UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE BERKELEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BENJ. IDE WHEELER, PRESIDENT THOMAS FORSYTH HUNT, Dean and Director H. E. VAN NORMAN. Vice-Director and Dean, University Farm School CIRCULAR 138. (September, 1915.) THE SILO IN CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE. By F. W. Woll. The many inquiries in regard to silo construction and the feeding of silage that come to the College every week testify to the interest taken in these subjects by our farmers and to their importance in Cali- fornia agriculture. The present circular is published for the purpose Fig. 1. Filling the silo with alfalfa. of furnishing information along this line to parties interested, and of giving a brief discussion of the experimental work done with silage crops by our College up to the present time. A couple of decades ago but few farmers knew what the words silo and silage meant, but these terms are now familiar to all who read agricultural papers or publications, or who live in sections where dairy- ing or stock raising are important industries. Most farmers now know that a silo is an air-tight structure used for the preservation of forage 18506 crops in a succulent condition, and that the green forage placed in the silo is called silage (formerly ensilage) after it has undergone certain changes through fermentations and respiration of the plant cells that occur for a time after the silo has been filled. Silage forms an excel- lent succulent feed for nearly all classes of farm animals and is of special value in the feeding of cattle and sheep. Dairy farmers were the first to build silos and to adopt silage as a regular part of the rations for their stock. In eastern and central states the silo is now generally looked upon as an indispensable adjunct to dairying, both for winter feeding and for feeding in summer and early fall supplementary to scant pastures. Of late years other stock farmers, especially cattle- men, have also become cognizant of the fact that the silo may be of great value to them in their feeding operations. While the history of the silo dates back to antiquity, it is only during relatively recent years that separate silo structures have been built. The introduction of the silo on American farms may be said to date from the latter part of the eighties, and especially during the last dozen years silos have gone up in large numbers on dairy and stock farms. In the thirteen Mississippi Valley states nearly 31,000 silos were built in 1913, and over 8,000 were built in Wisconsin alone the same year, making a total of about 42,000 silos, or one on every four farms in that state. Statistics from other states where dairying or cattle rais- ing are leading industries would doubtless show that the silo has assumed similar importance in the system of feeding farm animals there and, as noted, this change has come within comparatively recent years. The silo has become a common feature of the equipment of stock farms in many parts of this state, and the value of silage, more par- ticularly in the feeding of dairy cows, is now well understood by pro- gressive farmers. The adoption of the silo in California has doubtless been somewhat retarded by at least two facts: First, green feed is generally available in most parts of the state during all but a few months of the year, and second, Indian corn, by far the most important American silage crop, is grown to only a limited extent here and many farmers do not appreciate the possibilities of this crop under the condi- tions prevailing in most parts of the state. Where Indian corn is not successfully grown, however, or where farmers prefer to grow other crops, it is still possible to have the advantage of feeding silage, for sorghums, alfalfa, clover and the small grains will, as we shall see, likewise make a good quality of silage when properly handled. ADVANTAGES OF SILOS. The system of making and feeding silage, often called the siloing system, must have some very important advantages over hay-making or field-curing of forage crops, for it can be truthfully said that it has — 3 — largely revolutionized the methods of feeding farm animals in this country during the last quarter of a century. Some of these advan- tages are readily seen ; others are more difficult to discern and can only be studied and their importance determined through careful experi- ments. The dairy farmer or stockman who adopts the siloing process may not be aware of the special advantages of this system, but is doubtless often guided in his decision by the enthusiasm or favorable opinion of neighbors or agricultural writers or speakers with regard to the merits of the silo. It may be well, however, to consider briefly some of the main points of the superiority of the siloing system under the special conditions of farming in this and other western states. 1. Silage furnishes a succulent, readily available feed of uniform quality which is greatly relished by all classes of farm animals and especially adapted for feeding dairy cows, beef cattle and sheep. 2. Generally speaking, the silo enables the farmer to secure the largest possible amounts of feed materials from a certain area of land for feeding farm animals, in the most convenient and cheapest manner. 3. The silo will preserve green feeds, like Indian corn, sorghum, grain forage, alfalfa, clover, pea vines, etc., in a succulent condition for feeding at any time during the year ; it furnishes valuable supplementary feeds for late summer and early fall feeding, when pastures are likely to be short, as well as for winter feeding when green feed is either scarce or lacking. 4. The silo makes farmers less dependent on weather conditions than when hay is made, and enables them to get along with smaller barns or sheds than otherwise, since less room is required for storing feed in this form than in the form of hay, or other dry forage. 5. The value of succulent feeds in feeding milk-producing animals is well under- stood ; silage also forms a valuable palatable feed for growing or fattening cattle or sheep, keeping them in a thrifty condition throughout the winter and doing away with the check in production that always occurs with changes from succulent to dry feed. 6. The acidity of the silage, which comes largely from the lactic acid formed in the fermentation of the feed, has an important dietetic value, regulating the bowels and checking undesirable putrefactive processes in the intestines. The favorable influence of silage on the health of animals that has been commonly observed is, in all probability, due partly to the silage acids and partly to the succulence of the silage. LIMITATIONS OF THE SILO. The general value of the silo on American stock farms, and espe- cially to the dairy farmer and cattle man, has been fully established during the past few decades through numerous carefully conducted feeding experiments with different classes of farm animals, as well as through practical feeding experience. There are, however, cases where it is not advisable or practicable for a farmer to build a silo, and it may be well to state briefly in this place the