LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. RECEIVED BY EXCHANGE Class 'A'H - '3SI13VHAS $ The Pedagogy of College Ethics BY EDMUND S. CONKLIN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS., IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, AND ACCEPTED ON THE RECOMMENDATION OF G. STANLEY HALL Reprinted from the PEDAGOGICAL SKMINAKV December, 1911, Vol. XVIII, pp. 421-474 The Pedagogy of College Ethics BY EDMUND S. CONKLIN . A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OP CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS., IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, AND ACCEPTED ON THE RECOMMENDATION OF G. STANLEY HALL Reprinted from the PEDAGOGICAL SEMINARY December, 1911, Vol. XVIII, pp. 421-474 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS By EDMUND S. CONKLIN I ETHICS AND THE COLLEGE YOUTH The fire of moral reform which swept through the country leaving in its path the scare heads of the muck-raker, the renovated departments of government, and the investigated public servant and interstate corporations, has been followed and supplemented by the wave of reform and investigation for business efficiency and efficiency standards. The one is the complement of the other, if they are not identical in func- tion. Moral enthusiasm bent on the suppression of vice in all forms of life increases efficiency; and conversely, the in- crease of efficiency eliminates immorality. Hence the enthu- siast for either morals or efficiency cordially welcomes the work of the other. The wave of moral reform has struck the school, demanding appreciation of responsibility for the moral integrity of the coming generation. And the school is trying to respond. Opinions and experiments galore are re- ported; France is claiming to be well on the road to the solution of the problem of secular moral education ; and the eyes of moral educators are turned with expectation and interest to the efforts of Japan. President Hall, after an exten- sive review of the literature on moral education in the public school,- states that there is no agreement and thus far no accepted solution of the problem (34. Vol. i. Chap. 5). The value of the various schemes has yet to be ascertained. Much of the force of this storm of criticism has fallen upon the college course in ethics. Where it has not been struck directly, it has been severely jarred, for it is inevitable that immoral conditions of college life and moral inefficiency of the college product should reflect upon the course in ethics. Perhaps the criticism may not be wholly justifiable, because 236735 422 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS many never take this course, and because there are so many other factors to build up or break down the moral life of the college student. Yet it has forced the teacher of ethics to many a heart searching with the result that many reforms have been attempted ; and it is sure to cause a careful consideration of the proper content and the function of the ethics course. At present we have no scientific pedagogy of college ethics ; only a vast collection of old line texts, a few attempts at an im- proved text, a considerable literature of criticism; and a smaller literature reporting methods tried and suggestions for improvement based on an intimate knowledge of the needs and capacities of the college adolescent. The teaching of ethics and the cultivation of the moral life may never be reduced to an exact science, nor even as approximately exact as the teaching of other subjects, for the large part of morality is below the threshold of consciousness and many other factors than the class room affect it; but the fact that greater effi- ciency has been attained in some cases indicates that the methods of the many may be improved and that a thorough understanding of the needs and capacities of the adolescent plus a knowledge and control of the moral influences of col- lege life will produce a course in ethics the content of which and the teaching of which will be a tremendously effective part of the moral development of the student. The complexity and the seriousness of the problem must be appreciated. The teacher who knows his problem sees per- fectly well that restrictions of college life cannot and must not be so close as those of the home and preparatory school. Dean Briggs of Harvard calls attention to the protest on the part of the preparatory school teacher that students who under him have been exemplary in conduct for several years break down in a few months after entering college, and re- plies that something must be wrong with the preparatory methods if the student cannot stand up under the new con- ditions more than a few months. The blame falls not entirely on the college. Freedom of life in college is necessary as a preparation for the greater freedom of life after college. The adolescent must gradually learn to depend on himself and whether in college or not the process is at best a danger- ous one. A side light is thus thrown on the importance of some degree of self-government in preparatory school days. In a sense the college does stand in loco parentis, but even in the best ordered home the parental control begins to relax in these years. When a boy enters college he begins a new mode of life which immediately makes a deep impression upon him. The emotional change and excitation is tremendous THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 423 and for a time more important than what he learns of an in- tellectual nature. There is the thrill of realization of the desires of years or months of anticipation. At last he is a " college man." It is incumbent upon him to adopt the ways of a " man." And here is danger. There is to be change, there must be change, but in what direction shall the change be, and can the course in ethics direct it? In part the ethics taught can direct the change, but apart from some talks on hygiene in Freshman year the ethics rarely comes before Junior or Senior year. Much of the moral education must and will come from the contact with others, and from that vague but real thing termed " college spirit." The nature of that spirit is all important and it may be directed somewhat by the teaching of ethics. As this course directly touches the upper classmen and the college spirit is largely determined by them, it may thus influence the environment and the influ- ences at work upon the younger students. The emotion aroused by the new experiences and opportunities of college life are bound to find expression in changed ideals and changed conduct. New moral problems arise because of the new opportunities and new freedom of conduct. With the large number, the moral attitudes and reactions have been a gradual growth under home and other healthful influence. The moral character is very largely unconscious, or un- reasoned. Habits of judgment and conduct have been formed because such was the way of associates in home and school life. Now all this is seen from a new point of view. Real moral questions arise, conscience is effective, and new stan- dards are to be reasoned out, rightly or wrongly. The youth feels that he should accommodate himself to the ways of the upper classmen who surely know what is right and in con- trast with their learning and experience with life the old ways of the home folks are likely to look prudish and picayune. He has not, far too often, learned to discriminate between the good and the bad among his college elders ; but even though he does attempt to discriminate and even though he does discriminate rightly, there is nevertheless a new and real experience with temptations and perhaps real wrong which he has never had before. Morality can no longer be an unconscious affair. He has thought upon these things; he has been tempted ; he has met men who live according to different moral standards than his own; and it has forced morality to become a matter well within the field of con- sciousness. The nature of these college temptations and the way they influence the student thought must be taken into consideration in the making of a course in ethics. How bad 424 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS they are is a matter of much difference of opinion; probably muci of the disagreement due to the conditions prevailing in different sections of the country. A few years ago a Con- necticut woman caused a furore of discussion by publishing the statement that she " would rather send her son to hell than to Yale College." If Mr. Birdseye's description of student life were to be literally accepted, she would not have been far wrong. His awful description of the extent of sexual immorality, venereal disease, drunkenness, etc., assented to as he says by many college authorities, is harrowing in the extreme; and if true in its entirety, demands immediate and drastic measures (5 Chap. 12). In spite of his sweeping statements, the basis for which he does not fully give, there is considerable evidence which points to a rather better condi- tion than he generalizes. The vast extent of Christian Asso- ciation work, Bible study movements, student volunteer mis- sionary movements and interest, social reform work, and the like indicate that college life is not quite the hell which he depicts. And the study of conditions made by the association of Ohio colleges (57), provoked by Mr. Birdseye's state- ments, indicates that conditions in those colleges are not so bad as his general estimate, but are decidedly better. Every college man and every one who has had much to do with college students knows that such temptations exist and that some fall before them. Brockman's collection of con- fidential statements from college and theological students in- dicates clearly the strength of these in the lives of many youths. His list of severest temptations is not long (10). Dishonesty, profanity, etc., figure largely, but sexual tempta- tions number more cases than any other three put together. The long list of statements which he prints shows the awful extent of the sex problem and the morbid state of mind often aroused by it. The curse of dirty athletics, now fortunately much less severe, bad fraternity spirit, college politics, drunken- ness, cheating, lack of honor in business relations, and a long list of other sins might be mentioned as existent and demand- ing consideration. They do exist and perhaps always will more or less, as college is but a miniature world in itself and what the world has it has; but as the aim in life is to stamp out disease and vice so should the aim in college be; for al- though the aim may never be attained, moral character is made by the effort. Those who study deeper see something of the mental pro- cess which the student passes through in the adjustment of his moral standards to the larger relations of life. He is not mature, the adolescent process is not complete, the moral THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 425 instinct has not yet reached its fullest adjustment. There is a lack of appreciation of moral proportion. Dean Briggs has treated this in a little book with sympathetic understanding. (9). Paraphrasing from his text, as a school of character college must be a school of integrity, yet there are certain kinds of dishonesty readily condoned among college students. Undergraduate standards of honor for college officers are sensitively high and there is often a high standard of honor manifested in the conduct of athletic training, in the selection of men for class presidencies, athletic captaincies and as lead- ers in general; yet there is an inconsistent want of honor manifested in athletic contests, in written work, in excuses for neglect of study, in relation to non-students, etc. This want of proportion is peculiarly evident when it is considered an unpardonable disgrace to break training, yet not disgrace- ful to squander the hard earned funds sent by parents. The student needs to learn that a lie is a lie and a theft a theft wherever it is committed. Dean Briggs, as do others, con- siders this a part of the development process. This lack of the undergraduate is due to lack of experience which time will correct. The setting of high standards for others in some cases will in time bring him to see the necessity of them for himself. And. the few psychological studies which have been made of the college adolescent indicate this progressive ad- justment of moral standards. Dr. Tanner's study of the col- lege woman's code of honor (83) assuming common honesty finds that " the college girl appears to be a person with a thoroughgoing contempt for sneaking and out and out lying but with sufficient intelligence and sense of humor in most cases to enjoy any sort of contest with wits even though she risks her scholarly reputation thereby" (p. 115). And again, " Even in the cases where she is below the average in her standards, the frank, almost naive admissions and the reasons given for the views, seem to indicate that these girls, at least, are more undeveloped than bad." (p. 116). The fact that the full appreciation of self-control and its moral contin- gencies is not yet attained is indicated by the returns sum- marized by Dr. Tanner thus : " The thing that is least condemned is deception for the sake of some one else, while the thing that is hardest for a girl to do is to undertake the reporting of a wrong doer" (p. 117). Earl Barnes obtained returns from both men and women in a university on a prob- lem of honor. He found that if the penalty seemed extreme there was a tendency to shield wrong doers, and that the feel- ing of social obligation thus involved seemed to be a little more developed in the men than in the women. A significant 4^6 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS statement in his study is that iS% of the men and 17% of the women knew " the right but frankly say they lack the moral courage to do it" (3 p. 486). It is his conclusion that the " sense of the larger social self is only partially de- veloped " (p. 487). Sharp's studies (75) might be used to indicate a similar fact although such was not his purpose. This progressive adjustment and enlargement of standards is manifest also in the changes of attitude which take place toward religion in college years as Starbuck, Coe and Hall have shown. Dr. Burnham, too, has called attention to the philosophical tendency and propensity of the later adolescent (12), which is now generally recognized in adolescent litera- ture. All these show that the college years are a period of adjustment and it is in large part a conscious adjustment. The youth is trying to get a rationally integrated concept of life, affairs, morals, religion, etc. Bizarre notions and prin- ciples are sometimes worked out and adopted, immorality is fthus sometimes justified, but each is only a stage in develop- Vment and not a finality. The youth is in process and it is the privilege of the moral teacher to take the youth at the very time when he is formulating his ideas of right and wrong and to guide those formulations. It is to be remembered, too, that there is a change in pro- gress from external to internal authority. Hitherto external authorities have been submitted to, especially in morals and religion ; but now there is with approaching maturity the pro- gressive change to an internal authority. The unconscious moral standards gained largely by imitation and the reliance upon some external authority for moral control are breaking down, especially the latter, and something must be put in their place. What to put in their place will be the substance of most of this paper but in a word it is the feeling of honor, (self-respect, personal superiority to anything beneath the rnost virile of moral standards, and moral vision. This is the religious attitude. The union of self-respect, honor, which is the essence of individual morality, and moral vision which sees the cosmological significance of life, is religion. It is the union of the ethical and the cosmological. Together they produce sympathy and all its higher derivatives which are the flower of modern morals, and they touch the old fundamental, basal feeling of religion which has motivated so much of life. Where religious teaching is for one reason or another pro- hibited, there is no reason why the religious feeling may not be appealed to indirectly in presenting the cosmological as- pects of ethics. The more directly it can be used, however, the better, for it reinforces and deepens the impression. THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 427 With the world calling for moral power and efficiency, and with the adolescent of college years in the nascent period of moral adjustment, how insufficient, foreign, barbarian do the arid ethical logomachies of most text books appear? When moral problems are rife with the student we have been lead- ing him through discussions of Hedonism, Intuitionism, Ideal- ism, Egoism, Altruism, Utilitarianism, Determinism, Indeter- minism, a little of Kant, some of Hegel, enough to confuse the student, various references to Plato, Aristotle, Bentham, the Mills, Sidgwick, Martineau, and perhaps a dash of Spen- cer or Darwin, if they were not too heretical. To be sure, many of the text books have some things to say about the development of personality and the value of habit in the formation of character, but in point of time and space they are far outstripped by the speculative problems. One can easily believe the truth of the oft-quoted story of the college boy who upon being dismissed from college said he didn't care, he got 90 in ethics just the same. There is a growing feeling, as a few of the new text books indicate, to relegate these historic discussions to an advanced, elective course and to make the first course in ethics meet so far as is possible the needs of the student. To do this there must be a con- siderable