REESE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Received.. Accessions No. <^,quar- terly mark in shop-work, I should admit the lad's personality to a certain extent. For instance, I would mark him first with- out looking at his work ; on his apparent comprehension of the exercises, as indicated by his written or oral answers to my questions ; * on his drawings ; on his care of his tools and bench; on the fidelity with which he followed instructions. Then I should consider this personal mark as of equal weight with the one derived from an examination of his finished work. In marking a piece, say Fig. 17, 1 should take into account : 1. The accuracy and finish with which the stock was squared up to the prescribed dimensions 20 2. The style and correctness of the laying out 30 3. The character of the sawing 15 4. The chisel work 15 5. The care of the finished surfaces (freedom from injury from the vise or accidental blows) 10 6. The time spent 10 100 i Occasional written examinations are very desirable in the interest of correct vocabulary, precision of statement, and attention of details. Chap. IL] MARKING SHOP -WORK. 53 The laying out of complicated work should always be marked high. It is very desirable that the students know beforehand the system of marking, and just where their own shortcomings lie. Cultivate self-criticism by requiring of them that they mark their own work according to your analysis, comparing their pieces with yours, i.e., supposing that yours is nearly perfect, as it always should be. Of course the teacher should revise all such preliminary estimates of the young workmen on themselves. APRONS, CAPS, BLOUSES, OVERALLS, TOWELS, ETC. The pupils of a class should have aprons of a uniform style, coming well up to the chin, and descending to the knees ; a light cap with a stiff visor (to protect the eyes from light and from flying chips) ; a towel (which should be changed once a week) ; and a cake of soap. All these when not in use should be kept in the student's drawer with his edge-tools. Blouses and overalls will not be necessary till wood-turning is taken up ; they are then necessary to protect one's clothes from the fine chips which fly from the lathe. The drawer keys used by the members of a division should be hung together on a key-board bearing the number of that division. The three key-boards should be kept by the teacher in his private closet, to be brought out in succession as the divisions appear. The presence of a key on the board after the division has been sent to the benches indicates the absence of a student. The keys should have tags numbered to correspond with the numbers on the drawers. Pupils should be warned against dangerous methods of hold- ing and using tools. The teacher soon learns what accidents are likely to happen, and he should warn accordingly. Under careful supervision, shop accidents are very few indeed. Pupils should be warned not to slide the vise jaw unless the lever be thrown fully back, thus avoiding excessive wear. All one's edge-tools should be kept in perfect order, and the teacher should attend to the saws as often as necessary. Every boy should leave his bench perfectly clean, every tool in its place, and his private drawer in order. His shop duties 54 FIRST YEAR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [Chap, IL end after washing up, and locking his drawer, with the restora- tion of his key to the board, and with taking his place in the line for filing out of the room. I have never found it necessary or desirable to give unsatis- factory students extra hours in the shop. A boy who under our regulations either can not, or will not, make fair progress is not worth the extra investment involved in extra hours ; in either case I should try to get him out of the class. While boys are at work in a shop I would allow no whistling nor playing nor idling. There is no objection to such conversa- tion as may be necessary to the prosecution of their work. The essential thing is to keep the boys' minds on their work, and to rigidly exclude distracting influences. The teacher should generally not be at work at his bench while the boys are engaged at theirs, but he should hold himself ready to answer a signal for assistance or advice, and to check and correct those whom he sees going wrong. The division should move on the stroke of a bell, promptly and quietly. WOOD-TURNING. I assume that the school is equipped with twenty-four speed- lathes driven by an engine. A boy of fourteen years can not with profit work long at a foot-lathe, without rest. Motive power is now so cheap and easily managed that no considerable supply of lathes should be put in without power. 1 The construction and care of the lathe should be fully ex- plained. A picture of our speed-lathe made by Messrs. Hall & Brown of St. Louis is shown as Fig. 36. Here the pupil learns, perhaps for the first time, the importance of keeping the lathe bearings in order and well oiled. The heating of a journal is never without cause, and should never be disregarded. The monkey-wrenches should be suited to the nuts on the lathes. The belt-shifters should be convenient and effective, and it should be made a second nature with a boy, to throw off the belt (shut off the lathe) at the slightest accident, or at 1 For several years before the organization of the Manual Training School, the University boys used foot-lathes and hand-forges. In wood-work two students were put to one lathe, one driving while the other turned. Chap. MANAGING A SPEED-LATHE. 55 a slowing up of the main shaft. While a boy may properly use his hand to stop his lathe after the belt is off, he should be cautioned against getting his fingers or his sleeve under the belt. When not actually turning or marking his piece, he should stop his lathe. Let him beware getting his sleeve into the clutches of the spur-center. Flowing, or very loose, sleeves should not be worn. If properly shown, boys soon get the knack of shifting the belt to change the speed. The stock with which one's wood-turning may begin should be about 2" X 2" X 8". After "centering" and placing one end on the spur, bring up the tail-stock, clamp it in place, and then screw up the center point till it strikes the center point in the wood. Force the stick firmly upon the spur. After withdrawing the tail center a trifle, clamp it and put a drop of oil on its point. Before starting the lathe put the tool-rest in place, its edge a little above the center line of the lathe and as near as I FIG. 36. SPEED-LATHE. possible without touching the wood. Pull the belt by hand, and see whether the piece and the rest are in proper position. A carpenter's gouge is the first tool to be used ; it is always to be used in roughing out. Turning tools should be kept sharp and free from nicks, and the pupil should early learn that he is to cut the wood, not scrape it ; consequently the edge of the tool should be well raised almost into tangency with the revolving piece, and the tool should be slightly inclined away from where the diameter of the piece is larger, so as to avoid catching in the grain and splitting the wood ; that is, one should work from a larger towards a smaller diameter. In roughing-ofT corners, cut lengths of about a half inch at a time, cutting towards an end at first and then towards the last cut. The tool is to be held firmly resting on the guide, and as 56 FIRST YEAR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [Chap, H it cuts is to be slid along parallel with itself. On no account should the pupil let the tool be knocked from his hand. When the piece has been reduced to a cylinder, the tool may move along the whole piece without stopping, taking a thin uniform cut. If the piece has a cross grain or knots, the cut must be very thin, and the tool should move in the direction least likely to catch in the grain. As soon as the piece is well roughed down, stop the lathe, and re-adjust the guide-rest. Never adjust the rest when the lathe is in motion. 1 It is impossible for me to follow out the full details of the use even of the gouge. Two general directions must cover the whole ground : 1. Cut, not scrape the wood. 2. Incline the tool, and work towards the end of the grain. Cut from the larger towards the smaller diameter, rolling the tool on the rest if necessary. Before working to dimensions, learn to make every kind of surface : cylindrical, conical, conoidal (convex and concave), and square-shouldered ; and to combine them at will. QUALITY BEFORE QUANTITY is the order of perception, and it should be the order of development throughout the school. If much stock is to be taken off, the carpenter's gouge is the most serviceable tool. It carries a longer cutting edge, and sub- divides the chips better than the turning gouge. Its peculiar advantages can be learned only by trial. The turning gouge is the tool to be used in corners from either the right or the left. The turning chisel is a most effective tool, yielding a very smooth surface and enabling one to work to sharp angles and square corners, but it is more liable to catch on the grain than the gouge. The teacher must introduce the several tools gradually, show- ing the special uses of each, the accidents that are peculiar to each, and how each is ground and oil-stoned. 1 One of our boys disregarded this rule, and lost a finger-nail thereby. He raised the rest with the fingers of the left hand, and then pushed it forward till a finger came in contact with the swiftly revolving piece. In an instant the nail was gone! Chap. II.] THE PRINCIPLES OF WOOD-TURNING. 57 One of the first things to surprise a learner, if he is using hard seasoned wood, will be the easy generation of heat. In turning a mallet-head of dry oak, for instance, the chisel or the gouge may become so hot as to lose its temper. Great care must be taken in cutting creases for shoulders, or the chisel will be temporarily ruined. The creases should be cut a little at a time, and the tool should be quickly withdrawn. If, unfortunately, the temper is drawn from a portion of the edge, the injured part must be ground away. The use of heat developed by friction as a means of coloring rings and beads on the work is soon learned. To save his tools, the teacher should make "Heat" the subject of a class-lecture, and he should call general attention to every instance where a neglect of orders has produced bad results. A tool may be seriously injured by frictional heat when cutting soft, dry pine. I have thus far assumed that the grain of the wood is par- allel with the axis of the lathe. Blocks in which the grain is at right angles to the axis of the lathe are generally driven by center screws which are attached to the face-plate which is put on after the spur-center is removed; or the block is secured to the face-plate by short screws. One of these methods is employed whenever a piece is to be wholly supported from one end, and the tail-stock is either removed or pushed to the end of the bed. Great care must be taken to keep the edge-tool clear of the center and face-plate screws. In turning across the grain, the tool for obvious reasons should be carried very nearly parallel with the axis, and the tool-rest should be adjusted across the end or face of the piece. Interior turning should generally be done by the "round- nose " tool, at least as a preliminary tool. In spite of its scraping action, it should be kept well ground to a somewhat shearing edge. A large cavity in the end of a piece should be " cored out ; " i.e., an annular channel should be taken out by the round-nose, only slightly less in exterior diameter than the re- quired cavity, and then the central part or core can be under- mined and split out. Experience will soon teach that in turning a goblet or a vase, the portion farthest from the support is to be finished first. 58 FIRST YEAR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL, [chap, II, CHUCKING. Pieces like spheres and rings often require turning over their entire surface ; hence they must at least during a part of the work receive other support than the screws and centers already named. It is usual to fit them into a " chuck," which consists of a separate piece of wood screwed to the face-plate, and having in the center of its face a cavity so fitted to the size of the article to be turned that the latter requires a gentle forcing into it, with friction sufficient to hold it securely while under the turning tool. A little experience will enable one to fit a chuck readily, and to use one surprisingly shallow. Several examples of chucks are given in the exercises illustrated below. One chuck with a little refitting will often serve several pieces. Sometimes a mandrel is used to support and carry a piece which has a central hole. A " mandrel " consists of a cylinder of wood fitting snugly a hole in the piece to be turned, and carrying it with itself as it revolves in the lathe. In replacing the mandrel in the lathe after having removed it for any cause, be careful to restore it to its exact former position. Always use soft wood for a mandrel, and bear in mind that a little friction is sufficient to carry a piece round. By the use of a monkey-wrench on the shaft of a bit, and a small block fitted against ,the tail-stock spindle, the face of a piece mounted in the lathe may be quickly and accurately bored ; but the bit should first be passed through a sleeve or tube which will allow it to enter only to a certain depth. The rapidity with which the boring is done renders this precaution necessary. Or, on the other hand, a bit may be mounted in the center of a face-plate, and be used for boring holes in a piece which rests against the tail-stock. In this case also a sleeve around the bit should serve as a " stop " at the limiting depth. As a rule, delicate work is best executed in hard wood. The lumber should always be well seasoned, and when finished arti- cles are to be preserved, they should be well varnished. " Built- up " pieces of black walnut, and light-colored wood, such as maple, beech, ash, chestnut, or oak, alternating in thin strips Chap. H] DRA WINGS FOR WOOD-TURNING. 59 and firmly glued, serve admirably for ornamental work. The contrast of colors and grains is very effective. When a fair quality of workmanship has been attained, the teacher may proceed to specify quantity, and require pieces to conform to given dimensions as shown in drawings. Thus far in wood-turning, I have assumed only free outlines, which the teacher may sufficiently show by free-hand curves on the black- board. As soon as dimensions are used, however, the pupils must make careful scale and figured drawings in their books. As turned objects are symmetrical with respect to a line (the axis), their projections (on a plane parallel to the axis) are symmetrical also ; hence it is customary to draw but one half, unless a section is required, in which case one half of the draw- ing shows an exterior projection, and the other half a section through the axis. As this method of drawing may be unfamiliar, I will insert in the illustrations to the turning exercises a draw- ing of a goblet, one half being in projection, and the other half in section. See Fig. 53 on p. 65. Gum-wood, white and black, is excellent for turning, as it splits with great difficulty, but it must be kept perfectly dry. Fancy woods for ornamental work are cedar, cherry, rosewood, boxwood, and mahogany. Hemlock would make beautiful work if free from checks. Dead knots should be carefully removed by a hatchet or saw. There is great opportunity for economy of material in wood- turning. The product of one exercise may be made the basis for another. See Figs. 49 and 50, where one piece is made to serve as the basis of several distinct exercises. In the end we shall have mainly worthless chips and valuable experience. As we never have much more left, this should produce no sense of disappointment. A few specimens should be kept, however, to illustrate the series and to emphasize good work. A finished piece tells a plain story to a practised eye, and when the story is a good one, it is exceedingly stimulating to the class to see that it is duly recognized. All that I have elsewhere said (see p. 52) in regard to care of tools, bench, marking, etc., applies as well to one kind of wood-work as another. The following series of turning exer- 60 FIRST YEAR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [Chap, H, cises will fairly serve to begin with. After a year's experience the teacher will need no guide. He will receive abundant suggestions from many sources, and will see changes which, for the time at least, will appear to be marked improvements. EXERCISES IN WOOD-TURNING. With one or two exceptions these drawings show but half- projections, the lower line being the axis of the piece. The drawings have been furnished me by Mr. Charles F. White of the St. Louis Manual Training School. They are intended to furnish opportunity for learning the use of all the tools, and to cultivate a taste for graceful curves and an eye for symmetry. They may be executed in soft or hard woods, plain or built-up by gluing. The first twelve drawings represent pieces from six to ten inches long. Only newly-used tools are mentioned. No. 1. (Fig. 37.} Plain cylinder. Carpenter's gouge. FIG. 37. No. 2. (Fig. 38.) Cylinders and cones. Turner's gouge. FIG. 38. No. 3. (Fig. 39.) Stepped cylinders. Wide chisel. FIG. 39. Chap. II.] EXERCISES IN WOOD-TURNING. 61 No. 4. (Fig. 40.) Double-stepped cylinders. FIG. 40. No. 5. (Fig. 41.) Large and small cylinders. FIG. 41. No. 6. (Fig. 42.) Convex curves. FIG. 42. No. 7. (Fig. 43.) Beads, cones, and cylinders. FIG. 43. No. 8. (Fig. 44.) Convex and concave curves. FIG. 44. 62 FIRST YEAR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [Chap, IL No. 9. (Fig. 45.) Flowing or reverse curves. FIG. 45. No. 1O. (Fig. 46.) Reverse curves. Small baluster. FIG. 46. No. 11. (Fig. 47.) A baluster pillar. This may be length- ened into a table-leg. FIG. 47. No. J2. (Fig. 48.) Baluster without base. FIG. 48. No. 13. (Fig. 49.) Face-plate work. This is turning across the grain. Each of the drawings represents a half-projection. The screw shows how the block is fastened to the face-plate. (a) represents a plain solid cylinder. (5) shows two cylinders, a square corner having been turned off. (c) shows that each of the sharp corners has been turned away, leaving conical bands, (d) shows that the corners have been turned off, leaving Chap, tt] SUCCESSIVE EXERCISES ON ONE PIECE. 63 an ogee outline. (Y). The outline is modified into a capital molding, and a cylindrical cavity is sunk into its face as tho to fit the top of a pillar or column. (a) No. 14. (Fig. 50.) Chuck work, (a) represents a half- section of a block on the face-plate screw. The exterior has been turned off into three stepped cylinders, and a cylindrical opening has been sunk into its face. We must now suppose that a two-cylinder opening is wanted in the back, or left-hand side. The block must then be taken off, turned round, and inserted in a chuck. (6) shows the chuck screwed to the face- plate and partially cut out. For the sake of the practice, the FIG. 50. chuck-cavity may be made to take the form of (6), showing a convex outline ; or concave outline as shown in (V), where it is a hemispherical cavity ; or (c?), where it has just the form to support without injury the first piece (a). When the piece is accurately carried by the chuck, the double cylindrical opening may be cut out of the original piece, leaving but a skeleton of material in the finished piece. This exercise is very interesting, and admits of great variation. 64 FIRST YEAR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [Chap. H (6) FIG. 51. No. 15. (Fig. 51.) Ring with octagonal section. This figure, like the last one, shows a half-section of the ring. (a) shows that the ring is partly formed from the face of a block screwed to the face-plate by the center screw. Three of the faces of the ring are finished, and two more, the inner and the outer, are accurately turned. Perhaps the outer one should be defined by a faint line before it is removed from the screw, (ft) shows that a chuck has been made to receive it after it is turned round, and that the original back of the block has been cut away, and that the ring has been finished. No. 16. Napkin ring. This should be shown in half- section and in half-projection. It is treated like the ring in Fig. 51 ; that is, it is held by the screw-center till the interior and the greater part of the exterior is finished, and then it is turned round, and the finished end is inserted in a chuck. For this exercise use close-grained hard wood, and polish, stain, or shellac the result. No. 17. (Fig. 52.) Sphere. The sphere is shown in projec- tion ; the chuck, in section. This is a difficult exercise, and should not be undertaken till the class has had considerable expe- rience in chucking. As in No. 14, the chuck may be a valuable exer- cise in itself. The sphere may be approximately turned between two centres. It may then be placed in a chuck, as shown in the cut. The circle of contact is a little less than a great circle. The sphere should be moved in the chuck so as to take all possible posi- tions, and be tested thoroughly, before it can be considered finished. Spheres turned from built-up pieces of light and dark woods are very pleasing when well done. FIG. 52. Chap, H] TPIE STUDY OF GRACEFUL FORMS. 65 No. 18. (Fig. 53.) Goblet. This is shown in half-section and half-projection. It may be wholly turned from the screw- center of the face-plate. The parts farthest from the plate should be finished first. Cedar, mahogany, cherry, gum, rose-wood, oak, and black walnut are good woods for goblets and vases, tho I have seen beautiful work of this description executed in white pine ; cedar splits easily, but has a fine color. No. 19. A composition or design. At this stage of his work the pupil has a clear idea of what he would like to make for a final or " show " piece. This " show " is not to be a vain parade, but the actual combination of his exercises into a work of both use and beauty. The pupil should early learn that Use and Beauty should never be divorced. Every blossom should be the promise of fruit ; so every fruit should be heralded by a beautiful flower. It is altogether probable that his turning exercises have opened the pupil's eyes to see and analyze forms of grace hitherto unnoticed. Handsome furniture, moldings, cornices, pillars, rounds, balusters, posts, etc., have been examined with won- dering delight. The boy finds so much that pleases him, so many graceful combinations, that in his first design he will probably load his piece most extravagantly. Nevertheless, give him a reasonable caution not to ornament too much, and then let him have his will. He will soon see how superior is simple grace and fair proportion, and yet how difficult it is to satisfy a critical eye. A balustrade, a hat-rack (for fastening on a FIG. 53. 