main points of limitation to the value of the siloing system, in order that these may be clearly understood before it is decided to build a silo. The most important of these is the cost of the silo itself and of the necessary equipment, cutter, power, extra labor, etc. According to the — 4 — kind and size of silo built, the extra investment required in building and filling a silo will not be less than two hundred dollars, and is likely to be double or treble that amount on a dairy or stock ranch of average size. The investment in a silo and necessary machinery is relatively high for small silos, and the cost of making and the loss of silage through spoiling are relatively higher with these than with large silos. It is doubtful whether it will pay a farmer to build a silo who has not sufficient stock to consume at least 50 tons of silage during the season, and the most economical results are obtained where 100 tons of silage or more can be fed out in a season. It is less essential to provide silage for feeding farm stock under conditions where there is no difficulty in making hay or growing large crops of roots than where such conditions do not prevail. In localities where green feed is readily available throughout the year there is naturally no special need of a silo, although some farmers may find it preferable in point of convenience and .economy also in such cases. For small herds of a dozen cattle or less, the growing of roots, where the soil and climatic conditions are adapted to their culture, may prove a more economical method of supplying succulence in the rations fed than making silage, unless a small pit or bank silo can be built which may be filled with some silage crop of recognized value. 1 ESSENTIALS IN SILO CONSTRUCTION. The form of silo construction has gradually changed from the original one, a pit or trench in the ground, to the modern tall cylin- drical silo. Square or rectangular silos as built prior to the eighties are no longer used, having been found undesirable, both on account of the difficulty of making good silage therein and because of their cost. There are some essential points that must be kept in mind in building a silo, no matter of what shape or material it is built. As a clear understanding of these fundamental requirements is important to all who intend to build a silo, they will be briefly considered below. In building silos it is necessary to keep in mind the following essentials : 1. The walls must he impervious to air and water. The making of silage con- sists largely in a series of fermentation processes. Bacteria pass into the silo with the green fodder and after a short time begin to multiply there, favored by the presence of air and moisture and an abundance of feed material in the fodder, especially soluble carbohydrates. The bacteria feed upon these substances and break them up into acids, like lactic and acetic acid, and simple gaseous components, mainly carbon dioxide and water vapor. Considerable heat is evolved in this pro- cess. Most of the bacteria found in silage can not live in the absence of oxygen, and the amount of air available determines, therefore, how far the decomposition processes will run and the resultant losses of nutritive materials. When the supply of oxygen in the air spaces in the siloed mass is exhausted, the bacteria die and the fermentation processes cease, unless more air is admitted ; hence, it is important that the silo be air-tight and no air be admitted through the silo wall, or at the bottom. 'Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bui. 73, p. 3' The making of silage depends also to a considerable extent on the growth of enzymes in the green tissues and on the respiration of the plant cells, which con- tinues as long as these are alive. The relative importance of the various processes concerned in the making of silage has not yet been fully established ; we know definitely, however, that reducing the air supply in the silo to a minimum is an all-important factor in successful silage making, and this is accomplished by solid packing of green fodder and by preventing the entrance of air from without. The air can not be completely excluded from the silo ; there will always be sufficient left in the air spaces of the siloed mass to supply the oxygen necessary for the run of the changes involved in the process of silage making. Unless the amount is reduced to a minimum by careful packing and by providing an absolutely air-tight silo the losses of valuable feet components will be abnormally large, although a good quality of silage may still be secured. The silo wall must also be water-tight so as not to allow moisture from the green fodder to escape, as the silage would otherwise dry out, and molds and yeasts would be able to grow therein and cause the silage to spoil. 2. The silo must be deep. Depth in the silo is essential in making silage, so as to have the mass under considerable pressure ; this will cause it to pack well and will leave as little air as possible in the interstices between the siloed fodder, thus reducing the losses of feed materials to a minimum. The early silos built in this country and abroad were shallow structures, often not over 12 to 15 feet deep. Experience showed that it was necessary to weight the fodder placed in these silos heavily in order to avoid large losses and the formation of moldy silage. In modern tall silos no weighting is necessary, since the material placed in the silo packs sufficiently to largely exclude the air in the siloed mass and thus secures a good quality of silage. In the case of deep silos the loss from spoiled silage on the top is small in proportion to the amount of silage stored, and a smaller loss occurs while the silage is being fed out. As the silage packs better in a deep silo than in a shallow one, the former kind of silos will furthermore hold more silage per cubic foot than the latter. 3. The silo must have smooth, perpendicular walls, which will allow the mass to settle without forming cavities along the walls. In a deep silo the fodder will settle several feet during the first few days after filling. Any unevenness in the wall will prevent the mass from settling uniformly, and air spaces thus formed will cause the surrounding silage to spoil. 4. The walls of the silo must be made rigid and strong, so as not to spring when the green mass settles. The lateral (outward) pressure in the silo during the settling of the mass is considerable, and increases with the depth of the silage at the rate of about eleven pounds per square foot for every foot in depth of silage. Because of this great pressure it is difficult to make good silage in large rectangular silos, since the walls of such silos always spring more or less under the pressure of the silage and this seldom keeps as well in them as in silos whose walls can not spring. In the round wooden silo every board acts as a hoop, and as the wood does not stretch much lengthwise, there is but little danger of spread- ing of the walls in such silos. Both on this account and because of economy of construction, silos of the round type are practically the only kind built at the present time in this country. SILO CONSTRUCTION. Silos are, as a general rule, tall structures built of either wood, concrete, brick, stone, or steel. In exceptional cases, especially in the western and southwestern states, so-called pit or bank silos are built in the ground or in a hillside, respectively. Either of these silos is cheap in first cost and easily constructed, but has only a small capacity and is inconvenient to feed from.