UC SB LIBRARY Roman Soldiers. HISTORY ANCIENT AND MODERN ROME; BY FRAXCLS B. JEFFERY. WITH NUMEROUS ILLTJSTEATION5. PHILADELPHIA: P U B L I S II E D BY J. L. G I II N, NO. 409 CHESTNUT STREET. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by J. L. GIHON, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. PREFACE. THAT the principal events of Roman History may be condensed into a small compass, is sufficiently proved by the manuals which have been prepared by several distinguished writers. In this little vol- ume we have endeavoured to give all that is impor- tant in a concise, and at the same time, clear and pleasing form. As it is intended to serve chiefly as an introduction to Pinnock's edition of Goldsmith's History of Rome, or some similar work, we believe it will be found sufficiently full. Questions are placed at the end of the volume for the aid of learners and teachers. The embellish- ments consist of authentic costumes of the military classes, and likenesses of the emperors. The latter are taken from medals which were, in each case, struck during the lifetime of the person represented. Such illustrations are of themselves historical docu- ments, and will no doubt be satisfactory to all who use the work. 1* (5) CONTENTS. Introduction , ~ . Page 9 Origin of the Romans. Founding of Borne. Establishment of the Government under Romulus 13 The Kings of Rome 16 Formation of a Republic. Invasion of Porsena. Mutius Seas- vola. Invasion of the Latins. Appointment of a Dictator. Tribunes of the People. Coriolanus. War with the jEqui and Volsci. Cincinnatus K Laws of the Twelve Tables. Decemviri. Siccius Dentatus. Virginia. Military Tribunes. Censors. Siege of Veii. In- vasion of the Gauls. Destruction of the City of Rome De- feat of the Gauls by Camillas 27 U'ar with the Samnites ; with Pyrrhus, King of Epirus; and with the Carthaginians. Fall of Carthage 32 Conquests of the Romans The Gracchi. The Cimbri and Teu- tones. The Social War. Marius. Sylla 39 Catiline's Conspiracy. The first Triumvirate. Civil War be- tween Ctesar and Pompey 44 Defeat of Pompey's party, and Death of Cato. Assumption of the Supreme Power by Csesar. His Murder. Flight of Brutus and the other Conspirators. The second Triumvirate, of Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus. Battle of Philippi. Death of Brutus andCassius. Lepidus deposed by Octavius. Antony and Cleopatra 48 A ugustus. Tiberius. Caligula Claudius 56 Nero 65 Galba. Otho. Vitellius 70 Vespasian. Titus. Domitian 74 Xerva. Trajan Adrian. Antoninus Pius. Marcus Aurelius. Commodus 78 Pertinax. Diiiius Jtilianus. Septimius Severus. Caracalla and Geta. Macrinus. Heliogabalus. Alexander Severus. His successors, to Probus 84 Carus. Dioclesian. Constantine. Establishment of Christi- anity. Constantine's successors. Julian the Apostate. Va- lentinian and Valens. Division into Western and Eastern Empires. Reigns of the last Emperors of the West. Fall of the Empire &> (vii) Vlll CONTENTS. The Eastern Empire usurped by Basiliscus. He is starved to Death. The Origin of the Decline of the Roman Empire. It revives under Justin and Justinian. Belisarins. The Eastern Empire. War with the Persians. The Saracens Page 96 The Empire invaded by the Bulgarians. They are defeated and tlicir Country subdued by Basiling II. The Saracens 109 The Turks. They invade the Empire. Tangrolipix. Eudocia. The Turks defeated by Romanus Diogenes. Axan. The Em- peror taken Prisoner. His Death. The Empire again in- vaded by the Turks. Alexius Comnenus Peace with the Turks 114 Guiscard's Expedition against the Emperor. The War ended by his Death. The Scythian War. The Holy War. John tho Handsome. Manuel. Andronicus. Alexius II. Andronicus Emperor. Isaac II. Great Fire at Constantinople. John Ducas. Mourzoufle. Constantinople taken and plundered by the Latins 134 Baldwin I. Henry. Peter of Courtenay. Robert. John of Brienne. Baldwin II. The Latins expelled from Constanti- nople. Michael Palaeologus. His Treachery and Inhumanity. Andronicus 13C War with the Turks. Their first Appearance in Europe. Their Defeat Constantinople besieged by Bajazet By Anuirath. By Mohammed. Death of Constantine. Constantinople taken by the Turks ~., ~ . - , 144 Questions for the Examination of Pupils 155 INTRODUCTION. GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF ITALY. ITS DIFFERENT NAMES. ITS DIVISION IN ANCIENT TIMES. SUB- DUED BY THE ROMANS. BY THE BARBARIANS. CHARACTER OF THE EARLY ROMAN HISTORY. ITALY lies between seven and ten degrees of east longitude, and between thirty-seven and forty-six de- grees of north latitude. On the north, north-west, and north-east it is bounded by France, Switzerland, the country of the Orisons, and Germany ; on the east by the Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice; and on the south and west by the Mediterranean; its figure bearing some resemblance to that of a boot. Its length from Aosta, at the foot of the Alps in Savoy, to the utmost verge of Calabria, is about six hundred miles ; but its breadth is very unequal, being in some places nearly four hundred miles, in others not above twenty-five or thirty. Italy was anciently known by the names of Satuf' nia, (Enotria, Ausonia, and Hesperia. It was called Saturnia from Saturn, who, being driven out of Crete by his son Jupiter, is supposed to have taken refuge here. The names of (Enotria and Ausonia, were bor- rowed from its ancient inhabitants, the (Enotrians and Ausones; and that of Hesperia, or Western, was given it by the Greeks from its situation with respect to Greece. The nameofJtaZia or Italy, which in pro- cess of time prevailed over all the rest, is by some de- rived from Italus, a king of the Siculi: by others from the Greek word italos, signifying an ox ; this country (9) 10 INTRODUCTION. abounding, by reason of its rich pastures, with oxen of an extraordinary size and beauty. All these names were originally peculiar to particular provinces of Italy, but afterwards were applied to the whole country. Italy, like most other countries, was, in ancient times, divided into a'great number of petty states and kingdoms. Afterwards, when the Gauls settled in the rn, and many Greek colonies in the eastern parts, it was divided, with respect to its inhabitants into three great parts, namely, Gallia Cisalpina, Italy properly so called, and Magna Gratia. The most western and northern parts of Italy were in a great measure pos- sessed by the Gauls ; and hence took the name of Gal- lia, with the epithets Cisalpina and Citerior, because they lay on the side of the Alps next to Rome; and Togata, with relation to the Roman gown or dress, which the people wore; but this last epithet is of a much later date than the former. This appellation was antiquated in the reign of Augustus, when the division of Italy into eleven provinces, introduced by that prince, took place. Hence it is that the name of (.'ixnlpine Gaul, frequently occurs in the writings of the authors who flourished before, and scarcely ever in the works of those who wrote after, the reign of Au- gustus. This country extended from the Alps and the river Varus, separating ,it from Transalpine Gaul, to the river ^Esus; or, as Pliny will have it, to the city of Ancona, in the ancient Picenum. On the north it was divided from Rhcetia by the Alps, called Alpes Rhteticcc; and from Illyricum by the river Formic: but, on this side, the borders of Italy were in Pliny's time extended to the river Arsia in Istria. On the south it reached to the Ligustic Sea, and the Apen- nines separating it from Etruria; so that under the common name of Cisalpine Gaul, were comprehended the countries lying at the foot of the Alps, called by Pliny and Strabo, the Subalpine Countries, Liguria, Gallia Cispadana, or on this side of the Po, and Trans- padana, or on the other side of the Po. Italy properly so called, extended on the coast of the INTRODUCTION. 11 Adriatic, from the city of Ancona to the river Trento, now the Frotore ; and on the Mediterranean from the Macra to the Silarus, now the Sele. Magna Graecia comprised Apulia, Lucania, and the country of the Brutii. It was called Greece, because most of the cities on the coast were Greek colonies. The inhabitants gave it the name of Great, not because it was larger than Greece, but, as Pliny informs us, merely out of ostentation. All these countries were inhabited by a great num- ber of different nations settled at different times, and from many different parts. The names of the most re- markable of them were, the Aborigines, or those whose origin was utterly unknown, and who, consequently, were thought to have none; the Sabines, Hetrtirians or Tuscans, the Umbri, Samnitcs, Campani, Apitlii, Ca- labrii, Lucanii, the Brutii, and the Latins. From a colony of the latter, proceeded the Romans, who gra- dually subdued all these nations, one after another, and held them in subjection for upwards of seven hundred years. All these nations were originally brave, hardy, temperate, and well skilled in the art of war; and the Romans much more so than the rest. Their subjection to Rome, however, inured them to slavery ; their op- pression by the emperors broke their spirit; and the vast wealth which was poured into the country from all parts of the world, during the time of the Roman prosperity, corrupted their manners and made them degenerate from their former valour. Of this degene- racy, the barbarous nations of the north took the ad- vantage to invade the empire in innumerable multi- tudes. Though often repelled, they invariably re- turned, and it was found necessary to take great numbers of them into the Roman service, in order to defend the empire against the rest of their countrymen. In the year A. D. 475, these barbarians -demanded a third part of the lands of Italy as remuneration for the services they had done the empire. This was refused, and the Roman empire in the West was destroyed. The early Roman history, until the time of Camil- 12 INTRODUCTION. lus, has been con.-iilercJ by Neibuhr ami Arnold, and by all recent historians alter them, as chiefly legend- arVi if not fabulous. It was formed by the Romans themselves, from their old national songs and legends; and as there were no contemporary historians in the other countries who would take the trouble to contra- dict or gainsay them, they were made the means of raising the national spirit of the Romans, and were ac- cordingly so fashioned. We, however, having nothing better to substitute for them, have followed the exam- ple of Dr. Arnold, and given the legends with this cau- tion, that the correctness of the legendary history is not to be relied upon; and that until after the age of Ca- millus, the whole of the popular and generally received history of Rome is more or less discredited by recent inquirers. HISTORY OF ROME. I. ORIGIN OF THE ROMANS. FOCXDIXG OF ROME. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT UNDIJU Ro- THE ancient Romans claimed their origin from the celebrated Trojan prince yEneas. The history i ancestors, before the period of the foundation of Rome, is so mixed with fable as to be very uncertain. It is said, that after the taking of Troy (a city on the coast of Asia Minor) by the Greeks, which is supposed to h;ive happened about 1200 years before the coming of Christ, ./Eneas, with his family and a large body of followers, fled from the city, and having prepared a fleet, failed in search of a settlement in some other land. They ar- rived on the coast of Latium, in Italy, near of the river Tiber, and were received in a ii i ner by Latinus, the king of that country. .f crimes against the state. The long and prosperous reign of Servius Tullius had a tragical end. He had married his two daughters to Lucius Tarquin and Aruns, the grandsons of the former kinO\VLR BY CJBS\R. His MURDER. FLIGHT OF BRUTUS AND THE OTHER CONSPIRATORS. TlIE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, OF ANTONY. OtTAVlUS, AND LEPIDUS. BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. DEATH OF BRUTUS AND CASSIUS. LEPI- Ul S DEPOSED BY OcTAVRS. ANTONY AND CLEO- PATRA. WHILE (Vsar remained in Egypt a dispute took place respecting the crown of that kingdom, between Ptolemy, who possessed it, and his sister Cleopatra, who aspired to it. CVsar favoured the cause of Cleopatra, and, being besieged in the city of- Alexandria, by Ptolemy, was in great danger. He was at last relieved by a large body of troops who arrived to his assistance ; and, having defeated the army of Ptolemy, placed Cleopatra on the throne. Soon afterwards Crcsar turned his arms against the remnant of Pompey's party, who had assembled in Africa, and were assisted by Juba, king of Mauritania. Their army, commanded by Scipio and Juba, advanced against Ca-sar; but they were completely defeated, and the generals slain. There now only remained a small force stationed in the city of Utica, under Cato. Notwithstanding the defeat of the army, he determined to defend this town : DEATH OF CATO. 49 Cicero. but, being unable to persuade his party to stand a siege, he stabbed himself with his sword. The death of Cato took place in the year 45 before Christ. Caesar now returned to Rome, and celebrated his victories by a splendid triumph. To every one of his soldiers he gave a sum equal to about *7 tormed against him among the senators. Its prin- cipal movers were Brutus and < 'h of whom had been adherents of Pompey, and had experier/ mercy utter the battle of Pharsalia. Brutus, who was a descendant of him who freed Rome from the Tarquins, was influenced by a pure love of freedom ; bi.it (.'ass. ins appears to have been incited chiefly by pi hatred to Cesar. The conspirators determined to exe- cute their purpose in the senate-house : and on the day they had fixed, as" soon as CiPsar took his jjjace, one of their number, approaching him in a suppliant posture, took hold of his robe so as to prevent him from rising, while the others attacked him with their daL r L''r~. 1 !e defended himself, though unarmed, with great vigour, till he received a wound from the dagger of Brutus : when, exclaiming, " and you too Brutus !" he covered his face with his robe, and sank down at the bnse of Pompey's statue, pierced with twenty-three wounds, He fell in the year 44 before Christ, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and fourth of his reign. This murder of Ca'sar produced the utmost confusion. The conspirators attempted to address the senate; but the greater number of the senators fled from the hall. They then retired to the Capitol. In the meantime, some of Caesar's friends, at the head of whom wns Mar- cus Antonius (or Antony), brought his body into the forum, and exposed it, covered with wounds, to the view of the people. Antony had served under.Ca-sar in his wars, and was now one of the consuls. He addressed the people, enlarging on Caspar's virtues, and his affec- tion for them, as a proof of which he read his will, by which he had bequeathed to them his extensive gardens, and a considerable sum of money to each citizen. In this manner he raised the indignation of the people to THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. 51 such a pitch, that they destroyed the houses of the con- spirators, who were forced to fly from the city. Antony, whose object in thus ingratiating himself with the people, was to obtain for himself the po- of sovereign power, as soon as he found his authority established, no longer even pretended to think of re- venging the death of Ca-sar. Octavius, the grand- nephew and adopted" son of Ca-sar, then a young man of eighteen years of age, hastened to Rome to claim the inheritance, and avenge the murder of his uncle. But he was coldly received by Antony ; and finding himself disappointed in his expectations from him, endeavoured successfully to gain the affections of the people. A quarrel broke out between them, which ended in a war. JJrutus had gone into Cisalpine Gaul,* where he had raised a small body of troops. Antony marched against him, and besieged him in the city of Mutina. Octavius, in order to diminish the power of Antony, prevailed on the senate to command him to abandon the siege, and wait their orders. Antony treated this message with contempt ; and the senate sent an army, 'under the consuls, to reduce him to subjection. Octavius accom- panied the expedition with a body of troops commanded by himself. After several engagements, a general battle took place, in which Antony was defeated. One of the Roman consuls who was mortally wounded, on his death- bed informed Octavius that it was the design of the senate to get rid of him as well as Antony, and that it was for this purpose that they opposed them to each other. Octavius, deeply moved by -this information, resolved to form an alliance with Antony, instead of contending with him longer. Antony, after his defeat, had resorted to Lepidus, a man who had favoured his views, and then commanded some troops in Gaul beyond the Alps. Octavius now proposed to join his forces to theirs ; and a conference took place, at which it was agreed that they should * That part of ancient Gaul which lay on the Italian side of the Alps and is now the A'orth of Italy. THE SECOSD TRIUMVIRATE. Mark Antony. jointly possess the supreme authority for the space of five years, under the title of Triimniratc ; that the government of the different parts of the empire should be divided among them ;' and that all their enemies, as contained in lists furnished by each of them, should be destroyed. This treaty being concluded, tho Triumvirs imme- diately renewed the horrible crueltic.s of Marius and Sylla. Great numbers of the most distinguished sena- tors and citizens of Rome were put to death, and their estates divided among their murderers. Having fully satisfied their covetousness and vengeance, they declared the proscription at end. Octavius and Antony marched to oppose Brutus and Cassius, who were now at the head of a large army in Greece ; leaving Lepidus to govern in Rome. The army of the Triumvirs met that of Brutus and BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. 53 Cassius near the city of Philippi, in Thrace. A bloody battle took place, in which the conspirators were de- feated, and Cabins Aum. Brutus collected the remains of the army ; and another battle took place a few weeks afterwards, in which he was airain defeated. Escaping from the field with a few followers, Brutus sat down under a rock that concealed him from the pursuers. Here, finding that his fortunes were desperate, and that most of his friends were slain, lie resolved to die also, and prevailing on one of his attendants to present to him the point of his sword, lie threw himself upon it, and immediately expired. The destruction of Brutus and his party took place in the year 42 before Christ. The Triumvirs now reigned without control over the Roman empire ; but the real power was possessed by Octavius and Antony, Lepidus enjoying only the appear- ance of it. Octavius remained in Italy ; while Antony went to regulate the affairs of the empire in the east. Octavius, who seems to have been long determined to possess himself of the sole power, soon found a pre- text for getting rid of Lepidus. That person, dissatis- fied with the small share of authority allowed him, de- manded an equal share of power with his colleague. This produced a quarrel ; and Octavius, knowing his influence even in the army of Lepidus, went alone to his camp, and declared his intention of deposing him. Lepidus, deserted by his soldiers, was obliged to sub- mit; and Octavius, sparing his life, banished him to Circfpum, where he spent the rest of his days in ob- scurity. Antony's conduct, in the meantime, had made him contemptible to the Romans. Having been engaged in some transactions respecting Egypt, he became so cap- tivated by the beauty of the queen, Cleopatra, that he sacrificed every consideration of duty and interest to his passion for her. He treated his wife, Fulvia, with such cruelty as to shorten her days; and, having had some differences with Octavius, their apparent reconciliation was followed by his marriage with Octavius's sister. After this, he roused himself for a time frcm his slothful 5* ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. Cleopatra. and luxurious life, and led a very large army against the farthians. But he \vas' worsted by that warlike people ; and returned with the loss of a fourth part of his army, and all his storels. Disregarding the contempt and resentment which this conduct excited at Rome, Antony returned to Cleopatra, and gave himself up to the allurements of her society. He bestowed on her many of the kingdoms of the east which belonged to the Roman empire ; and resolved, in order that lie might marry her, to divorce his wife Octavia. This foolish and vicious behaviour afforded Octavius ample grounds for proceeding to extremities against Antony. War was declared against him by the & and Octavius took the command of the forces. Antony raised an army of 100,000 foot and 12,000 cavalry ; and he had a fleet of 500 ships. The army and fleet of Octavius were considerably smaller. The fate of the BATTLE OF ACTIVM. 55 war was decided by the first great engagement, which took place at sea, near Actium in Epirus. It was fought in a gulf, or bay, on the opposite sides of which the land armies of Octavius and Antony were drawn up as spectators. The fight had continued with great fury for sonic time, without advantage on either side; when sudden "ra, who commanded a division of An- tony'.- ^oon i!yin;r at the head of sixty .ships; and A'. :acefully followed her. His fleet, how- ever, though thus deserted, fought with great ob.- ' till they were at last obliged to yield. The land forces submitted to Octavius, without striking a blow. Antony returned with Cleopatra to Egypt, md re- solved to defend that 'country against his rival. Octa- vius having marched to Alexandria, Antony rr.ct him, and fouirht so desperately that he repulsed him. Elated by this success, he challenged Octavius to deqide the dispute between them by single combat ; but Octavius, well aware of the inequality of their situations, coolly replied, that Antony had ways enough to die, ! falling by his hand. Antony then ordered his ships to attack the fleet of Octavius ; and they sailed in good order, apparently for that purpose ; but he had the mor- tification to see them salute the vessels of Octavius, and, the wli'ilc uniting, sail into the harbour. This desertion took place in consequence of secret orders from Cleo- patra, who betrayed Antony that she might make her peace with his conqueror. Finding his situation utterly desperate, he stabbed himself with his sword. Cleopatra fell into the hands of Octavius, and at first endeavoured, by all her arts, to gain his affection ; but finding that she was to be sent to Romi 1 to grace his triumph, she put an end tn her life by the bite of an asp. The death of Cleopatrn. which took place in the year 30 before Christ, terminated the monarchy of Egypt, which had existed from the earliest ages of the world. Augustus. IX. AUGUSTUS. TIBERIUS. CALIGULA. CLAUDIUS. OCTAVIUS, now the sole master of the Roman empire, exercised his authority for several years under the title of consul, to which office he was re-elected every year, along with some other person whom he chose to invest with the empty title. At length he assumed the royal power, taking the titles of Emperor and Ai'tfuslns; which latter title, though it was taken by his suci became the name by which lie particularly was distin- guished. This event took place twenty-seven years be- fore the birth of Christ. The Roman empire now comprehended the greatest part of Europe, Asia, and Africa ; and was nearly 4000 miles in length, and 2000 in breadth. Augustus?, who had gained his power by means of the army, took every method to preserve its favour; he kept up great military establishments in every part of the Roman empire; and the standing army thus supported amounted to above 170,000 men. He also maintained a powerful navy, to (55) AUGUSTUS. 57 keep the seas clear of pirates, and protect the immense trade carried on between Italy and the distant parts of the empire. The extent of the empire, exposed it to frequent at- tacks from the nations on its borders. About ten years after the accession of Augustus, the province of Gaul was invaded by those rude tribes inhabiting' the north of Europe, who went under the general name of Ger- man? : and the Rhsctians, a people of the country now called Switzerland, soon afterwards invaded Italy, where they committed horrible ravages. These in- vaders, however, were soon repulsed by the Roman armies. Having restored peace throughout the empire, Augustus ordered the temple of Janus, which had re- mained open since the days of Xuma Pompilius, to be closed.* During this interval of universal peace, the Saviour of the world was born in Judaea. The northern nations having renewed their attacks, a Roman army, under Quintilins Varus, was entirely cut to pieces by them. Augustus suffered the most violent grief on account of this disaster; for several months he allowed his hair and beard to grow, tearing his clothes, and exclaiming like a madman, " Restore the legions, Varus !" Soon after this he died, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, and fifty-sixth of his reign; not without suspicion of having been poisoned by the Empress Livia, a woman of a wicked character. Livia, before her marriage with the emperor, had two sons, Tiberius and Drusus. Tiberius, after divorcing his wife, by the command of the emperor, married Julia, his daughter, a princess infamous for her debaucheries. Drusus, after distinguishing himself in Germany, died, leaving a son named Germanicus, whom the emperor obliged Tiberius to adopt, though he had a son of his * Janus, a Roman deity, was said to have been an ancient king of Italy, who, after his death, was worshipped as a god, in con- sequence of his having taught his subjects husbandry, and other peaceful arts. His temple, erected by Romulus, was kept opei in tine of war, and shut during peace. 53 TIBERIUS. own. Augustus himself adopted Tiberius as his son; and before his death, made him his colleague in the sovereignty. On the death of Augustus, consequently, Tiberius became emperor. Caligula. At the beginning 1 of Tiberius's reign, an extensive revolt took. place among the troops in Germany. It was quelled by the efforts of Germanicus ; who afterwards turned his arms against the Germans, and performed many brilliant exploits. Germanicus was distinguished for his virtues and talent. He died at an early age, cut off, as was supposed, by poison, given him by Pino, his colleague in the government of Syria. Tiberius Bestowed his confidence on Sejanus, a* Roman knight, whom he had made his minister. Sejanus was a monster of wickedness and cruelty. Aspiring to the throne, he resolved to remove every obstacle that stood in his way. His first victim was Drusus, the son of the emperor, whoso wife, Julia, he corrupted, and then per- suaded her to poison her husband. The emperor, desti- tute of feeling, showed no grief for his son's death. He even made a jest of it ; for, when deputies from Troy arrived, somewhat late, to condole with him, he condoled with them on the death of Hector. To prevent the emperor from hindering the execution of his further designs, Sejanus persuaded him to retire TIBERIUS. 59 from the cares of government, and spend a life of plea- sure at a distance from Rope. Tiberius accordingly, in the twelfth year of his reign, retired to the island of Capre;: 1 . a beautiful spot, where he resided during the rest of his life; and which he polluted by the most abominable debaucheries and cruelties. . whose influence with him was unbounded, easily persuaded him to put to death everyone lie wi.-hed to remove; among whom were Tiberius and Drusus, the sons of Ger- manicus. As his power increased, he assumed greater state and magnificence, and was more dreaded than the emperor himself. But his fall was sudden and dreadful. It appears that a plot, which he had formed against the life of the emperor, was discovered and revealed to Tiberius. The tyrant, however, found it necessary to dissemble; and loaded the traitor with fresii honours, while he was pre- paring to destroy him. At last he wrote to the senate, ordering Sejanus to be imprisoned ; but they, venturing beyond their instructions, decreed his immediate <:eath. The universal hatred now burst forth : as he was led to execution, the people loaded him with insults and curses. He attempted to hide his face with his hands : but, to deprive him even of this poor relief, they were bound behind him. His mangled body was dragged about the streets : and the multitude, in their fury, murdered his whole family. After this event, Tiberius seemed to be devoured by an unceasing thirst for blood. Not a day .passed without ey'.