66 FIRST YEAR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [Chap, IL wall), a small table, a toy bedstead, a spoked wheel, a set of chessmen, a nest of thin boxes with covers, such are some of the things which may properly be chosen for the display of one's skill. Whatever is taken, require first a figured drawing made carefully to large scale. WOOD-CAB VING. Considerable wood-carving may be done with ordinary bench tools, tho fine work should not be attempted with coarse instru- ments. The great thing is to learn how to work with the grain, and how to hold the tool for grooving or paring. The piece to be wrought upon is to be firmly supported in the vise, and the cutting-tool is usually to be driven along by the hand. Occa- sionally a light mallet may be used. No. 1. A gouge exercise. Fig. 54 shows a variety of work upon one block, by means of which one learns to take the grain at all angles. The gouge is the main article to be used. All surfaces should be left smooth or polished. The block is about six inches long. FIG. 54. No. 2. A gluing and chisel exercise. Fig. 55 shows a piece composed of eight strips matched and glued, and after- wards dressed with the wide chisel and polished. The drawing Chap, H] A GLUING AND CHISEL EXERCISE. 67 shows the variety which may be worked into one piece. The effect of the gluing is very striking if dark and light colors alternate in the shield. In any event, wood with clear grain should be used, and the surfaces should be polished so as to bring out the beauty of the wood. FIG. 55. There is a great variety of special wood-carving tools, tho in school the number need not be large. The tools used may vary somewhat ; those selected for the class in the St. Louis School are the following. The numbers refer to the standard numbers on the imported " London tools.'* WOOD-CARVING TOOLS. No. 1. \" firmer (straight chisel). 2. f" corner firmer (diagonal chisel). 3. |" straight gouge (flat). 5. " straight gouge (less flat). 8. " straight gouge (round). 9. f" straight gouge (round, more curvature). 11. $' straight gouge (sharply curved). 11. \" straight gouge (sharply curved). 28. -^" short bent gouge. 39. f" parting tool (triangular edge). 68 FIRST YEAR OF. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [Chap, H The tools used by Mr. House of the Toledo Manual Training School are somewhat different. The material may be soft woods, such as gum, elm, poplar, or pine, the first two of which split with great difficulty. The later exercises may be in harder wood, such as black walnut, mahogany, rosewood, or oak, the last being preferred for high relief: but exercises in high relief should usually be de- ferred till a subsequent course in an art school. I am indebted to Mr. N. W. House of the Toledo Manual Training School for the following series of graded elementary exercises with regular wood-carving tools. They have served as the basis of our exercises in this direction during the past year. The thickness of the wood varies in the different exercises from three-eighths to three-quarters of an inch. No. 3. (Fig. 56.) Grooving across the grain. Use straight gouge, |" wide, No. 11. In every exercise first lay out the work in pencil. FIG. 56. No. 4. (Fig. 57.) Grooving with and across the grain. Use straight gouge, 1" wide, No. 11. Cut, not split, the wood. Keep the tool sharp, and work the tool along wholly by hand. FIG. 57. Chap. II,] EXERCISES IN WOOD-CARVING. 69 No. 5. (Fig. 58.) Circular grooving. Same tool as before. Carry the tool as a tangent to the curve. Practice cutting right-handed and left-handed. FIG. 58. No. 6. (Fig. 59.) Convex panel, with tracery. Use two gouges and the parting-tool. Conduct the exercise in two parts : first, produce the convex panel ; and second, the com- pound shaded grooves which should be drawn on the convex surface. FIG. 59. No. 7. (Fig. 60.) Engraved panel. The two corners are carved. The sweeping grooves are clear cuts of varying depth, made by the parting-tool. The intervening cuts are made with a flat gouge. FIG. 60. 70 FIRST YEAR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [Chap, H No. 8. (Fig. 61.) Panel with engraved tendril. Use two gouges, cutting grooves of varying depth. FIG. 61. No. 9. (Fig. 62.) Carved square panel. Quadrifolium in relief. Use two gouges and a straight chisel. The edges of the panel are plain bevels. The edges of the leaves are slightly under-cut. The panel is sunk about one-fourth of an inch. The center is hemispherical. The ground is roughened by a spike having a large number of small projections on its end. FIG. 62. No. 1O. (Fig. 63.) Panel with carved vine. The vine is in sharp relief. Leave all corners clean and smoothly cut. FIG. 63. Chap. H,] EXERCISES IN WOOD-CARVING. 71 No. 11. (Fig. 64.) Concave circular piece. The corner designs are engraved ; the central parts carved out to a depth of one-quarter or three-eighths of an inch. The ribs and cir- cumferences are cut deeply, while the rosette in the center is in relief. The center is convex, rising to a blunt point, with sharp shaded grooves running to the apex. FIG. 64. No. 12. (Fig. 65.) Carved diagonal panel. The corners are carved, the triangular borders being beveled, and the radiating panels being convex upward. The rhomboidal panel FIG. 65. is deeply carved with overlapping leaves, sharply under-cut. The " corner-firmer " is especially useful in finishing sharp cor- ners when under-cut. Oiling the portions in relief gives them a rich appearance, and 72 FIRST YEAR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. [Chap. H, at the same time brings into prominence the poor finish of sur- faces. The time given to wood-carving is about four weeks. As an alternative with carving or engraving wood, I suggest the introduction of several exercises in carving plaster-of-Paris blocks. The scale of the details should be increased. It is possible that the reader who has followed me so far will be surprised to find the first year at an end without that useful work which he has all the time assumed we should do before the year should close. He feels, perhaps, that all we have done thus far has been in the nature of getting ready to do something. Perhaps he wonders why the boys have not made themselves bureaus, desks, and chairs, or supplied their homes with useful articles and with pretty pictures. As I shall discuss this subject later on quite fully, I must refer him to the later chapters. However, I have no objection to final pieces, which combine the principles and methods con- tained in the exercises, and which serve to show the pupils themselves the value of what they have got. But to make the production of articles the main object, and the learning of principles and methods incidental, would be to choose the shadow rather than the substance ; to destroy our school by converting it into a factory. No, this is a school ; its object is education. Doubtless the world will have work for these boys to do when they get outside ; let us give them the power to do it well. Chap, in,] GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 73 CHAPTER III. THE SECOND, OR MIDDLE YEAR. careful reader of the last chapter will read much between the lines of this. The same general principles are to be followed, and in the details of the work many of the methods will be the same. The pupils are a year older ; they are considerably larger, for their physical development is going on at a maximum rate ; they have made some progress intel- lectually and manually, but a good deal more morally, in con- fidence and self-assertion. They need firm, kind, sympathetic management. The work of the year is quite new, of great interest, and sufficiently difficult to yield healthy discipline. Of course I assume the full work of the previous year; unless it has been fairly done, the boy should not be in the mid- dle class. In deciding the question of promotion, all matters should be taken into account ; at the same time, it should be admitted that the mathematical and other sequence studies afford the chief criterion. Without mathematical success the work of the second year cannot be done. It is a mistake to insist upon excellence either in the direction of practical mechanics, or in memory studies, such as language and history. If the student has any brains at all, he is likely to do well in something, and a partial failure in a single direction should not prevent his going on in the course. Pupils have very dif- ferent gifts, and the discovery of these gifts should be followed by prompt recognition of them. Instead of trying to force all comers into the same Procrustean mold, it is our duty to give each full liberty of growth. If a boy fails in the shop but suc- ceeds in his Latin, or vice versa, he ought still to go on, if physi- cal strength and fair mathematical power are not wanting. But 74 THE SECOND, OR MIDDLE YEAR. [Chap, m, here let me say that almost without exception, mathematical and mechanical power go together. If a boy fails in the shop, he is quite sure to be weak in arithmetic and algebra ; but it is not at all sure, it is scarcely probable, that one who is a manual failure is weak in language and history and spelling. Manual failures seem to arise from a lack of power to appreciate precision and logical order. A boy deficient in mechanical power rarely asks " why ? " One way appears to him about as reasonable as another ; he adopts a certain order because some one else did, or because he was told to do so. He bows to authority. When his work is compared with good work, he sees no great difference ; he does not see that an eighth of an inch more or less does any harm, or that 80 or 100 is not as good as 90. Hence it is that in our promotions from class to class, it is not necessary to lay great stress upon shop-work. Every well-balanced boy does passably well in it, and the sequence of the work of different grades does not demand great proficiency. Besides, as already said, the pupil may never have had any shop opportunities before, and it may take some time to bring out his innate faculties. Physical maturity (i.e. com- mand of one's muscles and motions) comes at very unequal ages in different boys. Great size is not maturity ; a six-footer is often the personification of physical immaturity. For the sake of consistency and simplicity I shall assume that the number of the second or middle class has fallen from seventy-two to sixty-six, and that it consists of three divisions of twenty-two each. As before, three teachers are necessary : one exclusively for the shop, 1 and two for the drawing and book studies. Other things being equal, I would have the teacher of physics teach the drawing ; for the reason that the correct study of physics involves the examination and execution of drawings, in connection with the design and construction of physical apparatus, and the record of physical experiments. The science study for the year is physics. The mathematical 1 It is better not to divide the shop-work between two teachers, even if both are competent; there should be no divided responsibility in the care of the tools, the material, and the shop generally. When only one man rules the shop, every thing is more likely to be well in hand. Chap. Ill,] THE STUDY OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 75 study is elementary algebra continued through quadratics, and a few weeks' work in geometry. The language work is, on the one hand, the reading of three Books of Csesar and perhaps an oration of Cicero, with contin- ued study of the Latin grammar. On the other hand, rhetoric with frequent almost daily exercises in English composition one term, and history (English) one term. In the place of Latin and rhetoric (or history), all take modern classics once a week. The daily program is as follows : SECOND YEAR PROGRAM. DIVISION. 910. 10 11. 1113. 181. 13. 33. 34. I. Shopwork. Physics. Latin. < Drawing. Mathe- matics. II. Physics. Algebra. Shopwork. English. Drawing. III. Algebra. Drawing. English or Latin. Physics. Shopwork. The recitations should occupy forty or fifty minutes each ; the drawing, a full hour ; the shop, two hours. I assume that one division is wholly Latin, another wholly English ; the third should be wholly one or the other, or a fourth teacher must step in to take a subdivision of the class. If the physical laboratory will admit more than twenty-two pupils in a division, there may be between eleven and one o'clock a special re-arrangement of the first and third divisions, which will admit of a few more or a few less than twenty-two in the Latin division. All the mechanical details of English composition should be thoroughly mastered this year, even for the Latins, the litera- ture hour being used for that purpose as far as necessary. Teachers must never forget that English composition like every thing else in and out of school is not learned by the continued practice of faulty methods and an endless repetition of errors, 76 THE SECOND, OR MIDDLE YEAR. [Chap. HI. not even if one's results are unfailingly pronounced wrong, and so marked. One learns a correct method only by practising a correct method, under dictation if necessary. Every error should be fully and clearly corrected by the pupil himself. The teacher should always invent a new exercise (and this remark applies to English composition, to shop-work, to math- ematics and to Latin alike), in which the pupil may have an opportunity to avoid certain specified old errors, and follow the best usage. Don't try to "catch" a boy when he is unaware, by giving him a chance to repeat an old error ; but lead him con- sciously to correct usage. The persistence of error is something remarkable. I have known a workman follow a wrong method all his life, tho strongly suspecting that it was wrong. I know intelligent people by scores who have standard errors of speech which they will never live to correct. I have known a poor cook remain a poor cook for years, tho daily practising her art (?). One hour of correct doing, under the eye and direction of a teacher, is worth more than months of mere criticism, and crude attempts to find the Correct Way by the Broad Road of Error. Some teachers will never tell a pupil the plain, simple truth about an article, or method, or process (which may after all be largely a matter of conventionality) until he has badgered his brains in trying to invent it or to think it out, or has exhausted his patience in futile " guessing." Some teachers even empha- size wrong ways more than right ones. Such teachers of How- Not-To-Do-It should be muzzled, or at least put under bonds not to " keep school " any more. TEACHING PHYSICS. I cannot forbear a few words about the correct teaching of physics. It is only in a manual training school that the method which appears to be the only correct one can be advantageously followed. Nowhere else are pupils so ready to devise, con- struct, interpret, explain, and use physical apparatus. Studying physics without handling and using apparatus is like eating a meal of cook-books. It doesn't nourish ; it sounds well, but there is no real knowledge in it. Concepts which for the most Chap, III.] METHODS OF TEACHING PHYSICS. 77 part ought to be primitive, first-hand, are only second-hand, or third-hand, or mere speculation. Until one gets a certain amount of mental stock on hand in the shape of exact, experimental knowledge of certain things, properties, forces, processes, and relationships (which are very imperfectly expressed by certain more or less technical terms), he cannot appreciate properly verbal accounts of the experiments and conclusions of others. The drawing of a piece of apparatus is far inferior to the appa- ratus itself, at least to elementary students. In the St. Louis Manual Training School, the study of physics is becoming more and more a matter of personal observation and personal experiment on the part of the individual pupils. 1 SECOND YEAR DRAWING. The drawing of the Second Year consists of several new features, notably : projections of intersecting or truncated geo- metrical bodies (cylinders, pyramids, cones, and prisms) ; the development of surfaces ; brush-tinting ; mosaics and tracery ; isometric drawing ; detail drawing, and drawings for patterns ; graining and ornamental lettering ; and some study of historical forms in architecture. I do not deem it necessary to go into a full account of this work. The competent teacher needs no analysis of it ; and the incompetent teacher will probably let it alone. I desire, how- ever, to warn against undertaking too much. The groups of blocks, for instance, may be purely ideal, and they can easily be made very difficult. My advice is to leave complicated work to classes in descriptive geometry proper. The work should all be done in pencil and then in ink on 1 Under the guidance of Mr. C. C. Swofford, who last year conducted four divis- ions of physics. At the close of the year there was a remarkable display of quite elegant and perfectly serviceable apparatus, constructed by the class, in most cases from original designs. The apparatus was explained by the makers and used by them before a large audience. It is hardly necessary to add that Mr. Swofford could not have succeeded thus with a class of boys who had had no training in the use of tools, and who could neither make nor read working drawings. Our physical laboratory contains an engine lathe, a speed lathe, a hand planer, a long bench, two vises, and wood-working and iron-working tools. A small upright engine, built by a third-year class, drives the lathes and a dynamo. 78 THE SECOND, OR MIDDLE YEAR. [Chap, III. stretched paper, with great accuracy and good lining. I add a few of the exercises purely geometrical, given for the sake of cultivating the geometric imagination. 1. Triangular prism leaning against a cube. Find three pro- jections. Dimensions of solids should be given. 2. Hexagonal prism leaning against the base of a quadrangular pyramid which rests on a face. 3. Circular cylinder leaning against a cube. 4. Prism lying on the top of a cylinder while a pyramid leans against it. Though it is not necessary to follow the exact dimensions of wooden or plaster models, it is very desirable that real models be used to illustrate not only the nature of the bodies, but the nature of the groups to be drawn. In order to get three accurate projections with proper regard to visible and invisible lines, some purely " construction " work must be done ; it is well if these latter are inked in red. For the benefit of interested readers who are not draughtsmen, I will give the specifications and drawings of the second of the above. PROBLEM: To find the orthographic projections of a hexagonal prism leaning against the base of a quadrangular pyramid, which is lying on a horizontal plane. SOLUTION : Let the pyramid have a base 2" square. (Exe- cute the drawing full size.) Let it be so placed that the side projection (elevation) of the base shall be a single straight line (s' c' Fig. 66). (This should be illustrated by the model.) Let the altitude or center line of the pyramid be 2J". Imagine this line drawn perpendicular to the base from its center. Its pro- jection on the side plane will be 2" long, and will at one end bisect the projection of the base at right angles, while the other end will touch the ground line (6r .L). There are several ways of finding the correct position of the side projection of the pyra- mid ; perhaps the pupil had best draw it in pencil in its erect position, and then turn it over. In the figure it is drawn with dotted lines in an inverted position, and then turned down. The top view (plan) of the pyramid is now readily drawn. Chap. III.] ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS. 79 The base is s c d h and the apex is at v. It will be noted that two of the edges s v and h v are invisible to an eye directly above the object. Thus far I have taken no account of the prism, which will of course hide a part of the pyramid, in some or all of the views. It is therefore best even in pencil to draw the lines faint and broken. Now not to make the problem too hard, take the prism so that it has a line contact with the horizontal plane on which they both rest. (Illustrate this by models.) One line (V'jt/) may now be assumed on the side plane. Suppose the base to FIG. 66. be a regular hexagon whose side is f", while the edges are 3" long. Assume the position of the lowest side of the base, and draw the base as tho the prism stood erect. (See dotted base full size.) In this position, its side projection is in Gr L. Next revolve it up to its required position. (This operation is shown by the circular arc x' r x f ). The entire side projection may now be correctly drawn, / 5' x f a' etc. There are no invisible lines which are not covered by visible ones. The plan or top view of the prism may now be drawn, by means of perpendicular and parallel lines. It is easy to see which lines in the plan are to be drawn full, representing visible lines, and which broken. The reason why the horizontal projections of 80 THE SECOND, OR MIDDLE YEAR. [Chap. III. the long edges are parallel to G- L will be readily seen from the models in front of a side plane. A third, or end projection, may be drawn, not because it is necessary to full representation, but for the mental exercise. It may be very instructive for the pupil to see that a projec- tion may readily be drawn on any vertical plane. For instance, suppose one looks at the group obliquely, but still horizontally, from the right front, in the direction of the large arrow. The projection is shown beyond the line P Q. The heights of the points above P Q are the same as the distances of the same points in the side projection from G- L. In this view I have omitted some invisible lines, and have put double accents on the letters. The next regular sheet should contain truncated solids and their developments. For the first exercise it may be well to develop the entire surface of a regular solid. In the second show a prism cut by a plane. Its lateral surface below the cutting plane is to be developed, or rolled out, and the full size of the inclined section is to be shown. The drawing is easier than the following, which shows a truncated irregular pyramid and its development. PROBLEM : To cut an irregular pyramid by a plane, to find the true size of the section, and to develop the surface of the truncated pyramid. SOLUTION : Fig. 67 shows the full operation, which should be executed on a scale about three times as large, and with all possible accuracy. The central part of the drawing shows the plan and elevation of the pyramid, the vertex being 0, 0', and the base 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The intersecting plane cuts the edges in the points 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. The points 10 and 10' are of course in the same perpendicular to 5', 2', and so for the other points. To get the full size of the section I draw through 1 in the base a broken and dotted line parallel to the ground line ; and at any convenient distance from the elevation a second broken and dotted line parallel to the cutting plane V, 10'. From the points in the plan 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, I draw perpendiculars to the new line through 1. These perpendiculars measure the hori- Chap. Hi] THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PYRAMID. 