* *Descriptions of these silos and directions for building them will be found in a. number of Station publications listed on page 12. — 6 — The best material of which to build a silo depends on local prices and will vary in different localities. If the requirements of silo construc- tion previously stated are met, a good quality of silage may be obtained in any kind of silo, whether built of wood, concrete, steel, etc., and no silo will furnish good silage unless built in accordance with the general principles laid down. Silos with thin, flimsy walls, or built of plain staves admit considerable air to the siloed mass, and although cheap in first cost are the most expensive silos, owing to the excessive fermentative losses that occur therein. Good wooden silos, if properly cared for, will last for a long period, perhaps 20 years or more, while concrete silos under similar conditions Fig. 2. A steel silo. may be counted on to last almost indefinitely. The lining of wooden silos must be painted with hot coal tar, or special preservative mix- tures to prevent decay, while concrete silos may be preserved by an application of a pure cement wash once every two or three years. Size of silo. The size of the silo to be built must be determined by the number of animals to which silage will be fed, and the length of the feeding season. As there is danger of silage spoiling if the silo is emptied too slowly, it is necessary to remove a layer of about two inches daily from the entire surface of silage during the summer months, and from one to one and one-half inches in cold water. About five square feet of such a layer will furnish sufficient silage for a cow or a steer per day, hence the diameter of silos to be built should be approxi- — 7 — mately as follows, if silage is to be fed during a period of six months : For a herd of sixteen cows, ten feet; twenty- four cows, about twelve feet; thirty cows, fourteen feet; forty cows, sixteen feet; fifty cows, eighteen feet; sixty cows, twenty feet; one hundred cows, twenty-five feet. The following table shows the capacities of cylindrical silos of a diameter from ten to twenty feet and a height of twenty to forty feet : CAPACITY OF ROUND SILOS. Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos, for Well-Matured Corn Silage, in Tons. Height of silo Inside diameter of silo, feet inside, feet » 1 n 12 13 14 | 15 16 17 18 19 20 20 30 33 36 40 44 48 53 58 64 70 75 36 41 45 50 54 58 66 73 82 80 98 45 50 55 60 66 75 84 94 105 114 121 51 57 64 71 79 86 94 102 110 119 129 60 66 73 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 22 76 85 94 102 110 118 131 139 151 165 87 95 103 111 120 131 143 155 167 180 24 104 116 126 136 148 162 176 190 204 120 130 140 150 162 175 190 212 228 122 137 152 168 184 200 218 236 255 26 155 28 170 30 185 32 200 34 217 36 235 38 - 256 40 279 On account of the difficulty of handling the silage from very wide silos it is not to be recommended to build silos of larger diameter than twenty feet; it is also difficult to feed out the silage rapidly enough from very wide silos to prevent considerable losses through decay of the surface layer, except in cases of very large herds. The figures for the capacities of silos given refer to Indian corn cut when nearly mature. Somewhat larger quantities can be put in of immature corn or of sweet sorghum, and less of dry corn, alfalfa, grain sorghums and similar crops that do not pack well. If cut when nearly ripe the grain sorghums will occupy at least one-third more space than Indian corn cut at the usual time, and the capacity of a silo for these crops would then be decreased in this ratio from the figures given in the table. The silos commonly built in this state are of two kinds: Wooden, stave or so-called re-saw silos, and concrete silos, w T ith solid reinforced walls, or built of cement blocks. There are several kinds of manufactured silos on the market for which great claims of cheapness and general excellence are made. These can only be recommended when they conform to the require- ments for silo structures discussed in the preceding pages. Besides the silo types described below there is one kind which would seem to possess decided merit under the conditions existing in this state, viz., the steel silo. So far as is known none of these silos have as yet been built here; their relatively high cost will, however, prevent their general adoption. The stave silos are, as a rule, put up by manufacturers who make a special business of silo construction. As these furnish detailed build- ing directions in all cases it will not be necessary to explain their con- struction here. Suffice it to say that they are generally built of tongued and grooved staves, six inches wide and two inches thick, with edges Fig. 3. Stave silos at the University Farm. Diameter 12 ft., height 36 ft., capacity about 100 tons each. beveled to conform to the circle of the silo. Common sizes built are twelve feet in diameter, thirty-six feet high (105 tons capacity) ; sixteen feet in diameter, thirty-six feet high (155 tons capacity). Stave silos are easily and quickly built and cost about $3.00 per ton capacity for small or medium sizes. Like all other silos they should be built on a solid concrete foundation going down into the ground a couple of feet and the bottom should be tamped thoroughly and covered with a layer of good concrete, 2 to 3 inches thick, in order — 9 — to keep out vermin and secure good silage clear to the bottom. It is also advisable to provide silos 32 feet tall or more, with a drain. This will prevent spoiling of the bottom layer of the silage through silage juice or water standing in the silo, in the case of very green silage crops, or where considerable water is added to the siloed fodder. The silo is preferably provided with a roof and a chute extending from the top door to about eight feet from the ground through which the silage may be emptied. The re-saw silo is a modification of a type of round wooden silo originally constructed by the late Professor F. H. King at the Wis- Fig. 4. Resaw silo in process of construction at the University Farm. Stave silos to the right, consin Experiment Station in 189 1 1 and is commonly known as the Wisconsin or the King silo. It is built of one-half or three-eighths- inch boards, six inches wide, nailed horizontally to upright 2x4 stud- dings placed 12 to 18 inches apart. In the original Wisconsin silo three thicknesses of three-eighths inch sheeting were nailed on the inside, with two thicknesses of acid-proof building paper between, and on the outside were put one thickness of sheeting, one of tar felt and one of clapboards. In this state the outside covering is, as a rule, omitted, and only two thicknesses of one-half inch stuff, with