GORDON MELTON 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 SANTA BARBARA 
 
 Gift of 
 
 THE INSTITUTE 
 
 FOR THE STUDY OF 
 
 AMERICAN RELIGION

 
 L ROMANISM AS IT IS : y 
 
 AN EXPOSITION OF THE 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM, 
 
 USE OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE; 
 
 EMBRACING A FULL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT AT ROME AND FROM ROME, ITS DISTINCTIVE 
 
 FEATURES IN THEORY AND PRACTICE, ITS CHARACTERISTIC TENDENCIES 
 
 AND AIMS, ITS STATISTICAL AND MORAL POSITION, AND ITS SPECIAL 
 
 RELATIONS TO AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS AND LIBERTIES; 
 
 THE WHOLE DRAWN ?ROf 
 
 OFFICIAL AND AUTHENTIC SOURCES, 
 
 AND ENRICHED WITH 
 
 NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 DOCUMENTARY, HISTORICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, ANECDOTICAL, AND PICTORIAL: TO 
 QETHER WITH A FULL AND COMPLETE INDEX, AND 
 
 AN APPENDIX OF MATTERS 
 
 From 1871 to 1876. 
 
 Bev. SAMUEL W. BARNUM, 
 
 it 
 
 Editor of the Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible. 
 
 HARTFORD, CONN: 
 CONNECTICUT PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 ST. LOUIS BIBLE PUBLISHING CO., ST. LOOTB, Mo. 
 
 LOUIS LLOYD & CO., CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 1878.
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871. 
 
 By SAMUEL W. BARNUM, 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, 
 
 By SAMUEL W. BARNUM, 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 CASE, LOCKWOOD AND BRAINARD, 
 
 PRINTERS AND BOOKBINDERS, 
 
 Cor. Pearl and Trumbull Street*, 
 HARTFORD, CONN.
 
 PEEFAOE. 
 
 " ANOTHER book ' Romanism as it is !' I don't want to see it ! 
 I've heard about Romanism ever since I was a child ; and the book- 
 stores have more books on this subject now than are needed." 
 
 Stop a minute, friend ! Just read the title-page through ; look at this 
 preface, if you please ; study the table of contents ; examine the en- 
 gravings and the reading-matter ; and then think, if you can, what 
 there is, that can fill the place of this present volume. It is true that 
 there are many books on some particular part or parts of the subject 
 here presented ; and not a few, whose statements and arguments are, 
 for one reason or another, received by many gcod people with great 
 suspicion and multiform allowance ; but there is no book which can 
 properly claim to be so comprehensive and complete in all its parts, 
 and so full of the most recent and authentic and valuable information 
 on all the living questions connected with this great subject as this book. 
 
 The subject certainly ought to command attention from all Amer- 
 icans. The Roman Catholics constitute a large and increasing part 
 of our population ; is it a matter of no concern to us who and what our 
 neighbors are ? Do you not care, friend, who has the balance of 
 power, or the whole power, in our country, provided you can make 
 money, or enjoy yourself for the time being ? If there is any subject 
 upon which every person in the United States of America should be 
 well informed, it is the subject of Romanism. 
 
 This is not a sensation-book, which aims especially to tell big stories, 
 and to please those who delight to read only the thrilling, the horrible, 
 the unnatural, and the improbable. It is not a romance or a novel 
 with fact and fiction mixed together in inextricable confusion. No ! 
 It has a higher aim to make its readers wiser and better to give 
 them a more correct understanding of matters and questions that are 
 of present and lasting importance, and to fit them for the right dis- 
 charge of those responsible duties which the great and glorious Ruler 
 over all has placed on us as a people and as individuals. In order to
 
 iy PREFACE. 
 
 make every thing plain to ordinary readers, the author has translated 
 the foreign and learned terms which necessarily abound in such a 
 volume, and has endeavored to simplify and explain what seemed ob- 
 scure, and, by means of the table of contents, the frequent references, 
 the general index, and other aids^ to avoid needless repetitions, to 
 bring the whole into a complete and symmetrical form, and to place 
 all its stores of information at the reader's immediate command. 
 
 This book is not a partisan book, but a book of knowledge and of 
 truth. It has cost much hard work to gather its materials and to put 
 them in proper shape ; but what is here contained is believed to be 
 honestly worth what it has cost the author and publishers, or will cost 
 the reader. The most authentic sources of information have been 
 consulted and used ; the exact truth has been diligently sought and 
 carefully presented to view that it may be seen and known just as it 
 is. Whatever is wise and honorable and reputable and right and true 
 in Rome itself or in the system which there has its origin and seat, 
 has been brought out and exhibited without inquiring solicitously who 
 would be pleased or displeased by the procedure. And, on the other 
 hand, that which is unwise, dishonorable, disgraceful, unrighteous and 
 false, has likewise been spoken of with the same attempt at impartiality 
 and usefulness. Misapprehensions, prejudices, and misrepresentations 
 ought to be corrected, whether they are found in the Roman Catholic 
 or in the Protestant. If what is held or maintained as truth cannot 
 bear the light and cannot stand with God's help, then it is not God's 
 truth ; and no Catholic or Protestant should cling to it. 
 
 While the author of this book is a thorough Protestant, ances- 
 trally and personally, by position and feeling and undoubting convic- 
 tion, he has allowed Roman Catholics and Roman Catholic authorities 
 to speak for themselves on all points, to tell their own story, to present 
 their own side in all its strength ; and he has likewise endeavored to 
 let Protestantism have an equally fair chance to speak freely and for- 
 cibly. The main part of the book is from Roman Catholic sources ; 
 much of it is translated from their standard Latin works which are 
 altogether beyond the reach of people in general. Hence Roman 
 Catholics themselves may learn more of their own church and system 
 from this volume than they could in a century from all the sources of 
 information to which they have access. The " Canones et Decreta 
 Sacrosancti (Ecjimenict Concilii Tridentini" (= Canons and Decrees 
 of the Holy Ecumenical Council of Trent) j the " Concilii Plenarii
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 BaUimorensis IL, in Ecclesia Metropolitana Baltimorensi, a die vii. ad 
 diem xxi. Octobris, A. D., MDCCCLXVL, habiti, et a Sede Apostolica 
 recogniti, Acta et Decreta " (= Acts and Decrees of the 2d Plenary 
 Council of Baltimore, held in the Metropolitan Church of Baltimore 
 from the 7th to the 21st day of October, 1866, and authenticated by 
 the Apostolic See) ; the " Mtssale Romanum " ( Roman Missal) ; the 
 " Breviarium Romanum " (== Roman Breviary) ; the " Rituale Roma- 
 num ") = Roman Ritual) ; the " Pontificate Romanum " (= Roman 
 Pontifical) ; " The Primacy of the Apostolic See Vindicated, by Francis 
 Patrick Kendrick, Bp. of Philadelphia ; " " The Garden of the Soul ; " 
 The Catechism of the Council of Trent (Latin and English) ; Collot's 
 " Doctrinal and Scriptural Catechism ; " Ambrose St. John's " Rac- 
 colta, or Collection of Indulgenced Prayers ; " " The Golden Book of 
 the Confraternities;" "St. John's Manual;" St. Alphonsus Liguori's 
 <' Glories of Mary ; " Brandes's " Rome and the Popes ; " The " Cere- 
 monial," published by authority of the Baltimore Council and with the 
 approbation oi the Holy See, for the use of the R. C. Churches in the 
 U. S. ; " The Vickers and Purcell Controversy," published by Abp. 
 Purcell; Cardinal Wiseman's Essays ; " The Catholic World ;" "The 
 Catholic Family Almanac ; " " Sadliers' Catholic Directory, Alma- 
 nac, and Ordo ; " and other standard and approved Roman Catholic 
 publications ; Gieseler's and Murdock's Mosheim's Ecclesiastical His- 
 tories; " The Penny Cyclopedia of the [British] Society for the Dif- 
 fusion of Useful Knowledge," edited by Prof. George Long of Univer- 
 sity College, London, with the cooperation of more than 200 contrib- 
 utors ; Appletons' "New American Cyclopedia;" Murray's Hand- 
 book of Rome and its Environs ; Vasi & Nibby's " Guide of Rome ; " 
 Harper's Hand-book for Travelers in Europe and the East ; and nu- 
 merous other volumes, pamphlets, and documents of authority and 
 value, have all contributed their share to make the present volume A 
 STANDARD WORK in its department a work which may be appealed 
 to with confidence by every one who prizes truth and loves his country, 
 as containing facts and views and arguments which he needs to know 
 a reliable and faithful " Exposition of the Roman Catholic System 
 for the Use of the American People."
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 FAGZ. 
 
 PREFACE, ---..---*... 3-5 
 
 TABLE OF CONTEKTS, ' - - - * t5_15 
 
 PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS, DESCRIPTIVE LIST, ..... 16-18 
 
 CHAPTER I., 19-89 
 
 THE CITT OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 Its comparative Antiquity. Dates of its Foundation. Romulus and his Succes- 
 sors ; King, Senate, and People ; Patricians and Clients. The Roman Repub- 
 lic : Consuls, Senate, and People ; Tribunes ; Twelve Tables ; Patricians, Ple- 
 beians, and Knights ; Popular Assemblies ; Slaves ; Soldiers and Wars ; Tem- 
 ple of Janus ; Invasions by the Gauls who burn Rome ; Romans become mas- 
 ters of Italy ; 3 Punic Wars, and Destruction of Carthage ; Romans conquer 
 the known world; Internal Dissensions, Dictators, Insurrections, Social and 
 Civil and Servile Wars, and Conspiracies ; First Triumvirate, Julius Cesar, 
 Pompey, and Crassus ; Cesar's Dictatorship and Death ; Second Triumvirate, 
 Octavius (or Octavian), Antony, and Lepidus ; End of the Roman Republic. 
 Augustus and the other Roman Emperors ; their Chronology and Succession. 
 Varying Limits of Roman Territory. Roman Religion ; its Gods and Heathen 
 Institutions ; 10 Persecutions of Christians ; Christianity afterwards Dominant. 
 Decline of the Empire ; Luxury, Licentiousness, and Division ; Rome burnt 
 by the Goths under Alaric ; Other enemies, Huns, Vandals, and Heruli ; End 
 of the Roman Empire of the West. Kingdom of Italy under the Goths and 
 Lombards. Rome and the exarchs of Ravenna. Charlemagne and his succes- 
 sors. The Roman Senator. The Popes as Temporal Princes from 1278 to 
 1870. Rome again the Capital of Italy. Its Situation and General Features; 
 its Climate, Hills, River, Ports, Bridges, Military Roads, Railroads, Walls, 
 Gates ; Panorama of Rome. Principal Churches : St. Peter's Basilica, with a 
 notice of the Chair of St. Peter ; Basilicas of St. John Lateran, St. Mary Ma- 
 jor, St. Paul, San Lorenzo or St. Lawrence, Holy Cross in Jerusalem, St. 
 Agnes beyond the Walls ; 11 other Churches Described. Palaces : the Vatican, 
 with its Paulino and Sistine Chapels, Museum, Library, &c. ; Quirinal ; Lat- 
 eran ; Capitol ; Private Palaces ; Palace of the Inquisition ; Palazso delta Can- 
 odleria. Villas. Colleges. Schools and Periodicals. Hospitals. Work-
 
 CONTENTS. Vii 
 
 house. Squares. Obelisks. Fountains. Aqueducts, modern and ancient. 
 Castle of St. Angelo. Antiquities : Tomb of Cecilia Metella ; the Coliseum ; 
 Circus of Romulus and Circus Maxima; Palace of the Cesars; Monte Tes- 
 taccio ; Baths of Caracalla, of Diocletian, and of Titus ; the Pantheon ; Roman 
 Forum; Mamertine Prison; Arches of Titus and of Constantine; Trajan's 
 Column and Antonine Column ; Pretorian Camp ; Campus Martius ; Catacombs 
 and Columbaria ; Cloaca Maxima. The Modern City : its Industry, Popula- 
 tion, Districts, Government and Condition under the Papal Rule. 
 
 CHAPTER II., 90-118 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE ROHAN CATHOLIC CHURCH OR SYSTEM. 
 
 The terms " Roman Catholic," " Romanism," " Romish," " Papacy," &c. Prot- 
 estant Analysis of the System, with Historical Memoranda of Church Rites, 
 Ceremonies, Practices, Doctrines, Titles, &c. Cardinal Wiseman's Account of 
 the R. C. Church ; its Government, Laws (including the Creed of Pope Pius 
 IV.), Constitutive Principle, and Extent of Dominion, with notes giving the 
 "Nicene Creed," the Tridentine Doctrines of Original Sin and Justification, 
 &c The " Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary," as pronounced 
 and denned, Dec. 8, 1854. Vatican Decree of July 18, 1870, establishing the 
 Primacy and Infallibility of the Pope. 
 
 CHAPTER III., 119-164 
 
 THE POPES AND THEIR SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 The titles " Pope," " Roman Pontiff," " Holy See," &c. The Pope's Spiritual 
 Sovereignty or Supremacy: Argument from Mat. 16 : 18, 19 ; Question about 
 Peter's being Bishop of the Church of Rome ; Historical View of the 
 Pope's Spiritual Sovereignty. History of the Pope's Temporal Authority : 
 Peter not a Sovereign ; Privileges granted to the Clergy and Bishops by the 
 Roman Emperors ; Political Importance of the Bishop of Rome from the 7th 
 century onward ; Grants from Pepin and Charlemagne ; " Isidorian Decretals " ; 
 John XII. and the A Troubles of the 10th century ; Gregory VTI. enforces the 
 Celibacy of the Clergy, destroys the Independence of the National Churches, and 
 humbles the Emperor Henry IV.; Donation of the Countess Matilda; The 
 Crusades and the Canon Law; Innocent III. forms a Papal State; Removal 
 to Avignon ; Great Schism of the West ; Deposition of Pope John XXIIL, 
 &c., by the Council of Constance ; Decline of Power after Boniface VIII. ; 
 Eugene IV. and the Council of Basle ; the Papal State from Alexander VI. 
 to the present time. Notices of some Popes : Alexander VI. ; Julius II. ; 
 Leo X. ; Pius VII. ; Leo XII. ; Pius VIII. ; Gregory XVI. ; Pius IX. The 
 Pope's Private Life. His Swiss Guards and State-carriage. A Papal Proces- 
 sion. Mass at the Pope's Chapel. The Papal Government. Occupation of 
 Rome by the Italians in 1870: Language of " The Catholic World "; Excom- 
 munication of the King of Italy, &c. ; Address of New York Catholics to the 
 Pope, December, 1870 ; Resolutions and Address to the Government and People 
 of Italy, from the Meeting at the N. Y. Academy of Music, Jan. 13, 1871. 
 Names and Chronology of the Popes.
 
 VU1 CONTENTS. 
 
 PiOI. 
 
 CHAPTER IV., 165-186 
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AND OTHER OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS. 
 
 "Allocution" defined; Allocution Maxima qw'dem, of June 9, 1862. "Bull" 
 defined. Bulls, In Ccena Domini, Unigenitvs, and ^Eternus ille. "Brief" ; Defi- 
 nition and Example. " Encyclical Letter " defined ; Encyclical Letter of Pope 
 Gregory XVI., May 8, 1844, and its bearings. "Rescript"; Definition and 
 Example. " Constitution " defined and exemplified. 
 
 CHAPTER V., 187-201 
 
 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 
 
 "Cardinal" defined; Development of the Office; Number, Rank, Salary, Dress, 
 and Mode of Appointment ; Personal Appearance ; List. Secretary of State ; 
 Antonelli described. "Consistory" defined. "Conclave" described. "Pre- 
 lates " described. " Congregations " ; their origin, composition, and special 
 work. 
 
 CHAPTER VI., - - . -202-253 
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 " Ecumenical " and other Councils defined. The Catholic Almanac's List of Ecu- 
 menical Councils. Councils accepted by the Greeks, &c. Notices of Ecumen- 
 ical Councils : (I.) First of Nice, 325 ; (II.) First of Constantinople, 381 ; (III.) 
 of Ephesus, 431 ; (IV.) of Chalcedon, 451 ; (V.) Second of Constantinople, 
 553; (VI.) Third of Constantinople, 680; (VII.) Second of Nice, 787 ; (VIII.) 
 Fourth of Constantinople, 869; (IX.) First Lateran, 1123; (X.) Second Lat- 
 eran, 1139; (XI.) Third Lateran, 1179; (XII.) Fourth Lateran, 1215; (XIII.) 
 First of Lyons, 1245; (XIV.) Second of Lyons, 1274; (XV.) of Vienne, 
 1311. Council of Pisa, 1409, summoned by Cardinals to end the Great West- 
 ern Schism.' Council of Constance, 1414-18 ; its Deposition of Pope John 
 XXIII. ; Election of Martin V. ; Burning of John Huss and of Jerome of 
 Prague ; Decrees respecting the Supremacy of the Council, &c. Council of 
 Basle, 1431, &c. ; its Contests with Pope Eugene IV. Council at Ferrara and 
 Florence, 1438, &c., for Union with the Greek Church. Fifth Lateran Council, 
 1512-17; its Sanction of Papal Supremacy. Council of Trent, 1545-63 ; The 
 Catholic World's Synopsis of its Work ; Notices by Hallam and Mosheim. 
 Vatican Council, 1869-70; Bull of Convocation, 1868; Letters Apostolic to 
 the Eastern Churches and to Protestants, &c., with the Answer of American 
 Presbyterians; Syllabus of 1864 ; Protestant Anticipations of the Council; 
 Preparatory Committees ; Apostolical Letter of Regulations, and Assembly of 
 Dec. 2d ; Council-hall ; Opening of the Council, Dec. 8th, from " The Catholic 
 World"; Committees chosen; Discussion on the 1st schema; 2d Public Ses- 
 sion, and Profession of Faith by the Pope and Members of the Council, Jan. 6, 
 1870; Additional Regulations; 3d Public Session, and Dogmatic Decree on
 
 CONTENTS. iX 
 
 Catholic Faith, April 24th ; Schema on the Little Catechism voted on, May- 4th ; 
 Discussion, Parties, and Vote on the Dogma of the Pope's Primacy and Infal- 
 libility ; Address of the Minority, declining to attend the Promulgation of the 
 Dogma; 4th General Session, July 18th, and Promulgation of the Decrees and 
 Canons respecting the Pope's Primacy and Infallibility, as described in " The 
 Catholic World " and " The New York Tribune " ; The Tribune's Synopsis of 
 the Council's Work ; Adjournment and Indefinite Suspension of the Council. 
 
 CHAPTER VII., .... 254-282 
 
 THE CLEEGT. 
 
 " Priest " ; Different Meanings ; Protestant and R. C. Views. Sacrament of Or- 
 ders, from the Catechism of the Council of Trent : 7 Orders, viz., Tonsure, Por- 
 ter, Reader or Lector, Exorcist, Acolyte, Subdeacon, Deacon, Priest ; Degrees 
 of the Priesthood, viz., Priest simply, Bishop or Pontiff, Archbishop, Patri- 
 arch, Sovereign Pontiff. Clerical Dress : its Various Articles alphabetically 
 described, with their Emblematic Significations ; Different Colors for Different 
 Days ; Bishop's Dress ; Dress of Minor Orders ; Materials and Cost. Ecclesi- 
 astical Education and Seminaries ; Decrees, Course, &c. ; Dr. Mattison on R. C. 
 Clergy in the United States. Celibacy, except among the Oriental priests ; 
 cases of St. Peter and St. Patrick. Beneficed Priests, Professors, and Bishops 
 take Oath of Conformity and Obedience. Priests assignable and removable by 
 the Bishop. Co-pastors not allowed. Bishops ; how nominated and appointed 
 in the United States ; Consecration of 3 Bishops in New York, Oct. 30, 1 853 ; 
 Bishop's Oath. Statistics of Priests, Ecclesiastical Seminaries and Students by 
 Dioceses in the United States, 1870 and 1871 ; Present Number in the Country. 
 Names of Archbishops, Bishops, and Vicars Apostolic in the United States, 
 1870-1. Bishops and Priests in the World ; Number and Efficiency. 
 
 CHAPTER VIH., .... 283-347 
 
 BELIGIOUS ORDERS AND CONGREGATIONS. 
 
 Early History of Monasticism : Paul of Thebes, Anthony, and Simeon the Stylite ; 
 Pachomius, Basil and the Basilians (at Cleveland, O.); Development down to 
 St. Benedict. Historical, Characteristic, and Statistical Descriptions of the Re- 
 
 i ligious Orders and Congregations, especially of those in the United States, in- 
 cluding their Names and Sorts, Rules, Habits, Divisions, Establishments, Dis- 
 tinguished Members, &c. I. MONKS proper. Basilians (see above). Benedic- 
 tine Monks and Nuns. Trappists. II. CANONS. Augustinian Canons. Pre- 
 monstrants. HI. FRIARS, or Mendicant Orders. Franciscans ; Conventuals, 
 Observants, Recollects, Monks, Nuns, Pius IX. and other Tertiarians, &c. 
 Capuchins. Dominicans, Monks, Nuns, Tertiarians, Inquisitors, &c. Carmel- 
 ites, " Calced ," and " Discalced," Monks, Nuns, Tertiarians, &c. Augustinian 
 Eremites. Servites. " Sisters of Charity of the Order of St. Augustine." 
 Sisters of Mercy. Visitation Nuns. Ursuline Nuns. Alexian Brothers. IV. 
 REGULAB CLERKS. Jesuits (see Chap. IX.). Order of St. Viateur. V. CON-
 
 X CONTENTS. 
 
 GREGATIONS. Oratorians : Italian and English; French. Passionists. Laz- 
 arists. Sisters of Charity, and their Mother-Houses at Emmettsburg, Yonkers, 
 and Madison ; " Sisters of Charity, commonly called Gray Nuns " ; " Sisters 
 of Charity, commonly called Sisters of Providence " ; " Sisters of Charity of 
 the B. V. M." ; " Sisters of Charity of Nazareth." Sulpicians. Redemptorists. 
 Paulists. Oblate Fathers. " Fathers of the Society of Mary." " Society of 
 the Fathers of Mercy." " Brethren of the Christian Schools," and " Christian 
 Brothers." " Brothers of the Christian Instruction of the Sacred Heart of Jesus 
 and Mary," and " Brothers of Christian Instruction." " Congregation of the 
 Holy Cross." Xavierian Brothers. " Brothers of the Sacred Heart." " Chris- 
 tian Brothers of the Society of Mary." " Congregation of the Most Precious 
 Blood." "Ladies of the Sacred Heart." "Sisters of St. Joseph." "Sisters 
 of the Congregation of our Lady," or "of Notre Dame," and " School-Sisters of 
 Notre Dame." " Sisters of Loretto." " Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and 
 Mary." " Sisters of St. Ann." " Community of the Poor Handmaids of Jesus 
 Christ." " Sisters of our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd," and " 3d 
 Order of St. Teresa." " Little Sisters of the Poor." " Sister-Servants of the 
 Immaculate Heart of Mary," and " Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart 
 of Mary." " Sisters of the Humility of Mary." " Sisters of St. Mary.'' 
 " Daughters of the Cross." " Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus." " Sisters of 
 the Incarnate Word." " Oblate Sisters of Providence." " Sisters of the Holy 
 Family." " Sisters of Providence." " St. Agnes Community." " Sceurs Hos- 
 pitalieres." " Presentation Convents." Statistics of Eeligious Orders and Con- 
 gregations in the United States and in the World. Extinct Orders. Present 
 Monastic Constitution. Terms Defined. Suppression of Monasteries and Mo- 
 nastic Orders in Various European Countries Detention of Persons in Con- 
 vents, and Proposals for Legislation. Dr. De Sanctis on the 3 Classes of Per- 
 sons who become Nuns, and on the Character and Health of Roman Convents. 
 Leo XII. compels a Nun to see her Mother. Edith O'Gorman, &c. Hull 
 Convent Trial. Rev. Dr. Bonar's Lines, " This is no heaven ! " Reformatory 
 Decree of the Council of Trent. Bp. Ricci's and Pius IX.'s Attempts at Re- 
 form. Regulations of Plenary Council of Baltimore. Form for the Benedic- 
 tion and Consecration of Virgins. Ceremony of Reception, among the Sisters 
 of Mercy. 
 
 CHAPTER LX., 348-360 
 
 THE JESUITS. 
 
 Their Founder, Ignatius Loyola. Origin, Objects, and Constitutions. Mosheim 
 on their Influence. History and Suppression in France and other European 
 Countries. Character by Hallam, Penny Cyclopedia, and De Sanctis. Number 
 at different times. History and Generals since 1814. Jesuits hi the United 
 States : Early Efforts ; Statistics in 1860 and 1870. 
 
 CHAPTER X., - - - ; - - 361-373 
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 
 
 Early Christian Missionaries. New Impulse of the 13th Century. Columbus,
 
 CONTENTS. XI 
 
 Cortez, &c. R. C. Mission in Congo. Xavier and Missions in the East Indies, 
 Japan, China, &c. Jesuit Missions in America. Colleges of the Propaganda, 
 &c., for Educating Missionaries. Association for the Propagation of the Faith, 
 Leopold Association, &c. Differences between R. C. and Protestant Missions. 
 Statistics of R. C. Missions. Comparative Success of Protestant and R. C. 
 Missions. 
 
 CHAPTER XL, - 374-390 
 
 THE HOLT OFFICE OR INQUISITION. 
 
 Establishment in the 13th Century. Mode of Procedure, from Friar Nicholas 
 Eymeric Modern or Spanish Inquisition. Case of Abp. Carranza. Congre- 
 gation of the Holy Office. Inquisition in Italy. Inquisition at Borne in 1849, 
 from Dr. De Sanctis. 3 kinds of Torture. Auto da Fe. Spanish Inquisition 
 Suppressed and its Building near Madrid Destroyed in 1809. Statistics. Inqui- 
 sition Defended by R. C. Prelates, &c. " The Catholic World " on Cardinal 
 Ximenes and the Spanish Inquisition. Estimate of the Inquisition, from the 
 Penny Cyclopedia. Inquisition at Borne down to 1870. 
 
 CHAPTER XH., 391-407 
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 Canon of the 4th Lateran Council. The Albigenses, and the Crusade against 
 them. The Waldenses or Vaudois : Names and Origin ; Missionary Efforts ; 
 Persecution in 1400; Crusades of 1487, &c. ; Massacre of 1655; Milton's 
 Lines; English Intervention and Subscription; War and Expulsion in 1686; 
 Return in 1689; Subsequent Trials up to 1848. In France: Martyrdom of 
 Leclerc and Chatelain ; Massacre of St. Bartholomew, the Papal Medal, &c. ; 
 Subsequent Persecutions. In Bohemia and England. Statistics. In Madeira 
 in 1843, &c. Responsibility of the B. C. Church. Prof. Fisher on the Differ- 
 ences between Roman Catholics and Protestants in respect to Persecutions. 
 Official Declarations of Protestant Churches. Infallibility and Persecution. 
 Quotation from the London Times. 
 
 CHAPTER Xm., .... 408-421 
 
 THE BIBLE. 
 
 Ths Bible the Religion of Protestants. Creed of Pius IV. on Tradition and 
 Scripture. Council of Trent on the Canonical Scriptures, the Vulgate, Censor, 
 ship, &c. Decree of the 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore. The Latin Vul- 
 gate, Douay Bible, and Bhemish Testament. Parallel Passages of the Douay 
 and English Bibles. Prof. Lewis on their Likeness. Opposition to the "Prot- 
 estant Bible " : Wickliffe Condemned ; Tyndale Strangled and Burnt ; Rules re- 
 specting Prohibited Books and Versions ; Bible-burning in the U. S., &c. Ex- 
 pensiveness of Douay and other Bibles with Notes, and Scarcity of them in
 
 Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 R. C. countries. Challenge to Abp. Hughes and others in respect to Approved 
 Translations." Is it honest ? " 
 
 CHAPTER XIV., .... 422-482 
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, EXERCISES, ARTICLES, AND TERMS. 
 
 The Mass, Missal, and Liturgy ; Kinds of Mass ; Order of the Mass, with 35 Illus- 
 trations. The Breviary and Canonical Hours. Seven Sacraments Described : 
 Baptism ; Confirmation ; Eucharist ; Penance ; Extreme Unction ; Orders : 
 Matrimony, with its Regulations and Form. Litanies. Confraternities. As- 
 sociation for Prayer Described. " Missions " of the Oblates, &c. Procession 
 with the Host. Church Terms and Articles alphabetically explained and illus- 
 trated. 
 
 CHAPTER XV., .... 483-494 
 
 HONOR PAID TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, &C. 
 
 Decree of the Council of Trent. Devotions to Mary : " Litany of our Lady of 
 Loretto " ; the Rosary described and illustrated ; Living Rosary; other Offices 
 and Devotions to Mary; Liguori's " Glories of Mary"; Statue of Mary and 
 Infant Jesus. St. Joseph : Novena ; Banner. Protestant View, from Cramp. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI., .... 495-502 
 
 HOLT DATS. 
 
 1st and 2d Commandments of the Church. Movable Feasts, Holydays of Obliga- 
 tion, Fasting-days, Days of Abstinence, and Ember-days. Other Festivals. 
 Lent : the Carnival ; Passion-Sunday ; Palm-Sunday and Holy Week ; Easter- 
 Sunday. Protestant View. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII., .... 503-516 
 
 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 Definition and Doctrine. Secrecy. The Confessional Illustrated. Method of 
 Confession and Form of Absolution. Catechism of the Council of Trent on 
 the Advantages of Confession, and Reply by Cramp. Lasteyrie, Gavin, and 
 Blanco White on Auricular Confession. Abp. Kenrick on Papal Legislation re- 
 specting Seduction at or through Confession. Protestant View. 
 
 CHAPTER XVm., .... 517-528 
 
 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 
 
 " Penance," " Satisfaction," " Mortal " and " Venial " Sins. Commandments of 
 the Church. Catalogues of Sins. Bp. of Toronto on Mortal Sins, &c. " Re- 
 served Cases." Excommunication, Minor, Major, and Anathema ; Forms, &c., 
 from the Roman Pontifical. Purgatory ; the Doctrine, Proof, Variety of Opin- 
 ions, &c. Protestant View and Illustrative Note.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 FAOB 
 
 CHAPTER XEX., .... 529-540 
 
 INDULGENCES. 
 
 Decree of the Council of Trent. The Doctrine explained hy Leo X., Challoner, 
 Butler, and Collot. 4 Specimens of Indulgences. Indulgences attached to 
 Scapulars. " Is it honest ? " Inconsistency between Theory and Practice on 
 Indulgences, by Wm. H. Goodrich, D. D. 
 
 CHAPTER XX., 541-551 
 
 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 
 
 Church-edifices in Early Times and on the Continent of Europe. Cathedrals of 
 Cologne and Seville. American Churches : Notre Dame, Montreal ; Cathedral, 
 Baltimore ; Church of Immaculate Conception, and Cathedral, Boston ; 
 Churches in Connecticut ; St. Patrick's Cathedral (new), St. Ann's, and St. 
 Alphonsus's churches, New York ; Churches in Trenton, Philadelphia, Bald- 
 more, Washington, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, San Francisco. 
 Lists of Corner-stones laid and Churches dedicated, Sept., 1869 Aug., 18"0. 
 Shrewdness in the Location, &c. Rev. Dr. Gumming on R. C. Use of the 
 Fine Arts. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI., .... 552-567 
 
 CHTJBCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 
 
 " Trustee-system " changed to Ownership and Control by the Bishops : Acts of 
 Councils connected with the Change ; Abp. Hughes ; the St. Louis Church, 
 Buffalo ; Father Chiuiquy ; New York Legislation ; Petition and Report in 
 Massachusetts Legislature in 1866. Revenues of the R. C. Church: Sources 
 and Modes of Raising; Masses; Burial-expenses; Matrimonial Anecdote; 
 Salaries of Priests ; Papal Revenue from Indulgences, Peter-pence, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIL, .... 568-575 
 
 DENIAL OF THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT. 
 
 Roman Catholic Authorities on this subject. Examples : Rev. Thomas Farrell ; 
 Galileo ; Lamennais, Lacordaire, and Montalembert ; Father Hyacinthe. Prot- 
 estant View of the Right of Private Judgment. 
 
 CHAPTER XXHL, --.. 576-587 
 
 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OF TEMPORAL POWER. 
 
 Different Opinions on the Extent and Limits of the Pope's Temporal Power : 
 Quotations from " The Catholic World," the " Syllabus " of 1862, 4th Lateran 
 Council, Abp. Kenrick of Baltimore, Hon. Joseph R. Chandler, &c. Gallican- 
 ism condemned by Popes. Pius VII. 's Instructions to his Nuncio at Vienna.-'
 
 XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 Brownson's Quarterly Review on the Pope's Divine Right to Temporal Power. 
 Power assumed and exercised by Pope Pius IX., Abp. Hughes, Bp. Charbon- 
 nel, Priests, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. .... 588-609 
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Acts and Decrees of the 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore. Extracts from R. C. 
 Periodicals, &c. New York Controversy, 1823, &c. : N. Y. Public School Soci- 
 ety ; Abp. Hughes ; Appropriations to R. C. Institutions ; N. Y. " Tax-levy " 
 of 1869 and Repeal. Cincinnati Controversy, 1842, &c. : Acts of the School 
 Board; Suit of 1869 and Decision. Massachusetts Law on reading Bible in 
 Schools, and Boston Controversy. Connecticut Law, and R. C. Public Schools 
 in New Haven, New Britain, and Waterbury. Schools in Manchester, N. H. 
 Demand for State-aid in 1853 and subsequently. Rev. B. G. Northrop on an 
 Unsectarian School-system. Rev. H. W. Beecher on the R. C. Plan. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. .... 610-621 
 
 RELATION OF THE SYSTEM TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 
 
 Our Public-School System of Protestant Origin. " The Catholic World " and 
 Brownson's Quarterly Review on Education and General Intelligence, with 
 Notes. Protestant View. Condition of Italy, Spain, Protestant and Catholic 
 Switzerland, Protestant and Catholic Ireland, and other Protestant and Cath- 
 olic countries. R. C. Periodicals, Bookstores, and Publications in the United 
 States. Conclusions unfavorable to the R. C. Church. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI.,- - - - 622-636 
 
 MORAL INFLUENCE OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 Protestant Concession as to Individuals. Council of Baltimore on Idle and Vicious 
 Youth. Comparative Statistics of European Countries in respect to Murder, 
 Illegitimacy, &c. Police and Prison Statistics of New York City. Immorality 
 of Rome. General Character of Irish Catholic Laborers. Suppression of the 
 2d Commandment. Miracles : from " Glories of Mary " ; Blood of St. Janu- 
 arius at Naples ; Holy Coat of Treves ; Sacred Thorn of Bari, &c., dropping 
 blood ; Apparition of the Virgin at La Salette ; Frauds. Protestant View. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVH., .... 637-661 
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 R. C. Denial of Hostility to Liberty. Origin of Religious Liberty : Maryland and 
 Lord Baltimore ; Roger Williams and Providence ; Menno, &c. ; the Independ- 
 ents of England ; John Robinson. Barclay's Definition and Argument R. C t 
 Position: Pope's Encyclicals and Syllabus of 1864; Cardinal An tonelli ; Cat- 
 echisms of Pen-one ; The Catholic World and other R. C. Periodicals. Rome 
 under the Popes, by Consul Stillman, &c. ; Proclamation to the Jews of Ancona
 
 CONTENTS. XV 
 
 in 1843; Mortara Case. Tuscany and other Parts of Italy; Cases of Count 
 Guicciardini, of the Madiai, &c. France. Spain ; Case of Matamoros, &c. 
 Portugal; Law of 1852. Austria; Concordat of 1855, abrogated in 1867; 
 Pope's Allocution. Castelar's Declaration. New Granada and Pope's Allocu- 
 tion of 1852. Peru. Ecuador and its Concordat with the Pope. Mexico and 
 its Struggles for Liberty. Cuba ; Stealing a Grave. Canada ; Excommunica- 
 tions ; Guibord Case ; Beating of Colporteurs ; Gavazzi Mobs. United States ; 
 Tompkins Square Meetings Stopped ; Attempt to Assassinate Miss O'Gorman ; 
 Mob at Columbus, 0. Protestant Views of the System and Argument. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIH., .... 662-692 
 
 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 In the United States: Statistics and Estimates of R. C. Population, 1790-1870; 
 Increase by Immigration, Annexation, Multiplication of Children, and Conver- 
 sions of Protestants, with Statistical and Illustrative Details, Comparisons with 
 Conversions to Protestantism and other Losses ; Dr. Mattison's Enumeration 
 of New Expedients Adopted by the Roman Catholics of this Country for Advanc- 
 ing their Power. In England ; Statistics of the R. C. Population at Different 
 Times, Conversions, Converts, &c. ; Cardinal Wiseman, &c., on R. C. Progress, 
 Modes of Influence, &c. In Great Britain ; Gains in England and Scotland 
 Compared with Losses in Ireland. On the Continent of Europe ; Losses in It- 
 aly, Spain, Portugal, Austria, France, Belgium, Germany ; Great Change in 
 the Comparative Power of Protestant and R. C. Nations. In America ; Losses 
 in Mexico, Canada, &c. In the World : Loss of Power on the Whole ; Con- 
 fession and Boast of " The Catholic World " ; Complete Statistics from R. C. 
 and Protestant Authorities, with an Estimate of their Comparative Value, and 
 a Prophecy. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX., - - - - 693 to 712 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 " We have heard both sides." Elements of R. C. Strength and Weakness. Du- 
 ties and Encouragements of American Protestants. 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO THE APPENDIX, 713 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS TO THE APPENDIX, - - - 714 
 PART I. THE POPB AKD CARDINALS, ..... 715-717 
 PART IT. STATISTICS OP R. C. POPULATION, .... 717-718 
 PART HI. VATICANISM, ULTRAMONTANISM, &c., ... 718-726 
 PART IV. ROMANISM IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, ... 726-764 
 
 PART V. ROMANISM IN THE UNITED STATES, ... 764-797 
 
 GENERAL INDEX, .... 798-838 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX, - - 839 to end.
 
 PIOTOEIAL ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FULL-PAGE ENGRAVINGS. 
 I. PANORAMA OF ROME, - - - . -. : - ... FRONTISPIECE 
 
 The figures on it indicate 
 
 1. Porta del Popolo [ = Gate of the People], at the N. extremity of the city. 
 
 2. Piazza [= Place] del Popolo, with an Obelisk in the center. 
 
 3. Church of Santa Maria [= St. Mary] del Popolo. 
 
 4. 5. Churches of Santa Maria di Monte Santo and Santa Maria de' Miracdi. 
 
 6. Via del Corso [ Way (or, Street) of the Course, i. e., race-course]. 
 
 7. Castle of St. Angelo. 
 
 8. Basilica di San Pietro [= St. Peter's]. 
 
 9. Vatican Palace. 
 
 10. Piazza di San Pietro [= St. Peter's Place], with its Obelisk, Colonnade, &c. 
 
 11. Church of San Pietro in Monlorio [= St. Peter's on Montorio, or on the Ja- 
 
 niculum]. 
 
 12. Porta San Paolo [= St. Paul's Gate], on the way to Ostia. 
 
 13. Porta San Sebastiano [= St. Sebastian's Gate], on the old Appian Way, at 
 
 the S. extremity of the city. 
 
 14. Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano [= of St. John Lateran], 
 
 15. Porta San Giovanni [= St. John's Gate], on the way to Naples by Albano. 
 
 16. Lateran Palace (not numbered in the engraving, but N. of and apparently 
 
 joined with 14). 
 
 17. Basilica di Santa Croce in Gerusalemme [= of Holy Cross in Jerusalem]. 
 
 18. Church of San Stefano [= St. Stephen] Rotondo [ round, or a rotunda], 
 
 19. Coliseum or Colosseum, also called Flavian Amphitheatre or Amphitheatre 
 
 of Vespasian. 
 
 20. Ruins of the Roman Forum. 
 
 21. Piazza del Campidoglio [ Capitol Place, or the Capitol Palaces round the 
 
 Place on the Capitoline Hill]. 
 
 22. Pantheon. 
 
 23. Quirinal Palace, and Obelisk in the Quirinal Place, West of the Palace. '. 
 
 24. Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore [= of St. Mary Major]. 
 
 U. INTERIOR or ST. PETER'S, - page 56 
 
 At the base of the great dome is the Latin inscription " Tu es Petrus et . . . .
 
 PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XV11 
 
 ccdorum" [= Thou art Peter and ... of heaven] taken from Matt. 16 : 18, 19. 
 The other inscription, " Pius Sextus P. M. Pontificatus " = Pitts Sixth, Sovereign 
 Pontiff, Pontificate. The engraving is copied from a larger Roman engraving 
 belonging to Rev. S. D. Phelps, D. D. 
 IIL THE POPE IN HIS AUDIENCE-DRESS, and 
 
 THE POPE IN HIS SEDAN-CHAIR, WEARING HIS TIARA, 
 
 IV. BlSHOP ELECT TAKING THE OATH, 
 
 V. NUN TAKING THE VEIL, -------- 
 
 VI. AUTO DA FE, 
 
 VII. MARTYRDOM OF WM. TYNDALE, TRANSLATOR OF THE BIBLE, 
 VIII. THE CATHEDRAL, BALTIMORE, and 
 
 INTERIOR OF THE CHURCH OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, 
 BOSTON, 
 
 page 119 
 " 274 
 " 347 
 " 384 
 " 417 
 
 521 
 
 CUTS IN THE PRINTED PAGES. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 
 26. 
 27, 
 
 Chair of St. Peter, 57 
 
 The Pope in his Pontifical Dress, 119 
 The Pope's Tiara and Keys, 120 
 Arms of Pope Pius IX., 138 
 
 Signature of Pope Pius IX., 138 
 The Pope in his State-carriage, 142 
 The Pope borne in his Chair, 146 
 A Cardinal in Full Dress, 189 
 
 Bishop's Crosier, 262 
 
 Arms of the Abp. of Baltimore, 262 
 Arms of the Abp. of New York, 262 
 Benedictine Monk, 287 
 
 Angustinian Canon, 290 
 
 Premonstrant, 290 
 
 Franciscan or Gray Friar, 294 
 
 Dominican Nun, 300 
 
 Augustinian Eremite, 303 
 
 Wheeling Female Academy, 307 
 St. iMichael's Retreat, W. Hobo- 
 ken, 311 
 Academy of Mt. St. Vincent, 315 
 University of Notre Dame, Ind., 322 
 Waldensian Women Buried 
 
 Alive, 396 
 
 Heads of Waldenses Blown off, 397 
 St. Bartholomew Medal, 403 
 
 High Mass Elevation of the 
 
 Host, 422 
 
 The Priest goes to the Altar, 424 
 
 The Priest begins Mass, 425 
 
 9 
 
 H.GI. 
 
 28. At the Con/iteor, 426 
 
 29. The Priest kisses the Altar, 426 
 
 30. Priest goes to the Epistle-side, 427 
 
 31. At the Introit, 427 
 
 32. At the Kyrie Eleison, 428 
 
 33. At the Dominus Vobiscum, 428 
 
 34. At the Epistle, 429 
 
 35. At Munda Cor Mewn, 430 
 3ft. At the Gospel, 431 
 
 37. At the Offertory, 432 
 
 38. At the Unveiling of the Chalice, 432 
 
 39. At the Covering cf the Chalice, 433 
 
 40. The Priest washeth his lingers, 434 
 
 41. At the Orate Fratrts, 435 
 
 42. At the Preface, 435 
 
 43. At the Memento for the Living, 436 
 
 44. The Priest holds his hands over 
 
 the Chalice, 437 
 
 45. The Priest signs the Oblation, 437 
 
 46. The Elevation of the Host, 438 
 
 47. At the Elevation of the Chalice, 438 
 
 48. At the Memento for the Dead, 439 
 
 49. At Nobis quoqut PeoctUoribu^ 440 
 
 50. At the Pater Noster, 440 
 
 51. At the Breaking of the Host, 441 
 
 52. The Priest puts part of the Host 
 
 into the Chalice, 442 
 
 53. At the Agnus Dei, 442 
 
 54. At the Communion, 444 
 
 55. At the Ablution, 444
 
 XV111 
 
 PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 rioi. 
 
 56. After Communion, 445 
 
 57. At Dominiis Vobiscum, 445 
 
 58. At the last Collect, 446 
 
 59. At the last Dominus Vobiscum, 446 
 
 60. At the Gospel of St. John, 447 
 
 61. Altar-bell, 461 
 
 62. Antependium, 461 
 
 63. Candelabrum, 463 
 
 64. Bishop's Candlestick, 463 
 
 65. Candlestick for Altar, 463 
 
 66. Canopy used in Procession of 
 
 the Sacrament, 464 
 
 67. 68. Censer and Incense-boat, 465 
 
 69. Chalice, 465 
 
 70. Chime of 3 little Bells, 466 
 
 71. Ciborium, 466 
 
 72. Processional Cross and Staff, 468 
 
 73. Cruets with Plate, 468 
 
 74. Baptismal Font, 469 
 
 75. Holy- Water Pot, 472 
 
 76. Kneeling-desk, 472 
 
 77. Oil-stock, 473 
 
 78. Ostensory, 474 
 7t. Pyx for Holy Bread, 476 
 
 80. Pyx for Holy Oils, 476 
 
 81. Triangle, or Triangular Candle- 
 stick, 481 
 
 82. Umbrellino for Transporting 
 
 Sacrament, 451 
 
 83. Rosary, 435 
 
 84. Coronation of the Blessed Vir- 
 
 gin, 487 
 
 85. Statue of Mary, Queen of Heav- 
 
 en, with Infant Jesus, 490 
 
 86. Banner representing St. Joseph 
 
 with the Infant Jesus, 491 
 
 87. Image of Christ on St. Vero- 
 
 nica's Handkerchief, 492 
 
 88. 89. Reliquaries, or Relic-cases, 492 
 
 90. Confessional, 505 
 
 91. Apostles Peter and Paul on In- 
 
 dulgence, 533 
 
 92. Arms of Gregory XVI., 533 
 
 93. Seal, 534 
 
 94. Arms of Card. Abp. of Paler- 
 
 mo, 534 
 
 95. Scapular of Mount Cannel, 537 
 
 FULL-PAGE ENGRAVINGS IN THE APPENDIX. 
 
 CARDINAL H. E. MANNING, from " Harpers' Weekly," 
 PRINCE BISHABCK, engraved from a Photograph, ' - ) 
 KT. HON. WM. E. GLADSTONE, engraved from a Photograph, ^ 
 JOSEPH GUIDOBD, from "Harpers' Weekly," .... ... 
 RBV. CHARLES CHINIQUT, from the "N. T. Witness," ) 
 
 CARDINAL JOHN McCLOSKBT, engraved from a Photograph, ) 
 
 719 
 729 
 754 
 764
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 A THOROUGH acquaintance with the Roman Catholic system 
 of religion demands a knowledge of what Rome itself has been 
 and is. The present chapter, therefore, sketches the origin, 
 history, institutions, and leading features of Rome ; traces the 
 rise and fall of the kingdom, republic, and empire, of which 
 Rome has been the foundation and center, together with the 
 more recent fortunes of the city and its dependent territory ; 
 and describes for stay-at-home travelers whatever is now most 
 noticeable in this interesting locality. 
 
 The city of Rome is of so great antiquity, that one of its 
 common titles is " the Eternal City." Compared with it, i 
 deed, most of the cities, both of Europe and America, have but 
 a recent origin. St. Augustine in Florida, the oldest town in $4. *** 
 the United States, is more than two thousand three hundred UJw 
 years younger than Rome. Jamestown in Virginia, long noted<2w/ P*** 
 as the first permanent English settlement in America, grew old' 
 and went to ruin years ago; but its age, even now, would be 
 hardly one-tenth of the age of Rome. New York, the largest 
 as well as the most ancient of our great cities, can trace back 
 its origin to a fort and a few rude huts erected by the Dutch, 
 somewhat more than two hundred and fifty years ago, on the 
 southern part of the island of Manhattan ; but Rome is still 
 ten times as old as New York. It is more than ten times as 
 old as Plymouth in Massachusetts, which celebrated its two 
 hundred and fiftieth a miversary in 1870, and is counted the 
 oldest town in New England. Chicago, the young giant of the 
 west, would need to have its age multiplied by sixty-five, before
 
 20 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 it could be placed on an equality with Rome in regard to its 
 years. And if we cross the Atlantic, we shall find Rome main- 
 taining its proud pre-eminence in age over all the great capitals 
 of Europe. Its equal in this respect cannot be found in Lon- 
 don or Paris, St. Petersburg or Berlin, Amsterdam or Vienna, 
 Madrid or Constantinople. None of these can show a history 
 till more than five hundred years after Rome was built ; and 
 some of them were of no importance till long after the settle- 
 ment of America. 
 
 Yet Rome is by no means the oldest city in the world. 
 ^ Athens, the present capital of Greece, and the renowned seat 
 ancient Grecian art and learning and liberty, is reputed to 
 have been founded eight centuries earlier than Rome. Jerusa- 
 lem became "the holy city" and the residence of Israel's 
 kings 250 years before the currently received date of the foun- 
 dation of Rome; it had been even then a stronghold of the 
 Jebusites for five centuries ; and if, as is probable, it was the 
 "Salem" of Melchizedek (Gen. 14: 18), it follows that Jeru- 
 salem was a place of importance more than a thousand years 
 before Rome existed. Certainly Hebron, which "was built 
 seven years before Zoan in Egypt" (Num. 13: 22), and Da- 
 mascus also, both of which were well known places when 
 Abram first entered the land of Canaan (Gen. 13: 18; 14: 15; 
 15: 2, &c.), have, in their known duration of almost 4,000 
 years, a claim to antiquity, by the side of which not only cities 
 in America, but even Rome itself, must bow with deferential 
 regard. 
 
 The origin and early days of Rome lie beyond the domain of 
 sober and veritable history in that airy realm where legends 
 and fables find no effectual corrective, except, on the one hand, 
 in that stubborn unbelief which leaves nothing but a blank, or, 
 on the other, in that critical conjecture, which is sometimes 
 plausible and sometimes extravagant, but is never a satisfactory 
 substitute for known truth. The twenty-five different legends 
 which are reported to exist respecting the foundation of Rome, 
 may all be grouped under three leading theories, namely : (I.)
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 21 
 
 That Rome was founded in the age before the Trojan "War, 1 
 which is assigned to the ten years beginning B. c. 1194, and 
 ending B. c. 1184. Some who advocate this theory ascribe 
 the building of Rome to the Pelasgi ; others, to the Arcadian 
 Evander. (II.) That the Trojan Eneas (=JEueas), or others 
 (Trojans, Trojans and Aborigines, or Greeks), founded it a little 
 after the fall of Troy, that is, after B. c. 11 84. (III.) That Romu- 
 lus, grandson of Numitor, king of Alba Longa (a city about 15 
 miles S.E. of Rome), founded Rome several centuries after 
 the Trojan War. Romulus and Remus were reputed to 
 twin_sons of the war-god Mars and of Numitor' s daughter Sil- 
 via, and were said to be suckled by a she wolf. Romulus was 
 deified, aftjr his death, by the name of Quirinus. That Rom- 
 ulus was the founder of Rome was the tradition almost uni- 
 versally received among the Romans, and has been for ages 
 the current account of the origin of the city. The city of Rome, 
 it is added, was built by Romulus on the Palatine hill or mount; 
 and its very beginning was marked with bloodshed, Remus, the 
 twin brother of Romulus, being slain for ridiculing the slender 
 walls of the new city. The date for the foundation of the city, 
 which is given by Yarro and generally adopted, places the 
 event in the year B. c. 753. The 21st of April was kept as a$ C- . 
 festival in memory of the event. 
 
 Romulus is said to have been the first of the seven kings of 
 Rome, and to have disappeared suddenly after a reign of 37 
 years. In the early part of his reign the Sabines were united 
 with the Romans ; but their king, Titus Tatius, who was joinfr- 
 ruler with Romulus, was soon slain, leaving Romulus sole king 
 of the united nation. The names of the kings, and the dura- 
 tion of their reigns, are thus given : 
 
 Romulus, B. c. 753-716 ; Numa Pompilius, 715-673 ; Tul- 
 lus Hostilius, 673-641 ; Ancus Martins, 641-616 ; Tarquinius 
 Prisons (= Tarquin the elder), B. c. 616-578 ; Servius Tullius, 
 578-534 ; Tarquinius Superbus (= Tarquin the Proud), 
 534-510. 
 
 The Roman kings were not hereditary, but limited and elect/- 
 
 .'C '"
 
 22 THE CITY OP SOME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 ive. The king had no legislative authority, and could make 
 neither war nor peace without the concurrence of the senate 
 and people ; but he was the military leader, the supreme judge 
 in all matters of life and death, and also a priest and the chief 
 director of sacred things. The senate, composed originally of 
 100 members, afterwards increased to 200, subsequently to 
 300, 400, 900, 1000 (after the death of Julius Cesar), and 
 then reduced to 600 by Augustus, deliberated at first as the 
 king's council on such public affairs as the king proposed to 
 them ; but, after the abolition of the kingly office, everything 
 was done by the authority of the senate, though this almost 
 unlimited control was afterwards much abridged in various 
 ways. The supreme power in Rome belonged to those who 
 were called " the people," who were assembled to elect magis- 
 trates, to pass laws, particularly in respect to declaring war 
 and making peace, and to try persons guilty of certain crimes. 
 Romulus divided the whole population of Rome into two classes, 
 the burgesses or citizens (who took the name of Patres or Pa- 
 tricii, i. e., fathers or patricians), and their clients or depend- 
 ents. Each one of the latter class was the client of some par- 
 ticular one of the former class, who was called his patron, the 
 relation being somewhat similar, in dependency and closeness 
 of union, to that of child and parent, or lord and vassal. The 
 clients were bound to render certain services to their patrons, 
 and the patrons were to defend their clients from all wrong or 
 oppression by others. The patricians or members of the first 
 class made up at this time what was called "the Roman peo- 
 ple," their clients or dependents, though freemen, having no 
 share in the government. The plebeians came in afterwards 
 and constituted a third class of freemen, who were neither pat- 
 rons nor clients, but entirely free and independent, yet, like 
 clients, without political rights. Such were the early social 
 and political institutions of Rome. 
 
 Rome had its kings for nearly 250 years. The seventh 'and 
 last of these kings, Tarquin the Proud, was dethroned (B. c. 
 510) in consequence of his cruel tyranny and the violence of-
 
 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 23 
 
 fered by his son Sextus to the virtuous and beautiful Lucretia, 
 the wife of Collatinus. 
 
 The Roman Republic, which now succeeded, continued nearly 
 500 years, when it gave place, under Augustus Cesar, to the 
 Roman Empire. In the Republic the two consuls, who were 
 elected annually, took the place of the king as the chief officers 
 of the government. The senators, who were styled " Fathers," 
 and had been appointed, usually for life, by the kings, were, 
 for half a century or more after the republic began, chosen by 
 the consuls and by the military tribunes, who were command- 
 ers of thousands, but afterwards by the censors, who not only 
 took the census of persons and property, but had a supervision 
 over the rank and moral character of all the people. The pa- 
 tricians, who constituted the nobility, at first not only filled all 
 the offices, but monopolized all the political rights in the state. 
 The senators, consuls, censors, and other officers, were patri- 
 cians ; and under the name of " the senate and people of Rome" 
 the patricians enacted all the laws. The early Roman law 
 placed the poor debtor completely at the mercy of his creditor, i 
 who might imprison the debtor, bind him with chains, 
 him on bread and water, sell him as a slave, or even put him '7>vA** 
 to death. As the senators and patricians- possessed most of 
 the wealth, monopolized the power, and often cruelly oppressed 
 the plebeians or common people, the latter were led to take 
 up arms in their own defense, and to institute the office of trib- 
 unes of the people, which the aristocracy were compelled to 
 sanction B. c. 493. These tribunes, whose persons were held 
 sacred, and who had the power to place even consuls under 
 arrest, defended the oppressed plebeians, and in process of 
 time greatly diminished the authority of the senate and the 
 privileges of the patricians, especially by exercising their right 
 to pronounce the word Veto, that is, I forbid, which was suffi- 
 cient to make void any law or decree of the senate. The 
 Twelve Tables, which were arranged and ratified B. c. 451, and-' > 
 were regarded as the foundation of all law, tended, on the-^-C-4 
 whole, to introduce equal rights in law and government. In-
 
 24 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 termarriages between the patricians and plebeians were for a 
 time prohibited, but were legalized in the year 445 B. c. By 
 the Licinian law, passed B. c. 367, it was ordained that one of 
 the consuls must be a plebeian. Nearly 200 years afterwards 
 (B. c. 172) both consulships were opened to the plebeians. By 
 these and other steps, taken from time to time, the exclusive 
 privileges of the patricians were abolished, and the Roman 
 government became more liberal and democratic, though the 
 patricians and plebeians kept up their dissensions from age to 
 age. 
 
 In the course of time the equestrian order, or the knights, 
 became very prominent. The knights were originally those 
 300 rich and accomplished young patricians, who, under Ro- 
 mulus, served as soldiers on horseback and attended the king 
 as his body-guard. As the city grew, their number was largely 
 increased, especially by additions from the best plebeian fam- 
 ilies. Under king Servius Tullius, they amounted to 3,600, 
 and were the wealthiest men in Rome. Each was furnished 
 with a horse at the public expense, and each wore a gold ring. 
 About B. c. 400, many began to serve as horse-soldiers at their 
 own expense, and a distinction was made between these and 
 the more honored knights whose horses were furnished at the 
 public expense. But a still greater change took place when, 
 by a law of Caius Gracchus, about B. c. 120, all who possessed a 
 certain amount of property were raised to the equestrian order, 
 and a body of 300, chosen periodically from this order, was 
 vested with the judicial power. Under this law those who had 
 grown rich by farming the taxes, and taking contracts for fur- 
 nishing supplies to the army and navy, were all brought into 
 the equestrian order and vested with important political privi- 
 leges. For the next 50 years this order had great contests with 
 the senate. 
 
 Romulus divided the people (the patricians) into three tribes, 
 and each tribe into ten curias ; and hence only the patricians 
 and those plebeians who were afterwards incorporated into 
 these tribes, had any place in the assembly of the people which
 
 IHE CITY OP EOME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 25 
 
 was held by curiae. But in the centuriate assembly, instituted 
 about 200 years after the foundation of Rome, and held in the 
 field of Mars outside of the city, the people voted by centuries 
 or companies arranged in classes according to their census or 
 ratable landed property. Here the first class, consisting of 100 
 centuries, and composed of the richest citizens, presented them- 
 selves completely armed, and had a controlling majority, the 
 other four classes having but 93 voting centuries and appear- 
 ing less completely armed, while all the freemen who had an 
 insufficient estate (less than one-ninth of that required for the 
 first class) were thrown into one century without a vote. This 
 centuriate assembly, in which the more wealthy plebeians could 
 vote, became in time the supreme legislative body. 
 
 The 3 tribes into which Romulus divided the patricians, must 
 not be confounded with the 20 territorial divisions afterwards 
 made by king Servius Tullius, and called by the same name. In 
 the tribes of Servius none but plebeians were enrolled, while the 
 patricians held their place in the other tribes by virtue of their 
 birth and without regard to their residence. Of the plebeian 
 or Servian tribes, 4 were in the city and the rest outside, 
 the whole number being gradually increased with the exten- 
 sion of the Roman territory till B. c. 236, from which time it 
 remained stationary at 35. The tribal assembly, in which the 
 plebeians gave their votes according to their tribes, was origin- 
 ally intended for transacting the business of the plebeian order, 
 but it gradually extended its power over the whole state, and 
 its ordinances obtained all the force of law. Freedmen or 
 emancipated slaves had the right of voting in this assembly ; 
 but they must belong to one of the four city tribes, and there- 
 fore, however numerous, they could not exercise much political 
 power in the assembly. The patricians and their clients, and 
 also the freedmen, are supposed to have been first included in 
 the plebeian tribes by the laws of the Twelve Tables, B. c. 450. 
 
 Slaves, in distinction from all the above classes, were re- 
 garded as having no rights at all. They were esteemed among 
 the Romans, not as persons, but as things. Their master had
 
 26 THE CITY OP BOMB AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 an absolute power over them. He might, and frequently did, 
 scourge, torture, mutilate, or kill his slaves, for any offense, or 
 for no offense ; and sometimes he crucified them from mere 
 caprice. He might force them to become prostitutes or gladia- 
 tors ; he might separate friends or families (for no slave could 
 be lawfully married) at his will ; nor was he considered bound 
 to provide for their welfare in sickness or in health. Yet both 
 law and custom were favorable to giving slaves their freedom. 
 For a long time slaves were not numerous in Rome ; but they 
 must have greatly increased before the expulsion of the kings. 
 It was the custom to make slaves of conquered enemies. Debt- 
 ors and criminals might also be reduced to slavery. In the 
 later ages of the Republic the number of slaves in Rome and 
 throughout Italy was immense. 
 
 The Romans were warriors from the very beginning of their 
 city. From each of the three original tribes Romulus chose 
 1000 foot-soldiers and 100 horsemen. The number of soldiers was 
 naturally increased with the growth of the city. Every citizen 
 from the age of 17 to 46 was obliged to enlist as a soldier, when 
 the public service required ; every foot-soldier must serve 20 
 campaigns, and every horseman 10 campaigns. In the early 
 times no one could hold office who had not served 10 cam- 
 paigns. Much of the time under the kings, and nearly all the 
 time during the existence of the republic, the Romans were 
 engaged in wars. The temple of Janus is said to have been 
 built by Nuina Pompilius, the second king of Rome, with two 
 brazen gates, which were open in war and shut in peace. From 
 the time of Numa to the time of Augustus, a period of about 
 640 years, this temple, according to the annals, was closed but 
 once, and that only for a short period, after the end of the first 
 Punic war, B. c. 235. The Romans, however, were not always 
 victorious over their enemies. One terrible invasion occurred 
 a little more than a century after the kings were expelled. 
 The Gauls, who inhabited the region north and northwest of 
 Italy, swept over Italy like a hurricane, crushing and destroy- 
 ing. Rome was taken and burnt by them B. c. 390 ; but, while
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 27 
 
 one legend says that Camillas, having been appointed dictator, 
 drove them out and exterminated their army, another account 
 declares that the city was ransomed by the payment of a thou- 
 sand pounds of gold to the Gauls, who then marched off to 
 their homes unmolested. The city was rebuilt, but with a haste 
 and irregularity, the evils of which were never remedied till 
 Rome was again rebuilt after its destruction by fire in the time 
 of Nero. Two other invasions of the Gauls followed the one 
 just mentioned, one thirty years after the first, the other ten 
 years later ; but these were resisted with greater courage and 
 firmness, and their consequences were less disastrous. 
 
 About 125 years after the burning of Rome by the Gauls, 
 B. c. 265 , the Romans became masters of all Italy, leaving some 
 of the cities nominally free as allies, and placing the rest in 
 a position more or less dependent. They then easily became 
 involved in the Punic (that is, Phenician) wars, which were 
 waged with the Carthaginians. The renowned city of Car- 
 thage, the great rival of Rome, was situated in Northern Africa, 
 a few miles from the modern city of Tunis, and was originally 
 founded, according to. the legend, by the princess Dido and 
 other colonists from the Phenician city of Tyre, B. c. 878. 
 The rich island of Sicily was mostly under the dominion of 
 Carthage ; and here the first Punic war began in an acceptance 
 by the Romans of an invitation from the Mamertines, who had 
 established themselves at Messana(now Messina) , to aid them 
 against the Carthaginians. This first Punic war lasted 23 
 years, from B. c. 264 to 241, and ended, after various successes 
 and reverses, in a decisive naval victory gained by the Romans 
 over the Carthaginians and a consequent treaty, by which the 
 Carthaginians abandoned Sicily and the adjacent small islands, 
 gave up all Roman prisoners without ransom, and paid to the 
 Romans, within ten years, 3200 talents, afterwards increased 
 to 4400 talents, a sum equal to nearly five millions of dollars. 
 
 Sicily now became the first Roman province ; and the peace 
 between Rome and Carthage lasted about as long as the pre- 
 vious war. But neither Rome nor Carthage was idle during
 
 28 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 this period. Both were engaged in perilous wars with other ene- 
 mies ; but both were recruiting their strength, and preparing the 
 way for new conquests. Rome gained possession of Sardinia and 
 Corsica. Hamilcar, an able Carthaginian general, was sent 
 at his own solicitation into Spain to bring that country under 
 the dominion of Carthage. There he collected and disciplined 
 an excellent army, and gained a great province for Carthage, 
 ruling it with vigor and wisdom for eight years. After his 
 death in battle, his plans were taken up and carried on suc- 
 cessfully, first by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, till his death by 
 the assassin's knife, and then by his son Hannibal. The latter, 
 who was only nine years old, when he besought his father 
 Hamilcar to take him along into Spain, was allowed by his 
 father to accompany him only on condition of swearing eternal 
 enmity to Rome and the Romans. On taking his father's place 
 at the age of 24, B. c. 221, he set himself in earnest to realize 
 his father's designs, and at the close of the next year all Spain 
 south of the Ebro and Douro, with one exception, was with 
 Carthage, either by subjection or alliance. That one excep- 
 tion was the city of Saguntuin, an ancient Greek colony then 
 in alliance with Rome, situated on the Mediterranean, about 
 100 miles south of the Ebro, where is now the modern Murvie- 
 dro. A neighboring tribe, with which Saguntum was at war, 
 invited Hannibal to destroy Saguntum, and he eagerly accepted 
 the invitation. The city was captured after a desperate resist- 
 ance of eight months, though the Roman envoys in vain re- 
 quired Hannibal to desist from attacking their ally. Another 
 embassy, sent to Carthage to demand that Hannibal should be 
 delivered up to the Romans, met with a refusal, and then war 
 was declared B. c. 218. This second Punic war lasted nearly 
 17 years. Hannibal marched over the Alps into Italy ; in 
 three great battles he terribly defeated the Romans, of whom 
 more than 43,000 died on the bloody field of Cannae ; all South- 
 ern Italy, with most of the cities in Campania, and the Gauls 
 in the North, declared in his favor ; Capua, the next city to 
 Rome in size, and probably its superior in wealth, received him
 
 THE CITY OF EOME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 29 
 
 and his army ; but the Romans, now taught by experience, fol- 
 lowed the leadership of Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus, 
 and others, and, avoiding decisive battles for several years, 
 kept Hannibal in check, cut off his supplies and detachments 
 from the main army, and harassed him in all possible ways ; 
 the Carthaginians, through the influence of those who were 
 hostile to Hannibal, sent him only scanty reinforcements, and 
 left him long without any support; his brother Hasdrubal,who 
 had once entirely defeated the Roman army in Spain, entered 
 Italy for the purpose of joining Hannibal, but was himself com- 
 pletely defeated and slain before he could effect the desired 
 junction ; Cornelius Scipio the younger, recovered Spain to 
 the Romans, carried the war into Africa, defeated the Cartha- 
 ginians by treachery and fire and sword, constrained the Car- 
 thaginian government to recall Hannibal and his veterans, who 
 for 16 years had sustained themselves in Italy, and at length 
 gained a decisive victory over Hannibal and his army on the 
 plain of Zama, on account of which he is known in history as 
 Scipio Africanus. The conditions of peace, to which the con- 
 quered gave their assent, left the Carthaginians independent 
 within their own territory in Africa ; but required them, among 
 other things, to surrender all prisoners and fugitives, all their 
 fleet except ten galleys, and all their elephants ; prohibited 
 their making war without consent of Rome ; and bound them 
 to pay the Romans 10,000 talents, or more than ten millions of 
 dollars, in annual installments for the next fifty years. The 
 second Punic war ended in the greatest triumph Rome had 
 ever known, B. c. 201. 
 
 The third and last of the Punic wars occurred a little more 
 than half a century after the close of the preceding one, and 
 lasted three years, till B. c. 146. Carthage was recovering 
 rapidly from its depression ; but, forbidden to make war with- 
 out the consent of Rome, and unable to obtain from the Ro- 
 mans any redress of the wrongs suffered from their ally, 
 Masinissa, the Numidian king, who wantonly seized the best 
 portion of the Carthaginian territory, the Carthaginians finally
 
 30 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 resorted to war with Masinissa, who defeated them in a bloody 
 battle. Then they sent ambassadors to Rome to justify their 
 course and beg forgiveness. The ambassadors placed Carthage 
 and all her possessions at the disposal of the senate, who an- 
 swered that Carthage should be left free, if 300 of the noblest 
 youth were sent to the consuls as hostages, and the further 
 commands of the senate would be made known through the 
 consuls. The hostages were delivered and sent to Rome. 
 Then the Carthaginians were required to deliver up all their 
 arms and engines of war. This demand was also complied 
 with. Then the consuls coolly declared that the Carthaginians 
 must remove to some point ten miles from the coast, and 
 Carthage must be destroyed. This combination of deception 
 and cruelty filled the Carthaginians with horror and rage. 
 They prepared at once for a vigorous defense. Men and women 
 worked night and day with the energy of despair. Three 
 campaigns passed away before the Romans succeeded in forc- 
 ing an entrance into the city. And even after Scipio and his 
 Roman legions gained possession of the market-place, a terri- 
 ble resistance was kept up for several days. The city was then 
 set on fire, and for six days and nights the flames continued 
 to rage. At length the contest was ended by the surrender of 
 the garrison, and the destruction in the flames of most of those 
 who would not give themselves up to the mercy of the con- 
 querors. According to the decree of the Roman senate, the 
 walls of Carthage were destroyed, and every house was lev- 
 eled to the ground. The Roman province of Libya was formed 
 from a part of the territory of Carthage. 
 
 But Rome was busy in other wars of conquest during the 
 period of more than a century which elapsed between the be- 
 ginning and the end of these three Punic wars. The Romans 
 entered Asia B. c. 190, in prosecuting their war with Anti- 
 ochus the Great, king of Syria, defeated him in the decisive 
 battle of Magnesia, where he lost 53,000 men, and despoiled 
 him of his dominions in Asia Minor. The Macedonian wars, 
 begun while the second Punic war was in progress, closed,
 
 THE CITY OF BOMB AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 31 
 
 B. c. 168, with the defeat and capture of Perseus, king of 
 Macedon, and the subjugation of his country to the Roman 
 rule. The conquest of the Dalmatians, B. c. 155, brought the 
 whole region bordering on the Adriatic (now the Gulf of Ven- 
 ice) into subjection to the Romans. The capture and de- 
 struction of Corinth in the same year with the final overthrow 
 of Carthage, B. c. 146, marked the extension of the Roman 
 power over Greece, which now became a province by name of 
 Achaia. Thus the Roman Republic extended its control in 
 every direction ; and before the Republic gave place to the Em- 
 pire, the Romans had their conquests in Gaul (now France), 
 Germany, and Britain, toward the North ; in Armenia, Syria, 
 Palestine, <fcc., embracing what is now known as Turkey in 
 Asia, toward the East; in Egypt and the rest of Northern 
 Africa, toward the South. Rome became the sovereign of the 
 civilized or known world before the battle of Actium, B. c. 31. 
 But these conquests abroad did not make the Romans at 
 home either peaceful or happy. The dissensions between the 
 different orders or classes of the people often led to arbitrary 
 measures, to armed resistance, and to bloodshed. Six times 
 during the first 225 years of the Republic, did the plebeians or 
 the poorer part of them withdraw from the city to a camp in 
 the neighborhood, and refuse to return till -important conces- 
 sions were made to them. Sixty-five times in less than 250 
 years after B. c. 450, did the Senate resort to the appoint- 
 ment of a Dictator, who could have absolute power for six 
 months. Two formidable insurrections of the slaves in Sicily 
 (B. c. 135-132, and B. c. 104-99) were quelled by the Roman 
 consuls only after protracted and bloody struggles. The slaves 
 in Italy also rose several times in insurrections, but were 
 more easily put down. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, whose 
 mother Cornelia was daughter of the elder Scipio Africanus 
 who conquered Hannibal, having been elected tribune of the 
 people, proposed and carried an agrarian law, limiting to about 
 320 acres the quantity of public land which one head of a family 
 might hold ; he proposed also other measures which would
 
 32 THE CITY OF BOMB AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 t 
 
 limit the power of the rich senatorial classes who had greatly 
 oppressed the poor ; but he and many of his adherents were 
 killed in an assault made on them by the nobles and their par- 
 tisans, B. c. 133. Scipio Africanus the younger, the destroyer 
 of Carthage, opposed the rash and arbitrary acts of the commis- 
 sioners of the agrarian law, and was found dead in his bed, prob- 
 ably murdered by his enemies, though the multitude prevented 
 an investigation. Caius Sempronius Gracchus, younger brother 
 of Tiberius, became also tribune of the people ten years after 
 his brother's death, and inaugurated several laws, called the 
 Sempronian laws, intended to ameliorate the condition of the 
 people and abridge the power of the senate ; but, in the des- 
 perate struggle which followed, Caius and many of his partisans 
 lost their lives, B. c. 121. The Social war, between Rome 
 and the allied states of Italy that were refused the Roman 
 franchise, cost in its two campaigns (B. c. 90, 89) the lives 
 of 300,000 young men, the Romans being finally victorious, 
 but granting to the Italians the rights of Roman citizenship. 
 After this followed the civil wars of Marius and Sylla (B. c. 
 88-86, and 83, 82), which deluged Rome with blood. Then 
 Spartacus with other gladiators, who were kept to fight and 
 kill one another for the amusement of the Romans, escaped 
 from their training school at Capua, and, joined by slaves, out- 
 laws, and other desperate men to the number of more than 
 100,000, he took the offensive, defeated her consuls, and put 
 Rome itself in danger ; but was finally slain with most of his 
 men by the Roman forces under Pompey and Crassus, B. c. 
 71. Afterward came the two conspiracies of Catiline (B. c. 
 66 and 63), the second and most formidable of which was 
 detected by Cicero, then one of the consuls, and Catiline him- 
 self, forced to leave Rome, died with many others in the deci- 
 sive battle which ensued. 
 
