 
 curbing the nobility ; but he aimed at the tyranny, and 
 conspiracy expelled him. 
 
 Though incessantly changing her form of government, 
 Florence, from the animating influence of the principle oi 
 liberty, increased in wealth and consequence. She engaged 
 in wars with the powers of Lombardy, and made tlie con- 
 quest of Prato, Pisa, and other places in Tuscany. Her wars 
 were carried on by mercenary troops, which, under their 
 condottieri, answered to the companies of adventure in 
 France. 
 
 Pisa was one of the first Italian cities that was distinguish- 
 ed by naval armaments. In the 11th century she conquered 
 Sardinia from the Moors, and also obtained a short possession 
 of the Baleares : Corsica and Elba also belonged to her. Her 
 commerce was, of course, extensive. She derived great ad- 
 vantage from the crusades. In 1119, war broke out between 
 Pisa and Genoa, which lasted the greater part of two centu- 
 ries. The sea-fight off" the isle of Meloria, in 1284, gave 
 the power of Pisa its death-blow. She ceased to be a mari- 
 time power, gradually declined, and at length became subject 
 to Florence. 
 
 Genoa rose into importance coeval with Pisa, Her pros- 
 '•261.perity increased rapidly on the recovery of Constantinople 
 from the Latins, in which event she aided. Palseologus as- 
 signed the Genoese the suburb of Pera, where their colony 
 lived in independence, under a magistrate sent from home, 
 and they thence carried on an extensive trade with the coasts 
 of the Black Sea, on which they erected factories, and with 
 the inland country. Rivalry ensued between them and the 
 Venetians: several hard-fought actions took place, particu- 
 larly one in the Sea of Marmora, where the Genoese fought 
 single-handed against the Venetians, Catalans, and Greeks. 
 I -.8. The most important was the war of Chioggia, where the 
 Genoese, after defeating the Venetian fleet, entered the la- 
 gunes of Venice. Certain of reducing the city, the Genoese 
 admiral. Dona, refiised the most advantageous offers of peace. 
 The Venetians, gathering courage from despair, equipped a 
 fleet, closed up the passage of the lagunes, besieged the
 
 lift , .1! ,^iii-™i.„..,.,^.in""lli|t".Tir"il!"itm*.^ 
 
 ''%., 
 
 '"■%■ 
 
 'S'f 
 
 >0^
 
 CHAP. VIL DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 327 
 
 Genoese in tlie island of Chioggia, and at length obliged them 
 to surrender. From that period dates the decline of Genoa. 
 
 Like tlie otlier Italian cities, Genoa waa harassed by the 
 feuds of her nobles. The leading families on the Guelf side 
 were the Grimaldi and Fieschi ; on the Ghibilin, the Doria, 
 and Spinola. As at Florence, the nobles were reduced, and 
 plebeian oligarchy, the Adorni, Fregosi, Montalti, took their 
 place. Yet it is remarkable that the Genoese fleets were al- 
 most always commanded by one of the nobles. The revolu 
 tions in Genoa were incessan* In 1339, the chief magistrate, 
 named Doge, was first &i rfited. 
 
 Venice owed her origin to some citizens of Aquileia, who, 
 in the beginning of the 5tli century, fled to the islands at the 
 mouth of the Brenta, and built the town of Rivoalto, after- 
 wards called Venice. This town gradually increased in popu- 
 lation and strength. Till the 10th century, it continued sub- 
 ject to the Eastern empire. At this time Venice made several 
 acquisitions in Dalmatia. She very early applied to commerce, 
 and she derived very great advantages from the crusades. On 
 the taking of Constantinople by the Latins, in which her fleet, 
 under Henry Dandolo, the doge, bore a great share, she got 
 three-eighths of tlie city and of the provinces, and she pur- 
 cliased the shares of some of the other spoilers. It was thus 
 she obtained Candia and the Ionian isles. The trade of Ven- 
 ice was chiefly carried on with Syria and Egypt, and she waa 
 the great medium of conveying the productions of the East 
 into Europe. After the war of Chioggia, Venice began to 
 turn her thoughts towards territorial acquisitions. Before 
 that period, the Venetians had united with Florence to check 
 the career of Mastino della Scala, lord of Verona, and had 
 gained Treviso. They looked on with indifference at the 
 progress of the Visconti of Milan; but when, in the confusion 
 that followed the death of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Francesco 
 Carrara, lord of Padua, had seized Verona, the Venetians, 
 who hated thnt family, took arms, and reduced both Padua 
 and Verona, and the duke of Milan ceded Vicenza to them. 
 Venice afterwards, in alliance with Florence, against Filippo 
 Maria Visconti, took into her service Carmagnola, the cele- 
 brated condoltiere, and she acquired Brescia and Bergamo, 
 and reached the Adda, which she never passed. 4, p 
 
 The government of Venice, at first, perhaps, merely fede- 697 
 rative, had become, under its Doge, or duke, nearly ein elec- 
 tive absolute monarchy. Limitations were gradually laid on 
 his power, which ended in making the doge little more than 
 
 pageant, and converting the government into a jealous close
 
 }28 msTOBT or tub world. part ii 
 
 ariBtocracy, which, with its various councils and intricate 
 mode of election, has lasted down to near the present time. 
 
 Italy — Naples and Sicily. 
 
 1254. On the death of Conrad, son of Frederic II., his natura 
 brother Manfred occupied the kingdom in the name of Con- 
 radin, the young heir. The Ghibilin party looked up to Man- 
 fred as their head : the pope hated him as the son of Frederic 
 The pope, as superior lord, offered the kingdom which Man 
 fred had usurped to Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, 
 who, with his brother's consent, led thither a crusade, as it 
 266. was called. Manfred fell in the field. Conradin, afterwards 
 attempting to recover his inheritance, was taken prisoner, 
 
 1268. and judicially murdered by Charles. But Constance, daughter 
 of Manfred, was married to Peter III. of Aragon, who, in her 
 right, claimed the crown. 
 
 Charles was master of Provence, Naples, Sicily, head of 
 the Guelf party in Italy, and created by the pope vicar-gene- 
 ral in Tuscany. John of Procida, one of the adherents of 
 Manfred, was living in Valencia, watching an opportunity of 
 revenge. The Neapolitan barons were French, or in that 
 interest; but Sicily was treated as a conquered country, the 
 women, after the usual manner of the French, insulted, and 
 the indignation of the people thereby excited, which was in 
 creased by the speeches of John, who went in disguise 
 through the island. Pope Nicholas III., adverse to the An 
 gevin dynasty, the court of Constantinople, the king of Ara 
 gon, all entered into the project of John of Procida, and when 
 
 1253. the massacre of the French, called the Sicilian vespers, an 
 utterly unpremeditated act, occurred, the fleet of the king of 
 Aragon was at hand, and the Sicilians gave him the crown. 
 A war ensued, in which the king of Naples was supported 
 by the kings of France and Castile, and by the pope. Peter 
 dying, left Sicily to his second son, James ; and Alfonso, king 
 of Aragon, made peace, engaging not to assist Sicily. James, 
 on succeeding to his brother in Aragon, renounced Sicily ; 
 but the Sicilians transferred the crown to his brother Frede- 
 ric, and maintained the war against Charles II. of Naples, 
 and the king of Aragon ; and peace was at length concluded, 
 
 ; 300 on condition that Frederic should retain for life the kingdom, 
 
 which then should revert to the crown of Naples. 
 305 On the death of Charles II., the crown was disputed be- 
 tween Caribert, the son of his eldest son Charles, who had 
 died king of Hungary, and Robert, his eldest living son. The 
 point was referred to the pope, the feudal lord of the king- 
 dom, who gave sentence in favor of Robert The latter leav-
 
 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF rilB PAPAL P0VV£:R. 329 
 
 mg no male issue, the crown descended to his grand-daughter 
 Joanna. She was espoused to her cousin Andrew, son of Cari- 
 bert, king of Hungary ; but the manners of this prince were a. d 
 brutal, and he was assassinated, an act of which the guilt 1343 
 was laid on the queen. Louis king of Hungary invaded Na- 
 ples, to avenge the death of his brother. Joanna fled, but 
 afterwards regained her crown. The queen had no children. 
 The king of Hungary, and Charles duke of Durazzo, were 
 tne ouiy male descendants of Charles I. The latter was mar- 
 ried to the queen's niece, and was regarded by her as heir 
 to the crown. Offended with the queen, Charles invaded her 
 kingdom, took her prisoner, and had her smothered in prison. i37S 
 
 But Joanna had adopted Louis of Anjou, uncle to Charles 
 VL of France. He easily entered on Provence, and led 
 30,000 men to Naples, but he effected nothing. Charles IIL, 
 now, as he thought, secure, accepted the crown of Hungary. 
 His son Ladislaus, only ten years of age, succeeded him in 
 Naples. The party that had called in Louis then invited his 
 son Louis II., and put him in possession of the greater part 
 of the kingdom. But as Ladislaus grew up, he displayed su- 
 perior qualities ; the Angevin barons came over to him, and 
 he recovered the whole of the kingdom. On the death of 
 this able prince, his elder sister, Joanna II., a weak, vicious 
 woman, came to the throne. The kingdom fell into anarchy, 
 Sforza Attendolo, the great constable, and Ser Gianni Carac- 
 cioli, the seneschal, were the most powerful individuals. 
 Sforza called in a pretender to the crown, Louis III. of An- 
 jou. Caraccioli persuaded the queen to adopt Alfonso, king 
 of Aragon and Sicily. 
 
 The successors of Frederic I. of Sicily, were weak or in- 
 fant princes. Maria queen of Sicily Jiad married Martin, son 
 of the king of Aragon, to whom, when dying, she left her 1409 
 crown ; and on his death his father Martin, king of Aragon, 
 had taken possession of Sicily as heir to his son. 
 
 Alfonso gladly embraced the offer of Joanna ; but jealousy 
 of him, or some other cause, induced her to revoke her deed, 
 and adopt Louis ; and the queen's and the Angevin parties 
 united were too strong for Alfonso. Louis dying before the 
 queen, she substituted his brother Regnier. When Joanna 
 died, Regnier was a prisoner in Burgundy; but his wife 
 maintained his cause with spirit. Fortune, however, sided 
 with Alfonso, and he founded the Aragonite line at Naplea. 
 Alfonso, having no lawful issue, was anxious to transmit Na- 
 les to his illegitimate son Ferdinand. Chiefly with tiiis 
 view he became a party with Sforza duke of Milan, and the 
 republics of Venice and Florence, in tlie quadruple league, 14M 
 28*
 
 330 HISTORY OP TUB WORLD. PART II 
 
 for the maintenance of peace in Italy ; and the pope and tlie 
 
 Neapolitan parliament confirmed the succession of Ferdinand. 
 
 A, D. But the character of this prince was dark and vindictive, and 
 
 1461. the harons offered the crown to John, son of Regnier of An- 
 
 jou, who made an ineffectual attempt to obtain it. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 i73. After Germany had been three-and-twenty years without a 
 head, the electors fixed on Rodolf of Habsburg, a prince of 
 ancient family and of considerable possessions in Switzerland 
 and along the Upper Rhine. Rodolf was an able, sensible 
 monarch, and he turned all his efforts to the establishing of 
 peace and tranquillity within the empire. He naturally 
 sought to aggrandize his family. The rebellion of Ottocar, 
 king of Bohemia, gave him the disposal of Austria, Syria 
 
 1283. and Carniola, which, with the consent of tlie diet, he bestowed 
 on his son Albert, and Carinthia on Meinhard landgraf of 
 Tyrol, whose daughter Albert married. This was the origin 
 of the possessions of tlie house of Austria. 
 
 The electors refused to choose Albert king of the Romans 
 
 1291. in his father's lifetime ; and on the death of Rodolf they 
 gave the imperial dignity to Adolf of Nassau. Albert, how- 
 ever, raised a strong party against him, and got himself 
 
 1298. elected. Adolf fought for his dignity, but fell, as was said, 
 by the hand of Albert. Albert was active, ambitious, un- 
 quiet, but unsuccessful in his projects, and hated by his neigh- 
 
 1308. bors and. subjects. He was murdered by his nephew John, 
 from whom he witliheld his inheritance. Some of the princes 
 are said to have been consenting to the deed. 
 
 1309. Henry VII. of Luxemburg was elected. His reign is 
 chiefly distinguished by his attempts to establish the imperial 
 authority in Italy. In this he met some partial success, but 
 died suddenly in the midst of his projects. 
 
 1314 Louis of Bavaria was chosen by one part of the electors, 
 Frederic of Austria by another. The battle of Miihldorf 
 
 1322. finally decided in favor of Louis. This emperor also crossed 
 the Alps to contend against the pope and Robert king of Na- 
 ples ; but he derived little credit from his expedition : his 
 whole reign was occupied in the contest with the holy see. 
 
 1347. Charles IV., son of John king of Bohemia, next purchased 
 the empire. This monarch loved pomp and parade, and lived 
 
 355. in great splendor. He annexed Brandenburg and Silesia to 
 Bohemia. By his Golden Bull he ascertained the preroga- 
 tives of the electoral college. He procured his son Wence* 
 laus to be appointed his successor. 
 
 Wenceslaus was addicted to pleasure. His Bohemian no-
 
 Jewish Foiitbess of Tchoufut K&ls.
 
 The Temple at Paris— Residence of the Knit;hts Templars.
 
 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OP TUB PAPAL POWER. 233 
 
 bleg, thinking he favored the people too much, confined him, a- d. 
 under the pretext of his violence and immorality, and gave 1394 
 him in custody to the duke of Austria. He escaped. The 1400 
 spiritual electors and the palatine deposed him, and he gave 
 a willing assent to this act, satisfied with his paternal king- 
 dom of Bohemia. 
 
 Frederic duke of Brunswick was chosen in his stead, but 
 was murdered immediately afterwards by his private enemies. 
 Rupert, palatine of the Rhine, was then chosen. On his 
 death, the choice fell on Jobst of Luxemburg, margraf of Mo- 1410 
 ravia. He, too, died within a short time, and all the voices 
 declared for Sigismund, brother of Wenceslaus, and king of 
 Hungary. 
 
 Few princes have united more crowns than Sigismund. 
 By his first wife, Mary of Anjou, he got Hungary, Dalmatia, 
 Bosnia : his brother left him Bohemia ; the pope gave him the 
 imperial crown, and to these he joined Moravia, Lusatia, 
 Brandenburg, and Silesia, The chief stain on the memory of 
 Sigismund is his violation of the safe-conduct ^iven to Huss 
 when going to Constance. This involved him m an eighteen 1414. 
 years' war against Zisca, Procopius, and the other Hussite 
 leaders. Sigismund had been engaged in war with the Otto- 
 mans, and narrowly escaped being taken by them at Nice- 139&. 
 polis. His poverty obliged him to sell several of the imperial 
 rights and claims. 
 
 The imperial dignity now passed to the house of Austria, 
 there to continue. Albert duke of Austria had married the 
 heiress of Sigismund. But the Hungarians made it a condi- 
 tion at his coronation that he would not accept the imperial 
 crown. The Bohemians also made conditions with him. The 1437 
 electors vainly tried to induce the margraf of Brandenburg to 
 accept the crown. At length the Hungarians gave their con- 
 sent, and Albert was elected emperor ; but just as he was en- 1438 
 gaging in active hostilities with the Turks, he was surprised 1439 
 by death. 
 
 Ladislaus, the posthumous son of Albert, succeeded his 1440 
 father in Hungary and Bohemia. Albert's uocond cousin, 
 Frederic duke of Styria^ was chosen emperor. His long reign 
 of fifty-three years occupied the most interesting part of the 
 fifteenth century. He was an insignificant prince, yet he had 
 influence enough to have his son Maximilian elected king of 
 the Romans during his life ; and his posteritjr still possess the 
 dominions of the house of Austria, all of which were reunited 1493 
 in his time, or in that of his son.
 
 334 HISTOBT 0? THB WOBLD. PABT H 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Switzerland formed a part of the kingdom of Aries or Bur- 
 A. D. gundy, and, with the rest of the dominions of Rodolf, was 
 
 1032, united to the German empire. It contained a numerous and 
 powerful nobility, and several rich ecclesiastical lords. Its 
 towns of Zuric, Basle, Berne, and Friburg rose into import- 
 ance. Among the nobles, the counts of Habsburg gradually 
 became the most powerful : they were advocates to several 
 convents, some of which had estates in the forest-cantons of 
 Schwytz and Underwald. The people of these cantons re- 
 posed confidence in Rodolf, the first emperor of the house of 
 Habsburg : they distrusted his son Albert, who justified their 
 suspicions ; for, not satisfied with the rights which, as advo- 
 cate to the convents, he possessed over a part of the forest- 
 cantons, he, when elected emperor, sent imperial bailiffs to 
 administer justice in the whole of these cantons. The people 
 were indignant at this attempt to reduce them to servitude. 
 Three men, Stauffacher of Schwytz, Furst of Uri, Melchthal 
 of Underwald, each with ten companions, met by night in a 
 secret valley, and swore to assert the liberty of their country. 
 
 <308. The three cantons rose in arms, and expelled the imperial 
 officers. Albert was shortly afterwards assassinated by his 
 nephew. Henry VII., the next emperor, was little inclined 
 to strengthen the house of Austria ; but Leopold, the son of 
 Albert, led a considerable force into the mountains, and waa 
 utterly defeated by those brave peasants at Morgarten, the 
 
 1315. Marathon of Switzerland. 
 
 Lucerne now joined the confederacy : before the middle of 
 the fourteenth century it was augmented by the accession of 
 Zurich, Berne, Zug, and Glaris. These eight were called 
 the ancient cantons. Friburg, Soleure, Basle, SchaffTiausen, 
 and Appenzel afterwards became parts of the body. The 
 same conflict as -v^tas carried on in Lombardy between the 
 cities and the rural nobility prevailed here, and with the 
 same results. The house of Austria sold the greater part of 
 its possessions to Zurich and Berne. The abbot of St. Gall, 
 and the remaining lay and spiritual lords, entered into leagues 
 with different cantons. At the beginning of the fifteenth 
 century, Switzerland was acknowledged as a free indepen 
 dent country. Their defeats of Louis XI. and the duke of 
 Burgundy placed the Swiss as soldiers in the very first rank. 
 
 France. 
 
 270. On the death of St Louis, his son Philip III., the Bold, 
 who had accompanied him, made peace with Tunis, and re-
 
 CHAP. VIL DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 335 
 
 turned to Frcnce. Philip engaged in a war with Aragon, a. d 
 in defence of his uncle, Charles of Anjou's claim to Sicily ; in 1270 
 which war he did not meet with much success. On the 
 death of his uncle Alfonso, who had been invested with the 
 county of Poitou, and part of Auvergne and Saintonge, and 
 who also held in right of his wife, heiress of Raymond VII. 
 of Toulouse, the remains of that fief, Philip reunited the 
 whole to the crown of France. 
 
 Philip IV., Jie Fair, a rapacious and ambitious prince, at- 1885 
 tempted to reunite, by force, some of the remaining great 
 fiefs. He outwitted Edward I. of England, and got possession 
 of Guienne, which he held for some time. He acted with 
 similar injustice in the case of Flanders ; but the total defeat 
 of his army at Courtray by the Flemings gave a check to his 1302 
 injustice in that quarter. On a sentence of forfeiture passed 
 against the count, Philip took possession of Angouleme and 
 La Marche ; he also acquired tlie city of Lyons and its terri- 
 tory, which had been given by Louis IV. with his daughter 
 Matilda to the king of Burgundy, and had gone with that king- 
 dom to the empire in 1032. Frederic Barbarossa, having given 
 all the royal rights over the city to the archbishop, St. Louis 
 was called in as a mediator between the chapter and the city, 
 as also was Philip III., who forced the new archbishop to take 
 an oath of fealty to himself At length a spirited archbishop 
 resisted this usurpation, and Philip IV. laid siege to the city, 1310 
 which submitted, and was united to the crown. 
 
 Philip the Fair was the first king who convoked the states- 1302 
 general, or the representatives of the three estates of the 
 kingdom. They were first convened to give weight to the 
 king's cause in his dispute with Boniface VIII. ; afterwards 1314. 
 for the imposition of taxes. The reign of Philip was dis- 
 graced by the suppression of the order of I^ights Templars, 1311. 
 and the barbarous tortures inflicted on its most distinguished 
 members. Philip had three sons, Louis Hutin, Philip the 
 Long, and Charles the Fair, all of whom reigned in France; 
 and one daughter Isabella, married to Edward II. of England. 
 
 Louis X., Hutin, survived his father but a year. He left 1314 
 one daughter, Jane, and his queen pregnant. Louis had pos- 
 sessed, by his mother, the kingdom of Navarre, and the coun- 
 ties of Champagne and Brie. His brother Philip assumed the 
 regency of both France and Navarre, and then made a treaty 
 with the duke of Burgundy, uncle of Jane, by which it was 
 agreed, that if the queen should have a daughter, the two 
 princesses, or the survivor, should take the inheritance of 
 their grandmother, and renounce all right to the crown of 
 France. But this was not to take place till they had attained
 
 836 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. 
 
 the age of consent, when, if they should refuse, their claim 
 was to remain, and right to be done them. Philip was mean- 
 time, as governor, to receive the homage of the vassals, and 
 govern all these realms. In case of the birth of a male heir, 
 the treaty was not to take eifect. The queen brought forth 
 a son, who died within four days. The treaty was now evi- 
 dently become absolute, and Philip should have governed, aa 
 regent or governor, till Jane came of age to accept or reflise 
 
 A D. the contract made by her uncle. But, instead of so doing 
 
 1317. Philip went to Rheims, and had himself crowned, though o| 
 posed by the duke of Burgundy and by his own brother 
 Charles. He thence went to Paris and convened an assembly 
 of prelates, barons, and burgesses of that city, who declared 
 him their lawful sovereign. The duke of Burgundy defend- 
 ed the rights of his niece, till, on the prospect of a marriage 
 with the daughter of Philip, he gave up, in her name, not 
 only her claim to France, but her right to Navarre and 
 Champagne. This is the first occasion on which the right 
 of females to the crown of France was ever discussed. 
 
 1322. Philip died, leaving three daughters, and his brother 
 Charles mounted the throne. Charles, on his death, left hia 
 queen pregnant. Philip of Valois, grandson of Philip the 
 Bold, took the regency, and on the queen bringing forth a 
 
 1328. daughter, he was crowned king. So that the principle of the 
 exclusion of females was now fully established. No com- 
 petitor appeared in France ; but Edward III. of England put 
 in a claim in right of his mother, Isabella, sister to the last 
 three kings. In every point of view this claim was unjust. 
 If the Salic law was not valid, the claims of the daughters 
 of the last three monarchs were superior to his ; if it was 
 valid, all female claims were alike extinguished. But Ed- 
 ward maintained that though a female could not inherit her- 
 self, she could transmit a title to her male issue ; yet here 
 again he was foiled ; for, admitting this distinction, which is 
 contrary to all rule, Jane, daughter of Louis Hutin, was mar- 
 ried and had a son who was nearer to the crown than Ed- 
 ward. The English monarch, however, thought himself 
 strong enough to make his claim good by force of arms, and 
 he commenced that series of wars between France and Eng- 
 land which lasted during a space of 120 years, and cost so 
 much blood and treasure to both. In the reign of Philip the 
 crown acquired Dauphine, left to it by the will of the last of 
 its princes, on condition of the king's eldest son being styled 
 Dauphin. 
 
 .350. After the taking of Calais by Edward a truce was con- 
 cluded, during which Philip died, and was succeeded by hii
 
 
 
 CHARLES VIII. HEARING THE CAUSES OF THE RICH AND POOR.
 
 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 33§ 
 
 son John, a prince in every way deserving' of a better fortune 
 than he experienced. During the captivity of Joh», after 
 the unfortunate battle of Poitiers, France was in a most 
 wretched state : the peasantry, driven to madness by the op- 
 pression and insolence of tlieir lords, broke out into the cele- j^_ d. 
 brated insurrection called the Jacquerie, and every horrid 1358 
 enormity was perpetrated by them. Charles, son of Johii, 
 the regent of France, now agreed to the peace of Bretigni, 
 and John was liberated. On some difficulty arising with 
 respect to some of the articles, this honorable prince returned 
 to England to adjust them. He died while there at the Savoy 13G4 
 palace. 
 
 Charles V., the Wise, turned all his thoughts to restoring 
 France to her former state of power and independence. He 
 broke the peace of Bretigni, and stripped the English of 
 nearly all their possessions in that country. This able, judi- 
 cious, and excellent monarch was, unfortunately for France, 1380 
 carried off by death, leaving one son, a boy of tliirteen years, 
 under the care of tliree ambitious uncles, the dukes of Anjou, 
 Berri, and Burgundy. 
 
 During the minority of Charles VI. the nation was dread- 
 fully harassed by excessive taxes, which were wantonly ex- 
 pended. Seditions broke out in Paris and elsewhere, which 
 were severely punished. When Charles assumed the reins 1389 
 of government, his new ministers proved equally oppressive. 
 A few years afterwards the intellect of the king became de- 1393 
 ranged, and was never fully restored. The princes returned 
 to power. Burgundy was at the head of affairs, but was op- 
 posed by the duke of Orleans the king's brother. The duke 1404 
 of Burgundy dying, was succeeded by his son named John 
 Sans P'eur : he and the duke of Orleans were reconciled ; 
 but soon after the latter was assassinated in the streets of 1407 
 Paris, and the duke of Burgundy avowed the deed. The queen 
 and all the princes of the blood united against the assassin ; 
 yet such was his power, that after making a slight apology 
 to the king, he was pardoned, and obtained the management 
 of affairs. The princes took arms under the father-in-law of 
 the young duke of Orleans, the count of Armagnac, from 
 whom their party was named. The dauphin played the two 
 factions against each other ; but he and his next brother dying, 
 the rank fell to Charles, the king's youngest son. Armagnac, 
 now constable of France, was at the head of affairs. His I4n 
 severity revived the Burgundian party in Paris; he made the 
 queen, the infamous Isabel of Bavaria, his enemy, by detect- 
 ing her gallantries. She joined Iicr old foe, the duke of Bu»^
 
 340 mSTORY OF THB WORLD. PART n. 
 
 gundy. A horrid insurrection was excited in Paris, and 
 
 14ig' Armagnac and all his party, to the number of three or four 
 thousand, were massacred in one day. A reconciliation now 
 took place between the duke of Burgundy and the dauphin ; 
 but, at their interview, the duke was murdered by some of 
 the attendants of the latter. 
 
 Henry V. had renewed the war with France, had won the 
 battle of Azincourt, and conquered Normandy. Filled with 
 rage against the supposed author of the murder, the whole 
 of the Burgundian party, with Pliilip, son of the late duke, at 
 their head, and joined by the queen, agreed to the treaty of 
 
 1420. Troyes with Henry, in which it was stipulated that on his 
 marriage with Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., he should 
 become regent, and succeed to the kingdom on the death of 
 his father-in-law, to the exclusion of the dauphin and all the 
 princes of the blood. Henry, during two years, governed the 
 north of France, and his infant son, Henry VT., was, on the 
 
 1422. death of Charles, proclaimed king of France and England. 
 
 Charles VII. was acknowledged only in the central prov- 
 inces and in Languedoc, Poitou, and Dauphin^. The duke 
 of Bedford governed with vigor for young Henry, and the war 
 was carried on to the advantage of the English. Charles, 
 though brave and talented, was sunk in despair and pleasure. 
 At length, the heroic Maid of Orleans appeared ; the afiairs 
 of Charles took a new turn ; Burgundy returned to his duty, 
 
 1449 and the English were expelled from France. Master of his 
 kingdom, Charles turned all his thoughts to restoring and 
 extending the royal authority. He suppressed some risings 
 of the nobles, and he formed his celebrated companies of or- 
 dinance, a body of about 9000 cavalry, the first standing army 
 maintained in Europe. 
 
 j4gl, Louis XL, the Tiberius of France, showed the power es- 
 tablished by his father to be a despotism. The nobility saw 
 
 1464. ^he approaching ruin of 'sjfeeir independence. A confederacy, 
 named The League of the Public Weal, was formed against 
 the crown, in which all the princes and great vassals shared, 
 headed by the king's brother, Charles duke of Berri. By the 
 peace of Conflans Louis was compelled to give Charles the 
 duchy of Normandy as an appanage ;* but he soon deprived 
 
 •442 him of it, and at last gave him Guienne, where he died. 
 Having diverted by money the invasion of Edward IV. of 
 England, Louis turned all his thoughts to oppose the duke of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 * An appanage was a provision made for a younger son of a king ot 
 FtanM. It generally consisted of an extensive fief beld of Um crown.
 
 CHAP. VH. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 341 
 
 John h-"! given the duchy of Burgundy as an appanage to 
 his tliird eon Philip, and by marriage with the heiress of 
 the count of Manders he had gotten that province, Artois, 
 Franche-Comtc, and the Nivernois. Philip tlie Good, his grand- 
 son, had acquired all the other provinces that compose the 
 Netherlands. Charles the Bold, the present duke, was proud 
 and ambitious : he engaged in war with Lorraine with suc- 
 cess ; but being offended with the Swiss, he attacked them, a. d 
 and was defeated at Granson, in the Pays de Vaud, and again 1476 
 at Morat, near Friburg, with prodigious loss. This day broke 
 the power of Burgundy : Charles, with inferior forces, gave 
 at Nancy battle to the duke of Lorraine, and perished in the 1477 
 fight. 
 
 Charles left an only child, a daughter, named Mary. The 
 true policy of Louis was evidently to obtain her in marriage 
 for the dauphin ; but he preferred setting up a claim to the 
 duchy, as having been an appanage, and therefore incapable 
 of descent to females ; and he seized on Artois and Franche- 
 Comte. This and other acts of perfidy incensed Mary, 
 and she married Maximilian, son of the emperor of Germany. 
 Mary did not long survive: she left a son, Philip, and a daugh- 1477 
 ter, Margaret. At the peace of Arras, the latter was con- 
 tracted to the dauphin, and Franche-Comte and Artois were 1482 
 to be her dower. In this reign Provence was united to the 
 French crown, by the will of Charles of Anjou. 
 
 Charles VIII. was but thirteen years of age on the death 1483 
 of his father. Louis had appointed his daughter Arme, mar- 
 ried to the lord of Beaujeu, to be regent This was contested 
 with her by the duke of Orleans, afterwards Louis XII. ; but 
 the lady of Beaujeu stood her ground, and ruled France, in 
 spite of the Orleans party and their ally the duke of Britany. 
 
 This last duke, like the duke of Burgundy, died leaving an 
 only daughter. Her hand was sought by the duke of Orleans, 
 whom she preferred herself, by the lord of Albret, of the 
 family of Foix, and by Maximilian kin^ of the Romans, now 
 a widower. The French regent carried on a vigorous war 
 against Britany. The duchess Anne, having no other means 
 of escaping Albret, was married by proxy to Maximilian; but 148C 
 was ultimately compelled to espouse Charles VIII., who waa 
 already betrothed to the daughter of Maximilian. This last 
 was enraged at the slight put on himself and his daughter, 
 but was appeased by Charles restoring Artois and FVanche- 
 Comte. 
 
 Thus waa France, at length, consolidated into one great 
 monarchy : the feudal system was at an end ; no internal dis- 
 29*
 
 342 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II 
 
 turbances were to be found, and she could now enter with 
 dignity on the large theatre of Europe. 
 
 England — The Plantagenets. 
 
 1274. Edward I., from the commencement of his reign, directed 
 his attention to the correction of abuses and the exact admin 
 istration of the laws. While thus engaged, an opportunity 
 offered of interfering in Wales, and he reduced that country 
 
 282. under the crown of England, from which it has never since 
 been separated. A dispute arising about the right to the suc- 
 cession to the Scottish crown, that nation referred the ques- 
 tion to Edward. The English king appeared with a large 
 army on the frontiers, advanced a claim of feudal superiority 
 over that kingdom, to which the Scots were forced to submit, 
 and he then gave the crown to the candidate whose claim 
 
 1296. appeared best founded. The Scots soon after took arms foi 
 their independence. Edward entered and conquered the 
 whole country ; but still the spirit of the nation rose, and Ed- 
 ward died on an expedition against that kingdom. It is 
 gratifying to see vice punish itself: by his eagerness in this 
 flagrantly unjust attempt on Scotland, Edward nearly lost 
 Guienne to the French king ; the parliament, of which the 
 commons were now become an essential part, acquired vigor, 
 
 1299. and the king was forced to give the Confirmation of the Char- 
 ters by which the charters of Liberties and of the Forests 
 were confirmed, and to bind himself to levy no contributions 
 without the consent of the people. Edward was a monarch 
 of great talent and capacity. 
 
 -307 Edward II. was the very opposite of his father ; he aban- 
 doned himself entirely to the direction of his favorites, at first 
 of Piers Gavestone, and, after his death, of Hugh Spencer. 
 In his wars with Scotland he reaped nothing but disgrace. 
 His army was utterly defeated by the Scots at Bannockburn. 
 Edward was married to Isabella, daughter of the king of 
 France. She and the nobles conspired and deposed the king, 
 and he was barbarously murdered by his keepers at Berkeley 
 castle. A mild, inoffensive prince, he was unfit for those tur- 
 bulent times. 
 
 327 Edward HI. was but fourteen years old when his father 
 was deposed, and the queen was declared regent during hia 
 minority. She and her paramour Mortimer governed with 
 such tyranny, that Edward was enabled to seize the reins of 
 government, and to have Mortimer executed for his crimes. 
 Unjust and expensive wars with France and Scotland, in 
 which, no doubt, brilliant victories were gained, occupied 
 nearly the whole of this reign. Owing to the king's conse-
 
 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 343 
 
 qucnt great demand for supplies, parliament increased in 
 power and influence, and three great principles were estab- 
 lished ; to wit, the illegality of raising money without con- 
 sent ; the necessity of the concurrence of the two houses for 
 any alteration of the laws ; and the right of the commons to 
 inquire into public abuses, and to impeach ministers. Edward 
 instituted the order of the Garter. His reign was the noon 
 of chivalry, of which himself and his son, the Black Prince, 
 were the mirrors. ^ o 
 
 Richard 11., son of the Black Prince, succeeded his grand- 137 
 father, at the age of eleven years. In the fifth year of his 
 reign broke out, in consequence of oppressive taxation, the 1381 
 great insurrection of the villeins, headed by Wat Tyler, Jack 
 Straw, and others, in the suppression of which the king 
 showed such courage and presence of mind as gave great 
 hopes of his future excellence. But these hopes were de- 
 ceived : Richard was proud, indolent, fond of pomp and ex- 
 pense, and attached to favorites. Various methods were em- 
 ployed to restrain him, but without effect : he had succeeded 
 in obtaining power nearly absolute, when the duke of Here- 
 ford, who had been unjustly banished, returned, during the 
 king's absence in Ireland, to claim the inheritance of his 
 father, the duke of Lancaster. All ranks and orders flocked 
 to his standard ; the king, on his return, was deserted by his 
 troops; he threw himself into Flint castle, where, induced 
 by the base treachery and perjury of the earl of Northum- 
 berland, he surrendered. He was led to London, deposed by 
 parliament, forced to abdicate, confined in Pomfret castle, and 
 there murdered. 139S 
 
 Richard had no children; he had declared his cousin, Roger 
 Mortimer, earl of March, son of Philippa, only daughter of 
 Lionel duke of Clarence, second son to Edward III., his suc- 
 cessor. Roger was killed in Ireland, and his eldest son was 
 a boy of but seven years of age. Henry duke of Lancaster 
 was son to John, third son of Edward III. ; he had therefore 
 evidently no right to the crown. But on the deposition of 
 Richard he made a challenge of the crown, in tern)s in which 
 were strangely mingled right of descent,* conquest, and 
 merit. At all events, he was placed on the throne by the 
 unanimous voice of lords and commons ; and as with Henry's 
 small means it is idle to talk of force, he was plainly a lawful 
 
 • It was a vulgar notion that Edmund earl of Lancaster, and not Edward 
 I., was the eldest son of Henry III.; hut on account of some piTsoiial t\v 
 fcrmity, he had been set aside, and his brother iinposod on the nation. Thrt 
 present duke of Lancaster was his heir by his mother; and if that stoiy 
 was true he was the true heir to the crown.
 
 344 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II 
 
 monarch, and no usurper. The constitution, however, re 
 A. D. ceived advantage from the defect m his title, and the com- 
 1402. mons advanced greatly in importance and influence. The 
 Percies rebelled against Henry ; but he defeated theao and 
 their allies at Shrewsbury, and effectually crushed them. His 
 government was firm and vigorous, and advantageous to the 
 nation ; and, but for the crimes by which the crown was ac- 
 quired, he would be deserving of esteem as a monarch. Hia 
 mind is said to have been harassed by remorse for what he 
 had done, and no acts of unnecessary cruelty sully his reign. 
 1431. Henry V. succeeded with universal favor. He was young, 
 brave, affable, and generous. He had not been long on the 
 throne when he engaged in his wars with France, which 
 gave England the pride of Azincourt, and placed his son on 
 the throne of that country. In the midst of his glory he died 
 in his thirty-fourth year at Paris. 
 1422. Henry VT. being but a year old at his accession, his uncles, 
 the dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, administered the public 
 affairs, and the bishop of Winchester had charge of the king's 
 person. Notwithstanding the great abilities of the duke of 
 Bedford, the English affairs declined in France, and before 
 the king was of age, nearly all the acquisitions of his father 
 in that country were lost. After the death of the duke of 
 Bedford, the duke of Gloucester and the bishop of Winches- 
 ter, now a cardinal, contended for the direction of the king's 
 1443. councils. In the affair of the young monarch's marriage the 
 cardinal was victorious, and married him to Margaret of An 
 jou, daughter of Regnier, titular king of Naples, a princess 
 of masculine spirit and great ability and address. The duke 
 1447 of Gloucester was afterwards thrown into prison and mur- 
 dered, a deed in which his uncle the cardinal, and perhaps 
 the queen, was deeply concerned. 
 
 A claimant to the crown now appeared. Richard duke of 
 York was son to the earl of Cambridge, by Anne, sister of 
 the late earl of March, in whom ended the males of the house 
 of Mortimer. The rights of that family, therefore, centered 
 in the duke of York, who was thus descended by his mother 
 from the only daughter of the duke of Clarence, second son 
 of Edward III. ; whereas the king was descended from the 
 duke of Lancaster, third son of that monarch. The duke of 
 York was a man of most amiable manners, of large posses- 
 sions, of extensive connexions and influence. The loss of 
 France, the hatred of the king's ministers, and, above all, the 
 murder of the duke of Gloucester, had alienated the affec- 
 tions of the people. A large body of the nobility, and the 
 Commons in general, sided with the duke of York, and r©-
 
 iJOIS OF Eav.'/.ED IT 
 
 COIS or EICHAEK iir. 
 
 COIIT Cr EENF-Y VIU 
 
 4C0IV CE FQILIF A!(D U^SIi
 
 o /
 
 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OP THE PAPAL POWER. 347 
 
 course was had to arms. The battle of St. Alban's gained a. n 
 by the Yorkists, was the commencement of a struggle which 1455 
 lasted thirty years, and in which were fought twelve pitched 
 battles. The battles of Blore-heath and Northampton were 1460 
 gained by the York party. In the last the king was taken 
 prisoner: but the spirit of Margaret was unbroken; she col- 
 lected a large army, to which the duke of York was impru- 
 dent enough to give battle at Wakefield, where he was de- 
 feated and slain. Here the queen and her friends commenced 
 that ferocious system which, being imitated by the other party, 
 casts on these wars such an aspect of horror and barbarity. 
 The head of the duke of York was cut off, and fixed on the 
 gates of York ; his son, the earl of Rutland, was murdered 
 in cold blood ; the earl of Salisbury and other noblemen were 
 executed by martial law. 
 
 The claims of the duke descended to his son Edward, who 
 gained the battle of Mortimer's Cross. The Yorkists were 1461 
 defeated at St. Alban's. Edward now assumed the crown by 
 a somewhat irregular popular election. 
 
 Edward IV. was Ijandsome, brave, affable ; but licentious, 
 and barbarously cruel. The Lancastrians were defeated with 
 great slaughter at Towton. Henry and Margaret fled to Scot- 1461 
 land ; but the indefatigable queen went to France, and m- 
 ducing Louis XI. to ai=sist her with some troops and money, 
 she returned and raised another army, but was again totally 1464 
 defeated at Hexham. Margaret fled to France, and Henry, 
 being discovered, was thrown into the Tower. The hopes 
 of the Lancastrians seemed now quite crushed, when a cool- 
 ness arising between Edward and the great oarl of Warwick, 
 called the king-maker, the latter entered into a treaty with 
 Margaret, and drove Edward out of the kingdom, and re- 
 stored Henry ; but in less than six months Edward returned, 
 and Warwick was defeated and slain at the battle of Barnet. 
 The very day of this battle, Margaret and her son, prince 1471 
 C-1 ward, landed at Weymouth. Though at first overwhelmed 
 at the tidings of the defeat and death of Warwick, she re- 
 sumed her wonted spirit, collected an army, and marched to 
 Tewkesbury. Here fortune proved once more adverse; the 
 Lancastrian army was totally routed, the queen and prince 
 taken, and the latter murdered, almost in the presence of Ed- 
 ward. Henry soon afterwards died, murdered, as was said, 
 by the duke of Gloucester in the Tower, and the hopes of the 
 Lancastrians now seemed extinct. ■ 
 
 Edward V. was, it is said, with his brother the duke of 1483 
 York, murdered in the Tower by their uncle, the duke of 
 (.iloucester, who usurped the crown under the title of Rich-
 
 348 HISTORY OF THE WOKLD. PAKT II. 
 
 ard III. Tlie duke of Buckingham, who had aided Richard 
 in his projects, being discontented, invited over the earl cf 
 Richmond, who had sheltered himself in Britany ; but hav- 
 ing taken arms before the arrival of this nobleman, he was 
 seized and executed by order of Richard. Richmond at his 
 landing was joined by many ; Richard hastened to oppose 
 
 4. D. him : Sie engagement took place on the field of Bosworth. 
 
 485. Richard was slain fighting bravely, and Richmond was sa- 
 luted king on the field of battle, by the title of Henry VII. 
 With Richard III. ended tlie line of Plantagenet, which had 
 governed England with glory, on the whole, during three cen- 
 turies. The new house was called that of Tudor, from the 
 family name of Henry VII, 
 
 The title of Henry was exposed to all the defects in the 
 original Lancastrian title ; and even supposing that to be 
 good, he was not the true heir of that family ; for he claimed 
 through his mother Margaret, sole heiress of the duke of 
 Somerset, sprung from John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster ; 
 but the line of Somerset derived from one of the children of 
 John of Gaunt, by Catherine Swynford, during the life of 
 his duchess, and was therefore illegitimate, and even adulte- 
 rous ; and though Richard II. had legitimated these children, 
 they were never conceived to have any claim to the crown ; 
 and farther, the mother of Henry was still alive. Edward 
 IV. had left daughters, of whose title there could be no doubt, 
 and Henry was to be married to Elizabeth, the eldest of them; 
 but he had an aversion to that family, and he would not ap- 
 pear to owe his crown to his wife. During all his reign he 
 was very tender on this subject of his title. 
 186. After a good deal of delay, he married the princess Eliza- 
 beth, but he never loved her. The duchess of Burgundy, 
 sister of Edward IV., raised up two impostors against him, 
 each pretending to be Richard duke of York,* who had es- 
 caped from the Tower ; but the vigilance of the king easily 
 crushed all attempts against his crown. The chief defect in 
 Henry's character was avarice ; his great object was the de- 
 pression of the nobility, a point the more easily to be effect- 
 ed, as most of them had perished in the civil wars. The 
 landed proprietors obtained power to alienate their estates; 
 and as commerce had greatly increased, luxury extended, 
 and many of the commons had amassed wealth, the object 
 nearest Henry's heart was rapidly effected, though we are 
 
 • The fate of this prince and his brother it involved in singular myitery 
 It may very reasonably be doubted whether Perkin Worbeclt waa an impo* 
 tvr w act.
 
 CHAP. VII DECLWE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 349 
 
 not, perhaps, to compliment his sagacity with having fore- 
 seen it 
 
 Wars between France and England. 
 
 As they were now at an end, the present seems a good oc- 
 casion of giving a consecutive view of these useless and dis- 
 astrous wars. 
 
 When Edward III. laid claim to the crown of France,* his a- d. 
 first care was to strengthen himself by alliances with the ^"^^ 
 duke of Brabant, the count of Hainault, his father-in-law, 
 and other princes near the Rhine ; and as the English had 
 been for some time connected by trade with the Flemings, 
 and that people, who were in rebellion against their earl, 
 were governed by James van Artiveld, a brewer of Ghent, 
 Edward sought to gain that demagogue to his side, and he 
 succeeded in his object. Thus supported, Edward collected 
 an army, and entered France; but nothing of moment oc- 1339 
 curred in this first campaign, and the funds of the English 
 monarch being exhausted, he was obliged to return homr 
 The following year Edward gained a naval victory over tne 
 French, and entered France at the head of 100,000 men , 
 but Philip declined engaging, and a truce was concluded for 
 a year. During the truce, affairs took such a turn in Britany 
 as engaged the two kingdoms again in war. Charles of Blois, 
 nephew to the French king, had married the daughter of the 
 duke of Britany, upon whose death the count de Montford, 
 the next heir male, seized the duchy. Feeling he could not 
 hold it agamst the power of France, he went over to Eng- 
 land, and oflfered to do homage for it to Edward. Edward 
 accepted the proposal, and sent over troops to assist his vas- 
 sal. Montford had meantime been taken prisoner ; but his 
 wife maintained his cause with masculine energy. This strug- 
 gle was terminated by a truce for tliree years, on honorable 1343i 
 terms for Edward and tlie countess. 
 
 The truce was broken the next year. Edward invaded 1344 
 Normandy with an army of 30,000 men. Philip advanced 1346 
 at the head of 90,000. The English king, fearing to be sur- 
 rounded, retreated towards Flanders. The bridges over the 
 Somme were broken down, and a French force was on the 
 opposite side ; but the English, having discovered a ford, 
 passed over and drove off the French. As the rear-guard of 
 the English was passing, the army of Philip came up; but, 
 the tide rising, it could not pass, and had to go round by the 
 bridge of Abbeville. Fearing to march over the plains of 
 
 30 
 
 • See 22f>
 
 350 HISTOUY 01" TIIE WORLD. PART II. 
 
 Picardy, exposed to the numerous cavalry of the French, 
 Edward resolved to give battle, and he drew up his troops ii, 
 three lines on a rising ground near the village of Crecy : tlie 
 French advanced also in three lines ; but they were fatigued 
 with their march, and disordered. The battle began about 
 three o'clock in the day (Aug. 26), and ended in a complete 
 victory on the part of the English. The French lost 40,000 
 men, among whom were several of the nobility, 1200 knights, 
 and 1400 gentlemen, 
 /jj Edward now invested Calais, which surrendered after a 
 M~ siege of twelve months. The inhabitants were expelled, and 
 the town peopled with English. A truce was concluded, 
 which the dreadful plague that ravaged Europe at that time 
 caused to be prolonged. 
 
 During the truce Philip died, and was succeeded by his 
 eon John. Charles king of Navarre, surnamed the Bad, son 
 of Jane, daughter of Louis Hutin, entered secretly into cor- 
 respondence with the king of England, into which he drew 
 even the dauphin ; but that prince afterwards repenting, be- 
 trayed the king of Navarre to his father, who threw him into 
 prison. Philip, brother of the king of Navarre, put all his 
 fortresses into a state of defence, and called on Edward for 
 
 1356 assistance. The war was renewed. 
 
 Edward the Black Prince, eldest son of the king of Eng- 
 land, commanded in Guienne. He ventured with an army 
 of 12,000 men to advance into the French territory. John 
 collected a force of 60,000 men, and came up with him at 
 Maupertuis, near Poitiers. The Black Prince offered to sur- 
 render his conquests for a safe retreat : he was refused : he 
 then prepared for battle, and drew up his little army with the 
 utmost skill (Sep. 19). The usual impetuosity of the French 
 hurried them to the attack, and the battle ended in the utter 
 rout of the French army, and the captivity of their king. 
 The generosity of the Black Prince to his captive, only 
 paralleled by that of Alp Arslan,* is well known. John was 
 
 1357. led to Bourdeaux, and thence to England, and a truce was 
 concluded for two years. 
 
 France was now in a complete state of anarchy ; but the 
 truce and the want of money prevented Edward's deriving 
 any advantage from it. At the expiration of the truce, he 
 invaded and ravaged that kingdom ; but finding he could not 
 make a durable impression, he concluded the peace of Bre- 
 
 13%. tigni. The terms of this peace were, that John should pay 
 three millions of crowns of gold for his ransom; that Edward
 
 o
 
 The Black Prince entertaining his prisoner, King John of France.
 
 CHAP. VIL DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 353 
 
 should give up all claim to the crown of France, and to Nor- 
 mandy, Touraine, Maine, and Anjou, for which he was to re- 
 ceive Poitou, Saintonge, Lagenois, Perigord, the Limousin, 
 Quercy, and other neighboring places, with Calais, Guisnes, 
 Montreuil, and Ponthieu ; all m full sovereignty, no homage 
 for them or Guienne to be due to the crown of France. 
 
 Charles V. succeeding John, who died soon after the peace 
 of Bretigni, the terms of which were never executed, some 
 of the Gascon nobles appealed to him, as the superior lord, 
 4 gainst the heavy taxes laid on them by the Black Prince, in 
 consequence of his expedition to Spain. That able monarch, 
 who nad now terminated the disorders of his kingdom, sum- 
 moned the prince to appear in his court at Paris to answer 
 the complaint of his vassals. Edward replied that he would, 
 but it would be at the head of 60,000 men. But his health 
 was declining; he was obliged to return to England; and a. d. 
 the war terminated in the English being stripped of Guienne, 1370 
 except Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and of all their conquests but 
 Calais. 
 
 During the reign of Richard IT. the war was carried on 
 languidly. One of its most remarkable events was the duke 
 of Gloucester, the king's uncle, having the hardihood to march 1380 
 out of Calais at the head of 2000 horse and 8000 foot, enter 
 the heart of France, and ravage all the country till he joined 
 his allies in Britany. The duke of Burgundy came within 
 sight with a much superior army ; but such was the terror 
 the French felt of the English, that he did not venture to 
 attack them. Some years afterwards, the king of France 1386 
 made preparations for invading England ; but his fleet was 
 dispersed by a storm, and many of the ships taken by the 
 English. The Gascons put themselves, in this reign, once 
 more under the government of England. Both parties were 
 now anxious for peace ; but as the terms could not be ad- 1396 
 justed, they agreed on a truce for twenty-five years, and 
 Richard was affianced to Isabella, daughter of Charles, 8 
 princess only seven years old. 
 
 On the murder of Richard, the French king made some 1401 
 show of avenging his death ; but on the princess Isabella being 
 given up, he renewed the truce with Henry IV. Towards 
 the end of his reign Henry began to take some part in the 
 quarrels of the Orleans and Burgundy factions in France: he 1411 
 sent a small body of troops to the aid of the latter, and after- 
 wards a larger to that of the former. 
 
 Henry IV. had when dying exhorted his son not to let the 1415 
 EInglish nation remain long at rcsL Henry V. therefore, 
 30*
 
 354 
 
 HISTORY OF THJS WORLD. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 taking advantage of the distracted state of France,* sent am- 
 bassadors to Paris with most exorbitant proposals. He de- 
 manded the crown of France (or at least reserved his right to 
 it), Normandy, Touraine, Maine, Guienne, and the homage 
 of Britany and Flanders, the princess Catherme in marriage, 
 and 2,000,000 crowns of gold as her dower, and the arrear 
 of king John's ransom. The French offered him Guienne 
 and Saintonge, and a dower of 800,000 crowns. Henry forth- 
 with prepared for war; he collected a fleet and army, con- 
 sisting of 6000 men-at-arms and 24,000 foot, at Southampton, 
 landed in Normandy, and took the town of Harfleur. Having 
 dismissed his transports, he was obliged to march his army to 
 Calais by land. An army of 14,000 men-at-arms and 40,000 
 foot, under the constable d' Albert, was now collected in Nor- 
 mandy. Henry offered to give up Harfleur for a safe passage 
 to Calais : this offer was rejected : he marched by slow jour- 
 neys till he reached the Somme, which he intended passing 
 where Edward had passed, but found it strongly guarded : he 
 at length seized a passage near St. Quintin, and got safely 
 over. He now marched for Calais; but on ascending tlie 
 heights near Blangi (Oct. 25) he saw the whole French army 
 drawn up on the plain of Azincourt. Henry's army was now 
 reduced by disease and the sword to about 15,000 men. His 
 situation was similar to that of Edward at Crecy, and of the 
 Black Prince at Poitiers, and he made the same judicious dis- 
 positions. The French acted with the same impetuosity and 
 imprudence: the final result was similar. Of the French 
 10,000 were slain, among whom were the constable himself 
 and some of the chief nobility ; 14,000 were made prisoners, 
 among whom were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 
 many other nobles of high rank. The English lost but forty 
 men. Want of funds preventing Henry, like his predeces- 
 sors, from taking full advantage of this victory, he returned 
 to England, having made a truce with the enemy. 
 
 During this truce the animosity between the Armagnac 
 and Burgundian parties raged with the greatest violence. 
 Henry collected an army of 25,000 men, and landed in Nor- 
 mandy: several towns surrendered, and, being reinforced 
 with 15,000 more, he formed the siege of Rouen. The queen 
 and the duke of Burgundy now made a treaty with him simi- 
 lar to that aflerwards made at Troyes ; but before it was com- 
 pleted the dauphin and duke of Burgundy entered into a 
 secret treaty to share the supreme power, and expel tlie in- 
 vader. But the murder of the duke taking place, his son in- 
 
 * See p. 32a
 
 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OP THE PAPAL POWER. 355 
 
 Btantly formed a league with the king of England, and the 
 treaty of Troyes was concluded. All the north of France 
 was rapidly conquered, and the dauphin driven beyond the a. d. 
 Loire. In this state of affairs, Henry V. died. 1422 
 
 The duke of Bedford prosecuted the war with vigor. The 
 battle of Verneuil, in which the only army of the king of 1424 
 France was defeated with great loss, seemed to have given 
 the finishing stroke to his fortunes. Bedford resolved to pene- 
 trate into the south of France, and for that purpose fornied the 
 siege of Orleans. Every effort was made to defend this city, 1428 
 on which the hopes of France now seemed to depend. The 
 siege was tedious, but the English were gradually gaining 
 ground, when that wonderful visionary, Joan of Arc, appeared 
 to restore the sinking destiny of France. A secret horror 
 thrilled the English soldiers, which their officers either shared 
 or could not remove ; defeat attended them everywhere ; the 
 provinces and towns of France returned joyfully to their al- 
 legiance ; the duke of Burgundy was reconciled to his sove- 
 reign, and the English were, in a few years, driven out of 
 every part of France but Calais. Thus, happily for both 1450 
 countries, ended all the magnificent projects of the conquest 
 of France. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 From a very early period Scotland had been governed by 
 kings. These were frequently engaged in wars and alliances 
 with the northern princes of the heptarchy. When Duncan 
 king of Scotland was murdered by Macbeth, an army was 
 sent by Edward the Confessor against the usurper, and Mal- 
 colm, the rightful heir, was restored to the tlirone. This 
 prince espoused the sister of Edgar Atheling, and many of 
 the English fled to Scotland fi-om the tyranny of the Con- 
 queror. The Scots began now to make occasional inroads 
 into England. In one of these, William king of Scotland 
 was taken prisoner by Henry II., and, as a part of the condi- 
 tions of his liberty, was forced to do homage for his whole 
 kingdom, the Scottish kings having hitherto done so only for 
 Cumberland, which they held. Richard L, however, re- 
 nounced this right 
 
 On the death of Alexander III., near a century afterwards, 1286 
 a dispute arose about the succession to the Scottish throne. 
 That monarch having left no descendant but a granddaugh- 
 ter, who did not long survive him, the right fell to the de- 
 scendants of David carl of Huntingdon, third son of David 1. ; 
 of these John Baliol was grandson of Margaret, the earl's 
 eldest daughter ; Robert Bruce was son of Isabel, his second
 
 356 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II 
 
 daughter. The rules of succession not hemg at that time 
 well established, it was a doubtful question whic^ 'vaa the 
 true heir. To avoid a recourse to arms, the parliament of 
 Scotland determined to refer the matter to the arbitration of 
 EJdward I., a prince extolled for wisdom and prudence. Ed- 
 ward seized this occasion of obtaining the sovereignty of 
 Scotland : he appeared on the frontier with a large army, and 
 compelled all the Scottish nobles, including the two candi- 
 dates, to swear fealty to him as liege lord ; he made them give 
 him possession of the kingdom, and then declaring Baliol the 
 
 A. R true heir, put him in possession of it, on his renewing his 
 
 292. oath of fealty. 
 
 The Scottish nation, and even their king, were indignant 
 at being thus trepanned and degraded ; a secret alliance was 
 formed with France; a dispensation of the king's oath of 
 fealty was procured from the pope ; and, on being summoned 
 to appear in an English parliament at Newcastle, Baliol re- 
 
 1296. fused to attend. Edward entered Scotland at the head of 
 30,000 foot and 4000 horse, and quickly overran and subdued 
 the entire kingdom. Baliol was forced to submit and implore 
 forgiveness, English garrisons were placed in the fortresses, 
 and earl Warrenne left governor. 
 
 This earl being obliged to return to England on account of 
 his health, the administration'was left in the hands of Ormsby 
 and Cressingham, who oppressed the people without mercy. 
 A gentleman, named William Wallace, was so provoked as 
 to kill an English officer. Knowing he had no mercy to ex- 
 pect, he fled to the woods and collected a party, with whom 
 he continually harassed the English ; numbers joined him ; 
 several of the principal barons countenanced him ; and the 
 whole country was on the eve of rising, when Warrenne col- 
 lected an army of 40,000 men, and suddenly returned. Mak- 
 ing an attack on the camp of Wallace, near Stirling, the 
 English were totally routed, and Cressingham slain. The 
 nation now rose, and bestowed on Wallace the title of regent. 
 The English were expelled ; but Edward, who had been in 
 Flanders, returned, collected an army of 80,000 men, and 
 entered the country. The Scots ventured to give him battle 
 at Falkirk (June 22), when they were routed with great 
 
 298. slaughter. They still carried on the contest; but Wallace 
 was betrayed by his friend Sir John Monteith, and the intrepid 
 
 306. patriot was executed in London as a rebel. 
 
 Robert Bruce, who had been in the English service, now 
 stepped forward to defend his own and his country's rights. 
 The Scottish nation rose once more ; the English were driven 
 out of the country, and Bruce was crowned at Scone. Ed-
 
 T^m. 
 
 View on thb Volga at Simbibsk-tuk Jigocleb
 
 ICOIH OP WiriUM AND MAET^ 
 
 VQIS^S SJJOBOS n
 
 CHAP. VII DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 359 
 
 ward now found he had all his work to do over again ; he 
 eent an army, under Aymer de Valence earl of Pembroke, 
 who defeated Bruce, and forced him to take shelter in the 
 Western Isles. The king was himself advancing, deter- 
 mined to wreak his vengeance on the Scots, when he sick- a. d. 
 ened and died at Carlisle, with his last breath charging his 1307 
 son to prosecute the war. 
 
 Edward II. was anxious to get back to England, and after 
 a few feeble efforts he left Scotland. Bruce, who had returned, 
 made himself master of the whole kingdom except a few for- 
 tresses, and even made inroads into England. Edward was 
 roused; he collected a large force, and entered Scotland. 
 The English army was 80,000 strong ; that of Bruce did not 
 exceed 30,000. But he ventured to give them battle at Ban- 
 nockburn, near Stirling (June 14,) where he totally defeated 1314. 
 them. This victory, one of the most glorious ever obtained, 
 secured the independence of Scotland, and reduced to nothing 
 all the hopes founded on the iniquitous attempt of Eklward L 
 One more fruitless effort was made by Edward, and a truce 1323w 
 was then concluded for thirteen years. 
 
 On the death of Robert Bruce, who left a son, a minor, 
 Edward III. secretly encouraged the son of John Baliol to 
 put forward his claim to the Scottish kingdom, raised a small 1332 
 army, with which he landed on the coast of Fife, and ad- 
 vanced into the heart of the country, where he defeated the 
 Scottish army of 30,000 men, under the earl of Mar. He 
 tlicn took Perth, and was crowned at Scone. But having 
 dismissed the greater part of his English followers, he was soon 
 after driven back into England. He here made large offers 
 to Edward, particularly engaging to renew the homage which 
 had been given up by Mortimer in Edward's minority, if he 
 would assist him to regain his throne. Edward collected a 
 large army ; the Scots encountered him at Halidon-hill, near 
 Berwick (July 19), and were defeated with the loss of nearly 1333 
 20,000 men and the chief of their nobility. But still Scot- 
 land was unconquered. The English forces might overrun 
 and destroy the country ; but as soon as they retired, the na- 
 tives repossessed it, and again bade them defiance, 
 
 David, the son of Robert Bruce, had taken refiige in 
 France, but had returned, and driven Baliol out of Scotland. 1346 
 At the solicitation of the king of France, with whom he had 
 made an alliance, he invaded England. Queen Philippa, at 
 the head of 12,000 men, met him at Neville's Cross, neai 
 Durham (October 17,) and the Scottish king was defeated 
 and taken prisoner. After a captivity of ten years, he was 
 released for a ransom of 100,000 marks.
 
 360 HISTORY OF THE WoSLD. PART II 
 
 A Dk Richard II. invaded Scotland, at the head of 60,000 men 
 
 1385 and ravaged the country, as usual; but in the mean time 
 
 30,000 Scots retaliated on the west of England, and Richard 
 
 1401. returned without having effected any thing, Henry lY. led 
 an army into Scotland to no purpose. The Scots immediately 
 
 1402. after invaded England, but were defeated by the Percies at 
 Humbledovm. The Scots afterwards aided the Percies in 
 their rebellion. 
 
 Robert III. of Scotland was a feeble prince : his brother, 
 the duke of Albany, seized the government and aimed at the 
 throne : to effect this purpose, he resolved to remove his 
 nephews ; and he threw David, the elder, into prison, where 
 he perished of hunger. Robert, to save James, his younger 
 
 1407. son, sent hun to France ; but the ship was taken by the Eng- 
 lish, and Henry FV. refused to restore the young prince to 
 liberty. Robert died of grief; and now, by possessing the 
 person of the young king, Henry was able to keep the duke 
 of Albany in dependence, and secure his kingdom from in- 
 roads. He, however, gave the young monarch an excellent 
 education. 
 
 Ever since the time of Edward III., the French and Scot- 
 tish nations had been in strict alliance against the common 
 enemy. When Henry V. had had such a career of success 
 in France, the Scottish nation and the regent saw plainly 
 that they must submit if that country was conquered, and a 
 
 1421. body of 7000 men was sent to the aid of the dauphin, who 
 treated them with great favor. Throughout tlie war, Scottish 
 volunteers crowded to the French standard ; and, in the reign 
 of Henry VI., the duke of Bedford recommended it as the 
 best policy, to marry the young king of Scots to the king's 
 cousin, the daughter of the earl of Somerset, and give him 
 
 1423. his liberty. This was done, and James, during his short 
 reign, proved one of the greatest of the Scottish monarchs. 
 
 1437 He was murdered by his kinsman the earl of Athol. During 
 the wars of the Roses, Scotland was too much distracted by 
 factions to be able to take any advantage of the state of Eng- 
 land. In the reign of Henry VII., James IV. gave counte- 
 nance and assistance to Perkin Warbeck ; but the war was 
 
 1502 happily terminated by the marriage of the Scottish monarch 
 with Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 Denmark and Norway we have seen early formed into 
 monarchies. Sweden remained longer divided into small in- 
 dependent districts. The Swedes and Goths at length agreed 
 to form one state, to be governed alternately by a Goth of the
 
 CHAP. VII DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 361 
 
 race of Svercher, and a Swede of that of Eric. The natural ^ n 
 consequence was endless assassination. In the 14th century IXM 
 the race of Odis in Sweden was extinct, and a foreigner waa 
 placed on the throne. In the same century, the ancient lines 
 in Denmark and Norway ended with Waldemar and Olaf. 
 Margaret, daughter of the former, mother of the latter, was 
 heiress to both. She defeated Albert of Mecklenburg king 
 of Sweden, -and forced him to abdicate, and then, by the Union 1.J98 
 of Calmar, united the three Scandinavian kingdoms. Mar- 
 garet, having no children, was succeeded by her nephew 
 Eric, of the ducal house of Pomerania, but he was driven out 
 of the three kingdoms. Christopher, a duke of Bavaria, was 14<J'J 
 invited to Denmark, and the other kingdoms submitted to his 
 government. On his death Christian, son of the count of i*48 
 Oldenburg, was chosen king of Denmark, and by his mother, 
 who was sister to the count of Holstein, he obtained that 
 country, which was now made a duchy. Norway followed 1*69 
 the example of Denmark ; but Carl Cnutson and Steno Sture 
 maintained the independence of Sweden against hira and his 
 two successors 
 
 Poland. 
 
 The Poles are a portion of the Slavonians, the last great 
 race which arrived in Europe. They were at first divided 
 into several small states, for ever at war with each other. 
 When they embraced the Christian religion, they united un- 
 der the government of a duke. In the thirteenth century, 1^95 
 Przemysl, of the house of the Piasti, assumed the royal dig- 
 nity. This race ruled Poland five hundred years, and it end^ 
 with Casimir the Great, in 1370. He was succeeded by his 1^0 
 sister's son, Louis of Anjou, king of Hungary, also named 
 the Great This king left only daughters: Sigismund of 
 Luxemburg, the husband of Mary, the eldest, was king of 1382. 
 Hungary, and Louis had provided for the continued union of 
 the two crowns; but the Poles and Hedwig, his other daugh- 
 ter, rejected that arrangement, and that princess gave her 13»6 
 hand to Jagellon, great-prince of Lithuania, who with his 
 people embraced the Christian religion. The kingdom flour- 
 ished greatly under this king : its export of com was con- 
 siderable. In the reign of iiis son, by the choice of the Ilun- 1437 
 garians, the two countries were agam united ; but this young 
 monarch lost both life and crown in the battle of Varna, ^♦M 
 against the Turkish sultan Moorad. 
 
 His brother Casimir succeeded him in Poland, and wa* 
 one of the greatest princes of his time. He made ^eat ac- 
 quisitions from the Teutonic order of knights. Casimir rei^^n- 
 81
 
 362 HISTOUY OF THE WORLD. PART 11 
 
 ed nearly half a century, and saw Vladislaus, one of his sons 
 king of Hungary and Bohemia. 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 The house of Arpad ruled four hundred years in Hungary 
 A, a and ended with Andrew III. On tlie death of this monarch, 
 1301. the people were split into various parties ; that of CharlCif 
 310. Robert, of the Neapolitan branch of the house of Anjou, pre- 
 vailed, and he was called to the throne. His Vigor and wis- 
 dom, in the course of a long reign, raised the kingdom to great 
 343. glory ; and the long reign also of his son Louis stOl further 
 increased its power and dignity. But Louis unfortunately 
 1382. died just as the Ottoman power was growing formidable on 
 the frontiers, and the kingdom was again distracted by fac- 
 1386. tion. Sigismund, a stranger, was chosen king, and reigned 
 for more than half a century. He lost the battle of Nicopolia 
 to the Turks ; but circumstances prevented their attempting 
 to follow up their victory. Sigismund was succeeded in the 
 empire and in Hungary by his son-in-law, Albert of Austria- 
 1437. Albert's successor, Ladislaus, being a posthumous child, the 
 Hungarians gave the crown, for his minority, to Vladislaus 
 king of Poland. On his death John Hunniades was made re- 
 1456. gent, and at the battle of Belgrade he gave an effectual check 
 1458. to the Ottoman power. The young king lived but two years 
 after Hunniades ; and the nation then chose Matthias the son 
 of the valiant John Hunniades, to be their sovereign. Mat- 
 thias was the greatest prince of his age, and in his wars with 
 Austria and Bohemia victory always attended him. On his 
 490. death, the Hungarians elected Vladislaus, eon of Casimir kimr 
 of Poland, already king of Bohemia. 
 