one or two layers 1 Wisconsin bulletin 2! — 10 — of building paper between, are nailed on the inside of the studs, care being taken that the boards break joints. These silos have the advantage that they can be readily built by a carpenter with unskilled helpers and are Gheap in first cost. They have given good satisfaction in most cases and appear to be in good condition even after having been filled several times. But little definite information has been secured so far as to the losses of feed materials sustained in these thin-walled silos, but from the evidence at hand it seems clear that these are considerably larger than in the case of silos with more solid, practically air-tight walls. Especially in the case of silos of small diameters, twelve feet or less, the building of these silos is a particular and slow job, and the cost of construction will often bring the total cost of the silo up to above that of a care- fully built stave silo. With our present knowledge of silo construc- tion and under the conditions prevailing in this state this type of silo can only be recommended where lumber is cheap and where a farmer can build the silo largely with unskilled labor and must build it as cheaply as possible. By placing another layer of building paper and half -inch boards on the inside, the losses of feed materials during the siloing process would doubtless be reduced, as it would lessen the danger of introduction of air through the wall, but it would, at the same time, also be likely to bring the cost cf the silo up to that of other types. A re-saw silo of 110 tons capacity built by a Yolo County dairy farmer in 1913 is described as follows i 1 "The material used in the construction of our silo consists of two layers of one- half inch by eight inch Redwood, sized and surfaced on one side, with two layers of building paper between. The studding is 2 by 4 pine and placed twelve inches apart. No bottom was put in, as we have been informed that this is not necessary. The silo is built on a concrete foundation twelve inches deep and ten inches thick. This is below the surface of the ground, the ground making the form. On top of this is layed a circle sawed from 2 by 12 redwood, and to which the studding is spiked. For the top of the silo a circle is cut from 1 by 12 redwood, using two thicknesses. The siding is well nailed and care was used in breaking joints. "One carpenter and two unskilled laborers built this silo for a total cost of $200.00. Our siding cost $28.00 per M, half-inch being figured as inch. We used more studding than is used in many cases. Many put them 18 inches to 24 inches apart. The size of silo is 14 by 32 feet, and we believe holds 100 to 110 tons. We believe that we could reduce this cost a little in building another. "We give below a list of the material used in one of these , silos : 2800 square feet redwood resaw. 44 pieces 2x3x32 pine. 8 pieces 1x12x12 redwood. 4 pieces 2x12x12 redwood. 3000 square feet building paper. 100 pounds 7-penny box nails. 10 pounds spikes. 10 sacks (2£ barrels) cement. 2 yards gravel. Labor 5 days, 4 men." 'Private communication. — 11 — Concrete silos. When carefully built these are probably more satis- factory silo structures than those made of any other material. They require a minimum amount of attention, are fire and vermin-proof and with proper care will, as already suggested, be likely to last almost indefinitely. To offset these advantages they are rather expen- sive in first cost, viz, on the average, $3.00 to $4.00 per ton capacity, and call for more care in their construction than most other kinds of silos. According to the Colorado Experiment Station, 1 the solid-wall, Fig. 5. A Napa County concrete silo. reinforced concrete silo "will give more efficient service for a dollar invested than any other above ground silo on the market today." Complete instructions for the construction of concrete silos will be found in the bulletins published by the respective cement manufac- turers which may be obtained free on application. 2 bulletin 200, August, 1914. 2 Bulletin 21, "Concrete Silos," published bv the Association of American Portland Cement Manufacturers, Philadelphia; "Concrete Silos," published bv the Universal Portland Cement Company, Chicago ; see, also, Farmers' Bulletin 589, "Home-Made Silos," published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, July, 1914, pages 9-30, and Kansas Agricultural College Extension Bulletin IV, No. 6, Cement Silo Construction, May, 1912, 79 pp. — 12 — There are three different kinds of concrete silos made, the so-called monolithic or solid-wall silo, having a solid concrete wall reinforced with steel rods or bars, or woven wire; those with hollow wall, and those built of hollow cement blocks. Under the climatic conditions of our state the solid-wall monolithic silo offers ample protection and is the form of cement silo commonly built. Silos are also built of other kinds of material than those mentioned in the preceding, viz, of brick, stone, hollow tile or steel, but these are hardly of sufficient importance under our conditions to call for more than mere mention. Persons interested in building silos of these or Fig. 6. A battery of four concrete silos in Kern County. Diameter of silos 20 ft., height 60 ft. other materials will have no difficulty in securing the necessary information as to their use in silo construction by referring to bulletins recently published by Experiment Stations, copies of which can, as a rule, be secured on application to the directors of the respective stations. 1 ^Station publications on silo construction : Colorado bulletin 200, Silos and Silage in Colorado (Ft. Collins, Colo.). Iowa bulletin 141, Modern Silo Construction (Ames, Iowa). Kansas extension bulletin VI, No. 11, Underground Silos (Manhattan, Kan.). Oklahoma circular 33, Four Cheap Silos (Stillwater, Okla.). Missouri circular 67, How to Build a Gurler Silo (Columbia, Mo.). Nebraska bulletin 138, Silo Construction in Nebraska (Lincoln, Neb.). South Dakota bulletin 154, The Pit Silo (Brookings, S. D.). North Carolina circular 1, Silo Facts (Raleigh, N. C. ). Georgia bulletin 110, Silos and Silage (Experiment, Ga.). Louisiana bulletin 143, Silos and Ensilage (Baton Rouge, La.). Farmers' Bulletin 589, Home-made Silos (Washington, D. C ) . See also Modern Silage Methods, published by the Silver Mfg. Co., Salem, Ohio, and mailed by them on receipt of ten cents. — 13 — The best material for building a silo depends on a number of condi- tions that vary greatly, like local market prices of different silo materials, amount of money that is available far this purpose, etc. Farmers who are considering the question of building a silo may be able to determine from the discussions given in the preceding the relative merits of the various types of silos. A satisfactory and more or less permanent silo can be built of any of the materials given, provided due care is taken in the construction. The bulletins on silo construction published by the Experiment Stations may be profitably consulted before the silo is built. Silos erected by farmers living in the same locality may also be examined and advantage thus taken of the experience of others. SILOS AT THE UNIVERSITY FARM. The following silos are at the present time in use at the University Farm, in the order of their time of construction : 1. A concrete silo built in 1910 in connection with the dairy barn ; dimensions, diameter 16 ft. and 35 ft. high, capacity 150 tons, solid cement walls, heavily reinforced with metal lath, wired with baling wire to upright iron rods ; wall 3£ inches thick below and 2£ inches thick toward the top. 2. Remco stave silo donated to the University by Redwood Manufacturers Com- pany, San Francisco ; built April, 1914, diameter 12 ft., 36 ft. high, capacity about 100 tons ; built of plain 2x6 redwood staves with patent sliding doors and roof. Cost of the silo, $307.30. 