-.utions, in which the victims suffered the most horrible torments. When one of them killed himself to avoid the torture, " Ah !" the tyrant exclaimed, "how has that man been able to escape me V When another entreated that he might immediately be put to death, " Xo !" cried Tiberius, " I am not sufficiently your friend to shorten your torment." In the meantime the remoter provinces were overrun by the surrounding nations, and the whole empire was in a state of disorder that alarmed him for his safety, and excited in him such a hatred of all mankind, that lie was heard to wish that the \vhole human race perish along with him. Exhausted by his debaucheries, "ie began to think of a successor ; and cho=e Caligula, lie remaining son of Germanicus. He was at las! ,'ith a sickness which appeared to be mortal ; ai, ula, supposing him to be on his death-bed, proc< . -sumc the government, when lie was alu.i that the emperor seemed to be recm !cured his own safety, by ordering the emperor to be ispatdied. Thus Tiberius died, in the seventy-eighth :ar of his age, and twenty-Second of his reign. Ca!i''ula. Caligula at first conducted himself with great mode- ration. He refused to listen to an account of a conspi- racy which was alleged to have been formed against him, saying that having done nothing to deserve any CALIGULA. 61 man's hatred, he was not afraid of any man. He set about reforming the abuses of the state, and restored to the people their ancient right of electing he endeavoured, too, to correct tiie prevailing corruption of manners, not only by punishing vice, but by bestowing rewards on virtuous conduct. But tin's seemingly excellent behaviour was m> cloak, under which he concealed the wickedne.-s of his mind. In less than a year he threw it olK and gave a loose to his covetousness, lust, and cruelty. His barba- rities were committed in mere sport and wantonness. Having been sick, and hearing that a person had di himself to death in case he should recover, he compelled the fulfilment of his vow, by ordering him to be thrown over the ramparts. The emperor's father-in-law was put to death on some slight suspicion : and Grec: eminent senator, shared his fati 1 , tor refusing to <_ r ive false testimony against him. Crowds were tin:.- sacrificed to his suspicions, and his mere love of cruelty. His luxury and prodigality were unexampled. lie ex- ercised his ingenuity in inventing the most expensive dishes : and, to make them more costly, had jeu > solved among the sauces. He sometimes employed himself, for days together, in scattering money the people. He had large ships built of cedar, inlaid i\d and precious stones, and with silken sails; in these he used to coast along the shore of Campania, d by the ministers of his luxuries. In the midst ofthe.se entertainments he amused himself by throwing many of his attendants into the sea. On one oc he ordered several vessels, filled with spectators, to be attacked and sunk ; many were drowned, and some, who endeavoured to escape, were struck down by the emperor's command. By his unheard-of pr ; 'aligula, having squan dered a sum equal to 18,000,000i sterling, amassed by Tiberius, totally exhausted his treasures. To supply the means of his profusion, he now extorted money from his subjects in every way he could devise. Taxes were laid upon everything, even to the wages of the poorest 6 62 CALIGULA. tradesman. He kept a gamine-house, of which he re- ceived the profits. On one occasion, having had a run of ill luck, he happened to observe two rich knights passing by, on which he suddenly rose up, and ordered their estates to be confiscated. Then, joining his com- panions, he told them he had never made a better throw in his life. On another occasion, being in want of money for a stake, he went out, and ordered several no- blemen to be put to death ; and, on his return, told the company that they sat playing for trifles, while he had won sixty thousand sesterces* at a cast In the third year of his reign, Caligula undertook an expedition against the Britons and the Germans, in which he acted in a manner that can be accounted for only on the supposition of his having been insane, lie sometimes hurried on so fast, that the troops were obliged to leave their standards and baggage behind : at other times, lie moved with the slowness of a religious proces- sion. Instead of marching into Germany, he led his troops to the sea-shore in Eatavia : and there, drawing up the army in order of battle, and causing the warlike instruments to sound, he made his men gather shells in their helmets. He then made them a speech, extolling their exploits, and erected a lofty tower as a trophy of his victory. This dreadful career of folly and wickedness was short. A conspiracy 1 against Caligula was formed, chiefly by Cherea, an officer of the guards, whom the emperor was in the habit of insulting, because he had an effeminate voice. The conspirators seized the opportu- nity of the emperor going to the bath. As he was en- tering, Cherea struck him to the ground, crying, " Ty- rant, think on this !" the rest of the conspirators rushed in; and, while the emperor continued struggling, and crying that he was not yet dead, they despatched him with their swords. He was in the twenty-ninth year of his age, and had reigned nearly three years. As the conspirators had made no provision for ap- Nearly 500,0001. sterling. CLAUDIUS. 63 pointing a successor, Caligula's death produced great confusion. A number of the conspirators were cut to pieces by the.&oldiers ; who, having discovered Claudius, the emperor's uncle, in a secret place where he had hid himself, suddenly resolved to make him emperor. They carried him on their shoulders to the camp, where they proclaimed him; and his appointment was confirmed by the senate, who had no power to oppose it. Chorea, and some others of the conspirators, were immediately seized and put to death. Claudiuf. Claudius was fifty years of age when he began to reign. He had been subject to diseases which had weakened both his body and mind. His conduct, at first, however, showed good sense and good intentions. He was diligent in dispensing justice ; and sometimes displayed considerable acuteness in doing so ; as when, on one occasion, he obliged a woman to acknowledge a son whom she had disowned, by decreeing that she should marry him. He was attentive to the supply of the city with provisions ; and constructed an aqueduct of wonderful magnitude, which brought water from forty miles distance. He also made a magnificent har- fit CLAUDIUS. hour at Ostia, in the mouth of the Tiber. He acted, too, with vigour, in defending the extremities of the empire ; and undertook, personally, an expedition into Britain. But Claudius was unable to act steadily for himself, ami soon gave himself up to the influence of wicked favourites. His chief adviser was his wife ' i abandoned to every vice. He allowed her and sociates to commit, in his name, the most atro- cious acts of cruelty and' rapacity ; and th suspicions to which he became a prey, soon made him act in the same way himself. He grew more and more bloodthirsty ; and the use of torture became his chief enjoyment. Such, at the same time was his ii bility, that he would frequently invite to supper persons whom lie had put to death but the day before. No less than thirty-live senators, and three hundred knights, xecuted during }ij s reiirn. .Mi'ssalina, meanwhile, relying on the emperor's weak- ness of mind, set no bounds to her wickedness. Having quarrelled, however, with one of her companions in vice, he informed the emperor of circumstances which roused even his insensibility, and filled him with fears for his own safety. He ordered Messalina and her infamous companions to be seized and put to death. He was feasting when informed that she was dead ; but conti- nued at table with the utrtlbst composure, and next day while at dinner, inquired what was the cause of her ab- sence. Soon afterwards, Claudius married Agrippina, the daughter of his brother Germanicus, a woman not less vicious than Messalina had been. Her chief object was to secure the succession to her own son, Nero, by her former husband, Domitius Ahenobarbus, to the exclusion of Britannicus, son of the emperor and Messalina. For this purpose she married Nero to the emperor's daugh- ter, Octavia, and caused the emperor to adopt him as his son. The violent and domineering temper of Aimp- pina became intolerable to Claudius; and he having on some occasion expressed his feelings in a manner that NERO. 65 alarmed her for her own safety, she determined to se- cure herself by his death, and caused poison to be given him in a dish of mushrooms. He died in the year 54 of the Christian era. I X. NERO. NERO, by the influence of his mother, was immediately proclaimed emperor, to the exclusion of Britannicus. lie was seventeen years of age, and his former charac- ter was good. The beginning of his reign gained for him the love of his subjects. He appeared to be just, humane, and liberal. When a warrant for the <. tion of a criminal was brought to him to be signed, he used to exclaim, li Would to heaven that I had never learned to write !" The senate having paid him some/ compliments on his conduct, he replied with seeming modesty, " that they should defer their thanks till he had deserved them.'' In this manner Nero conducted himself for five years. All this while he restrained his natural disposition, for 6* 66 NERO. the purpose of establishing his power. His first crime was the murder of Britannicus, the son of the late em- peror, and the true heir to the crown. This young man, by his orders, was poisoned at a banquet. After this, the emperor soon threw off all restraint, and showed himself iin his real colours. He gave himself up to the most profligate indulgences ; and divorced his wife Octavia. in order to marry Poppea, the wife of one of his favourites,' a woman of a very vicious character. Poppea used all her arts to excite the emperor's hatred of his mother, and persuaded him to put her to death. He tirst endea- voured to have her poisoned, but this failing, he had her invited on board a ship, so contrived as to fall to pieces in the water. This plot also taileii. as she was taken out of the water by a trading vessel tisut happened to be passing. Nero, thus disappointed in his horrid schemes, determined to put her to death openly. He caused a report to be spread that she had conspired against his life ; and, under this pretence, sent a party of soldiers to despatch her. Next day he defended his conduct in the senate, who were so sunk in meanness as to applaud him for it While Nero gave a loose to the cruelty of his disposi- tion, he showed great fondness for all sorts of amuse- ment Chariot-driving was one of his favourite pursuits. He used to exhibit his skill at the public chariot races in the circus, greedily listening to the shouts of the peo- ple. He was fond of music, and believed himself to be a fine singer. He attempted also to write poetry, and was very vain of his productions. He made a journey through different parts of the empire, for the purpose of displaying his talents. Wherever he went, he per- formed at the public theatres. While he was on the stage, nobody was permitted to leave the theatre. Sol- diers were stationed in different places to make the audience applaud. An old senator named Vespasian (who was afterwards emperor), happening to fall asleep on one of these occasions, narrowly escaped with his life. In the eleventh year of his reign, a great part of NERO. 67 Rome was consumed by fire. It raged for six days : and a great number of the inhabitants perished, in their attempts to save their property from the flames, which spread with surprising rapidity. Many men were seen preventing, by threats, those who attempted to stop the tire ; and even throwing firebrands into the houses, loudly declaring that they had orders to do so. Scarcely had this lire ceased, than a new one broke out in certain buildings belonging to Tigellinus, a favourite of the emperor. While the flames raged, Xero appeared on the stage in his palace, singing the destruction of Troy. Nero himself was generally suspected to have caused this fire, from the desire, it was said, of having the glory of building a new city, and calling it by his name. He immediately set about the rebuilding it according to a regular plan ; and the city, as now restored, became more beautiful than before. He endeavoured to remove from himself the odium of this deed, by accusing the Christians, who were by this time numerous in Rome, of having committed it ; and, in consequence of this false charge, they were subjected to a barbarous persecution. Great opposition was, indeed, often made by the heathen emperors of Rome to the infant church of Christ ; but our holy religion, being derived from God, was sustained by his Almighty power, and thus was made to triumph in the end over that violence, cruelty, and persecution, which must otherwise have driven it from the world. The emperor's tyranny produced a conspiracy against him, formed by Piso, one of the most distinguished men in Rome. It was discovered before it was ripe for exe- cution ; and a great number of eminent persons, cither concerned in it, or suspected of being so, were put to death. Among them, the most remarkable were Seneca, the celebrated philosopher, who had been Nero's tutor, and Lucan the poet, who was Seneca's nephew. Bodies of soldiers were sent through the surrounding country in search of those who were accused. Crowds of pri- soners, loaded with chains, \vere daily brought to the palace-gate to receive their sentence from Nero's own mouth. He presided in person at the torture and at executions; and appeared to delight in the agony and death of his victims. The empress Poppea did not his fury. She died of a miscarriage, caused by his having kicked her in a fit of savage fury. While the Romans were thus enslaved ami wretched at home, they carried on some successful wars abroad. The inhabitants of Britain having endeavoured, under their queen Boadicea, to free themselves, were so com- pletely subdued, that they never again made an attempt to revolt, so long as the Romans remained amoiii' Many victories were gained over the Parthians: and Tiridates, king of Armenia, who had been the Parthians, was compelled to go to Rome, and make a complete submission to the emperor. Revolts now broke out in different quarters. The first appeared in Gaul, under Julius Vindex, who commanded the troops there. He publicly protested against the tyrannical government of Nero; proclaimed Seririus Galba emperor, and invited him to join in dethroning the tyrant. Galba, at that time governor of Spain, was a man who had greatly distinguished himself both in peace and war. He was now an old man ; and had long desired to live in obscurity, in order to avoid the cions and jealousy of the emperor. After some hesita- tion, he joined Vindex. When Nero heard of this event, he was at supper. Struck with terror, he overturned the table with his toot, and fainted. On recovering his senses, he struck his head and tore his clothes, crying that he was utterly undone. He next began to meditate the wildest schemes of vengeance and destruction. He thought of murder- ing all the Gauls in Rome, of putting to death all the governors of the provinces, of poisoning the senate, burning the city, and letting loose the wild beasts upon the people. These furious thoughts were mixed with the most trifling cares. He was anxious to provide wagons for the carriage of his musical instruments ; and 1 up a number of the profligate women who sur- rounded him, in military attire, in order to meet the enemy. His despair became actual madness. DEATH OF NERO. 69 In the meantime, the troops in Germany, Africa, and Lusitania, as well as the armies in Spain and Gaul, de- clared against Nero : and the whole empire was soon in a state ot' revolt. The praetorian guards left the palace, and proclaimed Galba emperor. Nero sent for his friends; but every friend had forsaken him. He went himself from house to house in search of them ; but all had disappeared. His servants followed the example, and. after plunder- ing his apartments, made their escape. In his despera- tkn, he tlesired that one of his favourite gladiators might corne and kill him; but' no one complying with his request, he cried, "Alas ! have I neither friend nor enemy !" He then asked for a hiding-place ; and Phaon, one of his attendants, offered him his house at a short distance from the city. Nero, halt-dressed, and with his face covered, set out for his place of conceal- ment, attended by four servants who had remained with him. He heard the confused shouts of the people, and cries of the soldiers. A passenger, meeting him on the way. cried, " There go men in pursuit of Nero." An- other asked him if there was any news of Nero in the city. His horse takinuld now resist, resolved to sell the empire to the highest bidder. It was purchased by Didius Julianus, a lawyer of immense wealth, for a sum equal to about a million of pounds ster- ling. The senate was obliged to confirm the choice of the soldiers. Didius wishing to enjoy what he had bought at so large a price, gave himself up to sloth and luxury, and made himself contemptible both to the sol- diers and the people. Whenever he appeared in public, he was received with outcries and abuse ; the people (84) SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS. CARACALLA. 85 calling out that he was a thief and had stolen the empire. The aiiltirs of the empire went into confusion : Niger, the governor of Syria, and Severus, commander of the army in Germany, threw oft' his authority, and endeavoured to obtain the sovereignty lor themselves. Niger trifle.! away his tune in his province; but Severns inarched directly to Rome. On hearing of the approach of Severus, the senate and people openly declared agains-t the emperor. The 'Teed, that Juliunus should be deposed, * and put to death, and that Severns should be proclaimed emperor : and this sentence was immediately executed. Septimius Severus was an African by birth, and in the forty-seventh year of his age when he was made empe- ror. He immediately marched against his rival. Niger, whom he defeated in a great battle upon the plains of Issns, the spot where Alexander the Great had formerly conquered Darius, king of Persia. Niger was taken prisoner, and put to death. Severus then subdued the Persians, Parthians, and other nations who had taken up arms, on pretence of supporting the cause of Niger, and established peace in the eastern part of the empire. Severus afterwards undertook an expedition into Britain, where the Roman power was in danger of being destroyed. He attacked the Caledonians, the inhabit- ants of the northern part of the island ; and, after a de- structive warfare, in which he is said to have lost .~iO,000 men by fatigue and sickness, he forced them to beg for pe'ace, and surrender a considerable part of their country. He then built the famous wall across the island, from the river Tyne on the east to the Sol way Firth on the west, to prevent the inroads of the northern barbarians. He afterwards retired to York, where he died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and eighteenth of his reign. Severns governed the empire with vigour and pru- dence : his disposition was warlike, but he was cunning and faithless, and committed many acts of cruelty. Severus was succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta, who were jointly proclaimed emperors. Caracalla was fierce and cruel, while Geta was of a gentle dispo- sition. Caracalla soon afterwards, by the murder of his 8 86 ALEXANDER SEVERVS. brother, obtained the sole power, and proved a detestable tyrant Relying entirely on the support of the soldiers, upon whom he bestowed immense suing, extorted from the people, he disregarded the public hatred. He was at last murdered by Macrinus, one of his officers, in the sixth year of his reign. Macrinus was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers ; but, being displeased by the rigour of his discipline, they revolted, and set up against him Heliogabalus, a natural son of Caracalla. Macriuus was put to death, and Heliogabalus became emperor, at the age of four- teen. Notwithstanding his 'early age, Heliogabalus (or Elagabalus) was a monster of gluttony, lust, prodigality, and cruelty. His reign was a succession of infamous actions; till he was murdered by the soldiers in his eighteenth year. Heliogabalus was succeeded by his cousin, Alexander Severus, a youth of seventeen years of age. He dis- played the wisdom and virtues of a riper age; and his government was prosperous, both at home and abroad. He was strict, yet merciful, in dispensing justice. He extended his clemency even to the Christians ; and, not- withstanding the unfavourable light in which they were then regarded, would not permit them to be persecuted, or treated with injustice A contest having arisen be- GALLIENUS. 87 t\veen them and a company of tavern-keepers, respecting 1 a piece of ground, which the one party claimed as a place for worship, and the other for the erection of houses of entertainment, he decided the dispute in favour of the Christians, saying', ' It is better that God should be wor- shipped there in any manner, than that the place should be employed for the purpose of riot and drunkenness." He was successful in defending the extremities of the empire, which were now frequently attacked on every side. These virtues, however, could not save him from the lawless violence of the soldiers, who revolted, and murdered him, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, and thirteenth of his reign. Maximinus, the mover of the revolt, was (as had now become usual) proclaimed emperor. He was a man of great stature and extraordinary strength, and had risen Irom the lowest rank in the army by his merit as a sol- dier. After he became ernperor, he continued todisplay his military talents by reducing the Germans to subjec- tion, but his government was cruel and tyrannical ; and after several unsuccessful revolts, he was slain, in a mutiny of his soldiers, in the third year of his reign. Maximinus was succeeded by Gordian, Gordian by Phillip, and Phillip by Decius. Of these emperors it is sufficient to say, that each of them, after a short reign, was murdered by his soldiers, to make way for his suc- cessor. Decius, who succeeded in the year 248, was slain in a battle with the Goths, and w y as succeeded by Gallus, who died after an unhappy reign of about two years, and was succeeded by Valerian. The empire was now in a deplorable state. It was attacked on every side by the Goths and other surround- ing nations. Valerian, though seventy years of age, made a vigorous attempt to resist the Persians, who had invaded Syria. He was defeated and taken prisoner ; and, after being treated with the utmost indignity by Sapor, the Persian king, he was cruelly put to death. Valerian was succeeded by his son Gallienus. He was a man of infamous character ; and so much was the 88 PROBVS. distracted state of the empire increased by the hatred with which lie was regarded, that at one time no less than nineteen individuals revolted in di!ll-n:r,t provinces, and made pretensions to the crown. Several of those were men distinguished for ability and virtue, who were forced into this measure against their will. " You have id Sat iirnimis, one of their numlvr, to the ^Idiers, who were proclaiming him, "a very useful commander. and made a very wretched emperor!" The whole of these men perished by violent deaths; and Gallienus himself was murdered by Martian, one of his generals, and succeeded by Flavius Claudius. Claudius, by his vigour and activity, did a great deal towards retrieving the affairs of the empire. An im- mense swarm of barbarians, said to have amounted to 300,000, having descended the Danube. devas- tation whenever they came, he marc!; : them, and cut them to pieces. He was eqi against the revolted Germans; but, in the middle of this victorious career, he died, in the second year of his reign. On the death of Claudius, the army chose as his suc- cessor, Aurelian, who was esteemed the ablest com- mander of his time. He.jvas equally successful as his predecessor had been in subduing the foreign enemies of the empire ; but his severity was the cause of his death. His secretary, who had been threatened with punishment for some fault, stirred up a conspiracy, in which the emperor was murdered, after a reign of about five years. Aurelian was succeeded by Tacitus, a man of merit, who died in about six months. His brother Probus, who was his successor, was distinguished for his military talents, and his successes in war. He subdued almost all the enemies of Rome, and overcame several pre- tenders to the empire; but was killed, in a mutiny of his soldiers, in the seventh year of his reign. XV. CARUS. DIOCLESIAN. CONSTANT-INK. ESTAB- LIMIMENT OF CHRISTIANITY. CONSTANTINO'S Sir- M)RS. JULIAN THE APOSTATE. YAM:M:M\N AND VALEXS. DIVISION INTO THE WESTERN AND K \STEKX EMPIRES. REIGNS OF THE LAST Li.MI'E- ROUS OF THE WEST. FALL OF THE EMPIRE. CARIS, the commander of the praetorian cnanls, was chosen by the army as the successor of Probns. ' lie joined his two sons, Carinus and Ntimerianus, along with him in the government. He died after a very short reign ; and his two sons were both killed by the mutinous soldiery. Diocletian, who next assumed the government, had a long and prosperous reign. He repeatedly defeated the barbarous nations who surrounded the Roman empire, and for a time restrained their inroads. During his reign the Christians suffered their last great p tion, which exceeded all the former in severity. Dio- clesian, soon after his accession, made his general Max- imian his partner in the government ; and after he had reigned twenty years, the world was surprised by both himself and his partner laying down the government at the same time. During the obscure and short reigns of several suc- ceeding emperors, the history of Rome presents little that is worthy of notice, till the accession of Constan- tine, the first Christian emperor, which took place in the year 306. Constantino succeeded his father Constantino, who died in Britain. Maxentius, a person of low extraction, but much favoured by the soldiers, having pretended to the throne, Constantine marched against him at the head of an army, and during this expedition, made a public profession of Christianity. Maxentius was defeited and killed; and Constantine afterwards overcame Liciniiis, a general who had assumed the government in the east- 8 * t*=9) 90 CONST ANTICS. Const an tine tin 1 <;iviit. ern part of the empire. Having thus obtained undis- puted power, Constantino established the Christian reli- gion throughout all his dominions. Scon afterwards, (Vn.-tantine removed the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, the name of which he changed to Constantinople. Constantino died in the year ;i37, after a reign of thirty-two years. After his death, his three sons were proclaimed joint emperors. In consequence of their disagreements with each other, and of the appearance of several pretenders to the crown, the empire was fora number of years wasted by civil wars, till at last Con- stantius, one of the sons of Constantino, remained its eole master. Constunthis. During these divisions, the Germans and other bar- barous nations, had ravaged different provinces of the DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. 