81 zontal distances of the points from a vertical plane through 1. Through 1', 8', 6', 9', 10', draw perpendiculars to and beyond the parallel line, and make the portions beyond the line just as long as the corresponding distances last referred to in the plan. You will thus determine the points 7, 8, 9, 10, 6, and by connect- ing them you will have the full size of the section, shown at (a). In order to develop the lateral surface, we must find the true length of the edges of the pyramid, both the parts cut off, and the full length. This is done by means of the perpendicular and inclined lines on the left near (>). The lines are put off by FIG. 67. themselves to avoid confusion. The perpendicular measures the altitude of the entire pyramid. The inclined lines represent the edges of the pyramid, which are supposed to be swung round the altitude line till they are parallel to the side plane. Thus the distance from V to the foot of the perpendic- ular is equal to 1 in the plan ; and 0" V gives the full length of the edge 1, 0' V. From 6' a line is brought along by the T-square to 6", and then we have the distance 6" 1", as the true length of the edge between the point 6 and the point 1. Similarly all the true lengths are found. At (V) we have the development of the surface supposed to 82 THE SECOND, OR MIDDLE YEAR. [chap. HI. be cut open along the edge 0, 10, 5. It is constructed thus : Draw 5, Fig. (c) equal to 0" 5", Fig. (5), and make 10 equal to 0" 10". Next determine the position of 1, Fig. ( in the New England Journal of Educa- tion : " Let the child be taken to school whole, instead of in parts ; let him be considered to have a body as well as a mind ; let him be trained physically toward use, by a wise shaping of the eager animal activity ; let him be protected from the cupidity of manufacturer and the pressure of home poverty, by utilizing the active energy, which in more primitive times was of so much account in the family economy; let him be gradually introduced into that hard world of work for which he is destined, by a training which shall be of the hands as well as of the brain. ... If we are to protect the children of the very poor from the very worst consequences of their condition, without making paupers of them or their parents, we must continue (after the training of the kindergarten) in some way to give them study and work together." Says Mr. J. P. Wickersham, Superintendent of Public In- struction for the State of Pennsylvania : " It is high time that something should be done to enable our youth to learn trades, and to form industrious habits and a taste for work. " It is not enough to instruct a boy in the branches of learn- ing usually taught in our common schools, and there leave him. It must be seen to by some authority that he is allowed a chance to prepare himself to earn a livelihood. It takes more than a mere knowledge of books to make a useful member of society and a good citizen. The present product of our schools seems to be, in too great a degree, clerks, book-keepers, salesmen, agents, office-seekers, and office-holders. We must so modify our system of instruction as to send out, instead, large classes of young people fitted for trades, for business, and willing and able to work." 266 MANUAL EDUCATION. [Chap, XL Here is the important point, " able and willing to work." A man who has been taught to work with intelligence and skill at once has a higher estimate of labor and laboring men. Test this by referring to your own experiences. Have you a single physical accomplishment ? If you have, you are proud of it. It may be that you are skillful in the use of the rifle or the ax, the file or the stone-mason's sledge. It may be that you excel in handling the pencil, pen, or brush. Perhaps it is the needle, the violin, the piano, or only the cue. Whetever it is, you not only plume yourself upon your skill, but you have a high respect for those who are your peers, and a strong suspicion that few people have any idea of what skill like yours really means. Prest. Runkle says : " Public education should touch prac- tical life in a larger number of points ; it should better fit all for that sphere in life in which they are destined to find their highest happiness and well-being. It is not meant by this that our education should be lowered mentally, but that it should be based, if possible, upon those elements which may serve the double purpose of a mental culture and discipline, a development of the capacity of the individual with and through the acquisition of artistic tastes and manual skill in the graphic and mechanic arts which most largely apply in our industries. The student who completes his high-school course at eighteen seldom willingly enters the shop as an apprentice, with the intention of becoming a skilled mechanic and earning a livelihood by manual labor. His twelve or fourteen years of mental school- work, whether highly successful or not, have, through habit, if in no other way, unfitted him for all manual work, even if he has not in many ways been taught to despise such labor." CONTEMPT FOR MANUAL LABOR. The average man is apt to despise and underrate an accom- plishment which he, through lack of training or effort, does not possess. One who knows how to use tools well is rarely ashamed to use them ; and he enjoys it, too. The ambitious young wife who " can not endure cooking," and who scouts the Chap. XL] SHUNNING MANUAL LABOR. 267 idea of making her own clothes, is simply unable to do either. The man who turns his nose up highest at the rough palm of the joiner, or the soiled fingers and greasy apron of a machinist, is generally one who can not tell steel from cast iron, and can not drive a nail into a piece of wood without splitting it. It is no wonder that such men despise labor of all kinds. Consist- ency requires it ; to do otherwise would be a sort of confession of a personal mistake. But opportunities to learn trades are very limited. Indenture and regular apprenticeship have passed away for ever. The ordinary apprentice of to-day is the butt and fag of the shop. No one takes a personal interest in him, nor feels any responsi- bility for his progress. He is kept drudging, and his progress in learning the craft is made secondary to his employer's inter- est. A majority of apprentices in the United States run away before their trade is fully learned, and set up the claim of journeymen with a view to getting better pay. This lowers the standards of workmanship, of honor, and of wages also. Apprenticeship in St. Louis to-day means long days, hard and often disagreeable work, poor pay, and the almost certain pros- pect of low wages and a narrow field of labor in the future. It is no wonder that boys of fair education shrink from it. Another reason for shunning manual labor is the ambition to be rich. Wealth is regarded as a prize in a lottery, and the laboring men always draw blanks. Tho the good workman is much less frequently reduced to want than those who propose to live by their wits, the distant possibility of affluence through speculation or the shrewd management of the labor of others, the large salary or the enormous fees of the occasional profes- sional man draw the infatuated crowd away as the song of the fabled siren did the voyagers of old. A single ten-thousand- dollar salary is liable to demoralize the entire youth of a community. The tyranny of trade unions is felt in every trade. For the purpose of increasing the value of their own labor and skill, craftsmen combine to keep others out of their shops. Hence the sons of a poor journeyman often find it impossible to learn their father's trade, and are driven to habits of idleness and 268 MANUAL EDUCATION. [Chap. XL vice. By threats of stopping work and reducing a factory to enforced idleness, the unions generally carry their point. By looking only at the relation which they sustain to their employ- ers, and not at their social relations, these unions persuade the very people whom they most oppress of the justice of their coursi. TRADE SCHOOLS. Let us now see what steps have been taken to remedy these evils, and to better adapt our system of education to the present stage of civilization. Through the instrumentality of our international expositions, we have become well acquainted with the progress made else- where in educational as well as other matters. It is more than a hundred years since a school of trades was established in Russia. It is not a little strange that that far- off and strange people, whom we are accustomed to regard as occupying a somewhat lower plane of civilization, and who seem to have so little in common with other nations, should in practical matters have been twice our teacher. The special inspiration of this paper came from Russia. The introduction of machinery, the division of labor, and the extensive competition incident to increased facilities for commerce, suggested both the possibility and the necessity of cheapening the cost of production, as well as improving the quality of the manufactured articles, by the systematic instruc- tion of children in the bare details of a single trade, and their early introduction to the shops. Where the business of a community was largely of one kind, the trade school became an important item in the public economy. Later, trade schools were established in Belgium and France, and thence they have spread throughout Europe. During the past twenty years, hundreds have been established. Their effect upon the manufacturing interests of the people has been very striking. Educational ideas have spread like wild-fire, and a new era has dawned upon civilization. For the most part, these trade schools have been established by government for the education of the children of the laboring classes, and for the purpose of fostering particular industries. Chap, XI.] NATIONAL INDUSTRIES. 269 Hence they have been as various as the trades and occupations of men, and may be classed under the general name of indus- trial schools. Special prominence has, of course, been given to what we have learned to consider national industries. Belgium had schools for weaving ; France, for silks and laces ; Switzer- land, for watches and toys ; Bohemia, for glass-making and pottery ; and so on. In North Germany and Austria, industrial schools have been more recently introduced; but they have been on a broader foundation, and with a more philosophical basis. THE INSUFFICIENCY OF POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. Austria had been foremost in the establishment of its higher polytechnic schools, hoping to solve the problems of practical education by the training of skillful engineers. But this plan failed to accomplish all that was expected. " Ten years ago," says Mr. F. Buisson, commissioner of education from France to Vienna and Philadelphia, " Austria resembled an army which had at its head a brilliant major-general, very mediocre corps and division officers, and no subordinate officers at all. Be- tween the highest and the lowest industries, as between patron and workman, the tie of union failed. The trade and business of the country seemed manacled for the want of foremen. The gradual decrease of this middle class, the 6lite among work- men, indispensable as they are to commerce, agriculture, manu- facturing, and all other kinds of industry, so stirred up public opinion, that the government, urged and seconded by numerous societies, undertook to establish at once a system of institutions for imparting instruction in trades and business to large classes of workmen and laborers, and their children." Austria has [in 1878] at least twenty-eight schools for weaving ; three schools for lace ; eight schools for the whole group of mechanical indus- tries; a special school for watchmaking, at Vienna; fifteen schools for giving instruction in the arts of working wood, marble, and ivory ; six for instruction in making toys ; four for instruction in making baskets and mats ; and seven for instruc- tion in making arms, and in other metallurgical industries. New industries have actually been introduced through the 270 MANUAL EDUCATION. [Chap, XL ' agency of industrial schools, and a reasonable balance has been maintained between different trades. It will suffice now for me to give in detail the management and course of study in one or two of the best of European trade schools. I select the ARTISAN'S SCHOOL OF ROTTERDAM in the Netherlands, an* institution that was fully represented at the Philadelphia Exposition. I am indebted to Superintendent J. P. Wickersham of Pennsylvania for this account, which appears in his report for 1876. " The Artisan's School at Rotterdam was established in 1869, and is intended for the sons of workmen. In order to gain admission they must be from twelve to fifteen years of age, and be able to read and write. An elementary knowledge of arithmetic is also required. The number of pupils is now about two hundred, and is increasing. They pay a small fee, and are expected to remain in the school for three years. The institution is both a school and a workshop. In the school are taught, for a part of the day, the branches in which instruction is usually given in our common schools, together with algebra, geometry, elementary mechanics and physics, drawing, singing, etc. The workshops, in which the remaining part of the day is spent, are arranged for different trades, and are large and comfortable. There are shops for each of the following classes of workmen : carpenters, blacksmiths, metal-workers, masons, stone-cutters, cabinet-makers, wood-carvers, metal-turners, and others less important. . . . " The practical instruction ... is given in the afternoon, in special workshops, by clever masters, where the boys are taught for carpenters, smiths, braziers, painters, masons, stone-cutters, cabinet-makers, wood-carvers, modelers, turners, etc. . . . " It has been shown that boys who are occupied one half the day with books in the school, and the remaining half with tools in the shops, make about as rapid intellectual progress as those of equal ability who spend the whole day in study and recita- tion. And, in addition, the mechanical skill they acquire is of immense value." Chap, XI.] EUROPEAN INDUSTRIAL THE APPRENTICE SCHOOL OF THE CITY OP PARIS was opened in January, 1873. The school receives apprentices in iron and wood work. The course covers three years. Stu- dents must be riot less than thirteen, nor more than sixteen years old. Instruction is free, and all tools, books, and materials are furnished. The entrance examination is in reading, writ- ing, and elementary arithmetic. Students enter the school gate at seven o'clock A.M., and are dismissed at seven o'clock P.M. Each brings a morning and an afternoon lunch. The daily program, six days in each week, is as follows : From 7 A.M. to 8 A.M ....... Study. " 8 A.M. " 11 A.M ....... Shop-work. " 11 A.M. " 12 M ....... Lunch and recreation. " 12 M. " 2.30 P.M ....... Shop-work. " 2.30 P.M. " 3 P.M ....... Lunch. " 3 P.M. " 7 P.M ....... Study and recitation. The highest, or third-year, class has shop-work from eight till five o'clock, and but two hours of recitations daily. The branches studied are : arithmetic, algebra, geometry, geometrical drawing, sketching and design, physics, chemistry, descriptive geometry, mechanics, history and geography, book- keeping, French, English, and common law. The shop-work includes the details of some half dozen trades. The first year is spent in going the round of the trades for the purpose of finding the aptitudes of the pupils. At the begin- ning of the second year the apprentice, with the advice of his parents and teachers, decides upon a certain trade, to which he devotes himself exclusively for two years. Articles are made for the market, and skillful students are allowed from forty cents to one dollar for their work every fortnight. The school is popular, and its patronage is increasing. 1 1 I visited this school in 1885, and found it adhering closely to its original plan. Its director was clear, straightforward, and emphatic as to its scope and aim. The boys were to be mechanics, and each was to earn his living by his trade there learned. The school was full, and the government appropriations evidently generous and prompt. Tho differing widely from an American manual training school, this school and the more elementary one on Rue Turnefort, also in Paris, 272 MANUAL ED UCA TION. [chap, XL I have been somewhat minute in presenting the details of these schools, in order that we might fairly consider the pro- priety of introducing similar TEADE SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES. There are many who advocate this plan on a grand scale. A special committee of the Boston Social Science Association reported in January, ,1877, a plan for, first, a "developing school, so established and arranged as to give all the pupils a good general idea of all the different trades, arts, or callings, in order that it may be ascertained, by themselves or the super- intendent, for what kind of business they have the greatest natural genius." Secondly, a series of school-shops, in each of which a single trade should be taught. The committee generously proposed to avoid the exceedingly narrow range of most actual workshops, by furnishing their school-shops with "every tool and appliance of every name and nature that is ever used in any shop whatever, so that the student would become acquainted with every manner of doing work, and the management of every kind of tool or device ever used in any place or business for doing work." Such, in brief, is the plan seriously urged upon the city of Boston to provide for the training of all the youth of the city. The recommenda- tion closes with the cheerful prediction, that " the worth of the work made by the boys would probably pay current expenses after a very short time." I do not wish to fail to appreciate the excellent spirit and* main purpose of that report, but it seems to me that a little reflection will convince any one that their plan is thoroughly impracticable. Consider, only, the number of " trades, arts, or callings " in a single American city of half the size of St. Louis. Are not their names found under every letter of the alphabet, has had great influence upon public education in that city. All, or nearly all, the free public elementary schools have a species of manual training in the shape of wood-work. I visited some of the best of these. The shop arrangements were generally crowded and crude. Moreover, tools were put into hands much younger than I could approve; but the teachers appeared to favor it, finding it wholesome, stimulating, and useful in many ways. The exercises were generally abstract. Chap. XI.] THE FOLLY OF TEACHING TRADES. 273 and is not the list increasing every year? As, for example, bakers, bankers, barbers, basket-makers, blacksmiths, book- binders, brewers, brick-layers, brick-makers, brush-makers, butchers ; arid, again, machinists, masons, millers, mill-wrights, miners, molders, musicians, etc. 1 It is obvious that all such occupations must be included, or else they would soon dis- appear from society, all the youth being directed into other paths. Now, have the committee ever sat down to a serious estimate of the cost of all the trade shops, with their unequaled and com- plete equipment of tools and appliances ? I think not. It is perfectly safe to say that their cost would far surpass the cost of all the school houses and churches in the city. But it avails little to show the absurdity of a proposition too extravagant to be generally indorsed. The question still remains, Will trade schools flourish on American soil ? Would a school like the Artisan's School of Rotterdam, or the Appren- tice School of Paris, thrive in St. Louis ? I honestly think it would, to the extent of a single school ; but I think it much less in harmony with the free spirit of our social organization than the plan of manual education I am about to propose, and I can not recommend it as a feature of our system of public education. America has not yet adopted that sort of industrial education, and I doubt if she ever will : she will do better. TRADES NOT TO BE TAUGHT AT SCHOOL. The first reason why I think we shall not wisely attempt to* teach the details of actual trades is, that the scope of a trade is far too narrow for general educational purposes. Our physical education must be as broad and liberal as our intellectual. There is no breadth of manual training in being a tailor, or a painter, or a molder, or a shoemaker ; and he who learns either trade is rarely able to get out of the rut. Such being the case, both parents and children often hesitate to choose a trade, when the choice seems to be for life. In European society the feeling 1 " The trades are many, the arts are few." PROF. JOHN D. RUNKLE. 