3. Ideal Green Feed silo, manufactured by the De Laval Dairy Supply Company, San Francisco, same dimensions as preceding silo, and of similar construction, except that the staves are tongue and grooved ; the doors are interchangeable and afe simple and substantial in construction. A ladder is nailed along the silo doors to the top of the silo ; built in June, 1914. The cost of the silo complete, with foundation, $285,00. 4. Re-saw silo, built by the University Farm carpenters in August, 1914, from two thicknesses of §-inch redwood lumber, nailed horizontally to 2x4 studs placed 12 inches apart, care being taken to break joints. A layer of building paper was nailed between the boards. The silo was provided with similar doors and ladder as the preceding silo. The cost of the silo, with foundation and roof, was practically the same as that of the Ideal Green Feed Silo, viz, $284.50. (See Figs. 3, 4 and 7.) The concrete silo has been filled every season for the past five years, while the three wooden silos built last year were filled once, except in the case of silo No. 2, which was filled twice last season, as will be seen from the following table showing silage crops for the season 1914. 14 — © Q O CD z a w o D d - 03 c g •/. o M?9 cj .2 a o o be co 02 o 02 add o CM (X; CD o . i-3 k» h • -/> O ° ;e ripe. , quite te ripe due to 3- h wind, green in ed in gen- and dry; tty. 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Oj « cd , ^"co ^5" O >>0 rrt CD I -^ d -m JD j- " ph b d-S 8§ S S W (V) -W •^ CD ^l ^ M a d cod CD CO ^ o co d d ?> >», ss dbd ^5 b d CD d ^5 CD -M CD T3 4J -«cd|^„^d S g d to £ ft ft o S2 tn ^ > w CO d CD d ft^d^g^^S o tn cd^ -3 t, o ^ f-H ^H g ^ r § .2Sd^ d dedo-cdo^d ||' § o|l|* «h dftg gd ^ v; tn Qj H->t3 h 0^4) I CD^j > X* U u SaS^H^S-codcd^^^lS ft'dH^d £h5£ — 15 — DISCUSSION OF SILAGE CROPS. Indian corn is grown for forage purposes to only a limited extent in this state, partly because other forage crops do better in different sec- tions of the state, like alfalfa, grain sorghums or root crops, and partly because many farmers are unfamiliar with the culture of the crop or are averse to growing it. Indian corn is, however, pre-eminently the great American silage crop and is, generally speaking, better adapted for siloing processes than any other field crop. The reasons for this are easily seen. The thick stems and broad leaves of the corn plant pack well in the silo when cut ; corn is rich in starch and other non- saccharine carbohydrates which insure silage of a moderate acidity, and it is relatively low in protein substances so that the danger of undesirable fermentations in the silo is removed. Corn is planted thicker when grown for silage than for grain and a larger proportion of nutrients are, as a result, obtained in the stalks in the former case. The closeness of planting varies somewhat in different sections according to soil and climate. The common practice in growing corn for grain is to plant in hills three and one-half feet apart both ways ; when intended for silage it is generally planted in drills three and one-half feet apart, with stalks eight to ten inches apart in the row. This will secure a fair proportion of ears and a maximum yield of feed materials in the crop taken off the land. Experiments conducted with regard to the effect of different methods of planting corn have shown that the yields obtained are not materially influenced by the distribution of the seed so long as the amount of seed per acre remains the same. The question of planting corn in hills or drills may, therefore, be decided wholly on the score of convenience of cultivating and harvesting the crop. In growing corn for the silo a variety should be selected that will mature in the particular locality given and that will yield a maximum amount of dry matter to the acre. Dent varieties, like Reid's Yellow Dent, Learning, Minn. 113, or U. S. 160, will produce large yields of both grain and forage under our conditions. As the quality of silage made from well-matured corn is better than that from rather immature corn, the best practice is to allow the grain to nearly ripen before the corn is cut for the silo. This is advantageous also because of the rapid increase in the yield of feed materials in the corn plant during the last stages of the growing period when the kernels begin to harden. If the grain is fully matured by the time the silo can be filled, a quantity of water added to the blower as the corn goes into the silo, or to the mixture in the silo, will secure a good quality of silage. Frosted corn, if siloed promptly, can likewise be made into good silage by a liberal application of water in the same way. — 16 — The amount of silage that can be obtained from an acre of corn will vary with the fertility of the land, the season, and the care used in growing the crop, from six tons, or below, to twenty tons in exceptional cases. A fifty-bushel crop will yield eight to twelve tons of silage per acre, depending on the amount of foliage and stalks that accompany the ears. 1 The general practice adopted by farmers in the corn belt is to silo the corn ' ' ears and all " ; the entire crop is run through a cutter and filled into the silo where it is evenly mixed and tramped down carefully, especially along the silo wall. Carefully conducted experiments have shown that this method of handling the crop is more economical and convenient than to husk and grind the corn separately and feed it with silage made from the corn fodder or stover. One acre of corn silage made from the whole corn plant, including the ears, has been found to have a similar feeding value as one and one- quarter acres of silage made from corn fodder fed with the correspond- ing amount of ground corn. Sweet sorghum has been highly recommended as a silage crop under western conditions on account of its being more drought resistant than Indian corn. It will give better yields than the latter crop in regions where the rainfall is too low or too irregular for growing a good crop of corn. The sorghums are less liable to damage by insects than corn and remain green far into the fall so that they may be siloed consider- ably later than this crop. Yields of green sorghum of twenty tons may be secured on fertile land, or one-half again as much as a good crop of corn. In making silage from sorghum it is important that it be harvested late when the seed has become hard, as it