91 empire. Constantius, not thinking it safe to leave Italy himself, for the purpose of opposing them, raised his cousin Julian to the dignity of Caesar,* and sent him against the barbarians who had invaded Gaul. Julian drove the invaders out of that province; and, following them into Germany, compelled them to sue for peace. The Persians having begun hostilities, Constantino himself marched against them ; and Julian, taking ad- vantage of his absence, had himself proclaimed emperor. Constantius, giving up his expedition against the Per- sians, marched against the usurper, but died before he reached him. Julian now assumed the imperial dignity without op- position. He had been educated in the Christian reli- gion, but had abandoned it secretly some time before, He now openly avowed his paganism, and caused the temples of the heathen gods to be again opened. From this act he is called the Apostate. He afterwards marched against the Persians, and penetrated into their country ; but, after raftering great losses, he was compelled to begin a retreat, during which he was killed in a skirmish, in the year 363, after a reign of twenty months. Julian was succeeded by Jovian, who concluded a peace with the Persians. He restored the public profes- sion of the Christian religion, and revoked all the laws against it made by Julian. He died suddenly, after a reien of only seven months. Vaientinian, being now chosen emperor, made his bro- ther Valens his partner in the sovereignty, and separa- ted the empire into tv.o great divisions. The Western Empire, with Rome for its capital, he retained to him- self: giving to Valens the Eastern Empire of which the capital was Constantinople. Vaientinian was employed during his whole reign in * Caesar was the title given by the emperors to the persons whom they adopted as their successors, with royal authority subordinate to their own. 92 HONORIUS JLXD ARCADIVS. repelling the inroads of the barbarians, which were now unceasing. He died in the year 375, in the twelfth year of his reign, and was succeeded by his son Gratian. Soon afterwards, Gratian, by the death of Valens, the eastern emperor, became master of the whole empire. He took Theodoeiua as his partner, and committed to him the government of the eastern provinces. The empire was now attadted by the Goths and other barba- rous nations, and Theodosius, though he was an able commander, could not prevent a number of provinces from falling into the hands of those barbarians. In 3S3, a military commander of the name of Maxi- mus, revolted against Gratian, and having got him into his power, put him to death. The usurper was soon overcome and executed by Theodosius. '.osiusdied in 395, after a reign of sixteen years : having again divided the government, by appointing his son Honorius emperor of the west, and bequeathing the eastern empire to Arcadius. The western empire now fell rapidly into decay. Im- mediately on the death of Theodosius, the Goths, under their celebrated king, Alaric, invaded Italy. Honorius was weak and timid ; but his general, Stilicho, a brave and able commander, defeated the invaders and drove them out of Italy. Immediately after this deliverance, another immense swarm of barbarians, from the countries adjoining the Baltic Sea, poured into Italy, under a king called Rho- dogast, or Radagaisus. This multitude, consisting of not less than 200,000 fighting men, besides women and children, having crossed without resistance, the Alps, the river Po, and the Appenines, and ravaged and destroyed many cities, laid siege to Florence. Here, however, they were attacked by Stilicho, and totally destroyed ; and their chief, being taken prisoner, was put to death. Stilicho was thus a second time the de- liverer of Italy. Notwithstanding these signal services, Stilicho fell a victim to the jealousy of the emperor, who appears to have feared the great powers and abilities of his vie- MAXIMUS. 93 torious general. On some charges of treasonable con- duct Sli.iciio was put to death ; and his family and friends perished along \\ ith him. Alaric again invaue.l Italy ; and having taken Rome, delivered it up to his soldiers to be plundt red, \viio set it on fire in different places, and murdered a great number of tlie inhabit-.uit>; atler which he left Italy. '. Honorius still in possession of the throne. This em- peror died in 423, after an unhappy reign of twenty- eight \ Honorus was succeeded by his nephew Valentinian, who was .-carcely seated on the throne, when the empire was invaded by the Huns, under the famous king Attila. They were vigorously resisted, and driven back by the Roman general Aetius : but this able commander was soon after murdered by Valentinian with his own hand, in consequence of a suspicion that he aspired to the empire. Vnlentinian was killed by a senator named Maximus, whose wife he had violated. Maximus seized the empire, and forced the emperors widow, Eudoxia, to marry him. Eudoxia, in revenge for this treatment, invited Genserir. king of the Vandals, to invade Italy. Genseric entered Italy with an army ; on his appearance before the gates of Rome, a tumult took place in the city, in which Maximus was slain ; and Genseric ent'-ivd it, without any opposition, plundered it of every- thing the soldiers of Alaric had spared, and returned with the spoils to Carthage, from whence he had come. After the death of Maximus, Avitus, whn had com- manded the forces in Gaul, was raise J to the throne by Theodoric, king of the Goths, who. in the character of an ally of the Romans, had acquired an irresistible con- trol in the affairs of the empire. After a short and con- temptible reign, Avitus was depos*'.] by < Vunt Ricimer, a Goth, one of the principal commanders of the barba- rian troops, who now formed the military defence of Italy. During the vacancy thus produced, Ricimer go- verned Italy under the title of patrician; but at last consented to the wish of the Romans, that Majorian should be made emporor. 94 ANTHEMIUS. Majorian, who was chosen emperor in the ycai 459, was possessed of qualities which, in more prosperous times, would have made him a great monarch. He defeated the Vandals, and drove them out of Italy ; and he determined to attack them in their settlements on the coast of Africa. For this purpose he fitted out a fleet, which was surprised and burnt by the enemy ; and Ricimer, who was now jealous of his great talents and increasing power, made this misfortune a pretext tor stirring up a sedition against him, in which he was slain. The government again fell into the hands of Ricimer ; who, though he refused the title of emperor or king, ruled with nbsolute power. During what may be called his reiirn, the kingdom of Italy, a name to which the western empire was gradually reduced, was afflicted by the incessant invasions of the Vandals, who every year sent out a formidable fleet from the port of Carthage and made de.-ri'nts. not only on Italy, but on all the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea. Ricimer, re- duced to the greatest ditliculties, by these constant attacks, was at length obliged to apply for assistance to the Emperor Leo. who then governed the eastern em- pire, and to agree that Italy should receive an emperor chosen by that monarch. Leo invested Anthemius, one of the most distin- guished of his subjects, with the dignity of emperor of the West; and the appointment of Anthemius was fol- lowed by the marriage of his daughter with Ricimer. But discord soon arose between the emperor and the pow- erful patrician. Ricimer, who could not brook a supe- rior, retired from Rome, and fixed his residence at Milan, and Italy was gradually divided into two independent kingdoms. Open war soon broke out between these rivals. Ricimer marched to Rome, and, after a siege of three months, took the city by assault; Anthemius was murdered, and the city given up to be plundered by the barbarians. The events of the concluding years of the western empire arc indistinctly recorded by historians. On the EXTINCTION OF THE EMPIRE. HQ death of Anthemius, Olybrius was raised to the empire. He died soon after his accession: and the throne was usurped by Glycerins, on whose deposition. Julius Nepos succeeded. Julius Xepos. in a lew months, \vas deposed by his general, Orestes, who caused his son Augustulus to be proclaimed emperor, in the year 475. In the Jbllowinar year, the barbarians who served in the Roman armies, demanded, as a reward for their ser- vices, the third part of the lands in Italy. This being 1 refused by Orestes, who administered the government (his soa being a mere boy), the barbarians revolteJ. and placing at their head a man named Odoacer (a private soldier of the guards, but possessed of uncommon abili- ties), marched against Orestes and Augustulus. The emperor and his father took refuge in Pavia ; but Odoa- cer, having assaulted anurp:ition a dreadful fire happened at Constantinople, winch con- sumed great part of the city, with the library, contain- ing 1-20,000 volumes. The misfortunes which Zeno had undergone did not work any reformation upon him. He still continued the same vicious courses which had given oec ision to the usurpation of Basiliscus. Other conspiracies were formed against him, but he had the good fortune to escape them. He engaged in a war with the Ostro- (96) JUSTIN. ' 97 goths, in which he proved unsuccessful, and was obliged to yield the provinces of Lower Dacia and Mecsia to them. In a short time, however, Theodoric their king made an irruption into Thrace, and advanced within fifteen miles of Constantinople, with a design to besiege that capital: but the following year, 485, they retired in order to attack (Xioacer, King- of Italy; of which country Theodoric was proclaimed king in 493. The Emperor Zeno died in the year 491, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and seventeenth of his reign. The Roman empire had now for a long time been on the decline : the ancient valour and military disci- pline which had for such a long time rendered the Ro- mans superior to other nations, had greatly degene- rated ; so that they were now by no means so power- ful as formerly. The tumults and disorders which had happened in the empire from time to time by the many usurpations, had contributed also to weaken it very much. But what proved of the greatest detriment was the allowing vast swarms of barbarians to settle in the different provinces, and to serve in the Roman empire in separate and independent bodies. This had proved the immediate causa of the dissolution of the western empire ; but as it affected the eastern parts less, the Constantinopolitan empire continued lor up- wards of nine hundred years after the western one was totally dissolved. The weak and imprudent adminis- tration of Zeno, and Anastasius who succeeded him, had reduced the eastern empire still more; and it might possibly have expired in a short time after the we.- tern one, had not the wise and vigorous conduct of Justin, and his partner Justinian, revived in some measure the ancient martial spirit which had origi- nally raised the Roman empire to its highest pitch of grandeur. Justin ascended the throne in 518. In 521 he en- gaged in a war with the Persians, who had all along been very formidable enemies to the Roman name. Against them he employed the famous Belisarius; but of him we hear nothing remarkable till after theacces- 9 98 JUSTINIAN. sion of Justinian. This prince was the nephew of Justin, and was by him taken as his partner in the empire in 527; and the same year Justin died, in the seventy- seventh year of his age and ninth of his reign. Justinian being now sole master of the empire, bent his whole force against the Persians. The latter proved success- ful in the first engagement ; but were soon after utterly defeated at Dara. They advanced against that place, which was defended by Belisarius, with only 25,000 men ; and so confident were they of success, that the Persian general issued a proclamation signifying the day and the hour on which the citizens should prepare a buth for his refreshment after the toils of victory. The two armies met in the open plain, in front of the town. At first the Roman centre was shaken ; but Belisarius, by a rapid charge, captured the Persian standard, and compelled the enemy to fly, leaving 8000 of their companions dead on the field of battle. In the next campaign, the Persians were pursued from post to post, and Belisarius would have driven them out of Syria, without any opposition, had not the Arabs in the Roman army deserted, and left the Romans, thus greatly reduced in numbers, to withstand the attacks of innumerable hosts. They were defended, however, by their heroic and persevering courage ; Belisarius, himself, dismounting from his horse and fighting at their head on foot, showed them that intrepidity was their only safety. After a conflict of many hours, the Persians withdrew and embarked in silence, under the cover of night. The war continued with various success during the first five years of Justinian's reign. In the sixth year a peace was concluded upon the following terms : 1 That the Roman emperor should pay to Chosroes, the King of Persia, 1000 pounds weight of gold. 2. That both princes should restore the places they had taken during the wars. 3. That the commander of the Ro- man forces should no longer reside at Dara on the Persian frontiers, but at a place called Constantina in Mesopotamia, as he had formerly done. 4. That the TUMULT AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 99 Iberians, who had sided with the Romans, should be at liberty to return to their own country or stay at Constan- tinople. This peace, concluded in 532, was styled eternal ; but in the event proved of very short duration. About this time happened at Constantinople the greatest tumult mentioned in history. It began among the different factions in the circus, but ended in an opentebellion. The multitude, highly dissatisfied with the conduct of John, the prefectus prectorio, and of Trebonianus, thenquestor, forced Hypatius, nephew to the Emperor Anastasius, to accept the empire, and pro- claimed him with great solemnity in the forum. As the two above-mentioned ministers were greatly ab- horred by tbe populace on account of their avarice, Justinian immediately discharged them, hoping by that means to appease the tumult : but this was so far from answering the purpose, that the multitude only grew the more outrageous upon it ; and most of the senators joining them, the emperor was so much alarmed, that he had thoughts of abandoning the city and making his escape by sea. In this dilemma the Empress Theodora encouraged and persuaded him rather to part with his life than the kingdom ; and he at last resolved to defend himself to the utmost, with the few senators who had not yet abandoned him. In the mean time, the rebels having attempted in vain to force the gates of the palace, carried Hypatius in triumph to the circus; where, while he was beholding the sports from the imperial throne, amidst the shouts and acclamations of the peo- ple, Belisarius, who had been recalled from Persia, entered the city with a considerable body of troops. Being then apprised of the usurpation of Hypatius, he marched straight to the circus ; fell sword in hand upon the disarmed multitude; and with the assistance of a band of Heruli, headed by Mundus, Governor of Illyricum, cut about 30,000 of them in pieces. Hypa- tius, the usurper, and Pompeius, another of the nephews of Anastasius, were taken prisoners and carried to the emperor, by whose orders they were both beheaded, 100 TRIUMPH OF BELISARIUS. and their bodies cast into the sea. Their estates were confiscated, and likewise the estates of such senators as had joined with them ; but the emperor caused great part of their lands and effects to be afterwards re- stored, together with their honours and dignities, to their children. Justinian having now no other enemy to contend with, turned his arms against the Vandals in Africa. His general, Belisai ius, completely subdued the Van- dals, and captured their capital, Carthage ; and soon after the surrounding country submitted to his arms; and the more distant provinces were successively sub- dued by the terror of his name and the report of his great success. Tripoli voluntarily offered her alle- giance; Sardinia and Corsica surrendered; and the islands of Majorca, Minorca, and Yvica, acknowledged their dependence on the kingdom of Africa. Belisarius returned to Constantinople in 534, and was the first general who, in that city, obtained the honours of a triumph. From the palace of Belisariu?, the procession was conducted through the principal streets to the hippo- drome. The wealth of nations was displayed, and the trophies of martial or effeminate luxury, rich armour, golden thrones, and the chariots of state which had been used by the Vandal queen. Then followed the massive furniture of the royal palace, precious stones of great splendour, statues and vases of the most elegant forms, the more substantial treasure of gold, and the holy vessels of the Jewish temple, which were finally deposited in the Christian church of Jerusalem. A long train of the noblest Vandals reluctantly advanced, gracing the triumph by their lofty stature and manly countenances. Gelimer, their king, slowly advanced; he was clad in a purple robe, and still maintained the majesty of a king. Not a tear escaped from his eyes, not a sigh was heard ; but his pride or piety derived some secret consolation from the words of Solomon, which he frequently repeated, Vanity ! vanity ! all is vanity. Belisarius marched on foot at the head of his TRIUMPH OF EELISARR'3. 101 Triumph of IMisarius. army; and Ihc procession entering the gate of the hippodrome, was saluted by the acclamations of the senate and people, and halted before the throne, where- on Justinian and Theodora were seated to receive the homage of the captive king and the victorious hero. With a little violence, Gelimer was persuaded to per- form the customary adoration, by falling prostrate before the throne, and respectfully touching the foot- stool of the emperor. At another triumphal procession on the same day Belisarius was borne on the shoulders of African slaves through the streets, scattering 1 coins, rich belts, and golden cups among the people. Beli- sarius was rewarded with the consulship for the ensu- ing year. In 537, Belisarius was sent by Justinian against the Goths in Italy. He soon reduced Naples, Apulia, and 102 INVASION OF THE GOTHS. Calabria; and when he approached the city of Rome, % the gates were thrown open to him by the people, who exclaimed that the apostolic throne, and the tombs of the Cffisars, should no longer be violated by the barba- rians of the north. They fondly hailed the restoration 'of a Roman emperor, as a new era of freedom and prosperity ; but they trembled, when they heard that the Goths intended to besiege their city, and that Belisarius had resolved to defend the place to the last extremity. Vitiges, the Gothic king of Italy, did not spend the winter in inaction. From their rustic habitations, from their distant garrisons, the Goths assembled at Ravenna for the defence of their country ; and such were their numbers, that after an army had been de- tached for the reJief of Dalmatia, one hundred and fifty thousand fighting men marched under the royal stand- ard. According to the degrees of rank or merit, the Gothic King distributed arms and horses, rich gifts and liberal promises. He moved along the Flaminian way, declined the useless sieges of Perusia and Spoleto, re- spected the impregnable rock of Narni, and arrived within two miles of Rome, at the foot of the Milvian bridge. That narrow passage was fortified by a tower, and Belisarius had computed the value of the twenty days which must be lost by ihe Goths in the construction of another bridge. But the consternation of the sol- diers of the tower, who either fled or deserted, dis- appointed his hopes, and botrayed his person, into the most imminent danger. At the head of one thousand horse, the Roman general sallied from the Flaminian gate to mark the ground of an advantageous position, and to survey the camp of the barbarians ; while he still believed them on the other side of the Tiber, he was suddenly encompassed and assaulted by their in- numerable squadrons. The fate of Italy depended on his life : and the deserters pointed to the conspicuous horse, a bay with a white face which he rode on that memorable day. "Aim at the bay horse," was the SIEGE OF ROME. 103 universal cry. Every bow was bent, every javelin was directed, against that fatal object, and the com- mand was repeated and i 'beyed by thousands who were ignorant of its real motive. The bolder barbarians advanced to the more honorable combat of swords and spears ; and the praise of an enemy has graced the fall of Visandus, the standard-bearer, who maintained his foremost station, till he was pierced with thirteen wounds, perhaps by the hand of Belisarius himself. The Roman general was strong, active, and dexterous. On every side he discharged his weighty and mortal strokes. His faithful guards imitated his valor and defended his person ; and the Goths, after the loss of a thousand men, fled before the arms of a hero. They were rashly pursued to their camp; and the Romans oppressed by multitudes, made a gradual, and at length a precipitate retreat to the gates of the city. The gates were shut against the fugitives ; and the public terror was increased by the report that Belisarius was slain. His countenance was indeed disfigured by sweat, dust, and blood ; his voice was hoa.r?e ; his strength was almost exhausted ; but his unconquerable spirit still remained. He imparted that spirit to his desponding companions, and their last desperate charge was felt by the living barbarians as if a new army, vigorous and entire, had been poured from the city. The Flaminian gate \vas thrown open to a real triumph on the return of the general ; but it was not till Beli- sarius had visited every post, and provided for the public safety, that lie could be persuaded by his wife and friends, to taste the needful refreshments of food and sleep. After this firstand unsuccessful trial of their enemies, the whole army of the Goths passed the Tiber, and formed the siege of the city, which continued above a year, till their final departure. Eighteen days were employed by both armies in strengthening their fortifica- tions and in preparing all the instruments of attack and defence which antiquity had invented. On the morn- ing of the nineteenth day, a general attack was made 104 PIKOK OF ROME. Koaie. by the barbarians, from the Pramestine gate to the Vatican. Seven Gothic columns, with their military engines advanced to the assault, and the Romans who lined the ramparts, listened with doubt and anxiety to the cheerful assurances of their commander. As soon as the enemy approached the ditch, on the outside of the wall, Belisarius himself drew the first arrow ; and such was his strength and dexterity, that he transfixed the foremost of the barbarian leaders. A shout of ap- SIEGE OF ROME. 105 plause and victory was re-echoed along the wall. He drew a second arrow, and the stroke was followed with the same success, and the same acclamation. The Roman general then gave the word, that the archers should aim at the teams of oxen. They were instantly covered with mortal wounds; the towers which they drew remained useless and immovable, and a single moment disconcerted the laborious projects of the king of the Goths. After this disappointment, Vitiges continued, or feigned to continue, the assault of the Salarian gate, that he might divert the attention of his adversary, while his principal forces more strenuously attacked the Prosnestint 1 gate, and the tomb of Hadrian, at the distance of three miles from each other. Beli- sarius calmly surveyed the whole plan of attack and defence, transported himself to the places where the greatest danger threatened, and communicated his spirit to his soldiers in calm and decisive orders. The contest was fiercely maintained from the morning till the evening, when the Goths were repulsed on all sides. Thirty thousand of them, according to the con- fessfon of their own chiefs, perished in this bloody ac- tion ; and the multitude of the wounded was equal to that of the slain. On the retreat of the Goths, Belisarius sallied from the gates, and reduced the hostile engines of war to ashes. Such was the loss and consternation of the Goths, that, from that day, the siege of Rome, de- generated into a tedious and indolent blockade; and they were incessantly harassed by the Roman general, who, in frequent sallies and skirmishes, destroyed above five thousand of their bravest troops. The siege of Rome was maintained for one year and nine days, during which time, nearly the whole nation of the Ostrogoths perished before her walls. While Vitiges struggled with his fortune, while he hesitated between shame and ruin, his retreat was hastened by domestic alarms. Before he retired, he made a last effort to surprise or storm the city. Failing in this, his army, so lately strong and triumphant, burnt their 106 RETREAT OF THE OOTHS. tents, and tumultuously repassed the Milvian bridge. They repassed not with impunity. Their thronging multitudes, oppressed in a narrow passage, were driven headlong into the Tiber, by their own fears and the pursuit of the enemy ; and the Roman general, sally- ing from the Pincian gate, inflicted a severe and dis- graceful wound on their retreat. So powerful was this flying army, that Vitiges spared 10,000 men, for the defence of the cities which he was most solicitous to preserve, and detached his nephew with an adequate force for the chastisement of rebellious Milan ; while he himself, at the head of his chief force laid siege to Rimini. This place, however, was so obstinately and courageously defended by John the Sanguinary that the Goths, overwhelmed with astonishment and despair, on seeing Belisarius again advance against them, abandoned the siege, their tents, their standards, and their leaders ; and Vitiges flying almost alone, never halted till he found shelter within the walls and mo- rasses of Ravenna. But before Belisarius had time to establish fully the Roman power in Italy, he was recalled in order to carry on the war against Chosroes, king of Persia, who, in defiance of the treaty formerly concluded in 532, entered the Roman dominions at the head of a powerful army. The same year, however, a peace was concluded between the two nations upon the fol- lowing conditions: 1. That the Romans should within two months, pay to the Persian king 5000 pounds weight of gold, and an annual pension of 500. 2. That the Persians should relinquish all claim to the fortress of Daras, and maintain a body of troops to guard the Caspian gates, and prevent the barbarians from break- ing into the empire. 3. That upon payment of the above-mentioned sum, Chosroes should immediately withdraw his troops from the Roman dominions. The treaty being signed, and the stipulated sum paid, Chos- roes began to march back ajain ; but by the way plundered several cities as if the war had still con- tinued. Hereupon Justinian resolved to pursue the DISGRACE OF BELISARIUS. 107 Chosrots at the head of his Army. war with the utmost vigour; and for that purpose des- patched Belisarius into the east. But soon after he was obliged to recal him in order to oppose the Goths who had gained great advantages in Italy after his de- parture. The Persian war was then carried on with indif- ferent success till the year 558, when a peace was concluded upon the emperor again paying an immense sum to the enemy. The same year the Huns, passing the Danube in the depth of winter, marched in two bodies directly for Constantinople ; and laying waste the countries through which they passed, came, with- out meeting the least opposition, within one hundred 108 FALL OF BEL1SAR1US. and fifty furlongs of the city. But Beli.