 In the mean time Pompey cleared the Mediterranean Sea of 
 the Cilician pirates who had long infested it, B. c. 67 ; con- 
 quered Mithridates, king of Pontus, one of the most formida- 
 ble enemies of Rome, B. c. 66 ; made Syria a Roman province,
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 33 
 
 B. c. 64 ; besieged and captured Jerusalem, B. c. G3. He 
 entered Rome in triumph, B. c. 61. 
 
 But Julius Cesar, who had been military tribune about B. c. 
 69, and questor or treasurer in Spain the next year, became 
 edile (= superintendent of games, public buildings, streets, <fcc.) 
 B. c. 65, high-priest B. c. 63, pretor (=mayor or city-judge) 
 the next year, and at the beginning of B. c. 61 went to 
 Spain, where he signalized his administration by good manage- 
 ment of the affairs of the province and two campaigns of suc- 
 cessful wars. Returning to Rome in B. c. 60, he formed an 
 unofficial alliance with Pompey and Crassus, which is com- 
 monly called the First Triumvirate ; and, secretly supported 
 by them, he was elected consul by acclamation. By his agra- 
 rian law and other measures he increased his power and popu- 
 larity ; and he procured for himself the government of Cisal- 
 pine Gaul (= Northern Italy) and Illyricum (= Dalmatia, &c.) 
 for five years and the command of two legions, to which the 
 senate added the province of Transalpine Gaul (== S.E.France) 
 and another legion. 
 
 Cesar was at once engaged in wars, by which he greatly ex- 
 tended the Roman dominion, not only through all Gaul (or 
 France) , but into Germany and Britain. His term of govern- 
 ment was afterwards extended for five years more, while Syria 
 was assigned for five years to Crassus, and Spain to Pompey for 
 a like term. But Crassus was defeated and slain by the Par- 
 thians in Mesopotamia, B. c. 53 ; and Pompey, who governed 
 Spain by his lieutenants, became virtually dictator at Rome. 
 In nine campaigns Cesar finished the conquest of Gaul, hav- 
 ing sacrificed in his wars nearly a million of Gauls and Ger- 
 mans. But Pompey and Cesar were now rivals ; and January 
 6, B. c. 49, the senate, in spite of the veto of the tribunes Mark 
 Antony and Quintus Cassius, passed a decree declaring Cesar 
 a public enemy unless he laid down his command by a certain 
 day, though he had declared his willingness that both Pompey 
 and himself should resign their military power. 
 
 Cesar, who was now at Ravenna, at once crossed the Rubi- 
 3
 
 34 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 con, a little stream emptying into the Adriatic and forming 
 a part of the southern boundary of his province, and the towns 
 in that region surrendered to him without a blow. On the 1st 
 of April he reached Rome, and became master of Italy as well 
 as of Gaul. Pompey and his forces retired to Greece, which 
 with Africa and the East espoused their cause. Spain was 
 visited by Cesar, and submitted to him. He then followed 
 Pompey, and after many delays the battle of Pharsalia was 
 fought, in which Cesar gained a complete victory, June 6 (Au- 
 gust 9, according to the Roman calendar of that time), B. c. 49. 
 Pompey fled, and was assassinated as he attempted to land in 
 Egypt. In B. c. 46 Cesar celebrated his triumph ; and having 
 been appointed consul, Dictator for ten years and censor for 
 three years, and afterwards Dictator and Imperator ( com- 
 mander or Emperor) for life, he was absolute master of the 
 Empire. He afterwards defeated the sons of Pompey in Spain, 
 extended the Roman franchise to cities in Gaul, Spain, <fec., 
 increased the number of senators to 900, encouraged mar- 
 riage, reformed the old Roman calendar, and made the year 
 (called from him the Julian year) consist of 365-^ days, pro- 
 cured the establishment of the first public library in Rome, &c. 
 The month of July was so named in honor of him. But as 
 it was suspected that he aspired after the title of king, a con- 
 spiracy of more than 60 persons was formed to kill him, and he 
 was assassinated in the Senate-house on the Ides ( fifteenth 
 day) of March, B. c. 44, by Marcus Junius Brutus, Caius Cas- 
 sius, and others. Julius Cesar was 56 years old when he died, 
 " the foremost man of all this world." 
 
 The death of the Dictator was the signal for new troubles in 
 Rome. Mark Antony, who was Cesar's colleague in the con- 
 sulship, made an oration over the dead body, gained possession 
 of Cesar's treasure and of his papers, obtained from the senate 
 the confirmation of the Dictator's acts, and became for a 
 time the real master of Rome. But Caius Octavius, grand- 
 son of Cesar's sister Julia, was declared by Cesar's will his 
 heir, and, though now only 18 years old, soon by adroit man-
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 35 
 
 agement gained much popularity. He received the name of 
 Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was recognized as a leader 
 against Antony, and was chosen consul B. c. 43. Marcus 
 ^milius Lepidus, who had been consul with Cesar B. c. 46, 
 and afterwards was governor of Narbonese Gaul, became now 
 a colleague with Antony and Octavius or Octavian in the cele- 
 brated triumvirate " for settling the affairs of the common- 
 wealth," which lasted about seven years. The triumvirs began 
 their union by agreeing to put to death for their mutual advan- 
 tage 300 senators and 2,000 knights. Among the victims 
 were the brother of Lepidus, the uncle of Antony, and the 
 orator Cicero. The authority of the triumvirs was legalized ; 
 Brutus and Cassius, who had the power in the East, were de- 
 feated at Philippi, B. c. 42 ; Lepidus was summarily set aside, 
 B. c. 36 ; Octavian and Antony soon quarreled, and in the bat- 
 tle of Actium, B. c. 31, Antony was defeated, and the Roman 
 Republic ceased to exist. From this battle is dated the begin- 
 ning of the Roman Empire. 
 
 Octavius, after the defeat and subsequent death of Antony, 
 returned to Rome, celebrated his triumphs, and received the 
 title of Emperor for 10 years, B. c. 29. He now closed the 
 temple of Janus in token of the universal peace that prevailed. 
 It had not been closed in more than 200 years, but was closed 
 thrice in his reign, the last time from B. c. 10 to A. D. 2. He 
 received from the senate the title of Augustus, by which he is 
 commonly known, B. c. 27. He absorbed all the great offices 
 of the state in his own person, being not only emperor, but also 
 high-priest, with the power of censor, and perpetual tribune. 
 He was careful to retain the ancient forms of freedom ; he ex- 
 pressed his intention of retiring to private life, but yielded to 
 entreaties and took office again and again for limited periods ; 
 he refused to be styled dictator, and chose rather the title of 
 prince ; consuls were still elected by the people, but Augustus 
 both nominated and controlled them ; the senate by their pro- 
 consuls had the government of the peaceable provinces, while 
 others, which needed the presence of a large military force,
 
 36 THE CITY OF BOMB AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 were governed by legates or deputies of the emperor. The 
 provinces were regarded as better governed under the empire 
 than under the republic ; the Roman people were certainly too 
 corrupt now to maintain a good government themselves ; and, 
 while the emperor favored literature and the arts, he placed 
 the Roman Empire on a basis which lasted for 500 years. And 
 in the universal peace of his time the prince of peace came 
 into the world. Jesus Christ, born in Bethlehem of Judea 
 during his reign, and crucified outside of the gate of Jerusalem 
 in the reign of his successor, is the founder of a kingdom which 
 is to last forever. Augustus, whose name has come down to 
 us in the month called August, placed at the summit of human 
 power, flattered, honored, worshiped as a god, died August 19, 
 A. D. 14, in the 76th year of his age, and the 44th of his im- 
 perial rule. 
 
 The following is a list of the Roman emperors, with the 
 dates when their reigns began and ended : 
 Augustus (= Octavian and Octavius), grand-nephew 
 
 of Julius Cesar, reigned from - - B.C. 31 to A.D. 14 
 
 Tiberius, step-son, son-in-law, and adopted son of 
 
 Augustus, from - A.D. 14 " 37 
 
 Caligula, great-grandson of Augustus ; also grand- 
 nephew and adopted son of Tiberius, from "37 " 41 
 Claudius, uncle of Caligula, from - " 41 " 54 
 Nero, last of the family of Augustus Cesar; grand- 
 nephew, step-son, and adopted son of Claudius, from " 54 " 68 
 Galba (seven months), Otho (three months), Vitel- 
 
 lius (eight months), from - - . 68 " 70 
 
 Vespasian, declared emperor by his army and the 
 
 senate, from - - - " 70 79 
 
 Titus, son of Vespasian, from - - - " 79 " 81 
 
 Domitian, brother of Titus ; last of the so-called "12 
 
 Cesars" (counting Julius Cesar as the first), from " 81 " 96 
 Nerva, a native of Crete ; elected emperor by the 
 
 senate, from - - - - " 96 98 
 
 Trajan, adopted successor of Nerva, from - "98 "117 
 
 Hadrian (== Adrian), nephew of Trajan, from - "117 138 
 Antoninus Pius, adopted successor of Hadrian, from "138 " 161
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 37' 
 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, son-in-law of Antoninus 
 
 Pius, from - - < A.D. 161 to A.D. 180 
 
 Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, - " 180 " 192 
 
 Pertinax, proclaimed by the pretorian guards, &c., 
 
 Jan. 1,193, - - - - reigned three months. 
 
 Didius Julianus, buyer of empire from pretorian 
 
 guards, end of March, - reigned two months. 
 
 Septimius Severus, proclaimed by his army, from A.D. 193 to A.D. 211 
 Caracalla, son of the last (assassinated his brother 
 
 and colleague-emperor, Geta, A.D. 212), from "211 " 217 
 [Emperors were now, for about a century, proclaimed by the army, 
 the senate ratifying the choice ; and, in most cases during the third 
 century, the successor was not related to the predecessor.] 
 Opilius Macrmus, from ... A.D. 217 to A.D. 218 
 Elagabalus (= Heliogabalus), from - " 218 " 222 
 
 Alexander Severus, from - " 222 " 235 
 
 Maximin (= Maximinus), from " 235 " 238 
 
 Gordian, from - 238 " 243 
 
 Philip the Arabian, from - - 243 249 
 
 Decius, from - 249 251 
 
 Gallus, from 251 253 
 
 Valerian and his son Gallienus, from - " 253 " 260 
 
 Gallienus alone, then (264-267) with Odenathus, 
 30 tyrants at one time aspiring to the imperial 
 throne, fiora - 260 " 268 
 
 Aurelius Claudius, from - 268 " 270 
 
 Aurelian, - 270 275 
 
 Claudius Tacitus, from - 275 276 
 
 Florian, brother of Tacitus, from - - " 276, 2 months. 
 
 Aurelius Probus, from ... 276 to A.D. 282 
 
 Carus (his sons, Carinus and Numerian, associated 
 
 with him), from - 282 " 284 
 
 Diocletian (Maximian associated with him as em- 
 peror A.D. 285 ; Constantius Chlorus and Gale- 
 rius fir^t associated as Cesars A.D. 292), from " 284 " 305 
 Constantius Chlorus and Galerius emperors, from " 305 " 306 
 Constantine, surnamed the Great, son of Constan- 
 tius, proclaimed emperor at York, Eng. (five
 
 38 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 others at first reigning as emperors; but the 
 
 others, Galerius, Maxentius, Licinius, &c., were 
 
 afterwards defeated), reigned from - A.D. 306 to A.D. 337 
 
 [In 330 Constantine transferred the seat of government from Rome 
 
 to Byzantium, called Constantinople (= city of Constantine) from 
 
 him.] 
 
 Constantius II., Constantine II., and Constans, suc- 
 ceeded their father Constantine as colleagues ; 
 but Constantine II. was killed in 340, Constans in 
 350 by Magnentius, who succeeded him and kill- 
 ed himself in 353, and Constantius II. then be- 
 came sole emperor, reigning in all from - A.D. 337 to A.D. 361 
 
 Julian, called the Apostate, nephew of Constantine 
 the Great, and the last of his family, previously 
 proclaimed by the army, reigned alone from " 361 " 363 
 
 Jovian, proclaimed by the army, reigned seven 
 
 months from - " 363 364 
 
 Valentinian I., elected by the army, gave the East 
 to his brother Valens, who died in 378, reigning 
 himself in the West from - - " 364 375 
 
 Gratian, son of Valentinian, was nominally asso- 
 ciated with his father in 367, and succeeded him 
 in the West at his death, giving the East, at the 
 
 . death of Valens in 378, to Theodosius the Great, 
 who reigned there till 395, his own reign in the 
 West lasting from - 375 383 
 
 Valentinian II., younger brother of Gratian, was 
 proclaimed emperor with Gratian in 375, but 
 really reigned (and that with some interruption) 
 only after Gratian's death from - " 383 " 392 
 
 Theodosius the Great, who reigned in the East 
 from 378, defeated the usurper Eugenius in the 
 West, and was the last sovereign of the whole 
 Roman empire, from u j, , - - " 394 " 395 
 
 Theodosius divided the Roman empire between his two sons, Arca- 
 dius taking the Eastern or Greek empire, the seat of which was Con- 
 stantinople, and Honorius the Western empire. The Eastern empire 
 was finally destroyed by the Turks, who took Constantinople, May 29,
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 39 
 
 1453. The emperors of the West, some of whom had Rome and 
 some Ravenna, for the seat of government, were 
 Honorius, son of Theodosius the Great, who reigned 
 
 from .... A.D. 395 to 423 
 
 John the Notary, usurper, who reigned from - - " 424 to 425 
 
 Valentinian III., nephew of Honorius, who reigned from " 425 to 455 
 Maximus, murderer of Valentinian, who reigned 3 
 
 months in " 455 
 
 Avitus, proclaimed in Gaul, who reigned from - " 455 to 456 
 
 [Interregnum of 10 months.] 
 
 Majorian, who reigned from - - " 457 to 461 
 
 Libius Severus, who reigned from - - - " 461 to 465 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Anthemius, who reigned from - - " 467 to 472 
 
 Olybrius, who reigned three months in - - " 472 
 
 Glycerins, who reigned from - - " 473 to 474 
 
 Nepos, who reigned from - - - - " 474 to 475 
 
 Romulus Augustulus, who reigned from - - " 475 to 476 
 
 At the beginning of the empire, as has been already noticed, 
 Augustus gradually absorbed into himself all the great offices 
 of the state. Thus he could raise armies and command them 
 all, impose taxes and enforce the payment of them, make peace 
 and war ; he, indeed, had the power of life and death over 
 every Roman citizen as well as over every other person within 
 the Roman empire. Tiberius abolished the popular assemblies, 
 and, though he invested the senate with the nominal power of 
 appointing magistrates, he swept away the forms of liberty 
 which Augustus had preserved to the people. In later times 
 the emperor appointed to any office whom he pleased. The 
 succession to the empire was not determined by any fixed prin- 
 ciple. The first four successors of Augustus were of his family. 
 Three of these gained their position by being adopted, each by 
 his predecessor ; the other, Claudius, was uncle of his prede- 
 cessor, and was proclaimed emperor by the pretorian guards, 
 who. afterwards often disposed of the empire according to their 
 pleasure. Sometimes the reigning emperor designated his
 
 40 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 successor by bestowing on the person the title of Cesar, or 
 making him his colleague as tribune or proconsul. Sometimes 
 the senate elected to the vacant office ; and sometimes an army 
 in one of the provinces assumed the prerogative of making an 
 emperor. 
 
 The Roman territory, which was at first but a little spot on 
 the east bank of the Tiber, increased as the ages passed, till, 
 at the commencement of the empire, it embraced all Southern 
 Europe from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean to the Danube 
 and the Rhine, extending eastward to the Euphrates, and in- 
 cluding the greater part of what is now Asiatic Turkey, besides 
 Egypt and the whole of Northern Africa. The best part of the 
 known world was then under the dominion of Rome ; the Med- 
 iterranean Sea was surrounded by its possessions, and was 
 counted as entirely belonging to it. After the age of Augustus 
 few additions were made to the empire. Trajan subdued Mes- 
 opotamia and Armenia on the east of the Euphrates ; and like- 
 wise Dacia, a region north of the Danube, which corresponds 
 to Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and the eastern part of 
 Hungary. Under Claudius and Domitian, the Roman domin- 
 ion was extended in Britain as far north as to include the 
 present cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow ; but subsequently 
 the emperor Severus, A.D. 209-10, unable to subdue the Cale- 
 donians who inhabited Scotland, built, as a defense against 
 them, a solid wall of stone, 12 feet high, 8 feet thick, and 
 more than 68 miles long, strengthened by forts and towers, as 
 well as by a rampart and ditch, and extending from Solway 
 Frith across the north of England to the mouth of the river 
 Tyne near Newcastle. This wall was garrisoned by 10,000 
 troops. The Roman empire, however, had its greatest extent 
 in the time of Trajan. From the imperfect union of so many 
 countries and nations as were then comprised within its limits, 
 from the transfer in A.D. 330 of its seat of government from 
 Rome to Constantinople, and from the moral corruption that 
 prevailed from the time of Augustus and even before, the em- 
 pire suffered greatly from internal weakness ; and, especially
 
 THE CITY OP HOME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 41 
 
 v 
 
 after about A.D. 400, one country after another became a prey 
 to the barbarians on the north, the Parthians on the east, and 
 other powerful foes. 
 
 From the foundation of the city through all the ages, both 
 of the Kingdom and of the Republic, Rome may be described 
 as "wholly given to idolatry." The Romans, like most other 
 ancient nations, except the Jews, worshiped " gods many and 
 lords many." There were, according to their mythology, 12 
 great celestial deities, viz., Jupiter, the king of gods and men; 
 Juno, Jupiter's sister and wife, the queen of the gods, and god- 
 dess of marriage and of child-birth; Minerva or Pallas, Jupi- 
 ter's daughter, the goddess of wisdom ; Vesta, the goddess of 
 fire, or rather, of the hearth ; Ceres, Jupiter's sister, the god- 
 dess of corn and husbandry ; Neptune, Jupiter's brother, the 
 god of the sea; Venus, the goddess of love and beauty; Vul- 
 can, Jupiter's son, the god of fire and of smiths ; Mars, the 
 god of war ; Mercury, Jupiter's son, the messenger of Jupiter 
 and of the gods, and the god of eloquence; Apollo, Jupiter's 
 son, the god of poetry, music, medicine, augury, and archery ; 
 Diana, Apollo's sister, the goddess of the woods and of hunting. 
 There were also eight select deities, viz., Saturn, the god of 
 time, dethroned by his son Jupiter; Janus, the god of the 
 year, porter of heaven, <fec. ; Rhea, wife of Saturn ; Pluto, Ju- 
 piter's brother, the king of the infernal regions; Bacchus, Ju- 
 piter's son, the god of wine ; Sol ( the sun), usually regarded 
 as the same with Apollo, but sometimes distinguished from 
 him; Luna (=the moon), usually regarded as the same with 
 Diana; Genius, the demon or tutelary god, who was supposed 
 to take care of a person from his birth throughout his life. 
 There were also household or domestic guardian deities, called 
 Lares and Penates, and many other inferior deities ; some of 
 them heroes, deified for their virtue and merits, as Hercules, 
 Castor and Pollux, ^Eneas, Romulus, deceased Roman emperors, 
 &c. ; others occupying an intermediate place between gods and 
 men, as Pan (the god of shepherds and inventor of the flute), 
 Pomona (the goddess of gardens and fruits), Flora (the god-
 
 42 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 dcss of flowers), Terminus (the god of boundaries), Pales (the 
 god or goddess of flocks and herds) , Hymen (the god of mar- 
 riage), Mephitis (the goddess of bad smells), Cupid (the son 
 of Venus and god of love), ^Esculapius (the god of physic), 
 the Nymphs, Muses, Graces, Fates, Furies, Piety, Faith, Hope, 
 Fortune, Fame, &c., <fcc. 
 
 "The Romans," says Dr. Adam, "worshiped certain gods 
 that they might do them good, and others that they might not 
 hurt them." Many of these deities, especially those considered 
 of the highest rank, had their temples and altars, their festi- 
 vals and priests and sacrifices. The religious and ecclesias- 
 tical institutions of the Romans are attributed to Numa Pom- 
 pilius, the second king of Rome, who, according to the legend, 
 was instructed in all these things by the nymph Egeria. There 
 were four (afterwards eight) pontiffs, usually the most distin- 
 guished Romans, who formed a kind of ecclesiastical council 
 for the regulation of the worship of the gods and the decision 
 of all questions of religion. The chief pontiff or high priest, 
 called the pontifex maximus, was supreme judge and arbiter in 
 all religious matters, and had jurisdiction over magistrates as 
 well as over private individuals, an appeal being allowed to 
 the people only when a magistrate had been fined or seized. 
 The vestal virgins, appointed to keep alive the sacred fire on 
 tb.e altar of Vesta, were treated with the highest honor. Noth- 
 ing of importance respecting the public was done without con- 
 sulting the augurs, whose office it was to foretell future events 
 from the flight, chirping, or feeding of birds, and from other ap- 
 pearances. The religion of ancient Rome was determined by 
 the authority of the state for all the people subject to that au- 
 thority. When, therefore, in the time of the emperor Tiberius, 
 the apostles and primitive Christians claimed the right to dis- 
 regard the mandates of the state in respect to religion, to be- 
 lieve and to teach that the gods worshiped by Roman author- 
 ity were no gods and that the ordinances and practices estab- 
 lished by the same authority were wrong and wicked, opposition 
 and conflict were certainly to be expected. Christians were at
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 43 
 
 first few and despised ; but their numbers and influence in- 
 creased ; instead of being confined to Palestine or Syria or 
 Asia, the new religion passed over into Europe and gained ad- 
 herents in Athens and in Corinth and in Rome itself; it pro- 
 claimed the necessity of a living faith in the crucified Redeemer, 
 not merely to the obscure and humble, but also to senators and 
 governors and kings ; it invaded the palace of the Cesars, and 
 made its voice heard there in its condemnation of all iniquity 
 and its inculcation upon every human being of the universal 
 law of holiness, righteousness, and love; and the attempt was 
 made again and again to put a stop to all this by force, and to 
 blot out the very names of Christian and of Christianity. 
 
 Historians generally reckon ten persecutions of Christians 
 during the three centuries that elapsed before Christianity as- 
 cended the throne of the Cesars. The persecutions were : 
 I. A. D. 64, <fcc., under Nero, who, having, as was generally be- 
 lieved, set the city of Rome on fire, charged the crime on the 
 Christians, and had numbers of them put to death, some being 
 dressed up in the skins of wild beasts and then torn to death 
 by dogs, others being crucified, and others, still, smeared with 
 pitch and other combustible materials, and then burned at night 
 to light the imperial gardens ; II. A. D. 93-6, under Domitian, 
 40,000 Christians being put to death; III. A. D. 100, <fcc., under 
 Trajan, who commanded that Christians should not be sought 
 after, but, when regularly accused and convicted, should be 
 put to death as bad citizens, if they refused to return to the 
 religion of their fathers ; IV. A. D. 118, &c., under Hadrian 
 (so some) ; or A. D. 136-156, under Antoninus Pius (sooth- 
 ers) ; or A. D. 167-180, under Marcus Aurelius (so others), per- 
 secution existing under all these, but being most virulent and 
 destructive under the last ; V. A. D. 197-211, under Septimius 
 Severus ; VI. A. D. 236-7, under Maximin ; VII. A. D. 249- 
 251 , under Decius, more cruel and terrific than any before it, 
 governors being required to exterminate all Christians, or to 
 bring them back to paganism by pains and tortures ; VIII. A. D. 
 257-260, under Valerian ; IX. A. D. 274-5, under Aurelian,
 
 44 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 short and partial (omitted by some) ; X. A. D. 303-312, under 
 Diocletian, Galerius, &c., which began with the edict of Diocle- 
 tian, instigated by Galerius, ordering churches to be demolished, 
 bibles to be burned, Christians to be deprived of all civil rights 
 and honors, and extended over all the empire except where 
 Constantius ruled. In this last terrible persecution, tortures 
 and all other devices were used to compel all Christians, without 
 exception, to sacrifice to the gods. " Christians," according to 
 Eusebius, " were scourged to death, had their flesh torn off with 
 pincers, were cast to lions and tigers, were burned, beheaded, 
 crucified, thrown into the sea, torn to pieces by distorted boughs 
 of trees, roasted at a gentle fire, or, by holes made on purpose, 
 had melted lead poured into their bowels." Godeau estimates 
 that in one month of this persecution 17,000 martyrs were killed ; 
 and that in Egypt alone, during the ten years, 144,000 died by 
 the violence of their persecutors, and 700,000 died through 
 the fatigues of banishment or of the public works to which 
 they were condemned. It is supposed that in the three cen- 
 turies before A. D. 312 three million Christians lost their lives 
 through persecutions. But a change now awaited them. Con- 
 stantius Chlorus, who as Cesar ruled in Gaul, Spain, and Bri- 
 tain, and became joint emperor with Galerius in A. D. 304 on 
 the resignation of Diocletian and Maximian, favored the Chris- 
 tians. On his death at Eboracum (= York) in Britain in A. D. 
 306, his son Constantine was proclaimed emperor at York, 
 while Maxentius, son of Maximian, was proclaimed at Rome. 
 Six emperors were now reigning at once, Galerius, Maximian 
 (who resumed the throne), Maxentius, Constantine, Licinius, 
 and Maximin Daza. But Maximian was soon deprived of his 
 power, and afterwards was put to death in A. D. 310. Galerius 
 retreated before Maxentius, and died in A. D. 311, just after 
 issuing a decree giving peace to the Christians ; Maxentius was 
 defeated by Constantine, and was drowned in the Tiber, A. D. 
 312 ; Maximin Daza was defeated by Licinius, and died of 
 poison at Tarsus, A. D. 313. Licinius and Constantine now 
 divided the empire between them, the two having already in
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 45 
 
 A. D. 312 issued an edict ot universal toleration for all religions, 
 and the next year a special edict in favor of the Christians, 
 which on the overthrow of Maximin became law throughout 
 the Roman Empire. Subsequently, however, Licinius favored 
 the pagan religion and persecuted Christians, while Constan- 
 tino, who had adopted the cross for his military standard, 
 became more closely connected with the Christians. In the war 
 which followed between the two emperors, Licinius was totally 
 defeated and was put to death A. D. 325. Constantino, now 
 sole master of the Roman Empire, extended to the East his 
 laws in favor of the Christian religion. A little before his 
 death in A. D. 337, he published edicts for pulling down the 
 pagan temples and abolishing the sacrifices. Julian the Apos- 
 tate, Constantino's nephew, endeavored in his short reign to 
 restore idolatry to its former power and splendor ; but his at- 
 tempt utterly failed. Henceforward, as long as the Roman 
 Empire stood, Christianity was, at least nominally, the domi- 
 nant religion in it. 
 
 As has been already hinted, the Romans underwent a great 
 change for the worse after the destruction of Carthage and 
 Corinth, B. c. 146. " The riches which flowed into the city," 
 says Gieseler, "the knowledge of Asiatic luxuries, and the 
 mode of instruction followed by Greek masters, led to licen- 
 tiousness and excesses ; while the Grecian mythology, incor- 
 porated with Grecian art, was diffused by the poets, and entirely 
 extinguished the old Roman character with its rigid virtue." 
 The bloody contests of gladiators with wild beasts and with 
 one another, the public races and games of agility and strength, 
 musical and dramatic entertainments, of which obscenity be- 
 came a leading characteristic, together with the vices and 
 guilty pleasures to which the Apostle Paul refers in the first 
 chapter of his epistle to the Romans, amused and busied the 
 people, and drew away their attention from higher and nobler 
 pursuits. Both labor and poverty were considered disgraceful, 
 and marriage lost all its dignity and importance. Very few of 
 the Roman emperors afforded examples of virtue. Tiberius,
 
 46 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 Caligula, Nero, Commodus, Caracalla, and many others, were 
 monsters of iniquity. Nor was the character of the nominally 
 Christian emperors, who began with Constantine, so much im- 
 proved over that of their heathern predecessors as was to be 
 desired and expected. There was by the fourth century after 
 Christ so much of conformity to the world among those who 
 were called Christians, that the vital power of Christianity 
 was in a great measure neutralized. The salt had lost its 
 savor, and was thenceforth good for nothing but to be cast 
 out, and to be trodden under foot of men (Mat. 5 : 13). 
 
 It is not surprising, therefore, that the Roman Empire grew 
 weaker, and tottered, and fell. The division into the Eastern 
 and Western empires contributed to a separation of interests, 
 to jealousies and rivalries, and made the Western empire es- 
 pecially an easier prey to the northern barbarians. In A. D. 
 404 the emperor Honorius left Rome, and made Ravenna his 
 capital. Alaric, king of the Goths, invaded Italy several times 
 during the reign of Honorius, and in 410 entered Rome with 
 his conquering army, massacred many of its inhabitants, 
 gave up the city to pillage for six days, and burned a part of it. 
 One of the invaders who followed Alaric, Attila the Hun, 
 expressively called " the Scourge of God," laid the Romans of 
 both the East and West under tribute, and threatened the im- 
 mediate destruction of the Western empire ; but his sudden 
 death in the midst of his successes, A. D. 453, put an end to the 
 power of the Huns, a part of whom settled in Hungary. The 
 Vandals in A. D. 410 made themselves masters of Spain, and 
 afterwards of the western part of North Africa. Invited by 
 the Empress Eudoxia, whose husband Valentinian III. had 
 been murdered by Maximus, they crossed over into Italy, took 
 and plundered Rome A. D. 455, and returned in triumph to 
 Carthage with the empress and her two daughters. A few 
 years later, Odoacer, a Gothic chief, commonly called king of 
 the Heruli, subdued Italy, captured both Ravenna and Rome, 
 deposed Romulus Augustulus, and put an end to the Roman 
 Empire of the West, A. D. 476.
 
 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 47 
 
 Odoacer had been an officer of the emperor's guards, and 
 was chosen leader of the barbarians in the emperor's armies 
 who demanded for themselves and their families a third part 
 of the lands of Italy. Their demand being refused, they con- 
 quered the country, and saluted Odoacer king of Italy. 
 
 The kingdom of Italy lasted, under the Goths and Lombards, 
 and with varying dimensions, almost three centuries. The 
 dominion of the Heruli ceased in A. D. 493, when Odoacer was 
 defeated and slain by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostro- 
 goths (= Eastern Goths), who made Ravenna the seat of his 
 government, and reigned with ability about 33 years. His suc- 
 cessors, seven in number, held the kingdom till A. D. 553, when 
 the eunuch Narses, commander of the Eastern emperor Justin- 
 ian's army, defeated the Goths and put an end to their king- 
 dom. During the 20 years before this Rome had been some 
 of the time in the possession of Belisarius, predecessor of 
 JX arses, and some of the time in the possession of Vitiges and 
 Totila, the Gothic kings. For about fifteen years after the fall 
 of the Gothic kingdom, Narses, under the title of Exarch, ad- 
 ministered the government of Italy, his residence being at 
 Ravenna. Upon his recall to Constantinople, the Longobards 
 or Lombards from Germany invaded Italy (A. D. 568) under 
 their king Alboin, and established in the northern part of 
 Italy (from them called Lombardy) a powerful kingdom, 
 which continued, mostly under about twenty elective kings, 
 till Charlemagne, in A. D. 774, defeated and captured Deside- 
 rius, the Lombard king, and annexed to his empire the ter- 
 ritory of the Lombards in Italy. But Rome, though often 
 threatened, was never subject to the dominion of the Lombards. 
 The exarchs, whose residence was usually at Ravenna, gov- 
 erned a part of Italy in the name of the Eastern emperors, 
 until the Lombard king, Astolphus, took Ravenna, A. D. 752. 
 But three years afterwards, the French king Pepin, father 
 of Charlemagne, defeated the Lombard king, and obliged him 
 to give up the exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis ( the 
 modern march or province of Ancona) to the see of Rome.
 
 48 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 Rome was nominally connected with the exarchate and thus 
 with the Eastern or Byzantine empire for nearly 200 years 
 after the defeat cf the Goths by Narses ; but the eighth century 
 saw a complete and permanent separation between the Romans 
 and the Eastern empire. Southern Italy was connected with 
 the Eastern empire for two or three centuries longer. 
 
 Charlemagne (= Charles the Great), the French king, having 
 assumed the iron crown of the Lombards in A. D. 774, and 
 become by degrees master of the best part of Europe, was 
 solemnly crowned Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III. in 
 Rome on Christmas eve, A. D. 800, his title being Carolus I. 
 Caesar Augustus, and his empire including Germany, Hol- 
 land, France, the greater part of Italy and Spain to the Ebro. 
 Charlemagne, dying in A. D. 814, was succeeded in the empire 
 by his son Louis I. le Ddbonnaire (= the Easy) or the 
 Pious, and in Italy by his grandson Bernard, who died three 
 years after in consequence of his eyes being put out by his 
 uncle Louis. The sons of Louis, admitted in A. D. 817 to a 
 share in the empire, quarreled among themselves, and then 
 attacked their father, who ended his troubled and inglorious 
 reign by dying in A. D. 840. His empire was then divided 
 among his three surviving sons, viz., Lothaire, who had Italy 
 and part of Southern France, with the title of emperor, and died 
 in A. D. 855, leaving his title and dominions to his son Louis 
 II., who had been crowned king of Italy about A. D. 844, and 
 died in A. D. 875 ; Louis the German, who had Germany, and 
 died in A. D. 875 ; and Charles the Bald, who had France, and, 
 having been crowned emperor after the death of his nephew, 
 Louis II. died in A. D. 877. Then Carloman, son of Louis the 
 German, was proclaimed king of Italy. After Carloman' s 
 death, his brother, Charles the Fat, was crowned emperor of 
 Rome A. D. 880, but in A. D. 887 the last was solemnly de- 
 posed as unworthy of the crown. 
 
 Thus ended in Italy the rule of the imperial dynasty of 
 Charlemagne, called the Carlovingian dynasty. Under the 
 weak successors of Charlemagne, the counts, marquises, and
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 49 
 
 other great feudatories of the Western Empire became really 
 independent. For more than seventy years after the deposi- 
 tion of Charles the Fat, the succession to the kingdom of Italy 
 was disputed by various contending lords ; at length, Otho the 
 Great, who had been elected Emperor of Germany in A. D. 936, 
 was crowned King of Italy at Milan in A. D. 961, and Emperor 
 of the West at Rome in A. D. 962. From this time till 1278 
 the pope, who had become lord of Rome and its duchy, was 
 either really or nominally under allegiance to the sovereigns 
 of Germany and of Italy. 
 
 During this period (1192) Rome imitated the example of 
 other Italian cities by the appointment of an annual foreign 
 magistrate to serve as a general, a criminal judge, and a pre- 
 server of the peace. For nearly 700 years this magistrate at 
 Rome was styled senator ; he was appointed by the pope for 
 six years, but his power, though he was still a civil magistrate 
 and superintendent of markets, horse-races, <fcc., dwindled to 
 almost nothing. 
 
 For a long time the popes were very weak as temporal 
 princes, though their ecclesiastical authority was widely ac- 
 knowledged ; but in May, 1278, Rudolph of Hapsburg, then 
 emperor of Germany, and ancestor of the present emperor 
 of Austria, denned by letters patent the States of the Church 
 as extending from Radicofani to Ceprano, on the frontiers of 
 Naples, and from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic ( Gulf 
 of Venice), including the former duchy of Spoleto, the march 
 of Ancona, and the Romagna ; and, releasing the people of 
 all those places from their oath of allegiance to the empire, 
 and giving up all the imperial rights over them, he acknow- 
 ledged the sovereignty of the same to belong to the see of 
 Rome. For the last six centuries, therefore, the popes have 
 been temporal sovereigns, though their prerogatives long con- 
 tinued indefinite, and from 1305 to 1376 they resided at 
 Avignon in France, in consequence of the factious disturb- 
 ances at Rome between the Colonna, Orsini, and other great 
 families.
 
 50 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 Thrice during this period has there been a short-lived 
 Roman republic, viz., in 1347, under Cola di Rienzi ; in 
 1797-9, under the French ; and in 1848-9, under Mazzini, 
 Garibaldi, and others. From 1809 to 1814 the city and some 
 other parts of Italy were incorporated into the French empire 
 under Napoleon. By the treaty of Vienna in 1814 the States 
 of the Church were restored to the pope as before the French 
 occupancy, embracing a territory of about 17,000 square miles, 
 extending about 280 miles in its greatest length from the 
 mouth of the Po southward to Cape Circello on the Mediter- 
 ranean, and about 140 miles in its greatest breadth from 
 Ancona southwesterly to Civita Vecchia. 
 
 For ten years after the last Roman republic fell before the 
 French army of Napoleon III. in the summer of 1849, the 
 pope retained substantially the same territory as from 1814 
 onward. But in 1859 the Romagna (== the region on the 
 Adriatic for seventy or eighty miles south of the Po) revolted, 
 and was in March, 1860, in accordance with a vote of the 
 inhabitants, formally annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia. In 
 September, 1860, a revolt broke out in the other states on the 
 Adriatic and the Apennines, and they likewise were soon 
 annexed to Sardinia by the joint action of the Sardinian legis- 
 lature and their own popular vote. 
 
 These revolts and connected events left to the pope in 1860 
 and the following years only about one-fourth of his former 
 territory, while Victor Emanuel II., who ascended the throne 
 of Sardinia in 1849, extended his dominions step by step from 
 the Alps to the southern extremity of Sicily, and was then pro- 
 claimed king of Italy by vote of the Italian parliament, March 
 17, 1861. When, in consequence of the war between France 
 and Prussia in 1870, the French troops, that for twenty years 
 had sustained the temporal authority of the pope, were with- 
 drawn from Italy, the troops of Victor Emanuel soon took 
 possession of the remainder of the States of the Church, and 
 on the 21st of September, 1870, Rome itself was occupied by 
 the Italian army amid great rejoicings. A popular vote was
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 51 
 
 held on the 2d of October, which was overwhelmingly in favor 
 of Italian unity. Rome, therefore, is now to be the capital 
 of Italy. 
 
 But the account of the popes and of their government given 
 in chapter III., supersedes the necessity of entering into any 
 further historical detail at this point. 
 
 We will now notice the geographical position and leading 
 features of the city itself. Rome is situated on both sides of the 
 river Tiber, about fifteen miles from the Mediterranean Sea. 
 The observatory of the Collegia Romano, which is a little north 
 of the center of the modern city, is in north latitude 41 53' 
 52", and in east longitude from Greenwich 12 28' 40", or from 
 "Washington 89 31' 28". Rome is, therefore, in the same 
 latitude with Chicago, and about five or ten miles further 
 north than the cities of Providence and Hartford ; but in its 
 warm climate it more nearly corresponds with our Southern 
 States. The olive and the orange are common fruits. The 
 Campagna, in the midst of which Rome stands, is an undulat- 
 ing plain, now for the most part very unhealthy and desolate, 
 extending about ninety miles along the coast, but shut in by 
 the Mediterranean on the southwest, and the mountains on the 
 northeast, so that in no place is it more than twenty-seven miles 
 in breadth. Scanty harvests are gathered from its ridges ; but 
 its chief use at present is to afford pasturage to vast herds of 
 cattle. Houses and trees are now seen only at wide intervals 
 upon its surface, while anciently the neighborhood of Rome 
 abounded in cities at first as flourishing as the eternal city her- 
 self. Yet the view of Rome from the neighboring heights, as 
 well as the view eastward from any of the heights in Rome, 
 is of rare beauty and interest. 
 
 The seven hills (some of which are called mounts) of 
 ancient Rome, the Aventine, Palatine, Celian, Esquiline, 
 Capitol or Capitoline, Viminal, and Quirinal, are all on the 
 east of the Tiber, and are, according to Sir George Schukburg, 
 from 117 to 154 feet above the level of the Mediterranean, 
 the Tiber itself in its passage through the city being thirty-
 
 52 THE CITY OP BOMB AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 three feet above the sea. Besides these seven hills, which are 
 all embraced within the modern city, the Pincian mount, 
 about 165 feet high, lies within and along the wall on the 
 northeast. On the west of the Tiber are the Vatican mount, 
 which is ninety-three feet high, and occupies the northwest 
 corner of the city ; and the Janiculum, or Janicular mount, 
 260 feet high, long counted one of the seven hills, occupies the 
 west and southwest part. The apparent elevation of the hills 
 of Rome was anciently greater than at present, because the 
 valleys are now raised fifteen or twenty feet, and in some 
 places much more, above their former level. 
 
 The famous river, called " the yellow Tiber " from the 
 color of its muddy waters, is about two hundred miles long, 
 and in its winding course of three miles through the city 
 averages about twenty rods wide and from twelve to eighteen 
 feet deep, sometimes during heavy rains and floods rising 
 more than thirty feet above its ordinary level and inundating 
 a considerable part of the city. In the winter, vessels of 
 nearly 200 tons can ascend the river to Rome ; but in the 
 summer, as there is no perceptible tide, only boats of forty or 
 fifty tons can pass over the bar at the mouth and reach the 
 city. Small steamboats navigate the river as far as Pontefe- 
 lice, which is about thirty-five miles in a straight line north- 
 west of Rome. There are but two landing places or quays in 
 the city, one (the Port of the Ripetta) on the east side between 
 the Piazza del Popolo and the Castle of St. Angelo ; the other 
 (the Port of the Ripa Grande) on the west side at the custom- 
 house, just above the southern wall. Five bridges are now in 
 use within the city, viz., Ponte Sant* Angelo, opposite the 
 Castle of St. Angelo ; Ponte Sisto, rebuilt by Pope Sixtus IV., 
 above the island; Ponte di Quattro Capi ( bridge of four 
 heads), and Ponte di San JBartolomeo, connecting the Tiberine 
 island ( now Isola di San Bartolomeo = island of St. Bartho- 
 lomew) with the east and west banks of the Tiber ; and Ponte 
 Rotto (partly ruined and .supplemented by a suspension bridge), 
 just below the island.
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 53 
 
 The ancient Romans built numerous and excellent military 
 roads, of which the Appian way leading from Rome south- 
 ward, and the Flaminian way leading northward, were the 
 most important to the city itself. The modern roads are 
 inferior to those which existed under the republic and empire. 
 Within a few years railroads have been built between Rome 
 and Civita Vecchia, Florence, Naples, <fec., which greatly in- 
 crease the facility of access to the city. 
 
 Rome has been for ages surrounded by a wall. Romulus is 
 said to have built one round the Palatine mount, and after- 
 wards to have fortified the Capitoline, Celian, and Aventine 
 mounts. King Servius Tullius built the first wall round the 
 seven hills, the Janiculum having been previously fortified by 
 Ancus Martius, who also built the Sublician bridge across the 
 Tiber. Though the city had long outgrown the wall of Servius, 
 and had been much improved, especially after the great fire in 
 the time of Nero, no new wall to protect the city seems to have 
 been built till the Emperor Aurelian, A. D. 271, began the wall, 
 which was completed under his successor, and repaired by 
 Honorius, and which, in the part east of the Tiber, is sub- 
 stantially the same with the present wall. The modern walls 
 on the west of the Tiber inclose nearly three times the area 
 on that side embraced by the Aurelian wall. The whole 
 Vatican quarter was inclosed in a separate wall, and added to 
 the city by Pope Leo IV., who in A. D. 852 formally named it 
 the Leonine city. The walls of Rome are from twelve to 
 thirteen miles in circuit, about fifty feet high on the outside, 
 but, from the accumulation of soil, not more than thirty feet on 
 the inside, built generally of brick, with some patches of 
 stonework, without any ditch, but crested with nearly 300 
 towers. The modern city has twenty gates, of which seven are 
 walled up. The principal entrance into Rome is on the 
 north, at the Porta del Popolo, which was built by Vignola in 
 1561 after the designs of the celebrated Michael Angelo. It 
 is about three miles, in a straight line, from the Porta del 
 Popolo on the north to the Porta San Sebasticmo at the
 
 64 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 extreme south ; and a little more than three miles from the 
 wall at the extreme west, behind St. Peter's, to that back of 
 the ancient Pretorian camp, which lay a mile east of the 
 Quirinal palace. Of the large area within the walls all but 
 about one-third is desolate. Only a few churches, convents, 
 and scattered habitations are found with the ruins, gardens, and 
 fields, which occupy the space lying east of a line from the 
 Porta del Popolo to the basilica of St. Mary Major, and south 
 of a line from the same church to the Tiberine island. The 
 panorama of Rome which forms the frontispiece of this volume, 
 and which is copied, by the owner's kind 'permission, from a 
 rare French engraving belonging to Rev. Wm. Patton, D. D., 
 will convey a better idea of the general appearance of the 
 modern city than could be given by the most minute and 
 labored description without it. But one allowance needs to be 
 made. The exigencies of the engraving led the original artist 
 to diminish the apparent distance between the Castle of St. 
 Angelo and St. Peter's Place, which are really about one-third 
 f a mile apart. 
 
 The term " Basilica," which is derived from the Greek, and 
 properly signifies " king's house," is applied to St. Peter's and 
 twelve other ancient churches of Rome and its immediate vici- 
 nity. The precise reason for this application of the term is a 
 matter of dispute ; but the Romans gave this name to large 
 roofed buildings supported on columns, and used as halls for 
 the administration of justice, &c. ; and the term may have been 
 applied to the early Christian churches on account of their 
 resemblance in form to these roofed and columned halls. 
 
 St. Peter's basilica, on the Vatican mount (Basilica di 
 San Pietro in Vaticano), has been called by the historian 
 Gibbon " the most glorious structure that ever has been 
 applied to the use of religion." It partly covers the ground 
 where the circus and gardens of Nero were ; the scene of early 
 Christian martyrdoms, and the reputed burial-place of the 
 apostle Peter as well as of other martyrs. It is said that 
 Anaclctus, St. Peter's successor in the bishopric of Rome, built
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 55 
 
 an oratory over the cemetery. In A. D. 306 the emperor Con- 
 stantine built on the spot a basilica, which after more than 
 1100 years threatened ruin, but part of which is now a crypt 
 or subterranean vault under its successor. A new building 
 was begun by Pope Nicholas V. in 1450, but the work was 
 interrupted by his death. April 18, 1506, Pope Julius II., 
 having adopted the designs of Bramante for a building in the 
 shape of a Latin cross with an immense cupola in the center, 
 and pulled down a part of the walls erected by his prede- 
 cessors, laid the foundation of one of the four colossal piers on 
 which the cupola was to rest. After the death of Julius II. 
 and of Bramante other popes and architects entered into their 
 labors, and the plans were repeatedly modified. The great 
 dome in its present shape is due to the renowned Michael 
 Angelo, an architect as well as painter, who, before his death 
 in 1563, completed the drum or upright part of the dome, 
 covered the body of the church, and cased the inside with 
 stone. The dome was finished by Giacomo della Porta in 
 1590, 30,000 Ibs. of iron having been, it is supposed, used in 
 its construction, and 600 workmen employed upon it night and 
 day by Pope Sixtus V. The facade, from a balcony in which 
 the Pope blesses the people on Holy Thursday and Easter 
 Sunday, and the portico, were planned by Carlo Maderno who 
 completed them under Paul Y. in 1614, and the stupendous 
 edifice was dedicated by Urban VIII., November 18, 1626. 
 The magnificent colonnades round St. Peter's Place, 55 feet 
 wide, and containing 284 majestic columns each 48 feet high, 
 besides 64 pilasters, were begun by Bernini under Alexander 
 VII. in 1661, and finished by him in 1667. Finally, Carlo Mar- 
 chionni under Pius VI. built the sacristy and chapter-house 
 adjoining the church in 1780. In the time of the same pope, 
 the roof of the interior was gilded, and the two clocks were 
 placed on the facade. The cost of the whole structure up to 
 1694 was estimated by Carlo Fontana at $47,000,000. Since 
 that time large sums have been spent for repairs, additions, 
 and improvements. Here column and pilaster, cornice and
 
 66 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 frieze,altar and throne and tomb, statue and medallion, gilt and 
 stucco, mosaic picture and bas-relief, bronze and stained glass, 
 granite and porphyry, marble and alabaster, and other mate- 
 rials and combinations of materials, in multiform colors and 
 shades, are all employed to give dignity and splendor and to 
 overwhelm the beholder with astonishment and awe. St. 
 Peter's is considered the largest, most beautiful, and most 
 imposing church ever erected by man. Its extreme length, as 
 marked on the center pavement of the nave, is 862.8 palms 
 (= 632 English feet), or 837 palms (= 613 English feet) 
 within the walls ; the extreme length of the transepts, or the 
 greatest width of the church, is 446 J^ feet; the width of the 
 nave and side aisles, including the massive pilasters or piers 
 that separate them, is 197| feet ; the height of the nave near 
 the door is 152^ feet, and its width here is 87 feet ; the 
 height of the dome from the pavement to the base of the 
 lantern is 405 feet, and to the top of the cross outside 448 
 feet ; the diameter of the cupola is 195 feet, or 139 feet in the 
 clear. The baldacchino, or grand canopy covering the high 
 altar under the center of the dome, is of bronze, supported by 
 four spiral composite columns, and covered with the richest 
 ornaments and foliage of gilt, is 95 feet high to the top of the 
 globe and cross, and cost about $100,000. Under the high 
 altar, where only the pope, or a cardinal specially authorized, 
 can celebrate mass, is the tomb of St. Peter, lighted perpetually 
 by 112 lamps. At the western end of the nave, in what is 
 called the tribune, and about 170 feet beyond the high altar, 
 is another majestic altar of fine marbles, and also the famous 
 " chair of St. Peter " ' in bronze, inclosing that chair in which, 
 
 1 The following description of St. Peter's chair is from the late Cardinal 
 Wiseman, and represents the current Roman Catholic view, in opposition to the 
 statements of Lady Morgan in her "Italy," that the French, while they occupied 
 Rome, at the beginning of this century, removed the hronze casket and discovered 
 this chair to have on it the inscription, " There is but one God, and Mohammed 
 is his prophet;" and that the chair was probably among the spoils of the crusaders 
 offered to the church. Cardinal Wiseman denies that the relic was inspected by the 
 French, and says of it : "A superb shrine of gilt bronze, supported by four gigantic
 
 INTERIOR OF ST. PETER'S, ROME.
 
 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 57 
 
 according to tradition, he and many of his successors officiated, 
 and supported by colossal statues of the four great doctors of 
 the church, St. Augustine, St. Ambrose, St. Athauasius (some 
 say St. Jerome instead), and St. John Chrysostom. On 
 each side of the nave, in the side aisles which are partially 
 separated by the piers and the arches between them, are 
 chapels which have their own altars. Other altars are placed 
 in the transept. There are also, besides the great dome or 
 
 figures of the same materials, representing the four doctors of the church, closes 
 the view of the nave of St. Peter's church. . . The shrine is in the form of a throne, 
 and contains a chair which the Prince of the Apostles is supposed to have occupied, 
 
 CHAIR OF 8T. PETER. 
 
 as bishop of Rome. It is a tradition, certainly of great antiquity, that St. Peter 
 was received into the house of the senator Pudens, and there laid the foundation 
 of the Roman church fsee Chapter III.]. According to the custom of the Jews, 
 and of all the early churches, a chair or throne would be occupied by him when 
 teaching, or assisting at the divine worship. It is in fact from this circumstance
 
 58 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 cupola, 1 others, four round and six oval, placed over the side 
 aisles. The well known bronze statue of St. Peter on a marble 
 chair, is placed near the center of the north side of the nave, 
 against one of the colossal piers which support the great 
 dome. The facade, built entirely of a white limestone called 
 travertine, is 379 feet long and 148^ feet high. We consider 
 that a large church which holds 2,000 people standing ; but St. 
 Peter's has been known to have 100,000 people inside its walls 
 at one time, enough to fill 50 of our city churches. The 
 
 that the term sedes [Latin], cathedra [Latin, from Greek kathedra], thrones [Greek], 
 seat, chair, or throne, became the ordinary appellation of episcopal jurisdiction. The 
 chair of St. Peter is precisely such a one as we should have supposed to be given 
 by a wealthy Roman senator to a ruler of the church, which he esteemed and pro- 
 tected. It is of wood, almost entirely covered with ivory, so as to be justly con- 
 sidered a curule chair. It may be divided into two principal parts ; the square or 
 cubic portion which forms the body, and the upright elevation behind, which forms 
 the back. The former portion is four Roman palms [= about 33 inches] across the 
 front, two and a half [ = nearly 21 inches] at the side, and three and a half [ about 
 29 inches] in height. It is formed by four upright posts, united together by transverse 
 bars above and below. The sides are filled up by a species of arcade consisting of 
 two pilasters of carved wood, supporting, with the corner posts, three little arches. 
 The front is extremely rich, being divided into 18 small compartments, disposed in 
 three rows. Each contains a basso-rilievo in ivory, of the most exquisite finish, sur- 
 rounded by ornaments of the purest gold. These bassi-rilievi represent, not the 
 feats of Mohammed, or Ali, or Osman, or any other Paynim chieftain, as the read- 
 ers of Lady Morgan might expect, unless they knew that the religion of the prophet 
 does not tolerate any graven images at all, but the exploits of the monster- 
 quelling Hercules. The custom of adorning curule chairs with sculptured ivory is 
 mentioned by the ancients. . . . The back of the chair is formed by a scries of 
 pilasters supporting arches, as at the sides ; the pillars here are three in number, 
 and the arches four. Above the cornice, which these support, rises a triangular 
 pediment, giving to the whole a tasteful and architectural appearance. Besides the 
 bassi-rilievi above mentioned, the rest of the front, the moldings of the back, and 
 the tympanum of the pediment, are all covered with beautifully wrought ivory. 
 The chair, therefore, is manifestly of Roman workmanship, a curule chair, such as 
 might be occupied by the head of the church, adorned with ivory and gold, as might 
 befit the house of a wealthy Roman senator ; while the exquisite finish of the sculp- 
 ture forbids u&,to consider it more modern than the Augustan age, when the arts 
 were in their greatest perfection. There is another circumstance, which deserves 
 particular mention in the description of this chair, and exactly corresponds to the 
 time of St. Peter's first journey to Rome. This event took place in the reign of 
 Claudius ; and it is precisely at this period that, as Justus Lipsius has well proved, 
 seilce yfstatori(e [ = sedan-chairs] began to be used by men of rank in Rome. For it is 
 after this period, that Suetonius, Seneca, Tacitus, Juvenal, and Martial, mention
 
 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 59 
 
 illuminations on Easter Sunday and at the festival of St. Peter 
 (June 29) are magnificent. All parts of the edifice up to the 
 summit of the cross are then lighted up at dusk \vith 5900 
 lanterns of white paper ; and at 8 o'clock P. M. on Easter, and 
 an hour later on St. Peter's day, 900 lamps (iron cups filled 
 with tallow and turpentine) are instantaneously lighted, when 
 from these 6800 blazing centers the light streams forth so 
 brilliantly upon the surrounding darkness that the whole seems 
 a vision of glory. " The wonder, the beauty, of that great 
 glowing temple of fiery jewels," says an eye-witness, " no 
 words can tell." 
 
 the practice of being borne in chairs. This was done by means of rings placed at 
 their sides, through which poles were passed ; and thus the chair was carried by- 
 slaves upon their shoulders. At each side of St. Peter's chair are two rings, mani- 
 festly intended for this purpose. Thus, while the workmanship of this venerable 
 relic necessarily refers its date to an early period of the Roman empire, this pecu- 
 liarity fixes it at a period not earlier than the reign of Claudius, in which St. Peter 
 arrived at Rome." 
 
 Cardinal Wiseman, whose essay furnishes the engraving here copied, also ad- 
 duces as confirmatory of the Roman Catholic tradition passages from ancient eccle- 
 siastical writers, especially from Ennodius of Pavia A.D. 503 the festival on the 
 18th of January, in honor of the chair and the " demonstrated fact, that the early 
 Christians, well knowing that ' an idol is nothing,' made no scruple of turning to 
 pious uses, and employing in the worship of the church, objects adorned with the 
 symbols of idolatry." He also claims that Lady Morgan's story originated thus : 
 The stone chair, called by the vulgar ' the chair of St. Peter,' and long kept in 
 the old patriarchal church of St. Peter at Venice as having been used by Peter at 
 Antioch, has on it an Arabic inscription composed of several verses from the Koran 
 in the Cufic character; this chair has been confounded by some blundering or ma- 
 licious person with the ivory throne of the Vatican basilic, which is the chair used 
 by St. Peter at Rome, according to the Roman Catholic tradition. 
 
 It should be added, that this tradition is universally discredited by Protestants, 
 because it cannot be proved that St. Peter either founded the church at Rome or 
 was ever the bishop there (see Chapter III.); because he can not rationally be sup- 
 posed to have transgressed, by possessing or occupying such a chair, the Savior's 
 express command in Mat. 20 : 25-27 ; because neither could Christians, nor would 
 Pagans, have preserved such a chair through the terrible persecutions that followed ; 
 because it would have been as easy, after the custom of honoring relics arose in the 
 4th century, (see Chapter XV. ), to introduce such a chair as anything else to a posi- 
 tion of popular veneration ; and because there is good reason to believe, from what 
 has been said by Tillemont, a Roman Catholic historian, by Dr. De Sanctis, who 
 was long familiar with matters at Rome, and by others, that different chairs have 
 had the honor of representing the chair of St. Peter (see Chapter XXVI.).
 
 60 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 But St. Peter's is by no means the only one among the 365 
 churches of modern Rome that is deserving of special notice. 
 The basilica of St. John Lateran (Basilica di San Giovanni in 
 Laterand), in the S. E. part of the city, is in some important 
 respects the first of the Roman churches. The title Lateran, 
 or in Laterano, is derived from the former owner of the site, 
 Plautius Lateranus, who was put to death by Nero. On this 
 Lateran estate, years afterwards, stood an imperial palace, to 
 which Constantino annexed a church or chapel. The palace 
 was the residence of the bishop of Rome from Constantino's 
 day down to the fourteenth century ; and the church, enlarged 
 at different times, became, as it is now, the pope's episcopal 
 church. Its ecclesiastics take precedence over those of St. 
 Peter's. In this church the popes for many centuries have 
 been crowned. Here many council's have been held, five of 
 them general. The inscription over the door styles this " the 
 Mother and Head of all the churches of the city and of the 
 world." The old edifice was nearly destroyed by fire in 1308 ; 
 but it was restored by Clement V., and has since been enlarged 
 and remodeled. Its splendid front, from one of the balconies 
 of which the pope gives his benediction to the people on As- 
 cension day, its rich carved and gilt ceiling, its pillars and 
 statues, paintings and bronzes, medallions and other orna- 
 ments, give to this basilica a magnificent and imposing char- 
 acter. One of its great attractions is " the Holy Stairs," 
 consisting of 28 marble steps, traditionally declared to have 
 belonged to Pilate's house, and to have been sanctified by being 
 ascended and descended by our Savior at the time of his pas- 
 sion ; now kept under a portico on the north side of the basil- 
 ica, preserved from further wear by being covered over with 
 planks, and allowed to be ascended by penitents only on their 
 knees. When Martin Luther was humbly creeping up these 
 stairs, he thought he heard a voice of thunder in his heart, cry- 
 ing, " The just shall live by faith ;" and in amazement and 
 shame he rose from his knees, and fled from the place.
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 61 
 
 The basilica of St. Mary Major (Basilica di Santa Maria 
 Maggiore), also called the Liberian basilica from its founder, 
 and situated on the summit of the Esquiline hill, is said to 
 have been founded in A. D. 352 by Pope Liberius and John, a 
 Roman patrician, on the spot covered by a miraculous fall of 
 snow in August. It has been enlarged, restored, and embel- 
 lished by various popes. It is called St. Mary Major from its 
 being the principal of more than 20 Roman churches dedicated 
 to the Virgin Mary. It has two facades, from a balcony in 
 the principal of which the pope pronounces his benediction on 
 the Festival of the Assumption. The interior of this basilica 
 is richly decorated and considered one of the finest in the 
 world. The nave is 280 feet long by about 60 wide ; the roof 
 is flat, paneled, elaborately carved, and gilt with the first gold 
 brought to Spain from South America and presented by Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella to Pope Alexander VI. The gorgeous chapel 
 in the right aisle, built by Pope Sixtus" V., and styled the 
 Sixtine chapel or chapel of the Holy Sacrament, is magnifi- 
 cently adorned, and has in its center the smaller chapel of the 
 Prcesepe (== manger, or crib), where is preserved the sacred 
 crib or cradle, consisting of five boards of the manger in which 
 the infant Jesus is said to have been deposited at his birth, in- 
 closed in an urn of silver and crystal with a fine gilt figure of 
 the child on the top. This crib forms the subject of a solemn 
 ceremony and procession on Christmas eve. 
 
 The basilica of St. Paul (Basilica di San Paolo), or Ostian 
 basilica, situated outside of the wall of Rome, about a mile 
 and a quarter south of St. Paul's gate on the road to Ostia, 
 also traces back its origin to the emperor Constantino ; but was 
 rebuilt in the latter part of the 4th century ; restored in the 
 8th century ; burnt July 16, 1823 ; subsequently rebuilt, and 
 dedicated by Pius IX. in December, 1854. It is the most gor- 
 geous and costly of all the basilicas. It has 80 magnificent 
 Corinthian columns of granite, with capitals of white marble, 
 between the nave and the aisles. The edifice is grandly rich 
 in its carved wood-work and gilding, its alabaster and marble,
 
 62 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 its pictures, statues, altars, &c. Here are, among other elab- 
 orate works, frescoes representing the principal events in St. 
 Paul's life, and portraits of the popes in mosaic. Here is the 
 traditional burial-place of St. Paul, whose body is said to have 
 been removed here from the Vatican in A. D. 251. 
 
 The last of the five great basilicas of Rome is that of San 
 Lorenzo (=St. Lawrence), about a mile east of the basilica of 
 St. Mary Major, half a mile beyond the city wall, and near the 
 public cemetery. This also is said to have been founded by 
 the emperor Constantine, and subsequently enlarged. It was 
 partly rebuilt in A. D. 578 ; and in 1216 a new nave and vesti- 
 bule-portico were added at the west end, the old entrance hav- 
 ing been at the east. In 1217, Peter de Courtenay, Count of 
 Auxerre, was crowned here as emperor of the East on his way 
 to Constantinople, which had been taken by the crusaders ; but 
 he never reached his destination, though his sons Robert and 
 Baldwin were afterwards Latin emperors at Constantinople. 
 
 Besides these five great basilicas, there are eight lesser ba- 
 silicas, one of the most remarkable of which is the basilica of 
 Santa Croce in Grerusalemme (Holy Cross in Jerusalem), or 
 Sessorian basilica, on the site of the ancient Sessorian palace, 
 and near the southeast extremity of the modern city. Its name 
 is derived from the portion (one-third) of the true cross of our 
 Savior said to have been deposited in it by the empress Hel- 
 ena, mother of its founder Constantine, and from the earth 
 from Jerusalem brought hither and mixed with the founda- 
 tions. Frequent alterations and restorations have been made, 
 and its present form of about a century's age is due to pope 
 Benedict XIV. Here formerly took place the consecration of 
 the golden rose, which was sent every year by the popes to 
 sovereign princes. Here, too, are large collections of relics. 
 Under this basilica is the chapel of St. Helena, which ladies 
 are forbidden, on pain of excommunication, to enter, except on 
 the 20th of March, the anniversary of its dedication. 
 
 The basilica of Santa Agnese fuori le Mura ( St. Agnes 
 beyond the walls), situated about two miles northeast of the
 
 THE crrr OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 63 
 
 Quirinal palace, and founded in A.D. 324 by Constantino, is 
 remarkable for preserving its ancient form and arrangement 
 unchanged, and for the celebration here, on the 21st of January, 
 of the festival of St. Agnes, when two lambs are blessed by the 
 pope, to be afterwards reared by the nuns of a convent in 
 Rome for their wool, of which are made the sacred palls worn 
 by the pope and other great dignitaries of the Roman Catholic 
 church. 
 
 Rome has 54 parish churches, most of which, as well as of 
 the great multitude attached to monasteries, <fec., would else- 
 where be considered remarkable for their architectural and 
 decorative splendor. Only a few of these can be briefly noticed 
 here. 
 
 The church of San? Andrea delta Valle (= St. Andrew of 
 the Valley), built in 1591, and lying in the valley southwest of 
 the Pantheon, is one of the best specimens of modern church 
 architecture. Its frescoes are celebrated, and its cupola is 
 beautiful. 
 
 The church Ara Coeli ( altar of heaven), or Santa Maria 
 di Ara Coeli, occupying the site of the ancient temple of Jupi- 
 ter Capitolinus, on the Capitoline hill, near the modern Capitol, 
 is probably as old as the 4th century ; but is specially venerated 
 by the Romans on account of the Santissimo Bamlino, or most 
 holy baby, a figure of the infant Savior, which is reputed to 
 have miraculous powers in curing the sick, and whose festival, 
 attended by crowds of Italian peasantry, takes place from 
 Christmas day to the Epiphany. 
 
 The church II G-esu ( the Jesus), one of the richest and 
 most gorgeous in Rome, belonged to the Jesuits. It was founded 
 in 1575, and is situated about midway between the Capitol and 
 the Pantheon. Here the body of St. Ignatius, the founder of 
 the order, is preserved in a splendid urn of gilt bronze, adorned 
 with precious stones, &c. Annexed to the church is an extensive 
 building, which was, during their existence in Rome, the head- 
 quarters of the Jesuits, and the residence of their general. 
 
 The church of Santa Maria degli Angeli ( St. Mary of the
 
 64 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 Angels), altered by Michael Angelo under pope Pius IY. out of 
 one of the halls of Diocletian's baths, and situated about half 
 a mile east of the Quirinal palace, is one of the most imposing 
 churches of Rome, and contains some fine large paintings. Be- 
 hind the church is the Carthusian convent, with its celebrated 
 cloister also designed by Michael Angelo. 
 
 The church of Santa Maria del Popolo (= the People's St. 
 Mary) was founded about 1099, in order to protect the people 
 against ghosts, and occupies the spot at the north extremity 
 of the city, where the ashes of Nero are said to have been dis- 
 covered and scattered to the winds. Rebuilt by the Roman 
 people in 1227 (hence a part of its name), and since restored, 
 completed, and embellished, it has in its fine frescoes, mosaics, 
 sculptures, &c., features of uncommon interest. 
 
 The twin churches of Santa Maria di Monte Santo (= St. 
 Mary of the Sacred Mount), and Santa Maria de' Miracoli 
 (=St. Mary of the Miracles), situated on the Piazza del Po- 
 polo , on opposite corners of the Corso, are chiefly remarkable 
 for being built about 200 years ago in the same style of archi- 
 tecture after the designs of Rainaldi. 
 
 The church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva (== St. Mary on 
 Minerva), at the southeast of the Pantheon, rebuilt in 1370 on 
 the site of a temple of Minerva which Pompey built, is the only 
 church in Rome of the pointed Gothic style. It belongs to the 
 Dominicans, whose head-quarters are in the adjacent monas- 
 tery. It has a full-length statue of Christ, one of Michael 
 Angelo's masterpieces. The church was restored in the 17th 
 century, and again, at an expense of $125,000, from 15 to 20 
 years ago. 
 
 The church of Santa Maria delle Piante (== St. Mary of the 
 foot-print), commonly called Domine quo vadis (= Lord, 
 whither goest thou?), a small old church about half a milo 
 south of the St. Sebastian gate, is so named because it is said 
 that St. Peter, fleeing from prison along the Appian way, here 
 met our Lord going towards Rome and bearing his cross, and 
 in astonishment asked him, " Lord, whither goest thou ?"
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 65 
 
 Jesus answering, " I go to Rome to be crucified again," Peter 
 immediately returned to Rome, where he was crucified the next 
 day ; but our Lord, on disappearing, left the print of his foot 
 on a stone of the pavement. The foot-prints, or rather copies 
 of them in white marble, are here shown and greatly vene- 
 rated. 
 
 The church of /San Pietro in Montorio (= St. Peter on Monto- 
 rio), situated on the highest point of the Janiculum (now called 
 Montorio), where the citadel anciently stood, is said to have 
 been founded by Constantino near where St. Peter was cruci- 
 fied, and was rebuilt at the expense of Ferdinand and Isabella 
 qf Spain about the time of the discovery of America, and re- 
 stored since its partial destruction during the siege of Rome 
 by the French in 1849. On the spot in the adjoining convent 
 where St. Peter is supposed to have suffered martyrdom, is 
 Bramante's celebrated temple, a small circular building with 
 16 Doric columns, universally admired as a gem of architecture. 
 From the platform in front of this church an excellent view of 
 the city may be obtained. 
 
 The church of San Stefano Rotondo (= St. Stephen Rotun- 
 da), on the western part of the Celian hill, is, as the name in- 
 dicates, a circular church dedicated to St. Stephen, probably 
 once a part of the great meat-market of Nero's time, and is 
 said to have been consecrated as a church in A.D. 467. Service 
 is held here only early on Sunday morning and on St. Stephen's 
 day (Dec. 26).' 
 
 Next to the churches, the palaces of Rome deserve to be no- 
 ticed. Close to St. Peter's is the famous Vatican palace, the 
 largest in Europe. The date of its foundation is uncertain, 
 some ascribing it to one of the early popes, others tracing it 
 back to the emperor Constantine. It was the residence of 
 Charlemagne at his coronation in A.D. 800 ; it was rebuilt in 
 the 12th century ; and, as being near the castle of St. Angelo, 
 it was made the pope's permanent residence after the return 
 from Avignon in 1377. It now consists of an immense pile of 
 buildings, irregular in their plan, and constructed or renewed 
 5
 
 66 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 at different times, by different popes and architects, mostly 
 since 1450. It is 1151 feet long and 767 feet broad ; it has 
 8 grand staircases, 200 smaller ones, 20 courts, and 4422 rooms. 
 In the Papal palace, properly so called, we notice first the 
 great staircase by Bernini, called the Scala Regia, consisting of 
 two flights, the lower decorated with Ionic columns, the upper 
 with pilasters. This staircase leads up to the Sola Regia, or 
 hall of audience for ambassadors, which is covered with fres- 
 coes relating to the history of the popes, as the Absolution of 
 the Emperor Henry IY. by Pope Gregory VII., the Massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew, &c. The Sola Regia serves as a vestibule 
 to the Capella Sistiua (=Sistine chapel, or Sixtine chapel) 
 and to the Capella Paolina (= Pauline chapel) . The Sistine 
 chapel, named from pope SixtusIV.,who built it in 1473 from 
 the designs of Baccio Pintelli, is a lofty oblong hall, about 135 
 feet long and 45 feet wide, with a gallery running round three 
 of its sides ; and is famous through the world for its frescoes, 
 especially for the great fresco of the last judgment, 60 feet high 
 and 30 feet broad, which employed Michael Angelo nearly eight 
 years, and occupies the end wall opposite the entrance. Mass 
 in this chapel by the pope, on the first of January and at cer- 
 tain other times, is one of the greatest attractions to foreigners, 
 which can be found in Rome. The Pauline chapel, built in 
 1540 by pope Paul III. from the designs of Antonio de San- 
 gallo, is only used in great ceremonies, and contains two re- 
 markable frescoes by Michael Angelo, which, like those in the 
 Sistine chapel, have been greatly injured by smoke, damp, and 
 neglect. The Loggie is a three-story portico, adorned with 
 beautiful frescoes and painted stuccoes, designed by Bramante, 
 Raphael, <fec. There are also in the Papal palace other apart- 
 ments filled with works of art and curiosities. A corridor or 
 gallery, about 1000 feet long, joins the Papal palace to the 
 building called Belvedere, which is used as a museum. About 
 half way up this corridor is the entrance to the Vatican library, 
 which was founded by pope Nicholas V. in 1447, and furnished 
 by pope Sixtus V. in 1588 with this building designed by Fon-
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 67 
 
 tana. This library has besides a large collection of printed 
 books, estimated by some as high as 125,000 the finest col- 
 lection known of Greek, Latin, and Oriental manuscripts, num- 
 bering 23,580 in 1858, and including, among other rare and 
 valuable ones, the celebrated Vatican manuscript of the Bible 
 in ancient Greek, a Hebrew Bible for which the Jews of Venice 
 offered its weight in gold, a palimpsest of Cicero de Republica^ 
 regarded as the oldest Latin manuscript extant, &c. The Vati- 
 can museum, contained in the long corridors, in the court and 
 palace of the Belvedere, &c., embraces several of the finest 
 known collections, as of ancient sepulchral inscriptions and 
 monuments, ancient sculptures, pictures, <fcc. The statue of 
 the god Apollo, found at the end of the 15th century in ancient 
 Antium, called, from its being placed here, the Apollo Belve- 
 dere, and the group of Laocoon and his sons crushed by ser- 
 pents, also in the court of the Belvedere, are justly considered 
 masterpieces of the sculptor's art. Of the pictures here, the 
 communion of St. Jerome is the masterpiece of Domenichino ; 
 and the Transfiguration, left unfinished by Raphael at his death, 
 is commonly regarded as the finest oil-painting in the world. 
 The gardens are very extensive, reaching back to the wall of 
 the city, and affording room for the pope to take exercise on 
 horseback, which court etiquette permits only on his own 
 grounds. 
 