274 M A NUAL ED UCA TION. [Chap, XL is very different. The son of a miner goes to the mines as a matter of course, and the son of a weaver has generally no hopes beyond the loom. Whatever ambitious dreams a fond parent may cherish, or whatever visions may quicken the pulse of the humble child of a European laborer, they are smothered and crushed under the ruthless wheels of an inexorable destiny, In America, on the contrary, there is no limit to the possible social advance of the poor man's child. A nation which bestows its highest honors on a flat-boat man and a rail-splitter of the prairie, and associates with him a man who never went to school, and whose only teacher was his wife, can not expect its sons to fetter themselves by a trade which threatens to tie them down to a life of toil and obscurity. To the man of only ordinary enterprise and force, the shackles of a trade early learned and closely followed for a few years may become as strong as steel, and, like the fetters of a slave, bind him to an occupation he would flee, but can not. We have all seen men who could do one thing and nothing else, not even if their lives depended on it. Their special education had been begun too early, and limited to the absolute needs of the trade. Do not misunderstand me. I am in favor of having nearly every young man learn a trade, or rather the essential elements of many trades ; but I would not have him learn a single specialty so early and so exclusively as to learn nothing else. The objection to a self-supporting trade school has additional force when we remember that the standard in a trade is determined by the local demand for the products of that trade. A shop which manufactures for the market, and expects a revenue from the sale of its products, is necessarily confined to salable work; and a systematic and progressive series of lessons is impossible. If the object of the shop is education, a student should be allowed to discontinue any. task or process the moment he has learned to do it well. If the shop is to make money, the students will be kept at work on what they can do best, at the expense of breadth and versatility. Prof. Francis W. Newman of England said in 1872: "To cultivate the eye and hand, in and by the use of various tools, Chap. XI.] TYPICAL TOOLS AND PROCESSES. 275 is of endless industrial value. Some one has yet to develop a systematic teaching of what may be called carpenter's drawing. The more various the cultivation of the hand and the eye, the more efficient will be the laborer in any special work. Definite trades can not be taught in a national school system ; but the faculties maybe trained which will be serviceable in all trades." It is claimed that students take more interest in working upon something, which, when finished, has intrinsic value, than they do in abstract exercises. This is quite possible, and proper use should be made of this fact, just as it is well to stimulate the interest of a child studying arithmetic, by reckoning up the cost of the daily supply of meat and vegetables, or by com- puting the cost of material and labor put into a dress ; but, if all education were limited to such practical examples, our schools would be useless. The idea of a school is, that chil- dren are to be graded and taught in classes ; the result aimed at being, not at all the objective product or finished work, but the intellectual and physical growth which comes from the exercise. Of what use is the elaborate solution in algebra, the minute drawing, or the faithful translation, after it is well done ? Do you not erase the one, and burn the other, with the clear conviction that the only thing of value was the discipline, and that that is indestructible ? Now, should we not proceed in manual education on precisely the same plan ? Should we not abstract all the mechanical processes and manual arts and typical tools of the trades and occupations of men, and arrange a systematic course of instruction in the same, and then incorporate it into our system of education? Thus, without teaching any one trade, we teach the essential me- chanical principles of all. The thousands of tools used in the arts are but modifications of a few simple elements. They differ in degree more than in kind, and in the extent to which different kinds of tools are incorporated into the same complex machine. The universal tools are scarcety more than a half dozen in number. I am aware that some will think that I aim at a sort of " jack-of-all-trades, but master of none." I will only remark that a good jack-of-all-trades may easily become master of any. 276 MANUAL EDUCATION. [Chap. XL Some of you will recall the glowing admiration with which Theodore Winthrop, the brilliant and ill-fated young writer of the New York Seventh Regiment, spoke of the skill and handi- craft of the Eighth Massachusetts Regiment. The two regi- ments went together to the early defense of Washington, in April, 1861. The Yankees had captured a ferry-boat near Bal- timore, manned the engines, and steamed to Annapolis, saving it and " Old Ironsides '-' from capture. They found the railroad track leading to Washington torn up. " 'Wanted, experienced track-layers ! ' was the word along the file. All at once the line of the road became densely populated with experienced track-layers fresh from Massachusetts. " Presto, change ! The rails were relaid, spiked, and the roadway leveled and better ballasted than any road I ever saw south of Mason and Dixori's line. ' We must leave a good job for these folks to model after,' says the Massachusetts Eighth. " A track without a train is as useless as a gun without a man. Train and engine must be had. ' Uncle Sam's mails and troops can not be stopped another minute,' our energetic friends conclude. So ... in marches Massachusetts to the station. * We, the people of the United States, want rolling-stock for the use of the Union/ they said, or words to that effect. "The engine a frowsy machine, at the best had been purposely disabled. "Here appeared the deus ex macliina, Charles Homans, Beverly Light Guard, Company E, Eighth Massachusetts Regiment. " That is the man, name and titles in full, and he deserves well of his country. "He took a quiet squint at the engine, it was helpless as a boned turkey, and he found ' Charles Homans, his mark,' written all over it. " The old rattletrap was an old friend. Charles Homans had had a share in building it. The machine and the man said, ' How d'ye do ? ' at once. Homans called for a gang of engine-builders. Of course they swarmed out of the ranks. They passed their hands over the locomotive a few times, and presently it was ready to whistle and wheeze, and rumble and gallop, as if no traitor had ever tried to steal the go and the music out of it. ... " We of the New York Seventh afterwards concluded that whatever was needed in the way of skill or handicraft could be found among those brother Yankees. They were the men to make armies of. They could tailor for themselves, shoe themselves, do their own blacksmithing, gunsmithing, and all other work that calls for sturdy arms and nimble fingers. In fact, I have such profound confidence in the universal accomplishment of the Massachusetts Eighth that I have no doubt if the order were, l Poets to the Chap, XL] THE MASSACHUSETTS EIGHTH. 277 front ! ' * Painters, present arms ! ' ' Sculptors, charge bayonets ! ' a baker's dozen out of every company would respond." (Atlantic Monthly, vol. vii., pp. 747, 750.) When Winthrop said, " Such are the men to make armies of," he might have added, Such are the men to do any thing with, to span mighty rivers, to subdue the wilderness 011 mountain and plain, to cultivate literature, science, and art; in short, to spread the blessings of civilization. THE RUSSIAN METHOD. To Russia belongs the honor of having solved the problem of tool-instruction. Others had admitted that practice in using tools and in testing materials should go hand in hand with theory ; but Russia first conceived and tested the idea of ana- lyzing tool practice into its elements, and teaching the elements abstractly to a class. In their hands, manual tool-education has become a science. While recognizing the lead of Russia, it is necessary to recognize, next, the very valuable contribu- tions to progress in this direction made by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, under the guidance and inspiration of Prest. John D. Runkle. His very able reports give in full the history of the growth and working of their School of Mechanic Arts, and demonstrate fully the general practicability of the method employed. " The Imperial Technical School of Moscow was the first to show that it is best to teach an art before attempting to apply it ; that the mechanic arts can be taught to classes through a graded series of examples [or exercises], by the usual labora- tory methods which we employ in teaching the sciences. Making the art and not the trade fundamental, and then teaching the art by purely educational methods, is the Russian system. The system is instruction in the arts for the purpose of construction, and not construction for the purpose of instruction." Here is the point where the best manual training schools differ radically from the ordinary system of apprenticeship. In the latter the learner adquires the " arts " involved in a piece 278 MANUAL EDUCATION. [ Chap. XI. of work incidentally, and generally without a conscious analy- sis ; in the former, the u arts " are made the direct object of his study and attention. Their subsequent combination (which may or may not follow in his school experience) is a very simple matter. Mr. Runkle illustrates this point as follows : " Every one is well aware that the successful study of any art free-hand and linear drawing, or music instrumental or vocal, or painting is only attainable when the first steps are strictly subject to the laws of gradation and succession ; when the student adheres to a definite method, thus surmounting, little by little, and by certain degrees, the difficulties to be encountered. All the arts just named possess a method of study which has been well worked out and defined, since they have long constituted a part of the education of the well-instructed classes. They have, therefore, become subject to scientific analysis and objects of investigation, with the view of defining those conditions which should render the study of them as easy and well regulated as possible." Let us, now, see how this idea will apply to tool-work upon metals or wood. Every manufactured article, whether it be a machine, or a piece of furniture, or a bridge, consists of a combination of a small number of typical forms or shapes more or less modified. Take, for instance, a piece of furniture. The joints are of the simplest character, a plain mortise and tenon, or bored holes and cylindrical pins, all glued. The surfaces are either plane or regularly curved. The most diffi- cult point is accuracy in the angles, which is gained by using the try-square and working to fine lines. If the furniture is carved, you will find on analysis that that work is the result of a very few elements variously repeated and combined. It is just so of a watch or a steam-engine, so far as essential shapes of the different parts, both in the fixed frame-work and in the moving members, are concerned ; they are very few in kind, the apparent variety consisting mainly in the size of the pieces. Now, is it not the most reasonable thing in the world to teach these mechanical elements separately, abstracted from the machines into whose construction they enter ? When the Chap. XL] COMBINING SIMPLE ELEMENTS. 279 young apprentice has been through with the alphabet of mechanical elements, so that in each case he knows what tools to use, and is able to execute the work with precision, you may be sure he is able to construct a machine from a given design, altho he never has done so. When you learned to write (to illustrate this point still further), you began with straight lines, then single curves and hooks, then double curves and ovals. These are the elements of penmanship. You next learned how to combine these elements to form the twenty-six letters of our alphabet. When you had learned to combine these letters into words, you had mastered the art of penman- ship, even if you had never written a sentence. Outside the three lessons I have mentioned, there is absolutely nothing to be learned. You may gain facility and improve constantly in the execution of these steps, but nothing more. On the other hand, I have seen persons who could write their names, but noth- ing else. They had committed to memory, with much patient labor, the complicated scrawls which they had been told rep- resented their names ; and the utter lack of discrimination with which they reproduced them showed that they knew nothing of the significance of particular lines and flourishes. These persons typify the extreme utilitarian wing of educators, who would teach nothing not directly productive of useful work. Why should such ever write " Evil communications corrupt good manners," when they are likely to be called upon for nothing beyond signing their names? My illustration fairly shows the difference between an art and a mere trade. Having reached a philosophical method of manual education, our next step is to arrange the elements into groups, and grade them in the groups according to the materials to be wrought upon, and the tools to be used. It is hardly necessary to add that parallel and simultaneously with the above runs a corresponding course of free-hand and mechanical drawing, the first and most important element of manual education. Much thought has been given to working out and properly grading the elements under each of these groups. Prest. Runkle's paper in the Forty-first Annual Report of the Massa- 280 MANUAL EDUCATION. [Chap. XI chusetts Board of Education gives complete their courses in vise-work and forging. The details of the other groups have not yet been fully worked out. The first course in vise-work consists of twenty-two designs or examples in filing, chipping, and sawing steel, cast and wrought iron, to be worked out separately by each student. The time allowed for the work is thirty lessons of four hours each, or one hundred and twenty hours in all. Although this is equal to only twelve days of ten hours each, the work of the students is pronounced by a committee from the State of Rhode Island to be superior to that of the ordinary apprentice of two years' standing. I can not venture upon more than a very brief analysis of this work as done by a single student, and kindly sent us by Prest. Runkle. Each piece was executed with the most suitable hand- tools, and the work is so graded that in turn all the tools are used. Each exercise has a new feature, but depends, to a certain extent, upon what has gone before. Each piece is stamped with a number indicating the degree of excellence in the workmanship. The class is told beforehand just what the points to be aimed at are ; and the relative importance of different points, in the critical estimate of the work by the instructor, is definitely shown. This clear analysis of all the points in an exercise makes each workman a good judge of workmanship. The careful analysis of each piece of filing given by Mr. Walberg, the designer of the exercise, accompanied by the heliotype-print illustrations, constitutes a very valuable con- tribution to educational literature. AN EXERCISE IN FILING. Take, for example, No. 4. The blank furnished each member of the class consists of a flat piece of cast-iron planed on two opposite faces, with a round hole through it. The tools furnished are six files (each for a special purpose), and two try-squares, one, four and one-half inch ; the other, one and one-half inch. The instructor says to his class, who are arranged in the filing and chipping shop, each with his complement of tools, " This piece is to be made square and true around the edges ; Chap. XL] A LESSON IN FILING. 281 and the round hole is to be made a square one, according to the lines I have marked on each plate. It is designed to teach the use of two new kinds of files, in addition to extending the use of those you have already had, and at the same time to show you how to get the outside edges square with each other without the aid of lines, using lines only where the new files are needed. One side or face of the piece is to be draw-filed (or smoothed) in finishing it, thus removing the lines marking the boundary of the square hole, provided the hole is finished accurately to the line, so that its removal will not destroy the evidence of careless work. " Twenty-five per cent will be allowed for filing the square hole accurately to the line on each face. "Fifteen per cent will be allowed for good corners on the inside. You will test your pieces with the small try-square. This point involves true plane faces to the holes. " Ten per cent will be allowed for making an outside edge square with an adjacent edge. " Twenty per cent for making all four edges square with each other. " Ten per cent for careful removal of all cross-marks. " Ten per cent for edges straight lengthwise. " Ten per cent for edges straight crosswise. "Total, one hundred per cent. The time allowed for this work is four hours. Begin with the square hole. Secure the blank in the vise, and use first the six-inch pillar bastard file." The instructor then explains the features of the new tools, and the method of using them. He also reminds them of their former exercises, and shows how they enter into the present one. All students then go on with their work for four hours, or until the task is done ; the instructor giving such individual assistance as may be necessary. The instructor in filing and chipping found it possible to teach a class of thirty-two boys, whose ages ranged from fifteen years upwards. I have pictured a single exercise ; and, with obvious changes, you can picture all. The same principle runs through the use of all kinds of tools and materials. This is the Russian method 282 M. A NUAL EDUCA TION. [Chap. XI. in practice. The visible results serve only to illustrate the train- ing, unless it be to use them as blanks for another exercise. Do you think young men would be interested in such work? As a matter of fact, they are much interested. Every exercise has something new in it. A new surface is to be formed, or a new feature of some sort is to be added, and the interest is fresh. The Rhode Island committee already referred to report that they " found a class of thirty-two boys at work on a chipping exercise, with hammer and chisel, under the instruc- tion and constant supervision of an expert mechanic, employed as teacher of practical mechanics ; and it was easy to perceive that the class instruction in this branch of education was as systematic and simple as the teaching of a class in arithmetic or grammar in one of our best public schools." An exceedingly interesting and instructive experiment of the Russian method of tool-instruction was made in Boston, Mass., during the past two winters, by the INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL ASSOCIATION. The Association had discussed the importance and the feasi- bility of making manual education a part of public instruction. The first winter, they organized an evening class of thirty-two boys in wood-carving. Their ages ranged from twelve to six- teen. About half of them were still attending the day-school, the others were employed in stores and offices. A course of twenty-four lessons in wood-carving was prepared with special reference to securing the greatest amount of instruction with the least expenditure of material. It was not designed to make finished workmen, but to take advantage of the natural inclina- tion towards handicraft. The tools used were three in number, the flat chisel, the gouge, and a veining-tool. Blocks of white wood six inches long, three inches wide, and one and one-half inches thick were the material worked upon. Each boy had his place at a work-bench four feet long by two and one-half feet in width. Each had a vise with wooden jaws and an iron screw ; a drawer with lock and key, in which the tools were kept ; and a gas-burner with a movable arm. The report of the committee in charge gives heliotypes of the various finished Chap, XI,] A BOSTON EXPERIMENT IN 1877. 283 blocks. Mr. Chaney says, "It will be noticed that no specific article was made in the school. The variety of manipulations and change of patterns were enough to maintain the freshness of the scholars' interest, without introducing the manufacture of any articles of trade or commerce. The object of the school was, not to educate cabinet-makers, or artisans of any special name, but to give the boys an acquaintance with certain manipulations which would be equally useful in many different trades. ^ Instruction, not construction, was the purpose of the school.' " The success of this experiment led the committee to express the belief that it would be easy to establish, in connection with all the public grammar schools (corresponding to what are called in this city branch high schools), an annex for elementary instruction in the use of the half-dozen universal tools ; i.e., the hammer, saw, plane, chisel, file, and square. " Three or four hours a week, for one year only of the grammar-school course, would be enough to give the boys that intimacy with tools, and that encouragement to the inborn inclination to handicraft, and that guidance to its use, for want of which so many young men now drift into overcrowded and uncongenial occupations, or lapse into idleness or vice." Encouraged by the success of the first experiment, the Asso- ciation decided to adopt for their second experiment a course of instruction in the use of the common wood-working hand- tools. As I have said, the Russian system involves class in- struction ; the individual needs nothing, unless it be repetition and caution. The Association believed that the general instruc- tion could be given best by a carefully printed text, precisely setting forth every detail essential to the best performance of each manipulation. They also determined that in the prepara- tion of this text every thing that forethought, study, and expe- rience could do should be done. They therefore employed the best service which they could command in the preparation and critical revision of a series of primary lessons in the use of wood- working hand-tools, to be followed by a similar series of more advanced lessons in applications of these tools to the production of typical forms in carpentry and joinery. 284 MANUAL EDUCATION. [Chap, XL The first eleven lessons are as follows : 1. Use of the cross-cut saw, sawing to line. 2. Use of the hammer, striking square blows. 3. Use of the splitting-saw, sawing to line. 4. Use of the jack-plane, smoothing rough surfaces. 5. Use of the hammer, driving nails vertically. 6. Use of the splitting-saw, sawing at exact angles to upper surface. 7. Use of the jack-plane, setting the plane-iron. 8. Use of the hammer, driving nails horizontally. 9. Use of the bit and brace, boring in exact positions. 10. Use of the mallet and chisel, mortising. 