 The Ottomans. 
 
 When the Mongols of Chingis Khan had burst through the 
 barriers jfKhowaresm over Persia and Lesser Asia, Suleiman. 
 1234. one of tlie noblest of the Turkish tribe of Oghuz, migrated ai 
 the head of 50,000 souls from Khorassan to Armenia. After 
 remaining seven years in that country, Suleiman prepared to 
 return to his former abode ; but chancing to be drowned in 
 crossing the Euphrates at Jaaber, his followers dispersed. i\ 
 part remained in Syria, another part went to Lesser Asia. 
 
 Of the four sons of Suleiman, two returned to Khorassan , 
 the two younger, Dindar and Ortoghrul, retired with foui 
 hundred families to the mountains east of Erzeroom, and 
 thence roved westwards, to seek a retreat in the dominions 
 of Ala-ed-deen, the great prince of the Seljookians of Iconium 
 On their way, they came to where two armies were fighting
 
 HAP. VI I DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 365 
 
 Ortoghrul chivalrously resolved tx) assist Uie weaker, and lue 
 aid turned the scale. It was Ala-ed-deen whom he made 
 victorious over an army of Tatars ; and the grateful sultan 
 bestowed honors and pasture-land on his ally. This land, the 
 cradle of the Ottoman power, is the Sanjak of Sultan Oni, the 
 ancient Phrygia Epictetos. Here they fed their herds on the 
 mountains in summer, and in winter descended into the plain ; 
 and they lived in amity with the neighboring subjects of the 
 Greek emperors. 
 
 Osman, the son of Ortoghrul, resolved on conquest His 
 dervishes excited the courage of his soldiers, and he estab- a. !> 
 Ii&hed a kingdom in Bithynia, of which Brusa, at the foot of 129*^' 
 the Mysian Olympus, became the capital. It is from this 
 monarch that the western Turks derive their appellation of 
 Ottomans, or more properly Osmans. 
 
 In the time of his son Orchan, a great part of Lesser Asia 132fi 
 was subdued by the Turkish arms. The isles of Greece felt 
 their power : the court of Constantinople was split into fac- 
 tions ; civil war raged in the empire ; each party sought the 
 aid of the Turks. John Cantacuzenes, a man of talent and 
 virtue, on ascending the throne, felt that its strength was 
 gone, and retired to the solitude of mount Athos. His suc- 
 cessor, John Palaeologus, was sunk in pleasure. Under the 
 reign of Orchan the Ottoman institutions, one of which was 
 the formation of the corps of Janizaries {Yeni-cheri, new sol- 
 diers) were established, chiefly under the direction of his 
 brother and vizier, the able Ala-ed-deen. 
 
 Moorad (Amurath), the son and successor of Orchan, took 1359 
 Adrianople, the second city of the empire, and made it the 
 European capital of his dominions. By marriage he acquired 
 the greater part of Kermian, and by purchase he gained 
 Hamid. Philippopolis was taken from the Greeks; but 
 Moorad found a more obstinate resistance from the Servians 
 and Bulgarians. He fell at Cossova, assassinated by a valiant 1389 
 Servian youth. 
 
 Bayezeed (Bajezet) Yilderim, i. e. Lightning, a brave but 
 headstrong prince, succeeded his father, and his first act was 
 to put to death his only brother. The forces of Western 
 Europe, Germany, Hungary, and France, commanded by 
 Sigismund, king of Hungary, the counts of Nevers, la Marche, 
 and Eu, the admiral de Vienne, the marshal Boucicault, the 
 lord of Coucy, and several others of the prime nobility of 
 France and Germany, with 60,000 men, advanced to Nico- 139G 
 polis. Bayezeed led against them a more numerous host. 
 The Christians fought with their wonted valor, but yielded 
 to the numbers and the discipline of the Moslems: tlicir 
 81*
 
 366 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART II 
 
 leaders were slain or made captive. Sigisraund escaped to 
 the Danube with five companions, and thence to Constanti- 
 nople. Bosnia was overrun by Bayezeed, and he was pre- 
 paring to invest Constantinople a second time, when the 
 progress of his conquests westwards was checked by the ap- 
 proach on the east of the Tatars under Timoor. Bayezeed 
 
 A D hastened to oppose them. On the plains of Angora he fou/rht 
 
 1402 with a courage worthy of his race, but was defeated and taKen 
 
 402. prisoner. Grief and vexation caused his death, and the con 
 
 queror restored his body to the sepulchre of his fathers. 
 
 The captivity and death of Bayezeed weakened and dis- 
 tracted the Turkish power : the sons of the captive sultan 
 contended with each other ; and it was only by the wisdom 
 
 1413. of Mohammed I. and his vizier Bayezeed that the empire re- 
 gained its vigor. His son, Moorad II., a valiant and merci- 
 
 14-22. fijl hero, subdued the greater part of what remained to the 
 Greek emperors. John VII. in vain sought aid in Europe ; 
 in vain he visited Italy, and agreed to an union of the churches. 
 The union was rejected by the Greek clergy, and theological 
 controversy reigned more violently than ever in the falling 
 empire of the East. 
 
 Moorad having made peace with Hungary, adhered to it 
 faithfully. But while he was at Magnesia, in Asia, the 
 papal legate relea.=ed the Hungarians from their oath, and 
 they seized this opportunity of assailing the Ottoman do- 
 minions. King Vladislaus and John Hunniades marched to 
 the Black Sea. Moorad appeared ; the battle was fought at 
 
 1 144. Varna. In the front of his array Moorad displayed the vio- 
 lated treaty. Victory was long on the side of the Christians, 
 when Moorad, it is said, pointing to the treaty, called aloud on 
 God to avenge their perjury, and at that moment the young 
 king rushed amid the ranks of the Janizaries and fell, and 
 victory declared for the sultan. This excellent prince, twice 
 during his reign, resigned his crown for the enjoyment of a 
 private life, but was each time recalled to the throne by the 
 danger of the state. 
 
 1451. Moorad's son, Mohammed 11., joined to the valor of his 
 father a greater spirit of enterprise. The doom of Constanti- 
 nople was now fixed. It had stood in magnificence for 1123 
 years, had seen its western rival more than once open b.er 
 gates to the conqueror, while itself had but once submitted, 
 and had quickly resumed its dignity; but now its dynasty 
 and its religion were to change, the rovers of the steppaa 
 were to lord it in the palace of the Caesars, and the crescent 
 was to replace the glittering cross on the summit of its great 
 temple. Mohammed invested the city : during fifty days the
 
 CHAP. VU. DECLINE OP THE PAPAL POWEE. 367 
 
 massive walls were assailed by artillery of enormous size and 
 power. The Turks at length burst in : Constantino, the last 
 of the Cffisars, fell at the breach, sword in hand, with a a. d 
 courage worthy of the greatest of those whom he represented. 1453 
 The city was plundered, the inhabitants sold into slavery. 
 
 The Peloponnesus was speedily overrun, and the little 1461 
 empire of Trebizond, which had lasted 258 years, submitted 
 at the appearance of Mohammed. The Palseologi in the 
 Peloponnesus were forced to yield to the Ottoman arms ; but 
 in Albania, George Castriot (called for his valor by the Turks 
 Scanderberg, i. e. Prince Alexander) resisted the Turkish 
 power witli success as long as he lived. The battle of Bel- 
 tjfrade checked effectually the progress of Mohammed on the 
 side of Hungary. The Servians were completely subdued. 
 The voivode of Wallachia, the merciless Drakul, made a 
 more vigorous defence ; but he was defeated, and that country 
 also reduced to submission. Carem:iania was forced to submit 
 to the rule of Mohammed ; but the knights of Rhodes repelled 
 him from tlieir island. 
 
 The Tatars*— Timoor. 
 
 Timoor (i. e. Iron) was descended from Berla, the Emir- 1335 
 ul-umera of Jagatai, the son of Chingis Khan. The youth 
 of Timfxir was spent in freebooting and the chase : in his 
 twenty-seventh year he rendered important military service 
 to the emir Husein of the house of Jagatai, who then ruled 
 over Khorassan and Transoxiana, against the khan of Tur- 
 kestan. The hand of the emir's sister was his reward ; but 
 on her death within four years, Timoor cast off allegiance, 
 and war broke out between him and the emir. On the death 
 of the latter Timoor occupied the throne, and fixed his resi- 
 dence at Samarkund. He turned his arms first against the 
 sultan of the Jetans ( Getce .') and tiie shah of Khowaresm, 
 then subdued Khorassan, and ravaged Persia during three 
 years: with the speed of light he now swept over Great 
 Tatary, and shortly afterwards feasted his host on the banks 1391 
 of the Volga. A campaign of five years wasted Persia ; and 
 Bagdad, Mesopotamia, Koordistan, Armenia, and Georgia 
 were conquered by the Tatars. Timoor next poured his l'N8 
 tiordes over the fertile plains of India. The plunder of Delhi 
 rewarded their efforts, and he pursued the flying Indians to 
 
 * Wo coiiBiilcr the diatinction between Turks and Tatars to have been 
 tlearly shown by M. Klaproth: the former are of Caucasian, the latter of 
 Mongol race. Yet the Tatars of Timoor appear rather of mixed race ; at 
 lca»t, Timoor himself i« described of a fair and ruddy complexion, very dif- 
 'irent from that of a Mongol. Tartar, the corruption of Tatar, owea ita 
 ariipu to a pun of St. Louis on Tatar and the Latin T^rttrut.
 
 Sft8 HIBTOBT OP THB WORLD. PART 11 
 
 the sources of the sacred Gangea The same year the Tata; 
 conqueror wintered on the plains of Karabagh, west of the 
 Caspian; in the spring he laid waste Georgia, took Sivas, 
 one of tlie finest and most populous cities of Lesser Asia, 
 dnd cruelly put the garrison to death; conquered all the 
 4. D. towns to Aleppo, defeated there the Egyptian army, and took 
 <101. that city ; and, at length, made a general massacre of the in- 
 habitants of Bagdad. 
 
 Timx)r wintered once more on the plains of Karabagh. 
 The princes whom Bayezeed had robbed of their dominions 
 had cast themselves on tlie protection of the Tatar, and Ti- 
 moor prepared for war with the haughty Ottoman. Negotia- 
 tion was tried in vain ; Bayezeed was hardened in obstinacy, 
 and in the neighborhood of Angora, on the very plain where 
 Pompeius had defeated Mithridates, the Turkish army of 
 120,000 men engaged the Tatar host of 700,000. From morn- 
 !402. ing to night of a burning day (July 20) endured this last 
 battle of either monarch, and it ended in the total rout of the 
 Turkish host, and the captivity of its leader. The tale of the 
 iron cage is a fabulous legend. The Tatars overran all Les- 
 ser Asia; Timoor reached Iconium. Bayezeed died of apo- 
 4C1. plexy at Akshehr (March 8), and two years afterwards Ti- 
 moor breathed his last on his march against China. 
 
 Timoor left his empire to his grandson Peer Mohammed 
 Jehangheer ; but this prince was unfortunate in the contest 
 for the crown with his brother Khulleel Sultan, and the em- 
 pire eventually fell into the hands of Shah Rokh, the virtuous 
 son of Timoor. But at length the fortune of the house of 
 Timoor was forced to yield before that of the Usbegs; and 
 after a glorious struggle against Shybuk Khan tlie Usbeg. 
 the able and celebrated Baber retired to Hindoostan, and 
 founded that great empire, the nominal sovereign of which, 
 his lineal descendant, still sits, a monument of fallen great- 
 ness, in Delhi, beneath the protection of a British company 
 of merchants. It was while Baber was on the throne that 
 the Portuguese first appeared oti the coast of Malabar. 
 
 The Turkman tribes of the Black and the White Wether, 
 80 named from their standards, had fixed themselves on the 
 western frontier of Persia. On the death of Timoor they 
 advanced into that country : the former tribe established its 
 empire in Aderbijan and the adjacent provinces ; the latter 
 extended its power over nearly the whole of Persia. They 
 encountered the arms both of the descendants of Timoor and 
 the Ottoman sultans.
 
 QOIS QV VICTOWAr
 
 iiii 
 
 iilli
 
 -HAP. VII. DECLINE OP THE PAPAL POWER, 371 
 
 Spain. 
 
 The peninsula contained now four Christian kingdcms, 
 «;a8tile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal ; and one Mohamrae- 
 *an, Granada. 
 
 Alfonso X., the Wise, king of Castile, was chiefly distin- a. d 
 £uished by his attachment to science, and by his code, the 1262 
 oiete Paxtidas. His son Sancho rebelled against him, and 
 disquieted the latter part of his life. The reigns of Sancho 
 tnd hifl two successors were periods of anarchy and turbu- 
 ijencp. Peter the Cruel surpassed all his predecessors in 135Q 
 '^yranny and crime. A rebellion, headed by his illegitimate 
 orother, Henry of Transtamara, supported by Aragon and 
 Portugal, broke out, and drove him from his throne. Henry 
 was aided by Bertrand du Guesclin and the companies of 
 adventure who had been engaged in the wars between France 
 »nd England. Peter fled to Guienne, and implored the aid 
 of the Black Prince, promising to give him Biscay in case 
 he should restore him to his throne. The British prince en- 
 tered Spain, recalled to his standard the companies of adven- 1367 
 tare, defeated Henry at the battle of Navarrete, and took du 
 Guesclin prisoner. But Peter's ingratitude causing him to 
 retire in disgust, Henry again appeared, and he defeated and 1369 
 slew with his own hand the savage tyrant. 
 
 The reigns of Henry II. and his two successors, John L 
 and Henry TIL (1368 — 1406) were tranquil ; and these 
 princes merited the affection of the people by their observance 
 of the laws, John II. being but fourteen months old at his 1406 
 accession, the government was wisely administered during 
 his minority by his mother and his uncle Ferdinand. On his 
 attaining his majority, the golden period terminated ; the re- 
 mainder of his reign was a series of conspiracies and civil 1454 
 wars. Henry IV., son of John, was solemnly and unjustly 
 deposed by a party of his factious nobles, who set up his 1465 
 orother Alfonso against him, and a civil war ensued. These 
 nobles had accused Henry's queen of adultery, and maintain- 
 ed that Joanna, their only child, was illegitimate. Accord- 
 ingly, on the death of Alfonso, his sister Isabel was regarded 
 as the heiress. She agreed to a treaty with Henry, by which 1409 
 the succession was secured to her ; but Henry took the first 
 opportunity of rescinding the agreement, and on his death 
 the parties had to appeal to arms. Isabel, who was married 1474 
 to Ferdinand infant of Aragon, was supported by that power. 
 Joanna was betrothed to Alfonso king of Portugal, and he- 
 mother was a princess of that family ; she was, therefore, 
 ■upported in her claim by the strength of that kingdom. The
 
 372 niSTORT OP THK WORLD. PAftt 11, 
 
 i D. 
 
 1476 king of Portugal, however, woa defeated at Toro, and all 
 Joanna's partisans gradually submitted to Isabel. 
 
 Aragon, though not so extensive as Castile, equalled it in 
 power. Its government was better, its sovereigns wiser, its 
 trade far more extensive. The tmlor of the Cid had given 
 it Valencia ; the Balearic isles were added to it ; a long and 
 sanguinary contest had, at the commencement of the four- 
 teentli century, brought Sardinia under its dominion ; and in 
 this century it acquired Naples and Sicily. 
 
 1410. On the death of Martin king of Aragon, the succession was 
 disputed by five competitors, the count of Urgal, grandson 
 of James, next brother to Peter FV. ; the duke of Gandia, 
 grandson of James II. ; the duke of Calabria, son of Violante, 
 youngest daughter of John I. ; Frederic count of Luna, natu- 
 ral son of the younger Martin king of Sicily; and Ferdinand, 
 infant of Castile, son of the late king's sister. The cortes of 
 Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia named nine persons, three 
 of each, to hear and decide the claims; and, after solemn de- 
 liberation, the crown was adjudged to Ferdinand of Castile. 
 
 1416. This prince was succeeded by his eon Alfonso V., who was 
 made king of Naples, where he passed the greater part of his 
 reign, governing Aragon by his brother and successor John 
 
 M79. II. On the death of John, the sceptre of Aragon passed to 
 his son Ferdinand, who was married to Isabel queen of Cas- 
 tile, and thus the two monarchies were united into one great 
 kingdom, never again to be divided. Ferdinand now felt him- 
 self strong enough to attack Granada, and end the conflict 
 which had lasted for eight centuries. The war commenced , 
 civil dissension rent the Moorish kingdom ; a party aided the 
 Christian invaders; yet the conquest of Granada cost ten 
 years of bloody and incessant warfare. At length it surren- 
 
 1492. dered (Jan. 2), and Spain, in fnll strength and vigor, was 
 prepared for her conflicts with France. 
 
 The little kingdom of Navarre passed continually by fe- 
 males to the French houses of Bigorre, Champagne, Evreux, 
 Foix, and Albret. But the kings of Aragon had made them- 
 selves masters of the greater part of it 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Alfonso X. of Castile, had obliged Alfonso, the Restaurador 
 ot Portugal, to swear that, for his conquest of Algarve, he 
 279. would attend him in his wars with fifty lances. Diniz, the 
 able successor of the effeminate Sancho, prevailed on the 
 king of Castile to abolish this mark of the dependence of Por- 
 tugal. 
 1367. Pedro, the grandson of Diniz, was an able, just, and vigor
 
 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 373 
 
 0U8 prince : he contended with gpirit against thie power of the 
 church, which was excessive in Portu^, and held it in check. 
 Ferdinand, his feeble son, left an only daughter, married to 
 John king of Castile, and Portugal was in imminent danger a. n 
 of losing her independence. 138J 
 
 A conspiracy was formed against the queen-dowager, who 
 was regent, and her partisans : John, a natural son of king 
 Pedro, and grand master of the order of Avis, was at the 
 head of it. The conspirators rushed into the castle where 
 the queen resided, and Ruy Pereira slew before her eyes her 
 favorite count Ourem. The people rose ; the bishop of Lisbon 
 was flung from the tower of his cathedral ; the queen fled to 
 Castile ; the master of Avis was appointed regent The king 
 of Castile (John I.) entered Portugal with an army. Most 
 of the nobles were on his side : the commons were for Don 
 John, and liberty. At the battle of Aljubarrota, 7000 Portu- 1386 
 guese defeated more than four times their number of Caa- 
 tihans, and the master of Avis was proclaimed king of Por- 
 tugal. His reign of forty-eight years was the most brilliant 
 period Portugal had yet seen. The Portuguese chivalry 1414 
 crossed the strait, and conquered Ceuta from the Moors. Dis- 
 covery was prosecuted along the coast of Africa, through the 
 generous efforts of his son Don Henry, and Madeira and the 
 Azores were added to his dominions. While his grandson int. 
 Alfonso V. was carrying on war with success against the 
 Moors of Fez, adventurous mariners had passed the line, set- 
 tled on the Gold Coast, and discovered Congo. The Cape of 
 Grood Hope was doubled by Diaz. 
 
 Discovery of America. 
 
 The progress of the Portuguese along the coast of Aftica, 
 the discovery of new nations, and the knowledge of the in- 
 correctness of the ideas of the ancients respecting geo^^^ 
 phy, aided by the compass, and the courage and skill acquired 
 by navigating the stormy seas of the north, had prepared men 
 for bold and distant voyages. The great problem was, the 
 passage by sea to India : this the Portuguese sought by the 
 circumnavigation of Africa. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, 
 a man of great naval skill and courage, by reflecting on the 
 magnitude of the earth, now known to be globular, had con- 
 jectured that, by sailing westwards, a ship might, after passing 
 over a moderate space of sea, arrive at the coast of India. 
 Pieces of carved wood, natural productions, and even the 
 bodies of men had been thrown ashore in different places by 
 the waves running from the west : various traditions were 
 current of a land to the wost linving been formerly visited 
 82
 
 374 HISTORT OP THE WORLD. FART n, 
 
 All these circumstances combined, convinced Columbus that, 
 by sailing due-yvest, a ship must, within a moderate space of 
 time, reach a country which, he was firmly persuaded, must 
 De India. Under this impression, he made, as he thought him- 
 self bound to do, the first proposal of attempting the discovery 
 to his native city Genoa. Meeting with no encouragement 
 there, he applied to the king of Portugal, in whose capital he 
 resided ; but Don John was too firmly bent on the course 
 which the Portuguese had been so long pursuing to hearken 
 to him. Columbus now sent his brother Bartholomew to 
 Henry VII. of England : he went in person to Ferdinand and 
 iBabel of Spain. Bartholomew was taken by pirates, and did 
 not reach England for a long time, by which means that coun 
 try probably lost the honor of the future discovery. Christo- 
 pher, after long soliciting at the court of Castile, at lengtli 
 obtained a small squadron from Isabel, elated with the recent 
 
 ^_ J) conquest of Granada. 
 
 I49i With three small vessels, carrying but 90 men, Columbus 
 sailed from the port of Palos on the 3d Aug. 1492. He steered 
 westwards, and proceeded a long way without meeting any 
 signs of land : his crews began to grow terrified and muti- 
 nous : Columbus soothed and pacified them. At length, one 
 morning (Oct. 12), the coast and woods of St. Salvador, one 
 of the Bahamas, rose before them, — and the New World was 
 discovered. Sailing farther on, they arrived at Cuba and His- 
 paniola, or St. Domingo; and Columbus returning to Spain 
 with intelligence of his discoveries, all Europe was filled with 
 wonder and conjectures. The new country was named West- 
 India, so convinced were men that it could be no other than 
 a part of India, of which they had such indistinct concep- 
 
 1493. tions. The next year Columbus discovered Puerto Rico, 
 
 1498. Guadaloupe, and Jamaica. In his third voyage he discovered 
 Trinidad, and a part of South America, which he knew not 
 to be a continent. The ungrateful return made to the ser- 
 vices of this great man, are too well known, and too conso- 
 nant to the usual practices of courts, to need mention. He 
 
 1506. died four years after his fourth and last voyage, poor and 
 neglected, at Valladolid. 
 
 While Columbus was prosecuting hia discoveries to the 
 west, the court of Portugal, having now ascertained Africa 
 to be circumnavigable, had sent a fleet under the command 
 of Vasco da Gama, round Africa, in quest of India. He sailed 
 from the Tagus on the 9th of July, 1497, and on the 18th 
 May, 1498, be reached the port of Calicut* on the westena 
 eooat of India.
 
 Geoboians of the Hkiohts or Teflis.
 
 CHAP. Vn. DECLINE OP THE PAPAL POWER. 3*?7 
 
 The middle ages here terminate. They began in ignorance, 
 anarchy, and confusion: knowledge and order now regain 
 their dominion. The discordant elements of theocracy, mon- 
 archy, feudalism, and democracy, which had been in ceaseless 
 conflict during this period, have so modified one another, as 
 to make the fit state of transition to the blended form which 
 characterizes that which follows. 
 
 <i2*
 
 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 I 
 
 CHAP. L 
 
 VIEW OF THE STATE OF EUROPE. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 At the commencement of the middle ages the great em- 
 pire of Rome was fallen to pieces from internal corruption 
 and decay : the stream of hardy population which poured 
 down from the north had burst all the opposing mounds and 
 dikes, and overflowed the whole of the western empire. 
 Taste and learning, long declining, were almost extinct ; t le 
 Christian religion, now that of all parts of the empire, t as 
 corrupted and debased ; and in that state it was embraced by 
 the rude conquerors, and farther degraded by the admixl ire 
 of their barbarous tenets and practices. The clergy acqu red 
 from the superstitious fears of the people wealth, influe^ice, 
 and power; they ruled the laity with despotic sway, and 
 bishops made kings tremble on their thrones : the pop-, as 
 head of the church, sought to draw all this power to himself, 
 and then to make it a source of emolument. The papal do- 
 minion had finally attained a height unparalleled in the history 
 of man ; but, like every other empire, its ascent only led to its 
 descent. The extravagance of the papal pretensions b came 
 apparent when learning began to be cultivated, and its g/adual 
 decline has marked the last period of those ages. 
 
 One great empire arose in Europe after the fall o^ Rome ; 
 but it fell to pieces when the vigorous mind which hal' jrected 
 it was gone. Europe was divided into small states, nd war, 
 internal and external, raged without ceasing ; a haughty in- 
 dependent nobility insulted kings, and tyrannized over the 
 people. The barbarians of the North and the East, and the en- 
 thusiastic warriors of the Koran, overran, pillaged, and de- 
 stroyed the fairest regions of the West. The intercourse of 
 nations, except in war, was small ; trade and commerce hardly 
 existed ; the merchant was subject to be plundered openly by 
 878
 
 CHAP, t VIEW OP THE STA'l E OP EUROrR 379 
 
 the stranger-lord, and to be pillaged by the arbitrary taxation 
 of his own. 
 
 Gradually the night was seen to pass away ; monarcne be 
 gan to extend their power, and to perceive that it was their 
 true interest to protect the people against the tyranny of the 
 nobles, and to bring these last under obedience ; the church 
 used her extensive power for the same purpose ; the people 
 gradually acquired wealth; their towns were secured by 
 charters and immunities granted by the crown or the feudal 
 lord, and where the crown was feeble, voluntary associations 
 secured them from the rapacity of the nobles. The latter ac- 
 quired a relish for luxury : to obtain money, they alienated or 
 let their lands, and soon felt that they had transformed their 
 obedient retainers into sturdy independent yeomen and 
 citizens. 
 
 The lamp of learning was relumed ; the study of the scho- 
 lastic theology and philosophy, and of the Roman law, sharp- 
 ened men's intellects ; travels into the East enlarged their 
 knowledge of the earth ; the use of the mariner's compass 
 emboldened their navigation ; gunpowder changed the face 
 of war ; paper, and at length tlie art of printing, gave a more 
 rapid diffusion to knowledge ; the taking of Constantinople 
 scattered the learning of the Greeks over the West ; schools 
 and universities were numerous ; men were become eager 
 for knowledge ; classical learning was, in Italy, cultivated 
 with ardor, and a strong feeling of admiration for the institu- 
 tions and philosophy of antiquity excited ; the discourses and 
 writings of Wickliffe, Huss, and their disciples awakened be- 
 yond the Alps attention to the important topics of religion ; 
 the discovery of India and the New World filled men's minds 
 with vague aspirations after adventure, conquest, wealth, and 
 knowledge. A universal fermentation was going on. 
 
 Such was the state of the European mind, at the com- 
 mencement of modem history. The political condition of 
 Europe was chiefly that of extensive monarchies, internally 
 tranquil, and ready to turn their entire forces against each 
 other. We will commence this part by a view of their re- 
 spective conditions. 
 
 England. 
 
 The wars of the Roses had greatly thinned the English 
 nobility and gentry : they were weary of civil conflict, and 
 quietly submitted to the arbitrary rule of Henry VII. All the 
 barriers of liberty erected under the Plantagenets were 
 thrown down, and England became in this, and still more in 
 the following reign, nearly an absolute monarchy. The
 
 380 mSTOBY OF THB WORLD. PART HI. 
 
 daughters of Henry VII. were married, one to Louis XII. 
 
 king of France, the other to the king of Scotland. Wales 
 ^ D was incorporated with England ; over Ireland she held a du- 
 1509. bious dominion. Henry was succeeded by his son of the same 
 
 name. 
 
 France. 
 
 All the great fiefs had been reunited to the crown. Flushed 
 with power, her sovereign Charles VIII. now, at the invitation 
 of Sforza duke of Milan, put forth his claims to the kingdom 
 49.\ of Naples. At the head of 20,000 French, and 6000 Swiss, 
 he speedily achieved the conquest of it. But the discontent 
 of the Neapolitans, and the league of the pope, the emperor 
 Maximilian, Ferdinand of Aragon and Castile, the Venetians, 
 and the duke of Milan, forced Charles to leave that kingdom. 
 On the banks of the Tanaro, in the Parmesan, the allied forces 
 waited for the enfeebled French army as it emerged from the 
 passes of the Apennines. The French, with a loss of 200 
 men, routed three times their number, leaving 3000 of them 
 on the plain. 
 1498. Louis XII., named the Father of his People, asserted hia 
 claim to Milan and to Naples : he conquered them both, but 
 waa unable to retain them. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1493. Maximilian succeeded his father Frederic in the empire. 
 By marriage with the heiress of Burgundy he got all the pos- 
 sessions of that house ; and on the death of his cousm Sigis- 
 mund archduke of Austria, the Austrian dominions fell to 
 him. The diet of Worms, held during the reign of this 
 emperor, established a perpetual public peace in Germany, 
 by adopting vigorous measures for the suppression of private 
 warfare, and by providing a paramount court of justice — the 
 Imperial Chamber. 
 
 Russia, Poland, Scandinavia. 
 
 After casting off the yoke of the Tatars, the Russian princes 
 exerted themselves to establish trade and communication 
 15(1.5. with Western Europe : Vasilius kept up a good understand- 
 ing with the emperor Maximilian, and granted great privi- 
 leges to the Hanse towns. 
 
 The Poles and Russians now engaged in war with each 
 615. other, and the former lost Smolensko and Pleskov. 
 
 In Scandinavia the contest for the independence of Sweden 
 was prosecuted. The Russian tsar entered into a treaty of 
 partition against Sweden, with Christian II. of Denmark
 
 CHAP. I. VIEW OF THE STATE OF EUROfE 383 
 
 Switzerland and Savoy. 
 
 r/)ui3 XL, when dauphin, had led a body of troops into a. rx 
 Switzerland, where the reception he met with, combined 1444 
 with the great victories of the Swiss over the duke of Bur- 
 gundy, inspired him with such a respect for them, that he all 
 his life courted their alliance. His policy was followed by 
 his successors. The Swiss now began to hire out their 
 troops, and thoy plnyed a conspicuous part in the wars of Italy. 
 An attempt was made by the emperor Maximilian to revive 
 the supremacy of t!ie empire over the Swiss, and brmg them 
 under the jurisdiction of the imjterial chamber; but m the 
 war that ensued their success was decisive, and an honorable J400 
 peace was made with them. 
 
 Savoy had been latterly enfeebled by minorities. Its dukes 
 were rather good than great princes. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Philip, the last of the vile race of the Visconti, dukes of 1447 
 Milan, left only an illegitimate daughter, married to Fran- 
 cesco Sforza, the great condottiere who commanded the 
 troops of the duchy. Sforza made himself duke, and gov- 14.50 
 emed with prudence and justice. His son Galeazzo was mur- 
 dered ; but the widow. Bona of Savoy, maintained the duchy 1478 
 for her son John Galeazzo. Lodovico Moro, brother of the 
 murdered prince, destroyed his nephew by a slow poison, l'19-l 
 Fearing the king of Naples, whose daughter had been mar- 
 ried to John Galeazzo, he excited Charles VIII. of France to 
 assert his claims, derived from the house of Anjou, to Naples, 
 promising him the aid of himself and other Italian powers. 
 But Sforza afterwards joined the league formed against 
 Charles; and Ix)uis XII. advanced his claims to the Milanese, 
 derived from his grandmother Valentina Visconti. He con- l.w 
 quered and held the duchy twelve years. 
 
 The house of Este governed as vassals of the empire, or 
 the church, with ducal title, Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio; 
 the Gonzaga family ruled at Mantua, the Pico at Mirandola, 
 the Maiaspina at Ma.ssa, the Griinaldi at Monaco. 
 
 At .Rome, after some excellent, some indifferent popes, the 
 papal chair was tilled by Alexander VI., of the Spanish house H'.i-j 
 of Borgia, a. monster who might vie in vice with the Ncros 
 and Caligulas of ancient Rome. His only plan of politics 
 was to secure a principality in Ilaly flir his enterprising son, 
 CoBsar Borgia; and neitiier father nor son was deficient 'n 
 the courage and iniquity requisite for tlie attainment of tha* 
 28
 
 884 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PAIIT Til 
 
 object. Alexander was succeeded by the warlike Julius II. 
 who added Bologna to the papal states. 
 
 Venice had acquired the kingdom of Cyprus : she was now 
 at the zenith of her power ; she carried on a lucrative trade 
 with the East, and was highly favored by the Mameluke sul- 
 tans ; she was rich, and her army was the best in Italy. The 
 discovery of the route to India by the Portuguese, and the 
 conquest of Egypt by the Ottomans, gave her prosperity ita 
 death-blow. 
 
 At Florence the wealthy and magnificent family of the 
 Medici had been gradually increasing in influence. Cosimo 
 de' Medici, called the Father of his Country, exerted a com- 
 manding influence in the state. After the death of his son 
 Piero, a conspiracy was formed against his grandsons, and Ju- 
 lian was murdered, but Lorenzo escaped. The latter was 
 afterwards restored to his country, and completed the destruc- 
 tion of its liberties. The independence of Florence, as it 
 was to fall, could not fall by a nobler hand. Lorenzo's patron- 
 A. D. age of literature and the arts is known to every one. His 
 1492. death was regarded as an event fatal to all Italy. 
 
 Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Spain having entered into c 
 treaty^ for the conquest and partition of Naples, Frederic, the 
 king of that country, could not resist such formidable oppo- 
 nents. Naples was speedily conquered. The French army 
 was enfeebled by the climate and disease, and disliked by the 
 people. The wily Ferdinand and his general, Gonsalvo de 
 Cordova, the Great Captain, took advantage of these circum- 
 Btances to drive the French a second time out of that kingdom. 
 
 The League of Cambray. 
 
 '509. Louis Xn., Maximilian, the king of Spain, and pope Julius 
 II. entered at Cambray into a league against the Venetians. 
 The republic opposed to them firmness in her senate, skill 
 and courage in her generals, fidelity in her subjects. Jealousy 
 soon broke out among the confederates, and the emperor, the 
 pope, the king of Spain united with the Swiss and the Vene- 
 tians to drive the French out of Italy. Louis was forced to 
 give way : the victory of the Swiss at Novara was decisive, 
 
 •512. Maximilian, the son of Lodovico Sforza, was restored to the 
 dukedom of Milan. 
 
 Spain and Portugal. 
 
 477. Before the taking of Granada the execrable tribunal of the 
 inquisition had been planned by the minister Mendoza, and by 
 Salez bishop of Cadiz, and in spite of the opposition of the 
 people, the clergy, and even at first of the pope, introduced
 
 CHAP. I. VIEW OF THE STATE OF EUROPE. 385 
 
 intx) Caatile. It was directed against the Jews ; Torquemada, 
 a Dominican, was the first great inquisitor ; and the tribunal, ^ , 
 in its first year, committed 2000 persons to the flames. Great 1481 
 opposition waa made to it in Aragon; but it was introduced 
 there by force of orma Leon, Valencia, and Sicily resisted 
 also, but with na little success. On the reduction of Granada, 
 liberty of conscience had been secured to the Moors ; but a 
 council, presided over by the archbishops of Granada and To- 
 ledo, decided that Ferdinand and Isabel were not bound to 
 keep faith with the infidels, and the Moors were brought 
 within this sanguinary jurisdiction. The erection of this ini- 
 quitous tribunal, and its close alliance with the throne, have 
 been the main cause of the future decline of Spain, and of 
 her being at the present moment the most degraded of na- 
 tions. 
 
 Portugal was still in her golden age xmder Don Manuel, 
 commencing her guilty but brilliant career in Asia, 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Mohammed 11. was succeeded by his son Bayezeed, a prmce 
 of mild, peaceable temper. After a reign of thirty years he 
 was forced to resign his throne to his son Selim, one of the 1512 
 greatest and most cruel of the Ottoman monarchs. Selim 
 commenced his reign by the murder of his brothers and 
 nephews, and the massacre of 40,000 Sheeahs, or dissenters 
 from the orthotlox fiiith, and he engaged in war with and de- 
 feated, at Chaldiran near Tebreez, shah Ismail, the founder 
 of the Sufl&vee dynasty in Persia. By force and negotiation 
 he made himself master of Koordistan and Mesopotamia, As 
 Kansoo Ghawree, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, was the 
 ally of Ismail, war against him was resolved on by Selim. 
 The Mameluke advanced at the head of his army to the fron- 
 tiers of Syria, and on the mead of Dabeek, not far from 
 Aleppo, the hostile sultans engaged. The quantity of the 1516 
 Turkish artillery, and the inactivity of the Jelban (the second 
 order of Egyptian troops), gave an easy victory to Selim. 
 Ghawree, an old man of eighty years, died at a pool in the 
 flight, and all Syria submitted. Peace was offered to and re- 
 jected by the new sultan, Toomawn Beg. Selim crossed the 
 desert, and entered Egypt. The treachery of Ghazalce, one 
 of Toomawn's generals, and the superiority of his artillery, 
 gave Selim another victory at Ridania, near Cairo, which 
 city was taken, after a gallant resistance, and 50,000 of its 
 inhabitants barbarously massacred. Aft«r bravely but vainly 
 fighting for his empire, the "valiant, chivalrous, humane, up- 
 right" Toomawn Beg was taken, and, at the suggestion* rf 
 83
 
 386 msTOET OF the world. part in. 
 
 A. D. the traitors Ghazalee and Khair Beg, hanged at one of the 
 
 ?6)7. gates of Cairo ; and Egypt was reduced to a province. The 
 
 last khalif of the house of Abbas was sent to Constantinople, 
 
 but he died on the way. The Ottoman sultans have ever 
 
 1520. since taken that sacred title. Selim died, after a reign of 
 
 eight years. 
 
 Persia. 
 
 During this period Persia witnessed a not unfrequent oc- 
 currence in the Mohammedan world — the erection of empire 
 on the basis of religion. A family of sheikhs had long dwelt 
 at Erdebil in that country. They passed their lives in the 
 practice of that mystic contemplation called SoofFeeism, and 
 derived their name of Suffavee from Suffee-ed-deen, one of 
 the most distinguished of their ancestors, who died in the be- 
 ginning of the 14th century. At the close of the 15th cen- 
 tury, Jooneid, one of them, began to meddle in politics, and 
 he was driven from Erdebil by Jehan Shah, the descendant 
 of Chingis, and then prince of the Black Wether. He took 
 refiige with Uzun Hassan, the powerful chief of the White 
 Wether, who gave him his sister in marriage. Under pre- 
 text of leading his followers against the infidel Georgians, he 
 ravaged the coimtry of the prince of Shirwan, against whom 
 he fell in battle. His son Haider trod in his steps. He or- 
 ganized his followers, and made them wear for distinction red 
 caps, whence they, and afterwards all the Persians, were 
 called by the Turks, in derision, Kuzzil Bashes (Red-heads). 
 He also attacked the prince of Shirwan and besieged him in 
 his castle of Gulistan ; but he fell in a conflict with the troops 
 of Yacoob, prince of the Black Wether, who came to the re- 
 
 1488. lief of the besieged. His two sons were taken and confined ; 
 the Yacoob's successor gave them liberty. The eldest, re- 
 belling, was slam ; the younger, Ismael, then but seven years 
 old, was saved by the prince of Ghilan. 
 
 In the 15th year of his age, Ismail, at the head of 7000 of 
 his adherents, made war on the prince of Shirwan, defeated 
 him, and fixed his throne at Tebreez, the capital of Aderbi- 
 
 1501. Jan. He next ravaged a part of the dominions of the peace- 
 ful Bayezeed II. The princes of the Black and the White 
 Wether, and the shah of Mazenderan, were all vanquished 
 by him. All the land from the Caspian to the Persian gulf 
 obeyed him : he extended his conquests beyond the Oxus, and 
 defeated the great khan of the Usbega His power was now 
 at its zenith : he engaged in war witn Selim I., under pretext 
 of supporting the claims of Selim's nephews, and avenging 
 the massacre of 40.000 Sheahs, slaughtered by order of the 
 
 1
 
 OHARLBS V
 
 5HAP. U. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 389 
 
 Sultan. T/ie Ottomans entered the Persian dominions : oh 
 the plains of Chaldiran, on the road to Tebreez, the armies of a. d 
 Ismail and Selim, each of 120,000 in number, encountered : 1514. 
 victory declared in favor of the Turkish artillery, and Te- 
 breez w^as taken and plundered. Want of supplies forced 
 Selim to retreat, and Ismael subdued Georgia. He died 
 shortly afterwards, and was succeeded by his son, Tamasp. 1523 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 TIMES OF CHARLES V. 
 
 Accession of Charles V. 
 
 In the commencement of the sixteenth century the largest 
 empire that Europe has seen since the time of Charlemagne, 
 was ruled over by Charles, son of Philip, archduke of Aus- 
 tria, and Joanna, heiress of Ferdinand and kabel of Spain. 
 From his grandmother he inlierited the rich dominions of the 
 house of Burgundy in the Low Countries ; the deatli of Fer- 
 dinand gave him Spain, Naples, Sicily, and the New World. 
 On the death of his grandfather, Maximilian, he got the pos- 1519 
 sessions of the house of Austria, and he and Francis, king of 
 France, becoming candidates for the imperial dignity, the 
 majority of the electors declared for Charlea 
 
 The Turks, under the warlike Selim I., were now the 
 enemy dreaded by Europe ; and the chief question with the 
 electors had been, which of the rival monarchs would be best 
 calculated to defend the empire against them : the circum- 
 stance of Charles's Austrian dominions had turned the beam 
 in his fevor. The only other power of consequence in Europe 
 was England, now governed by the vain, capricious, haughty 
 Henry VIIL, but whose size and situation prevented her 
 having any idea of extensive conquest. Charles, in the views 
 of universal empire which he early conceived, had, therefore, 
 apparently only Francis to impede him ; but his own charac- 
 ter, and the strength and resources of his kingdom, gave the 
 latter such advantages, that only ambition could have blinded 
 the emperor to the plain fact, that France was then, as ever, 
 unconquerable. But there was just at this period a moral 
 power arismg, more effectual to check Uie ambition of fhe 
 emperor than even. the chivalry of France. The great reform- 
 ation of religion had now commenced. 
 33*
 
 890 HI8T0BT or THS WOBLD. PABT m 
 
 The Reformation. 
 
 The eyes of men had been gradually opened to the frauds 
 and corruptions of the Romish church, and the rapacity of the 
 court of Rome had alienated the minds of princes and people. 
 The awakened love of knowledge led men to aspire after 
 freedom of thought, and to feel heavy the yoke which the 
 church of Rome, though never less mtolerant or arbitrary 
 imposed in all matters relating to religious doctrine. Menta 
 emancipation was panted after. A proper occasion and a bold 
 leader were all that were wanting to excite the flames of 
 spiritual rebellion. The occasion was soon presented, and 
 the leader appeared. 
 
 Leo X., of the family of the Medici, now filled the papal 
 chair. Like his family, he was devoted to literature and 
 pleasure, and tasteful and magnificent in his ideas and ac- 
 tions. It is not improbable that, as he is charged, he re- 
 garded the religion of which he was the head as merely a 
 gainful fable ; and as he was now engaged in rearing that 
 splendid temple, the glory of modern Rome, he found it need- 
 ful to put in practice every mode of raising money of which 
 the papal chancery could furnish a precedent The sale of 
 indulgences appearing most likely to bring in a large supply, 
 A. D. they were issued in great quantities, and the disposal of them 
 1518 committed to the most active agents. The Dominicans sold 
 in Germany. The scandalous language and conduct of some 
 of these men aroused the indignation of Dr. Martin Luther, 
 an Augustinian, and professor of theology in the university 
 of Wittenburg, in Saxony. He wrote and preached against 
 indulgences; he was listened to with admiration : opposition 
 excited him ; he had, though not profoundly learned, a strong 
 sense of truth, and a vigorous imagination ; his eloquence vvas 
 popular, his command of his native tongue great ; his soul was 
 full of love to his country and mankind, and his courage in 
 maintaining what he held to be true, invincible. He read, 
 he meditated, he entered into the spirit of the Scripture, and 
 he felt how contrary to it were the practices and the claims 
 of the church of Rome. He fearlessly expressed what he 
 honestly thought ; he was supported by his university and his 
 prince, the elector of Saxony ; he was summoned to Rome ; 
 but, at the request of the elector, cardinal Cajetan was sent 
 to Germany, and Luther appeared and defended his opiniona 
 before the diet at Augsburg. When Charles obtained the 
 empire, he was again summoned, and appeared before the diet 
 »5«l. at Worms. He was dismissed ; and, under the protection of
 
 CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 391 
 
 the elector of Saxony, he Btill contmued to propagate his 
 opinions through the north of Germany, 
 
 In Switzerland, Ulric Zuinglius, a priest at Zurich, had, a d. 
 even earlier than Luther, opposed the sale of indulgences by '^l^ 
 the Franciscans in that country. Not confining themselves 
 to religious abuses, Zuinglius and his friends sought to unite 
 religion with civil polity, and to preserve and exalt the tone 
 of republican virtue and freedom. The opinions of tlie re- 
 formers rapidly spread into France, the Low Countries, and 
 England, already prepared for them by Wickliffe and his dis- 
 ciples. 
 
 Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. 
 
 Francis, count of Angoul^me, on succeeding his father-in- 1513 
 law, the late king Louis XII., was eager to signalize himself 
 in the eyes of the world. He turned his views towards Italy, 
 and resolved to recover Milan. The Swiss guarded the passes 
 of the Alps against him: on hearing of his having entered 
 boldly into Piedmont, they descended, and encountered the 
 arms of France in the plain ; and modern times have wit- 
 nessed few such obstinate conflicts as that which ensued on 
 the field of Marignano, near Milan. The battle lasted two 
 days, and the Swiss did not retire till one-half of their num- 
 ber was slain. All the Milanese now surrendered ; Sforza 
 resigned his claim for a pension, and Francis returned home, 1516 
 leaving Charles duke of Bourbon governor. The emperor 
 Maximilian invaded Italy, but was repulsed, and he then made 
 peace with France and Venice. 
 
 The competition for the empire caused ill-will between 
 Charles and Francis: each sought to gain Henry VIII. and 
 his minister Wolsey. The art of the emperor prevailed over 
 the frankness and generosity of the French king. 
 
 The Spaniards were in rebellion ; Francis seized the op- 
 portunity of recovering for John d'Albret, Navarre, which 
 Ferdinand had unjustly seized. A French army entered and 
 conquered it; but, venturing to advance into Spain, it was 
 defeated, and Navarre recovered. Francis invaded the Low 
 Countries without advantage. A league was now formed, 
 between the pope, Henry VIII., and Charles, against the 
 king of France. The Milanese, disgusted with the insolence 
 and exactions of the French, resolved to expel them, and put 
 themselves u"der Francis Sforza, brother to tlieir late duke. 
 The pope hired Swiss, and formed an army under Prosper 
 Colonna to assist them. The French were defeated ; Lau 
 tree, their commander, fled to Venice, and they loet every 
 thing but Cremona, the castle of Milan, and a few otlier
 
 A. D. 
 
 392 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III, 
 
 places. Joy at this success is said to have terminated the life 
 
 fs^ of Leo X. 
 
 Francis sent money and 10,000 Swiss to Lautrec, who in- 
 vaded the Milanese, but was defeated at Bicocca. Genoa, 
 which was under the protection of France, was taken by Co- 
 lonna, and the French now retained only Cremona. The 
 523. new pope, Adrian VI., the Venetians, the Florentines, and 
 the other Italian powers, joined in the league against Francis, 
 who was now without an ally ; and the emperor and the kinpf 
 of England were preparing to invade France on the south, 
 north, and east. To add to the French king's difficulties, a 
 conspiracy of the constable of Bourbon, who had been most 
 iniquitously deprived of his estates by the malice of the king's 
 mother, was discovered, and the delay occasioned by it pre- 
 vented his heading the army he had assembled. He, how- 
 ever, sent 30,000 men, under admiral Bonnivet, into Italy. 
 Colonna, who commanded in Milan, dying at this time, was 
 succeeded by Lannoy, viceroy of Naples, who was chiefly 
 directed by the duke of Bourbon (who had escaped and en- 
 tered the emperor's service), and the marquis of Pescara. 
 
 ,524. Bonnivet was defeated at the Sesia. In this battle fell the 
 celebrated chevalier Bayard. 
 
 1525. Having been successful against the armies which invaded 
 France, the passion for recovering the Milanese seized the 
 French monarch. He marched at the head of a large army 
 into Italy ; every place submitted : he sat down before Pavia, 
 a town well garrisoned, and commanded by Leyva, one of the 
 ablest Spanish officers. It was winter: every exertion was 
 made by the imperial generals to collect an army ; fatigue 
 and the rigor of the season reduced that of the French, 
 weakened by a large part of it having been sent against Na- 
 ples. The imperial army approached ; prudence counselled 
 retreat; romantic honor determined the king to stay. The 
 imperialists attacked the French in their intrenchments ; the 
 garrison made a sally ; the Swiss deserted their post ; tlie 
 rout became general ; and Francis, after beholding the flower 
 of his nobility perish by his side, was forced to surrender 
 himself a prisoner. (Feb. 2). 
 
 In a few weeks not a Frenchman was to be seen in Italy. 
 Francis was rigorously confined : hard terms were proposed 
 to him, but indignantly rejected. When taken, he had writ- 
 ten to his mother the regent, " All is lost but our honor ;" 
 and she exerted herself with vigor to put the kingdom into a 
 posture of defence. Henry VIII., now alive to the danger of 
 Charles acquiring a preponderating power, listened to her 
 proposals of an alliance, to which ne was stimulated bv WqU
 
 Death of Bayard.
 
 WloUiffe.
 
 CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 395 
 
 8ey, whom Charles had hitherto cajoled by a promise of the 
 papacy, but who had now learned how little reliance was to 
 be placed on the word of that monarch. 
 
 Francis, at his own desire, had been removed to Madrid. 
 It was long before he could get a sight of the emperor ; but 
 when he threatened to resign in favor of the dauphin, and 
 had fallen into ill health, Charles, who found that if he died 
 he should lose all the advantages he proposed to derive from 
 his captivity, and who also dreaded a confederacy against 
 him, lowered his demands ; and a treaty was signed at Madrid, j^. t 
 by which Francis agreed to surrender Burgundy, and to give 152fi 
 his two sons as hostages till it was performed. The exchange 
 was made on the frontiers, and Francis set at liberty. The 
 states of Burgundy being assembled, protested against this 
 surrender of their provmce; the pope, Clement VII., absolved 
 the king from the oath taken at Madrid ; and he and tlie 
 kings of France and England, the Swiss, Venetians, Floren- 
 tines, and Milanese, entered into an alliance, called the Holy 
 League, to oblige the emperor to give up the sons of Francis 
 for a reasonable ransom, and to reinstate Sforza in the duchy 
 of Milan. 
 
 The confederates took the field in Italy ; but, Francis ne- 
 glecting to send sufficient reinforcements, Bourbon overran 
 the Milanese ; and his troops beginning to mutiny for want 
 of pay, he led them to Rome. In the assault on that city 
 (May 6), Bourbon himself was slain ; but Rome was taken, 
 and experienced from the troops of the pious Charles such 
 calamities as had never been inflicted by any of her barbarian 1527 
 conquerors in former times. The pope himself was besieged 
 in the castle of St. Angelo, and forced to surrender. He was 
 put into close confinement till he should pay an enormous 
 ransom. The hypocritical Charles put his court into mourn- 
 ing, and ordered prayers to be oflfered up for his release, which 
 he might have accomplished by a single line. Henry and 
 Francis were preparing to invade the Low Countries. On 
 hearing of the pope's captivity, they changed the scene of 
 war : Henry supplied money, and Francis sent an army into 
 Italy under Lautrec. The pope was set at liberty ; but Lau- 
 trec dying, and Doria, the Genoese admiral, persuading his 
 countr3rmen to revolt, the aflTairs of the allies declined, and 
 the French army was ruined before Naples. 
 
 Suleiman, the great Turkish sultan, had now overrun Hun- 
 gary, and threatened the Austrian dominions ; the reforma- 
 tion was making great progress in Germany ; Charles wa«, 
 Iherefbre, as well inclined to peace as his adversaries. Mar- 1629 
 garet of Austria, aunt of the emperor, and Loui«a, mother
 
 396 HISTORY OF THE WOELB. PART IIL 
 
 of Francis, met at Cambray, and settled the terms of peace 
 between them. Francis agreed to pay 2,000,000 crowns as 
 a ransom for his sons, to give up all claims on Italy, and to 
 resign the sovereignty of Flanders and Artois : Charles aban- 
 doned all claim to Burgundy. 
 
 The Italian states were not satisfied at being abandoned to 
 the emperor ; but the dread of the Turks made him act with 
 some generosity. He pardoned Sforza, and restored to him 
 the duchy of Milan ; but the Florentines were reduced under 
 the dominion of the house of MedicL 
 
 Affairs of Germany. 
 
 While Charles was engaged in the Italian wars, the opm- 
 ions of the reformers had spread rapidly in Germany. While 
 at enmity with the pope, the emperor was not very anxious 
 to discourage them; but now, apprehending danger from 
 them to the imperial authority, he resolved to take measures 
 A. D. for their suppression. A diet was, therefore, convoked at 
 
 1529. Spire, V hich confirmed the edict of that of Worms against 
 Luther, and forbade any fartlier innovation in religion. Ajjainst 
 this decree, the elector of Saxony, the landgraf of Hesse, 
 the duke of Liineburg, the prince of Anhalt, and the deputies 
 of fourteen cities, protested ; and hence they, and the reform- 
 ed in general, were called Protestants. 
 
 1530. Charles returned to Germany, and assisted at a diet at 
 Augsburg ; at which the confession of faith of the Protestants 
 was read and defended by Melancthon and others. A decree 
 was issued against them, and coercive measures resolved on. 
 The Protestant princes met at Smalcalde, and entered into a 
 league for mutual defence, and a secret alliance with the 
 kings of France and England. The Turks were now men- 
 acing Hungary, and Charles saw that this was no time for 
 violent measures. A treaty was, therefore, concluded, in 
 which he granted the Protestants liberty of conscience till 
 the meeting of a general council, and they engaged to assist 
 him against the Turks. 
 
 1532. Suleiman entered Hungary at the head of 200,000 men. 
 Charles took the command of 80,000 foot and 20,000 horse, 
 besides a vast body of irregulars, near Vienna. The sultan 
 retired ; and Charles returned to Spain, and engaged in a 
 successful expedition against Tunis. While he was absent, 
 the sect of the Anabaptists seized on the city of Miinster, and 
 
 »35 defended it for some time courageously against the troope (rf 
 the bishop.
 
 CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 397 
 
 Renewed War with France. 
 
 While Charles was in Africa, Francis revived his claim on 
 Italy. The king of England, engaged about his divorce from 
 Catherine of Aragon, declined having to do with the affairs 
 of the continent ; and the league of Smalcalde, indignant at 
 the cruelties inflicted on some Protestants in Paris, refused 
 to unite with Francis. The latter resolved, even without 
 allies, to venture on war, under pretence of chastising the 
 duke of Milan for the murder of his ambassador. He ap- 
 proached Italy ; but instead of entering the Milanese, he 
 seized a great part of the dominions of the duke of Savoy, 
 who appealed in vain to Charles, whose exchequer was now 
 completely empty. Meantime Sforza died without issue, and 
 the rights, which had only been surrendered to him and his 
 heirs, returned to Francis. Instead, however, of entering at 
 once on the duchy, he wasted his time in negotiation, while 
 Charles took possession of it as a vacant fief of the empire, 
 though still pretending to own the equity of the claims of 
 the French monarch. 
 
 The emperor having now procured sufficient supplies of * o 
 money, resolved on attempting the conquest of France. Hav- ^^^ 
 ing driven the French out of Savoy, he invaded the southern 
 provinces at the head of 50,000 men. Two other armies were 
 ordered to enter Picardy and Champagne. The system adopted 
 by Francis was defensive. From the Alps and Dauphine to 
 Marseilles and the sea, tlie country was laid waste ; strong 
 garrisons placed in Aries and Marseilles ; one French army 
 strongly encamped near Avignon, another at Valence. After 
 fruitlessly investing Aries and Marseilles, and spending two 
 months in Provence, Charles retreated with the loss of one- 
 half of his troops by disease and famine. An attempt by 
 Francis on the Low Countries, was followed by a truce at 
 Nice, under the mediation of the pope, Paul III. ^^ 
 
 The emperor suppressed an insurrection which had broken 
 out in the city of Ghent; but he was forced to make conces- 
 sions to the Protestants in Germany, to gain their assistance 
 against Suleiman, who had seized a part of Hungary. But 
 the favorite object of Charles was the conquest of Algiers ; 
 and in the end of autumn he, contrary to the advice of Doria 
 his admiral, landed in Africa with a large army; but tem- 
 pests scattered his fleet and destroyed his soldiers, and he was 
 *brced to re-embark, with the loss of the greater part of his 1511 
 men. 
 
 The war between the rival monarchs broke out anew. The i^9 
 emperor was sup|)ortc(! by the king of England and the Pro- 
 34
 
 398 HISTORY OP THJB WORLD. PART IIL 
 
 testant princes, to whom he had made farther concessions. 
 Francis was allied with the kings of Denmark and Sweden, 
 and he renewed the treaty he had formerly made with Sulei- 
 A. D. man. During two years, France, Spain, Italy, and the Low 
 1544. Countries were the scenes of war ; but the only battle of con- 
 sequence was that of Cerisoles, gained by the French, in 
 which 10,000 Imperialists fell. A peace was concluded at 
 Crespi. The chief articles were, that tlie emperor should 
 give one of his own or his brother Ferdinand's daughters to 
 the duke of Orleans, second son of Francis, and with her the 
 duchy of Milan, and renounce all claim to Burgundy ; Fran- 
 cis doing the same to Naples, Artois, and Flanders ; and that 
 they should unite against the Turks. 
 
 Affairs of Germany. 
 
 Charles was chiefly led to make the peace of Crespi by his 
 desire to humble the Protestant princes, and extend his power 
 in the empire. He therefore made also a dislionorable truce 
 with Suleiman, and entered into an alliance with the pope, 
 A general council had been assembled at Trent ; but the Pro- 
 testants, seeing the composition of it, refused to submit to its 
 decrees. Charles, as his schemes were not fully ripe, sought 
 still to cajole them ; but they saw through his views, and had 
 recourse to arms. Unable to resist them, he negotiated till 
 he had collected an army; but he still declined a battle. Mean- 
 time Maurice, marquis of Misnia and Thuringia, a Protestant 
 prince, who had not joined the confederates, secretly agreea 
 to assist the emperor, on condition of getting the dignities 
 and territory of his relative the elector of Saxony. He there- 
 fore entered and overran the electorate. The elector returned 
 with his troops to defend his dominions; the city of Ulm sub- 
 mitted ; its example was followed by others, and the whole 
 confederacy fell to pieces, leaving the elector of Saxony and 
 1647. the landgraf of Hesse at the mercy of the emperor. 
 
 The pope, meantime, seeing the ultimate and real designs 
 of the emperor, withdrew his troops, and Francis negotiated 
 an alliance with him, Suleiman, England, and Venice, and 
 encouraged and assisted with money the elector and the land- 
 graf A conspiracy, headed by Fiesco, broke out at Genoa, 
 and every thing seemed to combine to throw Charles into 
 perplexity, when the death of Francis, and the suppression 
 of Fiasco's conspiracy, encouraged him to proceed with vigor 
 in Germany. The elector was defeated and taken prisoner 
 at Mulhausen, and obliged to resign the electoral dignity; 
 the landgraf of Hesse, who was father-in-law to Maurice, 
 submitted, on the elector of Brandenburg and Maurice be-
 
 Qoeen Mary I. of England.
 
 Chailes 1. of i;u;^l<ii!il.
 
 CTIAP. n. TIMES OP CHARLES V. 401 
 
 coming securities for his personal freedom; but Charles, in 
 contempt of them, made him a close prisoner. All the mem- 
 bers of the Smalcaldic league were treated with the greatest 
 rigor. 
 
 Charles now thought he might proceed without opposition 
 in enslaving the German nation. As the council had been a. d 
 removed from Trent to Bologna, emd he could not now ex- 1548 
 pect to influence it as he desired, he protested against it, and 
 had a system of doctrine drawn up and presented to the diet 
 at Augsburg, to be conformed to tUl a proper council could 
 be called. This system, called the Interim, sought to steer 
 between the two parties, leaning, however, greatly to the 
 church of Rome. It gave great offence at Rome, and could 
 not be fully carried into effect in Germany. Shortly after- 
 wards, Charles made a stretch of power even beyond estab- 
 lishing the Interim. When pressed to set the landgraf of 
 Hesse at liberty, he, by a public deed, annulled the bond 
 which his securities had entered into with him. This began 
 to open the eyes of the German princes, and they now mani- 
 fested a spirit of resistance. His brother Ferdinand had been 
 made king of the Romans by his influence ; but, anxious to 
 transmit the empire to his son Philip, he tried to make the 
 electors recall their choice, or at least place Philip next in 
 succession to his uncle; but the opposition made was so 
 strong, that he was obliged to abandon his design. 
 
 The Lutheran princes were now fully aware of the de- 
 signs of the emperor, and Maurice saw that it was necessary 
 to set bounds to them. Equal to Charles himself in dissimu- 
 lation, he secretly made preparations against him, without 
 losing his confidence. He contrived to get himself appointed 
 general of the imperial army, sent to force the people of Mag- 
 deburg to submit to the Interim, and after that object was 
 effected, he, under various pretences, still kept that army in 
 his pay. Charles, meanwhile, was residing at Inspruck, en- 
 tirely occupied with the council, which had been brought 
 back to Trent Neither he nor Granville, his subtle prime 
 minister, had any suspicion of the designs of Maurice, who 
 had now formed a treaty with Henry II. of France. 
 
 Having completed his preparations, he sent an embassy to 
 demand the liberty of the landgraf It was refused. An army 
 of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse being assembled, Maurice 
 threw off the mask, and assigned his reasons for taking drms; 
 namely, to secure the Protestant religion ; to maintain the 
 German constitution ; to deliver the landgraf of Hesse from 
 prioon. The king of France added a manifesto, in which be 
 
 84*
 
 402 msTOBT oy the world. part hi 
 
 Btyled himself Protector of the lAberties of Germany and 
 its captive Princes. 
 
 The French troops having' overrun Lorraine, Maurice 
 traversed rapidly Upper Germany : the emperor negotiated. 
 Maurice advanced with all the speed he could make ; and 
 was so near surprising the emperor, that he was obliged to fly 
 into the Alps in a litter, in the midst of a dark rainy night 
 The council of Trent broke up, and did not reassemble. A 
 conference was held at Passau : the terms proposed in the 
 name of the princes of the empire were rejected by the em 
 peror. Maurice laid siege to Frankfort on the Main, and the 
 haughty spirit of Charles was forced to bend. The treaty of 
 
 ^ D. Passau overthrew the fabric he had so long been raising, and 
 
 •552. placed the Protestant religion of Germany on a secure basis. 
 His usual good fortune was now deserting Charles; he 
 raised a large army, entered Lorraine, and laid siege to 
 Metz ; but was forced to abandon it with the loss of 30,000 
 men : he lost the footing he had established in Tuscany : the 
 coast of Naples was ravaged by the Turkish fleet. In the 
 following year he had some success in the Low Countries ; 
 but the Austrians were unfortunate in Hungary. Germany 
 was now so tranquil, that a diet assembled at Augsburg, and 
 
 1555. by what is called the Recess of Augsburg established reli- 
 gious peace in Germany, to the satisfaction of all parties. 
 
 »556. To the surprise of all Europe, Charles abdicated his throne ; 
 and, resigning his dominions to his son Philip, retired to spend 
 the evening of his life in the monastery of St. Just in Spain. 
 Having made a vain attempt to induce his brother Ferdinand 
 to resign the dignity of king of the Romans, he left all hia 
 other dominions to Philip, now married to Mary queen of 
 England, and formed for him a truce with France for fiv<» 
 years. Ferdinand was chosen emperor by the electors. 
 
 England. 
 
 During the reign of Charles V., England was governed by 
 Henry VIIL, Edward VI., and Mary. Henry broke with the 
 633. court of Rome, and seized on the monastic estates : he ex- 
 ercised over his people the most arbitrary power that Europe, 
 perhaps, has ever witnessed. Not merely his will, but Jiis 
 caprice, was law ; he dictated in religion, and murdered un- 
 der form of justice. In his foreign wars he made small and 
 
 iri3. useless acquisitions at vast expense. The victory of Flodden 
 Field, gained in the early part of his reign over the Scots, 
 whose king, James IV., fell in the field, was the greatest 
 
 I' Vt achieved in this period by the English arms. Under Edward 
 VL the Protestant religion was much favored ; but his sister
 
 Mf AP. n TIMES OF CHARLES V. 403 
 
 A. D 
 
 Mary, a bigot, and wife of the dark, malignant Philip, exer- 
 cised such cruelties against the professors of the reformed 1553 
 faith, as have affixed in the minds of posterity eternal odium 
 to her name. In her reign Calais, which England had held 
 since the reign of Edward HI., waa surprised and taken by 1557 
 the duke of Guise. 
 
 Spain and Portugal, 
 
 The commons of Spain made a stand in favor of their 
 ereditary liberties, and they rose in arms against the des- 
 potism of the emperor, under the command of tlie brave Pa 
 dilla ; but the nobles not joining them, as, if they had known 
 their true interest, they should have done, the commons were 
 crushed, and the liberties of Spain have been ever since in 
 abeyance. 
 
 By the talents, the valor, and the barbarous cruelty of Cor- 
 tes and Pizarro, the empires of Mexico and Peru were at 
 this time subjected to Spain. 
 
 Don John III., a wretched bigot, with whom dates the de- 
 cline of Portugal, introduced the inquisition and the new so- 
 ciety of tlie Jesuits into that country. Priestly and regal 
 authority conspired to oppress and degrade the nation. 
 
 The Portuguese power was, meantime, under the valor 
 and the ability of the great Albuquerque, Almeida, Castro, 
 and others, extended from the gulf of Persia to the isles of 
 Japan. At no period have greater actions been achieved : un- 
 happily, they were disgraced by a spirit of savage cruelty 
 and unprincipled rapacity. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 In the holy see the polished Leo X. was succeeded by the 
 honest, well-meaning Adrian VI. It then passed to the timid, 
 uncertain Clement VII., a Medici : next to the designing 
 Paul III., only concerned to aggrandize the Farnesi, his own 
 family : then to the lavish and tasteful Julius III. ; and, finally, 
 to Paul IV., an aged monk, who fancied himself possessed of 
 the power of a Gregory or an Innocent, and that the 16th 
 century might be treated like the 13th. 
 