 The Quirinal Palace, on the Quirinal hill, which is now 
 commonly called Monte Cavallo, was begun by pope Gregory 
 XIII. in 1574, but was not completed in its present form till 
 the end of the 17th century. It is now the most habitable and 
 princely of the papal residences in Rome. It has extensive 
 gardens, filled with statues, fountains, and shady walks, and 
 containing among other curiosities an organ played by water. 
 It has its grand halls the Sola Regia being 190 feet long and 
 richly decorated, and two others being each 100 feet long its 
 private chapel, called the Pauline chapel, of the same size and 
 form as the Sistine chapel at the Vatican its picture-galleries, 
 and other sumptuous apartments, &c. The Quirinal has been
 
 68 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 the pope's usual residence during a part of the summer, and 
 was for many years the scat of the conclave for the election of 
 pope. 
 
 The Lateran palace, as already mentioned, was the pope's 
 residence for 1000 years after the time of Constantino. The 
 palace, as well as the basilica adjacent, was nearly destroyed 
 by fire in 1308 ; but it was rebuilt in the 16th and 17th centu- 
 ries, and was converted into a hospital by Innocent XII. in 
 1698, and into a museum by Gregory XVI. in 1843. Here are 
 deposited, not only Christian antiquities, but all works of art 
 recently discovered or acquired, for which room could not be 
 found at the Vatican and the Capitol.* 
 
 The Capitol, or Piazza del Campidoglio, is a square of pala- 
 ces covering the summit of the Capitoline hill. In the center 
 of this square stands the admirable equestrian statue of the 
 emperor Marcus Aurelius, the only ancient bronze equestrian 
 statue that has come down to us entire. Of the three palaces 
 on the three sides of the square, the central one, facing the 
 steps by which the ascent is made from the north, is the palace 
 of the Senator, built by Boniface IX. at the end of the 14th 
 century as a fortified residence for the Senator of Rome, and 
 containing the hall in which the Senator holds his court, the 
 museum of ancient architecture, the offices of the municipality, 
 the observatory of the Capitol, &c. The great bell, which rings 
 only to announce the death of the pope and the beginning of 
 the carnival, is suspended in the tower of the Capitol, from the 
 summit of which one of the best views of Rome may be obtained. 
 On the west side of the square is the palace of the Conserva- 
 tors, containing a gallery of the busts of illustrious Italians, a 
 picture-gallery, the famous Bronze Wolf suckling Romulus and 
 Remus, &c. On the east side of the square is the Capitoline 
 
 * The pope has had also a summer palace healthily and picturesquely located at 
 Castel GandoJfo, a village 12 or 14 miles east of Home, where was a medieval strong- 
 hold belonging to the Gandolfi family. The papal palace here is a plain building with 
 some large and convenient apartments, begun about 1630, subsequently enlarged, 
 and completed in its present state in the 18th century.
 
 THE CITY OP BOMB AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 69 
 
 museum, or Gallery of Sculptures, in one room of which, called 
 the Hall of the Dying Gladiator, are some exquisite statues be- 
 sides the celebrated one which gives it its name. 
 
 Besides the public palaces which have been named, Rome 
 has 60 or more private palaces, some of which, as the Barbe- 
 rini, Borghese, and Doria, are remarkable not only for their 
 great size and magnificence, but also for the valuable works of 
 art contained in them. The Farnese palace, regarded as archi- 
 tecturally the finest in Rome, was built of materials from the 
 Coliseum, and belongs to the ex-king of Naples. 
 
 The palace of the Inquisition, a vast edifice built by Pius Y. 
 behind St. Peter's, has been of late years occupied as a barrack 
 by the French troops in garrison at Home (see Chapter XL). 
 
 The Palazzo della Cancelleria, one of the most magnificent 
 palaces in Rome, situated west of the Pantheon, about mid- 
 way between it and the Tiber, and built of materials taken from 
 the Coliseum and other ancient edifices, is the official residence 
 of the Cardinal Yice-Chancellor, the seat of several ecclesiasti- 
 cal congregations, and the place where the Roman parliament 
 met in June, 1848, and where the pope's minister, Count Rossi, 
 was assassinated the next month. 
 
 The villas in Rome and its vicinity deserve to be noticed. 
 Among the most noted of these are the Villa Ludovisi, in the N.E. 
 part of the city ; the Villa Borghese, a favorite resort both of 
 residents and foreigners, just outside the Porta del Popolo ; and 
 the Villa Albani, east of the latter. All these have extensive 
 grounds, galleries of statues, &c., accessible to the public. "A 
 few cardinals," says Forsyth, " created all the great villas of 
 Rome. Their riches, their taste, their learning, their leisure, 
 their frugality, all conspired in this single object." 
 
 Among the educational institutions of the city, are the Uni- 
 versity of Rome ( Collegia della Sapienza = college of wisdom), 
 founded by pope Innocent IV. in 1244, but afterwards much 
 enlarged in its plan and endowments, and situated about one- 
 eighth of a mile west of the Pantheon, towards the large oval 
 place called the Piazza Navona. It has about 50 professors
 
 70 THE CITY OP BOMB AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 in its five faculties of theology, law, medicine, natural philoso- 
 phy, and philology. Attached to it are a library, a museum, a 
 botanic garden, west of the Tiber, and the observatory on the 
 Capitol. The lectures are gratuitous, the government paying 
 each professor a salary of about $400. The number of students 
 in 1870 is said to be 700. This university is one of the oldest 
 in Europe. 
 
 -The Collegia Romano ( Roman College), also called the 
 Gregorian University, built in 1582 by pope Gregory XIII., and 
 situated about one-eighth of a mile nearly east of the Pantheon 
 towards the Corso, was exclusively under the control of the 
 Jesuits until the capture of Rome in 1870. It has a good 
 library and museum, and the best observatory in Italy. 
 
 The Collegio di Propaganda Fide, commonly known as the 
 College of the Propaganda, was founded in 1627 by Urban 
 VIII. for the purpose of educating young foreigners as Roman 
 Catholic missionaries among their own countrymen. It is 
 situated at the south extremity of the Piazza di Spagna, about 
 two-thirds of the way from the Piazza del Popolo towards the 
 Quirinal palace. It has generally about 100 pupils, who come 
 from India, Abyssinia, Greece, Armenia, the United States, &c. 
 Its celebrated printing office is especially rich in Oriental types. 
 
 Rome has also about 20 other colleges, besides academies of 
 the fine arts, of archaeology, of music, of science-, etc. It has 
 had, until now, no general system of popular education ; but 
 there were some parish schools for gratuitous instruction, and 
 other schools under the curates of the parishes, and under 
 private teachers. In all the schools of Rome there were said 
 to be, in 1870, 16,000 children, or one-fourteenth of the 
 entire population. 
 
 The leading periodical has been the Civilta Cattolica, pub- 
 lished semi-monthly by the Jesuits. Others were started after 
 the capture of Rome in 1870. 
 
 Of the numerous hospitals, which have had an animal 
 endowment from lands, from grants, and from the papal 
 treasury of more than $250,000, and can accommodate in
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 71 
 
 ordinary times about 4000 patients at once, the largest is 
 that of Santo Spirito (=Holy Spirit), near St. Peter's. It 
 combines an ordinary hospital for males, with a foundling 
 hospital, and a lunatic asylum ; and has usually about 600 
 in the first, 400 in the second, and 430 in the last. The 
 mortality among the nearly 15,000 patients annually received 
 into the first has been a little more than 7f per cent. ; but 
 of the foundlings 57 per cent, die, the number who died in 
 the five years ending with 1846 being 2941 out of the 5382 
 received from Rome and other parts of Italy ; while of the 
 lunatics the annual mortality is 11 per cent. The hospitals 
 are generally clean and well ventilated; but the system of 
 management is still far from being good, though the introduc- 
 tion into them of the Sisters of Charity by the late Princess 
 Doria produced great changes for the better in their internal 
 economy. The Roman hospitals are decidedly inferior to 
 those of Florence, Milan, <fcc. ; and the medical men of Rome 
 have neither periodical nor medical society of their own. In 
 all the hospitals, except the small one founded by German Pro- 
 testants, the friars and other attendants have been assiduous 
 in their endeavors to further the cause of Romanism, especially 
 among the patients from Protestant countries. 
 
 The hospital of San Michele (=St. Michael), on the west 
 bank of the Tiber, at the Ripa Grande, an immense establish- 
 ment, formerly intended as an asylum for poor children and 
 infirm persons, and afterwards divided into a house of industry 
 for boys and girls, a house of correction for women and 
 children, and schools of the industrial and fine arts, was, under 
 Pius IX., converted into a prison. It is capable of containing 
 2000 prisoners. 
 
 The workhouse of Santa Maria degli Angeli, founded in 
 1824 at the Baths of Diocletian, contains nearly 1000 boys 
 and girls, selected from the deserving in different parishes of 
 the city, and supported here chiefly by the government and by 
 the avails of their own industry. The boys are taught trades 
 and music ; the girls are fitted for domestic service.
 
 72 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 But, with all its great and richly-endowed institutions for 
 dispensing charity, Rome has no alms-house for the aged poor 
 no systematic provision for the relief of the suffering poor 
 in general, except by a resort to begging. And for ages 
 beggars have been very numerous and very importunate in this 
 city of wonders. 
 
 The squares or places (in Italian, piazza), obelisks, and 
 fountains of Rome are among its distinguishing characteristics. 
 There are enumerated 148 squares, 150 fountains, and 12 
 obelisks. The Piazza di San Pietro ( St. Peter's place), in 
 front of St. Peter's basilica, surrounded by magnificent colon- 
 nades with four rows of columns, is of an oval shape, 787 feet 
 in its greatest diameter. Its two beautiful fountains throw up 
 the water to the height of about 18 feet or 64 feet above the 
 pavement, and receive the water, as it falls, into granite basins 
 15 feet in diameter, from which running water and spray fall 
 into octagonal basins of travertine about 28 feet in diameter. 
 The obelisk in the center is a solid mass of red granite, 82 
 feet high, or, with its base (which is 8| feet broad) and modern 
 ornaments at the top, 132 feet high, and weighing 360 tons. 
 It was brought from Heliopolis in Egypt to Rome in the reign 
 of Caligula, and was erected on its present site by the architect 
 Fontana under Pope Sixtus V. in 1586. 600 men, 140 horses, 
 and 46 cranes were employed in moving it a short distance 
 and erecting it on its pedestal, at an expense of nearly 
 $40,000. 
 
 The Piazza del Popolo (==. the people's place) has also its 
 fountains, and an interesting obelisk of red granite erected by 
 Fontana under Sixtus V. in 1589. It is covered with hiero- 
 glyphics , originally stood before the Temple of the Sun at 
 Heliopolis, was removed to Rome by Augustus, rededicated to 
 the sun, and placed in the Circus Maximus, about a mile and 
 a half south of its present position. Its shaft is 78 feet high, 
 and the entire height from the ground to the top of the cross 
 about 112 feet. On the east of the Piazza del Popolo are the 
 Pincian Gardens, beautifully laid out in flower-gardens, drives,
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 73 
 
 and "walks, and much frequented. From the Piazza del Popolo 
 run the three principal streets, the Via del Corso directly- 
 south, with the Via del Babuino on the east of it, and the Via 
 delle Ripetta on the west. The Via del Babuino leads to the 
 Piazza di Spagna (== place of Spain), on and near which are 
 the principal hotels, reading-rooms, <fec., and at the south end 
 of which is the College of the Propaganda. The Via delle 
 Ripetta leads to the Porto di Ripetta on the Tiber. 
 
 The Piazza Navona, a short distance west of the Pantheon, 
 is a fine oval place, one of the largest in Rome, on the site of 
 an ancient circus. Of the three fountains in this place, the 
 central and largest one, executed by Bernini under pope 
 Innocent X., and ornamented with statues, <fcc., consists of a 
 round basin about 75 feet in diameter, rising above which, 
 from a pedestal placed on a rock, is a red granite obelisk, its 
 shaft nearly 53 feet high and covered with hieroglyphics, and 
 its whole height from the ground about 115 feet. The Piazza 
 Navona is the seat of a weekly market for vegetables, and, at 
 certain times in summer, of a lake, formed by artificial inun- 
 dation, in which carriages circulate from noon till sunset. 
 
 The Piazza di Pasquino ( place of Pasquin) , a little west 
 of the southwest corner of the Piazza Navona, is small, but 
 contains the famous " statue of Pasquin," on which satirical 
 epigrams or " pasquinades " are posted. The statue is antique, 
 representing Menelaus supporting the dead body of Patroclus ; 
 and, though mutilated, is of beautiful workmanship. Pasquin 
 was a satirical tailor of the 16th or 17th century, whose name 
 was given to this statue found near his shop after his death. 
 The colossal statue of the Ocean, now at the Capitoline Museum, 
 but formerly near the arch of Septimius Severus, at the forum 
 of Mars, and hence called Marforio, was long used for replying 
 to the attacks of Pasquin. 
 
 The largest obelisk now known is that erected by Fontana 
 in 1588 in front of the basilica of St. John Lateran. This 
 obelisk brought from Heliopolis to Alexandria in Egypt 
 by Constantine the Great, and thence to Rome by his son
 
 74 THE CITY OP EOME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 Constantius, is of red granite, carved with hieroglyphics. 
 Its shaft is 105 /TJ feet high, and is supposed to weigh 455 
 tons ; the whole height, from the ground to the top of the 
 cross, is nearly 150 feet. 
 
 Of all the Tloman fountains the Fontana Paollna (= Pauline 
 fountain), situated near the church of San Pietro in Montorio, 
 and imitating in appearance the fa9ade of a church, is the 
 most abundantly supplied with water, which is afterwards used 
 to turn most of the city flour-mills on the west side of the Tiber. 
 
 The most celebrated modern fountain in Rome is the 
 Fontana di Trevi, erected in 1735 from the designs of Salvi, 
 and situated a short distance northwest from the Quirinal 
 palace. The fountain itself is large, and is set off with rocks, 
 columns, bas-reliefs, statues, &c. 
 
 The city is supplied with water by three large aqueducts, all 
 of ancient origin, but more or less modernized. Of these the 
 Acqua Paola (= water or aqueduct of Paul) enters the city on 
 the west by the Janiculum, and supplies the whole region west 
 of the Tiber as well as the part on the east near the Ponte Sisto, 
 which it passes by conduits. The Acqua Vergine (the ancient 
 Aqua Virgo = water or aqueduct of the Virgin), constructed 
 by Augustus, and restored by pope Nicholas V., enters the city 
 on the northeast by the Pincian hill, and supplies 13 large 
 fountains, including those of the Piazza Navona, the Fontana 
 di Trevi ', &c., with the best water in Rome. The Acqua Felice 
 comes from the east, supplies a fountain near the Baths of 
 Diocletian, called Fontana deW Acqua Felice or Fontana de* 
 Termini, and 26 other public fountains in the upper or eastern 
 portion of the city. The ancient city had, in the first century 
 after Christ, no less than nine principal aqueducts and two 
 subsidiary ones ; and to these others were subsequently added, 
 for one authority enumerates 19 aqueducts, and Procopius 
 relates that the Goths destroyed 14 that were without the 
 walls. The long lines of massive arches that belonged to some 
 of these great works, even now strike the traveler across the 
 Campagna with astonishment.
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 75 
 
 The castle of St. Angelo, the celebrated papal fortress of 
 Rome, naturally attracts the attention of every visitor to the 
 city. This massive edifice was erected for a mausoleum about 
 A. D. 130 by the Emperor Hadrian, the now ruined mauso- 
 leum of Augustus, on the opposite side of the Tiber, having 
 been occupied as an imperial tomb for the ashes of Augustus 
 and others down to Nerva. The exterior was built of square 
 blocks of Parian marble, the base, which was 253 feet square, 
 sustaining a round edifice now reduced to 188 feet in diameter. ' 
 There were on the summit admirably wrought statues of men 
 and horses, also of Parian marble, which were afterwards 
 hurled down on the assaulting Goths. The building was used 
 as a mausoleum for Hadrian and other emperors down to 
 Septimius Severus. It was afterwards converted into a for- 
 tress, probably under Honorius about A. D. 423. It was 
 fortified in the 10th century by the consul Crcscenzio, and 
 was subsequently strengthened by the popes. All the upper 
 part and the outworks are modern. It was named St. 
 Angelo from the Archangel Michael whose statue was placed 
 on the summit. It communicates with the Vatican palace by 
 a covered way nearly half a mile long, constructed by Alex- 
 ander YI. During the past 20 years the castle was the head- 
 quarters of the French artillery. 
 
 The tomb of Cecilia Metella, wife of Crassus, which stands 
 on the Appian way, about two miles south of the gate of St. 
 Sebastian, was also used for a fortress about the year 1300, 
 and its battlements then erected are in ruins ; but the tomb is 
 still one of the most magnificent monuments of ancient Rome. 
 It consists of a circular tower nearly 70 feet in diameter, 
 constructed of large blocks of the finest travertine fitted 
 together with great precision, and resting on a quadrangular 
 basement of rubblework cemented together and strengthened 
 by square keystones of travertine. It is of this tomb that 
 Byron wrote in his Childe Harold : 
 
 " There is a stern round tower of other days, 
 Firm as a fortress, with its fence of stone,
 
 76 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 Such as an army's baffled strength delays, 
 Standing with half its battlements alone, 
 And with two thousand years of ivy grown, 
 The garland of eternity, where wave 
 The green leaves over all by time o'erthrown ; 
 "What was this tower of strength ? within its cave 
 What treasure lay so locked, so hid ? A woman's grave. 
 
 " But who was she, the lady of the dead, 
 
 Tomb'd in a palace ? Was she chaste and fair ? 
 
 Worthy a king's or more a Roman's bed? 
 
 What race of chiefs and heroes did she bear ? 
 
 What daughter of her beauties was the heir ? 
 
 How lived how loved how died she 1 Was she not 
 
 So honor'd and conspicuously there, 
 
 Where meaner relics must not dare to rot, 
 Placed to commemorate a more than mortal lot ? 
 
 " Perchance she died in youth : it may be, bow'd 
 With woes far heavier than the ponderous tomb 
 That weigh'd upon her gentle dust, a cloud 
 Might gather o'er her beauty, and a gloom 
 In her dark eye, prophetic of the doom 
 Heaven gives its favorites early death ; yet shed 
 A sunset charm around her, and illume 
 With hectic light the Hesperus of the dead, 
 Of her consuming cheek the autumnal leaf-like red. 
 
 " Perchance she died in age surviving all, 
 Charms, kindred, children with the silver gray 
 On her long tresses, which might yet recall, 
 It may be, still a something of the day 
 When they were braided, and her proud array 
 And lovely form were envied, praised, and eyed 
 By Rome but whither would conjecture stray ? 
 Thus much alone we know Metella died, 
 The wealthiest Roman's wife : Behold his love or pride ! " 
 
 The well known Coliseum or Colosseum is certainly one of 
 the most remarkable edifices in the world. It was originally 
 called the Flavian Amphitheatre, Flavius being the family 
 name of the emperor Vespasian, who began it in A. D. 72. 
 It was dedicated by Titus A. D. 80, but was finished by Domi- 
 tian. It is said that the games at the dedication lasted 100 
 days, that 5000 wild beasts and several thousand gladiators
 
 THE CITY OF ROME AXD ITS CONNECTIONS. 77 
 
 were slain, and that a naval battle was also fought in the 
 amphitheatre. The gladiatorial games were abolished by 
 Honorius, and those of wild beasts ceased in A. D. 523 during 
 the reign of Theodoric, though a bull-fight was here exhibited 
 at the expense of the Roman nobles in 1332. It was used as 
 a fortress in the llth century, and as a hospital in the latter 
 part of the 14th century. Since that time it has furnished 
 materials for several of the Roman palaces. Though the 
 arena was consecrated by Clement X. in memory of the Chris- 
 tian martyrs, yet under Clement XL, a few years later, a 
 manufactory of saltpetre was established here, and the out- 
 ward galleries were used for rubbish and dung ; arid it was not 
 till the beginning of the present century that any attempt was 
 made to preserve or restore it. A cross now stands in the 
 middle of the arena ; 14 representations of our Lord's passion 
 are placed round it ; and a monk preaches in the rude pulpit 
 every Friday. About two-thirds of the original building have 
 entirely disappeared ; but from what remains a good idea of the 
 whole may be obtained. The edifice is elliptical, 584 by 468 
 feet in its diameters, built principally of travertine (a white 
 limestone or marble),, with large masses of brick-work in the 
 interior. The arena is 278 feet long and 177 feet wide ; and 
 the entire area is nearly six acres. The outer elevation con- 
 sists of four stories, the whole with the entablature rising to 
 the height of 157 feet. It is said that there was room on the 
 benches for 87,000 spectators, and in the upper porticoes for 
 20,000. But the reality far surpasses any description or draw- 
 ing. The late N. P. Willis styled the Coliseum " magnificently 
 ruined broken in every part, yet showing the brave skeleton 
 of what it was its gigantic and triple walls, half encircling 
 the silent arena, and its rocky seats lifting one above another 
 amid weeds and ivy, and darkening the dens beneath, whence 
 issued gladiators, beasts, and Christian martyrs, to be sacrificed 
 for the amusement of Rome." 
 
 There are also in Rome rums of several other amphitheatres 
 as well as of theatres and circuses. The best preserved of
 
 78 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 these is the circus of Romulus or of Maxentius, erroneously 
 called the Circus of Caracalla, situated on the old Appian way, 
 about two miles south of the gate of St. Sebastian, and form- 
 ing an oblong space for chariot races 1580 feet by 2GO. The 
 Circus Maximus (= greatest circus), in the valley between 
 the Palatine and Aventine hills, about half a mile south of the 
 Capitol, originally founded by the elder Tarquin, rebuilt by 
 Julius Cesar, and restored after the fire of Nero by Vespasian 
 and Trajan, is said to have been 2187 feet long and 960 feet 
 broad, probably capable of seating 200,000 persons ; but its visi- 
 ble remains are now only shapeless masses of brick-work. The 
 new gas-works of Rome have been erected near the northwest 
 extremity of the once splendid Circus Maximus, and still more 
 recently a formidable fort has been constructed on the Aventine 
 hill which lies west of the ancient circus. 
 
 The palace of the Cesars, built by Augustus, enlarged by 
 Tiberius and Caligula, destroyed in the great fire under Nero, 
 and rebuilt by him with such splendor as to be called " the 
 golden house," formerly covered most of the Palatine hill, 
 which is still conspicuous, directly south of the Capitol. This 
 hill is now covered with its French nunnery (better known as 
 the Villa Palatina)^ its convent of St. Bonaventura, its Farnese 
 Gardens, and its vineyards ; but its soil, which in many places 
 covers the original surface to a depth of nearly 20 feet, is 
 composed of crumbled fragments of masonry from the great 
 palace and other buildings, which have been in ruins for 1000 
 years or more. Excavations have been made here by order of 
 the emperor Napoleon III., who purchased the ground several 
 years ago. Southwest of the Aventine hill, and west of the gate 
 of St. Paul, but within the city and near the Tiber, is an arti- 
 ficial hill, called the Monte Testaccio, formed of broken earth- 
 enware and rubbish, the accumulations of ages, now overgrown 
 with grass, but used by the modern Romans for wine-cellars 
 and as a place of public resort on holidays. 
 
 Of the ancient baths in Rome, the baths of Caracalla, built 
 by that emperor in the beginning of the 3d century, and situated
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 79 
 
 about half a mile northwest of the gate of St. Sebastian, are the 
 best preserved. These baths, filling a rectangular space 720 
 feet by 375, in the center of a square inclosure which was nearly 
 a mile in circuit, and contained extensive gardens and walks, 
 porticoes, places for athletic exercises, &c., could accommodate, 
 it is said, 1600 bathers at a time, and are now perhaps the 
 most extensive ruins in the city. The main building had in it 
 large halls for swimming and bathing, for conversation, for 
 athletic exercises, for the lectures of philosophers and the recita- 
 tions of poets ; and these halls were lined and paved with marble, 
 adorned with costly columns, paintings, and statues, and fur- 
 nished with books for the studious who resorted to them. 
 Though these baths have been unused since the destruction of 
 the aqueducts in the siege of Rome by Vitiges A.D. 537, yet as 
 their solid brick-work tempted the spoilers less than the mar- 
 ble of the Coliseum, a great part of the walls is still standing. 
 An American scholar who visited these ruins in April, 1869, 
 thus writes : "As one enters he is lost in astonishment at their 
 mighty proportions. One great space after another spreads out 
 before you, hall after hall of size like immense churches, and 
 lofty walls look down whose broken summits speak of even 
 greater heights. Great arches continually open to your view 
 new vistas of beauty. An ascent of modern stairs leads 
 to the platforms that still remain from the upper story. Here 
 you are 50 feet above the ground, and may make your way for 
 long distances over soft turf and crumbling mosaic floors. On 
 every side isolated masses of wall lift their great heads, crowned 
 with a sweet wild growth of tangled vines, thick-clustering yel- 
 low flowers, and bushes faintly blushing with a pale spring red. 
 In the angles hardier bushes plant themselves, and thrust out 
 stalwart arms. Below you may see the floor of one of the halls, 
 its mosaics still showing the pattern of triangles in colors once 
 bright; huge masses of brick-work fallen from above are scat- 
 tered over its surface like solid boulders ; and at the foot of 
 one of them you see a strip of the brightest green, from which 
 a poppy lifts its scarlet head against the dark rock. Here and
 
 80 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 there the carpeted ledges laugh out in a whole host of poppies. 
 On every side of you open arches in the walls frame pictures 
 made up of the bluest sky, the far-away hills, and a bright 
 fringe of grass and nodding plants. Little green lizards bask 
 in the sunshine, or dart like lightning in and out of the crev- 
 ices. Many a sweet-voiced bird is singing invisible, and the 
 jackdaws fly about and hold great confabulations among them- 
 selves. . . The bees and butterflies are banqueting royally 
 among the flowers about us, filling the air with their hum. This 
 place is haunted by no memories of blood like the Coliseum." 
 
 The baths of Diocletian, situated half a mile east of the Qui- 
 rinal palace, also occupied a space nearly a mile in circuit, but 
 were capable of accomodating 8200 bathers, or twice as many 
 as Caracalla's. One of the buildings is now the church of 
 Santa Maria degli Angeli, already noticed ; another is now the 
 church of San Bernardo ; while convents and gardens, store- 
 houses, barracks for soldiers, schools, orphanages, a reforma- 
 tory, and a railway-station, are all connected more or less 
 closely with the ruins, and embraced within the ancient in- 
 closure of the baths. 
 
 Remains of the baths of Titus and of Trajan exist on the 
 Esquiline hill, just east of the Coliseum; and remains of the 
 baths of Agrippa, Constantino, <fcc., are also trapeable in other 
 parts of the city. 
 
 Some of the ancient heathen temples have been converted 
 into churches. Of these by far the most celebrated is the Pan- 
 theon (= a temple dedicated to all the gods) , commonly called 
 by the modern Romans from its round shape, La Rotonda. The 
 portico, and probably the whole edifice, was erected by the 
 consul Marcus Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, B. c. 27. It is 
 the largest circular structure of ancient times, and has been 
 called " the pride of Rome." The portico, 110 feet long and 
 44 deep, composed of 16 Corinthian columns of granite, each 
 46J- feet in height and 5 in diameter, with capitals and bases 
 of white marble, so arranged, 8 in front, and 8 others in 4 lines 
 behind them, as to divide the portico into three portions, has
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 81 
 
 been the admiration of travelers and critics for almost 19 cen- 
 times. The belfries are a modern erection. The interior, a 
 domed rotunda, 142 feet in diameter, exclusive of the walls, 
 which are said to be 20 feet thick in some places, is also 142 
 feet in height from the pavement to the summit, the dome oc- 
 cupying half the height, or 71 feet, and seven large recesses 
 being placed in the upright wall. The light is supplied through 
 a circular opening, 28 feet in diameter, in the center of the 
 dome. It was originally covered with bronze, and afterwards 
 with lead. The edifice was consecrated as a church in A.D. 
 608 under the name of Santa Maria ad Martyres ( St. Mary 
 at the Martyrs). Here Raphael and other eminent painters 
 have been buried. " Though plundered," says Forsyth, " of 
 all its brass, except the ring which was necessary to preserve 
 the aperture above ; though exposed to repeated fire ; though 
 sometimes flooded by the river, and always open to the rain, no 
 monument of equal antiquity is so well preserved as this ro- 
 tunda. It passed with little alteration from the pagan into the 
 present worship." 
 
 The Roman Forum stood in a narrow valley, the modern 
 Campo Vaccino (= cattle-field, or cattle-market), at the foot 
 of the Capitoline and Palatine hills. Its general position is 
 marked by the massive ancient wall, 240 feet long and 37 feet 
 high, which forms the southeastern substruction of the modern 
 Capitol ; by the restored portico, west of this, under which 
 were the silver statues of the 12 great gods; by the remains of 
 three temples between this wall and portico on the one hand 
 and the nearest or northwestern end of the Forum on the other, 
 viz., of the temple of Vespasian, whose three beautiful white- 
 marble Corinthian columns, still standing, were long supposed 
 to belong to the temple of Jupiter Tonans ; of the famous tem- 
 ple of Concord, with its recently-discovered many-colored mar- 
 ble pavement, where Cicero assembled the senate during 
 Catiline's conspiracy; and of the temple of Saturn (formerly 
 regarded as the temple of Fortune) , whose Ionic portico of eight 
 granite columns is still conspicuous; by the solitary white-
 
 82 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 marble Corinthian column (long unidentified) of the emperor 
 Phocas, and the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus, both of 
 which stand" within the ancient Forum itself; by the ruined 
 temple of Antoninus and Faustina (now the church of San L& 
 renzo in Miranda), with its magnificent portico of ten large 
 marble columns, which stands just outside of the southeastern 
 end of the Forum ; and by many other ruins and existing land- 
 marks on the spot and in the neighborhood. In this forum the 
 ancient Romans met to transact business ; and here in early 
 times causes were tried. It was the great political center of 
 the city and of all its dependencies throughout the civilized 
 world ; and it was richly decorated with statues, columns, tem- 
 ples, <fec. ; but now in its ruin it is little more than a memento 
 of the past. Of the 18 other forums of importance in the an- 
 cient city, very few now present any. considerable traces of the 
 splendid edifices with which they were once adorned; none of 
 them can be compared in thrilling interest with the old Roman 
 Forum. 
 
 Just north of the arch of Septimius Severus is still pointed 
 out the Mamertine prison, one of the few existing works of the 
 old kingly period. In the horrible dungeon of this prison, Ju- 
 gurtha was starved to death, and Catiline's accomplices were 
 strangled. Here, too, ecclesiastical tradition has declared that 
 the apostle Peter was confined by order of Nero. Here are 
 shown the pillar to which he is said to have been bound, and 
 a spring reputed to have sprung up miraculously that he might 
 baptize his jailors, though the spring is known to have existed 
 a century and a half earlier, when Jugurtha was thrown into 
 the prison. 
 
 The celebrated arch of Titus, which commemorates his cap- 
 ture of Jerusalem, stands between the Forum and the Coliseum 
 on the highest point of the Via Sacra (= Sacred way), and 
 consists of a single arch of white marble. On one side is finely 
 represented in bas-relief a procession bearing the spoils from 
 the temple of Jehovah, and on the other the emperor crowned 
 by victory and riding in triumph.
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND IT3 CONNECTIONS. 83 
 
 The arch of Constantine, which commemorates the emperor's 
 victory over Maxentius, stands just west of the Coliseum. It 
 has three archways with columns, bas-reliefs, and statues; and 
 is one of the most imposing monuments of Rome. 
 
 The beautiful column of Trajan, which gives a continuous 
 history of his military achievements in a spiral series of bas- 
 reliefs comprising 2500 human figures, besides many horses, 
 fortresses, &c., and is now surmounted by a gilt-bronze statue 
 of St. Peter, stands in the ruined forum of Trajan, about J mile 
 northeast of the Capitol. The shaft is about 97 feet high, 
 and the whole column 127 feet, the statue being 11 feet. 
 
 The column of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, commonly called 
 the Antonine column, stands in the Piazza Colonna ( place 
 of the column) on the west side of the Corso, midway between 
 the Piazza del Popolo and the Capitol. It represents the em- 
 peror's conquests over the German tribes. In one scene Jupi- 
 ter supplies the thirsty army with water by a shower. On its 
 summit is now a statue of St. Paul, 10 feet high. The shaft 
 of the column is 97 feet, and the whole 122| feet, exclusive 
 of the statue. 
 
 The Pretorian camp, built for the occupancy of the Pretorian 
 guards, by Sejanus, their commander under Tiberius, but dis- 
 mantled by Constantine, was at the extremity of the city, a mile 
 east of the Quirinal palace. 
 
 The ancient Campus Martins ( field of Mars), originally 
 set apart for military exercises and contests, afterwards the 
 place of meeting for the centuriate and tribal assemblies, and 
 then a suburban pleasure-ground for the Roman public, was 
 the irregular plain bounded by the Capitoline, Quirinal, and 
 Pincian hills and the Tiber. This area, which lay north and 
 west of the wall of Servius Tullius, includes the principal por- 
 tion of the modern city. 
 
 The catacombs are underground cemeteries, and constitute 
 an immense net-work of passages or galleries excavated in 
 the tufa, which is a volcanic sand-rock easily wrought. 
 The galleries vary in length and height, but are generally
 
 84 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 about eight feet high and three to five feet wide, with roof 
 either horizontal or slightly vaulted, and walls or sides perfor- 
 ated for sepulchral chambers or cells. These cells or cham- 
 bers are usually arranged in tiers one above another, and are 
 capable of receiving sometimes only a single corpse, in other 
 cases two or three. Some chambers are larger, with an arched 
 roof over the grave ; some are still larger, as if for family 
 vaults, with smaller chambers or cells in their sides ; and some 
 are large enough for places of worship, and were used for this 
 purpose during the times of persecution. About 60 of these 
 catacombs have been enumerated outside the ancient city-walls, 
 most of them having an inconsiderable lateral extent, and sel- 
 dom communicating with one another. Father Marchi has 
 estimated that each catacomb may contain 100,000 dead, and 
 so the whole 60 would at this rate contain 6,000,000 dead ; 
 but this is little more than conjecture. It has generally been 
 asserted that only Christians were buried in the catacombs ; 
 but as Horace speaks of the caverns or abandoned quarries 
 under the Esquiline hill as used for a common sepulchre by 
 plebeians, there can be little doubt that pagan Romans were 
 also buried in the catacombs. In later times oratories and 
 churches were erected over the entrances of the principal cata- 
 combs, with more convenient means of access in the form of 
 stairs. Thus St. Peter's was erected over the cemetery of the 
 Vatican ; St. Paul's over that of Santa Lucina ; the church of 
 St. Sebastian (two miles south of the gate of that name) over 
 that of St. Calixtus, which is supposed to have an extension of 
 six miles, and to contain the bodies of 14 popes and 170,000 
 martyrs ; and the basilica of St. Agnes beyond the walls is 
 built over the catacomb in which that virgin martyr was in- 
 terred, and which is remarkable for its good preservation, its 
 many paintings, its places of worship, and its connection with 
 an extensive sandpit or excavated bed of pozzolana which cov- 
 ers part of its extent. 
 
 The Columbaria are pigeon-house-like subterranean sepul- 
 chres with niches for the urns or jars in which the ashes of the
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 85 
 
 dead were deposited after the bodies were burned. They are 
 numerous, and some of them very capacious. 
 
 The Cloaca Maxima or great sewer of Rome, built, accord- 
 ing to tradition, by the elder Tarquin, to drain the marshy 
 ground between the Palatine and Capitoline hills, empties into 
 the Tiber below the Ponte Rotto, and is still firm and useful 
 after the lapse of nearly 2500 years. It is most solidly con- 
 structed, and bids fair to stand for ages yet to come. The 
 archway where it enters the Tiber is at Least 12 feet high, 
 and is composed of three concentric courses of large blocks 
 of the volcanic rock called peperino, put together without 
 cement. 
 
 Rome has lived, in great measure, on the past ; its chief 
 industry is connected with curiosities of antiquity or of art. 
 It has some trade and a few manufactures, as of strings for 
 musical instruments, mosaics, jewelry, parchment, hats, gloves, 
 silk and woolen fabrics, &c. Its population, which in the time 
 of the emperor Vespasian amounted to several millions (some 
 say 2,000,000 ; other 3,000,000, or more), afterwards greatly 
 diminished, until, at about the end of the 8th century, it 
 is said to have been only about 13,000 ; but, after this ex- 
 treme depression, it again increased. Its population was given 
 at 117,900 in 1813, at 180,200 in 1846, and at 215,573 in 
 1867. The number of priests and friars in Rome is about 
 4500 ; that of nuns about 1900 ; that of Jews nearly 4200. 
 The Jews were, even under Pius IX., compelled to live mainly 
 in the Ghetto, or Jewish quarter, which is the lowest and filth- 
 iest region in Rome, separated by a wall from the rest of the 
 city, and situated on the east bank of the Tiber, opposite the 
 north end of the island. 
 
 The city is divided into 14 districts or wards called rioni, 
 12 of which are on the east side of the river, several of them, 
 besides the .Rione Campo Marzo at the N. end of the city, being 
 included principally or wholly within the ancient Campus 
 Martins (= field of Mars). The two rioni on the west side 
 are, the Borgo or Leonine city, which lies on the north and 
 includes the Vatican ; and the Traslevere (== over the Tiber),
 
 86 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 which embraces all between the hospital of Santo Spirito and 
 the city wall on the S., and is separated from the Borgo by a 
 high wall, in which is the gate of Santo Spirito. In the mid- 
 dle ages the rioni had their captains, their councils, and their 
 trained bands ; but though they have their banners still, and 
 carry them in the great processions, their municipal jurisdic- 
 tion is merged in the presidents of the rioni, who are magis- 
 trates and members of the tribunal of the Capitol, the civil and 
 police court over which the senator presides. 
 
 Rome under the popes was characterized by an intelligent 
 American traveler, as " the worst governed and filthiest city 
 in the world ;" but the last 20 years have wrought some 
 changes even in the eternal city. The streets are better paved 
 now ; some of them may be styled clean, though those remote 
 from the Cor so are still unswept and unwashed, except by the 
 rains and the overflow of the Tiber ; the beggars, under the 
 influence of stringent regulations, are less numerous and more 
 modest ; a few new bookshops have been opened ; gas and 
 railroads have come into use ; and the population have ROW a 
 more civilized look than formerly. " The Rome of 1851," says 
 Dr. Wylie, " was a dunghill of filth, and a lazar-house of dis- 
 ease. What is worse, it was a dungeon of terror-stricken, 
 cowering beings, about 30,000 of whom were imprisoned in the 
 jails, and the rest within the city walls, which they dared not 
 quit. A great scandal arcse. Travelers were not slow on 
 their return to their own country to proclaim the abominations, 
 physical and moral, which they had found in the city of the 
 popes. The cardinals saw that the fame of Rome was filling 
 Europe. Bishops too, from Paris and other cities, where or- 
 dinary attention is paid to health and cleanliness, found Rome, 
 doubtless, a very holy city, but its effluvia was somewhat too 
 strong to be quite agreeable, and hinted the necessity of doing 
 something to abate it. The cardinals submitted, as we have 
 said, to have the streets swept ; but nothing could induce 
 them to have the jails opened. But while we accord due praise 
 to the cardinals, ... we must not be unjust to the French. Their
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 87 
 
 presence in Rome has had a good deal to do with the improved 
 sanitary condition and embellishment of the eternal city. No 
 people in the world have a finer eye for effect than the French ; 
 and in a variety of particulars one can trace at Rome the influ- 
 ence of that artistic taste which has made their own capital of 
 Paris, in this respect, the marvel and the model of continental 
 Europe." 
 
 " The peace of the pontifical city," continues Dr. Wylie, 
 writing in 1866, " is maintained by some 5000 police and 16000 
 French soldiers. This is, as near as may be, a man-at-arms 
 for each family. The police are divided into open and secret. 
 The former wear uniform, and patrol the streets at all hours of 
 the day and night. There is besides a numerous body of 
 
 French soldiers constantly on duty The cardinal-vicar 
 
 has in his service a body of secret police amounting, it is said, 
 to between 5000 and 6000. They wear no uniform, and are 
 in no way distinguishable from ordinary citizens. They are 
 paid from 5 to 6 pauls [= 50 to 60 cents] a day a large sum 
 in Rome. Most of these men, before entering this corps, have 
 made their acquaintance with the prisons in another capacity. 
 In fact, they have been taken from the galleys to serve the gov- 
 ernment. Their former chief was the notorious Nardoni, a 
 worthy head of a worthy band. . . . They can enter any house 
 at any hour. They are not required to tell who sent them, or 
 to show warrant from any one. They may apprehend whomso- 
 ever they please. Rome may be said to be entirely in their 
 hands ; and thus there are large numbers of innocent persons 
 in prison. But no one ever sees a prisoner led through the 
 
 streets There is no city in Europe where all that ought 
 
 not to be seen is more studiously kept out of view The 
 
 city, moreover, is full of spies Every family has been given 
 
 in charge to some one who duly reports at head-quarters all that 
 
 is said and done in it The espionage on books and papers 
 
 is even more rigid At the custom-house at Ceprano, com- 
 ing from Naples, the papal functionaries carefully fished out 
 of my carpet-bag every thing in the shape of print, all pam-
 
 88 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 
 
 phlcts, and old Neapolitan newspapers, and, tying them up in 
 a bundle, they sent them on before me to the police-office in 
 Rome, where doubtless they were duly burned. It is but just 
 to the papal government, however, that I should state, and it 
 may be useful to other travelers to know, that my Italian New 
 
 Testament was not detained Not a line can be published 
 
 without passing through the censorship. This holds good not 
 of books or newspapers only, but also of the placards in the 
 
 streets The people .... are wretchedly poor But 
 
 wonderful, and at the same time deplorable, is it to think of the 
 sums which are wrung out of the people by the minute and 
 searching tyranny of a government which is itself poor to a 
 
 by-word One of the main engines of fleecing the people 
 
 is the government lottery ; the church taking advantage of the 
 passion for gambling, so deplorably prevalent among the Ro- 
 mans, to draw a few pitiful scudi [= dollars] into her coffers." 
 "Rome," said Dr. J. G. Holland in 1869, " is nothing but a 
 show. Its antiquities are a show. The pope and the various 
 pageantries in which he takes a part are a show. The public 
 museums do not assume to be any thing but a show. The 
 churches are a show, and are visited ten times as much in con- 
 sequence of their character as show-places as they are for the 
 purposes of worship. The private palaces and villas are a 
 show. Almost the entire income of Rome is drawn from the 
 pockets of those who come to Rome to see its shows. The 
 Rome of to-day is indeed nothing but a great museum of curi- 
 osities, papal and pagan, living and dead. The lovers of light 
 and liberty are pining in her political prisons ; her multitudi- 
 nous beggars are licensed like porters and go around the streets 
 with brass tickets hung to their necks. The Jews are still 
 confined mainly to their dirty quarters, by him who assumes to 
 represent the love of God in the Jew Jesus. There is no such 
 thing as liberty in Rome civil or religious. The people groan 
 under a despotism more intensely hated than those who are 
 unacquainted with its spirit and operations can possibly con- 
 ceive."
 
 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 89 
 
 The state of things here described would certainly justify, 
 in the view of most Americans, the rejoicings that in 1870 
 attended the transfer of Rome to the kingdom of Italy. Yet 
 Roman Catholic periodicals and officials utterly condemn this 
 transfer, and, with " The Catholic World " for November, 
 1870, " deny altogether that the subjects of the sovereign 
 pontiff have had any grievances to be redressed, or any need 
 of the interference of any power or of any guarantee for their 
 civil or social rights." The controversy in the case respects 
 both facts and principles, which come into full view in every 
 part of the present volume.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH OR SYSTEM. 
 
 THE phrase "Roman Catholic" is generally used in this 
 volume as more definite and acceptable than most other terms 
 which are employed to designate this church or system. " Ro- 
 man" and "Catholic" are both accredited terms as used 
 separately; though "Roman" is properly a local term, and 
 "Catholic" ( universal) as properly includes all Christians. 
 On the other hand, there is no more intrinsic objection to the 
 use of the terms " Romish," " Romanism," " Papacy," " Papist," 
 &c., than to the use of the terms " English," " Irish," " Method- 
 ism," "Calvinism," "Episcopacy," "Methodist," "Baptist," 
 and the like. Terms of reproach, even, applied to good men or 
 things, will become in time titles of honor ; while titles origin- 
 ally honorable will, by long association with those who act dis- 
 honorably, lose all their good report. Thus the "Puritans," 
 originally so designated in derision, are now widely honored ; 
 while an "aristocracy" (literally =rule of the best) may be 
 spoken of with utter contempt. The term "Christians" 
 (= Christ-men, or followers of Christ) was probably first used 
 at Antioch (Acts 11 : 26) to ridicule the believers in the Lord 
 Jesus ; but, from the character of those who were thus called, 
 it has become a name in which multitudes rejoice. If the 
 church or the system of which the pope is the acknowledged 
 head, shows itself worthy of honor, then " popery" will be by 
 and by a word of renown, and the cry of "no popery" will be 
 a shame and a disgrace. We are concerned with persons and 
 things rather than with names with realities rather than with 
 appearances.
 
 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 91 
 
 What then is the Roman Catholic system in reality? We 
 will first present a Protestant view, based on an able analysis 
 of the system by a distinguished Protestant, Rev. Richard S. 
 Storrs, Jr., D.D., of Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 This system " regards Adam, as at first created, a mere re- 
 cipient of impressions, but incapable of holiness until he had 
 been supernaturally endowed with the capacity and the exer- 
 cise of holiness. By his fall he lost all this, and became a 
 merely natural being, in which condition all his posterity are 
 born, until again supernaturally endowed with the capacity 
 which Adam lost by the fall. And the sacraments are the 
 established physical media through which this gift is bestowed." 
 Such is the fundamental theory which underlies the whole 
 system of Romanism. Let this theory once be admitted as 
 true, and you have the system as a natural result. The theory 
 is a gratuitous assumption, and such likewise are many of the 
 main points in the system. Thus, it is held that the Savior 
 endowed his apostles with the power, which they communicated 
 to their rightful successors, and these again to others down to 
 this time, of bestowing restorative grace through the efficacy 
 of baptism, the eucharist, and the other sacraments of the 
 church. The pope as the rightful successor of the chief apostle 
 Peter, and, as connected with the pope and the church of which 
 he is the visible head, the Roman Catholic bishops and priests, 
 are the depositaries of that divine grace which saves the soul. 
 Every form of the church, every garment, every ceremonial, has 
 a symbolical meaning and a reason connected with the alleged 
 nature of sin and holiness, and hence has its proper place in 
 the church system as helping to infuse holiness into the sinful. 
 All the rites and parts of the whole system combine to exalt 
 the priest, the pope, the church, as the representative of God 
 in the communication of his truth and grace, and the appointed 
 channel through which alone God bestows pardon and eternal 
 life. While the Roman Catholic church receives as divine and 
 authoritative all the truths which are contained in the Bible, 
 it makes the commandments and traditions of the church a
 
 92 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 part of the word of God ; it substitutes for the pure truth a 
 debased and degrading mixture of truth and error ; it subordin- 
 ates the inward and spiritual to the outward and visible ; it 
 obscures and stifles the life of faith and love by its absorbing 
 attention to the things of sight and show ; instead of relying 
 directly upon the Jesus who is the Christ and was offered once 
 for all (Heb. 9 : 12, 25, 26. 10 : 10), it makes a new Jesus and 
 a new atonement at every mass ; instead of having only one 
 mediator between God and man (1 Tim. 2: 5), it makes the 
 mother of Jesus both a mediator and a God, and treats like- 
 wise its thousands of other canonized (real or unreal) saints 
 as mediators to be prayed to and honored for their superhuman 
 merit and power ; by its connected doctrines of confession and 
 penance and absolution and indulgence, it places the con- 
 sciences, persons and property of men, women and children in 
 the power of the priest ; it speaks lies in hypocrisy, sears the 
 conscience with a hot iron, forbids to marry, and commands to 
 abstain from meats (1 Tim. 4: 2, 3) ; it changes, the truth of 
 God into a lie, and worships and serves the creature more than 
 the Creator, who is blessed forever (Rom. 1 : 25) ; it turns 
 the consolations and comforts of religion, the means of grace 
 and the hope of glory, into so much merchandise, to be dis- 
 posed of according to the temper and skill of the vender and 
 the ability or necessity of the purchaser; in fine, as it sets forth 
 another gospel than the free gospel of Christ, another standard 
 than the perfect law of God, other church ordinances and other 
 conditions of salvation than those which the Lord Jesus has 
 established, it has its fellowship with darkness rather than with 
 light, and its affinity with Satan and his angels rather than 
 with Jehovah and the holy ones of his glorious heaven. 
 
 A few historical memoranda may here be inserted. 
 
 The fourth century, which saw Christianity become the rul- 
 ing religion of the Roman empire, saw also many corruptions 
 introduced into the visible church. Rites and ceremonies were 
 greatly multiplied through what Mosheim calls " the indiscreet 
 piety of the bishops," who sought thus to make Christianity
 
 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 93 
 
 more acceptable to the heathen. The Christians now used in 
 their public worship, like the ancient Greeks and Romans, 
 " splendid robes, mitres, tiaras, wax tapers, crosiers, proces- 
 sions, lustrations, images, gold and silver vases, and number- 
 less other things." Each bishop prescribed to his own flock 
 such a form of worship or liturgy as he thought best, that of 
 the church of Rome afterwards supplanting the others. New 
 honors were paid to dead martyrs, the festival of Polycarp, who 
 was burned A.D. 167, being the earliest festival of a martyr ; 
 fasts were made obligatory, but, instead of observing them as 
 previously with total abstinence from food and drink, many 
 abstained only from flesh and wine, thus setting the example 
 which afterwards was followed by the Roman Catholic church 
 generally. Masses in honor of the saints and for the dead 
 arose from the custom, which was prevalent in this century, of 
 celebrating the Lord's Supper at the sepulchres of the martyrs 
 and at funerals. Towards the close of this century the Colly- 
 ridians disturbed Arabia and the neighboring countries by their 
 worship of the Virgin Mary as a goddess ; but festivals to her 
 memory were not generally observed till the 6th century, when 
 the festival of her purification, or Candlemas, was instituted. 
 
 Leo the Great, who was bishop of Rome A.D. 440-461, ap- 
 pears first to have developed the view that the bishop of Rome 
 inherited from Peter the primacy or headship of the church ; 
 but the general council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451, decreed the 
 equality of the bishops of Rome and of Constantinople. Car- 
 dinal Baronius, the Roman Catholic historian of the church, 
 who wrote about 275 years ago, says that the emperor Phocas, 
 A.D. 606, divested the bishop of Constantinople of the title of 
 " ecumenical ( universal) bishop," and conferred this title on 
 the bishop of Rome. 
 
 Gregory the Great, who was bishop of Rome A.D. 590-604, 
 "was," says Mosheim, " wonderfully dexterous and ingenious 
 in devising and recommending new ceremonies." "The canon 
 of the mass," which was a new mode of celebrating the Lord's 
 Supper in a magnificent style and with a splendid apparatus,
 
 94 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 was prescribed, or altered from the old canon, by him. He 
 described the tortures of departed souls and the mitigation of 
 these tortures by the sacrifice offered in the Lord's Supper, and 
 thus aided to develop the doctrine, which afterwards prevailed, 
 respecting the mass and purgatory. He opposed the worship 
 of images, but not the use of them in the churches. Through 
 his influence the superstitious veneration for relics was greatly 
 increased. 
 
 Retirement from the world to a life of celibacy, self-mortifi- 
 cation, and devotion to special exercises for the promotion of 
 personal piety, prevailed to some extent in the 4th century; 
 but a new form and impulse was given to the monastic life by 
 the founding of a convent of Black Friars or Benedictine monks 
 at Monte Cassino by St. Benedict about A. D. 529. The order 
 of Benedictines, embracing both monks and nuns, was soon 
 widely diffused through Western Europe, and has been prom- 
 inent in religious and literary matters for more than 1300 
 years. In the mean time many other orders of monks and 
 nuns have arisen. 
 
 Vitalian, who was bishop of Rome in the 7th century, re- 
 quired the universal use of the Latin language in the church 
 service. 
 
 The edict of the emperor Leo the Isaurian in A. D. 726, 
 commanding the removal from the churches of all images of 
 saints, except that of Christ on the cross, and the entire dis- 
 continuance of the worship of them, led to a long and violent 
 conflict between the Eastern emperors and their partisans on 
 the one side and the Roman pontiffs and their adherents on 
 the other. The 2d Nicene council in A. D. 786 established the 
 reverential (not divine) worship of images and of the cross, 
 and denounced penalties against those who maintained that 
 worship and adoration were to be given only to God. The 
 council of 300 bishops assembled by the emperor Charlemagne 
 in A. D. 794 at Frankfort on the Maine, forbade the worship 
 of images. But gradually the opinion of the Roman pontiff in 
 favor of image-worship prevailed through most of France,
 
 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 95 
 
 Germany, &c., as well as Italy, during the 9th and 10th centu- 
 ries. In A. D. 862 and 866 the bishops of Rome and of Con- 
 stantinople excommunicated one another ; and from this time 
 the Greek or Eastern church had little or no fellowship with 
 the Roman or Western church. The public excommunication 
 of the Greek bishop or patriarch of Constantinople and his 
 adherents, July 16, 1054, by the legates of the Roman pontiff, 
 which was immediately answered with a like anathema by the 
 patriarch, made the separation total and irreconcilable. 
 
 The first canonization of a saint by the pope is assigned to 
 A. D. 993, when John XV. solemnly enrolled Udalrich, bishop 
 of Augsburg, in the number of those to whom Christians might 
 lawfully address prayers and worship. 
 
 The institution of the Rosary of the Blessed Virgin, the 
 most popular form of prayer among Roman Catholics, is at- 
 tributed by Archbishop McHale and others to Dominic de Guz- 
 man, the founder of the Dominican order of monks and of the 
 Inquisition, about the beginning of the 13th century. Strings 
 of beads for prayers had indeed been used for a century or two 
 previously. 
 
 The doctrine of transubstantiation, brought forward A. D. 
 831 by the monk Paschasius Radbert, and much opposed for a 
 time, was adopted by councils and popes in the llth century, 
 and was authoritatively established by the 4th council of the 
 Lateran in 1215. The same council also required every one 
 to enumerate and confess his sins to a priest. 
 
 In the 12th century the custom of withholding the cup from 
 the laity began in different places ; and in 1415 the council of 
 Constance decreed that in the Lord's Supper only the bread, 
 and not botli elements, should be administered to the laity. 
 
 The sacramental system of the church was brought to its 
 consummation by Thomas Aquinas, the so-called " Angelical 
 Doctor," in the 13th century ; but it remained for the council 
 of Trent to issue its anathema against any who should main- 
 tain that the number of sacraments instituted by Jesus Christ 
 is either more or less than seven.
 
 96 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 The doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin 
 Mary (i. e., that she was perfectly pure or free from original 
 sin, when she was conceived in her mother's womb) was much 
 debated about A. D. 1140, 1300, &c., was decreed by the coun- 
 cil of Basle in 1489 while engaged in a struggle with the pope, 
 was favored by subsequent popes, and was finally established 
 by Pius IX. in 1854, as may be seen in the latter part of this 
 chapter. The infallibility of the pope, claimed by Gregory VII. 
 and others, was established in 1870 in the decree cited at the 
 close of the chapter. 
 
 By these and other additions to the faith and practice of the 
 apostolic churches, the simple and spiritual Christianity of the 
 New Testament was changed into a gorgeous mass of formal- 
 ism and idolatry. The most important of these additions will 
 be exhibited more at length in the subsequent chapters of this 
 book. 
 
 Having thus taken a general view of this great system of 
 error and delusion as the Protestant looks upon it, let us now 
 give a fair and candid hearing to the presentation of the sub- 
 ject by one of the most eminent Roman Catholic prelates of 
 the nineteenth century. The following account of the Roman 
 Catholic church and system was drawn up by the late Rev. 
 Nicholas "Wiseman, D. D., and published in " The Penny Cyclo- 
 pedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge," 
 London, 1886. Dr. Wiseman had been a University professor 
 in Rome, and was then a celebrated Roman Catholic preacher 
 and lecturer in England. He delivered and afterwards pub- 
 lished a course of lectures on the principal doctrines and prac- 
 tices of the Roman Catholic church, another on science and 
 revealed religion, another on the office and ceremonies of Holy 
 Week, &c. He was appointed by the pope, September 29, 1850, 
 archbishop of Westminster, and the next day a cardinal. 
 From this time until his death in 1865, he was the acknowl- 
 edged head of the Roman Catholic church in England. We 
 present here an exact reprint of the whole of his article in tho
 
 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 97 
 
 Penny Cyclopedia as an authentic synopsis, by one of the 
 ablest Roman Catholics of our age, of what their system really 
 is, according to their view of it. It is, therefore, the most 
 favorable and winning presentation of their system that could 
 be made. A few notes are added, and numbered, to distinguish 
 them moi-e readily from Dr. Wiseman's notes. 
 
 "CATHOLIC CHURCH (Roman). Although in ordinary lan- 
 guage this name is often used to designate the ruling authority or 
 power in the Catholic religion, as if distinct from the members of 
 that communion, yet the definition which Catholics give of the church 
 is such as to comprehend the entire body of its members as well as its 
 rulers, the flock as much as the shepherds. Thus we hear of Catholics 
 being under the dominion of their church, or obliged to obey it, as 
 though it were something distinct from themselves, or as if they were 
 not a part of their church. This preliminary remark is made to ex- 
 plain a certain vagueness of expression, which often leads to misap- 
 prehension, and serves as the basis of incorrect ideas regarding the 
 peculiar doctrines of that church a vagueness similar to what is 
 frequent in writing and speaking on jurisprudence ; as for example, 
 where the government of a country is considered as a power distinct 
 and almost at variance with the nation which it rules, and not an 
 integral part thereof. 
 
 " The Catholic church therefore is defined to be the community of 
 the faithful united to their lawful pastors, in communion with the see of 
 Rome or with the pope, the successor of St. Peter and vicar of Christ 
 on earth. 
 
 " Sihiply developing the terms of this definition, we will give a brief 
 sketch of the constitution or fundamental system of this church, under 
 the heads of its government, its laws, and its vital or constitutive 
 principle. 
 
 "I. The government of the Catholic church may be considered 
 monarchical, inasmuch as the pope is held in it to be the ruler over 
 the entire church, and the most distant bishop of the Catholic church 
 holds his appointment from him, and receives from him his authority. 
 No bishop can be considered lawfully consecrated without his appro- 
 bation. The dignity or office of pope is inherent in the occupant of 
 the see of Rome, because the supremacy over the church is believed 
 to be held in virtue of a commission given to St. Peter, not as his own 
 7
 
 98 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 personal prerogative, but as a part of the constitution of the church, 
 for its advantage, and therefore intended to descend to his successors ; 
 as the episcopal power did from the apostles to those who succeeded 
 them in their respective sees. 
 
 "The election of the pope therefore devolves upon the clergy of 
 Rome, as being their bishop ; and it is confided to the college of cardi- 
 nals, who, bearing the titles of the eldest churches in that city, rep- 
 resent its clergy, and form their chapter or electoral body. The 
 meeting or chapter formed for this purpose alone is called a conclave. 
 The cardinals are in their turn appointed by the pope, and compose 
 the executive council of the church. They preside over the various 
 departments of ecclesiastical government, and are divided into boards 
 or congregations, as they are called, for the transaction of business from 
 all parts of the world; but every decision is subject to the pope's re- 
 vision, and has no value except from his approbation. 
 
 " On some occasions they are all summoned together to meet the 
 pope on affairs of higher importance, as for the nomination of bishops, 
 or the admission of new members into their body ; and then the 
 assembly is called a consistory. The full number of cardinals is 72, 
 but there are always some hats left vacant. 
 
 "The Catholic church being essentially episcopal is governed by 
 bishops, who are of two sorts, bishops in ordinary, and vicars apostolic. 
 By the first are meant titular bishops, or such as bear the name of the 
 see over which they rule ; as the Archbishop of Paris, or of Dublin ; 
 the Bishop of Cambray or New Orleans. The manner of appointing 
 such bishops varies considerably. Where they are unshackled by the 
 government the clergy of the diocese meet in chapter, according to old 
 forms, and having selected three names, forward them to the Holy 
 See, where one is chosen for promotion. This is the case in Ireland, 
 Belgium, and perhaps in the free states of America. In most coun- 
 tries, however, the election of bishops is regulated by concordat, that 
 is, a special agreement between the pope and the civil government. 
 The presentation is generally vested in the crown ; but the appoint- 
 ment must necessarily emanate from the pope. 
 
 " The powers of bishops and the manner of exercising their 
 authority are regulated by the canon law ; ' their jurisdiction on every 
 point is clear and definite, and leaves no room for arbitrary enactments 
 
 i J " The canon law " is explained in Chapter III.
 
 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 99 
 
 or oppressive measures. Yet it is of such a character as, generally- 
 considered, can perfectly control the inferior orders of clergy, and 
 secure them to the discharge of their duty. In most Catholic countries 
 there is a certain degree of civil jurisdiction allowed to the bishops 
 with judicial powers, in matters of a mixed character ; as in cases 
 appertaining to marriages, where a distinction between civil and 
 ecclesiastical marriage has not been drawn by the legislature. Some 
 offences connected with religion, as blasphemy and domestic immoral- 
 ity, are likewise brought under their cognizance. 
 
 " Where the succession of the Catholic hierarchy has been interrupted, 
 as in England,* or never been established, as in Australasia or some 
 parts of India, the bishops who superintend the Catholic church and 
 represent the papal authority, are known by the name of vicars 
 apostolic. A vicar apostolic is not necessarily a bishop an instance 
 of which we have now at Calcutta where the vicar apostolic is a 
 simple priest. Generally, however, he receives episcopal consecra- 
 tion ; and, as from local circumstances, it is not thought expedient that 
 he should bear the title of the see which he administers, he is ap- 
 pointed with the title of an ancient bishopric now in the hands of 
 infidels, and thus is called a bishop in partibus infidelium, though the 
 last word is often omitted in ordinary language. A vicar apostolic, 
 being generally situated where the provisions of the canon law cannot 
 be fully observed, is guided by particular instructions, by precedents 
 and consuetude, to all which the uniformity of discipline through the 
 Catholic church gives stability and security. Thus the vicars apos- 
 tolic, who rule over the four episcopal districts of England, have thtir 
 cods in the admirable constitution of Pope Benedict XIV., beginning 
 with the words Apostolicum ministerium. The powers of a vicar 
 apostolic are necessarily more extended than those of ordinary bishops, 
 and are ampler in proportion to the difficulty of keeping up a close 
 communication with Rome. Thus many cases of dispensation in 
 marriage which a continental bishop must send to the Holy See may 
 be provided for by an Engli-h or American vicar apostolic; and other 
 similar matters, for which these must consult it, could at once be granted 
 
 2 In September, 1850, the Roman hierarchy was reestablished in England, the 
 whole country being divided into 12 bishoprics, and Rev. Dr. Nicholas Wiseman 
 (author of the above article) placed at the head as Cardinal Archbishop of West- 
 minsten
 
 100 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 by the ecclesiastical superiors of the Mauritius or of China. The 
 nomination of vicars apostolic is solely with the pope. 
 
 " The inferior clergy, considered in reference to the government of 
 the church, consists mainly of the parochial clergy, or those who supply 
 their place. In all countries possessing a hierarchy, the country is 
 divided into parishes, each provided with a parochus or curate,* cor- 
 responding to the rector or vicar of the English established church. 
 The appointment to a parish is vested in the bishop, who has no 
 power to remove again at will, or for any cause except a canonical 
 offence juridically proved. The right of presentation by lay patrons 
 is, however, in particular instances fully respected. In Italy the 
 parish priests are generally chosen by competition ; as upon a vacancy* 
 a day is appointed on which the testimonials of the different candidates 
 are compared, and they themselves personally examined before the 
 bishop in theology, the exposition of scripture, and extemporaneous 
 preaching ; and whoever is pronounced, by ballot, superior to the rest, 
 is chosen. 
 
 " Under an apostolic vicariate, the clergy corresponding to the 
 parochial clergy generally bear the title of apostolic missionaries, and 
 have missions or local districts with variable limits placed under their 
 care ; but are dependent upon the will of their ecclesiastical superiors. 
 
 " Besides the parochial clergy, there is a considerable body of 
 ecclesiastics, who do not enter directly into the governing part of the 
 church, although they help to discharge some of its most important 
 functions. A great number of secular clergy are devoted to the con- 
 duct of education, either in universities or seminaries ; many occupy 
 themselves exclusively with the pulpit, others with instructing the 
 poor, or attending charitable institutions. A certain number also fill 
 prebends, or attend to the daily service of cathedrals, &c. ; for in the 
 Catholic church, pluralities, where the cure of souls exists, are strictly 
 prohibited, and consequently a distinct body of clergy from those 
 engaged in parochial duties, or holding rectories, &c., is necessary for 
 those duties. Besides this auxiliary force, the regular clergy, or 
 monastic orders, take upon them many of these functions. These 
 institutions, however closely connected with the church, may require a 
 
 * " To avoid mistakes, we may observe that the parish priest in Ireland cor- 
 responds to the curd in France, the curato (or, in the country, arciprete) of Italy, 
 and the cura of Spain. The curate in Ireland, as in the church of England, is 
 equivalent to the vicaire of France and the sotto-curato of Italy."
 
 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 101 
 
 fuller explanation in their proper place. The clergy of the Catholic 
 church in the west are bound by a vow of celibacy, not formally 
 made, but implied in their ordination as sub-deacons. This obligation 
 of celibacy is only reckoned among the disciplinary enactments of the 
 church. The clergy of that portion of the Greek and Armenian 
 church which is united in communion with the see of Rome, may be 
 married ; that is, may receive orders if married, but are not allowed 
 to marry after having taken orders. A similar discipline, if thought 
 expedient by the church, might be introduced into the west. 
 
 " The only point concerning the government of the Catholic church 
 which remains to be mentioned is the manner in which it is exercised. 
 The most r-olemn tribunal is a general council, that is, an assembly of 
 all the bishops of the church, who may attend either in person or by 
 deputy, under the presidency of the pope or his legates. When once 
 a dec:e has passed such an assembly, and received the approbation 
 of the Holy See, there is no further appeal. Distinction must be 
 however made between doctrinal and disciplinary decrees ; for 
 example, when in the council of Trent it was decreed to be the 
 doctrine of the church that marriage is indissoluble, this decree is con- 
 sidered binding in the belief and on the conduct, nor can its accept- 
 ance be refused by any one without his being considered rebellious to 
 the church. But when it is ordered that marriages must be celebrated 
 only in presence of the parish priest, this is a matter of discipline, not 
 supposed to rest on the revelation of God, but dictated by prudence ; 
 and consequently a degree of toleration is allowed regarding the adop- 
 tion of the resolution in particular dioceses. It is only with regard to 
 such decrees, and more specifically the one we have mentioned, that 
 the council of Trent is said to have been received, or not, in different 
 countries. 
 
 " When a general council cannot be summoned, or when it is not 
 deemed necessary, the general government of the church is conducted 
 by the pope, whose decisions in matters of discipline are considered 
 paramount, though particular sees and countries claim certain special 
 privileges and exemptions. In matters of faith it is admitted that if 
 he issue a decree, as it is called, ex cathedra, or as head of the church, 
 and all the bishops accept it, such definition or decree is binding and 
 final.* 
 
 * " The great difference between the Transalpine and Cisalpine divines, as they
 
 102 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 " The discipline or reformation of smaller divisions is performed by 
 provincial or diocesan synods. The first consists of the bishops of a 
 province under their metropolitan ; the latter of the parochial and 
 other clergy under the superintendence of the bishop. The forms to 
 be observed in such assemblies, the subjects which may be discussed, 
 and the extent of jurisdiction which may be assumed, are laid down 
 at full' in a beautiful work of the learned Benedict XIV., entitled ' De 
 Synodo Dioecesana.' The acts and decrees of many such partial 
 synods have been published, and are held in high esteem among 
 Catholics ; indeed, they may be recommended as beautiful specimens 
 of deliberative wisdom. Such are the decrees of the various synods 
 held at Milan under the virtuous and amiable St. Charles Borromeo. 8 
 
 " II. The laws of the Catholic church may be divided into two 
 classes, those which bind the interior, and those which regulate outward 
 conduct. This distinction, which corresponds to that above made, be- 
 tween doctrinal and disciplinary decrees, may appear unusual, as the 
 term laws seems hardly applicable to forms of thought or belief. Still, 
 viewing, as we have done, the Catholic church under the form of an 
 organized religious society, and considering that it professes to be di- 
 vinely authorized to exact interior assent to all that it teaches, under 
 the penalty of being separated from its communion, we think we can 
 well classify under the word law those principles and doctrines which 
 it commands and expects all its members to profess. 
 
 " Catholics often complain that doctrines are laid to their charge 
 which they do not hold, and in their various publications protest against 
 their belief being assumed upon any but authoritative documents ; and 
 as such works are perfectly accessible, the complaint must appear 
 reasonable as well as just. There are several works in which an accu- 
 rate account is given of what Catholics are expected to believe, and 
 which carefully distinguish between those points on which latitude of 
 
 are termed, is whether such a decree has its force prior to, or independent of, 
 the accession of the body of bishops to it, or receives its sanction and binding 
 power from their acceptance. Practically there is little or no difference between 
 the two opinions ; yet this slight variety forms a principal groundwork of what 
 are called the liberties of the Gallican church." 
 
 8 Cardinal Borromeo, archbishop of Milan (1560-1594) and nephew of Pius IV., 
 was at the head of the commission which prepared the catechism of the Council of 
 Trent; but his earnest zeal for the advancement of his church led him to sanction 
 measures for uprooting Protestantism in Italy, which were at least analogous to 
 kidnaping and brigandage.
 
 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 103 
 
 opinion is allowed, and such as have been fully and decisively decreed 
 by the supreme authority of the church. Such are Veron's ' Regula 
 Fidei,' or Rule of Faith, a work lately translated into* English, and 
 Holden's ' Analysis Fidei.' But there are documents of more author- 
 ity than these ; for example, the ' Declaration ' set forth by the vicars 
 apostolic or bishops in England, in 1823, often republished; and still 
 more the ' Catechism us ad Parochos,' or Catechism of the Council of 
 Trent,' translated into English not many years ago, and published in 
 Dublin. A perusal of such works as these will satisfy those who are 
 desirous of full and accurate information regarding Catholic tenets, of 
 their real nature, and show that the popular expositions of their sub- 
 'stance and character are generally incorrect. 
 