treatment of personal hygiene, eugenics, all the factors in vital efficiency, social ethics, moral reforms, etc. These are indispensable topics, yet the old historic problems which have formed a large part of the ethics teaching of the past need and deserve careful scrutiny before they are bodily ejected. Those who are clamoring for the rejection of the old and seemingly worn out discussions and systems are not without much right on their side, for there is a manifest danger in dwelling upon them with students of the present. The par- ticular turn which each took at any particular time in the history of thought was the product of the exigencies of that time and of the temperament of the thinker. To lead a stu- dent through these old discussions is a waste of good energy which might be utilized in the consideration of living prob- lems, or the consideration of modern phases of the same prob- lems ; and if perchance the student becomes interested in these ancient quibbles, the interest is calculated to detract from the real problems of present life and when he gets out in the world he will find that the ethics within the college walls was a vastly different thing from the ethics of commercial and professional life. And the critics are doubtless right when they say further that the ratiocinative treatment of ethics de- velops an undesirable attitude toward the subject. It divorces ethics from life and places it in some transmundane sphere 4^8 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS where it is treated as material for speculation. It is directly opposed to the long established pedagogical principle of pro- cedure from the concrete to the abstract. But a further criticism may be raised to the effect that in the time allotted to the average course in ethics no adequate presentation of the men, the problems, and the systems produced is possible. Look, however, at the topics stressed in recent texts and con- sider if they are sufficient ; personal hygiene, manners and eti- quette, liberties, trespass, justice, selfishness, service, welfare, charity, duties to the family, the community, and the State. These are valuable, important and necessary; and they pos- sess the additional charm, necessary today, of being prag- matic. But it is the successful-life Pragmatism of Protagoras ; not the Pragmatism of James which sees a real value in the belief in free-will, the belief in a moral universe, etc., any of those great concepts which have so long helped mankind to interpret experience and to progress. These problems con- tain a germ of truth, are fundamentally human, else they would not have been so warmly discussed and have lasted through so many ages. And furthermore, they arise at some time in the life of every individual. No college student can take a course in psychology without facing the freedom of the will problem, no college student can take a course in bio- lo.ey, if it is at all dynamic, without being stimulated to think a little concerning the nature of the world in which he lives, and none can view life with the spirit of independence in the broadening and emancipating environment of academic life without these broader, deeper, more vital, ancient moral problems coming more or less clearly to his attention. In teaching physiology today we do not force a student to work through to full comprehension the Vesalian and Cartesian theories of the movement of animal spirits in the nervous system, but we do teach him the present solution of the same problems which Vesalius and Descartes struggled with. Like- wise it may not be wise to force a student of ethics through the systems of Plato, Augustine, Spinoza, Butler, Paley, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Sidgwick, Spencer and the Mills, but it does seem wise to give him the modern attitude toward these problems or at least a working basis for the solution of them as they arise in his own life, one which shall be in har- mony with the spirit of dynamic practical ethics expressed by the advocates of radical reform in the ethics teaching. Put to the pragmatic test one finds that with the vast majority it does make a momentous difference whether or not an indi- vidual believes that he lives in a moral universe. The history of human experience shows that the profoundly religious at- THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 429 titude is a moral dynamic of superior potency. Here the depths of the soul are touched, and here, if the geneticist is right, the whole experience of the race reverberates. The importance of emotion in the formation of moral judgments and moral standards has been demonstrated by psychology and the course of ethics which does not reverently use this factor is missing the most powerful dynamic in the build- ing of character and in the inspiration to moral activity which the race possesses. The familiar terms Hedonism, Intuitionism, Idealism, Egoism, Altruism, Utilitarianism, Determinism and Indeterminism, stand for bewildering mazes of controversy but they conceal very real problems. They are the scars left by the struggle to reach the present more perfect concepts, but the product of the struggle is none the less important, the more so rather because of the fight to attain. The youth has these same problems to face and without guidance he may land on any one as an adequate aim and principle of life. The principle of health, happiness, pleasure, vitality, involved in Hedonism and Utilitarianism, is an essential part of modern ethics, but as an end in itself it is not adequate; the prin- ciple of immediate judgment of right and wrong, the seem- ing to know intuitively involved in Intuitionism, contains much of truth, but as a court of final appeal in moral prob- lems it is utterly insufficient ; the principles of loyalty to the self, loyalty to the family, loyalty to the community, loyalty to the nation, loyalty to the race, involved in Egoism and Altruism, are all essentials in modern life, but to stop at any one of them is to have made but part of the journey which the moral thinkers of the race have made ; and the principles of supine helplessness in the face of circumstances or of internal power to overcome any obstacle, involved in the wearisome discus- sions of determinism and indeterminism, present a fundamen- tal problem, a working solution of which is indispensable in an epoch of moral evolution. These may seem transcendent and other-worldly to the advocate of crass practicalities merely ; but they are the principles under which the more prac- tical and concrete problems are subsumed, and to which the student will more or less consciously soar, and they meet the pragmatic test of value. It is the prerogative of youth to dream and to seek the solution of universal problems ; hence it is the privilege of the teacher of ethics to guide him to a solution which shall bring him back with unabated but in- creased zest and enthusiasm to the immediate problems of conduct. 43 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS II INFLUENCE OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY ON MORAL THOUGHT Fatalistic determinism presents a grave danger to the college youth in the moralizing process. It is a pit-fall, a blind alley, into which he is almost sure to slip if there is not some well designed instruction to prevent. However great the familiarity with the scientific attitude may have been before college days, and it is rarely very great, the force of its sig- nificance is now doubled and trebled by the very natural ap- plication to personal problems. In the readjustment pro- cess the youth is aware of various appetites, desires, and pas- sions which persist in their demand for satisfaction. He is confronted with the scientific attitude which seems to him decidedly mechanistic, explaining everything by an indefinitely extensive chain of antecedent causes. There seems no place for will, for individual initiative. It is the almost inevitable result that the youth finding his appetites, desires, and pas- sions so powerful and persistent should interpret them as his own peculiar endowment beyond his power of control. Such an interpretation is of course indescribably dangerous and not that of the broader-minded scientist; but it is the one which the student tyro in science is most likely to make. Physics and chemistry have left on his mind a decidedly mechanistic impression. Psychology, too, if he has had it, leaves a similar impression, perhaps even more dangerous because it is interpreting the phenomena of mind causally even to an explanation of the will as an instinct foreseeing its end. And on top of that, biology interprets life in terms of a causal series. The study of living organisms and their transformations, following them out in their evolutional series down to and including man, is fascinating because it is so closely related to the most fundamental problems of the personal life. Here the student touches the perhaps hitherto tabooed theory of evolution and sees it handled without gloves. It "sends a thrill of excitement through his whole being, which is easier to feel than to explain. He feels himself no longer a tyro; he has grasped for himself the great fundamental problem of life and he will no longer be subject to the absurd dictates of religion, the hushing attitude of pious parents and former teachers. Smug with the conceit of his own vast learning he proceeds to explain life and himself in causal and mechanistic terms. Pres. Hyde has cleverly presented the way in which the youth thus educated thinks it far better to accept the opin- ions of Tyndall, Huxley, and Spencer, who have studied the very fundamentals of life at first hand, than to accept the dogmatizing of the priest and theologian (44). He is THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 43! right up against the same problem which has troubled so many of the great minds of modern science, but without the maturity of character and ability to withstand the reaction- ary effect upon his morals and to think the problem through. To the youth in this state of mind the scientific position of " suspended judgment " is a drowning man's straw. It is valueless because the youth is intolerant of all that does not explain. He cannot be tolerant. There is the old urge of life manifesting itself within him which will not stop before such a figment of maturity. One could as well stop Niagara with a pebble. A solution of some sort will be made and if fatalistic mechanism seems to be the right one it will be adopted. And what solution the youth adopts may mean all the difference between moral death and moral immortality. Ethics must handle this question, but few text books treat it adequately or conspicuously. The free will problem appears ; but rarely is it presented in language which relates it im- mediately to life. Ethics has been too fond of turning to metaphysics for its explanations. The adolescent likes to dream and speculate and philosophize, it is true, and it is well that he should ; but an explanation of this problem which is more or less shadowed by metaphysical clouds does not help much in the actual process of living. Metaphysical freedom does not help the youth to be honest or to overcome the desire to drink with his fellows nor to master his passions, although he may enjoy the theory as a bit of mental gymnastics. He must be shown concretely that the environment has a power- ful influence upon the physical and mental development, that inner effort can overcome and change heredity, that there is a psycho-biological explanation of the free will problem which works, and which is not contrary to a scientific ex- planation of the phenomena of nature. The Weismannian continuity of the germ plasm theory must be presented with emphasis, because it shows how great a factor environment and response to environment is in individual development. He must be shown, too, the power of nurture over nature; not in theory only but in actual cases. He must, of course, be allowed to see the facts and force of heredity so far as it goes ; but as his own inner nature and problems at that period of life dispose to a preperception for mechanistic explanations the emphasis needs to be thrown on to the other side of the problem. Those marvelous reforms after adult life has been attained which Begbie reports (4) are worth calling attention to. And Dugdale's famous study of the Jukes, though often quoted as a wonderful illustration of heredity, which, indeed, it is, is an excellent and impressive 43 2 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS illustration of the power of nurture over nature. Some of that family, in spite of the direful Juke heredity, were by virtue of different environment and different interests developed * into moral law-abiding citizens (21). Approached from this biological standpoint and with the attitude of the genetic psychologist a working solution of the student's free will problem may be reached which is not in opposition to his scientific interests. Of all modern writers Jules Payot comes nearer than any other to such a genetic theory of freedom, but he unfortunately just misses that ex- planation which might be perfectly satisfactory to the youth struggling with the deterministic problem. All that Payot says concerning the development of liberty, the cultivation of character, the education of the will as he calls it, cannot be too highly commended. It has made of his book a work so valuable that it should be on the desk of every teacher of ethics, if not in the hands of every student. No one else has so feelingly and so adequately and so stimulatingly presented these all important facts in the cultivation of character and personal efficiency. But there is a confusion regarding the statement of his theory of the will which if left as it stands would not solve the student's problem. In the place of the unsatisfactory theories of history, Payot attempts a com- promise by which freedom is gained by struggle and hard work. In his own abbreviated form his whole aim is to show how to transform " a weak vacillating desire into a lasting volition" (64 p. 29). It is upon this desire that he builds. He posits its existence in every one not mentally afflicted ; he believes that every one has a desire for improve- ment, weak and faint though it be. By means of meditative reflection, the association of ideas and the arousal and nature of the emotional life may be altered to develop the desire and to assist it; the importance of action in the development of will is stressed ; and the indispensable factor of hygiene is described at length as a basis for physical power behind the will. The attainment of the goal is only possible by a long and bitter struggle, and is not designed to appeal to the lazy man. It is a long and arduous undertaking but the rewards are worth the fight. But this is not an answer to the freedom problem. It is substituting a very valuable presentation of pedagogical ap- plications of the psychology of attention in the place of will. His aim for all in life is a trained attention which can re- main fixed upon its work for long periods of time and thus assist the possessor to valuable productivity. The student puzzling over the mechanistic interpretation of the universe THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 433 and himself, especially himself, would not find much help in this. He might be perfectly willing to admit all that Payot says about the cultivation of the desire by meditation, action, hygiene, etc., yet he might think to find in himself a lack of power for the self-application of such a regimen. Payot has made the inhibitory power of the strong will synonymous with freedom, whereas freedom is a feeling aroused by the choice process of consciousness and may occur as well in the strong-willed as in the weak-willed, according to Payot's de- scription of the strong and the weak. It is desire plus this feeling of freedom to choose which makes possible the trans- formation from weakness to strength. The feeling of free- dom makes all the difference between activity and passivity. The psychological key to the problem lies in this feeling of freedom. The fact of this state of consciousness, its univer- sality, and its persistence, demand explanation. A functional examination of it reveals that it is important to both the in- dividual and the race, and is of long, very long standing in the latter. To get at the genetic point of view it is necessary to drop for the moment all other discussions and theories of free- dom and will consciousness and to consider what gave rise to all this. Looked at thus we find a very general belief among all mankind that a man can do about as he pleases if he wants to. Much of the time he responds in an habitual, mechanical sort of way, but he, nevertheless, feels that at times he can alter his conduct and respond in a manner not suggested by circumstances. There is a seemingly innate capacity for accomplishment which gives to the healthy, vigorous adult the idea that he can do whatever he con- siders wise. Man has overcome all sorts of obstacles in the struggle to exist, he has fought and vanquished the beasts of the forest, he has overcome other men who have opposed his progress, he has risen above the exigencies of climatic conditions, and he has learned for the sake of future com- fort not to yield wholly to present impulses and desires. When the question is asked, " Can you do as you wish ?" the natural man answers, " Of course I can do as I wish, anything within reason." Thus there is the peculiarly human recognition of the possession of power whereby it is possible if wise to rise above the constraint of environment and habit, to act at times contrary to the usual reaction to given conditions. Any other attitude is the attitude of a mind " sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought," and