 In Florence, Piero, son of Lorenzo de' Medici, had given 
 up Pisa and Leghorn to the French, when Charles VIII. in- 1494 
 vaded Italy. He was in consequence forced to leave the city ; 
 his palaces were plundered, and a price set on the head of 
 Jie MedicL The old republican tumults ensued. Julian and 
 John, the brothers of Piero, now dead, were restored by ihe 15ia 
 Spanish arms at the desire of pope Julius II. ; and John suc- 
 ceeding that pope under the name of Leo X., his inhuence
 
 '^^ HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART 111 
 
 A.D. Strengthened his brother, and, after the death of Julian, his 
 1516. nephew Lorenzo, son of Piero. Lorenzo, equal to any of his 
 Jamily m the qualities that distinguished them, had meditated 
 the extension of his power from sea to sea; but his early 
 death, m his 27th year, cut short all his great projects. He 
 of France celebrated Catherine, afterwards queen 
 
 Julius the natural son of the brother of Lorenzo, who was 
 murdered by the Patzi, took the government. A conspimcy 
 was formed against his power; but he was supported by the 
 emperor. He became pope as Clement VIL ; and Alexander 
 his own or Lorenzo II.'s natural son, governed Florence. He 
 was obliged to fly when the pope was besieged by the army 
 of Bourbon ; but when Clement made peace with the e7 
 
 f^^'^' J^ ^^!^ ^'^ "''^"'^^ daughter Margaret in marriage 
 to Alexander, and engaged to restore him to the wealth and 
 power of his family. Florence resisted ; and after the peace 
 fiIrnlT.T^ ™?^"^' ^/™,^ besieged it for ten months, and 
 St aV^^^^' ^"^ the emperor declared Alexande, 
 hereditary duke of Florence. The rule of this protege of the 
 pope and the emperor was, as was to be expected, tyrannical 
 
 1537. ^d oppressive. His death was owing to his vices. ' His coush 
 Lorenzmo de' Medici, who had been the ready agent of his 
 lust, resolved to destroy him. Under pretext of putting him 
 m possession of the person of a lady whose beauty had in- 
 flamed him he decoyed him to his house, where he secretly 
 murdered him Lorenzino fled to Venice: the better-disposed 
 citizens wished to re-establish the republic, but the Medici 
 
 * ffi'/r'tJ /r^^f to declare duke Cosimo, descended 
 ^rll ^'?^^'f^^^ fi'-st Cosimo. A subtle, cruel, and un- 
 
 I..7 Et ^yf'^"^ Cosimo oppressed the people, and banished 
 
 1557 those to whom he owed his power. He was himself but the 
 
 «nd1n f^fiol P"'"- S°'™,? ^^^'^ ^^^""^ t° his dominions, 
 and in 1569 the pope, Pius V., conferred on him the title of 
 lireat duke of Tuscany. 
 
 Genoa had, on account of her internal dissensions, put her- 
 !fLr ti, ^ protection of France, and her nobles had 
 served m the army of Francis L She did not by this expe- 
 dient escape the turbulence of the Adorni and Fregosi, whose 
 feuds ran as high as ever. Andrew Doria determined to be 
 the limoleon of his country. He formed a league with 
 
 i^ I X" ^"^^'f^ *h^ P"'"' «f Genoa, proclaimed an am- 
 nasty, broke up the parties, and new-modelled the ffovem- 
 ment, excluding only the Adorni and Fregosi from office. 
 Horn sought neither power nor reward for himself; he nevei
 
 nyder All.
 
 CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 407 
 
 bore the office of doge. He died, honored and lamented, in ^ ^ 
 his 94th year. 15G0. 
 
 Venice remained the most independent state in Italy, and 
 was always on good terms with Charles V., by whose terri- 
 tories she was now nearly surrounded. The popes had brought 
 Bologna, Ravenna, and Ancona fully under their power. 
 Parma and Piacenza were, with the consent of Charles V., 
 given by Paul III. to his son Piero Farnese, and on his death 
 to Ottavio Farnese, married to a natural daughter of the em- 1547 
 peror. Ottavio was succeeded by Alexander, the celebrated 
 general of Philip 11. 
 
 Italy was now tranquil ; all her states either belonged to or 
 were in amity and alliance with Spain. She had no disturb- 
 ances to dread ; her ancient spirit declined ; she sank into 
 luxury, occupied in the enjoyment of her arts and natural 
 advantagfes. 
 
 Denmark and Sweden. 
 
 These countries do not yet enter on the great theatre of 
 Europe. Christian II. had proved victorious, by the employ- 
 ment of treachery and force, in the struggle for Swedish in- 
 dependence. He was crowned at Stockholm, and he and his 
 confederate, the archbishop of Upsala, by an almost unparal- 
 leled piece of perfidy, publicly executed ninety-four of the 
 Swedish nobles. But Gustavus Vasa, the son of one of those 
 who were murdered, escaped from the prison in which he 
 was confined, roused the miners of Dalecarlia to take arms 
 for their country, and was successful in his first attempts ; 
 gradually all the people rose against the tyrant, Gustavus 
 was elected king of Sweden, and he governed with wisdom 1523 
 and good policy. Gustavus established the Lutheran religion 
 in Sweden, over which he reigned 37 years. 15C)0 
 
 Christian II. was for his tyranny deposed, and the crown 
 given to his uncle Frederic duke of Holstein, who entered 
 into an alliance with Gustavus and the Hanse towns against 1533 
 the deposed tyrant Frederic's son. Christian III., was one 
 of the best princes of the age. He also established the Lu- 
 theran religion m his dominions. He died a year before Gus- 1559 
 tayua 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Suleiman L, called by the Christians the Great and the 1520 
 Magnificent, by his own subjects the Lawgiver (Kanooni), 
 the greatest of the Ottoman monarchs, succeeded his father 
 Selim. In the first year of his reign a war broke out with 
 Hungary, in which Belgrade and other fortresses were taken 15W
 
 408 HISTORT OF THE WORLD. PART m. 
 
 by the Ottomans. The following year the island of Rhodes 
 waa conquered, after a most gallant defence made by the 
 knights of St John. In the second Hungarian campaign of 
 Suleiman he took Peterwaradin, and the Hungarian king, 
 
 1526! Ladislaus, lost the battle and his life on the plam of Mohaca, 
 and Ofen, the capital of Hungary, opened her gates. In a 
 
 )529. third Hungarian campaign Ofen was taken by storm, Vienna 
 was besieged ; but Suleiman was forced to retire from before 
 
 *532. its walls. Suleiman again invaded Hungary at the head of 
 
 200,000 men ; but he was unable to overcome the resistance 
 
 534. of the town of Giins. A war with Persia, in which Tebreez 
 
 waa again taken, and which gave Bagdad to Suleiman, next 
 
 followed. 
 
 Khair-ed-deen Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, con- 
 
 1535. quered Tunis for Suleiman ; but it was retaken, and restored 
 to Muley Hassan, by the emperor Charles V. Suleiman next 
 conquered the isles of the Archipelago, and he fitted out a 
 
 1547. fleet in the Red Sea, to oppose the Portuguese in India. Two 
 more campaigns against Hungary followed, and peace was at 
 length concluded with Ferdinand and the emperor ; but war 
 soon broke out again. A large fleet and army were sent 
 against Malta, which the emperor had given to the knights 
 
 15*^ of St. John ; but the valor of the knights forced them to retire 
 with disgrace. Suleiman, the greatest of the Ottoman sul- 
 tans, headed his armies in thirteen campaigns, and gave the 
 • empire its greatest extent, at which it continued for more 
 than a century ere it began to decrease. Genius and learn- 
 ing were encouraged by this munificent prince, whose reign 
 was the Augustan age of Turkey; but the deaths of no less 
 than ten princes of the blood, most of them his sons and 
 grandchildren, fix an indelible stain on his memory. 
 
 CHAP. m. 
 
 TUIKS OF PHILIP II. 
 
 State of Europe at Philip's Accession. 
 
 No monarch ever ascended a throne with fairer prospecti 
 than Philip 11. ; none ever had himself more thoroughly to 
 blame for the extinction of his brightest hopes. His father 
 had left him Spain, humbled under absolute power, but not 
 yet degraded by it, Milan, Naples, and Sicily, the Nether 
 tuids, Mexico, and Peru, now in the vigor of their gold and 
 •ilver harvest; he waa married to the queen of England ; hia 
 uncle waa emperor of Germany king of Bohemia and Hon-
 
 CHAP. in. TIMES OP PHILIP II. 409 
 
 gary, and possessor of the Austrian dominions. Genoa and 
 the Catholic cantons of Switzerland were allied with Spain ; 
 Venice feared her ; the pope was obliged to support a prince 
 wlio proclaimed himself the defender of the faith. His 
 nephew, Sebastian king of Portugal, was a child. France, 
 after the death of Henry II., had fallen into weakness and 
 confusion. Suleiman had been succeeded by Selim, a weak 
 unenterprising prince. Finally, the Spanish armies were 
 still the first m Europe, and were commanded by the duke 
 of Savoy, Don John of Austria, and the prince of Parma, three 
 of the greatest generals of the eige. 
 
 Philip's own character, thoughtful, reserved, patient, inde- 
 fatigable, might seem well calculated to make the most of all 
 these advantages; but it was the very defect of his character 
 that lost him them all. A gloomy superstition pervaded 
 every region of his mind, and tinged every thouglit Religion, 
 witli him, was the one thing needful ; but his religion consist- 
 ed in external observances, and in the belief of the absurdest 
 doctrines of popery. Steadfastness in this religion justified 
 every crime ; nothing was to stand in the way of his plan of 
 reducing the Christian world under the one faith and the one 
 master. And all was sacrificed to this chimera. 
 
 The first operations of Philip's reign were fortunate. The 
 pope insisted on Henry II. not adhering to the truce of Vau- 
 celles ; the war was renewed, and Philip's able general, Phil- 
 ibert duke of Savoy, gained the battle of St. Quintin. The 
 Spanish arms were everywhere successfijl, and the pope and 
 Henry were glad to treat of peace ; a measure grateful to 
 PhUip, who was anxious to return to Spain, and who had all 
 along had his doubts of the lawfulness of bearing arms against 
 the pope. Mary of England was at this time dead, and her 
 sister Elizabeth had ascended the throne. Philip and Henry 
 were suitors for the favor of the young queen ; the former 
 sought her hand. All parties were anxious for peace. A a. ». 
 treaty was, therefore, easily entered into at Chateau Cam- 15i** 
 bresis ; and as almost all the states of Europe were included 
 in it as principals or allies, a general peace and repose was 
 produced by it. 
 
 Charles V. had died the year before ; Mary of England was 
 dead ; Henry II. was killed at a tournament shortly after the 
 peace ; the restless Paul IV. survived him but a few weeks. 
 A new set of actors enter on the scene. 
 
 France. 
 
 Henry 11. was succeeded by his eldest son, Francis FT., the 
 husband of Mary the young queen of Scotland. Protestant- 
 
 85
 
 410 mSTORT OP THE WORLD. PAET IH 
 
 ism had made considerable progress in France. The king of 
 Navarre, the prince of Conde, the admiral Coligni, his brother 
 Andelot, and several other persons of the highest rank, were 
 attached to the reformed faith. 
 
 The powerful family of Guise, princes of Lorraine, uncles 
 to the young queen, supported the old religion. Francis was 
 persuaded by them to revive the laws against heresy. The 
 
 A. D. Protestants (in France called Huguenots) saw their danger 
 
 1560. and resolved to anticipate it. A conspiracy was formed to 
 seize the king. It was detected, and the accomplices pun- 
 ished. But an assembly of the states was held, and the penal 
 laws suspended. The Guises, however, resolved to proceed, 
 and tlie king of Navarre and his brother the prince of Conde 
 were seizea and imprisoned. The sudden death of Francis 
 checked their career. His young brother, Charles IX., came 
 to the throne, and the queen-mother was appointed guardian. 
 As " divide and govern'' was the maxim of Catherine, she 
 gave high office and power to the Protestant leaders, as a 
 counterpoise to the influence of the Guises. 
 
 1562. The policy of the queen did not produce the desired eflfect. 
 Animosity ran high between the two parties. The attend- 
 ants of the duke of Guise insulted some Protestants at their 
 worship, and sixty of the latter were slain. The Protestants 
 all over France took arms ; fourteen armies were levied in 
 different parts of the kingdom. The conflict was carried on 
 with the most extreme virulence. Several of the principal 
 cities of France, as Orleans, Rouen, Bourges, Lyons, Tours, 
 were in the hands of the Huguenots. Philip of Spain 
 sent 6000 men to aid the Catholics. Conde, the head of the 
 Protestants, addressed himself to Elizabeth queen of England, 
 and an army was levied in Germany by Andelot and led to 
 Orleans. The king of Navarre and Montmorency had joined 
 the Guise party : the former was killed at the siege of Rouen ; 
 the latter commanded at the battle of Dreux, the first fought 
 between the parties. 
 
 1563 The duke of Guise laid siege to Orleans. While engaged 
 in it, he was assassinated by a Protestant gentleman named 
 Poltrot. His death was an irreparable loss to his party, and 
 they now willingly came to an accommodation with the 
 Protestants. 
 
 But the peace was intended only to lull the Protestants. 
 Catherine, though utterly devoid of principle, had a hatred 
 of the reformed faith, and a zeal for the ancient one. A meet- 
 ing was concerted at Bayonne between Charles and his sister, 
 the queen of Spain. Catherine accompanied her son ; the 
 duke of Alva attended his mistress. Festivities and gaieties
 
 __._^^^^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 NOBLES AND CALVINIST.
 
 Ooiignl
 
 CHAP. III. TIMES or PHILIP IL 413 
 
 of every kind occupied each day. All apparently respired 
 joy and peace : but the tempest was secretly brewed in the 
 summer sky. A Holy League was formed between the 
 courts of France and Spain : the glory of God was to be pro- a. d 
 moted, heresy in the dominions of both extirpated. 1566 
 
 The Protestants of PVance soon learned what had been 
 concerted. They flew to arms ; a battle was fought at St. 
 Denis, in which they were worsted. They laid siege to 156a 
 Chartres, and forced the court to agree to a peace. This 
 peace was of short duration : the queen-mother laid a scheme 
 for seizing Conde and Coligni ; they fled to Rochelle ; the 
 war was renewed. The duke of Anjou commanded the 
 Catholics, and gained the famous battle of Jarnac, in which 
 the prince of Conde was taken and murdered. Coligni hav- 1&69 
 ing placed at the head of the Protestants the young king of 
 Navarre and the young prince of Conde, made every effort to 
 animate his party, and at length laid siege to Poitiers. The 
 young duke of Guise threw himself into that town, and de- 
 fended it with such valor and skill, that Coligni was forced 
 to raise the siege. Secretly aided by Elizabeth, he collected 
 a considerable force; hut at the battle of Moncontour he was 
 woimded and defeated with the loss of nearly 10,000 men. 
 The court deemed the adverse party now completely crushed, 
 when, to their amazement, Coligni advanced wMth a large 
 army, and prepared to lay siege to Paris, and the king was 
 forced to make another treaty and peace with the Protestants. 
 
 The treachery long meditated against the Protestants was 
 now ripe. Charles assumed the appearance of the utmost 
 liberality of sentiment: a marriage was proposed between 
 his sister Margaret and the young king of Navarre. All the 
 great leaders of the Protestants went to Paris to the celebra- 
 tion of it. They were received with smiles and caresses by 
 the king and the queen-mother ; all was festivity till the eve 
 of St Bartholomew (Aug. 24) arrived, when, by the secret 1575 
 orders of the king, a bloody and indiscriminate massacre of 
 the Protestants commenced. No rank or age was spared; 
 5(X) gentlemen, including Coligni, and 10,000 inferior per- 
 8t)ns, perished in Paris alone, and a like carnage took place 
 in all the great towns of the kingdom whither similar orders 
 had been sent. It is computed that 60,000 persons were 
 massacred. 
 
 The Protestants throughout Europe were filled with horror 
 and consternation. At Rome and Spain the account was re- 
 ceived with ecstasy, and public thanks returned to heaven 
 But Charles did not dare to avow his real motives ; he pre- 
 tended that a conspiracy of the Protestants had been detected, 
 85*
 
 414 HISTORY OF TUB WORLD. PART 111 
 
 and thuB prevented. Instead of losing courage, these now 
 only respired vengeance. They took valiantly to their arms : 
 the town of Sancerre stood a memorable siege. Rochelle held 
 out eight months against the whole power of France ; and 
 ^ D. the duke of Anjou, after losing 24,000 men before it, was 
 1673 compelled to grant the citizens an advantageous peace. 
 
 This was the fourth peace ; but the Protestants could put 
 no trust in the perfidious monarch. They rejoiced at his 
 574 death, which soon afterwards occurred. He was succeeded 
 by his brother, the duke of Anjou, Henry III., w^ho had been 
 elected king of Poland. Henry, by the advice of his mother, 
 sought to play the parties against each other, and thereby 
 
 1576. increase the royal authority. He gave most advantageous 
 terms to the Protestants, now headed by his brotlier, the duke 
 of Anjou, and the young king of Navarre. The Catholic party, 
 directed by the duke of Guise, were disgusted by this mea- 
 
 1577. sure : they formed their celebrated League ; and the king, 
 to weaken it, declared himself the head of it. The war was 
 renewed ; but soon terminated by a new peace. The League 
 looked up to Philip, the Huguenots to Elizabeth : the king, 
 sunk in pleasure and in odious vices, was despised and dis- 
 trusted by both parties. The duke of Anjou was a restless 
 ambitious prince : his death seemed to relieve the king from 
 difficulties ; but it only plunged him into greater. The king 
 of Navarre was now the next heir ; the League was revived ; 
 the cardinal of Bourbon set up as a rival to the king of Na- 
 varre ; and the king forced to declare war against the Hugue- 
 nots. Great valor and talent were displayed by the king of 
 
 687. Navarre. At Coutras he gained a complete victory over the 
 royal army ; but the power of the League was still an over- 
 match for the Huguenots. The king was driven from Paris, 
 and threatened with degradation from his throne : his spirit 
 was roused, and he caused the duke and the cardinal of Guise 
 to be assassinated. The doctors of the Sorbonne declared 
 the people released from their allegiance ; and the duke cf 
 Mayenne, brother to the duke of Guise, was chosen Lieuten- 
 
 1589. ant-general of the State royal and Crown of France. The 
 king entered into an alliance with the king of Navarre, and 
 both sovereigns advanced tr Paris at the head of their armies. 
 James Clement, a Dominican monk, here assassinated the 
 king, with whom ended the line of Valois. The holy deed 
 was, as usual, applauded throughout the Catholic world ; and 
 Sixtus V. compared it with the Incarnation and the Resur- 
 rection. 
 
 The royal army abandoned the king of Navarre, now 
 Henry IV., and the League proclaimed tJie cardinal of Bour
 
 CHAP. III. TIMES OP PHILIP II. 415 
 
 bon, under the name of Charles X. Henry retired to Nor- 
 mandy, followed by the troops of the League, under the duke 
 of Mayenne. Tiie queen of England sent him troops and 
 money. His forces were inferior in number, but superior in a d 
 valor, to those of the duke; and at Ivry he gained a com- l&St) 
 plete victory over him and his Spanish auxiliaries. Henry 
 eoon afterwards invested Paris; the duke of Parma hastened 
 from the Low Countries to its relief; the siege was raised ; 
 oat the duke declined the proffered battle. Some fresh at- 
 teuipts on Paris were baffled ; the duke of Parma left. 80()0 
 men with the League ; the pope ordered all the Catholics to 
 abandon Henry, and sent money and troops to the duke of 
 Savoy, who had made himself master of Provence; the young 
 hike of Guise made his escape from Tours. Elizabeth, on 
 the other hand, again sent troops and money; Henry laid siege 
 to Rouen ; but the prince of Parma forced him to raise it, and 
 again retreated without fighting. Lesdiguieres chased the 
 duke of Savoy out of Provence ; and victories were gained 
 by Turenne, and other generals of Henry. 
 
 At length all parties grew weary of the war; the duke 159j 
 of Mayenne was disgusted by the faction of the Sixteen in 
 Paris, who were entirely in the Spanish interest; Henry 
 was pressed by the Catholics of his party to declare himself 
 on the article of religion, a thing he had hitherto avoided 
 doing; the king of Spain, too, pressed the duke of Mayenne 
 to call a meeting of the states, hoping to gain the crown for 
 his own daughter Isabella. The states met ; Philip's ambas- 
 sador exerted himself in vain to get a declaration in favor of 
 the infanta; the parliament of Paris declared that the Salic 
 law could not be set aside. 
 
 Meanwhile Henry, though successful in arms, saw that he 
 never could obtain the kingdom by force; and, with the con- 
 foui of his wisest friends, he embraced the Cathohc religion. 
 This measure was not at first productive of all the advan- 
 tages that might have been expected: both parties were dis- 
 trustful ; but gradually town after town and noble after noble 
 submitted to their king. He led an army into Burgundy, ex- 
 pelled the Spaniards, and obliged the duke of Mayenne to 
 week an acconunodation ; he received the pope's absolution ; 
 ihe duke of Guise, now his friend, surprised Marseilles; the 
 duke of Mayenne submitted, and continued ever after warmly 
 iittached to his person and government; but the arclidiike 
 Albert surprised Calais; the Spanish governor of Doiirlons 
 took Amiens; and the French finances were in so dilapidated 
 a state, that Henry could not raise an army. The prudence 
 and ability of the great Sully enabled him at last to i.ike Uie
 
 416 HISTOBY OF THE "WOELD. fART 111 
 
 A.D. fieldattheheadof awell-appointodarmyof more than 20,000 
 
 1597 men ; and, in spite of the oJBEorts of Albert, Amiens was forced 
 to surrender. 
 
 The duke of Mercoeur was still in arms in Britany. Henry 
 marched against him ; but the duke offering his only daugh- 
 ter and a large dower to king Henry's natural son, the pro- 
 posal was accepted, and the duke submitted. All France 
 now cheerfully obeyed its lawful monarch. To dissipate tlie 
 apprehensions of the Huguenots, iienry summoned the head 
 of them to Nantes, and gave the celebrated edict named from 
 
 .598 that town, which secured them the exercise of their religion, 
 and declared them eligible to all places of trust, profit, ana 
 honor. Peace was now absolutely necessary to France, so 
 long torn by civil dissensions ; and Henry concluded at Ver- 
 vins a treaty with the Spanish king. 
 
 During the remaining years of his reign, Henry, aided by 
 his wise and virtuous friend and minister Sully, was indefati- 
 gable in restoring France to order, tranquillity, and power. 
 He was still, however, harassed by the intrigres of the 
 Spanish cabinet ; and at length he took the occ&sion of the 
 disputed succession of the duchies of Cleves and Juliers to 
 undertake his long-meditated plan of humbling the house ot 
 Austria; but in the midst of his preparations he perished by 
 
 1610 the dagger of the assassin Ravaillac. Henry was justly 
 styled the Great : he possessed all kingly virtues ; the blem- 
 ish of his character was his passion for women. After the 
 death of Margaret of Valois, he married Mary of Medici, 
 daughter of Francis duke of Tuscany. 
 
 The Netherlands. 
 
 The Netherlands had grown wealthy by trade. A freedom 
 of municipal government, and consequently of opinion, pre- 
 vailed in their cities, and the reformed doctrines easily ob- 
 tained a footing tliere. Charles V. had sought in vain to 
 suppress them. Philip disliked the people, and he detested 
 the new opinions; he insulted and offended the counts of 
 Egmont and Horn, and the prince of Orange. They became 
 the leaders of the oppressed people. Philip determined to 
 crush the nation ; and the relentless duke of Alva was sent 
 with a large army as governor to the Netherlands. Egmont 
 and Horn, who had been the chief agents in composing the 
 ferment of the Fleming8,were notwithstanding brought to the 
 block by Alva. Nothing was to be heard but cries of despair, 
 to be seen but torture and death. 
 
 "William of Nassau, prince of Orange, led an army out of 
 Germany, and offered battle in vain to Alva. The Spaniards
 
 HENRY IV. PLAYING WITH HIS CHILDREN.
 
 Henry I V. of France.
 
 rHAP. IIL TIMES OF PHILIP II. 419 
 
 held all the fortified towns, and the prince was forced to dis- 
 band his troops. Alva's tjrranny knew no bounds ; the people 
 dared not to oppose. The queen of England, though favor- 
 able to the Flemings, was, at the desire of the king of Spain, 
 obliged to exclude their privateers from her ports. The 
 Gueux (^Beggars), as their crews were called, seized on the ^ ^ 
 port of the Brille in Holland. Alva sent a force against 1572 
 them ; the people of the neighborhood rose and defeated it, 
 and put themselves under the prince of Orange, by whose 
 exertions the province of Holland, and shortly after that of 
 Zealand, cast off the Spanish yoke. The prince took Mech- 
 lin, Oudenard, and Dendermond ; the gallant defence of 
 Haarlem convinced Alva of the inutility of strong measurea 
 He tried in vain to induce the people of Holland to submit to 
 the clemency of Philip ; but they, who knew what the tender 
 mercies of Alva and his master were, set them at defiance. 
 The duke laid siege to Alcmaar; he was repulsed : he fitted 
 out a large fleet; it was defeated by the Zealanders: he 1563 
 prayed to be recalled, and left the Low Countries, boasting 
 that in five years he had delivered 18,000 persons to the exe- 
 cutioner. 
 
 Alva was succeeded by Ilequesons, commander of Castile, 
 a man of mild disposition ; but the war still raged with al- 
 ternate success. Leyden was invested by the Spaniards; 157 i 
 the citizens endured every extreme of famine and distress; 
 the Dutch opened the dikes ; a violent wind drove the waters 
 against the Spanish works; and the commander Valdez was, 
 after losing the flower of his army, forced to raise the siege. 
 Conferences were now held, but to no purpose, at Breda, un- 157.=) 
 der the mediation of the emperor. The war was renewed : 
 the Spaniards proved too powerful for the two provinces; 
 they had entered Zealand, and were meditating the conquest 
 of Holland, when, in their despair, the Dutch offered the 
 sovereignty of their country to the queen of England. That 
 prudent princess declined it, but mediated for them in vain 
 with Philip. The war raged as fiercely as ever. 
 
 Meanwhile Requesens died ; and tlie Spanish garrison 1570 
 committed such atrocities at Antwerp, that all the provinces, 
 except Luxemburg, entered into the Pacification of Ghent, 
 whose object was the expulsion of foreign troops, and the 
 restoration of the ancient liberties of the states. Don Jchn 
 of Austria, the succeeding governor, seeing the inutility of 
 resistance, agreed to confirm the pacification, and peace waj 
 »t length restored. 
 
 The ambition of Don John violated the peace, and war 
 broke out anew. As he had meditated marrying the queen
 
 420 mSTORT OF THE WORLD. PART III 
 
 ^ j^ of Scots, and claiming the crown of England, Elizabeth no 
 1578. longer hesitated to assist the malcontents with men and 
 money. The count palatine of the Rhine also collected an 
 army to aid them. But discord arose among the Netherland- 
 ers. Jealous of the prince of Orange, the duke d'Arschot 
 and other Catholic nobles privately invited Mathias, brother 
 to the emperor Rodolf II., to take the government. Mathiaa 
 suddenly appeared ; the prince of Orange prudently joined 
 him ; Don John was deposed, and Mathias made the prince 
 his lieutenant, to the great mortification of d'Arschot. 
 
 Don John, being jomed by the prince of Parma and 18,000 
 veterans, attacked and defeated the army of the states at 
 Gemblours. Dissension continued between the two parties. 
 Mathias was despised ; the prince of Orange suspected by 
 both on account of his moderation. By the influence of the 
 Catholic party, the duke of Anjou was declared Defender of 
 the Liberties of the Netherlands. Don John dying shortly 
 afterwards, the command of the Spanish forces passed to the 
 prince of Parma, one of the first generals and statesmen of 
 the age. 
 
 The prince of Orange saw the necessity of a closer union 
 1579 among the Protestant states. Deputies met at Utrecht (Jan. 
 15), from Hollar.!, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, 
 Overyssel, and Guelderland, and signed the famous union of 
 the Seven United Provinces. The king of Spain sought in 
 vain to detach the prince of Orange from the union ; he was 
 resolved to stand or fall with his country. The prince of 
 Parma made a treaty with the people of the southern states; 
 the Catholics in general favored him, and he took several 
 towns : the states, however, continued resolute ; they again 
 oflTered the sovereignty to Elizabeth, and on her refusing it, 
 t£8a conferred it on the duke of Anjou. 
 
 The duke of Anjou forced the Spaniards to raise the siege 
 of Cambray ; but when he went to England on the bootless 
 project of marrying EKzabeth, the prince of Parma gained 
 great advantages in the Netherlands. When he returned, 
 he made a rash and violent attempt on the liberties of the 
 states, and was obliged to retire to France, where he shortly 
 afterwards died. JNlathias had retired to Germany, and the 
 conflict was now between the two great princes of Orange 
 and Parma. 
 
 Philip had set a reward on the head of the prince of Or- 
 ange, and the dagger of an assassin, Balthazar Gerard, de- 
 585 prived the states of their able and patriotic leader. Their 
 gratitude made them appoint his son Maurice, a youth of 
 eighteen years, their Stadtholder, and captain-general by sea
 
 .'.TIAP. III. TIMES or PHILIP II 421 
 
 and land ; their rage stimulated them to renewed exertion. 
 The prince of Parma had reduced Ghent and Brussels; he 
 now invested Antwerp : the citizens opened their sluices and 
 broke down their dikes ; the prince cut a canal to carry off 
 the waters ; he erected a fortified bridge across the Scheld, 
 to prevent the town being relieved by sea. The Hollanders, 
 expecting that the fall of Antwerp would benefit their town 
 of Amsterdam, obstructed every measure for its relief. The 
 city was forced to surrender. It declined, and Amsterdam 
 flourished. 
 
 The loss of Antwerp was a great blow to the states. Eliza- 
 beth saw now the necessity of aiding them effectually. The 
 earl of Leicester was sent to Holland with 5000 foot and 1000 
 horse. The states made him their governor ; but his inso- 
 lence and incapacity obliged his mistress to recall him. Prince 
 Maurice was made governor, and lord Willoughby was ap- 
 pointed to command the English forces. The prince of Parma 
 was now obliged, more than once, to lead his army into France 
 in aid of the League, and he was occupied in preparing for 
 the invasion of England ; so that the war was not prosecuted a. d. 
 with very great vigor. His death, as he was once more pre- 1^92 
 paring to enter France, delivered Maurice from a powerful 
 opponent 
 
 He was succeeded in the chief command by count Mans- 
 feld, an able and experienced officer. The scale of the states 
 now preponderated ; prince Maurice took Breda before the 159* 
 eyes of the Spanish commander, and then Gertruydenburg 
 and Groningen. At Turnhout, prince Maurice and Sir Fran- 1597 
 cis Vere gained a complete victory over the Spaniards. The 
 states refused now to be included in the peace of Vervins. 
 Philip IL died. He had seen how fruitless was the contest, 1598 
 and, as a decent mode of ending it, he had transferred to his 
 daughter Isabella, contracted to the archduke Albert, the 
 sovereignty of the Low Countries. Albert wrote letters to 
 the United Provinces, entreating them to submit to their 
 natural princes, who would govern them with justice and 
 lenity. They returned no answer. An edict was issued, pre- 
 cluding them from all intercourse with the Spanish Nether- 
 'ands, Spain, and Portugal. Philip II. had wisely never med- 
 dled witli their trade. The Dutch sent a fleet to cruise 
 against the Spaniards, and they turned their views towards 
 the East Indies, and soon possessed the far greater part of the 
 lucrative trade which the Portuguese had enjoyed. 
 
 The war in tlie IjOw Countries was continued with spirit 
 Each side was strongly reinforced ; towns were taken on both 
 ■ides* the two armies came to a general engagement ai 
 86
 
 422 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART m. 
 
 A. D. Nieuport near Ostend, and after a well-sustained contest the 
 
 li.;;o. Spanish veterans gave way. But the troops of prince Mau- 
 rice were so exhausted by fatigue, that he was unable to un 
 dertake any thing before Albert had collected a superior army. 
 
 1601. Overtures of peace were made to and rejected by the states. 
 Maurice took Rhinburg ; Albert laid siege to Ostend, which 
 was vigorously defended by Sir Francis Vere, and he was 
 
 iG02. forced to turn the siege into a blockade. The states changea 
 the garrison, putting in fresh troops ; the besiegers were re- 
 inforced by 8000 Italians, under the marquis Spinola. who 
 took the command, and by his skill reduced the town *o ruins. 
 
 1604. An honorable capitulation was granted by him to the gar- 
 rison. 
 
 This siege cost the archduke 70,000 men, and Maurice had 
 meantime made acquisitions equal to Ostend. It was resolved 
 to prosecute the war with vigor; Spinola was made com- 
 mander-in-chief: he had during two years considerable suc- 
 cess ; but his troops mutinied for want of pay, and he gave 
 it as his opinion that the subjugation of the United Provinces 
 was impracticable. The pride of Spain was reduced to treat 
 
 1607 with the Dutch as an independent nation. A suspension of 
 arms was agreed to, and finally, tliough opposed by the Or 
 ange party, a truce for ten years was made at the Hague, un 
 
 i609. der the mediation of France and England. 
 
 Thus, aft;er a severe contest of thirty-seven years, inde- 
 pendence was assured to the United Provinces. During the 
 conflict they had increased in wealth, had made extensive 
 acquisitions in the East, and established a navy equal to any 
 at the time. 
 
 England. 
 
 559. The throne of England was at this eventful period filled 
 by Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. and sister of the two 
 preceding sovereigns ; a princess whose many great qualities 
 have, in despite of some defects and weaknesses, and one 
 crime (as we must call it), obtained her the applause of suc- 
 ceeding ages. On her succession, the Protestant religion was 
 lastingly established in England. PhDip of Spain, despair- 
 mg of obtaining her hand, was now become her implacable 
 foe ; and as the Catholics denied the legality of her mother's 
 marriage, they consequently denied her right to the throne, 
 and they asserted the priority of the claims of Mary queen 
 of Scots, descended from the daughter of Henry VII. This 
 last ill-fated princess, by this claim, and by her imprudence 
 and her superior beauty, excited the envy and jealousy of 
 Elizabeth ; her Catholic bigotry alarmed the fears of the Pro-
 
 ^^^lai"' '
 
 CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 425 
 
 Instants ; her crimes alienated from her many who pitied her 
 misfortunes. Yet, guilty as was Mary and as was Elizabeth, 
 ^heir times, their situations, and other circumstances, will 
 offer many an excuse for each ; and pity will often take the 
 place of blame in the mind of the attentive examiner of their 
 fiistory, especially of tliat of the unfortunate queen of Scots, 
 who, brought up amid the milder manners of the court of 
 France, was ill-fitted to contend with the turbulence and bar- 
 barism of her native realm ; and who, imprisoned by her own 
 subjects, and thence flying into England to seek the protec- 
 tion of a sister-queen and relative, found another prison, and, 
 after a confinement of nineteen years, an unjust and igno- 
 minious death. 
 
 Philip had long been making preparations for the invasion a. d 
 of England : 50,000 men were assembled under the prince 1^^ 
 of Parma in the Low Countries for that purpose ; ships were 
 built in all the ports of his dominions. The Invincible Fleet, 1588 
 as it was proudly called, sailed at length from the port of 
 Lisbon ; but tlie courage and skill of the English mariners 
 defeated it; the winds of heaven dispersed and ehattered it; 
 and but a small portion revisited Spain. " / sent myjlcet to 
 combat the English, not the elements. God be praised, the 
 calamity is not greater,'^ expressed the real or affected resig- 
 nation of Philip: " Afflavit Deus, et dissipantnr iiiimici" 
 the real or affected piety of Elizabeth, who had evinced, in 
 the season qf danger, a spirit worthy of the greatest of her 
 predecessors. 
 
 With Elizabeth ended the house of Tudor, a race of bom 
 despots. Henry VII. was subtle and oppressive ; Henry VIIL 
 barbarous and capricious; Edward VI. died before he could 
 show his disposition ; Mary was an odious and cruel fanatic; 
 Elizabeth was insincere and arbitrary, but prudent and judi 
 cious. She loved her subjects ; but on the same principle as 
 her contemporary Shah Abbas loved his, — because they were 
 hers, and she knew that their prosperity was her power ; but 
 woe to any of them who dared oppose her will or her caprice ! 
 Yet like every truly great mind, she could yield to circum- 
 stances, and bend before the storm which it were folly to 
 resist 
 
 During the reign of Elizabeth, the rebellions of Desmond 
 ind O'Neal in Ireland were crushed ; a colony, called Vir- 
 ginia, was planted in the New World; Sir Francis Drake 
 sailed round the globe ; an intercourse was opened with the 
 great empire of Russia. Trade and commerce were en- 
 couraged by this great princess ; literature was he.d in honor 
 anu flourished. 
 36*
 
 426 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART iXI 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 A. D. Don John III. left his dominions to his son Don Sebastian 
 
 1555. a boy under age. Don Henry, grand-uncle to the young 
 prince, was in holy orders and a cardinal : the Jesuits man- 
 aged to have the young king committed to tlieir care, and 
 they used all their influence to extend the power of the 
 church, and of their own order. Don Alessio Meneses in 
 vain tried to withdraw the king from them ; in vain his grand- 
 mother, the sister of Charles V., wished to have the young 
 monarch married. She was threatened and insulted by the 
 holy fathers, who sought to dissipate his mind by frequent 
 journeys; and when the people began to murmur, excited 
 him to an expedition to Africa. 
 
 A Sheriff, i. e. a descendant of the prophet, had seized on 
 the throne of the Merinide emir of Morocco, and founded the 
 
 1519 dynasty which still reigns in that country. His successor, 
 Mohammed Sheriff, conquered Fez. In the reign of Sebas- 
 tian the throne was occupied by Abdallah Sheriff. Sebastian, 
 in the ardor of youth, and encouraged by the Jesuits, was 
 preparing to sail for India, and have himself crowned emperor 
 of the East, when a brother of the Sheriff, expelled from Mo- 
 rocco, came to seek his protection. The "invasion of Africa 
 was resolved on. The old queen, who foresaw and vainly 
 endeavored to avert its disastrous consequences, died, it is 
 said, of grief. Full of enthusiasm, but ignorant of war, the 
 young king passed over to Africa at the head of 20,000 men. 
 The aged Sheriff met him at Alcazar-quivir with a superior 
 army. Exhausted by age and disease, Abdallah expired in 
 the midst of the conflict ; but a complete victory crowned the 
 
 1578. African arms. Sebastian disappeared, most probably slain; 
 but his subjects long continued to believe him living, and to 
 look for his return. 
 
 Cardinal Henry mounted the throne of Portugal. On his 
 death the succession was disputed. The only male issue left 
 by the four sons of Don Manuel was Antonio, prior of Prato, 
 the natural son of Antonio duke of Beja. Don Edward had 
 left two daughters, one married to the great prince of Parma ; 
 but as she was thus become a foreigner, she was excluded by 
 the Constitutions of Lamego : the other was married to the 
 duke of Braganza, and he had by law a right to the crown. 
 Philip II. was son to a daughter of Don Manuel ; but as she 
 had become a foreigner by her marriage, she could transmit 
 no claim. Philip, however, set up a claim. As he was by far 
 the most powerful of the condidates, he very easily made it 
 good : the prior of Prato alone resisted. The state of the con-
 
 CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 427 
 
 tinent prevented any princes supporting the just claims of 
 the duke of Braganza ; and he himself was a quiet, easy man, 
 satisfied with obtaining honors and dignitiea Philip was ^ p 
 crowned at Lisbon. 158: 
 
 Thus, 867 years after the fall of the Gothic kingdom, the 
 whole peninsula was reunited under one head ; happy if that 
 head had not been Philip II.! 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Charles V. was succeeded in the imperial dignity by his 
 orother Ferdinand, king of the Romans. This excellent 
 prince directed all his efforts to the establishment of civil 
 and religious concord in the empire. By the diet of Ratisbon, 1577 
 a reconciliation was made between the houses of Hesse and 
 Nassau. The council of Trent was reassembled : but the 
 Protestant princes met and came to the determination of ad- 1561. 
 hering to the Confession of Augsburg whatever the council 
 might decree. All the well-meant efforts of the emperor 
 were in vain; the council, bent only on the now hopeless 
 project of exalting the power of the church, would listen to 
 none of his prudent suggestions. Afler passing a set of de- 
 crees, which effectually closed the doors against unity, this 1563 
 last of general councils was dissolved. 
 
 Maximilian II. had been chosen king of the Romans in the 1564 
 lifetime of his father. Immediately on his accession he was 
 engaged in war with Suleiman I., who even meditated the 
 conquest of the German empire. Selim II. concluded a truce 
 with the emperor. During the remainder of the reign of this 
 mild and excellent prince, Germany enjoyed peace and tran- 
 quillity. His son and successor, Rodolf II., inherited his pacific 1576i, 
 temper. 
 
 Poland. 
 
 At this period the Polish constitution underwent a great 1571 
 alteration. On the death of the estimable Sigismund Au- 
 gustus, the last male of the Jagellons, the diet, consisting of 
 182 deputies, met, and determined that no king should have 
 the power of nominating his successor. The election of a 
 king was thus regulated : — On the plain of Vola, near War- 
 saw, the senate and the people assembled. The former was 
 composed of two archbishops, fifteen bishops, thirty-seven voi- 
 vodes (dukes), eighty-two castellans (senators and lieutenants 
 of the voivodcs), and ten ministers of state. The senate met 
 m a wooden house ; the deputies and the other nobles around 
 it, within a wall and ditch. The king assembled and pre- 
 sided over this diet, wherein all matters relating to internal
 
 428 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART nt 
 
 and external policy were transacted. The powers of the 
 monarch were extremely limited; but he appointed to ecclesi- 
 astical dignities, conferred nobility, commanded the army, and 
 his assent was necessary to give validity to tlie acts of the 
 diet 
 
 The Protestant religion having made great progress in 
 Poland, the greater part of the senate were of that persua- 
 sion; the most perfect toleration prevailed; all dissidents, aa 
 the non-catholics were styled, were eligible to all offices. 
 The Arians and Socinians were numerous in Poland; the 
 latter, when persecuted everywhere else, found an asylum 
 there. Racau was their chief establishment. 
 
 A- D. On the death of Sigismund, a Protestant named Szafraniec 
 
 1573. ^j^g proposed as his successor ; but the choice fell upon Henry 
 of Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to Charles IX. Henry suc- 
 ceeding to his brother in France, unceremoniously quitted 
 
 1575 Poland, and the Poles chose Stephen Bathori, prince of Tran- 
 sylvania, a wise and brave monarch. They insisted on his 
 marrying Anna Jagellon, daughter of Sigismund, to prevent 
 any prince whom she might espouse claiming the crown. 
 Stephen was by her induced to embrace the Catholic religion. 
 
 1587 His successor was Sigismund Vasa, crown-prince of Sweden, 
 descended on the mother's side from the Jagellons. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 '459 The haughty Caraffa (Paul IV.) was followed in the papal 
 chair by the pious and zealous Pius IV. and V., and the good 
 and well-intentioned Gregory XIII. The able, the vigorous, 
 the resolute Montalto (Sixtus V.) next occupied the seat of 
 St Peter. This penetrating statesman saw clearly through 
 the selfish policy of Philip II., whom he secretly wished no 
 success ; and he, in his heart, admired the king of France 
 and queen of England, against whom he discharged his spir- 
 itual thunder. He established a rigorous police in the papal 
 territories, and curbed the excesses of the lawless nobles. 
 His strong measures against the great were followed up by 
 his successor Aldobrandini (Clement VIII.) 
 
 In Florence, Cosimo, the first grand duke, fortunate in 
 other respects, was unhappy in his family. His daughter 
 Lucretia was poisoned by her husband, a duke of Ferrara ; 
 her sister Isabella was strangled by a prince of the Orsini, to 
 whom she was married. The cardinal John of Medici wa.s 
 murdered by his brother Garcia, on account of a dispute at 
 the chase, and Cosimo put his son Garcia to death with hia 
 own hand. Their mother died of grief. His eldest daughter
 
 j^^^^55^S 
 
 Qnaen Ellsaoeth.
 
 CHAP. IIL TIMES OF PHILIP II. 431 
 
 was, on account of improper love, poisoned by order of the 
 grand duke. 
 
 Francis, the second grand duke, also perisheo by poison, a. d 
 A Florentine, named Buonaventuri, scttlea at Venice, had 1576 
 run away with Bianca, the daughter of the senator Capello. 
 They came to Florence, where they lived in poverty. The 
 {fraud duke saw Bianca, admired, and got acquainted with 
 her. Buonaventuri acquired wealth and honors. He loved 
 a widow, and he employed his power to oppress her brothers', 
 the grand duke reproving him, he replied with insolence and 
 threats ; he was abandoned to the vengeance of those whom 
 he had injured, and he was murdered. Just at this time the 
 grand duchess, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand, died. 
 Francis married his beloved Bianca, Soon after, she took a 
 hatred to her brother-in-law, the cardinal Ferdinand, and at- 
 tempted to poison him at dinner. The cardinal, put perhaps 
 on his guard, declined the proffered viands ; — the grand duke, 
 not aware of the truth, ate of the dish to remove his suspi- 
 cions : — Bianca saw she was lost : — she also tasted of the dish, IbV 
 and died with her husband. 
 
 The cardinal now became grand duke. He was a prince 
 of great political prudence and sagacity, and his maxims were 
 adopted by some leading courts. But he gave the reins with- 
 out restraint to every sensual indulgence, and his example 
 was followed by his subjects. Manufactures languished, mo- 
 nopoly and companies checked trade ; but Florence was one 
 of the handsomest, richest, and politest cities in Europe. 
 
 The dukes of Savoy were proceeding with their character- 1559 
 istic activity. Emanuel Philibert, secured in his dominions 
 by the treaty of Chateau Cambresis, turned all his thoughts 1564 
 to depressing the nobles and increasing the ducal authority. 
 He established a militia, built the citadel of Turm, and forti- 
 fied Mommelian and Vercclle; he created the manufacture 
 of silk and the culture of olives ; he greatly increased the 
 revenues by his wise measures, and was enabled to let the 
 assembly of the states go out of use. His son Charles Emanuel 1584 
 had all the talents of a great prince, and could accommodate 
 himself to all circumstances. His fault was neglect of his 
 word when it interfered with his interest. By e.xchange he 
 obtained Saluzzo, and prepared the way for the acquisition 
 of a part of Montferrat by his son. His reign was long and 1590 
 successful. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Sclim II., on succeeding his father Suleiman, concluded a 1566. 
 truce for twelve years with the emperor Maximilian. He
 
 432 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IIL 
 
 turned his arms without success, against Persia, and then 
 revived an old claim of the Egyptian sultans on Cyprus. 
 
 4. D After an heroic resistance, the island was conquered by the. 
 
 57J Turks, with the loss of 100,000 lives. A league had beer 
 formed against Selim by the pope, the king of Spain, and the 
 Venetians. Their fleet was too late to relieve Cyprus ; bui 
 they encountered in the gulf of Lepanto the Turkish fleet 
 which ravaged the coasts of Italy and Dalmatia, and gained 
 over it a most signal victory. Don John of Austria command 
 ed the Christians ; but dissension prevented any solid advan 
 tage being derived from it. Next year the Turks appeare* 
 with a still greater fleet, and the Venetians made a separat* 
 peace, by which they renounced all claim to Cyprus. Doi 
 John had meantime conquered Tunis and Biserta; but thej 
 were again recovered by the Turks. 
 
 During the reigns of the three following sultans, who wero 
 sunk in pleasure, the Turks made no acquisitions of conse- 
 quence. Under Mohammed III., the grand vizier managed 
 to draw to himself all power, by abolishing the places of tlie 
 six viziers who sat in the divan. 
 
 CHAP. IV 
 
 TIMES OF THE THIRTY 'y%ik/S' WAR. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1612 The archduke Mathias succeeded Rodolf in the empire. 
 Phis prince had been hitherto favorable to the Protestants, 
 but he now resolved to curb them. He had his cousin Ferdi- 
 nand duke of Styria chosen iiis successor in Bohemia and 
 Hungary, and he made a family compact with the .:ourt of 
 Spain. The Protestants were alarmed ; the Bohemians and 
 Hungarians had recourse to arms: the latter were easily 
 quelled ; but the former were joined by the Protestants of 
 Silesia, Moravia, and Upper Austria, and supported by an 
 army of other German Protestants under count Mansfield. 
 Thus began the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 1619 Mathias died, and Ferdinand was raised to the imperial 
 throne. The Bohemians deposed him, and offered tlieir crown 
 to Frederic V., elector palatine, who, contrary to the advice 
 of his father-in-law, James I. of England, accepted the fata) 
 gift. He was supported by all the Protestant princes of the 
 empire except the elector of Saxony, and by Bethlem Gabor 
 voivode of Transylvania, by a body of 8000 Dutch troops, and
 
 CHAP. IV TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 433 
 
 by 2400 English volunteers. Ferdinand was aided by the 
 king of Spain, by the archduke Albert, governor of the 
 Netherlands, and the Catholic princes of the empire. Spinola 
 led 24,000 men from the Low Countries, and ravaged the 
 palatinate ; Frederic was defeated at Prague by the duke of x. d. 
 Bavaria and general Baquoy. He and his adherents were 1620- 
 put to the ban of the empire ; Bethlem Gabor was defeated 
 in Hungary; count Tilly completed the conquest of the pala- 
 tinate ; Frederic was degraded, and his dignity of elector 
 conferred on the duke of Bavaria. 
 
 A league was formed, at the head of which was Christian 1625 
 IV. of Denmark, for the restoration of the palatine. But the 
 troops of the league were unable to stand before the imperial- 
 ists led by Tilly and Wallenstein, and Christian was forced 
 to sue for peace. Ferdinand now thought the time was come 
 for reducing the princes and prelates of the empire to the 
 condition of those of other countries. He resolved to begin 
 with the Protestants; and he passed an edict ordering thera 1629. 
 to restore all the church lands, &.c. that they had enjoyed 
 since tlie peace of Passau. The Protestants remonstrated ; a 
 diet was held at Ratisbon ; the majority of the Catholic 
 princes were for quieting them ; the spiritual electors second- 
 ed the views of the emperor. The Protestants, to escape the 
 meditated robbery, formed a secret alliance with Gustavus 
 Adolphus, king of Sweden. 
 
 Gustavus was a prince of the highest military and civil 
 talents : he was animated by a rational zeal for the Protest- 
 ant religion, and he saw through the emperor's project of 
 extending his dominion over the Baltic. Various other rea- 
 sons combined to induce him to engage in war. The cardinal 
 Richelieu, now minister in France, desirous to check the 
 power of the house of Austria, engaged to give him an an- 
 nual subsidy of 1,200,000 livres. Charles I. of England al- 
 lowed 6000 men to be raised in the name of the marquis of 
 Hamilton, to aid the king of Sweden, and numerous English 
 and Scottish volunteers crowded to his standard. 
 
 Gustavus entered Pomerania. The Protestant princes 
 were at first fearful of joining him ; but his well-timed decis- 
 ion towards the elector of Brandenburg ended their hesitation. 
 Being joined by the Saxons, he advanced txjwards Leipzig, 
 where Tilly lay, who advanced into the plain of Buitenfeld 
 to meet him. The numbers on each side were about 30,000 ; 
 but Tilly's troops were all veterans. The Saxons, being raw 
 troops, fled at the first onset: the skill of Gustavus and the 
 valor of the Swedes gained a complete victory. ISSL 
 
 The king of Sweden quickly made himself master of th»
 
 A. D. 
 
 434 msTOKY or the world. part irt 
 
 whole country from tlie Elbe to the Rhine, The elector of 
 Saxony entered Bohemia, and took Prague. Tilly, in dis- 
 
 1632. puting the passage of the Lech with the Swedes, was killed 
 Gustavus took Augsburg, marched into Bavaria, and entered 
 Munich. Wallenstein had meantime recovered Prague. The 
 king of Sweden offered him battle near Niirnburg; Wallen- 
 stein declined it : a furious attack was for ten hours made on 
 his entrenchments, and the Swedes were repulsed with great 
 loss. Soon after, hearmg that Wallenstein had transferred 
 his camp to Liitzen, Gustavus, though it was the depth of 
 winter, and the imperial forces greatly exceeded his in num- 
 ber, resolved to seek and engage him. The battle which en- 
 sued is one of the hardest fought recorded in history. It 
 lasted from day-break till night: the king of Sweden fell 
 in the midst of the conflict. Night alone prevented the vic- 
 tory of the Swedes being complete. 
 
 The death of Gustavus cast a gloom over the Protestants ; 
 they fell into factions : the Catholics were elated. But the 
 Swedish regency (as Gustavus had left only one child, Chris- 
 tina, of seven years) committed the management of the war 
 to the chancellor Oxenstiern, a man of great ability, who, 
 with the duke of Saxe-Weimar and generals Banier and 
 Horn, prosecuted it with vigor. An event now occurred 
 seemingly calculated to advance the Protestant cause. The 
 emperor, whether justly or not is doubtful, suspecting the 
 fidelity of Wallenstein, and fearing to deprive him of his 
 command, had him secretly assassinated. But the loss of his 
 genius was supplied by a large accession of Spanish and other 
 troops, and by the junction of the dukes of Lorrain and Ba- 
 
 1634. varia. The imperial troops were commanded by the king of 
 Hungary ; the duke of Saxe-Weimar and general Horn came 
 up with them near Nordlingen, and a bloody battle ended in 
 the total defeat of the Swedes. 
 
 The German princes now deserted the Swedes, and made 
 
 1635 at Prague a treaty with the emperor, in which he receded 
 from his former demands of the restitution of church property. 
 The weight of the war now fell on the Swedes and French. 
 France entered into an alliance with Holland, and war was 
 declared against Spain. Richelieu raised five armies, one of 
 which was sent into Germany, and placed under the duke of 
 Saxe-Weimar. None of these armies was very successful. 
 The imperial general Galas was opposed to the duke of 
 Weimar, and they fought with alternate advantage. In Up- 
 per Germany, the Swedes, under Banier, gave the imperial- 
 
 .636. ists, under the elector of Saxony, a complete defeat at Wi^ 
 lock
 
 CHAP. IV. TliMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS WAR. 437 
 
 The emoeror Ferdinand II. died, and was sueceedea by Lis a o 
 80i\ if the same name. The same line of policy was pursued, ^^■^ 
 anil the war continued. The duke of Weimar laid siege to iGaS 
 Rainfeld ; an imperial army advanced to its relief, and was 
 totally defeated by tlie duke : the town surrendered, as did 
 soon after Brisac, and other places. 
 
 While Weimar triumphed on the Rhine, Banier was equally 
 successful in Poraerania ; he reduced several towns, and cut 
 to pieces some of the imperial troops. 
 
 In the beginning of the next campaign, the duke and Ban- 1639 
 ier took measures for penetrating into the heart of the Aus- 
 trian dominions. Banier crossed tlie Elbe, beat every thing 
 that opposed him, entered Saxony, and totally defeated the 
 Saxon army at Chemnitz. He invaded Bohemia, laid the 
 country under contribution, fell on the imperialists under 
 general Hofskirk at Brandeiz, and pursued them to the walls 
 of Prague. He then repassed the Elbe, defeated the impe- 
 rialists at Glatz, and drove the Saxons three times from their 
 camp at Tirn. 
 
 But the hopes of the Swedes were almost blighted by the 
 loss of the duke of Saxe- Weimar, who died at this time, in 
 his 36th year, by poison, as was strongly suspected. After a 
 good deal of contest for his army, it was finally taken into 
 the pay of the king of France, who thus became master of a 
 great part of Alsatia and Brisgau. Under the command of 
 the duke of Longueville it joined Banier at Erfurt; but the 
 Swede found his, genius cramped by their presence, and was 
 no longer able to execute his bold and sudden projects. 
 
 It was agreed to attack Piccolomini, the imperial general, 
 in his camp at Saltzburg. This being found impracticable, 
 the allies separated, and Banier attempted to penetrate into 
 Franconia. Failing in this, he marched through Hesse into 
 Lunenburg. Piccolomini attempted to enter this duchy, but 
 was unable to penetrate it : and as he marched for Franconia, 
 he was attacked and nearly defeated by the Weimarian army. 
 
 The emperor having convoked a diet at Ratisbon, Banier 16*. 
 formed a plan of surprising the city and dispersing tJie diet. 
 Having joined the French army under Guebriant, they 
 crossed the Danube on tlie ice, took 1500 of the imperial 
 horse, and very nearly surprised the emperor himself The 
 approach of a thaw disconcerted their plans; but they tlirew 
 five hundred shot into the town, an insult that enraged Ferdi- 
 nand beyond measure. Attempts at a pacification were made 
 at Hamburgh by the French and Swedish plenipotentiaries 
 and one of the Aulic counsellors; but the emperor refused to 
 ratif}' the convention. 
 37*
 
 438 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III 
 
 After the attempt on Ratisbon, the French and Swedes 
 separated; Banier marched through Boliemia, followed by 
 Piccolomini and Gleen. He conducted his retreat in a most 
 masterly manner to Zickau, where he was joined by Gue- 
 briant, and they prepared to make head against the imperial 
 ists; but Banier took a fever in consequence of the fatigues 
 he had undergone, and died at Halberstadt, in the 41st yeai 
 of his age. Torstenson, another of the pupils of Gustavus 
 was appointed to succeed him, and he left Sweden with a 
 large sum of money and a considerable reinforcement ; but, 
 before his arrival, the allies under Guebriant had defeated 
 Piccolomini at Wolfenbiittel. When Torstenson arrived the 
 armies separated. 
 X. R The next spring, Guebriant totally defeated general Lam 
 
 1642. boy, and made himself master of the electorate of Cologne. 
 Piccolomini marched against Torstenson, who had defeated 
 the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, and invested Leipzig. The 
 archduke Leopold and Piccolomini advanced to the relief of 
 it ; and Buitenfeld was again witness to the triumph of Swe- 
 dish valor. 
 
 The news of this defeat filled the imperial court with con- 
 sternation. Leipzig surrendered; but Torstenson failed in 
 his attempt on Friedburg. Guebriant was also successful on 
 his side. 
 
 1643. Conferences for a peace were now opened ; but the deatl 
 of Louis XIII. and of Richelieu checked them : cardmal Maz 
 arin, however, trod in the footsteps of his predecessor. The 
 arms of France were successful. While the negotiation? 
 were pending, Torstenson marched into Holstein, to punish 
 the hostility of the king of Denmark. Christian called on 
 the emperor, who sent Galas thither ; but Galas feared to en- 
 gage the Swedes. France then mediated a peace between 
 Denmark and Sweden. The French, under Turenne, were 
 successful against the Bavarians ; the voivode of Transylvania 
 invaded Hungary ; and the imperial army there under Gotz 
 was utterly ruined. A similar fate befell that under Galas. 
 
 W5. Torstenson invaded Bohemia; a large army under Galas, 
 Hasfeld, and others, was collected near Thabor. The Swe- 
 dish general decoyed them from their advantageous position, 
 and completely defeated them. Every place submitted ; the 
 imperial family fled from Vienna : Brinn, however, held out 
 against the Swedes. 
 
 The Bavarians under Merci defeated Turenne at Marien- 
 dal ; Turenne was reinforced by 8000 men, under the duke 
 d'Enghien, and gave battle to the Bavarians on the plain of 
 Nordlingen, which had been so fatal to the Swedes, After a
 
 CHAP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 439 
 
 dreadful conflict, victory declared for the French, with the 
 loss of 4000 men. The elector of Saxony, unable to check 
 the progress of the Swedish general Koningsmark, concluded 
 a truce for six months. The latter joined Torstenson, who 
 had, in spite of the archduke, carried his depredations to the 
 gates of Vienna. They agreed to lay siege to Prague ; but 
 the archduke secured that city against them ; and Torsten- 
 son, who was dreadfully afflicted with the gout, returning to 
 Sweden, was succeeded by Vrangel, who ably sustained the 
 glory of the Swedish arms. The French and Swedes were 
 everywhere successful ; the elector of Bavaria and other 
 princes were forced to make separate peaces with, them ; tlie 
 emperor alone was opposed to them ; and though tlie elector a. d. 
 of Bavaria had again joined him, the victory of Zummerhau- 1648 
 sen, gained by Turenne and Vrangel, and the invasion of 
 Bavaria and Bohemia, compelled him to think at last seriously 
 
 of peace. 
 
 Negotiations had long been going on at Osnaburg and 
 Miinster. At last the Peace of Westphalia was signed 
 at the latter place on the 24th Oct. 1648. By this celebrated 
 treaty France obtained Alsatia, Brisac, Metz, Verdun, and 
 other territories ; Sweden got Upper Pomerania, Stetin, the 
 Isle of Riagen, Bremen, &c. with three votes at the diet; 
 compensation was made to the elector of Brandenburg and 
 the duke of Mecklenburg for the loss of these territories ; the 
 Upper Palatinate and the electoral rank remained with the 
 duke of Bavaria ; Switzerland was declared independent of 
 the empire; the pacification of Passau was fully confirmed; 
 Lutherans and Catholics were placed on the same footing ; 
 the imperial chamber was to consist of twenty-six Catliolic 
 and twenty-four Protestant members ; six Protestants were 
 admitted into the Aulic council; an equal number of each 
 party was to be summoned to the diet ; but in cases where it 
 concerned either religion alone, only deputies of that religion 
 should be called. 
 
 France. 
 
 Louis Xin. being a minor, his mother, Mary of Medici, a 161 C 
 weak, bigoted woman, was declared regent. She was gov- 
 erned entirely by an Italian, named Concini, and his wife. 
 Sully retired ; new maxims were adopted ; a double marriage 
 and union with Spain was projected ; and the ruin of the 1613 
 I'rotestants meditated. The nobility, headed by the prince 
 of Conde, revolted; they were appeased by gifts; they re- 1615 
 volted again, and were again appeased in the same way. 
 
 Luines, the favorite of Louis, took advantage of his influ-
 
 440 HISTORY Oir TUE world. part III 
 
 ence over him to induce the young prince to seize the reine 
 A. D. of government Louis ordered Concini to be arrested ; the 
 IC'1'7 captain of the guards shot him, under pretext of resistance ; 
 his wife, the high-spirited Galligai, was condemned to death 
 for sorcery and magic ; the regent was exiled to Blois. Lui- 
 nes, from a page, was raised to the highest rank and offices 
 in tiie state. A conspiracy, headed by the duke of Epemon 
 released the queen-mother. Guided by the great Richelieu, 
 she caballed against the court, which was obliged to enter 
 into treaties advantageous to her and her party. She procured 
 Richelieu a cardinal's hat, and a seat in the council. 
 620. Louis, having united Beam to the crown, attempted, though 
 the people were Protestants, to re-establish there the Catholic 
 religion. The Huguenots were alarmed ; they assembled at 
 Rochelle, and determined to throw off their allegiance, and 
 to form a republic. Luines, now constable, took arms. 
 
 1621. Having seduced, by bribes and promises, the duke of Bouillon, 
 and other of their leaders, he laid siege to Montauban with 
 25,000 men. The place was gallantly defended by the mar- 
 quis la Force, and Luines was forced to retire with disgrace. 
 He died shortly afterwards, and was succeeded in his office 
 of CMistable by the brave Lesdiguieres, who had renounced 
 Calvinism. The Protestants were led by the duke of Rohan 
 and his brother Soubise. The latter was defeated by the 
 king in person, who laid siege to Montpellier, which was de- 
 
 1622. fended as bravely as Montauban. A peace was made, and the 
 edict of Nantes confirmed. 
 
 The haughty Richelieu became now prime minister 
 There were three parties whom he resolved to humble ; the 
 nobility of France, the Huguenots, and the house of Austria. 
 To accomplish these objects, he, in spite of the pope and th'^- 
 king of Spain, concluded a marriage between Charles prince 
 of Wales and the king's sister Henrietta, as also an alliance 
 between the two crowns and the United Provinces. A war 
 with Spain was the consequence, in which a French army, 
 united with the Venetians and the duke of Savoy, took the 
 625 Valteline, and restored it to the Grisons ; but Spinola reduced 
 Breda, and the English failed in an attempt on Cadiz- 
 
 The Huguenots rebelled, and were now encouraged by 
 England. The duke of Buckingham appeared before Ro- 
 chelle with 7000 nien ; but he had laid his measures so ill, 
 that the citizens refused to admit him, and after an ill-con- 
 ducted attempt on the isle of Rhe, he returned home with 
 disgrace. Richelieu laid siege to Rochelle ; and having run 
 a mole across the harbor, compelled it to surrender. The 
 duke of Rohan defended himself with vigor in Languedoc
 
 Death of CondnL
 
 CHAP IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 443 
 
 but as England liad made peace, he was forced to come to a. dl 
 terms. The Protestants were continued in the enjoyment of 1629 
 all that had been secured by the edict of Nantes, only they 
 were deprived of their fortified towns. 
 
 Having humbled the Protestants at home, and thereby 
 brought the whole kingdom, nobility and all, under the control 
 of the crown, Richelieu resolved, in furtherance of his re- 
 maining object, to aid the Protestants in Germany ; and he 
 t!)rmed the secret alliance which we have already noticed.* 
 After the treaty of Prague, he openly joined the Swedes. 
 Meantime he ruled France with a rod of iron : the queen- 
 mother was banished, her son Gaston duke of Orleans obliged 
 to beg his life, and the marshals Montmorency and Merillas 
 publicly executed. In defiance of all his enemies, Richelieu 
 retained his power till his death, in 1642, at the moment 
 when the arms of France and Sweden had completely hum- 
 bled the pride of the house of Austria. The minister died 
 on the 4th of December: his royal master followed him on 
 the 14th of the ensuing May. Louis had been married to 
 Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 The chief domestic incident that distinguished the reign 
 of Philip III. was the expulsion of the Moriscoes. Impelled 
 by the inquisition, and by the advice of his feeble and bigoted 
 minister, the duke of Lerma, Philip issued an edict, com- 
 manding all his Mohammedan subjects to quit the kingdom 1611 
 within thirty days. In despair the Moors took arms: they 
 wore subdued, and a million of industrious subjects driven 
 nut of Spain, whose fate it is, to be to Europe a standing ex- 
 ample of the evils of civil and religious despotism. During 
 tliis reign, attempts were made to extend the Spanish power 
 in Italy. 
 
 Pliilip rV. and his minister Olivarez were both men of 1621 
 more energy than their predecessors. It was determined to 
 form the closest alliance with the emperor, and to attempt 
 the 1 eduction of the United Provinces, tlie truce with whom 
 was expired. Notwithstanding, however, these magnificent 
 projectj, the power of Spain continued still to decline in this 
 reign. The Spanish infantry was cut to pieces on the plains 
 of Rocroi by the duke d'Enghien with an inferior force ; the 
 (Catalans rebelled; the Portuguese threw off the yoke; and 
 .'he independence of the Dutch was fully acknowledged. The 1643 
 worm was at the heart of the power of Spain.
 
 444 HISTORY OF TUB WORLD. PART III 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 The Portuguese had long been irritated by the despotism 
 tliey were subject to. On the revolt of the Catalans, a law 
 was passed to compel the Portuguese nobles to take arms for 
 their reduction. A plot long formed now broke out. Olivarez 
 had called away the Spanish garrison from Lisbon. The 
 duchess of Mantua, styled the vice-queen, was driven away, 
 and the grandson of the duke of Braganza, who had been de- 
 prived of his right by Philip II., was proclaimed king, under 
 the title of John IV. All Portugal acknowledged him ; ships 
 were sent to the foreign settlements, and all expelled their 
 A. D Spanish governors. Brazil was recovered from the Dutch, 
 640. and Portugal became once more independent. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 The dominions of Spain in Northern Italy, were divided 
 from those of the emperor by the Valteline and Venice. Be- 
 
 1618. domar, the Spanish ambassador to the latter, formed, in con- 
 junction with the governor of Milan and the viceroy of Na- 
 ples, a nefarious project for murdering the senate, and getting 
 possession of Venice ; but the senate, discovering in time the 
 atrocious plot, executed the majority of the conspirators. 
 620. Spain was more fortunate and less guilty in the Valteline, the 
 Catholic inhabitants of which rose on and massacred their 
 Protestant countrymen, and placed themselves under her pro- 
 tection. 
 