will make a very acid silage if cut at an earlier stage of growth. Cut at the time stated it will make a good quality of silage of nearly similar feeding value and palatability as Indian corn silage. The two most important vari- eties adapted to forage and silage are Early Amber and Orange. The grain sorghums, or non-saccharine sorghums (kafir, milo, Egyp- tian corn, feterita, etc.), are used for silage to a limited extent in this and other western states. They make a good silage if cut when the seed is ripe, and it is relished nearly as well by cattle as Indian corn silage. It is eaten in somewhat smaller amounts than this, e. g., for dairy cows twenty to twenty-five pounds per head daily is an average feed. The Kansas station found that kafir silage ranked second to corn silage as a feed for dairy cows and that it is better than sorghum silage for the production of milk. 2 In dry, hot sections where the grain sorghums give relatively large yields and where Indian corn can not be successfully grown, these crops will doubtless assume great importance in the future as silage crops on dairy and other stock farmers' Bulletin 578. 2 Kansas circular 28. — 17 — farms. In trials at the University Farm the largest yields have so far been obtained from dwarf milo, feterita, and brown durra (Egyp- tian corn), in the order given. Alfalfa is only used to a limited extent as a silage crop. There is ordinarily no difficulty in making it into good hay under the condi- tions present in the western states where this crop grows to best advantage and is of the greatest economic importance. It is, however, made into silage by many farmers, especially in case of the first and last cuttings. Since foxtail (Hordeum murinum) is often a serious pest in alfalfa fields during the early part of the season, the first crop is siloed by some farmers, and the foxtail thus rendered harmless; the beards remain soft in the silage and do not cause trouble to the animals eating it, as is generally the case when this crop is made into hay, especially if cut rather late when the foxtail heads are nearly ripe. Silage from such weedy alfalfa will be of good quality if put up in accordance with the directions given and is often better than that from pure alfalfa. The last crop of alfalfa is also sometimes siloed in the region mentioned, owing to the rainy weather that is likely to prevail at this time, rendering it difficult to make hay from this crop. 1 If run through a cutter and siloed as soon as possible after mowing before it has wilted much, and carefully tramped down in the silo, it will make a good aromatic silage, well relished by dairy cows, steers, sheep and other farm animals after they have become accustomed to it. Like all silage made from leguminous crops it has a strong and less agreeable flavor than corn silage, owing to the butyric acid formed therein, but stock soon learn to like it. It has not been shown, however, that alfalfa silage has a higher feeding value than corn silage, ton for ton, although it is considerably richer in protein and generally contains more dry matter per ton than the latter silage. Clover and other legumes are not often used as silage crops for the reasons stated above, and when so used it is generally under similar conditions as those just given for alfalfa, when they can not very well be cured into hay. As the legumes have a large proportion of leaves and tender stems, they dry out rapidly and must be run through a cutter and siloed as soon as possible after being mowed. Clover, like alfalfa, is cut for the silo when about one-third of the plants are in full bloom, or before the first single heads are beginning to wilt. According to trials conducted at several experiment stations, the largest yields of dry matter and of all feed components, except fiber, are obtained from clover when it is cut at this stage. If the cutting 'See Circular 124 of this Station, Alfalfa Silage for Fattening Steers. — 18 — lias been delayed beyond this stage, the safer plan is to add water to the clover, up to a ton per ton of green feed, either as it is elevated into the silo, or in the silo itself after each load or half-day run. The losses of feed materials in the siloing processes in the case of clover, alfalfa, etc., are but slightly larger than for corn, so far as can be judged from the limited data at hand regarding this point. When put up in the manner stated in an air-tight silo, the necessary loss of dry matter in these crops will not be likely to exceed 10 per cent. This is a much lower loss than that sustained in making hay from alfalfa (and probably from clover and other leafy legumes as well), on account of the unavoidable and often considerable abrasion Fig. 7. Silos at the University Farm. Concrete silo to right, connected with dairy barn ; wooden silos at extreme left. of leaves and tender parts in the process of hay-making. This loss has been estimated at 15 to 20 per cent of the hay crop, as a minimum, and as high as 60 per cent in the extreme cases. Aside from the losses sustained through abrasion, rain storms may reduce the value of the hay by one-half. The losses from either of these sources are avoided in preserving the crop in the silo, and in their place a small loss of about 10 per cent or less will occur under ordinary favorable condi- tions, through fermentations and respiration of the plant cells. The reason why legumes are not siloed more generally must be sought in the fact that it is more difficult to secure a good quality of silage from these crops than from Indian corn, unless the necessary conditions for success in making legume silage are clearly understood; — 19 — furthermore, the flavor of the silage is not, as a rule, as agreeable as that of corn silage, and farm animals do not relish it quite as much at first. When once accustomed to legume silage, however, they do well on it; dairy cows will eat twenty to thirty pounds of clover or alfalfa silage per head daily. On account of the larger amount of protein furnished in this feed than in the corn silage, less or cheaper concentrates may be fed in the rations and the cost of production thus decreased. Pea or corn cannery refuse is often put up in large silage stacks near canning factories or in ordinary silos. It makes a valuable feed for fattening cattle, sheep or dairy cows, and compares favorably with corn silage ; by some feeders it is considered superior to this silage, especially for dairy cows. It is also fed to horses, mules and hogs to a limited extent. 