the product of like minds. It is this feeling of power, feeling of superiority to conditioning cir- cumstances, the feeling of freedom for self-expression as 434 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS Baldwin calls it, which has preserved in man's mind in spite of the sophistication of theology, philosophy, and psychology, the idea that " our wills are ours," although we may be obliged to add as does the poet, " we know not how." This is the generic feeling underlying the much-abused term, freedom of the will and explains the oft-recognized persis- tence of the theory. Its great age is overpowering in its ^agnitude. Any effort to comprehend it would strain the imagination to the breaking point. It is as old as humanity and perhaps far older. Its history could be traced far back of civilization. The savage council of war sitting in delibera- tion, the barbarian choosing a temporary place of abode, the troglodyte preferring to wander northward with the retreating ice sheet, and the arboreal ancestor of man selecting a com- fortable tree, would all figure in the history of the feeling of freedom. Perhaps its history goes farther back still even into the lives of the lower animals, perhaps it has as its antece- dents every experience of selection, the choice of a mate, the choice of a good place for a nest, the choice of one food as preferable to another, and so on down to the very earliest experiences of life. Just where in the prehuman or the human scale the feeling of freedom to have done otherwise or to do as preferred begins, we may never know ; but we can ascertain enough to be certain that it is very old, one of the oldest, perhaps, of human feelings. Its persistence today is not then to be wondered at. In spite of all the arguments to the contrary mankind still believes in his freedom. From this feeling of power with the recognition of the desirability of an act, the giving of assent, and the occurrence of the act as an immediate consequent arises the idea of will. If one particular experience of will, one will attitude of con- sciousness, is isolated from all the rest of life and analyzed into sensations, images, and affections, we learn its anatomy ; if all the will experiences and expressions of an individual or a race are examined for their relations, effect on them- selves, on the individual, on the race, on the environment, if their general principles, their potency, their values under different conditions, etc., are determined, we learn its physi- ology; but if all the conscious accompaniments of action and reflection, in all species extinct and extant, from the most primitive living organism to a twentieth century man are carefully collected, correlated and arranged to show their evolutional sequence and value and their ontogenetic parallels, we learn its embryology. And this in brief is the whole of the necessary distinction between the structural, the func- tional, and the genetic psychology of will. The structural THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 43$ psychologist reduces will to an attitude " always made up of three elementary processes, sensation, image, and affection " (Titchener, 84, p. 520) ; the functional psychologist defines will as "an instinct which foresees its end" (Ebbinghaus, 22 p. 86) ; and the genetic psychologist describes will as an event that " plunges its roots into the profoundest depths of the in- dividual and, beyond the individual, into the species, and into all species" (Ribot, 69, p. 114). From whichever point of view the psychologists examine will they report their find- ings in the sequential order in which the events studied uni- formly take place; and this order is customarily termed causal. In the genetic study of conscious experience, the psychologist sees a point where teleogical responses to situa- tions take place. Increasing complexity in the functional activity of the organism in response to the increasing com- plexity of the conditions of life has brought about awareness. Further progress in the same direction leads to the memory awareness of the end before the action begins, to the aware- ness of the nature of the response required by particular stimuli as soon as the stimuli appear as sensations. Then follows the simultaneous awareness of several possible actions. There is the delayed response, called deliberation, during which the various possibilities rise and fall in conscious clear- ness until one receives the feeling of assent and the action follows. The choice stage in progress has been reached. In the choice process the various possible reactions are held up as imaginal presentations ; they are compared in the light of all past experience and knowledge in any wise obtained, in psychological terms, there is an ascription of meaning. This may all pass off quickly and as like situations are presented frequently an habitual form of response may be acquired, but whenever some new factors complicate the situation, the choice process again occurs. This process, plus the emotion aroused by the recall of past experience, inhibits certain and permits other actions. There is no more the mechanical reac- tion to the stimuli present, but for it is substituted the delayed reaction in the process of which the reaction is governed quite as much, if not more, by the past experience of the indi- vidual as by the present situation. When primitive man, or those individuals of whatever species first had the experi- ence, reflected on his choice and recognized that there were other possibilities present at the time, there came the I-could- have-done-otherwise feeling. And as he looked ahead at the new situation just arising with its several possibilities, he did so with the feeling that within him was the power of choice, that he was free to select that which he thought best. It is 43^ THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS conceivable that disappointments and mistakes may have stimulated this feeling. The regretting of an action and the wishing to have done otherwise throws the fact of other possibilities strongly into relief. The first recognition of the fact of unconstrained choice must have been a tremendous impulse. The brute is subject to his environment; but man can change and conquer his environment because he has this power of deliberative choice, and the feeling of per- sonal power which the recognition of its possession gives to stimulate its further use. The. feeling of superiority, the feeling of power over conditions, the feeling of inde- pendence which the recognition of the value of the choice process gives, stimulated its further use and thus fixed its possession, it made it of selective value and insured its possessor of success in the struggle for existence. This great feeling, which is the feeling of freedom, motivates new conduct, new efforts, and thus makes possible new achievements in the progress of the race. It has released a new source of energy and stimulates its expression in new channels. What it has done in the race it can and does do for the individual. Sometime in the experience of every child or adolescent there comes the experience, attained gradually perhaps, of feeling that he is independent, or could be if he were allowed, that he is a self, an ego, that he can control his own conduct, that he is to be a free soul. With that feeling growth and the overcoming of difficulties are possible. If it never comes, the individual is deficient and ends in an asylum, unless some one by proper treatment can cultivate it in him. If it is crushed out or discounted by disease or sophistication, the individual is handicapped for life or until the feeling is again acquired. From the attain- ment of this point on the race or the individual makes rapid strides in advance, obstacles are overcome, problems are solved, habits are broken up to be replaced by new when new are needed, a vast new developmental power seems to have been attained. The events in the causal series of the history of man or the race which have this free consciousness as their antecedent are quickly recognized as being far more efficient and valuable ; and it is the nature of man apparently to make more and more of it, to emphasize its value and thereby to bring about a greater and greater number of such responses. Thus we find that freedom is a feeling included in the gen- eral treatment of the will consciousness and that it is a part of the causal series, at once both effect and cause. And we find further that it is a most indispensable factor in the human causal series because it is the cause which has motivated the THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 437 great achievements. Without it the great advances might have been impossible and the individual who lacks it abso- lutely is a hopeless derelict. From the psychological point of view it would seem that the whole free will question must take on a different aspect, it must become pedagogical. Philo- sophical disquisitions no longer suffice. The feeling of free- dom is a state of consciousness to be carefully cultivated. The intensity of this feeling in any individual depends upon the perfection of the native endowment, on the vitality and on the individual experience. If the native endowment is de- fective or weak this all-important feeling of superiority to constraint is discounted, the personality is less well knit to- gether, is lacking in potentiality, lacking in differentiation, is flat-faced, plastic, and consequently the responses to situa- tions are simpler and more direct. There is a diminution of the choice processes of consciousness, at least in their effec- tiveness, and the individual is proportionately more con- strained by every situation. The power of initiative is di- minished. If there is a strong native endowment, a powerful developmental nisus, there is not only a strong feeling of personal power, as there is a feeling of weakness in the case above, but also the conduct of life will be more positive, there are more complex and indirect reactions, more and surer choice processes in consciousness. There is more initiative, more assertiveness and power to rise above immediate situa- tions. This difference is commonly manifested in the daily contacts of life, but it is peculiarly demonstrated in cases of melancholy, where there is a feeling of helplessness and resignation. But a good heredity does not always insure health. If disease, unhealthy surroundings, bad habits of eat- ing, sleeping, working, and thinking, the use of drugs and dissipation condition growth, the best of heredity can be wasted, and the same condition of lassitude, weakness and passivity be developed. If the activities of life are checked, a similar result may be produced. If the child or youth, or even the adult, is repressed constantly, frightened into sub- mission, not allowed the freedom and practice of self-ex- pression, then the feeling of personal power and capacity is stunted, undeveloped, rudimentary. Good heredity, hygienic culture and habits, and freedom for directed self-expression are equally necessary to the feeling of freedom and personal efficiency. The lack of any one may be overcome by the others, but all are to be desired and worked for. Depression due to lack of vitality or ill health of any kind is likely to injure the feeling, while the cold intellectual mechanistic con- THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS ception of nature is dangerous because it retards and inhibits effort, crushing the will to choose. If this discussion of free will is characterized by the smug complacency with which most articles on this subject con- clude, implying that the final word has been spoken, the writer is apologetic. He is keenly aware of the fact that much more knowledge is necessary before the final answer may be scientifically given to the problem ; but it seems estab- lished that the ethics taught in college must present the free- dom of will as a vital evolutional and developmental factor. The aim must be for both teacher and student to develop the great fundamental underlying feeling, if there is to be moral progress. To this all that makes for healthy heredity and completeness of life applies, hence from this point of view eugenics, euthenics, and the crasser practicalities advocated take on value. All that develops the spirit of power and self-confidence is indispensable. Ill PLACE OF HYGIENE IN ETHICS Enough has already been said to make clear the ethical importance of health. But hygiene can and will produce more than the feeling of fitness and the ability to act freely. The very process of attaining a healthy, harmonious func- tioning of the organs of the body, not forgetting the brain, relieves the individual of some of the temptations mentioned by removing the provoking conditions. And hygiene belongs in the instruction in ethics, because the best of health is a part of the social demand for morality and a necessary condi- tion of moral efficiency. That concept of moral health which includes only the attainment of personal morality in the nar- rower sense, which means only that the individual is free from the guilt of moral sins of commission, will not be toler- ated in this day when moral progress is the slogan. The con- cept must include the capacity, interest and actual cooperation in the fight against immoral conditions. In an epoch of moral renascence, in a time when posterity is considered, when practical eugenics even is discussed, and when every effort is being turned by many to the moral improvement of conditions which need generations for complete reform, the individual must be fitted to cooperate in the moral progress, to facilitate evolution, not merely to be a greased cog in the machine, moving easily when others push ; he must help in the push. This means abundant health and the efficiency now so much in demand. It means that hygiene must be taught and its practice stimulated for its moral value, and not alone as a science for academic interest. THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 439 The ethical significance of hygiene is not new. Some of the older ethics texts even include a little personal hygiene, as Janet, and Hopkins (47 and 42). But emphasis coordinate with the modern demand has rarely if ever been incorporated in the pages of a text book. Those who have written ethics texts have usually been philosophers who cared more for historical problems and metaphysical implications than for the moral health of coming generations. A change is evi- dent, however, in some of the recent texts; but concreteness and the broader aspects of hygiene are still to be included. Years ago President Hall attempted it with results which war- rant the use of these emphatic words : " I have begun a course of ethics with lower college classes and for two or three months have given nothing but hygiene; and I believe the pedagogic possibilities of this mode of introduction into this great do- main are at present unsuspected and that, instead of the arid, speculative casuistic way, not only college but high school boys could be infected with real love of virtue and a deep aversion to every sin against the body " (34 Vol. I. Chap. 5). " Hence plain talks on sleep, toilet, food, dress, exercise, recreation, regularity, sex regimen and heredity, training, in- terest in periodic weighing and measuring, with a good deal of discussion about diet and nutrition, these I believe should be the basis of the moral teaching of the young." If the demand of the times is to be answered much of this kind of thing must be included in the college ethics. The college scrap heap now being raked over by the efficiency expert is revealing a vast amount of human material ruined, and a vast amount of good human energy gone to waste through bad hygiene. The unhygienic life of many students is a familiar matter. Where there is so much waste, some of it must be through ignorance. But whether this be so or not, good teaching might inspire to a reform which would save some of that which is now lost. Modern efficiency studies, so far as work is concerned, are very largely applications of long established principles of hygiene. And modern hygiene is discovering new principles whereby the student and all who work or live may work and live at a higher maxi- mum of efficiency. It is this which society is demanding, and it is this which the highest principle of ethical thought, loy- alty to the race, demands. The world is now coming into a third great physical renascence. Two others have written in history, that of the Greeks and that led by Jahn in Ger- many. Roughly it may be said, with much truth, that the first made Greece and that the second made modern Ger- many. To what superman the modern physical renascence 44 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS is leading only the history of the future can tell, but that such a movement exists only the blind could deny. The force and extent of it often fails of appreciation. The physical fads, the get-strong-quick schemes, the out-door sleeping porches, the interest in the fight against disease, the many societies and committees for health reform of all sorts, the millions of dollars invested in gymnasia, public baths and bathing places and playgrounds, and the thousands who make use of them, out-door magazines and health literature beyond enumeration, revival of folk-dancing, participation in sports, rapid increase of demand for physical trainers, not only in our own country, but even in China, India, and South Amer- ica, societies for sex prophylaxis, eugenic movements, school hygiene literature and committees, efforts for national vitality, etc., etc., are but a few of the indices of the modern health crusade. And the whole has a vast moral significance. The college which does not read these as the signs of the times and adjust its course in ethics accordingly