--arius march- ing out against them with a handful of men, put them to flight; the emperor, however, to prevent them from invading the empire anew, agreed to pay them an annual tribute, upon their promising to defend the empire against all other barbarians, and to serve in the Roman armies when required. This was the last ex- ploit performed by Belisarius, who on his return to Constantinople was disgraced, stripped of all his em- ployments, and confined to lus house on pretence of a conspiracy against the emperor. In the year 505 a real conspiracy was formed against Justinian, which he happily escaped, and the conspirators were exe- cuted ; but the emperor did not long survive it, being carried off by a natural death in 568, in the thirty- ninth year of his reign. During the reign of Justinian the majesty of the Roman empire seemed to revive. He recovered the provinces of Italy and Africa out of the hands of the barbarians, by whom they had been held for a number of years ; but after his deatli they were soon lost, and the empire tended fast to dissolution. In 569 Italy was conquered by the Lombards, who held it for the space of two hundred years. Some amends, however, was made for the loss by the acquisition of Persar- menia ; the inhabitants of which, being persecuted by the Persians on account of the Christian religion which they professed, revolted to the Romans. This produced a war between the two nations, who continued to weaken each other, till at last the Persian monarchy was utterly overthrown, and that of the Romans greatly reduced by the Saracens. These new enemies attacked the Romans in the year 632, and pursued their conquests with incredible rapidity. In the space of four years they reduced the provinces of Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. In 643 they were also masters of Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Africa, Cyprus, AradUs, and Rhodes ; and having defeated the Roman fleet, commanded by the emperor Constans in person, they concluded a peace on condition of keeping the THE LOMBARDS. 109 vast extent of territory they had seized, and paying for it 1000 nummi a year. An expedition against the Lombards was about this time undertaken, but with very little success, a body of 20,000 Romans being almost entirely cut off by one of the Lombard generals. In 671 the Saracens ra- vaged several provinces, made a descent in Sicily, took and plundered the city of Syracuse, and over-ran the whole island, destroying every thing with fire and sword. In like manner they laid waste Cilicia ; and having passed the winter at Smyrna, they entered Thrace in the winter of the year 672, and laid siege to Constantinople itself. Here, however, they were repulsed with great loss ; but next spring they re- newed their attempt, in which they met with the same bad success ; many of their ships being burnt by the sea-fire, as it was called, because it burnt under water ; and in their return home their fleet was wrecked off the Scyllsan promontory. At last a peace was con- cluded for thirty years, on condition that the Saracens should retain all the provinces they had seized ; and that they should pay to the emperor and his successors 3000 pounds weight of gold, fifty slaves, and as many choice horses. XVII. THE EMPIRE INVADED BY THE BULGARIANS. THEY ARE DEFEATED AND THEIR COUNTRY SUB- DUED BY BASILIUS II. THE SARACENS. * THE peace with the Saracens was scarcely con- cluded, when the empire was invaded by a new enemy, who proved very troublesome for a long time. These were the Bulgarians ; who breaking into Thrace, de- feated the Roman army sent against them, and ravaged the country far and wide. The emperor consented to pay them an annual pension, rather than continue a 10 110 THE BULGARIANS. doubtful war ; and allowed them to settle in Lower Moesia, which from them was afterwards called Bul- garia. In 637, they were attacked by Justinian II. who entered their country without provocation, or regarding the treaties formerly concluded with them. But they falling suddenly upon him, drove him out of their country, and obliged him to restore the towns and captives he had taken. In 697, this emperor was deposed ; and in his exile fled to Trebelis king of the Bulgarians, by whom he was kindly entertained, and by whose means he was restored to his throne ; but soon forgetting this favour, he invaded the country of the Bulgarians, with a design to wrest from them those provinces which he had yielded to them. He was attended in this expe- dition by no better success than his ingratitude de- served, his army being utterly defeated, and he himself, obliged to make his escape in a light vessel to Con- stantinople. The Bulgarians continued their inroads and ravages at different times, generally defeated the Romans who ventured to oppose them, till the year eight hundred, the seventh of the reign of Nicephorus, when they surprised the city of Sardica in Moesia, and put the whole garrison, consisting of 6000 men, to the sword. The emperor marched against them with a considera- ble army : but the enemy retired at his approach ; and he, instead of pursuing them, returned to Constantino- ple. Two years after, he entered Bulgaria at the head of a powerful army, destroying every thing with fire and sword. The king offered to conclude a peace with him upon honourable terms ; but Nicephorus, re- jecting his proposals, continued to waste the country, destroying the cities, and putting all the inhabitants, without distinction of sex or age, to the sword. The king was so much affected with these cruelties which were exercised on his subjects, that he sent a second embassy to Nicephorus, offering to conclude a peace with him upon any terms, provided he would quit his country. But Nicephorus dismissing the VICTORY OF URANUS. Ill ambassadors with scorn, the Bulgarian monarch at- tacked unexpectedly the Roman camp, forced it, arid cut off almost the whole army, with the emperor him- self, and a great number of patricians. His successor Michael likewise engaged in a war with the Bulgari- ans ; but being utterly defeated, he was so grieved that he resigned the empire. Alter this the Bulgarians continued to be very formidable enemies to the empire, till the year 979, when they were attacked by Ba- eilius II. The Bulgarians were at that time governed by a king named SatJiucl ; who having ravaged the Roman territories, as was the common practice of his nation, Basilius sent against him one Nicephorus Uranus at the head of a powerful army. Uranus, leaving his baggage at Larissa, reached by long marches the Sperchius, and encamped with his whole army over against the enemy, who lay on the opposite bank. As the river was greatly swelled with the heavy rains that had lately fallen, Samuel, not imagining the Ro- mans would attempt to pass it, suffered his troops to roam in large parties about the country in quest of booty. But Uranus having at length found out a place where the river was fordable, passed it in the dead of the night without being perceived. He then fell upon tbe. Bulgarians who were left in the camp, and lay for the most part asleep ; cut great numbers of them in pieces; took a great number of prisoner?, with all their baggage; and made himself master of their camp. Samuel and his son were dan- gerously wounded ; and would have been taken, had they not all that day concealed themselves among the dead. The next night they stole away to the moun- tains of ^Etola, and from thence made their escape into Bulgaria. The following year the emperor en- tered Bulgaria at the head of a numerous and well- disciplined army ; defeated Samuel in a pitched battle, and took several strong cities. The emperor himself, however, at last, narrowly escaped being cut off with his whole army ; being un- 112 DEATH OF SAMUEL. expectedly attacked by the Bulgarians in a narrow pass. From this danger he was relieved by the arrival of Nicephorus Xiphias, governor of Phillipopolis, with a considerable body of troops; who falling upon the enemy's rear, put them to flight. Basiluis pursued them close ; and having taken an incredible number of captives, caused their eyes to be pulled out, leaving to every hundred a guide with one eye, that he might conduct them to Samuel. This shocking spectacle so affected the unhappy king, that he fell into a deep swoon, and died two days after. The Roman emperor pursued his conquests, and in the space of two years made himself master of most of the enemy's strong holds. He defeated also the successor of Samuel in several engagements ; and having at last killed him in battle, the Bulgarians submitted themselves without reserve. The vast treasures of their princes were by Basilius distributed among his soldiers by way of donative. Soon atler, the widow of the late king, with her six daughters and three of her sons, surrendered themselves to the Ro- man emperor, by whom they were received with the utmost civility and respect. This obliging behaviour encouraged the three other sons of the late king, and most of the princes of the blood, who had taken shelter in the mountains, to submit, and throw themselves on the emperor's mercy. Ibatzes, however, a person nearly allied to the royal family, who had distinguished himself in a very emi- nent manner during the whole course of the war, refused to submit, and fled to a steep and craggy moun- tain, with a design to defend himself there to the last extremity. Basilius endeavoured to cause him- submit by fair means, but he equally despised both threats and promises. At last Eustathius Diiphnomelus, whom Basilius had lately appointed governor of Achridus, the chief city of Bulgaria, undertook to secure him by a most desperate and improbable scheme. Without communicating his design to any, he re- paired, with two persons in' whom he could confide, to EXPLOIT OF DAPHXOMELUS. 113 the mountain on which Ibatzes had fortified himself. He hoped to pass undiscovered among the many strangers who flocked thither to celebrate the ap- proaching feast of the Virgin Mary, tor whom Ibatzes had a particular veneration. In this he found himself mistaken ; for he was known by the guards, and carried before the prince. To- him he pretenfled to have some- thing of importance to communicate ; but as soon as Ibatzes had retired with him into a remote place, Daphnomelus threw himself suddenly upon him, and with the assistance of the two men whom he had brought with him, pulled out both his eyes, and got safe to an abandoned castle on the top of the hill. Here they were immediately surrounded by 'the ttoops of Ibatzes ; but Daphnomelus exhorting them now to submit to the emperor, by whom he assured them they would be well received, they congratulated Daphnomelus on his success, and suffered him to con- duct the unhappy Ibatzes a prisoner to Basiling. The emperor was no less surprised than pleased at the success of this bold attempt; and rewarded Daphno- melus with the government of Dyrrhachium, and all the rich moveables of his prisoner. After this, having accomplished the entire reduction of Bulgaria, he re- turned to Constantinople with an incredible number of captives ; where he was received by the senate and people with all possible demonstrations of joy. All this time the Saracens had at intervals invaded the Roman dominions, and even attempted to make themselves masters of Constantinople. Their internal divisions, however, rendered them now much less formidable enemies than they had formerly been; so that some provinces were even recovered for a time out of their hands; though the weak and distracted state of the empire rendered it impossible to preserve such conquests. 10 XVIII. THE TURKS. THEY INVYDE THE EMPIRE. TANGROLII-IX. KUDOCIA. THE TURKS DEFEATED BY ROMANUS DIOGENES. AXAN. -TiiE EMPEROR TAKEN FRISOXEH. HlS I)EATH. TllE K.MPIKE AGAIN INVADED BV TIIE Tl'RliS. ALEXIUS Co.M- M:NI.S. PI:\CE*\VITH THE 'i'i IN 1041, the empire was invaded by an enemy, not owertul at that time indeed, but uho by di gathered strength sufficient to overthrow butli the Ro- man and Saracen empires. These were the Turks; who, having quitted their ancient hub;t:itior.s. in the of Mount Caucasus, and passed the r.'iit.s, Fettled in Armenia Major, about the year 64.4. There they continued an unknown and despicable people, till the intestine wars of the Suracens pave them an opportunity of ar?raiv:ixinif themselves. About the year 1080. lirael Sultan of Persia, not rinding himself a match for Pisa- ris tiultan of Babylon, with whom he was at war, had recourse to the Turks, who sent him 3UOO men under the command of one T&ngrolipix, a leadinir man among them. By their assistance Mohammed defeated his ad- versary ; but when the Turks desired leave to return home, he refused to part with them. Upon this they withdrew without his consent to a neighbourii: pert; and being there joined by several discontented me, began to make frequent inroads into the sultan's territories. Against them Mohammed imme- diately despatched an army of x!0,000 men ; who, being surprised in the night, were utterly defeated by Tan- grolipix. The fame of this victory drew multitudes to him from all parts ; so that in a short time Tangrolipix saw himself at the head of 50,000 men. Upon this Mohammed marched against them in person, but was thrown from his horse in the beginning of the engage- ment, and killed by the fall; upon which his men threw down their arms, and submitted to Tanirrolipix. (IH) OPERATIONS OF THE TURKS. 115 After this victory the Turkish general made war upon the Sultan of Babylon ; whom he at length slew, and annexed his dominions to his own. He tlien sent his nephew, named Cutlu-Moses, against the Arabians ; but by them he was defeated, and forced to fly to- \\ards Media. Through this province he was denied a passage by Stephen the Roman governor; upon which Cutlu- .Moses was obliged to force a passage by en- countering the Roman army. These he put to flight, took the governor himself prisoner, and without any further opposition reached the confines of Persia, where he sold Stephen for a slave. Returning from thence to Tamjrolipix, he e: ;inner he could, his defeat by the Arabians : but at the same time acquainted him witii h ver the Romans in Medja, encouraging him to invade that fertile coun- try, which he said miiiht be easily conquered, as it was inhabited by none but women, meaning the Romans. At that time Tangrolipix did not hearken to his advice, but marched against the Arabians at the head of a numerous army. He was, however, attended with no better success than his nephew hud been ; and therefore began to reflect on what he had told him. Soon after he sent Asan his brother's son with an army of 20,000 men to reduce Media. Pursuant to his orders, the young prince entered that country, and committed everywhere dreadful ravages; but being in the end drawn into an ambush by the Roman gen- erals, he was cut off" with his whole army. Tangro- lipix, no way discouraged by this misfortune, sent a new army into Media near 100,000 strong; who after having- ravaged the country without opposition, laid siege to Artza a place of great trade, and therefore reckoned the most wealthy in those parts. \ot being able to reduce it by any other means, they set it on fire ; and thus in a short time it was utterly destroyed ; the buildings being reduced to ashes, and 150,000 of the inhabitants perishing either by the flames or the eword. After this, Abraham Ilalim, half brother to Tangro- 116 CONTEST BETWEEN THE Tl-RKS AND ROMANS. Tangrolipix in Iberia. lipix, hearing that the Romans, re-inforcecl with a body of troops under the command of Liparile.s trovernor of Ihrria, liad taken the field, marched aiiaitu-t them, and offered them battle ; which they not declining, the two armies engaged with incredible fury. The victory continued IOMLT doubtful ; hut at length inclined to the Romans; who nevertheless did not think proper to pursue the fugitives, as their general Liparites was taken prisoner. DEFEAT OF ALCAN. 117 The emperor, greatly concerned for the captivity of Liparites, dispatched ambassadors with rich presents, and a large sum of money to redeem him, and at the same time to conclude an alliance with Tangrolipix. The sultan received the presents ; hut generously re- turned them, together with the money, to Liparites, whom he set at liberty without any ransom ; only re- quiring him, at his departure, never more to bear arms against the Turks. Not long after, Tanirrolipix sent a person of ^reat authority among the Turks, with the character of ambassador, to Constantinople: who hav- ing arrogantly exhorted the emperor to submit to his master, and acknowledge himself his tributary, was ignominiously driven out of the city. Tangrolipix, highly affronted at the reception his ambassador had met with, entered Iberia, while the emperor Constantine Monomachus was fuga^'d in a war with the Patzinacee, a Scythian nation. Having ravaged that country, lie returned from thence to ;. and laid siege to Mautzichii-rta, a place de- fended by a numerous garrison, and fortified with a triple wall and deep ditches. However, as it was situated in an open plain country, lie hoped to IK) master of it in a short tune. But finding the besieged determined to defend themselves to the last extremity, he resolved to raise the siege, after he had continued it thirty days. One of his oificers, however, named Alccnt, prevailed on him to continue it but one day longer, and to commit the management of the attacks to him. This being granted, Alcan disposed his men with such skill, and so encouraged them by his example, that, notwithstanding- the vigorous opposition they met with, the place would have probably been taken, had not Alcan been slain as he was mounting the wall. The besieged, knowing him by the richness of his armour, drew him by the hair into the city, and cutting off his head threw it over the wall among the e: which so disheartened them, that they gave over the assault and retired. 118 DEATH OF CONSTANTINE. The next spring Tangrolipix returned, and ravaged Iberia with the utmost cruelty, sparing neither sex nor age. But on the approach of the Roman army he retired to Tauris, leaving 30,000 men behind him to infest the frontiers of the empire. This they did with great success, the borders being, through the. avarice of Monornachus, unguarded. Till the time of this em- peror, the provinces bordering on the countries of the barbarians had maintained, at their own charge, forces to defend them ; and were on that account exempted from paying tribute : but as Monomachus exacted from them the same sums that \vt;re paid by other?, they were no longer in a condition to defend them- eelves. In 1003 died the emperor Constantino Ducas, having ie empire to his three sons, Michael, Andronicus, and Constantino : but as they were all very young, he appointed the empress Eurlocia regent during their minority, after having required of her an oath never to marry ; which oath was with great solemnity lodged in the hands of the patriarch. He likewise obliged the senators solemnly to swear that they would ac- knowledge none for their sovereign but his three sons. :>ner, however, was he dead, than the Turks, hearing that the empire was governed by a woman, broke into Mesopotamia., Cilicia, and Cappadocia, de- stroying all with fire and sword. The empress was no way in a condition to oppose them, the greater part of the army having been dis- banded in her husband's life-time, and the troops that were still on foot being undisciplined, and altogether unfit for service. The concern which this gave the empress was aggravated by t the seditious speeches of a discontented party at home, who repeated on all occa- sions that the present state of affairs required a man of courage and address at the helm, instead of a weak and helpless woman; and as they imagined the em- press would never think of marrying, in consequence of the oath she had taken, they hoped by those speeches to induce the people to revolt, and choose a new em- POLICY OF EIDOCIA. 119 peror. This Eudocia was aware of; and therefore determined to prevent the evils that threatened her- self and her fumilv, by marrying some person of merit who was capable of defeating her enemies both at home and abroad. ne Romamis Diogenes, a person of a most beautiful aspect, extraordinary parts, and illustri- ous birth, being accused of aspiring to the empire, tried and convicted, was brought forth to receive sentence of death. But the empress, touched with com]' at his appearance. i^'ii'Iy upbraided him with his ambi- tion, set him at liberty, and soon after appointed him commander in chief of all her forces. In this station he acquitted himself so well, that the empre- solved to marry him if she could but recover the writ- ing, in which her oath was contained, out of the hands of the patriarch. In order to this, she applied to a favourite eunuch ; who, going to the patriarch, told him, that the empress was so taken with his nephew, named Bardas, that she was determined to marry and raise him to the empire, provided the patriarch absolved her from the oath she had taken, and convinced the senate of the lawfulness of her marriage. The patriarch, dazzled with the prospect of his ne- phew's promotion, readily undertook to perform both. He first obtained the consent of the senate by represent- ing to them the dangerous state of the empire, and ex- claiming against the rash oath which the jealousy of the late emperor had extorted from the empress. He then publicly discharged her from it: restored the writing to her ; and exhorted her to marry some de- serving object, who, being entrusted with an absolute authority, might be capable of defending the empire. The empress, thus discharged from her oath, married a few days after Romanus Diogenes ; who was there- upon, proclaimed emperor, to the great disappointment of the patriarch. As the new emperor was a man of great activity and experience in war, he no sooner saw himself vested with the sovereign power, than he took upon him the 120 ACTS OF ROMANUS. command of the army, and passed over into Asia with the few forces he could assemble, recruiting and inuring them on Ins march to military discipline, which had been utterly neglected in the preceding reigns. On his arrival in this continent, he was informed that the Turks had surprised and plundered the city of Neocastarea, and were retiring with their booty. On this news he hastened after them at the head of a chosen. body of light-armed troops, and came up with them on the third day. As the Turks were marching in disorder, without the least apprehension of an enemy, Romanus cut great numbers of them in pieces, mid easily. recovered the booty ; after which he pursued his march to Aleppo, which he re-took from them, together with Hieropolis, where he built a strong castle. As he was returning to join the forces he had left behind him, he was met by a numerous body of Turks, who attempted to cut off his retreat. At first, he pre- tended to decline an engagement through fear ; but attacked them afterwards with such vigour when they least expected it, that he put them to flight at the first onset, and might have gained a complete victory had he thought proper to pursue them. After this, several towns submitted to him ; but the season being now far spent, the emperor returned to Constantinople. The following year, he passed over into Asia early in the spring ; and being informed that the Turks had sacked the rich city of Iconium, besides gaining other considerable advantages, he marched in person against them. But the Turks, not thinking it advisable to wait his coming, retired in great haste. The Armenians, however, encouraged by the approach of the emperor's army, fell upon the enemy in the plains of Tarsus, put them to flight, and stripped them both of their baggage and the booty they had taken. The spring following, the emperor once more entered Asia at the head of a considerable army which he had raised, and with incredible pains disciplined during the winter. When the two armies drew near to each other, Axan, the Turkish Sultan, and son of the famous DEPOSITION OF EUDOCIA. 121 Tangrolipix, sent proposals to Romanus, for a lasting and honourable peace. These were imprudently re- jected, and a desperate engagement ensued, when, in spite of the utmost efforts of the emperor, his army was routed, and he himself wounded and taken pri- soner. When this news was brought to Axan, he could scarcely believe it; but being convinced by the appearance of the royal captive in his presence, he tenderly embraced him, and addressed him in affec- tionate manner: "Grieve not," said he, "most noble emperor, at your misfortune ; for such is the chance of war, sometimes overwhelming one, and sometimes another: you shall have no occasion to complain of your captivity; fur I will not use you as my prisoner, but as an emperor.'' The Turk was asood as his word. He lodged the emperor in a royal pavilion ; assigned him attendants, with an equipage suitable to his quality; and dis- charged such prisoners as he desired. After he had for some days entertained his royal captive with ex- traordinary magnificence, a perpetual peace was con- cluded betwixt them, and the emperor was dismissed with the greatest marks of honour imaginable. He then set out with the Turkish ambassador for Constantino- ple, where the peace was to be ratified ; but by the way he was informed that Eudocia had been driven from the throne by John the brother of Constantine Ducas, and Psellus a leading man in the senate, who had confined her to a monastery, and proclaimed her eldest son, ^Michael Ducas, emperor. On this intelligence, Romanus retired to a strong castle near Theodosiopolis, where he hoped in a short time to be joined by great numbers of his friends and adherents. But in the mean time John, who had taken upon him to act as guardian to the younj prince, dispatched Andronictis with a considerable army against him. Andronicus having easily defeated the small army which Romanus had with him, obliged him to fly to Adana a city in Cilicia, where he was closely be- sieged, and at last obliged to surrender. Andronicus 11 1?2 INVASION BY AXAN. carried his prisoner into Phrygia, where he foil dan- gerouMy ill, being, as was suspected, secretly poi.-'oned. But the poison being too slow in its operation, John ordered his eyes to be put out; which was done with such cruelty that he died soon after, in the year 1067, having reigned three years and eight months. Axan was no sooner informed of the tragical end of his friend and ally, than he resolved to invade the empire anew ; and that not with a design only to plun- der as formerly, but to conquer, and keep what he had once conquered. The emperor dispatched against him Isaac Comnenus, with a considerable army ; but he was utterly defeated and taken prisoner by Axan. Another army was quickly sent off under the com- mand of John Ducas the emperor's uncle. He gained at first some advantages, and would probably have put a stop to their conquests, had not one Ruselius, or Urselius, revolted with the troops he had under his command, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor, and reduced several cities in Phrygia and Cappadocia. Against him John marched with nil his forces, suf- fering the Turks in the meantime to pursue their con- quests ; but coming to an engagement with the rebels, his army was entirely defeated, and himself taken pri- soner. Notwithstanding this yictory, Ruselius was so much alarmed at the progress of the Turks, that he not only released his prisoner, but joined with him against the common enemy, by whom they were both defeated and taken prisoners. Axan, however, was for some time prevented from pursuing his conquests by Cutlu-Moses, nephew to the late Tangrolipix. He had revolted against his uncle ; but being defeated by him in a pitched battle, had taken refuge in Arabia, whence he now returned at the head of a considerable army, in order to dispute the sovereignty with Axan. But while the two armies were preparing to engage, the Kalif of Babylon, who was still looked upon as the suc- cessor of the great prophet, interposed his authority. He represented the dangers of their intestine dissen- SUCCESS OF THE TIRKS. 