 " The formulary of faith which persons becoming members of the 
 Catholic church are expected to recite, and which is sworn to upon 
 taking any degree, or being appointed to a chair in a university, is the 
 creed of Piui IV., of which the following is the substance : 
 
 " The preamble runs as follows : ' I, N. N., with a firm faith believe 
 and profess all and every one of those things which are contained in 
 that creed, which the holy Roman church maketh use of.' Then fol- 
 lows the Nicene cre^d. 4 
 
 * This creed, as used in the Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Protestant Episco- 
 pal churches, is more full than the original Nicene creed, and was in this form set 
 forth by the council of Constantinople A. D. 381. The following translation of it, 
 copied from the Protestant Episcopal Book of Common Prayer, is added in order to 
 complete the formulary of faith given by Dr. Wiseman. 
 
 " I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and 
 of all things visible and invisible : 
 
 " And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten by 
 his Father before all worlds ; God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, 
 begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father ; by whom all things 
 were made; who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from Heaven, and 
 was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man, and 
 was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate. He suffered and was buried, and 
 the third day he rose again, according to the Scriptures, and ascended into Heaven, 
 and sitteth on the right hand of the Father ; and he shall come again, with glory, 
 to judge both the quick and the dead ; whose kingdom shall have no end. 
 
 " And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and giver of life, who proceedeth 
 from the Father and the Son ; who with the Father and the Son together is wor- 
 shiped and glorified, who spake by the prophets. And I believe in one Catholic 
 and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge one Baptism for the remission of sins ; and 
 I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen."
 
 104 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 " ' I most steadfastly admit and embrace apostolical and ecclesiastical 
 traditions, and all other observances and constitutions of the same 
 church. 
 
 " ' I also admit the holy scriptures, according to (hat sense which our 
 holy mother the church has held and does hold, to which it belongs to 
 judge of the true sense and interpretation of the scriptures : neither 
 will I ever take and interpret them otherwise than according to the 
 unanimous consent of the fathers. 
 
 " ' I also profess that there are truly and properly seven sacraments 
 of the new law, instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, and necessary for 
 the salvation of mankind, though not all for every one, to wit : bap- 
 tism, confirmation, the eucharist, penance,* extreme unction, holy 
 orders.f and matrimony : and that they confer grace ; and that of 
 these, baptism, confirmation, and order cannot be reiterated without 
 sacrilege. I also receive and admit the received and approved cere- 
 monies of the Catholic church, vued in the solemn administration of 
 the aforesaid sacraments. 
 
 " * I embrace and receive all and every one of the things which have 
 been defined and declared in the holy Council of Trent, concerning 
 original sin and justification. 6 
 
 * " Under penance is included confession ; as the Catholic sacrament of penance 
 consists of three parts : contrition or sorrow, confession, and satisfaction. 
 
 t " The clerical orders of the Catholic church are divided into two classes, sacred 
 and minor orders. The first consists of subdeacons, deacons and priests, who are 
 bound to celibacy, and the daily recitation of the .Bra-'iar^ or collection of psalms 
 and prayers, occupying a considerable time. The minor orders are four in num- 
 ber, and arc preceded by the tonsure, an ecclesiastical ceremony in which the hair 
 is shorn, initiatory to the ecclesiastical state." 
 
 6 As the decrees and canons of the Council of Trent concerning original sin 
 and justification would occupy about 20 pages of this volume, they cannot be given 
 here at length. The following are specimens. 
 
 " Original sin " is described as " this sin of Adam, which originally is one of- 
 fense, and being transmitted to all by propagation, not by imitation, becomes the 
 sin of all." The decree says, "If any one denies that the guilt of original sin is 
 remitted through the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, which is bestowed in bap- 
 tism ; or affirms that that which has the true and proper nature of sin is not 
 wholly taken away, but is only cut down or not imputed ; let him be accursed. . . . 
 Nevertheless, . . . concupiscence, or that which kindles sin, still remains in the bap- 
 tized ; which, since it is left to try them, cannot harm those who do not yield, but 
 manfully resist, through the grace of Christ Jesus ; yea rather, ' he that striveth law- 
 fully, shall be crowned ' (2 Tim. 2 : 5). The holy council declares that the Cath-
 
 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 105 
 
 " ' I profess likewise that in the mass there is offered to God a true, 
 proper, and propitiatory sacrifice for the living and the dead : and that 
 in the most holy sacrament of the eucliarist there is truly, really, and 
 substantially, the body and blood, together with the soul and divinity 
 of our Lord Jesus Christ ; and that there is made a change of the 
 whole substance of the bread into the body, and of the whole substance 
 of the wine into the blood, which change the Catholic church calls 
 transubstantiation. I also confess that under either kind alone Christ 
 is received whole and entire, and a true sacrament. 
 
 olic church has never understood this concupiscence, which the apostle sometimes 
 calls sin, to be called sin, because there is truly and properly sin in the regenerate, 
 but because it is of sin, and inclines to sin. But if any one thinks differently, let 
 him be accursed. 
 
 " The holy council nevertheless declares, that it is not its design to include in 
 this decree, which treats of original sin, the blessed and immaculate Virgin Mary, 
 mothar of God ; but that the constitutions of Pope Sixtus IV., of blessed mem- 
 ory, are to be observed, under the penalties contained in the same ; which are 
 hereby renewed." 
 
 The " nature and causes of justification of the ungodly " are thus stated in 
 chapter VII. of the decree on justification- "Justification .... is not remission 
 of sin merely, but also sanctification and renewal of the inner man by the volun- 
 tary reception of grace and of gifts, when a man from being unrighteous is made 
 righteous, and from being an enemy becomes a friend, so as to be an heir according 
 to the hope of eternal life. The causes of this justification are : the final cause, 
 the glory of God and of Christ, and life eternal ; the efficient cause, the mer- 
 ciful God, who freely cleanses and sanctifies, sealing and anointing with the 
 Holy Spirit of promise, which is the pledge of our inheritance; the meritorious 
 cause, his well-beloved and only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, who, 
 through his great love wherewith he loved us, even when we were enemies, merited 
 justification for us by his own most holy passion on the cross, and made saris- 
 faction for us to God the Father ; the instrumental cause, the sacrament of bap- 
 tism, which is the sacrament of faith without which no one ever obtains justifica- 
 tion ; lastly, the sole formal cause is the righteousness of God, not that by which 
 he himself is righteous, but that by which he makes us righteous ; with which 
 being endued by him, we are renewed in the spirit of our mind, and are not only 
 accounted righteous, but are properly called and are righteous, receiving right- 
 eousness in ourselves, each according to his measure, which the Holy Spirit bestows 
 upon each as he wills, and according to the particular disposition and cooperation 
 of each." 
 
 Concerning " the lapsed and their recovery " the Council teaches in chapter XIV. 
 of the same decree : " Those who by sin have fallen from the grace of justification 
 received may be justified again, when, divinely moved, they have succeeded in 
 recovering their lost grace by the sacrament of penance, through the merits of 
 Christ. For this mode of justification is that recovery of the lapsed which the
 
 106 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 w ' I firmly hold that there is a purgatory, and that the souls therein 
 d: tained are helped by the suffrages of the faithful. 
 
 M ' Likewise, that the saints reigning with Christ are to be honored 
 at d invocated, and that they offer up prayers to God for us ; and that 
 tt^ir relics are to be had in veneration. 
 
 "'I most firmly assert that the images of Christ, of the mother of 
 Cod, 6 and also of other saints, ought to be had and retained, and that 
 due honor and veneration are to be given them. 
 
 *'* I also affirm that the power of indulgences was left by Christ in 
 the church, and that the use of them is most wholesome to Christian 
 people. 
 
 " ' I acknowledge the hojy Catholic Apostolic Roman church for the 
 mother and mistress of all churches: and I promise true obedience to 
 the bishop of Rome, successor to St. Peter, prince of the apostles and 
 vicar of Jesus Christ.' 
 
 " Then follow clauses condemnatory of all contrary doctrines, and 
 expressive of adhesion to all the definitions of the Council of Trent. 7 
 
 boly Fathers have fitly called the ' second plank after shipwreck ' of lost grace. 
 Moreover, Christ Jesus instituted the sacrament of penance for those who fall into 
 sin after baptism, when he said, ' Receive ye the Holy Ghost : whose sins you shall 
 forgive, they are forgiven them ; and whose sins you shall retain, they are re- 
 tained ' (John xx. Mat. xvi.). Wherefore we must teach that the penance of a Chris- 
 tian man after his fall is very different from baptismal penance, and includes not 
 only cessation from sins and hatred of them, or a contrite and humbled heart, but 
 also the sacramental confession of these sins, at least in desire, to be performed in 
 due time, and priestly absolution ; and also satisfaction, by fasts, alms, prayers, and 
 other pious exercises of the spiritual life ; not satisfaction for eternal punishment, 
 which together with the offense is remitted by the sacrament, or the desire of the 
 sacrament but for the temporal punishment, which, as the Sacred Scriptures 
 teach, is not always remitted, as is the case in baptism, to those, who being un- 
 grateful for the grace of God which they received, have grieved the Holy Spirit 
 and dared to profane the temple of God." 
 
 To this decree on justification are subjoined 33 canons, the last of which is : 
 " If any one shall affirm, that this Catholic doctrine of justification, expressed by 
 the holy council in this present decree, involves anything derogatory to the glory 
 of God or the merits of Jesus Christ our Lord, and does not rather illustrate the 
 truth of our faith as well as the glory of God and of Christ Jesus ; let him be 
 accursed." 
 
 8 Dr. Wiseman here omits, probably by a slip of the pen, the phrase "Ever 
 virgin," which should follow " Mother of God." 
 
 7 The clauses, thus referred to by Dr. Wiseman, read thus : 
 
 " I likewise undoubtedly receive and profess all other things delivered, defined,
 
 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 107 
 
 " It is obvious that this form of confession was framed in accordance 
 to the decrees of that council, and consequently has chiefly in view the 
 opinions of those who followed the Reformation. It would be foreign 
 to our, purpose to enter into any explanations of the doctrines here laid 
 down, much less into any statement of the grounds on which Catholics 
 hold them, as we purposely refrain from all polemical discussion. 
 
 " Such is the doctrinal code of the Catholic church ; of its moral 
 doctrines we need not say anything, because no authorized document 
 could be well referred to that embodies them all. There are many de- 
 crees of popes condemnatory of immoral opinions or propositions, but 
 no positive decrees. Suffice it to say, that the moral law, as taught in 
 the Catholic church, is mainly the same as other denominations of 
 Christians profess to follow. 
 
 " Of the disciplinary or governing code we have already spoken, 
 when we observed that it consisted of the Canon Law, which, unlike the 
 doctrinal and moral code, may vary with time, place, and accidental 
 circumstances. 
 
 " III. Our last head was the essential or constitutive principle of 
 the Catholic church. By this we mean that principle which gives it 
 individuality, distinguishes it from other religions, pervades all its insti- 
 tutions, and gives the answer to every query regarding the peculiar 
 constitution outward and inward of this church. 
 
 " Now, the fundamental position, the constitutive principle of the 
 Catholic church, is the doctrine and belief that God has promised, and 
 consequently bestows upon it, a constant and perpetual protection, to 
 the extent of guaranteeing it from destruction, from error, or fatal cor- 
 ruption. This principle once admitted, everything else follows. 1. 
 The infallibility of the church in its decisions on matters concerning 
 
 and declared by the Sacred Canons and General Councils, and particularly by the 
 holy Council of Trent ; and I condemn, reject, and anathematize all things con- 
 trary thereto, and all heresies which the church has condemned, rejected, and 
 anathematized. 
 
 " I, N N., do at this present freely profess and truly hold this true Catholic faith, 
 without which no one can be saved ; and I promise most constantly to retain and 
 confess the same entire and inviolate, with God's assistance, to the end of my life. 
 And I will take care ,as far as in me lies, that it shall be held, taught, and preached by 
 my subjects, or by those t>,e care of whom shall appertain to me in my office ; this I promise, 
 vow, and su*ar so help me God, and these holy Gospels of Gcd." The words in 
 Italics are used when the creed is administered to a beneficed priest, professor, or 
 bishop.
 
 108 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 faith. 2. The obligation of submitting to all these decisions, independ- 
 ently of men's own private judgments or opinions. 3. The authority 
 of tradition, or the unalterable character of all the doctrines committed 
 to the church ; and hence the persuasion that those of its dogmas, which 
 to others appear strange and unscripiural, have been in reality handed 
 down, uncorrupted, since the time of the apostles, who received them 
 from Christ's teaching. 4. The necessity of religious unity, by perfect 
 uniformity of belief: -and thence as a corollary the siiifulness of wilful 
 separation or schism, and culpable errors or heresy. 5. Government 
 by authority, since they who are aided and supported by such a promise 
 must necessarily be considered appointed to direct others, and are held 
 as the representatives and vicegerents of Christ in the church. 6. The 
 papal supremacy, whether considered as a necessary provision for the 
 preservation of this essential unity, or as the principal depository of the 
 divine promises. 7. In fine, the authority of councils, the right to en- 
 act canons and ceremonies, the duty of repressing all attempts to broach 
 new opinions ; in a word, all that system of rule and authoritative teach- 
 ing which must strike every one as the leading feature in the constitu- 
 tion of the Catholic church. 
 
 " The differences, therefore, between this and other religions, how- 
 ever complicated and numerous they may at first S'ght appear, are 
 thus in truth narrowed to one question ; for particular doctrines must 
 share the fate of the dogmas above cited, as forming the constitutive 
 principle of the Catholic religion. This religion claims for itself a 
 comple e consistency from its first principle to its last consequence, and 
 to its least institution, and finds fault with others, as though they pre- 
 served forms, dignities, and doctrines which must have sprung from a 
 principle by them rejected, but which are useless and mistaken, the 
 moment they are disjoined from it. Be this as it m:iy, the constitution 
 of the Catholic church should seem to possess, what is essential to every 
 moral organized body, a principle of vitality which accounts for all its 
 actions, and determines at once the direction and the intensity of all 
 its functions. 
 
 "To conclude our account of the Catholic church, we will give a 
 slight view of the extent of its dominions, by enumerating the countries 
 which profess its doctrines, or which contain considerable communities 
 under its obedience. 8 In Europe, Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Bel- 
 
 8 More recent statistics of the Roman Catholic church are given in Chapter 
 XXVIII., &c.
 
 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 109 
 
 gium, the Austrian empire, including Hungary, Bavaria, PoLmd, and 
 the Rhenish provinces of Prussia, which formerly belonged to the ec- 
 clesiastical electorates, profess the Catholic religion as that of the state, 
 or, according to the expression of the French charte, that of the major- 
 ity of the people. In America, all the countries which once formed 
 part of the Spanish dominions, both in the southern and northern por- 
 tion of the continent, and which are now independent states, profess 
 exclusively the same religion. The empire of Brazil is also Catholic. 
 Lower Canada and all those islands in the West Indies which belong 
 
 O 
 
 to Spain or France, including the Republic of Hayti, profess the Cath- 
 olic faith ; and there are also considerable Catholic communities in the 
 United States of North America, especially in Maryland and Louisiana. 
 Many Indian tribes, in the Canadas, in the United States, in California, 
 and in South America, have embraced the same faith. In Asia there 
 is hardly any nation professing Christianity which does not contain 
 large communities of Catholic Christians. Thus in Syria the entire 
 nation or tribe of the Maronites, dispersed over Mount Libanus, aro 
 subjects of the Roman see, governed by a patriarch and bishops ap- 
 pointed by it. There are also other Syriac Christians under other 
 bishops, united to the same see, who are dispersed all over Palestine 
 and Syria. At Constantinople there is a Catholic Armenian patriarch 
 who governs the united Armenians as they are called, large communi- 
 ties of whom also exist in Armenia proper. The Abbe Dubois, in his 
 examination before a committee of the House of Commons in 1832, 
 stated the number of Catholics in the Indian peninsula at 600,000, in- 
 cluding Ceylon, and this number is perhaps rather underrated than 
 otherwise. They are governed by four bishops and four vicars apos- 
 tolic with episcopal consecration. A new one has just been added for 
 Ceylon. We have not the means of ascertaining the number of Cath- 
 olics in China, but in the province of Su-Chuen alone they were re- 
 turned, 22d September, 1824, at 47,487 (Annales de la Propag. de la 
 Foi, No. xi., p. 257) ; and an official report published at Rome in. the 
 same year gives those in the provinces of Fo-kien and Kiansi at 40,000. 
 There are seven other provinces containing a considerable number of 
 Catholics, of which we have no return. In the united empire of Ton- 
 kin and Cochin-China the Catholics of one district were estimated at 
 200,000 (Ibid., No. x., p. 194), and, till the late persecution, there was 
 a college with 200 students, and convents containing 700 religious. 
 Another district gave a return, in 1826, of 2955 infants baptized, which
 
 110 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 would give an estimate of 88,000 adult Christians. A third gave a 
 return of 170,000. M. Dubois estimates the number of native Cath- 
 olics in the Philippine islands at 2,000,000. In Africa, the i.-lands of 
 Mauritius and Bourbon are Catholic, and all the Portuguese settle- 
 ments on the coasts, as well as the Azores, Madeira, the Cape Verd, 
 and the Canary Islands." 
 
 On the 8th of December, 1854, a new article was added to 
 the Roman Catholic faith. Hitherto it had been a question 
 among Roman Catholics whether the Virgin Mary was or was 
 not conceived free from original sin, that is, without any in- 
 herited depravity; St. Bernard, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Cath- 
 arine, the Dominicans, &c., had denied the immaculate con- 
 ception; but Pope Pius IX., having previously sent a circular 
 on the subject to all the bishops of the church throughout the 
 world, and obtained the assent of a large majority of them, 
 publicly declared the immaculate conception of the Virgin 
 Mary to be a doctrine of the church, and accordingly the follow- 
 ing is now officially inserted as "Lesson VI." "on the 8th of 
 December, at the Festival of the Immaculate Conception of the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary." 
 
 " From the Acts of Pope Pius IX. 
 
 " But the victory of the Virgin Mother of God, at her conception, 
 over the worst enemy of the human race, which victory divine declara- 
 tions, venerable tradition, the constant sentiment of the church, the 
 singular unanimity of the bishops and of the faithful, and the remarka- 
 ble acts and constitutions of the chief pontiffs were now wonderfully 
 illustrating ; Pius IX., chief pontiff, assenting to the wishes of the 
 whole church, determined to proclaim with his own supreme and in- 
 fallible oracle. Therefore on the sixth day before the ides of Decem- 
 ber [= Dec. 8th] of the year 1854 in the Vatican Basilica, in the 
 presence of a great assembly of the Cardinal Fathers of the Roman 
 church and also of Bishops from remote regions, and with the applause 
 of the whole world, solemnly pronounced and defined : That the doc- 
 trine which holds the Blessed Virgin Mary to have been at the first 
 instant of her being conceived, by a singular divine privilege, preserved 
 free from all stain of original sin, was revealed by God and is there- 
 fore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful."
 
 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. ll I 
 
 "The First Ecumenical Council of the Vatican," whose 
 cessions began on the 8th of December, 1869, has likewise made 
 its additions to the authoritative standards of the church in its 
 two dogmatic decrees. Of these, the first, " on Catholic faith," 
 promulgated April 24, 1870, is divided into four chapters, re- 
 affirming, in opposition to rationalism, naturalism, &c., the 
 doctrines of the church in respect to God the creator of all 
 things, to divine revelation, to faith, and to the relation of 
 faith and reason ; and closes with canons corresponding to these 
 chapters and anathematizing all who do not receive the views 
 therein set forth by the council. The second dogmatic degree, 
 in respect to the supremacy and infallibility of the pope, is the 
 great work of the council, and, on account of its importance, is 
 here given at length, as translated from the original Latin and 
 published in "The Catholic World" for September, 1870. 
 
 "FIRST DOGMATIC DECREE ox THB CHURCH OP CHRIST, PUBLISHED 
 
 IN THE FOURTH SESSION OF THE HOLY ECUMENICAL COUNCIL 
 OF TEE VATICAN. PASSED JULY 18, 1870. 
 
 " Pius, Bishop, Servant of the servants of God, with the approbation of 
 the Hjty Council, for a perpetual remembrance hereof. 
 
 " The eternal Shepherd ami Bishop of our soul?, in order to render 
 perpetual the saving work of his redemption, resolved to build the 
 holy church, in which, as in the house of the living God, all the faith- 
 ful should be united by the bond of the same faith and charity. For 
 which reason, before he was glorified, he prayed the Father, not for 
 the apostles alone, but also for those who, through their word, would 
 believe in him, that they all might be one, as the Son himself and the 
 Father are one (John xvii. 1-20). "Wherefore, even as he sent the 
 apostles, whom he had chosen to himself from the world as he had 
 been sent by the Father, so he willed that there should be pastors and 
 teachers in his church even to the consummation of the world. More- 
 over, to the end that the episcopal body itself might be one and 
 undivided, and that the entire multitude of believers might be pre- 
 served in oneness of faith and of communion, through priests cleaving 
 mutually together, he placed the blessed Peter before the other apos- 
 tles and established in him a perpetual principle of this two-fold unity,
 
 112 TIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTE1T. 
 
 and a visible foundation on whose strength ' the eternal temple might 
 be built, and in whose firm faith the church might rise upward until 
 her summit reach the heavens ' (St. Leo the Great, Sermon v. (or 
 iii.), chapter 2, on Christmas). Now, seeing that in order to over- 
 throw, if possible, the church, the powers of hell on every side, and 
 with a hatred which increases day by day, are assailing her foundation 
 which was placed by God, we therefore, for the preservation, the 
 safety, and the increase of the Catholic flock, and with the approbation 
 of the sacred council, have judged it necessary to set forth the 
 doctrine which, according to the ancient and constant faith of the 
 universal church, all the faithful must believe and hold, touching the 
 institution, the perpetuity, and the nature of the sacred aposlolic 
 primacy, in which stands the power and strength of the entire church ; 
 and to proscribe and condemn the contrary errors so hurtful to the 
 flock of the Lord. 
 
 " CHAPTER I. 
 
 " Of the institution of the apostolic primacy in the blessed Peter. 
 
 " We teach, therefore, and declare that, according to the testimonies 
 of the Gospel, the primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of 
 God was promised and given immediately and directly to blessed 
 Peter, the apostle, by Christ our Lord. For it was to Simon alone, 
 to whom he had already said, ' Thou shalt be called Cephas,' * that, 
 after he had professed his faith, ' Thou art Christ, the Son of the 
 living God,' our Lord said, ' Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona ; 
 because flesh and blood hath not revealed it to thee, but my Father 
 who is in Heaven ; and I say to thee, that thou art Peter, and upon 
 this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not pre- 
 vail against it ; and I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of 
 heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound 
 also in heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt loose upon earth, it shall 
 be loosed also in heaven.' f And it was to Simon Peter alone that 
 Jesus, after his resurrection, gave the jurisdiction of supreme shep- 
 herd and ruler over (he whole of his fold, saying, ' Feed my lambs ; ' 
 ' Feed my sheep.' J To this doctrine So clearly set forth in the sacred 
 
 John 1 : 42. 
 
 t Matthew 16: 16-19. 
 
 | John 21: 15-17.
 
 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 113 
 
 Scriptures, as the Catholic church has always understood it, are plainly 
 opposed the perverse opinions of those who, distorting the form of 
 government established in his church by Christ our Lord, deny that 
 Peter alone above the other apostles, whether taken separately one by 
 one or all together, was endowed by Clirist with a true and real 
 primacy of jurisdiction ; or who assert that this primacy was not given 
 immediately and directly to blessed Peter, but to the church, and 
 through her to him, as to the agent of the church. 
 
 " If, therefore, any one shall say, that blessed Peter the Apostle 
 was not appointed by Christ our Lord, the prince of all the apostles, 
 and the visible head of the whole church militant ; or, that he received 
 directly and immediately from our' Lord Jesus Christ only the 
 primacy of honor, and not that of true and real jurisdiction ; let him- 
 be anathema, 
 
 " CHAPTER II. 
 
 " Of the perpetuity of the primacy of Peter in the Roman pontiffs. 
 
 " What the prince of pastors and the great shepherd of the sheep, 
 our Lord Jesus Christ, established in the person of the blessed apostle 
 Peter for the perpetual welfare and lasting good of the church, the 
 same through his power must needs last for ever in that church, which 
 is founded upon the rock, and will stand firm till the end of time. 
 And indeed it is well known, as it has been in all ages, that the holy 
 and most blessed Peter, prince and head of the apostles, pillar of the 
 faith and foundation of the Catholic Church, who received from our 
 Lord Jesus Christ, the Savior and Redeemer of mankind, the keys 
 of the kingdom of heaven, to this present time and at all times lives 
 and presides and pronounces judgment in the person of his successors, 
 the bishops of the holy Roman see, which was founded by him, and 
 consecrated by his blood.* So that whoever succeeds Peter in this; 
 chair, holds, according to Christ's own institution, the primacy of 
 Peter over the whole church. What, therefore, was once established 
 by him who is the truth, still remains, and blessed Peter, retaining the 
 strength of the rock, which has been given to him, ha& never left the 
 helm of the church originally intrusted to him.f 
 
 " For this reason it was always necessary for every other church, 
 that is, the faithful of all countries, to have recourse to the Roman 
 
 * Council of Eph. seas. iii. St. Peter Chrys. Ep. ad.Eutych,. 
 t S. Leo, Scrm. iii. chap. iii. 
 
 8
 
 114 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 Church on account of its superior headship, in order that being joined, 
 as members to (heir head, with this see, from which the rights of reli- 
 gious communion flow unto all, they might be knitted into the unity of 
 one body.* 
 
 " If, therefore, any one shall say, that it is not by the institution of 
 Christ our Lord himself, or by divine right, that blessed Peter has per- 
 petual successors in the primacy over the whole church ; or, that the 
 Roman pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy ; 
 let him be anathema. 
 
 "CHAPTER nr. 
 
 " Of the power and nature of the primacy of the Roman pontiff". 
 
 u Wherefore, resting upon the clear testimonies of holy writ, and 
 following the full and explicit decrees of our predecessors the Roman 
 pontiffs, and of general councils, we renew the definit on of the 
 ecumenical council of Florence, according to which all the faiihful of 
 Christ must believe that the holy apostolic see and the Roman pontiff 
 hold the primacy over the whole world, and that the Roman pontiff is 
 the successor of blessed Peter the prince of the apostles, and the true 
 vicar of Christ, and is the head of the whole church, and the father 
 and teacher of all Christians; and that to him, in the blessed Peter, 
 was given by our Lord Jesus Christ full, power of feeding, ruling, and 
 governing the universal church ; as is also set forth in the acts of the 
 ecumenical councils, and in the sacred canons. 
 
 " Wherefore, we teach and declare that the Roman Church, under 
 divine providence, possesses a headship of ordinary power over all 
 other churches, and that this power of jurisdiction of the Roman 
 pontiff, which is truly episcopal, is immediate, toward which the 
 pastors and faithful of whatever rite and dignity, whether singly or all 
 together, are bound by the duty of hierarchical subordination and of 
 true obedience, not only in things which appertain to faith and morals, 
 but likewise in those things which concern the discipline and govern- 
 ment of the church spread throughout the world, so that being united 
 with the Roman pontiff, both in communion and in profession of the 
 same faith, the church of Christ may be one fold under one chief 
 ehejiherd. This is the doctrine of Catholic truth, from which no one 
 can depart without loss of faith and salvation. 
 
 *St. Irenaeos against Heresies, book iii. chap. 3. Epist. of Council of Aquileia, 
 381, to Gratian, chap. 4, of Pius VI. Brief Super Soliditate.
 
 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 115 
 
 " So far, nevertheless, is this power of the supreme pontiff from 
 trenching on that ordinary power of episcopal jurisdiction by which the 
 bishops, who have been instituted by the Holy Ghost and have suc- 
 ceeded in the place of the apostles, like true shepherds, feed and rule 
 the flocks assigned to them, each one his own ; that, on the contrary, 
 this their power is asserted, strengthened, and vindicated by the supreme 
 and universal pastor ; as St. Gregory the Great saith : My honor is 
 the honor of the universal church ; my honor is the solid strength of 
 my brethren ; then am I truly honored when to each one of them the 
 honor due is not denied (St. Gregory Great ad Eulogius, Epist. 30). 
 
 "Moreover, from that supreme authority of the Roman pontiff to 
 govern the universal church, there follows to him the right, in the ex- 
 ercise of this his office, of freely communicating with the pastors and 
 flocks of the whole church, that they may be taught and guided by him 
 in the way of salvation. 
 
 " Wherefore, we condemn and reprobate the opinions of those, who 
 say that this communication of the supreme head with the pastors and 
 flocks can be lawfully hindered, or who make it subject to the secular 
 power, maintaining that the things which are decreed by the apostolic 
 see or under its authority for the government of the church, have no 
 force or value unless they are confirmed by the approval of the secular 
 power. And since, by the divine right of apostolic primacy, the Ro- 
 man pontiff presides over the universal churches, we also teach and 
 declare that he is the supreme judge of the faithful (Pius VI. Brief 
 Super Soliditate), and that in all causes calling for ecclesiastical trial, 
 recourse may be had to his judgment (Second Council of Lyons) ; but 
 the decision of the apostolic see, above which there is no higher au- 
 thority, cannot be reconsidered by any one, nor is it lawful to any one 
 to sit in judgment on his judgment (Nicholas I. epist. ad Michaelem 
 Imperatorem). 
 
 " Wherefore, they wander away from the right pa'h of truth who 
 assert that it is lawful to appeal from the judgments of the Roman 
 pontiffs to an ecumenical council, as if to an authority superior to the 
 Roman pontiff. 
 
 "Therefore, if any one shall say that the Roman pontiff holds only 
 the charge of inspection or direction, and not full and supreme power 
 of jurisdiction over the entire church, not only in things which pertain 
 to faith and morals, but also in those which pertain to the discipline and 
 government of the church spread throughout the whole world ; or, that
 
 116 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 he possesses only the chief part and not the entire plenitude of this 
 supreme power ; or, that this his power is not ordinary and immediate, 
 both as regards all and each of the churches, and all and each of the 
 pastors and faithful ; let him be anathema. 
 
 " CHAPTER iv. 
 " Of the infallible authority of the Roman pontiff in teaching. 
 
 " This holy see has ever held the unbroken custom of the church 
 doth prove and the ecumenical councils, those especially in which the 
 east joined with the west, in union of faith and of charity, have de- 
 clared that in this apostolic primacy, which the Roman pontiff holds 
 over the universal church, as successor of Peter the prince of the apos- 
 tles, there is also contained the supreme power of authoritative teach- 
 ing. Thus the fathers of the fourth council of Constantinople, follow- 
 ing in the footsteps of their predecessors, put forth this solemn profes- 
 sion : 
 
 " ' The first law of salvation is to keep the rule of true faith. And 
 whereas the words of our Lord Jesus Christ cannot be passed by, who 
 said : Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church 
 (Matt. xvi. 18), these words, which he spake, are proved true by facts ; 
 for in the apostolic see, the Catholic religion has ever been preserved 
 unspotted, and the holy doctrine has been announced. Therefore 
 wishing never to be separated from the faith and teaching of this see, 
 we hope to be worthy to abide in that one communion which the apos- 
 tolic see preaches, in which is the full and true firmness of the Christian 
 religion ' [Formula of St. Ilormisdas Pope, as proposed by Hadrian 
 II. to the fathers of the eighth general Council (Constantinop. IV.), 
 and subscribed by them]. 
 
 " So too, the Greeks, with the approval of the second council of 
 Lyons, professed, that the holy Roman Church holds over the universal 
 Catholic Church, a supreme and full primacy and headship, which she 
 truthfully and humbly acknowledges that she received, with fullness of 
 power, from the Lord himself in blessed Peter, the prince or head of 
 the apostles, of whom the Roman pontiff is the successor ; and as she, 
 beyond the others, is bound to defend the truth of the faith, so, if any 
 questions arise concerning faith, they should be decided by her judg- 
 ment. And finally, the council of Florence defined that the Roman 
 pontiff is true vicar of Christ, and the head of the whole church, and
 
 VIEW OF THE EOMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 117 
 
 the father and teacher of all Christians, and that to him, in the blessed 
 Peter, was given by our Lord Jesus Christ full power of feeding and 
 ruling and governing the universal church (John xxi. 15-17). 
 
 " In order to fulfill this pastoral charge, our predecessors have ever 
 labored unweariedly to spread the saving doctrine of Christ among all 
 the nations of the earth, and with equal care have watched to preserve 
 it pure and unchanged where it had been received. Wherefore the 
 bishops of the whole world, sometimes singly, sometimes assembled in 
 synods, following the long established custom of the churches (S. Cyril. 
 Alex, ad S. Coelest. Pap.), and the form of ancient rule (St. Innocent 
 I. to councils of Carthage and Milevi), referred to this apostolic see 
 those dangers especially which arose in matters of faiih, in order that 
 injuries to faith might best be healed there where the faith could never 
 fail (St. Bernard ep. 190). And the Roman pontiffs, weighing the 
 condition of times and circumstances, sometimes calling together gen- 
 eral councils, or asking the judgment of the church scattered through 
 the world, sometimes consulting particular synods, sometimes using 
 such other aids as divine providence supplied, defined that those doc- 
 trines should be held, which, by the aid of God, they knew to be con- 
 formable to the holy Scriptures, and the apostolic traditions. For the 
 Holy Ghost is not promised to the successors of Peter, that they may 
 make known a new doctrine revealed by him, but that, through his 
 assistance, they may sacredly guard, and faithfully set forth the revela- 
 tion delivered by the apostles, that is, the deposit of faith. And this 
 their apostolic teaching, all the venerable fathers have embraced, and 
 the holy orthodox doctors have revered and followed, knowing most 
 certainly that this see of St. Peter ever remains free from all error, 
 according to the divine promise of our Lord and Savior made to the 
 prince of the apostles : I have prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not, 
 and thou, being once converted, confirm thy brethren (Conf. St. 
 Agatho, Ep. ad Imp. a Cone. GEcum. VI. approbat.). 
 
 "Therefore, this gift of truth, and of faith which fails not, was 
 divinely bestowed on Peter and his successors in this chair, that they 
 should exercise their high office for the salvation of all, that through 
 them the universal flock of Christ should be turned away from the 
 poisonous food of error, and should be nourished with the food of heav- 
 enly doctrine, and that, the occasion of schism being removed, the en- 
 tire church should be preserved one, and, planted on her foundation, 
 should stand firm against the gates of hell.
 
 118 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 
 
 " Nevertheless, since in this present age, when the saving efficacy of 
 the apostolic office is exceedingly needed, there are not a few who carp 
 at its authority ; we judge it altogether necessary to solemnly declare 
 the prerogative, which the only-begotten Son of God has deigned to 
 unite to the supreme pastoral office. 
 
 " Wherefore, faithfully adhering to the tradition handed down from 
 the commencement of the Christian faith, for the glory of God our 
 Savior, the exaltation of the Catholic religion, and the salvation of 
 Christian peoples, with the approbation of the sacred council, we teach 
 and define it to be a doctrine divinely revealed : that when the Roman 
 pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is, when, in the exercise of his office of 
 pastor and teacher of all Christians, and in virtue of his supreme apos- 
 tolical authority, he defines that a doctrine of faith or morals is to be 
 held by the universal church, he possesses, through the divine assist- 
 ance promised to him in the blessed Peter, that infallibility with which 
 the divine Redeemer willed his church to be endowed, in defining a 
 doctrine of faith or morals ; and therefore that such definitions of the 
 Roman pontiff are irreformable of themselves, and not by force of the 
 consent of the church thereto. 
 
 " And if any one shall presume, which God forbid, to contradict this 
 our definition ; let him be anathema. 
 
 " Given in Rome, in the Public Session, solemnly celebrated in the 
 Vatican Basilica, in the year of the Incarnation of our Lord one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and seventy, on the eighteenth day of July ; in the 
 twenty-fifth year of our Pontificate. 
 
 "Ita est [= So is it]. 
 " JOSEPH, BISHOP OF ST. POLTEN, 
 " Secretary of the Council of the Vatican"
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 THE title " pope," now commonly applied to the bishop of 
 
 Rome, as the head of the 
 Roman Catholic church, is 
 only a different English form 
 of the familiar word " papa " 
 (== father) a word which is 
 found in the Latin and vari- 
 ous other languages as well as 
 in the English. This title 
 " papa " was applied by the 
 early ecclesiastical writers to 
 any bishop, and is now a com- 
 mon designation in the Greek 
 church for a priest; but in 
 the Roman Catholic church it 
 is applied exclusively to the 
 bishop of Rome, according to 
 an order of Gregory VII., A. 
 D. 1075. The pope is often 
 styled " holy father," or " his 
 holiness," likewise, " Roman 
 pontiff," or " sovereign pon- 
 tiff' a title borrowed, as the 
 
 THE POPE IN HIS PONTIFICAL DRESS. , - ,, />, -If 
 
 catechism of the Council of 
 
 Trent allows, from the pontiffs or chief priests of pagan Rome. 
 Gregory I. styled himself " servant of the servants of God," 
 and his successors still use this as an official designation ; but
 
 120 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 they do not so much imitate him in his maintaining that the 
 title " universal bishop " is " profane, anti-christian, and in- 
 fernal." The pope is officially declared to be " the successor 
 of the blessed Peter," and " the true vicar of Jesus Christ." 
 The " holy see " or the " holy apostolic see " denotes the 
 bishopric of Rome or the papacy, and figuratively the pope, 
 who is the occupant of this office. 
 
 The pope has been for many ages both a spiritual and a 
 temporal sovereign. His spiritual sovereignty or primacy is 
 claimed, as already indicated, in virtue 
 of his being the rightful successor of 
 " St. Peter, the prince of the apostles." 
 The constant appeal in support of this 
 position is to the words of the Lord 
 Jesus in Mat. 16 : 18, 19 : 
 
 <% And I say also unto thee, that thou art 
 Peter, and upon this rock I will build my 
 
 POPE'S TIARA AND KEYS.- ^^ ^ ^ Q{ j^j ^j ^ 
 
 VIGNETTE OF . 
 
 THB ROMAN BREVIARY. Val1 a S alI1St * Alld I Wl11 %"'* U " tO the 
 
 the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and 
 
 whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven : and 
 whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." 
 
 Protestants believe this passage fulfilled in Peter's being the 
 first to preach the gospel, or open the kingdom of heaven, to 
 both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 2 : 14-40. 10 : 1-11 : 18. 15 : 
 7-11, <fec.). They maintain that other apostles are just as 
 truly the foundation of the church as is Peter (Eph. 2 : 20. 
 Rev. 21: 14), and have just as much authority over the 
 church (Mat. 20 : 20-26. 23 : 8. 2 Cor. 11 : 5. Gal. 2 : 11) ; 
 that the power of binding and loosing (= of retaining and 
 remitting sins, of declaring sentence, of exercising church- 
 discipline) is given to the apostles and the disciples in a 
 church just as truly as to Peter (Mat. 18 : 1, 15-18. John 
 20 : 23) ; that at the election of Matthias to the vacant 
 apostleship, which took place at Peter's suggestion, the two 
 candidates appear to have been nominated by the whole body
 
 TSE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 121 
 
 of the disciples, certainly not by Peter alone, nor probably by 
 the apostles alone, while the appointment was "by lot," i. e., 
 by divine selection (Acts 1 : 15-26 ; compare Prov. 1C : 33) ; 
 that in the ecclesiastical meeting at Jerusalem, where Peter 
 was present and took part, it was evidently not Peter, but 
 James, who presided and shaped the decision (Acts 15 : G 29) ; 
 that no one has the right to be a lord over God's heritage, i. e., 
 the church (1 Pet. 5:3); that neither in the epistles of Peter 
 (1 Pet. 1: 1. 5: 1. 2 Pet. 1:1), nor in the epistle to the 
 Romans, nor in any other scripture given by inspiration of 
 God, is the alleged supremacy or authoritative primacy of 
 Peter to be found ; that it is nowhere taught by any teacher 
 sent of God, that the church of Rome is either better or more 
 honorable than other churches, or its bishop more closely con- 
 nected either with Peter or with Peter's Divine Master than 
 any church which takes the bible alone for an infallible and 
 sufficient guide in religious faith and practice. Protestants 
 believe that the honorable church the church against which 
 " the gates of hell shall not prevail " is one whose members 
 search the scriptures daily (Acts 17: 11), and do not teach 
 for doctrines the commandments of men (Mat. 15 : 9). In a 
 word, Protestants believe that the Roman church of the present 
 day neither rests on " the blessed Peter," nor derives a shadow 
 of authority from him. 
 
 The question, " was Peter in Rome and bishop of the church 
 there ? " must be answered in the affirmative by those who 
 support the papacy. Many Protestants also give a general 
 answer in the affirmative, while others answer both parts of 
 the question decidedly in the negative. A negative answer to 
 either part of the question takes away the foundation of the 
 Roman Catholic system; but an affirmative answer to both 
 parts does not endanger Protestantism, nor involve any renun- 
 ciation of its principles. 
 
 The common Roman Catholic account derived from Euse- 
 bius, bishop of Cesarea, who lived about A. D. 270-340 makes 
 Peter to have been bishop of Antioch seven years, and then
 
 122 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 for 25 years (A. D. 42-67) bishop of Rome. We will here 
 use the words of Dr. Brandes's " Rome and the Popes," as 
 translated by Rev. W. J. Wiseman, and published by " Ben- 
 ziger Brothers, Printers to the Holy Apostolic See, New York 
 and Cincinnati, 1868 : " 
 
 " The best authorities that have reached us on the subject of early 
 Christian Rome place St. Peter's first arrival in the capiial in the year 
 
 42, or about the early part of the reign of Claudius A 
 
 short time after founding the church in Rome, St. Peter left the city, 
 giving charge of the congregation in his absence to Linus and Cletus. 
 He did not return till the year 64. Nero was then emperor, and 
 during his reign it was that the first storm of persecution burst over 
 
 the Roman church In view of his approaching death, the 
 
 Prince of the Apostles was careful to provide a successor for the high 
 offic e of Chief Bishop. Accordingly, in addition to those already con- 
 secrated, he elevated Clement, his own disciple, to the episcopal 
 
 dignity Pt-ter was taken to the place of execution, either on the 
 
 Janiculum or on the Vatican hill. Tradition is divided as to which of 
 these two spots it was on which he suffered. For the rest both are 
 
 very near each other He was nailed to the cross, and 
 
 according to the most reliable traditions was, at his own request, cruci- 
 fied with his head downwards. 1 he generally received authorities say 
 that his death took place in the year 67." 
 
 In regard to the correctness of this Roman Catholic tradi- 
 tion, Rev. Philip Schaff, D. D., a distinguished Protestant 
 historian of the church, and an advocate of Peter's labor and 
 martyrdom in Rome, declares, " This view contradicts the 
 plainest facts of the New Testament, and cannot stand a 
 moment before the bar of criticism." Dr. Schaff maintains 
 that the Acts of the Apostles, which fully describe Peter's 
 earlier labors, do not allow his departure from Palestine before 
 his imprisonment by Herod Agrippa at Jerusalem A. D. 44 
 (Acts 12: 3-17), thus cutting off both the whole of his 
 assumed bishopric at Antioch, and the beginning of that at 
 Rome. So far as the history in the Acts of the Apostles is 
 concerned, Peter might have visited Rome after his escape
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 123 
 
 from Herod's prison, when he "went into another place " 
 (Acts 12: 17), and does not reappear till the consultation of 
 the apostles and elders in Jerusalem, which is variously 
 assigned to A. D. 50, 51, 52, or 53. But Paul's* utter silence 
 respecting him in the epistle to the Romans (written about 
 A. D. 58), and Luke's omission of all mention of him in the 
 account of Paul's arrival and stay at Rome (Acts 28 : 15-81), 
 render it, to say the least, highly improbable that Peter had 
 been -in Rome for any length of time up to this last date, 
 A. D. 63. Peter, indeed, was rebuked by Paul at Antioch 
 after the consultation at Jerusalem (Acts 15: 1-35. Gal. 2: 
 1-11) : and he makes no mention of Rome in either of his 
 epistles, unless the " Babylon," from which he wrote his first 
 epistle (L Pet. 5: 13), is Rome, and not the Babylon on the 
 Euphrates, where the Jews, whose apostle he was, were nu- 
 merous. It is probable, though the various ancient authorities 
 are either not definite, or else not consistent in their particu- 
 lars with one another or with the New Testament, that the 
 apostle Peter came to Rome after A. D. 63, and after a stay, 
 possibly of a year, suffered martyrdom there under Nero be- 
 tween A. D. 63 and A. D. 68. But as, according to the Protest- 
 ant view, it was essential for one to have seen the Lord Jesus 
 in order to be an apostle (Lk. 6 : 13. Acts 1 : 21, 22. 10 : 
 39-41. 1 Cor. 9: 1,2. 13: 8-10), neither Peter nor any 
 
 * If the apostle Peter had been the founder of the church in Rome, it is incon- 
 ceivable that the apostle Paul, who must have known the fact, and was ever ready 
 to give due honor to others, should have made no mention, in his epistle, cither of 
 an organized church, or of Peter, its alleged founder. Paul makes special mention, 
 in the 16th chapter of his epistle, of the names and labors of Priscilla and Aquila, 
 of Mary and Urbane, of Trypheua and Tr\ phosa and Persis, and of " all the saints ;" 
 but he says nothing of a church, bishop, deacon, or apostle as having or having had 
 up to that time any connection with Rome. He evidently regarded the Romans as 
 needing apostolic instruction, and, much as he avoided building on another man's 
 foundation (Rom. 15: 20), he had no suspicion that he was offering a slight to 
 " the prince of the apostles," or intermeddling with the affairs of his diocese, either 
 when he wrote the epistle to the Romans, or when he signified his desire to go and 
 labor among them that he might have some fruit among them also, even as among 
 other Gentiles (Rom. 1 : 13).
 
 124 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 other apostle could have any series of successors in his pecu- 
 liar office. Further, as " bishop" (= "overseer") and "elder" 
 (= presbyter) are in the New Testament applied to the same 
 persons (Acts 20 : 17, 18, 28. Tit. 1 : 5, 7. 1 Pet. 5 : 1, 2 
 [in this last verse " taking the oversight," or literally being 
 bishops, is made the duty of the " elders," as of Peter, in verse 
 1]), therefore " elders," or ordinary ministers who preach the 
 gospel of Christ, are at least as truly successors of the apostles 
 as any who are called "bishops" in these days, whether at 
 Rome or in any other part of the world. The distinction be- 
 tween "bishops" and "elders" belongs to a post-apostolic 
 age, as scholars and divines of all religious denominations now 
 agree. A presiding elder or bishop naturally gained or as- 
 sumed authority over other elders, his equals in office ; and 
 the presiding elder or bishop of a leading city-church gained 
 the preeminence over other elders or bishops in his neighbor- 
 hood or district or province ; and thus by degrees and almost 
 imperceptibly a hierarchy arose. Jerusalem, Cesarea, Anti- 
 och, Ephesus, Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople, were great 
 centers of Christianity, or great cities of the empire, or both ; 
 and hence their bishops became archbishops, metropolitans, 
 and patriarchs, and those of Rome and Constantinople became 
 universal bishops or popes. Ellendorf, a German scholar 
 of the present age, after an elaborate historical examination, 
 deduces the conclusion that " there was no mention, in the 
 first three centuries after Christ, of a Roman primacy, or 
 of a central government of the Catholic church of Rome ; 
 that the Roman bishops did not yet exercise a single one 
 of those prerogatives which to-day form the primacy ; but 
 that gradually those false historical views of the bishopric 
 of Peter, of the see of Rome, and of the succession of the 
 Roman bishops in Peter's bishopric, came into circulation, 
 upon which the primacy finally erected itself." In process 
 of time the pope has been authoritatively declared by general 
 councils to be not only " the successor of the blessed Peter," 
 but also " the true vicar of Jesus Christ, the head of the whole
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 125 
 
 church, and the father and teacher of all Christians." " Both 
 the name and the works of God have been appropriated to the 
 pope," says Rev. Dr. Edgar, " by theologians, canonists, popes, 
 and councils." In the 4th session of the 5th Lateran council, 
 December 10, 1512, and with the approbation of the council, 
 Christopher Marcellus thus publicly addressed the pope in the 
 name of the church : " Thou art pastor, thou physician, thou 
 governor, thou supporter, thou in fine another God on the 
 earth." According to Innocent III., " the pope holds the place 
 of the true God." The canon law, in the gloss, denominates 
 the pope " our Lord God " ; and the canonists say that " the 
 pope is the one God, who has all power in heaven and in 
 earth." The canon law also declares that "the pope has the 
 plenitude of power and is above right;" "he changes the sub- 
 stantial nature of things, for example, by transforming the 
 unlawful into lawful." The Protestant is reminded of the an- 
 cient words of the inspired prophet, " "Woe unto them that 
 call evil good, and good evil ; that put darkness for light, and 
 light for darkness " (Is. 5 : 20) ! and of those words which our 
 Savior himself pronounced, " If the blind lead the blind, both 
 shall fall into the ditch" (Mat. 15 : 14). 
 
 The temporal as well as the spiritual authority of the pope 
 has grown up by degrees. Peter, a true disciple of Him who 
 had not where to lay his head (Lk. 9: 58), and whose king- 
 dom is not of this world (John 18 : 36), traveled about with 
 his wife from place to place in his missionary labors (1 Cor. 9 : 
 5), and was brought with other apostles before kings and gov- 
 ernors for Christ's sake (Mat. 10: 18), but neither had nor 
 claimed any temporal power. While the Roman empire con- 
 tinued to be heathen and persecuting, Christianity was a dis- 
 qualification for office, and Christian bishops, especially, could 
 have no preeminence in earthly jurisdiction. But after Chris- 
 tianity became the state religion, there was a change. Con- 
 stantine (A. D. 312) gave to the Christian clergy the privilege 
 which the heathen priests had enjoyed, of exemption from 
 burdensome municipal services. Afterwards, the Christian
 
 126 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 emperors confirmed the decisions of the bishops in ecclesiasti- 
 cal affairs, and as chosen umpires in civil controversies. Jus- 
 tinian gave to the bishops civil jurisdiction over the clergy, 
 monks, and nuns ; also the oversight of morals and the care 
 of the unfortunate, with a supervision over the character of 
 magistrates. 
 
 The bishops of Rome increased greatly in political conse- 
 quence as the emperors of the East, hard pressed by the Sara- 
 cens, left to them in the 7th and 8th centuries the principal 
 charge of defending Rome and other parts of Italy against the 
 Lombards. The controversy in the 8th century respecting 
 image-worship brought the Romans under their bishop into a 
 state of rebellion against the emperor of the East, without, 
 however, effecting a complete separation at the time. Pepin 
 of France, having consulted the Roman pontiff in A. D. 751 
 about his assuming the title of king and received a favorable 
 answer, which was followed in A. D. 754 by his being anointed 
 king, and also constituted by the pope "patrician" (== gov- 
 ernor) of Rome, repaid the favor in A. D. 755 by constituting 
 the pope " patrician " of the exarchate of Ravenna and the 
 Pentapolis, which he had wrested from the Lombards, and 
 which, together embracing a territory of about 150 miles in 
 length upon the Adriatic south of the Po, with a breadth of 
 60 to 80 miles back to the Apennines, he gave " to the Holy 
 church of God and the Roman republic." 
 
 Both Pepin and the popes of his time tacitly acknowl- 
 edged the supremacy of the Greek emperor at Constantinople. 
 Charlemagne, after destroying the Lombard kingdom in A. D. 
 774, confirmed and enlarged his father's gift of the exarchate 
 and Pentapolis " to the Holy church of God and the Roman 
 republic," taking himself the title of " Patrician of the Ro- 
 mans," and being crowned by the pope emperor of the West 
 at Rome in A. D. 800. In regard to these gifts by Fepin and 
 Charlemagne there has been much controversy. Charlemagne 
 certainly afterwards exercised in Italy all imperial rights, even 
 in ecclesiastical matters; and the popes, who assumed the
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 127 
 
 rights of the former exarch and also of the patrician of Rome, 
 were obliged to take an oath of fidelity to the emperor as their 
 lord and judge. Charlemagne's successors also maintained 
 their civil rights as lords over the duchy of Rome and the 
 exarchate and the pope, and gave their legal sanction to the 
 consecration of the pope, who was elected by the votes of the 
 clergy and people of Rome. But in the troubled reigns of 
 these weak rulers the pope's power increased, and the opinion 
 became established that the imperial dignity was communi- 
 cated by the pope. 
 
 About the middle of the 9th century appeared the spurious 
 " Isidorian decretals " (professedly decrees of early popes, 
 <fec.), on which were founded the pope's pretensions to universal 
 sway in the church ; while the pretended " donation of Constan- 
 tine," a forgery of earlier date, was also published with these, 
 to establish an earlier right of the popes than that derived 
 from the gifts of Pepin and Charlemagne, and also to justify 
 the right of the popes to crown the emperors. Rome about 
 these times was often in a state of anarchy, the government 
 fluctuating between a democracy and the power of the great 
 feudal families. Some of these families influenced the elec- 
 tion of the popes, as in the 10th century, when the licentious 
 Theodora, her daughter Marozia, and Marozia's son Alberic, 
 controlled Rome, and from A. D. 904 to A. D. 963 placed and 
 kept their lovers and children in the holy see. Alberic's son 
 Octavian, on becoming pope at the age of 19, took the name 
 of John XII., and thus introduced the custom, still prevalent, 
 according to which the pope changes his name on his election. 
 " In the person of this grandson of Marozia," says the Ro- 
 man Catholic Dr. Brandos, " the papacy was reduced to its 
 deepest degradation, and Rome to the lowest depth of dishonor 
 and humiliation." John XII. was formally deposed by a council 
 for his licentiousness and other crimes ; but the papal succes- 
 sion became now very unsettled, the appointment of a pontiff 
 being made sometimes through or with the influence of the 
 emperor of Germany, and sometimes in opposition to it. In
 
 128 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 April, 1059, by the decree of a Roman synod the election of 
 pope was committed to the college of cardinals, who are de- 
 scribed in Chapter V. 
 
 Though during these troubles the papal power itself had 
 been increasing, the pontificate of Gregory VII. (1073-1085) 
 marks an era in the history of the popes. From 1049 till his 
 death, Hildebrand (for this was his name before he became 
 pope) was the mainspring of the Roman hierarchy. He was 
 a carpenter's son, born at Soano in Tuscany, educated at Rome, 
 then a monk at Cluny in France, and subsequently prior of an 
 abbey at Rome, which he soon raised to a high rank. Under his 
 guidance were begun in the time of Leo IX. the struggles to 
 make the hierarchy independent of the civil power. On being 
 elected pope, he waited till his election was ratified by the 
 emperor Henry IY. before he entered on his pontificate. 
 He at once made new demands on the western kingdoms ; but, 
 in order to cut off the dependence of the church on laymen, he 
 aimed especially at abolishing the marriage of priests (which 
 he classed with fornication) and simony, against both of which 
 practices he obtained decrees of a council at Rome in 1074. 
 Violent agitations now arose in all countries ; but the decrees 
 ordering a vow of celibacy at ordination and forbidding the 
 married priests to enter the church, so far prevailed as to be at 
 least publicly adopted. At a second council held in 1075, lay 
 princes were entirely forbidden to invest with any spiritual 
 office, five of the emperor's privy counselors were excommu- 
 nicated for simony, and the king of France was threatened with 
 the same punishment. The emperor paid no regard to the 
 pope's councils and their decrees ; and the pope summoned him 
 to Rome to answer the charges made against him by his disaf- 
 fected vassals. Henry assembled a convention of bishops and 
 others at Worms which deposed Gregory. Gregory assembled 
 a council at the Latcran in 1076, in which he excommunicated 
 Henry, declared him deposed from the thrones of Germany 
 and Italy, and his subjects released from their oath of allegi- 
 ance. But the Germans, ready for revolt, assembled a diet
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 129 
 
 to elect a new emperor ; and Henry, now frightened, set off 
 for Italy in January, 1077 ; and after waiting for three days, 
 barefooted and in a penitent's garb, in an outer court of the 
 castle of Canossa in Lombardy, he was admitted, on the fourth 
 day, into Gregory's presence, and after a humble confession 
 received absolution, but not restoration to his kingdom, the 
 pope referring him to a general diet. Henry, however, re- 
 sumed his regal character, took up arms, and in October, 1080, 
 defeated and mortally wounded Rudolph, duke of Suabia, who 
 had been elected emperor in his stead, and who was after a 
 while supported by Gregory with another sentence of excom- 
 munication against Henry. Henry then went into Italy, re- 
 peated his deposition of Gregory, caused Guibert, archbishop 
 of Ravenna, to be elected pope by the name of Clement III., 
 entered Rome in 1084, and took possession of the most impor- 
 tant positions, except the castle of St. Angelo where Gregory 
 was. Guibert was publicly consecrated pope, and crowned 
 Henry in St. Peter's. Gregory afterwards assembled another 
 council, again excommunicated Henry and his pope, but died 
 in exile at Salerno, May 25, 1085. Gregory destroyed the 
 independence of the national churches, though he by no means 
 fully accomplished his object during his lifetime. By a consti- 
 tution of his, first enacted by Alexander II. , every bishop must 
 be confirmed by the pope before exercising his functions ; and 
 by the enforced celibacy of all the clergy, he strengthened still 
 more the chain which bound every ecclesiastic to the Roman 
 see. During Gregory's pontificate, and again in 1102, the 
 Countess Matilda, with whom he sustained very intimate rela- 
 tions, made the church of Rome the heir of all her estates ; 
 and though in 1116, the year after her death, the emperor 
 Henry V. took possession of all her property, this donation 
 made an important addition to the temporal claims of the 
 papacy. The crusades, the first of which was undertaken at 
 the close of the llth century, to gain possession of the Holy 
 Sepulchre at Jerusalem for the Chiistians in Europe, and, to 
 
 protect the Christians in the East against the persecutions of 
 9
 
 130 THE POPE AND HI3 SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 the Turks, and the seventh and last of which terminated nearly 
 two centuries later, contributed greatly to increase the power 
 of the popes in Europe. The promulgation of " the canon law," 
 which was founded upon the decrees of councils and the re- 
 scripts or decretal epistles of popes in answer to questions 
 respecting discipline and ecclesiastical economy, and was dur- 
 ing the 12th and 13th centuries arranged and digested into a 
 regular system of jurisprudence, divided into titles ancl chap- 
 ters, aided still further to establish the independence and su- 
 periority of the ecclesiastical power. " The noonday of papal 
 dominion," says Hallam, " extended from the pontificate of 
 Innocent III. inclusively to that of Boniface VIII. , or, in other 
 words, through the 13th century. Rome inspired during this 
 age all the terror of her ancient name. She was once more 
 the mistress of the world, and kings were her vassals." 
 
 Innocent III., who became pope in 1198, was the first pope 
 who really formed a papal temporal state, the towns of Spoleto 
 and the Marches swearing allegiance to the see of Rome, and 
 the magistrates of Rome and its vicinity being likewise brought 
 into subjection to the pope. But the Papal State was not con- 
 solidated for nearly three centuries after this, though, as already 
 related in Chapter I., the emperor Rudolph defined the states 
 of the church by letters patent in 1278. The removal of the 
 papal see for 70 years (1305-1376) from Rome to Avignon in 
 France, which has been called " the captivity in Babylon," 
 tended much to weaken the connection between the states of 
 the church and their sovereign. Avignon was indeed pur- 
 chased by pope Clement VI. in 1348 from the queen of Sicily, 
 who was its hereditary sovereign as countess of Provence ; and 
 the sovereignty of Avignon henceforward belonged to the popes 
 till the French seized it in 1791. But Rome and central Italy 
 were a prey to faction and anarchy, while the popes resided at 
 Avignon, as well as often previously. After the return of the 
 popes from Avignon in 1376, the government of the pontifical 
 states was generally more regular. 
 
 But now a new trouble arose. On the death of Gregory
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 131 
 
 XI. in 1378, the Roman populace demanded of the cardinals, 
 12 out of 16 of whom were French, the election of an Italian 
 to the pontificate. The intimidated cardinals accordingly in 
 April elected a Neapolitan, Bartolomeo Prignano, who was 
 crowned hy the name of Urban VI. ; but his harsh severity and 
 haughtiness soon alienated the cardinals, who withdrew from 
 Rome, declared the election invalid, and in September elected 
 Robert of Geneva, who assumed the name of Clement VII. 
 Thus began " the great schism of the West," in which excom- 
 munications, maledictions, and plots were freely used on both 
 sides. Urban remained at Rome, and was acknowledged by 
 Italy generally, Germany, England, Swe'den, Denmark, Poland, 
 and Prussia ; Clement, who removed to Avignon, was acknowl- 
 edged by France, Spain, Scotland, Sicily, Savoy, and Cyprus. 
 Urban, through the votes of the Italian cardinals, was suc- 
 ceeded at Rome by Boniface IX. in 1389, by Innocent VII.. in 
 1404, and by Gregory XII. in 1406 ; while Clement, through 
 the votes of the French cardinals, was succeeded at Avignon 
 by Peter de Luna or Benedict XIII. in 1394. All efforts to 
 heal the schism were ineffectual ; neither of the rival popes 
 would fulfill his promise to resign, though Benedict was kept a 
 prisoner in his palace at Avignon for several years ; and at 
 length the cardinals of both parties summoned a general 
 council, which met at Pisa in 1409, deposed and excommuni- 
 cated both Benedict and Gregory, and elected a new pope, 
 Peter de Candia or Alexander V., who soon dissolved the 
 council. Thus, as Benedict and Gregory both spurned the au- 
 thority of the council, there were' three rival popes instead of 
 two ; and on the death of Alexander at Bologna the next year, 
 the 16 cardinals who were present in that city chose in his 
 stead Balthasar Cossa, who took the name of John XXIII. 
 John summoned a general council which met at Constance in 
 1414, and continued its sessions for four years. - This council in 
 1415 deposed John for his notorious and incorrigible simony, 
 spoliation of church-rights and property, maladministration, 
 detestable immorality, &c. ; obtained the resignation of Gregory
 
 132 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 the same year ; deposed Benedict in 1417, though he claimed 
 the rights of a pontiff till his death in 1423, and three cardinals 
 chose ^Egidius Mugnos or Clement VIII. to succeed him, who 
 did not abdicate till 1429; and November 11, 1417, chose Otto 
 Colonna, who assumed the name of Martin V., and who was 
 acknowledged by all but the few partisans of Benedict. 
 
 Long before this great schism of the West, however, a great 
 change had come over the papacy. The historian Hallam dates 
 the sensible decline of the papacy from the pontificate of Boni- 
 face VIII., who had strained its authority to a higher pitch 
 than any of his predecessors by forbidding the clergy of every 
 kingdom to pay any sort of tribute to their government without 
 the pope's special permission, and plainly declaring, in his con- 
 troversy with the French king, Philip the Fair, that the king 
 was subject to him in temporal as well as spiritual matters. 
 Philip ordered the pope's bulls to be publicly burned in Paris, 
 and summoned representatives from the three orders of his 
 kingdom, who united in disclaiming the pope's temporal juris- 
 diction. Benedict XI., the successor of Boniface, rescinded 
 the bulls of his predecessor, and admitted Philip the Fair to 
 communion without any concessions. This was before the re- 
 moval of the holy see to Avignon a measure which gave very 
 general offense to Europe. The covetousness of temporal 
 sway which the popes manifested, their introduction of excom- 
 munications and interdicts into the politics of Italy, their impli- 
 cation in the dark conspiracies of that bad age, their notorious 
 profligacy and patronage of abuses, all aided to undermine the 
 veneration with which the popes had been regarded and to 
 diminish their high authority. The renewed attention to clas- 
 sical learning which is known as " the revival of letters," and 
 the invention of printing at Mayence or Mentz, may also be 
 mentioned in this connection as events of the 15th century 
 which had an important influence in the same direction. 
 
 The pontificate of Eugene IV., who succeeded Martin V., 
 was especially stormy. He banished the family of the Colonna 
 from Rome, and had a bloody contest with them ; he made war
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 133 
 
 upon the various lords of the Romagna, and ultimately recov- 
 ered a considerable portion of territory; and, above all, he had 
 a protracted struggle with the council of Basle, which, sum- 
 moned by his predecessor, kept up its sittings from year to 
 year, broached doctrines in opposition to the papal supremacy, 
 and was dissolved by him in 1437, but most of the members, 
 refusing to submit, deposed him, and he in turn convoked a 
 new council at Ferrara, which annulled all the obnoxious de- 
 crees of the council of Basle, while he launched a bull of excom- 
 munication against its recusant members, who elected a new 
 pope called Felix V. Eugene died in 1447, leaving the church 
 schismatically divided between himself and his competitor 
 Felix, his own states a prey to war, and all Europe alarmed at 
 the progress of the Turkish arms. 
 
 By the extirpation, under Alexander VI., about 1500, of the 
 petty tyrants of the Marches, and by the conquest, under his 
 successor, Julius II., of Romagna, Bologna, and Perugia, the 
 Papal State acquired a more compact form. The annexation 
 of Ferrara in 1597, of the duchy of Urbino in 1632, and of the 
 duchy of Castro and Ronciglione in 1650, gave to the States of 
 the Church their largest extent ; and over them the pope ruled 
 as an independent temporal sovereign, till the invasion of the 
 French under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1797, and again from 
 1814 onward. The recent territorial changes are briefly de- 
 scribed in Chapter I. 
 
 Only a few of the 44 popes who have reigned during the 
 last four centuries can here be particularly noticed. 
 
 Alexander VI. began his reign at the age of 61, in 1492, the 
 year in which Christopher Columbus discovered America. 
 Known previously as the rich Roderic Borgia of Valencia in 
 Spain, he had been made cardinal by his uncle Calixtus III. 
 He was elected pope by bribery, and had at that time five ille- 
 gitimate children, whom he afterwards used every means to 
 honor and enrich. Of these, Cesar, the 2d son, early noted 
 for his profligacy, ability, and deep cunning, was, while very 
 young, made a cardinal by his father and afterwards duke of
 
 134 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 Valentinois or Duke Valentine) oy the king of France. Cesar 
 was suspected of the murder of his elder brother, with whom 
 he and his father were joined in a war of extermination and 
 plunder against the Colonna, Orsini, aud other great Roman 
 families. By treachery or open violence, Cesar, now captain- 
 general of the Roman church, also put to death most of the 
 lords of the Romagna and seized on their extensive possessions, 
 aiming, with the pope's countenance, to make himself sovereign 
 of Romagna, the Marches, and Umbria. Alexander's only 
 daughter, Lucretia, having been divorced from her first hus- 
 band, married a second, whose assassination her brother Cesar 
 is supposed to have procured, and then a third, Alfonso d'Este, 
 son of the duke of Ferrara. The licentiousness of the court of 
 Alexander VI. and the general demoralization of that period, 
 abundantly certified by both Catholic and Protestant writers, 
 almost surpass belief. By the traffic in benefices, by the sale 
 of indulgences, by the exercise of the right of spoils, by the 
 taxes for the Turkish war, by the murder of rich or trouble- 
 some persons, the pope sought to amass money to support the 
 luxury and licentiousness of his court and provide treasures 
 for his children. But he died in 1503 of fever, or, as most his- 
 torians allege, of poison mixed with wine, with which he and 
 his son Cesar had planned to destroy a rich cardinal at a ban- 
 quet, but which by mistake they had taken themselves. Alex- 
 ander VI. was an able but unprincipled man, whom Mosheim 
 calls "the Nero of the pontiffs;" -while Gieseler, cold and 
 almost unfeeling in his thorough accuracy, simply styles him 
 " the most depraved of all the popes." 
 
 Julius II., nephew of Sixtus IV., and successor of Alexander 
 VI. after the brief pontificate of Pius III., was a haughty and 
 warlike pontiff. He drove out Cesar Borgia from the Romag- 
 na; then turned his arms against the Venetians, and joined the 
 league of Cambray with the emperor Maximilian, Louis XII. of 
 France, and Ferdinand of Aragon; then he united with the Vene- 
 tians, Swiss, Spaniards, and English in a " holy league," and 
 drove the French out of Italy. The council of Pisa, called in
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 135 
 
 1511 by some of the cardinals with the concurrence of Louis 
 and Maximilian to take steps towards a general reformation in 
 the church, suspended the pope, who had however summoned 
 the 5th Lateran council, which met in 1512, condemned the 
 Pisan council, sanctioned the unlimited power of the pope, laid 
 France under an interdict, <fec. Julius was fond of the fine 
 arts, and laid the foundation of St. Peter's ; but he died in the 
 midst of his plans in February, 1513. 
 
 The pontificate of Leo X. next followed. Belonging to the 
 great Medici family of Florence, made a cardinal at the age 
 of 13, and pope at 37, Leo was a great patron of learning and 
 the arts, unbounded in his liberality, an accomplished man of 
 the world, fond of splendor and luxury, and passionately fond 
 of music. He kept Rome and Florence at peace during his 
 pontificate, though he endeavored to unite Christendom against 
 the Turks, and to expel the French from Italy. In order to 
 defray his large expenses, he had recourse to indulgences (see 
 Chapter XIX.), the proceeds of which were to be applied to 
 the building of St. Peter's. It was the sale of these indulgen- 
 ces by the Dominican monk, John Tetzel, apostolic commissary 
 in Germany, that roused Martin Luther first to oppose the 
 abuses of indulgences by his 95 theses which were nailed to 
 the church-door in Wittemberg on the 31st October, 1517. 
 The publication of these theses, which were rapidly circulated 
 by the printing-press, and the controversy which followed, led 
 to the separation of Luther from the church of Rome, and to 
 the Reformation in Germany and other countries of Europe. 
 Leo at first paid little attention to the controversy which Lu- 
 ther had enkindled in Germany ; but, after ineffectual attempts 
 to silence him or induce him to retract, which only resulted in 
 increasing the number and strength of Luther's friends, eman- 
 cipating them from papal influence, and bringing them to take 
 the Scriptures as the only rule of faith and duty, the pope, on 
 the 20th of June, 1520, formally excommunicated Luther, who, 
 in return, on the 10th December following, publicly burned the 
 pope's bull with the volumes of the canon law. He was sum-
 
 136 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 moned by Charles V., the newly-elected emperor of Germany, 
 before the imperial diet held in Worms in 1521, and was there 
 placed under the ban of the empire by the emperor ; but the 
 protection of the elector of Saxony and others, and the commo- 
 tion of the times, prevented his being harmed or essentially 
 hindered in the promulgation of his doctrines. The Reforma- 
 tion in Switzerland under Zwingle had begun as early as 1516 
 independently of that in Germany; and from these and other 
 centers the Reformation spread so that for the last two or three 
 centuries a large part of both Europe and America has become 
 Protestant. But Leo X., whose pontificate marks a flourishing 
 period of literature and the arts as well as the era of the Re- 
 formation, died suddenly, not without suspicion of poison, on 
 the 1st of December, 1521. 
 
 At the beginning of the present century Pius VII. was the 
 reigning pope. His predecessor, Pius VI., having died in 
 exile at Valence in France in August, 1799, cardinal Chiara- 
 monti was chosen by the conclave at Venice, and crowned 
 there by the name of Pius VII. in March, 1800. In July, 
 1800, Pius VII. made his public entry into Rome, and resumed 
 the government of part of the States of the Church. In Au- 
 gust, 1801, he signed a concordat with Napoleon, by which the 
 Roman Catholic religion was established as the state religion 
 of France. In 1804 he crowned Napoleon at Paris as em- 
 peror. In 1805 the French troops took possession of Ancona, 
 and afterwards of other places. In February, 1808, Rome 
 was seized by the French ; in April part of the Roman states 
 were annexed to the kingdom of Italy ; and in May Rome 
 with the rest was made a part of the French empire. In June, 
 1809, the pope, who was shut up with his guards in the Quirinal 
 palace, issued a bull of excommunication against the invaders, 
 and the next month he was taken prisoner to France. On 
 the 24th of May, 1814, after the abdication of the emperor, 
 he returned to Rome. He was again a fugitive for a short 
 time in 1815 ; but, after Napoleon's downfall in that year, 
 all the States of the Church were restored to the pope by the
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 137 
 
 congress of Vienna, and Pius spent the rest of his days in 
 Rome. In 1816 lie confirmed the suppression of feudal im- 
 posts, monopolies, and privileges, abolished every kind of tor- 
 ture, established a new code of civil administration, and made 
 other improvements ; but he restored the old system of secret 
 proceedings in criminal matters as well as that of the ecclesias- 4 
 tical courts. He also took vigorous measures to extirpate the 
 banditti of the Campagna. He died in consequence of a fall, 
 August 20, 1823, at the age of 81. " Pius VII. stands promi- 
 nent among the long series of popes," says the Penny Cyclo- 
 pedia, " for his exemplary conduct under adversity, his truly 
 Christian virtues, and his general benevolence and charity." 
 
 The next pope, Leo XII., was much more imperious than 
 Pius VII. ; reestablished the right of asylum for criminals in 
 churches ; reorganized the university of Rome ; exerted himself 
 to suppress brigandage, mendicity, and secret societies ; re- 
 formed the administration of the Papal State in some respects ; 
 and violently denounced Bible societies. He died in February, 
 1829, at the age of 69. The short pontificate of his successor, 
 Pius VIII., was not distinguished by anything remarkable. 
 He died at the close of 1830. 
 