may not only find the moral and physical efficiency experts battering- down its own doors but may also lose a magnificent oppor- tunity to be of real vital influence in moral education. To be sure many colleges already have courses in hygiene and where such is the case ethics is relieved of a part of what would otherwise be its burden. But the plea here is that the hygiene taught must be with a moral significance. If only the scientific facts are given in the hygiene course, then the ethics must build upon it, make the moral applications and inspire to practice in a way which the bare scientific teaching may not have attained. There need be no danger of wasteful repetition. The two courses, where they exist, may supple- ment each other and make each the more effective. From this point of attack ethics becomes frankly biological. Yet it leads to no crass materialism, but rather, as Sutherland has shown, to a most inspiring comprehension of the fullness and grandeur of morality. By leading back to the biological, it leads out to the cosmological aspect which arouses that great fundamental religious interest, aroused originally by reverence for nature. Fear of the bioligical trend reverberates the old theology which condemned the flesh. The modern esteems the body and gives it its rightful place ; and thus a biological ethics comes into' harmony with the modern Chris- tian concept of life. The simpler principles of cleanliness, toilet and the like are learned before the college years are reached, but the stu- dent rarely learns by home training or by social contact the art of using his body so as to produce the maximum of mental : I I MNJV*{ THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 44! and physical work, and with it the euphoria which accom- panies healthy functioning. Lack of this knowledge is one of the greatest sources of supply for the college scrap heap. The students broken by dissipation of one sort or another are largely the product of this ignorance. The boner who forgets to exercise and stays over his books until the early hours of morning is quite as likely to seriously injure himself as the happy loafer who while rarely troubling a book, keeps equally late hours and wastes his energy through dissipation. Perhaps both do so innocently; doubtless much of the phy- sical misuse in college is innocent or even' well meant. Some students overwork themselves with studential and social duties and obligations. They get their work and play and duty all mixed up. The value of alternate periods of work and rest needs to be presented and applied, or the applica- tion stimulated. The well-known law of Mosso and Maggi- ora that " work done by a muscle already fatigued acts on that muscle in a more harmful manner than a heavier task per- formed under normal conditions " (59 p. 150) should be shown and its mental correlate demonstrated. Prove to the grad-grind that he can do better work and more work by taking proper rest and exercise. The value, too, of spurts, of periods occasionally of extra exertion, need to be included, for by such spurts the organism is stimulated to grow and to make the structure necessary for harder work. Occasional forcing thus has its value as well as regular rest. The differ- ences, too, between morning-workers and evening-workers have their application and importance. And so, also, does diet deserve much emphasis in the course. Where some stu- dents are starving themselves to make ends meet and others are filling themselves with indigestible foods and ruining their systems with liquors, there needs to be inspired an atti- tude of reverence for the digestive system upon which we depend for the preparation of the material from which we get the energy to live and to work. The results of careful experimentation with alcohol and other stimulants should be included that there may be no misunderstanding or hasty generalization concerning their value. The student who is in- clined to use drugs for crams and special seasons needs to know that the new lease of energy is fictitious or mislead- ing, that it has to be made up for later, and that the regular use of drugs reduces the power to do mental work. The morals of oxygen supply need dwelling on. The neurological aspects of oxygen supply, the work of Verworn and others, and the various tests of work done, may inspire to the better care for ventilation. Recreation needs hardly to be men- 44 2 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS tioned, one would at first think, when the cry is that the col- lege youth does not do work enough; but the importance of regular exercise for all does need emphasis. Its moral value needs to be stressed and applied not only to college life but to the conditions of life into which many of the students are going. The explanation of fatigue and its effects should never be omitted. The unnecessary fatigue from overwork among the more able students, which sometimes occurs, has already been referred to. When this fact is added to the statement made by Irving Fisher that fifty per cent of the people in this country are suffering from over-fatigue, the importance of instruction concerning fatigue becomes evident. There is the danger of incomplete recovery, the increased susceptibility to infection when fatigued, the greater loss by working in a fatigued condition, etc., which the student should know and know well. If illustrated by the known physio- logical effect upon the nerve cells, the fact of fatigue becomes the more impressive. But the effect on character is the most es- sential. There is a relaxation, the bars are let down and the power of self-control is discounted. In the fight for character a bad case of fatigue may so relax control that the gain of weeks may be lost in minutes. And this makes the ethical treatment and consideration of fatigue imperative. Without the broader aspects of the hygiene problems, such studies may tend to the cultivation of self-centeredness. As there is danger in constant moral introspection, so there is danger in constant consideration of one's own physical con- dition. The practice of hygiene must become habitual. But in order to make the impression deeper, without the danger of too great emphasis upon the individual and in order to orient the student for the eugenic aspect and the cultivation of personal interest in the larger moral problems, the national and racial aspects of hygiene should be included. As the morals of the individual depend in large part upon the phy- sical condition ; so must the morals of the nation, as a col- lection of individuals, depend largely upon the health of the nation. The moral and efficiency value of national vitality and the means and possibilities for its improvement can thus be linked to the individual studies and make the individual the more responsible. Metchnikoff's scheme for the prolonga- tion of life and the elimination of old age is more than a dream, and his optimism is the spirit to be desired in our col- lege youth. Prof. Fisher's report (26) on national vitality is a thesaurus of information and references for the teacher who wishes to include this material. The moral and economic loss to the country by the reduce! vitality of the 2,000,000 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 443 syphilitics, the 500,000 tubercular patients, and the 3,000,000 cases of malaria each year (Fisher's statistics), besides the vast number of other preventable diseases and the slight but equally preventable ailments is too stupendous for compre- hension. But it is the inspiring fact of their preventability which needs to come before the student. Because the tuber- culosis death rate in England is now only one-third of what it was seventy years ago, Because typhus fever has been prac- tically stamped out, because the ravages of small pox, yellow fever, and typhoid have been checked, there is good reason for the motto of Pasteur : " It is within the power of man to rid himself of every parasitic disease." In this the de- veloping social consciousness is appealed to, the biological as- pect of being a part of the race and of assisting it in its prob- lems is aroused. Sympathy and honor in their best and fullest sense are appealed to and it is these characteristics which are most to be desired. The cultivation of health, per- sonal and social, is the immediate aim in this kind of instruc- tion but the ultimate aim is the stimulation of these funda- mental moral qualities. (In the appended bibliography are mentioned some of the most practical works on hygiene, those written from the personal, community, national, eugenic, and ethical standpoints. See numbers i, 15, 16, 28, 50, 66, 71, 87, 89.) IV EUGENICS AND SEX INSTRUCTION IN ETHICS Modern Christianity, socialism, hygiene, efficiency and the growing social consciousness has directed popular as well as scientific attention to the improvement of physical conditions of life. The effort is to give all a chance to live and to live well. Resignation to wrong and suffering in this vale of tears as a preparation for eternity has changed to aspiration for the realization of heaven on earth. The progress of sci- ence and its wonderful conquest of the powers of nature plus the growing recognition of the meaning of evolution has brought the realization that present conditions may be im- proved indefinitely and that it is possible to cope with retard- ing forces and facilitate the progress of human evolution. It has forced a recognition of immortality as due not only to an undeveloped social consciousness but also to the physical and mental deficiencies of certain members of society. The attempt to do away with mental, moral, and physical defi- ciency has directed attention to its source with the result that the newer science of Eugenics has sprung up. The aim of this new science is to seek out and to control the sources and biological forces which make for or against the efficiency 444 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS of life. It is not content with the expenditure of time and thought in the correction of criminals when they find that the criminality is due to Hereditary mental deficiency. In the words of its founder, Francis Galton, " Eugenics is the sci- ence which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of a race; also with those that develop them to the utmost advantage" (30). The ideal is to substitute for natural selection an artificial selection which shall breed a higher race of man, every member of which shall be physi- cally, mentally, and morally fit. Although the scientific prin- ciples for this may be drawn from biology, sociology, and other sciences, the spirit of it is essentially moral. The actualization of the eugenist's aspirations depends upon the development of popular feeling. This can only be attained by wide and careful dissemination of the facts and in doing this the ethicist should feel himself under moral obligation. Eugenics is new and to many repulsive, but the repulsive- ness is due chiefly to misunderstanding. The facts which the enthusiast for practical ethics is obliged to face make an in- clusion of eugenics imperative. Davenport states (17) that there are 300,000 insane and feeble-minded, 160,000 blind or deaf, 200,000 annually cared for by hospitals or Homes, 800,000 prisoners 'and thousands of criminals not in prison, 100,000 paupers in almshouses and out, constituting from 3 to 4 per cent of the entire population. When one realizes that a very large percentage of the blind and sick here re- ported are so because of venereal disease, one begins to realize the magnitude of the moral problem involved. Rentoul reports similarly staggering statistics for England (68) Davenport continues by estimating the cost to this country annually of all this deficiency: 30 millions for hospitals, 20 millions for insane asylums, 20 millions for almshouses, 13 millions for prisons^ and 5 millions for the feeble-minded, deaf and blind (17). But the cost cannot be estimated in dollars and cents. Morally the financial cost is great because a large per cent of that money might have been invested for the furthering of various movements for moral improve- ment. It is greater still, however, because of the moral drag which all this deficiency exercises upon the race. The social worker knows perfectly well that many prostitutes are defi- cient, and therefore lead the life they do. But it is still further known that these deficient reproduce themselves and so keep up the stream of immorality both through heredity and through the effect of the environment into which they bring offspring. Statistics in proof of this criminal or de- ficient heredity are rolling up to an incontrovertible degree. THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 445 Davenport gives the case of an insane man who had two mentally weak wives by whom he had 13 children all men- tally weak. With these cases of mental defectives, he pre- sents charts showing the apparent hereditary nature of maniac- depressive insanity, the neurotic diathesis, Huntington's chorea, heart disease and other diseases. He shows at least that the marriage of those who possess such defects reduces in the offspring the resistance to such disease and increases the susceptibility to these diseases and defects, " There is," he says, " so far as I am aware, no case on record where two imbecile parents have produced a normal child" (17 p. 15). His appeal is that everything possible should be done to/' dry up the springs that feed the torrent of defective and de- generate protoplasm." And Goddard's extensive studies con- firm Davenport's statements. In a recent paper (31) he re- ports the studies of several family histories. One of these has 319 members of whom the facts are known and out of this number, 119 are feeble-minded and only 42 are known to be normal. The Volta bureau in Washington has reported the results of a study of over four thousand marriages of deaf and find that this defect, too, is hereditary (25). Years- ley in England recently reports a study of 284 cases of deaf- mutism of which " 33.09% were undoubtedly the result of marriages either amongst those who had cases, direct or col- lateral, of congenital deaf-mutism in their families, or amongst those who were blood relations" (90 p. 310). Rentoul reporting from the English census returns says that " on one day alone we (the English people) had 65,700 mar- ried or widowed idiots, imbeciles, feeble-minded, and lunatics in the United Kingdom, many of them engaged and, by us, encouraged in the, to us, apparently pleasant function of be- getting degenerate offspring, in fouling the stream of human life, and in adding to the sum-total of insanity" (68 p. 41). But the marriage of defectives of this sort is not the only group who are bringing defectives into being. Rentoul, Saleeby, Metchnikoff, Fisher and the rest all mention alcohol- ism, and venereal diseases as tributary. The predisposition to other diseases and the effect upon the offspring of alcohol- ism and venereal disease is well reported, but the actual ex- tent of them no man knows. Fisher quotes Morrow as say- ing that the elimination of social diseases would probably make one-half of our institutions for defectives unnecessary, and adds that " in the opinion of very competent judges social disease constitutes the most powerful of all factors in the degeneration and depopulation of the world." (26 p. 36). Fisher reports also several studies concerning the effect 446 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS of alcoholism one of which finds that over 80% of crime, 48% of pauperism and 35% of insanity are due to the use of alcohol. Luther Burbank condemns this crossing of bad species as " a crime against the state and every individual against the state. And if these physically degenerate are also morally degenerate, the crime becomes all the more appal- ling " (n p. 59). It is evident that if by some means the germ plasm be- comes defective it remains so and that the offspring con- tinues to be defective, a burden and a moral risk to the com- munity. It is a man's moral obligation to care for and make the most of the unfortunates who are already brought into the world; but for the sake of efficiency, moral economy, and moral progress they should not be allowed to bring others into the world. Yet the eugenist goes further and advocates the arousal of a spirit which shall control the mating of youth. This seems at first, and to many, as an idle dream ; but the fact remains that sentiment does control the nature of matings to the elimination of some. Sentiment has brought in the rule of monogamic marriage ; sentiment prevents the marriage of brothers and sisters and to a considerable degree the marriage of cousins ; and sentiment very largely prevents the marriage between different races. There is equal reason to think that sentiment may be developed which will prevent the marriage of the unfit. The eugenist would have the young consider the parentage and health before marriage. Their idea is to keep the " germ plasm on the upgrade." If this is to be realized, it must come through instruction. The ethical significance and importance of eugenics has become patent, but the best methods for its presentation have not yet been determined. Some suggestions are, however, possible. The more biological phrases must be linked closely to the course in biology if not handled by it. Building on the Weismannian theory of the continuity of the germ plasm and on the spirit of Burbank's Training of the Human Plant, the significance of a defective germ plasm and the dangers of crossing with it or allowing it to breed can be made im- pressive. From the study of evolution the student can be led to see the vast advantage possible to the race of an in- telligent selection substituted for the older natural method. Spencer's law of the decrease of birth