11. Use of the jack-plane, producing surfaces which intersect at exact angles. Auxiliary drawing exercises in laying out the work by measuring and lining are incidental to all the lessons. MANUAL TRAINING IN THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY. I have given full accounts of the educational experience of Boston, for the reason that it- has really taken the lead, so far as this country is concerned, in working out the problem of manual education, and because there has lacked neither the money nor the students necessary to give the method the fullest possible test; and yet I could have quoted our own experience, and made a fair showing. St. Louis is not without interest in this matter ; and we have not failed to find those who were both able and willing to make it possible for us to break ground, as it were, in this new field of labor and study. Full twenty years ago some half-score of the noble men of this city were filled with the idea of establishing here a polytechnic school, which should be truly and literally such. In their generous plan the many arts were not only to be scientifically expounded by able professors, but they were to be illustrated by practical machines and expert workmen. I do but simple justice to Col. John O'Fallon, John How, Gerard B. Allen, Ralph Sellew, James B. Eads, Giles F. Filley, and others whom I am unable to name, when I say, that, in contributing to the means where- Chap. XL] THE FIRST POLYTECHNIC BUILDING. 285 with to erect that magnificent polytechnic building on the corner of Chestnut and Seventh Streets, it was their ambition to do just what we find it possible to do now with less than one- tenth the money. Undertaken with the highest motives, but with no clearly defined plan, the enterprise was virtually a failure. The building was begun before the war ; at different times the work was suspended, and then renewed at enormous cost. Nine long years were consumed ere the building was finished, and then it was found totally un suited to the use intended. These plain words are not said in criticism ; for the noble aims and devotion of John How, and the generous hand of Col. O'Fallon, call only for a tribute of gratitude. They and their co-laborers were struggling to realize an idea which it is our privilege to-day to carry to successful issue. For the last five years we have had a fair workshop, in which the students of this polytechnic school have worked to a certain extent ; but only during the present year have we been able to work with much system. With the aid of our staunch friend Mr. Gottlieb Conzelman, we fitted up during last summer a wood-working shop with work-benches and vises for eighteen students; a second shop for vise-work upon metals, and for machine-work ; and a third, with a single outfit of blacksmith's tools. During the last few months systematic instruction has been given to different classes in all these shops. Special atten- tion has been paid to the use of wood-working hand-tools, to wood-turning, and to filing. The age of the students has ranged from fifteen to about twenty-two. None of the stu- dents have had much experience, and of course you can not expect nicely finished work. The specimens are not shown on account of the excellence of the workmanship, but because they illustrate our method. The amount of time given to shop-work has generally been only four hours per week, two lessons of two hours each. The junior class in mechanical engineering gave eight hours. Shop-work has been done in the afternoon, and there has been no less work required in the morning recitations than formerly. Tho four hours per week, which is equivalent to two days per month, seems too small an allowance to be of much practi- 286 MANUAL ED UCA TION. [chap. XL cal value, four years would, on the present plan, suffice to give an excellent idea of the uses of all our tools, the properties of materials, and considerable manual skill. I have yet to hear from the parent who does not approve of our plan of shop-work. Our running expenses in the shop are now about a hundred dollars per month ; but we could, without perceptible increase of cost, double our present number of students. No extra fee has been charged on -account of shop-work ; but, without per- manent endowment, this arrangement could not long continue, The experience of this year has been invaluable to us ; and we are now clear in our conviction that a series of commodious instruction-shops, well furnished with machinery and tools, and so liberally endowed as to require only a nominal fee from students, would be of inestimable value to the youth of this city. It is well understood that many students can not wisely un- dertake the full course of intellectual study we have laid down for regular classes. A decided aptitude for handicraft is not unfrequently coupled with a strong aversion to, and unfitness for, abstract and theoretical investigations. There can be no doubt that in such cases more time should be spent in the shop, and less in the lecture and recitation room. The adoption of this principle would soon lead to the formation of a class in what might be called the " Mechanical Course," whose students should work in the shop daily two or three hours, following at the same time a somewhat abridged course of study. It is time for me to close. Much could be said in regard to the extension of manual education to all the grades of our schools, from the lowest to the highest ; but I must be brief. The manual education, which begins in the kindergarten, before the children are able to read a word, should never cease. The physical powers of a child develop first, and their cultiva- tion should at least keep pace with the growth and develop- ment of his mental faculties. Just how we shall supply the missing links in the chain which joins the kindergarten with the fully equipped shops of the polytechnic school, we can not with certainty suggest. The problem is an open one, and thou- sands of earnest and intelligent educators are devoting them- Chap. XL] A RATIONAL EDUCATION. 287 selves to its solution. I trust that St. Louis will in this, as in many other educational matters, contribute largely. At present we have drawing and penmanship, both of which are essentially manual. To this I would add, tinting with a brush, mixing colors, weaving and braiding, molding of tiles and the making of mosaics, models of geometrical and natural forms. Girls should be taught needle-craft, and, in the higher grades, the elements of cooking. Suppose a visitor from another planet were to visit us in our homes and in our places of business. Suppose he looked into the whole economy of our domestic and social lives, and then was requested to map out the best course of instruction for both girls and boys. Do you think he would fail to put early on the list for girls the proper preparation of food for the table ? Do we not say/ooc?, clothing, and shelter are the three essentials of physical existence? Then, let food come boldly into our program. Let systematic instruction be given in the all- important art of cooking. And would not our visitor insist that our boys should be taught to supplement their feeble strength by the all-powerful tools with which we subdue all the kingdoms of nature ? At ten years, give boys knives, and gouges, and hammers, and saws, and squares. Let them carve in soft wood and plaster, and learn to strike true and square blows. Carlyle says the choicest present you can make a child is a tool. " Be it knife or gun, for construction or destruction ; either way it is for work, for change." At twelve they are ready to use the plane, the chisel, and the whole chest of tools. Until you reach machine-tools, the shop outfit may be of the simplest character. Benches, vises, and a half dozen tools for each student in a class are all that you need ; the whole cost would hardly exceed that of the furniture in an ordinary school- room. Three classes of say twenty-five each, or seventy-five boys, could be taught a two-hour lesson in the same room in a day. If each boy had but two lessons per week, three times that number of boys could be accommodated on different days, or two hundred and twenty-five in all. It thus appears that one 288 MANUAL EDUCATION. [Chap, XL room, properly fitted up, would be enough for either the academy of this university or either of the city high schools. A com- petent teacher, at say one thousand dollars, in such a room, would, I think, be as valuable to the interests of education as any in the whole corps. Such annexes I commend strongly to school boards. The more fully furnished shops, containing the whole list of forges, engines, and machine-tools, must of course be left to private institutions founded by such men as Stevens, Hopkins, Cornell, and those whose names I have mentioned to-night. 1 1 It must be remembered that this address was given in 1878 before the pres- ent Manual Training School was established. Its direct influence was soon plainly seen. Mr. Samuel Cupples, after carefully reading a printed copy, proposed that the experiment be tried. The result was the speedy organization of the Manual Training School, as related on page 7. Chap, XH] PROVIDING FOR THE FUTURE. 289 CHAPTER XII. EXTRACTS FROM THE PROSPECTUS PUBLISHED IN NOVEMBER, 1879.1 THE ORIGIN AND PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL. r I ^HE Manual Training School owes its existence to the con- J- viction, on the part of its founders, that the interests of St. Louis demand for young men a system of education which shall fit them for the actual duties of life, in a more direct and positive manner than is done in the ordinary American school. St. Louis already has large manufacturing as well as commer- cial interests, and we all expect to see these interests greatly increase. We see in the future an increasing demand for thoroughly trained men to take positions in manufacturing establishments as superintendents, as foremen, and as skilled workmen. The youth of to-day are to be the men of the next generation. It is important that we keep their probable life- work in view in providing for their education. Excellent as are our established schools, both public and private, it must be admitted that they still leave something to be desired ; they do not, and probably they can not, cover the whole ground. This conviction of the incompleteness of present means and methods of education has found utterance in many ways. Some of the best friends of education have expressed them- selves in strong and suggestive language. All such agree in the conclusion that the main deficiency is in the direction of manual education. 1 These extracts are given partly to show the clearly defined position of the school at its start. That position has been abundantly strengthened by experi- ence, and we have been enabled to make a much, fuller statement in Chap. IX. and elsewhere. 290 EXTRACTS FROM THE PROSPECTUS OF 1879. [Chap. XII. Hence, as has so often been said, nearly all our skilled work- men are imported. Our best machinists, miners, weavers, watch-makers, iron-workers, draughtsmen, and artisans of every description, come from abroad ; and this is not because our native-born are deficient in natural tact or ability, nor because they are in point of fact above and beyond such occupations, but because they are without suitable means and opportunities for getting the proper training. About two years ago the Legislature of the State of New Jersey appointed a commission to investigate and report on the course the State ought to take in the interest of the higher order of manufactures. The commission consisted of Messrs. Samuel E. Brown, Thomas N. Dale, and Prof. Robert H. Thurston, who acted as secretary and compiled the report. In their report of 1878, the commission strongly advocated the establishment of trade schools (i.e., manual training schools) in which should be practically taught the essential principles which underlie the industries. By such a course alone, they argue, can we, as a manufacturing people, hope to compete successfully with the workmen and manufacturers of Europe. The arguments of the commission apply as forcibly in St. Louis as in New Jersey. There is, doubtless, much to be learned in the organization and administration of a manual training school on American soil ; but its value to a manufacturing community has been demonstrated beyond question, and its essential features have been clearly determined. It is believed that, to all students, without regard to plans for the future, the value of the training which can be got in shop-work, spending only from four to twelve hours per week, is abundantly sufficient to justify the expense of materials, tools, and expert teachers. One great object of the school will be to foster a higher appreciation of the value and dignity of intelligent labor, and the worth and respectability of laboring men. A boy who sees nothing in manual labor but mere brute force despises both the labor and laborer. With the acquisition of skill in him- Chap, m] GENERAL VALUE OF MANUAL EXERCISES. 291 self, come the ability and the willingness to recognize skill in his fellows. When once he appreciates skill in handicraft, he regards the workman with sympathy and respect. In a manual training school, tool-work can never descend into drudgery. The tasks are not long, nor are they unneces- sarily repeated. In this school, whatever may be the social standing or importance of the fathers, the sons will go together to the same work, and be tested physically as well as intellect- ually by the same standards. The result in the past has been, and in the future it will continue to be, a truer estimate of laboring and manufacturing people, and a sounder judgment on all social problems. If the manual training school should do nothing else, it would still justify all the efforts in its behalf if it helps in the solution of the difficulties between labor and capital. In these ways it is hoped that the Manual Training School will serve the interests of the people of St. Louis. The atten- tion of parents and educators is respectfully called to the curriculum of study and shop-practice given below, and all are earnestly invited to consider how far this school meets their individual wants. COURSE OF STUDY. 1 The experience of several years in our own workshops, 2 the experience of many somewhat similar schools in this country and in Europe, and a careful consideration of the interests of St. Louis, enable us to sketch out with confidence the proper curriculum of work and study for our pupils. As stated in the ordinance, the course of instruction will cover three years ; and the school-time of the pupils will be about equally divided between mental and manual exercises. Neither intellectual nor physical labor will be carried to the extent of weariness. The change from recitation to the shop, and from shop to study and recitation, will be agreeable and healthful, keeping both mind and body fresh and vigorous. In mathematics the course of instruction will be thorough, but not extended. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and plane 1 For the present course of study, see Appendix I. 2 See Chapter I. 292 EXTRACTS FROM THE PROSPECTUS OF 1879. [Chap, XII. trigonometry will be studied in succession. The application of these branches will be made in bookkeeping, mechanical drawing, physics, and mechanics. Some attention will be given to physical geography, and the principles of chemistry. The English language and literature will be carefully studied throughout the course. Every graduate of the school will have a fair command of the -English language, whether in writing or speaking. History, practical ethics, and political economy will each find a place on the program, the treatment of each subject being adapted to the capacity of the class. Special attention will be paid to drawing during the whole course. Drawing is the short-hand language of modern science. Careful drawings are to technically educated people what pic- tures are to children. They show at a glance what it is not in the power of words to express. It is a universal language, and should be read and understood by all men. MANUAL EDUCATION. Thus far our course of study is familiar. We come now to the manual training proper to that feature which is to distin- guish this school from those around it. How shall we train the hand to keep pace with the eye and the mind, and to fit it well for its future uses ? During the last hundred years the world has made rapid strides in the invention and use of tools. We do nothing with the unaided hand ; everything is done by tools. Tool-instruction, then, is what is wanted, instruction in the nature, theory, and use of tools. Thus shall we place within reach the key which is to unlock the mysteries of our busy shops and factories. But which are the tools whose use we are to teach? Before answering this question, it is to be observed that the apparently great variety in tools and mechanical processes arises from different combinations of very simple elements. The number of hand-tools is small ; one can easily count them on his fingers. They are the ax, the saiv, the plane, the hammer, the square, the Chap. XII,] A LIBERAL TRAINING. 293 chisel, and the file. The study of a tool involves an examination of its form, and the theory of its action, as well as its actual use at the bench or forge. After the hand tools our pupils must become familiar with the typical machine tools which are chiefly employed in mechanical pursuits. A knowledge of materials and processes is as important as an acquaintance with tools. POLICY OF THE SHOP : NO ARTICLES MADE FOR SALE. Throughout the course of shop-work, in addition to the ab- stract exercises, which are designed to give certain practices and illustrate certain processes, actual tools or part of tools needed, either in the shop or in the laboratories of the univer- sity, will from time to time be made, as the classes become fitted for such practical work. Aside from these, however, the prod- ucts of the shops are not intended to have any commercial value ; in other words, the shops will not manufacture for the market. Whatever may be the advantages of making things which are to be subject to the tests of trade, we think that in this case the objections outweigh them. In the first place, the management of this school does not propose that its shops shall enter into competition with manu- facturing establishments. Proprietors of machine-shops and factories need not look upon this institution as a rival. In the next place, the scope of a single trade is too narrow for educational purposes. Our manual education should be as broad and liberal as our intellectual. A shop which manufac- tures for the market, and expects a revenue from the sale of its products, is necessarily confined to salable work, and a system- atic and progressive series of lessons is impossible. If the object of the shop is education, a student should be allowed to discon- tinue any task or process the moment he has learned to do it well. If the shop were intended to make money, the students would be kept at work on what they could do best, at the expense of breadth and versatility. It is claimed that students take more interest in working upon something, which, when finished, has intrinsic value, than they do in abstract exercises. This is quite possible, and proper use should be made of this fact ; but, if all education were limited 294 EXTRACTS FROM THE PROSPECTUS OF 1879. [chap. XII, to such practical examples, our schools would be useless. The idea of a school is that pupils are to be graded and taught in classes ; the result aimed at being, not at all the objective prod- uct or finished work, but the intellectual and physical growth which comes from the exercise. Of what use is the elaborate solution in algebra, the minute drawing, or the faithful transla- tion after it is well done ? Do we not erase the one, and burn the other, with the clear conviction that the only thing of value was the discipline, and that that is indestructible ? Now, we proceed in manual education on precisely the same plan. We abstract all the mechanical processes and manual arts and typical tools of the trades and occupations of men, arrange a systematic course of instruction in the same, and then incorporate it into our system of education. Thus, with- out teaching any one trade, we teach the essential mechanical principles of all. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS COMPARED WITH ORDINARY SHOPS. These two paragraphs are from the New Jersey report re- ferred to on page 290 : 44 Experience has shown these systematically and intelligently conducted schools to be far more efficient means of education and training for the workmen than even the best managed mill. The impossibility of giving methodical instruction in all matters of detail, or of accommodating the time and the movements of the instructor to the capacity and progress of the learner ; the jealousy and the unaccommodating spirit of overseers and managers, and the utter impossibilit}*- of permitting the finan- cial results of commercial work to be affected by the interests or the blunders of the novice, combine to preclude, absolutely, all effective tuition in the mill. " Again, the mill is the more successful, commercially, as it confines itself the more strictly to a particular grade or a spe- cial class of goods, for the production of which it is best fitted, and as it confines the operatives, each to a certain department, and to a single and never-changed kind of work ; it is thus impossible to reconcile the interests of the learner, who must Chap, XII. ] PRACTICAL VALUE OF TOOL-EDUCATION. 