 Gregory XVI., who was chosen pope February 2, 1831, a few 
 months after the revolution in Paris, which overthrew the old 
 Bourbon dynasty and placed Louis Philippe on the throne of 
 France, was troubled from the very beginning of his reign by 
 insurrectionary movements, which led him to resort more than 
 once to Austrian intervention to suppress them. His pontifi- 
 cate was sternly conservative, opposing all innovations in the- 
 ology or politics. No railroad or telegraph-line could be con- 
 structed in the States of the Church during his pontificate. It 
 is said that under him 300 persons were punished capitally, and 
 30,000, mostly for political offenses, were imprisoned. It is 
 also credibly reported in Kirwan's Letters to Chief Justice 
 Taney ( u Romanism at Home," p. 164), that this pope left two 
 illegitimate daughters. He died in Rome, June 1, 1846. in 
 the 81st year of his_age.
 
 138 
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 ARMS OP POPE PIUS IX., <fcC. 
 VIGNETTE OF THE 
 
 HUMAN MISSAL. 
 
 His successor, the present pope, is Pius IX., originally named 
 Giovanni Maria (= John Mary) Mastai Ferretti. He was 
 born May 13, 1792, at Sinigaglia, a sea-port on the Adriatic, 
 nearly 150 miles N. N. E. of Rome, in that part of the States 
 of the Church, which for the last ten 
 years has been incorporated with the 
 kingdom of Italy. While his predeces- 
 sor, Gregory XVI., was the son of a 
 poor baker of Belluno and was classed 
 as a conservative, Pius IX. was the son 
 of an Italian count and was classed as 
 a liberal. He was ordained in Decem- 
 ber, 1818 ; visited Chili in 1823 with a 
 papal delegate, and spent two years in 
 preaching and teaching at Santiago ; 
 became president of the hospital of St. Michael in Rome in 
 1825 ; was made in 1827 archbishop of Spoleto where he 
 founded an orphan asylum, induced 4000 insurgent refugees to 
 surrender in 1831, and was then temporarily civil administrator 
 
 of two provinces ; 
 was transferred in 
 1832 to the see of 
 Imola, where he 
 founded a theolog- 
 ical college, or- 
 phan asylums, and 
 a house for female 
 penitents ; was 
 made cardinal, reserved in petto, December 22, 1839 ; was 
 published cardinal priest of Saints Peter and Marcellinus, 
 December 14, 1840 ; was chosen pope June 16, and crowned 
 June 21, 1846. He published on the 16th July a general am- 
 nesty to political offenders. After this followed reforms in the 
 administration, reduction of taxes, concessions to railroads and 
 other improvements, the organization of a militia, encourage- 
 ment of manufactures and agriculture, &c. In November, 
 
 AUTOGRAPH OF POPE PIUS IX.
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 139 
 
 1847, he summoned a council of state composed of delegates 
 from the provinces. Europe and America were now enthusi- 
 astic over his liberal course. But a change took place in 1848, 
 which was a year of revolutions in Europe, the year in which 
 Louis Philippe of France was dethroned, and most of the sov- 
 ereigns were compelled to grant or to promise liberal constitu- 
 tions. Austria had repeatedly crushed liberalism in Italy, and 
 was hated as the impersonation of absolutism and tyranny. 
 The Italian provinces of Austria rose in rebellion, and were 
 assisted by Sardinia; the Roman people sympathized with 
 them, and, dissatisfied already at the pope's moderate reforms, 
 they were still more dissatisfied at his unwillingness to join 
 in the war against Austria. The pope promised a liberal 
 constitution, and appointed Count Rossi minister of the in- 
 terior, with the charge of the finances and police ; but Count 
 Rossi was assassinated, November 15th, at the door of the coun- 
 cil-chamber ; and the pope, besieged in the Quirinal palace and 
 forced to accept a radical ministry, escaped thence in the dis- 
 guise of a simple priest, on the 24th of November, and fled 
 to Gae'ta, the nearest Neapolitan sea-port. There he was 
 cordially received ; and there and at Portici near Naples he 
 remained a year and a half. In the mean time the Roman 
 Republic was proclaimed, and the pope appealed for help to 
 the Catholic powers, particularly France, Spain, Austria, and 
 Naples ; with their aid the .republic was put down, and the 
 pope returned to Rome, April 12, 1850. Since this time he 
 has shown no tendency to liberalism. His restoration of the 
 Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, in September, 1850, 
 provoked much English indignation, and led to a parliamen- 
 tary act forbidding his bishops to assume their titles. On the 
 8th of December, 1854, he solemnly proclaimed the dogma of 
 the immaculate conception, as noticed in Chapter II. His con- 
 cordats with Spain in 1851 and with Austria in 1855, have 
 since been set aside by the changes in those countries. In 
 1859 and 1860 a large portion of the territories of the church 
 were, in spite of his protests and excommunication of the in-
 
 140 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 vaders of the papal rights, annexed to the kingdom of Italy ; 
 and in 1870 the Italians occupied Rome, and thus put an end 
 to his temporal sovereignty, as related in Chapter I. The Vat- 
 ican Council, which assembled in 1869, is described in Chapter 
 VI ; and the decree of the council affirming the pope's suprem- 
 acy and infallibility, is also given in Chapter II. The pontifi- 
 cate of Pius IX. has been distinguished both by its great 
 length and by its great events. 
 
 Rev. E. E. Hall, who during a protracted residence in Italy 
 had special advantages of knowing something of the private 
 life of the pope, wrote about him as follows, at the close of 1862 : 
 
 " Though in these days he is a very public character, and his reign 
 is likely to mark an epoch in the history of politics and religion in 
 Italy, arid though as a public administrator he may have much to vex 
 him, yet as an old bachelor at home he evidently enjoys life, and has a 
 ' good time ' generally. 
 
 " It must be known as preliminary, that the private apartments of 
 the Vatican are very beautiful and very rich, overloaded with gold and 
 silk. There are, however, occasionally seen a few painted wooden 
 chairs, very simple, not to say miserable souvenirs of the apostolic 
 plainness of another age. The same may be said of the Quirinal, 
 Castel Gandolfo, and all other pontifical residences. 
 
 " The pope usually rises at 6 o'clock in the morning ; about 7 he 
 says mass in a chapel which joins his sleeping room. The cardi- 
 nals and Roman bishops generally have the same habit. At Rome, 
 when a prelate rents a furnished apartment, he places in a closet a 
 small portable altar, where he says mass. In many of the apartments 
 now rented to strangers, the remains of these temporary altars and 
 vestiges of these masses are found. The valet-de-chambre makes the 
 responses on these occasions : for the pope, this valet is a prelate, a 
 priest or a deacon. 
 
 " In the Vatican there are ten private valets-de-chambre : the most 
 intimate are clashed according to age, passing from the eldest to the 
 youngest. Monsignors Stella, de Merode, Talbot (an Englishman), and 
 Ricci, are the four persons always nenr him. They keep him company, 
 and amuse him, and make him laugh ; which is not a difficult 
 for in private life Pius IX. is always laughing and happy.
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 141 
 
 "At 8 o'clock the 'holy father' takes breakfast, which consists of 
 coffee and some very simple accompaniments. At that time Monsignor 
 Stella alone is present ; he opens the correspondence, reads it or gives 
 a summary of it. It is the most private moment of the day. At 9 
 o'clock, breakfast being finished, he reads his private correspondence. 
 Then Cardinal Antonelli comes down from his rooms above and enters 
 the apartment of the pope ; he is very gentle, very humble, a real 
 treasure, he addresses the pope sometimes as ' holy father,' sometimes 
 
 * most blessed father,' he praises the genius of the pope and his won- 
 derful knowledge of affairs : he is indeed his very humble servant. 
 This political conversation, this labor of the king and the minister, con- 
 tinues an hour or two. The valets-de-chambre sometimes interrupt 
 them ; but Antonelli is very kind with them. ' 
 
 "About half past ten or eleven, the receptions begin. The pope, 
 dressed in white, sits in a large arm-chair with a table before him. 
 He addresses you two or three words in the language which you speak, 
 if it is French, Italian, or Spanish ; he speaks a little English, but 
 German (the language of Luther) he abhors, and an interpreter is 
 necessary. During these receptions, he sometimes signs requests for 
 indulgences, which are presented to him in writing. Some of these 
 requests are conceived in the most consecrated forms, imploring of him 
 
 * indulgence at the moment of death, for themselves, their children, and 
 other relatives to the third generation.' The ' holy father ' cheerfully 
 complies with these requests ; he writes at the bottom of the petition 
 ' Fiat, Pio Nona ' [ = Be it so, Pius IX.]. Since the late political 
 events some bring him money, and others offer him letters of condolence. 
 He writes at the bottom of such letters ; ' Amphat vos Dominus gratia, 
 benedicat te Deus et tuam familiam' [ the Lord fill you with grace, 
 God bless thee and thy family]. 
 
 "At 2 o'clock the pontifical dinner comes off. The pope always 
 dines alone. From 3 till 4 the pope sleeps. Everybody in Rome 
 sleeps from 3 till 4. If you ask after a cardinal at that hour, the reply 
 is ' His eminence sleeps.' 
 
 ' The pope does neither more nor less than other people. At 5 
 o'clock he rides out, always with great solemnity, accompanied by the 
 noble guard on horseback, by valets and monsignors, and from three 
 bare fingers his benedictions fall in great abundance. About 7 the 
 
 1 For an account of the cardinals, see Chapter V.
 
 142 
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 pope takes supper, and then takes his turn at the billiard-table. At 10 
 o'clock all the lights of the Vatican are extinguished." 
 
 THE POPE IN HIS STATE-CARRIAGE. 
 
 The Swiss guards, armed with spears or long battle-axes of 
 an antique pattern, and wearing a peculiar uniform designed 
 by Michael Angelo and described as " an astonishing mixture 
 of black, white, red, and yellow," have long been conspicu- 
 ous attendants on the pope whenever he appeared in public, 
 whether in services at St. Peter's, or in processions, or else- 
 where. The magnificent state-carriage, in which the pope has 
 been accustomed to ride on great occasions, is called by Willis 
 " the stage-coach with six long-tailed black horses." A peni- 
 tential or devotional procession, in which the pope rode in 1864
 
 TUB POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 143 
 
 through the streets of Rome to the church of Santa Maria 
 sopra Minerva, surrounded by his Swiss halberdiers and French 
 zouaves, is thus described by Rev. Dr. Wylie, who was an eye- 
 witness : 
 
 " First of all, surrounded by gleaming steel and prancing steeds, rode 
 the pope. He was followed by the carriages of his ministers, bedecked, 
 like that of their master, with scarlet trappings, and drawn by coal- 
 black horses. Then flowed on, in one long, unbroken procession, all 
 orders of regulars and seculars, from the purple prelate to the cowled 
 monk and the white-veiled nun. The show was enlivened by every 
 variety of ecclesiastical costume the black robe of the cure" and the 
 white alb of the mass-priest, the brown frock of the Capuchin and the 
 white mantle of the Carmelite. Some trod daintily in slippers gar- 
 nished with silver buckles, others came onward with naked feet thrust 
 into sandals. Some wore gold chains on their breast, others had their 
 loins begirt with hempen cords. Some bore candles, others carried 
 little crucifixes ; some chanted hymns, others sung a low dirge or wail, 
 more in keeping with the penitential character of the procession and 
 the enjoined exercises of the day. The Minorites formed one of the 
 most striking features of the affair. They wore a mask of black serge, 
 which enveloped their persons from head to foot, and left no part of 
 them vL-ible but the eyes, which glared out through two holes." 
 
 Protestants who have attended mass when the pope is pres- 
 ent, have repeatedly testified that " the whole service was the 
 worship, not of God, but of the pope." Thus Hon. Daniel D. 
 Barnard, who visited Rome some. 40 years ago in the time of 
 Gregory XVI., and attended the service at the Pauline chapel 
 in the Quirinal, after describing the entrance of the cardinals 
 through the ranks of the Swiss guards, each cardinal having 
 two attendant priests to bear his cap and the train of his robes, 
 says : 
 
 " "When every thing was ready, the pope entered from the palace by 
 a private door. Before him marched one of the household bearing the 
 golden tiara, for he wore the mitre. He was followed closely by two 
 cardinals, who bore the train of his robes, and he was attended, on en- 
 tering, by many priests, prelates and others, alt having their appropri- 
 ate office among them were the mace-bearers, and an officer bearing
 
 144 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 the dignified appellation of the Roman senator. At the moment of his 
 entering, 12 officers in uniform, all young noblemen, with drawn swords, 
 formed a semi-circle around the door-way of the chancel. On passing 
 the altar, the pope stopped to kneel ; one attendant taking off and put- 
 ting on his mitre, others adjusting his robes, and others assisting to 
 ease him down and raise him up. "When the pope was seated on his 
 throne, which is erected on the side of the chapel near the altar, the 
 cardinals began a procession, and presenting themselves before him in 
 succession had the honor of kissing his hand, which his holiness gra- 
 ciously extends to each in turn, covered, however, with the golden 
 hem of his garment. After this ceremony the religious exercises are 
 commenced. The officiating priests always knelt before the pope at 
 the commencement and close of every separate service. When the 
 pope would condescend to look into a book, it was held before him by 
 a canon kneeling. Whenever any of the numerous retinue on service 
 had occasion to pass before the pope, as happened almost every instant, 
 it was never done without kneeling. Three separate times incense was 
 offered before the throne, and to him that sat upon it. A canon who 
 was entitled to this inestimable privilege on account of the peculiar part 
 which he bore in the ceremonies, prostrated himself [at full length] be- 
 fore the Vicegerent, and devoutly kissed his red slipper which was as 
 near the holy toe as he could come. The same thing was done by the 
 monk who had the honor to preach before him, immediately before 
 mounting his pulpit. After the sermon, a priest kneeled before the 
 pope and prayed, at the close of which the latter rose and graciously 
 bestowed his blessing on the kneeling multitude around him, simply by 
 stretching out his right hand and shaking the benedictions off from the 
 ends of his fingers. High mass was celebrated, and at the end the 
 pope embraced three cardinals with a Paxtecum [= peace with thee] ? 
 and through them, by the same form, it was transmitted to the rest of 
 the cardinals. The pope then left the throne and the chapel with the 
 same circumstance with which he had entered, and immediately made 
 his appearance at a balcony of the palace which looks out on the great 
 square of Monte Cavallo. Ten thousand persons were assembled in 
 this square, including soldiers, and the whole mass dropped instantane- 
 ously on their knees, as his holiness presented himself at the window. 
 In this position, they received his benediction, shaken off in the same 
 manner as before, from the ends of his holy fingers about which^ 
 blinded I suppose by heresy, I could discover nothing remarkable, ex-
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 145 
 
 cept the flashes of light which shot out from a brilliant diamond which 
 
 he sported on his hand I cannot avoid saying, that the worship 
 
 was most evidently offered vastly more to the pope than to the Deity." 
 
 Rev. Prof. W. S. Tyler, D. D., of Amherst,Mass., wrote thus 
 from Rome in March, 1870 : 
 
 " The present pope came into the pontificate a quarter of a century ago 
 pledged by his antecedents and bound by circumstances to reform and 
 progress. And no one can look at his benignant countenance and winning 
 manners, without believing that he is by nature kindly and humane. 
 But power, especially ecclesiastical power, corrupts the best of men, and 
 the papacy was stronger than all the good intentions of Pius Ninth. . . . 
 depression, suppression, and oppression, are the watchwords of his ad- 
 ministration. . . . Abandoned in Paris, abandoned in Vienna as a relic 
 of medieval barbarism and despotism, the system of espionage still hangs 
 over Rome like a pall, and penetrates every street and every house like 
 a miasm. The mails are kept in the hands of the government inspect- 
 ors hours after their arrival before they are delivered ; and those which 
 leave the city are subjected to the same delay for the same inquisitorial 
 purpose. The correspondents of the foreign press, and all persons at 
 all open to suspicion, are obliged to send their letters by private con- 
 veyance to some point beyond the frontier of the Papal States, or they 
 never will reach their destination ; and newspapers from abroad which 
 contain unfavorable comments upon the government or the council, are 
 either confiscated and destroyed, or delivered in a mutilated state. 
 
 " The government of the pontiff," says Rev. Dr. Wylie, " is a theoc- 
 racy. Let the reader try to understand what this imports as applied 
 to the papal states. The pontifical government is not the government 
 of a mere man, or of a human code ; it is the government of God him- 
 self God in the person of his vicar. It is, or professes to be, as real a 
 theocracy as that which was set up in Judea of old. . . . But while the 
 Old Testament, the representative of Jehovah, the real monarch of the 
 Jewish kingdom, limited the prerogative of the prince, and defined the 
 rights of his subjects, it is otherwise with the ruler of the papal states. 
 He 'as God' sitteth in the midst of his kingdom, ruling it according to 
 his own irresponsible will. He is the maker of his own law ; and 
 that law neither sets limits to his powers nor grants rights to his sub- 
 jects. He exercises, in measure altogether absolute and unbounded, 
 both the temporal and the spiritual authority. And this idea of theoc- 
 10
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 racy is most fully carried out into all parts of the government. No one 
 can take part in the administration unless he be a member of the cleri- 
 cal body. No one can be a member of the state unless he be also a 
 member of the church, for there church and state are identical, or rather 
 we should say, the state is completely sunk in the church. No one can 
 hold property, nay, no one can claim a right to liberty or life, unless he 
 be in communion with the church. There church-membership is the 
 
 THE POPE BORNE IN HIS CHAIR. 
 
 foundation of all rights, and the tenure on which are held all privileges 
 necessarily so under a theocracy. The unhappy man who falls from 
 communion with the church, .necessarily falls from his rights of citizen- 
 ship, and becomes a civil as well as a spiritual outlaw. In fine, the 
 papal states being governed by the church, are necessarily governed 
 for the church. Science, letters, mechanical improvements, social 
 ameliorations, political reforms everything, in short, opposed to the
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 147 
 
 existence of this theocracy are stringently excluded. The non pos- 
 sumtis [= we cannot], like the flaming sword at the gate of Eden, 
 turns every way to guard the holy soil of Catholicism. Such is the 
 theory of the pontifical government." 
 
 But in September, 1870, as already noticed in Chapter L, 
 Rome was captured by the army of king Victor Emanuel, and 
 the pope's temporal sovereignty again ceased or was suspended. 
 Upon this "The Catholic World" for November, 1870, utters 
 this language in harmony with the utterances by other Roman 
 Catholic periodicals and officials : 
 
 " We cannot, in consistency with our duty as Catholic publicists, 
 refrain from making our solemn protest against this most unjust and 
 wicked violation of all public law and right, this intolerable outrage 
 upon the Catholic people of the whole world. It is the duty of every 
 good and true Catholic, and of the Catholic people collectively in every 
 country, to make this protest in the most distinct and efficacious man- 
 ner possible, and to make use of all lawful means to restore the Sov- 
 ereign Pontiff to the possession and peaceful exercise of that royalty 
 which belongs to him by the most ! gitimate titles, and which is neces- 
 sary to the free and unimpeded jurisdiction of his spiritual supremacy 
 over the Catholic church, as well as to the political tranquillity of Chris- 
 tendom We deny altogether that the subjects of the Sovereign 
 
 Pontiff have had any grievances to be redressed, or any need of the 
 interference of any power or of any guarantee for their civil and social 
 rights. The paternal sovereignty of the pope is a far better guarantee 
 for them than suffrage or elective legislatures can be for any other peo- 
 ple. It is, moreover, just as incompatible with the necessary independ- 
 ence of the Vicar of Christ that he should be controlled by a legislative 
 assembly as that he should be subject to a king. We do not admit 
 the validity of any plebiscitum [= popular vote] against his sovereign 
 rights, even if freely and fairly taken, much less as taken under the 
 
 existing circumstances The gallant little band of pontifical 
 
 zouaves .... were to a great extent noblemen and gentlemen of the 
 best families in Europe. The remainder were young men of respecta- 
 ble character and position ; and there has never yet been seen a mili- 
 tary corps which could compare with them for high morality and ex- 
 emplary piety, or surpass them in soldierly qualities. . . . They were 
 and anxious to lay down their lives in defense of the city and
 
 148 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 the successor of St. Peter. The Holy Father, very rightly, would not 
 permit them to do more than make a merely formal resistance to the 
 overwhelming force of the Italian army. But, although God has not 
 permitted them to be successful, and has apparently allowed the gener- 
 ous offerings of treasure and personal service devoted to his cause by 
 the loyal children of the holy Roman church to be wasted, they are not 
 really thrown away. In some other way, and by other instruments, 
 God will rescue and restore the center and capital of Christendom." 
 
 Protestants will, of course, regard these laudations of the 
 pontifical zouaves as somewhat extravagant, and will certainly 
 disallow the principles here advocated. Further discussion of 
 these principles, and facts bearing on these and connected 
 matters, may be found in Chapters L, XXII., XXIII., XXVI., 
 XXVII. 
 
 It may be added, that in November, 1870, pope Pius IX., 
 whom the king of Italy proposed to treat as an independent 
 sovereign and to protect in his spiritual supremacy, formally 
 disclaimed any consent to the loss of his temporal dominions, 
 and pronounced the greater excommunication upon all con- 
 cerned in wresting the States of the Church from the Holy See. 
 
 Archbishop McCloskey of New York, whose archdiocese 
 embraces New England and the states of New York and New 
 Jersey, held a consultation with his bishops at Rochester, N. Y., 
 as a result of which the following document was drafted by a 
 committee of his council, viz., Very Rev. "Wm. Starrs, D. D. 
 (Vicar General), Rev. Wm. Quinn (of St. Peter's church, N. 
 Y.), Rev. Isaac T. Hecker (Superior of the Paulist Fathers, 
 and editor of the Catholic World), and Rev. Thos. S. Preston 
 (Chancellor) ; five legal gentlemen (Charles O'Conor, John E. 
 Develin, John McKeon, T. James Glover, and Mr. Navarro), 
 having been requested to act as a committee of the laity. The 
 address was read and unanimously adopted at a meeting held 
 on Sunday evening, Dec. 4, 1870, at St. Patrick's Cathedral, 
 New York ; and similar action was simultaneously taken at 
 other churches. This address is therefore. an authentic expres-
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 149 
 
 sion of the views and feelings of Roman Catholics in America. 
 It reads thus : 
 
 "ADDRESS OP THE CLERGY AND LAITY OP THE DIOCESE OP NEW 
 YORK TO HIS HOLINESS PIUS IX. 
 
 " MOST HOLY FATHER : The Catholic clergy of the Diocese of New 
 York, both secular and regular, together with their faithful people, ap- 
 proach the foot of your apostolic throne and offer to your Holiness, in 
 the present trying time, this avowal of their homage and obedience to 
 the see of Peter, of their filial affection and spiritual allegiance and de- 
 votion to your august person, so inexpressibly dear to them, and of 
 their sympathy with you in the afflictions and outrages to which you 
 and, in you, the Catholic church, as the holy Spouse of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, are at present subjected by faithless and unworthy members of 
 that church, whose supreme pastor you are. 
 
 " With the indignation of honest men, who respect no less the obli- 
 gation of laws and treaties than the rights of nations and legitimate 
 rulers ; with the just and religious abhorrence of Christians who revere 
 the sacred sovereignty of the Holy See over its temporal domain, we 
 repudiate and condemn the lawless injustice which has invaded your 
 legitimate dominion as a sovereign prince. 
 
 " We also denounce the sacrilegious violence which has assaulted 
 and brought under captivity the sacred person of your Holiness, the 
 Vicar of Jesus Christ on earth, and as such entitled by Divine right to 
 complete liberty in the exercise of your sublime office, and by the most 
 perfect of human rights to civil princedom, a necessary safeguard and 
 bulwark of that liberty. Moreover, as citizens of this Republic, the 
 United States of America, whose constitution and laws recognize the 
 liberty which the Church has received as an inalienable right from 
 Almighty God, we protest against the violation of religious freedom 
 and the rights of conscience which has been perpetrated in the dese- 
 crated name of liberty. 
 
 " We also protest against the invasion of the liberty of the Church, 
 in the person of its head, both as an outrage against the sacred preroga- 
 tive of your holiness as Supreme Pontiff, and as the violation of a 
 right which we, as Catholics, possess of being governed by a Chief 
 completely exempted "from and independent of all civil authority, for in 
 no other condition could our intercourse with him be free and unre- 
 stricted.
 
 150 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 " In the full sincerity of our loyal and Catholic hearts we promise 
 to continue faithful to your Holiness and to the Apostolic See at all 
 times ; but especially in periods when distress and trouble like the 
 present oppress the Church. We ask your Holiness to accept this as- 
 surance that we will not cease from making every effort in our power 
 to aid and assist you in the "maintenance of your just rights and the 
 fulfillment of your arduous duties ; and that we will continually pray 
 to God with a confidence greatly strengthened by the example which 
 your Holiness has never failed to set before us, that He will deign to 
 give you and the See of Peter another triumph more signal and illus- 
 trious than any of the past victories of the Church over the gates of hell 
 and the powers of darkness. Finally, we humbly implore the prayers 
 of your Holiness for our steadfastness in the faith, and our eternal sal- 
 vation, and your Apostolic benediction upon the Diocese of New York, 
 and upon each and every one of us, your devoted children." 
 
 In view of the preceding and other similar protests the New 
 York Tribune asks these three questions : 
 
 u 1. If it be clear that the pope cannot freely fulfill the functions and 
 discharge the duties of his sacred office unless he be a temporal sover- 
 eign, unamenable to any civil power, is this not equally true of all the 
 Catholic prelates in this and other countries ? 
 
 " 2. Have the people of Rome a right to any voice in determining 
 or shaping the government under which they are to live ? 
 
 "3. If they have not, have we, or any other people?" 
 
 As an offset to the protests and addresses of the Roman 
 Catholics of this country, an immense gathering at the Acade- 
 my of Music, in New York, on the evening of January 13, 1871, 
 celebrated the consummation of Italian Unity, and unanimously 
 adopted the following resolutions presented by Rev. Joseph P. 
 Thompson, D.D., LL.D.: 
 
 " Whereas, The temporal sovereignty of the Popes over the Roman 
 people was the growth of the same circumstances and conditions from 
 which other absolute Governments arose during the Feudal ages ; and 
 whereas, this Government having the same origin, must be subject to 
 the same conditions to which any other Government is subject, and the 
 same obligations by which any other Government is bound ; and 
 whereas, with the growth of intelligence and of the spirit of liberty, the
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 151 
 
 Roman people, from age to age, have protested against the government 
 of the Pope in civil affairs ; now, by the voice of heroic leaders, and 
 again by popular revolutions, which have many times driven out the 
 Pope from Rome; and, whereas, in 1849, when the Pope had aban- 
 doned Rome, leaving the Government without a head, a Constituent 
 Assembly, elected by universal suffrage in the Roman States, declared 
 the Secular Government of the Papacy abolished, and < proclaimed 
 that portion of Central Italy, which had hitherto been the patrimony 
 of Popes, a free and independent Republic] which was only overthrown, 
 and the subsequent rule of the Pope restored and maintained, by for- 
 eign bayonets ; therefore, 
 
 "Resolved, That in voting to unite themselves to (he Constitutional 
 Government of Italy, the people of Rome have been true to the spirit 
 of their history as manifested against the Temporal Power of the Popes 
 since the beginning of its encroachment upon popular liberties and 
 rights. 
 
 " Whereas, The Temporal Government of the Church of Rome had 
 long made itself insupportable to its subjects by a system of policy 
 which, in 1815 and 1831, called forth remonstrances from the Powers 
 that restored the Pope ; and again, also, repeated and earnest entreaties 
 from the late Government of France, and which has been grievously 
 deplored by eminent and saintly Roman Catholic clergymen as La- 
 cordaire, Rosmini, Gioberti, Dollinger, and many others ; therefore, 
 
 " Resolved, That we congratulate the Roman people upon their de- 
 liverance from this oppressive yoke, and that Austria and France, hav- 
 ing been led by the course of events to abandon intervention as 
 impolitic and wrong, they now find in the Government of Italy a 
 pledge of the enjoyment of political and religious liberty under consti- 
 tutional forms. 
 
 "Resolved, That we congratulate them al-othat this great revolution 
 has been accomplished at so little cost of life, and that they have re- 
 frained from any acts of violence toward the representatives of the late 
 Government, or the ecclesiastics who were identified with it, and from 
 any disrespect or hinderauce whatever to the Pope in his religious 
 character and office. 
 
 " Resolved, That the doctrine of the Declaration of Independence, 
 that ' Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the 
 governed, and are instituted to secure the rights of all to life, liberty,
 
 152 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 and the pursuit of happiness,' can admit of no exception in favor of an 
 ecclesiastical Government wielding the civil power. 
 
 "Resolved, That the doctrine of the Declaration of Independence 
 that ' whenever any form of government hecomes destructive of these 
 ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to insti- 
 tute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and 
 organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely 
 to effect their safety and happiness,' finds in the rejection of the Papal 
 Government by the Roman people, and their choice of the free Consti- 
 tutional Government of Italy, an illustration that should receive the 
 warm approval and admiration of the American people. 
 
 " Resolved, That, inasmuch as religious liberty is absolutely essential 
 to political liberty, and political liberty to religious liberty, and the 
 separation of Church and State is necessary to the complete independ- 
 ence and the rightful and effective administration of either, we rejoice 
 that the example of the United States, in abolishing all religious bur- 
 dens and restraints, has been followed in Austria, Italy, and Ireland, 
 and now at last in Rome ; that we honor the jealous care with which 
 the Government of Italy has guarded the personal liberties and rights 
 of the Pope, and are assured that the substitution of freedom for force, 
 and of popular rights for princely prerogatives, both State and Church 
 will minister to the highest well-being of a now emancipated and united 
 Nation. 
 
 " Resolved, That the principle of National Unity which the people 
 of the United States have established at the cost of so much treasure 
 and blood, which has been the aspiration of the mind of Italy as ex- 
 pressed in her literature from Dante to Alfieri and Nicolini, and in the 
 policy of her greatest statesmen, from King Arduno to Victor Eman- 
 uel a principle necessary to the development of the resources and 
 culture of a nation in the higher civilization gives to the Italian nation, 
 of which the people of Rome are properly an integral part, the right to 
 possess Rome as their capital, with an undivided sovereignty (a meas- 
 ure acquiesced in by all the Powers of Europe) ; and that the presence 
 in that capital of an essentially hostile power, claiming independent 
 sovereignty, would be incompatible with the independence of the nation 
 and its position among the free peoples of the world." 
 
 The following Address was read to the meeting and issued 
 ID its name :
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 153 
 
 "ADDRESS TO THE GOVERNMENT AND PEOPLE OF ITALY. 
 
 " We, citizens of the United States, who have long stood as the van- 
 guard of civil and religious freedom, and whose own unity has been 
 within a few years so gloriously consummated, hail with a peculiar 
 pleasure the advent of Italy to Freedom and Unity. Having watched 
 with the keenest sympathy and hope the patient struggle of the Italian 
 people for their emancipation, having shared the admiration of the civ- 
 ilized world, for the vigor, devotion, and spirit of self-sacrifice by which 
 that struggle has been animated, we now rejoice with them in the final 
 fulfillment of their noble and patriotic desires. 
 
 " Italy is at last free ! Italy is at last one ! Her Nationality is de- 
 clared ; her Government consolidated ; and her ancient Capital, so long 
 withheld from her grasp, is once more restored to her possession. The 
 City of Eome, so dear to the Italian heart, no longer a rival sover- 
 eignty maintained alone by foreign arms, now stands the representative 
 of the whole Italian people, upheld and supported by the free choice of 
 the Nation. 
 
 " In this great achievement we discern not only a solace for the sor- 
 rows of the past, and the fruition of many noble hopes, but the pledge 
 of the grandest developments in the future. With the rights and the 
 liberties of all men amply secured by the guaranties of a Constitutional 
 Government ; with the State forever separated from the Church, as the 
 essential guard of all political and religious progress ; with the sovereign 
 power to control its own destinies, resting within its own borders, and 
 among its own free and equal citizens, we are assured that the people 
 of the Peninsula will receive a new and beneficent impulse in all the 
 elements of national prosperity. We know, from our own experience, 
 how her national resources will be developed, how her industrial ener- 
 gies will be stimulated, how her system of popular education will be 
 enlarged and perfected ; how, the need of revolutionary ferments being 
 removed, order and peace will be everywhere established ; and how a 
 fresh life of knowledge, of liberty, and of faith, infused into her mem- 
 bers, will work out a glorious redemption. 
 
 In this belief, we again congratulate them on the peaceful triumph 
 of the national cause, and bid them a God-speed in the career they have 
 so worthily begun. 
 
 The President of the meeting, Major-General John A. Dix,
 
 154 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 formerly United States Senator, and more recently United 
 States Minister to France, sent the same evening to the King 
 of Italy at Florence this dispatch, which was read at the close 
 of the meeting amid great and prolonged applause : 
 
 " More than 1 0,000 American citizens are celebrating to-night the 
 union of Rome with Italy, and send congratulations." 
 
 To this dispatch the following answer was returned : 
 " CHEVALIER FRED. DE LUCA, Italian Consul-General, New York : 
 
 " His Majesty, King Victor Emanuel, commands you to tender Ida 
 sincere thanks to Gen. John A. Dix, President of the meeting to cele- 
 brate Italian Unity, for the kindly feelings expressed in his telegram. 
 " VISCONTI VENOSTA, Minister of Foreign Affairs." 
 
 We will conclude this chapter with a list of the 258 more 
 or less whom the Roman Catholic church counts as its bish- 
 ops of Rome or popes. In the preparation of this list, which 
 gives the names of the bishops of Rome, their nation, and the 
 dates of the beginning and end of their respective bishoprics, 
 the lists contained in the five following works have been con- 
 sulted and their variations noted when essential ; viz., " The 
 Illustrated Catholic Family Almanac for the United States for 
 the year of our Lord 1870 ;" Vasi & Nibby's " Guide of Rome ;" 
 "The World's Progress," by G. P. Putnam ; " The Penny Cy- 
 clopedia" (list chiefly from the Rationarium Temporum of the 
 Jesuit chronologer Petau or Petavius) ; Appletons' " New 
 American Cyclopedia" (list from the Roman Notizie). Mur- 
 dock's Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, and Gieseler's Eccle- 
 siastical History, have also been used for verifying and correct- 
 ing the dates. The title " St." is inserted or omitted on the 
 authority of the Catholic Almanac, Appletons' Cyclopedia dif- 
 fering on this point in half a dozen cases. 
 
 St. Peter, from A.I>. 42 to A.D. 67. 
 
 [ " The Guide of Rome " says " A.D. 54, St. Peter established the see of Rome ;" 
 but see above, p. 121.] 
 
 St. Linus, a Tuscan. 
 
 St. Anacletus, an Athenian. 
 
 St. Clement I. ( = Clemens Romanus, or Clement of Rome). 
 - St. Evaristus, a Greek.
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 155 
 
 [The Catholic Almanac marks the above four, "Dates uncertain." Appletons' 
 Cyclopedia makes Linns begin A.D. 66 ; Anacletus, A.D. 78 ; Clement I., A.D. 91 ; 
 Evaristus, A.D. 100. The "Guide of Rome" makes Linns begin A.D. 65; Ana- 
 cletus, 78; Clement, 91; Evaristus, 96. " The World's Progress " has Linus, 
 66 ; Clement, 67 ; Cletus, 77 ; Anacletus, 83 ; Evaristus, 96. The Penny Cyclo- 
 pedia says that Linus died in 68, and was succeeded by Clemens Romanus who 
 died about A.D. 100; that some place Anacletus or Cletus between Linus and 
 Clemens, while others place him after Clemens ; and that Evaristus is recorded as 
 bishop about A D. 100. Some, as Baronius, Bellarmin, &c., reckon Anacletus and 
 Cletns to be two different bishops.] 
 
 St. Alexander I., a Roman, from about A.D. 109 to A.D 119. 
 
 [So the Penny Cyclopedia. Three other authorities give only the beginning 
 as A.D. 108; the Catholic Almanac marks only the end as A.D. 119.] 
 
 St. Sixtus I., a Roman, from A.D. 119 to A.D 127. 
 
 [The Catholic Almanac marks only the end as A.D. 127.] 
 
 St. Telesphorns, a Greek, from A.D. 127 to about A.D. 138. 
 
 [" The Guide of Rome " marks the beginning as A.D. 128 ; the Catholic Almanac 
 gives the end as A.D. 139.] 
 
 St. Hyginus, an Athenian, from A.D. 139 to A.D. 142. 
 
 St. Pius I., of Aquileia, from A.D. 142 to A.D. 157. 
 
 [The Penny Cyclopedia says Pius was succeeded by Anicetus in A.D. 151 ; " The 
 World's Progress " gives this date as A.D. 150.] 
 
 St. Anicetus, Syrian, from A.D. 157 to A.D. 168. 
 
 [" The Guide of Rome " makes him begin in A.D. 158 ; " The World's Progress" 
 in A..D. 150; the Penny Cyclopedia makes him begin in A.D. 151 and end in 
 A.D. 161.] 
 
 St. Soter, of Campania, from A.D. 168 to A.D. 177. 
 
 [The Penny Cyclopedia makes Soter's time A.D. 161-170; " The World's Pro- 
 gress" makes him begin in A.D. 162.] 
 
 St. Eleutherius, Greek, from A.D. 177 to A.D. 192. 
 
 [The Penny Cyclopedia gives his time A.D. 170-185 : " The World's Progress" 
 makes him begin in A.D. 171, and Victor in A.D. 185.] 
 
 St. Victor I., African, from A.D. 192 to A.D. 202. 
 
 [" The Guide of Rome " and Appletons' Cyclopedia make Victor's time A.D. 
 193-202; " The World's Progress" and Penny Cyclopedia make his time A.D. 
 185-197.] 
 
 St. Zephyrinus, Roman, from A.D. 202 to A.D. 219. 
 
 ["The Guide of Rome" makes his time A.D. 202-218; the Penny Cyclopedia 
 and World's Progress A.D. 197-217.] 
 
 St. Calixtus, Roman, from A.D. 219 to A.D. 223. 
 
 [" The Guide of Rome " makes his time A.D. 218-223 ; " The World's Progress " 
 JL.D. 217-228; the Penny Cyclopedia A.D. 217-222; Appletons' Cyclopedia A.. 
 217-223.] 
 
 St. Urban I., Roman, from A.D. 223 to A.D. 230. 
 
 [" The World's Progress " makes his time A.D. 228-234 ; the Penny Cyclopedia 
 makes it A.D. 222-230.]
 
 156 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 St. Pontian, Roman, from A.D. 230 to A.D. 235. 
 
 [" The World's Progress " gives his time A.D. 234-235.] 
 
 St. Antcrus, Greek, from A.D. 235 to A.D. 236. 
 
 St. Fabian, Roman, " 236 " 250. 
 
 St. Cornelius, " " 250 " 252. 
 
 St Lucius, of Lucca, in A.D. 253. 
 
 [The Catholic Almanac makes Cornelius's time A.D. 251-252 ; the " Guide of 
 Rome " and Appletons' Cyclopedia make Lucius begin in A.D. 252 ; " The World's 
 Progress " omits both Fabian and Lucius ; the Penny Cyclopedia makes Cornelius 
 begin in A.D. 252, but concurs with Appletons' Cyclopedia in making Novatian 
 the first " antipope " or opposition bishop of Rome in A.D. 252.] 
 
 St. Stephen I., Roman, from A.D. 253 to A.D. 257. 
 
 St. Sixtus II., Athenian, " 257 " 259. 
 
 [Stephen I. and Sixtus II are omitted in " The World's Progress."] 
 
 St. Dionysius (= Denis), Greek, from A.D. 259 to A.D. 2G9. 
 
 St. Felix I., Roman, from A.D. 269 to A.D. 274. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyclopedia and the " Guide of Rome " put Felix A.D. 269-275 ; the 
 Penny Cyclopedia has A.D. 270-275.] 
 
 St Eutychian, Tuscan, from A.D. 274 to A.D. 283. 
 
 St. Caius, Dalmatian, " 283 " 296. 
 
 St. Marcellinus, Roman, " 296 " 305. 
 
 [The Catholic Almanac gives only his end in A.D. 304 ; the " Guide of Rome" 
 only his beginning in A.D. 306 ; the Penny Cyc.. Appletons' Cyc., and Catholic 
 Almanac, make a vacancy of three to four years after his death.] 
 
 St Marcellus I., Roman, from A.D. 308 to A.D. 310. 
 
 [Omitted in the " World's Progress."] 
 
 St. Ensebius, Greek, a few months in A.D. 310. 
 
 St. Melchiades, African, from A.D. 310 to A.D. 314. 
 
 St. Sylvester I., Roman, " 314 " 335. 
 
 St. Marcus, Roman, in A.D. 336. 
 
 St. Jul:us I., Roman, from A.D. 337 to A.D. 352. 
 
 Liberius, " " 352 366. 
 
 [Liberius was deposed and banished in A.D. 355 by the emperor Constantius, who 
 appointed Felix, a deacon of Rome, bishop ; but Liberius subscribed an Arian 
 creed and was restored to his see in A.D. 358, and died in Rome A.D. 366. Liberius 
 is omitted in " The World's Progress," which inserts Felix II. as beginning in 
 A.D. 356. The " Guide of Rome " also puts Felix II. as pope in A.D. 355 ; Ap- 
 pletons' Cyc. inserts " St. Felix II. (sometimes reckoned an antipope), 355." The 
 Penny Cyc. says " Felix is considered by most as an intruder." The Catholic 
 Almanac omits this Felix entirely. Who is right ?] 
 
 St. Damasus I., Spaniard, from A.D. 366 to A.D. 384. 
 
 [Ursinus or Ursicinus, elected and ordained in opposition to Damasus, after a 
 bloody fight, was exiled, and is counted an antipope. Both are omitted in " The 
 World's Progress."] 
 
 St. Siricius, Roman, from A.D. 385 to A.D. 398. 
 { St Anastasius, " " 398 " 402.
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 157 
 
 St. Innocent I., of Albano, from A.D. 402 to A.D. 417. . 
 
 St. Zosimus I., Greek, " 417 " 418. 
 
 St. Boniface I., Roman, " 418 " 423. 
 
 [Eulalius is here noticed as antipope in Appletons' Cyc.] 
 
 St Celestine I., of Campania, from AD. 423 to A.D. 432. 
 
 St. Sixtus III., Roman, " 432 " 440. 
 
 St Leo I. the Great, Tuscan, " 440 " 461. 
 
 St. Hilary, Sardinian, " 461 " 468. 
 
 St Simplicius, of Tivoli, " 468 " 483. 
 
 [" The World's Progress " makes him begin in A.D. 465.] 
 
 St Felix III., Roman, from A.D. 483 to A.D. 492. 
 
 [The Catholic Almanac calls him " St Felix II." ; the other tour lists number 
 him IH.] 
 
 St. Gelasius, African, from A.D. 492 to A.D. 496. 
 
 St. Anastasius II., Roman, " 496 " 497. 
 
 St. Symmachus, Sardinian, " 498 " 514. 
 
 [The two last are omitted in " The World's Progress." Laurentins was chosen 
 bishop in A.D. 498 on the same day with Symmachus ; but, after much bloodshed, 
 Symmachus was found entitled to the see. Appletons' Cyc. wrongly places Law- 
 rence ( = Laurentius) as antipope against Hormisdas below.] 
 
 St Hormisdas, of Frosinone in the Papal States, from A.D. 514 to A.D. 523. 
 
 St. John I., Tuscan, from A.D. 523 to A.D. 525. 
 
 St Felix IV., Samnite, " 526 " 530. 
 
 [The Catholic Almanac styles him " St Felix HL ;" four other lists number 
 him IV.]. 
 
 St. Boniface II., Roman, from A.D. 530 to A.D. 532. 
 
 [Dioscorus, here noted as antipope in Appletons' Cyc., lived only 28 days after 
 his election.] 
 
 St. John H., Roman, from A.D. 533 to A.T>. 535. 
 
 [The Penny Cyc. and " Guide of Rome " make him begin in A.D. 532.] 
 
 St Agapetus I., Roman, from A.D. 535 to A.D. 536. 
 
 St. Sylverius, of Campania, " 536 " 540. 
 
 Vigil (= Vigilius), Roman, " 540 " 555. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. makes him begin in A.D. 537 ; " The World's Progress " and 
 " Guide of Rome " in A.D. 538.] 
 
 Pelagius I., Roman, from A.D. 555 to A.D. 560. 
 
 John HI., " " 560 " 573. 
 
 Benedict!., " " 574 " 578. 
 
 Pelagius JL, " " 578 " 590. 
 
 St Gregory I., the Great, Roman, from A.D. 590 to A.D. 604. 
 
 Sabinian, Tuscan, " 604 " 605. 
 
 Boniface III., Roman, in A.D. 606. 
 
 [The Penny Cyc., Appletons' Cyc,, and the " Guide of Rome," put him in 
 A D. 607.] 
 
 St Boniface IV., of Abruzzo, from A. D. 607 to A.D. 614. .
 
 IJ3" THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 [The Penny Cyc., Appletons' Cyc., and the " Guide of Rome," make him begin 
 A.D 608.] 
 
 Deusdedit (= Deodatus) L, Roman, from A.D. 615 to A.D. 618. 
 
 [Omitted in " The World's Progress."] 
 
 Boniface V., Neapolitan, from A.D. 619 to A.D. 625. 
 
 Honorius I., of Campania, " 625 " 638. 
 
 [See of Rome vacant a year and a half.] 
 
 Severinus, Roman, in A.D. 640. 
 
 John IV., Dalmatian, from A.D. 640 to A.D. 642. 
 
 Theodore (= Theodorus), Greek, from A.D. 642 to A.D. 649. 
 
 [The Penny Cyc. and " Guide of Rome" make him begin in A.D. 641.] 
 
 St. Martin I., of Todi in Papal States, from A.D. 649 to A.D. 655. 
 
 [" The World's Progress " makes him begin in A.D. 644.] 
 
 Eugene (= Eugenius) I., Roman, from A. D. 655 to A. D. 657. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc., Penny Cyc., and " The World's Progress " make him begin 
 A. D. 654.] 
 
 St. Vitalian (= Vitalianus), of Segni in Papal States, from A. D. 657 to 
 A. D. 672. 
 
 Adeodatus, Roman, from A. D. 672 to A. D. 676. 
 
 [The Penny Cyc. calls him Deusdedit II.] 
 
 Donus or Domnus I., Roman, from A. D. 676 to A. D. 678. 
 
 St. Agatho, Sicilian, " 678 " 682. 
 
 " Leo II., Roman, " 682 " 683. 
 
 " Benedict II., Roman, " 684 " 685. 
 
 John V., Syrian, " 685 " 686. 
 
 Conon, Sicilian, " 686 " 687. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. gives Theodoras and Paschal as antipopes.) 
 
 St. Sergius L, Syrian, from A. D. 687 to A. D. 701. 
 
 John VI., Greek, " 701 " 705. 
 
 " VII., " " 705 " 707. 
 
 Sisinnius, Syrian, a month in A. D. 708. 
 
 Constantino, Syrian, from A. D. 708 to A. D. 714. 
 
 St. Gregory II., Roman, from A. D. 715 to A. D. 731. 
 " " in., Syrian, " 731 " 741. 
 " Zachary (= Zacharias), Greek, from A. D. 741 to A. D. 752. 
 
 Stephen II. (not consecrated), three days in A. D. 752. 
 
 [Omitted in " Guide of Rome," " World's Progress," and Gieseler.] 
 
 St. Stephen III., Roman, from A. D. 752 to A. D. 757. 
 
 [Called " Stephen II." in the " Guide of Rome," Gieseler, and Mosheim.] 
 
 St. Paul I., Roman, from A. D. 757 to A. D. 767. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here Constantino, Thcophylact, and Philip as antipopes.] 
 
 Stephen IV., Sicilian, from A. D. 768 to A. D. 772. 
 
 [Called " Stephen III." in the " Guide of Rome," Gieseler, and Mosheim.] 
 
 Hadrian I. (= Adrian I.), Roman, from A. D. 772 to A. D. 795. 
 
 St. LeoHI., " " 795 " 816. 
 
 Stephen V., " " 816 " 817.
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 159 
 
 [Called " Stephen IV." in the " Guide of Rome " and Gieseler.] 
 
 St. Paschal I., Roman, from A. D. 817 to A. D. 824. 
 
 Eugene (= Eugenius) II., Roman, from A. D. 824 to A. D. 827. 
 
 Valentine, Roman, 2 months in A. D. 827. 
 
 Gregory IV., Roman, from A. D. 827 to A. D. 844. 
 
 SergiusIL, " " 844 " 847. 
 
 St. Leo IV., " " 847 " 855. 
 
 [Between Leo IV. and Benedict III. some chroniclers insert John VIII., com- 
 monly called " Pope Joan," a female pope ; but her existence is now generally 
 regarded as a fiction, though it was widely credited from the 12th century down to 
 the Reformation.] 
 
 Benedict III., Roman, from A. D. 855 to A. D. 858. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here Anastasius as antipope.] 
 
 St. Nicholas I., Roman, from A. D. 858 to A. D. 867. 
 
 Hadrian (= Adrian) II., " " 867 " 872. 
 
 John VIII., " " 872 " 882. 
 
 Marinus I., or Martin II., Tuscan, " 882 " 884. 
 
 Hadrian (= Adrian) III., Roman, " 884 " 885. 
 
 Stephen VI., " " 885 " 891. 
 
 [Called " Stephen V." in " Guide of Rome," and Catholic Almanac.] 
 
 Formosus, Roman, from A. D. 891 to A. D. 896. 
 
 [The Penny Cyc. inserts here Sergius as antipope.] 
 
 Boniface VI., Tuscan, about % month in A. i>. 896. 
 
 Stephen VII., Roman, from A. D. 896 to A. D. 897. 
 
 [Called Stephen VI." in Catholic Almanac, and " Guide of Rome."] 
 
 Romanus, Tuscan, 4 months in A. D. 897. 
 
 Theodore (= Theodorus) II., Roman, 20 days in A. D. 898. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here Sergius III. as antipope. Romanus and Theo. 
 dore are both omitted in " The World's Progress."] 
 
 John IX., of Tivoli, from A. . 898 to A. D. 900. 
 
 Benedict IV., Roman, . " 900 " 903. 
 
 Leo V., of Ardea, 1 month in A. D. 903 (banished). 
 
 Christopher, Roman, 7 months in A. D. 903 (banished). 
 
 [Omitted in " The World's Progress," and counted antipope in the Penny Cyc.] 
 
 Sergius III., Roman, from A. D. 904 to A. D. 911. 
 
 Anastasius HI., " " 911 " 913. 
 
 Lando (= Landusj, Sabine, " 913 " 914. 
 
 [Anastasius and Lando are omitted in " The World's Progress."] 
 
 John X., of Ravenna, from A. . 914 to A. D. 928. 
 
 Leo VI., Roman, " 928 " 929. 
 
 Stephen VTH., " " 929 " 931. 
 
 [Called " Stephen VII." in the Catholic Almanac, and " Guide of Rome."] 
 
 John XL, Roman, from A. D. 931 to A. D. 936. 
 
 Leo VII., " " 936 " 939. 
 
 Stephen IX., German, " 939 " 942. 
 
 [Called " Stephen VIII." in the Catholic Almanac and " Guide of Rome,"] 
 
 Martin III., or Marinus II., Roman, from A. D. 943 to A. D. 946.
 
 160 THE POPE AND HI3 SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 Agapetus IL, Roman, from A. D. 946 to A. D. 955. 
 
 John Xn. (Ottavio Conti), " " 956 " 963 (deposed; died 
 
 964). 
 
 Leo VIII., Roman, in A. D. 963 to A. D. 965. 
 
 [The Catholic Almanac omits Leo; Appletons' Cyc. marks him antipope; 
 Penny Cyc. inserts him as beginning in 963, and says " styled antipope by some " ; 
 " The World's Progress " inserts him as " elected by Roman citizens in 963 " ; the 
 " Guide of Rome " inserts him as regularly beginning in 964.] 
 
 Benedict V., Roman, in A. D. 964 (banished ; died in 965). 
 
 [The " Guide of Rome " omits Benedict ; " The World's Progress " inserts him 
 as " elected by a council " ; the Catholic Almanac, Penny Cyc., and Appletons' 
 Cyc. insert him as regular ] 
 
 John XIII., Roman, from A. D. 965 to A. D. 972. 
 
 Benedict VI., " " 972 " 974. 
 
 Donus or Domnus II., " " 974 " 975. 
 
 Benedict VII., " " 975 " 983. 
 
 John XIV., Italian, in A. D. 984. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. and Penny Cyc. insert here as antipope Boniface VTI. ; " The 
 World's Progress " mentions him as pope in A. D. 973, " deposed and banished for 
 his crimes." lie possessed the papal dignity in 974 and 985, for a few months 
 each, and died in 986.] 
 
 John XV., Roman, a few months in A. D. 985. 
 
 John XVI., " from A. . 985 to A. D. 996. 
 
 [The Catholic Almanac, Gieseler, and Appletons' Cyc omit the short pontifi- 
 cate in 985, and make "John XV." pope A. D. 985-996, who is the "John XVI." 
 of the " Guide of Rome," Penny Cyc., and " World's Progress."] 
 
 Gregory V., German, from A. D. 996 to A. D. 999. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. here inserts as antipope John XVI. "The World's Progress" 
 inserts him as pope in 997. He was a Calabrian, bishop of Piacenza, appointed 
 pope in 997 in opposition to Gregory, but imprisoned and mutilated by the emperor 
 Otho in 998. He is the John XVII. of some.] 
 
 Sylvester II. (Gerbert), French, from A. D. 999 to 1003. 
 
 John XVII., Roman, in A. D. 1003. 
 
 [Omitted in the Penny Cyc. and " World's Progress " ; inserted in Appletons' 
 Cyc. as "John XVI. or XVII."] 
 
 John XVIII., Roman, from A. D. 1003 to 1009. 
 
 Sergius IV., " " 1009 to 1012. 
 
 Benedict VIII., " " 1012 to 1024. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. places here Gregory VI., antipope.] ' 
 
 John XIX., Roman, from 1024 to 1033. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. calls him "John XVIII. or XIX."] 
 
 Benedict IX., Roman, from 1033 to 1044. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here " John XX.," antipope ; the Penny Cyc. inserts 
 " Sylvester, bishop of Sabina," as antipope. Probably these are the same, as John, 
 bishop of Sabina, took the name of Sylvester III. Benedict was expelled, and 
 sold his pontificate to John Gratian, who took the name of Gregory VI. Benedict 
 IX., Sylvester III., and Gregory VI., were all deposed in the synod of Sutri, 1046 ;
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 161 
 
 but Benedict again held the pontificate for several months after the death of 
 Clement II.] 
 
 Gregory VI., Roman, from 1044 to 1046. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here " Sylvester III." as antipope ; but see note above.] 
 
 Clement II., Saxon, from 1046 to 1047. 
 
 Damasus II., Bavarian, 23 days in 1048. 
 
 St. Leo IX., German, from 1049 to 1054. 
 
 Victor II., " " 1055 to 1057. 
 
 Stephen X., of Lorraine, from 1057 to 1058. 
 
 [Called " Stephen IX." in the Catholic Almanac, " World's Progress," Pennj 
 Cyc., Gieseler, and Mosheim ; Appletons' Cyc and the Penny Cyc. insert Benedict 
 X. as pope between Stephen and Nicholas in 1058 ; but the "World's Progress " 
 styles him antipope, and the Catholic Almanac and " Guide of Home " omit him.] 
 
 Nicholas II., of Burgundy, from 1058 to 1061. 
 
 Alexander II., of Milan, from 1061 to 1073. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. gives Honorius II. as antipope here.] 
 
 St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), Tuscan, from 1073 to 1085. 
 
 [Guibert, antipope, 1080-1100, under the name of Clement HI] 
 
 Victor III., of Benevento, from 1086 to 1087. 
 
 Urban II., French, from 1088 to 1099. 
 
 Paschal II., Tuscan, from 1099 to 1118. 
 
 [The Penny Cyc names here as antipopes, Albert and Theodoric.] 
 
 Gelasius II, of Gae'ta, from 1118 to 1119. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. names here Gregory VIII. as antipope.] 
 
 Calixtus II., of Burgundy, from 1119 to 1124. 
 
 Honorius II., of Bologna, from 1124 to 1130. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. notes here Celestine II. as antipope.] 
 
 Innocent II., Roman, from 1130 to 1143. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. gives here Anacletns II. and Victor IV. as antipopes; th 
 Penny Cyc., Mosheim, Gieseler, " The World's Progress," mention only Anaclctus 
 here, and Victor IV. in 1159.] 
 
 Celestine II., Tuscan, from 1143 to 1144. 
 
 Lucius II., of Bologna, from 1 144 to 1145. 
 
 Eugene (= Eugenius) III., Pisan, from 1145 to 1153. 
 
 Anastasius IV., Roman, from 1153 to 1154. 
 
 Hadrian (= Adrian) IV., English, from 1154 to 1159. 
 
 [His name was Nicholas Breakspear, and he is the only Englishman ever madt 
 pope.] 
 
 Alexander III., of Siena, from 1159 to 1181. 
 
 ["The World's Progress" names four antipopes, viz. : Victor IV., 1159; Pas- 
 chal III., 1164 ; Calixtus III., 1163; Innocent III., 1178. The Penny Cyc., has 
 the first three only, and so Gieseler and Mosheim. Appletons' Cyc. has four, but 
 puts " Victor V." for Victor IV. See note under Innocent II., 1130.] 
 
 Lucius III., of Lucca, from 1181 to 1185 
 
 Urban III., of Milan, from 1185 to 1187. 
 
 Gregory VIII., of Benevento, two months in 1187 
 
 11
 
 162 THE 'POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 Clement III., Roman, from 1187 to 1191. 
 Celestine IH., " " 1191 to 1198. 
 Innocent III., of Anagni in Papal States, from 1198 to 1216. 
 Honorius HI., Roman, from 1216 to 1227. 
 Gregory IX., of Anagni, from 1227 to 1241. 
 Celestine IV., of Milan, 15 days in 1241. 
 [Roman see vacant from October 8, 1241, to June 24, 1243.] 
 Innocent IV., of Genoa, from 1243 to 1254. 
 [The Catholic Almanac alone makes him begin in 1241.] 
 Alexander IV., of Anagni, from 1254 to 1261. 
 Urban IV., French, from 1261 to 1264. 
 Clement IV., French, from 1265 to 1268. 
 [Roman see vacant nearly three years.] 
 Gregory X., of Piacenza, from 1271 to 1276. 
 Innocent V., of Savoy, five months in 1276. 
 Hadrian ( = Adrian) V., of Genoa, a month in 1276. 
 John XXL, Portuguese, from 1276 to 1277. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. calls him " John XIX. or XX., or XXL ;" the Catholic Al- 
 manac, "John XXL (XX.);" the " Guide of Rome," "John XX. or XXI."] 
 Nicholas III., Roman, from 1277 to 1280. 
 Martin IV., French, from 1281 to 1285. 
 Honorius IV., Roman, from 1285 to 1287. 
 Nicholas IV , of Ascoli in Papal States, from 1288 to 1292. 
 [Roman see vacant 2^ years.] 
 
 Celestine V., Neapolitan, 5 months in 1294 (abdicated). 
 Boniface VIII., of Anagni in Papal States, from 1294 to 1303. 
 Benedict XL, of Treviso, from 1303 to 1304. 
 [Papacy vacant 1 1 months.] 
 
 Clement V., French, from 1305 to 1314. 
 
 [Papacy vacant 2$ years.] 
 
 John XXIL, French, from 1316 to 1334. 
 
 [Appletons' Cyc. and the Penny Cyc. have Nicholas V. as antipope in 
 Italy. He was appointed by the German emperor in 1328, and submitted 
 to John in 1330.] 
 
 Benedict XII., French, from 1334 to 1342. 
 
 I- 
 
 Clement VI., " " 1342 to 1352. 
 
 Innocent VI, 1352 to 1362. 
 
 Urban V., " " 1362 to 1370. 
 
 Gregory XL, " " 1370 to 1378. 
 J A ( Urban VI., Neapolitan, from 1378 to 1389. 
 
 ~ JL (Boniface IX., " " 1389 to 1404. 
 
 1 12 1 1nnocent VII., " " 1404 to 1406. 
 
 jg "8 | Gregory XII , Venetian, " 1406 to 1415 (abdicated). 
 
 g ( 
 
 | d I Clement VII., French, " 1378 to 1394. 
 
 '> a 1 Benedict XIII., Spanish. " 1394 to 1417 ( deposed : died 1423j. 
 
 < (
 
 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 163 
 
 i g .'Alexander V., Cretan, from 1409 to 1410. 
 ;~ : John XXIII., Neapolitan, from 1410 to 1415 (deposed). 
 
 [Of the popes 1378-1417, the Catholic Almanac gives the Roman line with their 
 dates as above, only making Gregoy's pontificate end in 141 7; it acknowledges 
 " 40 years' disputed succession ;" and simply names the popes of the other two 
 lines above as " rival popes." The " Guide of Rome," the Penny Cyc., and Ap- 
 plctons' Cyc., give the popes of the Roman and Pisan lines in the order of their 
 dates without discrimination, and mark Clement and Benedict as antipopcs. 
 " The World's Progress " gives the whole eight as popes. See pp. 131-2 above.? 
 
 Martin V., Roman, from 1417 to 1431. 
 
 [Clement VIII., antipope, 1423-1429. See p. 132 above.] 
 
 Eugene (= Eugenius) IV., Venetian, from 1431 to 1447. 
 
 [Felix V., antipope, 1439-1449. See p. 133.] 
 
 Nicholas V., of Sarzana in N. Italy, from 1447 to 1455. 
 
 Calixtus III., Spanish, from 1455 to 1458. 
 
 Pius II., Tuscan, " 1453 to 1464. 
 
 Paul II., Venetian, " 1464 to 1471. 
 
 SixtusIV.,of Savona, " 1471 to 1484. 
 
 Innocent VIII., of Genoa," 1484 to 1492. 
 
 Alexander VI., Spanish, " 1492 to 1503. 
 
 Pius III., Tuscan, a month in 1503. 
 
 Julius II., of Savona, from 1503 to 1513. 
 
 Leo X., of Florence, " 1513 to 1521. 
 
 Hadrian (= Adrian) VI., Dutch, from 1522 to 1523. 
 
 Clement VII., of Florence, from 1523 to 1534. 
 
 Paul III. Roman, from 1534 to 1549. 
 
 Julius III., " " 1550 to 1555. 
 
 M;:r:ellus II., of Fano in Papal States, a month in 1555. 
 
 Paul IV., Neapolitan, from 1555 to 1559. 
 
 Pius IV., of Milan, " 1559 to 1565. 
 
 St. Pius V., of Alessandria in N. Italy, from 1566 to 1572. 
 
 Gregory XIII., of Bologna, from 1572 to 1585. 
 
 Sixtus V , of Ancona, from 1585 to 1590. 
 
 Urban VII., of Genoa, a few days in 1590. 
 
 Gregory XIV., of Cremona, from 1590 to 1591. 
 
 Innocent IX., of Bologna, two months in 1591. 
 
 Clement VIII., of Florence, from 1592 to 1605. 
 
 Leo XI., of Florence, a month in 1605. 
 
 Paul V., Tuscan, from 1605 to 1621. 
 
 Gregory XV., of Bologna, from 1621 to 1623. 
 
 Urban VIII., of Florence, " 1623 to 1644. 
 
 Innocent X., Roman, " 1644 to 1655. 
 
 Alexander VII., Tuscan, " 1655 to 1667. 
 
 Clement IX., " " 1667 to 1669. 
 
 Clement X., Roman, " 1670 to 1676. 
 
 Innocent XL, of Milan, " 1676 to 1689.
 
 164 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 Alexander VIII., Venetian, from 1689 to 1691. 
 Innocent XII., Neapolitan, " 1691 to 1700. 
 Clement XL, of Papal States, from 1700 to 1721. 
 Innocent XIII., Koman, " 1721 to 1724. 
 
 Benedict XIII, " " 1724 to 1730. 
 
 Clement XII., of Florence, " 1730 to 1740. 
 Benedict XIV., of Bologna, " 1740 to 1758. 
 Clement XIII., Venetian, " 1758 to 1769. 
 
 Clement XIV., of Papal States, " 1769 to 1774. 
 Pius VI, " " " 1775 to 1799. 
 
 Pius VII., " " " 1800 to 1821. 
 
 Leo XII., " " " 1823 to 1829. 
 
 Pius VIII., " " " 1829 to 1830. 
 
 Gregory XVI , of Belluno, in N. Italy, from 1831 to 1846. 
 Pius IX., of Papal States, from 1846 to .
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 i 
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AND OTHER OFFICIAL 
 COMMUNICATIONS. 
 
 An " allocution " (Latin allocutio = speech to) is a set 
 speech or formal address made by the pope in his official 
 capacity. An appendix to the pope's encyclical letter of De- 
 cember, 1864, cites 17 " consistorial allocutions " of the pres- 
 ent pope previous to that time, and gives their dates. These 
 allocutions were addressed either to the college of cardinals or 
 to a larger assembly of prelates in Rome or Gaeta. One of 
 the most elaborate of these appears to be that addressed on 
 the 9th of June, 1862, to a convocation, at which at least 245 
 bishops, archbishops, patriarchs, <fcc., of the Roman Catholic 
 church were present. The convocation or council was sum- 
 moned to attend the canonization of 27 Japanese martyrs. 
 The canonization took place ; but the allocution (which is 
 called " Maxima quidem" from the Latin words with which 
 it begins) dwelt much more on what were regarded as the lam- 
 entable evils of the present times than upon the martyrs. It 
 was a politico-religious speech, not only deploring the panthe- 
 istic and rationalistic errors spread by the revolutionary spirit 
 of the age against the authority of the Catholic church and the 
 laws of God and man, but also mourning over the oppression 
 exercised against the church in Italy and the war declared 
 against the pope's temporal power (this was two years after 
 the annexation of a large part of the States of the Church to 
 the kingdom of Italy). The allocution specially condemns 
 the ideas that " every man is free to embrace and profess the 
 religion he shall believe true, guided by the light of reason,"
 
 166 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, &C. 
 
 that " the ministers of the church and the Roman pontiff ought 
 to be absolutely excluded from all charge and dominion over 
 temporal affairs," that " the civil power is entitled to prevent 
 ministers of religion and the faithful from communicating 
 freely and mutually with the Roman pontiff," &c. The " ven- 
 erable brethren," as the bishops are styled, are urged to re- 
 double their zeal in combating and arresting the diffusion of 
 these pestiferous errors. They are exhorted " to remove the 
 faithful from the contagion of this plague ; to turn their eyes 
 and their hands from the pernicious books and journals ; to 
 instruct them in the precepts of our august religion ; to exhort 
 and warn them to fly from these teachers of iniquity as from a 
 serpent." They are exhorted " to take for mediatrix with God 
 the Virgin Mary, who, full of pity and love for all men, has 
 always annihilated heresies, and whose patronage with God 
 has never been more opportune. Pray also," it continues, 
 " for the suffrages of St. Joseph, the spouse of the very holy 
 Virgin, of the apostles Peter and Paul, and of all the inhabi- 
 tants of heaven, especially those whom we honor and venerate 
 as inscribed in the records of sanctity." 
 
 A papal " bull" is a letter, ordinance, or decree of the pope, 
 generally written on parchment, with a leaden seal (bulla in 
 Latin, whence the name) affixed. The seal bears on the ob- 
 verse the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul ; on the reverse the 
 name of the pope and the year of his pontificate. If the bull 
 has respect to matters of justice, the seal is fixed by a hempen 
 cord ; if of grace, by a silken thread. Bulls are granted for 
 the consecration of bishops, the promotion to benefices, the 
 celebration of jubilees, &c. Bulls are said to be " fulminated," 
 when they are published ; and this publication is made by one 
 of three commissioners, to whom they are usually addressed. 
 The bulls issued by the popes were published at Luxemburg in 
 1727, &c., in 19 folio volumes. Of these the two most cele- 
 brated are those called " In ccena Domini" and " Unigenitus" 
 
 The bull In caena Domini (= at the supper of the Lord) is 
 BO named on account of its being read in Rome annually on the
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 167 
 
 anniversary of the institution of the Lord's Supper, i. e., on 
 the Thursday before Easter, or Maundy-Thursday. " Toward 
 the end of the 13th century it had already become the cus- 
 tom," says Dr. Gieseler, " for the popes to repeat annually, 
 upon this day, excommunications of special importance." 
 A collection of these excommunications is said to have been 
 made by pope Gregory XI. in 1370 ; but the earliest one 
 published is that by Gregory XII. in 1411, which was re- 
 newed with additions by Pius V. in 1566, under the name of 
 the bull In ccena Domini. The bull was renewed under the 
 same name by Urban VIII. in 1627 ; and finally as a bull of 
 excommunication by Pius IX., on the 12th of October, 1869. 
 The first article of this bull, as published by Urban VIII. , 
 has this curse for all heretics, &c. : 
 
 " We excommunicate and anathematize, in the name of God, Father, 
 Son, and Holy Ghost, and by the authority of the blessed apostles, 
 Peter and Paul, and by our own, all "Wickliffites, Hussites, Lutherans, 
 Calvinists, Huguenots, Anabaptists, and all other heretics, by whatso- 
 ever name they are called, and of whatsoever sect they be ; and also, all 
 schismatics, and those who withdraw themselves, or recede obstinately 
 from the obedience of the Bishop of Rome ; as also their adherents, 
 receivers, favorers, and generally any defenders of them ; together 
 with all who, without the authority of the Apostolic see, shall know- 
 ingly read, keep, or print, any of their books which treat on religion, 
 or by or. for any cause whatever, publicly or privately, on any pretense 
 or color, defend them." 
 
 In this bull, as issued by Pius IX. in 1869, the pope solemnly 
 excommunicates and anathematizes all apostates and heretics, 
 and all who refuse obedience to the Roman pontiff ; and those 
 who, without special authority from the Holy see, knowingly 
 possess or read any books condemned by the papal court ; all 
 who impede directly or indirectly the external or internal juris- 
 diction of the church (this includes kings, magistrates, and 
 others who favor, receive, or defend heretics or schismatics, as 
 well as those who by word or act maintain that the pope is 
 subject to a council) ; all who invade or retain the revenues 
 of the church or of her ministers ; any dignitary or prelate who
 
 168 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, &C. 
 
 may dare to grant absolution for them, except when actually 
 dying, and with a reservation in case the dying recover ; all 
 members of secret societies engaged in open or secret machi- 
 nations against legitimate governments, as well as all who 
 favor or aid such societies ; all who hold converse with the 
 excommunicated, or who farm out masses, or who are guilty 
 of simony, or of other specified offenses, mostly clerical. Pius 
 V., in reproducing this bull, declared it an eternal law in 
 Christendom, and ordered the bull to be read every Thursday 
 before Easter in every parish church throughout the world. It 
 was accordingly read annually in Rome for more than 200 
 years, until Clement XIV. in 1773 suspended the reading. 
 But as it threatened with excommunication and anathema all, 
 whether the supreme authorities of the state or subordinate 
 magistrates or officers, who should, without special permission 
 from the pope, impose taxes, exercise judicial authority, or 
 punish crimes of the clergy, many sovereigns and states, as 
 France, Spain, Germany, Venice, <fcc., forbade the publication 
 of the bull, and declared it null and void. The French par- 
 liament ordered in 1580 that all bishops and archbishops who 
 promulgated the bull should have their goods confiscated and 
 be pronounced guilty of high treason. In 1707, pope Clement 
 XI. excommunicated the emperor Joseph II. and his adherents, 
 according to this bull, for interfering with the pope's claim of 
 sovereignty over Parma and Piacenza ; but the emperor re- 
 sisted and compelled the pope to yield. 
 