123 eions; and by his mediation, an agreement was at last concluded, on condition that Axau should enjoy i, turbed the monarchy lately left him by his iutlier, and Cutlu-Moses should possess such provinces of the Ro- man empire as he or his sons should in process of time conquer. After this agreement, both the Turkish princes turned their forces against the empire ; and before the year 1077, made themselves masters of all Media, Lycaonia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia, fixing the capital city of their empire at Nice in the latter province. During all this time, the emperors of Constantinople, as well as their subjects, seemed to be in a manner infatuated. No notice was taken of the great pro- gress made by these barbarians. The generals were ambitious only of seizing the tottering empire, which eeemed ready to fall a prey to the Turks ; and, alter it was obtained, spent their time in oppressing their subjects, rather than in making any attempts to re- pulse the enemy. At last Alexius Comnenus, having wrested the em- pire from Nicephorus Botoniates, in 1077, began to prepare for opposing so formidable an enemy. But before he set out, as his soldiers had committed great outrages on his accession to the empire, he resolved to make confession of his sins, and do open penance for those he had suffered his army to commit. Ac- cordingly he appeared in the attire of a penitent be- fore the patriarch and several other ecclesiastics, ac- knowledged himself guilty of the many disorders that had been committed by his soldiers, and begged of the patriarch to impose upon him a penance suitable to the greatness of his crimes. The penance enjoined him and his adherents by the patriarch was to fast, lie upon the ground, and practise several other austerities, for the space of forty days. This command was religiously obeyed, and the emperor then began to prepare for war with so much vigour, that Solyman, the Turkish sultan, son and successor to Cultu-Moses, despatched ambassadors to Alexius 124 ORIGIN OF GUI8CARD. with proposals of peace. These were at first rejected ; but the emperor was at last glad to accept them on certain advice, that Robert Guiscard, Duke of Puglia and Calabria, was making great preparations against him in the West XIX. GuiSCARD's EXPEDITION AGAINST THE EMPEROR. THE WAR ENDED BY HIS DEATH. THE SCY- THIAN WAR. THE HOLY WAR. JOHN THE HAND- SOME. MANUEL. ANDRONICUS. ALKXII s II. ANDRONICUS EMPEROR. ISAAC II. (JUEAT FIRE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. JOHN Drc\s. Moiu/ot TLE. CONSTANTINOPLE TAKEN AND PLUNDERED BY THE LATINS. ROBERT GUISCARD was the fourth son of a noble of the middle order, of Hauteville, in Normandy. A narrow patrimony, and the mischiefs of poverty and discord, tempted him to seek in foreign wars a more glorious inheritance than that of the family. He was a man of a lofty stature and imposing 1 presence, fit to impress obedience and terror in the midst of the tumult of battle ; of great wisdom, and boundless ambition. In the pursuit of greatness, he was never arrested by the scruples of justice, and seldom moved by the feelings of humanity. With but five followers on horse bick, and thirty on foot, Robert departe 1 from Normandy, and commenced a kind of predatory \v;ir in Calabria. His forces increasing by the arrival of Normans and of numerous bands of mercenaries, with which the country was infested, lie soon con- quered Apulia and Calabria, Salerno, Amalphi and Beneventum ; which correspond with the limits of the kinrrdom of Naples. For some service rendered to the Roman pontiff, Nicholas II. conferred on him the title of duke, and Robert then styled himself, HIS PROGRESS. 125 " By the grace of God and St. Peter, duke of Apulia, Calabria, and hereafter of Sicily." The possession of these places, however, was inadequate to satisfy his ambition, and he resolved to seize the first opportunity of invading the Roman empire of the east. One of the daughters of Guiscard was betrothed t) the son and heir of the emperor Michael; but the throne of Constantinople was shaken by a revolu- tion, and the imperial family of Ducas was imprisoned in the palace or the cloister, by Nicephorus Botoniates. Towards the end of the usurper's reign, it is said that Michael escaping from the monastery in which he had been confined, fled into the west, where he was re- ceived by Robert, who was easily prevailed upon to favour his cause. For this purpose, Robert made great preparations ; and these were continued even after the deposition of Botoniates. He sailed with all his forces from Brun- dusium; and landing at Buthrotum in Epirus, made himself master of that place, while his son Bohemond, with part of the army, reduced Aulon, a celebrated port and city in the country now called Albania. From thence they advanced to Durazzo, which they invested both by sea and land ; but met with a most vigorous opposition from George Palroologus, whom the emperor had intrusted with the defence of that im- portant place. In spite of the utmost efforts of the enemy, this commander held out till the arrival of the Venetian fleet, which had been solicited by the emperor. The first day's action was not disadvantageous to Bohemond, a beardless youth, who commanded his father's navy. All night the Venetian galleys remained at anchor, in the form of a crescent, and the victory of the following day was decided by the dexterity of their evolutions, the station of their archers, the weight of their jave- lins, and the borrowed aid of the Greek fire. The Apulian vessels fled to the shore, but several of them were cut from their cables and dragged away by the conqueror ; and a sally from the town carried slaughter 11* 126 DEFEAT OF AI.F.XIVS. and dismay to the tenls of tin- Nor-nan duke. As the Venetians were now masters oi' the soa. t,:e bf.~. were supplied with plenty of pro^ ;i ilimine began to rate in tlie camp of the enemy ; anil this calamity was soon followed by a plague, which in the space of three months is said to have destroyed ten lliou.-and men. Not withstanding all these disasters, however, Robert did not abandon the sien-e : having: found means to supply his famished troops with provisions, he con- tinued it with such vigour, that the courage of the be- sieged began at last to tail them ; and Paleologus sent repeated messages to the emperor, acquainting him that he would be obliged to surrender unless very speedily assisted. On this Alexius marched in person to the relief of the city, but was defeated with great loss by Robert. The whole right wing of Alexius's army, finding themselves hard pressed by the enemy, fled to a church dedicated to St. Michael, imagining they would there find themselves in a place of safety ; but the victorious army pursuing them, set fire to the church, which was burnt to ashes with nil who were in it. The emperor himself with great difficulty made his escape, leaving the enemy masters of his camp and all his baggage. Soon after this defeat, the city sur- rendered ; and Alexius being destitute of resources for carrying on the war, seized on the wealth of churches and monasteries, which gave much ofl'ence to the clergy, and was near occasioning great disturbances in the imperial city. At the same time, Alexius entering into an alliance with Henry emperor of Germany, persuaded him to invade the dominions of Robert in Italy. At first Henry met with great success; but was soon over- come, and driven out of that country by Robert Bohemond, in the mean time, reduced several places in Illyricum ; and, having defeated Alexius in two pitched battles, entered Thessaly, and sat down before Larissa. This place, being defended by an officer of great courage and experience in war, held out till the DEATH OF ROBERT. 127 emperor came to its relief. Soon after bis arrival, he found means to draw a strong party of Bohemond'a men into an ambuscade, and cut them off almost en- tirely. However, in the battle which was fought a few days after, Bohemond had the advantage; but his troops mutinying and refusing to carry on the war, he was obliged to return to Italy. Alexius taking advantage of his absence, recovered several cities ; and being informed that Robert was making great preparations against him, he had recourse once more to the Vene- tians. By them he ivas assisted with a powerful fleet, which defeated that of Robert in two engagements; but being soon after surprised by him, they were de- feated with the loss of almost their whole navy. Robert is said to have used his victory with great barbarity, putting many of his prisoners to death with unheard-of torments. The Venetians equipped a second fleet ; and joining that of tbe emperor, fell un- expectedly upon Robert's navy, who were riding with- out the least apprehension in Buthrotum, sunk most of his ships, and took a great number of prisoners, his wife and younger sons having narrowly escaped tailing into their hands. Robert made great preparations to revenue this defeat; but was prevented by death from executing his designs ; and, after his decease, his son Roger did not think proper to pursue so dangerous and expensive a war. He therefore recalled his troops, and the places which had b^cn conquered by Robert and Bohemond submitted ane\v to the emperor. This war was scn.rce ended, when the Scythians passing the Danube laid waste great part of Thrace, committing everywhere the greatest barbarities. Against rh'-m the emperor dispatched an army under the command of Pacurianus and Branas. The latter inMsted upon engaging the enemy contrary to the opinion oT his colleague; and his rashness caused the loss of the greater part of the army, who were cut oft by the Scythians, together with the two generals. Talicius, an officer who had signalized himself on 128 THE CRUSADES. many occasions, was appointed to command the army in their room. He fell upon the enemy as they lay securely in the neighourhood of Piiilippopolis, cut great numbers of them .in pieces, and obliged the rest to re- tire in great confusion. The following spring, however, they returned in such numbers, that the emperor resolved to march again-t them in person. Accordingly he set out for Adrianople, and from thence to a place called Lardai. Here, contrary to the advice of his best officers, he ventured a battle ; in which he was utterly defeated with the loss of vast numbers of his men, he himself escaping with the utmost difficulty. The next year he was attended with no better suc- cess, his army being entirely defeated with the loss of his camp and baggage. In the year following, 1084, the emperor retrieved his credit ; and gave the Scy- thians such an overthrow, that very few escaped the general slaughter. Notwithstanding this disaster, however, they again invaded the empire in 1093. To this they were encouraged by an impostor called Leo, who pretended to be the eldest son of Romanus Diogenes. The young Prince had been slain in a battle with the Turks; but as the Scythians only wanted a pretence to renew the war, they received the impostor with joy. By a stratagem, however, Leo was murdered ; and the Scythians being afterwards overthrown in two great battles, were obliged to sub- mit on the emperor's own terms. Since the year 1083, the war had been carried on with the Turks with various success ; but now an as- sociation was formed in the west against these infidels, which threatened the utter ruin of the Turkish nation. This was occasioned by the superstition of the Chris- tians, who thought it a meritorious action to venture their lives for the recovery of the Holy Land, pos- sessed at that time by the Turks and Saracens. Had the western princes been properly assisted by the em- perors of the East in this undertaking, the Turks had undoubtedly been unable to resist them ; but so far JOHN COMNENUS. 129 from this, the Latins were looked upon by them as no less enemies than the Turks ; and indeed whatever places they took from the infidels, they never thought of restoring to the emperors of Constantinople, to whom they originally belonged, but erected a number of small independent principalities, which neither having suffi- cient strength to defend themselves, nor being properly supported by one another, soon became a prey to the Turks. John, the son and successor of Alexius Comnenus, governed the kingdom with the greatest clemency ; and feared by his nobles, and beloved by his people, he was never reduced to the painful necessity of punish- ing, or even after the treason of his sister Anna Com- nena, of pardoning his personal enemies. During his government of twenty-five years, the penalty of death was abolished in the Roman empire. Severe to himself, indulgent to others, chaste, frugal, and ab- stemious, John despised and moderated the stately magnificence of the Byzantine court, which had been so oppressive to the people. Under such a prince, in- nocence had nothing to fear, and merit had everything to hope; and without assuming the tyrannic office of censor, he introduced a gradual though visible reforma- tion in the public and private manners of Constantino- ple. The only defect of this accomplished character, \vas the frailty of noble minds, the love of arms and military glory. He directed his arms, however, to a good object, that of expelling the Turks from the Hellespont and the Bosphorus. He soon drove the barbarians to the mountains, liberated the maritime provinces of Asia, and was beginning to indulge the ambitious hope of restoring the ancient limits of the empire, when a singular accident put a period to his useful life. Hunting the wild boar in the valley of Anazarbus, he fixed his javelin in the body of the furious animal ; but in the struggle, a poisoned arrow dropped from his quiver, and a slight wound in his hand, which produced a mortification, was fatal to the best and greatest of the Comnenian dynasty. 130 ANDRONICUS. John was in 1143 succeeded by his son Manuel, who carried on the war against the Turks with indifferent success. Andronicus, the nephew of the Emperor John, and grandson of Alexius Comnenus, was accused by Manuel of treason, and strictly confined in a palace of the tower of Constantinople. In this prison, he was left above twelve years, when one day, alone and pensive, he displaced some broken bricks in a dark corner of his chamber, and gradually widening the passage, he struck upon and explored a dark and forgotten recess. Into this hole he conveyed himself and the remains of his provisions, replacing the bricks in their former position, and erasing with care the footsteps of his retreat. At the hour of their customary visit, his guards were amazed by the silence and solitude of the prison, and reported with shame and fear his incomprehensible flight. The gates of the palace and city were instantly shut ; the strictest orders were despatched into the provinces for the re- covery of the fugitive ; and his wife, on the suspicion that she had aided his escape, was basely imprisoned in the same tower. At the dead of night she was visited by her husband, who nightly came from his re- cess, and alleviated the tediousness of his confinement by the embraces of his wife. In the custody of a woman, the vigilance of the keepers was insensibly relaxed ; and the captive found means to accomplish his real escape, when he was dis- covered, brought back to Constantinople, and loaded with a double chain. At length, he found the moment and the means of his deliverance. A boy, his domestic servant, intoxicated the guards, and obtained in wax, the impression of the keys. By the diligence of his friends, similar keys, with a bundle of ropes, were in- troduced into the prison in the bottom of a hogshead. Andronicus unlocked the doors, descended from the tower, concealed himself all day among the bushes, and at night scaled the garden wall of the palace. A boat awaited him; he visited his own house, embraced hia children, cast away his chain, mounted a fleet horse, DEPOSITION OF ANDROMCUS. 131 and directed his rapid course towards the banks of the Danube. At Anchialus, in Thrace, being supplied by a friend with horses and money, he crossed the river, traversed with speed the desert of Moldavia and the Carpathian hills, and had almost reached the town of Halicz, in Polish Russia, when he was intercepted by a party of Walachians, who resolved to convey their important captive to Constantinople. By his presence of mind, he soon extricated himself from this new danger. Under pretence of sickness, he dismounted in the night, and was allowed to step aside from the troop. He planted his long staff in the ground, clothed it with his cap and upper garment, and, stealing into the wood, lefl a scarecrow to amuse, for some time, the vigilant Walachians. He arrived in safety at Halicz, and placing himself under the protection of the Russian government, was honourably conducted to Kiow, the residence of the great duke. There he soon ingratiated himself into the confidence of the Russian prince, and obtained the forgiveness of Manuel by obtaining the assistance of the Russians for the empire in the invasion of Hungary. Andronicus marched at the head of the Russian calvary from the Borysthenes to the Danube, and his free par- don was won from the emperor by the valour and courage displayed by him in the assault of Zemlin. No sooner was he restored to freedom and his country than his ambition revived. It was, however, kept in check during the life of Manuel, but when he died in 1180, the evils attending the minority of the young prince, Alexius II., induced him to declare his autho- rity, at first as the guardian of the young emperor; and soon, by the murder of the empress and her son, he ascended a bloody throne. His cruelty soon turned his subjects against him, and in less than two years, he was dragged from the throne by Isaac II., a descendant, in the female line, of the great Alexius. Isaac, in- stead of a legal trial, abandoned him to the many suf- ferers whom he had deprived of a father, a husband, or 132 FIUE AT CONSTANTINOPLE. a friend. His teetli and hair, an eye and a hand, were torn from him as a poor compensation for their loss ; and a short respite was allowed that lie might feel the bitterness of death. Mounted on a camel, without any danger of rescue, he was paraded through the streets of the city, and the basest of the populace inflicted upon him blows and outrages. Andronicus was then hung by the feet between two pillars that supported the statues of a wolf and a sow ; and every hand that could reach him, inflicted on his body some mark of ingenious or brutal cruelty, till two friendly or furious Italians, plunging their swords into his body, put a period to his sufferings. The descendants of Andronicus usurped the sove- reignty of Trebizond ; and at Constantinople, Constan- tino Angelus, by his marriage with a daughter of Alexius, arrived at the imperial throne. His son An- dronicus was distinguished only for cowardice. His grandson Isaac punished and succeeded the tyrant; but he was destroyed by his own vices, and the ambition of his brother; and their discord introduced the Latins to the conquest of Constantinople, the first great period in the fall of the Eastern empire. In the year I'^Oo, happened a dreadful fire at Con- stantinople, occasioned by some Latin soldiers. These had plundered a mosque, which the Turks residing in Constantinople had been suffered to build there. For this reason they were attacked by the infidels ; who, being much superior to them in number, the Latins found themselves obliged to set fire to some hou>es, in order to make their escape with safety. The flames spreading in an instant from street to street, reduced in a short time great part of the city v> ashes, with the capacious storehouses which had been built at a vast expense on the quay. The late emperor Isaac Angelus, who had been restored to his throne by the La- tins, died soon after their departure from Ci'ii.-i intino- ple, leaving his son Alexius sole master of the empire. The young prince, to discharge the large sums he had promised to the French and Venetians for their JOHN DtTAS. 133 assistance, was cMi-i>d lo lay heavy tax^s en his .-ub- : and this, \vitn tin- ^n at eMeeni an- u to his deliverers, raided a general disc. among the people or' Constantinople, who were >\\rn ea to tin.- l/.i. :.>. Tins encouraged John / surnamed Mourzonfle from his joined and thick eve- brows, to attempt the sovereignty. Unhappily he ti/and - to put his treacherous designs in execution ; and strangled the young prince with his own han-is. After this he presented himself to the people; told them what he had done, which he pretended w;-.s in order to secure their liberties; and earnestly entreated them to choose an emperor who had courage to defend them agin.-t the Latins, that were ready to oppress and enslave them. On this he was instantly saluted emperor by the inconstant multitude; but this usurpation proved the ruin of the city. The Latins immediately resolved to revenge the death of the young prince ; and, as they had been so often betrayed and retarded in their expeditions to the Holy Land by the emperors of Constantinople, to make themselves masters of that city, and sei'ze the empire for themselves. In consequence of this resolution they mustered all their forces in Asia, and having crossed the straits, laid siege to Constantinople by sea and land. The tyrant, who was a man of great cour- age and experience in war, made a vigorous defence. The Latins, however, after having battered the walls for several days together with an incredible number of engines, gave a general assault on the 8th of April 1204. The attack lasted from break of day till three in the afternoon, when they were forced to retire, after having lost some of their engines, and a great number of men. The assault was nevertheless renewed four days after : when, after a warm dispute, the French planted their standard on one of the towers ; which the Venetians observing, they quickly made themselves masters of four other towers, where they likewise displayed their ensigns. In the mean time three of the gates being broken 12 134 TAKING OF CONSTANTINOPLE. down by the battering rams, and those who had scaled the walls having killed the guards, and opened the gates between the towers they had taken, the whole army entered, and drew up in battle array between the walls. The Greeks fled up and down in the greatest confusion ; and several parties were by the Latins dispatched to scour the streets, who put all they met to the sword, without distinction of age or condition. Night put a stop to the dreadful slaughter, when the princes sounding the retreat, placed their men in dif- erent quarters of the city, with orders to be upon their guard, not doubting but they should be attacked early next morning. They were surprised, however, at that time by the entire submission of the Greeks; to whom they promised their lives, but at the same tinje, order- ing them to retire to their houses, they gave up the city to be plundered by the soldiers for that day. They strictly enjoined their men to abstain from slaughter, to preserve the honour of the women, and to bring the whole booty into one place, that a just distribution might be made according to the rank and merit of each individual. The Greeks had undoubtedly concealed their most valuable effects during the night ; many persons of the first rank had escaped, and carried along with them immense treasures; the soldiers had probably, as is usual in such cases, reserved things of great value for themselves, notwithstanding all prohibitions to the contrary ; and yet the booty, without the statues, pic- tures and jewels, amounted to a sum almost incredible. As for Mourzoufle he made his escape in the night : embarking on a small vessel with Euphrosyne, the wife of Alexius Angelas a late usurper, and her daugh- ter Eudoxia, for whose sake he had abandoned his lawful wife. XX. BALDWIN I. HENRY. PETER OF COURTL'.NAY. ROBERT. JOHN OF BRIENNE. BALDWIN II. THE LATINS EXPELLED FROM CONSTANTINOPLE. MICHAEL PAL.EOLOGUS. His TREACHERY AND INHUMANITY. ANDRONICTS. THE Latins immediately (A. D. 1204,) elected Baldwin, Count of Flanders and Hainault, emperor of the East. Two fugitives, however, who had reigned at Constantinople, still claimed the title of emperor; and the subjects of their fallen throne might have been moved to pity by the misfortunes of the elder Alexius, or excited to revenge by the spirit of Mourzoufle. A common interest and a common enemy, now induced the more recent usurper to unite with his predecessor. Mourzoufle was received with smiles and honours in the camp of his father Alexius ; but the wicked can never love, and should rarely trust their fellow-criminals ; he was seized in the bath, deprived of his eyes, stripped of his troops and treasures, and turned out to wander, an object of horror and contempt to those, who with more propriety could hate, and with more justice could punish the assassin of the Emperor Isaac and his son. As the tyrant, pursued by fear or remorse, was stealing over to Asia, lie was seized by the Latins of Constanti- nople, and condemned, after an open trial, to an igno- minious death. From the summit of the Theo Ionian column, a pillar of white marble of one hundred and forty-seven feet in height, he was cast down head- long, and dashed in pieces on the pavement, in the presence of innumerable spectators, who filled the forum of Taurus, and admired the accomplishment of an old prediction, which was fulfilled by this event. The fate of Alexius is less tragical. He was sent by the Marquis of Montserrat, a captive to Italy, and a gift to the king of the Romans. His daughter, how- (135) 136 THEODORE LASCARIS. ever, before the national calamity, had been given in marriage to a young hero, Theodore Lascaris, who continued the succession, and finally restored the throne of the Greek princes. After the capture of Constantinople, and the flight of Mourzotifie, he retired to Anatolia, and there, assuming first the title of despot, and afterwards of emperor, drew to his standard the bolder spirits who were fortified against slavery by the contempt of life; and as every means was lawful for the public safety, implored without scruple the alliance of the Turkish sultan. Nice, where Theodore esta- blished his residence, Prusa, and Philadelphia, Smyrna, and Ephesus, opened the gates to their deliverer. He derived strength and reputation from his victories, and even from his defeats; and the successor of Constan- tino preserved a fragment of the empire, from the banks of the Meander to the suburbs of Nicomedia, from the hands of the Latins. Another portion, distant and obscure, was possessed by the lineal heir of the Comneni, a son of the virtuous Manuel, a grandson of the tyrant Andronicus. His name was Alexius ; and the epithet of great was ap- plied perhaps to his stature, rather than to his exploits. By the indulgence of the Aneeli, he was appointed governor or duke of Trebizond : his birth gave him ambition ; the revolutiqn, independence ; and without chanuinir his title, he reigned in peace from Sinope to the Phasis along the coast of the Black Sea. The title of Emperor of Trebizond was first assumed by his grandson. In the west, a third fragment was saved from the common shipwreck by Michael, a bastard of the house of Angeli, who, before the revolution, had been known as a hostage, a soldier, and a rebel. He fled from the camp of the Marquis of Montserrat, married the daughter of the governor of Dnrazzo, succeeded him in the command of that place, assumed the title of despot, and founded a strong and conspicuous princi- pality in Epirup, .'Etolia, and Thessaly, which have ever been peopled by a warlike race. HENRY. 