295 seek a knowledge of all departments, and of every operation, with those of the mill-owner who is most prosperous when each indi- vidual is confined to the task for which he or she is best fitted." This extract is inserted for the purpose of meeting the objec- tion, which has been often made, that, after all, the shop of the manufacturer is the best place for a young man to learn the use of tools. Abundant testimony proves that the objection is not sound. In the shop of a manufacturer, one readily learns the details of the business. But in an instruction-shop, where the only duty of the expert teacher is to teach, the pupil learns to be a good workman much quicker than in an ordinary shop ; and not only does he make more rapid progress in the right direction, but he is saved from falling into clumsy habits and methods of work. Too often is the ordinary apprentice left to find out the right way by personal hard experience, as tho he could not profit by the experience of others. The practical value of school-shop instruction has been shown in countless instances. Thousands and thousands of the skilled workmen, engineers, foremen, and manufacturers, now in France and Germany, got their tool-education and their intellectual training simultaneously in a school. Almost without exception the graduates of the school of " Arts and Trades," and the " Apprentice School," both in the city of Paris, readily find and fill positions as skilled workmen, from which, as soon as they have learned the special require- ments of a particular trade or occupation, they rapidly rise to places of trust and responsibility. The ordinary shop-trained workman is not a draughtsman, has little knowledge of either mathematics or physics, and no skill or finish at either writing or speaking. Only those endowed with remarkable intellectual power rise above the plane of a good mechanic. Prof. Thompson, the principal of the Worcester Free Indus- trial Institute (a school admirably equipped with shop and tool facilities), says that it is confidently expected that "the graduates in the department of mechanics will be as skillful mechanics as ordinary apprentices who have served three years in a shop, in addition to the advantages of a solid education." This expectation seems to be well founded. An examination 296 EXTRACTS FROM THE PROSPECTUS OF 1879. [chap, HI. of the record of 1878 shows that out of their seventy-four grad- uates in the department of mechanics, at least fifty-three per cent were either engaged in manual labor, or they had, through their superior training, won positions where they were direct- ing the labor of others. So far as we can judge from the brief experience of the workshops of Washington University, shop-work, when properly managed, results in the acquisition in a very short time of a high degree of skill, and the establishment of a permanent liking for mechanical pursuits. Whatever may be the final occupation of individual cases, we may be sure that the legitimate result of this school will be that an increased number of young men will be led into mechanical pursuits, and that many of them will look back to this school as the institution which helped them to be both " willing and able to work." Chap. Sill] # SAMUEL JOHNSON ' IDEAS. 297 CHAPTER XIIL THE PROVINCE OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON considered education as needful to the "embellishments of life." In his day very few were educated at all, and those few for society or public service. The toiling masses had no education, were supposed to need no education, and, while discussing details, educators and scholars took no thought of what we call the common people. Said Johnson (in his " Life of Milton ") : " The truth is, that the knowledge of external nature, and the sciences which that knowledge requires or includes, are not the great or the frequent business of the human mind. Whether we provide for action or conversa- tion, whether we wish to be useful or pleasing, the first requisite is the reli- gious and moral knowledge of right and wrong ; the next is an acquaintance with the history of mankind, and with those examples which may be said to embody truth, and prove by events the reasonableness of opinions. Pru- dence and justice are virtues and excellences of all times and of all places. We are perpetually moralists, but we are geometricians only by chance. Our intercourse with intellectual nature is necessary ; our speculations upon matter are voluntary and at leisure. Physiological learning [by which he means a knowledge of the laws and phenomena of the external world] is of such rare emergence, that one may know another half his life without being able to estimate his skill in hydrostatics or astronomy; but his moral and prudential character immediately appears. "Those authors, therefore, are to be read at schools that supply most axioms of prudence, most principles of moral truth, and most materials for conversation; and those purposes are best served by poets, orators, and historians." This statement was, no doubt, entirely adequate to the demands of Johnson's time. Polite conversation and elegant manners were the chief characteristics of an age in which dies- 298 THE PROVINCE OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. [Chap. XIII. terfield was a bright and shining light. Like the " Athenians and strangers" in the time of St. Paul, educated people "spent their time in nothing else, but either to tell, or to hear, some new thing." With the dull, hard-working, unlettered crowds, that plodded on in the steps of their fathers and grandfathers, they had nothing to do ; and for them they had no educational theories. It is interesting to picture, in fancy, the bewilder- ment of a Sam Johnson in the learned circles of this scientific and industrial age. Imagine him attempting to join in the con- versations of our British and American associations for the advancement of science, or in our halls of exchange, where the active minds of our generation do mostly congregate. He would find it difficult, in spite of the wonderful vigor of his intellect, to be either useful or ornamental, tho he could easily be amusing. But how many there are who still cling to the educational creed of Dr. Johnson ! Ruskin, thinking to be sure of the same class of people as Johnson, says that the greater part of the education of a gentleman consists in a knowledge of history and the ancient classics. There was a time when a medical student must read Galen in the original tongue: hence he must have learned Greek, and he must write his prescriptions in Latin. The student of theology must read the Bible in Greek and in Hebrew ; the law student must read in the original Latin the Corpus Juris and the Institutes of Justinian ; the student of philosophy must translate for himself Plato and Aristotle, and all scholarly productions were to be written in Latin. The learned professions were then ' properly so called, for their requirements separated them from all other avocations. But the times have greatly changed. No student, medical or otherwise, reads Galen. Galen's theory of medicine was founded on Aristotle's theory of the constitution of matter; and when, after standing as unquestioned authority for a thou- sand years, the theory of Aristotle fell before modern science, the theory of Galen fell with it. As to studying Greek and Hebrew for the better understand- ing of the Bible, it should be generally admitted that such is not the case. The average theological student, on the contrary, Chap, Xin,] THE DELUSIONS OF DERIVATIONS. 299 learns his Greek and his Hebrew from his Bible. The force of a Greek particle, and the exact meaning" of a Hebrew dot or dash, he gathers from the context in the " King James " or the " Revised " translation. Thus are the tables completely turned in classical study. We put the meaning of English words and modern ideas into Greek and Latin and Hebrew roots, and then claim that it increases our knowledge of our own tongue to be able to pro- nounce the classic originals, which we have ourselves clothed with meaning. If one is to read an author in the original, it is obvious that he ought first to learn the language thoroughly, and then read his author ; otherwise, he is corrupting the lan- guage by giving its words modern significations, and is putting ideas into his author's head which he never dreamed of. 1 But this is a digression. I have no wish to oppose the legiti- mate study of Greek or Hebrew or any other dead language. In fact, I approve the study of at least one inflected language (though not for the sake of thoroughly learning it, or for reading its literature in the original). But I do desire to call attention to two things : first, that the former utilitarian motives for the study of the ancient languages no longer exist; and secondly, that the usual utilitarian arguments adduced for the present superficial study of those languages viz., to throw light upon the meaning of modern words derived from those early roots are exceedingly weak or altogether void. I do not deny that it is reasonable and satisfactory, as a mere matter of curiosity, for one to know why a telephone is so called ; but I do deny that it adds one particle to my knowledge of a telephone to know that the name was coined from two Greek words. It must be remembered that what I mean by knowledge is not, in a case of this sort, to be derived from books. To really know what a telephone is, is an achievement of no small impor- 1 I remember hearing a teacher dilate upon the value of derivations for giving information as to the force of words. He instanced the word "cosmopolitan," and pointed out cosmos from /cdcr/uos, " world," andpolitan from noMrw, " citizen; " hence cosmopolitan, " a citizen of the world." Now it was evident that his idea of the force of TTOAITT?? was obtained not from Aristotle, or from Demosthenes, but from the English word citizen ; and his notion of KOS is the wood-working room, with twenty -four benches and twenty- four lathes, four of which are not shown. The scale of the engrav- ing is about twenty - one feet to the inch. FIRST-YEAR SCHOOL ROOM 96 DESKS. WARD \ROBE RECITATION ROOM FIG. 135. ST. Louis MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. PLAN OF THIRD STORY. The physical shop and laboratory are full of apparatus and tools for making more physical apparatus. These two rooms are used bv the several divisions of the second-year class. Chap, XV,] FLOOR PLANS. SECOND FLOOR. 337 Fig. 136 gives the plan of the second story. The middle class may have four divisions of twenty -two each. Their work takes them to all the floors. It will be observed that the wood- working room with lathes is directly under the drawing room and labo- ratory of the third story. This arrangement I criticise on the next page. ^ o The divisions which go to the forging-shop, which is shown in the next cut, generally pass through the corner of the yard. SECOND-YEAR SCHOOL ROOM. O 88 DESKS. FIG. 136. ST. Louis MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. PLAN OF SECOND STORY. The walls of the various shops are generally of plain brick- work, which is whitewashed if there is any lack of light. Ceiling under the joice is unnecessary if the flooring is double. 338 PLANS, SHOP DISCIPLINE, TEACHERS, ETC. [chap, XV, Fig. 137 gives the plan of the first story, which is mainly for the use of the highest grade, or third-year class. With the exception of the drawing, this class does all its work on this floor. The benches, B B, are shown in the engraving, as are also the dressing lockers, (7. The lathes, drills, and other machine tools stand compactly arranged across the room. In the forging shop there are twenty-two anvils and forges. THIRD-YEAR SCHOOL ROOM. FIG. 137. ST. Louis MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. PLAN OP FIRST STORY. The basement has, on the one side, the wash-rooms and dressing-rooms for the first-floor shops, the engine, and the engineer's repair-shop ; on the other side, the water-closets, etc., a play-room, a lunch-room, and the warm-air chamber. In a Chap, XV.] DEFECTS IN THE ST. LOUIS PLANS. 339 fireproof room under the side steps is the oil-room. There is no basement to the forging-shop. The boiler is set in a separate building as a part of the university battery. As a rule, I would put the boiler in a special building near the base of the stack. There are three respects wherein these plans could be im- proved, which I feel it my duty to point out. 1. The forging-shop, which is the noisiest shop in all, is rather too near the schoolrooms. In warm weather, when the windows are open, the noise is somewhat troublesome. I should prefer a plan which turned the shop wing ninety degrees to the left, so as to place the forging-shop directly beyond the machine- shop. In other words, I would put the school and drawing rooms at the head of a "f, and the shops in the long central part, with the forging-shops at the extreme end. 2. There is no well or shaft for the transmission of power to the several floors from the basement. The transmission should be from floor to floor by belts with suitable tighteners. Each shop should be furnished with a clutch, by means of which the teacher in charge may turn on his shop, or turn it off, at pleas- ure, without interfering with the other shops. At times the teacher needs a quiet room where his voice may be easily heard, as he gives the theory of a machine, explains the details of a process, or criticises work before a class. In the transfer of power, gearing is too noisy for a school. The main shafting and pulleys of the machine-shop of the St. Louis school can not be stopped without stopping the engine. While this defect is hard to remedy, it may easily be avoided in a new plan. 3. On the third floor, I would interchange the wood-working shop with the drawing and physics rooms. This would accom- plish two things : first, it would place the drawing room and physical laboratory over a comparatively quiet room, as there is no noise in the molding room ; and, secondly, no divisions would pass through a shop where the boys are at work. These criticisms may appear to be trifling and uncalled for, but they have force enough to serve others whose plans are yet to be drawn. I am not criticising another : I alone am respon- sible, and I have already given those who have followed us the benefit of these suggestions. 340 PLANS, SHOP DISCIPLINE, TEACHERS, ETC. [Chap. XV. As a rule, the study and recitation rooms should be separated from the shops by two walls enclosing halls, stairways, or yard ; at the same time I should prefer to have all the rooms for a class on the same floor, or as nearly so as possible, and but a few steps away. It may not work badly to have a division cross the yard, but I advise strongly against sending a division out of the yard, or across the street. I do not favor the transfer of a division of students from one principal to another, and back again. No principal would like that arrangement in the case of such a study as arithmetic or spelling, and shop-work and drawing should be treated with precisely the same consider- ation. The same precautions should in all cases be taken to prevent irregularities and loss of time. In short, manual work should be treated as school work, and watched, and guarded, and sustained as such. Until such treatment is possible, it would be better to go without it. 1 In cases where manual work is added to an existing school, the erection of a new building is generally necessary ; but this should be so planned as to preserve the unity of the arrange- ment, and let the principal remain principal of the whole insti- tution. I take great pleasure in giving the details of a plan of such an addition to a large city high school, which I regard as in every way most admirable, and worthy of the widest following. I refer to the HIGH AND MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL OF TOLEDO, OHIO. The addition is known as the Scott Manual Training School, for the reason that the additional building was erected and equipped, and its running expenses provided for, by an institu- tion known as the " Toledo University," originally endowed by Jesup W. and Susan Scott in 1872. 2 1 " The workshop should not be put into the cellar, nor supplied with bad tools, as tho anything or anywhere would do for it; but it should be dignified by giving it as good a room as is chosen for any other subject of the school course, and the tools and appliances should be as complete as the funds of the school will permit." PROF. RIPPER. 2 The endowment was subsequently increased by the sons of Mr. Scott, William H., Frank J., and Maurice A. Scott, in 1874; and the entire trust was conveyed to the city in 1884. The only work thus far undertaken by the University has been the establishment of the Manual Training School. The Board of Chap. XV,] TUE PLANS OF THE TOLEDO SCHOOL. 341 The building was erected in 1885, and formally opened in December of that year. Meanwhile, considerable manual work had been done in the rooms of the high school. Fig. 3, page 13, gives a cut of the addition. It is seen to consist of four stories, including the well-lighted rooms on the ground floor. For the sake of showing the arrangement of rooms, including wash and tool rooms, the ample provision for light in every shop, the com- parative isolation of the forging-shop from rooms likely to be disturbed by noise, and the numerous connections with the old building, I give the floor plans in full. Power is communicated to the upper floors through the hall-way. The only detail that would be improved by change, so far as I have heard, is the shallowness of the projection which includes the entrance. Had this projection been five or six feet more than it is, the office, library, and upper halls would have been greatly improved by their gain in size. Fig. 138 gives the ground floor plan. The boiler-house is under ground and beyond the wall on the right, by the arrow which shows the descending steps. The large shops are each forty by fifty-five feet. The size of the other rooms may be determined by scale. In the plan of the first story (Fig. 139) the wood- working shop is furnished with lathes as well as benches, while on the next floor (Fig. 140) only benches are shown. In Fig. 141, which gives the details of the third story, the broken lines indicate the skylights, which supplement the short windows in the walls. The great distinguishing feature of the Toledo school is its provision forgiving manual training to girls. Girls in divisions by themselves are not only taught all the drawing that the boys have, but light wood-work (including wood-carving), cooking (as an illustration of applied chemistry), needlework, cutting, and fitting (as applications of mechanical drawing). Directors, as now organized, consists of the mayor, six members nominated by him, and six nominated by the Board of Education; all are to be confirmed by the Common Council of Toledo. William H. Scott is the president, and A. E. Macomber, secretary. This union of forces in the cause of education exhibits the high importance of enlightened liberality and public spirit in the managers of public trusts, and I do not hesitate to commend their action to the friends of education in all communities. FLOOR-PLAN GIRLS PLAY ROOM HALL lllfK GIRLS PLAY ROOM F. Forges. A. Anvils. G. Grinding Stone. S. Rip and Crosscut Saw. I C. Cupola. FIG. 138. TOLEDO HIGH AND MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 342 GRAMMAR SCHOOL ROOM B. Work Benches. L Turning Lathes. J. Jig Saw. G. Grinding Stone. C. Tool Cases. MACHINE SHOP FIG. 139. TOLEDO HIGH AND MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 343 344 PLANS, SHOP DISCIPLINE, TEACHERS, ETC. [chap. XV. The cooking-room, on the third floor in Fig. 141, is thus described in the last catalog of the school : " This is forty by twenty-seven feet, with one large Garland range, two gas cooking-stoves, and five double tables five feet long by five feet wide, each table accommodating four pupils. Each girl has her own table space for work, and there is a small gas-stove for every two pupils. Each table space has a drawer and cupboard below it for all essential utensils, and each pupil must personally go through every process taught. At the other end of the room are pantry closets for the teacher's use, and a commodious wash-room, with all the conveniences for girls, including individual closets for the keeping of aprons, clothes, etc." In another respect the Toledo school has led the way ; viz., in giving to boys of the senior grammar grade substantially the shop-work and drawing I have given in Chap. II. as appro- priate for our first year. The result of their experience thus far appears to show that the work is not too difficult for them, tho it was found necessary to give less time in the shop. I hope the experiment will be continued at Toledo and elsewhere, and always under judicious supervision. A very young child may be made to go through certain motions, just as he may be taught to repeat words in an unknown tongue, and yet com- pletely fail to make any rational progress thereby. There is, of course, a manual training suited in quality and quantity for the pupils of each of the lower grades ; the important thing is to find it. This is true for girls as well as for boys. I give in an Appendix the course of study for girls in the Toledo school. The cost of the addition to the Toledo High School, "includ- ing the underground boiler and coal-rooms placed outside the main building, sewer connections, grading, walks, steam-piping," etc., is given as $22,951.44. SHOP DISCIPLINE. I know that many teachers will at first be greatly in doubt as to what they ought to ask, and what they may reasonably expect, of pupils during shop hours in the matter of discipline. Of course the standard should be different from that in a study or recitation room. The legitimate noise of a shop is not demoralizing, and the teacher ought not to make it a point to Chap, XV,] SHOP REGULATIONS. 