 The bull called " Unigenitus" from its beginning with the 
 words " Unigenitus Dei Filius " (== the only-begotten Son of 
 God), was issued by Clement XI. in 1713 in condemnation of 
 101 propositions of the Jansenist Quesnel in his Moral Reflec- 
 tions on the New Testament, or, in other words, supporting 
 the Jesuits against the Jansenists, who in many of their senti- 
 ments agreed with the Protestants, and especially with the Cal- 
 vinists in regard to predestination and divine grace. Among 
 the 101 condemned propositions are such as these : 
 
 " Grace is that voice of the Father, which inwardly teacheth men, 
 and maketh them come unto Jesus Christ ; and whosoever cometh not
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, 4C. 
 
 unto him after he hath heard the outward voice of the Son, is in no 
 wise instructed of the Father " (John 6 : 45). " The seed of the 
 word, which the hand of God watereth, ever bringeth forth its fruits" 
 (Acts 11 : 21). "No graces are given, save through faith" (Lk. 8: 
 48). " All whom God willeth to save through Christ, are infallibly 
 saved" (John 6: 4')). "The church, or the entire Christ, hath the 
 incarnate Word as the head, but all the holy as members " (1 Tim. 3 : 
 16). " The reading of Sacred Scripture is for all " ( Acts 8 : 28). " To 
 snatch the New Testament out of the hands of Christians, or to keep 
 it closed to them, by taking from them that method of understanding 
 it, is to shut the mouth of Christ against them " (Mat. 5 : 2). " To 
 interdict to Christians the reading of Sacred Scriptures, especially of the 
 Gospel, is to interdict the use of light to the sons of light, and to cause 
 them to suffer a certain kind of excommunication" (Luke 11: 33). 
 " God permits that all powers be opposed to the preachers of the 
 truth, to the end that his victory may be attributed only to the Divine 
 grace" (Acts 17:8). 
 
 The pope, after quoting these among the other propositions, 
 speaks thus in the bull : 
 
 u Having heard, therefore, the suffrages of the above-mentioned 
 cardinals and other theologians exhibited to us both by word of mouth 
 as well as in writing, and having invoked the protection of the Divine 
 light by proclaiming private and public prayers to that end, we, by 
 this our constitution, destined to be in effect forever, declare, condemn, 
 and reprobate all and each of the previously inserted propositions, as 
 false, captious, ill-sounding, offensive to pious ears, scandalous, per- 
 nicious, rash, injurious to the church and her practice, and contumelious 
 not only to the church, but also to the secular powers ; seditious, impi- 
 ous, blasphemous, suspected of heresy, and savoring of heresy itself, 
 and also as abetting heretics and heresies, and also schism, erroneous, 
 near akin to heresy, several times condemned, and finally heretical, and 
 manifestly renewing respectively various heresies, and those particu- 
 larly which are contained in the infamous propositions of Jansenius, 
 taken, however, in that sense in which they have been condemned. 
 We command all the faithful in Christ of both sexes not to presume 
 to think of the aforesaid propositions, to teach them, to preach them 
 otherwise than is contained in this same our constitution ; so that 
 whosoever shall tQach. defend, publish them t or any of them, conjointly
 
 170 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 
 
 or separately, or shall treat of them publicly or privately, even by way 
 of disputing, unless perhaps for the purpose of impugning them, let 
 him, by the very fact, without other declaration, lie under ecclesias- 
 tical censures, and other penalties enacted by law against those per- 
 petrating such acts." 
 
 The promulgation of this bull created great disturbances, 
 especially in France. Many prelates and distinguished men, 
 including Cardinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, appealed 
 from it to a future general council. Father Quesnel and others 
 took refuge in Holland and died there ; others were forced into 
 submission ; others, stripped of office and honor, removed to 
 foreign countries. Rev. Dr. Murray, a Roman Catholic bishop 
 of Ireland, was asked in his examination before the Parlia- 
 mentary Committee on the state of Ireland 1824-5, " Is the 
 bull 'Uhigenitus' in force in Ireland?" and he answered, "It 
 is." Of course, it has never been repealed. 
 
 The bull of pope Sixtus V., known as JEternus ille (eternal 
 he), dated March 1, 1589, and prefixed to his edition of the 
 Latin Vulgate Bible, which was carefully corrected by his own 
 hand, printed in the Vatican palace, and published at Rome in 
 1590, deserves also to be specially noticed. The bull says : 
 
 " Of our certain knowledge, and by the fullness of apostolic power, 
 we determine and declare that that Vulgate Latin edition of the holy 
 page, as well of the Old as of the New Testament, which has been 
 received as authentic by the Council of Trent, is to be considered, 
 without any doubt or controversy, this very one, which we now pub- 
 lish in the whole Christian commonwealth, corrected, as might best be 
 done, and printed at the Vatican press, and to be read in all the 
 churches of the Christian world, decreeing that it ... must be 
 received and held as true, legitimate, authentic, and undoubted, in all 
 public and private disputations, readings, preachings, and explana- 
 tions." 
 
 The bull further forbids the publication of various readings 
 in copies of the Vulgate, and determines that all those read- 
 ings in other editions and manuscripts which vary from 
 this edition of the pope " shall have for the future no credit
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 171 
 
 and no authority." It also enacts that the new revision shall 
 be introduced into all missals and service-books ; and threatens 
 the greater excommunication against all who in any way con- 
 travene this constitution. But, by the death of pope Sixtus V. 
 in August, 1590, the enforcement of this bull was hindered ; his 
 immediate successor, Urban VII. , chosen the next month, died 
 in a few days ; and, in December, Gregory XIV. became pope. 
 In the meantime, the Sixtine edition of the Vulgate caused 
 great dissatisfaction ; and under the year 1591 Cardinal Bel- 
 larmin, the great Roman controversialist, wrote thus in his auto- 
 biography (first edition) : 
 
 " When Gregory XIV. was thinking what must be done about the 
 bible edited by Sixtus V., in which were very many rash changes, 
 there were not wanting grave men who thought that bible should be 
 publicly prohibited, but N. (Bellarmin) demonstrated before the pon- 
 tiff that that bible should not be prohibited, but should be so corrected 
 that, the honor of Pope Sixtus V. being preserved, that bible should go 
 forth corrected, which might be done if those bad changes were re- 
 moved as speedily as possible, and the bible reprinted under the name 
 of the same Sixtus, with the addition of a preface indicating that in the 
 first edition of Sixtus some errors had crept in through haste, by the 
 carelessness either of the printers or of others, and so N. returned to 
 Sixtus good for evil" [this last refers to Sixtus's condemnation of 
 Bellarmin 's thesis denying that " the pope is the direct master of the 
 whole world]." 
 
 Cardinal Bellarmin was a Jesuit, and proposed to represent 
 the deliberate alterations of Sixtus as typographical errors or 
 something of the sort. Accordingly, a commission under Car- 
 dinal Colonna was appointed to revise the Sixtine text. Their 
 labor was hardly finished when pope Gregory died (in Octo- 
 ber, 1591). His successor also died before the close of the 
 year ; but in January, 1592, Clement VIII. succeeded to the 
 papal chair, and by his authority the new edition of the Vul- 
 gate was printed before the end of 1592, with, it is said, 2,000 
 corrections of errors introduced by Pope Sixtus V. himself. 
 The preface of this edition was written by Bellarmin, and 
 the following are extracts from it :
 
 172 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, &C. 
 
 " Sixtus V. ... ordered the work, at length finished, to be printed. 
 When it had been struck off, and the same pontiff was bestowing care 
 that it might be published [this implies that it was not published, the 
 feict being otherwise], observing that not a few errors of the press had 
 crept into the Sacred Bible, which seemed to call for renewed dili- 
 gence, he determined and decreed that the whole work should be re- 
 printed [" of this," says Rev. B. F. Westcott, a learned English schol- 
 ar, who has carefully investigated this subject, " there is not the faint- 
 est shadow of proof"]. . . . Receive, therefore, Christian reader, 
 
 . . . from the Vatican press, the old and vulgate edition of the 
 Sacred Scripture, corrected with all possible diligence ; which indeed, 
 though it is difficult in consequence of human infirmity to call it ab- 
 solutely perfect, is yet doubtless better corrected and freer from error 
 than all others that have gone forth up to this day. . . . Never- 
 theless, as some things in the common reading were changed advisedly, 
 so other things which seemed to need change were advisedly left un- 
 changed, in accordance with St. Jerome's repeated counsel to avoid pop- 
 ular offense," &c. 
 
 The doctrine of papal infallibility certainly encounters a very 
 serious difficulty in the bull of pope Sixtus V. and the histori- 
 cal facts connected with it. The language of Bellarmin to 
 pope Clement VIII. was not unmeaning : 
 
 " Your blesssedness knows into what danger Sixtus V. has brought 
 himself and the whole church in attacking the correction of the sacred 
 books according to the sentiments of true learning ; nor am I sure 
 than any graver danger ever happened." 
 
 A papal brief or " apostolical brief " is a letter addressed by 
 the pope to an individual or a community in respect to a matter 
 of discipline, public affairs, &c. It is usually written on paper, 
 sometimes on parchment ; is sealed in red wax with the seal of 
 the Fisherman, which is a symbol of St. Peter in a boat, cast- 
 ing his net into the sea ; and is signed, not by the pope, but by 
 an officer of the papal chancery called the "Secretary of Briefs." 
 A " brief " is a less ample and solemn instrument than a 
 " bull," and more like a private letter. The following is an 
 extract from " the brief of pope Pius IX. to the Roman Cath-
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 173 
 
 olic primate in Ireland, given at Rome," August 21, 1850, 
 about four months after the pontiff's return from Gaeta : 
 
 " Nobly, indeed, do you provide for your clergy and people when 
 you hasten to communicate to them all that devotion wherewith you 
 are yourself wonderfully imbued towards the most holy Mother of 
 God and most gracious Virgin Mary, by whom every faithful soul is 
 said, by Cyril, to be saved. Under the guidance and auspices, above 
 all, of her, to whom it is given to destroy all heresies, let us hope, in 
 this raging tempest, for the present help of a merciful God, and let us 
 expect it with confidence." 
 
 An " encyclical letter" is a circular letter, or a letter ad- 
 dressed to a large number, particularly to all bishops and other 
 prelates of the Roman Catholic church. The following ency- 
 clical letter of Gregory XVI. is of special interest to Americans. 
 It was published in the Diario di Roma (the official gazette of 
 of the papal government) in Latin and Italian, May 25, 1844, 
 and was translated into English by Sir Culling Eardley Smith, 
 bart., and published in London with the Latin text and the 
 authorized Italian translation appended. As the original Latin 
 title is somewhat more full than either of the translations, a 
 literal translation of it is here prefixed. The rest of the trans- 
 lation is Sir Culling's, with two or three verbal corrections. 
 
 " ENCYCLICAL LETTER OF OUR MOST HOLT LORD GREGORY XVI., BY 
 DIVINE PROVIDENCE POPE, TO ALL PATRIARCHS, PRIMATES, 
 ARCHBISHOPS, AND BISHOPS. 
 
 " Venerable Brothers, 
 
 " Greeting and the Apostolic Benediction : 
 
 " Amongst the principal machinations by which in this our age the 
 Non-Catholics of various names endeavor to ensnare the adherents of 
 Catholic truth, and to turn away their minds from the holiness of the 
 Faith, a prominent position is held by the Bible Societies. These socie- 
 ties, first instituted in England, and since extended far and wide, we now 
 behold in one united phalanx, conspiring for this object, to translate 
 the books of the Divine Scriptures into all the vulgar tongues, to 
 issue immense numbers of copies, to disseminate them indiscriminately
 
 174 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 
 
 among Christians and infidels, and to entice every individual to pe- 
 ruse them without any guide. Consequently, as Jerome lamented in 
 his time (Epist to Paulinus, sec. 7, which is Epist. liii. tome i., works 
 of St. Jerome, Edit of Vallaraius), they make common to the garru- 
 lous old woman, the doting old man, the wordy sophist, and to all men 
 of every condition, provided only they can read, the art of understand- 
 ing the Scriptures without an instructor ; nay, which is absurdest of all, 
 and almost unheard of, they do not even exclude unbelieving nations 
 from such community of intelligence. 
 
 " But, Venerable Brethren, you are not ignorant of the tendency of 
 the proceedings of these societies. For you know full well the ex- 
 hortation of Peter, the chief of the apostles, recorded in the sacred 
 writings themselves, who, after praising the epistles of Paul, says that 
 there are in them some things difficult to be understood, which they 
 who are unlearned and unstable wrest, as they do also the other Scrip- 
 tures, to their own destruction ; and immediately adds, You, therefore* 
 my brethren, knowing this beforehand, be on your guard, lest, deceived 
 by the error of the foolish, you fall from your own steadfastness (2 
 Pet 3 : 16, 17). Hence it is clear to you, that even from the first 
 age of the Christian name, this art has been peculiar to heretics, 
 that repudiating the traditionary word of God, and rejecting the au- 
 thority of the Catholic church, they either interpolate the Scriptures 
 by hand, or pervert them in the explanation of their meaning (Tertul- 
 lian, book on prescriptions against heretics, ch. 37, 38). Nor, lastly* 
 are ye ignorant how great diligence and wisdom are needed, in order 
 to transfer faithfully into another language the words of the Lord ; so 
 that nothing is more likely to happen than that in the versions of them 
 multiplied by the Bible Societies the most grievous errors may be in- 
 troduced, by the ignorance or fraud of so many interpreters ; errors 
 which the very multitude and variety of the translations long conceal to 
 the ruin of many. To those societies, however, it matters little or nothing 
 into what errors the persons who read the Bibles translated into the vul- 
 gar tongues, may fall, provided they be gradually accustomed to claim 
 for themselves a free judgment of the sense of the Scriptures, to con- 
 temn the Divine traditions as taught by the Fathers, and preserved in 
 the Catholic Church, and even to repudiate the Church's direction. 
 
 ' To this end, these members of Bible Societies cease not to calum- 
 niate the Church and this Holy See of Peter, as if it had for many ages 
 been endeavoring to keep the believing people from the knowledge of
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 175 
 
 the sacred Scriptures ; whilst there exist many and most perspicuous 
 proofs of the earnest desire which, even in recent times, popes, and 
 other Catholic dignitaries under their guidance, have felt, that nations 
 of Catholics might be more carefully instructed in the written and tra- 
 ditionary words of God. To which head belong, in the first place, 
 the decrees of the Council of Trent, in which not only is it enjoined on 
 bishops, to provide for the more frequent announcement through each 
 diocese of the sacred Scriptures and the Divine Law (Sess. xxiv., ch. 4, 
 on Ref.), but, enlarging the enactment of the Lateran Council (Lat. 
 Council of the year 1215, under Innocent III., ch. xi., which is referred 
 to the body of law, ch. 4, on Teachers), it is moreover provided, that 
 in each church, whether cathedral or collegiate, of cities and considera- 
 ble towns, there should be a theological prebend, which should be con- 
 ferred solely on persons capable of expounding and interpreting the 
 sacred Scripture (Trent, session v., ch. 1, on Ref.). Respecting the 
 subsequent constitution of the theological prebend on the plan of the 
 above Tridentine enactment, and respecting the lectures to be delivered 
 by the theological canon to the clergy and even to the people, steps 
 were taken in several provincial synods (in the 1st Milan Council, A.D. 
 1565, part L, tit. 5, on the Theol. Preb. ; 5th Milan, A.D. 1579, partiii., 
 tit. 5, as to Collat. on Benef. ; Aquensian; A. D. 1585, on Canon., &c., 
 fec.,) particularly in the Roman Conncil of the year 1725 (Tit. i., 
 ch. 6, &c.), to which Benedict XIIL, our predecessor of happy mem- 
 ory, had convened not only the sacred dignitaries of the Roman prov- 
 ince, but also several of the archbishops, bishops, and other local or- 
 dinaries, under the immediate authority of this holy see (in the letter 
 for calling the council, Dec. 24, 1724). The same pontiff made sev- 
 eral provisions with the same design, in the apostolic letters which he 
 issued specifically for Italy and the adjacent islands (Const. Pastoralis 
 Officii, May 19, 1725). To you, too, Venerable Brethren, who at 
 stated periods have been accustomed to report to the Apostolic See, 
 upon the condition of sacred affairs in your respective dioceses (accord- 
 ing to the Constit. of Sixtus V., Romanus Pontifex Dec. 20, 1585, and 
 Const, of Bened. XIV., quod sancta Sardicensis Synodus, Nov. 23, 
 tome i. Bullar. of this Pontiff, and according to the Instruction in App. 
 to Diet, tome i.), it is manifest from the replies again and again given by 
 our ' Congregation of Council ' to your predecessors, or to yourselves, 
 how this holy see is wont to congratulate bishops, if they have theo- 
 logical prebendaries ably discharging their duty in the delivery of pub-
 
 176 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, &C. 
 
 lie lectures on the sacred writings, and never ceases to excite and as- 
 sist their pastoral anxieties, if anywhere the matter has not succeeded 
 to their wishes. 
 
 "With regard, however, to Bibles translated into the vulgar 
 tongues, it was the case even many centuries since, that in various 
 places the holy dignitaries were obliged at times to exercise increased 
 vigilance, when they discovered that versions of this sort were either 
 read in secret conventicles, or were actively distributed by heretics. To 
 this refer the admonitions and cautions issued by Innocent III., our 
 predecessor of glorious memory, concerning assemblies of laics and 
 women secretly held in the diocese of Metz (in three letters to the 
 Metensians and their bishop and chapter, also to the abbeys Cister- 
 cian, Morimund and de Crista, which are Epist. 141, 142, book ii., and 
 Epist. 235, book iii- in Edit. Balutius), under a pretense of piety, for 
 reading the Scriptures ; and also the peculiar prohibitions of Bibles 
 in the vulgar tongue, which we find to have been issued in France 
 soon after (in Council of Toulouse, A. D. 1229, can. 14), and in Spain 
 previous to the sixteenth century (on the testimony of Cardinal Pa- 
 cecco, at the Council of Trent, in Pallavicino's Hist, of the Council of 
 Trent, book vi., ch. 12). But greater precaution was needed after- 
 wards, when the Lutheran and Calvinist Anti-Catholics, venturing: to 
 
 7 o 
 
 assail with an almost incredible variety of errors the unchangeable doc- 
 trine of the Faith, left no means untried to deceive the minds of the 
 faithful by perverted explanations of the Scriptures, and by new trans- 
 lations of them into vulgar tongues, edited by their adherents. The 
 lately-discovered art of printing assisted them in multiplying and 
 speedily spreading copies. Accordingly we read in the rules drawn 
 up by the Fathers chosen by the Council of Trent, approved by Pius 
 IV., our predecessor of happy memory (in Constit. Dominici Gregt's, 
 March 24, 1564), and prefixed to the Index of Prohibited Books, a 
 provision of general application that Bibles published in the vulgar 
 tongue, should be allowed to no persons but those to whom the read- 
 ing of them was judged likely to be productive of an increase of faith 
 and piety (in Rules III. and IV. of the Index). To this rule, after- 
 wards rendered more stringent, owing to the pertinacious frauds of her- 
 etics, a declaration was at last attached by the authority of Benedict 
 XIV., that the perusal of such versions may be considered permitted, 
 as have been published with the approbation of the apostolic see, or
 
 (THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 17T 
 
 with annotations taken from the holy Fathers of the church or from 
 learned and Catholic men (in addit. to diet. Rule IV. by Decree of the 
 Congregation of the Index, June 17, 1757). 
 
 " Meanwhile there were not wanting new sectaries of the Jansenist 
 school, who, in a style borrowed from the Lutherans and Calvinists, scru- 
 pled not to reprehend these wise provisions of the church and the apos- 
 tolic see, as if the reading of the Scriptures were useful and necessary to 
 every class of the faithful, at every time and in every place, and there- 
 fore could not be forbidden to any one by any authority whatever. 
 This audacity of the Jansenists, however, we find severely reprehended 
 in the solemn judgments which, with the applause of the whole Cath- 
 olic world, were delivered against their doctrines by two popes of happy 
 memory, viz., Clement XL, in the bull Uhigenitus, of the year 1713 (in 
 proscription of the Propositions of Quesnel, No. 79-85) ; and Pius 
 VI., in the bull Auctorem Fidei, of the year 1794 (hi condemnation of 
 the propositions of the pseudo-synod of Pistoja, No. 67). 
 
 " Thus, therefore, before Bible Societies were formed, by means of 
 the above decrees of the Church the faithful had been fortified against 
 the stratagem of the heretics, which lies concealed under the specious 
 plan of spreading the Holy Scriptures for general use. Pius VII., how- 
 ever, our predecessor of glorious memory, in whose time those societies 
 arose, and who found that they were making great progress, failed not 
 to oppose their endeavors, partly through his apostolic nuncios, partly 
 by epistles and decrees issued by different congregations of cardinals 
 of the holy Roman church (especially by the epistle of the Congrega- 
 tion of the Propaganda Fide to the apostolic vicars of Persia, Ar- 
 menia, and other regions of the East, dated Aug. 3, 1S1G ; and by the 
 decree respecting all versions of this sort, put forth by the Congrega- 
 tion of the Index, June 23, 1817), and partly by his two papal briefs 
 which he addressed to the Archbishops of Genesna (Jan. 1, 1816) and 
 Mohilow (Sept. 4, 1816). Afterwards Leo XII., our predecessor of 
 happy memory, assailed those same designs of the Bible Societies in 
 his Encyclical Letter addressed to all the dignitaries of the Catholic 
 world, on the 5th May, 1824 ; and the same thing was also done by 
 our immediate predecessor of equally happy memory, Pius VIII., in his 
 Encyclical Letter issued the 24th May, 1829. We, too, who with far 
 inferior merit have succeeded to his place, have not omitted to exer- 
 cise our apostolical solicitude upon the same object, and among other 
 things have taken steps to recall to the memory of the faithful the 
 12
 
 178 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, &C. 
 
 rule formerly enacted concerning translations of the Scripture into the 
 vulgar tongues (in the admonition annexed to the Decree of the Con- 
 gregation of the Index, Jan. 7, 1836). 
 
 " We have, however, great cause to congratulate you, Venerable 
 Brethren, that, at the impulse of your own piety and wisdom, and 
 confirmed by the above letters of our predecessors, you have never 
 neglected when necessary to admonish the Catholic flock to beware of 
 the snares laid for them by the Bible Societies. From these efforts of 
 the bishops, in conjunction with the solicitude of this Supreme See of 
 Peter, it has resulted, under the Lord's blessing, that certain incau- 
 tious Catholics, who were imprudently encouraging Bible Societies, 
 seeing through the fraud, immediately withdrew from them ; and the 
 remainder of the faithful have continued nearly untouched by the 
 contagion which threatened them from that quarter. 
 
 " Meanwhile the Biblical sectaries were possessed with the con- 
 fident hope of acquiring great credit, by inducing in any manner un- 
 believers to make a profession of the Christian name by means of 
 reading the Holy Scriptures published in their own tongue, innumerable 
 copies of which they caused to be distributed through their countries, 
 and even to be forced on the unwilling, by means of missionaries or 
 agents in their employ. But these men, thus endeavoring to propa- 
 gate the Christian name contrary to the rules instituted by Christ 
 himself, found themselves almost always disappointed, with the excep- 
 tion that they were able sometimes to create new impediments to 
 Catholic priests, who, proceeding to these nations with a commis- 
 sion from this Holy See, spared no exertions to beget new sons to the 
 church, by the preaching of the word of God, and the administration 
 of the sacraments, prepared even to shed their blood amidst the most 
 exquisite torments for the salvation of the heathen, and as a testimony 
 to the faith. 
 
 u Amidst these sectaries, thus frustrated in their hopes, and review- 
 ing with sorrowful hearts the immense amount of money already spent 
 in publishing and fruitlessly distributing their Bibles, some have lately 
 appeared, who, proceeding upon a somewhat new plan, have directed 
 their machinations towards making their principal assault on the minds 
 of the Italians, and of the citizens of our very city. In fact, from 
 intelligence and documents lately received, we have ascertained that 
 several persons of different sects met last year at New York in Amer- 
 ica, and on the 12th of June formed a new society, entitled 'The
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 179 
 
 Christian Alliance,' to be increased by new members from every na- 
 tion, or by auxiliary societies whose common design shall be to intro- 
 duce religious liberty, or rather an insane desire of indifference in 
 religion, among the Romans and other Italians. For they acknowl- 
 edge that for several centuries, the institutions of the Roman and 
 Italian race have had such great and general influence, that there has 
 been no great movement in the world, which has not begun from this 
 holy city ; a fact which they trace, not to the establishment here, by 
 the Divine disposal, of the Supreme See of Peter, but to certain rem- 
 nants of the ancient dominion of the Romans, lingering in that power 
 which, as they say, our predecessors have usurped. Accordingly, being 
 resolved to confer on all the nations liberty of conscience, or rather of 
 error, from whence as from its proper source political liberty will also 
 flow, with an increase of public prosperity, in their sense of the word, 
 they feel they can do nothing unless they make some progress among 
 the Italians and citizens of Rome ; intending afterwards to make great 
 use among other nations of their authority and assistance. This object 
 they feel sure of attaining, from the circumstance that so many Ital- 
 ians reside in various places throughout the world, and afterwards 
 return in considerable numbers to their own country ; many of whom, 
 being influenced already of their own accord with the love of change, 
 or being of dissolute habits, or being afflicted with poverty, may with- 
 out much trouble be tempted to give their name to the society, or at 
 least to sell their services to it. Their whole aim, then, is directed to 
 procuring the assistance of such persons in every direction, transmitting 
 hither by their means mutilated Italian Bibles, and secretly depositing 
 them in the hands of the faithful ; distributing also at the same time 
 other mischievous books and tracts, intended to alienate the mind of the 
 readers from their allegiance to the church and this holy see, composed by 
 the help of these same Italians, or translated by them from other authors 
 into the language of the country. Among these they principally name 
 the History of the Reformation by Merle d' Aubigne", and the Memoirs 
 of the Reformation in Italy by John Cric. 1 The probable character 
 of this whole class of books may be inferred from this circumstance, 
 
 1 The Pope or his amanuensis or his printer has evidently made a mistake here 
 in the name. The work referred to is undoubtedly the " History of the Progress 
 and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy in the Sixteenth Century ; including 
 a sketch of the History of the Reformation in the Orisons. By Thomas McCrie, 
 D. D."
 
 180 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 
 
 that it is a law of the Society, with regard to select committees for the 
 choice of books, that there shall never be two individuals of the same 
 religious sect upon any one of them. 
 
 "As soon as this news reached us, we could not but be deeply 
 pained at the consideration of the danger with which we learned that 
 the sectaries menaced the security of our holy religion, not merely in 
 places remote from this city, but even at the very center of Catholic 
 unity. For though there is not the slightest cause for fear that the 
 see of Peter should ever fail, upon which the Lord Jesus Christ has 
 built the impregnable foundation of his church, we must not for that 
 reason cease from maintaining its authority; nay, our very office of the 
 supreme apostolate reminds us of the severe account which our Divine 
 Chief Shepherd will require of us for any tares sown by the enemy 
 while we slept, which may grow up in the Master's field ; and for 
 the blood ot any sheep entrusted to us which by our fault may have 
 perished. 
 
 " Having, therefore, taken into our council several cardinals of the 
 holy Roman church, and having gravely and maturely weighed the 
 whole matter, with their concurrence we have decided to issue this 
 epistle to you, Venerable Brethren, in which, as respects all the afore- 
 said Bible Societies, already reprobated by our predecessors, we again 
 with apostolical authority condemn them; and by the same authority 
 of our Supreme Apostolate, we reprobate by name and condemn the 
 aforesaid new society ot the * Christian Alliance,' constituted last year 
 in New York, and other associations of the same sort, if any have 
 joined it, or shall hereafter join it Hence be it known, that all such 
 persons will be guilty of a grave crime before God and the church, 
 who shall presume to give their name, or lend their help, or in any 
 way to favor any of the said societies. Moreover, we confirm and by 
 apostolical authority renew the aforesaid directions already issued 
 concerning the publication, distribution, reading, and retention of 
 books of the Holy Scripture translated into the vulgar tongues; while 
 with respect to other works, of whatever author, we wish to remind 
 all persons that the general rules and the decrees of our predecessors, 
 prefixed to the Index of Prohibited Books, are to be adhered to ; and 
 consequently, not only are those books to be avoided which are by 
 name included in the same Index, but those also to which the aforesaid 
 general directions refer.
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 181 
 
 " Called as you arc, Venerable Brethren, to participate in our solici- 
 tude, we urgently bid you in the Lord to announce and explain, as 
 place and time permit, to the people entrusted to your pastoral care 
 this our apostolic judgment and commands ; and to endeavor to turn 
 away the faithful sheep from the above society of the ' Christian Alli- 
 ance ' and its auxiliaries, as also from all other Bible societies, and 
 from all communication with them. At the same time it will also be 
 your duty to seize out of the hands of the faithful, not only Bibles 
 translated into the vulgar tongue, published contrary to the above di- 
 rections of the Roman pontiffs, but also proscribed or injurious books 
 of every sort, and thus to provide that the faithful may be taught by 
 your monitions and authority, ' what sort of pasture they should con- 
 sider salutary to them, and what noxious and deadly' (mandate of Leo 
 XII. set forth with the Decree of the Congregation of the Index, March 
 28, 1825). Meanwhile, Venerable Brethren, apply yourselves daily 
 more and more to the preaching of the word of God, as weU personally 
 as by means of those who have cure of souls in each diocese, and other 
 ecclesiastical men suited to that function; and especially pay more 
 vigilant attention to those whose office it is to hold public lectures on 
 the Sacred Scripture, that they may diligently discharge their duty to 
 the comprehension of their hearers ; and may never under any pretext 
 venture to interpret or explain the Divine writings contrary to the tra- 
 dition of the Fathers, or differently from the sense of the Catholic 
 church. Lastly, as it pertains to a good shepherd not only to protect 
 and nourish the sheep which adhere to him, but also to seek and bring 
 back to the fold tlio.-e which have strayed away, it will therefore be 
 both your duty and ours, to apply all the energy of our pastoral en- 
 deavors, that if any persons have suffered themselves to be seduced by 
 such sectaries and propagators of noxious books, they may by God's 
 grace be led to acknowledge the gravity of their sin, and strive to expi- 
 ate it by the remedies of a salutary penitence. Neither must we ex- 
 clude from the same sacerdotal solicitude the seducers of others, and 
 even the chief teachers of impiety ; and though the iniquity of these 
 last be greater, yet must we not abstain from the more earnestly seek- 
 ing their salvation by all practicable ways and means. 
 
 " Moreover, Venerable Brethren, against the plots and designs of 
 the members of the ' Christian Alliance,' we require a peculiar and 
 most lively vigilance from those of your order who govern churches
 
 182 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 
 
 situated in Italy, or in other places where Italians frequently resort ; 
 but especially on the confines of Italy, or wherever emporiums or ports 
 exist from whence there is frequent communication with Italy. For 
 as the sectaries themselves propose to carry their plans into effect in 
 those places, those bishops are especially bound to cooperate with us, 
 so as by active and constant exertions, with the Divine help, to defeat 
 their machinations. 
 
 " Such endeavors on your and our own part we doubt not will be 
 aided by the help of the civil powers, and especially by that of the 
 most potent princes of Italy ; as well on account of their distinguished 
 zeal for preserving the Catholic religion, as because it cannot have 
 escaped their wisdom, that it is highly to the interest of the common 
 weal, that the aforesaid designs of the sectaries should fail. For it is 
 evident, and proved by the continued experience of past years, that 
 there is no readier way to draw nations from their fidelity and obe- 
 dience to their princes, than that indifference in the matter of religion, 
 which the sectaries propagate under the name of religious liberty. 
 Nor is this concealed by the new society of the ' Christian Alliance'; 
 who, though they profess themselves averse to exciting civil con- 
 tentions, yet confess that from the right of interpreting the Scrip- 
 tures, claimed by them for every person of the lowest class, and from 
 the universal liberty of conscience, as they term it, which they would 
 thus spread among the Italian race, the political liberty of Italy will 
 also spontaneously follow. 
 
 " First, however, and chiefest, let us together raise our hands to God, 
 Venerable Brethren, and commend to him with all the humility of fer- 
 vent prayer of which we are capable, our own cause and that of the 
 whole flock and of his own church ; invoking also the most pious dep- 
 recation of Peter the chief of the apostles, and of the other saints, and 
 especially of the most Blessed Virgin Mary, to whom it is granted to 
 exterminate all heresies throughout the entire world. 
 
 " Lastly, as a pledge of our most ardent love, to all of you, Venera- 
 ble Brethren, to the clergy entrusted to you, and to the faithful laity, 
 with unrestrained and hearty affection we lovingly grant the apostolic 
 benediction. 
 
 " Given at Rome, at St. Peter's, the 8th May, 1844, in the fourteenth 
 year of our pontificate. 
 
 GREGORY PP. XVI."
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 183 
 
 It is very evident from the foregoing encyclical letter, that 
 Gregory XVI. and his confidential counselors were greatly 
 troubled in view of the possibility that the Italians should have 
 the religious freedom, or liberty of conscience,- which is the in- 
 heritance of all Americans. While the Pope and his advisers 
 heartily abhorred all Bible Societies, they held the " Christian 
 Alliance " in special detestation and dread. Now the simple 
 object of Bible Societies is thus stated in the constitution of 
 the American Bible Society : " The sole object shall be to en- 
 courage a wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures, without 
 note or comment." The relation of Roman Catholicism to 
 the Bible itself is considered in Chapter XIII. As it was the 
 Address which the " Christian Alliance " made to the world, 
 together with the Proceedings at some of its public meetings, 
 which called forth the above Encyclical Letter, the essential 
 parts of that address are here inserted : 
 
 " The Christian Alliance, for the promotion of religious free- 
 dom, has originated in the attention which gentlemen of various Chris- 
 tian denominations, in the city of New York and elsewhere, have re- 
 cently given to the present condition of Italy, and the relations between 
 that country and the cause of religious freedom throughout the world. 
 A door is open for the access of truth to the minds of the Italian peo- 
 ple. Notwithstanding the most rigid censorship over the press and the 
 importation of books ; notwithstanding every regulation which the genius 
 of despotism can devise to shut out knowledge and to suppress inquiry ; 
 notwithstanding the terrors of Austrian artillery, and the inconvenien- 
 ces of a police swarming in every quarter ; it is ascertained that to 
 some extent papers, tracts, books, the Bible itself, can be introduced 
 into Italy, and can be placed in the hands of those who will hardly fail 
 to read and to profit by the reading. At the same time an ample field 
 of effort is presented among the Italians out of Italy, between whom 
 and their countrymen at home there is, and notwithstanding every pos- 
 sible regulation there must continue to be, a constant intercourse 
 
 " Our great object is the promotion of religious freedom. . . . We 
 propose to labor for that object, particularly and chiefly, by the diffu- 
 sion of useful and religious knowledge among the Italians 
 
 " Inquiries are to be prosecuted ; facts are to be collected, collated,
 
 184 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AC. 
 
 and given (o the world ; agencies and correspondences are to be estab- 
 lished ; tracts and books are to be prepared and issued in Italian, and 
 perhaps in other languages, setting forth in a clear light, for popular 
 apprehension, the great argument for religious freedom. .... 
 
 ** With questions properly political our association has nothing to 
 do. "We do not undertake to persuade the people of Italy that their 
 governments need reformation ; that a republic is happier than a mon- 
 archy ; or that an elective magistracy is better than a hereditary aristoc- 
 racy. Whatever may be our judgment as individuals, whatever our 
 sympathies as American citizen*, we are not political propagandists. 
 We only assert the sacred right, the religious duty of every man to 
 read the Scriptures for himself, and to worship God, not in blind sub- 
 mission to priests or potentates, but in the exercise of his own faculties, 
 and according to his own convictions. 
 
 " To us, it is an interesting feature of this enterprise that it has 
 brought together, in free and friendly consultation, and in hearty coop- 
 eration, Christians of various ecclesiastical connections. We hope that 
 our CHRISTIAN ALLIANCE will be another rallying point for that large 
 and Catholic feeling which dwells ever in hearts that love the Savior. 
 And while we invite our fellow-disciples in all parts of the country, to 
 unite with us, either singly or in auxiliary organizations, and thus to 
 aid us with their contributions and their personal influence ; we would 
 yet more earnestly solicit their continual prayers for us, and for ' them 
 that are at Rome also,' making request, if by any means our enterprise 
 may be prospered by the will of God, * that we may impart to them 
 some spiritual gift ;' and that thus the gospel in which we rejoice, and 
 which, as disciples of Christ and members of his universal church, we 
 hold forth to the world, ' may have fruit among them also, even as 
 amon other Gentiles." 
 
 GEORGE B. CHEEVEB, 
 
 The names appended to this address as the Corresponding 
 Secretaries of the " Christian Alliance," are those of three 
 evangelical ministers, the first and third of whom are still liv- 
 ing, earnest and eloquent advocates of the claims of truth and 
 righteousness as well as of religious freedom. The " Christian 
 Alliance," whose mouth-piece they were at this time, was
 
 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, &C. 185 
 
 merged, in May, 1849, with two other societies, viz., the 
 " American Protestant Society," and the " Foreign Evangeli- 
 cal Society," in what has ever since been known as the "Amer- 
 ican and Foreign Christian Union," the objects of which are 
 denned in its constitution to be, " by Missions, Colportage, the 
 Press, and other appropriate agencies, to diffuse and pro- 
 mote the principles of Religious Liberty and a pure and 
 Evangelical Christianity, both at home and abroad wherever a 
 corrupted Christianity exists." 
 
 A " rescript " is the official answer, which the pope gives to 
 any question in respect to discipline, <fec. " The rescripts or 
 decretal epistles of the popes to questions propounded upon 
 emergent doubts relative to matters of discipline and ecclesias- 
 tical economy," constituted, as Hallam represents, one of the 
 foundations of " the canon law," already described in Chap- 
 ter III. The following translation of a rescript issued by 
 the present pope respecting a translation of the Raccolta or Col- 
 lection of Indulgenced Prayers, -may serve as a specimen of their 
 manner. Both the original rescript in Latin, and the English 
 translation of the rescript are inserted in the book as translated 
 and published by authority. 
 
 "MosT BLESSED FATHER: 
 
 " In order to promote thereby the piety of the faithful in Eng- 
 land, Ambrose St. John, Priest of the Oratory of St. Philip Neri, in 
 the Diocese of Birmingham, humbly prays for permission to print in 
 English, translations of the book entitled Raccolta di Orazioni, fyc., alle 
 quali sono annesse le SS. Indulgenze, having first obtained the appro- 
 bation of his Eminence, the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster ; and 
 also that the faithful who make use of this translation may gain all the 
 Indulgences annexed to the original. 
 
 " After an audience of the Holy Father, granted February 3, 1856, 
 our most Holy Lord Pius IX., by Divine Providence Pope, on an ap- 
 plication made by me, the undersigned Secretary of the Sacred Con- 
 gregation for the Propagation of the Faith, has of his goodness an- 
 swered by Rescript in favor of the grace, according to the terms of the 
 petition, provided the translation be made from the last Roman edi-
 
 186 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, <tC. 
 
 tion, and it being understood that the Decree printed at the end of this 
 edition remains in full force. 
 
 " Given at Rome from the House of the same Sacred Congrega- 
 tion, on the day and year aforesaid. 
 
 " Gratis, without any payment on any plea whatever. 
 
 AL. BARNABO, Secretary. 
 
 u In the place oft the seal." 
 
 One other term may need, among Americans, a word of de- 
 finition and explanation. A papal " constitution " is an au- 
 thoritative and formal mandate of the pope. It " constitutes" or 
 establishes the law of the case, and may be expressed in 
 the form of a bull, letter, &c. Thus Pope Gregory XVI. 
 cites as " constitutions " both the bull " Unigenitus " and 
 the apostolical letters issued by Benedict XIII. for Italy and 
 the adjacent islands. This meaning of " constitution " is de- 
 rived from the old Roman application of the term to the de- 
 crees and decisions of the Roman emperors. Neither the an- 
 cient nor the modern Romans applied this term, as we now do, 
 to the fundamental law of the state which defines the great 
 rights, privileges, and duties of the citizens and of their govern- 
 ment and officers. They have had no formal public document of 
 this sort ; and it is therefore certain that in all the long and 
 terrible record of the injustice, rapacity, and cruelty of the im- 
 perial and pontifical rulers of Rome, there has been no opportu- 
 nity for the Romans to complain, like many Americans, that 
 their " constitutional rights" have been violated.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE CABDINALS AND ROMAN COU3T. 
 
 The cardinals hold the highest dignity in the Romaa church 
 and court after the pope. The word " cardinal " comes di- 
 rectly from the Latin adjective cardindlia, and this again from 
 the Latin noun cardo (= a hinge ; hence, figuratively, that upon 
 which anything turns ; the chief point, principal circumstance, 
 or main one among things). We use the adjective " cardinal " 
 in the derivative or figurative sense of the later Latin, when we 
 speak ot the " cardinal " points of the compass, of the " cardi- 
 nal " numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, <fcc.), of the " cardinal" virtues, &c. 
 After the elevation of the bishops, especially of the metropol- 
 itan bishops, to a station of preeminent dignity and power, the 
 metropolitan churches in Italy, Gaul, &c., were styled " cardi- 
 nal " churches, and their ministers were also called " cardi- 
 nals." About the 6th and 7th centuries the presbyters and 
 deacons of Rome, who, with the concurrence of the magistrates 
 and citizens of Rome, elected the bishop, were especially 
 known as " cardinal " priests and deacons. The title " car- 
 dinal " was afterwards also applied to the seven suffragan 
 bishops in the neighborhood of Rome, at Ostia, Porto, Santa 
 Rufina, Sabina, Palestrina, Albano, and Frascati. In the llth 
 century the " cardinals of Rome " were these seven suffragan 
 bishops, and the ministers of the 28 parishes or principal 
 churches of the city. In April, 1059, a Roman synod under 
 pope Nicholas II. passed a decree concerning the election of 
 the Roman pontiff, which committed this to the " cardinal 
 bishops " and " cardinal clerks" (that is, to the bishops and 
 priests just named), with the assent of the emperor and of the 
 clergy and people of Rome. But in consequence of complaints
 
 188 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 
 
 and commotions consequent on this change in the mode of elec- 
 tion, Alexander III., about a century later, enlarged the col- 
 lege of cardinals, by admitting into it other priests of high 
 rank in Rome and elsewhere, the seven " palatine judges " as 
 they were called, and probably also the cardinal deacons as 
 leaders of the inferior clergy. Since the time of Alexander 
 III., cardinals have chosen the pope without asking the assent 
 or approbation of the clergy or people of Rome. In 1179, Alex- 
 ander III. issued a decree requiring the vote of two-thirds of the 
 cardinals to make an election valid. The number of cardinals 
 having varied at different times from 7 to 65 or 70, Sixtus V., in 
 1587, fixed the full number of cardinals at 70, namely, six bishops 
 above-named (the sees of Porto and Santa Rufma are now 
 united), 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons ; but this 
 number is seldom full. Most of the cardinal priests bear the 
 title of some church in Rome, and the deacons of some hospital 
 or chapel there. The cardinal priests may be bishops or arch- 
 bishops of some diocese ; but as cardinals they are only priests, 
 and must call themselves such. The cardinal deacons may be 
 priests ; but they are looked upon as deacons, and are not to 
 officiate publicly as priests. The cardinals are, therefore (in 
 appearance), the representatives of the clergy of Rome. Thus 
 cardinal Wiseman, who was archbishop of Westminster, and 
 the seventh English cardinal, was only a cardinal priest, known 
 at Rome as Cardinal St. Pudentiana and deriving his title 
 from the Roman church of St. Pudentiana. Yet, although 
 cardinals are almost exclusively clergymen, laymen may be and 
 have been cardinals. Thus cardinal Albani, who managed the 
 elections of popes Pius VIII., Leo XII., and Gregory XVI., 
 was a layman unordained. When, about 20 years ago, Pius 
 IX. filled up the sacred college by creating eight new cardi- 
 nals, 54 of the whole number were Italians, six Frenchmen, 
 three Austrians, two Spaniards, two Portuguese, one Belgian, 
 one Englishman, one Prussian. This great preponderance of 
 Italians still continues, as they constitute about three-fourths 
 of the present number. For a long time bishops continued to
 
 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 
 
 189 
 
 take precedence of cardinals in councils ; but at the Synod of 
 Lyons in 1245 the precedence of all cardinals over all bishops 
 was finally established. In 1630 Urban VIII. gave to the car- 
 dinals the title of "Eminence." 
 
 Most of the cardinals who reside in Rome have ecclesias- 
 tical benefices or are employed in the administration either 
 spiritual or temporal ; some, members of wealthy families, 
 provide for their own support; and those who have not the 
 same means receive from the government an annual allowance 
 of $4,500 (subject to a deduction of 10 per cent.), besides 
 perquisites of office. A cardinal must have a carriage and 
 livery-servants. His general dress 
 is a clerical suit of black, but his 
 stockings are red, and his hat is 
 bordered with red. On public oc- 
 casions his dress consists of a red 
 tunic and mantle, a rochet or sur- 
 plice of fine lace, and a red cap, 
 or a red three-cornered hat when 
 going out. If a cardinal is a mem- 
 ber of a religious order, he contin- 
 ues to wear his monastic color, and 
 never uses silk. Thus pope Greg- 
 ory XVI., who was a Camaldolese 
 monk, was always, when a cardinal, 
 dressed in white. The cardinals 
 are appointed by the pope accord- 
 ing to his own pleasure. When he 
 presents a foreign prelate to the 
 cardinalate, he sends him a mes- 
 senger bearing the cap ; the hat A CARDINAL IN FULL DRESS, WITH 
 must be received from the pope's 
 
 own hand, unless the recipient is a member of a royal house, 
 in which case it may be sent. A cardinal sent as ambassador 
 to a foreign court is styled the pope's " legate a later e " (=from 
 his side). The pope's chief secretary of state, his minister of
 
 190 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 
 
 finance, the vicar of Rome, and other leading official persons, 
 are chosen from the cardinals. The personal appearance of the 
 cardinals assembled in the Sistine chapel, is thus described 
 by Dr. Wylie : 
 
 " The cardinals are quite a study. I do not know that I have ever 
 seen a finer collection of heads. They were massive and finely formed, 
 and the face in each instance bore the corresponding expression. One 
 felt as if the creations of the great masters had walked out of the can- 
 vas, and stepped down upon the floor of the Sistine. There they sat 
 on either side of the chapel, in a long red row, their servants in purple 
 at their feet, and their heads bent over their breviaries, unless when they 
 lifted them, as they often did, to cast a glance of conscious pleasure upon 
 the spectators, or to exchange smiles and bows with another. The 
 reflection that must strike the spectator in presence of the assembled 
 cardinals is, what vast capacity in this body ! But it is not capacity 
 of the highest order, of commanding genius, or grand conception. It 
 is the capacity of adroit management, of skillful fetch, of ready re- 
 source, which, however, when gathered into a focus, and set working, 
 may be a very formidable power indeed. Craft, if one might judge 
 from the twinkle in the eye, and the stealthy nimbleness of the frame, 
 is the predominating talent of the cardinalate, but a craft of exquisite 
 edge and inimitable polish, like ' a sharp razor working deceitfully.' " 
 
 The following list of cardinals is taken from " Sadliers' 
 Catholic Directory, Almanac, and Ordo, for the year of our 
 Lord 1870." The whole number given here is 58; but only 50 
 names are found in the same Directory for 1871, 11 of these 
 names having disappeared, and 3 others being added. The 
 missing names are de Bonald, Lucciardi, de Reisach, Caulik, 
 de la Puente, Fontana, Lambruschini, Mattanin, Gonelia, nine 
 priests ; and Roberti and Pautini, two deacons. The additions 
 are three priests : " Sisto Riario Sforza ; born in Naples, Dec. 
 5, 1810 ; Archbishop of Naples ; appointed and named cardi- 
 nal by His Holiness Gregory XVI., Jan. 19, 1846." " Angelo 
 Quaglia ; born in Cometo, Aug. 28, 1802 ; appointed and 
 named cardinal by His Holiness Pius IX., Sept. 27, 1861." 
 " Henry Mary Gaston dc Bonuechose ; born in Paris, May 30,
 
 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 191 
 
 1800; Archbishop of Rouen; appointed and named cardinal 
 by His Holiness Pius IX., Dec. 21, 1863." Instead of" Dom- 
 inick Consolini," among the priests there now appears among the 
 deacons "Dominick Consolini ; born at Sinigaglia, June 7, 1806 ; 
 apointed June 22, 1866." And finally, three cardinal priests 
 are now cardinal bishops ; Paracciani having the titles ' ; Bishop 
 of Frascati, Secretary of Apostolic Briefs, Grand Chancellor of 
 Pontifical Noble Orders ;" di Pietro being " Bishop of Albano," 
 and Ferretti being " Bishop of Sabina." Cardinal de Reisach, 
 who was appointed by the pope the first of the five cardinals (de 
 Jleisach, de Luca, Bizzarri, Bilio, Capalti) to preside in the 
 Vatican Council of 1869-70, died in Switzerland soon after the 
 council assembled ; and Cardinal de Angelis was appointed 
 as a presiding cardinal in his stead. This list should have 
 been headed with the name of Cardinal Mattei (who died in 
 October, 1870) : " Marius Mattei ; born at Pergola, Sept. 6, 
 1792 ; Bishop of Ostia and Legate of Velletri, Dec. 1860 ; Pre- 
 fect of the Congregation for the preservation of St. Peter's ; 
 Dean of the Sacred College, &c. ; appointed in 1832.'' 
 
 "I. CARDINALS OF THE ORDER OF BISHOPS. 
 
 " 1. Constantino Patrizi ; born at Sienna, Sept. 4, 1798 ; Vicar-Gen- 
 eral of His Holiness; Bishop of Porto and Santa Rufina, Dec. 17, 
 1860 ; second Dean of the Sacred College ; Prefect of the Congrega- 
 tion of the Residence of Bishops ; Prefect of the Congregation of 
 Rites ; appointed June 11, 1836. 
 
 "2. Louis Amat di S. Filippo e Sorso ; born at Cagliari, June 21, 
 1796 ; Bishop of Palestrina, March 15, 1852 ; Vice-Chancellor of the 
 Holy Roman Church; appointed May 19, 1837. 
 
 "H. CARDINALS OF THE ORDER OF PRIESTS. 
 
 " Philip de Angelis ; born at Ascoli, April 1 6, 1792 ; Archbishop 
 of Fermo, Jan. 27, 1842; appointed July 8, 1839. 
 
 " 2. Louis Vanicelli Casoni ; born at Amelia, April 1 6, 1801 ; Arch- 
 bishop of Ferrara, May 20, 1850 ; appointed Jan. 24, 1842. 
 
 u 3. Louis James Maurice de Bonald ; born at Milhau, Nov. 30, 
 1787; Archbishop of Lyons, April 27, 1840; appointed March 1, 
 1841.
 
 192 THE CAEDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 
 
 "4. Frederic John Joseph Celestine, Prince of Schwartzenberg ; 
 born at Vienna, April 6, 1809 ; Archbishop of Prague, May 20, 1850 ; 
 appointed Jan. 24, 1842. 
 
 "5. Cosmos de Corsi; born at Florence, Jan. 10, 1798; Archbishop 
 of Pisa, Dec. 19, 1853 ; appointed Jan. 24, 1842. 
 
 u 6. Fabius Mary Asquini; born at Fagagna, Aug. 14, 1802; 
 appointed April 21, 1845. 
 
 " 7. Nicholas Clarelli Paracciani ; born at Rieti, April 12, 1799 ; 
 appointed Jan. 22, 1844. 
 
 "8. Dominic Carafa de Traetto; born at Naples, July 12, 1805; 
 Archbishop of Benevento, July 22, 1844; appointed July 22, 1844. 
 
 " 9. James Mary Adrian Cesarius Mathieu ; born at Paris, Jan. 20, 
 1796; Archbishop of Besa^on, Sept. 30, 1834; appointed Septem- 
 ber 30, 1850. 
 
 " 10. Dominic Lucciardi ; born at Sarzana, Dec. 8, 1796 ; Bishop 
 of Sinignglia, Sept. 5, 1851 ; appointed March 15, 1852. 
 
 "11. Francis Augustus Ferdinand Donnet ; born at Bourg-Argen- 
 tal, Nov. 16, 1795; Archbishop of Bordeaux, May 19, 1837; ap- 
 pointed March 15, 1852. 
 
 "12. Charles Louis Morichini; born at Rome, Nov. 21, 1805; 
 Bishop of Jesi; appointed March 15, 1852. 
 
 " 13. Camillus de Pietro; born at Rome, Jan. 19, 1806 ; appointed 
 June 16, 1856. 
 
 "14. Joachim Pecci ; born at Carpiento, March 2, 1810; Bishop 
 of Perugia, Jan. 19, 1846; appointed Dec. 19, 1853. 
 
 " 15. Joseph Othmar, Chevalier de Rauscher; born at Vienna, Oct. 
 6, 1797; Archbishop of Vienna, June 27, 1853; appointed Decem- 
 ber 17, 1855. 
 
 " 1 6. Charles Augustus, Count de Reisach ; born at Roth, July 6, 
 1800; appointed Dec. 17, 1855 [deceased]. 
 
 17. George T. Caulik; born at Turnan, April 28, 1787; Arch- 
 bishop of Agram ; appointed June 16, 1856. 
 
 "18. Alexander Barnabo ; born at Foligno, March 2, 1801; Pre- 
 fect of the Congregation of the Propaganda; appointed June 16, 1856. 
 
 " 19. Cyril de Alameda y Brea, O. S. F. ; born at Torraien de Va- 
 lasso, July 14, 1781; Archbishop of Toledo ; appointed March 15, 
 1858. 
 
 " 20. Anthony Mary Benedict Antonucci ; born at Subiaco, Sept.
 
 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 193 
 
 17, 1798; Archbishop and Bishop of Aiicona and Umana; appointed 
 March 15, 1858. 
 
 21. Henry Orfei; born at Orvieto, Oct. 23, 1800; Archbishop of 
 Ravenna; appointed March 15, 1858. 
 
 "22. Joseph Milesi Pironi Ferretti; born at Ancona, March 9, 
 1817; appointed March 15, 1858. 
 
 "23. Peter de Silvestri; born at Rovigo, Feb. 13, 1803; ap- 
 pointed March 15, 1858. 
 
 "24. Alexander Billiet; born at Chapel le, Feb. 28, 1783; Arch- 
 bishop of Chambery ; appointed Sept. 27, 1861. 
 
 "25. Charles Sacconi; born at Montalto, May 8, 1808; appointed 
 Sept. 27, 1861. 
 
 "26. Michael Garcia Cuesta; born at Macotera, Oct. 6, 1803; 
 Archbishop of Compostello; appointed Sept. 27, 1861. 
 
 " 27. Ferdinand de la Puente; born at Cadiz, Aug. 28, 1802; ap- 
 pointed Sept. 27, 1861. 
 
 " 28. Anthony Mary Panebianco, O. S. F. ; born at Terranova, 
 Aug. 14, 1808; appointed Sept. 27, 1861. 
 
 " 29. Joseph Louis Trevisanto ; born at Venice, Feb. 15, 1801 ; Pa- 
 triarch of Venice ; appointed March 16, 1863. 
 
 " 30. Anthony de Luca ; born at Bronte, Oct. 28, 1 805 ; appointed 
 March 16, 1863. 
 
 "31. Joseph Andrew Bizzarri; born at Paliano, May 11, 1802; 
 appointed March 16, 1863. 
 
 " 32. Louis de la Sastra y Cuestra ; born at Cubas, Dec. 1, 1803 ; 
 Archbishop of Seville; appointed March 16, 1863. 
 
 " 33. John Baptist Pitra, O. B. ; born at Champorgueil, Aug. 31,. 
 1812 ; appointed March 16, 1863. 
 
 " 34. Philip Mary Guidi, O. S. D. ; born at Bologna, July 18, 1815 ; 
 appointed March 16, 1863. 
 
 " 35. Paul Cullen ; born in Ireland ; Archbishop of Dublin ; ap- 
 pointed June 21, 1866. 
 
 "36. Gustavus Adolphus de Hohenlohe ; born in Germany, Feb. 
 23, 1823 ; appointed June 21 r 1866. 
 
 "37. Luigi Biglio; born in Italy, March 25, 1825 ; appointed June 
 21, 1866. 
 
 "38. Cardinal Fontana; born m Italy; appointed' June 21, 1866. 
 
 " 39. Cardinal Lambruschini ; born in Italy ; appointed June 24, 
 1866. 
 
 ia
 
 194 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 
 
 " 40. Dominic Consolini ; born at Sinigaglia, June 7, 1792 ; ap- 
 pointed June 21, 1866. 
 
 "41. ( ardinal Mattanin ; born in Italy; appointed June 21, 1866. 
 
 "42. Luoien Bonaparte; born at Rome, Nov. 15, 1828; appointed 
 March 13, 1868. 
 
 "43. Innocent Ferrieri ; born at Fano, Italy, Sept. 14, 1810; ap- 
 pointed March 13, 1868. 
 
 "41. Eustatio Gonelia; born at Turin, Italy, Sept. 20, 1811; ap- 
 pointed March 13, 1868. 
 
 "45. Laurentio Barili; born at Ancona, Italy, Dec. 1, 1801; ap- 
 pointed March 13, 1868. 
 
 "40. Joseph Berardi; born at Ceccano, Sept. 28, 1810; appointed 
 March 13, Is 68. 
 
 " 47. Giovanni Ignatio Moreno ; born at Gautemala, Nov. 24, 1817 ; 
 appointed March 13, 1868. 
 
 " 48. Raphael Monaco la Vallette ; born at Aquila, Feb. 23, 1827 ; 
 appointed March 13, 1868. 
 
 "III. CARDINALS OP THE ORDER OP DEACONS. 
 
 "1. James Antonelli; born at Sonnino, April 2, 1806; appointed 
 June 11, 1847. 
 
 " 2. Robert Roberti ; born at St. Giusto, Dec. 23, 1788 ; appointed' 
 Sept 30, 1 850. 
 
 "3. Prosper Caterini; born at Onano, Oct. 15, 1795; appointed 
 March 7, 1853. 
 
 "4. Gaspard Grasselini; born at Palermo, Jan. 19, 1796; appoint- 
 ed June 15, 1856. 
 
 "5. Theodolf Mertel; born at Allumiera, Feb. 9, 1806 ; appointed 
 March 15, 1858. 
 
 "6. Francis Pantini; born at Rome, Dec. 11, 1797; appointed 
 March 16, 1863. 
 
 " 7. Edward Borromeo ; born at Milan, Aug. 3, 1822 ; appointed 
 March 13, 1868. 
 
 "8. Annibal Capalti; born at Rome, Jan. 11, 1811; appointed 
 March 13, 1868." 
 
 The Secretary of State is the pope's secretary for both tem- 
 poral and spiritual affairs. Let us hear Dr. Wylie in respect 
 to this officer:
 
 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 195 
 
 " Every functionary in the State is subject to his absolute will and 
 pleasure. This lucrative post has generally been held by relatives 
 of the pope, whose descendants enjoy at this day the harvests of their 
 ancestors. It is creditable to the present pope that none of his rela- 
 tives are hoarding riches at the expense of the state. Cardinal Au- 
 tonelli has long held this high office. Antonelli is sprung from a 
 humble family of the Abruzzi ; his grandfather was a brigand, con- 
 verted, some will have it, by the missionaries who visit that part of 
 the country ; but others say that he turned king's evidence, and be- 
 trayed his band. His uncle is still better knovrn to fame ; his exploits 
 as a brigand being celebrated in his country's songs. . . . Antonelli 
 himself is said to be worth some million or two of scudi (= dollars), 
 which he is also said to have judiciously invested in England." 
 
 Dr. Wylie, in describing the cardinals who were present in 
 the Sistine chapel on All Saints' Day, 1864, says : 
 
 " There was one among them whom the eye singled out at once as 
 markedly different from the rest. The others were obese ; he was 
 slim and lithe. Their faces were smirking and elate ; his was 
 thoughtful and resolute. He looked a man still in middle life ; his 
 hair was dark ; he was not tall, although his slight figure and erect 
 posture made him seem above the average hight. He stood at the 
 head of the row, fronting the papal chair, his robe folded about him 
 in the fashion of an old Roman. His dark, deep-set eye glanced 
 out from beneath a defiant brow, gazing into empty space. He was 
 the pope's prime minister, Antonelli. He took part in the services 
 with the rest, but not as they. With heads erect and beaming faces 
 did the other cardinals step down into the floor, their servants bearing 
 their long scarlet trains, and gracefully did they sweep round the 
 pope, or mar-hal themselves proudly in a row before him, or bow down 
 to kiss hi* slipper. This dark mysterious man descended to the floor 
 with the rest, but having gone through his part, he returned to his 
 place, a:id there, his arms akimbo, and his robe drawn round him, he 
 drew hi nself up, and again stood looking away into the far distance. 
 Th u re he stood, the animating soul of a spiritual empire whose sub- 
 jects are spread from furthest Japan to the remotest West What were 
 his thoughts at that moment ? Far away, it might be, from the Sis- 
 tine, in those distant regions where toil his emissaries amid barbarous 
 tribes, or in the palaces of Europe, where the courtly nuncios bow be-
 
 196 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 
 
 fore thrones which they are planning to undermine. Or was he es- 
 saying to read the mysterious scroll blazoned on the political walls of 
 Europe, the Franco-Italian convention ? One could imagine him the 
 great Julius, risen from the dead, and revolving new schemes of con- 
 quest ; or, to descend to humbler comparisons, a brigand perched ou 
 his mountain-peak, sweeping with keen eye the plain beneath, before 
 stooping upon his prey." 
 
 Rev. Wm. Arthur, a distinguished and eloquent English 
 "Wesleyan, thus describes Antonelli at St. Peter's on Easter 
 Sunday, about 10 years ago : 
 
 " When the deacon cardinals were at the altar, one stood for a con- 
 siderable time on one side a tall, smooth, well-looking man. The whis- 
 per went round everywhere ' Antonelli, Antonelli ! ' He performed his 
 part of the ceremony with more grace and propriety than many of the 
 priests, but without any of the apparent interest the old pope seemed 
 to take in it. He had in his appearance none of the qualities which 
 his reputation would lead one to expect ; neither ferocity nor goodness, 
 nor the marks upon his countenance of those struggles with conscience 
 through which men go in a long course of heavy misdoing. There he 
 stood, looking down from the altar, apparently pleased with it, the sol- 
 diers, himself, the ladies, and all the world. He might not have any- 
 body suspecting, or hating, or dreading him ; he rather gave you the 
 impression of one of those smooth, clear-headed, strong, narrow men, 
 just made to ruin governments by force of the ability they have to 
 push their own narrow way until they knock against a wall. In 
 fact, from the peculiar kind of complacency that seemed hardly to 
 smile on his countenance, but rather to underlie it, one could imagine 
 that he took pleasure, as some of those narrow men do, in the idea of 
 being unpopular, taking it as a tribute to their greatness ; whereas per- 
 sonal unpopularity is generally the effect of personal faults, though un- 
 popularity for measures may be simply the result of being ahead of your 
 day. It was hard to look on that countenance, and think he was so bad 
 a man as the public voice represents him. One has strong faith in con- 
 science ; and how any one occupying such a place as he does could 
 commit all the immoralities, peculations, tyrannies, and betrayals of 
 faith which are laid to his door, without his countenance bearing marks 
 of internal struggles, was very hard to imagine. Naming this to a
 
 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 197 
 
 gentleman occupying a place under the government, I made him 
 laugh, * Conscience !' he said ; ' what conscience could you expect An- 
 tonelli to have to struggle with ? Do you not know who he was ?' ' Oh ! 
 it cannot be that he is the nephew of Gasparoni ?' the Dick Turp ; i 
 of Italy. ' No, I do not say he was a nephew of his, but he wr > 
 relative. You know very well that he belonged to a brigand 
 ily at Sonnino ; and what trouble you are to expect a man brou , 
 up as a brigand, and then trained as a priest, to have with conscience, 
 I do not know.' * But it cannot be true that he has played false with 
 the public money in the way the people say.' ' Where did the money 
 come from ?' he replies. ' All the world knows what the Antonelli 
 family were. They were brigands. What are they now? There 
 are four brothers ; the first is the man we are talking of, in whose 
 hands are all the resources of the state ; the second is governor of the 
 bank ; the third fattens upon monopolies and taxes ; and what is the 
 fourth ? The stock exchange agent for the other three. He is to be 
 found in London, Paris, Amsterdam, and so on ; and in all these 
 places the investments of the Antonelli family are something fabulous. 
 We know that all that is our money.' " 
 
 The " consistory " is the assembly of the cardinals in which 
 the pope presides. The pope in this consistory "makes" 
 bishops, and " creates " cardinals ; reads a discourse already 
 printed, or " allocution" ; but he does not consult any of the 
 cardinals in the consistory. Their office here is not to delib- 
 erate and vote, but to assent. " The pope" governs, as the 
 fountain of infallibility; the cardinals administer, as the or- 
 gans of this infallibility. The consistory is now little more 
 than a formality, the business which was formerly transacted 
 in it being now mostly transferred to the " congregations " 
 spoken of below. 
 
 The " conclave " is properly a room or place with a key ; 
 and hence the private apartment or set of apartments in which 
 the cardinals are locked up at the election of a pope ; and also, 
 the assembly of cardinals thus held for the election of a pope. 
 On the day after the funeral of a deceased pope the cardinals, 
 after hearing the mass of the Holy Ghost, proceed to their 
 chosen place, usually either the Vatican or the Quirinal pal-
 
 198 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 
 
 ace, enter the chapel where the bulls concerning the election 
 are read, and then go to be locked up in their separate rooms 
 till the election of a new pope is effected. The keys of the 
 palace are placed in the hands of a prelate, previously ap- 
 pointed by them, and styled " the governor of the conclave." 
 Each cardinal has with him a secretary and two domestics. 
 The cardinals are placed strictly under military guard, and all 
 communication between them is prevented except in the pres- 
 ence of their military guardians and with their authorization. 
 They meet once a day in the chapel of the palace, where a 
 scrutiny is made of their votes, which are written and placed 
 in an urn ; and this is repeated every day till at least two- 
 thirds of the votes are in favor of some one candidate, who is 
 then considered as elected pope. Every cardinal puts with 
 his vote his name in a separate sealed paper, which remains 
 unopened till after the election is made. Says the Penny 
 Cyclopedia : 
 
 " When the election is strongly contested, and the cardinals grow 
 weary of being shut up in conclave, negotiations in writing are carried 
 on between the leaders, and a compromise is entered into by which 
 two or more parties, not being able singly to carry the election of their 
 respective candidates, join in favor of a third person, who is acceptable 
 to them all, or at least not obnoxious to any of them. This often 
 gives an unexpected turn to the election. During the conclave the 
 ambassadors of Austria, France, and Spain have a right to put their 
 veto each upon one particular cardinal whose election would not be 
 acceptable to their respective courts. The new pope being elected, 
 and his assent being given, he proceeds to dress himself in his pontifi- 
 cal robes ; after which he gives his blessing to the cardinals, who give 
 him the kiss of peace. After this the name of the new pontiff' is pro- 
 claimed to the people from the great balcony of the palace, and the 
 castle Sant 'Angela fires a salute, and all the bells of the city of Home 
 ring with a merry peal one hour." 
 
 After the pope and cardinals in the Roman court come the 
 " prelates," who are thus described by the late Dr. De Sanctis, 
 who was himself long connected with the court :
 
 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 199 
 
 ' The prelates are a medley of bishops, priests, clerics, and laics, 
 called by the pope to take part in the affairs of the Curia [= court], 
 and putting on the episcopal dress, only without the cross and the ring. 
 These prelates occupy themselves with diplomacy, administration, 
 jurisprudence, and ecclesiastical affairs. A prelate successful in diplo- 
 macy, even though he be a laic, is often made archbishop, and sent as 
 nuncio to foreign courts. Those who apply themselves to administra- 
 tion are sent as governors into the provinces ; those who take to juris- 
 prudence are made civil or criminal judges the chief Roman tri- 
 bunals being composed of prelates ; and, finally, those who devote 
 themselves to ecclesiastical matters become secretaries of one of the 
 ecclesiastical ' congregations.' The pope, the cardinals, and the prelates, 
 then, form the Curia [= court], which consists of the different ' con- 
 gregations,' or ecclesiastical tribunes." 
 
 There are, according to Rev. Dr. Wylie, 23 " congrega- 
 tions " (commissions, or committees, we might call them), 
 of which 17 are ecclesiastical, and 6 civil, the former direct- 
 ing the whole administration of the church, and the latter 
 regulating all the branches of the state. The names of 15 
 Roman (ecclesiastical) " congregations " are given in the Re- 
 vue du, Monde Caiholique, as follows : 
 
 1. The Congregation of the Holy Office, established by Paul ITT. 
 
 2. " " " " Council, established by Pius IV. 
 
 3. " " Index, established by Leo X. 
 
 4, 5. " " " Bishops and Regulars, established by Greg- 
 
 ory XIII. and Sixtus V. 
 
 6. " " " Rites, established by Sixtus V. 
 
 7. " " " Schools, established by Sixtus V. 
 
 8. " " " the Consistory, established by Sixtus V. 
 
 9. " " " " Examination of Bishops, established 
 
 by Clement VIII. 
 
 10. " " " " Propaganda, established by Gregory 
 
 XV. 
 
 11. " " " Ecclesiastical Immunities, established by 
 
 Urban VIII. 
 
 12. " " " the Residence of Bishops, established by 
 
 Clement VIII. and Benedict XIV.
 
 200 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 
 
 13. The Congregation of Indulgences, established by Clement IX. 
 
 14. " " " Extraordinary Affairs, established by Pi- 
 
 us VII. 
 
 15. " " Oriental Rites, established by Pius IX. 
 
 Six other " congregations " named in pope Sixtus V.'s ordi- 
 nance of 1587, are thus given by Dr. Murdock : one for sup- 
 plying the States of the Church with corn and preventing 
 scarcity ; one for providing and regulating a papal fleet ; one 
 for relief in cases of oppression in the States of the Church ; 
 one on the roads, bridges, and aqueducts in the Roman terri- 
 tory ; one for superintending the Vatican printing establish- 
 ment ; one on applications from citizens of the States of the 
 Church in civil and criminal matters. But the number, du- 
 ties, and powers of these " congregations " have been altered 
 from time to time. These are however established as per- 
 manent, and the 15 named above are the supreme directors of 
 ecclesiastical administration in their respective departments ; 
 they resolve the doubts which arise upon different points of 
 canon law ; and they are the final tribunals for the determina- 
 tion ol ecclesiastical causes. The Congregation of the Holy 
 Office, or Inquisition, which meets every Monday, and presides 
 over all similar congregations throughout Christendom, had, 
 in 1864, 12 cardinal-inquisitors, one of whom is secretary, 
 with the pope at their head, besides an assessor, a commissary 
 with two companions, an advocate of rites, counselors and 
 qualificators. Each of the other " congregations " is composed 
 of a cardinal-prefect, a certain number of cardinals (usually 5, 
 but not less than 3), and a secretary (who must be a prelate of 
 the Roman court), together with a number of theologians and 
 canonists attached as counselors and assistants, and various offi- 
 cers under the secretary. The Congregation of the Council is 
 composed of cardinals, prelates and doctors thoroughly versed 
 in the canons, and has for its object the authoritative interpreta- 
 tion of the decrees of the council of Trent. The Congrega- 
 tion of the Index examines books and prohibits those which
 
 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 201 
 
 are regarded as false and immoral. The Congregation of 
 Bishops and Regulars (the two being united) exercises an 
 administrative jurisdiction over, and decides disputes between, 
 different churches, bishops, chapters, orders, and religious, and 
 whatever other matters of controversy directly concern the 
 clergy; and also receives appeals in criminal cases, except where 
 the offense is within the peculiar cognizance of the Holy Office. 
 The Congregation of Rites was organized for the preserva- 
 tion of traditional vestments, liturgies, and worship, and the 
 prevention of unauthorized changes. The Congregation of 
 Schools corresponds, in some measure, to our boards of edu- 
 cation. The Congregation for the Examination of Bishops 
 receives testimonials concerning the doctrine and habits of can- 
 didates for the Episcopate. Other congregations are, perhaps, 
 sufficiently explained by their names, without going into fur- 
 ther detail. 
 
 Probably no other European court of the 19th century has 
 been so imposing in its state and ceremony as the Roman 
 court. Its officers are exceedingly numerous, 108 persons of 
 various degrees and titles being, it is said, attached to the 
 personal service of the pope. Purple and scarlet are the pre- 
 vailing colors in the official dresses and equipage of the Roman 
 court. Scarlet especially characterizes the cardinals and other 
 ecclesiastics.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 AN Ecumenical (^(Ecumenical, from the Greek Oikou- 
 mene) Council is properly a council assembled from all parts 
 of the inhabited world. 
 
 According to the current Roman Catholic view, a diocesan 
 council or synod is composed of the clergy of a particular dio- 
 cese (as of the diocese of Hartford, which comprises Connecticut 
 and Rhode Island), with the bishop of the diocese at their head ; 
 a provincial or metropolitan council is composed of the bishops 
 of an ecclesiastical province (as of the province of New York, 
 which includes the dioceses of New York, Albany, Boston, Brook- 
 lyn, Buffalo, Burlington, Hartford, Newark, Portland, Rochester 
 and Springfield ; and comprehends New England, NewYork, and 
 New Jersey) with the archbishop at their head ; while the na- 
 tional or u plenary" councils of Baltimore held in 1852 and 1866 
 were composed of the archbishops and bishops of all the prov- 
 inces (now seven) in the United States. 
 