1 Like other kinds of silage it should be fed with dry hay or corn stalks and, for best results, with some grain feed, and not as the exclusive feed for the stock, as is sometimes done. Green oats, volunteer grain, and other cereal fodders are occasionally siloed when grown for forage or in case they can not be used for grain. They are cut when the kernels are past the milk stage and filled into the silo after having been run through a cutter. If the grain has become nearly ripe, it is necessary to add consider- able water to the green fodder as it goes into the silo either through the blower or in the silo after each load, and the cut mass must be carefully distributed and tramped down along the wall of the silo. Oat, barley or wheat silage made in this manner is of excellent quality and furnishes a very palatable nutritious feed for cattle and sheep. Beet tops and leaves are generally siloed in European beet-growing countries by being placed in large trenches in the field and covering these with boards or straw and a layer of dirt. Preserved in this way they make a slimy, strong-smelling silage, which is, however, greatly relished by milch cows and fed heavily on the dairy farms on the Continent. Because of the shallowness of the pits very large losses of feed materials are sustained by this method of siloing, viz, twenty-five to thirty-three per cent or more of the dry matter in the leaves and tops. Beet pulp is preserved in similar trenches or shallow pits in western states where the manufacture of beet sugar is an important industry. The siloed ("cured") beet pulp is an excellent feed for fattening steers, sheep or dairy cows. As it is made mostly in regions where alfalfa is the main hay crop it is, as a rule, fed with chopped alfalfa hay which it supplements nicely, being high in insoluble carbohydrates and relatively low in protein. Its feeding value may be considered equal to about one-half that of corn silage. Of other materials that are occasionally made into silage may be mentioned : Soybeans and cow peas (alone or with Indian corn), vetches, apple pomace, wet brewers' grains, sorghum bagasse, sugar cane tops, potato tops, hop vines, sugar beet tops and shocked corn, rye grass and clover, alfalfa and Hungarian grass, thistles and other weeds. None of these crops are, however, of sufficient importance to call for more than mere mention. General remarks on making silage. In order to make good silage the crop must have a water content between sixty and eighty per cent ; about seventy per cent gives the best quality of silage. With a water content toward the upper limit given, the silage will be very high in acidity, while if much below seventy per cent of water is present there is great danger of spoiled silage, and white or other molds appearing 'Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., circular 45. — 20 -■ in the silo. Silage from such dry feed is moreover not as palatable as that containing a normal percentage of water. A limited amount of water added at the time of filling the silo will aid in making silage of good quality from a crop that has been allowed to dry considerably before cutting. Indian corn is preferably cut for the silo by means of a corn binder, at the time of approaching maturity, when the kernels are beginning to harden. Legumes are cut at the beginning of bloom, and the cereals when the kernels are in the milky stage ; in case of barley rather before than after this stage. Sweet sorghum and grain sorghums are cut when the seeds are hard and fully matured. This is of special import- ance in the case of sweet sorghum, which will make a very acid silage when cut at an earlier stage of development. The silage crops are always run through a power feed cutter in filling the silo. This is not absolutely necessary, but makes it easier to both fill and empty the silo, and makes the fodder pack better than when siloed whole, thus increasing the capacity of the silo. A cutter of ample capacity (say, five to ten tons per hour for a hundred-ton silo or less) should be provided, which will also elevate the cut mass into the silo by means of a blower operated by a high-speed rotating fan. It is advisable to shred or cut the feed fine, in case of Indian corn and sorghum into half -inch pieces, and for cereals and other fine- stem forage into one-inch pieces. During the filling of the silo one or two men must be kept in the silo distributing the cut mass and tramping it down carefully, espe- cially along the wall. A cement tamper may be used to advantage in this work which is of the greatest importance in securing good silage and minimum losses of feed materials in the siloing process. If need be, water can be added in the silo when filled, by means of a garden sprinkler and the mass may be left to ferment and settle. Most farmers fill up the silo a second time after a few days to a week, as it will have settled four to six feet by this time in the case of tall silos that have been filled rapidly. It is not necessary to put any cover on the siloed mass, but if desired a load of cut straw, marsh hay, chaff, etc., may be placed on top and thoroughly wetted, and oats then sown thereon; these will soon germi- nate and a heavy mat of roots and green stuff will form that will protect the underlying feed from decomposition. The silage will be ready for feeding in two to three weeks after fill- ing. In opening the silo the top six to twelve-inch layer of spoiled silage is removed, below which a good quality of silage will be reached. The silage will improve in quality as the silo is being emptied until the — 21 — last foot or two is reached, which will be likely to be rather acid if the siloed mass contained considerable water or a good deal of water was added and the silo is not provided with a drain. If used for feeding, this sour silage should be fed to stock in only very small quantities. The silage is kept level in the silo all the time during emptying so that as little silage as possible is exposed to the air and secondary fermentations thus avoided. A sufficient amount of silage should be removed daily to keep the silage from spoiling, viz: one to two inches, according to the air temperature. The silage must be fed out more rapidly in warm than in cool weather. It is, therefore, important that the diameter of the silo be no greater than that the stock on hand will be able to eat a layer of silage daily of the thickness suggested. Once sealed in the silo the silage will keep indefinitely without material changes after the first few weeks. Instances are on record of silage a dozen years old or more having been found of excellent quality and eaten by stock with great relish. If a silo is not com- pletely emptied by next filling time the new crop may be placed directly on top of the old silage ; if this is carefully leveled off immedi- ately before filling there will be no spoiled silage at the juncture of the two crops. In emptying the silo it is convenient and, in case of outside silos almost necessary, to provide a chute or conveyor through which the silage may be thrown directly into the feed truck or the wagon. The silage should be placed before the stock in one or two handlings and should not be allowed to dry out appreciably before being eaten by the animals, as it will otherwise lose some of its palatability. In the case of weedy alfalfa silage and barley silage the foxtail and barley heads, respectively, will soon dry out, if left exposed, at least in hot weather, and will be likely to injure the mouths of the animals, especially if siloed at a rather advanced stage of maturity. Feeding silage. Silage makes an excellent feed for dairy cows, fat- tening cattle and sheep and is also fed to advantage in small quantities to other classes of farm animals. The following amounts of well- preserved Indian corn