137 In the meantime, the Greeks, who had offered their services to their new sovereigns, were excluded by the ity Latins from all civil and military honours. Incensed at this treatment, and oppressed by the double weight of the priests vested with temporal power, and of the soldier inflamed by fanatic hatred, whoever was learned or holy, whoever \vas noble or valiant, removed to the independent states of Trebizond, Epirtis, or Nice, and held themselves in readiness to revolt. As long 1 as the crusaders were united at Constantinople, the memory of their conquest, and the terror of their arms, imposed silence on the captive land ; their dis- persion, however, betrayed the smallness of their num- bers, and the detects of their discipline; and some failures and mischances revealed the secret that they were not invincible. As the fear of the Greeks abated, their hatred increased. They murmured, they con- spired, and before a year of slavery had elapsed, they accepted the proffered aid of the Bulgarians. The Latins were attacked and defeated, and the emperor Baldwin taken prisoner. He soon after died in prison, and was succeeded on the throne of Constantinople by his brother Henry, who, aided by the fickle Greeks, soon defeated the Bulgarians, and concluded with them an honourable peace. Henry reigned ten years with courage and prudence, and dying in 1216, he was suc- ceeded by his brother-in-law, Peter of Courtenay, cousin to the king of France. The poverty of Peter, obliged him to attempt the journey from Durazzo to Thessalonica by land. He was soon lost in the mountains of Epirus. The passes were fortified against him by his enemies. His provisions were exhausted, he was delayed and de- ceived by a treacherous negotiation : and, after Peter and the Roman legate were arrested at a banquet, their followers, without leaders or hopes, were eager to ex- change their arms for the delusive promise of mercy and bread. The Pope thundered forth excommunica- tions against Theodore of Epirus, for the detention and imprisonment of his legate, while the emperor was 12* 138 CONSTANTINOPLE TAKEN. forgotten. No sooner was he satisfied by tho deliver- ance of the priest, and a promise of obedience, than lie pardoned and protected the despot of Epirus. His peremptory commands prevented the ardour of the Ve- netians and the king of Hungary, who wished to i liberate Peter, and it was only by a natural or untimely death that he was release i from his hopeless captivity. Constantinople remained subject to the L-Ums tinder the successive reigns of Robert, the success n- of Peter of Courtenay, John of Brienne, and Baldwin II., until A. D. 1261. At that perio.i, they were e.\pe!ie,i by Alexius Strategopulus, the general of .Michael Paia-o- logus, emperor of Nice. Alexius was a person of an illustrious family ; and for his envnent services, \vas distinguished with the title of Ca^ar. He had been sent against Alexius Angelus, despot of Epirus, who now attempted to reconquer some places in Thessaly and Greece from Michael Pateologus, one of the Greek emperors, that, since the capture of Constantinople, had kept their court at Nice ; and to try whether he could on his march surprise the imperial city itself. Alexius having passed the straits, encamped at a place called Rhegium, where he was informed by the natives that a strong body of the Latins had been sent to the siege of Daphnusa, that the garrison was in great want of provisions, and that it would be no difficult matter to surprise the city. Hereupon the Greek general resolved at all events to attempt it; in which he was encouraged by some of the inhabitants, who, coming privately to his camp, offered themselves to be his guides. He approached the walls in the dead of the night, which some of his men scaled without being observed ; and, killing the sentries whom they found asleep, opened the gates to the rest of the army. The Greeks rushing in, put all they met to the sword ; and at the same time, to create more terror, set fire to the city in four different places. The Latins, concluding from thence that the enemy's forces were far more numerous than they really were, did not so much as attempt either to drive them out, or FLIGHT OF BALDWIN'. ISO s. Flight of the Emperor Baldwin. to extinguish the flames. In this general confusion, the Emperor Baldwin, quitting the ensigns of majesty, tied with Justinian, the Latin patriarch, and some of his intimate friends, to the sea-side ; and there embarking in a small vessel, sailed first to Eubcea, and afterwards to Venice, leaving the Greeks in full possession of Constantinople. When news of this surprising and altogether un- expected success of Alexius were first brought to Palasologus, he could scarce give credit to it; but re- ceiving soon after letters from Alexius himself, with a 140 TRIUMPH OF PALJEOLOGUS. particular account of so memorable an event, he ordered public thanks to be returned in all the churches, ap- peared in public in his imperial robes, attended by the !id!.ll:ty in their best apparel, and ordered couriers to be despatched with the agreeable news into all parts of the empire. Soon after, having; settled his affairs at Nice, he set out for Constantinople with the empres.-, his son Andrc- nicus, the senate, and nobility, to take possession of the imperial city, and fix his residence in that place, that had originally been designed for the seat of the Eastern empire. Having passed the straits, he advanced to the golden gate, and continued some days without the walls, while the citizens were busied in making the necessary preparations to receive him with a magnifi- cence suitable to the occasion. On the day appointed, the golden gate, which had been long shut up, was opened, and the emperor enter- ing it amidst the repeated acclamations of the multi- tude, marched on foot to the great palace. He was preceded by the bishop of Cyzicus, who carried an image of the Virgin Mary, supposed to have been done by St. Luke, and followed by all the great officers, no- bility, and chief citizens, pompously dressed. Public thanks were again returned in the church of St. Sophia, at which the emperor assisted in person, with the clergy, the senate, and nobility. These exercises were succeeded by all sorts of rejoicings; after which the emperor carefully surveyed the imperial city. This survey greatly allayed his joy. He saw the stately palaces and other magnificent buildings of the Roman emperors lying in ruins ; the many capacious buildings that had been erected by his predecessors, at an immense charge, destroyed by fire, and other un- avoidable accidents of war; several streets abandoned by the inhabitants, and choked up with rubbish, &c. These objects gave the emperor no small concern, and kindled in him a desire of restoring the city to its former lustre. In the meantime, looking upon Alex- ius as the restorer of his country, he caused him to ALEXIUS EXALTED. 141 be clad in magnificent robes; placed with nis o\vn hand a crown on his head ; ordered him to be con- ducted through the city, as it were in triumph : de- creed that tor a whole year the name of Alexius should he joined in the public prayers with his own ; and, to perpetuate the memory of so great and glorious an action, he commanded his statue to be erected on a stately pillar of marble before the church of the Apostles. His next care was to re-people the city, many Greek families having withdrawn from it while it was held by the Latin?, and the Latins now preparing to return to their respective countries. The former were re- called home; and the latter, in regard of the great trade they carried on, were allowed many valuable privileges, which induced them not to remove. The Greeks were allowed to live in one of the most beauti- ful quarters of the city, to be governed by their own laws and magistrate, and to trade without paying cus- toms or taxes of any kind. Great privileges were likewise granted to the natives of Venice and Pisa, which encouraged them to lay aside all thoughts of re- moving, and the trade they carried on proved after- wards highly advantageous to the state. It was not long, however, before these regulations were altered. The emperor being soon after informed that Baldwin, lately expelled from Constantinople, had married his daughter to Charles kin? of Sicily, and given him, by way of dowry, the imperial city itself, he ordered the Genoese, who were become very nu- merous, to remove first to Heraclea, and afterwards to Galata, where they continued. As for the Pisans and Venetians, who were not so numerous and weal- thy, they were allowed to continue in the city. Palaeologus. though he had caused himself to be pro- claimed emperor, and was possessed of absolute sov- ereignty, was as yet only guardian to the young em- peror John Lascaris, then about twelve years of age. But having now settled the estate, and having gained the affections both of natives and foreigners, he began 142 CRUELTY OF PAL^OLOGUR. to think of securing himself and his posterity in the full enjoyment of the empire; and tor this reason cruelly ordered the eyes of the young prince to be put out, pretending that none but himself had any right to the city or empire of Constantinople, which he alone had recovered out of the hand of the Latins. This piece of treachery and inhumanity involved him in great troubles. The patriarch immediately excom- municated him ; and he would in all probability have been driven from the throne by a combination of the western princes, had he not engaged pope Urban IV. to espouse his cause, by promising to submit himself, and his dominions to the Latin church. Thus, indeed, he diverted the present storm ; but this proceeding caused the greatest disturbances, not only in Con- stantinople, but throughout the whole empire, nor was Palaeologus able to reconcile his subjects to this union. In 1283 Michael died, and was succeeded by his son Andronicus. His first step was to restore the ancient Greek ceremonies, thinking he could not begin his reign with a more popular act. But thus he involved himself in difficulties still greater than before. Though Michael had not been able fully to reconcile his Greek subjects to the Latin ceremonies, yet he had in some degree accomplished his purpose. The Latins had got a considerable footing in the city, and defended their ceremonies with great' obstinacy ; so that the empire was again thrown into a ferment by the imprudent step. XXI. WAR WITH THE TURKS. THEIR FIRST APPEAR- ANCE IN EUROPE. THEIR DEFEAT. CONSTANTINO- PLE BESIEGED BY I>AJ \ZET. BY A.MIRATH. B\' MOHAMMED. DEATH OF CO.XSTAXTIXE. CO.NSTAN- TINOPLE TAKEN BY THE TfRKS. ALL this time the Turks had been continuing their encroachments on the empire, which h;id it not been for the crusades published against them by the Pope, they would in all probability have made themselves masters of before this time. They were now how- ever, very successfully opposed by Constantine, the emperor's brother: but his valour rendered him sus- pected by the emperor; in consequence of which he was thrown into prison, along with several persons of great distinction. On the removal of this brave commander, the Turks, under the famous Othoman, made themselves masters of several places in Phrygia, Caria, and Bithynia ; and, among the rest, of the city of Nice. To put a stop to their conquests, the emperor despatched against them Philanthropenus and Libadarius, two officers of great experience in war. The former gained some advantage over the enemy ; but being elated with his success, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor. This rebellion, however, was soon suppressed, Philan- thropenus being betrayed by his own men : but the Turks, taking advantage of these intestine commotions, not only extended their dominions in Asia, but con- quered most of the islands in the Mediterranean ; and, being masters of the sea, infested the coasts of the empire, to the utter ruin of trade and commerce. From this time the Roman empire tended fast to dissolution. After the revolt of Philanthropenus, the emperor could no longer trust his subjects, and there- fore hired the Massagetes to assist him : but they, be- having in a careless manner, were first defeated by (143) 144 SUCCESS OF THE TURKS. their enemies, and afterwards turned their arms against those they came to assist. Hi- n<-.\t applied to the Catalans, who behaved in the same manner; and having ravaged the few places left the emperor in Asia, returned into Europe, and called the Turks to their assistance. This happened in the year 1292, and was the first appearance of the Turks in Europe. This enterprise, however, was unsuccessful. Having loaded thcm.-t Ivt's with booty, they offered to depart quietly if they were allowed a safe passage, and ships to transport them to Asia. To this the ernperor, willing to get rid of such troublesome guests, readily consented, and ordered the vessels to be got ready with all possible expedition. But the Greek officers observing the immense booty with which they were loaded, resolved to fall upon them in the night, and cut them all off at once. This scheme, however, was not managed with such secrecy but that the Turks had notice of it, and therefore pre- pared for their defence. They first surprised a strong castle in the neighbour- hood, and then found means to acquaint their country- men in Asia with their dangerous situation. Their brethren, enticed with the hopes of booty, were not long of coming to their assistance; and having crossed the Hellespont in great numbers, ravaged the adjacent country, making excursions to the very gates of Con- stantinople. At last the emperor determined to root them out ; and accordingly marched against them with all his forces, the country people flocking to him from all quarters. The Turks at first gave themselves over for lost ; but finding the Greeks negligent of dis- cipline, they attacked their army unexpectedly, utterly defeated it, and made themselves masters of the camp. After this unexpected victory, they continued for two years to ravage Thrace in the most terrible manner. At last, however, they were defeated ; and being after- wards shut up in the Chersonesus, they were all cut to pieces or taken. Soon after new commotions took place in this un- BAJAZET. 145 happy empire, of which the Turks did not foil to take advantairp. In 1327, they made themselves masters of most of the cities on the Masander ; and among the rest, of the strong and important city of Prusa, in Bitlrynia. The next year, hovveyer, Othoman, who may justly be styled the founder of the Turkish mo- narchy, being dead, the emperor laid hold of that op- portunity to recover Nice, and some other important places, from the infidels. But these were lost the year following, together with Abydus and Nicomedia : and in 1330, a peace was concluded upon condition that they should should keep all their conquests. This peace they observed no longer than served their own purposes ; for new commotions breaking out in the empire, they pursued their conquests, and by the year 1357, had reduced all Asia. They next passed the Hellespont under the conduct of Solyman, the son, or as others will have it, the brother of Orchanes, the successor of Othoman, and seized on a strong castle on the European side. Soon after the Turkish sultan died, and was suc- ceeded by Amurath. He extended the conquests of his predecessors, and in a short time reduced all Thrace, making Adrianople the seat of his empire. Amurath was slain by treachery in a little time after, and was succeeded by his son Bajazet. This prince greatly enlarged his dominions by new conquests. In a short time he reduced the countries of Thessaly, Macedon, Phocis, Peloponnesus, Mysia, and Bulgaria, driving out the. despots or petty princes who ruled there. Elated with his frequent victories, he began to look upon the Greek emperor, to whom nothing was now left but the city of Constantinople and the neigh- bouring country, as his vassal. Accordingly he sent him an arrogant and haughty message, commanding him to pay a yearly tribute, and send his son Manuel to attend him in his military expeditions. This de- mand the emperor was obliged to comply with, but -died soon after, in the year 1392. Manuel no sooner heard of his father's death than 13 146 RESIGNATION OF MANUEL. he histened to Constantinople, without taking leave of the sultan, or acquainting him with the reason of his sudden departure. At this Bajazet was so highly of- fended, that he passed with great expedition out of Bithynia into Thrace, ravaged the country adjoining to Constantinople, and at last invested" the city itself both by sea and land. In this extremity Manuel had recourse to the western princes ; who sent him an army of 130,000 men, under the command of Sigismund king of Hungary, and John count of Nevors. But though the western troops proved at first successful, they were in the end defeated with great slaughter by Bajazet, who then returned to the siege with greater vigour than ever. As he found, however, that the citizens were de- termined to hold out to the last, he applied to John, the son of Manuel's elder brother, who had a better title to the crown than Manuel himself. With him he entered into a private agreement, by virtue of which Bajazet was to place John upon the throne of Con- stantinople ; on the other hand, John was to deliver up the city to the Turks, and remove the imperial seat to Peloponnesus, which the sultan promised to relinquish to him and his posterity. At the same time he sent deputies to the inhabi- tants of Constantinople, offering to withdraw his army, and cease from further hostilities, provided they expelled Manuel and placed John upon the throne. This proposal rent the city into two factions ; but Manuel prevented the mischiefs which were ready to ensue, by a voluntary resignation, upon condition that he should be allowed to retire to whatever place he thought proper with his wife and children. With this condition John readily complied; and Manuel having received him into the city, and con- ducted him to the palace, set sail for Venice. From thence he went to the courts of all the western prin- ces to solicit their assistance against the Turks, whose power was grown formidable to all Europe. He was everywhere received with the greatest de ( monstra- AMURATH II. OVERRUN'S GREECE. 147 tions of esteem, and promised large supplies ; all Chris- tendom being now alarmed at the progress cf th|* infidels. In the meantime Bnjazet did not fail to put John in mind of his promise ; but the citizens refusing to comply with such a scandalous treaty, the siege was renewed, and the city assaulted with more fury than ever. When it was already reduced to the last ex- tremity, news was brought the sultan that Tamerlane, the victorious Tartar, having over-run all the East with incredible celerity, had now turned his arms against the Turks, and was preparing to break into Syria. Bajazet, alarmed at the danger that threatened him, raised the siege in great haste, and advanced against Tamerlane with a very numerous and well-dis- ciplined army ; but the Tartar totally defeated and took him prisoner, after having cut most of his men in pieces : and thus Constantinople was preserved for the present. But this relief was of short duration. In 1424 the city was again besieged by Amurath II. The in- habitants defended themselves with great bravery ; but must in the end have submitted, had not the emperor prevailed upon the prince of Caramania to countenance an impostor and pretender to the Turkish throne. This obliged Amurath to raise the siege, and march with all his forces against the usurper, whom he soon reduced. Having then no other enemies to contend with, he entered Macedon at the head of a powerful army ; and having ravaged the country far and near, he took and plundered Thessalonica, as he did also most of the cities of ^Etolia, Phocia, and Boeotia. From Greece he marched into Servia ; which country he soon reduced. He next broke into the dominions of the king of Hungary, and besieged the strong city of Belgrade; but here he met with a vigorous repulse, no fewer than 15,000 Turks being slain by the Chris- tians in one sally, which obliged the sultan to drop the enterprise and retire. In his retreat he was attacked by the celebrated 148 JOHN: HUN.MADES. John Hunniades, who cut great numbers of his men fin pieces, and obliged the rest to fly with precipita- tion. Not long after he gained a still more complete ^victory over the enemy in the plains of Transylvania, with the loss of only 3000 of his own men, whereas 20,000 of the Turks were killed on the field of buttle, and almost an equal number in the pursuit. Amurath, who was then at Adrianople, sent an army into Tran- sylvania far more numerous than the former ; but they were attended with no better success, being cut off almost to a man by the brave Hungarian. He gained several other victories no less remarkable ; but was at last entirely defeated in 1448 ; and with this defeat ended all hopes of preserving the Roman empire. The unhappy emperor was now obliged to pay an annual tribute of 300,000 aspers to the sultan ; and to yield up to him some strong holds which he still held on the Euxine Sea. However, as he doubted not but Amurath would soon attempt to become mas- ter of the city itself, he renewed the union between the Greek and Latin churches, hoping that this would induce the western princes to assist him in the defence of the city against the Turks. This union produced great disturbances, which the emperor did not long survive, but died in 1443, leaving the empire, now confined within the walls of Constantinople, to his brother Cons-tantine. Amurath, the Turkish sultan, died in 1450, and was succeeded by his son Mohammed. In the beginning of his reign he entered into an alliance with Constan- tine, and pretended a great desire to live in friendship with him and the other Christian princes ; but no sooner had he put an end to a war in which ho was engaged with Ibrahim, king of Caramania, than he built a strong fort on the European side of the Bospho- rus, opposite to another in Asia ; in both of which he placed strong garrisons. These two castles com- manded the straits ; and the former bein? but five miles from the city, kept it in a manner blocked up. This soon produced a misunderstanding between him and MOHAMMED S OPERATIONS. 119 the emperor, which ended in the siege of the city. The siege commenced on the 6th of April, 145:1 Mohammed's numerous forces covering the plains be- fore it on the land-side, and a fleet of three hundred sail blocking it up by sea. The emperor, however, had taken care to secure the haven, in which were three large ship-, twenty small ones, and a great number of galleys, by means of a chain drawn across the entrance. Mohammed began the siege by planting batteries as near the city as he could, and raising mounts in several places as high as the walls themselves, whence the besieged were incessantly galled with showers of arrows. He had in his camp a piece of ordnance of prodigious size, which is said to have carried a ball of one hundred pounds weight, made of hard black stone brought from the Euxine Sea. With this vast piece the enemy made several breaches in the walls; which, however, were repaired with incredible expedition by the besieged. But Mohammed, the- better to carry on the siege, caused new levies to be made throughout his extensive dominions, by which his army was soon increased to near 400,000 men ; while the garrison consisted only of 900'J regular troops, viz., 6000 Greeks, and 3000 Genoese and Venetians. As the enemy continued to batter the walls day and night without intermission, a great part of them was at last beaten down ; but while the Turks were busy in filling up the ditch, in order to give the assault, a new wall was built. This threw the tyrant into a prodigious rage, which was greatly heightened when he saw his whole fleet worsted by five ships, four of which were laden with corn from Peloponnesus, and the others with all manner of provisions from the isle of Chios. These opened themselves a way through the whole Turkish fleet ; and, to the inexpressible joy of the Christians at last got safe into the harbour. The Turks attempted ,<>vpral times to force the haven ; but all their efforts proving ineffectual, Mo- hammed formed a design of conveying eighty galleys 150 I'KOl'OSA!.- MADE. ever land for the space of eight miles into it. This he :,>d by means of certain engines, the con- trivance of a renegado; and having then eillier taken or ,-unk all the ships contained in it, lie caused a bruise to be built over it, with surprising expedition. J!y this means tlie city was laid open to an assault from that side likewise. The place was no\v assaulted on all sides ; and mime being well apprized that he could not lung 1 hold out against such a miglity ileet, and so numerous an army, sent deputies to Mahommed, offering to ac- knowledge himself Ins vassal, by paying him yearly what tribute he should think proper to impose, provi- ded he raised the siege and withdrew. The tyrant answered that he was determined at all events to be- come master of the city ; but if the emperor delivered it up forthwith, he would yield up to him Peloponnesus, and other provinces to his brothers, which they should enjoy peaceably as his friends and allies; but if he held out to the last extremity, and suffered it to be taken by assault, he would put him and the whole no- bility to the sword, abandon the city to be plundered by his soldiers, and carry the inhabitants into captivity. This condition was rashlv l>y the emperor ; who thereby involved himself and all his subjects in the most terrible calamity., The sie<), while Imt eighteen years old, and an- other, Benedict IX., in 10;];'.. a buy of twelve years, obtained the dignit}' of pope,) and even from the scandalous circumstance that, in 1045, three popes, chosen by means of bribery, were living together in Rome. The rudeness of the age concealed the scau- dal of such things. In the midst of all this darkness, a ray of light appears in the reign of the excellent Sylvester II., between 999 and 1003, who was one of the most learned men of his time, and whom the world re- garded as a magician. The troubles arising during the decline of the Carlovingian dynasty in France and Germany ottered an extensive and continually enlarging field of action to the ambition of the popes; and their dignity and independence of the nobles and people of Rome, which they had often lost during the contentions of factions, were; regained by the con- stitution of Nicholas II., in 10.V.I, placing the right of election to the papal chair in the hands of the cardinals, to the exclusion of the laity. After this, a succession of good rulers, of great talents and excellent character, sat upon what was then the first throne in Christendom ; Gregory VII, who surpassed them all in spirit and in power, and who began to carry through with wonderful perseve- rance, the project of universal dominion : Urban II., who was several times driven from Home by the anti- pope, Clement III., but who, from 1088 to 1099, ruled with extensive influence and extraordinary vigor ; Alexander III., who, during his reign, be- tween 1160 and 1181, survived two rivals, and over- came a third, who brought the kings of England and AGENTS OF THE PAPACY. 157 Scotland to unconditional obedience in religious mat- ters, who made the Emperor Frederic I. hold his stir rup, and confirmed the system of the election of popes; and Innocent III., whose rei.^n, between 111 - 1216, raised the papal see to the highest degree of power and dignity. What the popes in earlier times had only attempted in peculiar circumstances, these great men, so superior to their age, made tL tied usage, by a regular series of bold usurpations and persevering efforts. They united the clei western and central Eur ; to the papal see, by the introduction of a new form of oath, by the law of celibacy, and by the law of investiture, which broke the union of bishops with their tei. princes, and under Innocent III., w:.