345 reduce the noise to a minimum. The main object is to secure intellectual and manual activity on the subject legitimately in hand. Close attention to business should be insisted on. All trifling and irrelevant matters should be excluded; but it is not at all necessary to forbid a boy who is in doubt from asking a neighbor what to do, or from watching for a moment his method of procedure. Such assistance is very stimulating, and may be valuable to both parties. The teacher, who is supposed to know all that is going on in his room, is the proper one to give aid ; but he will often send one boy to another for the purpose of calling attention to some superior work, or of emphasizing a point by requiring one boy to explain it to another. Good work should be freely passed around and inspected. At the end of a shop exercise, it is a good plan to allow the utmost freedom of communication. This may last two or three minutes. No boy can be deeply interested in his work, and not have a burning, almost an overmastering, desire to talk about it to his fellows. To recognize this natural and healthy appe- tite, and thus to reasonably control it, is certainly judicious. "When a boy knows that he is soon to have an opportunity to speak his mind to his neighbor, he is easily persuaded to wait till the appointed time comes. A small gong should be used in each shop for signaling a class : when to break ranks and go to work, when to assemble at the teacher's bench, when to " clean up," when to file out of the room, etc. Each division before leaving the shop should brush off the benches, machine tools, and other appliances in use, restore all tools to their places, and put all in order for the next division. This takes but two or three minutes, and it encourages the formation of a habit of order. The floor should be cleaned every night by the janitor. Forge and metal work is impossible without soiled hands and faces; and the students should be encouraged to remove all their linen, and to put on blouses which shall thoroughly pro- tect their underwear. A good wash in warm water with plenty of soap, followed by the use of a clean, dry towel, will bring the young workmen back to the schoolroom none the worse for their physical contact with the entities of the shop. GRAMMAR SCHOOL ROOM B. Work Benches. G. Grinding Stone. S. Sink. C. Tool Cases. FIG. 140. TOLEDO HIGH AND MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 34G LAN-THIRD 5TO I RECITATION -1 ROOM C. Chest of Drawers. D B. Drawing Board Cases. T. Work Tables. G. Gas Stoves. S. Cooking Range. W. Sink. 0. Cupboard. HIGH SCHDDL ROOM. DRAWING ROOM FIG. 141. TOLEDO HIGH AND MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 347 348 PLANS, SHOP DISCIPLINE, TEACHERS, ETC. [Chap, XV. Of course it is readily seen that each student must have his separate locker, in which his valuables (sleeve-buttons, studs, watch, etc.) may be left secure : not even a manual training school is proof against a thief or a boy with a mania for pilfering. REPORTS. The work of the shop should be reported on as regularly as that in any branch of study ; and occasionally written exami- nations should be held on shop-work for the purpose of testing the pupils' ability to use correctly names and technical terms, and to describe processes logically. As in literature, science, and art, there are many things that are arbitrary and conven- tional, and they must be so learned as to be correctly used. A half-quarterly report should show one's degree of success in each branch of work and study, and a boy should be made to feel that no amount of success in one direction can adequately atone for poor work in another. It is perfectly natural for a boy to enjoy some kinds of work more than other kinds, and to succeed in one line more readily and more fully than in another; but all may easily see the propriety of equal fidelity to every demand of the program. The freedom of choice which may be entirely proper at a later stage, when the course of the school is finished, is altogether out of place in a school one of whose chief purposes is to determine by a broad and liberal training what one's special aptitudes really are. Mere fancy, born of accident and unequal acquaintance, must not be regarded as evidence of innate capacity. TEACHERS. Good teachers are, of course, the most valuable part of a school's outfit; in this respect, the manual training school is not singular. The broader his training and culture, the better the teacher, in the shop as well as elsewhere. Above all, the shop teacher should know fairly well the whole course of the school, particularly in drawing and shop-work. Every teacher, should be able to take the point of view of those whom he teaches, and to enter into hearty sympathy with them, to see with their eyes, to judge from their limited experiences, to Chap. XV.] QUALIFICATIONS OF A SHOP TEACHER. 349 see beforehand just the mistakes they will make, and the diffi- culties they must meet and overcome. Admit no narrowness to the shop. While recognizing the manliness of intelligent skill in every field, do not allow any unworthy tricks of a trade to degrade the tone of the school. At present, good shop teachers are scarce. As a rule, the reputed fine workmen of twenty years' experience, who learned their trade in the old-fashioned way, are quite unsuited to a manual training school. They find it impossible to adopt our methods, and to appreciate our aims. Unless a boy expects to be a blacksmith, they can not understand why he should care to learn the principles of forging ; and what can be the object of tool-work of any sort, except to make something of use ? For a teacher, give me first a graduate of a manual training school, who has subsequently taken a more advanced course in polytechnic or college work. If such can not be had, give me a young teacher who has had a few terms at a manual institute, and who has caught the spirit while acquiring the art of manual training. Do not underrate the position, and give the teacher less credit or less pay than those in the other departments. It will be found that a high order of intelligence and skill in more than one field is needed for a successful shop teacher. 1 The most essential thing, perhaps, is the divine faculty of teaching. The ability to do work one's self is no evidence of one's ability to teach it. He must have a logical, analytic mind ; and he must be able to subdivide the steps of progress, so as to bring the separate intervals of advance just inside the capacity of his class. The demands of the hour must be seen to be reasonable, requiring vigorous effort, but not exceeding one's strength. The teacher is not to carry his pupils : he is only to show them where and how to climb. But this is the old, old story. If teaching is a science, its methods are such as can be understood with thoughtful study ; and the substance of what I would say is, that manual educa- 1 " The teacher must be a man whose heart is in his work, and one who will create interest and enthusiasm among the pupils; accordingly he must not he the least intelligent, or the worst paid member of the staff. Better no workshop at all, than a cold, half-hearted instructor." PROF. RIPPER. 350 PLANS, SHOP DISCIPLINE, TEACHERS, ETC. [ Chap. XV. tion and manual teachers should be rated and secured as other educations and other teachers are rated and secured. COST OF MATERIALS. Five dollars a year will about cover the cost of materials and repair per pupil in a wood-working shop. In metal work, the expense is greater, say, eight dollars per pupil, particularly if specimens are preserved or given away. Projects are expen- sive, unless the students furnish their own material. In the latter case it may be well to have it understood that the articles are to be the property of the makers as soon as the year's exhibit is over. If the school has permanent use for such articles, it should pay for the materials. This remark should refer to the drawing as well as to the shop-work. LUNCH. The long active day of the manual training school should not be allowed to pass without a substantial lunch. This should be something more than an apple or an orange. Bread and meat, soup, milk, coffee, pastry, and fruit, should furnish a good meal. Thirty minutes are sufficient for a lunch at the building ; and, where lunch is so taken, the afternoon session may close at half past three, instead of at four o'clock. 1 There are many other matters of greater or less importance to a school for boys who are just upon the threshold of manhood, which my readers must take for granted. Music, debates, declamations, etc., in reason are as appropriate here as any- where, and nothing need be said about them ; but, like all other good things, they should not be allowed to croAvd out other things equally and perhaps more valuable. As I have said else- where, there are many avenues to culture ; keep them all open. i This is the case at the St. Louis Manual Training School. A caterer sets a table in the lunch-room at one o'clock. Ten cents will buy a fair meal. The greater proportion of the students bring at least a part of their lunch from home, which they eat with the others at the lunch-table. APPENDIX I. ST. LOUIS MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY. FIRST-YEAR CLASS. Arithmetic completed. Algebra, to equations. English language, its structure and use. Study of selected pieces. History of the United States. Latin grammar and reader may be taken in place of English and history. Huxley's Introduction to Science. Physical geography. Botany. Drawing, mechanical and free-hand. Penmanship. Carpentry and joinery. Wood-carving. Wood-turning. SECOND-YEAR CLASS. Algebra, through quadratics. Geometry begun. Natural philosophy. Experimental work in the physical laboratory. Prin- ciples of mechanics. English composition and literature. Rhetoric. English history. Latin (Csesar) may be taken in place of rhetoric and history. Drawing. Line-shading and tinting, machines. Development of surfaces, free-hand detail drawing. Isometric projections. Forging. Drawing, upsetting, bending, punching, welding, tempering; pattern-making, molding, soldering. THIRD-YEAR CLASS. Geometry continued. Plane trigonometry, mensuration. English composition and literature. History. Elementary political economy. French or German may be taken in place of English and history, or in place of the science study. Physiology. Elements of chemistry. Book-keeping. Students who have taken Latin, and who intend to enter the Polytechnic School after completing the course in this School, will take history in place of physiology, chemistry, and book-keeping. Drawing. Brush-shading, shadows, geometrical problems, architecture, machines. Work in the machine-shop. Bench-work and fitting, turning, drilling, planing, screw-cutting, etc. Study of the steam-engine. 351 352 APPENDICES. APPENDIX II. THE TOLEDO MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. From the last catalog I cut the following: COURSE OF COMBINED STUDY AND TRAINING FOR GIRLS. (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) DOMESTIC ECONOMY DEPARTMENT. FIRST YEAR. Mathematics. Arithmetic. Science. Physical geography. Language. Grammar, spelling, vriting, English composi- tion. Drawing. Free hand and mechanical, lettering. Domestic Economy. Light carpentry, wood-carving, care and use of tools. SECOND YEAR. Mathematics. Algebra, arithmetic. Science. Physiology and botany. Language. Grammar, rhetoric, writing. Drawing. Free-hand and mechanical. Designs for wood- carving. Domestic Economy. Clay-modeling, wood-turning ; intro- duction to course in cooking, or garment cutting and making. THIRD YEAR. Mathematics. Geometry, arithmetic reviewed. Science. Physics. Language. English composition, history. Drawing. Free-hand and architectural, designing from plant and leaf forms. Domestic Economy. Instruction in preparing and cooking food, purchasing household supplies, care of the sick, etc. FOURTH YEAR. Mathematics. Plane trigonometry, mechanics. Science. Chemistry, book-keeping, ethics ; rights and duties, laws of right conduct. Language. Political economy, English literature and com- position. Drawing. Machine and architectural details, decorative designing. Domestic Economy. Cutting, making, and fitting of gar- ments, household decorations, typewriting, etc. Senior Grammar School. Manual Training School. Junior High School. Manual Training School. Middle High School. Manual Training School. Senior High School. Manual Training School. APPENDICES. 353 " The above course in Domestic Economy is arranged with special refer- ence to giving young women such a liberal and practical education as will inspire them with a belief in the dignity and nobleness of an earnest woman- hood, and incite them to a faithful performance of the every-day duties of life ; it is based upon the assumption that a pleasant home is an essential element of broad culture, and one of the surest safeguards of morality and virtue. " The design of this course is to furnish thorough instructions in applied housekeeping, and the sciences relating thereto; and students will receive practical drill in all branches of housework, in the purchase and care of family supplies, and in general household management, but will not be expected to perform more labor than is actually necessary for the desired instruction. " In cookery, practical instructions will be given in the means employed in BOILING, BROILING, BAKING, FRYING, and MIXING, as follows : " BOILING. Practical illustrations of boiling and steaming, and treat- ment of vegetables, meats, fish, and cereals, soup-making, etc. " BROILING. Lessons and practice in : meat, chicken, fish, oysters, etc. " BREAD-MAKING. Chemical and mechanical action of materials used. Manipulations in bread-making in its various departments. Yeasts, and their substitutes. "BAKING. Heat in its action on different materials in the process of baking. Practical experiments in baking bread, pastry, puddings, cake, meats, fish, etc. " FRYING. Chemical and mechanical principles involved and illustrated in the frying of vegetables, meats, fish, oysters, etc. "MIXING. The art of making combinations, as in soups, salads, pud- dings, pies, cakes, sauces, dressings, flavorings, condiments, etc. " MARKETING AND ECONOMY, ETC. The selection and purchase of household supplies. General instructions in systematizing and economizing household work and expenses. The anatomy of animals used as food, and how to choose and use the several parts. Lessons on the qualities of water and steam ; the construction of stoves and ranges ; the properties of different fuels. " THE TEXTILE FABRIC WORK will cover instructions in garment cutting and making; the economical and tasteful use of materials ; millinery, etc." 354 APPENDICES. i . o a s* 1 "3 h so 02 2 ^ s % a Ji a s 1 09 c X -a Q P ji 2 a 1 a | s a H 2 2 f^ . O o f OS o 02 S 1 S |1 ^ a "2 11 1-3 us a 5 a .a 3 Q |- fl C3 y us 1 1 1 1 ca k ci ei 1 A a A 1 fl 1 a o a s p "i a S S s W a 5 Jl Jl 2 1 2 ft 3 be kj 1 f | t 2 n 2 ft ssaoaa oo K 5 hi *i >, G 1 S j 2 TO ,H a H a 1 ft * 1-H O High School. I 1 QQ 5 90 Domestic Drawing. QD P Grammar School. a | 02 US 1 i i ** 7 1 .a S | S High Sch< High Sch< Gramms School 1 44 a 1 i Grammar School. i 1 1 ._ & 7 us OS High Sch M & JS M S Drawinj 1 K Gramm; School OQ it Grammar School. . 8 a 8! a- OS bj I "5 2 00 fi " . - . ^T m B CLASS E 1 S 5* P $ ^ 2 l| S ffl S 1 to ^ o O) o Q O g OC o I S o 1 APPENDICES. 355 APPENDIX IV. MANUAL TRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. [From the address of Gen. Francis A. Walker, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at the Chicago meeting of the National Educational Association in July, 1887.J WHATEVER other arts may, in the development of this system, come to be associated with carpentry and wood-turning in the grammar schools, it appears to me, that, at the very beginning, we may demand a complete course of both wood and metal working for that smaller number of advanced pupils who go forward into the high school. If it is for the interest of the State that these young persons shall, at the public expense, be further educated and cultivated on one side of their minds, it is not equally, but doubly, desirable that the education and cultivation of their other powers and facul- ties should be kept up in the high school. It is little less than a shame that we should graduate from these schools pupils who are highly accomplished in language, composition, and declamation, but are less keen in perception, less careful in observation, weaker in practical judgment, with less of visual accuracy, less of manual dexterity, less of the executive faculty, the power, that is, of doing things instead of merely thinking about them, talking about them, and writing about them, than the children of the ordinary ungraded district school. Whatever views one may hold of the mutual relations of the child and the State in the grammar school, it can be gainsaid by no one, that, if the community is to be called upon to carry the more favored children forward through long and expensive courses of advanced education and training, those who, on behalf of the community, direct the schools of this class, have the absolute right to impose whatever terms and conditions, to exact and to withhold whatever the public interest may require. Cherishing the views I do as to what constitutes a complete education, I would allow no pupil to graduate from a high school who was not as proficient and exact in mechan- ical as in grammatical exercises. I would not make myself responsible for adding to the number of youth who have been trained in description, with- out having been taught to observe the things they should describe ; who have 356 APPENDICES. spent years in the art of rhetorical elaboration and ornamentation, without acquiring any adequate body and substance upon which to exercise those arts ; who are clever in dialectics and declamation, but purblind in percep- tion, and feeble in execution ; great at second-hand knowledge, but confused and diffident when thrown upon their own resources ; skillful with the pen, but using any other tool awkwardly and ignorantly. The mischief we can possibly do, through a one-sided education, to those who stop short with the grammar school, is fortunately limited. These children, escaping from tuition before they have got their growth, and going at once to work, have an opportunity to cure in part the faults, and supply in part the deficiencies, of their education. That work, of course, does them far less good, and they do it far less well, than if the foundation had been laid in early youth, under proper guidance and instruction. Yet, at least, they are saved from growing up, and growing out, all on one side, like the unhappy youth who are destined to go on, for three or seven years more, rehearsing the opinions of others ; memorizing facts ascertained by others ; practicing a simulated passion in declamation and an artificial taste in com- position, making much of grammatical niceties, painfully polishing periods without much regard to the thoughts these should enclose, going over and over a weary round of second-hand information and second-hand ideas, and acquiring a few purely conventional accomplishments. We hear much of the vulgar contempt of so-called self-made men towards scholars ; of their distrust, in practical matters, of school-made and book- read men. Doubtless some part of this feeling is of vulgar origin, due to jealous envy or ignorance ; but a far larger part I believe to be perfectly just, arising from a correct apprehension of the natural effects of long-continued study and exercise within the traditional lines of high-school and college instruction, producing a disposition to hesitate, to procrastinate, to multiply distinctions, to refine in preparation, to stand shivering on the verge of action. Doubtless many school and college-bred men, when thrown into action, are found to have enough of robust manhood to overcome the ill effects of their early training, especially if in school or college they were not very good scholars ; but would it not be better from the first to associate with the dialectical, grammatical, and rhetorical exercises of our schools, and with the perhaps necessary acquisition of much mere gazetteer, cyclopaedic, and dictionary information, studies and exercises which shall not only prevent the formation of distinctly bad habits of mind and will, but shall positively develop those powers and faculties which the very first access to the duties of professional and business life shows to be the most useful of our endowments? For one, I believe that the introduction of the new studies and exercises which we are advocating will not prove a mere addition to the work of the school or college. I believe it will also profoundly modify the instruction given within traditional lines. Boys and young men who have learned to observe for themselves, to acquire knowledge at first hand, to give effect to their purposes, and a form to their ideas ; who have been accustomed to APPENDICES. 357 impose their will upon matter, and to make it take shape to suit their intel- lectual conceptions ; who know how to project, to plan, to execute, will have little patience with much that makes up the traditional curriculum. They will demand to be brought face to face with facts. They will insist upon going to the bottom of any matter they have to deal with. That genuine intellectual honesty which is the first-fruit of the objective study of concrete things will make them scorn to defend, in dialectical and rhetorical practice, theses which they do not thoroughly believe. They will grudge every hour spent in memorizing matter for which they can at any time resort to the gazetteer or cyclopaedia. It will be hard to impose on such students with sounding names, deceive them with sophistries, or bear them down by authority. They will care much for principles, little for the manner in which these may be dressed up for effect, or tricked out for public admiration. 358 APPENDICES. APPENDIX V. MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOL EDUCATION. BY SIR PHILIP MAGNUS BY manual training one commonly means exercises in the use of the tools employed in working wood and iron. It can not be too often repeated that the object of workshop practice, as a part of general education, is not to teach a boy a trade, but to develop his faculties, and to give him manual skill ; that, although the carpenter's bench and the turner's lathe are employed as instruments of such training, the object of the instruction is not to create carpenters or joiners, but to famil- iarize the pupil with the properties of such common substances as wood and iron, to teach the hand and eye to work in unison, to accustom the pupil to exact measurements, and to enable him by the use of tools to produce actual things from drawings that represent them. . . . To assume that the best education can be given through the medium of books only, and can not be equally obtained from the study of things, is a survival of the medievalism against which nearly all modern authorities protest. But there is another and more deeply rooted error in this argument. People often talk and write as if school-time should be utilized for teaching those things which a child is not likely to care to learn in after-life, whereas the real aim of school education should be to prepare, as far as possible, for the whole work of life. . , . The endeavor of all educators should be, to establish such a relation between school instruction and the occupations of life as to prevent any break of continuity in passing from one to the other. The methods by which we gain information and experience in the busy world should be identical with those adopted in schools. It is because the opposite theory has so long prevailed, that our school- training has proved so inadequate a preparation for the real work of life. The demand for technical instruction, both in our elementary and in our secondary schools, is a protest against the contrast which has so long existed between the subjects and methods of school-teaching and the practical work of e very-day life. APPENDICES. 