 " The Illustrated Catholic Family Almanac," published by 
 " The Catholic Publication Society " in New York, gives, in its 
 issue for 1870, the following definitions and rules, which may 
 be received as of high authority among Roman Catholics of the 
 present day : 
 
 " An Ecclesiastical Council or Synod may be defined as ' a legiti- 
 mate assembly of prelates of the church, convened for the regulation of 
 its public affairs.' Councils are ecumenical, general, or particular. 
 
 " An Ecumenical Council is one which represents the whole Catholic 
 church. For such a council it suffices that the chief part of the Church 
 should have assembled, in agreement with the Sovereign Pontiff.
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 203 
 
 " A General 1 Council is one which is conspicuous for the number of 
 prelates, but which, through its not being confirmed by the Sovereign 
 Pontiff, or for some other reason is not held to represent the Universal 
 Church. 
 
 " A Particular Council is one which represents only a portion of 
 the Church. Such councils are 1. National, or primatial ; 2. Pro- 
 vincial, or metropolitan ; 3. Diocesan, which are called simply synods. 
 
 "Rule I. The definitions of an Ecumenical Council, in matters of 
 faith or morals (but not if 'they merely regard discipline), are, when 
 approved by the Sovereign Pontiff, certain and infallible. 
 
 " Rule II. Other councils, whether General or Particular, have only 
 as much authority as have the churches which they represent. Their 
 authority may be great ; but it cannot be infallible, unless it be sol- 
 emnly confirmed by the approbation of the Holy See." 
 
 Roman Catholics differ among themselves as to the num- 
 ber of ecumenical councils that have been held. Thus 
 the " Catholic Almanac " reckons among the number the 
 council of Constance held in 1417, saying of it, " This coun- 
 cil, schismatic in its commencement, afterwards submitted to 
 Pope Gregory XII., and its acts were partially ratified by Pope 
 Martin V. ;" while the Catholic World, also published by " The 
 Catholic Publication Society," in giving a list of the councils, 
 omits this council, but says in a foot-note that some reckon it 
 as ecumenical. There is also a division of opinion in regard 
 to several other councils, as is noticed in the following account 
 of them. The following are the ecumenical councils given in 
 the Catholic Almanac with corrections as to dates. 
 
 1. The first council of Nice, A. D. 325. 
 
 2. " " " " Constantinople, A. D. 381. 
 
 3. " council of Ephesus, A. D. 431. 
 
 4. " " Chalcedon, " 451. 
 
 1 This distinction between " ecumenical " and " general " councils is bv no 
 means universally observed or accepted. The two terms are often loosely used as 
 synonymous ; though, strictly speaking, " ecumenical," like " universal," denotes 
 or represents the whole, while "general" might be used if only the greater part 
 or a very large part were represented.
 
 204 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 5. The second council of Constantinople, A. D. 553. 
 
 6. " third 680. 
 
 7. second " Nice, 787. 
 
 8. " fourth " Constantinople, " 869. 
 
 9. " first Lateran council, " 1123. 
 
 10. " second 1139. 
 
 11. " third " " w 1179. 
 
 12. " fourth " 1215. 
 
 13. " first council of Lyons, " 1245. 
 
 14. " second " " 1274. 
 
 15. " council of Vienne, " 1311. 
 
 16. " " " Constance (met 1414), 1417. 
 
 17. " " " Florence, 1438-1442. 
 
 18. " fifth Lateran council, " 1512-1517. 
 
 19. " council of Trent, " 1545-1563. 
 
 20. " the Vatican, 1869-1870. 
 
 The Greek and Russian Christians recognize the first 7 of these 
 councils ; and consider the Trullan council (so called from its 
 assembling in the Trullus, a hall of the imperial palace in Con- 
 stantinople, A.D. 692) an appendix to the sixth council. This 
 Trullan council consisted of more than 200 bishops, and enact- 
 ed 102 canons, which were subscribed by the pope's represent- 
 atives at the imperial court, but, though afterwards approved 
 by pope Adrian, displeased pope Sergius. The Roman church 
 rejects its canons allowing priests to live in wedlock, con- 
 demning fasting on Saturdays, and three or four others. 
 
 Says Rev. Philip Schaflf, D. D., of the German Reformed 
 church, " The first four of these councils command high the- 
 ological regard in the orthodox evangelical churches, while the 
 last three are less important, and are far more rarely men- 
 tioned." 
 
 The first ecumenical council, held at Nice in Asia Minor, 
 A. D. 325, was summoned by the emperor Constantino, who 
 presided at the opening of the council and gave to its decrees 
 (against Arianism, <fec.) the force of imperial law. The Cath- 
 olic Almanac, and Roman Catholic writers generally, on the 
 authority of Gelasius of Cyzicus, a worthless witness who wrote
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 205 
 
 about 150 years afterwards, claim that Hosius, bishop of Cor- 
 duba (now Cordova in Spain) presided as pope Sylvester's 
 legate ; but Eusebius represents Constantino as introducing the 
 principal matters of business with a solemn discourse and 
 taking the place of honor in the assembly, and the Roman 
 presbyters as acting for the Roman prelate ; and even pope 
 Stephen V., in A. D. 817, wrote that Constantino presided in 
 this council. Eusebius gives the number of bishops in this 
 council as more than 250 ; others have reckoned the number 
 at 318. This council gives its name to the Nicene creed. 
 
 The second ecumenical council, held at Constantinople, A. D. 
 381, was summoned by the emperor Theodosius, who did not, 
 however, attend it, though, like Constantine, he ratified its de- 
 crees. Meletius, bishop of Antioch, presided till his death ; 
 then, Gregory Nazianzen, bishop or patriarch of Constantino- 
 ple, presided ; and after his resignation, his successor as patri- 
 arch, Nektarius, was also his successor in presiding. There 
 were present in this council 150 bishops. This council enlarged 
 the Nicene creed and gave to it its present form, except that a 
 phrase (filioque = and from the Son), which represents the 
 Holy Ghost as proceeding from the Son as well as from the 
 Father, was subsequently added in the Western churches. 
 
 The third ecumenical council, held at Ephesus in A.D. 431, was 
 called by the emperor Theodosius II. Cyril, bishop or patriarch 
 of Alexandria, presided, and under his lead (with the assist- 
 ance of Celestine of Rome, who was represented in the council, 
 though not present) Nestorianism and Pelagianism were both 
 condemned, and Nestorius, who was bishop of Constantinople, 
 was banished ; but, after the arrival of John, bishop of Antioch, 
 and other Eastern prelates, Cyril was also condemned, and a 
 violent and protracted controversy ensued. There were, at first, 
 160, but afterwards 198, bishops in this council. 
 
 The fourth ecumenical council, held at Chalcedon, A.D. 451, 
 was summoned by the emperor Martian, and fixed the doctrine 
 respecting Christ's person in opposition to Nestorianism and 
 Eutychianism. The legates of Leo, the Roman bishop, were
 
 206 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 very active and influential in this council. " Chalcedon," says 
 Gieseler, " was the first general council where they presided ;" 
 yet this council decreed, in spite of all Leo's endeavors to pre- 
 vent it, that the bishop of Constantinople was on an equality 
 with the bishop of Rome. At this council were present 520, 
 some say 630, bishops. 
 
 The fifth ecumenical council, held at Constantinople, A. D. 
 553, by the authority of the emperor Justinian, in opposition to 
 pope Vigilius, consisted of 164 bishops, Eutychius patriarch 
 of Constantinople presiding, and approved all the decrees which 
 Justinian, in his desire to reunite the Monophysites (who held 
 that Christ had but one nature) with the Catholic church, and in 
 express condemnation of three articles or "chapters" decreed 
 by the council of Chalcedon, had made respecting religion. 
 Vigilius approved the decisions of this council the next year ; 
 but the approval of them by the popes led to a tedious schism 
 between the Roman see and several Western churches. 
 
 The sixth ecumenical council, held at Constantinople A. D. 
 680, was summoned by the Eastern emperor Constantino Pogo- 
 natus, who presided in it himself. In this council all the great 
 patriarchs were present personally or by representatives, pope 
 Agatho being represented by legates ; and the number of bish- 
 ops, small at first, increased to near 200. This council con- 
 demned the Monothelites, who held that Christ had but one 
 will, and condemned by name the deceased pope Honorius and 
 others as heretics. The emperor confirmed the decrees of the 
 council and enforced them with penalties. The condemnation 
 of pope Honorius was also approved by pope Agatho, and like- 
 wise in express terms by his successor pope Leo II., and still 
 later by pope Hadrian II., and was mentioned in all the copies 
 of the Roman breviary up to the 16th century. 
 
 The seventh ecumenical council, held at Nice, A. D. 787, was 
 called by the empress Irene, in conjunction with Tarasius 
 patriarch of Constantinople, who directed the whole proceed- 
 ings. The council was summoned to meet in 786 at Constan-
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 207 
 
 tinople, for which Nice ana a later time were substituted in 
 consequence of iconoclastic tumults at Constantinople. At 
 least 350 bishops assembled, with two envoys from the pope, 
 two imperial commissioners, and an army of monks. This 
 council sanctioned the image-worship of the church, and re- 
 peated the condemnation of pope Honorius. 
 
 The eighth ecumenical council, held at Constantinople, A. D. 
 869, confirmed the emperor Basil's deposition of Photius from 
 the patriarchate of Constantinople in 867, and this emperor's 
 reinstatement of Ignatius the former patriarch of the see, who 
 had been deposed by the emperor Michael III. in 858. In this 
 council the legates of the Roman pontiff Hadrian II. had a 
 controlling influence, and the condemnation of pope Honorius 
 was repeated. As Photius was restored to his see after the 
 death of Ignatius in 878, this council was annulled for the 
 Greek church, while the Roman church recognizes its full au- 
 thority. The number of prelates in attendance is reckoned as 
 more than 200. 
 
 The ninth ecumenical council, according to the Roman Cath- 
 olic view, was held in 1123 at the Lateran basilica in Rome 
 under pope Calixtus II. As this was about 70 years after the 
 final separation of the Greek and Latin churches, this council 
 and the subsequent ones in the list have been cofnposed only 
 of those who acknowledged the pope as their spiritual head. 
 This council, at which 300 bishops were present, solemnly 
 confirmed the concordat of Worms, made the year before be- 
 tween the pope and the German emperor Henry V., and con- 
 tinued in force for centuries afterwards. By this concordat, 
 bishops and abbots may be freely and canonically chosen by 
 those whose right it is to elect (the laity being henceforth ex- 
 cluded) in the presence of the emperor or his representative ; 
 the emperor, in case of disagreement among the electors, may, 
 with the advice or judgment of the metropolitan and bishops 
 of the province, decide who is to be the bishop or abbot ; the 
 person elected may be freely consecrated, and may both yield 
 to the emperor the homage due and receive from him an inves-
 
 208 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 titure of temporal rights, not by the ring and staff, according 
 to the former custom, but by a scepter. 
 
 The tenth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholics, held 
 at the Lateran in 1139 under pope Innocent II., and attended 
 by about 1000 bishops, condemned the views of the able and 
 learned Arnold of Brescia (=Arnaldo da Brescia), who main- 
 tained that the clergy should not have secular property or au- 
 thority, and wished to restore the old Roman government. 
 
 The eleventh ecumenical council, held at the Lateran in 
 1179 under pope Alexander III., and attended by more than 
 300 bishops, formally decreed that the Roman pontiff should 
 be elected by a two-thirds vote of the cardinals (see Chapter 
 V.), and sanctioned a crusade against the "heretics," in the 
 South of France and elsewhere, known as Cathari (=pure 
 ones), Patarenians, Albigenses, &c. (see Chapter XII.). 
 
 The twelfth ecumenical council, held at the Lateran in 1215 
 under pope Innocent III., and attended by more than 400 
 bishops, enacted a decree of excommunication and extermina- 
 tion against all heretics and their abettors, made it the chief 
 business of the episcopal synodal tribunals to search out and 
 punish heretics, inculcated the necessity of a new crusade to 
 recover the Holy Land, determined several points of doctrine 
 and discipline, especially requiring an annual confession of sins 
 to the priest, and sanctioned the establishment of the two great 
 orders of mendicant monks, the Dominicans, to extirpate 
 heresy, and the Franciscans, to preach and assist the paro- 
 chial clergy. The Catholic Almanac specifies the object of 
 this council as " for general legislation." 
 
 The thirteenth ecumenical council, held at Lyons in France 
 in 1245, under pope Innocent IV., and composed of about 140 
 bishops, excommunicated the German emperr Frederic II., 
 who was deposed by the pope in the presence of the council, 
 and decreed a general crusade for the recovery of the Holy 
 Land. The French do not recognize this as one of the ecu- 
 menical councils, and Frederic's advocate appealed to a more
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 209 
 
 general council ; but the pontiff maintained that it was general 
 enough, and it is accordingly so classed. 
 
 The fourteenth ecumenical council was held at Lyons in 
 1274 under pope Gregory X., for the reestablishment of the 
 Christian dominion in the Holy Land and the reunion of the 
 Greek and Latin churches ; but the whole result was unsatis- 
 factory. About 500 bishops were present ; the council decreed 
 the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, 
 and established the regulation still in force by which the car 
 dinals are shut up in conclave when a pope is to be elected. 
 
 The fifteenth ecumenical council, held at Vienne in France 
 in 1311 under pope Clement Y.,and composed of 300 prelates, 
 abolished the order of Knights Templars, and condemned the 
 austere monks called Fratricelli (= little brothers) as well as 
 the mystical Beghards and Beguins of Germany. 
 
 The council of Pisa, summoned as an ecumenical council by 
 the cardinals adhering to both the rival popes (Gregory XII. 
 and Benedict XIII.), met at Pisa in Northern Italy, March 25, 
 1409, for the purpose of terminating the great Western schism, 
 and was largely attended. On the 5th of June it deposed and 
 excommunicated both popes for their notorious schism, heresy, 
 perjury, and enormous crimes ; and on the 2Gth the 23 cardi- 
 nals in conclave elected as pope Peter de Candia, who took the 
 name of Alexander V. But all this only added a third rival 
 pope, without terminating the schism, or effecting the antici- 
 pated reformation of the church. Gregory and Benedict both 
 held their councils, which were thinly attended and amounted 
 to nothing ; and both spurned the decrees of this council, which 
 was dissolved by Alexander on the 7th of August. The French 
 party have constantly recognized this council and its popes, 
 Alexander V., and his successor John XXIII. ; cardinal Bel- 
 larmin considered Alexander and John as the real popes of 
 the age ; but the later curialists or adherents of the Roman 
 court entirely reject the ecumenicity of this council, disown its 
 popes, and recognize Gregory XII. as the rightful pope until 
 his resignation at the council of Constance.
 
 210 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 The council of Constance, which met, 5 years after the coun- 
 cil of Pisa, at Constance (now a city of Baden in Germany, but 
 then a free imperial town), is a stumbling-block to Roman Cath- 
 olic historians. Its principal object was to put an end to the 
 discord between the rival popes, and this it finally accom- 
 plished. The summons for the council, according to Rev. E. H. 
 Gillett, D. D., in his carefully prepared " Life and Times of 
 John Huss," was issued in October, 1413, by the emperor Sigis- 
 mund with the constrained assent of pope John XXIII., and 
 the more ready concurrence of the cardinals ; but in December, 
 the pope also issued his bull of convocation for the council, 
 directing the prelates to be present in person, and the princes 
 in person or by deputy. The council was opened, November 5, 
 1414, by pope John, neither of his rivals attending it ; and 
 was closed April 22, 1418, having held 45 sessions in about 3 
 years. Says Dr. Gillett : 
 
 ' There came thither to this celebrated council, 30 cardinals, 20 
 archbishops, 150 bishops, as many prelates, a multitude of abbots and 
 doctors, and 1800 priests. Among the sovereigns who attended in per- 
 Bon, could be distinguished the Elector Palatine, the Electors of Mentz 
 and of Saxony, and the Dukes of Austria, of Bavaria, and of Silesia. 
 There were, besides, a vast number of margraves, counts and barons 
 and a great crowd of noblemen and knights. At one time there might 
 have been counted, as we are told, 30,000 horses within the circuit of 
 the city. Each prince, nobleman, and knight was attended by his 
 train, and the number of persons present from abroad is estimated to 
 have been not less than 40 or 50,000. Among these were reckoned 
 almost every trade and profession, and some whose profession was 
 their di-grace, but whose instincts and tastes made them seek the wel- 
 come they found among the miscellaneous crowd." 
 
 The emperor Sigismund, John Charlier Gerson (ambassador 
 of the French king Charles VI., and chancellor of the church 
 and university of Paris), Peter D'Ailly (bishop of Cambray, and 
 a cardinal; called "the eagle of France"), William Filastre 
 (cardinal of St. Mark), were leading members of this council. 
 Under their lead, the council admitted to membership, not only
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 211 
 
 the prelates, but the doctors, the ambassadors of kings and 
 princes, of republics, cities, universities, and other communi- 
 ties, as well as the lower clergy, under conditions. It was also 
 resolved, in February, 1415, that the votes of the council should 
 be taken by nations Italy, France, Germany, and England, 
 being the 4 nations then represented in the constituency of the 
 council. According to the order adopted, the deputies of each 
 nation assembled by themselves with their own president to 
 discuss matters, and then submitted the articles agreed on by 
 each nation to the deliberation of the others ; so that thus the 
 way was prepared for a public and solemn approval, in the 
 following session, of whatever had been agreed on by the 4 
 nations. John XXIII. fled secretly from Constance March 21, 
 1415, but was afterwards constrained to return ; and the coun- 
 cil, on the 29th of May, solemnly deposed John, as noticed in 
 Chapter III., for his many notorious crimes ; and he submitted 
 to the sentence. The council also decreed that no steps should 
 be taken towards the election of a new pope without their 
 advice and consent, and that any such steps, unauthorized by 
 them, should be null and void. The council of Constance 
 both by act and deed maintained the supremacy of the council 
 over the papal authority and dignity. The council received 
 the resignation of Gregory XII. on the 4th of July, 1415; 
 Spain united itself to the council as the 5th nation in October, 
 1416 ; Benedict XIII., remaining immovable, though but a 
 small faction adhered to him at Peniscola in Spain, was finally 
 deposed, July 26, 1417 ; and Otto Colonna, who took the name 
 of Martin V., was elected pope, November 11, 1417, by a body 
 of 53 electors, namely, the 23 cardinals there present and 6 
 prelates or persons of distinction from each of the 5 nations 
 represented. The council also anathematized John Wickliffe, 
 the English reformer, who had been dead 80 years, condemned 
 his memory and doctrines, ordered his books to be buriied, and 
 his body and bones, if they could be distinguished from others, 
 to be disinterred and cast out from ecclesiastical burial. John 
 Huss, the great Bohemian reformer, and a pure and noble-
 
 212 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 minded advocate of the supremacy of the Holy Scriptures, had 
 come to the council provided with a safe-conduct from the em- 
 peror Sigismund which guarantied his going, staying, and re- 
 turning freely ; but he was arrested by the cardinals and pope, 
 and tried by the council ; his books were condemned to be pub- 
 licly burned, and he was declared to be a heretic, and was, ac- 
 cording to the sentence of the council, degraded from the priest- 
 hood by the archbishop of Milan and 5 bishops, who directed 
 him to be first clothed in priestly robes with a chalice in his 
 hand as if about to celebrate mass, and then cursed him as 
 these robes were stripped off, and his priestly tonsure was dis- 
 figured, and a paper crown covered with pictured fiends placed 
 on his head ; then, the council having given him up to the sec- 
 ular arm, he was, under the direction of the emperor Sigis- 
 mund, delivered first to the Elector Palatine, then to the mayor 
 of Constance, and then to the executioners, who were com- 
 manded to burn him, with his clothes, knife, purse, and all that 
 belonged to him ; and finally, having called God to witness 
 that he had never taught nor written those things which on 
 false testimony they imputed to him, but his declarations, 
 teachings, writings, in fine, all his works, had been intended 
 and shaped towards the object of rescuing dying men from the 
 tyranny of sin, he was bound to the stake, the flames were 
 kindled, and, as the fire and smoke ascended with the sufferer's 
 prayer, " Christ, thou Son of the living God, have mercy on 
 me," and with the uttered words of the creed, and further in- 
 audible prayer, he yielded up his spirit unto God who gave it, 
 July 6, 1415, and his ashes were immediately gathered up to 
 b& emptied into the Rhine. Jerome of Prague, a disciple of 
 Huss, and a man of wonderful learning, eloquence, and argu- 
 mentative skill, who had come to Constance to aid Huss, but 
 at first through fear recanted his opinions, was likewise ar- 
 raigned before this council, and demanding, like Huss, to be 
 convinced by the Holy Scriptures, was condemned, and burned 
 at the stake, May 30, 1416, exclaiming amid the flames, " Into 
 thy hands, Lord, I commit my spirit : Lord God, have
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 213 
 
 compassion on me, and forgive my sins : Thou knowest that 
 I have ever delighted in thy truth," evidently continuing in 
 prayer after his voice failed and until his long protracted agony 
 ended in a martyr's death, and leaving his ashes also to be 
 gathered up and thrown into the Rhine. The council of Con- 
 stance were more united in condemning and burning alleged 
 heretics than in reforming the church. The Germans and 
 English wanted the reformation of the church to be undertaken 
 before a new pope was elected ; but the cardinals, with the 
 Italians and French, pressed for the election before the refor- 
 mation ; and the latter carried the day by gaining over the 
 English and corrupting some German prelates. The pope, 
 having thus been elected before any decisive measures for the 
 general reformation of the church were passed, " was able," 
 says Gieseler, " to adjust the most critical points of reforma- 
 tion by concordats with the separate nations ; and thus a 
 few general decrees for reform were sufficient to obtain from 
 the council an approval of wha*; had been done as being a 
 satisfactory reformation." The worst abuses of the ecclesi- 
 astical system remained for the most part untouched by the 
 concordats or the decrees. The council at its 4th session 
 passed an article which was published at the next session by 
 cardinal Zabarella with the omission of its final clause, thus 
 " The synod of Constance, legitimately assembled in the Holy 
 Ghost, forming a general council, and representing the militant 
 Catholic church, has its authority immediately from Christ, and 
 every one, of whatever state or dignity he may be, even if pope, 
 is bound to obey it in what pertains to the faith and to the ex- 
 tirpation of the said schism : " and the council at its 5th session, 
 by general assent, restored this article to its original form by 
 adding the omitted words " and to the general reformation of 
 the church of God in its head and in its members," and also 
 restored the next article, which had likewise been omitted by 
 Zabarella, and which reads " It also declares, that any one, 
 of whatever condition, state, or dignity, he may be, even if 
 pope, who may contumaciously have disdained to obey the man-
 
 214 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 dates, statutes, regulations, or precepts of this holy synod and 
 of any other general council legitimately assembled, made or 
 to be made in regard to the aforesaid matters or things pertain- 
 ing to them, may, unless he come to himself, be subjected to 
 condign penance, and punished as he deserves, even by having 
 recourse, if needful, to other legal helps : " pope John XXIII., 
 before his deposition, confirmed these articles by repeatedly 
 declaring that the council was "holy and could not err : " pope 
 Martin V., in his bull against the Hussites, February 22, 1418, 
 requires the suspected heretic to tell the bishop or inquisitor 
 " whether he believes, holds, and asserts, that any general 
 council, and also that of Constance, represents the whole 
 church ; also whether he believes that what the Holy Council 
 of Constance, representing the whole church, has sanctioned 
 and sanctions to promote the faith and save souls, is to be ap- 
 proved and held by all Christian believers, and also that what 
 the synod has condemned and condemns as contrary to the 
 faith and to good morals must be held by the same to deserve 
 reprobation : " the same pope publicly declared in the last ses- 
 sion of the council, April 22, 1418, " that all and each of the 
 things determined and concluded and decreed council-wise in 
 matters of faith by the present Holy Council of Constance, he 
 wished to hold and inviolably to observe and never to contra- 
 vene in any manner whatsoever ; " and subsequently pope Eu- 
 gene IV., by his bull of December 15, 1433, gave to these de- 
 crees as reaffirmed by the council of Basle his full and unqual- 
 ified sanction, and again in a later bull, February 5, 1447, 
 expressly declared his acceptance, embrace, and veneration, of 
 the decree of the general council of Constance which provides 
 for the frequent holding of general councils, " and its other 
 decrees ; " yet cardinals Cajetan, Bellarmin, and the cnrial- 
 ists generally, have denied the validity of the above articles ; 
 and pope Martin V., in a bull of March 10, 1418, pronounced 
 all appeals from the pope (i. e. to a general council) inadmis- 
 sible ; and, while the extreme curialists or partisans of the 
 Roman court entirely deny that this was an ecumenical coun-
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 215 
 
 cil, Hefele, one of the most learned of living German Catholic 
 theologians and the author of a standard history of councils, 
 allows an ecumenical character only to the acts of the last 5 
 sessions when the council had pope Martin at its head, and to 
 such other acts and decrees as were ratified hy him. Now, of 
 course, the doctrine of the councils of Constance and Basle 
 respecting the supremacy of ecumenical councils is set aside 
 by the decree of the Vatican council in 1870 declaring the in- 
 fallibility and supremacy of the pope. It is somewhat difficult, 
 however, to reconcile all these things with infallibility of any 
 sort, whether of popes or of councils. 
 
 According to a decree of the council of Constance, that an- 
 other council should be convoked within 6 years after its own 
 close, a general council, convoked by a bull of pope Martin Y., 
 met at Pavia in May, 1423 ; but the plague there and the thin 
 attendance led to its speedy transfer to Siena, where it met the 
 following November. This council was dissolved before effect- 
 ing any reforms, " on account of the fewness of those present." 
 It had little influence or efficiency, though it published some 
 decrees against the followers of Wickliffe and Huss, and re- 
 quired another ecumenical council to be held, which was accord- 
 ingly convoked by the pope to meet in Basle ( Basil, or Ba- 
 sel) in Switzerland in 1431. 
 
 The council of Basle, like that of Constance, has been a 
 stumbling-block among Roman Catholics. It is entirely omit- 
 ted in the Catholic Almanac's list of ecumenical councils, and 
 in the Roman edition of the councils published in 1609. Car- 
 dinal Bellarmin and the moderate Gallicans consider it legit- 
 imate and ecumenical down to the 26th session, or till its re- 
 moval to Ferrara in 1437. The stricter Gallicans consider 
 the whole council ecumenical. The [Roman Catholic] author 
 of the article on this council in Appletons' New American 
 Cyclopedia calls it " one of the ecumenical councils of the 
 Roman Catholic church," and further says : 
 
 ' Properly speaking, the councils of Ba<le, Ferrara, and Florence 
 constitute but one council, of which several sessions were held in each
 
 216 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS*. 
 
 of these cities, and which is usually called the council of Florence, 
 because the most important questions were definitively settled and the 
 council terminated at this latter city. The council, during its sessions 
 at Basle, until its transfer to Ferrara in 1437, was acknowledged as 
 ecumenical by Eugenius IV., and its decrees were confirmed by him. 
 with the exception of those which interfered with the prerogatives of 
 the holy see. After the transfer to Ferrara, a certain number of pre- 
 lates still continued to hold ses.-ions at Basle, but from tins date the 
 council of Basle is regarded as a conciliabulum, or schismatical assem- 
 bly." 
 
 The council of Basle was certainly regularly summoned by 
 pope Martin V., who commissioned cardinal Julian, who had 
 just led an unsuccessful crusade against the Bohemians, to pre- 
 side as papal legate in the council. Martin V. died on the 20th 
 of February, 1431, and Eugene IV. was elected his successor 
 on the 3d of March, the very day appointed for the council to 
 meet. The new pope immediately confirmed his predecessor's 
 convocation of the council ; but it is said only one abbot was 
 present to constitute the council on the 3d of March, and he 
 went through the form of declaring himself assembled in ecu- 
 menical council, which ceremony was repeated a few days after 
 on the arrival of 4 other deputies. Cardinal Julian arrived in 
 September, and held a session on the 26th of that month, at 
 which 3 bishops and 7 abbots are said to have been present. 
 On the 12th of November, pope Eugene wrote a letter to car- 
 dinal Julian, ordering him to dissolve the council and summon 
 another to meet at Bologna in 1433 ; and on the 18th of De- 
 cember the pope issued a formal bull of dissolution. The coun- 
 cil, however, held what is called its first session on the 14th 
 of December, 1431 ; and in its second session, February 15, 
 1432, renewed the decrees of the council of Constance declar- 
 ing the council to be above the pope, and the pope bound to 
 obey the council ; and in its third session, April 29, 1432, re- 
 quired the pope to revoke the pretended dissolution, and to be 
 present in the council within 3 months personally, if able, or 
 otherwise by legate or legates, and the cardinals likewise to be
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 217 
 
 present in the council within three months, threatening to en- 
 force these requirements by the proper penalties in case of non- 
 fulfillment. The contest went on, the council issuing its decrees 
 and the pontiff his bulls, until the pope, hard pressed on all 
 sides, was obliged to yield to the council on all points, and in 
 his bull of December 15, 1433, to say expressly : 
 
 " We decree and declare that the aforesaid general council of Basle 
 was and is legitimately continued from the time of its aforesaid begin- 
 ning .... moreover declaring the above dissolution nu 1 and void, we 
 follow the holy general council of Basle itself with purity, simplicity, 
 effect, and all devotion and favor. Furthermore, our two letters, . . 
 and any others, and whatever has been done or attempted or asserted 
 by us or in our name to the prejudice or disparagement of the afore- 
 said holy council of Basle, or against its authority, we abrogate, revoke, 
 make void, and annul." 
 
 The council required the pope's legates, before admitting 
 them to the presidency of the council, to take oath in a general 
 congregation on the 8th of April, 1434, to labor faithfully for 
 the state and honor of the council of Basle, and to defend and 
 maintain its decrees, and especially the decree of the council 
 of Constance respecting the council's supremacy under Christ 
 and the obligation of all, even the pope, to obey it, <fcc. The 
 council had now become very numerous, and began to consider 
 in earnest measures for ecclesiastical reform. It abolished 
 most of the papal reservations of elective benefices, <fcc. ; pre_ 
 scribed regular diocesan and provincial synods ; issued decrees 
 against the concubinage of the clergy, against the indiscreet 
 use of interdicts, and against frivolous and unjust appeals ; 
 abolished the annats (= first fruits, or first year's income of 
 a benefice, paid into the papal treasury), which had prevented 
 any but the rich from obtaining important preferments ; and 
 adopted various other measures of reform during the 3 years 
 or more of apparent harmony between the pope and the council. 
 The pope during this time repeatedly declared " that he had al- 
 ways received and observed the decrees of the council." But in 
 1437 there came another conflict between them. The negotia-
 
 218 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 tions for union with the Greeks served as a reason for removing 
 the council into Italy ; but the council rejected the pope's pro- 
 posals to this end, and on the 31st of July, 1437, impeached the 
 pope for disregard of the council's reformatory decrees. Then 
 the pope by his bull of September 18, 1437, removed the council 
 from Basle to Ferrara, and on the 8th of January, 1438, opened 
 a council in the latter city. On the 24th of January, 1438, the 
 council suspended Eugene from all administration of the papacy, 
 and passed decrees for limiting the number of causes dependent 
 on Rome and bettering the occupancy of ecclesiastical offices. 
 Thenceforward the energies of the council of Basle were ' ab- 
 sorbed by the struggle with the pope. On the 25th of May, 
 1439, it pronounced him deposed ; and on the 17th of No- 
 vember following, it elected in his stead by commission Ama- 
 dous VIII., duke of Savoy, who took the name of Felix V., 
 but was recognized as pope only in a few countries. The coun- 
 cil of Basle, grown small in numbers and influence, held its 
 45th and last session on the 16th of May, 1443 ; but it con- 
 tinued to exist in name, and removed to Lausanne in 1448, 
 where it was entirely dissolved the next year. Its pope Felix 
 also resigned, April 9, 1449. 
 
 The council, which met in Ferrara, January 8, 1438, and, 
 on account of the pestilence there, was transferred to Florence 
 at the beginning of the next year, had for its great object the 
 union of the Greeks and Latins. It was attended by the Greek 
 emperor, by the patriarch of Constantinople, by the legates of 
 the Greek patriarchs of Antioch, of Alexandria, and of Jeru- 
 salem, and by other principal theologians and bishops of the 
 Greek church, also by the Italian bishops and by two bishops 
 from the duke of Burgundy's dominions. An act of reconcil- 
 iation between the Greek and Latin churches was signed by 
 141 bishops, the article in respect to the pope's supremacy de- 
 claring that " the Roman pontiff holds the primacy over the 
 whole world, and is the successor of the blessed Peter the 
 prince of the apostles, and the true vicar of Christ, and the 
 head of the whole church, and the father and teacher of all
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 219 
 
 Christians, and has in the blessed Peter full authority from our 
 Lord Jesus Christ to feed, rule, and govern the whole church in 
 the manner contained both in the acts of the ecumenical councils 
 and in the sacred canons." This article was differently under- 
 stood by the two parties, as the Greeks recognized only the first 
 7 general councils, and entirely rejected the forgeries and later 
 canons which were current in Rome ; and besides, the Greeks, 
 on their return to Constantinople, reported that every thing at 
 Florence was done by artifice and fraud. So the nominal union 
 was of little account. There followed also at Florence, in 1440, 
 what Gieseler calls " the empty show of a renewed union with 
 the Armenians ; " and subsequently a succession of ambassa- 
 dors came from all the other oriental churches to seek a hollow 
 reconciliation with the church of Rome by papal decrees. The 
 council of Florence came to an end, April 26, 1442. 
 
 The 5th Lateran council was convoked by pope Julius II. to 
 offset a general council which had been summoned by some of 
 the cardinals, at the instance of imperial and French envoys, 
 to be held at Pisa, September 1, 1511, but which, composed 
 almost wholly of French prelates, was without influence. This 
 Lateran council was opened May 10, 1512, and closed May 16, 
 1517. It condemned the council or convention at Pisa and 
 annulled its acts ; at first laid France, and especially Lyons, 
 under an interdict, but subsequently, by consent of the French 
 king, Francis I., pronounced the death-warrant of the Prag- 
 matic Sanction of 1438, which had secured in France the free- 
 dom of election to bishoprics and abbacies, and the removal 
 of various ecclesiastical abuses; sanctioned the unlimited 
 power of the pope, maintaining his full authority to summon, 
 suspend, or dissolve councils at his pleasure ; and declared 
 that '' by divine as well as human law the laity can have no 
 jurisdiction over ecclesiastical persons." This council was 
 composed almost wholly of Italian bishops, of whom " The 
 Pope and the Council, by Janus " says there were only about 
 65, while the Catholic Almanac says it was " attended by 140
 
 220 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 bishops." As Julius II. died February 21, 1513, the council 
 was held mostly under Leo X. 
 
 The council of Trent (= Tridentine council) was for more 
 than 3 centuries, until 1869, the great council of the Roman 
 Catholic church. It was closely connected with the Reforma- 
 tion in the 16th century. Martin Luther in 3518 appealed to 
 a general council ; and from that time efforts were made, espe- 
 cially in Germany, to induce the pope to call such a council. 
 But wars and other obstacles intervened : and after pope Paul 
 III. issued his bull convoking the council to meet at Trent, No- 
 vember 1, 1542, war broke out afresh between the emperor and 
 the king of France, so that the council was not opened by the 
 papal legates till December 13, 1545. The place of meeting was 
 the church of Santa Maria Maggiore (= St. Mary the Greater) 
 in the city of Trent, which has a population of about 13,000, and 
 is situated in that part of modern Austria called the Tyrol, 6T 
 miles N. W. of Venice, and about 250 miles N. of Rome. It 
 was fixed on for the meeting of the council, because this region 
 was then a sort of neutral ground between Germany and Italy. 
 At the opening of the council there were present, besides the 
 3 papal legates and the cardinal bishop of Trent, only 4 arch- 
 bishops, 20 bishops, and 5 general superiors of monastic orders ; 
 but other prelates came in gradually, and 8 sessions were held 
 up to and including that of March 11, 1547, when the only 
 business done was to pass, by a vote of 38 to 18, a decree of 
 the papal legate transferring the council to Bologna on account 
 of an alleged epidemic in Trent. Two formal sessions were 
 held in Bologna ; but, by the pope's order, no decrees except 
 of prorogation were there promulgated, as the emperor opposed 
 the transfer to this city, and insisted on a return to Trent where 
 he detained the 18 German and Spanish bishops. Pope Paul 
 III., by his bull of September 17, 1549, indefinitely prorogued 
 the council ; but he died in November following, and his suc- 
 cessor Julius III., who had presided over the council as Cardi- 
 nal del Monte, first papal legate, published a bull the next year, 
 by which the council was reopened at Trent on the 1st of May,
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 221 
 
 1551. Six sessions of the council were now held in Trent ; 
 but in the 16th session, held April 28, 1552, the council was 
 again adjourned for two years on account of the civil war in 
 Germany between the emperor and Maurice of Saxony, who 
 was at the head of a Protestant army and in league with the 
 French king. Before it reassembled, 3 popes died, viz., Julius 
 III., and his successors, Marcellus II. and Paul IV. At last, 
 pope Pius IV. having issued his bull for this purpose, the coun- 
 cil was solemnly reopened in the cathedral of Trent, January 
 18, 1562, by the papal legates, Cardinal Gonzaga (who died 
 the next year) being president. Nine more sessions were then 
 held, the 25th and last session on the 3d and 4th of December, 
 1563, almost 18 years after the opening session in 1545. At 
 this last session, there were present 4 cardinals as papal legates 
 (Cardinal Morone presiding in the pope's name), 2 other car- 
 dinals (of Trent and Lorraine), 3 patriarchs, 25 archbishops, 
 168 bishops, 39 procurators of absent prelates, 7 abbots, and 7 
 generals of religious orders in all, 255 prelates, who signed 
 the decrees. The acceptance of the decrees by the ambassa- 
 dors was then asked and given, except by the Spanish ambas- 
 sadors, whose king opposed the closing of the council, and the 
 French, who had withdrawn in displeasure. The decrees were 
 confirmed by a bull of pope Pius IV. issued January 26, 1564 ; 
 and were accepted and promulgated in all the Roman Catholic 
 states of Europe, except France. Says the Catholic World, 
 " In the name of Gallican liberties and royal privileges, the 
 disciplinary portion was not published in France. Most of the 
 measures were actually adopted by the bishops in provincial 
 councils ; but the seed of great evils was sown." In other 
 countries, however, more or less opposition was made to certain 
 decrees which interfered with civil or political authority ; and 
 king Philip of Spain ordered his viceroys to suspend the 
 execution of them in the kingdom of Naples and the duchy of 
 Milan. 
 
 The following " accurate synopsis " of the work of the coun- 
 cil is from " The Catholic World," for October, 1869, which,
 
 222 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 in turn, derives it from the oration of bishop Jerome Ragaz- 
 zoni, orator at the last session. 
 
 " In matters of faith, after the adoption of the venerable creed sanc- 
 tioned by antiquity [the so-called Niceiie creed], the council drew up 
 a catalogue of the inspired books of the Old and New Testament, and 
 approved the old received Latin version of the Hebrew and Greek 
 originals. It then passed to decide the questions that had been raised 
 concerning the fall of man. Next, with admirable wisdom and order, 
 it laid down the true Catholic doctrine of justification. The sacra- 
 ments then claimed attention, and their number, their life-giving power 
 through grace, and the nature of each one, were accurately defined. 
 The great dogma of the blesjed eucharist was fully laid down ; the real 
 dignity of the Christian altar and sacrifice was vindicated ; and the 
 moot question of communion under one or two kinds settled both in 
 theory and practice. Lastly, the false accusations of opponents were 
 dispelled, and Catholic consciences gladdened by the enunciations on 
 indulgences, purga'ory, the invocation and veneration of saints, and the 
 respect to be paid to their relics and images. The decision on so many 
 important and difficult questions was no light task, and of the utmost 
 importance. A 'hard and fast line' was drawn between heresy and 
 truth ; and if the wayward were not all converted, the litt'e ones of 
 Christ were saved from the danger of being led astray. In her great- 
 er trial the church gave no uncertain sound. Nations might rage, and 
 the rulers of the earth meditate rash things ; but the truth of God did 
 not abandon her, and she fearlessly proclaimed it in her council. la 
 regard to some abuses in practical matters, dependent on dogma, from 
 which the innovators had seized a pretext to impugn the true faith, a 
 thorough reform was decreed. Measures were taken to prevent any 
 impropriety or irreverence in the celebration of the divine sacrifice, 
 whether from superstitious observances, greed of filthy lucre, unworthy 
 celebrants, profane places, or worldly concomitants. The different or- 
 ders of ecclesiastics were accurately .distinguished, and the exclusive 
 rights and duties of each one clearly defined ; some impediments of 
 matrimony, which had been productive of evil rather than good, were 
 removed, and most stringent regulations adopted to prevent the crying 
 wrongs to which confiding innocence and virtue had been subjected 
 under the pretext of clandestine marriages. All the abuses connected 
 with indulgences, the veneration of the saints, and intercession for the
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 223 
 
 souls of purgatory, were fully and finally extirpated. Nor was less care 
 taken in regard to purely disciplinary matters. Measures were taken 
 to insure, as far at least as human frailty would permit, the elevation 
 of only worthy persons to ecclesiastical dignities ; and stated times 
 were appointed for the frequent and efficient preaching of the word of 
 God, too much hitherto neglected, the necessity of which was insisted 
 on with earnestness and practical force. The sacred duty of residence 
 among their flocks was impressed on bishops and all inferiors having 
 the care of souls ; proper-provision was made for the support of needy 
 clergymen, and all privileges which might protect heresy or crime were 
 swept away. To prevent all suspicion of avarice in the house of God, 
 the gratuitous administration of the sacraments was made compulsory ; 
 and measures were taken to put an effectual s'op to the career of the 
 que^tor [of indulgences and alms], by abo'ishing the office. Young 
 men destined for the priesthood were to be trained in ecclesiastical 
 seminaries ; provincial synods were restored, and regular diocesan vis- 
 itations ordered ; many new and extended faculties were granted to 
 the local authorities, for the sake of better order and prompter decision ; 
 the sacred duty of hospitality was inculcated in all clerics ; wi>e regu- 
 lations were passed to secure proper promotions to ecclesiastical bene- 
 fices ; all hereditary possession of God's sanctuary prohibited ; moder- 
 ation prescribed in the use of the power of excommunication ; luxury, 
 cupidity, and license, as far as possible, exili'd from the sanctuary ; 
 most holy and wise provisions adopted for the better regulation of the 
 religious of both sexes, who were judiciously shorn of many of their 
 privileges, to the proper development of episcopal authority ; the great 
 ones of the world were warned of their duties and responsibilities. 
 These and many other similar measures, were the salutary, efficient, 
 and lasting reforms with which God, at last taking mercy on his people, 
 inspired the fathers of Trent, legitimately congregated under the pres- 
 idency and guidance of the apostolic see. Such was the great work 
 done by the council so great that even this summary review makes 
 our wonder at the length of its duration cease. One remark seems 
 worthy of special notice. The usual complaint of Protestants against 
 the council was, and is, that it was too much under papal influence. 
 Now one of the most notable features of its legislation is the great in- 
 crease of the power of bishops. Not only was their ordinary authority 
 confirmel and extended, but they were made in many cases, some of 
 them of no little importance, perpetual delegates of the apostolic see,
 
 224 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 BO that Philip II. of Spain is reported to have said of his bishops, that 
 ' they went to Trent as parish priests, and returned like so many popes.* 
 So groundless is the statement that the papal jealousy of the episcopal 
 power prevented any really salutary reforms. Such was the great 
 
 work of the Council of Trent Perhaps the best encomium of 
 
 the council is that the Catholic of to-day reads with astonishment of 
 abuses arid measures of reform in the 16th century. . . . We have 
 already quoted Hallam ' on the revival of faith and piety in the church 
 that was the immediate effect of the council. All historians agree that 
 the triumphs of Protestantism closed with the first 50 years of its exist- 
 ence. After that it gradually declined." 2 
 
 " The Catholic World " also quotes with approbation these 
 Words of Hallam: 
 
 " No general council ever contained so many persons of eminent 
 learning and ability as that of Trent ; nor is there ground for believ- 
 ing that any other ever investigated the questions before it with so much 
 patience, acuteness, temper, and desire of truth. The early councils, 
 unless they are greatly belied, would not bear comparison in these 
 characteristics. Impartiality and freedom from prejudice, no Protest- 
 ant will attribute to the fathers of Trent ; but where will he produce 
 these qualities in an ecclesiastical synod?" 3 
 
 1 The following is the quotation from Hallam's Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe, here referred to: " The decrees of the council of Trent were received 
 by the spiritual princes of the empire in 156G, 'and from this moment/ says the 
 excellent historian [Ranke] who has thrown most light on this subject, ' began a 
 new life for the Catholic church in Germany.' . . , . Every method was adopted 
 to revive an attaehment to the ancient religion, insuperable by the love of novelty 
 or the force of argument. A stricter discipline and subordination was introduced 
 among the clergy ; they were early trained in seminaries, apart from the sentiments 
 and habits, the vices and the virtues of the world. The monastic orders resumed 
 their rigid observances." 
 
 2 For the doctrinal decrees of the council, see further in Chapter II. See also 
 the statistics on political and social power in Chapter XXVIII., the account of the 
 Jesuits in Chapter IX., and of the Inquisition in Chapter XI., &c. 
 
 8 To the quotations which " The Catholic World" gives from Ilallam's" In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17thCcnturies," may 
 properly Ixj added the following from the same chapter of the same work : 
 
 " The council of Trent, especially in its later sessions, displayed the antagonist 
 parties in the Roman church, one struggling for lucrative abuses, one anxious to
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 225 
 
 The following estimate of the work of this council is given by 
 the learned and candid Mosheim in his ecclesiastical history, 
 as translated by Dr. Murdock : 
 
 " The council of Trent, which is said to have been summoned to ex- 
 plain, arrange, and reform both the doctrine and the discipline of the 
 church, is thought by wise men to have rather produced new enormi- 
 ties, than to have removed those that existed. They complain that 
 many opinions of the scholastic doctors, concerning which in former 
 times men thought and spoke as they pleased, were improperly sanc- 
 tioned and placed among the doctrines necessary to be believed, and 
 even guarded by anathemas : they complain of the ambiguity of the de- 
 crees and decisions of the council, in consequence of which, controverted 
 
 overthrow them. They may be called the Italian and Spanish parties ; the first 
 headed by the Pope's legates, dreading above all things both the reforming spirit 
 of Constance and Basle, and the independence either of princes or of national 
 churches ; the other actuated by much of the spirit of those councils, and tending 
 to confirm that independence. The French and German prelates usually sided with 
 the Spanish ; and they were together strong enough to establish as a rule, that in 
 every session, a decree for reformation should accompany the declaration of doc- 
 trine. The council, interrupted in 1547 by the measure that Paul III. found it ne- 
 cessary for his own defense against these reformers to adopt, the translation of its 
 sittings to Bologna, with which the Imperial prelates refused to comply, was opened 
 again by Julius III. in 1552 , and having been once more suspended in the same 
 year, resumed its labor for the last time under Pius IV. in 1562. It terminated in 
 1564, when the court of Rome, which, with the Italian prelates, had struggled 
 hard to obstruct the redress of every grievance, compelled the more upright mem- 
 bers of the council to let it close, after having effected such a reformation of disci- 
 pline as they could obtain. That court was certainly successful in the contest, so 
 far as it might be called one, of prerogative against liberty ; and partially successful 
 in the preservation of its lesser interests and means of influence. Yet it seems im- 
 possible to deny that the effects of the council of Trent were on the whole highly 
 
 favorable to the church, for whose benefit it was summoned The abolition of 
 
 many long established abuses by the honest zeal of the Spanish and Cisalpine 
 fathers in that council took away much of the ground on which the prevalent dis- 
 affection rested. ... In its determinations of doctrine, the council was generally 
 cautious to avoid extremes, and left, in many momentous questions of the contro- 
 versy, such as the invocation of saints, no small latitude for private opinion. . . . 
 Transubstantiation had been asserted by a prior council, the 4th Lateran in 1215, 
 so positively, that to recede would have surrendered the main principle of the 
 Catholic church. And .... if there was a good deal of policy in the decisions of 
 the council of Trent, there-was no want also of conscientious sincerity." 
 
 15
 
 226 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 points are not so much explained and settled as perplexed and made 
 more difficult; they complain that everything was decided in the council, 
 not according to truth and the holy scriptures, but according to the 
 prescriptions of the Roman pontiff, and that the Roman legates 
 took from the fathers of the council almost all liberty of cor- 
 recting existing evils in the church; they complain that the 
 few decisions which were wise and correct, were left naked 
 and unsupported, and are neglected and disregarded with im- 
 punity; in short, they think the council of Trent was more careful to 
 subserve the interests of the papal dominion, than the general interests 
 
 of the Christian church Of the multitude of vain and useless 
 
 ceremonies wish which the Romish public worship abounded, the wis- 
 dom of the pontiffs would suffer no diminution, notwithstanding the best 
 men wished to see the primitive simplicity of the church restored. 
 On the other regulations and customs of the people and the priests, 
 some of which were superstitious and others absurd, the bishops assem- 
 bled at Trent, seem to have wished to impose some restrictions; but 
 the state of thing:', or rather I might say, either the policy or the neg- 
 ligence of the Romish court and clergy, opposed their designs. Hence 
 in those countries where nothing is to be feared from the heretics, as in 
 Italy, Spain, and Portugal, such a mass of corrupt superstitions and 
 customs and of silly regulations obscures the few and feeble rays of 
 Christian truth yet remaining, that those who pass into them from the 
 more improved countries feel as if they had got into midnight darkness. 
 Nor are the other countries, which from the proximity of the heretics 
 or their own good sense are somewhat more enlightened, free from a 
 considerable share of corruptions and follies. If to these things, we 
 add the pious or rather the impious frauds by which the people in many 
 places are deluded with impunity, the extreme ignorance of the mass 
 of the people, the devout farces that are acted, and the insipidity and 
 the puerilities of their public discourses, we must be sensible, that it is 
 sheer impudence to affirm that the Romish religion and ecclesiastical 
 discipline have been altogether corrected and reformed, since the time 
 of the council of Trent." 
 
 It may be added, that two extended histories of the council 
 of Trent have been written ; the first, which has been trans- 
 lated into English, written by Father Paul Sarpi. and some- 
 times displaying a feeling hostile to the court of Rome ; the
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 227 
 
 second, written by Cardinal Sforza Pallavicino, and perfectly 
 Submissive to the see of Rome. 
 
 More than three centuries now passed away without another 
 ecumenical council ; but on the 29th of June, 1867, when about 
 500 prelates were assembled in Rome to celebrate the centenary 
 of St. Peter's martyrdom, pope Pius IX. publicly and officially 
 announced his intention to convene such a council at as early 
 a day as circumstances would allow. On the 29th of June, 
 1868, he issued his bull of convocation, the essential part of 
 which is as follows : 
 
 " Relying and renting on the authority of Almighty God himself, 
 the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and of the blessed apostles Peter 
 and Paul, which we also exercise on earth, we, with the counsel and 
 consent of our venerable brethren the Cardinals of the Holy Roman 
 church, by these letters proclaim, announce, convoke, and appoint a 
 sacred ecumenical and general council to be held in this holy city of 
 Rome, in the coming year 1869, in the Vatican basilica; to commence 
 on the 8th day of the month of December, sacred to the Immaculate 
 Conception of the Virgin Mary, Mother of God ; to be continued, and, 
 by the help of God, completed and finished for his glory and for the 
 salvation of all Christian people. And we therefore will and command 
 that, from every place, all our venerable brethren, the patriarchs, arch- 
 bishops, and bishops, also our beloved sons, the abbots, and all others 
 to whom by right or by privilege power has been granted to sit in gen- 
 eral councils and to declare their opinions in the same, shall come to this 
 ecumenical council convoked by us; requiring, exhorting, admonishing, 
 and no less enjoining and strictly commanding them, in virtue of the oath 
 which they have taken to us and to this Holy See, and of holy obedience, 
 and under the penalties commonly enacted and set forth by law or 
 custom in the celebration of councils against those who do not come, 
 that they be fully bound to be present and to take part in this sacred 
 council, unless they chance to be prevented by just impediment, which, 
 however, they must prove to the synod through their legitimate proxies." 
 
 The pope also issued, September 8, 1868, " letters apostolic 
 to all bishops of churches of the Eastern rite not in communion 
 with the apostolic see," beseeching, admonishing, and press- 
 ingly exhorting them to come to this ecumenical council as
 
 228 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 their ancestors came to the 2d council of Lyons (1274) and 
 to the council of Florence (1438). And on the 13th of Septem- 
 ber, 1868, there followed "letters apostolic of his holiness Pope 
 Pius IX. to all Protestants and other non-Catholics," addressing 
 them as " those who, while they know the same Jesus Christ as 
 the Redeemer, and glory in the name of Christian, yet do not 
 profess the true faith of Christ, nor hold to and follow the 
 communion of the Catholic church," and exhorting them thus : 
 
 " Let all those, then, who do not profess the unity and truth of the 
 Catholic church, avail themselves of the opportunity of this council, 
 in which the Catholic church, to which their ancestors belonged, affords 
 a new proof of her close unity and her unconquerable vitality, and let 
 them satisfy the longings of their hearts, and free themselves from that 
 state iii which they cannot be assured of their own salvation. Let 
 them continually offer fervent prayers to the God of mercy that He 
 will throw down the wall of separation, scatter the darkness of error, 
 and lead them back to the bosom of our holy mother the church, in 
 whom their fathers found the healthful waters of life, in whom alone 
 the whole teaching of Jesus Christ is preserved and handed down, and 
 the mysteries of heavenly grace dispensed. For ourself, to whom the 
 same Christ our Lord has confided the charge of the Supreme Apos- 
 tolic ministry, and who must, therefore, fulfill most earnestly all the 
 offices of a good pastor, and love with a fatherly love and embrace in 
 our charity all men, wherever scattered over the earth, we address 
 these letters to all Christians separated from us, and we again and 
 again exhort and conjure them speedily to return to the one fold of 
 Christ." 
 
 Of course, in these letters the Roman pontiff assumes his own 
 infallibility, since formally declared ; the truth and unchangea- 
 bleness of the Roman Catholic church as the sole authorized 
 depositary of the faith and salvation of the Gospel ; and the 
 consequent necessity that all who are not in communion with, 
 and submission to, the see of Rome must be regarded and 
 treated altogether as errorists and heretics, and must them- 
 selves make all the concessions and do all the repenting ante- 
 cedent to reconciliation with him who claims to be the vicar of
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 229 
 
 Jesus Christ upon the earth, and who, sitting in majesty and 
 authority upon his pontifical throne, with outstretched hands 
 awaits most eagerly the return of " erring sons to the Catholic 
 church." Few Greeks or Protestants appear to have embraced 
 this opportunity to become reconciled to the Roman pontiff 
 and his Catholic church ; while some ecclesiastical bodies as 
 well as individuals among those thus addressed, have given 
 formal answers much more argumentative and reprehensive 
 and justificatory than submissive or repentant. Thus the com- 
 mittee of the Presbyterian General Assemblies in the United 
 States, representing 5000 ministers and half a million of church 
 members, answered by affirming their positive belief in the 
 Apostles' Creed and the doctrinal decisions of the first six gen- 
 eral councils ; denying their being either heretics or schismat- 
 ics ; refusing to accept the pope's invitation, on account of 
 holding the principles for which both the Council of Trent pro- 
 nounced our fathers accursed, and the church of Rome still 
 utters its anathema, the most important of these principles being 
 (1) That the word of God is the only infallible rule of faith 
 and practice ; (2) The right of private judgment; (3) The 
 universal priesthood of believers ; (4) A denial of the perpe- 
 tuity of the apostleship ; referring also to the leading doctrines 
 of the Roman Catholic church, " which Protestants believe to 
 be not only unscriptural, but contrary to the faith and practice 
 of the early Church ;" and closing with these plain and kindly 
 words : 
 
 " While loyalty to Christ, obedience to the Holy Scriptures, consist- 
 ent respect for the early councils of the Church, and the firm belief 
 that ' pure religion is the foundation of all human society,' compel us 
 to withdraw from fellowship with the Church of Rome ; we, neverthe- 
 less, desire to live in charity with all men. "We love all who love our 
 Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity. We cordially recognize as Christian 
 brethren all who worship, trust and serve Him as their God and Sa- 
 vior according to the inspired Word. And we hope to be united in 
 heaven with all who unite with us on earth, in saying, ' Unto Him
 
 230 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 who loved us, and washed us from our sins in His blood, and halh made 
 us kings and priests unto God ; to Him be glory and dominion forever 
 and ever. Amen.'" 
 
 Appended to the encyclical letter issued by pope Pius IX., 
 December 8, 1864, in respect to the "wicked errors" of our 
 times, is a " Syllabus [= catalogue or list] of the principal 
 errors of our time pointed out in the Consistorial Allocutions, 
 Encyclical and other Apostolical Letters of pope Pius IX.," and 
 enumerating, under 10 general heads or sections, 80 of these 
 errors. These 10 sections of errors are entitled, " I. Panthe- 
 ism, Naturalism, and Absolute Rationalism ;" " II. Moderate 
 Rationalism;" "III. Indifferentism, Toleration ;" "IV. Social- 
 ism, Communism, Secret Societies, Bible Societies, Clerico- 
 liberal Societies;" "V. Errors respecting the Church and her 
 Rights ;" " VI. Errors of Civil Society, as much in themselves 
 as considered in their relations to the church ;" "VII. Errors 
 in Natural and Christian Morals ;" " VIII. Errors as to Chris- 
 tian Marriage ;" '' IX. Errors regarding the Civil Power of 
 the Sovereign Pontiff;" "X. Errors referring to Modern Lib- 
 eralism." Some of the specifications under these general heads 
 have respect to religious freedom, the separation of Church and 
 State, the civil contract of marriage, education outside of the 
 control of the Roman Catholic church, the conflict between 
 civil law and the spiritual authority of the Church, the immuni- 
 ties of the clergy, the cessation of the pope's temporal power, &c. 
 
 Said the British " Quarterly Review" of the Vatican coun- 
 cil, before it met : 
 
 " Its preface and programme are contained in the Encyclical of 1864. 
 . . . The council is simply a coup cFeglise [= church -stroke] of the Ultra- 
 montanists. It is a Jesuit plot; and the audacious men who take the lead 
 in it reckon before everything to make use of it against the Liberals. 
 It is not modern impiety that they trouble themselves about, for they 
 know perfectly well that its abettors but mock at their anathemas ; it is the 
 liberal tendency in the bosom of their own Church which engrosses their 
 energies ; it is this which they hope to crush. Possibly they may suc- 
 ceed ; only, that which they thus think to destroy, may perhaps burst
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 231 
 
 its bonds, and be marshaled once more outside the narrow limits within 
 which they had thought to stifle it. There is their supreme danger." 
 
 " The Press and St. James Chronicle " said about the same 
 time: 
 
 " What is the moving spring of this catena [= chain] of events ? 
 Most assuredly it is the spirit of Ultramontanism prompted, guided, 
 and promoted by the order of the Jesuits. If they can only obtain this 
 grand object, they, no doubt, consider they are safe, can never be again 
 anathematized or suppressed by any pope, and that no ecumenical 
 council can again be held to disturb the method of things which they 
 will have established. It is plain it was by this order that the declara- 
 tion of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception was effected. This 
 was the first great step, aiming at spiritual supremacy over the con- 
 science. The second was the encyclical and syllabus, claiming tempo- 
 ral power over kings and nations ; and the third, yet to come, is to 
 combine both in one infallible and irresponsible head." 
 
 A Protestant also remarked, that it was a shrewd thing to 
 bring all the prelates of the Roman Catholic church together in 
 Rome, and there all reporters being excluded, and the bishops 
 pledged to secrecy to concert measures for action. Every 
 Roman Catholic bishop throughout the world, be it remembered, 
 has to report to the central authority the state of his diocese ; 
 jurists in Rome, it is whispered, have been busy studying the 
 laws of the American states to find and make opportunities for 
 the benefit of the Church ; and all may be assured, that what- 
 ever keen-sightedness and worldly wisdom and long experience 
 would suggest as desirable or expedient, would at such a time 
 and in such circumstances be sought out and effectually taught 
 to those bishops in America or elsewhere who have both the 
 will and the power to subserve the interests of the papal see. 
 The professed object of the council may be made very prominent ; 
 and yet its actual result may be something very different, which 
 Protestants little suspected. 
 
 In addition to the preparations which had been made by the 
 pope in former years by encyclicals and other public manifesta- 
 tions of his desires and expectations, things were carefully " cut
 
 232 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 and dried" for the council in the following way, according to 
 " The Catholic World," for February and March, 1870 : 
 
 " Five Committees, formed of Roman and foreign theologians, each 
 under the presidency of a cardinal, have for nearly. a year and a half 
 been engaged in an exhaustive study of the subjects most likely to come 
 up. Their dissertations and essays on such points have been printed 
 for the private use of the bishops, and being up to the day, must be of 
 great use, and will naturally aid much in expediting business. 
 
 " On December 2d, the Holy Father delivered to the bishops then 
 in Rome [about 500], assembled in the Sixtine Chapel, an allocution 
 in preparation for the council : and they received printed copies of an 
 apostolical letter, dated November 27th, settling some matters for the 
 good order of the council and the dispatch of business .... There 
 are 10 chapters in it. ... 
 
 " Chapter i. reiterates the laws of the church, and enjoins on all the 
 duty of living piously, and of carefully maintaining an exemplary de- 
 meanor 
 
 " Chapter ii. is as follows : ' Although the right and duty of propos- 
 ing the matters to be treated in the Holy Ecumenical Council, and of 
 asking the judgments of the fathers on them, belongs only to us and 
 this apostolic see, yet we not only desire, but we exhort, that if any 
 among the fathers of the council have anything to propose which they 
 believe will tend to the general benefit, they shall freely propose it. 
 However, as we clearly perceive that this, unless it be done in proper 
 time and mode, may seriously disturb the necessary order of the busi- 
 ness of the council, we direct that such proposals be offered in this 
 mode, to wit: 1. Each one must be put in writing, and be directly de- 
 livered to a special congregation [=committee] composed of several car- 
 dinals and fathers of the council, to be appointed by us. 2. It must 
 regard the general welfare of the church, not the special benefit of only 
 this or that diocese. 3. It must set forth the reasons for which it is 
 held useful and opportune. 4. It must not run counter to the constant 
 belief of the church, and her inviolable traditions. The said special 
 congregation shall diligently weigh the propositions delivered to it, and 
 shall report to us their recommendation as to the admission or exclu- 
 sion of them, in order that, after mature deliberation, we may decide 
 whether or not they shall be placed before the council for discussion.' 
 We may say here that this special committee has been appo'n ed, and
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 233 
 
 is composed of 12 cardinals and 14 prelates. Of the cardinals 5 are 
 usually resident in Rome, 3 are from sees in Italy, 1 is French, 1 
 Spanish, 1 German, and 1 (Cardinal Cullen) from Ireland. Of the 
 prelates, 2 are patriarchs from the East, 1 is French, 2 Spanish, 4 
 Italians, 1 South American, 1 (Archbishop Spalding [of Baltimore]) 
 from the United States, 1 Mexican, 1 English, 1 Belgian, and 1 Ger- 
 man. This committee is thus an admirable synopsis, as it were, of the 
 entire council. Their duties may hereafter be delicate and responsi- 
 ble. So far, we believe, they have not been called on to act. . . . 
 
 " Chapter iii. charges all to keep silence on the matters under dis- 
 cussion. ... i 
 
 " Chapter iv. declares that the seats shall be occupied according to 
 grades of the hierarchy, and seniority of promotion. . . . 
 
 " Chapters v. and vii. set forth that, for the rapid furthering of 
 business, there shall be six other standing committees, the members of 
 all of which shall be elected by ballot in the council: 1. On excuses 
 for non-attendance, or for leave of absence, to consist of 5 members. 
 
 2. On grievances and complaints, likewise to consist of 5 members. 
 
 3. On matters of faith, to consist of 24 members. 4. On matters of 
 discipline, with 24 members. 5. One on regular orders, with 24 mem- 
 bers ; and 6. One on oriental rites and on missions, to consist of 24 
 members. These last four committees, or ' deputations/ as they are 
 termed, will be presided over each by a cardinal, to be appointed by 
 the pope. 
 
 "Chapter vi. appoints the officers and attendants required in the 
 council. Prince John Colonna and Prince Dominic Orsini are ser- 
 geants -at-arms. . . . The Right Rev. Joseph Fessler, of Germany, is 
 named secretary of the council, with an under-secretary and 2 assist- 
 ants. 7 notaries are named, and 8 scrutatores or tellers, for receiving 
 and counting the votes. Among these last is Monsignor Nardi, well- 
 known to the foreign visitors to Rome. The promoters, masters of 
 ceremony, and ushers are also named in this chapter. . . . 
 
 ** Other chapters . . . make known some points of order to be ob. 
 served in the religious exercises of the public sessions and the general 
 congregations ; and enjoin on the bishops attending the council to remain 
 until the close of it, forbidding any one to depart before such close, save 
 with regular leave of absence, duly applied for and obtained. . . . 
 
 " Finally, the sovereign pontiff, who would preside in person only in 
 the solemn sessions, designated 5 cardinals who, in his name and by his
 
 234 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 authority, would preside in the general congregations. They were 
 cardinals de Reisach, de Luca, Bizzarri, Bilio, and Capalti. [The 
 death of cardinal de Reisach and the appointment of cardinal de Angelis 
 to fill the vacancy, were announced in the congregation of January 3d, 
 1870.] 
 
 " The apostolic letter also set forth how the several committees of 
 theologians had prepared schemata, or draughts, as we would term 
 them, on various points belonging to the general purposes of the coun- 
 cil. The Holy Father declared that he had abstained from giving to 
 these draughts any sanction of approval. They would be placed in the 
 hands of the bishops for their serious study and for their discussion, 
 (integra integre) freely and as to every part." 
 
 The sessions of the council were held in the north transept 
 of St. Peter's a part about 175 feet in length and 95 feet in 
 breadth being separated from the rest of the church by exquis- 
 itely colored, but temporary, partition-walls closing the arches 
 on the north aisle and extending across the space between the 
 two great pillars which support the north side of the dome. 
 The pontiff's throne was placed under a draped canopy and 
 above a raised platform in the semicircular apsis which forms 
 the very northern extremity of the transept. On each side of 
 him, but a little less elevated, were placed the cardinals, on 
 seats covered with red damask, with kneeling-stands before 
 them capable of being changed into writing-desks. Before the 
 cardinals, but a little lower, sat the patriarchs, on seats cov- 
 ered with purple. On 14 rows of high-backed benches running 
 the remaining length (about f) of the hall and rising as they 
 recede, 7 on each side, from the central or front rows, sat the 
 bishops, each with his seat numbered and covered with green- 
 ish Brussels tapestry, and Jiis table suspended by hinges from 
 the back of the bench before him. Seats for secretaries and 
 other officials were placed here and there on the floor ; and 30 
 or 40 feet from the large entrance-door at the south end of the 
 council-hall in the central space between the front rows of 
 bishops' seats was a temporary altar for masses. Several 
 galleries opening through the wall were for the singers of the
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 235 
 
 Sistine choir, sovereigns and members of royal families, am- 
 bassadors, and theologians. The hall was ornamented with 
 a large painting of the descent of the Holy Ghost, with paint- 
 ings of the Apostles' council at Jerusalem, and of the three 
 councils of Nice, Ephesus, and Trent, with medallion paintings 
 of 22 popes connected with ecumenical councils, and colossal 
 figures of the 4 great doctors of the church, Ambrose, Augus- 
 tine, Jerome, and Chrysostom. As the large council-hall was 
 150 feet high, and was therefore but partially separated from 
 the rest of St. Peter's by the partition, 50 feet high, at the 
 south end, it was found after the council met in it that only 
 the strongest and clearest voices could fill it and be understood, 
 so that discussion was altogether impossible. But this diffi- 
 culty was remedied for the congregations or meetings for dis- 
 cussion, which the pope does not attend, by putting in a new and 
 light partition so as to cut off the altar and half of the bishops' 
 seats, removing the prelates who occupied these seats to other 
 temporary seats in the central space and on the platform, tak- 
 ing away the pope's throne and placing a temporary altar for 
 mass there, and stretching an awning across the hall. For 
 the solemn sessions, in which the pontiff presided, the couiicil- 
 hall was restored to its full size. 
 
 The expenses of the council were met by " Peter's pence " 
 (see Chap. XXI.) or contributions from the faithful of all 
 countries. It is said that 150 or 200 poor bishops were pro- 
 vided for gratuitously as guests of the Holy Father. 
 
 This enthusiastic description of the opening of the council 
 is also from " The Catholic World," whose editor, Rev. I. T. 
 Hecker, was in Rome at the time : 
 
 " The morning of December 8th dawned Although the clouds 
 
 were hanging low and heavy, and the air was filled with mist, and at 
 
 times the rain poured down, by six A. M., tens of thousands were 
 
 wending their way to St. Peter's ; and by seven, every eligible 
 
 portion of the floor of the vast basilica was crowded. At half-past seven, 
 the cardinals, archbishops, and bishops began to gather in the Vatican 
 Palace, where they robed, putting on white copes and mitres, and then 
 passed to the great hall at the front, and immediately over the vestibule
 
 236 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 of St. Peter's. Here the masters of ceremony assigned to each one 
 his proper place, and they awaited the coming of the sovereign pontiff. 
 " Punctual to the moment, he appeared. All knelt in prayer. In 
 a clear and sonorous voice he intoned the Veni Creator Spiritus. 1 The 
 choir took up the strain, the bishops arose, and commenced to move in 
 procession back to the Vatican Palace, through the ducal hall, down 
 the unequalled Scala JRegia, and into the vestibule of St. Peter's. 
 Along the line the voice of chanting was heard. Without, the air was 
 
 filled again with the sound of bells and the booming of cannon 
 
 The prelates marched two and two, each one attended by his chaplain. 
 It was a procession such as the world has seen but once before, and 
 that six hundred years ago, at the Second Council of Lyons. First 
 came the cross, surrounded with burning lights and clouds of incense 
 from the censers, and a group of ecclesiastics attached to the Vatican 
 and to St. Peter's. On came the long white line of mitred abbots, 
 bishops, archbishops, primates, patriarchs, and cardinals, slowly moving, 
 joining in the chanted hymn, or else with subdued voices reciting 
 psalms and prayers. The hall, the grand stairway, and the vestibule 
 were packed by thousands who despaired of being able to enter the 
 church, and hoped at least to look on the procession. All eyes seemed 
 to scrutinize the line of prelates with reverent curiosity. Some in 
 the line had not yet lost the smoothness of their cheeks. They had 
 not yet closed their eighth lustre.* The great majority had passed 
 
 the half-century of life Many of them, too, far more than the 
 
 younger ones, were aged and venerable prelates, who, like the rest, 
 
 had come at the summons of the chief pastor The spectators, 
 
 of every nation, looked to recognize the bishops each of his own land. 
 They pointed out and whispered to each other the names of those who 
 had won for themselves a world-wide reputation in the church, and 
 looked with special attention on the oriental prelates, scattered here 
 and there through the line, robed, not like those of the Latin rite, in 
 unadorned white copes and white linen mitres, but in richly ornamented 
 chasubles or copes of oriental fashion, glittering with gold and precious 
 stones and bright colors, and wearing on their heads tiaras radiant 
 with gems. On they passed, Italians, Greeks, Germans, Persians, 
 
 1 Literally, "Come, Creator Spirit," a hymn of invocation to the Holy Spirit, 
 which Ixjgins thus. 
 
 2 As a lustrum or lustre is a period of 5 years, the close of the 8th lustre is the 
 end ot the 40th year.
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 237 
 
 Syrians, Hungarians, Spanish and Copt, Irish and French, Scotch and 
 Brazilian, Mexican and English, American and Chinese, Canadian 
 and South American and Australian ; abbots, bishops, archbishops, 
 primates, and patriarchs. 
 
 " Next came the cardinals the senate of the church. . . . Antonelli, 
 Bilio, Bonnechose, Cullen, Schwartzenberg, Hohenlohe, Banabo, Pitra, 
 Patrizi every one seemed worthy of, and to receive, special homage 
 as they slowly moved on. 
 