- a to a power of disposing, at pleasure, of all the iii benefices of the church. By means uf their i and nuncios, they obtained tin) bish >f de- ciding in ecclesiastical and matrimonial ali'airs. and the exclusive right of canonization ; und they thus made the popes the sole fountain of ecclesiastical dignity and power in western Christendom. By eventually assuming the sole rig;.: . ening councils and national syi. decrees 1 valid only by being ratified by the pope,) and by maintaining, with more and more boldness, their claims to infallibility, they at length obtained com plete dominion over the church. Of the orders of monks, especially of the mendicant orders, they created a spiritual army, who, having in their hands the inquisition, the right of hearing confessions, and of preaching, together with the public superintendence of schools and universities, became the most useful instrument of their policy, and one of the strongest supports of their power. The success of these advances towards unlimited spiritual dominion, gave them eurage to strive also after temporal power. But the claims of the popes to worldly dominion are of much later origin than the histories of the court of Home have maintained 14 158 POPES DEPOSE KINGS. Constantino the Great gave them merely some build* ings and estates in and near Rome. By the gift of Pepin, the pope obtained merely the dominium ntile, that is, the use of lands intrusted to him. In this way he became, in a manner, a vassal of the Frank- ish kings, and afterwards of the German emperors, who exercised, without opposition, the right of sove- reignty over the papal dominions, and, until the twelfth century, suffered no election of pope to take place without their ratification. Innocent III., first established the rule that Rome, the Marches, and the hereditary possessions of Matilda, should do him ho- mage, as lord paramount, in 1198; and thus van- ished the last shadow of the pOAver of the emperors over Rome and the pope. Favorable circumstances had already made several kingdoms tributary to the papal see. England, from the time of its conversion to Christianity, was thus depen- dent upon them ; in like manner, Poland and Hun- gary, from the eleventh century, Bulgaria and Ara- gon, from the beginning of the thirteenth, and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (whose Norman kings had been vassals of the pope,) from 1265, when Cle- ment IV. gave it to the house of Anjou through hatred towards the house of Hohenstaufen. Even the East would have fallen under the power of Rome, if the success of the crusades (which had given rise in the West to much confusion in regard to the rights of citizens and private property, and thereby pro- moted the influence of the pope) had been less transitory. Innocent III. dared to depose and pro- claim kings, as, for instance, John of England, and to threaten the whole world with excommu- nication. The emperor Otho IV. called himself such by the grace of God and of the pope. Kings vrere called " sons of the pope ;" and the fear of the terrible consequences of the interdict, which they pronounced, as vicars of Christ, upon disobe- dient princes and their kingdoms, the rebellious spirit of the barons, the ill-regulated constitution of FRANCE GOVERNS THE POPE. 159 States, and the groat want of laws, subjected the rulers of those times to the authority of a lord, whose court was the cradle of modern politics, and whose power and influence were irresistible, because sup- ported by public opinion and by superstition. It was with reason, then, that popery, at that time, was called a " universal monarchy ;" the cardinals being counsellors ; the legates in the different kingdoms of Europe, viceroys ; the archbishops and bishops, go- vernors and lieutenant-governors ; tin- priests, minis- ters of police and of the finances ; and the religious orders, the standing armu-s of the Hainan p who thus had al rvants of differ- ent ranks scatteivd am* ing the different nations, en- tirely devoted to his interest, and powerful by the arms of religion and fanaticism. In fact, this priestly go- vernment did good by accustoming the rude princes and people to laws and Christian manners ; and at a time when rights were first beginning to be under stood, its inconsistency with true independence was not felt. France alone, which had acquired more consis- tency and power than the other monarchies of Eu- rope, by the subjugation of the great vassals, and the reduction of their territories under the royal govern- ment, first successfully resisted the popes. In Philip the Fair, Boniface VIII., one of the boldest and ablest popes, found a master, and his successors, during their residence at Avignon, between 1306, and 1376, remained under French influence. The independence of the popes visibly suffered from the circumstance that they were now bound to a particular political party, though they continued to exercise, over all the Christian countries of the West, the power which their arts and perseverance had obtained. Their dig- nity sunk still lower when, in 1378, two rival popes appeared the Italian, Urban VI., and a count of Geneva, chosen by the French cardinals, who took the name of " Clement VII." Europe was divided by their quarrel, the Italian being supported by Italy, 160 ABUSES OF THE CHURCH. Germany, England, and the northern kingdoms; the French pope by Franco, Spain, Savoy, Lorraine, and Scotland ; and the schism long remained. The public sale of offices, the shameful extortions and the low artifices, which most of these rival popes used against each other, gave rise, in England and Bohemia, to much complaint, and to demands John Huss. for a reform in the state of the church. The council of Constance had, indeed, succeeded in putting an end to the great schism, by deposing both of the rivals; but pope Martin V., who was chosen, in 1417, in their place, did not correct the abuses which had grown up under his pri'd'Mvssors, and even the most express decrees for reform, passed by the council of Basle, were rendered nugatory by the artifices and EXTORTION OF THE POPES. 161 the perseverance of Eugene IV.. of the house of Ur- Bmi, who was pope between 14-". 1 and 1477. He had gained the friendship of Fi-.i;;-- . in 1-Kis, by the prag- matic sanction, which laid the foundation of the free- dom of the Galilean church ; and the negotiations of ^Eneas Sylvius, ambassador of Frederic III., with him and his su Ilont Nicholas V., a friend to ancient literature, and the protector of the learned exiles from Greece, effected the concordats of Vienna, in 144S. Why the grievances of the Ger- man nation were so little remedied by this instru- ment, while the interests of the pope were carefully attended to. the German ] . :n the eloquence of the canning negotiator JEneas Sylvius had induced to accept ir. i when he was chosen car- dinal, and, in 1458, pope, under the name of " Pius II." In this concordats, t! '.tained the con- firmation of the annates, of the right of ratifying the election of prelates, and among many other privi- leges, that of th lied, or the right of conferring 1 \vhich they exercised alternately with the f nt on the occurrence of vacancies, but on partirulai- months, of" which sis in every year were reserved to the pope. By a gene- ral extension of the privilege, to which, under differ- ent pretences, the other Christian kingdoms were obliged to submit, the popes, in the fifteenth cen- tury, had gone so far, that full half of the ecclesi- astical revenues of the West flowed into their coffers, under various pretences. Assistance against the Turks was the most common pretext ; but rarely were any of the immense sums thus collected so employed. It was necessary to buy the favor of the parties in Rome, among which the old families of Colonna and Ursini had long been rivals ; and so much was spent on their relations, that very little remained for the common good of Christendom. In care for his family, no pope ever surpassed Alexander VI., between 1492 and 1503, whose policy and whose private life were equally strangers to morality and religion. His sue- 14* 162 LEO X. ccssor, Julius II. between 1503 and 1-313, employed all bis powers in politics, and in a war with France, in which he commanded his own army, but was obliged to fly before Bayard. Fortunately for him and for his successor, Leo X., Maximilian I. was pre- \ vented by circumstances, and finally by death, from / Leo Tenth. uniting upon his own head the papal and imperial crowns. The circumstance that Austria, France, and Spain were fighting for Lombardy and Xaples, and, therefore, sought alternately the favor of the pope, had caused the latter to raise anew in political impor- tance towards the end of the fifteenth century ; but the spirit of the times was acquiring an irresistible strength, and the policy of Leo X. was of no avail THE REFORMATION". 163 against it. Luther, Zuinjliu?. and Calvin were the heralds of an opposition which tore almost half John Calvin. of the West from the popes, while the policy of Charles V. was at the same time diminishing their power. What the ages of ignorance had allowed to the pope, the council of Trent, indeed, now ratified ; and the society of the Jesuits came forward as the guards of his throne, striving to erase all traces of the refor- mation in the States which had remained Catholic, and to regain by missions among the heathen what had been lost in Europe : yet neither this new sup- port, nor the policy of artful popes, such as Clement VII., between 1523 and 1534 (whom Charles of Bour 164 DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. bon, the general of the Emperor, drove, in 1527, into thr eastle of St. Angdo. 1 ami Paul III., between 1">.'M and l.">l',t, who gained for his family I'ar.na and ./.a : nor the monkish devotion of Paul IV., be- t\vtvn I.VM and l.Vt',1; nor th.' tion of Pius IV.. between lf>.V.) and I !cd to grunt the cup to the Bohemian Hussites; nor the severity of Pius A"., between I'H'.M and ]~>~'2 (who of- fended both princes and people by his bull In Jhnnini, worthy of liis previous character as a proud Dominican, and furious per.-eeutor of beivties, al- though his severe austerity obtained him the honor of eanoniy.ation :) still less the useful activity of (ire- gory X11I., between ]~>7l2 and b"s,">. wlio iravt^ to the world the amended calemlar (Ure^-rian ;) the magna- nimity and wisdom < i ir>S,"i and the good Fortune of ('lenient VIII., (Aldobran- dini.) between \'>\ } '2 and lt't!">. who, in 1597, added Ferrara to : of the (."nurd: : the learni I'rban Vlll.. between !(>_:.", and li'! !. W!M added I'r- bino to his dominions, and obliged (Jalileo to abjure bis doctrine of the motion of the earth round the sun, could res! id authority of the papal throne. In vain did tli> employ the language of (Jregory VII. and .Inin.tvnt 111.; even in Catholic States, the distinction iVtween ecclesiastical and po- litical affairs had been perceived so clearly, that the influence of the popes upon the latter was now very limited. Since the middle of the sixteenth century, no German emperor had been crowned by a pope. The princes, who hail learned his policy, withdrew themselves from his authority. The national churches obtained their freedom, in spite of all opposition, and the peace of Westphalia, which the papal see never acknowledged, gave public legality, guarantied by all the powers of Kurope. to a svMeni of toleration which was in direct contradiction to the papal doctrines. Under such circumstances, the question no longei was, how to extend the papal authority, but how to MISFORTUNES OF THE POPES. 1G5 prevent its utter destruction ; and the vicar of Christ, who, when he i . servant of ser- vants, was lord of lords, was obliged to play the part of a suppliant, who claims compassion and toleration, rather thai: , took from the popes a considerable part of the Nether! their bulls were no longer of avail, beyond the States of the Church, without the consent of tin- am! the revenues from foreign kingdoms grew smaller and smaller. It :iiany, ..nd the excellent men who il chair in tlr tc'-nth i-fntiiry, th<- l'-t;r:i-o I/imbertini from 1" and the e i n and personal merit, the esteem which the other :!itily ciai: Still greater i: .non their \ 1.. from i77.". to 17 Til., L-OO to The first, after a bitter experience of t! the death of .! II. had inspired him with new hopes, was witness of the revolution, which tore from 'him the French church, and deprived him of hi.s dominions. The other was: ! freedom, and the possession of his il'n: :i equivocal concordate with Bonapar; 1, and by much .;al humiliation, an'! lost tli'T tin in H" owed his restoration, in 1814, not to the excommunication which he had pronounced against .on, but to a coalition of temporal | r amon^ whom were two heretics (the English and isrnatic 'the K theless, he not only restored the inquisition, the order of tl. religious orders, but advanced claims and principles entirely opp 1 the ideas and resolutions of his liberator. 1 -. Tli'- re- turn of this pope to the spirit of the eleventh and twelfth centuries agreed with what was always the 166 MENTAL RESERVATION OF THE POPES. principal maxim of the Roman court, " never to give up the slightest of its claims, but to wait only for op- Napoleon Bonaparte. portunities." When the archives of the popes were carried to Paris, in 1809, among other surprising things, a practice came to light which the popes had, of declaring null and void, by secret mental reserva- LIBERAL CONCESSIONS OF PIUS IX. 167 tion, the contracts which were made in public. Thua Alexander VII., February 18, 1664, made such a reservation with regard to the treaty of Pisa, of the 12th of the same month, and Clement XIII., Septem- ber 3, 1764, with regard to the banishment of the Jesuits from France. Pius VII. openly declared against the tolerance of the philosophic sects, against Bible societies, and translations of the Bible. Pius VII. w;-\- '! by Leo XII., who, in 1829, gave place to Pius VIII. Upon his death, Gre- gory XVI. was elected, and in 1847, he was succeeded by John de Ferrati, under the title of Pius IX., whose reign was destined to be signalized by many astonishing events. XXIII. LIBERAL CONCESSIONS OF Pics IX. REAC- TIONARY MEASURES. REVOLUTION. FLIGHT OF THE POPE. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC. SIEGE OF ROME RT THE FRENCH. CAPITULATION OF THE CITY AND RESTORATION OF THE POPE. FOR many years before the accession of Pius IX. there had existed an extensive and powerful organi- zation of liberals throughout Italy. Their objects were the union of the Italian States, and the estab- lishment of republican institutions. They had made numerous attempts at revolution but foreign bayonets had always been successfully employed to crush them, and many of their noblest spirits had become martyrs to their cause. They believed Pius IX. was favorably disposed towards them, and accordingly hailed his accession to the papal see with exultation. The new pope made some gratifying concessions to the liberal spirit which served to raise the popular expectations. Rome needed many reforms, and it REACTIONARY MEAS.I.T.E5. 168 was believed that Pius IX. was disposed to becomfl the chief of the reform party. Pope Pius IX. Suddenly, however, the pope changed his policy. He had granted the people a representative assem- bly ; but he now refused them the grand want the exclusion of the priests from a controlling influence in the temporal government. The pope was then de- nounced as a timid reactionary, and in the autumn of 1848, signs of an approaching revolution were manifest in Rome. On the 15th of November, the Chamber of Depu- ties was to open at one o'clock, and a large crowd was consequently assembled around the gateway of the Palazzo della Cancellaria. When Count Rossi, IXSURRFCTIOX AT ROME. 169 the prince. >ted. The haughtv 000 them with an exp; of .scorn, AvluToiipun a man rr.shed forward and plung dying man was taken i arciinal (ju'/.zoli, and in live . xpin-d. Tlii.s . ;;rs to have I Stated. But many of the Ko- man> applauded the murderer. Group Idiers and eiti;:en>, with lighted torche-. . '.ng the chorus along the streets. " Bencilftto quella mano :;aM." tyrant." The death of Ru-si was the sijrr.nl for an insurrec- tion, fur which ll'.iii:e was already predisposed. At half-past ten, A. M., on the 16th, a ^atiii'i-in^ in the great Pia?./.:i del Popu^ mena-.-inj: r!iar;i in the leading streets. The Civic Guards and I the line, in fragmentnr; .led with the people ; and the c;. uniform had hitherto been in- ;'.:e popul: .w for the tiiv. From the t'.'i 1 be Pincian Hill th" .-;". 'tutor could count nearly 20,000 It'. mans, in tinva-.i'i.inn; groups, and mostly armed. Printed pnpi-rs were banded eagerly about, all having the same purport, and con- tainii,. wing " 1'umlainental Points:" 1. Pro- mulgation and full adoption of Italian nationality. 2. Co;. and reali- zation of the Federal Pact. 3. Iti-ali/.ation of the vote for the war of independence given in the Cham- ber of Deputies. 4. Adoption, in its integrity, of the Programme Mamiani, 5th June. 5. Ministers who have public confidence Mamiani, Sterbini, Cam- bello, Saliceti, Fusconi, Lunati, Sereni, Galletti." The pope announced that he would not brook dic- tation ; whereupon, the armed mob attacked the pa- 15 FLIGHT OT THE POPE. 171 lace, and compelled Pius to yield the appointment of a popular mini- On receiving intelligence of these events, the Eng- lish admire r to Civita Yeccbia to re- ceive the pope, should he be a fugitive ; and the French government hastily despatched three steam- frigate?, with a force of 3500 men, to protect the pon- tiff. He does not appear, however, to have been ex- posed to any personal danger ; but being resolved not to give even the implied sanction of his presence to the ministry imposed upon him by the populace, he committed the fatal imprudence of quitting his dominions the signal for t: >n of his cardinals. The veteran, Lambruschtni, es the uniform of a dr.. while Pius fled in the less apj.r vant, to the Bavarian ambassador, and crossing the frontier, arrives . King of Naples received him with worshipful h< . Dei .-an ministry to solicit the pope'- were not even allowed to frontier. As the pon- tiff persisted in . the ministry to be illegal, and a --:-d by both Chambers. .ie pope of temporal power, and d . "f a "Pro- vison:. -rying on the government. that " The com- a shall discontinue its functions on the return of the sovereign pontiff, or when he shall himself ap- point, according to constitutional forms, a sul - of his own selection." Neither of these conditions being fulfilled, an a : .: the instance of the Junta, and in compliance with the demands of the people, convoki --sembly for the Rom;.. Chambers were then dissolved on the 29th of December. t evening, the Castle of St. Angelo, by the consecutive du : 101 great gun?, an- nounced to this metropolis and the world in general, 172 OVERTHROW OF THE PAPAL BY.VASTV. that the dynasty which had reigned over Rome for 1048 years had c<>me to a close, ami a now g ment was to bo called into bein^ by the mandate of the whole population assembled in a constituent re- lative body by universal The ;;reat bell of the capitol, which only tolls fur the death of a pealed solemnly. It was exactly on tl member, (the fatal night of the flight l' I'io . > that, in the year of our Lord 800, Charle- magne arrived in Home to be crowned on Cln-istmas day of that year, by Leo III., and to institu. Joseph Mazzini. formally corroborate the donation of Pepin, by the erection of the papal sovereignty. The Constituent Assembly comprised many able FRENCH EXPEDITION' AGAINST ROME. 173 members, and its proceedings were dignified and con- sistently liberal. As soon as it was ascertained that the pope not only would not return, but denounced the movement of the people, the Assembly proceeded to elect an executive Triumvirate. The wise and elo- quent Joseph Mazzini was the most active and influ- ential of the three men who exercised the executive power. The brave and patriotic General Avezzana was his valuable aid. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, treacherous to the principles of the French Bepublie, resolved to send an expedition to crush the Roman patriots and restore the pope's temporal authority. On the 22d of April, 1S49, a considerable French force, under General Oudinot, sailed for Italv, and after landing at Civita Vecchia, marched toward Rome. The troops had hitherto been kept in ranee of the object of the expedition. The p now issued a proclamation to them, stating ''that the government, being resolved to maintain in all quarters of the globe their old and legitimate influ- ence, would not allow the destinies of the Italian people to be at the mercy of a foreign power, or a part)- which is but a minority." The Romans knew that the statement of the French general was entirely unfounded. They acted with a resolution worthy their ancestors. On the 24th of April, the Constituent Assembly declared itself per- manent passed a resolution denouncing as a traitor any deputy who should desert his post despatched a protest to General Oudinot, and issued an address to the people. The members then declared that, while willing to receive the pope as head of the church, they had discarded his temporal sway. At the same time, they called upon the lately constituted Trium- virate to assist them in supporting the declaration. The people responded to the sentiments of their leaders. Men of all classes armed themselves, pri- vate houses were fortified, barricades thrown up, and every means taken to inspire a spirit of patriotic enthusiasm. " On the first sound of the alarm-bell," 15* 174 REPULSE OF THE FRENCH. says one of the placards, " the holy sacrament will be exposed in the principal churches, to implore the safety of Rome and the triumph of the good cause." On the 30th of April, the French arrived before the city. They found the citizen soldiery, under General Garibaldi, ready to receive them. While the French were planting their batteries and preparing for an assault, shuts -were Ihvd from the wall and adjacent . At halt-past ten, the attack commenced at the Porta Cavalleg-k-ri ; but so spirited was the re- sistance, that in less than two hours, Oudiuot's van- guard was driven hack. At that moment, a body of Roman troops, was thrown toward St. Paul's Church, while another body of armed citizens, carrying a red flag, hurried to defend the Porta ('avalleggieri. By noon, the French had posted their artillery upon a :i ; but Garibaldi attacked them at different points. A conflict with cannon, musketry, and rock- ets took place. At one o'clock, the assailants were silenced. The Triumvirate immediately published the following proclamation : " Romans, our honour is safe ; God and our mus- kets will do the rest energy and order. Be worthy of your fathers. Let no voice spread alarming news. Let no shot be fired in the direction of the city. Let every shot be for the en cany ; and let every one cry, Vicu hi Republicat" At two o'clock, the attack was renewed ; but after a spirited contest of two hours, the French were com- pelled to retreat. In the meantime, M. Frapold, the Roman envoy at Paris, protested in the name of his government, against the interference of the French in Italian affairs, declaring at the same time, that his govern- ment was willing to accept the mediation of France. He received answer, that as far as France was con- cerned, Rome was the pope ; and that France inter- posed to prevent too violent a revolution. The news of Oudinot's repulse threw Paris into an uproar, and gave great strength to the republican opposition to PROGRESS OF THE SIEGE. 175 Bonaparte's government. But the president declared that, since the Romans would not receive the French as friends, they should receive them as foes: and said he would send re-enforcements to General Oudi- QOt. On the 13th of May, the French army attempted to cross into Koine by a bridge, but the bridge was blown up, and the assailants desisted. General Ou- dinot then commenced a blockade. which was main- tained until early in June, at which time the French 'led. after hard fighting, in taking of Villa Pamfila, the church of St. Pancras. and other points. We condense from General Oudinot's official report the account of h tions up to the litli of June. " On the 4th," says the general, " at half-past eight in the evening, the trenches were opened at a distance of three hundred metres from the wall. At this part the ground i uneven. ;'ind covered with vines and hedges. The tracing of the parallel, and the distribution of the workmen, were very difficult : on some points the work could not be undertaken before midnight. At this moment 1 ordered a feigned attack on the side of Villa Pamfila. The result of this diversion sur- passed my hopes ; all the efforts of the Romans were turned toward the gate of St. Pancras, which they might suppose ; uslv menaced." The French continued their - with slow but sure success, until the I:? 1 !), when General Oudi- not announced to the Triu;u\ irate his intention to take the city by storm, lie was answered that the Vatican, St. Peter's, and the palaces of the nobility were mined mid charged with powder : and that be- fore the P -Iiould obtain entrance, the be- sieged would fire those works, and die amid their ruins. The attack was made on the 14th, and during that day and the next, the fire of cannon and mus- ketry was incessant : on the 15th. Garibaldi made a sortie with fourteen hundred men, but was driven back with loss ; yet after a continuous cannonade of 176 CAPITULATION' OF ROME. twenty-four hours, the French effected no available breach. General Oudinot continued his advances upon Rome until ' of -Jim?. Home spirited attempts were made upon separate points of the defences ; shells and other missiles wore thrown into the city ; and the garrison was repeatedly summoned to sur- render, lint notwithstanding the loss of their pro- perty. t!i ' i!. ^truction of many monuments of art, and their personal sufferings, the soldiery and inha- bitants still persisted in their resistance. Early in July, the Constituent Assembly unanimously voted the constitution of the republic, and ordered it to be deposited in the capitol. Th>>y also ordered funeral is to he celebrated in 5 ;i's for those who 'ien in defence of the republic. But it had now become evident that further resist- ance was useless. The French had surrounded the city ; their cannon pointed tow;: . populated rs ; the garrison, though determined, was small ; and an assault, 1>< ter, would in all probability terminate in the capture of the city and the ruin of some of its finest monu- ments of art. To pr. b a calamity, negotia- tions were opened with the French ; terms of c lation were signed; and, Rome opened her ga: French army. At the same time Garibaldi j through the city with ten thousand men, and suc- ceeded in effecting his escape. The Assembly an- nounced by proclamation the arrival of the French troops, and recommended abstinence from all ven- geance, denouncing it as useless and unworthy the dignity of Roman citizens. The French army en- tered, July 3, in the evening ; the soldiers cleared the streets of barricades, and by dark the troops were consigned to their various quarters. A new govern- ment was formed ; the troops were stationed in places favorable for suppressing disturbances : some compa- nies were despatched in pursuit of Garibaldi. The republic established by the Romans, having 1 178 RESTORATION" OF THE POPE. been thus overthrown by reckless invaders, the pope was invited to return to resume tho government ; but several months elapsed before he could be induced to go back among a people who detested his authority and watched constantly for an opportunity of throw- ing it off. lift now rules in Rome, supported by foreign bayonets, while the able and gallant republi- cans who were chosen to conduct the government aro in exile. Yet Mazzini remains the most powerful man among the Italians, although compelled to reside far from his native land : and he labors steadily for the accomplishment of the great object of his life the freedom of Italy. QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF PUPILS. I. Origin of the Romans. Founding of Rome. Establishment of the Government under Romulus, (p. 7.) FROM whom did the ancient Romans claim their origin? When, is the taking of Troy supposed to have happened ? Who founded the settlement of Alba ? When was Rome founded by Romulus ? What remarkable events took place in other parts of the world about the same time ? What was the form of the government established by Romulus? What was the senate? What were patricians and plebeians, patrons and clients ? What were the offices of the king and the senate ? What were the privileges of the people. II. The Kings of Rome, (p. 10.) In what manner did Romulus obtain wives for his subjects? What was the consequence of the seizure of the Sabine women ? Who governed the united Romans and Sabines ? What became of Tstius ? What was the fate of Romulus ?'llow long did he reign ? Who succeeded Romulus ? What was the nature of the government of Numa Pompilius, and the length of his reign ? What was the result of the war with Alba? What were the chief events in the reign of Tarquin, and what was his fate? What was the character of the second Tarquin ? What became of Tarquin and his family ? What hopes did he entertain I (179) 180 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. III. Formation of a Republic. Events to the Dictatorship of Cincinnatus. (p. 16.) What form of government was established after the expulsion of Tarquin ? What were the chief magistrates called? What conspiracy was formed in the consulship of Brutus ? What caused the appointment of a Dictator; and what was the nature of his