359 We are always justly complaining that in this country children leave school at too young an age, before they can have had time to properly assimi- late the knowledge they have acquired, with the result that they soon forget a great part of the little they have learned. At the age of fifteen or sixteen they begin to feel the want of technical instruction. There can be little doubt, if elementary education were made more practical, that parents would be more willing, even at some sacrifice, to let their children benefit by it. They are often led to take their children away from school, because they do not see much use in the "schooling." Of course, the desire to secure the child's early earnings operates in very many cases ; but I am convinced that it would be easier to persuade parents to forego these earnings, if the school- teaching had more direct reference to the work in which the children are likely to be subsequently occupied. A workshop has recently been fitted in the school attached to St. Jude's Church, Whitechapel. Arrangements have been made for giving instruction in carpentry and turnery to boys, and in modeling and wood-carving to girls of the upper standards, and the results of the lessons have fully justified the most sanguine expectations of the advocates of this kind of instruction. Those who have visited these schools have been struck with the cheerful interest shown by the children in their work, and by the effect of the teach- ing in quickening their perceptive faculties and in stimulating their intelli- gence. The contrast between the listless and often inattentive attitude of children occupied with some ordinary class-lesson, and the eager eyes and nimble fingers of the same children at the carpenter's or modeling bench, is most instructive ; and no one who has seen it can have any doubt of the edu- cational value of this kind of training. These results, it must be remem- bered, have been attained by teachers most of whom have themselves been trying experiments, and have been working by the light of nature, without any well-considered methods. Under properly trained instructors the results would doubtless have been far more satisfactory. There is good reason to believe that the stimulating effect of workshop instruction on the intelligence of children will be such, that, notwithstanding the loss of the time spent in the shop, their progress in their ordinary studies will be in no way retarded. Nearly all educationists have pointed out the many advantages of enabling children at an early age to realize the connection between knowing and doing. Comenius has well said, " Let those things that have to be done be learned by doing them." Rousseau has pithily expressed a similar idea in saying, " Souvenez-vous qu'en toute chose vos Ie9ons doivent etre plus en actions qu'en discours ; car les enfants oublient aisement ce qu'ils ont dit et ce qu'on leur a dit, mais non pas ce qu'ils ont fait et ce qu'on leur a fait " (Remember that in every thing your lessons ought to be more in actions 360 APPENDICES. than in speech ; for children easily forget what they have said and what has been said to them, but not what they have done and what has been done to them). In what I have said, I have endeavored to show that workshop instruction may be made a part of a liberal education ; that, as an educational discipline, it serves to train the faculties of observation, to exercise the hand and eye in the estimation of form and size, and the physical properties of common things ; that the skill acquired is useful in every occupation of life, and is especially serviceable to those who are likely to become artisans, by inducing taste and aptitude for manual work, by tending to shorten the period of apprenticeship, by enabling the learner to apply to the practice of his trade the correct methods of inquiry which he has learned at school, and by afford- ing the necessary basis for higher technical education. Contemporary Review. INDEX. Adams, Charles Francis, jun., 181, 206, 302. Adler, Dr. Felix, 14, 178, 206, 207, 215. Allan Glen's Institution, 176, 328. Apprenticeship, 258, 267, 314-316. Apprenticeship schools, 233, 234, 270, 271, 296. Articles not sold, 194, 195, 293, 294, 321-323. Assistant class instructors not desirable, 126, 127. Attendance affected by manual training, 168, 173, 177, 203, 204. Baltimore Manual Training School, 11. Boston Industrial School Association, 263, 282, 283. Boyer, E. R., views of, 173, 174. Boynton, John, endows Worcester Free Institute, 1. Brazing and soldering, 108. Brown, William, 8. Cambridge workshop of Prof. Stuart, 328, 329. Caste, effect of manual training upon, 317, 318. Chicago Manual Training School, 12, 335. Chicago School Board adopts manual training, 14. Chucking, 58. Cincinnati Technical (Manual Training) School, 14. Citizenship, duties of, 131. Civics, outline of, 130, 131. Cleveland Manual Training School, 14, 174. Compton, Supt. H. W., 168. Conzelman, Gottlieb, 4, 7, 9-11, 285. Cores and Core-boxes, 112, 113, 124, 125. Cost of forging tools, 85. Cost of machine-shop tools, 134. Cost of materials, 350. Cost of plant, 199, 237. Cost of Toledo Manual Training School, 344. Cost of wood-working tools, 27-29. Course of study of St. Louis Manual Training School, 194, 217, 292, 351. Course of study for girls, 352, 353. Cupples, Samuel, 7, 8, 11, 201. 361 362 INDEX. Davidson, Thomas, 320. Davis, John T., 8. Della-Vos, Victor, 2, 4. Denver Manual Training School, 14, 335; Dickinson, Secretary, 307-309, 318. Discipline of the shop, 54, 344, 345. Dixon, E. M., views of, 176, 328. Dowd, Supt., 224. Drawing, for first year of manual training school, 18-24. Drawing, for second year of manual training school, 77-84. Drawing, for third year of manual training school, 132. Drawing, for the shop, 38. Drawing, free-hand projections, 23. Drawing, instruments for, 22. Drawing, isometric projections, 18, 19. Drawing, orthographic projections, principles of, 18, 19. Drawing, sections, 21, 22. Drawing, use of rulers in, 24. Drawing, value of, 187, 188, 257, 311, 312. Economic value of manual training, 196, 197, 230, 236, 296, 308. Education, defective, 183, 184, 215, 244, 245, 263, 310. Education, luxuries in, 191, 355-357. Eliot, Chancellor William G., 7, 8, 192. Eliot, H. W., 8. Emerson, quotations from, 181, 189. English manual training schools, 327, 328. English, study of, 17, 75, 130, 304. European schools, 248, 249, 269-271, Chap. XIV. Exercise in filing, 280, 281. Exercises in forging, 89-104. Exercises in iron and steel fitting, 143-148. Exercises in joinery, 38-49. Exercises in wood-turning, 60-66. Exercises in wood-carving, 66-72. Expression, the arts of, 185-187. Fan for exhaust, 84. Farrar, Canon, views of, 219. Fire, management of, 104-107. Fiske, Prof. John, 225. Foley, Thomas, testimony of, 198. Forge, management of fire, 104-107. Forging, cost of tools for, 85. Forging, exercises in, 89-104. Forging-shop, cut of, 86. Forging-shop, outfit of, 84, 85. Forging, the elements of, 85-88. Franke, Prof. Ktmo, views of, 170, 171. INDEX. 363 French technical schools, 192, 193, 329, 330. Fruits of manual training, Chap. VIII., 213, 238, 308. Garlin, Anna C., 265. German schools, 331. Girls, education of, 7, 216, 341, 344, 352, 353. Graduates, occupations of, 154. Graduates, records of, 152-155. Graduates, testimony of, 156-165. Graduates, wages of, 156. Grammercy Park School, 14. Greek, futility of study of, 298, 299. Gregory, Prest. J. M., 2. Hale, Dr. E. E., 305-307. Ham, Charles H., 172, 188. Harris, Dr. William T., 208, 230, 246. Harrison, Edwin, 7, 9, 201. Heat, production of, by iron-cutting, 142. Heat, production of, by wood-turning, 57. Hinsdale, Supt,, 204. Holden, S. E., views of, 171, 172. Home training, 234, 235. House, N". W., exercises in wood-carving by, 68. Hudson, Dr. H. N., 305. Huse, William L., 8. Industrial School Association of Boston, 263, 282, 283. Industrial schools, 233. Intellectual influence of manual training, 204-206, 223, \ Jacobson, Col. Augustus, 172, 200, 222. James, Supt. Henry M., views of, 173. Johnson, Dr. Samuel, views of, 297. Jones, Charles E., lesson by, 104-107. Komatau, Bohemia, school at, 3, 193, 331, 332. Literary training compared with scientific, 218, 250-253. London School Board introduces manual training, 180. Lunch, need of, 350. MacAlister, Supt., 235. Machine-shop, character of, 136. Machine-shop, cost of outfit, 134. Machine-shop, cut of, 135. Machine-shop, exercises, 143-149. Machine-shop, outfit of, 134. Machine-shop, tools, characteristics of, 136-142. 364 INDEX. Mackintosh, Miss May, 178. Macomber, A. E., 340. Magnus, Sir Philip, 218, 219, 327, 358-360. Manchester Manual Training School, 328. Manual Labor School, Miller, 324. Manual labor schools, 232. Manual occupations affected by manual training, 211, 212. Manual training, cost of, 237. Manual training, economic value of, 196, 197, 230, 236, 296, 308. Manual training, fruits of,' Chap. VIII. , 213, 238. Manual training in ancient times, 261. Manual training in high schools, 355-357. Manual training, moral influence of, 184, 206, 207, 231. Manual training, object of, 194, 229, 358-360. Manual Training School of St. Louis : cost of, 199. established, 5, 335. history of, 9-11. managing board of, 8. ordinance of, 5. origin of name, 7, 8. plans of, 336-340. prospectus of, 6, Chap. XII. Manual training school not a special school, 319. Marking shop exercises, 50-53, 281. Massachusetts Eighth Regiment, 276. Materials, cost of, 350. Mather, William, royal commissioner, 178, 179, 320. Merriam, George S., 181, 182. Miller Manual Labor School, 324. Miller, Ralph H., 153, 159, 177. Milton, views of, on education, 240, 241. Minneapolis adopts manual training, 15. Molding, 108-119. Molding, outfit of, 111, 112. Money values, study of, 324-326. Moral influence of manual training, 184, 206, 207, 231. Occupation, choice of, 209, 302. Oliver, H. K., 244. Omaha High School introduces manual training, 14, 173. Ordway, Prof. J. M., views of, 169, 333. Page, James A., report of, 174, 175. Pattern-making, 108, 119-125. Philadelphia Manual Training School, 14, 173. Philadelphia Social Science Association address, 1885, Chap. IX. Phillips, Wendell, 265. Physics, teaching, 76, 77. INDEX. 365 Plans of St. Louis school, 336-340. Plans of Toledo school, 340-347. Playfair, Sir Lyon, 179, 302. Policy of shop, 194, 195, 293, 294, 321-323. Polytechnic school, origin, aims, and methods of, Chap. X. Power, basis of, 301. Professions, number of, 226, 241. Program of first year of manual training school, 16. Program of second year, 75. Program of third year, 128. Program of Toledo Manual Training School, 354. Projects, 65, 104, 148. Promotions, 74. Public school, function of, Chap. XIII. Reports, 348. Ripper, Prof., of Sheffield, 156, 175, 176, 310, 327, 349. Robinson, Prof. S. W., 2, 323. Rooms and teachers, 17. Runkle, Prest. J. D., 4, 174, 191, 193, 196, 198, 207, 266, 273, 277, 278, 280. Russian method of tool instruction, 3, 268, 277, 283. Russian schools, 332, 333. St. Louis Manual Training School. (See Manual Training School of St. Louis.) Saratoga address in 1882, Chap. VII. Saratoga address in 1883, Chap. VIII. School of Mechanic Arts, Boston, 5, 191, 193, 198, 277. Science culture, 219, 220. Scientific compared with literary training, 218, 250, 253. Scott, Sir Walter, 207. Scott, Jesup W. and Susan, endow Toledo University, 340. Scott, William H., 340. Scott, Frank J., 340. Scott, Maurice A., 340. Sellew, Ralph, 9, 10, 11, 201. Sellew, Timothy G., 11. Self-sustaining schools, 195. Seaver, Supt. Edwin A., 223, 311. Shop drawings, 38. Shop exercises, 38-49, 60-66, 66-72, 89-104, 143-148. Shop, policy of, 194, 195, 293, 294, 321-323. Slang to be avoided, 303. Slojd schools of Sweden, 333. Soldering and brazing, 108. Stevens, Edwin A., endows the Institute, 3, 259. Stevens Institute, 2. Stuart, Prof., starts a shop at Cambridge, 328, 329. Style in English, to be cultivated, 130, 304. Swedish schools, 333. Swofford, C. C., 77. 366 INDEX. Teachers, assistant, 126, 127. Teachers, number of, 17. Teachers, qualifications of, 348, 349. Teachers, salaries of, 200. Tempering, 83, 100, 104. Theory of tool instruction, 275. Thompson, Prest. C. O., 2, 296, 332. Thompson, Prof. Sylvanus P., 187, 192, 193. Thurston, Prof. R. H., 177, ,290, 295. Toledo Manual Training School, 13, 68, 168, 169, 173, 177, 335, 340, 34L cost of, 344. course of study for girls, 344, 352, 353. department for girls, 341. daily program, 354. plans of, 340-347. Trade schools, 233, 268, 269, 272, 273. Tulane High School, 15, 169. Walberg, Mr., 280. Walker, Gen. Francis A., 221, 306, 307, 313, 355-357. Walker, Stephen A., 190, 192. Washington University introduces shop-work, 3, 4, 259, 285. White, Mr. Charles F., 60, 108-125. White, Supt. E. E., views of, 317, 318. Whitworth, Sir Joseph, founds scholarships, 260. Wickersham, Supt. J. P., 265. Winship, Dr. A. E., views of, 173. Winthrop, Theodore, 276, 277. Wood-carving exercises, 66-72. Wood-carving tools, 67. Woods to be used, 36, 58, 59. Wood-turning, 54-66. Wood-turning, directions for, 56. Wood-turning, exercises in, 60-65. Wood-working, a lesson in, 33-35. Wood-working, care of tools, 31. Wood-working, cost of outfit, 28, 29. Wood-working, method of instruction, 30-38. Wood-working shop, 25, 29. Wood-working shop, cut of, 26. Wood-working tools, lists and prices, 27-29. Worcester Free Institute, 1, 2, 246. Youmans, Dr. E. L., 185, 225. MANUAL TRAINING. " When a man teaches his son no trade, it is as if he taught him highway robbery. ' ' Wood-Working Tools; How to Use Them. A handbook for teachers and pupils. Edited (for the Industrial School Association} by CHANNING WHITAKER, Professor of Mechanical Engineer- ing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 5^ by 7^ inches. Cloth. 104 pages. With 80 illustrations. Price by mail, 55 cents. Intro- duction price, 50 cents. A COURSE of simple lessons in the use of the universal tools : the hammer, knife, axe, plane, rule, chalk-line, square, gauge, chisel, saw, and augur. The lessons are so amply illustrated that any bright boy will find the book alone a great help in his endeavors to learn the right way of using common tools. Nearly half of the illustrations were taken from life, and are efficient substitutes for lengthy and important printed instructions. The book is the result of actual experiments successfully made by the Industrial School Association of Boston. It will help people, who are interested in systematic and efficient industrial education, to begin it. *' The Industrial School Association conducted small industrial schools at its own expense. It set itself to prepare a manual of instruction, based upon the actual experience of its teachers, with the aid of other teachers, in like schools in Gloucester and Cambridge, and this book is the result. Of course, its size is no indication of the labor and thought and money it has cost. As far as it goes, it aims to teach, and it does teach, how to use wood-working tools with singular thoroughness and intelligence. The Rev. George Leonard Chancy, President of the Association, writes a brief introduction, in which he says : * A single workroom, like the one used by this school in Church Street, in any city, for the six months from December to May, during 152 MANUAL TRAINING. which time it usually lies idle, with very little expense beyond the original plant and a moderate salary to the teacher, would meet all the wants of three or four of the largest grammar schools for boys. Three such supplementary schools, if used in turn, would amply satisfy all the rightful claims of industrial education of this kind upon the school system of such a city as Boston. At so small an outlay of attention and money might the native aptitude of the American youth for manual skill be turned into useful channels. In so simple a way might the needed check be given to that exclusive tendency towards classical rather than industrial pursuits which the present school course undoubtedly promotes.' We heartily welcome this little book for what it is, and of course what it promises, as we hope, for industrial education." Boston Daily Advertiser. " Industrial education is becoming a popular theme, and for the welfare of society it is to be hoped that it will receive more and more attention. With the common -school system it may properly be intimately combined. No one should say aught against purely literary and scientific learning, but since so few are destined to a sole use of these acquisitions, in after-life it is important that knowledge available for the million should be more freely bestowed upon the young than it is. Since the lapse into disuse of the apprentice system, skilled workers for their efficiency have pretty much been left to their own resources in acquiring knowledge of a chosen occupation. To remedy this defect in the training of children, industrial schools, and special departments in ordinary schools, are now desired to meet the necessary want. As a text-book for this purpose, Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, have published 'Wood- Working Tools : How to Use Them.' It is an illustrated manual of fourteen chapters, and aims to promote the handicraft required in all trades. To any youth with a native aptitude for the use of tools and a taste for mechanical work, it has all the requisites of an elementary volume, besides being as entertaining as it is plain and useful. The several chapters treat very fully of striking, splitting, cutting, planing, sharpening, adjusting, marking, sawing, reducing surfaces, squaring surfaces, boring, joining, finishing, etc. The work has been of great benefit in the industrial schools of Boston and elsewhere. Throughout the country it may with profit be universally adopted in every school, public or private, where young persons are taught." Dubuque Trade Journal. MANUAL TRAINING. 153 The Bureau of Education at Washington has shown a great interest in this book, and sent it to several schools of science, who acknowledged its receipt by the following letters of commendation ; C. F. Brackett, Prof, of Physics, Col- lege of New Jersey : It is an admirable little book. Every boy should be taught just the things it so well presents. Chas. Babcock, Prof, of Architec- ture in Cornell Univ. : I commend it heartily. Robt. W. Doutheat, Sec'yfor School of Mines, Rolla, Mo, : I feel free to say that I have never before seen a book which so completely and satisfactorily sets forth the true methods of using the tools needed by wood-workers. A. Vander Naillen, Pres. of School of Science, San Francisco, Cal. : I really think it not only very useful, but the idea full of possibilities. If followed up by other books on similar subjects, and as copiously illustrated, the idea will be a civilizing one, and the benefit to our ris- ing generations simply incalculable. Richard Mott, Pres. of Toledo (0.) Univ. of Arts and Trades : This is a good work. An intelligent scholar can acquire from it a fair elementary knowl- edge of the trade without apprenticeship. Chas. H. Benjamin, Dept. Mech. Engineering, Me. State Coll.: It will doubtless be adopted as a basis for a course of instruction in wood-work. The Nation : It is a model of clear and concise directions. N. Y. Times : It wastes no words, but by terse text and apt illustration describes the operations of the wood-worker. To a nation of whittlers and choppers it should be a boon. Builder and Wood-Worker, N. Y. : The work is within the capacity of any one trustworthy enough to own a sharp jack-knife ; indeed, if the book was placed in the hands of every boy in the United States, both boys and States would be benefited. The Carpenter, St. Louis : No bet- ter present could be given a boy, and carpenters would do well to see that it is in the hands of their sons. Youth's Examiner, Chicago : This is one of the neatest and most useful volumes it has been our privilege to notice for some time. C. H. Dietrich, Supt. of Schools, Hop- kinsville, Ky. : It is a perfect gem. It de- serves to find a place in every family in America, and should be put in the hands of every boy, high or low, rich or poor. Manual Training. By Prof. C. M. WOODWARD, of the Manual Training School, Washington University, St. Louis. T^HIS book is exceedingly practical, its main object being to show just how a manual training school should be organized and con- ducted. It contains courses of study, programmes of daily exercises, and working drawings and descriptions of class exercises in wood and metal. The course of drawing, which has proved eminently successful in the St. Louis school, is quite fully given. [Ready in October. EdtiCUtlOn : A Pedagogic and Social Necessity. Together with a Critique upon Objections Advanced. By ROBERT SEIDEL, Mollis, Switzerland. Translated by MARGARET K. SMITH, State Normal School, Oswego, New York. A good idea of the value of this book may be gained from the following TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE INNER RELATION BETWEEN INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION AND THE SOCIAL QUESTION. CHAPTER II. ERRORS. CONTRADICTIONS, AND INCONSISTENCIES OF THE OPPONENTS OF INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION. CHAPTER III. THE ECONOMIC OBJECTIONS TO INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION. i. Competition. n. Speculation. HI. Diminution of the Number of Purchasers. iv. Misconception of the Utility of Division of Labor. CHAPTER IV. THE PLAUSIBLE AND LEGAL OBJECTIONS TO INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION. i. The Child's Inclination for Activity is sufficiently culti- vated in the Family. 11. The Father should instruct the Son in his Handi- craft. HI. Compulsory Industrial Instruction would interfere with the Parents' Rights. iv. The Rural Population require no Industrial Edu- cation. CHAPTER V. THE OBJECTIONS OF EDUCATORS AND SCHOOLMEN TO INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION. i. The Aim of the School and of Industrial Instruction. ii. Can Gymnastics secure harmonious Development? HI. The School already pursues Hand Labor. iv. Disciplinary and Educa- tional Value of Drawing, Industrial, and Science Instruction. v. Objec- tive Methods of Instruction in Forest and Field. vi. Objective and Hand-Labor Instruction. vii. Industrial Instruction can not remedy the Disadvantages of the Present School System. vm. Increase of Hours for Instruction. ix. Hand Labor should be Vacation Employment, and in Childhood merely Play. X. School Hand Labor and Choice of a Pro- fession. xi. The Decline of the Teacher's Position. xn. The Union of Study and Labor in the School. xm. Method of Industrial Instruction. CHAPTER VI. WHAT DO THE CLASSIC EDUCATORS SAY OF INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION? CHAPTER VII. EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL NECESSITY FOR INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION. SUPPLEMENTARY RESUME. Conclusion. D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, 3 TREMONT PLACE, BOSTON. SCIENCE. Organic Chemistry: An Introduction to the Study of the Compounds of Carbon. By IRA REMSEN, Pro- fessor of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, x + 364 pages. Cloth. Price by mail, $1.30; Introduction price, $1.20. The Elements of Inorganic Chemistry. Descriptive and Qualitative. By JAMES H. 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