rate with the progress of civilization, as contrasted with the Malthusian theory, (well presented by Saleeby 72), is an excellent basis for dwelling upon the importance of cultivation of the race by seeking quantity of quality. Few suggestions will be neces- sary to show to the average youth the application of all this. THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 447 It is almost sure to stimulate personal application because of the tendency of later adolescent thought in such matters. It means emphasis upon hygiene personal and social, to keep the self well and the germ plasm healthy. But it also means that youth shall think, as they anticipate marriage, of the health and antecedents of the one to whom they are attracted, and that pride in vigorous health for the good of the race shall be cultivated. The problem of sex instruction is then immediately in- volved. The need of such instruction has already been pointed out in a previous section of this paper and the flood of literature upon the subject during the last few years has made the need generally recognized. This, too, is funda- mentally and fearfully ethical. So many false ideas get abroad among students that they are in danger of acquiring a false philosophy of sex. Knowledge alone can combat this. Of it Prof. Hodge says after years of teaching : " My ex- perience with college men encourages me to believe that in connection with thoroughly sound eugenic instruction we can straighten them out for life on this point so that in the mar- riage relation they shall feel that they ' must be sure to ob- serve the order of nature, and the ends of God' (Taylor)" (41). The eugenic aspect transfigures the sex problem and makes possible the treatment of it and the consideration of it with all the reverence of religion. It comes to the cosmo- logical aspect of ethics; it touches the widest bounds of life and the most fundamental emotions. Relating sex thus to eugenics and religion makes possible the cultivation of that feeling of honor and self-respect which must be the new authority in conduct for the youth. When brought face to face with the facts of sex and sex hygiene as related to his own happiness and the welfare of the race, the student must inevitably have aroused within him a strong self-feeling which will force far more personal applications than the teacher will make. To each the problem is or should be sacred and its sanctity should not be too far invaded by in- struction. Enough needs to be said to cover the general facts and to inspire personal interviews. The needs of each are likely to be so peculiar that the personal contact is far more to be sought. No general prescription is adequate. In all it must not be forgotten that the instruction is to be given for the sake of the student's future as well as for present needs. It is to be expected that the healthy among the students will one day be parents themselves. The responsibility of that position needs to be emphasized. Spencer in a classic pas- sage has ironically shown the apparent consideration of the 44-8 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS teaching of child culture as of far less significance. The same attitude is fortunately not true today, not to the same degree. But when the prophylaxis societies are bewailing the ignor- ance of parents, it behooves the college teacher to see that the next generation are not likewise ignorant. For the sake of the children they will bring into the world and educate, they need to know the anatomy, physiology, hygiene, and psychology of sex. And they need to know the best times and the best means of giving such information to their children. This point of view as well as the eugenic adds dig- nity to the subject. Much of this should have been learned previously in other courses ; but if it has not, it needs to be given in ethics. In such event it may be wise to call in some one especially equipped for such instruction; and if the col- lege is co-educational, to divide the class. But the needs are such that the teacher should be equipped with all necessary information on these subjects. Voluminous as the literature upon the subject has become, its pedagogy remains still an unsolved problem. It is un- doubtedly wise to put something into the student's hands which can be quietly and thoughtfully read over, but whether this something be a book or a pamphlet is still a question upon which there is no consensus of opinion. The writer is inclined to think that it is better not to place a detailed book in the student's hands. It holds the attention too long upon the one topic, and if it is purchased, it remains upon the table or book shelf where it will be taken up at" intervals. The student who has had wise home and school instruction from time to time needs no such book. And the student whose education in these matters has been neglected is morbidly interested. For the latter, a book is too fascinating and exciting. Leaflets seem to be better. They are cheap, can be given away, and little time is spent in their perusal. They are read and then if not thrown away are easily covered up and lost. The atten- tion given to them is brief ; the instruction needed is obtained and the matter dropped. It must always be assumed, how- ever, that the student will be called upon some day to give others instruction, and for this reason enough should be said about the work and publications of the best sex prophylaxis societies so that in case of need they can be resorted to. For the same reason the best books upon the subject need to be referred to and described. At present, in the writer's opinion, the best series of pamphlets is that issued by the Spokane Society of Social and Moral Hygiene, Spokane, Wash. Theirs is a graded series, and at present is the only such. The value of the grading is obvious. The Rhode Island Fed- THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 449 eration of Churches and the Massachusetts Committee on Sex Hygiene (Boston) publish three pamphlets each, which are excellent and very much alike. One of the series is for young men, one for young women, and one for the venereally dis- eased. The well known New York Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis now publishes six different pamphlets for students, parents and teachers. One of their recent publica- tions, How My Uncle, the Doctor, Instructed Me in Matters of Sex, is a valuable addition to the English literature of sex instruction. It was written by Dr. Max Oker-Blom, a pro- fessor in Helsingfors, and has since been translated into ten different languages. It outlines for the student in an at- tractive manner, how through flowers, fishes, birds, and ani- mals, the first sex instruction may be given to a child. There are now several good publications for this purpose. The two little books by Miss Lowry (51 and 52) ; one, Confidences, for firls, and one, Truths, for boys, are excellent ; and the two by mart, What a Father Should Tell His Son, and What a Mother Should Tell Her Daughter, are almost equally good (78 and 79). For the youth, or later adolescent, the supply is not so good. W. S. Hall's two books (36 and 37), From Youth into Manhood and Reproduction and Sexual Hygiene, are good for the young man, but there are none equally good for the young woman. Much of the literature produced for these purposes is too full of presentations of the horrors of venereal disease, of personal prejudice of some sort, or is char- acterized by a lack of knowledge of adolescence. The teacher of ethics must of course know all of these and many others. If he should desire a more thorough knowledge of the sex problem he can turn to Forel (28), Scott (73) and the medi- cal literature. Northcote (62) presents similar material with a clearly expressed religious feeling. If suggestions for the teaching of sex through biology are wanted for the untrained parent or teacher they are to be found happily presented in Miss Morley's book, The Renewal of Life (58). There seems now to be a consensus of opinion among those who have ex- amined carefully into the extent of and dangers from venereal disease that some instruction concerning these diseases should be given to all. This to be done not only as a warning against sowing wild oats but also, and much more, as a means of arousing caution in the face of the fearful possibilities of accidental innocent infection. And for the sake of moral reform and self -protection something too must be included about the facts of the white slave traffic. Much material on these two topics is to be found in the literature already men- tioned and in the references they contain. Unfortunately much of the literature on venereal disease and the white slave 45 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS traffic is more likely to create phobias than foresight, and this is the danger to be avoided in its presentation. An excel- lent book on these two topics is that by Lavinia Dock entitled Hygiene and Morality (20). In this the facts are adequately presented and yet in a manner as slightly repulsive as it is possible to handle such a topic. The sex problems can be easily over emphasized. They need to be included; but too much detail should be avoided. The effective instruction is that which arouses feelings of self-confidence, self-respect, aspiration to the responsibilities of parenthood, and Christian sympathy. V. PREPARATION FOR MORAL EFFICIENCY In the preceding sections the aim has been for the ethics taught to develop feelings of moral and physical power, honor and self-respect; now, honor and self-respect must be even more sought for, and with them the moral enthusiasm which expresses itself through cooperation in moral progress. The aim must be to supply, in large part at least, that lack of a sense of proportion in honesty, truthfulness, justice and moral obligation characteristic of the college adolescent. By show- ing both the principles and practice of moral conduct and of moral reforms and by presenting the material in a concrete manner, the student may be fitted for life in the modern com- munity. He will be so taught that after leaving college he will realize that his ethics was close to the problems of life and not so divorced as much of the ethics of the past has been. When the social consciousness spreads out in later adoles- cence, when the developing sympathy reaches out beyond the family group and includes the nation and the race in its benig- nance, the individual is peculiarly interested in solving the great problems of society. By debates, the study of sociology, read- ing or by some means the youth becomes easily impressed by the immoralities of the social order which permits various in- justices to exist. He sees things in the large, the very large, and overflows with big ideas and Utopian schemes. This enthusiasm loosens up the soil and makes the very best season for sowing the seeds of moral activity. One of these is the evolutionary attitude toward social problems. If the individ- ual is not to relax later into a hopeless indifference toward immorality and injustice in the larger relations and functions of society, he must have well planted that view of life and society which sees it constantly evolving, constantly changing and as such susceptible to reform. Without the evolutionary view conditions would seem hopelessly fixed and the inspira- THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 451 tion to moral activity killed. But with it there is inspira- tion to strive and to eliminate the evils recognized. It fur- thermore links up to the broad racial religious view cultivated by eugenics. Thus the present moral conditions of society appear no more hopeless than those of the individual. As culture may change the individual character, so progress may change in society what is not possible to wholly overcome in one generation. The evolutionary aspect gives a perspective which makes the presentation of modern social problems easier and more readily understood. Dewey and Tufts after a long experience recommend the presentation of the history of ethics, actual moral principles not ethical theory, as the best introduction because it orients the pupil and enables him to see the problems to be discussed in their social and evolutional set- ting (19, Intro.), and there comes often with the evolutionary view, as with the eugenic idea, a feeling of obligation. The individual realizes the significance of his relation to the whole, that what he is can help or hinder, and this feeling of obliga- tion is fundamental to ethical activity. In bringing the student into the evolutional attitude toward ethical problems stress must be placed upon the family. As an evolutionary and civilizing factor the family stands su- preme. Not only must its permanence be insured by such instruction, but from such a viewpoint some of the dangers of evolutional ethics may be obviated. Without some point of orientation the student might well be lost in the sea of evo- lution, but if oriented by the family, its welfare and preserva- tion, he should be able to steer clear of the dangers which some see in this form of teaching. As the deterioration of family life is one of the great moral problems of the present, it be- comes increasingly important that its value to morals and civilization be so stressed. Both as a factor in the preparation for moral efficiency and in the solution of immediate moral problems, the family must be emphasized. Most of our col- lege youth have come from good homes, and in many, if not most, there is deep down in their hearts a love for their parents. Like religion it is often too deep and sacred to be dragged out and discussed, but a tactful consideration of the family and of family ties can be used to rearouse a perhaps momentarily submerged love of mother or of father which will serve as an anchor in the turmoil of moral doubt and change. As a part in his preparation for moral efficiency, the youth needs to know something of the history of the family, how it has come to be, and the steadying force which it has exerted. The inspiring story of Sutherland (82) and the forceful words of Mrs. Bosanquet (7) should be brought to his attention. After such an orientation, the appalling statis- 45 2 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS tics of divorce and the decline of home life can arouse appre- ciation of the importance of the efforts to maintain the home as a vital institution. With the presentation of the ethical value of the family and the home is opportunity for the presentation of what is known about the moral training of children. The demand for this needs hardly to be mentioned. The literature is vast (see President Hall's chapter on moral education, 34), and while there is little consensus of opinion concerning the best methods to be employed in the school, there is a considerable body of knowledge produced by the students of child life and by teach- ers which can be readily applied to home training. All the studies show a world-wide demand for better moral training. Toward this the course in ethics can contribute by preparing the parents of the future. For simpler presentations and for practical use and recommendation Prof. Sisson's recent book on the essentials of character (77) and the books by Mrs. Cabot (13 and 14) are especially worthy of mention. The preparation for a life of moral activity that is worth while is the preparation for moral efficiency. Part of this has been provided for in the sections on hygiene and eugenics, but only part. The field, conditions, and opportunities for such activity need also to be presented, and to be considered from the view point of efficiency. That in moral activity which is inefficient is by so much immoral. The moral man whose influence is discounted by certain shady practices in business is by so much immoral as well as inefficient. The philanthropy which is wasting trust funds by neglect of ac- counts and supervision is by so much immoral. The efficiency movement led by experts is turning its light upon all forms of life. The energy wasted by children in our schools in the study of subjects which are afterward of no use or value is being brought to light and the rapid growth of industrial edu- cation is the result of the appreciation of that waste. The industrial education has branched out and grown into voca- tional training. Colleges and universities prepare not only for the different professions but also for callings not hitherto dignified by the name of profession. Efficiency tests and standards are being worked out for the various departments of business, government, education, philanthropy, etc. Allen defines the scope of this movement thus : " Where standards of administration are unsatisfactory ; where taxes are too high and buy too little; where schools waste taxpayers' money, pupils' time and democracy's opportunity ; where results of religious work are disappointing: where hospitals regularly incur deficits; where crime is neither controlled nor under- stood; where civic and educational leaders make futile pro- THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 453 tests against political corruption ; where good intention is per- mitted to cover a multitude of administrative sins; where charity injures those it aims to help; efficiency tests will be found lacking." (2. Preface). And here they are to be sup- plied. Allen's work well represents the spirit and methods of the movement. He proposes to substitute an efficiency test for the goodness test. For him " the good man we talk about so much does not exist ; or rather he exists in so many shapes and types that the composite can never be found" (2, p. 2). " There are at this very time good men so bigoted as to be- lieve that all who oppose trusts, protective tariff, high license, are good while all who defend them are bad. Thus it happens that knowing a