office ? What gave rise to the appointment of Tribu.. the People? and what was the nature of this office? What was the story of Coriolanus ? What occasion ed the appointment of Cincinnatus as Dictator .' What was his success I How long did he hold office ? What is said of the senate ? IV. Laws of the Twelve Tables. Decemviri. Events to the Defeat of tke Gauls by Camillas, (p. 21.) What were the laws of the Twelve Tubles ? For what purpose were the Decemviri appointed ? How was Veii taken ] and by whom ? How was Camillas treated by the people, after his vic- tories ? When did these occurrences take place ? V. Wars with the Samnitcs with Pyrrhtis, king of Epirus and with the Carthaginians. Fall of Carthage, (p. In what wars were the Romans engaged, after the defeat of the Gauls? What were the chief occurrences in the war with Pyr- rhus ? When did the first war with Carthage break out ? What was the interval between the first and second Punic wars ? What conquests did the Romans make during that interval ? What caused the second war with Carthage ? What gave rise to the third Punic war? In what year did the destruction of Carthage lake place ? What were the extent and population of Carthage? VI. Conquests of IffR Romans. The Gracchi. The Cimbri and Teutonef. The Social War. Jlarius. Sylla. (p. 33.) What were the principal conquests made by the Romans, after the destruction of Carthage ? Who were the Gracchi ? When did the invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones take place ? What produced the Social War? and how was it terminated? What was the conduct of Marius, when he gained the advantage over the party of Sylla? Who was Sylla? How long was he Perpetual QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 181 Dictator ? and how did he pass the latter part of his life ? When did he die ? VII. Catiline's Conspiracy. The First Triumvirate. Civil War between C&sar and Pompey. (p. 38.) What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, and its result > What proposal did Cn?sar make to Pompey and Crassus ? and what steps did they take in consequence of it? How did the war between C;esar and Pompey arise? What was the fate ot" Pom- pey ? How did Caesar act towards Pompey 's murderers ? What did he order ? VIII. Events from tiie Defeat of Pompey' s Party to the Death oj Antony, (p. 42.) What happened to Cssar while lie remained in Egypt? What was his last military expedition ? In what year did the death of Caesar take place ? What took place in Rome in consequence of Caesar's murder ? In what year did the battle of Philippi take place? Who took the command against Antony, when war was declared against him by the senate ? What took place at the bat- tle of Actium ? What was the fate of Antony, and that of Cleo- patra ? When did she die ? IX. Augustus. Tiberius. Caligula. Claudiu*. (p. 50.) In what year did Octavius become emperor? When did Au- gustus close the temple of Janus ? What was the meaning of that ceremony ? What great event took place in Judaea during this period of universal peace ? What was the fate of Quintiliui Varus? What was its effect on the mind of Augustus ? Who were Tiberius and Drusus ? How did Caligula govern at the be- ginning of his reign ? What remarkable instances are mentioned of his extravagance, rapacity, and cruelty ? \|"hat was his fate ? How old was Claudius when he began to reign? What was the character of Agrippina ? What caused the death of Claudius? When did he die ? X. Nero. (p. 59.) Who succeeded Claudius ? What remarkable event happened in the eleventh year of Nero's reign ' How did Nero act during 16 182 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. the burning of Rome ? How were the Christians treated ? What were the circumstances attending the death of Nero ? When did he die ? XI. Galba. Otho. Vitellius. (p. 64.) How old was Galba when he began to reign ? How did Otho begin his reign ? Who was proclaimed emperor on the death of Otho ? How did Vitellius act on his entrance into Rome ? What was his character? What were the circumstances of the death of Vitellius? When did he die? How long did he reign ? XII. Vespasian. Titus. Domitian. (p. 68.) Who was proclaimed emperor after the death of Vitellius ? How did Vespasian reign ? What remarkable events took place during his reign ? How long did he reign ? and by whom was he succeeded? What was the character of Titus ? What calamities happened in Italy during his reign ? What great writer perished in consequence of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius ' How long did Titus reign ? Who succeeded Titus ? What was the charac- ter of Domitian ? How did Domitian treat the Jews and Chris- tians ? What were the circumstances of Domitiari's death ? Whom did the senate choose for his successor ? XIII. Nerva. Trajan. Adrian. Antoninus Pius. Marcus Aurcliui. Commodus. (p. 72.) Of what country was Nerva ? and what was his character? Of what country was Trajan ? What was his chief failing ? and what were its consequences? In what manner did he treat the Chris- tians ? By whom was he succeeded ? What was Adrian's cha- racter? What did Adrian do during his residence in Britain? What put a stop to the persecution of the Christians ? By whom was Adrian succeeded ? What was the character of Antoninus Pius ? What name did Marcus Aurelius assume on succeeding to the empire ? Whom did he join with him in the government? In what year did Marcus Aurelius die ' What was the character of Commodus? What was his fate ? How long did he reign ? XIV. Emperort from Pertinar, to Probus. (p. 78.) Who was chosen emperor on the death of Commodus ? What was the cause of his death ? Who succeeded Pertinax ? In what QVEST1ONS FOB EXAMINATION. 183 manner did Didius Julianus obtain the empire ? How did he govern ? What was his fate ? How old was Septimius Severus when he became emperor ? What was the character of Severus 1 Who succeeded him I What became of Geta ? What was the character of Carscalla ? What was the manner of his death ? W T ho succeeded Caracalla ? W T ho succeeded Macrinus \ What was the character of Heliogabalus ? and what became of him ? Who succeeded him ? What was the character of Alexander Severus I How did he treat the Christians ? What was his fate ? Who succeeded Alexander Severus ? What was the character of Maximinus ? Who were the successive emperors down to Vale- rian ? How many pretenders to the empire were there at one time, during the reign of Gallienus ? Who succeeded Gallienus ! How did Flavius Claudius conduct himself? What caused the death of Aurelian ? For what was Probus distinguished ? What was the manner of his death ? How long did he reign ? XV. From Probus to the Fall of the Empire, (p. 83.) Who succeeded Probus ? What was the fate of Carinus and Numerianus ? W T hat were the chief events of Dioclesian's reign ? When did the accession of Constantine take place ? What other memorable circumstance took place in his reign ? Against what nation did Constantius undertake an expedition ? For what act is the memory of Julian most remarkable ? What became of him ' What remarkable act did Jovian perform? Who succeeded Jovian ? What great event took place in the reign of Valen- tinian ? Whom did Gratian make his partner in the government ' W T hat became of the usurper Maximus ? Who succeeded Theo- dosius in the western, and who in the eastern empire? Who invaded the empire on the death of Theodosius? When did Honorius die ? and how long did he rei^n ? Who invaded the empire in the reign of Valentinian ? What became of Aetius? What was the fate of Valentinian ? Who invited Genseric, king of the Vandals, to invade Italy ? and for what reason ? Who suc- ceeded Maximus? By whom was Avitus deposed? Who go- verned Italy on the deposition of Avitus ? Who was afterward* raised to the empire ? In what year did Majorian become empe- ror Z What were the chief events of his reign ? Who assumed 184 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. the government after his death? What induced Ricimer to ap- ply fur assistance to the emperor of the East? Whom did Leo, the Eastern emperor, make emperor of the West ? What became of Anthemius? What were the names of the last emperors of the West? What produced the dethronement of the last emperor, and the fall of the empire ? XVI. The Eastern Empire from Baslliscus till the Fall of Belisarius. (p. 96.) Who now usurped the EisJcrn empire? Whither did Zeno fly ? By whom was he pursued, and with what success ? By what means was he restored to the throne? What became of Basiliscus ? When did this happen ? What calamity occurred at Constantinople during this usurpation ? What was the course of Zeno's after life? \Vhat was his success in the war with the Os- trogoths ? What prevented the Ostrogoths from besieging Con- stantinople ? When did Zeno die ? What was now the state of the Roman empire? What were the principal causes of this de- cline? When did Justin ascend the throne? With whom did he engage in war? Who was Justinian ? When did he ascend the throne? Give an account of the battle of Dara. Who com- manded the Roman army ? What was his success in the next campaign ? When was peace concluded ; and on what terms ? Give an account of the tumult which happened at Constantinople about this time. Who saved the empire ? What was done by Belisarius? What was the fate of the usurper? Whntwasdone by Belisarius in Africa ? Describe his triumph. What was the conduct of Gelimer? How was Belisarius rewarded for his ser- vices in Africa ? Against whom was he sent in 537 ? What was his success? How was he -received at Rome' How did the Goths spend the winter? What rendered the approach of the Goths to Rome easy' Into what danger did Belisarius fall? Describe the combat Of what imprudence were the Romans guilty? What was the consequence? How did the Romans finally triumph? How did the Goths advance to the assault of the city? How was the defence commenced? What followed this exhibition of the skill of the Roman general ? How did Vitigea continue the assault? What was the conduct of Belisarius T What the remit of the attack ? What was afterwards the charac- QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 1S5 ter of the Gothic operations ? How long was the sie^e main- tained ? What hastened the retreat of Vitiges ? Describe his re- treat What is known of the strength of this flying army ? By whom was Rimini defended ? What forced the Goths to raise the siege of Rimini? How did Vitiges escape? What occasioned the recal of Belisarius from Italy ? What were the terms of t'ne peace concluded with Persia? What caused the renewal of the war? How long did it continue? How did the emperor then purchase peace ? \Vhat other enemy now approached Constanti- nople ? What was the last exploit of Belisarius ? What means did the emperor take to prevent the Huns from again invading the empire ? What happened to Belisarius on his return ? What happened in the year 565 ? W'hen did Justinian die ? When was Italy conquered by the Lombards ? How long did they hold it? What in some measure compensated the Romans for the loss of Italy ? To what did the revolt of the Persamenians lead ? Bj whom were both nations reduced ? When did the Saracens at- tack the Romans? What was their success during the first four years of the war ? Of what places were they the masters in 648 ? On what terms did they conclude a peace ? What was the suc- cess of the expedition against the Lombards? What was done by the Saracens in 671 ? What place did they besiege the next year ? Were they repulsed ? On what conditions was a peace concluded ? For what time ? XVII. The Bulgarians and Saracens invade the Empire, (p. 109.) What new enemy now invaded the Roman empire ? How did the emperor avoid the war ? W r here did they settle ? When and in what way did the emperor violate the treaty ? What success attended him? When was Justinian II. deposed? Whither did he retire ? How was he received ? How did he repay the hos- pitality of the Bulgarians? What was his success this time? How long did the Bulgarians continue their inroads? How did tlu>y treat the garrison of Sardica? Who marched against them ? What was his conduct in Bulgaria? How did these cruelties affect the king ? How did the emperor receive his proposals for a peace? What was the consilience ? Who succeeded N'ice- phonis ? How did he carry on i/,c Bulgarian war? When were tl.tv Mta< !; i by B^s.lius II. ' Who governed the Bulgarians then? 10* 185 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. Who was sent against him ? Where did Uranus come up with the enemy ? How did he succeed in surprising them ? What did he effect ? How did Samuel escape ? What was done by the emperor in the following year? Into what areat danger did he soon after fall ? How was the Roman army relieved ? How did the emperor treat his prisoners? What was the effect of this cruelty upon Samuel? How was Bulgaria finally conquered? Who of the royal family refused to submit ? Who undertook to secure him? In what way did he accomplish it? How did he save himself from the just fury of the people ? How was he re- warded by the emperor? How was he received at Constantino- ple ? What rendered the Saracens less formidable at this time than formerly? XVIII. The Turks invade the Empire, (p. 114.) When did the Turks invade the empire? Give an account of their origin. What was the effect of the victory of Tangrolipix over the Persians ? What country did Tangrolipix then annex to his dominions ? What was done by Cultu-Moscs ? With what success did the Turks meet in Arabia ? What in Media ? What place was besieged by Tangrolipix ? How was it reduced ? What was the result of the battle between the Romans and Halim? Who was taken prisoner I What was consequently done by the emperor ? How were the Tnrkish ambassadors received at Con- stantinople ? What was the, consequence ? Describe the siege of Alcan ? What was done by Tangrolipix the next spring? Why were the frontier provinces of the Roman empire unable to defend themselves? When did Constantine Ducas die? To whom did he leave the empire? Who was appointed regent! Under what oaths ? What was done by the Turks when they heard of his death ? Why was Eudoxia unable to oppose the Turks 1 In what way did she determine to avert the evils which threatened her ? Relate the story of Romanus Diogenes. How did Eudoxia procure her absolution from the oath imposed on her by Constantine ? How did the patriarch proceed ? Whom did the empress marry? What was his conduct on being raised to absolute power? With what success did he meet as he was returning ? What did he do in the following year ! How did the Armenians aid him? \1hat occurred in the following spring? QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. H7 Mow w.is Rotnanns treated by Axan ? What news did he hearon his w.iy to Constantinople ? To what place did he retire ? Who was stiit against him? How did he succeed in his enterprise? How did John treat the captive Romanus? What was then done by Aian? What drew the attention of John Ducas frnm the Turkish invasion ? What was the result of the engagement with the rebels I What division now existed in the Turkish empire? To what agreement did the two princes Bnallvcome ? What was their united success in the invasion of the Roman empire? What was the condition of the empire during this time ? Who became emperor in 1077? What did he do before selling out against the Turks? Why did he conclude a peace with the Turks? A/.Y. The Eastern Empire until the plundering of Constantino- ple by the Latins, (p. 124.) Who was Robert Guiscard ? What was his character? Give an account of his actions before his invasion of the Eastern em- pire. What led him to that invasion? Who opposed him at Du- razzo ? Describe the sea-fight. What calamities befel the be- siegers? Who attempted to relieve the city? Give an account of his defeat. What was the result of the siege? To what place did Bohemond next lay siege ? What obliged him to return to Italy? How did Alexius take advantage of his absence? What naval engagements ensued? What put an end to the war? Relate the events of the first year of the Scythian war. Of the second year The third. The fourth. When did they again invade the empire? What was their success? What now threatened the ruin of the Turkish nation? What prevented the complete suc- cess of the Crusaders? Who succeeded Alexius Comnenus? What was his character and that of his government ? To what object did he direct his arms ? With what success ? Relate the manner of his death. Who succeeded him ? Who was thrown into prison by John? How long was he there confin. what means did be secure the society of his wife? By what means did he at length escape from prison ? Where was he re- captured, and how did he manage to extricate himself? How did he obtain his pardon from Manuel? What was his conduct on the death of Manuel? By whom was he deposed ? Relate the manner of his death. Who succeeded to the throne of Trebitond 188 QUESTIONS FOtt EXAMINATION. and Constantinople? What happened at Constantinople in 1203! What occasioned it, and what was its effect ? Who succeeded Isaac Angelas ? In what way did John Ducas usurp the throne? What was now determined upon by the Latins? When did they make a general assault on the city ? With what success? When did they renew the attack? Describe the capture of Constantino pie by the Latins ? What happened on the next day ? What be- came of Mourzoufle ? XX. The Eastern Empire from the Capture of Constantinople by the Latins till the accession of Andronicus to the throne, (p. 135.) Who was elected emperor by the Latins ? What was the fate of Mourzoufle? Of Alexius? Who was Theodore Lascaris ? What fragment of the empire did he preserve ? By whom was Tre- bizond preserved? What was saved by Michael Angelus? How were the Greeks treated by the Latins ? To what places did they withdraw ? What was done by the Bulgarians ? Who succeeded Baldwin? When did Henry die ? Who succeeded him? What happened to Peter in Epirus ? How long did Constantinople re- main subject to the Latins ? By whom were they expelled ? What led him to attempt the capture of Constantinople? What was his success? What was the conduct of Baldwin? How did the Emperor Pakeologus receive the news? Describe his progress and triumph ? What allayed the joy of the emperor? How did he reward Alexius ? What, means did he take to re-people the city ? What caused an alteration in these regulations ? By what act of inhumanity did Palaeologus endeavour to secure the throne to himself? In what troubles did this treachery involve him How did he succeed in diverting the storm for a time? When did he die; and by whom was he succeeded ? How did Andronicus immediately throw the empire into another ferment? XXI. Another War toith the Turks, whofnally capture Constan- tinople, and put an end to the Eastern Roman Empire, (p. 143.) How had the Turks carried on the war ? What places did they capture? Who was sent against them ? What was the conduct of Philanthropenus? What was the effect of that revolt upon the emperor? Whom did he hire to assist him? What was the conduct of the Massagates and the Catalans ? When did th QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 189 Turks first make their appearance in Europe ? What prevented them from retiring to Asia ? How were they finally rooted out ? What conquests did the Turks make hi 1327 ? When and upon what condition was a peace concludi.-d ? When did the Turks again commence hostilities ? How did Amurath extend the con- quests of his predecessors? By whom was he succeeded ? What conquests did Bajazet make? What message did he send to the Greek emperor; Was he obliged to comply? What induced Bajazet to besiege the city? Who came 10 the assistance of Manuel? What agreement did Bajazet make with Manuel's nephew? What message did he send to Constantinople? How did Manuel prevent the mischiefs which were likely to ensue? What did Manuel then do? How did John keep his promise? How was Constantinople preserved for a time ? Wht-n and by whom was the city again besieged ? What obliged him to raise the siege? What places were next plundered by Amurath? How was he received at Belgrade ? By whom was he attacked in his retreat ? What successes did Hunniades pain in Transyl- vania ? What happened to him in 1448? How did the emperor now endeavour to secure the safety of the empire ? When did the emperor die ? By whom was he succeeded ? When did the sultan die ? By whom was he succeeded ? What led to the siege of Constantinople by Mohammed? When was the siege com- menced? How did the emperor secure the haven ? How did the eultan commence the siege ? What was the force of the besiegers ? What that of the besieged ? What enraged the sultan, and brought joy to the Christians ? How did Mohammed gain command of the haven ? What offer was made by Constantine ? What by Mo- hammed ? Was either of them accepted ? What happened in the Turkish camp on the 25th of May ? How were the mutineers appeased ? How did Constantine answer the summons to sur- render ? What was the plan of attack, and when did it commence ? Describe the assault. What was the fate of Constantine ! What was the conduct of the Turks after all opposition had ceased ? How did a few of the inhabitants contrive to escape? How long was the pillage and massacre continued ? When did Mohammed make his triumphal entry into Constantinople ? Of what empire has it since been the capital ? 190 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. XXII. Foundation of the Papal dominion, and succession of the Popes, (p. 15-1.) "When was Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the Romans ? What new power had gradually arisen in Rome ? What rank had the bishop of Rome held from the end of the fourth cen- tury ? How did the popes obtain jurisdiction over foreign dioceses ? What did the synod of Sardica and Valentinian III. acknowledge ? Until what period did the measures of the popes meet with violent opposition ? What circumstance opened the way to the supreme control of the papal power over the churches ? What is said of Gregory I. ? Of Leo III. ? What is said of the story of the female pope, Johanna, or Joan ? What victory did pope Nicholas I. achieve? What did pope John VIII. do with the imperial crown? When? During what period was the papal see extremely corrupt ? What concealed the scandal of its deeds? What is said of pope Sylvester II.? What troubles opened a field for the am- bition of the popes ? By what constitution did they establish their independence of the people of Rome? What is snid of Gregory VII. ? Of Urban II. ? Of Alexander III. ? What is said of Innocent III. ? How did the great popes unite the clergy of western and central Europe to the papal see? What did they obtain by means of legates and nuncios ? How did they gain complete dominion over the church ? How did they use the orders of monks ? What did Pepin, king of the Franks, grant to the pope? What did the pope become in consequence? What rule did Innocent III. establish in 1198? What kingdom became tributary to the papal see ? What pope first dared to proclaim and depose kings ? What did the emperor Otho IV. call himself? What new titles were given to kings? Why was popery called universal monarchy in the day of Innocent III. ? How did this priestly government do good ? What kingdom first successfully resisted the authority of the popes ? In whom did Boniface VIII. find a master ? Daring what period did the popes remain under French influ- QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 191 encc? What two rival popes appeared in 1378? What countries became involved in the struggle ? What abuses gave rise to much complaint? How was the great schism ended ? Were the abuses corrected ? Who rendered decrees of reform nugatory ? How did he gain the friendship of France ? Who effected the coneordate of Vienna ? Who was chosen pope in 1458 ? What privileges did the popes obtain by the coneordate of Vienna? What was the common pre- text for extortion ? What rival parties compelled the popes to purchase their favor ? What is said of pope Alexander VI. ? How did Julius II. employ his powers ? Who sought to unite the papal and imperial crowns? Did he succeed? What circumstance increased the political importance of the pope towards the end of the fifteenth century? Who now headed an opposition to the papal authority ? What did the council of Trent ratify ? What society appeared as guards and mis- sionaries of the pope ? What is said of Clement VII. ? What territories did Paul III. gain for his family ? What act of moderation did Pius IV. perform ? What is said of Pius V. ? What great work did Gregory XIII. give to the world? What state was added to the papal dominions by Clement VIII. ? What is said of Urban VIII. ? Did these great men restore the old papal authority ? What circumstances diminished the political power of the popes? What creed took from the popes a considerable part of the Netherlands ? How were their bulls treated ? Where did the popes become objects of ridicule? What is said of Lambertini and Ganganelli? What misfortunes befell Pius VI. ? How did Bonaparte humiliate Pius VII. ? To whom did he owe his restoration ? What measures did he then adopt? What was the principal maxim of the Roman court? What practice of the popes was dis- covered in 1809 ? What instances of mental reservation on the part of the popes are mentioned ? What intolerant de- claration did Pius VII. put forth ? Who succeeded him ? Who succeeded Pius VIII. ? When, and under what title, did John de Ferrati succeed to the papal chair ? 192 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. XXIII. The Revolution ,.f lS4S-'49. (p. 167.) What wore the objects of t!i-> liberal organization in Italy? What success had the attempts of the liberals at revolution met with ? How did they regard Pius IX. ? What did the pope grant ? What did he refuse ? How was he then stig- matized ? When and where did a crowd assemble in Rome ? How did Count Rossi treat the people ? What was the imme- diate consequence ? What chorus was then sung in the streets? For what was the death of Rossi the signal? How did the revolution commence? What points of concession did the people demand ? What did the pope announce ? What was Pius IX. compelled to grant? AVhat rnensures did the English and French adopt for the protection of the pon- tiff? To what measure did the pope and his cardinal now have recourse? By whom was Pius IX. entertained ? Who solicited his return ? What act was passed by the Chambers upon the pope's refusal ? What legislative body succeeded the Chambers ? How was the termination of the papal dy- nasty announced ? What event had occurred on the 24th of November, 1800 ? What kind of an executive did the Assem- bly elect? Who was the most active member of the Trium- virate ? What general was his aid ? Who resolved to crush the Roman republic ? When did the French expedition sail ? Who commanded the forces ? Where did they land? What did Oudinot state in his proclamation ? How did the Romans act ? What measures did the Assembly adopt on the 24th of April? How did the people act? When did the French arrive before the city ? Who commanded the Romans ? De- scribe the attack at the Porta Cavallagieri ? What was the result ? What proclamation was now issued by the Trium- virate ? Who protested against the interference of the French in Italian affairs ? What answer did he receive? What de- claration did President Bonaparte now make ? What occurred on the 13th of May ? What did Gen. Oudinot then commence? How long was the blockade maintained? What occurred on QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 193 the 4th of June? When did the French general announce his intention of taking the city by storm ? What was the reply of the Triumvirate ? AVhat occurred on the 14th? What sortie was made on the loth ? Until what time did General Oudinot continue his advances upon Rome ? How did the Romans sustain the attack ? What did the Constituent As- sembly vote in July ? Why were negotiations opened ? What was the result? Who escaped? What did the Assembly announce ? When did the French army enter Rome ? What followed ? How long was it before the pope could be induced to return to Rome ? What is said of his authority? What is said of Mazzini ? IICSB LIBRARY"