 The emperor and king of Spain each attempted to get the 
 duchy of Mantua, after the death of the duke without heirs; 
 
 .630. but, Richelieu entered Italy with an army, and obliged the 
 emperor to grant the investiture to Charles Gonzaga, duke of 
 Nevers. 
 
 England — The Civil War. 
 
 An eventful period now commences in England. A new 
 1603 d)masty fills the throne, and the grand struggle begins be- 
 tween liberty and absolute power. James VI. of Scotland, 
 son of Mary, and descended from the eldest daughter of Henry 
 VII., was, on the death of Elizabeth, placed by the free-will 
 and choice of the English nation on her royal seat. This 
 monarch was possessed of learning and abilities rather above 
 the common rate; but he w^as pedantic, mean, and pusillani- 
 mous, shamefully subservient to unworthy favorites, and in 
 his inglorious love of peace careless of the national honor. 
 In the reign of this feeble prince, the English nation first 
 learned to listen to the doctrines of the divine and ini'efeasi-
 
 Junes yi. of Scotland and I. of Bnglanl.
 
 CHAP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 447 
 
 ble rights of kings; then, too, the church began to deprt 
 from the principles of the reformers, and some of her divinea 
 to approximate in their doctrines to those of the church of 
 Rome, so generally odious to the nation. Every thing, in 
 short, was done, as it were, to prepare the materials of the 
 coming conflagration. 
 
 In the reign of James, the nation took greatly to trade and 
 maritime enterprise, and increased rapidly in wealth, intelli- 
 gence, and love of freedom. Public events were few. The 
 most remarkable was the Gunpowder Plot, a plan formed in 
 the beginning of the king's reign by a few desperate Catho- 
 lics to blow up the king and parliament, but fortunately dis- 
 covered in time. The most laudable act of James's reign 
 was the settlement and plantation of the north of Ireland. 
 
 Charles I., of a harsh and arbitrary temper, endeavored to a. d 
 put into practice the speculative tenets of his father. He saw 1^25 
 not the state of the nation. English liberty had made great 
 progress under the Plantagenets : circumstances enabled the 
 Tudors nearly to crush it ; but with the growth of wealth, 
 and the freedom of religious opinion, the spirit of the nation 
 had recovered its vigor. Charles was suspected, on account 
 cf his marriage with Henrietta, sister to the king of France, 
 a bigoted Catholic, and his partiality towards the professors of 
 jhat relisjion, of a secret design against Protestantism. The 
 Pu) itans, now a numerous party, were bitterly hostile to the 
 church of England ; and the persecuting violence and silly 
 superstition of archbishop Laud augmented their rancor. Re- 
 fused the necessary supplies by the parliament, without giv- 
 ing some security for liberty, the king had recourse to all the 
 illegal modes of taxation employed by his predecessors. Ton- 
 nage and poundage were levied ; all the oppressions of feudal- 
 ism renewed ; for more than ten years no parliament assem- 
 bled. An attempt being made to force Episcopacy upon the 1638 
 Scots, that nation took arms, and entered into the solemn 
 LEAGUE AND COVENANT. A drcadful rebellion broke eut in 16fl 
 Ireland, in which thousands of Protestants were barbarously 
 massacred Viy the Catliolics. The Long Parliament, which 
 the king had assembled, advanced every day in their de- 
 mands on him, and testified a spirit of determined hostility to 
 the church. The impeachment, and illegal and unjust, though 
 well-merited, condemnation of Strafford, the king's ablest and 
 most obnoxious minister, showed him the spirit Ij which they 
 were actuated. Charles, though reluctantly, still yielded to 
 their demands ; but concession only produced further assump- 
 tion. An invincible distrust of the king's sincerity, for whichf 
 mdecd, there was abundant reason, haunted the minds of the
 
 448 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART III 
 
 i. D parliament, and prevented all accommodation. Both parties 
 642. finally determined on the appeal to the sword. 
 
 The king was supported by a large proportion of the an- 
 cient nobility and gentry of the realm, many of whom had 
 at first been zealous in checking the royal excesses ; but now, 
 seeing the exorbitant demands of the commons, resolved to 
 sustain the throne. The Catholics were naturally unanimous 
 in his favor ; the western counties were in general well af 
 fected to him. The chief strength of the parliament lay in 
 the cities and great towns, and the eastern counties, and the 
 lower orders were mostly on their side. It is idle to seek 
 to extenuate the faults on either side ; to represent the one 
 party as the champions of right and justice, the other as tlie 
 inveterate foes of both. Each had much, indeed, to answer 
 for: it was a struggle, the probable termination of which 
 would be tyranny or anarchy ; yet impartiality will say, that 
 the king was left no alternative, and that the balance of guilt 
 was rather on the side of the parliament. Certainly, neither 
 party is entitled to our unqualified approbation. But, in truth, 
 the Civil War was inevitable ; it was the almost necessary 
 result of the state of opinion then prevalent ; it was the tem- 
 pest which was to purify the political atmosphere. 
 
 The royal standard was raised at Nottingham (Aug. 22). 
 The first battle was fought at Edgehill. In the course of 
 three years, numerous engagements occurred between the 
 troops of the king and those of the parliament, now joined by 
 the Scots. Lansdown Hill, Round way Down, Newbury, 
 Nantwich, Marston Moor, and other places, witnessed the 
 successes and reverses of either party. At length the king 
 
 1645. received a final and fatal overthrow at Naseby (June 14), and 
 unable any longer to make head, he fled for protection to the 
 
 1647. camp of the Scots at Newark. He was by them dishonorably 
 surrendered to the parliament. After a confinement of some 
 time, he was, by means of the sect of the Independents, who 
 were all-powerful in the army, and were, therefore, now the 
 
 649. prevailing party, brought to trial, condemned, and beheaded ; 
 a sentence, even if morally just, which it undoubtedly was 
 not, flagrantly illegal ; a sentence that filled Europe with 
 amazement; and that, even if passed with purer motives than 
 it was, by most of his judges, was an act of useless and per- 
 nicious folW A republic was now established. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 After the truce of 1609, the United Provinces were agi- 
 tated by religious dissensions. The opinions of Calvin were 
 maintained in all their rigor by the followers of Gomer : ■
 
 I31AP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 449 
 
 milder system was advocated by Arminius. Prince Maurice 
 sided with the former ; the patriotic functionary Barneveldt, 
 who saw through the ambitious designs of the prince, sup- 
 ported the latter. The Gomerists prevailed ; the Arminian 
 preachers were banished. Barneveldt, at the age of 72, was 
 brought to the block, under the base and iniquitous charge of a. ix 
 'vexing the church of God." But the people saw the object 16151 
 of Maurice, and groans and murmurs, and the name of Bar- 
 neveldt, attended him wherever he went 
 
 The Dutch were, during this period, usually allied with 
 France against Spain. They extended their trade in the 
 East and West Indies. In the former they founded Batavia, 
 and laid the foundation of their future empire in those re- 
 gions. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 That most extraordinary tyrant, Ivan IV. the Terrible, 1598 
 was succeeded by his only remaining son, Fedor, with whom 
 ended the house of Ruric. The boyars chose Boris, the 
 brother of tlie empress. This prince governed well ; but an 
 impostor appeared, pretending to be Dmitri, the eldest son of 
 Ivan. After the deatii of Boris, the pseudo-Dmitri gained 
 the throne, and his reign was praiseworthy. Suspected of a 
 fondness for Polish manners, he was murdered by his boyars. 
 
 Several false Dmitries appeared. At length, the nobles 
 assembled to choose a sovereign. Three days they and the 
 people fasted, and called upon God, and they then appointed 1613 
 Michaila Romanov, son of the archbishop Pliilocetus, and 
 grandson, by his mother, of the Tzar Ivan, a boy of but fifteen 
 years. The new Tzar spent his reign in restoring Russia to 
 its former state of power and order. Ilis son Alexei extended 
 the relations of the empire. He first sent an embassy to 
 China, and made Tobolsk the staple of the Chinese trade. 1645 
 
 Turkey and Persia. 
 
 The Turkish sultans Ahmed, Mustafa, Osman, Moorad IV., 
 and Ibrahim were, all but the ill-fated Osman and Moorad, sunk 
 in pleasure and sensual indulgence, and took little part in the 
 affairs of Europe. Moorad conquered Bagdad, and restrained 
 the power of the janizaries. 
 
 Persia, under the rule of Abbas the Great, attained to con- 
 siderable power. This truly great monarch was victorious i582 
 in his wars against the Ottomans and the Usbegs ; and he es- 
 tablished a degree of tranquillity throughout his dominions, to 
 which Persia had long been a stranger. After his death the 169 
 Persian power began to decline. 
 3S*
 
 450 mSTORY OJ XHE WOKIiD. PAKT 111 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 France, to the Peace of the Pyrenees. 
 
 A. a Louis XIV. was a minor, his mother, Anne of Austria, re- 
 648. gent, and cardinal Mazarin minister. De Retz (afterwards 
 cardinal) coadjutor archbishop of Paris, a man of unprincipled 
 ambition, endeavored to excite the nobility and people against 
 the minister. The parliament of Paris joined him. The 
 queen was insulted whenever she appeared. Mazarin or- 
 dered the president and some of the most factious members of 
 the parliament to be arrested. The populace rose, and barri- 
 
 I5T7. cadoed the streets till the prisoners were released. Such was 
 the commencement of the celebrated Fronde. 
 
 The parliament of Paris proclaimed the cardinal a public 
 enemy. The prince of Conti, the duke of Bouillon, and other 
 nobles, joined them. Other parliaments followed their exam- 
 ple. The great prince of Conde, at the request of the court, 
 dispersed the undisciplined troops the parliament had raised. 
 Matters were settled for a time ; but Conde, Conti, and others 
 were afterwards, by the advice of de Retz, arrested at the 
 council-table. Their partisans took arms : the duke of Or- 
 leans, uncle to the king, set himself at their head. The car- 
 dinal was obliged to fly to Cologne. By the intrigues of him 
 and de Retz the duke of Bouillon and his brother Turenne 
 were detached from the malcontents, and Mazarin returned, 
 
 1651. escorted by 6000 men. 
 
 Conde threw himself on the protection of Spain, and en- 
 tered Paris at the head of a body of Spanish troops. Turenne 
 led Louis within sight of his capital, and these two great gen- 
 erals engaged each other in the suburb of St. Antoine. The 
 combat was long ; but the heroism of the daughter of the duke 
 of Orleans, who ordered the guns of the BastUle to fire on the 
 king's troops, decided it in favor of Conde. 
 
 1653. At length the king dismissed Mazarin, and the nation re- 
 
 1655. turned to its allegiance. Mazarin was, however, afterwards 
 recalled, the nobles were punished, and the parliament hum- 
 bled. 
 
 The war with Spain had still continued ; it was now prose- 
 cuted with vigor. Turenne and Conde were opposed to each 
 
 1656. other. At Arras and Valenciennes the talents of the rivals 
 were fully displayed. The balance was even between the 
 two parties ; but Mazarin formed an alliance witli Cromvajl,
 
 Oliver Cromwell.
 
 OUAP. V. TIMES OF LOL'IS Al . 453 
 
 rfho now governed England, and tlie beam was turned. Dun- 
 kirk was taken from Spain, and given to England. Ypres, 
 Gravelines, and several other towns, surrendered to the arms a. j 
 of France. Spain saw the necessity of peace. Mazarin and 1659 
 Don Louis de Haro, the Spanish minister, met in tlie Isle of 
 Pheasants, in the Pyrenees, and settled the terms of a peace. 
 Philip agreed to pardon the Catalans, and renounce all claim 
 to Alsace ; Louis to pardon Conde. The succession of Juliers 
 was secured to the duke of Neuburg, and the infanta Maria 
 Theresa was given in marriage to Louis. 
 
 Mazarin died within less than a year after concluding the 1661 
 peace of the Pyrenees; and Louis, now 21 years of age, took 
 the reins of government into his own hands. 
 
 England, to the Restoration. 
 
 The parliament now governed England, and the strength 
 the nation exhibited at this period is astonishing. Cromwell 
 led an army into Ireland, and rapidly overran and conquered 1649 
 the whole kingdom. The Scots having proclaimed Charles 
 II., Cromwell invaded and reduced that kingdom also. Charles 1650 
 entered England with a Scottish army ; but the battle of Wor- 
 cester put an end to his hopes. Cromwell now dissolved the 
 parliament, and governed alone, under the title of Protector. 1653 
 Success attended all his measures of foreign policy. He beat 
 the Dutch, and forced their ships to strike their flag to the 
 English. He took Jamaica from the Spaniards. Mazarin 
 acknowledged him. The Venetians and Swiss sought his 
 friendship. The northern courts respected his power. But 
 at home his government was rigorous in the extreme ; and 
 the despotism of Charles I. had never ventured on the tyr- 
 anny and injustice exercised by this chief of tJie republic. 
 
 On the death of Cromwell, his son Richard succeeded him 1658 
 in the protectorate; but he soon resigned his dignity. The 
 eyes of the nation, wearied of change and turmoil, were turned 
 to the ancient line of their princes. General Monk, who 
 commanded in Scotland, marched to London ; and the parlia- 
 ment, reassembled under his protection, restored Charles II. 166a 
 to the throne of his ancestors. 
 
 Wars till the Peace of Nimeguen. 
 
 The Dutch had, on the death of William IL of Orange, 1576 
 abolished the dignity of stadtholder. The family of Orange 
 bein^ connected with the royal family of England, Charles II. 
 wished to restore his nephew, William III., to the power of 
 his ancestors, and he also hoped to make money by a war. 
 The people of England were jealous of the commercial wealth
 
 454 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART HI. 
 
 A. D. of Holland. War was, therefore, declared under false pre- 
 
 1664. texts. Squadrons were sent out to Africa and America. De 
 Witt, pensionary of Holland, who directed the republic, fore- 
 seeing the designs of England, had formed an alliance with 
 France. A large fleet was collected under admiral Opdam. 
 
 1665. It engaged the English fleet under the duke of York, but 
 was totally defeated. Louis XTV. and the king of Denmark 
 now came forward to aid the Dutch. The following year 
 two most desperate sea-fights took place : the first lasted four 
 days, and the fleets separated, leaving victory undecided. 
 The next month the Dutch were defeated. Both parties 
 growing weary of the war, negotiations were opened at 
 Breda ; but de Witt refused to consent to a suspension of hos- 
 tilities. A Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, and burned sev- 
 
 I CtGl. eral ships of war at Chatham ; and de Ruyter, the Dutch ad- 
 miral, rode triumphant in the Channel. The treaty of Breda 
 was now concluded, in which England receded fi-om some of 
 her demands. She retained New- York, which she had con- 
 quered ; she ceded her settlement at Surinam. 
 
 Louis XrV. now commenced his career of war, the struggle 
 between absolute monarchy and constitutional liberty. On 
 the death of Philip IV. of Spain, who left only one son, 
 
 1665. Charles, a sickly infant, Louis, who, though at his marriage 
 with the infanta he had renounced all title to the succession 
 of any part of the Spanish dominions, still secretly cherished 
 the hope of obtaining them, had retracted the renunciation, 
 and even laid claim, in right of his wife, to the immediate 
 possession of the duchy of Brabant. This claim could only 
 be decided by arms. At the head of 40,000 men Louis en- 
 
 1667. tered Flanders. Tournay, Douay, Lisle, and other towns sur- 
 rendered. Another campaign, it was feared, would make 
 him master of the Low Countries. All Europe was alarmea. 
 A triple alliance was formed between England, Holland, and 
 
 1668 Sweden, to oblige Louis to adhere to, and Spain to accept of, 
 the terms offered by the former at the end of the first cam- 
 paign. France and Spain were equally displeased at this 
 treaty, but agreed to treat; and a treaty was negotiated at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, by which Spain allowed Louis to retain the 
 towns he had taken, and which he had had strongly fortified 
 by the great Vauban. By a treaty with Portugal at this time, 
 Spain acknowledged the independence of that crown. 
 
 Louis was bent on revenge on Holland. A secret tiCAiy 
 
 670. was made with the kmg of England, whom Louis engaged to 
 assist in his project of establishing popery and despotism in 
 that country, if he aided in subduing the United Provinces 
 and Louis prepared to invade the States. As he could not
 
 CHAP. V. TIMES OF L0UI3 XIV. 455 
 
 obtain a passage through the Spanish provinces, he, contra.r7 
 to the faitlj of treaties, seized on the duchy of Lorrain. 
 Cliarles. who was now become the pensioner of France, ob- 
 tained under false pretexts a large grant from his parlian.ent ; 
 and a base and unsuccessfiil attempt was made on the Dutch 
 Smyrna fleet, while the treaty subsisted with the States. At a. d 
 length both monarchs, under the most frivolous pretences, de- 1673 
 dared war against the United Provinces. The combined 
 fleets of France and England were more than 100 sail. A 
 French army of 120,000 men appeared on the frontiers. The 
 States put forth all their energies. The command of the 
 irmy was intrusted to William III. of Orange, now 23 years 
 of age. De Witt and de Ruyter attended to the navy. The 
 latter put to sea with 90 sail of large, and 40 of small vessels, 
 to take vengeance on the English for their perfidious attempt 
 on the Smyrna fleet. The English had been joined by the 
 French ; and their combined force was 120 sail, when de 
 Ruyter came in sight of them in Southwold Bay. A despe- 
 rate engagement terminated in no decisive advantage to 
 either side. 
 
 Louis divided his army into three bodies, under Turenne, 
 Conde and Chamilli, and Luxemburg: the bishop of Miinster 
 and the elector of Cologne were his allies. Several towns 
 surrendered. He passed the Rhine. Nimeguen and Utrecht 
 opened their gates. All the provinces but Holland and Zea- 
 land submitted. Holland opened its sluices, and inundated 
 the country; but the coimcils of the state were distracted by 
 the Orange and republican parties. Offers were made to 
 surrender Maestricht and all the frontier towns beyond the 
 limits of the seven provinces, and to pay the expenses of the 
 war. They were haughtily rejected. The prince of Orange 
 was declared stadtholdcr, and in a moment of popular frenzy 
 the great and good de Witt and his brother were torn to 
 pieces. It was resolved never to submit: ships were even 
 prepared to carry these modern PhocaBans to the East Indies, 
 if unable to retain their country and liberty. 
 
 The combined fleets, with an army on board, approached 1673 
 the coast of Holland. In a manner almost miraculous they 
 were carried out to sea, and afterwards prevented landing 
 their forces by violent storms. Those who regarded this as 
 the interference of providence cannot justly be accused of su- 
 perstition. Meanwhile, Louis had returned to Versailles. The 
 emperor and the elector of Brandenburg had shown a dispo- 
 lidon to assist the States. The king of Spain had sent them 
 mme forces, and the aspect of their affairs was brightening 
 
 TImj Hutch fleet, under van Tromp and de Ruyter, engaged
 
 456 HISTORY 0¥ THE WORLD. PART m 
 
 the combined French and English fleets under prince Rupert, 
 in three actions, off the coast of Holland. They were, aa 
 usual, long and obstinately fought, and, £is usual, undecisive. 
 The French took Maestricht. The prince of Orange re- 
 took Naerden. The imperialists under Montecuculi having 
 vainly attempted the passage of the Rhine, laid siege to Bonn. 
 The prince of Orange joined them, Bonn surrendered. The 
 greater part of the electorate of Cologne was conquered ; and 
 the communication being thus cut off between France and 
 the United Provinces, Louis was obliged to recall his forces 
 and abandon his conquests. A congress held at Cologne 
 could settle nothing. The house of Austria was terrified at 
 the projects of Louis ; the emperor and the king of Spain 
 signed a treaty with the Dutch, and Spain declared war. 
 j^, D. Charles, unable to get supplies from his parliament, made 
 
 1674. peace with Holland. Louis also was desirous of peace ; but 
 the allies were eager for war. Charles in vain tried to me- 
 diate. In the next campaign Louis exerted great energy. 
 At the head of one of his armies he conquered Franche- 
 Comte. A furious but indecisive battle was fought at 
 Seneffe in Brabant, between Turenne and the prince of Or- 
 ange. The prince took Grave, the last town the French held 
 in the United Provinces. Turenne was successful on the 
 Bide of Germany : he overran the Palatinate ; but his laurels 
 were tarnished by the horrible cruelties and excesses com- 
 mitted by his troops. 
 
 1675. Louis again vainly sought peace. In the next campaign 
 nothing of importance took place in Flanders. In Germany 
 Turenne was kUled by a cannon-ball, and the French army 
 forced to recross the Rhine. 
 
 676. The next year the French were successful in Flanders, 
 taking Conde and Bouchain. The imperialists took Philips- 
 burg. The French fleet defeated the combined Dutch and 
 Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean, and rode triumphant in 
 that sea, 
 
 677 The Dutch were now as anxious for peace as I<ouis ; but 
 the prince of Orange wishing to continue the wcr, another 
 campaign was opened. Louis took Valencienn ja, Cambray, 
 and St Omer, and defeated the prince at Mount C>iKsal, when 
 he attempted the relief of this last town. The Fp.3nch arms 
 under Crequi and other generals were successful on the 
 Rhine. Spain was torn by factions. A congress had been 
 sitting all this while at Nimeguen, and a conditional treaty 
 was entered into between France and the Dutch. The prince 
 of Orange married in this year the daughter of the duke of 
 York
 
 Ch&rh8 II. of EDt^land.
 
 James II. of England.
 
 ijHA¥ V TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 459 
 
 In the following year, Louis took Ghent and Ypres. The *. d 
 Dutch were terrified, and signed a separate peace at Nime- ^^"^^ 
 guen. The allies clamored : the prince of Orange sought to 
 break it by an attack on a French army ; but all were finally 
 obliged to accede to it. By this treaty Louis retained Franche- 
 Comte and Cambray, Tourney, Valenciennes, and several 
 otlier towns in the Low Countries, and his power was now 
 by far the most formidable in Europe. 
 
 England, to the Revolution. 
 
 The object of Charles IL was to establish absolute power 
 and popery ; and the people, recovering from their delirium 
 of loyalty, gradually became jealous and suspicious of him. 
 Episcopacy having been restored, an iniquitous attempt was 166* 
 made to force it on Scotland. The detestable barbarity of 
 the government was opposed by the fierce bigotry and fanati- 
 cism of the people, and horrible cruelties were exercised to 
 subdue them. The awakened fears and bigotry of the nation 
 caused a Popish Plot to be got up in England, and several 1678 
 innocent Catholics were judicially murdered. The jealousy 
 of the commons against the designs of the court was ever alive, 
 and it drove them into some measures not compatible with 
 justice and policy. It was attempted to exclude the duke of 
 York, a known papist, from the crown, and the Test Act was 
 passed. But the court, by taking advantage of circumstances, 
 particularly of the Ryehouse Plot, and secretly supplied with 
 money by Louis, advanced rapidly in the career of despotism, 
 or rather approached nearer the precipice over which it was 
 to be whirled. Russel and Sidney were publicly executed ; 1683 
 passive obedience was preached ; justice was perverted. 
 
 In this state of affairs the king died. He expired in the 1C83 
 faith of the church of Rome, which he had long secretly pro- 
 fessed. It was indeed, morally speaking, a matter of little 
 importance what the religious sentiments were of such a 
 heartless, selfish profligate. It is an instance of the eflfcct 
 of popular manners and showy qualities on the minds of the 
 vulgar, that this prince, the mean pensioner of France, the 
 conspirer against the religion and liberties of his people, every 
 one of whose acts tended to disgrace the nation, wae, like 
 Edward IV. and Henry VIII., instead of being detested, rather 
 a favorite with the country at large. 
 
 James II., in his fanatic zeal for popery, would hearken to 
 no remonstrance of prudence. The duke of Monmouth, a 
 natural son of the late king, took up arms in the west of 
 England ; but was defeated, and he and numbers of his ad- 
 herents executed by order of the relentless tyrant. The king
 
 460 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART 111 
 
 proceeded in hia design of changing the relig, (j of the coun- 
 try, and attempted to place Papists in the chu. ch and univer- 
 sities. Having ordered his declaration of indulgence to be 
 read in the pulpit, the primate and six bishops petitioned 
 against it. They were committed to the Tow^r, tried, and 
 acquitted. The joy of the people at this event ^s no warn- 
 ing to the king. The Wiiigs and Tories (the parties into 
 which the nation was now divided) coalesced o\ 'he birth of 
 a young prince, and invited over the prince of Orange to de- 
 liver the nation. The prince embarked with a large force. 
 ». D. The troops of James deserted him. He and his queen and 
 i?S8. son fled to France. The throne was declared vacant, and the 
 prince and princess of Orange proclaimed king and queen of 
 England. The BUI of Rights, and, at a subsequent period, 
 the Act of Settlement, were passed for the security of tlie 
 nation. 
 
 Such was the revolution of 1688, justly called Glorious ; 
 the noblest instance history presents of the salutary and ir- 
 resistible power of public opinion, directed by wisdom, and 
 aiming at just and worthy ends. It is an event to which Eng- 
 land, as long as her name and her language exist, must look 
 back with pride and gratitude ; it stands a noble monument 
 of bloodless resistance, amidst the scenes of cruelty, slaugh- 
 ter, and oppression which deform the domains of history. Be- 
 fore its radiance, absolute power, passive obedience, and their 
 kindred doctrines, fled like spectres of the night, to conceal 
 themselves from human view. 
 
 Wars to the^ Peace of Ryswick. 
 
 After the peace of Nimeguen, Louis proceeded to act in the 
 most arbitrary and insolent manner. He treacherously made 
 himself mfteter of Strasburg, and demanded Alost from the 
 
 1683. Spaniards. The Turks had at this time invaded Hungary, and 
 occupied the imperial arms. Joined by the Hungarian malcon- 
 tents, who had invited them, the Tu rkish army advanced towards 
 Vienna. The vizier laid siege to that city ; but the German 
 princes collected their forces, and, under the command of 
 
 |<>84 John Sobieski, king of Poland, came to its relief. The Turks 
 were seized with a panic, and fled ; and they were finally 
 driven out of Hungary. Louis, who had suspended his ope- 
 rations during the siege of Vienna, now reduced Luxemburg, 
 Courtray, and Dixmund. The emperor and Spain were forced 
 to conclude a truce with him. He was now at the height of 
 his power : he had a most extensive marine ; had chastised 
 the pirate states of Africa, trampled on the power and inde- 
 pendence of Genoa, and insulted the dignity of the pope. lu
 
 rirAP y times of louis xiv. 461 
 
 I ho ignorance o! his bigotry, he revoked the edict of Nantz, a. d. 
 ir''!ited his Protestant subjects with all the injustice and cru- 1685 
 •'lly that blind fanaticism could dictate, and thereby lost to 
 Prance thousands of industrious citizens, who augmented the 
 •A'caith and the armies of his enemies. 
 
 A league was formed at Augsburg, to restrain the en- 1687 
 croachments of France. Spain and Holland joined it, as also 
 did nenmark, Sweden, and Savoy, and, finally, England, now 
 governed by William. The emperor Leopold was at the head 
 of the confederacy. Louis assembled two large armies in 1G89 
 Flanders; a third was opposed to the Spaniards in Catalonia; 
 another entered and ravaged the palatinate in a most barbar- 
 ous and fiendish manner, a conduct almost peculiar to the 
 French among civilized nations. But this detestable policy 
 did not avail Louis : his troops were unsuccessful on all sides ; 
 and he lost Mentz and Bonn. In the next campaign he was 1C90 
 more fortunate : the mareschal de Catinat reduced all Savoy; 
 Luxemburg and Boufflers defeated the allies at Fleurus, and 
 Catalonia was thrown into confusion. The Turks were suc- 
 cessful in Hungary. The French fleet defeated the com- 
 bined Dutch and English off Beachy-head. The following 1G91. 
 year, though Louis took Mons, he and his allies the Turks, 
 made little progress. Louis, the ensuing spring, took Na- 
 mur; and the king of England made an unsuccessful attack 
 on the French army at Steenkirk ; Catinat was driven back, 1692 
 and the duke of Savoy ravaged Dauphine. Waradin was 
 taken from the Turks. The French fleet was defeated off" 
 La Hogue. Next year, Luxemburg defeated, at Landen, the 169JL 
 allies, commanded by the king of England; and Catinat, those 
 under the duke of Savoy, at the river Cisola. A French 
 squadron dispersed and captured several ships of the Smyrna 
 fleet Meanwhile, France was internally suffering the effects 
 of war. Agriculture and commerce languished; and, in the 
 next campaign, nothing of importance was done. In the cam- 
 paif '\ of 1695, William recovered Namur. In the following, lf96 
 no signal event occurred. All parties were now tired of war. 
 A congress was opened at Ryswick, near Delft, and a treaty 1C97 
 concluded, by which Louis made great concessions, acknow- 
 ledging William III., and restoring to Spain almost all the 
 places that had been united to France, and giving back Lor- 
 rain and Bar to their native princes. The gallant sultan, 
 Mustafa II., was totally defeated at Zenta, in Hungary, by 169V 
 prince Eugene of Savoy, and forced to conclude a peace at 
 Carlowilz. Tranquillity was thus for a time restored. 
 
 39
 
 46^ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 11*. 
 
 England. 
 
 ^ D. The cause of James was supported m Scotland by the brave 
 Itm but cruel viscount Dundee. At the battle of Killicranky, he 
 was killed in the midst of victory. The Presbyterian religion 
 was re-established in that kingdom. James himself passing 
 over to Ireland, the Catholics armed in his favor. They were 
 repulsed in their attempt on Derry, and William soon landed 
 690. in Ireland, and gained the decisive battle of the Boyne. James 
 fled to France. William invested Limerick without success 
 but the following year, his general, de Ginckel, defeated the 
 lf.91. Irish at Aughrim, took Athlone, and Limerick surrendered 
 on conditions which were not subsequently very rigidly ad- 
 hered to by the victorious party. 
 
 The government of William III., the ablest prince of his 
 ao-e, and one of the best and greatest monarchs that have sat 
 on the English throne, was now firmly established with the 
 consent and support of the majority of the British nation, 
 though a strong faction still clung to the cause of the banished 
 yrant. 
 
 Spanish Succession. 
 
 Charles II. of Spain had no children, and his health was 
 declining. The claimants of the crown were Louis XIV. 
 and the dauphin, and the emperor and the king of the Ro- 
 mans. Both Louis and Leopold were equally related to 
 Charles : they were grandsons of Philip III., and married to 
 daughters of Philip IV. A third competitor was the electora] 
 prince of Bavaria. Right of birth was with the Bourbons, as 
 the king and the dauphin were descended from the eldest in- 
 fantas; but the imperial family pleaded the renunciations 
 made by Louis XIII. and XIV., and, as the descendants of 
 Maximilian, the right of male representation. The electoral 
 prince claimed in right of his mother, the only surviving child 
 of the emperor Leopold by the infanta Margaret, second 
 daughter of Philip IV., who had declared her descendants 
 heir to the crown, in preference to those of his eldest daugh- 
 ter. It was for the interest of Europe that the Bavarian prince 
 should succeed ; but he was unable to contend with his rivals. 
 No power was inclined for war. Louis and Leopold secretly 
 intrigued at Madrid. The body of the Spanish nation waa 
 for the former ; the queen and her party for the emperor, 
 698. Meantime France, England, and Holland secretly signed a 
 treaty of partition, to give Spain, America, and the Nether- 
 Ismds to the electoral prince ; Naples, Sicily, some places in
 
 Qacen Anne, of England.
 
 William III. of Bngtand.
 
 CtlAP. V. TIMES OF I.OUIS XIV. 465 
 
 Italy and Spain to the daupliin; and the duchy of Milan to 
 Charles, the emperor's second son. 
 
 This treaty coming to the knowledge of the court of Spain, 
 filled it with rage. The king made a will in favor of the 
 electoral prince. England and Holland were well pleased a. d. 
 at tiiis; but the sudden death of that prince revived their 1699 
 apprehensions. A second treaty of partition was secretly 
 signed by the same powers, giving the electoral prince's part 1700 
 to the archduke Charles, and Milan to the duke of Lorrain, 
 who was to cede his territories to the dauphin ; and care was 
 taken to prevent, in any case, the crown of Spain being united 
 to that of France or the empire. 
 
 The emperor rejected the treaty of partition, and the king 
 of Spain nominated the archduke his heir. The nobles and 
 clergy of Spain were for the Bourbons. The archbishop of 
 Toledo prevailed on the king to write to consult the pope ; 
 and Innocent XII., aware that the liberties of Italy depended 
 on restraining the imperial power, required him to prefer the 
 family of Bourbon. A new will was secretly made, in which 1701 
 the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin, was declared 
 heir. Charles died soon afterwards, and Louis, after some 
 hesitation, accepting the succession, the young king was 
 crowned, under the title of Philip V. ; and England and Hol- 
 land found it necessary to acknowledge him. Leopold dis- 
 puted his title, and sent an army into Italy, to support his 
 claim to Milan. He met there with signal success : the Eng- 
 lish and Dutch, after some fruitless negotiations with France, 
 resolved to support him. He gained the elector of Branden- 
 burg by creating him king of Prussia; and the king of Den- 
 mark was ready to aid him. 
 
 A treaty, called the Grand Alliance, was signed by the 
 plenipotentiaries of the emperor, the Stntes General, and the 
 king of England. The avowed objects of it were, to procure 
 the emperor satisfaction respecting the Spanish succession, 
 to prevent the union of the French and Spanish monarchies, 
 &c. Neither England nor Holland would agree to support 
 the emperor in his demand of all the Spanish dominions. 
 
 On the death of William III., his successor, queen Anne, nOk 
 declared her resolution to adhere to the Grand Alliance, and 
 war was declared by the three powers against France. In 
 the first campaign, the French defeated the imperialists on 
 the Upper Rhine ; but the earl of Marlborough made greai 
 progress in Flanders, and the combined fleets of England and 
 Holland captured the Spanish galleons, and took and burned 
 a French fleet in Vigo bay. The duke of Savoy, long irreso- 170: 
 lute, at length joined the allies, as did also the king of For
 
 466 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PARI ttl 
 
 tugal. The elector of Bavaria and Marshal Villars defeated 
 the imperialists at Hochstadt. The French had the advantage 
 in Italy and Alsace. In Flanders, the genius of Marlborough 
 kept them in check. The emperor now directed his son 
 Charles to assume the title of king of Spain. 
 4. D. The emperor was almost besieged in his capital by the 
 ■704. Hungarian malcontents on one side, and the French and 
 Bavarians on the other. Marlborough, as the United Prov- 
 inces were now secured, resolved to march into Germany, to 
 the aid of Leopold. He crossed the Rhine at Coblentz, and 
 meeting prince Eugene at Mondelsheim, a junction was 
 agreed on between the allies and the imperial troops under 
 the duke of Baden. They forced the intrenchments of the 
 elector of Bavaria at Donawert. The elector was reinforced 
 by 30.000 French under Tallard : prince Eugene joined 
 Marlborough with 20,000. Each army consisted of about 
 60,000 men, when they engaged (Aug. 13) near the village 
 of Blenheim, on the banks of the Danube. The victory of 
 the allies was signal ; 30,000 French and Bavarians were 
 killed, wounded, and taken : the loss of the allies was 5000 
 killed, and 7000 wounded. All Bavaria was overrun; the 
 victors crossed the Rhine, and entered Alsace. In Italy and 
 Spain the advantage was on the side of the French ; but the 
 important fortress of Gibraltar was taken by the English. 
 
 1705. Next year the French maintained their superiority in Italy; 
 but in Spain almost the whole of Valencia and Catalonia sub- 
 mitted to Charles. In Flanders Marlborough was unable to 
 effect any thing. Leopold died this year. 
 
 1706. Louis now resolved to strain every nerve to maintam an 
 army in Germany, support his grandson in Spain, strip the 
 duke of Savoy of his dominions, and act offensively in Flan- 
 ders. The ardor of Villeroy in the latter country destroyed 
 all his projects: this general, though with a superior force, 
 gave battle to Marlborough at Ramillies, and was defeated, 
 with the loss of 7000 killed, and 6000 prisoners. All Brabant, 
 and nearly all Spanish Flanders, submitted to the conquerors. 
 In Italy the French, under the duke of Orleans, were attacked 
 and driven out of their camp before Turin, by prince Eugene ; 
 and the house of Bourbon in consequence lost all the territo- 
 ries it claimed in Italy. In Spain the French and Spaniards 
 were repulsed in their attack on Barcelona, and the English 
 and Portuguese entered Madrid, wh'ich they were, however, 
 unable to retain. Most advantageous terms were now offered 
 bv Louis to the allies; but tlie self-interest of Marlborough, 
 Eugene, and the pensionary Heinsius, prevented their being
 
 JAMES 11. 
 
 WILLIAM & MARY. 
 
 ANNE. 
 
 GEORGE I. 
 
 GEORGE H. 
 
 GEORGE III.
 
 Looii XJT. aoeepUng the Crown of Spain for his QrandMn, Philip V.
 
 CHAP. V. TIMES or LOUIS XIV. 469 
 
 accepted, though without any ferther effusion of blood all the 
 objects of the grand alliance might now be attained. 
 
 Louis collected all his energies : his troops being obliged a d 
 to evacuate Milan, Mantua, and Modena, he sent them to the 1707 
 aid of his grandson ; and (April 26) the duke of Berwick 
 (a natural son of James II.) gained a most decisive victory 
 over the confederates, under the earl of Galway and the 
 marquis las Minas, at Almanza. The duke of Orleans re- 
 duced Valencia and part of Aragon. Prince Eugene and 
 the duke of Savoy entered France and laid siege to Toulon, 
 but were forced to abandon the enterprise. Enraged by a 1708- 
 futUe attempt of Lrouis in favor of the son of James IL, the 
 English parliament adopted most vigorous measures for con- 
 tinuing the war. Marlborough passed over to Flanders, where 
 the French had taken Ghent and Bruges; and though not 
 yet joined by Eugene, he crossed the Scheld, and came up 
 with the French armv, commanded by the duke of Vendome, 
 at Oudenarde. The battle was obstinate, and lasted till 
 night, during which the French fled, leaving the glory of the 
 victory with the allies. Prince Eugene now formed the 
 siege of and took Lisle ; and Ghent and Bruges were recov- 
 ered. The French had rather the advantage in Spain and 
 Italy ; but Sardinia and Minorca surrendered to the English 
 admiral Leake. 
 
 Again Louis offered the most honorable and advantageous 1709 
 terms to the allies : he was willing to cede a'll the Spanish 
 dominions to Charles, to give back to the emperor all his 
 conquests on the Upper Rhine, to acknowledge the succession 
 established in England, the king of Prussia, &c. — in a word, 
 to do every thing that justice could possibly demand. Again 
 the passions and selfishness of those three above-named per- 
 sons retarded the repose of Europe. The French monarch 
 appealed to his people, and, though wasted by famine, they 
 resolved on new efforts. 
 
 The allied army, 100,000 strong, was formed on the plains 
 of Lisle. Villars, who commanded the French forces, covered 
 Douay and Arra.q. Eugene and Marlborough, deeming it 
 imprudent to attack him, drew off, and sat down before Tour- 
 nay. That strong city was reduced. They invested Mons. 
 Villars encamped within a league of it, at Malplaquet The 
 allies attacked him (Sept 11.) in tlie strong position he occu- 
 pied: the contest was obstinate and bloody: the allies re- 
 mained masters of the field, with the loss of 15,000 men; the 
 French retreated, with the loss of 10,000, the armies having 
 been of nearly equal strength. Mens surrendered. Little 
 of importance was done elsewhere. Louis aguin applied for 1710 
 40
 
 / 
 
 470 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 111. 
 
 peace, and a conference was appointed at Gertruydenburg. 
 He was willing to raake still farther concessions ; but the in- 
 aolence and extravagance of the demands of the States, to 
 whom the negotiation was committed, were such, that it was 
 not possible for him with any honor to accede to them. Eu- 
 gene and Marlborough reduced Douay, and other towns. 
 Villars declined a battle. In Spain, Philip and Charles en- 
 gaged each other at Almenara and Saragossa, and Charles 
 was victorious in each conflict He entered Madrid. More 
 troops arriving from France, the Spanish nobles made every 
 effort for Philip. Vendome took the command, and forced 
 the English general Stanhope to surrender, with 5000 men, 
 at Brihuega, but was himself beatten at Villa Viciosa by count 
 Staremburg, with a far inferior force. 
 
 A great portion of the English nation was now grown tired 
 of the expenses of the war ; a change had taken place m its 
 A. D. ministry, the Tories having come into power ; the emperor 
 ''3'11. Joseph was dead, and his brother Charles had succeeded him 
 in the empire. As by the grand alliance the imperial and 
 Spanish crowns could not be held by the same person, a great 
 difficulty in the way of adjustment was now removed. After 
 an inactive campaign, conferences for peace were opened at 
 Utrecht, where the treaties were at last signed, on the 31st 
 of March, 1713, by the plenipotentiaries of France, England, 
 Portugal, the United Provinces, Prussia, and Savoy ; the em- 
 peror and the king of Spain refusing to be included. 
 
 It was stipulated that Philip should renounce all title to the 
 crown of France, and the dukes of Berri and Orleans to tllat 
 of Spain; that in case of the failure of male issue of Philip, 
 the duke of Savoy should succeed to the crown of Spain ; 
 that Naples, Milan, and the Spanish territories on the Tuscan 
 coast should be ceded to the house of Austria, and that house 
 secured in the possession of the Spanish Netherlands ; that 
 the Rhine should be .he boundary between France and Ger- 
 many, &c. &c. The acquisitions of England were chiefly in 
 America : she was to retain Gibraltar and Minorca, to have 
 the Asiento or contract for supplying the Spanish settlements 
 with negroes for thirty years ; and Louis acknowledged the 
 settlement of the English throne. But the real gain was on 
 the side of Louis, who obtamed all that the war had been en- 
 gaged in to prevent his acquiring. This treaty brought well- 
 merited odium on the English ministry. 
 714 The following year the emperor made peace at Rastadt, on 
 less favorable terms than were offered him at Utrecht. The 
 king of Spain also acceded to the pacification, and Europe 
 rested from war.
 
 CHAP. V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 471 
 
 In thifl year died Louis XIV., the disturber of Europe for 
 nearly half a century. Ilis grandson and successor being a 
 minor, the duke of Orleans was appointed regent. 
 
 North of Europe — Peter the Great — Charles XII. 
 
 The people of Denmark, to escape the tyranny of the no- x. d 
 bles, solemnly surrendered their liberties to Frederick III., in 1670 
 1661. His successor. Christian V., made war on Charles 
 XI. of Sweden, whose father, Charles X.,'had been called to 
 the throne, on the abdication of Christina, daughter of Gusta- 
 vus Adolphus. Charles XII., a minor, succeeded his father, 1697 
 Charles XI. 
 
 Alexei of Russia was followed by his son Theodore, who, 
 dying early, appointed his half-brother Peter to succeed; but i682 
 his sister Sophia, aided by the Strelitzcs, attempted to secure 
 the power for herself Peter being but ten years of age, she 
 made his imbecile brother Ivan tsar, and associated Peter 
 with him. At the age of seventeen Peter succeeded in sub- 
 verting the power of Sophia, and obtained the full royal dig- 
 nity and influence. He defeated the Turks at Azoph, which 1C96 
 opened to him the Black Sea. He formed vast plans for the 
 improvement of his empire, and he spent a year in Holland 
 and England, making himself acquainted with the useful arts. 
 
 Eager to distinguish himself in war, he joined the kings of 1701 
 Poland and Denmark against the young king of Sweden. 
 Charles, though a youth, showed himself a hero. He made 
 an alliance with Holland ainl England, landed in Denmark, 
 laid siege to Copenhagen, and forced the king to a peace. 
 The Russians had, meantime, besieged Narva with 80,000 
 men. Charles hasted thither with 10,000, forced their in- 
 trenchments, killed 18,000, and took 30,000 prisoners. Next 
 year he defeated the Poles and Saxons on the Duna, and 1702 
 overran Livonia, Courland, and Lithuania. 
 
 Augustus elector of Saxony was king of Poland : his new 
 subjects were dissatisfied with him. Charles fonned the de- 
 sign of dethroning him by their means. lie defeated him at 
 Clissau, between Warsaw and Crftcow, and this last city sur- 
 rendered. Augustus engaged him again at Pultausk, and 
 was again defeated. He fled to Tliorn. The throne was 1703 
 pronounced vacant by the diet, in which the intrigues of 
 Charles prevailed, and Stanislaus Leczinzky was chosen king. 1704 
 
 Peter, having retaken Narva, sent 60,000 men into Poland : 
 a Saxon army entered it under general Schalemburg; but 
 Charles soon drove the Russians out of the country, and hia 
 general Renschild defeated Schalemburg at Frauenstadt with 170& 
 great slaughter, The king of Sweden entered and overran
 
 472 mSTOBT OF THB WORLD. PART III. 
 
 A. D. Saxony, and forced Augustus to recognize Stanislaus. Having 
 
 1707. made the emperor comply with has demands, Charles re- 
 turned to Poland, with 40,000 men. He attempted, though 
 it was winter, to march to Moscow; but the Tsar had de- 
 stroyed the roads. Urged by Mazeppa, chief of the Cossacks, 
 who offered to join him with 30,000 men, and supply him 
 '<)8. with provisions, he entered the Ukraine. Here he encoun- 
 tered nothing but disappointment. Mazeppa's plans had been 
 discovered ; no supplies were provided : general Lewenhaupt, 
 whom he had ordered to join him with 15,000 men from Livo- 
 nia, arrived with his army reduced to 4000 men. Though 
 urged by his ministers to retreat, or to winter in the Ukraine, 
 he madly resolved to proceed. He laid siege to Pultowa, a 
 strong town. His army was now reduced to less than 30,000 
 men ; the Tzar, at the head of 70,000, approached to its relief. 
 Charles, leaving 7000 to conduct the siege, advanced to give 
 
 nw. him battle. (July 8). The result of the conflict was that 
 Charles, with 300 men, sought a refuge with the Turks at 
 Bender. The entire Swedish army were killed or Uiken. 
 Augustus recovered Poland; and, but for the emperor and 
 the maritime powers, Sweden would have been dismem- 
 bered. 
 
 After an abode of nearly five years in Turkey, Charles re- 
 turned to his own dominions, and conducted the war agamst 
 the Danes and Saxons. He was at length killed before the 
 na fortress of Fredericshall, in Norway. His sister Ulrica was 
 crowned queen. 
 
 Peter, justly styled the Great, having given his country a 
 rank among European powers, introduced into her civilization 
 and the arts, and founded a capital in the north of his domin- 
 ions, took the title of emperor. But he never was able to 
 subdue the native ferocity of his own temper, and he put to 
 death his son Alexis for no just cause. He left his crown to 
 
 J 726. his wife, the famous Catherine I. 
 
 England. 
 
 The chief domestic events in Great Britain were the union 
 with Scotland, accomplished in 1706, and the settlement of 
 701. the crown on Sophia, duchess dowager of Hanover, and her 
 heirs, being Protestants. This prmcess was daughter of 
 Elizabeth, daughter of James I., who was married to the un 
 fortunate elector palatine.
 
 *^:??^vv:jwi 
 
 Rising of the Scottish Clans, in 1715.
 
 CHAt. VI. PERIOD OP COMPARATIVE REPOSB. 476 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 rERIOD OF COMPARATIVE REPOSE 
 
 England. 
 
 On the death of queen Anne, George elector of Hanover a. d 
 was, by virtue of the act of settlement, proclaimed king. The 'i-* 
 power of the state was now committed to the Whigs, and the 
 late Tory ministers, who had been desirous of securing the 
 succession of the son of James II., now called the Pretender, 
 were impeached of high treason. Louis XIV. had refused to 
 take any share in the projects of the Pretender, but, on his 
 death, the regent of France secretly encouraged him. His 
 partisans rose in arms in the Highlands of Scotland and the 1715. 
 west of England. The English rebels were forced to surren- 
 der at Preston ; and the battle of SherifF-Muir, though not de- 
 cisive, crushed the hopes of the northern rebels. The Pre- 
 tender himself landed in Scotland, but, finding his affairs des- 
 perate, retired. 
 
 In this reign was passed the act for making parliaments 
 septennial instead of triennial, which they had previously 1727 
 been. George II. succeeded his father. 
 
 The Quadruple Alliance. 
 
 Philip V. had, after the death of his first queen, married 1711 
 Elizabeth Farnese, presumptive heiress of Parma, Placentia, 
 Eind Tuscany. She was a woman of spirit, and governed that 
 weak monarch ; she was herself directed by Alberoni, a na- 
 tive of Placentia. This bold statesman formed the project of 
 recovering all the dominions ceded at the peace of Utrecht, 
 especially those in Italy. He labored to put the finances of 
 Spain on the best footing; he intrigued in every court; he 
 persuaded Philip that his renunciation of the crown of France 
 was invalid, and that he had even a right to the regency of 
 that kmgdom. Alberoni encouraged the Scottish Jacobites, and 
 inflamed the French malcontents, and a plot was formed for 
 a rising in Poitou, and a seizure of the person of the regent. 
 
 The exorbitant ambition of the court of Spain determined 
 the regent to enter into an alliance with England, Holland, 
 and the emperor, to maintain the treaty of Utrecht This 
 was called the Quadruple Alliance. One of its articles 
 was, that the duke of Savoy should exchange Sicily with the 
 emperor for Sardinia, of which he was to take the title of 
 kmg; and by another, Don Carlos, son of the young queer
 
 476 HISTORY OF THK WORLD. PART III 
 
 of Spain, was to succeed to Parma, Placentia, and Tuscany 
 on the death of the present possessors without issue. 
 A. D. This alliance made no change in the conduct of the court 
 1'18- of Spain, who had already taken possession of Sardinia and a 
 part of Sicily, and France and England declared war against 
 her. An English fleet, under Sir George Byng, entered the 
 Mediterranean, defeated the Spanish fleet near Sicily, an 
 that island and Sardinia were recovered. The duke of Ber 
 wick reduced St Sebastian and Fontarabia, and Philip wa 
 obliged to dismiss Alberoni, and accede to the terms of th 
 1720. quadruple alliance. 
 
 1725. A private treaty was aflerwards concluded between the 
 emperor and the king of Spain at Vienna. This treaty gave 
 umbrage to England, France, and Holland ; and to counteract 
 it, one was concluded at Hanover between them and Prussia, 
 
 1726. Denmark, and Sweden. The emperor and the king of Spain 
 remained quiet ; but the English fitted out three fleets, one 
 of which, under admiral Hosier, was sent to the West Indies 
 to block up the galleons at Porto Bello ; but the attempt waa 
 a complete failure. The Spaniards, in return, laid seige to 
 Gibraltar. By the mediation of France a treaty was made 
 
 1729. at Seville, by which it was agreed that all the stipulations of 
 the quadruple alliance should be fulfilled. 
 
 1731. The treaty of Seville was confirmed by the emperor, and 
 the Spanish troops took possession of Parma and Placentia. 
 The contracting powers agreed to guaranty the Pragmatic 
 Sanction, or law by which the emperor secured to his female 
 heirs the succession of the Austrian dominions in case of his 
 dying without male issue, and the peace of Europe was now 
 restored. 
 
 733. But, on the death of Augustus king of Poland, Stanislaus, 
 who was recommended by the king of France, who had mar- 
 ried his daughter, being a second time chosen king, the em- 
 peror and the Russians made the Poles proceed to another 
 election, and choose the elector of Saxony, son of Augustus. 
 The king of France entered into an alliance with the kings 
 of Spain and Sardinia, and war was commenced against the 
 emperor in Germany and Italy. The French arms were suc- 
 cessful in Germany. In two campaigns the Spaniards be- 
 came masters of Naples and Sicily ; the troops of France and 
 Savoy took Milan and other places, and gave the imperialists 
 two complete defeats at Parma and at Guastella. The em- 
 peror was now desirous of peace ; and as the pacific Fleury 
 directed the councils of France, a treaty was easily brought 
 
 735. about Stanislaus was to resign his claim to the crown of 
 PoJand for the dachy of Lorrain, the duke of Lorrain being
 
 OHiP. VI PERIDD OF COMPARATIVE REPOSE. 477 
 
 gecured by Louis an annual pension of 8,500,000 livres till 
 the death of John Gaston, the last of the house of Medici, and 
 in that event the duchy of Tuscany ; the emperor was to ac- 
 knowledge Don Carlos as king of the two Sicilies, and to re- 
 ceive the duchies of Parma and Placentia ; Novara and Tor- 
 tona were to be given to the king of Sardinia ; France was 
 to give back her conquests in Germany, and to guaranty the a. i> 
 Pragmatic Sanction. Peace waa made at Vienna on these 1738 
 terms. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Catherine reigned but two years after the death of Peter. 
 She died in the 38th year of her age, and her son Peter became 172"^ 
 emperor. After a short reign of three years, Peter also died. 
 The Dolgoruki family, as the male line of the house of Romanov 1730 
 expired in hun, thought this a favorable occasion for gaining 
 the love of the nation by limiting the imperial authority. 
 Deputies were sent to offer the crown, on certain conditions, 
 to Anne, the widow of the duke of Courland, and daughter 
 of the Tsar Ivan, brother of Peter tlie Great. She accepted 
 the conditions; bnt when she found herself fixed on the 
 throne, she tore the contract, and ruled with absolute power. 
 Having no children, Anne fixed on marrying the daughter of 
 her sister Catherine, duchess of Mecklenburg, also named 
 Anne, to some foreign prince, and settling the succession on 
 the offspring of their marriage. The princess was, therefore, 
 united to Anton Ulrich of Brunswick-Bevern, by whom she 
 bare a son named Ivan, who succeeded the empress. 1740 
 
 Turkish wars. 
 
 The Turks had, in 1669, taken Candia from the Venetians. 
 By the peace of Carlowitz (1699), the Venetians obtained 
 tlie Morea, and some places in Dalmatia. While Charles 
 XII. was in Turkey, a war broke out between the Turks and 
 Russians; but the Tsar, who had advanced to the Pruth, be- 
 ing greatly outnumbered by the army of the vizier, was glad 
 to conclude a treaty. 1711 
 
 Immediately after the peace of Utrecht, sultan Ahmed III. 1715 
 declared war against tiie Venetians, and overran the Morea. 
 The emperor Charles VI., as guarantee of the peace of 
 Carlowitz, declared war against the Turks, and prince Eu- 
 gene gave the troops of tlie sultan a total defeat at Peter- 
 waradm. He laid siege to Belgrade, defeated an army that 1717 
 came jo Its relief, and compelled it to surrender. 
 
 A peace was made at Passarowitz, by which the Turk* .'"li
 
 478 insTORY OP the world. part m 
 
 Burrendered Belgrade and the Bannat of Temiswar, but re- 
 tained the Morea. 
 
 i D. Under the pretext of the incursions of the Nogai Tatars 
 
 173G. not being checked, the empress of Russia declared war 
 against Turkey. A Russian army, under Miinnich, took pos- 
 session of the Crimea. In the following campaign the town 
 
 737. of OczacofF was taken by storm. The emperor now joined 
 the Russians, as he was bound to do by treaty ; but the im- 
 perial arms met little success, and a peace was concluded, to 
 which the Russian empress, though her forces had gained a 
 great victory at Chotin, was obliged to accede. Belgrade, 
 
 739 Sabatch, and the Austrian part of Servia, were ceded to 
 Turkey ; Russia retained Azoph. 
 
 Persia — Nadir Shah. 
 
 The dynasty of the Suffavies had occupied the throne of 
 Persia for 220 years. Their latter princes had been effemi- 
 nate sensualists, and capricious tyrants. In the reign of 
 
 1722. Shah Hoossein, Mahmood, an Affghan prince, invaded Persia, 
 defeated the troops of Hoossein, and forced him to abdicate 
 in his favor. Tamasp, the son of Hoossem, straggled inef- 
 
 1725. fectuaUy against the usurper. The Turks and the Russians 
 invaded Persia. Mahmood dying, was succeeded by Ashraff, 
 a valiant Affghan chief: but Tamasp was now supported by 
 Nadir Kooli, who, from a low rank in one of the Turkish 
 tribes in Khorassan, had, by his valor and talents, raised him- 
 self to power and importance. The fortune of war was ad- 
 
 >~29. verse to the Affghan monarch ; he was defeated, and after- 
 wards slain. 
 
 Nadir was presented by Shah Tamasp with the four finest 
 provinces of the empire. He turned his arms with success 
 against the Turks ; but while he was absent in Khorassan, 
 Tamasp marched against them, was defeated, and reduced to 
 make an ignominious peace. Nadir, inveighing against thi? 
 national disgrace, dethroned the unhappy prince, and occu- 
 732. pied his place. He then commenced operations anew against 
 the Turkish forces, and defeated them. Offended at a breach 
 of friendship by the emperor of India, Nadir invaded that 
 country. One great victory, near Delhi, laid the power of 
 
 •73a the descendant of Timoor at his feet. Upwards of 30,000,000 
 sterling of booty, and the annexation of the ccuntry west of 
 the Indus to his dominions, rewarded the victory of Nadir, 
 who committed less crimes in so great a conquest than almost 
 any Asiatic victor. He afterwards subdued the kings of Bok- 
 hara and Khowaresm, and gained a final victory over the 
 Turks in Armenia. For the last five years of his life, Nadu
 
 LOUIS XV. SHOWN TO THE PEOPLE.
 
 CHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 481 
 
 exercised the most dreadful tyranny : he blinded his brave 
 son, Riza Kooli, massacred his subjects by thousands, and ^ ^ 
 was at lengtlj assassinated by his own officers. His nephew, 174? 
 Adil Shah, seized on the supreme power, and murdered all 
 the family of Nadir but his grandson. Shah Rokh, who ruled 
 Khorassan while Persia waa struggled for by contending 
 chief& 
 
 CHAP. vn. 
 
 TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 
 
 The Silesian Wars. 
 
 The eniperor Charles VI. was succeeded in his hereditary ^''4tt 
 dominions by his dau<rhter Maria Theresa, who was in her 
 twenty-fourth year, and married to Francis duke of Lorrain, 
 now grand duke of Tuscany. Various princes laid claim to 
 the wiiole or a part of her dominions; but allegiance was 
 readily sworn to lier by all her subjects, and by her volunta- 
 rily taking the oath of their ancient sovereigns, she com- 
 pletely gained the affections of the Hungarians. 
 
 The first power by which she was assailed was Prussia. IH 
 Frederic William, the late king, had amassed a considerable 
 treasure, and formed an army of 60,000 men. His son, Fred- 
 eric II., was young, talented, and ambitious : he resolved to 
 take advantage of the present state of the queen of Hungary, 
 and he revived an antiquated claim to a part of Silesia. At 
 the head of 30,000 men he overran a great part of that prov- 
 ince, and took Breslau, its capital. He offered to aid the 
 queen with men and money to protect the rest of her domin- 
 •ons, and to assist in obtaining the imperial throne for her 
 nusband, if she would cede to him Lower Silesia. Maria re- 
 cused, and sent an army against him : their forces met at 
 Molwitz, near Neiss, and the superiority of the Prussian in- 
 fantry won the day. 
 
 France had guarantied the Pragmatic Sanction, and Fleury 
 wished to observe it; but the princes and the young nobility 
 were eager for war, and represented that the time was come 
 for humbling the house of Austria, and exalting that of Bour- 
 bon, by diminishing the Austrian dominions, and raising to 
 the imperial dignity the elector of Bavaria, the stipendiary 
 of France. 
 
 The moderation of I/iuis yielded to these brilliant pros- 
 pects: treaties of spoliation and division were made with th« 
 41
 
 482 IIISTOKY OF THE WORLD. PART III 
 
 elector of Bavaria and the kings of Prussia and Poland. The 
 French forces were put in motion; Louis appointed the elec- 
 tor of Bavaria to \e his lieutenant-general, with the marshals 
 Belleisle and Bruglio under him. The king of England, fear- 
 mg for his German dominions, concluded a treaty of neutrali*;7 
 for Hanover. 
 
 Tiie elector of Bavaria, being joined by Broglio, surprised 
 Passau, and entering Upper Austria, took Lintz and menaced 
 Vienna. The queen fled to Hungary, and, with her infant 
 son in her arms, called on the assembled nobles for protection. 
 They swore to defend her cause till death.* These were not 
 idle words ; crowds of warriors rushed to the field. To the 
 astonishment of her enemies, 30,000 Hungarians marched to 
 the relief of Vienna. The elector retired into Bohemia, 
 where, joined by 15,000 Saxons, he took Prague, and having 
 ^ D been crowned king of Bohemia, proceeded to Frankfort, where 
 742. he was chosen emperor under the name of Charles VII. 
 
 The English nation was eager for war; the pacific Sir 
 Elobert Walpole was obliged to retire from the helm of the 
 state ; his successors resolved to assist the queen of Hungary; 
 troops were sent to the Netherlands, and a subsidy voted to 
 the queen. Meantime, the Austrians had recovered Lintz, 
 and they entered Bavaria, and took Munich. Another army 
 advanced against the king of Prussia, who had entered Mo- 
 ravia, which was to be a part of his share of the spoil. He 
 retired before it, abandoning Olmutz which he had taken. 
 The Austrians now intended uniting all their forces against 
 Broglio and Belleisle ; but the king of Prussia, having been 
 reinforced, marched to their aid, and gave battle to prince 
 Charles of Lorrain at Czaslau, where, after an obstinate con- 
 flict, the prince was forced to retire with the loss of 4000 
 men. Immediately after this battle, the king of Prussia made 
 at Breslau a separate treaty with the queen of Hangary, who 
 ceded to him Silesia and Glatz, on condition of his neutrality, 
 A treaty was at the same time concluded with the king of 
 Poland. 
 
 The court of France was filled with indignation at the 
 conduct of the king of Prussia. Broglio and Belleisle retired 
 under the walls of Prague, and offered to surrender all their 
 conquests in Bohemia for permission to retire. The queer 
 insisted on their surrendering as prisoners of war. They in 
 uignantly refused. Maillebois, who commanded on the Rhine, 
 marched with 40,000 men to their relief Being joined by 
 30,000 Bavarians and French, he entered Bohemia ; but, un- 
 
 * Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa.
 
 2HAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 483 
 
 able to join Broglio and Belleisle, he was obligee to retire to 
 the Palatinate. The French were blockaded in Prague. 
 Belleisle made a most gallant defence, and at last secretly 
 left the city, and conducted hia army in safety to Egra in 
 the mid-winter, and through a country possessed by the 
 enemy. 
 
 The Spaniards had sent an army to seize tlie Italian do- 
 minions of the house of Austria ; but by the active exertions 
 of the English fleet, and of the king of Sardinia and the 
 Austrian general Traun, they gained little eidvantage. The 
 court of Versailles now made offers of peace on most equi- 
 table terms ; but the queen, elated with success, rejected all 
 pacific measures. The imperialists were defeated at Bran- 
 nau; the French were driven towards the Rhine; and the 
 emperor was obliged to take refuge at Frajikfort, where he 
 lived in indigence and obscurity. 
 
 The British and Hanoverian troops under the earl of Stair 
 and the Austrians under the duke of Aremburg, marched from 
 the Low Countries towards Germany. The French army 
 under the duke of Noailles was posted near Frankfort. The 
 king of England had arrived in the camp of the allies. Noa- 
 illes had cut off all their supplies. It was expected that they 
 must surrender, or be cut to pieces in their retreat The re- 
 treat began : their route lay between a mountain and the 
 Main. Noailles had taken possession of the village of Det- 
 tingen in their front. His dispositions were admirable ; but 
 having repassed the river, his nephew, the duke of Gram- 
 mont, advanced (June 26), into a small plain to engage the 
 allies. Noailles saw, but could not remedy, this act of im- 
 prudence : the impetuosity of the French was forced to yield 
 to the steadiness of the allies, and they were driven over the 
 Main with the loss of 5000 men. The victory was produc- 
 tive of no important results. 
 
 The haughty conduct of Maria Theresa began now to give 
 great offence m the empire ; several princes entered into a 
 private negotiation with Charles VII. ; the king of Prussia 
 promised his aid on his usual terms — increase of territory. A a. a 
 family compact was entered into between France and Spain, »744 
 and an invasion of England attempted in favor of the pre- 
 tender. In Italy, the French and Spaniards were successful. 
 A treaty was formed at Frankfort between the emperor, the 
 king of Prussia, the elector palatine, and the landgraf of 
 Hesse Cassel. The French arms were victorious in Flan- 
 ders : the king of Prussia invaded Bohemia ; but he was 
 driven out of it with the loss of 20,000 men, and all his bag 
 gage and artillery. The emperor had recovered his domin-
 
 484 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART m 
 
 ions and capital ; but, on the retreat of the Prussians, he waa 
 A. D. again expecting to lose tliem, when death came to his relief. 
 1745. His son Maximilian, being only seventeen years of age, con- 
 cluded a treaty of peace with the queen of Hungary. She 
 agreed to recognize the imperial dignity of his late father, 
 and to put him in possession of all his liereditary dominions; 
 and he renounced all claim to any part of the Austrian suc- 
 cession, and promised to give his vote for the grand duke of 
 Tuscany at the ensuing election of an emperor. 
 
 France and Spain resolved to continue the war. Elizabeth 
 Farnese, who still directed the councils of the latter, was de 
 termined to gain a sovereignty in Italy for her second son 
 Philip. The republic of Genoa concluded an alliance with 
 the house of Bourbon : the army of the confederates was 
 more than double that opposed to it, and Milan, Pavia, and 
 several other towns were taken. A large French army 
 marched to the Main, to hold the queen of Hungary in cheek; 
 another of 76,000 men, under marshal Saxe, invested Tour- 
 nay. The allied army of 50,000 men resolved to attempt its 
 relief. The king and dauphin were in the French camp, and 
 Saxe posted his troops strongly behind the village of Fonte- 
 noy. (April 30). The allies attacked : the action commenced 
 at nine, and lasted till three. The efforts made by the British 
 infantry were incredible ; but not being duly supported by 
 the Dutch and Austrians, they were obliged to retire, after 
 having lost 10,000 men. The victory of the French cost 
 them nearly an equal loss. But Tournay, Ghent, Ostend, and 
 several other towns, became their reward. 
 
 The grand duke was meanwhile elected emperor, under 
 the title of Francis I. The king of Prussia gained two bloody 
 victories over the Austrian troops, and he entered Saxony 
 and took Dresden. Peace was then concluded between him 
 and the queen of Hungary, and the king of Poland. 
 746 Brussels was taken by marshal Saxe, and all Flanders, 
 Hainaiilt, and Brabant reduced. Prince Charles of Lorrain 
 was unable to check the progress of Saxe ; Namur surren- 
 dered, and tlie indecisive battle of Roucoux ended the cam- 
 paio^n. In Italy, the arms of France and her allies were less 
 successful : an attack on the camp of prince Lichtenstein at 
 St. Lazaro failed, with great loss. The king of Sardinia 
 formed a junction with the Austrians ; the French and Span- 
 iards were driven under the walls of Genoa, and forced to 
 retire into France and Savoy ; and Genoa surrendered, and 
 was treated in worse than the usual Austrian mode in Italy 
 The Austrians, under count Brovra, 50,000 strong, invaded
 
 MASSACRE OF SETTLEIia
 
 A. D. 
 
 CHAP. VII. TIMES OP FREDERIC II. 487 
 
 Provence, but were soon obliged to retire, and the Genoese 
 rose and expelled them from their city. 
 