man to be good, upright, honorable, Christian, furnishes no basis whatever for determining whether he be- lieves in free silver or gold only, whether he is Protestant, Catholic, or Jew, republican or democratic, socialist or reac- tionary, total abstainer or moderate drinker, a help or a hin- drance to his f ellowman. Still less does it of itself indicate his suitability for position of mayor, auditor, alderman, pastor, hospital trustee or school superintendent" (2, p. 3 and 4). And he proceeds to apply this rigidly to hospitals, schools, charitable work, prevention of crime, religious work, govern- ment, and the making of bequests, showing the methods for statistical reporting and treatment in order to present the actual efficiency of each. This may be in large part econom- ics, but its ethical significance is likewise apparent. If the aim of the ethics course is to have its graduates participate in the affairs of life morally and in the active movements for moral reform efficiently, it must inculcate this spirit of moral efficiency by studying the wrongs, the maladministrations, the mistakes, the frauds, and the means of their alleviation. Its presentation of practical ethics must be from the efficiency view point. President Hadley has presented the problem from the evolutionary moral aspect by comparing the conduct of men of today in private and in public life. In private life, with their families, neighbors, and club associates, men are generally courteous, self-respecting, helpful, unselfish, gener- ous in case of a great calamity, and commit a thousand acts of daily sacrifice the world never knows. But the same men in politics or in business will ruthlessly hurt a weak competitor for money or for office, will be selfish, will be snobbish and servile for the sake of advancement or power, will lie or cheat. And in answer to the question why concludes that " men have been trying to live in peace and harmony with those about them for so many thousand years, that we know what is needed to keep the peace. But there have been so few hundred years since we began experimenting with the present commercial 454 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS and industrial system, that we do not yet know what virtues are needed for its maintenance" (32, p. 12). Every muck rake brings up a new argument for the need of moral efficiency and the preparation for those higher and racially newer fields of morality for which imagination is needed. The things which are immediate, which we can see and feel or readily imagine, are emphatically judged right or wrong, real moral emotion is aroused; but the things which come to us only indirectly, which are long circuited, the actual source or effect of which is hard to follow, which tax the imagination, are the things which are not so emphatically praised or condemned. We have not had, as President Hadley says, so long an experi- ence with these forms of immorality and hence they do not arouse such intense emotion. Prof. Ross has happily said (70) that distance disinfects dividends. Unfortunately it does for the many because the distance makes the filth invisible. It is for these problems that the student needs careful and special preparation. He must have seen them in the concrete so many times as to be able to detect at once the wrong involved and to respond readily with the condemnatory judgment. All these immoralities and inefficiencies, these sins of commission and omission, must be worked over until a real and strong aversion is built up. The world into which the student is go- ing is not made of such stuff as most ethics texts are made of, but it is a world where moral problems are hot. He is going into a world where discussions of the highest good, categorical imperatives, and Hedonistic calculus, are overshadowed by fal- sification of values, short weights, watered stock, bogus mines and medicines, gold bricks, counterfeit money, fake corpora- tions, stock gambling, bucket shops, secret rebating, interfer- ence with legislation, evasion of laws and a host of other sins against society. His knowledge of actual morality must be such and the breadth of his social consciousness such that the immorality in all these will be recognized instantly. That character and insight is to be sought which can follow the path of the long circuited effect and responsibility to its end, and which will conduct all affairs municipal, commercial, pro- fessional, and philanthropic with the same maximum degree of efficiency. The character which is good because it is efficient both in work and moral conduct is superior even to Allen's efficient man. He would substitute efficiency for goodness only because our standards of goodness have not kept pace with our standards of efficiency. Such being true we need to clean up our standards of goodness and inculcate the best in our students. The best will be superior even to efficiency because, while including efficiency, it will add to it the moral THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 455 instinct finding expression in both feelings and acts of sym- pathy and compassion. A vast number of youths go to college without knowing or thinking much of what they will make their business in life. Many who go to college with a well-defined plan, change it entirely as a result of the new interest aroused and the broader vision gained. The problem of what to do in life becomes very acute in the later college years. Many who might far better go into other vocations turn to teaching be- cause lesson-getting is the only world they know and they are afraid to attempt the unknown. Vocational bureaus have been established as a consequence of the realization of the fact that so many boys upon leaving the public schools take whatever job they can get; and many times worry through life as a square peg in a round hole. Meyer Bloomfield has recently described the need and methods of this work in an able and stimulating manner (6). But what of the college student? How many of them become square pegs in round holes? Various religious agencies are presenting life work talks to students, and faculty advisers doubtless do much to help the student with these problems. A few institutions have even had courses of lectures on the different professions. But from personal observation in a considerable number of colleges the writer knows that in those colleges a vast number of students know little or nothing of the actual nature of the different vocations. They need sound advice and instruc- tion concerning the opportunities in the different possible fields of work concerning the ethical problems which people in those vocations have to face. Bloomfield says that courses of lectures have been given at Harvard, Boston Uni- versity, Tufts College and elsewhere " dealing with the occu- pations and their requirements" (6, p. 65). Aside from the actual possibilities of success in the different callings, which is in itself a great moral problem, there is a peculiar ethical problem wrapped up in each. Take Bloomfield's list, teach- ing, architecture, journalism, law, commerce, philanthropy, industrial work, business, agriculture, forestry, medicine, special fields for women, art, music, drama, scientific pursuits, politics and public service, and consider them. Each subjects its members to different conditions in which the moral prob- lems are different. The ethics of the medical profession are now being discussed seriously by its members ; the ethics of the law is a problem of long standing; journalism is fre- quently attacked for its apparent lack of interest in morality in the face of its incomparable opportunity to mould public opinion into moral channels ; some of the problems peculiar 45^ THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS to business have already been mentioned ; and it is evident that the man in the laboratory or the school room, faces ethical problems as different from those of the man in the studio, the pulpit, the factory, the forest, or the chair of office as their moral problems are different from each other. The student should be acquainted with the moral dangers pe- culiar to his chosen calling before he is blinded to them by the furious struggle to succeed. And when the youth is in- tensely interested in the problem of vocational choice, there is a nascent period for such instruction. It would make ethics real and appealing. It would give the youth a preperception for moral dangers which might save from calamity. For the sake of mere efficiency his choice of a vocation must be intelligently guided, and a knowledge of the moral problems given, but for the sake of moral progress he must be prepared to participate intelligently and effectively. Prepara- tion for participation in the affairs of state may be included in this as every man must to a greater or less degree assist in government. The relation of every vocation to the wel- fare of the people at large is a part of the ethics of every vocation. This relation has in ethics more than any other of the so-called practical problems been stressed. It was one of the first to be introduced, as the next section shows, and it is almost invariably included in some manner or degree. But the facts of it need vitalization by an infusion of the concrete. The vast number of social betterment and moral improve- ment societies and movements which have grown up rapidly in the last twenty years brings a new department into modern ethics. They not only indicate a recognition of responsibility for the improvement of moral conditions, for the facilitation pf moral progress, but they also present a demand for in- telligent cooperation and direction. Efficiency is the spirit of modern philanthropy. Efficiency tests and standards are being applied to church work, hospitals, settlements, and the like, with a view to making the time and money invested for moral betterment as effective as possible. The inefficiency of many such movements has been, and may still be in some cases, due to ignorance, indifference, and a feeling that such work should be dominated more by emotion than by sound judgment and knowledge of the best methods. As Allen and others have shown, trustees and directors have leniently allowed methods which would not be tolerated in business. Now that such vast sums are being invested in welfare work there is the demand for effective administration. And this demand is extensive because of the vast number of THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 457 such organizations. It means that a large number of people must be able to direct these movements intelligently. Be- sides this it must be recognized that the college students are to be citizens and parents and as such should be prepared to use the publications and employees of these societies when there is need, and to know what sort of work is done in order that they can suggest and initiate when their community has some special need. Work for the protection and reform of the morals of child life is an extensive department by itself. The juvenile courts, established now for more than ten years, demand expert thought and direction. The probation system which has grown up with them demands the cooperation of intelligent people of sound judgment and knowledge of child life and social conditions. Both young men and women graduates can if prepared be efficient in such service. College women have been especially effective as probation officers for way- ward girls. In the first ten years of the Chicago court over thirty-one thousand children passed before the judge and of the boys put on probation 80% never again came before the court, but of the girls only 55% did not come up again. This is an index of the seriousness of the delinquent girl problem. The thrilling story of Lindsey's fight for the children of Denver should be familiar to every student of ethics (49). Some mention should be made of the work of societies for the prevention of corruption, as that of the New York So- ciety for the Prevention of Vice, made famous by the life and work of Anthony Comstock; of the work of the National Child Labor Committee which is endeavoring to relieve the conditions made by the employment in this country of more than a million and three-quarters of children under fifteen years of age; of the scheme for a children's bureau of the Federal Government for the investigation of infant mortality, delinquency, degeneracy, employment, orphanage, and the like ; of the work of Day Nurseries which provide for the children of the unfortunate; and something too of the laws for child protection concerning immoral shows, selling liquors to minors, admittance to pool rooms, distribution of obscene literature, immoral advertisements, for children's courts, and for parks and playgrounds. The efforts for the prevention of the wastage of child life through their eugenic aspects have much of ethical importance. And this, of course, in- cludes the ignorant mother as well as the child. The work of the Kaiserin-Auguste-Victoria Haus in Charlotten- burg could well be taken as a model. It has twenty-nine dif- ferent departments of research, owns its own milk plant and 45$ THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS stables, has laboratories for research, consulting physicians, a school for mothers, an out department, a training school for nurses, a kindergarten course, teaches cooking, washing, sewing, mending, making of children's clothes, the physiology and hygiene of the child, and the practical care of the child. A similar piece of work in Ghent has in a few years reduced the infant mortality from 33% to 4%. In this country the Caroline Rest in New York, some churches, settlements, and societies are doing much the same work although not on so large a scale. And in addition, the graduate going out into the world should know something of the work of social set- tlements, the methods of institutional churches, Christian As- sociations, boys' clubs, Boy Scouts, Big Brother and Big Sister Movements, substitutes for the saloon, the International Reform Bureau, and the various agencies with which he will come into contact as a citizen or have occasion to use in the moral improvement of his own community. And this material should not be presented as so many bare facts. Morality based on a race-old feeling is not easily aroused by reason. But concrete illustrations of the condi- tions which the various organizations are attempting to fight arouse the moral instinct and make the impression lasting. The teacher should collect a store of such illustrations to be used as occasion offers. If the college is connected with a social settlement, or has access to boys' and girls' clubs, some first-hand knowledge can be obtained by actual partici- pation in the work for moral betterment. Such doing is eminently more valuable than much telling. But there are many fields where doing is impossible and here imaginal situa- tions must be used to arouse the feelings. The heroism of Comstock, the magnificent fight which Lindsey has made, the thrilling career of Jacob Riis, the less-known, but none the less inspiring work of Mrs. Josephine Butler in England, and the campaigns for moral reform led by Hughes, Roose- velt, LaFollette, Folk, Jerome, Heney and others offer a vast storehouse of material which may be drawn upon for moral inspiration. The ethics which does nor inspire by great tales from the front of the fight is missing its opportunity. Ethics must burn with the realities of modern moral enthusiasm. VI. THE ETHICS TEXT President Hall has in an obscure publication reviewed the ethics texts, along with others, which were used from the founding of Harvard down to the early years of the nine- teenth century. From this paper we learn that for a hundred years after the founding of Harvard logic came to dominate THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 459 the interest of pedagogues. Disputations and the ability to participate in them creditably was ranked of superior impor- tance, while ethical teaching sank into insignificance, " al- though the forte of the New Englander had always been character." " The works of John Robinson, collected by Ashton, are largely ethical, and treat of health, marriage, lib- erty, fashions, studies, etc. But after Roger Williams was banished in 1636 and the Cambridge Synod had condemned 82 opinions, the Puritan mind narrowed and darkened down, and morals consisted in Sabbath observance, Bible reading, baptisms and other theological duties" (33, p. 142). The beginnings of an effort to teach morals apart from theology are indicated some years before the Revolution in a text pub- lished by President Thomas Clap of Yale in 1765. This is entitled an Essay on the Nature and Foundation of Moral Virtue and Obligations: Being a Short Introduction to the Study of Ethics, for the Use of the Students of Yale Col- lege. This 66-page ethics premises that " as moral philos- ophy makes a considerable part of our academical education and is nearly connected with true religion, it is of great im- portance that it should be clearly stated and fixed upon the right foundations." Virtue, the text says, " is not by nature but a Divine gift." Yet he discusses several of the chief virtues on their merits, and defends stratagem in war as not lying. Another index of the beginning of a separation from theology is to be seen in the gift of 1,362 by John Alford to Harvard College in 1789 for the establishment of a chair of Natural Religion, Mental Philosophy, and Civil Polity. Presi- dent Hall includes (33) a lengthy quotation from Alford's will which declares the duties of the chair to be, among others, demonstration of the moral attributes of the Diety, the doctrine of future rewards and punishments, obligations and duties of man to his Maker, " the most important duties of social life, resulting from the several relations which men mutually bear to each other; and likewise the several duties which respect ourselves, founded not only on our own in- terest but also on the will of God," to the coincidence of revelation and reason on these points, tc read lectures on " application of laws of nature to nations and their relative rights and duties," also on civil government. His lectures on natural religion were to be read to all four of the academic classes, those on moral philosophy to the two senior classes, and those on polity to the seniors only. Ethics was at first sternly opposed. The Calvanistic colo- nials believed that through religion and not through ethical instruction was moral conduct and character to be attained. 