silage may be fed safely to the different classes of live stock, somewhat smaller amounts of other kinds of silage being given, viz: Dairy cows, twenty-five to forty pounds per head daily. Heifers and young beef stock, ten to twenty pounds. Fattening steers and beef cows, twenty to thirty pounds. Horses, five to ten pounds. Wintering work horses, ten to twenty pounds. Sheep, two to three pounds. Brood sows, two to three pounds. — 22 — In feeding silage to horses and mules, it is important to pick out lumps of moldy or decayed silage, as fatal results may follow the feeding of such silage. Other stock appear less sensitive to moldy feed than horses are, but such silage can not be safely fed in any case and should be thrown away. While silage • is not especially adapted for feeding to hogs, it may be given in small quantities to advantage, espe- cially to brood sows. Alfalfa silage has been found to make a good feed for sows, fed as suggested, a couple of pounds per head daily. Silage should never be fed as the sole rough feed to any class of farm animals, but always with dry roughage, like alfalfa, wild or grain hay, ?orn stalks, sorghum hay or cereal straw. In the case of dairy cows, growing or fattening animals, an allowance of grain feeds with silage and hay will produce good results, the amount to be given depending on the quality of the roughage, the production of the animals, and the relative prices of hay and grain. It may be stated, as a general rule, that when grain is worth more than twice the price of a good grade of hay it will only pay to feed it sparingly, except in the case of heavy- producing dairy cows which can not be maintained at a maximum production unless they receive a liberal amount of grain, say a pound for every five to seven pounds of milk, according to the quality of the hay fed and of the milk produced. Silage rations for farm animals. The following rations are given as examples of combinations of different feeds with silage and dry roughage, with the amounts in each case that may be fed to the various classes of farm animals under the conditions present in this state: Dairy cows: (1) Indian corn silage, 35 lbs. Alfalfa hay, ad lib. (about 8 lbs.). Concentrates (rolled barley, oats, dried beet pulp, wheat bran or shorts linseed meal, cottonseed meal, cocoanut meal, etc., two or three mixed, according to current market prices) , 5 to 8 lbs. per head daily. (2) Alfalfa silage, 25 lbs. Wild hay or grain hay, ad lib. (about 10 lbs.). Concentrates (same as before mentioned). (3) Kafir or milo silage, 30 lbs. Alfalfa hay ad lib. (about 10 lbs.). Concentrates (as before). Fattening steers: (1) Alfalfa silage, 20 lbs. Grain hay, 10 lbs. Rolled barley, 8 lbs. (2) Indian corn silage, 25 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. Rolled barley, 6 lbs. Cocoanut meal. 2 lbs. — 23 — Wintering cattle: Corn or sorghum silage, 20 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 5 lbs. Oat straw, 10 lbs. Work horses: Silage, 5 to 10 lbs. Hay, 10 lbs. Oats and barley (1:1 by weight), or barley, wheat bran and cocoanut meal (3:3:1), 10 lbs. Fattening sheep: Silage, 2 lbs. per head daily. Hay, 1 lb. Oats and barley, 1 lb. each, or 1 to 1* lbs. of other grain feeds. Breeding ewes: Indian corn or sorghum silage, 3 to 4 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 1 lb. If alfalfa silage is available, grain hay or wild hay may be substituted for alfalfa hay. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1897. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1914. REPORTS. Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaption, and Grafting. Appendix to Viti- cultural Report for 1896. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901-03. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-04. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1913-June, 1914. No. 168. 169. 170. 174. 177. 178. 184. 185. 195. 197. 198. 203. 207. 208. 211. 212. 213. 216. Observations on Some Vine Dis- eases in Sonoma County. Tolerance of the Sugar Beet for Alkali. Studies in Grasshopper Control. A New Wine-Cooling Machine. A New Method of Making Dry Red Wine. Mosquito Control. Report of the Plant Pathologist to July 1, 1906. Report of Progress in Cereal Inves- tigations. The California Grape Root-Worm. Grape Culture in California ; Im- proved Methods of Wine-Making ; Yeast from California Grapes. The Grape Leaf-Hopper. Report of the Plant Pathologist to July 1, 1909. The Control of the Argentine Ant. The Late Blight of Celery. How to Increase the Yield of Wheat in California. California White Wheats. The Principles of Wine-Making. A Progress Report upon Soil and Climatic Factors Influencing the Composition of Wheat. BULLETINS. No. 220. 225. 227. 230. 234. 241. 242. 243. 244. 246. 248. 249. 250. 251. 252. 253. 254, 255. 256, 257, Dosage Tables. Tolerance of Eucalyptus for Alkali. Grape Vinegar. Enological Investigations. Red Spiders and Mites of Citrus Trees. Vine Pruning in California. Part I. Humus in California Soils. The Intradermal Test for Tubercu- losis in Cattle and Hogs. Utilization of Waste Oranges. Vine Pruning in California. Part II. The Economic Value of Pacific Coast Kelps. Stock Poisoning Plants of Cali- fornia. The Loquat. Utilization of the Nitrogen and Or- ganic Matter in Septic and Im- hoff Tank Sludges. Deterioration of Lumber. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in the Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. The Avocado in California. The Citricola Scale. The Value of Barley for Cows Fed Alfalfa. New Dosage Tables. CIRCULARS. No. No. 65. The California Insecticide Law. 110. 69. The Extermination of Morning- 111. Glory. 70. Observations on the Status of Corn 113. Growing in California. 76. Hot Room Callusing. 114. 79. List of Insecticide Dealers. 115. 80. Boys' and Girls' Clubs. 117. 82. The Common Ground Squirrels of California. 118. 83. Potato Growing Clubs. 119. 87. Alfalfa. 121. 88. Advantages to the Breeder in Test- ing his Pure-bred Cows for the 122. Register of Merit. 91. Disinfection on the Farm. 124. 92. Infectious Abortion and Sterility in 125. Cows. 12 6. 100. Pruning Frosted Citrus Trees. 101. Codling Moth Control in the Sacra- 127. mento Valley. 128. 106. Directions for using Anti-Hog- 129. Cholera Serum. 130. 107. Spraying Walnut Trees for Blight 131. and Aphis Control. 108. Grape Juice. 132. 109. Community or Local Extension Work by the High School Agri- 133. cultural Department. 134. Green Manuring in California. The Use of Lime and Gypsum on California Soils. Correspondence Courses in Agricul- ture. Increasing the Duty of Water. Grafting Vinifera Vineyards. The Selection and Cost of a Small Pumping Plant. The County Farm Bureau. Winery Directions. Some Things the Prospective Settler Should Know. The Management of Strawberry Soils in Pajaro Valley. Alfalfa Silage for Fattening Steers. Aphids on Grain and Cantaloupes. Spraying for the Grape Leaf Hopper. House Fumigation. Insecticide Formulas. The Control of Citrus Insects. Cabbage Growing in California. Spraying for the Control of the Walnut Aphis. When to Vaccinate Against Hog Cholera. The County Farm Adviser. Control of Raisin Insects.