 The French, under Lowendahl, invaded the United Prov- 
 inces, and took several towns. The Dutch, become suspi- 174T 
 cious of their rulers, renewed, in the person of William Henry, 
 prince of Orange, the dignity of stadtholder, which had been 
 discontinued since the death of William III. New energy 
 was infused into their councils. The allies, under tlie duke 
 of Cumberland, gave battle to Saxe at Val, on his way to in- 
 vest Maestricht ; but, the British not being properly supported, 
 the advantage remained with the French. Bergen-op-Zoom 
 was besieged, and carried by assault by Lowendahl. Nice 
 and Villafranca were meanwhile taken by Belleisle ir Tti_y, 
 and an army of Austrians and Piedmontese formed, but were 
 forced to raise the siege of Genoa. The English were suc- 
 cessful at sea. Louis became anxious for peace. 
 
 A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle. Saxe laid 1743 
 siege to Maestricht : while he was occupied in it, a cessation 
 of arms was ordered, and peace was concluded at tne end of 
 the year. Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla were ceded to 
 Philip, with provision against their being united to the crown 
 of Spain, or of the Two Sicilies. Silesia and Glatz were 
 guarantied to the king of Prussia, whose selfish policy began 
 the war, and who was the only real gainer by it. France 
 and England, by all their waste of blood and treasure, gained 
 — nothing. 
 
 England, 
 
 During these continental wars, England had enjoyed inter- 
 nal tranquillity, till, in 17't5, Charles Edward, son of the pre- 
 tender, landed in the north of Scotland, and was joined by 
 several of the Highland clans. There being no adequate 
 force there to oppose them, they took possession of Dunkeld, 
 Perth, Dundee, and Edinburgh. At Preston Pans they de- 
 feated the royal troops. After some delay, they marched into 
 England, took Carlisle, and advanced as far as Derby. But 
 not finding themselves to be joined by the English Jacobites, 
 they retreated homewards. Carlisle was retaken by the duke 
 of Cumberland ; but Stirling fell into the hands of tlie rebels, 
 and general Hawley, who was coming to its relief, was routed 
 by them at Falkirk. On the advance of the duke of Cutiv 
 berland, the pretender retired northwards, followed by the 
 royal army. The final and fatal battle to the hopes of the 
 pretender was fought at CuUoden (April IG). After long 1741 
 skulking in various disguises, and experiencing a fidelity and 
 honor creditable to the national character he made his escape
 
 488 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART ni 
 
 to France. The barbarity exercised by the victors would dis- 
 grace the best of causes. Perhaps, few greater instances of 
 human folly could be shown than tliis blind attachment to an 
 obstinate, tyrannical, and bigoted family. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 In the semi-barbarous court of Russia, revolution succeeded 
 revolution, and ended in placing Elizabeth, daughter of Peter 
 the Great and Catherine, on the throne. She nominated as 
 A. D. her successor Charles Peter Ulrick, duke of Holstein, son of 
 1744. her sister Anna. She had him styled Grand Prince, and he 
 espoused Sophia Augustus, princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, who 
 took the name of Catherine Alexievna. This prince had had 
 his choice of the crowns of Sweden and Russia. He unfor- 
 tunately chose the latter. 
 
 TTte Seven Years' War. 
 
 Europe enjoyed but short repose after the peace of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle. France and England still quarrelled about 
 boundaries in America, and still carried on war in India. 
 England, as war seemed inevitable, wished to make it solely 
 a naval one ; and it was arranged to put Hanover under the 
 protection of the king of Prussia. The court of France was 
 displeased at this project; and the court of Vienna hoped, by 
 means of this displeasure, to recover Silesia, and to free itself 
 from the fears it entertained of the ambition of Frederic. The 
 
 1755. houses of Bourbon and Habsburg laid aside their jealousy, of 
 two hundred and eighty years' standing, and concluded an 
 alliance: they were joined by Sweden and Saxony. The 
 empress of Russia, who was bound to aid the king of Prussia 
 in protecting Hanover, declared against him. Spain, Portugal, 
 the Italian powers, and the United Provinces remained neu- 
 tral. Prussia and England stood alone. 
 
 1756*, The island of Minorca was taken by the French ; and their 
 arms were successful in India and America. The king of 
 Prussia entered Saxony, and made himselfmaster of Dresden: 
 he invaded Bohemia, and routed the Austrians at Lowesitz ; 
 the Saxon army surrendered at Ebenhert. 
 
 1757. The marshal d'Estrees passed the Rhine, with eighty 
 thousand men, to invade Hanover. The duke of Cumber- 
 land, with forty thousand Hanoverians and Hessians, attempt- 
 ed its defence, but was driven across the Weser ; and the 
 French became masters of the electorate. The Prussians 
 entered Bohemia in four divisions : that commanded by the 
 prince of Bevern obliged the Austrians to retire at Reichen 
 berg This division, and that of marshal Schwerin, united
 
 CHAP. VIL TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 489 
 
 with the one led by the king, engaged the Austrian arin|r 
 under prince Charles of Lorrain and count Brown, at Prague. 
 The Prussians were victorious, and besieged the Austrians 
 in that town ; but having been defeated at Colin, they raised 
 the siege, and evacuated Bohemia. The combined German 
 and French army had meantime advanced into Saxony: the 
 king of Prussia hastened to Dresden, assembled an army, and 
 at the village of Rosbach (Nov. 5) gave them battle, with 
 but half their number of men. His victory was brilliant, his 
 loss being but five hundred, while that of the enemy was nine 
 thousand killed, wounded, and taken. The Austrians had de- 
 feated the prince of Bevern, and taken Breslau. Frederic 
 gave them battle, and defeated them at Lissa : Breslau was 
 recovered. The Russians, who had entered the Prussian do- 
 minions, were forced, by want of provisions, to return home : 
 the Swedes were driven under the walls of Stralsund : the 
 Hanoverians rose against the French ; but the English were 
 unsuccessful in North America, and at sea. 
 
 At the head of the Hanoverians, prince Ferdinand of a. d 
 Brunswick obliged the French to cross the Rhine, and de- I'TSS 
 feated them at Crevelt. The king of Prussia recovered 
 Schweidnitz, and invested Olmutz ; but the approach of a 
 large Russian force obliged him to raise the siege. At Zorn- 
 dorf he defeated them with great slaughter. At Hochkirchen 
 he was himself defeated by the Austrians : he afterwards 
 forced them to retire into Bohemia. Marshal Daun was 
 obliged to retire from before Dresden, and Frederic entered 
 it in triumph. 
 
 The English admirals Hawke and Anson restored the lus- 
 tre of the British arms at sea. In America, the islands of 
 Cape Breton and St. John's were taken by general Amherst ; 
 the French settlements on tlie coast of Africa were reduced. 
 In India, the advantage was on the side of the French. 
 
 At the commencement of the next campaig-n, tlie Prussian 1759 
 arms were victorious on all sides. Tlie French had made 
 themselves masters of Frankfort on the Main. Prince Fer- 
 dinand, with an inferior force, attacked the duke of Broglio 
 at Bergen, in its vicinity, but was forced to retire with some 
 loss. The .French reduced Minden, Miinster, and some 
 other places. To save Hanover, the prince found it necessary 
 to give them battle : the conflict took place (Aug. 8) at 
 Minden : the French were defeated. The blame of the vic- 
 tory not being complete was laid on lord George Sackville, 
 the Eng^lish commander. 
 
 The Russians defeated the Prussian general Wedel in Sile- 
 iia. Frederic attacked the combined Austrian and Russian
 
 490 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III 
 
 army, of eighty thousand men, at Cunersdorf ; and the hor- 
 rible carnage of the day ended in the defeat of the Prussians: 
 yet Frederic, almost immediately after, forced his enemies to 
 act on the defensive. 
 
 The French army in Westphalia was extremely numerous 
 a portion of it was defeated by prince Ferdinand at Warburg 
 but the French remained masters of Hesse. The Austrian 
 and Russians poured into the dominions Eind conquests of 
 Frederic, and in his camp at Lignitz he was in danger of be 
 ing surrounded by three hostile armies. He advanced to 
 meet, and defeated that of general Laudohn, and thus escaped 
 but the Russians and Austrians entered Brandenburg, and 
 pillaged Berlin. Frederic rushed into Saxony at the head 
 of fifty thousand men, followed by Daun with seventy thou- 
 sand men ; and at Torgau the Prussian monarch gained a 
 hard-fought battle. 
 
 The English took the island of Guadaloupe, m the West 
 Indies : Crown Point and Ticonderoga were taken by gene- 
 ral Amherst. Quebec, after the defeat of the P'rench army 
 by general Wolfe, surrendered. The British arms were vic- 
 torious in India. Admirals Boscawen and Hawke defeated 
 the French fleets otF Cape Lagos and Belleisle. 
 A. D. George II. died ; but his successor resolved to continue the 
 
 1761. vvar. A family compact was concluded between the courts 
 of Versailles and Madrid. Prince Ferdinand repelled an at- 
 tack of the French armies at Kirche Denkern ; and Belleisle 
 was taken by a British force. 
 
 1762. War was now mutually declared by the courts of London 
 and Madrid. Portugal, refusing to join the alliance against 
 England, was invaded by the Spaniards; but they were 
 driven out of it by the British and native troops. Prince 
 Ferdinand was everywhere successful in Westphalia. 
 
 The death of the empress of Russia relieved the king of 
 Prussia from his apparently desperate situation. Peter HI. 
 was mild and pacific : he made a peace and alliance with the 
 Prussian monarch. Frederic carried on the war with viffor 
 against the Austrians ; but the dethronement and death of 
 his Russian ally perple.xed him, as he knew not what the 
 policy of Catherine II. might be : she continued the peace, 
 b\it recalled her troops. Frederic recovered Silesia. A ces- 
 sation of arms was made for Saxony and Silesia, Frederic 
 ravaged Bohemia and Franconia, 
 
 The British fleets and troops took Martinique and the 
 Havannah, in the West Indies, and Manilla, in the Philippine 
 islands. Negotiations for peace had long been going on, and 
 
 1763. the definitive treaty was signed at Paris (Feb. 10) ; and
 
 Oeneral Wolfe.
 
 Death of General Wolfe.
 
 -■HAP VIL TIMES OF FREDERIC H. 493 
 
 <Dout the same time another at Huberlsburg, between the em- 
 tress-queen anc *he king of Prussia. 
 
 England obtained all Canada, and the islands of St. John 
 «nd Cape Breton, great part of Louisiana, her conquests on 
 ihe Senegal, the island of Grenada : all her other conquests 
 she restored. Prussia and Austria agreed to place themselves 
 on the footing they were on at the commencement of hos- 
 tilities. 
 
 Thus ended the Seven Years' War — a war which had 
 caused such an efRision of blood and treasure : it ended with- 
 out being- productive of any real advantage to any one of the 
 parties. 
 
 Suppression of the Jesuits. 
 
 Europe now reposed from war. This period of tranquillity 
 IS marked by the suppression of the order of the Jesuits, 
 This order was founded by a soldier, Ignatius Loyola, in the 
 time of Charles V. Retaining his military ideas, Ignatius 
 imposed on the members of his new order the strictest obe- 
 dience ; but his rules were simple and innocent. His suc- 
 cessors, Lainez and Aquaviva, formed it into an institution 
 which might vie with any of ancient or modern times. It 
 speedily developed its powers ; the Jesuits became directors 
 of the consciences of the great, and teachers of the young ; 
 they excelled in learning ; they were the most zealous of 
 missionaries. Forming a body, whose soul was the general 
 of the order at Rome, they were the chief stay of papal power, 
 and on them rested the remaining faint hopes of regaining 
 spiritual dominion. But with all its great qualities and high 
 aspirations, the order was fated to meet with no final suc- 
 cess ; the spirit of the age was against it ; its assumptions 
 were too high, its moral system too lax, its intrigues and 
 movements too dark and complicated. 
 
 The marquis of Pombal, the Richelieu of Portugal, bated 
 the order, which stood in his way: vile calumnies were 
 forged against them, and they were expelled from Portugal, 
 The example was followed by France, then by Spain, Na- 
 ples, and finally by Austria. Their property was seized by 
 the rapacious governments: Spain and Portugal, the most 
 bigoted nations, were their most relentless persecutors. It 
 was the expulsion of the Moriscoes on a minor scale. The 
 unhappy fathers were forced on shipboard, and landed in the 
 papal states. The good Clement XIII. remonstrated — he x. d. 
 could do no more — in their favor: the excellent Clement lT7a 
 XIV, yielded to the ^orrent, and suppressed the order 
 "42
 
 494 mSTORT 0? THB WORLD. PAOT TO. 
 
 First Partition of Poland. 
 
 An event now occurred which throws into the shade all 
 that we have previously seen of injustice and aggression. 
 4. D. Tlie empress Catherine II. the northern Clytemnestra, had 
 762. ascended the throne of her deposed and murdered husband, 
 and had piously restored to the clergy their beards, pictures, 
 and revenues, of which he had deprived them. Augustus 
 III. king of Poland dying, the diet assembled at Warsaw to 
 choose a successor proved a stormy one : the pacific empress 
 considerately sent a body of troops thither to preserve the 
 peace ; and Stanislaus Poniatovsky, the candidate whom she 
 764. favored, was of course elected. He mounted the throne in 
 tranquillity ; but that state did not long endure. Animosities 
 broke out between the Catholic party and that of the dissi- 
 dents, who demanded an equality of rights: the latter were 
 supported by the empress of Russia and the king of Prussia. 
 Catherine fomented the disorders ; her troops behaved with 
 the greatest insolence ; a civil war, and a war against the 
 Russian intruders, agitated the unhappy country. At length 
 the time seemed to be arrived for the execution of a project, 
 first conceived by the royal philosopher of Sans Souci, — the 
 tranquillizing of Poland by its dismemberment. Religion ex- 
 cited some qualms in the mind of Maria Theresa ; it was, 
 however, forced to yield to the arguments of her enlightened 
 son, Joseph. On the part of Catherine, no one lotiked for 
 scruples. 
 
 The plunderers would act with some faint semblance of 
 justice ; some ridiculous old claims were therefore trumped 
 up against Poland. The king and people appealed to justice ; 
 a weak appeal against Russian bayonets. All good men be 
 held with abhorrence the flagrant breach of divine and human 
 laws, and the hypocrisy employed to veil it : the remaining 
 powers of Europe were not in a condition to interfere. A 
 third part of Poland was divided among the diademed rob- 
 bers. A diet was called to sanction the dismemberment of 
 their country ; three foreign armies were at hand to prevent 
 tumult : money and promises were distributed, and a majority 
 of six votes in the senate, of one in the assembly of nuncios, 
 sanctioned this detestable iniquity.' 
 
 The ravished provinces were, perhaps, better under their 
 new owners; for Frederic and Catheruie were both wise 
 sovereigns, and Joseph thought himself an adept in legislative 
 wisdom ; but eternal infamy will pursue their names, and the 
 partition of Poland disgrace the eighteenth century of the 
 Christian era.
 
 CHAP. Vn. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 495 
 
 Turkish War. 
 
 The afRiirs of Poland involved Russia in a war with Tur- 
 key. Large armies on both sides advanced towards the Dan- 4. i^ 
 ube. The war commenced with the ravage of the frontiers. 1769 
 In the spring fhe standard of the prophet Was displayed. The 
 Russians were driven by the vizier beyond the Dneister. The 
 able vizier was recalled ; his successor crossed the Dneister, 
 and was defeated : Chotin and other fortresses were taken. 
 
 A Russian fleet sailed round Europe, and appeared in the 1770 
 Grecian seas. The Turks had driven the Russians out of 
 Moldavia and Wallachia ; but the vizier was defeated near 
 the mouth of the Pruth. Bender was stormed, after a siege 
 of two months, and experienced Russian barbarity. The 
 Greeks of the Morea rose at the call of Russia ; the pasha of 
 Bosnia entered it with 30,000 men ; at Modon the hopes of 
 Greece were crushed. The Turkish fleet was defeated at 
 Epidaurus, and again defeated at Chios, and burnt at Chesme. 
 Syria and Egypt were in rebellion. The plague broke oui, 
 at Yassy, and spread to Moscow, where 90,000 persons died 
 of it 
 
 The Russians broke into and seized the Crimea. The jani- 17-2 
 zaries rose, murdered their aga, and set fire to their camp. 
 Ali, the Egyptian pasha, fell in battle against his brother-in- 
 law Mohammed, and his head was sent to Constantinople. 
 
 The Russians crossed the Danube : they were twice forced 1773 
 to raise the siege of Silistria, and they lost at Varna the 
 greater part of their artillery. Hassan Pasha swore to the 
 sultan to drive them over the Danube, and he performed his 
 oath. 
 
 Mustafa HI. died, and appointed his brother Abd-ul-Hamed 1774 
 to succeed, instead of his young son Selim. As no largesses 
 were distributed, the janizaries would serve no longer. 
 " Peace is necessary," said the mufti to the sultan, " since 
 thy people will fight no more." Catherine was also anxious 
 to end the war, and peace was concluded at Kainargi. The 
 free navigation of tlie Black Sea and some territory were 
 ceded to Russia. 
 
 American Revolutionary War. 
 
 Northern America had been chiefly colonized by the Eng- 
 lish; tlie settlements of the Dutch and French were acquired 
 by conquest. All these colonies were in the enjoyment of 
 liberal and jwpular constitutions; the country was highly 
 fertile, population rapidly increased, the energy and the bold- 
 ness of youtli animated the people, and crowds of colonists
 
 406 raSTORT OF THE WORLD. PART III 
 
 from Europe annually arrived on their shores. The mother 
 country being oppressed by debt, a plan was devised to make 
 . I, the colonies contribute to her relief, and a stamp-duty on va- 
 765! rious arti<-,les was imposed. The Americans remonstrated ; a 
 176S. change took place in the ministry, and the act was repealed. 
 The spirit of oppression on the one hand, and of resistance 
 on the other, still continued ; and when the parliament im- 
 posed a duty on tea, the Americans refused to pay it, and at 
 Boston the tea was flung into the sea. The British parlia- 
 ment passed bills for shutting up the port of Boston, and al 
 T74 tering the constitution of Massachusetts. The colonists called 
 a provincial congress, and addressed a manly petition to 
 the king. It was not received. The king and parliament 
 in their wisdom, or rather in their pride, determined on what 
 are called strong measures, and a civil war began. 
 1775. In the contest between England and her American colonies, 
 the first blood was shed at Lexington, in New-England. Eight 
 hundred British grenadiers and light infantry were sent out 
 from Boston, for the purpose of destroying some military 
 stores collected at Concord. On receiving intelligence of 
 this movement, the provincials of that neighborhood rose en 
 masse. A small body of them, appearing at Lexington, were 
 fired upon by the British, who then proceeded to Concord and 
 destroyed the public stores; but they were here attacked 
 with such spirit by the provincials, as to compel their imme- 
 diate retreat to Boston, with the loss of sixty-five killed and 
 two hundred and eight wounded and prisoners. From this 
 day, (April 18th,) the British were ibrmally besieged in Boston. 
 
 On the 17th June, the provincials, having thrown up a re- 
 doubt on Bunker's Hill, a position which commanded Boston, 
 were attacked by 3000 British, under generals Howe and 
 Pigot. The British were twice repulsed with heavy loss. On 
 the third attack, being reinforced, and the Americans having 
 exhausted their ammunition, the redoubt was carried with 
 the loss of 1054 British, and 450 Americans. 
 
 General Montgomery entered Canada with a small force, 
 and fell in an unsuccessful attempt on Quebec. 
 
 The first provincial congress had assembled at Concord, 
 Massachusetts, in 1774. A second assembled at Philadelphia 
 (May 1775), appointed John Hancock their president, and 
 George Washington commander-in-chief of the provincial 
 forces. He joined the army at Cambridge in July, and held the 
 British under general Howe closely besieged in Boston till 
 March, 1776, when the town was evacuated, and Washing 
 1776. ton entered it in triumph. 
 
 The British admiral Sir Peter Purker, with a hetivy nava
 
 Burrender of Burgoyno.
 
 CIIAP. VIL TIMES OP FREDERIC II. 499 
 
 force, was defeated in an attempt on Charleston, the capital 
 of South Carolina, by four hundred militia and soldiers of the 
 line intrenched on Sullivan's Island, under colonel Moultrie. 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1776, the congress declared the inde- 
 pendence of the United States of America. 
 
 New- York was occupied by the British, under general 
 Howe, and the Americans were compelled to retreat from 
 New-Jersey. Th,e latter, however, was soon recovered by a. n 
 general Washington, in the decisive actions of Trenton and 1771 
 Princeton. 
 
 General Washington, with an inferior force, hazarded an 
 engagement with Sir W. Howe, near the river Brandywine, 
 and was defeated with the loss of 1200 men. This was the 
 first action in which the marquis de La Fayette was engaged. 
 He was a young French nobleman, who had abandoned hia 
 brilliant prospects at the court of his sovereign, to embrace 
 Jie cause of liberty. 
 
 The English took Philadelphia, and defeated the republic- 
 ans, who attacked them at Germantown ; but general Bur- 
 goyne, who, having reduced Ticonderoga, was advancing to 
 join general Howe, was attacked at Saratoga, by colonel Ar- 
 nold : general Gates coming up with a considerable force, 
 prepared to surround Burgoyne, who, after a fruitless attempt 
 to force his way, was obliged to fall back on Saratoga, and 
 there to capitulate. His troops, 5790 in number, were to be 
 sent to England, and not to serve again in North America 
 during the war. The killed, wounded, and prisoners in the 
 preceding part of the expedition, amounted to upwards of 
 4000 men. 
 
 France had long been watching the progress of the con- 1778 
 test. This last event decided her, and an alliance was formed 
 with the infant republic. The court of Spain soon after fol- 
 lowed her example. An indecisive engagement took place 
 between the British and French fleets off Ushant : Sir Henry 
 Clinton took the chief command in America: he forthwith 
 abandoned Philadelphia, and retired to New- York. An at- 
 tempt on Rhode Island, by the American general Sullivan 
 and the French admiral d'Estaine, proved a failure. Com- 
 missioners were sent out from England to treat with the 
 Americans ; but as the latter insisted on the recognition of 
 neir independence, nothing could be effected. 
 
 Savannah, the capital of Georgia, having been taken by 
 colonel Campbell with 2000 British troops, the whole prov- 
 ince of Georgia seemed reunited to the British crown. An 1779 
 unsuccessful attempt was made to recover Savannah by gen- 
 eral Lmcoln, aided by a naval force under d'Estaine.
 
 500 raSTOIlY OF THE WORIiD. PART III 
 
 780. Charleston capitulated to general Clinton, and the province 
 of South Carolina was forced into a temporary submission to 
 ihe British. A provincial force, consisting- principally of mi- 
 litia, under general Gates, was defeated at Camden by the 
 British under earl Cornwallis and lord Rawdon. In this cam- 
 paign occurred the defection of Arnold, and the detection 
 and execution of the British major Andre as a spy. Sir 
 George Rodney defeated the Spanish fleet off cape St Vin- 
 cent, and thrice engaged, though not with decided success, 
 the French fleet under count de Guichen. 
 
 The jealousy of the continental powers of Europe now 
 showed itself, by the armed neutrality, which they all, under 
 the guidance of the tsarina of Russia, now entered into to 
 resist the right of search and blockade claimed by England. 
 A correspondence between Holland and the United States 
 relating to a loan and treaty being discovered, England de- 
 clared war against the Dutch ; and the island of St. Eustatia, 
 a rich magazine of wealth, was taken and plundered by a 
 nrval force under admiral Rodney. While his fleet was weak- 
 ened by a detachment sent to England with the produce of 
 the sales of confiscated property, the French were enabled 
 to gain a superiority on the American coast, which led to the 
 total ruin of the British army in America. 
 ;781. The Spaniards laid siege to Gibraltar, which was gallantly 
 defended ; but Minorca was forced to surrender. Indecisive 
 sea-actions were fought between Sir Hyde Parker and the 
 Dutch, and between Sir S. Hood and the count de Grasse. 
 The island of Tobago surrendered to the French. 
 
 The French admiral now resolved to assist the Americans 
 with vigor. They had defeated colonel Tarleton at the Cow- 
 pens, in Carolina, and, though not victorious in their attack 
 on Cornwallis at Guilford, had caused him considerable loss. 
 
 General Greene was defeated by lord Rawdon at Hobkirk ; 
 but soon after attacked the British force under colonel Stew- 
 art at Eutaw Springs, and overthrew them with a loss on 
 their side of eleven hundred men, including prisoners and 
 wounded. This action terminated the war in South Caro- 
 lina. 
 
 Earl Cornwallis having retreated from Carolina, took a sta- 
 tion at Yorktown, on York river, in Virginia, and had fortified 
 it and Gloucester on the opposite bank. The count de Grasse, 
 with a French fleet of 28 sad, having entered the Chesa- 
 peake, prevented admiral Greaves affording any relief to 
 Cornwallis, and general Clinton failed to send any aid from 
 New- York. A combined American and French armv under 
 Washington and Rochambeau, besieged him, and after some
 
 TBS INSTALLATION OF WABHINeTOB.
 
 oHAP, VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II 503 
 
 weeks Comwallis was compelled to capitulate. The troops, 
 7000 in number, were made prisoners of war ; the ships be- 
 came prizes to the French. i. d. 
 
 The war in America was now ended. The British ministry l78a 
 was changed. England saw the folly of protracting a useless 
 and destructive contest. She acknowledged (Jan. 20) the 1783 
 independence of the United States. A new constitution of 
 government was formed, and Washington was chosen presi- 
 dent ^ n 1 J r 
 
 Of the injustice of this war on the part of England, ftw 
 now have any doubt ; its importance, as an example, has been 
 felt in every subsequent struggle for Aberty which the world 
 has witnessed. 
 
 India. 
 
 The conquests of the Portuguese in the East were amaz- 
 ingly rapid. At the time they fell under the yoke of Spain, ;i58t 
 they were all-powerfiil on the coasts of India, possessed the 
 Moluccas, the coast of Ceylon, the isles of Sunda, and the 
 trade of China and Japan. The Dutch used to purchase the 
 products of the East at Lisbon, and distribute them over Eu- 
 rope. Philip II. having prohibited all intercourse with them 
 as rebels, they made their way to India, and formed a settle- 
 ment in Java, and an East India company was established. 
 While Portugal was united with Spain, they made constant 1595 
 war on her in the East, and in a few years they left her no- 
 thing there but Goa. 
 
 T^e English appeared in India a few years after the Dut<?h. IGOO 
 They also had formed a company. Their first settlements 
 were in Java, Banda, Amboyna, and Poleron. The Dutch 
 were jealous of them, and the rival companies carried on war 
 against each other. A treaty was concluded to arrange their 1623 
 differences ; but the Dutch, regardless of it, barbarously mas- 
 sacred the English at Ambcyna and other places, and ex- 
 pelled them from the Spice Islands. The supineness of James 
 I., and afterwards the civil wars of England, prevented the 
 nation attending to the East. Cromwell had a British spirit; 
 the company throve in his time : Charles II. betrayed and 
 oppressed it. 
 
 The great Colbert had formed a French East India com- 16G4 
 pany; their chief settlement was at Pondicherry, on the 
 Coromandcl coast. Thus the three greatest maritime powers 
 were established in India, and the wars of Europe were now 
 to be extended to that distant region. 
 
 During the war of the succession, the French had taken 1746 
 the En'rlish settlement of Madras. At the peace o^ Aix-la-
 
 504 HISTOKT OF THE WORLD. PART III 
 
 Chapelle it was restored. M. Dupleix, the governor of Pon- 
 dicherry, formed a grand plan for gaining territory for the 
 French India Company. Having a good body of troops under 
 him, he, by their valor, and his own mtrigues, managed tc 
 have the candidate he sided with appointed subahdar of the 
 Decan, and to get the nabobship of the Carnatic for Chunda 
 Sahib, for whose life he was himself appointed nabob of tliat 
 province. Dupleix aimed at obtaining all the country be- 
 tween Masulipatam, Goa, and Cape Comorin. Mohammed 
 AH, son of the late nabob of Arcot, implored the assistance 
 
 ^ D of ^he English, who gave him some reinforcements, and sev- 
 
 751 eral actions took place. In this war the famous Clive first 
 appeared ; with a small force he took Arcot, and when Chunda 
 Sahib besieged it with a large army, he defended it with 
 amazing talent and courage, and repelled the assailants. Re^ 
 inforced by colonel Kirkpatrick, he pursued and defeated the 
 enemy on the plains of Ami. The rajah of Tanjore, and 
 other princes, joined the English : Chunda and the French 
 were several times defeated. Mohammed was acknowledged 
 nabob of Arcot ; the French lost the greater part of their ac- 
 quisitions ; and peace was about to be made, when a new wai 
 broke out in Europe. 
 
 The three rival companies had early established factories iv 
 Bengal ; but the good policy of tlie Mogul government pre- 
 
 1696. vented their having any garrison or works of defence. Oa 
 occasion of a rebellion of the rajahs west of the Hooglee, the 
 factories augmented their soldiery and declared for the nabob, 
 who gave them permission to put their settlements in a state 
 of defence. The Dutch then fortified their factory at Hoog- 
 lee, the French theirs at Chandernagore, and the English 
 theirs of Fort William at Calcutta. 
 
 The English obtained some advantages from the court of 
 Delhi, and increased their wealth and power. Suraj-ud- 
 
 1766. Dowlah, the subahdar of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, offended 
 at their abuse of their privileges, and by their protecting a 
 nobleman who had fled from his vengeance, suddenly marched 
 with 50,000 men against Calcutta. After an ineffectual re- 
 sistance, the governor and all but 200 of the garrison of Fort 
 William escaped on shipboard. Mr. Holwell, who now took 
 die command, soon saw himself and his unhappy companions 
 immured by the cruel subahdar in the Black Hole, where 
 nearly the whole perished. The affairs of the English in 
 Bengal seemed now entirely ruined. 
 ■"ftT. But the aSairs of the company on the coast of Coromandel 
 being now settled, admiral Watson took on board colonel 
 Clive ajid some troops, and sailed for Calcutta. That town
 
 CHAP. Vll. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 505 
 
 was recovered, Hooglee reduced, and the Bubahdar obliged to 
 eue for peace. He agreed to restore every thing, and to 
 allovi' the presidency to extend over thirty-eight neighboring 
 villages. The English now turned their arms against the 
 French, and besieged and took Chandernagore. Clive aimed 
 at farther humbling the subahdar, who was backward in ful- 
 filling the treaty. In artifice, dissimulation, and what else is 
 dignified with the name of policy, he was a full match for an 
 Asiatic : he secretly gained Jaffier, the commander of the 
 troops of the province, and he persuaded tlie subahdar to dis- 
 band the forces he had collected at Plassy. Clive advanced 
 to take that important post ; but the subahdar had reassembled 
 his army, and occupied it. His forces were 50,000 foot, and 
 18,000 horse ; those of Clive 1000 Europeans, and 2000 Se- 
 poys; yet he ventured to give battle, and gained a victory. 
 Jaffier was acknowledged by him subahdar. Suraj-ud-Dowlah 
 was taken and put to death by order of the son of Jaffier ; 
 and the latter agreed to pay his allies the sum of 2,750,000 
 pounds sterling, and to enlarge their territory. 
 
 The war was carried on between the French and English ^. ^ 
 in the Carnatic. Count Lally, the French commander, being 1768 
 largely reinforced from home, reduced Cudalore and Fort St 
 David. Next year he failed in an attempt on Madras. The 175S 
 British now took the field, and reduced Masulipatam and Con- 
 jeveram. Wandewash was reduced by colonel Coote, who 
 defeated a strong army led by Lally to attempt its recovery. 
 Surat was taken by an English force from Bombay ; and the 
 Dutch were well castigated in Bengal for their designs against 
 the English in that quarter. 
 
 The English had deposed their ally Jaffier in Bengal (1760), 
 and placed Cossim on the musnud. Their cupidity made 
 them seize a pretext for making war on this prince : Uiey de- 
 prived him of the whole province of Bengal, and Jaffier was 
 again declared subahdar. The Great Mogul and the nabob 1765 
 of Oude in vain supported Cossim : they were obliged to sue 
 for peace. In the Mysore a war was carried on, mostly to 
 the advantage of the English, against Hyder Ali. 
 
 During the American war, the French lost all their set- 
 tlements in India. The company carried on a vigorous war 
 against Hyder Ali and the Mahrattas. Colonels Baillie and 1778 
 Fletcher were with their whole force taken or slain by Hyder 
 and his son Ti])poo; but Sir Eyre Coote defeated them in 1781 
 several engagements. Afler the death of his father, Tippoo 
 continued the war. 
 
 The English had now an extensive empire in India. Much 
 is it to be deplored tha* '" the acquisition and management 
 
 43
 
 506 mSTORT OP THE WORLD. PABT m 
 
 of it, the rights of humanity and justice were so frequently 
 trampled upon. It is an important inquiry what has been or 
 is to be tlie advantage or evil to India and Britain from their 
 close connexion. 
 
 Persia. 
 
 k D. When the dynasty of Nadir had been extinguished in Per- 
 
 "^ sia, the sovereignty of tliat country was contended for by the 
 different rival chiefs, whose claims were all successively 
 forced to yield to the power and the merit of Kerreem Khan, 
 a chief of the native Persian tribe of Zend. The reign of 
 this excellent prince, who occupied the throne twenty-six 
 years, is a delightful object of contemplation amid the scenes 
 of barbarity characteristic of eastern despotism. Justice, 
 clemency, moderation, goodness of heart, distinguished all hia 
 actions. He lived and died happily amidst a grateful and 
 
 1779. contented people. 
 
 On the death of Kerreem Khan, his brothers and nephews 
 contended for the vacant throne. After the usual series of 
 
 1789. atrocities attendant on such an event, the power remained in 
 the hands of Lootf Ali Khan, a youth of astonishing military 
 talent and courage ; but having behaved with ingratitude to 
 the able and virtuous Hajee Ibrahim, governor of Sheeraz, to 
 whom he was chiefly indebted for his throne, the latter, seeing 
 that he had no security for his life but in depriving the king 
 of the power to injure him, entered into a secret treaty with 
 Aga Mohammed Khan, chief of the Kajirs, a Turkish tribe, 
 settled in Mazenderan by Abbas the Great, who was now 
 grovm so powerful as openly to aspire to the empire. Lootf 
 Ali Khan, after struggling for his crown with a heroism 
 
 1795. rarely paralleled, fell at length into the hands of his cruel 
 rival, by whom he was put to death, with every refinement 
 of barbarity. This unhappy prince was but twenty-five years 
 old. Aga Mohammed was uncle to the present king of Per- 
 
 179*" eia ; and by his vigor and cruelty, he left the kingdom to his 
 successor in the state of obedience it has ever since main 
 tained. 
 
 CHAP. VIIL 
 
 TIMES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AIO) ElfPIEE. 
 
 State of Europe. 
 
 LiTERATXTRE ROW exerted a much more powerful influence 
 over the public mind than it had done at any preceding period. 
 A eet of men, many of them of talents of the first order, ar
 
 CHAP VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 509 
 
 rogating to themselves the exclusive title of philosophers, and 
 actuated at first, perhaps, by a zeal for truth, carried on an 
 incessant warfare against all that they were pleased to de- 
 signate as superstition and vulgar prejudice. But theirs was 
 not that philosophy which, elevated above all low and grovel- 
 ing passions, and irradiated by light from heaven, views with 
 pity rather than contempt the aberrations of man, and seeks 
 by mild and gentle methods to lead him into the way of truth. 
 It was heartless, cold, and cheerless; its summum bonum 
 was sensual indulgence or literary fame, and few of its pro- 
 fessors displayed any real dignity of soul : its favorite weapon 
 was ridicule; it attacked not alone the absurdities of the 
 popular faith, but it levelled its shafts at the sublimest truths 
 of religion ; it shook the firmest bases of social order, and 
 sought to rob man of all lofty hopes and aspirations. Every 
 mode of composition, from the highest science and most seri- 
 ous history down to the lightest tale, was made the vehicle 
 of this philosophy, with which was oft;en joined a sickly, 
 affected sensibility, calculated to gain it admittance even into 
 the female bosom. The consequence was, as might be ex- 
 pected, a general laxity of principle. 
 
 ■ The chief seat of this philosophy was France, where a 
 court, corrtipt and profligate beyond, perhaps, any which 
 Europe had yet witnessed, had utterly degraded the minds of 
 the upper classes of society. The efforts of the virtuous 
 Louis XVI. to stem this torrent were unavailing : national 
 vice was not to escape its merited chastisement. Tlie middle 
 orders were disgusted and galled by the privileges of the 
 noblesse, and their excessive pride and insolence ; the writings 
 of the philosophers, and the scandalous lives of many of the 
 clergy, had shaken their reverence for religion ; the abuses 
 and oppression of arbitrary and extravagant government were 
 keenly felt ; the glorious struggle of the English for liberty 
 in the last century, and the dignity and prosperity consequent 
 on it, awaked the aspirations of the better disposed; the 
 achievement of American independence filled the minds of 
 many enthusiasts with vague ideas of freedom and happi- 
 ness beneath republican institutions ; and the lower orders in 
 general looked forward to any change as a benefit 
 
 It was a time of innovation, turmoil, and violent change. 
 The English colonies had thrown off' the bridle of the mother 
 country, whom she curbed too straitly. The kingdom of 
 Poland had been most nefariously dismembered. Gustavus 
 III. of Sweden had overtlirown the aristocracy, and made 
 himself absolute. A contest arose in the United Provinces, a b 
 between tiie party of tlie sladtholder and those who wisljed HTi 
 
 43*
 
 610 HISTORT OF THE WOELD. PART \T\. 
 
 to make the government of a more republican form, which 
 
 drew the attention of all the principal powers: the respective 
 
 ^ o. parties appealed to arms, and by Prussian aid the republican. 
 
 1787. were crushed. All these were but preludes to the storu; 
 which was soon to burst over Europe. 
 
 1787 The east of Europe was meantime precipitated into war. 
 The Turkish sultan, appi-ehensive of the designs of the 
 tsarina and the emperor Joseph, declared war against Russia. 
 The Turks commenced by the bombardment of Kilburn, on 
 the Dneiper ; but, while forming the trenches, they were at- 
 tacked by Suvaroff, and nearly their whole force destroyed. 
 Joseph now took part in the war, and opened it by a treach- 
 erous attempt on Belgrade : he entered the Turkish domin- 
 ions at the head of a considerable force; but he reaped little 
 
 1788. military fame, and could only boast of the reduction of 
 Choczim. 
 
 The king of Sweden now entered into the war at the in- 
 stigation of the king of Prussia and the Porte, and severe 
 naval conflicts took place in the Baltic ; but several of Gus- 
 tavus's officers refused obedience to him, and the Danes pre- 
 pared to attack him on the side of Norway. A Russian flo- 
 tilla, under the prince of Nassau Siegen, defeated Hassan, 
 the capudan-pasha, off" Oczakoff! In three other conflicts he 
 was equally unfortunate. The siege of Oczakoff" was formed 
 by prince Potemkin : the town was taken by assault, and the 
 inhabitants butchered and pillaged by the soldiery. 
 
 1789 Abd-ul-hamed, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his nephew 
 Selim III. ; but success did not revisit the Ottoman arms. 
 On the plains of Rimnik they failed before the Austrians and 
 Russians, and Belgrade surrendered to the Austrian general 
 Laudohn. But disease and chagrin at the resistance offered 
 to his innovations in the Netherlands, and the discontents in 
 
 '790. Hungary, terminated the existence of Joseph; and his 
 brother Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, who succeeded 
 him, after some unsuccessful efforts, concluded an armistice 
 with Selim. 
 
 On the part of the Russians, Ismael, a strong town in Bes- 
 sarabia, was taken by assault by Suvaroff", during the very 
 middle of winter. The ferocious warriors massacred in this 
 assault fifty thousand Turks ; their own loss was, according 
 to their veracious commander, four thousand three hundred , 
 according to others, fifteen thousand. In the Baltic, the Rus* 
 sian fleet was completely defeated by that of the Swedes 
 commanded by Gustavus in person ; and preliminaries for a 
 peace were soon afterwards agreed on. The war was carried 
 on with vigor in Turkey : the Moslems were defeated at
 
 CHAP. VIII FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 511 
 
 Maczin, and Bahada, and the tsarina at length agreed that a 4. d 
 congress should be lieW at Yassy to arrange the terms of a 1791 
 peace, which was concluded in tiie following year. 
 
 An attempt made by the patriotic portion of the Polish 
 nation to regain their independence was crushed by the arniB 
 of the Russian despot, and the nation fell back into its former 
 tate of degradation. 
 
 Frederic II. of Prussia had died in 1786. Catherine sur- 
 vived him ten years, and lived to witness the horrors of the 
 French revolution. 
 
 The French Revolution. 
 
 The disordered state of the French finances induced the . 787 
 court, displeased with the parliament of Paris, to assemble 
 the Notables ; that is, persons selected from the privileged 
 orders. This measure produced no advantage, and all classes 
 called for a meeting of the states-general. This national 
 council was at length convoked, and met at Versailles ; but 1789 
 the commons were thought to assume so much power, and to 
 encroach so on the other orders, that the king dismissed 
 Necker, his minister of finance, and ordered some regiments 
 to advance towards the capital. The populace, excited by 
 the democrats, committed several outrages, and they took 
 and demolished the fortress named the Bastile. The privi- 
 leges of the nobility and clergy were soon abolished. The 
 king was obliged to recall Necker, and to transfer the assem- 
 bly to Paris, where the mob was at the devotion of the demo- 
 crats. The property of the church was now transferred to 
 the nation; the kingdom was divided into departments; 
 change followed change without intermission ; the king, for 
 peace sake, assented to every thing; but commotion and 
 bloodshed prevailed in different parts of the kingdom. 
 
 The power of the democrats still increased, and the famous 1790. 
 Jacobin club was formed by them. Several of the nobility 
 and of the royal family quitted France. A project being 
 formed for the emperor and other powers to assist the king 
 in the recovery of his authority, of which he was now nearly 179L 
 deprived, he and the royal family endeavored to escape out 
 of France ; but they were stopped at Varennes, and forced 
 to return to Paris. The Jacobin and Cordelier factions loudly 
 demanded his death, and a violent riot took place in the 
 Champ de Mars. A constitutional code was at this time 
 completed. 
 
 Brissot, the leader of the Jacobins, procured a declarajon 179* 
 of war against Austria, and La Fayette invaded the Nether- 
 lands, but he was unsuccessful. A Prussian army, undei
 
 A D. 
 
 512 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART m 
 
 the duke of Brunswick, approached the French frontier; bu 
 the violent and silly manifesto he put forth served only to in 
 jure the cause it advocated. The Jacobins, urged on by their 
 atrocious leaders, excited the populace ; the king and roya. 
 family were put into confinement Numbers of the nobility 
 and others were murdered to prevent their joining the Prus- 
 sians. Royalty was abolished. The Jacobins split into the 
 Girondists, headed by Brissot and Roland, and the Jacobins, 
 led by Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, three daring men 
 whose bosoms knew not. remorse. Disease and want of sup- 
 plies forcing the Prussians and Austrians, who had nearly 
 reached Paris, to retire, Dumouriez invaded the Netherlands, 
 and, as the people were in his favor, speedily reduced them. 
 Savoy was conquered, Germany invaded. The measure of 
 Jacobin guilt was now nearly filled up : they brought their 
 1793 amiable and unhappy king to trial, and judicially murdered 
 him. This iniquitous act was followed by a declaration of 
 war against the kings of England and Spain and the stadt- 
 holder of Holland. 
 
 Dumouriez invaded Holland, and reduced several towns ; 
 but he was defeated by the Austrians at Neer-Winden. The 
 French arms were unfortunate also in Germany. Dumouriez 
 formed a plan for restoring a king and constitutional govern- 
 ment to France ; but it being detected, he was forced to take 
 refuge with the Austrians. An English army, under the 
 duke of York, was now in Holland. Dampierre, Dumou- 
 riez's saccessor, was defeated and slain. The French lost 
 almost all their conquests; their raw levies were cut to 
 pieces ; yet, under Hoche, they were again successful. The 
 English failed in an attack on Dunkirk : the Austrians were 
 driven within their own boundaries. 
 
 The French and Spaniards fought with various success at 
 the Pyrenees. A savage civil war now broke out in the 
 island of St. Domingo. At home, the Brissotine party was 
 overthrown, and all the heads of it executed : the infamous 
 duke of Orleans also suffered the fate he had so long merited. 
 The monsters now too shed the blood of the unhappy queen. 
 A revolt having broken out in the south of France, it was 
 quenched in blood ; and the city of Lyons had a bitter expe- 
 rience of republican humanity. A war was carried on in 
 La Vendee by the friends of royalty and religion ; but for- 
 tune favored the enemies of both. The English, aided by 
 Spain and Naples, had taken possession of Toulon ; they were 
 forced, however, to abandon it 
 J9A. The war in the Netherlands was carried on with great 
 vigor : the French troops were commanded by Pichegru and
 
 Marshal JuDot
 
 LooiU XYI. and Marie Antoinette
 
 CHAP. Vni. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 515 
 
 Jourdan. After a variety of fortune, and the battle Df Fleurus, 
 gained by the latter, the tide ran in favor of the French, and 
 the whole of the Netherlands were subdued. In Germany, 
 Jourdan defeated Clairfait, cind reduced Juliers and Cologne. 
 
 In France, the guillotine was pouring out blood in all quar- 
 ters at the command of Robespierre and his ruthless asso- 
 ciates ; but at last Justice awoke a little from her slumber, 
 and the tyrant himself met the fate he more than deserved. 
 Danton had already experienced it, and Marat had fallen by 
 the hand of Charlotte Corde. 
 
 Howe on tlie 1st of June defeated the French fleet The 
 Corsicans placed themselves under the king of England. But 
 the French were victorious at the Pyrenees, and in Holland 
 they met with uniform success. The middle ranks of the 
 Dutch were in their favor ; a revolution took place, and the x. n 
 people of the United Provinces, under the name of allies, be- 179a 
 came the subjects of France. 
 
 Europe, to the peace of Campo Formio. 
 
 While exclaiming against the horrors of the French revo- 1792' 
 lution, the royal spoilers fell again on unhappy Poland, and 
 tore away some more of her limbs. The Poles, led by the 
 brave Kosciuszko, took arms, and made a brave resistance ; 
 but the defeat at Matchewitz broke their hopes, which finally 
 expired when Warsaw was taken, and its garrison massacred 
 by the ferocious SuvarofF. A new division of plunder now 1791 
 took place. How rarely are uncontrolled power and a due 
 sense of justice to be found in union ! 
 
 Glutted with spoil, and now desirous of repose, the king of 
 Prussia made a peace with France. In that country there 
 had been a reaction, and the Jacobins were murdered and 
 guillotined in their turn. The king of Spain was forced to 
 seek for peace. In Germany there was some severe fighting 
 between Jourdan and Clairfait. The Vendeans rose again, 
 but were* speedily crushed. Lord Bridport and admiral Corn- 
 wallis were successful against the French fleets. Most of 
 the foreign possessions of the French and Dutch were re- 
 duced by the English. An insurrection broke out in Paris, 
 but it was easily quelled. The constitution was now re- 
 modelled. 
 
 Numerous conflicts took place in Germany; but the 1796 
 French, under Jourdan and Moreau, were unable to withstand 
 the Austrians, commanded by the archduke Charles. The 
 etreal of Moreau to the Rhine, ranks as one of the most mas- 
 terly in history. 
 
 Brilliant success attended the arras of the republic in Italy^
 
 516 mSTORT OF THE WORLD. PART 111. 
 
 under the young Bonaparte. The victories of Monte Notte 
 and Monte Lezino compelled the king of Sardinia to sue for 
 peace, with loss of territory. The forcing, with excessive 
 loss, of tlie bridge of Lodi, opened Lombardy to the French. 
 The pope, the princes of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, were 
 obliged to purchase safety by money, books, pictures, and 
 statues. Mantua was besieged : the Austrians, who had been 
 reinforced, approaching to its relief, were defeated at Lonato 
 and Castiglione, and Mantua was reinvested. The Trans 
 and Cis-Padane republics were at this time erected. The 
 English were deprived of Corsica. Spain was now at length 
 induced to join in the war against England, and a mutiny 
 which broke out in the navy of the latter power seemed to 
 threaten her existence. 
 4. D Every attempt was made to relieve Mantua, and several 
 T^- actions were fought. At Rivoli the Austrians, under Alvinzi, 
 struggled in vain with the utmost heroism, and Mantua was 
 at length obliged to capitulate. The territories of the pope 
 were next overrun, and he was forced to surrender the 
 greater part of them, and pay large sums of money. Bona- 
 parte then led his army northwards, resolved to invade the 
 hereditary dominions of the emperor. He overran Carinthia 
 and part of Styria, Camiola, and Istria ; but by the desire of 
 the directory, who now governed France, he made proposals 
 of peace, and articles were signed at Leoben. 
 
 Venice now was to be favored with a new constitution by 
 the French empirics. The vile oligarchy who ruled it were 
 paralyzed with terror : while they negotiated, French troops 
 eeized all their towns, and Venice, after an independent ex- 
 istence of more than 1000 years, submitted, without striking 
 a blow, to be blotted out of the list of nations ; and who wiG 
 deplore the fate of an oligarchy of whom history records 
 hardly a single noble or generous action ] Genoa, a name 
 dearer to liberty, underwent a similar fate, and becaane the 
 Ligurian republic. 
 
 Peace was at length concluded at Campo Formio. 'Austria 
 got Venice and the greater part of her territory; but she lost 
 the Netherlands and her Italian dominions. The Ionian isl- 
 ands fell to France. 
 
 Affairs to the assumption of the chief po'oer by Bonaparte. 
 
 T98 Rome was pUlaged, and a republic erected there. Th 
 machinations of the French produced a revolution in Switzer- 
 land, and that republic was united to Fraice. Some of the 
 cantons refused submission : they fought with the valor of 
 patriots, but tliey were constrained to yield to superior power
 
 CHAP VIII. FKENCn REVOLUTIOP: ANU EMPIRE. 517 
 
 Malta was now treacherously assailed and taken by Bona- 
 parte, on his way to Egrypt, whither, with their usual regard 
 to good faith and justice, the directory had sent him. He 
 landed near Alexandria, stormed that town, and massacred 
 the inhabitants. The Mamelukes were routed at Embaba, 
 and Cairo submitted. Meanwhile the English admiral Nel- 
 son destroyed (Aug. 1) the PVench fleet at Aboukir. 
 
 A rebellion broke out in Ireland ; but after a short strug- 
 gle, the insurgents, not being aided by France, were forced 
 to submit. The tsar now took share in the war, and the em- 
 peror of Austria and the king of Naples also prepared to en- 
 gage in it 
 
 The Neapolitan troops invaded the Roman territory, but a. d 
 were driven back. The French advanced ; the king fled to I'^^S 
 Palermo ; Capua surrendered. The peasantry and populace 
 of Naples fought, but in vain, in defence of their country. 
 Naples was entered. 
 
 The French were anxious to obtain possession of the Grison 
 country. At Ostrach and Stockach, Jourdan was defeated 
 by the archduke Charles. A Russian army under SuvaroflT 
 entered Italy, and in union with the Austrians defeated the 
 French at Cassano, and drove them to Milan and Genoa. Al- 
 exandria was taken, and the French, under Joubert and Mo- 
 reau, were routed at Novi. Suvaroff marched into Switzer- 
 land, where there had been some severe fighting. Korsakoff' 
 had led another Russian army into that country. Massena, 
 the French commander, attacked and defeated this last offi- 
 cer, and Zurich was taken by storm. The Austrians in Italy 
 reduced Coni, and invested Genoa. 
 
 Bonaparte having reduced Egypt, turned his thoughts to 
 Syria. General Regnier, with 12,000 men, was sent towards 
 that country, ruled over by the sanguinary Jezzar, who was 
 aided by Sir Sidney Smith, and some troops of the Porte. At 
 Al-Arish, Regnier defeated a body of Mamelukes. Bonaparte 
 soon joined the army ; Al-Arish and Gaza surrendered : Jaflu 
 was taken by storm. Acre was, as of old, gallantly defended 
 by a Christian hero, Sir Sidney Smith, and Bonaparte was 
 obliged to raise the siege, and return to Egypt Desaix had 
 been there engaged against the Mamelukes in Upper Egypt, 
 and had driven them beyond the Cataracts. 
 
 A Turkish army under the vizier having landed in Egjrpt, 
 uid taken Aboukir, Bonaparte attacked and defeated them, 
 and recovered tlie fijrt. Soon afterwards, seeing that nothing 
 more was to be gained in Egypt he secretly returned to 
 France, leaving the command to Kleber, who defeated a 
 Turkish division ; but his troops being in want of every thmg, 
 44
 
 618 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART IH. 
 
 he signed a convention with the vizier to quit the country. 
 Lord Keith declared it should not be executed, and Kleber 
 again attacked and defeated the Turks. 
 
 The English, Austrians, and Neapolitans recovered the 
 papal territories. The English and Russians landed in Hoi 
 land ; but after obtaining some advantages over general Van 
 damme, they were obliged to negotiate a retreat. 
 
 The joy of the directory at this success was damped by the 
 nppearance of Bonaparte. A revolution in the government 
 was effected; it was made consular, and Bonaparte was 
 chosen first consul, with Cambaceres and Le Brun for hia 
 colleagues. 
 
 Affairs till the peace of Amiens. 
 
 18()0 Bonaparte, anxious to consolidate his power, made pacific 
 overtures to England, which were rejected : the minister and 
 the nation were bent on war. The long-sought union with 
 Ireland was proposed this year, and in the following year car- 
 ried into effect. 
 
 The first consul resolved to" prosecute the war with vigor. 
 He joined the army assembled at Geneva, crossed Mont SL 
 Bernard, and descended into Italy. The country to the Po 
 was speedily subdued, and that river passed. Genoa had sur- 
 rendered to the Austrians. The Austrian general Melas was 
 defeated at Montebello. On the plains of Marengo, between 
 Alessandria and Tortona, the armies fought (June 14) again : 
 victory seemed ready to declare for the Austrians, when the 
 arrival of the divisions of Monnier and Desaix turned the for- 
 tune of the day, and gave the first consul the glory of a con- 
 queror. A truce, and the surrender of Genoa and other 
 strong places, were the immediate result. 
 
 In Germany, Moreau penetrated into Bavaria : a negotia- 
 tion was ineffectually entered into; the war recommenced, and 
 the defeat of Hohenlinden (Dec. 3) led to the treaty of Lu- 
 neville, by which Francis gave up more territory in Germany, 
 and consented to the transfer of Tuscany to the duke of 
 Parma. 
 801 The fickle tsar Paul had been gained over by the French. 
 He detained the ships of the English, and prevailed on Den- 
 mark and Sweden to engage in an armed neutrality. The 
 English, who considered their existence to depend on their 
 maritime superiority, sent a large fleet to the Baltic, under 
 Sir Hyde Parker, to break up the confederacy. The Danes 
 were first attacked ; lord Nelson destroyed their line of de- 
 fence before Copenhagen, and they sued for peace : the king 
 of Sweden agreed to treat. The tsar Paul was murdered by
 
 ^. .,..vv aS'5\\V-. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 oa 
 i 
 
 i
 
 DmOi of Kelson, at the Battle of Xra&Igar
 
 CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 521 
 
 conspirators, and his son Alexander was inclined to England. 
 The kinsf of Prussia, who had seized on Hanover, now de- 
 clared himself ready to renew his amity with Great Britain. 
 
 An English army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, had ar- 
 rived in Eg-ypt. Immediately on its landing a battle ensued, 
 which the English gained with the loss of their general. 
 Grand Cairo surrendered. Its example was followed by 
 Alexandria, and the French agreed to evacuate the country. 
 
 Peace was signed at Amiens. The English consented to a d 
 give up all their conquests but Ceylon and Trinidad ; the 1802 
 Ionian islands were to form a republic ; Malta to be restored 
 to the knights. 
 
 Affairs of Europe to the treaty of Tilsit. 
 
 Bonaparte was now declared chief consul for life. He re- 
 stored the Catholic religion, and gave new constitutions to 
 France, Genoa, and Switzerland. A force was sent to St. 
 Domingo, where Toussaint I'Ouverture, a negro, had erected 
 a republic. That chief was treacherously seized and sent 
 to France , out the French were unable fully to recover the 
 island. 
 
 Disputes arising respecting the fulfilment of the treaty of 180a 
 Amiens, tne war was resumed. Hanover was invaded and 
 reduced by the French; Holland was dragged into the war, 
 and immediately lost her colonies. In St. Domingo the 
 French power was finally overthrown, and Dessalines made 1804 
 chief of the republic. 
 
 Bonaparte at length ventured to assume the imperial dig- 
 nity, and the princes of Europe mostly acknowledged their 
 new associate, who insulted and domineered over the greater 
 part of the continent. 
 
 The following year, after bestowing a new constitution on i805 
 Holland, Napoleon made himself king of Italy, adding the 
 Ligurian republic to his kingdom. This last act of injustice 
 induced the emperors of Austria and Russia to enter into a 
 confederacy with Great Britain, and the glorious victory 
 gained by Nelson off Trafalgar (Oct. 21) over the combined 
 fleets of France and Spain, gave spirits to the allies; but the 
 French poured over the Rhine, and drove back the Austrians. 
 At Ulm 20,000 Austrians surrendered. Vienna was entered 
 by Napoleon: the Austrians and Russians were completely 
 defeated at Austerlitz (Dec. 2). Francis lost courage, and 
 concluded a treaty at Presburg, by which he gave up more 
 territory, including Venice, acknowledged the king of Italy 
 and two new kings, namely, those of Bavaria and Wurtencv- 
 burg 
 
 ^ 44*
 
 522 msTORT OF the world. part ni 
 
 The French invaded Naples, and Joseph Bonaparte was 
 seated on the throne of that country. A victory vi'as gained 
 at Maida (July 4) by the English, and the Calabrians rose ; 
 but the power of the usurper was too great for resistance. 
 Holland was also made a kingdom for Louis Bonaparte. At 
 the command of Napoleon, his two new German kings, and 
 some other princes, detached themselves from the Germani 
 body, and formed the confederacy of the Rhine, in alliance 
 with France. The king of Prussia, who had been encouraged 
 to seize Hanover, finding that in some late negotiations be- 
 tween France and England its restoration had been offered, 
 and otherwise disgusted with his friend the emperor, rushed 
 precipitately into a war: he imprudently gave the chief 
 command to the duke of Brunswick. The French advanced 
 with rapidity. A Prussian army of 6000 men was defeated 
 at Saalfeld. Near Jena and Auerstadt (Oct. 14) the Prussian 
 and Saxon army of 110,000 men was attacked by that of the 
 French of 150,000, and defeated. Erfurt was taken ; prince 
 Hohenlohe and his army surrendered at Prentzlau : Berlin 
 was entered. The king of Holland conquered to the Weser : 
 Jerome Bonaparte subdued Silesia: general Bliicher and 
 9400 men capitulated at Ratkau : the Poles were excited tc 
 rise. The Russians, who were now advancing, met and de- 
 feated the French at Pultusk, and repulsed them at Golomyn. 
 At Berlin, Bonaoarte declared the British isles in a state of 
 blockade, and, oy what he called the continental system, pro- 
 hibited all intercourse with them. 
 A. D. The Turks now shared in the war. The Russian emperor 
 ^"^ foolishly quarrelled with the Porte, and overran its northern 
 provinces. An English fleet fruitlessly menaced Constanti- 
 nople, and an ineffectual attempt was made on Egypt. 
 
 The war was renewed in the north, and a desperate but 
 indecisive battle was fought at Prussian Eylau ; Dantzig was 
 taken by Lefevre. The allies sustained a defeat at Friedland 
 (June 14), which was followed by the capture of Konigsbur^, 
 and the treaty of Tilsit, which deprived the king of Prussia 
 of one-third of his dominions, and erected the kingdom of 
 Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte. 
 
 Affairs to the treaty of Vienna. 
 
 An expedition, little creditable to England, was sfmt out 
 against Denmark, a power with whom she was at peace, 
 Copenhagen was bombarded, and all the ships and naval 
 stores carried away. A rupture ensued between Russia and 
 England. 
 1808. The demands made by France on the regent of Portugal
 
 CHAP. VIII FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 523 
 
 were so unjust, that that prince, at the desire of the British 
 cabinet, departed for the Brazils. Portugal was occupied by 
 the French. Intrigues were set on foot in Spain ; the king, 
 Charles IV., resigned in favor of his son Ferdinand. The a. d 
 royal family were decoyed to Bayonne ; both father and son l^Ot 
 were terrified into abdication, and the crown transferred to 
 Joseph Bonaparte. Large bodies of troops had already been 
 sent into Spain, and no opposition was dreaded ; but the peo- 
 ple rose in all quarters, and proclaimed Ferdinand VII. : the 
 French fleet at Cadiz was obliged to surrender, as also the 
 army of Dupont at Baylen. Saragossa was heroically de- 
 fended against the troops of Joseph, who at length raised the 
 siege. 
 
 The Portuguese rose also against the French. A British 
 army landed and defeated the French general Junot at Vi- 
 meiro (Aug. 21). By a convention made at Cintra, the 
 French evacuated that kingdom. A Russian fleet was taken 
 in the Tagus. 
 
 In the north of Europe, Sweden was hard pressed by the 
 Russians and Danes. The conduct of Gustavus bordering 
 on insanity, he was the next year dethroned, and his uncle 
 made king m his place. 
 
 The French were victorious in Spain, defeating Blake at 
 Reynosa, and Castanos at Tudela. Napoleon arrived, and 
 Madrid was taken. An English army, under Sir John Moore, 
 had advanced as far as Salamanca ; but it was forced to re- 
 treat At Corunna it was attacked (Jan. 16), and general *S09 
 Moore mortally wounded. 
 
 Encouraged by the resistance made by the Spaniards, the 
 emperor of Austria resolved anew on war : it commenced in 
 Bavaria. Napoleon having driven back the Austrians at 
 Eckmuhl, advanced rapidly and occupied Vienna. At Aspem 
 and Essling, after dreadful slaughter on both sides, the victory 
 remained with the Austrians. The battle of Wagram ter- 
 minated in favor of the French. 
 
 A most ill-conceived project of creating a diversion in Hol- 
 and was formed by the British cabinet. An army of 39,000 
 men, under the earl of Cathcart, sailed to Walcheren, and 
 took Middleburg and Flushing ; but a large force being col- 
 lected at Antwerp, and a fever breaking out among the troops, 
 nothing further could be effected by such a waste of lives 
 and treasure. 
 
 The emperor Francis was now constrained to make peace, 
 with additional loss of territory. In the preceding year, 
 Selim III. had been murdered, and Mahmood, tlie present
 
 524 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART ni 
 
 sultan, was seated on the Turkish throne. Peace was con- 
 cluded between England and the Porte, 
 
 Progress of the Peninsular War. 
 
 The French were now masters of Spain to Old Castile. 
 Saragossa had stood a second siege with less success than 
 formerly, 20,000 of its defenders being said to have perished. 
 Marshal Soult entered Portugal, and took Oporto. Sir A. 
 Wellesley advanced against him, and drove him back into 
 Spain. The Spaniards defeated marshal Ney at San Payo in 
 Gallicia. Sir A. Wellesley entered Spain and defeated the 
 French at Talavera de la Reyna (July 28) ; but the enemv 
 being reinforced, and the co-operation of the Spaniards not 
 to be depended on, he fell back. Gerona was taken by tht 
 French, after a gallailt defence. One Spanish army was de- 
 feated at Ocana, and another at Alba de Tormes. 
 A. D An army of 30,000 Portuguese was raised and paid by the 
 l^-O' British government. The French army approached Portugal, 
 took Astorga and Ciudad Rodrigo, and, under Massena, passed 
 the frontier and reduced Almeida. At the pass of Busaco 
 they were repelled. A fortified line was made from the Ta- 
 gus to the ocean, behind which ^he allies were posted. Mas- 
 sena feared to assail it : after a month's inaction he fell back 
 to Santarem. 
 
 In the south Seville was taken by the French ; but Cadiz, 
 now the seat of government, was secured against them. 
 811. Massena at length commenced his retreat, closely followed 
 by the allies. A sharp action occurred at Fuentes d' Honor, 
 after which Almeida surrendered. Badajoz having been 
 captured by Mortier, Sir W. Beresford laid siege to it. Soult 
 advancmg with 23,000 men to its relief, the combined armies 
 of 26,000 gave him battle at the Albuera (May 16), and 
 gained the honor of the day. The siege was resumed by 
 Sir A. Wellesley, now lord Wellington ; but on the approach 
 of Soult and Marmont he retired across the Tagus. In An- 
 dalusia the French were defeated at Barrosa by general Gra- 
 ham. They had the advantage in the north of Spain, and 
 Tarragona, Murviedro, and Valencia fell into their hands. 
 The revolution commenced this year in South America. 
 B12. A change having taken place m the government of Spain, 
 the war was resumed with spirit. Lord Wellington reduced 
 Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. Salamanca also fell, and a de- 
 cisive victory was gamed (July 22) over Marmont in its 
 vicimty. Madrid, Seville, Valladolid were recovered; the 
 l^rench raised the siege of Cadiz; but lord Wellington failed 
 in an attack on Burffos.
 
 
 »:
 
 The Empress Josephine.
 
 CHAP. Vni. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 527 
 
 The Invasion of Russia, and/all of Napoleon. 
 
 Alexander was mortified at the condition to which he was a. d 
 reduced, and he defied Napoleon. The latter formed the bold 181* 
 project of invading Russia: an immense army was assembled; 
 Lithuania was occupied; Napoleon advanced to Smolensk, 
 (Judinot and Macdonald were directed to join, and to get be- 
 tween the great Russian army and St. Petersburg. The for- 
 mer was defeated by Wittgenstein at Polotsk; prince Ba- 
 gration engaged Davoust at Mohiloff"; Wittgenstein com- 
 pletely routed Oudinot a second time at Polotsk. 
 
 Smolensk was abandoned to the enemy. At Borodino 
 (Sept. 7) a general battle was fought, and the French re- 
 pulsed with a loss of 40,000 men ; but Napoleon being rein- 
 forced, pushed on for Moscow, and Kutusoff, the Russian 
 commander, not feeling himself strong enough to contend 
 with him, he reached that city, but found it in flames. Thus 
 disappointed of supplies, he offered in vain to treat He then 
 commenced his retreat. It was mid-winter; the sufferings 
 of the army were dreadful. The Russians closely pursued; 
 and of the immense host which had entered Russia, not more 
 than 30,000, exclusive of the Austrians, passed the frontiers. 
 The dead and prisoners exceeded 300,00() in number. 
 
 Alexander had already concluded a league with Sweden, 
 whose councils were directed by the French marshal Berna- 
 dotte, who had been chosen cown-prince. He now roused 
 the king of Prussia to resistance A treaty was, formed be- 
 tween them. The combined armies fought the new levies 
 of Napoleon at Liitzen ; the action was indecisive, and they 1813 
 were repulsed at Bautzen. A truce was made ; during its 
 continuance the emperor of Austria joined the alliance, as did 
 Sweden now openly. 
 