4^0 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS Cotton Mather is quoted as objecting to the employment of so much time on ethics, which he termed a " vile form of pagan- ism." In continuing President Hall says that although taught from the first, not until after the revivalism of 1740 did it slowly advance to a place beside and then above logic. At first virtue was likeness to God and the religious sins of prayerlessness, unbelief, etc., were dwelt upon. There was little change from More's Enchiridion down into the i8th cen- tury to Paley whose Principles of Moral and Political Philos- ophy reached in 1821 its tenth American edition. About the only progress was a tediously controversial transition from the view that morality was a code of laws revealed in Scrip- ture by God to the view that his code was best studied in the innate intuitions and sentiments. This change being due to the influence of Clarke, Shaftesbury, Cudworth, and Hutcheson. Strangely enough not until two decades before the Declara- tion of Independence, which owed so much to this movement, did the ethical texts begin again, " as they had rarely done since Aristotle, to expatiate upon political rights and duties that though few were inalienable" (33, p. 152). McBride's Principles of Morality was one of the first to have physiolog- ical references (published in 1796). President Hall concludes by saying that the Unitarian movement, the anti-slavery move- ment and other reforms left an indellible mark on college ethics. Mark Hopkins incidentally remarks in his text-book that Paley's ethics were formerly taught almost universally in this country (42, p. 9). And although his own teaching at Wil- liams is said to have been considered a radical innovation in the eyes of his predecessor, his ethics are well described as semi-theological. His teaching which culminates in his book, The Law of Love and Love as a Law, is a hybrid product of Christian ethics and the Common Sense school ; and although published many years after Darwin really belongs to the pre- Darwinian school. Thus naturally he bases his theory on in- tellect, sensibility, and will, with the moral nature treated al- most as a coordinate faculty. All these are but functions of the person, the ego, which has the power of choice. Choice is the object of moral judgment; and obligation is recognition of the right through reason. Less than a third of the book is given to theory, while the remainder is devoted to what the law of love would require us to do, to practical ethics. It is this which made Mark Hopkins' ethics famous, or possibly infamous in the eyes of his critics, and it shows the keen ability of the man to sense the real needs of his students. He presents in lucid terms the duties we owe to ourselves, the duty of perfecting the powers of the mind and the body and THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 461 the spirit, care in the formation of habits, duties regarding the rights of others, regarding the wants of others, perfecting and directing the powers of others ; also duties from special rela- tions, as the family government, relation of the sexes, mar- riage, divorce, parents and children, society, etc. The last chapter concerns the duties to God, cultivation of the devo- tional spirit, prayer, use of the Sabbath, and like topics. Thus did his genius lead him to anticipate much that is now advo- cated in our modern social ethics. Two other texts which have had extensive use in this country, Hickok's and Janet's, are to be classed with Hopkins', because like it they are chiefly a presentation of classified duties. Hickok's appeared about the middle of the last century (39). For him the ultimate rule in morals is Right. This is ascertained by reason, man's distinctive quality. This ultimate rule of right is simple, im- mutable, and universal. Submission to this Right is the great duty which involves all other duties. Practically the entire book is devoted to a statement of duties and authorities. The duties are classified and worked out in elaborate detail, seem- ingly covering every possible question. The authorities pre- sented are the civil government, divine government, and pa- rental government. Janet's text is a cold, dead, cadaverically repulsive handbook of duties. The law of duty is in itself its own aim. " Do as thou shouldst do come what will " is its maxim. Duty being absolute is universal. The law of duty is obligatory in itself and also because derived from God. The whole is a detailed statement of duties of justice, concerning property of others, toward liberty and honor of others, equity, charity, and self-sacrifice, toward the state, professional du- ties, family duties, bodily duties, etc., etc., each being treated in numerous sub-headings. The absolute nature and assump- tion of finality in these is oppressive. The individual is seem- ingly placed under the law of reason, but the laws have already been completely worked out and formulated for all time. All there is left for the individual to do is to meekly submit, take one of these books as his Baedeker in life and attempt to guide himself through each experience according to its dicta. The American market has been flooded with text-books in ethics. President Hall says in the article just described that " in neither logic, psychology, nor any branch of the great science of man, if in all combined, have there been so many text-books of American make as in ethics." The advances made in ethical thought, the rivalry between the different schools, uncertainty concerning the conclusions advanced, and the unsatisfactory results of its pedagogy are doubtless suffi- cient to account for the plethora of texts. But the very fact of a superabundance calls attention to its causes, and it will be 462 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS seen that they contain the germ of some of those principles which when full grown will make for a more efficient and satis- factory pedagogy of ethics. Besides that written designedly for student use, there is a voluminous controversial literature. Unfortunately some of this has been tried out on the students, and still more unfortunately, many writers of texts have allowed controversial material to slip into their pages. The difference between a treatise for an ethicist and a text for a student ought to be too well appreciated to demand comment. Such books as Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics, Stephen's Sci- ence of Ethics and Bradley's Ethical Studies are obviously not texts, and if used as such are more likely to lead to ethical ratiocination than to a real interest in the live problems of daily morality, A recent text by Fite illustrates the confusion of treatise and text. The nature of the work is indicated in the preface where the author himself says that " the work was begun with the intention of furnishing simply a plain state- ment of the existing ethical situation. . . . But it was found impossible to make a plain statement without adopting a point of view for the definition of the problem and the theo- ries in question" (27). He expresses the hope also that the book will be of interest to those already familiar with the problems as well as of value to those beginning the study. Some books which have been widely used in teaching are avowedly and clearly devoted to some one school or theory; as, for instance, Bowne (8) and Martineau (55). The former's Principles of Ethics is a critique in the form of an extended essay, with theism as the basis and end of his argu- ment. His frequent dogmatism might be condoned, but what excuse can there be for the omission of a bibliography or full foot notes when references are frequent? And not infre- quently the references are anonymous. However quickly the evolutionary theory may have been adopted and applied by certain schools of ethicists, the incor- poration of its attitude in our texts has been long delayed. Religious opposition may account in part for this, but doubt- less the failure to appreciate at first what the full significance of evolution in ethical science was to be had quite as much to do with it. Evolutional ethics was at first but a modified form of Utilitarianism and this was sufficient to arouse a hindering opposition. Mark Hopkins ignored it and when Hickok's text was revised in 1901 evolution found no place in its pages. Von Gizycki's manual adapted from the German by Stanton Coit (85) shows the Darwinian influence. Paulsen, although rejecting the evolutionistic hedonism which had sprung up, was nevertheless apparently much influenced by the Darwinian theory in the formulation of his own theory of teleological ener- THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 463 gism. Muirhead includes a very clear statement of evolution- ary hedonism and the points of value and difficulty in it. His section on moral progress, although giving practically no de- tails concerning the evolution of morals, presents very clearly the developmental theory and shows that morals are relative and progressive. Martineau, writing first twenty-six years after the appearance of the Origin of Species and again in later editions, uses evolutionary ethics as illustrative of Hedon- istic theories and devotes one chapter to it. Mackenzie, pub- lishing first in 1893 (54), had a broader conception. He pre- sents conduct as evolving from its germs in the lower ani- mals, and a similar treatment of the moral judgment which he conceives as developing from custom through law to reflective principles, from judgments of external acts to that of inner purpose and character, from ideas peculiar to circumstances of particular tribes and nations to ideas that have a universal validity. Brief though this phase of his work is, which today seems superficial, it is nevertheless a herald of what is to come. Although he recognizes the development of ethical judgment, Mackenzie's theistic faith leads him to reject evolu- tion as a theory of ethics. Seth's chief interest is in the de- velopment of the personality, and so beyond a few references evolution finds no place in his widely used text. Hyslop's work on the fundamental problems of theoretical ethics, ap- pearing in 1895, recognizes evolutional theory but does not give it much place or significance (46). This delayed recog- nition of evolution is of course still further due to the lack of thorough presentations of the development of morals and of moral instincts. The monumental studies of these topics made by Sutherland, Westermarck and Hobhouse appeared between 1898 and 1908. Dewey and Tufts have tried to make ample provision for the evolutional attitude toward conduct and for the products of the evolutional studies of morals. Their book is divided into three sections of which the first is devoted to the beginnings and growth of morality. Certain aspects of early group life are first presented ; such as, its nature as a political unity and solidarity, as an economic and industrial unit, as a religious unit, etc. Then follow several chapters on the growth of morality through the rationalizing and idealiz- ing process, the socializing process, and the process from cus- tom to conscience. This treatment is amplified by illustration in the Hebrew, Greek and modern civilizations. For the presentation of the great philosophic problems and the nature of their discussions past and present, there has been no uniformity. Here every man is his own master and each follows the line of his own interest. Generally speaking the less attention has been given to the Greek thinkers and their 464 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS theories. But the modern discussions of Utilitarianism vs. Intuitionism, Determinism vs. Indeterminism, and Egoism vs. Altruism are clearly reflected in the texts and sometimes pre- sented at length. Evidently there has been a decided differ- ence of opinion concerning the importance of presenting these discussions to the student. Some like Davis (18) would give an introductory course in the elements of ethics and postpone the philosophical quibbles to a later stage, his aim being to provide the student with " a rounded scheme " of ethics by a careful consideration of his obligations to himself and to society before taking him into the various " and often con- flicting views of philosophical moralists." Von Gizycki, in his students' manual, presents ethics as independent of meta- physics and theology, and this point is stressed. Mackenzie, on the contrary, concludes that metaphysics is indispensable. Hyslop has devoted an entire text to theoretic ethics. Not infrequently the texts present a confusing discussion of ethical theory. Perhaps their aim was to avoid the tedium of a thorough treatment of the different schools by a briefer pre- sentation of the substance of the argument between them and what the author thought to be the fallacies in it ; if so, the aim was commendable but the result has been a bewildering array of references to unfamiliar names and schools. The mere mention of Sidgwick or Stephen or Kant with a few sen- tences about their position scattered here and there through a discussion cannot be expected to do more than to create confusion. Mackenzie and Seth are both guilty of this to an unfortunate degree. Paulsen and Hyslop have avoided the difficulty by devoting an introductory chapter to the history of ethical theory. Martineau's work is unique in this field. As the title suggests, Types of Ethical Theory, his aim is to classify the types psychologically and under each type to pre- sent the system of some representative thinker; his purpose was not, however, historical but to throw a side light on his own system, hence the systems presented, although represen- tative of his types, do not form a complete historical series. In fact, some of the greatest thinkers are omitted entirely. There is no good history of ethics in the English language either for class room work or for general reference. Sidg- wick's little history (76) is much too brief and over-empha- sizes the English schools at the expense of the presentation of German ethics. There is an excellent source book for collat- eral reading by Benjamin Rand (67), which is a compilation of selections from the writings of ethicists from Socrates to Martineau, and there is now a good history of ethics within organized Christianity by T. C. Hall (35). For the more in- tensive study of particular ethical thinkers of the past, a small THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 46$ series of condensations from the originals has been started under the editorship of Prof. E. Hershey Sneath. Three of these have been published; the Ethics of Hegel (81), the Ethics of Hobbes (80), and the Ethics of Hume (45). Every writer recognizes that ethics is based in large part on psychology, and so states it in his text, but the psychology on which each bases it, wherever it is presented, is with a very few exceptions the traditional faculty psychology. The historical antithesis between body and soul, between emotions and intellect has been preserved and will be so long as ethical writers persist in ignoring the contributions of modern psy- chology. Ethics admits that it is based upon other sciences; hence it has no right to dictate what the nature of those sciences shall be, but to accept from them whatever they say is the truth. And the psychologist has long said that the faculty psychology was false and hence the attempt to deter- mine the relative moral value of intellect and feeling vain and futile. The tendency now among psychologists is to consider emotions and intellect as of the same original stuff or as so interrelated as to be inseparable for purposes of moral judg- ment. But writers of ethics texts have been slow to appre- ciate the significance of the advances made in psychology, in spite of the fact that it has thrown so much light upon the processes involved in ethical judgments and the develop- ment of conduct. What psychology is given is treated with such an ethical bias that a student coming to a course in ethics after a course in psychology would scarcely recognize the references to the science he had just left. One would, of course, expect the faculty psychology in the older texts like that of Mark Hopkins, but one would scarcely expect it in Murray (61) published in 1891. It is, nevertheless, there and Murray devotes about one hundred and forty pages to what he calls the psychological basis of ethics. But his treat- ment of the moral consciousness under the familiar three heads, intellect, feeling, and will, is antiquated and superficial. Martineau's well-known Types of Ethical Theory (55) is a specific attempt to present ethical systems from the psycho- logical view point, but as a text for present use it is of course quite useless because its psychology is that of three decades' ago. No psychologist today would classify Plato, Descartes Malebranche, and Spinoza as unpsychological ; nor would he sharply separate Shaftesbury and Hutcheson from the utili- tarian and evolutionary hedonists and treat the former as distinctly an ethics of the feeling faculty and the latter as an ethics of the faculty of