 The allied army of 180,000 men was commanded by the 
 Austrian prince Schwarzenburg. The battle of Katzbach, 
 gained by the Prussian general Bliicher, delivered Silesia. 
 An indecisive action took place at Dresden : Vandamme was 
 defeated at Culm, and Ney at Juterbock. Napoleon concen- 
 trated his forces at Leipzig, where (October 18) the allies 
 attacked and totally defeated him. The city was taken : tiie 
 king of Bavaria joined the league ; and his troops, combmed 
 with the Austrians, defeated, at Hanau, the French as they 
 wore retrcatinff from Leipzig. Holland now flung off" the 
 yoke, and recalled the prince of Orange. At Frankfbrt the 
 allied uionarchs put forth a declaration of the justice and 
 moderation of their views. 
 
 In Son in, lord Wellington being reinforced, and now well 1813
 
 528 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART HI 
 
 supported by the Spaniards, crossed the Douro, and marched 
 nuithwards. At Vittoria (June 21) he engaged and totally 
 defeated the French army, couimanded by marshal Jourdan. 
 Parnpeluna was blockaded; St. Sebastian besieged ; marshal 
 Soult in vain endeavored to check their progress. St. Seoas- 
 tian fell, and the allies entered France. 
 *. D France was now invaded north and south. The armies 
 i^li from Germany met little check. Murat, the king of Naples, 
 abandoned Napoleon. The allies appeared before Paris, and 
 that haughty capital capitulated. In the south the allied arms 
 were still crowned with success ; and Bourdeaux proclaimed 
 Louis XVIII. 
 
 Napoleon was obliged to sign an act of abdication ; and the 
 island of Elba, with a sufficient income, was assigned him for 
 his residence. Louis XVIII. was restored ; as were the pope, 
 and the other sovereigns who had been deprived of their do- 
 minions. All Europe was now at peace. 
 1815 While a congress was engaged in arranging the affairs of 
 Europe, news arrived that Napoleon had left Elba, and landed 
 in France. He was received everywhere with enthusiasm 
 by the army, and Louis was obliged to quit France, and to 
 seek a refuge in the Netherlands. The allied princes issued 
 a strong manifesto, and large armies were assembled to op- 
 pose the usurper. Some pa'rtial advantages attended his first 
 operations; but on the field of Waterloo (June 18), his last 
 battle was fought. The genius of Wellington and the steadi- 
 ness of the British troops were triumphant. After a brief 
 reign of 100 days, he fled to the sea-coast, where he surren- 
 dered himself to a British naval commander : and six years 
 afterwards, he who had lorded it over the nations expired a 
 captive on a rock of the Atlantic. Louis XVIII. was recon- 
 ducted to his capita] by the allied armies, and firmly seated 
 on his throne ; and the convulsions which had agitated Eu- 
 rope for a quarter of a century at length terminated. 
 
 After the destruction of the power of Napoleon, the allied 
 sovereigns undertook to remodel different parts of Europe, and 
 they proceeded to their object with what they deemed expe- 
 diency in view, but with too little regard to popular feelings 
 or to national and hereditary rights. Denmark was forced to 
 yield Norway to Sweden, and take in exchange Riigen and 
 Pomerania ; and then to give these to Prussia for Lauenburg. 
 Prussia, always grasping, received a large portion of the do- 
 minions of the king of Saxony, who had been guilty of the 
 crime of fidelity to Napoleon. Austria extended her sway, 
 now odious to the people, over the north of Italy. Genoa was 
 forced to submit to become a part of the dominions of the
 
 
 mwH 
 
 J.OUIS XVUI. AT HIS PEATH CHARGING GHARLtS X.
 
 rJlAP VIII FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE 531 
 
 king of Sardinia. The Netherlands and the United Prorincea 
 were formed into a kingdom for the prince of Orange: a 
 large part of Poland composed one for the emperor of Rus- 
 sia. A new confederation for mutual defence, and the pre- 
 vention of internal war, was entered into by the sovereign 
 states of Germany, who promised representative constitutions 
 to their subjects, — a promise which but few of them have 
 kept England, the choragus of the great drama which was 
 now concluded, who had shed her blood, and lavished her 
 treasure so unsparingly, remained covered with glory, but 
 deeply immersed in debt. She had, during this period, ex- 
 tended her dominion over nearly the whole peninsula of In 
 dia ; and the realms, once ruled by the house of Timoor, nov 
 bow beneath her commercial sceptre. 
 
 United States of America. 
 During the wars which convulsed Europe, after the ac- 
 complishment of their freedom, the Americans had been ad- 
 vancing in a steady march of national prosperity. An attempt 
 of the French directory to enlist them in their struggle with 
 the other powers of Europe, led to a short war with France, 
 which was not attended with any important consequences. 
 The second president, John Adams, directed his efforts to the 
 
 formation of a navy ; and two of the American frigates, the 
 
 Constellation and Constitution, captured French frigates of 179* 
 superior force, in the war with the republic. From this pe- 
 riod a strict neutrality being observed, the Americans acquired 
 most of the carrying trade of the belligerent powers in Eu- 
 rope, and extended their commerce into every part of the 
 world. Napoleon was the first to invade this privilege of the lar 
 Americans in the Berlin and Milan decrees, issued to prevent 
 them from trading with Great Britain ; which were followed 
 by the British orders in council, prohibiting them from inter- 
 course with France. 
 
 A farther cause of irritation against Great Britain, existed 
 in the custom of searching American vessels on the ocean, 
 and impressing from them British seamen. This was even lS^' 
 carried so far, that the commander of a British frigate, the 
 Leopard, after demanding four seamen from the American 
 frigate Chesapeake, and being refused, fired a broadside into 
 her, and compelled her commander, taken by surprise, to sur- 
 render the men. Three of their number were Americans. 
 
 The depredations of both the French and English on Ameri- 
 can commerce, had become so extensive, that the congress, 
 on the recommendation of the third president, Mr. Jefferson 
 ordered ai: embargo, prohibiting all commerce with foreign 
 
 A. n
 
 o32 
 
 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 PARTIIL 
 
 A D 
 
 609 
 
 countries. This measure, however, being found to operate 
 too harshly on the interests of the commercial states of the 
 union, the embargo law was repealed, and a non-intercourse 
 with France and England was substituted. 
 
 An offer was made on the part of the United States, that 
 the non-intercourse should be discontinued towards either 
 France or England, as soon as they respectively should cease 
 to violate the commerce of the republic. Napoleon's minister 
 having informed the American agent at Paris that the Berlin 
 and Milan decrees were revoked, the non-intercourse law, as 
 811. regarded France, was annulled. But as the official notice of 
 this act was withheld, Great Britain, with good reason, doubted, 
 the revocation of the French decrees. When a formal an- 
 nouncement of their revocation was made by France, the 
 British orders in council were also revoked. But in the mean- 
 time, the United States had declared war with Great Britain 
 1812. (June 18), and as the questions of search and impressment 
 were still unsettled, the war was continued, notwithstanding 
 the revocation of the orders in council. 
 
 The first object of the United States was the conquest of 
 Canada. General William Hull, with a force sufficient for 
 the reduction of Upper Canada, passed into that province, 
 but after wasting some time in parade and indecision, he sur- 
 rendered his whole force, the fortress at Detroit, and the en- 
 tire territory of Michigan, to the British. For this act, he 
 was afterwards tried, sentenced to be shot, and pardoned. 
 
 On the 19th of August, the American frigate Constitution, 
 captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere, reducing 
 her to a complete wreck in 15 minutes. This was the first 
 of a series of naval victories which have completely destroyed 
 the proud claim of Britain to the empire of the ocean. It 
 was speedily followed (Oct. 25), by the capture of the British 
 frigate Macedonian, by the American frigate United States, 
 under the command of captain Decatur, oif the Western 
 Isles. 
 
 In November an attempt was made on Queenstown, in Up- 
 per Canada, which, after a severe action, and a heavy loss on 
 both sides in killed and wounded, resulted in the capture of 
 1000 Americans. 
 
 In December, the frigate Constitution, captain Bainbridge, 
 captured the British frigate Java, off the coast of Brazil, after 
 an action of one hour, in which the Java was reduced to an 
 unmanageabVe wreck. General Winchester, with 750 men, 
 1813. was attacked near the river Raisin, by a^superior force of 
 British and Indians, under general Proctor ; and after being sur- 
 rendered prisoners of war, many of his men were massacred
 
 CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EiMPlRE. 535 
 
 by the Indians. (Jan. 22). An attack on fort Meigs, by ihe 
 Britisii, was successfully resisted by general Harrison (May). 
 An expedition against York, in Upper Canada, under the 
 command of general Pike, was completely successful. After 
 an obstinate defence, the place was carried with a loss of 750 
 on the British side. The heroic Pike was mortally wounded 
 by the explosion of a magazine. Fort George and fort Erie 
 were shortly afterwards taken by the Americans, after a brisk 
 action. 
 
 An attempt was made by the British naval force which 
 blockaded the Chesapeake, on Norfolk ; and, on its failure, 
 Hampton, a village 18 miles from Norfolk, was taken and 
 given up to rapine and plunder. 
 
 The American frigate Chesapeake was captured by the 
 British frigate Shannon, off Boston harbor, under circumstancea 
 which, fairly considered, tend materially to diminish the glory 
 of the victory. Fort Sandusky was most ably defended against 
 general Proctor, with 1200 British and Indians, by major 
 Croghan, with 160 Americans. (Aug. 1). 
 
 In September, the American fleet on lake Erie, under the 
 command of captain Perry, captured the whole British squad- 
 ron under captain Barclay, after a well-contested action of 
 three hours. Detroit was soon after retaken, and a superior 
 force of British and Indians, under general Proctor, routed 
 by the Americans under general Harrison. The fortune of 
 the day was decided by a mounted regiment under colonel 
 Johnson, who slew with his own hand, during the action, the 
 celebrated Indian warrior Tecumseh. 
 
 Extensive preparations were made for renewing the inva- 
 sion of Canada, during the autumn ; but the expedition was 
 abandoned, apparently for want of concert among the leading 
 officers, and fort George and fort Niagara fell into the hands 
 of the British. 
 
 Overtures of peace being made on the part of Great Britain, a.b 
 commissioners on both sides were appointed to meet at Ghent l^li 
 for the purpose of negotiating a treaty. 
 
 A part of the district of Maine, east of Penobscot river, 
 was occupied by the British. Naval victories were achieved 
 by the American commanders. Porter, Warrington, and Bid- 
 die, and the victories at Chippeway and Niagara witnessed 
 the improved discipline and coolness of the American land 
 forces. 
 
 A British force landed from the fleet in the Chesapeake, 
 and, conducted by general Ross, succeeded in penetrating to 
 the city of Washington, where they destroyed the public 
 buildings, library, and records ; a piece of vandalism which
 
 536 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART HI 
 
 has scarcely a parallel in modern warfare, and which one of 
 their own ablest statesmen has pronounced a disgrace to the 
 British nation. A subsequent attempt on Baltimore resulted 
 in the defeat of the British, and the death of general Ross. 
 
 The British squadron on lake Champlain, consisting of 17 
 vessels, under tlie command of captain Downie, was defeated 
 by the American squadron of 14 vessels, under captain 
 M'Donough ; and on the same day, the British army under 
 general Prevost was repulsed, with heavy loss, in an attemp 
 to storm the forts at Plattsburg. 
 815. Sir Edward Packenham, with 14,000 men, made a descen 
 on New-Orleans, (Jan. 8), which was defended by genera 
 Jackson with six thousand men, principally militia. After a 
 well-contested action, the British were repulsed with the loss 
 of 700 killed, 1400 wounded, and 500 prisoners. The Ameri- 
 can loss was 13 killed, 39 wounded, and 19 missing. 
 
 The treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, Dec. 24, 
 1814, and ratified by the prince regent of England Dec, 28. 
 It was ratified by the president of the United States, Feb. 
 1815. 
 
 From the events of this war, the Americans have learnt 
 that their land forces are more fit for the resistance of inva- 
 sion, than for foreign conquest , and that their best instru- 
 ment of national defence is a well-disciplined navy: the same 
 events have taught other nations, that this people, once sup- 
 posed to be for ever wedded to commerce and peace, has some 
 claims to a character for ability and courage in war. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 TIMES OF THE RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILLIPPB. 
 
 State of Europe. 
 
 The ideas of liberty and equality which had been gene- 
 rated by the French Revolution now began to progress 
 towards their true development. The mass of the people 
 were gradually becoming more enlightened, and in most of 
 Europe, though they were compelled to suffer the existence 
 of kings and nobility, they discussed more freely the cha- 
 racter and tendency of monarchy and aristocracy. They 
 had seen men, sprung from the humblest stations of life, 
 achieve, by their own exertions, the proudest and most 
 glorious actions, and had seen some of them eit upon the
 
 ? "1 
 
 Peter I. thb Great.
 
 0HAP. IX RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILrPPE. 539 
 
 thrones to which they had long believed their hereditary 
 kings had a divine right. This, almost as much as the 
 more extensive spread of education and refinement, broke 
 the charm by w^hich they had so long been held, and made 
 the seats of kings and nobility very unstable. Violent 
 etorms and short calms were the principal features of the 
 time. 
 
 France. 
 
 The evils and distress produced by long and expensive 
 wars were now apparent. Lyons and Grenoble were dis- 
 tracted by riots, and conspiracies were detected in every 
 quarter. The foreign troops left France, and at the Con- 
 gress of Aix-la-Chapelle, she was admitted as a party to 
 the Quadruple Alliance. In the mean time, the ministry 
 was divided into factions, and continually involved in dis- 
 sensions with the king. Disputes were frequent between 
 the nobility, the chambers, and the people, and infringe- 
 ments upon the liberty of the press and derangements in 
 the administering of the laws were as constantly com 
 plained of by all whose rights were concerned. The royal- 
 ists and the liberals were continually striving to advance 
 the particular interests which they ftivored. The murder 
 of the duke of Berri caused party spirit to rage beyond all 
 bounds, and violent commotions occurred in the chamber 
 of deputies. Laws were passed, authorizing the arrest of 
 persons merely suspected of treason, the censorship of the 
 press, and infringement of the election laws. In conse- 
 quence of these acts, it was announced at the session of the 
 chambers that conspiracy continually existed in France. 
 
 In 1821, further restrictions of the press were proposed, but 
 in consequence of the strength of the opposition, the ministry 
 resigned. Several insurrections occurred during the year 
 1822. A conspiracy was detected having for its object the 
 promotion of the interest of young Napoleon, and a few more 
 insurrections occurred. 
 
 In 1823, 100,000 men were sent into Spain to arrest the 
 progress of democracy in that country, and to force its 
 government to reconcile its sentiments to those of the other 
 
 fovernments of Europe. The war terminated favorably for 
 ranee, of which circumstance the king availed himself in 
 order to gain some populaiity with the army and the people. 
 Though it lasted but six months, the expense was more 
 than two hundred millions of francs, which caused loud 
 complaints from the liberal party. 
 In Sentembcr, 1824, Louis XVIII. died. His brother
 
 540 HTSTOnT OP THE WORLD. PART IH. 
 
 Charles X., became king, and was crowned at Rheims in 
 May, 1826. The independence of Hayti was acknow- 
 ledged and commercial intercourse established with the 
 Spanish American republics, a treaty of commerce con- 
 cluded with Great Britain and another with Brazil. The 
 opposition gained a great triumph (1827) in defeating the 
 bill for the further restriction of the press. The ministry 
 dissolved the chamber with force, thereby hoping to secure 
 a large majority at the next election. But the liberal party 
 triumphed, and Paris was filled with rejoicings. 
 
 France interfered (1828) in the dispute between Turkey 
 and Greece, and sent a force to the assistance of the latter 
 country. In the organization of a new ministry, (1829,) 
 prince Polignac, an unpopular ultra-royalist, was intrusted 
 with the portfolio of foreign affairs. This hastened the 
 crisis which had become inevitable. Though France was 
 prosperous in her external appearance, yet the people were 
 irritated beyond endurance by seeing their most valued 
 liberties trampled upon and torn from them. 
 
 At the opening of the session of the chambers, (1830,) the 
 king announced his determination to maintain his policy, 
 if necessary, by force of arms, and also announced the 
 declaration of war against Algiers. The deputies being 
 firm yet respectful in their declaration that concurrence no 
 longer existed between the government and the nation, the 
 chamber was prorogued. The new election produced a 
 still stronger majority against the ministry. An ordinance 
 being presented to the king by the ministry, which sus- 
 pended the liberty of the press, several of the liberal 
 journals refused to obey. This brought on the revolution 
 of the Three Days. The king abdicated, and, at the invita- 
 tion of the deputies, Louis Philippe of Orleans ascended 
 the throne. Many alterations favorable to popular rights 
 were made in the constitution, which Louis Philippe swore 
 to maintain. The first event under his reign was the trial 
 of the ministers of the late king for high treason. They 
 were found guilty, and sentenced to imprisonment for life. 
 
 Alarming riots occurred in Paris, (1830,) in consequence 
 of an attempt to celebrate the anniversary of the assassina- 
 tion of the duke of Berri. A change of ministers succeeded. 
 Riots still occurred in Paris and Lyons, and in his tour 
 through the kingdom, Louis Philippe found it in a condi 
 tion bordering on anarchy. War was declared against 
 Portugal, but it was of short duration. Amid the frequent 
 riots, the anniversary of the Three Days occurred, and it 
 was celebrated in the most splendid manner. Fifty thou-
 
 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 541 
 
 sand men were sent to Belgium, to assist that country in 
 its struggle with the Dutch. On the arrival of the news of 
 tlio fall of Warsaw, riots broke out in every direction. 
 Mobs attacked the hotels of the ministers, and revolution 
 again threatened. But the army and the ministry con- 
 tinuing loyal, concessions were made ana the danger 
 averted. The most important acts of the assembly during 
 its session were, the abolition of the hereditary peerage,_an 
 appropriation of a large sum for the relief of the working 
 classes, and the perpetual banishment of the Bourbon and 
 Napoleon families. Great distress among the workmen of 
 Lyons produced an insurrection, which was suppressed by 
 the duke of Orleans and marshal Soult. Measures were 
 taken to relieve the workmen. 
 
 In 1832, the difficulty with the United States was adjusted. 
 The Asiatic cholera appeared and spread so rapidly that the 
 chambers were obliged to adjourn, and the prime minister 
 was attacked and died. The terror and distress caused by 
 this disease could not suppress the spirit of insurrection. 
 Riots occurred in Paris at the funeral of general Lamarque, 
 and continued several days; being suppressed only with 
 bloodshed. The expedition into Belgium and the war in 
 Algiers both proving successful, rendered the government 
 popular for a time with all classes. An attempt was made 
 to assassinate the king, in November, but the person who 
 made the attempt escaped in the crowd. 
 
 The year 1833 was one of comparative calm. No out- 
 breaks occurred, both parties contenting themselves with 
 warring upon each other through the journals. Some of 
 the leading members of the republican associations were 
 arrested and tried for conspiracy, but found to be innocent 
 of the charge. 
 
 In March, 1834, the chamber of deputies annulled a 
 treaty concluded in 1831, by the dukede Broglie and 
 general Sebastiani with the American minister, by refusing 
 to pay the indemnity to the United States for the injuries 
 inflicted upon American ships and commerce. In conse- 
 quence, the ministry was reorganized, under the presi- 
 dency, howtjver, as before, of marshal Soult. Manufactures 
 and trade being greatly depressed, serious riots occurred; 
 first at Lyons and Marseilles, and then at Paris. In April, 
 a '^veaty wiS concluded at London, between Great Britain, 
 France", Spain and Portugal, which was commonly called 
 the Quadruple Alliance. A difficulty occurring between 
 the king and marshal Soult, the latter resigned his post as 
 president of the council, and was succeeded by marshal 
 46
 
 542 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III 
 
 Girard. The prisons were filled with persons accused of 
 participating in the various insurrections, and the numbei 
 was so great that government was at a loss to know how 
 to dispose of them. The president of the council was of 
 opinion that an amnesty should be granted; and that mear 
 sure being resisted by the king and other members of the 
 council, the president resigned his post. The whole ministry 
 was dissolved, and a new one formed, under the presidency 
 of Maret, duke of Bassano. This lasted but four days, and 
 gave place to the former one, under the presidency of 
 marshal Mortier, with Guizot and Thiers as leading mem- 
 bers. 
 
 In February, 1835, a difiPerence with the chambers was 
 the cause of the dissolution of the ministry. Marshal Soult 
 formed a new ministry, after a great deal of exertion, but it 
 fell to pieces in four weeks. The deputies expressed a 
 desire that the former ministers should resume their places, 
 and the king assented, naming the duke of Broglie as pre- 
 sident of the council and minister of foreign affairs. In 
 April, the chamber of deputies acknowledged the validity 
 of the American claims, and made no further difficulty in 
 providing for their payment. Of about 1200 prisoners held 
 for being concerned in the riots, only 164 were tried. The 
 trials lasted till the middle of August, when 52 were sen- 
 tenced to imprisonment for life, and the Paris prisoners 
 escaped from the place where they were confined. 
 
 In July, at the anniversary of the Revolution of 1830, 
 while the king was reviewing the troops of the line and the 
 national guards, an " infernal machine" exploded near 
 where the king was standing, killing forty persons, among 
 whom was marshal Mortier. The king escaped without 
 injury. The assassin was arrested, and, with two accom- 
 plices, executed. Attempts were made by the ministry to 
 strengthen the power of the king, by presenting to the 
 chambers three laws for their approval. One almost anni- 
 hilating the liberty of the press, another allowing the jurors 
 to vote by ballot, and a third empowering the minister of 
 justice to constitute as many courts of assize as may be 
 necessary to proceed simultaneously against rioters. The 
 laws were sanctioned by the chambers after muah opposi 
 tion. 
 
 In 1836, the trial of the Paris insurgents was concluded, 
 and nineteen or twenty condemned to be transported for 
 life. A deficit occurring in the revenue, a difficulty was 
 brought about between the king and the deputies. The 
 lesult was the resignation of the ministry, in February. A
 
 
 4*; 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 The Empress Cathkbixe !.
 
 llMllllWlllllllllllllHllll'V'll
 
 CHAP. IX. BKBTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 545 
 
 new one was formed under the presidency of Thiers. In 
 June, a third attempt was made upon the life of Louis 
 Philippe. He was shot at as he was leaving the Tuileries 
 in his carriage. No injury was done, and the assassin, an 
 enthusiastic young republican, was tried by the peers, and 
 guillotined on the 11th of July. The new ministry was 
 very active, and their policy was of a bolder tone than the 
 preceding one. But a difficulty soon ensued between the 
 king and his ministers, and Thiers and five of the others 
 resigned. In September, a new ministry was formed, with 
 count Mole as president and minister of foreign affairs. 
 They endeavored to tranquillize the public mind at home 
 and maintain friendly relations abroad. The ministers of 
 Charles X. who had been imprisoned, were set at liberty. 
 In October, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte made an attempt at 
 insurrection at Strasl)urg, but having few followers, he was 
 taken and shipped off to America. The other conspirators 
 were arraigned before the court of assize of the Lower 
 Rhine, but the jury refused to convict them. In December, 
 another attempt was made upon the life of Louis Philippe 
 by a workman named Meunier. The king narrowly es- 
 caped. Meunier was brought to trial and banished for ten 
 years. 
 
 In January, 1837, the ministry made new attempts to 
 fortify the executive branch of the government. Several 
 measures, with that object, were rejected by the chamber 
 of deputies. The ministry were divided upon the pro- 
 priety of a dissolution of the chamber, and Guizot and three 
 others resigned their places. A new organization took 
 place, but it was far from satisfactory. In the course of 
 the summer, an improvement took place in the affairs of 
 the French in Algiers, and the course of events in Spain 
 appeared more propitious. The chamber of deputies still 
 continuing at variance with the ministry, it was dissolved 
 on the 4th of October. The government had expectations 
 that the newly elected chamber would be more favorable to 
 them than the other had been, but its expectations were 
 disappointed. They met in December, but nothing impor- 
 tant occurred. 
 
 In February, 1838, a measure was presented by a liberal 
 member, for reducing the interest on the public debt, which 
 was adopted. The government sustained a defeat of the 
 measures which they recommended. Another plot to 
 destroy the king's life was discovered, and the person in 
 whose hands the machine that was to do the work was 
 found, was tried and sentenced to deportation. The minLi- 
 46*
 
 548 HISTORY OF THE WOEU). PAKT m. 
 
 try pursued a very dictatorial couree towards some of the 
 weaKer Bovereign states. Prince Louis Napoleon had re- 
 turned from America to Europe, and published a pamphlet 
 under an assumed name, setting forth his claims to the 
 throne of France. The person whose name he had assumed 
 was arrested and condemned to imprisonment for five years, 
 and to pay a heavy fine. The government then demanded 
 of the Swiss confederacy the expulsion of the prince from 
 their territory, where he had taken refuge on his return. 
 The Swiss were not disposed to yield to the demand, and 
 hostilities would have commenced had not prince Louis 
 voluntarily quit Switzerland. War was declared against 
 Mexico, and the republic of La Plata. The ministry met 
 with the most strenuous opposition in most of their mea- 
 sures, and Guizot and Thiers, at the head of their respective 
 parties, exerted themselves to effect its overthrow. 
 
 In January, 1839, the ministry thought it prudent to 
 retire before the storm would break upon them, and they 
 resigned their places. Marshal Soult was commissioned to 
 organize a new ministry ; but he declared it impossible 
 without the ministry could comprehend Theirs. The king 
 would not agree to that, and recalled his former ministers, 
 and dissolved the chamber of deputies. The appeal to the 
 electors was unsuccessful; the opposition triumphed, and 
 count Mole and his colleagues once more resigned. (March 
 9th). For two months, the greatest confusion pervaded 
 every department of the government. A ministry could 
 not be organized till the middle of May, when marshal 
 Soult was prevailed upon to accept the post of president of 
 the council and minister of foreign affairs. The council 
 was composed of widely different elements ; the only thing 
 they could agree upon to keep them together was the non- 
 action upon all the questions of difference between the 
 parties which divided the chambers and the country. In 
 consequence, nothing of moment occurred during the legis- 
 lative session, which ended in August. On the re-assem 
 bling of the chambers in December, the state of French 
 affairs in Africa and Syria, and the feeble and uncertain 
 policy of the ministers, produced great embarrassment. In 
 the course of a month, the government found themselves in 
 a minority on a question of appropriation of 500,000 francs 
 to the duke of Nemours, on his marriage. 
 
 In February, 1840, the ministers resigned their places, 
 and the king found a council decidedly liberal his only 
 resource for carrying on the government. Thiers was ap- 
 pointed president of the council and minister of foreign
 
 JHAl'. ES. RESTORATION ASTD LOUIS PHILIPPB. 547 
 
 affairs, and the rest of the ministry were of the same party. 
 Great expectations were entertained by the people in regard 
 to the new ministry, but they were disappointed. The 
 measures and policy of the ultra-royalists who had pre- 
 ceded them were continued. The severe laws against the 
 liberty of the press, and the narrow confinement of the 
 right of suffrage, were not attempted to be repealed or 
 modified. The reduction of the interest on the public debt 
 was rejected by the peers. A considerable sum was ap- 
 propriated by the chambers during the session, for the con- 
 struction of railroads and steam vessels ; and another, of 
 1,000,000 francs, for the purpose of bringing the remains 
 of Napoleon from St. Helena, to be interred with great 
 pomp and ceremony in the capital of his former empire. 
 Towards the close of the session, Thiers made great efforts 
 to induce the great European powers to allow the pasha of 
 Egypt to retain possession of Syria; but he failed in accom- 
 plishing his object. The other powers of Europe concluded 
 a treaty among themselves, without waiting for the acqui- 
 escence of France. The announcement of this treaty pro- 
 duced the greatest excitement in France, and war was 
 generally demanded. The army and navy were augmented, 
 and great activity prevailed at all the ports and arsenals 
 of the country. In the mean time, events occurred which 
 prevented the king from assenting to the design of declaring 
 war against four of the great powers of Europe. One was 
 the landing of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte at Boulogne, with 
 the hope of producing a revolution in his favor. No one 
 joined him, and he was arrested and imprisoned m the 
 fortress of Ham. The other was the fifth attempt to as- 
 sassinate the king. He was fired at with a musket loaded 
 with six balls, while reviewing the national guard, in Octo- 
 ber, but, as before, escaped all injury. The assassin was 
 injured by the bursting of the gun, and afterwards was 
 guillotined. The king's being unwilling to denounce the 
 treaty by which France had been dishonored, was the cause 
 of the resignation of Thiers and his colleagues. A new 
 ministry was organized, with marshal Soult as its presi- 
 dent, and Guizot as minister of foreign affairs, and deci- 
 dedly the most influential member. This ministry was 
 well supported and gradually gained the confidence of the 
 nation. The emperor Napoleon's remains arrived in France 
 in December, and the deposition of them in the dome of the 
 Invalids produced far loss excitement than expected. 
 
 The year 1841 opened with brilliant prospects for the 
 new ministry. The plan for the fortification of the city of
 
 548 BISTORT or the world. part in. 
 
 Paris was submitted to the chambers and approved in 
 February. The object of the ministry was the preservation 
 of the peace of Europe, as they proclaimed, and their policy 
 was systematically directed to that end for the rest of their 
 term of service as a council. The most important events 
 which occurred between the close of the session of the 
 chambers in June, and their assembling in December, were 
 the tumults at Toulouse and other places in the South, on 
 occasion of a new assessment of taxes, which were promptly 
 quelled by a military force ; an unsuccessful attempt on the 
 lives of three of the king's sons, for which the guilty was 
 condemned to deportation ; and the diminution of the army 
 by about 100,000 men. 
 
 In April, 1842, Hernjann, the minister of finance died, 
 and was succeeded by Lacave-Saplagne ; but the policy of 
 the administration continued precisely as before. In May, 
 while the deputies were discussing a law authorizing the 
 construction of nine hundred leagues of railroad, a shock- 
 ing accident occurred on the railroad between Paris and 
 Versailles, by which two hundred persons lost their lives, 
 among whom was the circumnavigator, Dumont d'Urville, 
 and his family. The passage of the law, however, was not 
 prevented by this accident. The duke of Orleans, heir ap- 
 
 Earent to the throne, was thrown off the carriage in which 
 e was riding and killed. This caused much discussion in 
 the chamber of deputies in regard to the regency, in case 
 of the death of the king before the count of Paris should 
 become of age. It was finally decided that the duke of 
 Nemours, who was personally unpopular, should be the 
 regent. For three or four years after the settlement of this 
 question, France remained comparatively calm ; the Guizot 
 ministry growing stronger every day, maintaining peace 
 with the rest of Europe, and developing the resources of 
 the nation. The only events of importance that occurred 
 were the taking of the Marquesas and Society Islands in 
 the Pacific Ocean, and the interchange of visits between 
 Louis Philippe and que3n Victoria. The latter is some- 
 thmg anomalous in French history. After the short calm, 
 the factions resumed their disputes ; and, with the aid of 
 the clubs and an ultra-democratic press, they kept the 
 populace of Paris in a constant excitement. On the part 
 of the king, either from necessity or the desire of power, 
 the principles which he had recognised in 1830 were violated 
 and disowned by him. Great efforts were made by the 
 ministry to give as much power to the king as was possible
 
 W'^^' 
 
 Tke Empbess Elizabetil
 
 Andrew Jackson.
 
 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPB, 551 
 
 This, and the spread of the socialist and communist prin- 
 ciples, hastened the progress of things to a crisis. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The peace of 1815 found the poorer classes, particularly 
 those inhabiting the manufacturing districts, m a state of 
 destitution. Extensive failures of the crops in 1816 and 
 1817 increased the distress to such an extent that in June, 
 1819, serious riots broke out through a large extent of 
 country. These were followed by mass meetings, at which 
 radical measures of reform were proposed and advocated 
 by popular speakers. The government interfered, and at 
 Manchester, a large mob was dispersed and many persons 
 killed. This increased the excitement. Parliament forbade 
 the keeping of fire-arms by the populace, private military 
 exercise, the unauthorized assembling of mass meetings^ 
 and the publication of inflammatory or irreligious writings. 
 
 The death of George III., in January, 1820, was produc- 
 tive of very little change in the social condition of the 
 nation. The return of agricultural prosperity, the increase 
 of the foreign demand for manufactures, and the renewal 
 of specie payments alone caused discontent to subside. A 
 conspiracy to assassinate the ministers, of which Arthur 
 Thistlewood was the leader, was detected soon after the 
 return of prosperity, and Thistlewood executed. 
 
 The disgraceful trial of the queen tended to exasperate 
 all classes and parties. But the pursuing malice of her 
 enemies was arrested by her death in August, 1821, and 
 the king, George IV., regained a portion of his former 
 popularity by making a tour through the country. But 
 the diminution of one evil only increased another. By in- 
 creasing the value of money, parliament had decreased the 
 value of every thing else. Rents rose, and thousands of the 
 
 f)easantry, of Ireland especially, were unable to pay their 
 andlords. Ireland was already torn by social and religious 
 differences, and it now became a prey to riots, secret mur- 
 ders, and every species of violence. Nor has its condition 
 materially improved up to the present time. 
 
 During the Greek struggle for independence, the subjects 
 of Great Britain were allowed to aid the patriots, and many 
 availed themselves of the privilcc;e. In 1825, the nation- 
 ality of the new American republics was acknowledged, 
 and, during the same year, the king prohibited the formei 
 privilege of assisting the Greeks. The year 1826 was sig- 
 nalized by mammoth schemes of speculation, followed by a 
 sudden coUapse, and ruinous bankruptcies. Bank after
 
 1^2 msTOET or the world. part iil 
 
 oank broke, the currency became disordered, and the con- 
 st^qucnt distress was so great that it called for the immo- 
 fliato interposition of government. The same year. Great 
 Britain unfted with Russia to induce or compel Turkey to 
 acknowledge the freedom of Greece; and, in the next year, 
 the treaty of London, for the settlement of that question, 
 was concluded between Great Britain, Russia, and France. 
 In 1829, the Catholic Relief Bill was passed, which, in a 
 great degree, removed the civil disabilities from the Roman 
 Catholics. In June, 1830, George IV. died, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother, William IV. In 1831, after the 
 Whigs came into power, the Reform Bill, regulating parlia- 
 mentary representation, was passed. 
 
 The first session of the reformed parliament was opened 
 on the 29th of January, 1833, and brought to a close on the 
 29th of the following August. Among its most important 
 acts, were two, regulating the juries and the clergy of Ire- 
 land, together with the " Irish coercion act," which im- 
 posed stringent regulations upon the inhabitants of that 
 country. The act for the abolition of slavery in the West 
 India colonies was also passed — twenty millions of pounds 
 being granted to the proprietors as an indemnification. The 
 charter of the East India Company was renewed for the term 
 of twenty years, under certain restrictions. The second 
 session under the new Reform Bill was occupied with the 
 afi"airs of Ireland, where much disorder continued to prevail. 
 The king, being opposed to the changes introduced by the 
 Whigs, dismissed the ministry, and engaged Sir Robert 
 Peel to form another. But the Whigs kept the favor of the 
 nation and a majority in parliament. The new ministry, 
 therefore, kept their places but a short time. They resigned 
 their places, and Viscount Melbourne was employed, and 
 succeeded in forming a ministry which continued during 
 the rest of the reign of William. The most important acts 
 passed during the remaining two years of the reign were — 
 one reforming the municipal corporations; the marriage 
 act, which permitted marriage by any ceremony that the 
 parties preferred, or merely before a magistrate ; an act for 
 the registering of births, deaths, and marriages, and regula- 
 tions respecting Canada and Ireland. 
 
 On the 20th of June, 1837, the king died. William was 
 succeeded by his niece, Alexandrina Victoria, under the 
 title of Victoria I. She was in her nineteenth year. The 
 immediate consequence of the accession of a female to the 
 throne, was the separation of Hanover from the rest of the 
 kingdom, and its retrocession to the male lino <>f the family.
 
 OHAP. QC. BBSTOBATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPX. 653 
 
 The queen found Canada in revolt; Ireland in agitation; 
 England discontented; parties exasperated; and every other 
 cause of disorder aggravated by the movements of the Re- 
 
 Eeal Associations, organized and conducted by O'Connell. 
 lOrd Durham was appointed governor-general of Canada, 
 and given almost dictatorial powers. Bills for the relief ot 
 Ireland were passed. But discontent was not suppressed. 
 In 1808, a large portion of the nopulation banded themselves 
 together under the name of Chartists, claiming the adop- 
 tion, as fundamental law, of a charter, which would grant 
 universal suffrage, vote by ballot, annual parliaments, the 
 abolition of property qualifications in members of the House 
 of Commons, and their remuneration by money. The same 
 year, the Anti-Corn-Law League was formed, the members 
 of which strenuously advocated the doctrines of free trade. 
 The influence of these two associations has been felt se- 
 riously in England to the present day. 
 
 On the 10th of February, 1840, queen Victoria married 
 prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, to whom parliament 
 voted thirty thousand pounds. Soon after this event, diffi- 
 culties occurred with the United States, with the Afghans, 
 and with the Chinese. The latter occurred in consequence 
 of the efforts by the Chinese to suppress the illicit intro- 
 duction of opium into their empire by British vessels. 
 Collisions between the natives and the English followed, 
 and war was soon declared. Sir Henry Gough, the English 
 commander, after various triumphs over the Chinese, ap- 
 peared before the city of Nankin, when a treaty of peace 
 was concluded. (August, 1842.) Great Britain received 
 twenty-one millions of dollars, the island of Hong Kong, 
 and admission into several Chinese ports. In the same 
 year, the difficulties with the United States and with Af- 
 ghanistan were settled by treaty. 
 
 The Melbourne ministry continued under Victoria till 
 1841, when it lost the confidence of parliament, and a new 
 ministry was formed, with Sir Robert Peel at its head. 
 The parliamentary session of 1842 was distinguished by the 
 enactment of a new corn-law, in which the duties previously 
 imposed were in some degree reduced. In 1843 the Free 
 Church of Scotland was instituted, by about four hundred 
 clergymen, who would no longer submit to civil interven- 
 tion in religious affairs. In Ireland, affairs had reached a 
 crisis, and O'Connell, with a number of the leading re- 
 pealers, was arrested. After trial, O'Connell was sentenced 
 to imprisonment for twelve months, to pay a fine of two 
 thousand pounds, and to give sureties in the sum of ten
 
 S54 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART UL 
 
 thousand pounds to keej) the peace for seven years. In 
 1844, this decision of the judges was reversed by the House 
 of Lords. The Peel ministry continued In office until 
 December, 1845, when a difference occurring among its 
 members, lord Wellington resigned his post, and he was 
 followed by the entire cabinet. But from tne difficulty of 
 organizing another, Sir Robert Peel was again called to 
 resume his office. In 1846, the Oregon treaty was concluded 
 with the United States, and the British corn-laws were 
 repealed. The most important events of the year 1847 
 were the distress and agitation in Ireland, the war in India, 
 the efforts to repress the disorders in Canada, and the ten- 
 dency of the masses towards the causes which produced the 
 convulsions of the following year. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 For six years after his restoration, Ferdinand VII. pur- 
 sued a career of absolute despotism. The officers and sup- 
 porters of Joseph Bonaparte were driven from the country 
 or thrown into prison ; the Inquisition was re-established ; 
 monkish tyranny resumed its sway, and every form of 
 justice or of popular right was openly violated. This head- 
 long course of blind bigotry was the cause of violent com- 
 motions. The army became discontented ; bands of ^erillas 
 ravaged different quarters; and various conspiracies were 
 formed, either for petty revenge or the overthrow of the 
 government. While growing weaker at home, the govern- 
 ment was rendering itself contemptible abroad. In 1820, 
 Florida was ceded to the United States for five millions of 
 dollars. The ministry was changed twenty-five times in 
 five years. During this period, the American colonies re- 
 volted, and an attempt to send an army against them was 
 attended by the defection of four battalions, who chose their 
 own leaders, proclaimed the constitution of 1812, and took 
 possession of La Caracca. The attempts made to dislodge 
 them failed; and advancing through the country, they ex- 
 cited a spirit of revolt among the people, and called upon 
 them to re-establish the constitution. They were joined by 
 the royal troops ; so that Ferdinand, as contemptible for his 
 weakness as he was odious for his tyranny, declared him- 
 self willing to summon the Cortes of 1812, and submit to 
 the constitution of that year. A new ministry was ap- 
 pointed, the Inquisition abolished, and an entire change 
 effected in the offices of the government. But the country 
 was torn by factions, and these popular victories failed to 
 restore peace.
 
 W--:9mM'^^^-':^ 
 
 ^v, \ 
 
 O^ 
 
 Field-Marshal Suwakbow.
 
 The Emperor of Chin^
 
 CHAP. IX. BE8T0RATI0N AND LOUIS PHILIPPB. 557 
 
 In March, 1821, the cortes declared the whole country 
 in danger. In September, an extraordinary cortes was 
 summoned, and about the same time, news was received 
 that Mexico had declared herself independent, that Lima 
 was occupied by the Chilians, and that other losses had 
 occurred in the West Indies. The troubles abroad quieted, 
 in some degree, the dissensions at home. The king sanc- 
 tioned a few vigorous measures passed by the cortes ; but 
 they did not render the Spanish arms successful in America, 
 nor increase the popularity of Ferdinand. Military riots 
 occurred, even in the royal palace; and an attempt to 
 restore despotism by overthrowing the constitution, was 
 defeated by the national guards. A new ministry, favor- 
 able to liberal principles, was appointed, and the king, 
 whose authority was now extremely weak, made every 
 concession demanded of him. Not long after, the apostoh- 
 cal party favorable to despotism and monkish rule was 
 defeated, and its leaders driven from the country. The 
 other European powers interfered ; and the French ambas- 
 sador at Madrid demanded the restoration of Ferdinand to 
 power, preparatory to his effecting permanent arrangements 
 with the people. The ministers of Prussia, Austria, and 
 Russia made similar demands ; while England advised the 
 cortes to yield, offering her mediation. The Spanish go- 
 vernment answered in a note, indignantly repelling the 
 foreign interference. The French stationed lUO.OOO men 
 near the Pyrenees, from whence they marched towards 
 Madrid, proclaiming that they came to deliver the country 
 from the evils of civil war. 
 
 Ferdinand, who had entailed wretchednes* upon the 
 nation, was now passive. The French declared the sove- 
 reignty of the king, and nullified all the acts of the cortes. 
 War being declared against France, Ferdinand prosecuted 
 it with his usual weakness, vacillation, and blindness. In a 
 short time, his army of 120,000 men was beaten, and the 
 greater part of the country in the hands of the French. A 
 guerilla warfare succeeded, which was conducted with all 
 the circumstances of crime and barbarity usually attendant 
 upon a desultory warfare. In June, the theatre of war was 
 transferred to the southern provinces. On the 15th of July, 
 the heights of Corunna were carried by general Bourck 
 after a bloody action of five hours. Skirmishes occurred 
 from time to time until the 1st of October, when Ferdinand, 
 under the protection of the French, returned to the capital. 
 Ills first act was declaring the proceedings of the provi- 
 ■ional cortes void. In November, the war terminated. 
 47*
 
 558 HI8T0BY OF THE WORLD. PART III 
 
 Forty-fiTe thousand French soldiers remained in Spain until 
 the national army could be organized, The defeated re- 
 publicans were imprisoned and executed in great numbers. 
 But the re-establishment of the Inquisition was successfiilly 
 
 resisted. 
 
 As the king was suspected of being favorable to the con- 
 stitutionalists, some of the adherents of despotism formed a 
 ?lot to displace him and raise Don Carlos to the throne, 
 'hese were called Carlists. They caused much disturb- 
 ance during the three following years ; and, with the fre- 
 quent change of ministers and the conduct of the king, were 
 the source of much distress among the people. In 1825, 
 Spain lost the castle of St. Jiiuii Je Ulloa, and early in the 
 next year, Callao, near Lims* -her last possession on the 
 American continent. In 1829, the arnyr in Mexico sur- 
 rendered to the patriots, under general Santa Anna._ The 
 same year was signalized by the birth of a royal princess, 
 on which occasion the cortes declared the crown hereditary 
 in the female lines. But two years after, while Ferdinand 
 was suffering from a violent attack of sickness, Calomarde, 
 the minister, induced the weak monarch to revoke the 
 decree, and transfer the right of succession to Don Carlos. 
 The king recovered unexpectedly, and Calomarde was dis- 
 missed. The right of succession was restored to the infanta 
 Maria Isabella, and her mother appointed regent of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Ferdinand died in 1833. This brought on civil war, 
 which was commenced by Don Carlos, who claimed the 
 throne, and continued with variable success, until 1839. 
 Through the energy of the queen's generalissimo, Don 
 Baldomera Espartero, it resulted in her favor. In the mean 
 time, the court was in a distracted condition. Ministers 
 resigned almost as soon as they were installed. The regency, 
 he Carlists, and the queen's adherents struggled for the 
 mastery. The constitution of 1812 being adopted under a 
 modified form in 1837, revived the old constitutional party, 
 which was again divided by the secession of the extreme 
 liberals. In 1840, the queen regent resigned, and her office 
 fell upon the new minister, Espartero. He displayed the 
 same energy which had distinguished him on the battle- 
 field. Charges of cruelty while suppressing the insurrec- 
 tionists were soon brought against him, and they affected 
 his popularity. Quarrels with the cortes and the new 
 ministry followed, and in 1843 he was driven from the 
 country. In October of the same year, the young queen 
 attained her majority, and was acknowledged as queen of
 
 OHAP. IX, RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 559 
 
 Spain by all the European powers under the title of Isar 
 bella II. A new and more aristocratic constitution was 
 adopted, and a new ministry formed under general Narvaez, 
 the great opponent of Espartero. Since that time, Spain 
 has enjoyed an unusual degree of tranquillity — only broken 
 by an occasional quarrel of the factions that continue to 
 exist, the intrigues of the minister, or the childish squabbles 
 of Isabella and her royal consort. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Soon after arriving In his kingdom from his long exile in 
 Brazil, the Portuguese monarch swore to maintain the new 
 constitution. By this were secured freedom of person and 
 of property, the liberty of the press, legal equality, the 
 abolition of privileges, the admission of all citizens to any 
 oflBce, and national sovereignty. Several attempts at insur- 
 rection were suppressed, and in 1823, the different depart- 
 ments of government were re-organized. In the mean time, 
 Brazil had separated from the parent country; and the 
 queen and several of the nobility formed a plot to over- 
 throw the government. Dom Miguel, with a party of 
 nobles and officers, declared against the cortes, and general 
 Sepulveda attempted to carry off the king. The army 
 joined the malcontents, and the king was compelled to 
 name a new ministry and to nullify the constitution of 
 1822. The king was then requested to resume absolute 
 power, the promotion of which was declared to be the 
 object of the counter-revolution. He refused, and propo- 
 sals were made for drafting a new constitution, but they 
 were opposed by the queen, assisted by iJ'rcnch influence. 
 The king still adhering to the system of moderation and 
 liberalism, the queen resolved to annihilate it at a single 
 blow. 
 
 On the 30th of April, 1824, Dom Miguel put himself at 
 the head of the army, and declared his intention to com- 
 plete what he had begun before. On the same day, more 
 than a hundred ministers and officers were arrested, and 
 none allowed access to the king. The foreign ambassadors 
 protested against this violence, but Dom Miguel declared 
 that his object was to frustrate a conspiracy which aimed 
 at the lives of the king and queen. The king ordered the 
 troops to retire, and the release of the imprisoned persons. 
 But the infant issued orders on his own authority, and the 
 king was kept in a condition little better than imprison- 
 ment. The lorcign ambassadors interfering, John, with hit 
 two daughters, and the diplomatic corps, waa secretly con-
 
 660 mSTOBT OP THE WORLD. PAUT III 
 
 Teyed on board an English ship, where he summoned the 
 infant to his presence. The prince obeyed, confessed that 
 he had been deceived, and was pardoned. Soon after, the 
 king returned ashore and resumed his liberal policy ; but 
 his designs were baffled by Spanish intrigue, which revived 
 the opposition of the queen and the bigoted patriarch of 
 Lisbon. Conspiracies were detected, and several changes 
 of ministers occurred. 
 
 On the 13th of November, 1825, the independence of 
 Brazil was acknowledged, and four months after, the king 
 died. In April, 1826, a new constitution was granted, by 
 which the cortes was divided into two chambers. In May, 
 Dom Pedro oflFered the throne to his daughter. Donna Maria, 
 on condition of her marrying her uncle Miguel. But, by 
 the assistance of Spain, a party had already been formed 
 to overthrow the new constitution and proclaim Dom Miguel 
 king. Aramante and the marquis of Abrantes headed 
 the insurgents, while a Spanish army assembled on the 
 frontier. An apneal being made to England, 15,000 British 
 troops were landed at Lisbon, and in a short time the in 
 surrection was suppressed. Next year, Dom Miguel was 
 appointed regent. Ills arrival from Vienna in 1828 occar 
 sioned another insurrection, the object of which was to 
 place him on the throne. At the same time, the officers of 
 the garrisons favorable to the liberal policy were removed, 
 and an arrangement made for sending Dom Miguel to Villa 
 Vicosa, where he might be proclaimed king while protected 
 by Aramante's troops. This scheme was frustrated by the 
 energy of Mr. Lamb, the British minister. The order for 
 the departure of the English troops was counteracted, and 
 prevented the payment of the loan made to Dom Miguel 
 under the guarantee of the British government. Subse- 
 quently, when the troops were withdrawn, the prince suc- 
 ceeded in crushing the constitutional party. Miguel directed 
 all his efforts towards consolidating his own power, and the 
 only means he employed was cruelty. The prisons were 
 filled with his late opponents, and the roads were crowded 
 with fugitives, flying from home and their country. The 
 cortes declared him lawful king of Portugal. 
 
 In 1830, the number of prisoners confined for political 
 causes had swelled to 40,000, and the other countries of 
 Europe were filled with Portuguese refugees. By his arbi- 
 trary acts, the king drew upon him the opposition of Great 
 Britain, which sent a fleet to the Tagus in 1831, which 
 forced from him some humiliating concessions. Two months 
 after a French fleet appeared in that river, and demanded
 
 Paul i
 
 ThoBtM Jefferson.
 
 OBAP. IX MSTOBATION AND lOtllS PSILrPPB. 563 
 
 redresB for injuries committed by the Portuguese on French 
 subjects. All the demands of the French were submitted 
 to. Soon after an insurrection occurred, which was only 
 suppressed with bloodshed. Meanwhile, Dom Pedro was 
 preparing an expedition whose object was the expulsion of 
 nis brother and the promotion of his own daughter, Donna 
 Maria da Gloria, to the throne. 
 
 On the 8th of July, 1832, Dom Pedro landed at Oporto, 
 and seizing that city, maintained it against the efforts of 
 the opposite faction. In July, 1833, the fleet of Dom Miguel 
 was totally defeated off Cape St. Vincent by Sir Charles 
 Napier, and in the same month his army was routed by the 
 count da Villaflor. Lisbon was speedily reduced, and Dom 
 Pedro assumed the government in the name of his daughter. 
 The Miguel faction was still in arms, and its forces led by 
 general JBourmont, a Frenchman. This leader made a des- 
 perate attempt to carry the city of Oporto, but being 
 repulsed, his forces retired to two strong fortresses, where 
 they would have protracted the war, but for the union of a 
 Spanish army with the queen's troops. On the 26th of 
 May, 1834, Dom Miguel signed a capitulation, by virtue of 
 which he abandoned Portugal. The cortes re-established 
 the constitution of 1826, and gave their sanction to his 
 holding the regency. When order was in some degree 
 restored, Dom Pedro suddenly died. His death gave rise to 
 dissensions between the queen and her faithful ministers, 
 in consequence of which marshal Saldanha, a democratio 
 leader, became prime minister. The object of this appoint- 
 ment was to gain favor with the masses; but it failed. 
 Saldanha lost his former influence, and factions became 
 more violent than ever. In March, 1835, the queen's hus- 
 band died. In April, 1836, she married duke Ferdinand 
 of Saxe-Coburg-Cohary, who was disliked both by the cortes 
 and the people, and now troubles were the consequence. 
 
 Five months after the second marriage of the queen, au 
 insurrection occurred, which was joined in by the troops, 
 and the queen was compelled to dismiss her ministers. The 
 constitution of 1822 was again proclaimed. Lisbon was 
 ruled by the national guard and the clubs, which sup- 
 pressed all counter-revolutionary efforts. The new constitu 
 tion was constructed principally upon democratic principles. 
 Difficulties occurred with England and Spain, wnich occa- 
 sioned the dissolution of the ccrtes, and the organization of 
 another, which speedily came to terms with the British 
 government. In 1841, Russia. Prussia, Austria, and the 
 pope acknowledged the title of Donna Maria, which cod
 
 ttlSTORt 0? THB WORLD. PART 111 
 
 tnbuted to give stabiUty to her throne. Early in 1842, the 
 friends of the late Dom Pedro, aided by the troops at Lisbon, 
 effected an overthrow of ministers, and restored the guardians 
 of the queen, who had been appointed by the late regent. 
 These were the duke of Ferceira and Costa Cabral. Under 
 their management, a new treaty was concluded with Eng- 
 land, the public expenditure lessened, additional taxes 
 imposed, and the number of the cortes lessened. Some of 
 these measures being found oppressive, the people strove to 
 prevent their execution by plots and insurrections. The 
 most formidable of these occurred at Torres Novas, in 
 February, 1844. The insurgents, mostly of the army, 
 seized the fortress of Almeida. This was besieged by the 
 government troops, and captured after an obstinate resist- 
 ance. Civil war continued to distract Portugal, and her 
 government is still in the hands of rulers who evince a total 
 incapacity for the duties of their stations. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Italy enjoyed a degree of prosperity under Napoleon un- 
 known to her for ages; but with the old state of things, 
 returned misery and anarchy. According to the regula- 
 tions of the congress of Vienna, the king of Sardinia was 
 reinstated, and received, as additional territory, the duchy 
 of Geneva. The new Lombardo- Venetian kingdom was 
 given to Austria; the Po was constituted the boundary 
 between Parma and the Popedom; Ferdinand of Austria 
 became grand-duke of Tuscany; Ferdinand IV. was recog- 
 nised as king of the Two Sicilies, and the minor states were 
 principally given to Austria. Thus Italy was little more 
 than a provmce of that empire. But the desire of liberty 
 led to the formation of various clubs and secret political 
 societies, of which the principal were the famous Carbonari. 
 Their object was the deliverance of Italy from foreign rule, 
 and the establishment of a democratic government for the 
 whole peninsula. The leaders of these institutions were 
 men of talents, influential with the people, and controlling, 
 in a great degree, the popular press. From the year 1820 
 till the expulsion of the pope in 1848, these men devoted 
 their whole efforts to the accomplishment of their object; 
 their exertions producing serious riots in Naples, Sicily, and 
 Piedmont. 
 
 In the month of March, 1820, more than 600,000 mem- 
 bers were added to the Carbonari. In the next year, they 
 attempted to revolutionize Naples and Piedmont, but were 
 suppressed by an Austrian army. At the congress of Lay-
 
 
 A^^KaKDEB I.
 
 OHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHttrPPB. 567 
 
 back and Verona, the sovereigns of Europe resolved upon 
 an armed intervention to quell the revolutionary spirit. 
 Yet, in 1825, a conspiracy vras detected at Rome, having 
 for its object the overthrow of Austrian rule and the esta- 
 blishment of a consolidated government. Soon afterw ards, 
 all secret societies were prohibited, tribunals supported by 
 columns of troops were appointed to punish the authors of 
 revolutions, and proscriptions, banishments, and executions 
 followed. The press, schools, and universities were closely 
 watched, and the education of youth confided to the Jesuits. 
 These measures, however, did not prevent occasional out- 
 breaks. 
 
 Meanwhile, some changes had taken place in the Papal 
 States. In 1823, pope Pius VII. died. He was succeeded 
 by cardinal Annibal deUa Genga, under the title of Leo XII. 
 He died in 1829, and was succeeded by cardinal Castiglione, 
 who died in 1830. In the next year, Gregory XVI. became 
 pope. 
 
 The French revolution of 1830 revived the spirit of in- 
 surrection in Italy. The Austrian government took prompt 
 and vigorous measures to crush any outbreaks in the Lom- 
 bardo- Venetian kingdom, and the other parts of Italy were 
 easily approached by the troops in that quarter. The out- 
 breaks at Bologna and Modena were speedily quelled, and 
 were followed by a period of external tranquillity. When 
 Ferdinand I. ascended the throne of Austria, he liberated 
 the imprisoned Italians, and granted an amnesty for politi- 
 cal offences ; but the country continued in a disturbed con- 
 dition until the death of Gregory XVI., in 1846. _ He was 
 succeeded by Pius IX., whose accession was the signal for 
 the movement of many of the elements which produced the 
 stormy events of 1848. 
 
 Germany and Prussia. 
 
 In 1815, the Germanic League was formed of the states 
 composing the old German empire. The principal objects 
 of this confederacy were the independence of the constituent 
 states ; prevention of hostilities between one state and 
 another; the security of each state from civil war; the es- 
 tablishment of representative constitutions ; legal equality 
 of rcligiou« sects; the exercise of a common civil law, by 
 which the citizens of one state may enjoy civil and religious 
 privileges in another. These states were too loosely held 
 together, either to be formidable in war or tranquil in 
 peace. From 1816 to the present time, Germany has been
 
 568 rasTORY OF the woeld. part m 
 
 suffering from internal distractions, and, with respect to the 
 control of Europe, politically dead. 
 
 The political history of Germany, apart from its most 
 powerful states, Austria and Prussia, has been of little 
 importance since 1820. Some commotion was caused in 
 the states by the French revolution of 1830, but it subsided 
 when it was ascertained that the policy of Louis Philippe 
 was favorable to peace. In 1831, the diet prohibited all 
 interference of the subjects with the affairs of the govern- 
 ment, either by petition or otherwise. A censorship of the 
 press was also recommended. In 1834, authors of liberal 
 
 famphlets were forbidden to publish their productions. In 
 840, the people united with the government in preparing 
 for a war with France, in consequence of the hostile attitude 
 assumed by that country concerning the eastern question; 
 but the storm passed away, and Germany fell back to her 
 former inefficiency. In 1840, the preaching of John Ronge, 
 a Catholic priest, against an exhibition of the so-called Holy 
 Coat at Treves, excited a commotion throughout Germany, 
 and resulted in the secession of large numbers from the 
 Catholic communion, and their subsequent formation of a 
 new religious body, called the German Catholic church. 
 
 The NetTierlands. 
 
 The union of the states composing the Netherlands did 
 not produce tranquillity. The bitterness of feeling engen- 
 dered by religious differences and the remembrance of the 
 old national hatred produced, on the one part, stringent 
 measures of government against the French Catholic mis- 
 sionaries who had been the cause of much disturbance; 
 and, on the other, an excommunication from the pope 
 against some distinguished ecclesiastics who had sworn 
 allegiance to the king. Amid insurrections and disturb- 
 ances of various kinds, the government found time to esta- 
 blish pauper colonies for the relief of the poor, to build 
 canals, and organize agricultural societies. Troubles oc- 
 curred with the natives of the East Indies, but all were 
 Bettled advantageously for the Netherlands. Trade revived, 
 and a joint-stock company, for the promotion of various 
 branches of industry, was founded by the king. The Nether- 
 lands rendered great aid to Great Britain in suppressing the 
 Blave trade. By a treaty with that power, in 1824, the 
 Netherlands received full 'possession of the English portion 
 of Sumatra in exchange for the Dutch territories on the 
 main land of India. 
 
 In 1829, religious and political animosities became bo
 
 OfiAP. EC. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 660 
 
 violent, that government resolved to change its policy from 
 concession to firm resistance. The Belgian petitions for 
 redress were thrown aside, and laws passed against the 
 liberty of the press. Some editors were arrested and tried 
 for treason; and being found guilty, were banished. Amid 
 the uproar caused by these proceedings, news of the French 
 revolution arrived. All Brussels took arms instantly. The 
 troops fired on the mob, but they were driven back and the 
 people took possession of the arsenal. On the 27th of 
 August, the royal arms were torn dovm, and the people 
 chose new municipal officers. The revolution spread through 
 southern Netherlands, and an address was presented to the 
 king, asking for a complete change in the administration 
 The king refused, and sent an army towards Brussels, undei 
 command of his sons, prince Frederick, and the prince of 
 Orange. The latter entered Brussels with his troops, and 
 after consultation with the deputations from the city and 
 from Liege, became satisfied of the necessity of a separation 
 of Holland and Belgium. He laid the matter before the 
 king, and he declared his determination to refer all to the 
 Btates-general. The people again took to arms; so that 
 when the states-general met in September, they had to 
 choose between anarchy and separation. On the 29th of 
 September, thej declared, by a large majority, the legisla- 
 tive and administrative separation of Holland and Belgium. 
 When the news of this declaration reached Brussels, another 
 outbreak ensued, which resulted in the triumph of the 
 people and the choice of popular officers. 
 
 The burghers, appealing for aid to the king, prince 
 Frederick, after issuing a proclamation, advanced upon the 
 city. Every preparation was made for resistance by the 
 insurgents, headed by the political clubs and factious 
 Frenchmen. The battle began on the 23d. The people 
 fought behind their barricades, and boiling oil, rockets, 
 Btones, and every variety of missile were used against the 
 troops. Part of the city was reduced to ashes. Women 
 armed themselves and fought behind the barricades; and, 
 after a four days' struggle, the prince was driven off, with 
 the loss of 4000 men. After the victory of the people, the 
 
 f»rovisional government declared the provinces separated 
 rom Holland should form an independent state. Three 
 parties immediately appeared ; one favorable to an alliance 
 with France ; one desiring a regency under the prince of 
 Orange; and another, headed by De Potter, a banished 
 «ditor, anxious for a democracy, with the Catholic religion 
 M the religion of the state. The country was in a state of 
 48
 
 570 mSTOEY OF THE WORLl). tART Ul 
 
 anarchy, brutal violence and rapine being paramount every, 
 where. Some Belgian troops irritated the commandant of 
 the citadel of Antwerp, lieutenant-general Chasse, and he 
 bombarded the city for seven hours, with the most destruc- 
 tive effect. 
 
 On the 3d of February, 1831, the new congress elected 
 the duke of Nemours, son of Louis Philippe, king of Bel- 
 gium ; but the French monarch declined the crown for his 
 son. A regency was appointed, and the government went 
 into operation. At length prince Leopold was elected king, 
 and war with Holland ensued, which, but for the interfe- 
 rence of France, would have ended in the total conquest of 
 Belgium. In 1832, the leading powers of Europe acknow- 
 ledged the independence of Belgium, and recommended to 
 the king of Holland a suspension of hostilities. But Hol- 
 land being dissatisfied, both countries prepared for war. 
 France and England agreed in convention, that Belgium 
 should surrender Venloo, and HoUand Antwerp, by the 
 2d of November; and that if Holland refused to comply, 
 England should blockade her ports while a French army 
 marched against Antwerp. Both events occurred. Marshal 
 Gerard, with a French army, gained possession of Antwerp 
 at the close of the year 1832, after which hostilities were 
 suspended. But it was not tiU 1839, that, through the 
 mediation of the five great powers, Holland acknowledged 
 the Belgic nationality. King William abdicated the throne 
 of Holland the next year in favor of his son, William II. 
 
 Austria. 
 The influence of Austria over the other countries of 
 Europe has been increasing since the congress of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. Her domestic policy is cruel and despotic. In 
 1819, a censorship of all literary institutions was established, 
 with a law intended to suppress liberal opinions, liberal 
 writings, and secret societies. In the same year, a congress 
 at Vienna adopted a constitution, which was subsequently 
 acknowledged as law by the whole Germanic body. Austria 
 possessed the strongest influence in the congresses of Trap- 
 pau, Laybach, and Verona, which decided the political affairs 
 of Italy, Spain, and Greece. In all these, the principles of 
 legitimacy and armed interference with the small states 
 were established as rules of conduct by the Holy AUiance. 
 Austria was opposed to the recognition of Greek indepen- 
 dence, and bore a full share in exciting the troubles in 
 Portugal arc^ Sp^. She acted as mediator between Russia 
 iLd Tuxi>-^^i in the war between thuod pvwers. In th*
 
 Napoleon at the Kremlin.
 
 CHAP. DL KBSTOBATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 573 
 
 mean time, every means were adopted to banish liberal 
 opinions. The subjects were forbidden to speak of the 
 
 tovernment, even in praise. Learning and education were 
 iscouraged. 
 
 In 1820, while the emperor Francis was at Laybach, he 
 said he wanted no learned men, but good, loyal subjects. 
 The military force successfully resisted all the attempts at 
 revolt consequent upon the French revolution of 1830. On 
 the 2d of March, 1835, Francis II. died, and was succeeded 
 by his son, Ferdinand I. No change followed in the Aus- 
 trian policy. In November, 1846, Austria united with 
 Russia and Prussia in annihilating the nationality of Cra- 
 cow, the last relic of the old Polish kingdom. The territory 
 around Cracow was annexed to Austria. This event, which 
 produced a great sensation in Europe, increased the discon- 
 tent and spirit of insurrection which had long existed in 
 the central provinces, particularly Hungary and Bohemia. 
 When Pius IX. ascended the papal chair, he was suspected 
 of favoring liberal opinions ; and Ferdinand poured his best 
 troops, by large detachments, into Italy. In the summer 
 of 1847, an Austrian army seized Ferrara. Another army 
 appeared on the borders of Sardinia, and all the northern 
 provinces were in like manner watched and occupied. The 
 plot to assassinate the pope was believed to be the result 
 of Austrian intrigue. The commotions in Vienna continu- 
 ing, the designs of Austria upon Italy were in a great 
 degree checked. 
 
 Eussia. 
 
 The subsiding of the violent commotions which attended 
 the destruction of the power of Napoleon found Russia a 
 power of the greatest influence. After the peace of Vienna, 
 Alexander directed his attention to the development of the 
 resources of his country with energy and success. His 
 military power was a source of terror to the neighboring 
 nations, and his domestic affairs were directed in such a 
 manner as to re-organize the various branches of govern- 
 ment and society. lie died December Ist, 1825, and was 
 succeeded by his brother Nicholas. As the elder brother, 
 Constantino Caesarowitsch, renounced his right to the throne, 
 a revolt occurred in the army, during which a conspiracy 
 of the old Russian nobility, which had existed for years, 
 was detected. The disturbance was suppressed and several 
 of the conspirators executed. The next year, a war began 
 with Persia, concerning the Persian succession. Russia 
 prosecuted it with vigor, and by treaty, in ib27, gained a
 
 674 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART HI. 
 
 large accession of territory and the payment of all expenses. 
 In 1828, war was declared against Turkey, caused by the 
 relations of Russia with the Greeks. An army of 115,000 
 men, entering Turkey, took possession of the Upper Danube. 
 The mountain fortresses of Choumla and Varna, where the 
 flower of the sultan's army was concentrated, were attacked, 
 and Choumla taken, after a two months' siege ; but an early 
 winter and the prevalence of disease exposed the Russians 
 to great losses. Another division of troops marched through 
 Caucasus into Asiatic Turkey, seized several strongholds, 
 and destroyed a flotilla on the Black Sea. When winter 
 had terminated the campaign, various attempts to settle 
 the difficulty were made by the European powers, but to no 
 effect. In the middle of winter hostilities recommenced. In 
 Europe, the Turks lost several fortresses and a portion of 
 their fleet. In Asia the contest was more serious. A great 
 deal of hard fighting took place, but the Turks were every- 
 where defeated. In August, 1829, the great city of Slivno 
 was taken. A week later, Adrianople fell. On the 14th of 
 September, a treaty of peace was signed, by which the 
 boundaries of Turkey were adjusted, and an indemnity 
 made to Russia for all expenses. 
 
 This war was soon followed by the revolution in Poland, 
 which crushed the hope of freedom in that country. Since 
 the peace of Adrianople, Russia has taken advantage of 
 every opportunity to extend her influence over Turkey. She 
 has made repeated attacks upon Persia. The war waged 
 with the brave mountaineers of Caucasus has been a series 
 of defeats and humiliations to Russia for many years. In 
 the mean time, the emperor Nicholas has displayed great 
 zeal for internal improvements and the cause of education 
 in his dominions. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 The union of Sweden and Norway is a mere political 
 relation — the habits, feelings, and interests of the people of 
 the two countries being rather antagonistical. Swedish 
 society presents the predominating feature of aristocracy; 
 Norwegian, that of democracy. Charles XIV. appeared to 
 be peculiarly fitted for the reconciliation of differences, 
 which, under a less enlightened and more bigoted monarch, 
 would have produced serious results. He possessed the 
 confidence of the army and a majority of the nation ; and 
 ho pursued a policy marked with moderation and wisdom. 
 In 1823, some conspiracies for restoring to the throne the 
 exiled ,bouse of Wasa were detected, and their design frus
 
 NlCUOLAS 1.
 
 ^ 
 
 OHAP. IX BBSTOBATION AND LOUIS PHIUPPE. 577 
 
 trated by the vigilance of the publio officers. Their repeti- 
 tion was prevented by an amicable arrangement with tha 
 crown. The judicial power was separated from the execu- 
 tive, and various reforms were made with regard to com- 
 merce, agriculture, and the administration of justice. 
 Treaties were entered into with Great Britain and the 
 United States, which served to strengthen the government. 
 In 1824, the king of Norway endeavored to prevail upon 
 the storthing, or congress of the nation, to give him an abso- 
 lute veto and the appointment of the president of the stor- 
 thing, to create a hereditary nobility, and other acts. The 
 proposals were unanimously rejected, although the king 
 was personally popular. The tumults of 1830 did not dis- 
 turb the tranquillity of the Scandinavian empire. Internal 
 improvements of various kinds then occupied the attention 
 of government, and several important canals were con- 
 structed. In 1834, the proceedings of the national diet 
 were opened to the public. In 1840, a law was passed, by 
 which the diet meets every three years, instead of every 
 five. Charles XIV. died on the 8th of March, 1844, aged 
 80 years, and was succeeded by his son, Oscar I. Latterly 
 the history of Sweden presents nothing of importance, save 
 the government's protestation against the incorporation of 
 the territory around Cracow with the dominions of Austria, 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 In 18i7, Mahmoud VI. seized Moldavia and Wallachia, 
 which had partly been ceded to Russia by the treaty of 
 1812, under pretence that Russia favored the rebellion of 
 the Greeks. The moderation of the emperor Alexander 
 joined with the mediation of Austria and England, served 
 to prevent an outbreak immediately. When the emperor 
 Nicholas succeeded Alexander, he demanded and obtained 
 satisfaction. In 1826, the measures pursued by the sultan 
 in exterminating the janizaries caused an insurrection in 
 Constantinople, during which 6000 houses were burned. 
 Military despotism being established, Mahmoud conducted 
 himself with equal ferocity against his own subjects and 
 the rebel Greeks. At the same period he re-organizod his 
 army after the European form, and, among other improve- 
 ments, adopted the European dress. But these reforms 
 rendered him so unpopular with the people that he was 
 obliged to suspend them. The war with Russia began in 
 182o, and il ihe close, by the treaty of Adrianople, Turkey 
 surrendered Moldavia and Wallachia, acknowledged the 
 49
 
 678 HISTORY OP THE WORM). PA»T 111 
 
 independence of Greece, and lost a district of Asiatic 
 Turkey. 
 
 Mahmoud then resumed his projects of civil and military 
 reform ; but they caused insurrections which required two 
 years to suppress. Then followed the war f\-^ Mehemet 
 Ali, pasha of Egypt. That officer had refused t > ;>;>y tribute, 
 in virtue of the assistance he had given the sultan during 
 the Turkish war ; and when irritated by the high tone of 
 the Turkish court, he sent his son, Ibrahim pasha, with an 
 army into Syria. Ibrahim reduced Acre, routed 25,000 
 Turks, and then advanced against their main body. In 
 December, 1832, the army of the sultan was totally defeated 
 at Konieh ; and though Russia assisted Turkey by a 
 squadron and a military force, Mahmoud was compelled to 
 surrender Syria to the pasha. In 1839, hostilities were 
 renewed, and in June the Turks were routed at Nezib, near 
 Aleppo. Mahmoud died before the news reached him. 
 Ho was succeeded by his eldest son, Abdul Medgid, a youth 
 of sixteen. Two weeks after, the Turkish fleet, under the 
 capudan pasha, went over to the enemy. On the 15th of 
 July, 1840, the war terminated. By a treaty concluded at 
 London, between Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Aus- 
 tria, Syria was restored to Turkey, and Mehemet Ali obliged 
 to content himself with Egypt. 
 
 After the settlement of this difficulty, the sultan directed 
 his attention to the introduction of European customs; but 
 his designs were everywhere opposed, and the people were 
 excited to hatred and the more active to sedition. For five 
 years, some of the provinces were in revolt; and the utmost 
 exertions of the sultan to restore order and re-organize the 
 social and political systems only produced mortifying re- 
 sults. In 1846, war occurred with Greece, and it was con- 
 ducted with aU the barbarity and devastation usual with 
 the Turks and the Greeks. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 The revolution by which the Greeks threw off the Turkish 
 yoke was the first great event in that country after the 
 congress of Vienna. The first attempt at rebellion waa 
 made in 1821 ; but not receiving the expected aid from 
 Russia, the Greeks were suppressed. Then the patriots 
 and their wives and children were treated with the greatest 
 degree of cruelty. S jon after, the inhabitants of the Morea 
 revolted, and some skirmishes ensued, followed by massacre 
 and devastation. Ir. Cyprus, where no insurrection had 
 taken place, the Turks murdered most of the inhabitants
 
 Al EXANDER II.
 
 1#:-K
 
 CHAP. IX. EESTOBATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 681 
 
 and burned sixty-two villages. Like outrages were com- 
 mitted at Rhodes, Pergamos, and Smyrna. The Greek fleet 
 blockaded all the ports of the iEgean Sea. A Greek force 
 took Tripolissa by storm, and massacred 8000 Turks. The 
 Turks desolated the peninsula of Cassandra and slaughtered 
 3000 persons. 
 
 In January, 1822, deputies from various parts of Greece 
 formed themselves into a provisional government and pro- 
 ilaimed a constitution. A Turkish fleet and army appeared 
 before Scio, and after wasting the island and massacring 
 thousands, sold 41,000 of the people as slaves. Forty 
 Greeks, devoting themselves to death, fired a part of the 
 Turkish fleet, and more than 2000 men perished. In Cara- 
 Veria, 5000 Christian families were slaughtered. Skirmish- 
 ing of a severe character was carried on in the Morea, 
 until August, 1823, when the Greeks united their forces 
 and routed 20,000 Turks, with great slaughter, near Napoli. 
 Numbers of the Turkish vessels were destroyed by tempests 
 and the Greek fire. The sultan resolved on a war of ex- 
 termination. He sent a second army into Greece; but part 
 of it was defeated at Thermopylae, by the Greek Ulyssus, 
 and soon after another detachment was routed at Cheronea 
 by the same leader. On the 20th of August, Marco Boz- 
 zaris defeated 20,000 Turks at Agrapha, m a night attack. 
 The victory cost the Greeks the death of Bozzaris. The 
 Turks attacked Ipsara; but after an obstinate and bloody 
 contest, they were driven off. 
 
 On the main land, the Greeks were equally successful. 
 The third siege of Missolonghi, which lasted from April till 
 October of the year 1825, terminated in the defeat of the 
 Turks, with the loss of 9000 men. A fourth attack was 
 attended with the same result. But it was taken finally, 
 in 1826. The sufferings of the Greeks on this occasion 
 awakened the sympathy of Europe. The three great powers 
 united in their favor, and societies were everywhere formed 
 for their relief. In the mean time, the Egyptian allies of 
 the sultan overran the Morea, and the Greeks were reduced 
 to extremity. The sultan rejecting the mediation of the 
 three great powers, the Turkish and Egyptian fleet of one 
 hundred and ten vessels was annihilated, in the bay of 
 Navarino, by an English, French, and Russian fleet. In 
 1828, a body of French troops entered Greece, and, through 
 the influence of France and England, the Egyptian pasha 
 withdrew his troops from the Morea. In the next year, the 
 sultan signed the articles submitted to him by the three 
 great powers, acknowledging the independence of Greece. 
 49*
 
 482 mSTORT OF THE WORLD. PART HL 
 
 Some Bkirmislimg occurred after this, but the independence 
 of Greece was secured by the treaty of Adrianople, in Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was chosen by the allied 
 powers to be the king of Greece. But he declined accept- 
 ing it, and Otho of Bavaria became the king. The country 
 was in a state of anarchy, which continued until 1843, 
 when the king was compelled to call a national assembly 
 for the purpose of forming a new constitution. This con- 
 stitution, which is monarchical, was completed in 1844. 
 
 The intrigues of European powers and the quarrels of 
 factions have prevented the realization of the hopes the 
 friends of Greece conceived in 1829. 
 
 The United States of America. 
 James Monroe, the fifth president of the United States, 
 was inaugurated March 4th, 1821. In 1824, a treaty was 
 concluded with Russia, by which that power abandoned 
 that part of Oregon south of 54° 40^. In the same year, a 
 treaty was concluded with England, for the suppression of 
 the slave trade. In 1825, Lafayette visited the land whose 
 independence he had helped to establish, and was every- 
 where received with demonstrations of respect and grati- 
 tude. The sixth president of the Union was John Quincy 
 Adams, under whose administration several treaties were 
 concluded with the Indian tribes, by which portions of 
 Georgia, Arkansas, and Missouri were ceded to the United 
 States. Other treaties were concluded with the republic of 
 Colombia, Denmark, and Central America. On the 4th of 
 July, 1826, two ex-presidents, Jefferson and Adams, died. 
 In 1828, the passage of a new tariff bill caused violent com- 
 motions in the Southern States ; and in the same year, 
 general Andrew Jackson was elected president by a large 
 majority. The tariff question continued to be agitated, and 
 during the sessions of congress from 1829 till 1832, it formed 
 the principal subject. In 1832, a new bill was passed, 
 lowering the rate of duties considerably. But the South 
 were dissatisfied, and demanded its repeal. A convention 
 was held in South Carolina, which declared both tariff acts 
 null and void, and declared, that if the national government 
 endeavored to enforce them, the Union would be dissolved. 
 The advocates of these measures were called NuUifiers. The 
 president issued a proclamation, declaring his intention to 
 maintain the integrity of the Union. Civil war seemed in 
 evitable, when Henry Clay proposed his Compromise Aol, 
 which met with the support rf the Southern members.
 
 Maria Alexandhovna, Empress of Russia.
 
 John Quincy Adams.
 
 OBAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPB, 585 
 
 This danger was scarcely averted, when a new source of 
 contention arose from the president's vetoing a bill for the 
 re-charter of the United States Bank. This virtually abo- 
 lished the institution, which produced derangement and 
 distress throughout the mercantile world. The large cities 
 were opposed to the measures of the president; and petitions 
 from the great trading and moneyed interests, praying for 
 a restoration of the charter of the bank, poured into con- 
 
 fress. The president maintained his opposition to the 
 ank, and wound up its concerns. The warlike attitude of 
 the president towards France was modified by the opposi- 
 tion of congress, and the difficulty was adjusted, through 
 the mediation of Great Britain. An outrage of some wiiites, 
 in Florida, caused the Seminole war — a protracted aAd un- 
 satisfactory contest. The abolition of the national bank 
 caused the chartering of a vast number of state banks, 
 which produced a great deal of wild speculation and a 
 paper currency of enormous amount. 
 
 Amid social and political troubles, general Jj "kson's 
 second term of office expired. The next president, Alartin 
 Van Buren, was a strenuous advocate of the Jacksoi policy. 
 The Seminole war continued, attended with all the horrors 
 of Indian warfare. The everglades of Florida affoi led the 
 Indians a secure refuge. Another Indian war, with Black 
 Hawk and his followers, in the west, was ended in 1832, 
 by the capture of that chief. In tho same year, the cholera 
 visited the country. The government acknowledged the 
 independence of Texas, and a number of volunteero joined 
 the Texan troops opposed to the army of Mexico. At the 
 battle of San Jacinto, the Mexicans were defeated a* d Santa 
 Anna, the Mexican president, was captured and c( nducted 
 to Washington, where he signed a treaty ackno^/ledging 
 Texan independence. The year of president Van Buren's 
 inauguration saw the bursting of the storm which iiad been 
 pending over every department of industry since tlie aboli- 
 tion of the national bank. Almost all the banks in the 
 country either broke or suspended specie payments. Busi- 
 ness of every kind was brought to a stand, and mechanics 
 and laborers were reduced to extreme distress. The Florida 
 war was continued, and Osceola, the most prominent Semi- 
 nole leader, captured. Petitions for the convening of at. 
 extra session of congress were laid before the president, but 
 were disregarded. 
 
 At the regular session, in December, little was done with 
 the object of relieving the general distress, the attention of 
 congress being directed to affairs on the Canada border
 
 588 msTORT OF the world. 3p* <t m 
 
 Canada had revolted, and parties of Americans crossed the 
 boundary to assist the insurgents. A special message was 
 issued by the president, forbidding the citizens to cross the 
 boundary -with the object of assisting the Canadians, and 
 general Scott, with some New York troops, was ordered to 
 the border. On the night of the 28th of December, a party 
 of British militia burned the steamboat Caroline, and sent 
 it over Niagara. An angry correspondence with the British 
 minister was the consequence of this affair, but nothing 
 serious occurred. In 1838 the banks resumed spepie pay- 
 ments. Another difficulty occurred with Great Britain, on 
 the Maine boundary question, during which war was anti- 
 cipated by both countries. 
 
 In 1839, the banks again suspended. Next year, general 
 Harrison was elected to the presidency by a large majority. 
 A complete change of policy was the consequence. A spe- 
 cial session of congress was called to meet in May, and it 
 was expected the cardinal principles of the Whig party 
 would be carried out. General Harrison died in one month 
 after his inauguration, and was succeeded by vice-president 
 Tyler. In May, congress met. Its first great measure, the 
 bill for the establishment of the United States Bank, was 
 vetoed by president Tyler. A second bill met the same 
 treatment, and the consequence was, the resignation of the 
 cabinet, vnth the exception of Mr. Webster. A new tariff 
 bill was passed, and its effect was soon seen in the revival 
 of trade and business. In 1842, the Maine boundary ques- 
 tion was settled by Mr. Webster and lord Ashburton. 
 
 In 1844, James K. Polk was elected to the presidency by 
 the Democratic party. Next year, Florida and Iowa were 
 admitted into the Union, and the treaty by which Texas 
 was annexed became a law. In 1846, a treaty was con- 
 cluded with Great Britain, by which the parallel of 49° was 
 recognised as the boundary of the territory of Oregon. 
 Congress passed bills reducing the tariff, establishing^ the 
 warehouse system, and the sub-treasury. In the mean time, 
 Mexico protested against the annexation of Texas, and her 
 minister declared it a cause of war. The president ordered 
 colonel Taylor into Texas, with a corps of observation. In 
 March, 1846. orders were given him to take a position on 
 the Rio Grande, the disputed boundary line between Mexico 
 and Texas. Colonel Taylor built Fort Brown, opposite 
 Matamoras, against which the Mexicans protested. The 
 Mexican army finally crossed the Rio Grande, and attacked 
 the email American force, on the road leading from Fort 
 Brown. They were defeated in the two battles of the 8th
 
 BATTLE OP BUENA VJSTA.
 
 OHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PUILIPPB. 589 
 
 and 9th of May, and driven across the river, with much 
 slaughter. At the same time, Fort Brown was bombarded, 
 but made a successful resistance. Matamoras was taken 
 on the 18th, and then war was declared against Mexico h 
 the United States. Colonel Taylor was raised to the ran' 
 of major-general, and received a large reinforcement of 
 troops. During the summer, Mier, Rcynoso, and Camargc 
 were taken, and on the 19th of September, the American 
 array, numbering 7000 strong, appeared before Monterey. 
 This strong forti-ess and city was defended by 12,000 men, 
 under general Ampudia. After a four days' battle, the city 
 capitulated. Saltillo, Parras, and Victoria were next taken, 
 and on the 22d of February, general Taylor, with about 
 5000 men, encamped at the strong mountain pass of Angos- 
 tura, near Buena Vista. Here he was attacked by general 
 Santa Anna, with 20,000 men. The battle began early on 
 the 23d. The Americans relied principally on their artillery, 
 which did great execution among the Mexican cavalry. The 
 nature of the ground prevented the cavalry from acting pro- 
 perly. The battle was obstinately contested, and at night 
 both armies occupied the same ground they did when the 
 battle began. During the night, Santa Anna retreated, hia 
 army being in a starving condition. His loss was 2000 
 men; general Taylor's, about 700. From want of military 
 stores, general Taylor retired to Monterey, where he re- 
 mained till the close of the war. 
 
 In the mean time, general Kearny, and colonels Fremont, 
 Price, and Doniphan conducted expeditions against New 
 Mexico and California. Several battles were fought, and 
 the principal towns fell into the hands of the American 
 troops. Colonel Doniphan's marcn through the enemy's 
 country, with but 900 men, displayed great military resolu- 
 tion and perseverance. During the march, he encountered 
 and defeated 4000 men, on the banks of the Sacramento, 
 (February 28th, 1847.) 
 
 In March, 1847, general Scott, commander-io-chief of the 
 American army, landed near Vera Cruz, with 11,1)00 men. 
 Batteries were opened upon the city of Vera Cruz and the 
 castle of St. Juan de Ulloa, and, on the 27th of March, both 
 surrendered. Soon after, Alvarado and Zacotalpam wore 
 captured. Early in the next month, general Scott marched 
 'or the Mexican capital. On the 17th he reached the moun- 
 tain pass of Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna was posted, 
 with 11,000 men. Next day, the Americans, numbering 
 7000, stormed the works and routed the Mexicans. They 
 pressed forward, and Jalapa, Peroto, and Puebla were cap 
 60
 
 590 - raSTORT OP THE WORLD. PAET m, 
 
 tured without resistance. Six thousand prisoners and ft 
 great quantity of military stores were taken. On the 18th 
 of August, the Americans reached San Augustin, near the 
 city of Mexico. On the 19th and 20th, Contreras, San An- 
 tonia, and Churubusco were taken — the latter after an ob 
 stinate struggle. In these battles, 15,000 Mexicans were 
 posted in almost impregnable positions, while the attackiiig 
 force numbered altogether but 7000 men. An armistice 
 was concluded, which lasted till the 6th of September. On 
 the 8th, general Worth stormed the works of Molino del 
 Key, and carried them, but with a heavy loss. On the 12th, 
 the batteries opened upon Chapultepec, one of the strongest 
 fortresses in Mexico. Next day, it was carried by storm. 
 At the same time the assault on the city commenced. Gene- 
 ral Twiggs bombarded the southern walls, general Worth 
 swept the works on the San Cosme road, and general 
 Quitman those on the Tacubaya. Night found both columns 
 in the city, and before morning Santa Anna, with his 
 remnant of an army, fled. On the 14th, the Americans 
 entered Mexico in triumph. This, however, did not close 
 the war. On the 25 th of September, Santa Anna appeared 
 before Puebla, and bombarded it until the 1st of October, 
 when he retreated. On the 9th, general Lane won the 
 battle of Huamantla, and soon after captured Atlixco. 
 These were the last important events of the war. 
 
 Mexico and Central Amonca. 
 
 From the year 1813 till 1821, various Mexican chiefs 
 struggled for the independence of their country. In the 
 last mentioned year, Iturbide and other chiefs united against 
 the Spanish army. Next year, Iturbide assumed the title 
 of emperor Augustin I. After a reign of ten months, he 
 was driven from the country, and a federal republic esta- 
 blished. Vittoria became president, but party spirit pre- 
 vented the restoration of peace. In 1828, the two factions 
 came to open war, each advocating the claims of a candidate 
 to the presidency, and in the end appealing to the sword. 
 Spain attempted to regain her authority, but was frustrated 
 by general Santa Anna. A civil war followed, during which 
 Gmerrero was deposed and general Bustamente elected vice- 
 president by the army. Under his rule, order was, in some 
 measure, restored, and business revived. In 1831, president 
 Pedrazza returned from France. Bustamente ordered him 
 to leave the country. Santa Anna revolted in Vera Cnw, 
 and another revolt occurred at Tampico. Santa Anna be* 
 eame president in 1833. In the next year, congress abo
 
 (SUP. n. BESTOBATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPX. 591 
 
 lished conyents and abrogated the authority of the pope. 
 ITiis caused insurrections so serious that congress adjourned, 
 and the power of Santa Anna increased. Several of the 
 states declared themselves independent, but, with the ex- 
 ception of Texas, they were soon reduced. The army under 
 Santa Anna was routed at San Jacinto, in April, 1836, and 
 the independence of Texas was virtually secured. General 
 Bustamente regained power, and by his miserable policy, 
 involved the country in a war with France. In November, 
 1838, a French squadron reduced St. Juan de Ulloa. Santa 
 Anna displayed some energy in defending Vera Cruz; but 
 through the mediation of the British minister, the dispute 
 was soon settled. At the expiration of Bustamente's term, 
 he was succeeded by Santa Anna. Since that time, vrith 
 the exception of the period of the war with the United 
 States, civil broils have occupied the history of Mexico. 
 
 Central America, once Guatemala, declared itself inde- 
 pendent of Spain in 1821. It was united to Mexico, under 
 Iturbide, but when he fell, it became a separate government. 
 On the 22d of November, 1824, the constituent congress 
 completed the organization of the government, adopting a 
 constitution similar to that of the United States. Arce was 
 elected first president. The quarrels of factions, civil war, 
 and social misery of every kind, marked the period of his 
 administration. The people of St. Salvador marched against 
 those of Guatemala, but were defeated by Arce, who per- 
 petrated the greatest outrages. In 1829, general Morazon, 
 of St. Salvador, captured the city of Guatemala, which se- 
 cured his election to the presidency. He endeavored to 
 restore order, and develope the domestic resources of the 
 country. In 1838, an insurrection occurred, under Carrcra, 
 a half-Indian. To political animosities he added the hatred 
 of one race to anotner. In 1842, Morazon was taken and 
 shot; and since his death the country has been torn by 
 civil dissensions. The war between the United States and 
 Mexico produced no disturbance in Central America. It is 
 thought that foreign industry will yet develope the resources 
 of the country, and make it a great commercial mart. 
 
 South America. 
 The republic of Colombia comprises throe provinces — 
 Venezuela, Quito, and New Grenada. The first general 
 congress met in March, 1821, and decided upon the adop- 
 tion of a representative constitution. In June, the Spanish 
 army was totally routed at Carabobo. Next year, Bolivar 
 took Panama, and defeated Murgeon, at Curiaco. A month
 
 192 mSTOET 07 THE WOBLD. PA&l Hi. 
 
 afterwards, Sucre gained the battle of Pichincha, after 
 which the Spanish authorities surrendered. In 1824, Boli- 
 var marched to assist the patriots of Peru, and in his ab- 
 Bence, the government was administered by Santander. 
 The country was rapidly advancing in prosperity, when 
 the revolt of Paez occurred. That officer kept all the 
 northern provinces in turmoil until the return of Bolivar, 
 in 1827. In March, 1828, a convention for redressing 
 grievances was summoned to meet at Ocana; but it did 
 nothing. Bolivar then assumed the supreme authority, 
 abolished the constitution, and appointed a series of officers. 
 The republican party were aroused, and attempts were 
 made to assassinate Bolivar, but they failed, and the con- 
 spirators were executed. Bolivar endeavored to make him- 
 self perpetual president of Peru, which brought on a war 
 with that country. Through the influence of Paez, Venu- 
 jBuela declared herself independent, an event which caused 
 the resignation of Bolivar, after he had formally denied all 
 intention of aiming at the kingly dignity. In the same 
 year, Quito declared her independence, and the remainder 
 of Colombia was formed into the republic of New Grenada. 
 The three states soon after entered into friendly relations 
 with each other, with regard to trade and national policy. 
 But, like most of the states of South America, their later 
 history is made up of petty quarrels, unworthy of a record. 
 Peru declared itself independent in 1821. General San 
 Martin was appointed dictator, and in 1822, a congress met 
 at Lima. This body adopted a constitution, which, from 
 its monarchical character, gave great dissatisfaction. In 
 1823, La Serna, the Spanish commander, defeated the re- 
 
 Eublicans, but was prevented from improving his victory 
 y dissensions in his army. Peru was then assisted by 
 Colombia, which sent Bolivar and Sucre to their aid. The 
 Peruvians were divided into factions, and the weakness of 
 the enemy alone saved the country. Bolivar became dic- 
 tator. In December, 1824, Sucre gained the great battle 
 of Ayacucho, which secured the independence of Peru. 
 Bolivar tried to impose a monarchical constitution on the 
 country, but his design was opposed, and he afterwards 
 instigated the war against Colombia. Peace was concluded 
 in 1829, after the Peruvians had experienced several defeats. 
 Gamarra became president, but his intrigues with the presi 
 dent of Bolivia led to his overthrow, in 1836. Santa Cru» 
 seized the government, but was compelled to abdicate, in 
 consequence of a war with Chili. War was declared agains* 
 Bolivia, and it continued until 1842, when, throu|{h tb«
 
 PRINCE METTERNICa
 
 CHAP. IX E KATIOS AOT) LOUIS PHILIPPH. 595 
 
 mediation of Chili, peace was restored. Since that time the 
 country has been a prey to faction and domestic misrule. 
 
 After the failure of the attempt of Bolivar to impose a 
 constitution upon the people of Bolivia, that country re- 
 mained in a very unsettled condition until 1829, when the 
 elevation of Santa Cruz to the chief magistracy restored 
 order. During two years, prosperity attended his policy ; 
 but, thirsting for power, he involved the country in a war 
 with Peru. He conquered that republic, and endeavored 
 to unite it with Bolivia; but the interference of Chili caused 
 his overthrow. Since the last war with Peru, which termi- 
 nated in 1842, the country has been very unsettled. 
 
 Brazil remained a monarchy until 1820, when it obtained 
 a constitution similar to the one adopted at that time in 
 Portugal. The example of surrounding countries soon 
 roused a republican spirit among the people. Serious riots 
 broke out at Rio Janeiro. In May, 1822, the prince-regent 
 assumed the title of perpetual defender of Brazil, and con- 
 vened a national assembly to frame a constitution. This 
 was pronounced null and void by the cortes of Portugal, 
 and the prince-regent ordered home. The assembly then 
 declared the separation of Brazil from Portugal, and Dom 
 Pedro was named constitutional emperor, in October, 1822. 
 The first acts of Dom Pedro were well calculated to aug- 
 ment the difficulties he met with on his ascending the 
 throne. The republicans were gaining ground. Dom Pedro 
 forbade secret societies, and the suspected republicans were 
 thrown into prison. In November, 1823, the assembly 
 was driven from its hall by armed force. In 1824, a new 
 constitution was framed, upon principles of hereditary and 
 constitutional monarchy. The emperor and the assembly 
 mutually restricted each other's powers. The press was 
 free, and other religions, besides the Catholic, were tole- 
 rated. Pernambuco opposed this constitution, but was 
 taken by assault, after an obstinate resistance. In Novem- 
 ber, 1825, Portugal acknowledged the independence of 
 Brazil, and the example was followed by other European 
 powers. A short war with La Plata followed, concerning 
 the Banda Orienta, and it resulted in the independence of 
 that province. Disputes between the emperor and the 
 assembly were frequent, and they increased to such an ex- 
 tent, that, in April, 1831, the emperor abdicated in favor 
 of his son, Dom Pedro II., then only nine years oU. The 
 prince maintained his authority until his death, within a 
 few years, amid the quarrels of parties, which kapt society 
 in a state of anarchy.
 
 196 HISTOBT OP THB WORLD. PART IH 
 
 In 1819, the provinces of La Plata adopted a constitution 
 modelled after that of the United States, The country, 
 however, continued unsettled until Maj , 1822, when a con- 
 
 f;res8 met, and by a series of acts restored public tranquil- 
 ity. Trade revived very fast, and the country seemed to 
 be free from faction. In 1822, the independence of La Plata 
 was recognised by the United States, and Great Britain en- 
 tered into a treaty with her in 1825. In December of 1825 
 war broke out with Brazil, which resulted in the formation 
 of a new republic from the Banda Orienta. Civil war dis- 
 tracted and desolated the country in 1829, and it continued 
 until 1835, when general Rosas was unanimously called to 
 the presidency. He assumed dictatorial powers, and since 
 that period, factious strife has only been suspended during 
 hostility with other countries. 
 
 The independence of Chili was secured in 1817 ; but the 
 new government was not able to establish order. Three 
 congresses assembled at different periods, for the purpose 
 of framing a constitution, but they failed in accomplishing 
 their object. The country was agitated by the disputes 
 between the advocates of a central government and those 
 who favored a federal constitution. In 1828, the constitu- 
 tion was adopted, under the administration of general Pinto. 
 Prieto, the successor of Pinto, restored order, and procured 
 the passage of many useful laws. In 1837, Chili declared 
 war against Peru, and successfully prosecuted it until 1839, 
 when Santa Cruz was expelled from Peru. Chili is at pre- 
 sent the most tranquil and prosperous of the South American 
 btates. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 TIKES OP THB CONTINENTAL RET0LUTI0M8. 
 
 France. 
 
 The approach of an outbreak among the people of Paris 
 might have been easily gathered from the movements of the 
 democratic leaders. They instituted reform-banquets, at 
 which the measures of government were freely discussed, 
 and attempts made to excite a veneration for the men who 
 had fallen martyrs to the popular cause, and an emulation 
 of their actions. Feeling certain of their strength, and
 
 CHAP. X. TEDS CONTINENTAL KEV0LUTI0N8. 59' 
 
 anxious to bring things to a crisis, the democrats appointed 
 the 22d of February, 1848, for a monster banquet. Thi/ 
 was forbidden by the ministry. The opposition deputiei 
 protested against the prohibition, and the ministry yielded, 
 permitting the banquet to be held, under certain restrictions. 
 Every measure was adopted by the government to prevent 
 an outbreak. The troops in Paris were increased to 100,000. 
 On the day appointed for the banquet, crowds collected in 
 the principal streets, and the mob attempted to erect barri- 
 cades. At the same time, Odillon Barrot laid before the 
 chambers a proposition for impeaching the ministers. The 
 next day the excitement increased, and Guizot and his col- 
 leagues resigned. A new ministry was formed under count 
 Mofe. The municipal guards joined the people, but by 
 sunset, order was restored. During the night, the soldiers, 
 after being pelted and fired upon by the people, fired upon 
 them in turn. This was what the democrat leaders nad 
 been aiming to effect. By parading and exhibiting the 
 dead bodies, the people were excited to fury, and that fury 
 was turned against the king. 
 
 On the 24th, barricades were constructed, houses and 
 public edifices stormed and demolished, and arms seized in 
 every quarter. The troops joined the people in denouncing 
 the king. The Tuileries was taken and plundered. Louis 
 Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, the count of 
 Paris, and fled to England. In the mean Mme, the duchess 
 of Orleans, mother to the count of Paris, appeared in the 
 chamber of deputies, but her title as regent and that of her 
 son were disregarded. A number of deputies proclaimed a 
 republic, and organized a provisional government. This 
 consisted of Dupont de I'Eure, Lamartine, Arago, Ledru 
 Rollin, and Gamier Pages. From the steps of the Hotel de 
 Villc, the republic was announced to the people. It was 
 received with enthusiasm by the majority, but there was 
 still a strong minority opposed to it. The penalty of death 
 for political offences was abolished, every slave on French 
 soil emancipated, and the qualifications for citizenship de- 
 termined. By the 1st of March, order was, in a great 
 measure, secured, and the new government went into opera- 
 tion. During the elections in April, the ^d Republican* 
 were somewhat turbulent, but Lamartine triumphed. Ai' 
 executive committee of five members took the place of th 
 provisional government. It consisted of Arago, Pages, 
 Marie, Lamartine, and Rollin. Riots continued until the 
 15th of May, when 50,000 persons invaded the assembly 
 and declared the government at an end. The army, how-
 
 698 msTORY OF the world. part m. 
 
 ever, remained true to the government, and the mob was 
 dispersed. 
 
 On the 23d of June, an insurrection occurred, instigated 
 by clubs of workmen, discharged from the public workshops. 
 It was the most terrible outbreak France had witnessed 
 since the Reign of Terror. In a few hours, strong barri- 
 cades were thrown up in and around Paris, and 200,000 
 insurgents were in arms. General Cavaignac was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the French army, and after a four 
 days' battle, he succeeded in driving the insurgents from 
 their works and restoring peace. About 30,000 persons 
 were killed, the loss of the military being very great. Many 
 distinguished officers were among the killed. General Ca- 
 vaignac was subsequently appointed president of the coun- 
 cil, and his vigorous measures secured tranquillity. On the 
 12th of November, the constitution was proclaimed, and at 
 the general election held the same month, Louis Napoleon 
 Bonaparte was chosen president by a large majority. Soon 
 after the election j it was determined to send a French army 
 into Italy, under general Oudinot, for the purpose of restor- 
 ing the exiled pope to his dominions. This caused numerous 
 riots in France, and at Lyons the municipal authorities 
 were driven from the city, and a temporary Red Republican 
 government formed. About 1000 persons were killed or 
 wounded before order was secured. A conspiracy was 
 discovered about the same time, the object of which was 
 the overthrow of the government and the establishment of a 
 democratic and social republic. Towards the close of 1849, 
 the ministry was dissolved by president Bonaparte, and the 
 designs of the president to concentrate power in himself 
 were very apparent. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 In 1848, the evils to which Ireland had long been a prey 
 reached their climax. Famine and pestilence desolated the 
 country, and brought about a state of things almost impa- 
 .Aileled in history. The principal cause of the misery of th^ 
 people was the failure of the potato crops — ^that being theii 
 staple article of food. Thousands died daily. The scarcity 
 of provisions upon the continent prevented the arrival of 
 any aid from that quarter. Government took means to 
 alleviate the distress, and large quantities of provisions 
 were sent from the United States. But the relief was only 
 partial. In India, a war with the Sikhs was the conse- 
 quence of disputes with the native chiefs, and the English 
 experienced a humiliating defeat. But, in the end, th«
 
 OHAP. X. THE OONTIintNTAL REVOLUTIONS. 601 
 
 Sikhs were routed and the Punjaub territory annexed to 
 British India. Great Britain entered her protest against 
 the annexation of the Cracow republic to Austria. She in- 
 terfered in the domestic affairs of Spain, endeavoring to 
 restore order. Vigorous measures suppressed the repeal 
 agitation in Ireland, the Chartist effort in England, and the 
 riots in Scotland. The vrar with China was quickly brought 
 to a close. The new republic of France was recognised aa 
 such soon after its formation, though Louis Philippe was 
 received by the government with every mark of attention 
 and condolence. Great Britain remonstrated against the 
 atrocities committed by Austria upon the Hungarian and 
 Polish patriots. She promptly supported the sultan of 
 Turkey in his refusal to deliver the Hungarian refugees 
 into the hands of Russia, and, united with France, undoubt- 
 edly prevented a war between Russia and Turkey. 
 
 Italy. 
 In 1848, Pius IX. gave a new constitution to his people, 
 ' and reformed many abuses. He also resisted the interf©- 
 rence of Austria. Still the people of the Papal States were 
 BO oppressed, that in the latter part of that year, they rose 
 in insurrection, drove the pope from the country, abolished 
 the college of cardinals, and proclaimed a republic. A con 
 stitution was framed, and a provisional government esta- 
 blished. While all were watching the result of the movement, 
 the French army, under general Oudinot, landed at Civita 
 Vecchia, and marched for Rome. On the 26th of April, the 
 constituent assembly declared its permanence, and pro- 
 tested against French interference. A triumvirate of dis 
 tinguished republican leaders formed the executive of the 
 government. The siege began on the 30th of April. The 
 Romans, filled with the most heroic and determined spirit, 
 were commanded by Garibaldi, Mazzini, and other distin- 
 guished chiefs. The French were repulsed in three suc- 
 cessive attacks. On the 13th of May, Oudinot attempted to 
 cross into Rome by a bridge, but the bridge was blown up 
 and the French repulsed. A blockade followed, which 
 lasted until June, when the French, after hard fighting, 
 obtained possession of several important points. A storm- 
 ing of the city was tried on the 15th, but the French were 
 compelled to retire. Towards the close of the month, the 
 ^iumvirate opened negotiations with Oudinot. A capitula- 
 tion was the consequence, and on the 3d of July, the French 
 entered Rome. The republican leaders fled. A temporary 
 government was established, the cardinals restored to powei^
 
 602 
 
 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 PART m. 
 
 and the popo invited to return. Vigorous measures were 
 adopted for the suppression of liberal opinions, and the In- 
 quisition re-established. The pope has at length returnad 
 to his dominions, and a calm has succeeded the attempt of 
 the masses to choose their own government. 
 
 Germany and Prussia. 
 The revolutionary spirit developed throughout Europe, in 
 1848, powerfully affected both Germany and Prussia. Every 
 part of these countries was agitated by riots for some months 
 after the revolution in France. The king of Bavaria was 
 compelled to abdicate, and other rulers were driven from 
 their dominions. An outbreak in Prussia forced the king 
 to disband a large part of his army, to grant a new consti- 
 tution, and to appear to take the lead in reforming ajjuses. 
 The diet at Frankfort was the scene of violent debates, con- 
 cerning a union of all Central and Northern Germany. The 
 imperial crown was offered to the king of Prussia, but he 
 declined it. The country is still in a distracted state. Its 
 division into petty states, destitute of national sympathy, 
 prevents it from occupying the position among the European 
 powers to which it is justly entitled. Belgium and Holland 
 were affected by the revolutionary spirit, but the succeeding 
 calm left both countries in the same condition as before the 
 disturbance. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Insurrections occurred in Vienna soon after the revolu- 
 tion in France, and the people so far succeeded, that prince 
 Metternich fled from the country, the emperor Ferdinand 
 abdicated in favor of his son Joseph, and a liberal constitu- 
 tion was given to the people. In the mean time, the diet 
 of Hungary adopted measures for securing to the people of 
 that country their ancient privileges. In May, 1848, the 
 pope having declared war against Austria, several skirmishes 
 took place, in which the heroism of the Italians was credit- 
 ably displayed. The dissensions in Hungary increased to 
 civil war, so that the government was compelled to send a 
 large army into the province. But the Hungarians, stimu- 
 lated by the eloquence of Kossuth, and led by Bem, Dem- 
 binski, and G«orgey, displayed the greatest heroism and 
 enthusiasm for their country's cause. The ablest Austrian 
 generals were everywhere defeated by them, and their cause 
 seemed to be triumphant. But the emperor of Eussia, 
 anxious to crush the spirit of revolution and of liberty, eenl 
 an army of 120,000 men into Hungary, to assist the Au»«
 
 EMPEROR WILLIAM.
 
 £oa;atL.
 
 OHAP. Z. THE CONTINENTAL KEV0LUTI0N8. 605 
 
 trians. The Hungarians struggled against such odds with 
 considerable success, until the latter part of 1849, when 
 general Georgey surrendered a force of 30,000 inen to the 
 Austro-Russian army. This opened to the lutltr the key 
 of the Hungarian position, and produced a disastrous ter- 
 mination to the insurrection. The Hungarian army was 
 disbanded, its leaders escaped, and the country was again 
 brought under Austrian authority. Kossuth and his fellow 
 chieftains fled to Turkey. The emperor of Russia demanded 
 their surrender, but the sultan refused to comply. Since 
 the crushing of the insurrection, the Austrians have in- 
 flicted the most cruel and barbarous treatment upon the 
 unfortunate patriots, which has awakened a feeling of in- 
 dignation throughout the greater portion of Europe and 
 America. 
 
 Russia and Turkey. 
 
 Russia took a decided part in the events of 1848, on the 
 side of legitimacy. The emperor was opposed to the revolu- 
 tion in France, and frowned upon the struggles of the 
 republicans in Italy and Germany. When the war between 
 Austria and Hungary was raging, he declared his intention 
 of apply'ng the strength of his empire to resist the attempts 
 of the republicans. When the Hungarian leaders took 
 refuge in Turkey, he demanded their surrender, and threat- 
 ened war in case of refusal. But his demand was not com- 
 plied with, nor did he carry his threat into operation . The 
 Bultan gave Kossuth and the other Hungarian leaders a 
 place of residence in his dominions, and some of them, em- 
 bracing the Mohammedan faith, received office in the army 
 and other marks of his favor. 
 
 The Untied States. 
 Early in 1848, a treaty of peace was concluded between 
 the United States and Mexico. The Rio Grande was ac- 
 knowledged by the Mexican government as the boundary 
 of Texas, and the valuable territories of California and New 
 Mexico were ceded to the United States. In November, the 
 same year, the Whigs elected general Zachary Taylor to the 
 presidency. The discovery of the immense mineral wealth 
 of California caused a vast number of emigrants from all 
 parts of the world to seek that territory, and cities and 
 states are springing up on the shores of the Pacific, which, 
 till within a few years, were almost unknown. The quantity 
 of gold obtained in California has realized the most sanguine 
 expectations, and rewarded the hardest toil. In 18 19, tha 
 61 iT
 
 606 mSTOET OF THE WORLD. PART m 
 
 country was nsited by the scourge of the choleia, which, 
 among thousands of victims, carried away many who had 
 filled distinguished situations, among whom were generals 
 Gaines, and Worth, and ex-president Polk. Since that 
 event, the exciting debates in congress, upon the subject of 
 slavery, the dismissal of M. Poussin, the French ministei 
 to the United States, and some unsuccessful attempts to 
 
 fain possession of Cuba, by citizens of the United States, 
 ave been the only events which have disturbed the internal 
 peace, and external relations of the country. 
 
 During the congressional session of 1849-50, the excite- 
 ment upon the slavery question increased to an extent 
 which threatened the dismemberment of the Union. In the 
 Senate, a committee of thirteen of the most prominent 
 statesmen, at the head of whom was Henry Clay, was ap- 
 pointed to bring about an adjustment of the vexed question. 
 They reported a Compromise BiU, providing for the ad- 
 mission of California into the Union, the recapture of slaves 
 fleeing from one state into another, the settlement of the 
 claim of Texas on New Mexico, and giving a territorial 
 government to Utah. This bill was discussed in the Senate 
 for two months, and the ablest statesmen displayed their 
 talents in speaking upon either side of the question. 
 Finally, the Compromise measure was defeated. But each 
 of the objects of the bill was afterwards provided for sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 While the biU was pending, the nation was suddenly 
 called upon to mourn the loss of its chief magistrate. Pre- 
 sident Taylor died on the 9th of July, 1850. MiUard Fill- 
 more, the vice-president, then became president. The 
 memlaers of the cabinet appointed by general Taylor im- 
 mediately resigned ; and president Fillmore fi amed a new 
 cabinet, at the head of which was Daniel Weteter, as 
 Secretary of State.
 
 CHAP. Xr, THE OLD WOELD FHOM 1849 TO 1885. 607 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE OLD WOELD FKOM 1849 TO 1885. 
 
 France. 
 
 Louis Natoleon was elected Emperor (1852), and married 
 Engenio de Montijoy; attempts "were made to assassinate the 
 emperor. In IBol war was begun against Russia. The Em- 
 peror and Empress visited Loudon, and Queen Victoria re- 
 turned the visit, 1,000 political prisoners were released at the 
 birth of the Prince Imperial in 1856. Several attempts were 
 made about this time to assassinate the Emperor. In 1859, 
 upon Austria invading Sardinia, the French declared war 
 as^ainst her, and the Emperor entered Italy vnih large armies, 
 joining the ItaUans, and they, united, won the battles of Mag- 
 euta and Solf erino. Austria and France concluded a peace at 
 Villa Franoa. In 1860, the Emperor announced a free trade 
 policy. The passport system was departed from in 1861. In 
 this year several railroad contractors and brokers made fraudu- 
 lent failures and greatly shook the public credit. France de- 
 clared herself neutral in the American conflict (1861). France 
 joined several other powers to intervene in Mexican affairs, 
 soon after the allies left the French alone to support Maximil- 
 lian for Emperor. In 1862 the French conquered and retain- 
 ed several jjarts of Cochin China and Annam. In 1864 another 
 attempt was made to assassinate the Emperor. In 1865 the 
 French and English fleets exchanged friendly visits at Cher- 
 burg and Portsmouth. A note sent to the Prussians relative 
 to rectification of the frontier declared inadmissable. The Em- 
 perors of Russia and Austria, and the King of Prussia visited 
 Paris. The arrest of the editor Rochefort led to riots, which 
 were put down. A vote of confidence is given to the Govern- 
 ment in the ratio of 7 to 1. In 1870, in consequence of a dis- 
 pute about the succession to the Spanish throne of Prince 
 Leopold Hohenzollern, France declared war against Prussia. 
 After many gi-eat battles and successful seiges, the Prussians, 
 allied with several other German powers, capture the French 
 Emperor and enter Paris. The Empress left Paris and arrived 
 in England. A republican government is organized, which is 
 recognized by the United States. An attempt by the Red Rc- 
 pubUcans to found the " Commune " in Paris is put do\\'n after 
 much bloodshed. In 1871, Grevey was elected President, and 
 soon after the war terminated. Thiers was recognized by the 
 people and foreign powers as the head of the government. 
 An insurrection took place in Paris against the goverumeut,
 
 COS 
 
 HISTOEY OF TOE "WOBLD. 
 
 PAETm. 
 
 but was finally put do^Ti after vast damage and great slaughter. 
 Before the final suppression of the " Commune " insurrection, 
 over one foiu-th of Paris was destroj'ed, and 50, 000 i^ersons 
 killed. lu 1873 , Kapoleon III., died at Chiselhurst, England. 
 In 1873, Thiers, after nobly serving his coimtry in the times of 
 her direst troubles, resigns his ministry. In this year the 
 whole of the armed Germans left France. By the end of this 
 year the last of the enormous indemnity to Germany, had been 
 paid. The partizans of the Bourbons made unsuccessful efforts 
 to restore royalty. In 187G, France had so far recovered from 
 her difficulties that the annual revenue had reached $500,000,- 
 000. The i^resident, McMahon, was supported by the bulk of 
 the people. In 1879, McMahon resigned the Presidency. 
 Grevey succeeded him. Louis, son of Napoleon III. , was killed 
 in Zuliiland. A decree passed expelling the Jesuits (1880), and 
 other religious orders. A loan of $200,000,000 immediately 
 taken up for 30 times that amount. In 1881, a proposed re- 
 vision of the Constitution was negatived. 
 
 After the retirement of Thiers, Gambetti became the fore- 
 most statesman of France, urging forward reforms; but in 1882, 
 the Chamber of Deputies having rejected his bill, advising the 
 revision of the Constitution, he resigned; he was succeeded in 
 office bj'^ M. De Freycinet. In 1883, much alarm was manifest- 
 ed in France, by a manifesto of Prince Louis Napoleon; he was 
 aiTested, and expelled the country. A decree followed, for- 
 bidding any prince from holding either civil or mihtary office 
 in the Republic. After much diplomatic fencing, the French 
 assumed a warlike front; sent expeditions to Formosa, and other 
 outljing dependences of China; and routed the forces arrayed 
 against them. The government ordered official inquiry into 
 the state of the working classes, who were reduced to great ex- 
 tremities from lack of work. The Bey of Tunis has given 
 French engineers leave to turn the Sahara desert into an in- 
 land sea. In 1884, a horrible massacre of Christian priests and 
 their converts took place at Tonquin, following the French 
 successes. Throughout 1881, Toiilon, Marseilles and other 
 Southern ports were great sufferers by cholera, and the conse- 
 quent depression of commerce. The differences between 
 France and China showed signs of being settled 1884. After 
 a delay of three months active operations in Tonquin were re- 
 sumed, and Bacninh was captured (March 12). The Chinese 
 garrison retreated to the frontier without striking a blow. The 
 French troops returning to Sontay advanced to Honghoa and 
 occupied it (AprU 13). The Empress-Regent was forced to 
 make a decision and resolved upon peace. Li Hung Chang 
 negotiated a treaty (May 11), in which the claim for the indem- 
 nity was withdrawn and the French protectorate of Anam and
 
 CHAP. Xr. THE OLD WOELD FEOM 1849 TO 1885. 609 
 
 Tonquin was conceded, together with important trading privi- 
 leges with Yunnan and other provinces. M. Ferry had won a 
 conspicuous triumph. A province with 11,000,000 subjects 
 had virtually been ceded to r'rance. But success due chielly to 
 audacity and recklessness tempted him to persevere iu his policy 
 of menace and reprisal. The assault of a body of Chinese ir- 
 regular troojis upon a French coliunn of 700 men near Lang- 
 son (Juno 23) was declared to bo a flagrant violation of the 
 treaty recently concluded, and a enormous indenuaity was de- 
 manded. Resistance to a demand based upon an accident for 
 which the French commanders have been shown to be chiefly 
 responsible has involved a resumption of hostilities. 
 
 The French fleet bombarded Foochow, destroyed the arsenal 
 and forts on the IVIin Eiver, and then took possession of Kehmg, 
 in Formosa. M. Ferry insisted, while proposing a vote of credit 
 for Tonquin operations, that he was not making war with China 
 but only securing pledges for an indemnity that would even- 
 tually bo paid. The operations of his fleet did not have the ef- 
 fect of intimidating China, although the demonstration against 
 Formosa was repeated. The French troops in Tonquin were 
 forced to act on the defensive in October, and although the 
 blockade of portions of the coast has been maintained the war 
 party in Pekin has been able to reject all proposals for peace, 
 even when broached under the guise of English mediation 
 Warlike operations in IMadagascar have not been actively re- 
 sumed, although French influence is steadily gaining ground. 
 Tunis is rapidly being converted into a i^rovince, the capitula- 
 tions having been suspended, and the treasury having passed 
 under the control of a French agent. 
 
 M. Ferry, while staggering under the burdens of foreign 
 campaigning, has contrived to secure the sujiport of the Cham- 
 bers and to undertake the responsible duty of revising the Con- 
 stitution and the Senatorial electoral system. Revision was 
 approached cautiously and under limitations car<?fully defined 
 in advance. The National Assembly completed its work 
 (August 13) without departing from thelines laid for its action. 
 There were disorderly exhibitions of Radical turbulence, but 
 the contract between the Chambers was not violated. The 
 changes in the fundamental law were not sweeping in character. 
 The Princes were declared incli.gible for niihtary or civil office, 
 and the Senatorial electorate was brought within the scope of 
 subsequent legislation. This legislation has rapidly followed. 
 The Government's bill for the reorganization of the Senate has 
 been adopted by both Chambers. The Depiities undertook 
 to amend it by providing for the election of all Senators by 
 departmental household suffrage. This amendment was re- 
 jected by the Senate and the Deputies wore forced to jneld 
 under penalty of receiving M. Ferry's resignation. The
 
 ^^g 
 
 ^ 
 
 610 HTHTOBT OP THE WOELD. PAET in. 
 
 Senate hereafter will not have seventy-five life members, but 
 •will be an elective assembly, the electoral bodies consisting 
 of the Council-General of the Department and a contingent 
 of delegates chosen by the communal councils on the basis of 
 population. Universal suffrage will be directly responsible 
 for the Deputies and indirectly responsible for the Senators. 
 
 Oreat Britavn. 
 
 In 1848 there was a great Chartist demonstration in Lon- 
 don, headed by Feargus O'Connor; on the day when the mon- 
 ster petition was presented to Parliament, by over 100,000 
 men, apprehensions were felt for the safety of London, and 
 tens of thousands of special policemen were sworn in; the 
 banks and other public buildings were guarded by troops; all 
 passed off quietly, however. In the year 1849, Queen Vic- 
 toria visited Ireland. In 1850 the World's Exhibition was an- 
 nounced. A man named Pate made an unsuccessful attempt 
 on the Queen's life. A good deal of excitement was occasioned 
 by the papal power establishing a Eoman Catholic Hierarchy 
 in England. The first great Exhibition or ' ' World's Fair, " 
 was opened May 1, 1851. Prince Albert was the originator, 
 and to a certain extent its organizer. Australian gold ar- 
 rived in England in December. Thomas Moore, the great 
 poet and song-writer, died this year. An eccentric miser, 
 named Nield, bequeathed over a million of dollars to the 
 Queen. The Duke of Wellington,, died in Sept. 1852, and 
 was buried with more than royal honors at St. Paul's. In 
 1853 English and French fleets entered the Bosphorus, and 
 most of the great powers of Europe signed a protocol urging 
 peace between Turkey and Russia. At the great strike in 
 Preston more than 15,000 hands were out of employment. 
 May, 1854, England, France and Turkey declared war against 
 Russia. In June, 1854, the Crystal Palace was opened by the 
 Queen. In 1855, Palmerston became prime minister. The 
 Crimean war, cost much blood and treasure. Peace with 
 Russia was proclaimed in May 1856, when London was illu- 
 minated. This same year saw England at war with both 
 China and Persia. The terrible mutiny in the Indian army 
 broke out March, 1857, and was marked by the most fearful 
 excesses and brutalities on the part of tha "Sepoys," who 
 were put down with great difficulty. At meetings for the re- 
 lief of the sufferers by the mutiny upwards of a million dol- 
 lars were raised. In 1858 the Princess Royal of England was 
 married to Prince Frederick William, of Prussia. In 1859, 
 rifle corps were first organized in Great Britain; they became 
 very popular, and now furnish a large and effective army. 
 Peace was made with China, 1860. Prince Albert, the Queen's 
 husband, died in 1861. During 1862, very great distress pre-
 
 CHAP. XI. THE OLD WOELD FORM 1819 TO 1885. 611 
 
 vailed in the cotton manufacturing districts, in part caused 
 by the civil war in United States. In 1863 the Princess Alex- 
 andra of Denmark, entered London, and -was married to tlie 
 Prince of Wales; she was much admired for her beauty, and 
 loved for her virtues. In 1801 Garibaldi received a fine re- 
 ception in England. In 1865, a general election took place, 
 which resulted in favor of Palmerston; but that popular 
 minister died too soon to reap any good from his triumph; he 
 was succeeded as i^remier by Lord John Russell. In 1866, 
 the Atlantic cables were laid and messages transmitted be- 
 tween England and the United States. Fenians were frus- 
 trated in an intended attack on the City of Chester. In 1867, 
 several Fenians were rescued from the hands of the authori- 
 ties at Manchester. An armed expedition was sent to Abys- 
 sinia to release prisoners. In was eminently successful. The 
 King of Abyssinia was slain in battle, and the troops under 
 Napier, returned in good form. In 1871 the Princess Louisa, 
 was married to the Marquis of Lome (afterwards Governor- 
 General of Canada). In consequence of a Fenian explosion 
 near Clerkenwell Prison, London, special constables were 
 called for, and 113,674 volunteered in a few days. 
 
 The bill to " disestablish " the Enf,'lish Church in Ireland, 
 was adopted by the Commons in 186^. The summer of this 
 year was the hottest ever known in England, and 21,000 extra 
 deaths resulted from the heat. In 1871 the Prince of Wales 
 was seriously ill, with tjqihoid fever; great rejoicing through 
 Great IJritain at his recovery; the Queen's Eoyal Family, Court 
 and Parliament went in state to St. Paul's to return thanks. 
 In the general election (1874), the Conservatives gained a 
 majority of 50, aud Disraeli became prime minister. A man . 
 claiming to be heir to the Tichborne estates and a barony was 
 tried for fraud, convicted, and sentenced to be imprisoned. 
 A great number of persons believe him to be the real heir 
 still. An expedition against the Ashantees, was brought to a 
 successful issue by Gen. Garnet Wolseley. In May, 1874, the 
 Czar of Eussia paid a friendly visit to London. Moody and 
 Sankey, the American llevivalists visited England, and 
 preached and sung, making an excellent impi'ession and do- 
 ing much good. The British Government bought all the 
 Khedive's shares in the Suez canal, which enteqirize had 
 proved a great benefit to English commerce. The Prince of 
 Wales visited India, where he was magnificently received by 
 many of the native sovereigns. The Queen was proclaimed 
 "Empress of India," and instituted the order of the Star of 
 India to be confei'red upon persons, natives as well as En- 
 glish, who have ' ' deserved well of their countrj'. " Mr. Glad- 
 stone's book "Horrors in P>ulgaria " greatly excited the pub- 
 lic mind, and changed the feeling in favor of llnssia, as 
 against Turkey, the two nations being at war. But upon the
 
 612 HISTOBT OF THE WOELD. PAST HI. 
 
 nefir approach of the Russians to Constantinople the old fear 
 of Russia was manifested, and Indian troops were ordered to 
 Malta. It was resolved to call a meeting of representatives 
 of the great powers at Berlin, to consider the Eastern ques- 
 tion. Disraeli was sustained in Parliament, as against the 
 measures proposed hy Gladstone. A special meeting of Par- 
 liament was called on account of the Afghan war. The Prin- 
 cess Alice (Victoria's daughter), dies at Darmstadt, of diphthe- 
 ria, after attendance on her hiisband and children, and the 
 Queen wrote a letter of thanks to her subjects "for their sym- 
 pathy with her loss of a dear child, who was a bright example 
 of loving tenderness, courageovis devotion and self sacrifice 
 to duty." In 1879 the Zulu war broke out, and an expedition 
 of nearly 10,000 men was sent to quell it. This year there 
 was great depression of trade, "caused by famine, pestilence, 
 war, and over-trading." The summer had been wet and cold, 
 rarely any sunshine, and an almost total failure of fruit and 
 grain crops. In 1880, there was a general election, which 
 proved a conservative defeat, after which a Gladstone minis- 
 try was formed. The autumn saw fine weather, good crops, 
 and improvement in nearly every kind of business. An early 
 meeting of Parliament, to consider Irish affairs particularly, 
 was decided on in Jan. 1881. 
 
 In Nov. 1881, Chas. S. Parnell, M. P., and several other 
 Land Leaguers were arrested in Dublin, under the Coercion 
 Act, and the League pronounced illegal. Following this, the 
 tenants were advised to pay no rent during the imprisonment 
 of the Leaguers. A reign of terror ensued; law was set at de- 
 fiance, secret societies were formed, and many crimes were 
 committed. Two of the leading of&cials of the Viceroy were 
 • stabbed to death in Phenix Park. Some of the assassins, after 
 a time, were convicted and executed. The opponents of the 
 Government were divided; one part determined on achieving 
 their ends by force; the other by agitation and legal tac- 
 tics. 
 
 The interest that England was almost forced to take in 
 Egypt, in order to secure the Suez canal, led her into many 
 difficulties and vast expenditures. Having, with France, as- 
 sumed a kind of protectorate over the Khedive, she essayed 
 to give the people a sort of " home " government. It failed 
 to work, and in consequence Arabi Pasha, a popular ofiicer 
 of the native force, assumed royal airs. England and France 
 sent an ultimatum requiring expulsion of Arabi Bay; the 
 army declined to accede; great riots and panic ensued in Alex- 
 andria, during which 340 Europeans were killed. In July, 
 Admiral Seymour sent an order that the fortifying of Alexan- 
 dria must cease. No notice being taken by the rebels, a bom- 
 bardment, lasting two days, followed. The rebels fled, after 
 liberating all criminals fi-om the jails, firing the city, and in-
 
 CHAP. XI. THE OLD WOELD FEOM 1810 TO 1S85. G13 
 
 au"urating a saturnalia of massacre. The rebellion was 
 quelled Hept. 25, wheu the Khedive returned to Cairo. 
 
 In consequence of the Khedive's sway in the Soudan being 
 rejected, and sovereign powers assumed by ElMahdi (the 
 False Prophet), many garrisons were massacred. Baker 
 Pasha and Tewfik Bey, commanding small armies of Egj'ptian 
 troops were defeated, with great loss. General Gordon, sent 
 to temporise with El IMahdi, was shut up in Khartoum, 
 which he is successfully holding, waiting for succor from Gen. 
 Wolseley who expects to reach him by March, 1885, hastening 
 with an English army. 
 
 The House of Commons appointed a committee to investi- 
 gate the housing of the poor, and suggest improvements. 
 
 In March, 1882, Queen Victoria was fired at by Roderick 
 McLean. The bullet missed. The man was arrested, but 
 not vindictively punished. A motion was made in the House 
 of Commons for government to use influence with Czar of 
 Russia in behalf of persecuted Jews. 
 
 An unsuccessful attempt was made to punish the Boers. 
 
 Dec, 1882, Tuit, Archibishop of Canterbury, and a famous 
 author, died in London. Anthony Trolloppe, died at same 
 date. A tire in London was not quenched until $15,U00,000 
 •was destroyed. Jamaica's capital, Kingston, was nearly all 
 consumed, with a loss of many miUions of dollars. England's 
 great statesman, Gladstone, celebrated the fiftieth year of hia 
 pubUc life (1882). 
 
 Kavanagh, a carman, tunis informer in the Phcsnix Park, 
 Dublin cases, when Cavendish and Burke were killed (1883). 
 A few days after James Carey, the principal conspirator also 
 turned informer. On the information thus furnished Joe 
 Brady was tried, convicted, and hung. Some months after 
 the informer Carey was shot in Africa, by O'Dounell, who 
 was himself taken to England and executed (1883). In March 
 of 1883, many government buildings in London, were badly 
 shattered by maUcious dynamite explosions. John Brown, 
 long the personal attendant of Queen Victoria died at this 
 time. Two thousand houses at Delhi, India, were burnt. 
 Sunderland, England, was grief stricken by the crashing 
 to death of 202 small children in a stairway of a hall, where 
 they had gone to receive little presents. House of Lords re- 
 ject deceased wife's sister bill. A great Bradlaugh demon- 
 stration, a protest against his rejection by the Comiuons took 
 place in Augtist. Several dynamite conspirators in Liverjjool 
 were sentenced to imprisonment for life. (1884). Vague 
 rumors floated about India, of another "Sepoy " outbreak;but 
 no facts were known to the authorities. India for some years 
 has been greatly increasing the production of wheat, which 
 commands a good price in the English markets. The British 
 ship-bullding (irou), trade has been increasing year by year
 
 614 HISTOBT OP THE WORLD. PABT HI. 
 
 enormoili5ly. But in 1884, it became app arent that the busi- 
 ness had been over-done, and there was a decrease in pro- 
 duction, and a lowering of wages. 
 
 The British Ministry have been subjected to continuous 
 criticism by their inglorious policy in Egypt. The first mo- 
 tion of censure was defeated in the Commons by a vote of 311 
 to 2G2 (February 9), and the second motion in March by a 
 vote of 303 to 275, Mr. Foster and other Liberals abstaining 
 from voting and the Parnellites joining the Tories. The fi- 
 nancial situation of Egypt has grown steadily worse, and the 
 Government have been unable to obtain the consent of 
 Europe to a modification of the Law of Liquidation. The 
 Conference of the Powers proved futile even after humiliat- 
 ing concessions had been made to France, and the recent 
 proposals of the l^ritish Ministry have failed to secure the at- 
 tention of the Powers. Payments to the Sinking Fund un- 
 der the Law of Liquidation ceased on September 17, theEg3'^p- 
 tian treasury paying the guarranteed interest instead of allow- 
 ing theCaisse to use certain revenues for the benefit of the bond 
 holders. The Powers have protested against this innovation, 
 and England is hamjDered in every way by Europe in restor- 
 ing financial order in Egyjit. 
 
 The British Government have had serious trouble in deal- 
 ing with Europeans and natives in South Africa, during 1883 
 and 188-1. The Boers are both restless and faithless and are 
 constantly instigating dissensions beyond their frontiers. On 
 the side of Zululand they are aiming to reach the sea and are 
 encouraging the settlers beyond the reserve to assert inde- 
 pendence of the British Crown. On the side of Bechuana- 
 land the Boers are secretly abetting filibustering and ma- 
 rauding and opposing the authority of the Crown. The Cape 
 Ministers having failed to settle thi.s coutroversy peaceably, the 
 HomeGovernment have sent Sir Charles Warren with a small 
 expedition to restore order. 
 
 In Australia the same want of steadiness in British policy 
 has involved vacillation and delay in the annexation of New- 
 Guinea and enabled Germany to secure a foothold on the 
 island and on the adjacent groups. 
 
 In India Lord liipon has given place to Lord Dufferin, as 
 Viceroy, after well-meant but futile attempts to institute re- 
 forms that are obnoxious to the British residents. The 
 movement in favor of Australian federations is rapidly gaining 
 ground. 
 
 _ (ircat Britain is now (1885) going through one of those ex- 
 citing periods, which have so often been predicted as full of 
 peril to her institutions. A great extension of the suffrage, 
 amounting to 2,000,000 of new voters has been made; and 
 during the debates angry partizans even urged the sweeping
 
 CHAP. XI. THE OLD WOELD FROM 1819 TO 1885. 615 
 
 away of the House of Lords. But a compromise was effected 
 between the extremists. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 The " Spanish marriages "make trouble between Spain and 
 England, 1846; diplomatic relations restored 1850. In the 
 next year Spain was ruled out of the European bourses. 
 1851 the Queen wounded by a Franciscan. 1854 the Queen's 
 mother forced to quit Spain. From 1855 to 1858, almost 
 continual revolutions. In 1860, the Moors were defeated at 
 Guad-el-ras, and mulcted m a large sum. In 1863 has a 
 rupture with Peru, and gains some laurels and more gold. 
 Quarrels with Chili (1865). Emperor Napoleon visits the 
 Queen, on Sept. 9. Admiral Pareja insults Chili, war de- 
 clared, and Capt. "Williams captures the ships of Pareja , who 
 commits suicide. 1866, Prim's unsuccesssful insurrection 
 ends. Fifteenth June, the war in Pacific brought to a close. 
 In 1867 there were numerous civil outbreaks which were 
 suppressed. 1868, Spain propose to settle the national debt 
 at 20 per cent of its face. Prim and other leaders organize 
 a revolt, and the Queen flees to France. In 1869 the Cortes 
 voted for a monarch to supercede the provincial govern- 
 ment. Espartero refuses to accept the offered crown. Prince 
 Leopold accepted as King, biit on France remonstrating he 
 resigns. The Carlists cause troubles in Navarre. Amadeua 
 (of Sardinia), is declared King. Prim assassinated by six 
 men (1870). In 1872 an attempt was made to assassinate the 
 King and Queen, 1873, several Carlist bands put to route by 
 the King's troops; King Amadeiis resigns, alleging the im- 
 possibility of restoring trauqiiility in Spain; Castelar became 
 dictator, but is out voted in the Cortes and resign. Conflicts 
 take place almost dailj' between Carlists, Republicans, and 
 Intranslgentes, without decisive results. Meanwhile the 
 people are great sufferers, 1874, Spain has been afliicted with 
 her chronic troubles, ruler has followed ruler; the last being 
 less liked than the preceding. An act of jiistico was done in 
 1883, when 40,000 slaves were fully liberated, the official act 
 not being legally performed in 1870, 
 
 The Spanish Ministry early in 1884, under a vote of censure 
 carried by 221 to 126, were forced to resign. Sagasta ex- 
 pected to become Premier, but the King passed him over and 
 appointed Canovas del Castillo with a Conservative Ministry. 
 The Ministry have displayed unwonted activity in making pro- 
 posals for commercial treaties with the United States, Great 
 liritain and other countries. Great turmoil exists among all 
 the ancient univerisities in consequence (as alleged) of the 
 government intefering with their vested rights and liberties. .. 
 Usually it is the army that rebels; but now it is the educated
 
 glG HISTOEY OF THK WORLD. PAET UL 
 
 civilians. Trade lias been greatly interfered with in conse- 
 quence of the strict quarantine ke^Dt up against the cholera. 
 