sensibility. Muirhead in 1892 happily departs from the faculty treatment of will and considers it 466 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS as a conscious process. Thus treating it he finds that the moral judgment may apply with equal justice to conduct, self, character, and motive. Mackenzie and Seth, both of whose texts appeared within the next two years, contain but a super- ficial treatment of the psychological basis. Mackenzie has a section which he calls chiefly psychological, but it is a very general treatment of desires and will, motive and intention, conduct and character, with the suggestion of a faculty psychology. Perhaps there is in this a trace of Martineau. Seth emphasizes the importance of psychology, but his treat- ment is more ethical than psychological. He moralizes on the significance of deliberation and choice in the formation of character, and stresses habit and instinctive action. On the whole it savors strongly of James' chapter on habit. Davis' whole purpose is different, to postpone the theory of ethics until the student is well grounded in practical ethics, hence his treatment is very brief, apparently it is merely in- tended to familiarize the student with the significance of the terms, desire, volition, choice, etc. Fite is so absorbed in his own discussion of the classical theories that he has little time for psychology. The Dewey and Tufts text, although it has no section devoted exclusively to psychology, is, nevertheless, pervaded with the contributions of genetic and social psy- chology. In Mezes' treatment of the origin and development of conscience there is also much of the descriptive genetic method of treatment. Since ethics came to have a place of its own in the curric- ulum, there has never been a complete lack of apprecia- tion of the importance of social ethics, although the emphasis and space given to it has depended upon the inclinations and personal interests of the author. Yet there has been an unmistakable tendency toward a greater stress upon social ethics, which may, doubtless, be correlated with the growth of sociology, interest in social welfare, and the general de- mand of loyalty to the larger group. An interesting and sig- nificent index of the early stages of this growth is to be found in the preface to the 1879 edition of Hickok's text which appeared twenty-five years after the first edition. This states that the new edition contains a more complete con- sideration of the general questions of the state and state authority, with " particular reference to punishment, property, taxation, representation, religion, and education." Strangely enough, however, it still included a lengthy discussion of slavery. Personal ethics, also, in the early texts was stressed, even down to the little details of daily life, but with an arbi- trary manner which savors of the heteronomous theological THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 467 ethics from which the science was then slowly separating it- self. Janet and Hopkins belong to this type. In Martineau the personal and social is involved but indirectly, it is apart from his field and purpose. Although Muirhead has an ex- cellent presentation of theory and psychology, he is peculiarly deficient in applied ethics. Mackenzie touches this field but only that : he says that he has not space to more than men- tion the personal and social problems. Seth includes some of the problems of social ethics, but like Mackenzie in a rather insufficient manner. His great aim is the development of personality and toward that end all that he mentions is de- signed. The moral life is treated with insight and sympathy evidently born of much thought and of a great soul, but if one is looking for the consideration of the current moral problems of society and social conditions he does not find it here. Nearly a half of Paulsen, however, is devoted to the discussion of these personal and social problems. Illumi- nated by his winning style, his lectures stimulate a serious consideration of vital questions. But they are lectures and as such are probably better adapted to use as corollary read- ing than for text book work. Davis' elementary text is, as has been intimated above, devoted almost exclusively to these top- ics. His first section on obligation discusses in a descriptive dis- cursive manner and in a carefully-chosen sequence these sub- jects: Rights, liberty, trespass, law, sanctions, right and wrong, justice, duty and virtue, selfishness, service, charity, welfare, deity. In this section man is presented in his indi- vidual relations, while in the second section he is presented in his social relations and the rights and obligations thereby entailed are discussed under the topics, family, community, state, and church. In this regard Mezes' text has certain peculiar features. Nearly a half of the book is given to the discussion of objective morality the criterion of which is ultimate sentient welfare. The Platonic virtues of courage, temperance, wisdom, and justice with the addition of benevo- lence are taken up singly and discussed at length, although the treatment is rather more historical than modern. Under temperance the ethical problems of sex and marriage are in- cluded but are discussed in very general terms. Justice is treated at length and almost entirely from a legal aspect. This lengthy legal discussion is at least unusual in an ethics text. Two pages only of the section on justice are devoted to the consideration of charity, in which welfare agencies are men- tioned in the abstract. Benevolence is treated historically and analytically, i. e., discussing the various feelings involved, as, hostile, friendly, etc. A chapter on welfare is a discourse in 468 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS a rather abstract manner on Hedonism, Eudemonism and national welfare. The emphasis placed in such a text on the importance of moral education for the development of con- science in the child is unique. Dewey and Tufts have two excellent chapters on the place of self in the moral life and on personal virtues. About a third of their text is given to a discussion of conduct as action in society, but instead of attempting a general survey, they find it best to center atten- tion upon three phases of conduct which are of especial in- terest and importance; namely, political rights and duties, the production, distribution, and ownership of wealth, and the relations of domestic and family life. In the texts generally the presentation of the individual's relationship to philan- thropies and movements for moral improvement tends more to be an abstract discussion of principles ; and in the con- sideration of social problems in ethics, politics, as it has often been termed, the presentation, with the exception of Dewey and Tufts', is more abstract than concrete. A few books have appeared which represent individual departures in the pedagogy of ethics. Among these are Presi- dent Hyde's Practical Ethics (43), President King's Rational Living (48), and MacCunn's Making of Character (53). The first of these is just what its name implies, a practical ethics. President Hyde includes no philosophical system nor any theoretical ethics ; his book is wholly practical and is a short presentation of the virtues of life and the factors in virtuous living. He takes the different objects of life and presents their several phases, namely, as duty, virtue, reward, temptation, vice of defect, vice of excess, and penalty. The objects of life discussed are, food and drink, dress, exercise, work, property, exchange, sex, knowledge, time, space, for- tune, nature, art, animals, fellow-men, poor, wrong-doers, friends, family, state, society, self, God. It is significant that sex is omitted from the text proper and is treated briefly in the preface. President Hyde says, " It is unwise to intrust a subject so personal and delicate to the vicissitudes of a public class-room." He considers this to be the imperative duty of parents and that which he has put in his preface on the subject is in the nature of an outline for parents. The style of the book is aphoristic, brief, terse, and to the point. Motto-like sentences may be picked up at random. The em- phasis is rather on the individual, or from the point of view of self-realization, and public morality, or politics, is rather incidental. Welfare agencies and movements for civic better- ment are mentioned in the abstract. President King's text is an effort to present or to call attention to the moral aspects, or THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 469 contributions, of psychology. He thus presents the impor- tance of habit-forming, mental hygiene, as well as physical hygiene, exercise of body and phases of mental activity, as will and attention, with some slight philosophical and educa- tional suggestions. MacCunn's Making of Character is writ- ten from an entirely different view point, but a suggestive one. It is written for schools and training colleges and its purpose is educational. Its scheme is the presentation of the factors and forces to be met and used in the building of character. The first part discusses the congenital endowment and its manifestations in temperament, also the instincts, desires, capacities, development and repression, and habit. The second part concerns the educative influences, the bodily health, family, livelihood, citizenship, religious organizations, social influences, power and use of example, precept, etc. Another part is on soundness of judgment and concerns the education of the moral judgment, the growth of the individual ideal, the practical value of theory, etc. A fourth and last part presents the facts of self-development and control. It is written simply, clearly, and in a stimulating manner. The aim is for a dynamic rather than a static treatment of facts of the moral life. For the teacher of social ethics there are now several bibliographies of literature for both direct and corollary use : such as, the Harvard bibliography for reading in social ethics and allied subjects (38), that on business morals by Edwards (23), and that by the Fabian Society (24). CONCLUSION Prophecies are proverbially dangerous, but by way of sum- mary and conclusion it may be wise to indicate in brief the probable nature of the ethics text and course of the future as indicated by the facts brought together in the foregoing. It is evident that it can not be a presentation of arid theories, which have so characterized the ethics of the past. In the demand for an improvement of the moral conditions of college life and of the morals of its product is the call to differentiate between the presentation of moral speculation and the preparation for a life of moral activity. It means that the ethics course is to be based first of all upon the immediate and the future needs of the student. If moral philosophy, speculative ethics, is taught at all, it will be presented in an advanced course. The practical must take precedence over the theoretical. The course will be dominated by the spirit of moral efficiency, the preparation for and attainment of efficient moral character. Every effort will be made to clear the path to such attainment over every obstacle. The essence of the great moral problems 47 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS of the past will be included because of their reality in the life of every individual, but they will appear divested of their archaic terminology and reference. This to guide the forma- tion of ideals. In the place of the disappearing external au- thorities will be built up the internal authority, largely uncon- scious, based on experience, breadth of moral vision, the feel- ing of honor, self-respect, sympathy and the feeling of per- sonal superiority to anything beneath the most virile of moral standards. The whole tempered and vitalized by the religious spirit and attitude. As the attitude of fatalistic determinism is dangerous to the moral progress of the individual and to the formation of pro- gressive ethical ideas, it must be combated by a presentation of the fact and the power of the feeling of freedom as looked at by genetic psychology, a position which is at once true to the causal interpretation of science and to the fact of personal influence in the moral progress of the individual and the race. The evolutional attitude dominant in the other natural sciences must be dominant in ethics. But for pedagogical and moral reasons the evolution of ethics needs to be presented with its emphasis upon the family and the home. The evolutional study of ethics, presented rather briefly, will be designed to im- press the student with the age and power of the moral instinct and how from the home it has grown out to include the com- munity, the nation and the race. Special stress will be laid on the moral value of the family and the home and the principles of moral education. The moral life will be presented as active, not as the mere passively sinless. The ideal is moral efficiency, which includes in its scope physical, mental, and moral power. For the development of these there must be ample considera- tion of the facts of personal hygiene which lead out into the larger problems of community and national hygiene. And the newer science of eugenics because of its vast moral signifi- cance will find an increasing place in ethics. In its breadth and its ideals it reaches to the depths of the rapidly enlarging social consciousness of the adolescent and can be used to arouse feelings of self-respect, of obligation to " pass on the torch of life undimmed," and of a religious reverence for the vast power of life of which he is a part, and of which a part is to him intrusted. Its reverential attitude toward the phe- nomena of procreation transfigure the sex problem. Condi- tions indicate the need of sex instruction and from the eugenic point of view it will have a place in ethics. As a part of the youth's preparation for the morally efficient life, must be included the moral problems peculiar to the different vocations, much of the work and needs of the different agencies for social betterment and moral reform which he may have occasion to use or to cooperate with, and in considerable detail the newer THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS 47! moral problems, individual, civic, commercial, and political, which are being faced by the world today by virtue of the new social conditions of life. The new ethics will strive to cultivate efficiency, the broadest and deepest sympathy, and honor, as the all inclusive virtues. It will make a far greater appeal to the feeling side of life than the old ethics, because it will realize that the larger part of the moral life is governed by emotion. And that in the teaching of ethics the more lasting impression may be made if the emotion is aroused. To do this many concrete illustra- tions of actual cases which have been faced and conquered, or which still remain to be overcome, will take the place of the appeal by theory to the reason. Other factors, too, than the ethics course will be taken into consideration in the control of the development of the students' moral sense. A greater effort will be made to ascertain the actual factors which must impress the student and when so ascertained to direct them in the most beneficial manner. Some of these college problems will be brought into the ethics class as concrete material. The tremendous power of " college spirit " will be recognized and used. As experience is one of the most vital factors in the cultivation of character, modes of expression of the moral feeling aroused will be provided for, and wherever possible within the campus walls as well as without. The students in the ethics course are usually older students and through their activities the college spirit can be moulded. By this means the great power of moral tradition may be gradually changed until it becomes as effective as the moral check of public sentiment is in the life of the world, or even more so. The ethical value of college experiences will be recognized to a greater degree and provision made whereby more can par- ticipate in them. The thrill of success which comes with vic- tory in athletics, in academic competition of all sorts, in any kind of college activity which brings the applause of fellow- students, will be recognized to have its moral value, and along with it will be cultivated the even greater thrill of per- sonal power which accompanies the recognition of a moral victory. For all this there is needed the teacher of peculiar ability. Mere interest and facility with the ethical philosophies is not sufficient. It will demand a wholesouled individual who knows and loves to deal with the moral problems of the college youth. It will demand, to borrow President Eliot's happy phrase, young men or men who never grow old. The writer desires especially to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. Wm. H. Burnham, Dr. Theodate L. Smith, and Mr. Louis N. Wilson for invaluable assistance in the preparation of this paper, and to President G. Stanley Hall and the faculty of Clark University for fellowship appointments. 47 2 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETHICS BIBLIOGRAPHY i. ALLEN, WM. H. Civics and Health. Boston, Ginn, 1909. 411 p. 2. . Efficient Democracy. New York, Dodd, 1907. 346 p. 3. BARNES, EARL. Student Honor: A Study in Cheating. Int. Jour. of Ethics, 1903-4. Vol. 14, pp. 481-488. 4. BEGBIE, HAROLD. Twice Born Men. New York, Revell, 1909. 280 p. 5. BIRDSEYE, C. F. Reorganization of Our Colleges. New York, Baker Taylor, 1909. 410 p. 6. BLOOMFIELD, MEYER. Vocational Guidance of Youth. New York, Houghton, 1910. 124 p. 7. BOSANQUET, HELEN, i he Family. London, Macmillan, 1896. 344 p. 8. BOWNE, B. P. Principles of Ethics. 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