 Purtugal. 
 
 This kingdom was continuously in the throes of revolu- 
 tions through the period from 1840 to 1860. It would be a 
 mere catalogue of names to say who ruled and who was ban- 
 ished. In 18G5 attention was called to Lisbon, from the 
 forts firing on two United States men of war; explanations 
 followed, and peace prevailed. In 1865-6 affairs were so 
 calm that the King and Queen visited several foreign capitals. 
 Insurrections followed insurrections down to 1879; in the 
 next year, signs of amity and fraternity appeared when a 
 national celebration took place in honor of Camoeus and 
 Nasco de Gama. In 1881, after an animated discussion in 
 the Chambers about a treaty with England, the Ministry re- 
 signed, and Sampayo took direction of affairs (1881). During 
 1883-4, Portugal has taken an active part in preventing the 
 German and other European powers from interfering with 
 the territorial and trading rights claimed by her on the Afri- 
 can coasts and rivers. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 In 1859 nearly all the States of Italy rose against Austria 
 and their native princes; the King of Sardinia (I860) was the 
 popular leader, and aiding the people, was after some re- 
 verses virtually the new ruler of Italy, by almost universal 
 acclamation. Savoy and Nice were ceded to France. Gari- 
 baldi threw his sword into the balance which brought Naples 
 into the new kingdom. In 1861 most of the European 
 powei's recognized the Sardinian dynastj\ Garibaldi, in 1862 
 endeavors to capture Eome by arms, but was taken prisoner 
 by the royal forces, at Aspromonte. Through many years 
 brigandage prevailed to a great extent, assuming something 
 of a poUtical reactionary character. In 1866 war was declared 
 against Austria. After several conflicst, in which neither 
 
 Earty gained decisive victories, peace was made at Vienna. 
 1 1870 Rome became part of the kingdom of Italy, and was 
 declared its capitol. In 1873 the Jesuits were expelled. 
 Jan. 9, 1878, Victor Emanual, the first King of United Italy, 
 died at Rome, and was buried in the Pantheon. Pope Pius 
 IX. , died on Feb. 7. LeoXIIL, succeeded to the papacy. Italy 
 displayed great enterjjrise in building huge iron-clads, and 
 experiments with armored forts. During the Franco-Ger- 
 man war, Italy remained neutral although efforts -were made 
 by strong parties to induce a declaration in favor of one 
 of the parties. In 1878, Hiambert I., succeeded his father; 
 being exceedingly popular on account of his uniform good
 
 CHAP. XI. THE OLD WORLD FEOM 1849 TO 1885. 617 
 
 sense, and moderation in all things. A vigorous party -war is 
 kept up by a large section of the people (Itaha Irredenta) in 
 favor of having Trieste and other places, now ruled by Aus- 
 tria, annexed to the kingdom of Italy. In 1881, Garibaldi 
 and his son Menotti resigned as deputies, on a personal 
 matter. The Italian Government passed a reform bill, giv- 
 ing a vote to everyone capable of reading and writing. In 
 spite of Condons and guarantees th« cholera passed the 
 frontier, from France to Italy, and carried off great numbers. 
 The fatality was particularly severe in Naples, when the 
 poor gave little heed to sanitary preventives. 
 
 The financial situation of Italy is becoming more stable 
 with every advancing year, and the condition of the people 
 more prosperous. The Ministry have had a secure support 
 from the Chambers. The Government has secured some 
 additional concessions for colonial development on the 
 western coast of the lied Sea and are casting hungry ej-es in 
 the direction of Abyssinia. Commercial extension is now 
 the besetting weakness of Europe, and Italy, which is always 
 sensitive respecting its position as one of the great Powers, 
 is moving in the same fiirection and is inclined to look favor- 
 ably upon an Enghsh alliance. 
 
 Germany and Prussia. 
 
 In 1850, by the treaty of Munich, Austria, Bavaria, Saxony 
 and Wurtemberg, agree to sustain the German Union, in same 
 year an attempt is made to assassinate the King. In 1858 the 
 Prince Frederick William marries the Princess Royal, of Eng- 
 land. William I., becomes King (1861), on the death of Frede- 
 rick William lY. The student, Becker, attempts to assassinate 
 the King. In 18C2 Coimt Bismarck becomes prime mirdster. 
 In 1800, the Austrians are totally defeated at Sadowa, and soon 
 after several minor battles were won by the Prussians, which 
 led to the formation of the North German Confederation of 
 States, with Prussia at the head. Schles-^ig and Holstein are 
 made part of the Prussian Kingdom. As Napoleon so violently 
 objects to Leopold becoming King of Spain, the Prince retires 
 from being a candidate. Napoleon requires ^n^'^rantees from 
 the King, that the idea of Leopold's claims will be renounced. 
 Prussia gives the French ambassador his conge, upon which 
 Napoleon declares war aginst Pnissia. After a number of 
 great battles, Prussia is ultimately successful. Napoleon sur- 
 renders himself and his army, and leaves the road open to 
 Paris. _ After very hard fighting the King of Prussia enters 
 Paris witli detachments of all his army corps, and is there 
 cro\\-nod Emperor of Germany. Upon the rotum of the Ger- 
 mans to Berhn, loaded with honors and money, ]5ismark, the 
 head of the cabinet, applied himself to the settlement of inter-
 
 618 HISTOET OF THE WOBLD. PABT HI. 
 
 nal difficnlties, sucli as the " socialistic " and "Catholic 
 Bishops " questions, which showed no signs of being perma- 
 nently adjusted up to 1881. 
 
 Prince Bismarck returned resolutions eulogistic of Lasker 
 through the Minister at Washington. 
 
 In Prussian Diet (1883), the Emperor said the financial 
 situation had improved, and that the railroads were accumulat- 
 ing money. 
 
 Tlie German Chancellor has entered during 1884 upon a new 
 pohcy of colonial extension and has displayed his characteris- 
 tic energy in following it out. He first established a claim to 
 Angra Peqtiena, on the West African coast, and after a pro- 
 longed correspondence with Lord Granville has secured the 
 annexation of a long strip of coast. In the German Parlia- 
 ment he has defended this pohcy on the broad ground that 
 protection is due to colonists wherever they may be and no 
 matter how few may be their number nor how inconsiderable 
 their resoiirces. He protested against England's treaty with 
 Portugal respecting the lower Congo, and summoned to Berlin 
 an International Cotmcil to determine tho future of vast areas 
 of Central Africa. This Conference has defined the Congo 
 basin as including 2,000,000 miles of territory tinder the con- 
 trol of an International Commission, and has empowered Eng- 
 land to control the lower Ivfeger and France the upper reaches 
 of the river. Most of the other European powers, have taken 
 active steps to gain a share of the rich trade supposed to be 
 placed within reach, by the opening up of the immense coun- 
 tries of Interior Africa. Whether these golden dreams are to be 
 satisfied is yet a problem. But it may not be out of place here 
 to call attention to the fact, that but for the sacrifices of the 
 far-seeing sohtary traveler, Livingston, wise statesmen and 
 crafty merchants would never have known anything of the fer- 
 tile lands about the the sources of the Nile and Niger. Prince 
 Bismarck's closing achievement in the year is the annexation 
 of a portion of New Guinea and two adjacent islands in the 
 South Seas — a step which has caused alarm in Australia and ir- 
 ritation in England. 
 
 To commemmorate the Tinion and victories of the Germans, 
 in their last great wars, a magnificent coUossal monument was 
 erected at Niederwald, on the Bhine. The opening celebra- 
 tion was attended by many of the most famous people of the 
 emiDire, and detachments from the brave regiments who had 
 won the famous battles. All went off smoothly. But this gala 
 assemblage was standing over a possible earthquake. For 
 Eeinsdorf, Keechler, Lengen and Eupsch, avowed anarchists, 
 had contrived a plot to blow up monument and assemblage in 
 one ruin. It was months after before this was known, and the
 
 CHAP. XI. THE OLD WOELD FEOM 1849 TO 1885. 619 
 
 circumstances were only made public at tlie trial of the dyna- 
 miters at Leipsic, Dec, 1884. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 In 184G, after the death of Louis Bonaparte, the es-Kinj^ ol 
 Holland, and the abdication of William I., King William II., 
 granttal a new Constitution, and re-established the Roman 
 Catholic hierarchy. In IBHl and 18(52, great inundations and 
 fires swejit through the country. Slavery was abolished in 
 their W. I. Islands, in 1862. Angry feelings between Franco 
 and Germany respecting the fortifications of Luxemburg; in 
 consequence they were razed. In 1870, a strict neutrality 
 was observed duiing the German-French war. In 1873 an 
 exijcdition sailed against the Achinese, of Sumatra. The 
 opening of canal between the North Sea and Amsterdam was 
 celebrated. In 1878, the King's brother married the Princess 
 Marie Elizabeth, of Prussia. The bridegroom died in Jan. of 
 the next year (1879). In 1883-4, the King of Holland took 
 the initiative in endeavoring to introduce civilization into 
 Africa. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 After Holland had acknowledged the independence of Bel- 
 gium, Queen Victoria visited the New Kingdom, she being the 
 niece of Leopold. Much illfeeling is sho-mi between the 
 Catholics and Protestants, particularly upon the subject of 
 education. Belgium took no part in the Italian wars. In 1859 
 an heir to the cro^\^^ was born, and loud avowals of fidelity to 
 tho throne, were expressed by the people. In lS(')l-2, com- 
 mercial treaties of importance were entered into with France 
 and England. Grave apprehensions were felt for the King's 
 health. Leopold I. , died on the 10th, Dec. 18G5. He was im- 
 mediately succeeded by his son Leopold II. In 18G6, some 
 2, 000 English volunteers with the Lord Mayor, of London, 
 visited Brussels, and the visit was returned in 18G7, by 2,400 
 Belgians, who were grandly received in England. After the 
 battle of Sedan, many of the defeated rrcnoh soldiers entered 
 Belgium. In 1873, the Czar of Eussia visited Belgium. In 
 ,1876, much rioting, growing out of Catholic success in tho elec- 
 tions. A great permanent national exhibition was opened at 
 Brussels (1880). 
 
 In 1884, the Liberals were defeated at the general elections, 
 and a Reactionary Ministry was formed. An educational law 
 was speedily passed conferring special privileges ui^on clerical 
 tutors. This law was proni])tly sanctioned by the King not- 
 withstanding tho turbulent demonstrations of the Brussels and 
 Antwerp mobs.
 
 G20 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IH. 
 
 By tho death of tho Princo of Orange (June 21), Princess 
 ■Wilhelmina, ago four, lias become heir presumptive to the 
 throne. She cannot inherit the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg 
 to vhitih tho succession is regulated by the German law. 
 Special provisions for a regency and for the succession to the 
 Duchy have accordingly been made by the Crown and the 
 Legislature. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 In 1853, Libenj*! was executed for an attempt to assassinate 
 the Emperor. In the following years the Italians succeed in 
 freeing themselves from the Austrian dominion. In 1864, 
 Austria combined vith Prussia in a war on Denmark. Aus- 
 trian-Poland revolted, and was with difficulty quelled. In 
 18G(), force having failed, attempts are made to conciliate Hun- 
 gary, by granting concessions. After some successes the Au3- 
 trians were compelled to evacuate Italy by the Itahans and 
 Prussians. They made peace with Prussia and Italy, and sur- 
 rended the ' 'Iron Cro^vn, " to the latter. The dissatisfaction be- 
 tween the various nationalities of the empire were partially 
 ended by giving seperate administrations to them. In 187^, 
 the Emperor meets Emperor of Prussia and other rulers at Ber" 
 hii. Many popular reforms were granted. In 1874, the Em- 
 peror visitecl St. Petersburg. The Pope condemns new church 
 laws, and both parties cry for ' ' a free church in a free land. " 
 The course of the Danube is artificially changed (1875). Aus- 
 trian soldiers occupy Bosnia and Herzegoviuia, and a w.ir en- 
 sued. The silver wedding of the Emperor and Empress was 
 kepton the 24th of April, 1879. During 1883-4, there were 
 violent persecutions of the Jews in the Austrian Empire, partic- 
 ularly in Hungary. In Hungary the reform of the Upper 
 House has been undertaken as a Government measure. The 
 rejection of the bill for legalizing marriages between Chris- 
 tians and Jews after it had jiassed the popular Chamber seemed 
 to render this action indispensable, and the Emperor proposed 
 a reform measure in his speech from the throne in October. 
 Tho Government's plan gives the balance ef power to the Em- 
 peror's candidates and reconstitutes the House so that it wiU 
 consist of hereditary peers owning at least $15,000 in land, of 
 ecclesiastical and other functionaries and of life-peers, the 
 latter forming one-third of the entire body. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 In 1851, Nicholas, who pressed forward internal improve- 
 ments, saw the railway between St. Petersburg and Moscow be- 
 gim. Quakers visit the Emperor in the interest of universal 
 peace. 1855, Nicholas died, and was succeeded by his son,
 
 CHAP. SX THE OLD WOELD FOEM 1849 TO 1885. 621 
 
 Alexander II. A treaty of peace -was signed at Taris, 1856. In 
 1857, Alexander had personal interviews with the Emperors of 
 France and Austria. 18G1, a new treaty of comruerco was 
 made with China, and same year it was decreed that 23, 000,- 
 000 of serfs should bo emancipated in the coiirse of the com- 
 ing two years. 18G2, the l,0U0th anniversary of founding of 
 Kussian monarchy was celebrated. At this time efforts were 
 made to improve the methods in courts of law. In 18G4 the 
 war viith. the Circassians ended. Kara Eozow executed for at- 
 tempted assassination of the Czar. 
 
 Russian America (Alaska), sold to United States for $7,000,- 
 000. A second attempt made to assassinate the Czar, by Bere- 
 zowski, a Pole. General Kaufman takes Samarcaud (18G8). 
 Sociahstic conspiracy detected, the informer assassinated. 1871 
 electric telegraph established between St. Petersburg and 
 Japan. 1872, reconnoiteriug around Khiva, in 1873 Kuiva 
 taken by the Russians. In 1875 a commercial panic prevailed in 
 banking circles, in Moscow, Prague and Berlin. In 187G Kho- 
 land was formally annexed. In 1877 began the Paissia Tur- 
 kish war. Through 1878, 1879, 1880, almost every week saw 
 some new Nihilist attempt to overturn the government, assassi- 
 nation being generally the mode attempted. In 1881 Alexan- 
 der II. was assassinated by pieces of a bomb, by the exjilosion 
 of which the assassin was likewise killed. Tlie'^NihiHst execu- 
 tive committee, in a manifesto, oifered a cessation of hostilities 
 if certain reforms were iuaugiurated. The answer was given by 
 the execution of six of the conspirators. In 1881 repression 
 policy was continued. 
 
 A treaty between Russia and China was ratified, the latter 
 giving the Kooldja frontier, and paying indemnity. To the 
 close of 188-4, constant unsuccessful nihilistic attempts were 
 made to destroy the Emperor by dynamite. Tlie Government 
 has persevered in its reactionary policy and has not made any 
 effort to conciliate the disaffected classes. The Russian press 
 is RuV>jected to rigorous discipline and public opinion is every- 
 where stifled and suppressed. Externally the position of the 
 countrj' has been improved during the year. Visits have been 
 exchanged between the Russian and German courts and 
 diplomatic relations are now on a most cordial footing. 
 In February the Turcoman tribes occupying the oasis 
 of Mcrv submitted to the Czar. This brought the Russian 
 arms within 250 miles of Herat, in Western Afghanistan, and 
 at the end of the year a closer ajjin-oach was made and it is now 
 aunouucod (18,s5), that the tribes about Herat have acknow- 
 ledged tho Russian supremacy.
 
 622 histohy of the woeld. pabt m. 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 In 1844, upou the death of Charles John, Oscar I. became 
 Kiuf^, when an honorable alliance was entered into with Eng- 
 land. In 1S04, after treaties of commerce had for a time exist- 
 ed with leading nations, free trade became the policy of the 
 country. Protests uselessly against the incorporation of 
 Sleswig. King Oscar visits England, and is very well received. 
 The king and queen were cro^vned in 1873. The king and 
 queen visit Copenhagen and Berlin. In 1875 the Ministry had 
 JDr.Forssellfor premier. The King's health failing he visited 
 Bournemouth, England, for his health, in the May of 1881. 
 Up to tlie present time (1885), for the last three years Sweden 
 has continued in a quiet prosperous career, gradually extend- 
 ing her foreign trade, and increasing her manufactures. The 
 present reigning King Oscar and his family are well-liked by 
 the people. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 In 1849, Christians were first allowed to hold office; the 
 Turks refused to give up the Hungarian and polish refugees at 
 the demand of Austria and Russia. In 1851, Crotia broke out 
 in Rebellion. The Eussian army crossed the Pruth in 1853, 
 ui5on which Turkey declared war against Eussia. Greece as- 
 sisted Eussia, but was compelled to remain neutral, by Eng- 
 land and France. In 1854 the Eussians withdrew from the 
 principalities and peace ensued; the integrity of Turkey's 
 territory was guaranteed by Austria, France and England. 
 In 1858, many Cristians were massacred at Jedda. The first 
 Turkish railroad was opened this year. 1859 saw a terrible 
 fire in Constantinople, a conspiracy against the sultan, and 
 alleged illtreatment of Christians. In 1861, the sultan Abdul- 
 ]\Iedjid died, and was succeeded by his brother Abdul-Aziz. 
 In 18G8 the property of the Mosques was taken for secular 
 piirposes. The Sultan visited Egypt in 1863. In 1864 large 
 numbers of Mahomedan Circassians removed to Turkey. In 
 1865, cholera raged so that 50,000 deaths occurred. In 1866 
 and 1867, European Turkey was much agitated, the Sultan 
 visited London and other cities, returning to Constantinople 
 on 7th of August. 1869 the Khedive of Egypt was blamed 
 for assuming Kingly powers, the Suez canal was formally 
 opened in presence of manj^ illustrious persons, including 
 Empress Eugenie. The Sultan deposed, and Murad aj^ijoint- 
 ed in his stead to the peoples great joy. Murad was deposed 
 on account of ill health, and his brother, Abdul -Hamid, was 
 proclaimed. For many years Turkey continued almost single 
 handed to fight Eussia. But in 1878 peace was declared be- 
 tween the two nations. In 1881, Midhat Pacha and others
 
 CHAP. Xn. THE NEW 'WOELD FEOM 1819 TO 1885. 625 
 
 •were tried for the murder of the late Sultan Abdul-Aziz, all 
 the principals were convicted and sentended to death, but 
 the execution was postponed. There existed in 1881 much 
 dissatisfaction in Turkey in relation to the way in whicb 
 Enp;land and France assume to manage affairs in Egj'pt, aj 
 the Sultan claims sovereign rights over the Khedive. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 DEATH OF PBESLDENT TAYLOR TO ELECTION OF PBESIDENT 
 
 CLEVELAND. 
 
 THE NEW WOELD EEOM ISl'J TO 1885. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Beaztl, after going through the violent governmental com- 
 motions incidental to the Republics of the South, settled 
 down to a state of quiet at home about 1865. Then a fierce 
 and long war began between it and Paraguay. This war con- 
 tinued until theParaguayans under their dictator Lopez, were 
 totally defeated at Villeta (18G8). In 1870, Lopez was killed 
 at the fight of Aquidaban. The Emperor and Empress visited 
 Europe, taking great interest in all matters pertaining to arts 
 and manufactures. After their return gradual slave emanci- 
 pation was decreed (1872). In 1871, a band of German set- 
 tlers, known as "Mucker," inflamed by the teadings of a 
 woman who claimed to be a female Christ, attempted the for- 
 cible conversion of their neighbors. They were only sub- 
 dued after severe fighting, in which troops had to be brought 
 against them. In 1875 there were many bank failures, that 
 for a time prostrated business. The Emperor Dom Pedro II., 
 and his Empress, were present at the opening of the Centen- 
 nial Exhibition in Philadelphia, Both these distinguished 
 persons are far above the average in sterling qualities of 
 mind and heart. They returned to I5razil in 1877. 1877 Bra- 
 zil has shown a degree of entei-jirize and stability that the 
 neighboring republics mi'^ht well imitate. She has a well- 
 drilled standing army of 2(),0UIJ men, aud can call out a re- 
 serve force of 000,000. Her navy, manned by nearly 10,000 
 men, includes several first class ironclads. Her exports of
 
 gjg HISTOET OF THE "WOELD. PABT m. 
 
 valuable articles are continually increasing. Through the 
 enlightened action of the government education is being dif- 
 fused, science encouraged, railroads built, and many steamers 
 navigate the great river Amazon. On the banks of this stream 
 good coal has been discovered. Her revenue is so large that 
 in 1876, there was a surplus over expenditures of $i, 000, 000. 
 Her exports of hides, coffee, cotton and other valuable arti- 
 cles are enormous. 
 
 South America.— Argentine Republic. 
 
 This is one of the states originally forming the confedera- 
 tion of South America. Buenos Ayres, after a secession lasting 
 several years, returned in 1859. An insiirrection in San 
 Juan, was suppressed, after two years in 1862. J. Urquiza, re- 
 mained president from 1853 to 1862, when he was succeeded 
 bj"^ Bartholomew Mitre. In 1865 the Argentine Kepublic unit- 
 ed with Brazil, and Uruguay in a defensive alliance against 
 Paraguay. In 1868, Dominique F. Sarmiento, became presi- 
 dent. He piit down an insurrection led by Corrientes. In 
 1870 Urquiza^ a former president, was murdered. In 1873 a 
 treaty was negotiated with Brazil. In the same year Lojjez 
 Jourdan incited a rebellion, which was not finally suppressed 
 until 1876, when Jourdan was captured. In 1876 the na- 
 tional bank suspended specie payment. In 1880 the old 
 quarrel for suj^remacy between Buenos Ayres, and the other 
 provinces again broke out, but Gen. Boca, becoming jiresi- 
 dent, the jiretensions of the dissatisfied district were nega- 
 tived, and peace was restored. But it was decided that 
 Buenos Ayres should be the capital of the Eepublic. 
 
 The Eepublic has an area as great as all Central and Western 
 Europe combined (about 1,619,500 square miles), and a popu- 
 lation of 1,768,681 by census of 1869, now estimated at 2,500,- 
 000. It aboimds in remarkably fertile plains, called pampas, 
 with rich alluvial soil four or five feet thick, formed by decay 
 of luxurious vegetation. 
 
 It consists of 14 provinces: the province of Buenos Aj^res is 
 the most populous, having over half a million population, vnth. 
 a capital city —Buenos Ayres— of 200, 000 estimated for 1878. 
 The vast extent of Indian country is very sparsely popiilated. 
 The population of Buenos Ajtcs and the riverine provinces is 
 largely European, and immigration has increased enormously 
 of late years, attracted by the fertility of the soil and the jiros- 
 perity and free institutions of the Republic. 
 
 Eminently a pastoral country, with about 18 million horned 
 cattle, and 100 million sheep, the exports are largely of wool, 
 hides, and tallow. The premium on gold varied from 30 to 33 
 per cent, in 1878. The exports in 1881 were $56,497,423, and
 
 CHAP. xn. THE NEW WOBLD FROM 184:9 TO 1885. 627 
 
 the imports $54,029,545. Twelve lines of steamers run to 
 Europe, the jiassage occupjTJig 29 days. The IlepubHc has 
 nearly 1600 miles of railway, and 10,000 miles of telegraph, be- 
 sides an Atlantic cable communicating with London. 
 
 The revenue for 1881 was ^24,349,450, derived almost wholly 
 from import and export duties. The expenditure in 1881 was 
 $26,747,480, and the total national debt .$107,681,639. 
 
 The government is a Federal RepubUc, modelled on the Con- 
 stitution of the United States, except that the ministry is re- 
 sponsible to Congress, an adverse vote in the Senate and House 
 leading to the formation of a new Cabinet. The laws are the 
 same for all, native or foreign ; immigrants are free to natura- 
 lize themselves as Argentines or to maintain their foreign 
 nationality. 
 
 Paraguay. 
 
 An inland republic of South America — area 91,980 square 
 miles, population in 1876, 293,844 — is a country without cities 
 and almost without civilization. The language spoken is 
 chiefly that of the Indians mixed with a little Spanish. The 
 country achieved independence in 1811, and was ruled by 
 the dictator, Dr. Francia, for 29 years, during which no for- 
 eigners were allowed to enter or leave Paraguaj'. 
 
 It was recognized as a seperate State, bj' the Argentine 
 Confederation in the year 18.32, and in the following year by 
 Great liritain. Francis S. Lopez, became president in 1862. A 
 Brazilian steamer being fired at on the River Paraguay led to 
 a war between Brazil and Paraguaj-; when Lopez quickly in- 
 vaded the Brazihan territory, and also that of the Argentine 
 EepubUc, which formed an alliance with Brazil, to repel the 
 invader. The Paraguay army was defeated, when a provi- 
 sional government w'as formed. Lojiez again met the allied 
 armies and met with a signal defeat; he fled, was proclaimed 
 an outlaw and finally killed near the Aquidaban in 1870. Im- 
 mediately after peace was signed with the two belligerent 
 Republics. In 1871, Salvador Jovellanos was elected presi- 
 dent for three years. In 1874, Juan Bautista Gill became 
 president, and in 1877, both the president and his brother 
 were assassinated. In the same year Higinio Uriarte becajne 
 president, and was succeeded in 1878, by Candido Bareiro 
 whose term expired in 1882. 
 
 Since 1870 the government, though nominally republican, 
 has been under the control of Brazil. The country is hope- 
 lessly insolvent, owing $236,000,000 to Brazil and the other 
 allies as a legacy of the war, $9,000,000 to Great Britain, and 
 $2100,000 domestic debt, amounting altogether to more than 
 the total value of the country, real and personal. The only
 
 628 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IH. 
 
 railway in Paraf(iiay is one of 45 miles, and the only telegraph 
 is of the same length. 
 
 Uruguaii. 
 
 (Band OrientaleX In 1856 G. A. Pereyra Ijecame president, 
 and in 18G0 he was succeeded by B. P. Berro. Civil war 
 broke out in 18G3, because of an invasion headed by an ex- 
 president. Gen. Venancio Flores, who advanced upon the 
 capitol, and became president pro tem. In 1866, F. A. Vidal 
 was elected president. Berro led an insurrection of the 
 Blanco partizans at Montevideo, in course of which Flores 
 was assassinated. The insurrection was shortly put down, 
 and the leader, Berro, shot (1868). Lorenzo Battle became 
 president in this year. 1875 saw another outbreak, the gov- 
 ernment was overthrown by a revolution in Montevideo, 
 when Pedro Yarela became president. Col. J. Latorre 
 reached the presidency in 1876, and was succeeded by Dr. F. 
 A. Vidal, elected in 1880. 
 
 Uruguay has an area of 72,151 square miles, population, 1877, 
 4-47,000 (estimated) — is governed bj' a President, a ministry 
 of 4 cabinet officers, and a legislati;re composed of 13 Sena- 
 tors and 40 Representatives. The revenue in 1879 was $8,- 
 936,714, three-fourths of which was from customs duties; the 
 eipenditures $10, 090, 260, nearly half of which was for the army 
 and navy. The public debt in 1879 was $47,861,042; paper 
 money to the amount of $6,000,000 was no longer current in 
 commerce, thoiigh received by the government. Payment 
 of interest on the debt has been lately resumed. 
 
 Colombia. 
 
 This Eepublic, at one time called New Granada and Vene- 
 zuela, was one of the provinces which threw off allegiance 
 to Spain, and achieved its independence under Bolivar. In 
 1871, General E. Salgar, became its president, succeeded 
 every two years by the f ollo-wdng presidents : Manuel Murillo 
 Toro, 1872; Santiago Perez, 1874; Aquileo Parra, 1876; Gen. 
 Trujillo, 1878; Gen. E. Nunez, 1880. Little affected by the 
 above list of presidents, the affairs of this country has been 
 keenly watched by foreigners, for through the Isthmus of 
 Panama (formerly called Parana), it has long been settled 
 that a canal would be cut to join the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
 As long ago as 1527 an exploration was made to inquire into its 
 practicability. Since that period every decade has seen the 
 subject taken up vnth. more or less spirit. The discovery of 
 gold in California _ gave it afresh impetus; but the railroad 
 across the Isthmus in part did away with its necessitj'. Still 
 the project was kept alive. The enormous mcrease of com- 
 merce in the Pacific, seeking to avoid the long and dangerous
 
 CHAP. xn. THE NEW WOELD FEOit 18i9 TO 1885. 629 
 
 passage around Cape Horn, called loudly for this short and safe 
 route to the Atlantic. From 1850 to 1855, no less than seven 
 distinct formal surveys were made by officers of the United 
 States and the EngUsh navy. In 1858 the first train ran 
 througli from ocean to ocean. From this time until 1879, near- 
 ly twenty extensive and expensive surveys were made, trying 
 to find the most feasible and least costly routes, until Dc Les- 
 seps, the great French engineer arrived. With characteristic 
 rai^idity and energv', he set hunself to work to do what others 
 had only been talking and writing about. De Lesseps scheme 
 did not meet with approval from the United States Govern- 
 ment, so he at once sailed for Europe. Arriving at Liverpool, 
 in 1880, he gave a detail of his plan for a canal 46 miles long. 
 From thence he proceeded to Paris. ^A company was qiiickly 
 formed, money was advanced, and considering the magnitude 
 of the amounts required, and the difficulties to be surmounted, 
 the ujidertaking has been successfully pushed forward until 
 1885 sees a vast deal of the work accomplished. 
 
 The legislative power resides in a Senate of 27 members, and 
 a Ilepresentative Chamber of 61, elected l)y general suffrage. 
 The executive power is exercised by a President chosen for 
 two years by the people of the different States, and by four 
 ministers. The revenue is very small, amounting in 1881 to 
 only $2,910,000, two-thirds of which was from customs. The 
 expenditure was $2,271,933 in 1879. The public debt amount- 
 ed to 819,971,219 in 1879, imports in 1879 to §19,787,634; 
 exports, $13,711,511. 
 
 Peru. 
 
 While Gen. J. A. Pozct, was president (1863), the 
 Spaniards seized tlie Chincha Islands (valuable for their enor- 
 mous deposits of guano), and announced that they would re- 
 tain them until the claims of Spaiu were satisfied. A congress 
 of representatives from Chili and other South American 
 States met at Lima to arrange measures for mutual defence 
 against European powers. This firm stand apjDcared to have 
 an effect upon Spain, for the Chincha Islands were forthwith 
 restored, and peace was made with the Spaniards. There was 
 a revolution against Pezet, in 1865, and several provinces 
 broke off from the Central Government. The revolters de- 
 clared war against Spain, and caj^tured Lima. Canseco be- 
 came president in place of Pezet, who fied. Peni then joined 
 Chili, and they declared war against Sj^aiu. The Spaniards in 
 an attemi^t to bombard Callao were worsted, and retired from 
 Pern^^an waters. Soon after there was much rioting in Lima, 
 against religious toleration. l^rado, La Puerta an<l P>alta suc- 
 ceeded each other as president in one year. In 1868 the whole
 
 630 
 
 HISTOET OP THE WOBLD. PAST m. 
 
 country was disturbed by violent earthquakes. An industrial 
 exLibition was opened at Lima, in 1872. Thomas Gutierrez 
 made liimself dictator, and imprisoned president Balta; the 
 foreign consuls refused to recognize him, and he had no sup- 
 port from the people; he ordered Balta to be shot, but was 
 himself seized by the people, and hanged from a lamp-post. 
 Zavallos, the vice-president, restored order, and Prado elected 
 by the people assumed office. In 1874 president Prado nar- 
 rowly escaped assassination. Pierolas with some 6,000 men, 
 endeavored to estabhsh a Southern Confederacy (1876), he 
 sailed with the Huascar iron clad, but was attacked by Admi- 
 ral De Horsey, with the British steamships Shah and Ame- 
 thyst, as piratical, for attacking mail-ships. He was taken 
 into Lima. The Peruvians resented the acts of the British 
 Admiral, and threatened reprisals. They afterwards appeal- 
 ed to the great powers, while the British endorsed the acts of 
 their admiral. In 1878 the president of the Senate was 
 assassinated in Lima. Peru and BoUvia declared war against 
 Chih. Anarchy prevailed in Lima, in 1881. Pierolas, with 
 a small army, declared for a continuance of the war. But 
 the Chilian forces obtained possession of the capital, and soon 
 after had nearly the whole country under their command. A 
 few isolated bands in outlying regions would at times defy 
 the conquerors, but eventually the Chilians •withdrew their 
 forces, leaving a government de facto to bring order out of 
 the pohtical chaos. Peru is very rich in various ores and 
 nitrates of great commercial value, and only needs a stable 
 government to recover from the present prostration. 
 
 Chili. 
 
 In 1856, Manual Montt was elected president. During 1859, 
 an insurrection led by Pedro Gallo was suppressed. In 1803 
 the large church of the Jesuits, in the city of Santiago was 
 burnt, and fully 2,000 persons perished in the smoke and 
 fiames. The islands on which guano was found in quantity 
 became objects of great interest, in consequence of its value 
 as a fertiUzer, and the different states of South America, to 
 whose shores they were contiguous, laid claim to them on va- 
 rious pretexts more or less valid. Thus, in 1864, there was a 
 rupture of friendly relations between Chili and her neighbor 
 Bolivia, growing out of these disputes. In 1865, an act toler- 
 ating all religions was promulgated. In 1865, while J. J. 
 Perez was president, the Spanish Admiral, Pareja, appeared 
 before the port of Valparaiso, and demanded satisfaction 
 from Chili, alleging that she interfered with Spain, while that 
 power was at war with Peru. Receiving no satisfaction, he 
 proceeded to blockade the port. Upon which Chili declared 
 war against Spain, and joined Peru. The Spaniards bom- 
 barded Valparaiso in 1866, and raised the blockade after a few
 
 fj<jlY%:tW5.^
 
 CHAP. yn. THE NEW WOBLD FROM 1819 TO 1885. 633 
 
 weeks. F. Erraziiriz became president in 1871. An interna- 
 tional exposition %vas opened at Santiago in 1875. As Chili 
 refused to recognize a treaty that had been made between 
 Peru and Bolivia, two years before, settling Ijoundaries, they 
 declared war against her. In this war Chili began to attract 
 the attention of the naval officers of other nations on account 
 of the excellent seamanship and bravery of her crews and 
 officers. After some desperate lighting, in which the Chilians 
 had only wooden ships against iron ones, the Esmeralda 
 (Chilian), was sunk by the (Peruvian), Huascar ram and 110 
 perished in her. Six months after the Huascar w'as captured 
 by the Chilian fleet, after a very stubborn fight, in which the 
 admiral and many other officers were killed. In the same 
 year the combined Peruvian and Bolivian armies were de- 
 feated, near Iquique and soon after before Tarapaca. The 
 Chilians followed up their successes, and displayed energy 
 and skill whenever they met a Peruvian vessel on the seas. 
 Od the 18th of Apiil 1880, the Chilian fleet appeared before 
 Callao (the port of Lima), and within a few days landed and 
 won the battles of Tacna and Arica. Pierola being declared 
 dictator of Peru, proceeded with the war. A levy ea masse 
 was called for. The Chilian transport Loa was blown up 
 by a torjjedo concealed in a Peruvian launch, disguised as a 
 fruit boat. The explosion greatly shook the cit}' of Callao. 
 The Chilian war shi^j Covadonga was sunk oS Chancay by 
 Peruvian toqjedoes, 115 persons perished. The Chilians 
 made some harsh reprisals. The Peruvians were beaten near 
 Chorillos, and without further resistance, the Chilians entered 
 and occupied Lima, the capital of Peru. Pierola fled, and 
 Callao soon fell to the Chilians. The Chilians demanded that 
 the terms on wdiich peace would l)e made, were a cession of a 
 certain quantity of territory; $750,0()0,(K)() indemnity; Callao 
 to remain in their possession, and they to have the working 
 of certain valuable mines, until the indemnity was jyaid. 
 The English and French were appealed to by Peru, to effect 
 a modification of these terms. The United States Govern- 
 ment made efforts to bring about a pacification. The Chilians 
 retained their possessions for some time, but eventually a 
 comparatively staV)le government under provisional Presi- 
 dent Inglisias was established in Lima, and peace was con- 
 firmed in March, 1881. The Chilians making some abatement 
 in their original terms. 
 
 Chili has of late years shown hergelf the most lil)eral and 
 progressive of any of her neighbors, and in 1S81, the Secre- 
 tary of the U. S. Navy, declared in an official document, that 
 she possessed the finest steamship of war in the world; the 
 Esmeralda, named fiftor one of her best fighting vessels. 
 
 Chili has an area 1'24,(>81 square miles, population, 1882, 
 2,223, ISl, to which should be added by official estimate, about
 
 634 
 
 HISTOET OP THE WOELD. PAET m. 
 
 50,000 Indians. It is a moimtainous country subject to fre- 
 quent eurtlKiuakes. It has almost every variety of climate, 
 its long narrow territory extending from the hot deserts near 
 the equator to the cold and wet region within twelve degrees 
 of the Antarctic Circle. One-quarter of the country is near 
 the level of the sea, while the great Andes range of moun- 
 tains rise far above the line of perpetual snow, their mean 
 elevation being 11,830 feet, and the highest peak (Alconcagua) 
 22,-127 feet. By the constitution of 1883 the Legislative 
 poiv^er is in a National Congress composed of 37 members, 
 elected for six years, and a Chamber of Deputies, 109 mem- 
 bers, for three years. Suffrage is universal to citizens able to 
 read and write and paying a small annual tax. 
 
 The executive power resides in a President elected for five 
 years, a council of State, and five cabinet ministers, having 
 salaries of $6,000 each. 
 
 Education is largely aided by government, which supports 
 810 schools through the country, besides lyceums and the 
 University of Chili, an invaluable government institution, 
 with 700 students, 37 jarofessors, and free instruction. 
 
 The Koman Catholic religion is recognized by the constitu- 
 tions, but the public profession of other forms is tolerated. 
 
 Central America. 
 
 This republic including the states of Guatemela, Honduras^ 
 San Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Eica, after forming a 
 kind of union since their separation from Mexico, agreed in 
 181:7 to bind themselves by a more efiicient compact. The 
 necessity of such a union of forces was demonstrated by the 
 ease with which Walker and others overran and spoliated 
 portions of their territory. In 1863, Guatamela and Nicara- 
 gua went to war with San Salvador and Honduras. The re- 
 sult of this war was the elevation of Carera, who ruled over 
 all for some time. After various emutes in San Salvador, 
 Zaldivar became President in 1876. After premonitory con- 
 vulsions from the 5th to the 19th of March, an awful earth- 
 quake shook the capital into almost complete ruin. About 
 50 persons perished. The most noted event in the later his- 
 tory of this country, was the fact that commandant Gonzales 
 flogged almost to death the British Consul Majee. He was 
 imprisoned for five years and made to pay Majee $50,000. A 
 plot to kill the President of Guatamela and his ministry was 
 detected in 1877, and the conspirators were executed. The 
 town of Omoa in Si^anish Honduras was bombarded by the 
 British and redress obtained for injuries to British subjects, 
 in 1873. In Nicaragua its present constitution was formed in 
 1858. In 1858 Nicaragua appealed to the great powers of 
 Europe for protection against invasions. Several companies
 
 CHAP. Xn. THE NEW WOBLD FBOM 1849 TO 1885. 6^^ 
 
 have been formed to build railroads and excavate canals 
 across this isthmus — the Pacific and Atlantic oceans approach- 
 ing each other very nearly at this point. ZaTala was elected 
 President in 1879. 
 
 Nicaragua, in virtue of its position at a place where the 
 Atlantic and Pacific oceans approach ■within less than a degree 
 of each other, has long occujjied the attention of geographers 
 and statesmen. Its population has never exceeded 300,000, 
 and its productions have been of no great value, although the 
 country is fertile and it naturally produces many articles of 
 commercial value. Full fortj' years ago Louis Napoleon 
 (afterwards Emperor), wrote and published a verj' able paper 
 proposing a canal to connect the two oceans at this point. 
 The government at Nicaragua tried to enlist foreign powers 
 to aid in its construction, but without success. California 
 becoming a portion of the United States, made this isthmus 
 a place of vast importance to the Americans, and a survey 
 was made in 1851, which showed there were no great difficul- 
 ties to be overcome in connecting the two oceans, as lakes 
 and rivers would readily lend their waters to the facilitation 
 of the scheme. Biat, doubtless, partly owing to the civil war, 
 and partly to the fact that the overland routes in a degree 
 lessened the absolute necessity for it, the affair never got any 
 further than partial explorations and the multiplication of 
 plans and maps. In 1884, however, universal attention has 
 been called to the matter by President Arthur of the United 
 States urging upon Congress the advisability of at once tak- 
 ing measures to make the Nicaraguan Canal a reaUty. With 
 the energj', and intelligence, and wealth of the American 
 people once engaged, it \vi\\ not be many years before the 
 grand scheme will be completed. 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 After Gen. Scott has taken the City of Mexico, a peace was 
 ratified in 1848. During the years till 1858 six Presidents 
 filled the Presidential office for brief periods, when Juarez 
 became President. Again there was a rapid succession of 
 Presidents until ISfil, when Juarez once more became niler. 
 In that year the British, Spanish and French Governments 
 broke off all diplomatic negotiation with Mexico, and engaged 
 to combine in hostile action against her. The Mexican (Con- 
 gress dissolved after conferring dictatorial powers on the presi- 
 dent. At the end of the year 1801, Vera Cruz surrendered to 
 the Spanish, and the troops took possession. An united 
 military expedition of French and English troops anchored 
 before Vera Cruz. The Mexicans determined to resist, in- 
 vested the city of Vera Cruz, which is really the only safe 
 port for large shii^s on any part of the Mexican Atlantic
 
 636 HISTOEY OF THE WOBLD. PAST m. 
 
 coast. Miramon arrived, but the British admiral ordered him 
 to return to Spain. The British and Spanish authorities de- 
 cUncd interfering in Mexican affairs for the purjiose of aiding 
 Louis Naiioleon's scheme for placing Archduke Maximilion of 
 Austria at the head of a Mexican empire. After much nego- 
 tiation the French invaded Mexico, under Bazaine, and after 
 severe fighting reached the capitol. A portion of the nota- 
 bles offered the crown to Maximillian of Austria. He ac- 
 cepted it and came to Mexico Mdth his wife. They were wel- 
 comed as Emperor and Empress by a part of the people. 
 Juarez and others kept up, however,- an armed opposition. 
 The Empress Charlotte, left for France, (1866). The French 
 forces retired in 1867. Then commenced a furious struggle 
 for supremacy between the factions led by Diaz, Ortega, and 
 Juarez, and conflicts often purposeless took place in various 
 parts of the country. Queretaro, after some severe fighting, 
 was ultimately taken by treachery, and Mendez was shot, the 
 Emperor Maximihan and General Miramore and Mejia were 
 taken prisoners, and after brief trials, condemned to be shot. 
 The sentences were carried out on the 9 th of June, 1867. 
 TheCity of Mexico, after undergoing a siege of sixty-seven days, 
 yielded to the patriots, and the republican form of govern- 
 ment superceded the imperial. Vera Cruz soon after surren- 
 dered to the Mexicans. 
 
 Santa Anna (sure to be at hand in troublous times), made 
 his appearance, but before he could muster his partizans, he 
 was arrested, and kept a close prisoner. In July Juarez en- 
 tered the City of Mexico, and at once convoked the assembly 
 for the purpose of choosing a president. Gen. Marquez and 
 some others were accused of attempting to organize forces with 
 the intention of overthrowing the government of Juarez, but 
 before an insurrection could take action, many of the leaders 
 were seized, executions quickly followed, and a veritable reign 
 of terror })revailed. Santa Anna was banished for eight years. 
 The body of the ill-fated Maximilian M^as given up to the Aus- 
 trians, and Admiral Tegethoff conveyed it to his native land. 
 
 In 1871, Juarez was re-elected, and continued to rule until 
 his death in 1872. Tejado succeeded him, and comparative 
 quiet ensued. A railroad between the City of Mexico and Vera 
 Cruz was finished in 1873, when the tariff was lowered. Tejado 
 retired in 187(3, when Iglesias assumed to be President, but 
 was defeated by Diaz, who became President in 1877. Manuel 
 Gonzalez became President in 1880. In all the intervals be- 
 tween election of this President and his death there were armed 
 risings more or less sangiiinarj^ In 1S81, a train on the MoreloB 
 railroad wms thrown into a river, and about two hundred per- 
 sons were killed. 
 
 Mexico has of late sho-mi a disposition to take her proper
 
 CHAP. Xn. THE NEW WORLD FROM 18-49 TO 1885. 6^7^ 
 
 place among the nations of the world. Negotiations arc pro- 
 ceeding having for ol)ject an arrangement with her foreign 
 creditors, to consolidate her floating debts, and to meet past 
 interest. A direct railroad has been opened np with the United 
 States, and many manufacturing estabhshments have been be- 
 gun, and a greater niimber jjrojected. Capital is being invest- 
 ed, and a hberal treaty for interchange of productions and na- 
 tive staples has been negotiated with the United States. The 
 border region between the two countries has become compara- 
 tively tranquil, as the aiithorities on either side, nsQ their 
 influence to repress and punish crime. 
 
 United States of America. 
 
 President Fillmore signed the fugitive slave law, and issued a 
 proclamation against any hostile expedition to Cuba. In 1851, 
 the eminent statesman and orator Henry Clay died, in the same 
 year the greatest American novelist, J. F. Cooper also died. 
 In the same year the Con gressional library was burnt. Kos- 
 suth was kindly welcomed at Washington. 
 
 In 1852 ajipeared Uncle Tom's Cabin, and created a sensa- 
 tion. Daniel Webster died this year, shortly after MTiting his 
 great note on the fishery question with England. One of the 
 most important events that happened in 1850 was the admission 
 of California as a State. There has been fierce controversies 
 whether she shoi;ld be admitted with slavery, but the result 
 was that she entered as a free State. Koszta was released from 
 the Aiistrians, at Smyrna, William Walker sailing from differ- 
 ent United States ports greatly harassed many of the Central 
 American countries. On the 2nd of May, the Massachusetts 
 Senator, Charles Sumner, was frightfully beaten, in the U. S. 
 Senate by Preston S. Prooks. This greatly inflamed the anti- 
 slavery spirit of the North. At this period there was miich 
 violent temper shown by the extreme partisans of both North 
 and Soiith, in Kansas. The U. S. Government presented the 
 llesolnte to Groat Pritain. She had drifted from the Arctic Seas. 
 The Drod Scott case was decided in Supreme Court, adverse 
 to his claim to freedom from slavery. The Mormons rebelled 
 against the government, but were soon compelled to cease 
 their resistance. An imminent war between the English and 
 Anit^ricans at Vancouver's Island was prevented by the good 
 sense and coolness of the commanders on both sides. John 
 Prown made a raid into Virginia to rouse the negroes to rebel- 
 lion, the slaves did not respmid, and- after a brave fight, he was 
 captured, tried and executed. When the terms of President 
 Fillmore expired, he was succeeded (1853; by Franklin Pierce, 
 of New Hampshire, who had commanded the contingent of his
 
 ^S^ HISTOEY OF THE WOBtD. p^^j jjj 
 
 own State during the Mexican War. In 1854, a treaty betwP^n 
 Japan and the United States was negotiated Sg^reatTS 
 througli the exertions of Commodore Perry. The slavery i^^nl 
 was now becoming the cardinal question of pohtiS inter 'T 
 The old whig party, famous for the number oTS statesmen 
 DemrSSl'SySfilfr:^^ ^^'^ disintegLSd wht'S 
 
 BiXn^K^re^^^^^ 
 ha^inameasure absorbed ^thelXan^^^^^^^ 
 
 oyLshadoW ^verytLfelS '"*" ^nti-slayery movements 
 Mmnesota became a State in 1857 and in isw r\ 
 
 secession of nSrlvaulf,^ J? T*.'""' """"^ ™I>idly the 
 into „ Oonf edSalfjfw^Jrjrrs^S 1: irafl?^^^^^^ 
 
 in Clfcilito" HaA ° Th! T' ''' """« "I"" ^"' Sumter 
 spread rapidly. Battle afSh,m """^ "PP'M 'to flames 
 of thousands fmwht and fo^MV" ™™,';'5. "> "I^i* hundreds 
 were lavishly squlndered '°?.f " ''»"^»'fl J!- Life and treasure 
 
 lit up with the Cm of shim ImTt °' "'"'"''^™'»Pl'«« "^ 
 Prpt^idnnt T i.,«^i ' ■ ^^PS Dumt by confederate cruisers 
 
 American flag from Si h.^ fi '^1*\^* whistled over the 
 and 75,000 voluXrHli non ^f'^ ^ ^'^'*' °^ *^^ P'^'^Pl^' 
 fell to the attack of tie Gondii"? *° ''Tf; ^^^P^^'« ^«^^y 
 chusetts were fired upon i^Su'' ''''^^^ *"°°P^ °f ^^^^^^s^- 
 thue pass ere NorfoSwY.^i'"'''"^- .^^^ ^^^"^^ ^e" ^o 
 eyery"^ day battles of mZl I i^ ^""^ '^ *^^^^ b^^-^^^- ^^ost 
 
 nil se'ctioJs sou ^of tJe Potoma'c'n^l^'^'^.^^^r^^^ ^«"g^* ^^ 
 favor of the ConfedfrntP= t't^'^,'1'''*® °^*^° resulted in 
 
 CongressmetSctnomf Vn"" ^'^'l^ }^f\ *^" Confederate 
 fought and lost on Jut?! ' iSi ^r^^ ?ol*^\«^ ^"" R"^ ^^as 
 
 taken, after very severe fi?S in. ^ ^^^^' ^"^ O^'^^''^'^^ ^^« 
 y severe hghting, by Farragut, and Gen,
 
 
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 CHAP. Xn. THE NKW WOELD FROM 1849 TO 1885. 641 
 
 Bntler was appointed Governor. On the 8th of March, the 
 armored Merrimac steamed out of Norfolk and destroyed the 
 frigates Cumberland and Congress, and it appeared as if 
 there was no possible stop to her sinking every ship in the U. 
 S. Navy, but on the next day she was met by the Monitor, a 
 nondescript craft, designed by a great inventor. Captain 
 Ericcson. Ericsson's doughty little vessel as effectually van- 
 quished her mammoth antagonist as did the shepherd 
 David the giant Goliath, and she turned and sought safety 
 in Norfolk. Many futile attempts were made by the Union 
 armies to take Richmond, and at least as many equally futile 
 were made to capture Washington. Lincoln issued a procla- 
 mation, freeing all slaves in the seceded States. 
 
 In 1862 there were no less than thirty battles fought with 
 varying results. The carnage was of ten frightful. Gen. Lee 
 had taken command of the Confederates and soon matched 
 himself with some of the leading Union Generals. The year 
 1HG3 opened with the Emancipation proclamation, and later 
 on many of the most important Southern strongholds had 
 fallen. In July, 18G3, a very serious draft riot took place in 
 New York. In 1864, U. S. Grant ])ecame Lieiitenant General 
 and began a rapid sequence of victories. The Kearsage sank 
 the Alabama. Farragut had taken Mobile. Nevada was ad- 
 mitted as a State. Grant had driven in all the forces of Lee, 
 upon Richmond, this city fell on the 3d of April, 1865- On 
 the '.)th Lee's entire army capitulated, and the war was vir- 
 tually at an end. 
 
 In 1863, the Union army numbered about 700,000 men, the 
 Confederate not above 35U,0U0. Battles took place in nearly 
 every section of the Confederate States, which, though stub- 
 bornly contested, led to no decisive results, until the battle of 
 Gettysburg was fought (Jiily 1, 2, 3), here Lee received a 
 check, which sent him back flying into Virginia. Before the 
 close of the year serious inroads had been made into Confede- 
 rate territory. Over 50,000 negroes had enlisted in Union 
 armies, and behaved well. In 1SG4, although the Confede- 
 rates had won in several conflicts, j'et in the main, the Union 
 had Vieen by far the most successful. Many forts had lowered 
 their colors to the navy. Hood's western army had been 
 scattered by Thomas, and Sherman had begun his unlialting 
 march toward the sea. It has been computed that at least 
 one million of men were cither killed or badly wounded in 
 this Titanic conflict. While the horrid suspense was being 
 lifted from the hearts of the great mass of people throughout 
 the Union, a deathly pall fell over the land. Abraham Lin- 
 coln, the Joshua of his era, was cruelly shot down by Wilkes 
 r>ooth (the son of the great actor), who himself was done to 
 death soon after by a Union soldier. Seward, the Secretary 
 of State, was murderously, but fortunately not fatally, assault-
 
 642 
 
 HISTOEY OP THE WOELD. PAET n. 
 
 ed on the night that the President fell. The Vice-President, 
 Andrew Johnson, at once took the place of the Martyred Lin- 
 coln as President. Soon after both armies had as quietly 
 fallen back into their former positions as civilians, as though 
 war was an unheard of thing. Johnson's administration waa 
 full of troubles, he failed to meet the designs of the party, 
 and was impeached, tried and barely escajDed conviction. In 
 18G8 a full pardon was granted to nearly all. Slavery was 
 abolished in 18G5. In 1866 the annual income from all 
 sources amounted to full three hundred million of dollars. 
 
 Meanwhile, the Great Eastern had laid the ocean tele- 
 gi-aph cable. In 1867, Alaska was bought fromRussia. The 
 Fenian Invaders of Canada were forced to return. 
 
 The States were soon after re-admitted, though for a time 
 several were kept under a partial military surveillance. While 
 the civil war was going on, the French Emperor Napoleon, 
 aided a Mexican party to place Maximilian on the throne of 
 of that country. When the United States war ceased the 
 French left Maximilian to his fate, and he was shot (1SB7). 
 In the midst of wars, science had not been idle. After some 
 failures, telegraphic cables were laid between the old world 
 and the new. In 1868, Anson Burlingame effected a treaty 
 with China, which at the time was deemed very advantageous 
 for both nations. Time has not verified the idea. In 1868, 
 General Grant was elected President, with Colfax as Vice- 
 President. The Pacific railroad was oj^ened in 1869 
 Prosperity was " booming," on the nation, gold had fallen to 
 110, the debt was reduced, a general amnesty had been pro- 
 claimed, and farming and manufacturing were flourishing. 
 In 1869 the first through Pacific Railroad was completed. In 
 1870 the Fifteenth Amendment became law, giving all the 
 rights of citizens to all without distinction. 
 
 Chicago was devasted by fire, more than 100,000 people 
 were left without a roof, and $290,000,000 worth of property 
 had vanished. In November, 1872, some $70,000,000 of pro- 
 perty was ruined by fire in Boston. An arbitration conven- 
 tion settled the " rebel privateer" question by deciding that 
 Great Britain should pay the United States $15,500,000 in 
 gold. A proposition was made to annex San Domingo, but it 
 fell through. The Virginius caught in the act of aiding the 
 Cuban insurgents, was captured, and carried into Santiago. 
 Some of her people were shot. Gen. Grant interfered, and 
 settled the affair. 
 
 In 1873, Gen. Grant became President for the second time, 
 being elected over Horace Greeley. The latter soon after- 
 wards died insane. The Modoc Indians were compelled to 
 surrender, and several leaders executed at Klamath, Oregon. 
 The Credit Mobilier was proved to have bribed several lead- 
 ing politicians who escaped with slight punishment.
 
 CHAP. Xn. THE NEW ■WORLD FROM 1849 TO 1885. 643 
 
 A grand Centennial Exhibition in recollection of the sign- 
 ing of the Declaration of Independence took place in Phila- 
 delphia in the summer of 1876. It continued half a year, and 
 nearly 61,000 persons was the average daily attendance. 
 
 Gen. Custer and his gallant command were all slain by the 
 Sioiix, on the Big Horn. 
 
 In 1877, Gen. Eiitherford B. Hayes became President. He 
 was the nominee of the Kepublican Party. The Democrats 
 had supported Samuel J. Tilden. Both parties claimed the 
 victorj'. A joint Electoral Commission adjudged the chair to 
 Hayes, and the Democrats yielded a tacit but sullen acquies- 
 cence. The U. S. troops being taken out of S. Carolina and 
 Louisiana, local government fell at once into the hands of the 
 Democrats. An extensive railroad strike, calling for the aid 
 of regular troops to put it doAvn, occurred in many of the 
 Middle States. In 1877 Congress made silver, equally with 
 gold, a legal tender, it had been demonetized in 1873. Great 
 Britain was awarded $5,500,000 to offset the Dominion fishery 
 claim. Nebraska became a State in 18G7 and Colorado in 1876, 
 Lee, a mormon, convicted of contriving the massacre of a 
 number of emigrants, at the ' ' Mountain Meadow, " was shot 
 as directed by an impartial jury. A Fenian raid into Canada, 
 was promptly suppressed by the United States Government, 
 at Malone, N. Y. An extensive gang, called the Molly Maguires 
 was detected, and some of the leaders punished. Brigham 
 Young, who had attained world-wide notoriety, died. A Board 
 of Commissioners was appointed to consider the Civil Service 
 subject. 
 
 In 1878 both the telephone and the phonograph were de- 
 monstrated to be perfectly practicable. May 25, an awfully 
 destructive tornado traversed the Southern part of Wisconsin. 
 Men, cattle, buddings, even, were hurled through the air as 
 though they had been withered leaves. July 8th saw the finish- 
 ing of the Sutro Tunnel, connecting the Savage and Comstock 
 silver mines, it is one of the most stiipendous affairs of its kind 
 ever executed. The yellow fever, after long absence, appeared 
 in New Orleans, and destroyed many persons. 
 
 Specie payments were resinned Jan. 1, 1879. Business confi- 
 dence was at once restored. 
 
 In 1881, James A. Garfield was elected President, and Ches- 
 ter A. Arthur, Vice-President, of the United States. Their 
 opponents were Gen. Hancock and W. H. English. 
 
 1881 will ever be a " black " year in the history of the United 
 States, if not of the world. President James A. Garfield was, 
 on July 2d, maliciously shot twice by Charles Jules Guitcau. 
 After lingering just on the verge of existence for months, he 
 finally expired at Long Branch, in September. 
 
 Guitcau was tried, con\icted and hung in Washington.
 
 644 
 
 aiSTORY OF THE WOULD, PAET HI. 
 
 As soon fis possible after the death of President Garfield, the 
 Vice-President, Chester A. Arthur, was sworn in as his successor 
 and very fortunately proved himself well suited to fill the 
 august position. At the first meeting of Congi-ess, he an- 
 nounced in his message, that while the internal affairs of the 
 nation were in a flourishing state, the most perfect amity pre- 
 vailed with all nations, the coining of additional silver was de- 
 precated. GreatBritain had been notified of theUnitedStates be- 
 ing ready to abrogate the Nicaraguan treaty. In December 
 news reached Washington of the loss of the Jeannette in Sibe- 
 rian seas. Congress thanked Egypt for the gift of Cleopatra's 
 Needle (obelisk). 
 
 In February, 1882, a bill passed Congress extending money 
 relief to Mrs. Abraham Lincoln. A similar pension was given to 
 Mrs. Garfield. The public debt was reduced in this year over 
 $13,000,000. In March, Gen. Grant was placed on retired 
 list. Eoscoe Conklin confirmed as Justice of the U.S. Supreme 
 Court, which he declined. Great overflow occurred of the 
 Mississipj^i, 85,000 persons rendered houseless. President 
 Arthur, in December, advised reducing internal taxes, and cus- 
 tom duties. Enormous losses by floods in Ohio Vallej', mills, 
 bridges, rails, swej)t away. Cincinnati and St. Louis suffered 
 greatly. 
 
 Among many disasters at sea in 1883, were notably, 75 men 
 drowned by loss of Gloucester fishing vessels, and the loss of 
 pilot boat off N.Y. Harbor with all on board. 40th Congress 
 (1883), was remarkable as having for the first time in many 
 years a Democratic majority 77. Mr. Carlisle, of Keutiicky, 
 was elected Speaker. President Arthur in naessage advised im- 
 provement of harbor and seacoast defences, regular govern- 
 ment for Alaska, strong legal measures to kill polj'gamy in 
 Utah, and preservation of forests. Treasurer Folger gave re- 
 ceipts of fiscal year (1883), as $398,287,581, expenditures 
 $267,408, 137. Amount used for debt redemption $134, 178,- 
 756. W. Q. Gresham, was confirmed as Post Master General, 
 (1884"). Centennial of Evacuation of New York, was finely 
 celebrated Nov. 26, 3884. Congress voted $1,000,000 to im- 
 prove navigation of Mississippi river. Congress jaassed a bill 
 suspending Chinese emigration for 10 years. A tariff com- 
 mission bill was passed. Gov. Cleveland of New York State, 
 in his message calls attention that the State debt had been 
 greatly reduced, and advised reduction of tax rate (1884). U. 
 S. Senate instructed American Minister in Paris, to report 
 what legislation is necessary to meet proposed exclusion of 
 pork products from France and Germany. Mr. Morrison in- 
 troduced tariff bill, proposing reductions of 20 p. c. through- 
 out entire list. $500,000 voted in aid of sufferers by flood in the 
 West. Floods throughout Ohio Valley worst ever recorded,
 
 VlHAP. Xn. THE NEW WOKLD FKOM 1819 TO 1885. 64^ 
 
 vviiter rose in Cincinnati over 70 feet. In March 1881, Presi- 
 dent Arthur congratulated Congress on good results of Civil 
 Service experiments. Legal Tender Act of 1878 affirmed 
 legal by Supreme , Court U. S. Mexican treaty ratified by 
 Senate. The United States received steamer Alert, from 
 British Government, to be used in Greeley Kelief Expedition. 
 Which relief proved providential in time and manner. The 
 survivors being safely returned to their homes. During 1881 
 there had been a great fall in the prices of nearly every kind 
 of stocks, railroad, coal, oil and manufacturing. This de- 
 pression was greatly aggravated by the fact that many bankers 
 and other fiscal agents had been faithless to their trusts, and 
 very many innocent holders were ruined. To add to this sad 
 state of affairs the great agricultural staples of the country had 
 fallen to the lowest prices perhaps ever i-ecorded. The agi- 
 tations, excitements, and unsettled state of the public mind 
 usually attendant on Presidential elections came to add to 
 the already sufficiently unfortunate condition of affairs. 
 The U. S, Supreme Court gave judgement, in favor of the 
 Lee family, to the estate of Arlington, near Washington. A 
 number of persons were arrested for robbing graves near 
 Philadeljihia. A. C. Nutt, State Cashier of Pennsylvania, 
 was fatally shot in Uniontown, by N. L. Dukes, membjer of 
 the State Legislature. Dukes was afterwards shot to death by 
 the son of A. C. Nutt. The latter was tried and acquitted 
 (1883). Eighty lives lost by the burning of the Newhall 
 House in Milwaukee, The civil rights act for the better pro- 
 tection of colored people was declared unconstitutional by 
 the U. S. Supreme Court. The pier of the Inman Steamer 
 lino, in New York, burned with a loss of $G00,000. The re- 
 mains of John Howard Payne, aiithor of "Home Sweet 
 Home," were brought to his native country from Tunis, where 
 he had served as U. S. Consul. Peter Cooper, an inventor, 
 and an eminent philanthropist, died in New York, Ajiril 4, 
 18S3. Eighty-three persons were killed and two hundred 
 wounded in the town of Beauregard, Miss., by tornadoes. 
 The New York and Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, the greatest 
 structure of its kind ever ei'ected, was formally opened to 
 travel on the 21th of May, 1883. On the 3Uth, during a panic, 
 12 persons were killed, and 20 wounded. The Star Boute 
 Trials, of persons charged with defraiiding Post Office De- 
 partment of large sums were brought to an end, by the 
 acquittal of j^rincipals accused. Mrs. Damon Y'. Kilgrove, was 
 the first woman admitted as a lawver in Pennsylvania courts, 
 June v.), 1883. In 1883, W. Q. Gresham, excluded the matter 
 of lottery dealers from the mails. Captain Jlatthew Webb, 
 who had swum across the channel from England to France, 
 was drowned trying to Bvnin across the rajiids in Niagara 
 river. A general stiike of telegraph operators was unsuc-
 
 646 
 
 HISTOET OP THE WOBLD. PABT lU. 
 
 cesshil for the time. The largest sale of cotton goods that 
 ever probably occurred in the world took place on July 26, 
 in New York, on which occasion $200,000,000 worth changed 
 hands. Shaw & Co., of Boston, the largest tanners in United 
 States failed with liabilities amounting to $3,500,000. Judge 
 Jere S. Black, a great jurist and pleader, died Aug. 19. On 
 the 8th of Sept. 1883, the "golden spike," was driven in the 
 Northern Pacific Railroad. 
 
 The Presidential Election in November, 1884, resulted in 
 the choice of Grover Cleveland, for President, and Thos. A" 
 Hendricks,for'Vice-President(Democrats), James G.Blaine and 
 John A. Logan (Republicans), were the opponents. There 
 was a good deal of strong feeling shown, biit not the slightest 
 violence, and the result was quietly acquiesced in by the de- 
 feated. 
 
 A change of time tables on railroads was made by general 
 consent, to conform to ' ' standard time. " 
 
 Larger sums of money were expended in early part of 1885 
 for federal buildings than ever before. There had been such 
 an enormous surplus in the U. S. Treasury that money was 
 granted for this purpose in a very extravagant manner. The 
 failure of the great banking house of John J. Cisco and Co., 
 greatly disturbed the financial eqiiilibriiim of New York. 
 Cisco had been U. S. Sub. Treasui'er, under Pierce, Bucha- 
 nan and Lincoln. One of the depositors of the bank had over 
 $25,000,000 in deposit. The largest iron manufacturing firm 
 in the Union collapsed in Pittsburgh, Pa., owing $2,000,000. 
 Extensive strikes of railroad men, spinners and miners had 
 taken place at the beginning of the year. About a score of 
 inmates of Insane Illinois Infirmary were burned to death 
 (1885). The Old Liberty Bell was transferred from Philadel- 
 phia to the Great Exposition in New Orleans. Schuyler Col- 
 fax, who was Vice-President during Grant's first term died in 
 January. The dynamite warfare was transferred to New 
 York, where one. Short, was alleged to have stabbed Captain 
 Phelan eleven times, but not fatally. The official statement 
 of the Bureau of Agriculture places the production of corn in 
 1884 at 1,795,000,000 bushels, and that of wheat at nearly 
 513,000,000 — the largest aggregates ever recorded. A small 
 army of squatters assembled at Oklahoma, and for a time de- 
 fied the U. S. to remove them. But the federal troops cut 
 off their supplies, and they surrendered. Congress passed 
 resolutions denouncing any person, plotting, aiding or a- 
 betting dynamite outrages (against foreign powers)' in the 
 United States.
 
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