 " But even they were forgotten as the Holy Father approached. 
 Surrounded by his chaplains and attendants, by Swiss guards in their 
 picturesque costume, designed, it is said, with an eye to effect, by 
 Michael Angelo himself, and by the Roman noble guard in their rich- 
 est uniforms, he came borne, according to the old Roman custom which 
 has come down from the times of the republic, in a curule chair, 
 such as ediles and senators were borne in ; such as that which 
 the convert Senator Pudens appropriated to the Apostle St. 
 Peter, which he and many of his successors used, and which is still 
 preserved with care and veneration in St. Peter's. [See Chapters I. 
 and III.] Pius IX. is, we believe, really eighty-one [78] years of 
 age. He is still robust, wonderfully so for that age. His countenance 
 beams still with that paternal benevolence which has such power to 
 charm . . . All knelt as he was borne by, blessing them on either side. 
 In his train followed other attendants and the superiors of religious or- 
 ders, who enter the council, but are not privileged to wear mitres. 
 Conspicuous among them was the thin, ascetic, fleshless form of the 
 superior-general of the Jesuits, in black the little black pope, as they 
 call him in Rome. 
 
 " Meanwhile the head of the procession has long since reached the 
 grand portals of the Basilica. From the door to the central line of the 
 transept is about four hundred feet, and the nave of the church is about 
 ninety-five feet wide. All this space is crowded with people standing 
 so jammed together that there is not room to kneel, if one wished. Back 
 on either side, under the broad arches, and into the side aisles, the vast 
 mass of humanity extends. . . . Guards had kept free for the procession 
 a passage-way through the crowd, from the door to the main altar. 
 Up this lane the bishops walked with uncovered heads, for the blessed 
 sacrament was exposed on the altar. Kneeling a moment in adora- 
 tion, they arose, and, turning to the right, passed into the space set 
 aside and prepared for the council-hall. To each one, as he entered, 
 his proper place was assigned by the masters of ceremony. The great-
 
 238 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 er part were so placed, when a fuller burst of the choir told us that the 
 Holy Father had reached the portals of the church, had been received 
 by the chapter of canons, and was entering. He left the curule chair 
 and doflfed his mitre ; for a greater than he is here enthroned, and even 
 the pope must walk with uncovered head. He, and the cardinals with 
 him, knelt at the main altar as the bishops had done, and waited until 
 the last strophe of the hymn, Veni Sancte Spiritus [= Come, Holy 
 Spirit], was finished by the choir. He arose, chanted the versicle and 
 prayer to the Holy Ghost, and then, preceded by the cardinals, also 
 entered the council-hall. They passed each to his proper place, the 
 pontiff to a prie Dieu [= 'pray God,' a kneeling-desk], prepared for 
 for him in the middle, to await the commencement of the high mass. . . 
 
 " The pontifical high mass should have been celebrated by Cardinal 
 Mattei, the dean of the body. But his age and infirmities are too 
 great to permit so great an exertion. Accordingly, the next in rank, 
 Cardinal Patrizi, took his place, and was the celebrant. The pontiff 
 approached the altar with him, recited the Jadica [=' Judge,' i.e., 
 Psalm xliii ] and the Confiteor [= 'I confess,' the confession of sin 
 to God, to the Virgin Mary, &c.], and then retired to his own seat, 
 and the cardinal ascended to the altar, and continued the mass. The 
 music was that of Palestrina, executed by the papal choir as they alone 
 can sing, and without any instrumental accompaniment. Such voices 
 as theirs need none. Just before the last gospel, a portable pulpit was 
 brought out near the altar ; Monsignor Passavalli, archbishop of Iconi- 
 um, ascended it, wearing cope and mitre, and preached the introductory 
 sermon. It was in Latin the language of the council and occupied 
 just 40 minutes. It has since been published, and the reader will not 
 fail to recognizj and admire the eloquence and fervor of his thoughts 
 and the eleganc-e of his Latinity. But no pages can give an idea of the 
 clear, ringing voice, the musical Italian intonations, and the dignified 
 and impressive, almost impassioned, gesture of the truly eloquent Capu- 
 chin. The sermon over, the pope gave the solemn blessing, the Gospel 
 of St. John [John 1 : 1 14] was recited, and the mass was over. 
 
 * The altar being now clear, the attendants brought in a rich, throne- 
 like stand, and placed it on the altar in the centre. Monsignor Fess- 
 ler, secretary of the council, attended by his assistant, brought in pro- 
 cession a large book of the Gospels, elegantly bound, and reverently 
 placed it on the throne. . . . 
 
 " The Holy Father then assumed his full pontifical robes. The car-
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 239 
 
 dinals and all the prelates, in their proper order, then approached, one 
 by one, to pay him homage, kissing his hand or the stole he wore. 
 Their numbers made it a long ceremony. . . . 
 
 "This over, all knelt while the pontiff chanted the sublime prayer, 
 Adsumus, Domine [= We are present, Lord]. Solemn and subdued 
 were the chanted amens of the entire assembly. 
 
 * Four chanters next intoned the litany of the saints in the well- 
 known varying minor strains of Gregorian chant. Most impressive 
 were the responses made by the united Voices of the fathers. But 
 when, at the proper time, the pope rose to his feet, and, holding the 
 cross of his authority in his left hand, replaced the chanters, and rais- 
 ing his streaming eyes to heaven, and in his own majestic and sonorous 
 tones, trembling just enough to tell how deeply his great heart was 
 moved, thrice prayed our divine Lord to bless, to preserve, to consecrate 
 this council, tears flowed from many an eye. All were intensely moved r 
 and not bishops alone, but the crowds of clergy outside, and thousands 
 of the laity, joined, again and again, in the response, Te Rogamus, audi 
 nos [We beseech thee, hear us]. Then, if never before, St. Peter's 
 was filled with the mighty volume of sound. . . . 
 
 " The chanters resumed, the litany was terminated, and the pope re- 
 cited the prayers that follow it Cardinal Borromeo then, acting as 
 deacon, chanted the Gospel taken from Luke x., narrating the mission 
 of the disciples. He used the volum3 that had been enthroned on the 
 altar. When he concluded, the volume was carried back as before, and 
 reverently replaced on the throne. The assembly were* seated, and the 
 Holy Father, himself seated and wearing his mitre, delivered a dis- 
 course or allocution, full, as all his discourses are, of unction, and re- 
 plete with the thoughts and words of divine inspiration. 
 
 " At the conclusion of this discourse all knelt, and the Holy Father 
 again intoned the Veni Creator Spiritus. The choir took it up, and 
 the members of the council responded in the alternate strophes. The 
 pope sang the versicles and prayer that follow it, and all again were 
 seated. 
 
 " The secretary now mounted the pulpit and read aloud the first pro- 
 posed decree, " That this Holy Vatican Council be, and is now opened." 
 The fathers all answered Placet [= It pleases, i. e., Yes] ; the pope 
 gave his sanction ; the formal decree was passed and proclaimed, and 
 the notaries instructed to make an official record of it. 
 " A second decree was similarly proposed, voted, and sanctioned, fix-
 
 240 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 ing the second public session for the festival of Epiphany, January 6th, 
 1870. The first general congregation was announced for Friday, De- 
 cember 10th, in the same hall of the council. 
 
 " This closed the proceedings of the first public session, which neces- 
 sarily were purely formal. The Holy Father arose and intoned the 
 solemn Te Deum or thanksgiving. The choir the unrivalled one of 
 the Sixtine chapel took up the strain, intertwining the melody with 
 subdued but artistic harmonies. The assembled bishops, the clergy 
 without, thousands of the laity, familiar from childhood w'.th the vary- 
 ing strains of its Gregorian chant, responded with one accord, in the 
 second verse of the grand old Ambrosian hymn. The choir sang the 
 third verse as before, the crowd responded with the fourth, and so on 
 they alternated to the end. It is impossible to tell in words the thril- 
 ling power of such a union of voices. It moved, overcame, subdued 
 one. . . . 
 
 "At half-past two, the Te Deum was finished, and the services 
 closed. The Holy Father unrobed, and withdrew with his attendants. 
 But it was past three ere all the bishops could issue from the hall and 
 leave the church. The crowds looked on as they slowly departed, their 
 own numbers long remaining seemingly undiminished." 
 
 At the first general congregation, held December 10th, Car- 
 dinal de Luca presiding and making an address, the members 
 of the council voted by ballot for the two committees on ex- 
 cuses and complaints, each consisting of five members. These 
 rotes were placed in boxes, and publicly sealed ; and a com- 
 mittee, consisting of the senior patriarch, the senior primate, 
 the senior archbishop, the senior bishop, and the senior mitred 
 abbot, was appointed to superintend the counting of the votes 
 the next day, and also to superintend the counting of the votes 
 in future elections. Copies of the first schema or draught on 
 doctrinal matters were then delivered to the bishops. The 
 meeting was opened at 9 o'clock A. M. with the mass of the 
 Holy Ghost celebrated by one of the prelates without music, 
 and this was followed by the chief cardinal's reading the pray- 
 ers prescribed for the occasion. A concluding prayer was said 
 before the meeting was adjourned. 
 
 At the second general congregation, December 14th, two
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 241 
 
 documents from the pope were distributed to the council ; one 
 on the election of pontiff by the cardinals and the immediate 
 adjournment of the council, should there be a vacancy in the 
 office during the council ; the other, revising the censures and 
 penalties of the canon law, &c. (see Chapter IV.). The coun- 
 cil balloted for members of the committee on matters of faith, 
 721 members voting. Archbishops Spalding of Baltimore, and 
 Alemany of San Francisco, were two of the 24 members of this 
 important committee. Archbishop Manning of Westminster, 
 England, was another member, and Cardinal Bilio was ap- 
 pointed chairman. It is conceded that the members of this 
 committee almost unanimously favored the decree, subsequently 
 passed, affirming the pope's supremacy and infallibility. 
 
 At the third general congregation, December 21st, the com- 
 mittee on discipline was chosen. Archbishop McCloskey of 
 New York, and Bishop Heiss of La Crosse,-were the members 
 chosen from the United States, and Cardinal Caterini was ap- 
 pointed chairman. 
 
 At the fourth general congregation, December 28th, the com- 
 mittee on the religious orders was chosen. Of this Bishop Ryan 
 of Buffalo was the only member chosen from the United States, 
 and Cardinal Bizzarri was appointed chairman. After the bal- 
 loting, the discussion on the first schema began, and was con- 
 tinued on the next day, also on the 3d, 4th, 8th, and llth of 
 January. In all 85 speakers addressed the council on this 
 schema, all in Latin, the first speaker being Cardinal Rauscher 
 of Vienna, the second Archbishop Kenrick of St. Louis, and 
 another Bishop Verot of Savannah. All these discourses were 
 taken down by the stenographers of the council, written out, 
 and then referred with the schema itself to the committee on 
 matters of faith to make such amendments in the schema as 
 might seem advisable, and again bring it up before the council 
 for consideration and ultimate approval or* rejection. In the 
 mean time other schemata or draughts on discipline were placed 
 in the hands of the members of the council to be studied for 
 
 subsequent discussion and action in a similar way. 
 16
 
 242 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 The second public session of the council, in which the pon- 
 tiff presided, was held January 6th. There was no procession, 
 yet the crowd in St. Peter's, though smaller than at the first 
 session, was immense. After the mass, litany, and other pray- 
 ers, came the special business of the session to make the 
 solemn profession of faith. This ceremony is thus described in 
 "The Catholic World" for March, 1870 : 
 
 " The promoters, approaching the holy father, knelt and asked that 
 this be now done. He assented, and arose, and put off his mitre. All 
 arose, and stood uncovered. In his own clear, ringing voice, in tones 
 that filled the hall, and passed out to the multiiude beyond in the 
 church so clear that words could be caught far off at the other end of 
 the transept he read slowly and solemnly the profession of Catholic 
 faith, in the form of Pius IV., and seemed to lay special stress on the 
 declaration that in his heart he held and professed this holy faith, and 
 would hold it, with God's blessing, until death, and concluded, ' I, Pius, 
 Bishop of the Catholic church, so promise, vow, and swear. So help 
 me God, and these holy gospels,' and kissed the book of gospels. He 
 was then seated. The prelates remained standing as before, while one 
 of their number read, in a clear voice, the same profession in their 
 name. When he had concluded, the masters of ceremony placed a 
 book of the gospels on the knees of the pontiff, and one by one the 
 cardinals approached, according to their rank, and confirmed the pro- 
 fession, 'I, Cons'antine, Cardinal Patrizi, promise, vow, and swear, 
 according to the form just read. So help me God, and these holy gos- 
 pels,' and kissed the book. After the cardinals came the patriarchs 
 and primates, and then the archbishops and bishops. . . . The prelates 
 made the profession each in the liturgical language of his rite ; most, 
 of course, in Latin, some in Greek, and Syriac, and Chaldean, and 
 Arabic, and Armenian, and Copt, and Slavonic This solemn cere- 
 mony lasted for two hours and a half. When it was concluded, the 
 Te Deum was intoned, and chanted in the old and venerable style by 
 the choir, the bishops, and the assembled thousands, and with it closed 
 the second public session of the Vatican council." 
 
 The 29th general congregation was held February 22, 1870, 
 when the discussion on the fourth schema on discipline was re- 
 ferred, like the three before it, to the committee on matters of
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 243 
 
 discipline. Including the 7 speeches of that day, 145 speeches 
 had then been delivered before the council on the 5 schemata 
 (1 on faith, and 4 on discipline), and nothing satisfactory to 
 the council had been matured. Some additional regulations 
 were announced in the congregation of the 22d of February, 
 according to which the members of the council who desired to 
 present their views upon any schema or to amend it in any way, 
 were to do this, not publicly in the congregation as before, but 
 by writing out their views, amendments, &c., and sending these 
 written statements to the secretary, who in turn was, at the 
 expiration of the time specified, to deliver them all to the ap* 
 propriate committee, who were, as before, to amend the schema, 
 if necessary, and report it to the congregation with a summary 
 of the remarks made and of the amendments proposed ; and 
 then the presiding cardinals were to appoint a day for its 
 discussion in general congregation, first by those who might 
 previously signify their intention to discuss it as a whole, and 
 next by those who might thus signify their intention to discuss 
 the 1st, 2d, <fec., portion of it, as each portion should come up 
 in its order, the members of the reporting committee being free 
 to reply at their discretion during the debate. Provision was 
 also made in these regulations for closing the discussion at the 
 written request of at least 10 bishops, should a majority of the 
 members present so decide ; for taking the vote after the dis- 
 cussion of a part of a schema should be finished, first on the 
 amendments to that part and then on the part itself; and finally 
 for taking the vote on an entire schema by saying placet [=. it 
 pleases], or non placet [= it does not please], or placet juxta 
 modum [= it pleases after a fashion], those who voted in this 
 last way giving a written statement of opinion and reasons. 
 
 Under the new regulations 9 general congregations were 
 held in March, and 8 in April ; and then, at the 3d public 
 session, held on Low Sunday, April 24th, a dogmatic decree 
 on Catholic faith* was read and unanimously approved by the 
 
 * This decree is in 4 chapters, treating (I.) of God the Creator of all things, (II.) 
 of Revelation, (III.) of Faith, and (IV.) of Faith and Reason ; with corresponding
 
 244 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 667 members present ; whereupon, after the vote was officially 
 declared by the notaries, the pope gave his sanction thus : 
 
 " The canons and decrees contained in this constitution, having been 
 approved by all the fathers, without a single dissentient, we, with the 
 approbation of this holy council, define them, as they have been read, 
 and by our apostolic authority we confirm them." 
 
 After the 3d public session, 3 general congregations were 
 held for discussion and action upon the schema on the Little 
 Catechism, which was voted on as a whole in the congregation 
 of May 4th, and then laid over for the final seal of approbation 
 in the public session. 
 
 "With the general congregation of May 13th commenced the 
 discussion respecting the primacy and infallibility of the pope, 
 which was continued for two months. The preface and the 
 first 2 chapters of the proposed decree having been adopted, 
 and the discussion on the 3d chapter closed, the debate began 
 in the congregation of June 15th on the 4th chapter, which 
 embraced the doctrine of the pope's infallibility. While the 
 greater part of the council were Ultramontanists, who were 
 agreed in maintaining this infallibility, there was opposition 
 from three classes : (1.) The Gallicans or French party, headed 
 by the archbishop of Paris, who denied the infallibility of the 
 pope and regarded him only as a divinely constituted center or 
 official representative of the whole church, this whole church 
 dispersed through the world being infallible and the pope being 
 amenable to it. This class was not very numerous, but grew 
 larger during the continuance of the council. (2.) Those who, 
 though themselves believing or speculatively favoring the doc- 
 trine, yet deemed it incapable of definition, the church tradition 
 on this point not being, in their view, clear enough. (3.) Those 
 who regarded the definition as possible, but perilous to the 
 church, hindering conversions and exasperating governments. 
 
 canons appended, anathematizing atheists, pantheists, rejecters of the Tridentine 
 canon of the Scriptures, disbelievers in the inspiration of these Scriptures, or in 
 niiraclcs, or in the perpetuity of church-doctrines, &c.
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 245 
 
 This last is said to have been the most numerous of the three 
 classes of the opposition, and to have included Cardinal 
 Schwartzenberg, Bishop Dupanloup of Orleans, most of the 
 German and Austrian bishops, and a good number of the 
 French and Belgians. There were 65 speakers on this last 
 chapter, before the debate was arrested, on the petition of 
 150 bishops, by the vote of an overwhelming majority. In 
 the general congregation of July llth, the votes were taken on 
 the details of the 4th chapter, and 47 members voted against 
 the ...definition of infallibility. In the general congregation 
 of July 13th the vote was taken on the whole schema, when 
 451 voted placet, 62 placet juxta modum, and 88 non placet. 
 As some (Spanish bishops, it is said) who voted placet juxta 
 modum, recommended the insertion of words to make the de- 
 cree clearer and stronger, the schema was altered, and the 
 amendments were agreed to in the congregation of July 16th. 
 Of the 88 who voted unconditionally against the dogma of 
 infallibility in the general congregation of July 13th, 25 were 
 Austrian (including the 2 cardinal archbishops Schwartzenberg 
 of Prague and Rauscher of Vienna, Archbishop Simor of Grau 
 who is primate of Hungary and a member of the committee on 
 faith, Archbishop Prince Fiirstenberg of Olmiitz, <fcc.), 25 
 were French (including Cardinal Archbishop M atthieu of Be- 
 sanc,on., the archbishops of Lyons and Paris, Bishop Dupanloup 
 of Orleans, <fcc.), 11 from Germany (including the archbish- 
 ops of Munich and Bamberg in Bavaria, c.), 8 from the Brit- 
 ish dominions (including Archbishops McHale of Tuam in 
 Ireland, Connolly of Halifax, Bishops Rogers of Chatham, 
 Bourget ot Montreal, <fcc.), 6 from Italy (the Archbishop of 
 Milan, <fcc.), 6 from the Oriental rites in Turkey and Persia, 
 and 4 (the Archbishop of St. Louis, and the Bishops of Pitts- 
 burg, Little Rock, and Rochester) from the United States. 
 Of the 62 who voted conditionally (placet juxta modum) against 
 the dogma at that time, about 20 were Italians, including 3 
 cardinals (de Silvestri, Trevisanto, and Guidi), 6 from Spain, 
 4 from the United States (the Archbishops of Oregon City and
 
 246 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 New York, and the Bishops of Monterey and Savannah), &c. 
 Several American prelates were absent at this time, as Arch- 
 bishop Purcell of Cincinnati, the Bishops of Burlington and 
 Cleveland, &c. ; and Archbishop Odin of New Orleans had 
 died. 
 
 On the 15th of July, two days after the above vote was 
 taken, a deputation of the minority had an interview with the 
 pope (according to the Roman correspondent of the Gazette 
 de France), to ask him to suppress, in the 3d canon of the 3d 
 chapter of the schema, a clause which had been added after 
 ,the close of the discussion, and to insert in the formula of 
 the definition the words ' supported by the testimony of the 
 ,churches.' The pope received the deputation with great kind- 
 ness, but did not, as appeared the next day, accede to their 
 .request. Then the bishops of the minority concluded not to 
 attend the promulgation of the doctrine, and addressed to the 
 pope this letter : 
 
 "Most Holy Father : In the general congregation held on the 13th 
 of the present month, we have voted on the schema of the first dog- 
 matic constitution, relative to the Church. Your Holiness now knows 
 that 88 Fathers, only, listening to their conscience and their love of 
 the Church, have voted non placet ; that 62 have voted placet juxta 
 modum, and, finally, that about 70 others have not attended the congre- 
 gation, and have deemed it best to abstain from voting. It should be 
 added that other Fathers, either on account of the condition of their 
 health, or from other very grave motives, had already returned to 
 <their dioceses. Under such conditions our vote has been presented to 
 the eyes of Your Holiness and of the entire world. It is therefore 
 now known how large a number of bishops share our sentiments ; as 
 regards us, we have by our vote fulfilled a duty which we had to dis- 
 charge before God and before the Church. Since then nothing has 
 occurred which could have disposed us to vote differently ; on the con- 
 trary, certain events of great importance have still more confirmed us 
 in our former disposition. And on that account we now hereby declare 
 that we renew and confirm the votes previously given by us. 
 
 " Confirming, therefore, these votes by the present declaration, we 
 decide, at the same time, that we shall not attend the public session
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 247 
 
 which is to take place on the 18th of the present month ; for the filial 
 devotion aud the respect which yesterday brought to the feet of Your 
 Holiness our deputation do not permit us, in a question which so nearly 
 concerns Your Holiness that it may be regarded as being a personal 
 affair of Your Holiness, to say publicly and to the face of our Father, 
 Non Placet. Moreover, the votes which we intended to give at ih3 
 solemn session would only repeat the votes already given by us at the 
 general congregation. We therefore return, without further delay, to 
 the flocks which are entrusted to us, and to which, after so long an ab- 
 sence, amidst these rumors of war and in the urgent necessities of their 
 souls, our presence is absolutely necessary, being distressed that in this 
 sad junction we should find the consciences and the peace of souls so 
 deeply disturbed. 
 
 " We recommend with our whole heart Your Holiness and the Holy 
 Church, to which we profess an inviolable devotedness and obedience, 
 to the grace and to the protection of our Lord Jesus Christ. And, in 
 union with, those of our colleagues who are absent and who should 
 have voted as we, we are, most holy Father, 
 Of your Holiness' 
 
 Most devoted and obedient sons." 
 
 The 4th general session was held on Monday, July 18th, at 
 9 A. M. The following account of it is from " The Catholic 
 World," of September, 1870. 
 
 "The 18th of July will henceforth be a memorable day in the his- 
 tory of the church At 9 o'clock precisely, his eminence Car- 
 dinal Barili began a low mass, without chant. At the end of it, the 
 small throne for the gospels was placed on the altar, and upon it a copy 
 of the Sacred Scriptures. In a few moments the sovereign pontiff en- 
 tered, preceded by the senate and by the officers of his court, and, after 
 kneeling a few moments at the prie-dieu, went to his throne in the apsis 
 of the aula [= hall]. The customary prayers were recited by him; 
 the litany of the saints was chanted, and the Veni Creator Spiritus in- 
 toned, the people present taking part ; after which the bishop of Fabri- 
 ano ascended the pulpit and read the schema to be voted on, and fin- 
 ished with asking the fathers whether it pleased them. Monsignor 
 Jacobini next, from the pulpit, called the name of each prelate assisting 
 at the council. 534 answered placet, 2 replied non placet, and 106
 
 248 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 were absent, some being sick, the far greater number not wishing to 
 vote favorably. As soon as the result was made known officially to Pius 
 IX., who awaited it in silence, but with calmness, he arose, and in a 
 clear, disiinct, and firm voice announced the fact of all, with the excep- 
 tion of 2, having given a favorable vote, ' wherefore,' he continued, ' by 
 virtue of our apostolic authori'y, with the approval of the sacred coun- 
 cil, we define, confirm, and approve the decrees and canons just road.' 
 Immediately there arose murmurs of approbation inside and outside 
 the hall, the doors of which wern surrounded by a large crowd, and, 
 increasing from the impossibility those present experienced of lepre^s- 
 ing their feeling, it swelled into a burst of congratulation, and a Viva 
 Pio Nono Papa infallibile [Live Pius IX. Pope infallible]. . . As 
 soon as all were quiet, with unfaltering voice and excellent intonation 
 the pope began the Te Deum. It was taken up alternately by the Sis- 
 tine choir and those present. By an accident at the ' Sanctus, Sane- 
 tits, Sanctus [= Holy, Holy, Holy], the people got out, and took up 
 the part of the Sistine choir, and kept it to the end, alternately with 
 the bishops, and with a volume of sound that completely drowned the 
 delicate notes of the papal singers, and which, if not as musical as 
 their chant, was far more impressive. The session ended with the 
 apostolic benediction from the holy father, accompanied by an indul- 
 gence for all assisting, hi accordance with the cu^om of the church." 
 
 The session of the 18th of July was memorable not only for 
 its decree on the pope's primacy and infallibility, and for its 
 number of vacant seats, but also for its terrible thunder-storm. 
 Of this storm, which burst over the church during the voting 
 upon the dogma, and of the scenes that followed, the corre- 
 spondent in Rome of the New York Tribune wrote the next 
 day: 
 
 ..." The lightning flashed and the thunder pealed as we have not heard 
 it this season before. Every placet seemed to be announced by a flash 
 and terminated by a clap of thunder. Through the cupolas the light- 
 ning entered, licking, as it were, the very columns of the baldachino 
 over the tomb of St. Peter, and lighting up large spaces on the pave- 
 ment. . . . Thus the roll was called for one hour and a half, with this 
 solemn accompaniment, and then the result of the voting was taken to 
 the pope. . . . Looking from a distance into the hall, which was ob-
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 249 
 
 scured by the tempest, nothing was visible but the golden miter of the 
 pope, and so thick was the darkness that a servitor was compelled to 
 bring a lighted candle and hold it by his side to enable him to read the 
 formula by which he deified himself. And then what is that inde- 
 scribable noise ? . . . The fathers had begun with clapping they were 
 the fuglemen to the crowd who took up the notes and signs of rejoicing 
 until the church of God was converted into a theatre for the exhibition 
 of human passions. ' Viva Pio Nona' [= Live, Pius IX.], ' Viva il 
 Papa Infattibile ' [= Live the infallible pope], ' Viva il trionfo dei 
 Cattolici ' [= Live the triumph of the Catholics], were shouted by this 
 priestly assembly ; and again another round they had ; and yet another 
 was attempted as soon as the Te Deum had been sung and the benedic- 
 tion had been given. It was a morning never to be forgotten by the 
 contracts between the absence of almost every effect whicli man could 
 have provided, and the presence of those wonderful effects of nature 
 which I have attempted to describe. A miserably small assemblage 
 in the church ; no decorations, no proud procession ; the hall almost 
 closed from the view of the public : one-third of the entire number of 
 the bishops, and those the leading members of the hierarchy, absent; 
 the Royal box nearly empty ; the Diplomatic box as much so, for 
 France, Austria, Prussia, and Bavaria had instructed their ministers 
 not to attend, nor to illuminate in the evening such were the external 
 circumstances of humiliation which struck the senses. On the other 
 hand, the God of Nature, and perhaps, too, of the pope, had entered 
 the very church of St. Peter clothed in his sublimes! form. Until 12 
 o'clock did this terrific storm continue, and then the council broke up. 
 Gradually the sky became serene. ... In the evening there were no 
 illuminations worth noticing. The facade of St. Peter's was illumi- 
 nated, the ornamental gas lights in the Corso were lit, and a few houses, 
 very few, had some paper-covered lamps. . . . The great event of the 
 evening was the departure of a host of the fathers, thus retarding the 
 time of starting for f of an hour. Almost the entire Diplomatic Body 
 went up to take leave of their bishops." 
 
 The work of the council up to this point is thus summarily 
 described by the same correspondent : 
 
 " ROME, July 21. Now that the Ecclesiastical season has closed, 
 and wearied and half baked bishops are flying in all directions to their
 
 250 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 dioceses, let me cast a rapid retrospective glance at the history of the 
 last seven months. Two years have passed away since the council 
 was summoned according to the time honored form. The professed 
 objects were good ; the real object was to erect the personal infallibilty 
 of the pope into a dogma. How has it been done ? In what spirit? 
 I shall answer these questions according to the observations \vhich I 
 have myself made and the information which I have received during 
 the long interval which has elapsed since last November. I may have 
 erred in the former, and been misinformed in the latter; but what I 
 now write I believe to be true. On the arrival of the Fathers in Home 
 they found themselves in the position of boys in a public school. Their 
 business was cut out for them what they were to do, how they were 
 to do it, and to what limits they might go, was accurately laid down, 
 and ' it was so kind and considerate of the Holy Father,' it was ob- 
 served, 'thus to smooth the path of their studies.' Some of the Fathers 
 told me that the preparation of the schemes should have been left to 
 them, by which plan great confusion and much time would have been 
 saved. As soon, too, as the ' gentlemen, not young but elderly, met 
 for business,' regulations for their conduct were given to them. The 
 head master was resolved to keep them well in hand, and though they 
 fretted and remonstrated, they were needs bound to submit. Every 
 one who was in Rome at the time will remember the feeling almost of 
 indignation with which these regulations were received. Now and 
 then, too, the Fathers were publicly reproved for telling secrets which 
 it was scarcely possible to abstain from betraying, and the imposition 
 of which was inconsistent with the freedom which should characterize 
 a public and deliberative meeting. Later on in the season new regu- 
 lations were issued supplementary to and more binding than the others. 
 The gentlemen of the school must no longer be permitted to discuss, 
 but give in their thoughts in writing. These created almost a revolu- 
 tion among the Fathers. Remonstrances in the form of Postulata 
 f_ = demands] were sent in, and some very energetic action was con- 
 templated. ' Should they leave Rome ?' ' Should they absent 
 themselves from the Council ?' These were questions agitated in the 
 International Committees, but they tacitly submitted, and reserved the 
 strength of their opposition to the last moment. As regards, too, these 
 committees strong efforts were made to put them down the Coun- 
 cil Hall, it was said, was the only proper place for deliberation, and
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 251 
 
 several Roman houses were closed. It would have been difficult to 
 have closed those of foreigners of high consideration, and so the In- 
 ternational Committees have continued to meet to the present day, 
 greatly to the interest of freedom. It is a proof of the impotency of 
 some of the regulations that the oath of secrecy has been violated over 
 and over again, and that discussion has been practically insisted upon. 
 The Fathers exercised what they claimed as a right, and though the 
 cardinal -presidt-nts never abrogated the law, they were compelled to be 
 the passive and unwilling auditors of 136 speeches on the fourth schema, 
 regarding infallibility alone. From the oath of secrecy, for the viola- 
 tion of which several persons were expelled from Rome, most, perhaps 
 all, have been released at the last moment. Cardinal Bonnechose told 
 the pope at a recent audience that he should have great difficulty in 
 observing it, and as he is instructed to demand a special audience of the 
 emperor to give a report of the council, His Eminence also has been 
 released. I come now to speak of the spirit which has animated the 
 infallibilist portion of the council. In theory it was a deliberative as- 
 sembly met to investigate and decide what was truth. It has on the 
 contrary assumed to be true that which was to have been the subject 
 of discussion, and the majority have treated those who differed from 
 them with every species of insult. It is possible that the foreign press 
 has at times exaggerated these excesses of the disciples of Christ, but 
 I depend n>ton them ; I depend rather on the statements which I have 
 gathered daily from moderate men devoted to the Church, and who la- 
 mented the injury inflicted on her. Gross and unmannerly inter- 
 ruptions, hisses and howls, and harsh epithets have greeted the orator 
 who ventured to exercise his undoubted right, while the cardinal-presi- 
 dents have rung the bell to call the speaker to what was called order 
 and, failing to succeed, have gone even to the pulpit to call him down. 
 It is with delicacy and hesitation that I now allude to the highest per- 
 sonage in these States. The ultra Roman Catholic press maintained 
 before the council met that the pope could not and would not be any 
 party to a movement which would exalt him above humanity. He 
 was, as it were, to repose in complete unconsciousness-almost without 
 a will submissive to the ultimate decisions of the Holy Spirit. What 
 is the truth ? Pius IX. has been a warm partisan, has been judge hi 
 his own case, and has pre-theorized himself. In his briefs and allocu- 
 tions he has significantly praised all those who favored the dogma, while 
 he has severely reproved those who opposed it. Even on the occasion
 
 252 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 
 
 of a recent festival, his benediction displayed his animus, and unless all 
 Rome is in error, private laudations or private reproofs have been dealt 
 out to those who were supposed to deserve his smiles or to merit his 
 anger. In short, the man who ventured to differ from the Roman 
 Curia [= court] was regarded almost as a criminal both by a portion 
 of the council and by the pope, whom it was permitted to insult. The 
 council was summoned, not to discuss, but to obey, and because a por- 
 tion of it refused to do so, it has been looked upon with an evil eye. 
 Of the ultra Koman Catholic press I shall not say much, for by its rude 
 violence it has put itself beyond the pale of notice. All the worst fea- 
 tures which have marked the infallibilist bishops have been displayed by 
 it in a highly magnified form. The decrees it desired, it has regarded as 
 foregone conclusions, and all who opposed them as ' pestilent fellows.' 
 Hence, instead of encouraging discussion it has dealt in hard words, 
 and has forgotten that when a man handles the pen he should not cease 
 to be a gentleman. Heretics, Jews, Galileans, Falsifiers, Protestants, and 
 a host of other epithets have been lavished on those who differed from 
 it, while those who favored its views have been exalted to the skies. 
 Let us pass it by, for such a spirit has been condemned by the sentiment 
 of all enlightened Roman Catholics. I have spoken of the mode in 
 which the council has been conducted ; let me now very briefly report 
 what it has done. The first public session was held on the 8th of De- 
 cember, 1869, when the sole ceremony was that of the inauguration of 
 the council. The second session was held on the 6th of January, 1870, 
 when, in the absence of any decrees to be proclaimed, the bishops were 
 called on to make profession of the Faith of Pius IV. On the occasion 
 of the third session, which was held on the 24th of April, 1870, some 
 decrees were published regarding the existence of God, rationalism, 
 pantheism, and several other isms. At the fourth council, which was 
 held on Monday last, the primary and infallibility of the Roman pon- 
 tiff were decided, and now, according to the saying of the Romans, the 
 bishops who came as " Pastori" [= shepherds] leave Rome as " Pe- 
 core " [= sheep], and may go and gambol, for having shorn themselves, 
 they are as light as lambs. In the intervals between these sessions 
 there have been many meetings, called General Congregations, at which 
 the canons distributed have been discussed. They have been De Fide 
 [=on the Faith] ; de Officio Episcoporum [=on the office of Bishops] ; 
 de Vita et Honestate Clericorum [= on the life and reputation of the 
 clergy] ; de Parvo Oatechistno [=on the little catechism] ; DeEcclesia
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 253 
 
 =on the church] ; De Primatu Romani Pontificis [ = on the primacy 
 of the Roman pontiff]. Some only of these subjects have been partial- 
 ly discussed. The Canon de Ecclesia was before the council when a 
 note of remonstrance from the French government arrived. The an- 
 swer was an immediate order to bring forward the primacy of the 
 Roman pontiff, which, from being the fourteenth article of the Canon 
 de Ecclesia, was promoted to the dignity of the First. I have only to 
 add that the bishops have received permission to leave Rome, with or- 
 ders to reassemble on the llth of November." 
 
 After the capture of Rome by the Italian troops in Septem- 
 ber, 1870, the order for the reassembling of the Vatican coun- 
 cil was indefinitely suspended.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE CLERGY. 
 
 OUR English word " priest " is etymblogically the same with 
 " presbyter," both words being traced back to the Greek pre- 
 buteros, which signifies " elder," and is thus translated in the 
 New Testament (Mat. 15 : 2. Luke 15 : 25. Acts 11 : 30. 
 1 Tim. 5 : 1, &c.). " Priest," therefore, is often nearly synon- 
 ynums with " presbyter," " elder," " minister," " preacher," 
 " pastor," and other terms which denote in general, with vari- 
 ous shades of difference, a Christian teacher or spiritual guide. 
 But " priest " is also used as the English equivalent of the 
 Latin sacerdos and the Greek hiereus, which denote a sacred 
 person, particularly one who performs sacred rites, or offers 
 sacrifice to God. The latter is the predominant signification 
 of "priest" among Roman Catholics, as it would have been 
 among the ancient Jews or among the idolatrous Romans and 
 Greeks. The " priest " among Roman Catholics is a sacred 
 person, who offers sacrifice to God ; the " priests " or clergy 
 of the Roman Catholic church belong to a sacred order or caste, 
 who are regarded as altogether distinct from, and officially su- 
 perior to, the " laity," or common Christian people, and who 
 offer sacrifice, especially the mass (see Chapter XIV.). But 
 Protestants believe that the one sacrifice which the Lord Jesus 
 Christ offered to God for us when he died on the cross, is full 
 and complete (Heb. 9 : 28. 10 : 10-14) that no other sacri- 
 fice to God is needed, and that no other sacrifice acceptable to 
 Him can be made (Heb. 10 : 18, 29) that all true Christians 
 now constitute, as the apostle Peter declares, " a holy priest- 
 hood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God bv Jesus
 
 THE CLERGY. 255 
 
 Christ " (1 Peter 2 : 5, 9) ; and that, therefore, the priests, 
 clergy, or ministers of the Christian religion are simply the 
 religious teachers and guides of the people, not a separate caste 
 or a holier class by the mere virtue of their office. Here is a 
 fundamental distinction between Protestantism and Roman 
 Catholicism. The Protestant goes directly to Christ as his 
 High Priest and the one Mediator with God (1 Tim. 2:5); the 
 Roman Catholic expects his priest to offer an acceptable sacri- 
 fice and procure the pardon of sin for him. The Protestant 
 offers prayer and other spiritual sacrifices himself, and takes 
 the Lord Jesus Christ at his word as an all-sufficient Savior ; 
 he regards the priest who would stand between him and God, 
 and professedly repeat the sacrifice of Christ in the mass, as 
 an unauthorized interloper, and as one who, like an apostate, 
 crucifies the Son of God afresh and puts him to an open shame 
 (Heb. 6 : 6). 
 
 Among the 7 sacraments of the Roman Catholics, " the sacra- 
 ment of orders " holds a prominent place. Says the Catechism 
 of the Council of Trent : 
 
 " In the power of Orders is included not only that of consecrating 
 the holy eucharist, but also of preparing the soul for its worthy re- 
 ception, and whatever else has reference to the sacred mysteries 
 
 To exercise this power, ministers are appointed and solemnly conse- 
 crated, and this solemn consecration is denominated ' Ordination,' or 
 
 ' the Sacrament of Orders.' A sacrament is a sensible sign of an 
 
 invisible grace, and with these characters Holy Orders are invested: 
 their external forms are a sensible sign of the grace and power which 
 they confer on the receiver: Holy Orders, therefore, are really and 
 truly a sacrament." 
 
 There are, according to Roman Catholic authorities, 7 " or- 
 ders of ministers, intended by their office to serve the priest- 
 hood," viz., porter, reader, exorcist, acolyte, subdeacon, dea- 
 con, and priest. Of these the first 4 belong to the lesser or 
 Minor Orders ; the other 3 to the greater or Holy Orders. Says 
 the Catechism of the Council of Trent ;
 
 256 THE CLERGY. 
 
 " The tonsure ... is a sort of prepare,' ion for receiving orders. 
 In tonsure the hair of the head is cut in the form of a crown, and should 
 be worn in that form, enlarging the crown according as ihe ecclesiastic 
 advances in orders. ' This form of tonsure the Church teaches lo be 
 of apostolic origin 
 
 "The order of porter follows tonsure: its duty con-ists in taking 
 care of the keys and door of the church, and suffering none to enter 
 to whom entrance is prohibited 
 
 " The 2d among the Minor Orders is that of reader [= lector], to 
 him it belongs to read to the people, in a clear and distinct voice, the 
 Sacred Scriptures, particularly the Nocturnal Psalmody ; and on him 
 also devolves the task of instructing the faithful in the rudiments of 
 the faith 
 
 " The 3d order is that of exorcist : to him is given power to 
 invoke the name of the Lord over persons possessed by unclean 
 spirits. 1 
 
 "The 4:h and last among the Minor Orders is that of acolyte : the 
 duty of the acolyte is to attend and serve those in Holy Orders, dea- 
 cons and subdeacons, in the ministry of the altar. The acolyte also 
 attends to the lights used at the celebration of the Holy Sacrifice, par- 
 ticularly whilst the Gospel is read 
 
 " Minor Orders are, as it were, the vestibule through which 
 
 we ascend to Holy Orders. Amongst the latter" the 1st is that of sub- 
 deacon : to him it belongs to prepare the altar-linen, the sacred 
 
 vessels, the bread and wine necessary for the Holy Sacrifice, to minis- 
 ter water to the priest or bishop at the washing of the hands at mass, 
 to read the epistle, a function which was formerly discharged by the 
 deacon, to assist at mass in the capacity of a witness, and see that the 
 
 priest be not disturbed by any one during its celebration At his 
 
 consecration, the bishop admonishes him that by his ordination 
 
 he assumes the solemn obligation of perpetual continence 
 
 " The 2d amongst the Holy Orders is that of deacon : .... to him 
 it belongs constantly to accompany the bishop, to attend him when 
 preaching, to assist him and the priest also during the celebration of 
 the holy mysteries, and at the administration of the sacraments, and to 
 read the gospel at the sacrifice of the mass. In the primitive ages of 
 
 1 " Exorcism is now," says Collet's Catechism, " almost exclusively confined to 
 the priests."
 
 THE CLEEGY. 257 
 
 the church, he not unfrequently exhorted the faithful to attend to the 
 divine worship, and administered the chalice in those churches in which 
 the faithful received the holy eucharist under both kinds. In order to 
 administer to the wants of the necessitous, to him was also committed 
 the distribution of the goods of the church. To the deacon also, as the 
 eye of the bishop, it belongs to inquire and ascertain who within his 
 diocese lead lives of piety and edification, and who do not ; who attend 
 the holy sacrifice of the mass and the instructions of their pastors, and 
 who do not ; that thus the bishop, made acquainted by him with these 
 matters, may be enabled to admonish each offender privately, or should 
 he deem it more conducive to their reformation, to rebuke and correct 
 them publicly. He also calls over the names of catechumens, and pre- 
 sents to the bishop those who are to be promoted to orders. In the 
 absence of the bishop and priest, he is also authorized to expound the 
 Gospel to the people, not however from an elevated place, to make it 
 understood that this is not one of his ordinary functions. . . . 
 
 " The 3d and highest degree of all Holy Orders is the Priesthood. 
 .... The office of the priest is ... to offer sacrifice to God, and to 
 administer the sacraments of the church : the bishop, and after him the 
 priests who may be present, impose hands on the candidate for priest- 
 hood ; then placing a stole on his shoulders, he adjusts it in form of a 
 cross, to signify that the priest receives strength from above, to enable 
 him to carry the cross of Jesus Christ, to bear the sweet yoke of his 
 divine law, and to enforce this law, not by word only, but also by the 
 eloquent example of a holy life. He next anoints his hands with sacred 
 oil, reaches him a chalice containing wine and a paten with bread, say- 
 ing : ' Receive power to offer sacrifice to God, and to celebrate mass as 
 well for the living as for the dead.' By these words and ceremonies he 
 is constituted an interpreter and mediator between God and man, the 
 principal function of the priesthood. Finally, placing his hands on the 
 head of the person to be ordained, the bishop says : ' Receive ye the 
 Holy Ghost ; whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them : and 
 whose sins you shall retain, they are retained ;' thus investing him with 
 that divine power of forgiving and retaining sins which was conferred 
 by our Lord on his disciples. These are the principal and peculiar 
 functions of the priesthood. 
 
 "The order of priesthood, although essentially one, has different 
 degrees of dignity and power. The first is confined to those who are 
 17
 
 258 THE CLERGY. 
 
 simply called priests, and whose functions we have now explained. The 
 second is that of bishops, who are placed over their respective sees, to 
 govern not only the other ministers of the church, but also the faithful ; 
 and, with sleepless vigilance and unwearied care, to watch over and 
 
 promote their salvation Bishops are also called 'pontiffs/ a 
 
 name borrowed from the ancient Romans, and used to designate their 
 chief priests. The third degree is that of archbishop : he presides over 
 several bishops, and is also called ' metropolitan,' because he is placed 
 over the metropolis of the province. Archbishops, therefore (although 
 their ordination is the same), enjoy more ample power, and a more 
 exalted station than bishops. Patriarchs hold the fourth place, and are, 
 as the name implies, the first and supreme fathers in the episcopal or- 
 der. Superior to all these is the sovereign pontiff, whom Cyril, arch- 
 bishop of Alexandria, denominated in the council of Ephesus, ' the 
 Father and Patriarch ot the whole world/ [See Chapter III.]. . . . 
 " To the bishop belongs exclusively the administration of this sacra- 
 ment Some abbots were occasionally permitted to confer Minor 
 
 Orders : all, however, admit that even this is the proper office of the 
 bishop, to whom, and to whom alone, it is lawful to confer the other 
 orders : subdeacons, deacons, and priests are ordained by one bishop 
 only, but ... he himself is consecrated by 3 bishops." 
 
 The Roman Catholic church regards the clerical dress as of 
 great importance, and has its peculiar uniform for each order 
 of the clergy. Roman Catholic writers, and most Protestants, 
 concur in referring the origin of the peculiar clerical dress to 
 the 4th century. The chief articles may be thus described : 
 
 The alb (from Latin albus = white) is a white linen tunic covering 
 the whole person down to the feet. It is the toga or loose outer gar- 
 ment of the ancient Romans. 
 
 The amice (= amict) is a piece of linen cloth worn on the head 
 and round the neck. 
 
 The biretum (= birretus or biretta) is the closely fitting and pointed 
 cap, usually black, worn by the clergy, by doctors in universities, &c. ; 
 sometimes called simply the cap. 
 
 The calotte is a small cap for covering the crown of the head or the 
 part where the clerical tonsure is made. 
 
 The cassock is a long coat, usually black, worn under the surplice.
 
 THE CLERGY. 259 
 
 The chasuble is an outer garment, open at the sides, with a cross on 
 the back and two stripes representing a pillar in front. The chasuble 
 is " the vestment," properly so called. 
 
 The chime re is a sort of cape, worn by a bishop under the rochet. 
 
 The cincture is a girdle. 
 
 The cope is a long cloak, with a clasp or band at the neck, and the 
 front open below. 
 
 The dalmatic, so named from its imitation of a dress originally worn 
 in Dalmatia, is a long white gown with sleeves, worn by a deacon over 
 the alb and stole. It is rather shorter than the chasuble. 
 
 The maniple is a sort of scarf that the priest wears on his left arm. 
 
 The mitre (= miter) is the double-peaked cap or crown, worn by a 
 bishop or higher dignitary, and in some cases by an abbot. 
 
 The pall (= pallium) is a short white woolen cloak, with a red cross, 
 encircling the neck and shoulders, and falling on the back. It is sent 
 from Rome to every archbishop of the Roman Catholic church, and to 
 the four Latin patriarchs of the East. The cloth of which it is made 
 is woven from the wool of two white lambs, blessed by the pope on the 
 festival of St. Agnes, and deposited on St. Peter's tomb during the eve 
 of his festival. 
 
 The rochet is a linen garment worn by a bishop, and much resem- 
 bling a surplice. 
 
 The stole is a narrow band of silk or other stuff, worn on a deacon's 
 left shoulder, or across both shoulders of a bishop or priest, and hang- 
 ing nearly to the ground ; also called orary. 
 
 The surplice is a long white robe, worn by a priest, &c., and differ- 
 ing from the alb in having wider sleeves. 
 
 The tunic is a subdeacon's outer vestment, and is rather narrower 
 than the dalmatic. 
 
 The following description of the priest's dress during the 
 celebration of the mass, with the emblematic and religious 
 significations of the various articles, is carefully abridged from 
 the late bishop England's explanation of the mass, mostly in 
 his own language : 
 
 The under dress of the priest is a black cassock or gown, which he 
 wears to denote his separation from the world and its vanities. Over 
 his cassock or gown he first puts on the amict, then the alb, which
 
 260 THE CLERGY. 
 
 he girds round him with a cincture, then the maniple on his left 
 arm, the stole on his neck, crossed on his breast, and the chasuble or 
 outer vestment. The vesture of the priest is, with some variations, 
 the ancient Roman dress of state. The emblematic object of the vest- 
 ments was principally to remind us of the passion of Christ. Thus the 
 amict placed on the head, reminds Christians how their Redeemer was 
 blindfolded and spit upon for their transgressions ; and it is intended 
 to excite in the clergyman and his congregation the sentiment of the 
 prayer which is repeated by him when he puts it on : " Place, O Lord, 
 on my head, an helmet of salvation, to repel the assaults of the devil." 
 At present this vestment is altogether covered by the alb, which is an 
 emblem of the white garment in which Herod clad the Savior, when 
 mocking him as a fool, he sent him back to Pilate. The alb teaches us 
 purity ; and this is expressed in the clergyman's prayer when putting 
 on this garment : " Make me white, Lord, and cleanse my heart, that 
 being rendered white by the blood of the Lamb, I may partake of 
 eternal joys." He girds himself with a cincture, as Christ was bound 
 for our crimes ; and the prayer is : " Gird me, Lord, with the cinc- 
 ture of purity, and destroy in my loins every seed of lust ; so that 
 the virtue of continence and chastity may remain in me." The man- 
 iple is an emblem of the weight of our sins laid upon the Savior. The 
 prayer at putting on this vestment is, " May I deserve, O Lord, to bear 
 the maniple of weeping and grief, that I may with exultation receive 
 the reward of labor." The stole, formerly used by public speakers, 
 hung loosely down from the shoulders to the front of the person, and 
 was generally of linen : hence it is thus worn by preachers. It is also 
 the distinctive mark of authority when a number of clergymen are as- 
 sembled together, as, except on a few extraordinary occasions, it is then 
 worn only by the presiding or principal clergyman, and the person who 
 preaches or officiates. It is a sort of yoke laid on the shoulders, and 
 therefore an emblem of the obedience and humility of the Son of God, 
 who, clothing himself in our flesh, took upon him our punishment, that 
 we may be clad in his immortality. When the priest crosses it before 
 his breast, it reminds him that he must have before his heart the pro- 
 tection of the Savior's cross. At putting it on he prays, " Restore 
 unto me, O Lord, the state of immortality, which I have lost in the 
 prevarication of my first parent; and although I approach unwor- 
 thily to thy sacred mystery, may I deserve everlasting joy." The em-
 
 THE CLERGY. 261 
 
 broidered cross on the back of the chasuble, and 2 stripes representing 
 a pillar in front, teach that the priest and the people should carry their 
 cross after Christ, and lean for support upon the church, which St. Paul 
 calls the pillar of truth. This chasuble, exhibiting the cross upon the 
 priest's back, shows how after the purple garment was thrown upon 
 his shoulders, the Redeemer had the cross also laid upon him, bearing 
 which he went to Calvary to offer the sacrifice of our redemption. The 
 prayer said by the priest when he vests himself therewith is, " Lord, 
 who hast said, my yoke is sweet, and my burthen light, grant that I 
 may be able so to bear it as to obtain thy grace." 
 
 Of the difference of color of the vestments on different days, 
 Bishop England speaks thus : 
 
 "The object of the Church is, thus to inform the faithful at once of 
 the sort of office which is performed. Hence, where the means of the 
 congregation will allow of the regulation being carried into effect, she 
 commands that the vestments and hangings of the temple shall be of 
 different colors on different occasions. The colors prescribed are, white, 
 red, violet, green, and black. White is used on the great festivals of 
 our Redeemer, and on the days when we recall to our minds the vir- 
 tues, and entreat the prayers of the Blessed Virgin Mary, of the good 
 angels, and of those saints who served God with fidelity in the practice 
 of virtue, but did not shed their blood by martyrdom. Red is worn 
 on the festivals in honor of the Holy Ghost, who in the form of fiery 
 tongues descended on the apostles ; and on the festivals of those saints 
 who were martyred, as exhibiting their blood. Violet, in times of pen- 
 ance and humiliation ; principally, therefore, in Lent and Advent. 
 Green, oh those days when there is no particular festival or observ- 
 ance ; and black, in masses for the dead, and on Good Friday, when 
 we commemorate the death of the Redeemer." 
 
 The dress of the bishop, <fcc., is thus described by Bishop 
 England : 
 
 " That [the cassock] of a bishop is purple, to signify the superiority 
 of his order, and his authority to rule in the church of God (Acts 20 : 
 28) over which he wears a short white robe called a rochet, to denote 
 the purity with which he should be surrounded, and a cross which hangs 
 
 before his breast to teach him to glory in nothing but the cross 
 
 of his Redeemer. He also sometimes wears a short purple cloak with 
 a hood, which is called a mozette or cappa ; and his mitre, which is of
 
 262 
 
 THE CLERGY. 
 
 Eastern origin, differs considerably in its shape from that of Aaron and 
 Jewish priests. The two pieces which hang from it behind, are the 
 lappets or ribbons, which formerly were used to bind it under his chin, 
 but which are now seldom, if ever, u-ed for that purpose. He also 
 carries a crosier, which has at its top a shepherd's 
 crook, to denote that he id one of those pastors 
 charged by the Savior with the care of his flock 
 and on some very solemn occasions, such as an 
 ordination, he wears the dresses of the inferior 
 orders with his own, to show that he contains them 
 hi himself, and is the source from which their au- 
 thority is derived. An archbishop's cross has two 
 transverse pieces, and the pope's has three, to de- 
 note their gradations of rank or power. And he who 
 wears a cross upon his breast, does not bring the 
 stole across when he prepares to celebrate the 
 mass. . . . l 
 
 "The clergymen in minor orders wear the 
 black cassock, over which they wear a surplice or 
 white robe, to signify purity and innocence. This 
 also is the usual dress of priests, deacons, and sub- 
 deacons, except on the more solemn occasions." 
 The clerical dress is often of costly material and richly orna- 
 
 ARMS OF THE ARCHBISHOP 
 OF BALTIMORE. 
 
 ARMS OF THE ARCHBISHOP 
 OF NEW YORK. 
 
 1 The inscriptions or mottoes on the arms of the archbishops of Baltimore and 
 New York here represented are thus translated : "Auspice Maria " = Mary being 
 protector ; " Cluudtt et aperit " = shuts and opens, a reference, of course, to Matt. 
 16 : 19, and perhaps to Rev. 3:7. Each cut has a mitre, archbishop's cross, cro- 
 sier, and hat ; that of Baltimore has Mary and the infant Jesus ; that of New York 
 has the keys and mitre instead.
 
 THE CLERGY. 263 
 
 mented with embroidery, jewels, &c. Among the " Vestments 
 with real gold or silver embroidery and silk lining," advertised 
 by Benziger Brothers, are the following : 
 
 " Cross and sides embroidered on real gold-cloth ; and real gold gal- 
 loons, from $250 to $500 in gold. 
 
 " Cross and sides embroidered on white moire-antique or watered 
 silk ; real gold galloons, from $200 to $300 in gold. 
 
 " Cross embroidered on red, purple, green or black silk velvet ; sides 
 of same material, plain ; real gold or silver galloons, from $100 to 
 $175 in gold." 
 
 The vestments of this class vary in price from $500 down to $60 
 in gold. Tho?e of the next class " Vestments with half-fine embroid- 
 ery, and half-fine galloons and fringes ; silk lining " are from $75 
 down to $45 in gold. Those of the third class " Vestments inter- 
 woven with real gold or silver, with half-fine or silk galloons and 
 fringes ; silk lining " are from $90 down to $30 in gold. Those 
 of the fourth class "Vestments interwoven with imitation gold or 
 silver ; imitation or silk galloons and fringes ; muslin lining" are from 
 $40 down to $11 in gold; the cheapest of these having "cross and 
 sides of plain, white, red, purple, green or black damask, or plain cot- 
 ton velvet," and costing from $11 to $15 in gold. Finally, "Mission- 
 ary vestments, without buckram and lining, red cross and white sides 
 on one side, and purple cross and green sides on the other, with silk 
 galloons, of plain damask or marquisette," cost from $22 to $30 in 
 gold ; while those of " plain, first quality silk damask," cost from $40 
 to $50 in gold. 
 
 " Copes," also, are arranged in four classes, varying in price from 
 $500 down to $20 in gold. 
 
 "Dalmatics, with stole and 2 maniples, to match the different 
 qualities of vestments," cost, " per pair, about double the price of a 
 vestment of same quality." 
 
 " Complete suits of first quality vestments," embracing "the chasu- 
 ble, the 2 dalmatics, and the cope," cost in gold $800, $620, $1000, 
 $590, &c. 
 
 " Preaching stoles with tassels " cost from $3.50 up to $75. 
 
 " Stoles for confession (small)," made of " plain damask, one side 
 white, the other purple," cost from $1 to $4 in gold.
 
 264 THE CLERGY. 
 
 " Benediction-veils," of " white moire-antique or watered silk, with 
 real gold embroidery, silk lining," are from $45 to $150 in gold; they 
 are also of various inferior qualities and prices, down to the " white 
 damask, interwoven with imitation gold and flowers, muslin lining," the 
 price of which is from $6 to $15 in gold. 
 
 " Cinctures " of " white linen " cost from 50 to 75 cents ; x>f " silk, 
 white, red, purple, green, or black," cost $1.25 to $4 in gold. 
 
 " Albs," of " pure linen," are of various prices, those " with French- 
 lace skirt and sleeves," from $5 to $12 ; " with plain Bru s sels-lace," 
 $13 to $20 ; " with Brussels-lace, very rich," from $25 to $60 in gold. 
 
 " Surplices, all lace, according to quality," are from $5 to $25 in 
 gold. 
 
 " Mitres " are also furnished, " plain, and embroidered on gold-cloth ;" 
 but the prices are not given. 
 
 " Benzigcr Brothers," from whose catalogue of vestments, 
 &c., the preceding descriptions and prices are taken, are 
 " printers to the holy apostolic see, publishers and booksellers, 
 manufacturers and importers," in New York and Cincinnati. 
 Their authority, therefore, in this department, is the highest 
 to be found in our land. 
 
 The various articles of dress worn by the Roman Catholic 
 clergy are expected and intended to affect the senses and 
 through them the feelings of the people. Their number and 
 form, the elaborateness and splendor of their construction and 
 ornamentation, the changes in them for different times and oc- 
 casions, the mystical and religious meanings attributed to 
 them, make a most forcible appeal to the admiration and affec- 
 tion of multitudes. The clerical dress unquestionably aids to 
 give importance and honor and power to those who wear it as 
 a badge of sanctity, and who are openly distinguished by it as 
 a separate and privileged class. 
 
 The Council of Trent, as has been already noticed, made 
 provision for training young men for the priesthood in ecclesi- 
 astical seminaries. The " decree on reformation," passed at 
 the 23d session of the council, makes it the duty of every ca- 
 thedral, metropolitan, or higher church, to furnish a religious
 
 THE CLERGY. 265 
 
 and ecclesiastical education for a certain number of boys be- 
 longing to its city, diocese, or province. These boys are to be 
 at least 12 years old, of legitimate birth, able to read and 
 write competently, and selected for this purpose especially 
 from the sons of the poor, without however excluding the 
 sons of the rich who may desire to serve God and the church 
 and pay for their own education ; they are to take the tonsure 
 immediately, and always use the clerical dress ; they are to be 
 instructed in grammar, singing, ecclesiastical computation, and 
 other good arts ; they are to learn the Holy Scripture, ecclesi- 
 astical books, homilies of saints, and the forms of sacraments 
 and rites and ceremonies. 
 
 Cardinal Wiseman, in answering the charge of ignorance 
 brought against the Spanish clergy, gives the course of pre- 
 paratory studies for the priesthood in Spain 25 years ago, thus : 
 " 3 years' study of philosophy, and 7 years' of theology. Such 
 is the course which we found followed in the seminary of Cor- 
 dova, and in the university of Seville ; and such, we were as- 
 sured, was the course everywhere enjoined, and even required 
 by the government. Now this course comprises Scripture, 
 moral and dogmatical theology, and ecclesiastical and canon 
 law." 
 
 Both the plenary councils held in Baltimore in 1852 and 
 1866 enjoined observance of this provision of the council of 
 Trent. The decrees of the 2d plenary council of Baltimore 
 set forth the desirableness of having in every diocese a theo- 
 logical seminary properly so called, and also a small or prepar- 
 atory seminary, and require one seminary at least of each 
 class in every province. In the preparatory seminaries, the 
 pupils of which " must be at least 12 years old and of legiti- 
 mate birth," the youth study, besides the English language, 
 Latin and Greek, and the other things usually taught to Roman 
 Catholic boys, also the Gregorian chant, and at least the first 
 elements of liturgies, and of biblical and ecclesiastical history. 
 In the other or larger seminaries, the best masters to be had 
 are to instruct in whatever is needful for the proper discharge
 
 266 THE CLERGY. 
 
 of the priestly office, especially in theology as related to both 
 morals and doctrines, in the rudiments of the canon law, in 
 hermeneutics or the interpretation of the sacred books, and in 
 the rules of sacred eloquence. One year at least the last of 
 philosophy, or the first of theology all must devote to the 
 study of Hebrew. German must also be studied in the larger 
 or smaller seminaries, sufficiently at least, to enable the pupils 
 to grant absolution in case of necessity. 
 
 The pastoral letter of the 2d plenary council of Baltimore 
 sets forth the deficiency of youthful aspirants to the ministry, 
 notwithstanding the extraordinary inducements held out to 
 them in the preparatory and theological seminaries ; expresses 
 the fear that the fault lies, in great part, with worldly-minded 
 parents ; urges such parents to represent the priesthood to their 
 children only as a sublime and holy state, having not only most 
 sacred duties and obligations, but also the promise of God's 
 grace and blessing ; and continues : 
 
 " And whilst speaking to you upon this subject, we would renew our 
 exhortations to the faithful, to contribute to the extent of their means 
 to the diocesan fund for the support of ecclesiastical students. Sit- 
 uated as the church is in this country, with a Catholic population so 
 rapidly increasing from emigration, there is no work of charity that 
 can take precedence of it, and none which will bring so rich a reward." 
 
 In respect to the Roman Catholic priesthood in the United 
 States, the late Rev. Hiram Mattison, D.D., a well-informed 
 leading minister of the Methodist Episcopal church, wrote thus 
 in 1868 : 
 
 " A lack of priests, and especially of American born priests, has been a 
 sore embarrassment to American Romanism for years ; but they are 
 beginning now to get over this difficulty ; and the prospect is, that 
 their priesthood will increase hereafter much faster than it has hitherto 
 done, and that they will be more Americans and far more efficient than 
 the imported priests with which most of their churches have hitherto 
 been manned. 
 
 " As to the culture and ability of their priests, they are both greatly 
 overrated by Protestants generally. They have generally a kind of 
 classical education, but it is usually very defective. They are well
 
 THE CLERGY. 267 
 
 drilled in Papal church-history and other lore ; can tell you all about 
 the saints and their wonderful miracles ; but in science and general 
 literature they have but little knowledge. Once in their parishes, with 
 little or no preaching to do, and a liturgy for every thing, few sermons 
 to prepare, and little occasion for study, and living high, and associa- 
 ting little with the world, unless it be with priests, or with the most ig- 
 norant classes in the community, the mind stagnates, and loses all its 
 love for study, and ability to think and labor. The result is, that not- 
 withstanding the college diploma, and a little memorized Latin in the 
 services, the Roman priesthood are, intellectually, among the weakest 
 men in the nation. How seldom do we hear of one who can make a 
 decent speech of ten minutes in public, or write a readable lecture or 
 newspaper article ! Upon the platform or in debate they are in no re- 
 spect equal to the average of Protestant ministers ; so that if their suc- 
 cess was to be inferred from the ability of their priests there would be 
 little to fear." 
 
 The rise and progress of celibacy in the church, especially in 
 reference to a monastic life, are noticed in Chapters II. and VIII. 
 The determined efforts of Gregory VII. to put an end to mar- 
 riage among the clergy are also spoken of in the account of 
 him in Chapter III. From what has already been said in the 
 present Chapter it is evident that all ecclesiastics, or persons 
 in orders, whether in the major or minor orders, are bound to 
 perpetual celibacy. The council of Trent uttered the follow- 
 ing anathema in the 9th canon on matrimony : 
 
 " If any one shall say, that ecclesiastics in holy orders, or regulars, 
 having made a solemn profession of chastity, may contract marriage, 
 and that the contract is valid, in spite of ecclesiastical law or vow ; and 
 that the opposite doctrine is nothing else than a condemnation of mar- 
 riage, and that all persons who do not find themselves possessed of the 
 gift of chastity, though they may have vowed it, may contract marriage ; 
 let him be accursed." 
 
 Celibacy has now been for centuries rigidly enforced among all 
 the Roman Catholic clergy, except among the Maronites, Armeni- 
 an Catholics, Greek Catholics, and other Oriental Christians in 
 connection with the see of Rome, whose clergy marry before or- 
 diaation, but not afterwards. In contrast with this present
 
 268 THE CLERGY. 
 
 practice of the Roman Catholic church, are the examples of 
 the apostle Peter himself, whom the New Testament represents 
 as a married man (Matt. 8 : 14. 1 Cor. 9 : 5, &c.), and of the 
 immediate ancestors of St. Patrick who lived in the 4th cen- 
 tury and were married clergymen, as St. Patrick thus informs 
 us in his Confession or Letter to the Irish : 
 
 " I, Patrick, a sinner, the rudest and the least of the faithful, and 
 despicable among many, had for my father, Calpurnius, a deacon, the 
 son of Potitus, formerly a presbyter, who was the son of Odissius, who 
 lived in Bonaven, a village of Tabemia " [formerly supposed to be in 
 Scotland, but now regarded by high authorities as Boulogne, in the 
 north of France]. 
 
 The oath of conformity to the church and obedience to the 
 pope, which is found at the end of the creed of pope Pius IV., 
 and which all beneficed priests, professors, and bishops are 
 obliged to take, is given in Chapter II. ; the special oath of 
 bishops is given in a subsequent part of this chapter. 
 
 Among the decrees of the plenary council of Baltimore con- 
 firming former decrees of the provincial council of Baltimore 
 respecting priests, we have the following : 
 
 " Since it has often been doubted by some, whether the prelates of 
 the church in these united provinces had the power of assigning the 
 priests to the sacred ministry in any part of their dioceses, and of re- 
 calling them thence, according to their judgment in the Lord; we ad- 
 monish all priests living in these dioceses, whether ordained in them, 
 or received in them, that, mindful of their promise at ordination, they 
 may not refuse to devote themselves to any mission designated by the 
 bishop, if the bishop judges that sufficient provision can be had there 
 for sustaining life decently, and the office agrees with the strength and 
 health of the priests themselves. We do not wish, however, by this 
 declaration, to make any innovation in respect to those who held paro- 
 chial benefices, only one of which, namely in New Orleans, do we yet 
 recognize in these provinces ; nor do we intend at all to derogate from 
 the privileges which have been granted to the Religious by the Holy 
 See." 
 
 The council, after decreeing that a church should never
 
 THE CLERGY. 269 
 
 have several co-ordinate pastors, but one pastor only, with one 
 or more assistants, if necessary ; and expressing their desire to 
 have the provinces especially in the larger cities, divided into 
 districts like parishes, one for each church, and each curate in- 
 vested with parochial or quasi-parochial rights, proceed thus : 
 " We do not at all intend, by the use of the terms ' parochial right,' 
 * parish,' and ' curate,' to attribute to the rector of any church the right, 
 so-called, of immovability ; or to take away or in any way diminish the 
 power, which, according to the discipline received in these provinces, 
 the bishop has of depriving any priest of office or of transferring him 
 to another place. But we admonish and exhort the bishops to refrain 
 from using this right of theirs except for weighty reasons and just 
 grounds." 
 
 The 3d chapter of title III. in the " Decrees of the 2d Ple- 
 nary Council of Baltimore " is on the election of bishops, and 
 provides that every third year every prelate in the United 
 States shall send to the metropolitan of his province and also 
 to the Congregation of the Propaganda at Rome a list of the 
 names of priests whom he regards as worthy and fit for the 
 office of bishop, this list to be prepared with the greatest care 
 and secrecy, and with reference to a schedule of 14 " notions 
 and questions " respecting the necessary qualifications that 
 when any see, metropolitan or episcopal, becomes vacant, all 
 the prelates of the province shall assemble in council or special 
 convention, and discuss the qualifications of 3 or more candi- 
 dates who may have been recommended for this vacancy by the 
 deceased prelate in a sealed letter or otherwise by the nearest 
 bishop or senior bishop or the archbishop, and shall then vote 
 by secret ballot respecting each candidate that the acts of 
 the convention shall be sent to the Congregation of the Propa- 
 ganda that the opinions of the other archbishops respecting 
 the candidates, and, in case any candidate belongs in another 
 province, of his bishop or metropolitan, shall also be forwarded 
 to Rome and that the Holy See, having full liberty to choose 
 bishops, may fill the vacancy by appointing to it one of those 
 recommended or some other one. In case a bishop wishes a
 
 270 THE CLERGY. 
 
 coadjutor, he names 3 candidates, and presents his petition to 
 the Congregation of the Propaganda, and the archbishop and 
 other bishops send thither their opinion respecting the candi- 
 dates before the pope makes any appointment. 
 
 The following account of the consecration of 3 Roman Cath- 
 olic bishops in St. Patrick's cathedral, New York city, on Sun- 
 day, Oct. 30, 1853, is from the New York Daily Times of the 
 next day. 
 
 " The ceremonies were of a most imposing character, and continued 
 from 1 1 A. M. to 4 p. M. At 9 A. M. the doors were opened, and in a 
 short time every available seat was occupied. Until the procession 
 had entered, the main aisle was kept clear, but soon afterwards both 
 main and side aisles were crowded. The proceeds ($1 for each admis- 
 sion) are to be set apart for the benefit of the ' Brothers of Christian Char- 
 ity,' to assist in the erection of their Normal School at Manhattanville. 
 The bishops consecrated were Rt. Rev. John Loughlin (Irish), bishop 
 of Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Rt. Rev. James Roosevelt Bayley (American) 
 bishop of Newark, N. J. ; and Louis de Goesbriand (French), bishop 
 of Burlington, Vt. Monsignor 1 Bedini, Papal nuncio, consented to 
 perform the ceremony. Outside of the cathedral there was a large 
 crowd assembled to witness the procession, which at 1 1 o'clock formed 
 at the archbishop's house, in Mulberry St., and marched to the main 
 entrance, and through the centre aisle of the cathedral in order of pro- 
 cession There were nearly 50 priests robed in vestments of the finest 
 material, satin richly wrought in blue, scarlet, and gold ; 6 bishops at- 
 tired in full pontificals, with mitre, and cope, and crook. Over his Ex- 
 cellency, Monsignor Bedini, was borne a canopy of scarlet velvet. Hav- 
 ing reached the front of the altar, each made obeisance and took seats 
 inside and around the altar railings. The assistant bishops were: 
 Bishops Rappe of Cleveland, and McCloskey of Albany. The pre- 
 senters were : Bishops Timon of Buffalo, Fitzpatrick of Boston, and 
 O'Reilly of Hartford. 
 
 " Having gone before the altar, Monsignor Bedini was conducted to 
 
 1 Monsiynor (Italian) or Monseigneur (French) signifies " my lord," and is a title 
 of archbishops and other prelates. Bedini was an Italian, a Papal nuncio, styled 
 Archbishop of Thebes, who spent several months in this country in 1853, having 
 been charged, it was said, with an important mission to our government, on his 
 way to Brazil.
 
 THE CLERGY. 271 
 
 the throne on the right, and then vested ; the bishop's clerk, accom- 
 panied by the assistant bishops, went to the side chapel to vest. JMon- 
 signor then took his seat before the middle of the altar, and the assist- 
 ant bishop, wearing the mitre, and clothed in a richly wrought cope, 
 presented the bishops elect, who each wore a biretum. 
 
 " The senior assistant bishop said : ' Most reverend father, our holy 
 mother, the Catholic Church, requires of you to raise this priest, here 
 present, to the burdensome office of a bishop.' 
 
 " Monsiguor Bedini ' Have you the Apostolic commission ? ' 
 
 " Presenting bishops ' We have.' 
 
 " Moasignor Bedini ' Let it be read.' 
 
 " Rev. Mr. McCarron, Notary to the Consecrator, received and read 
 the Apostolic mandate, in Latin. At its close, Monsignor Bedini said, 
 * Deo gratias ' \_= Thanks to God]. 
 
 " The bishops elect then knelt and severally read the following oath 
 [in Latin] : ' Elect of the church of N., I shall, from this hour, hence- 
 forward be obedient to blessed Peter, the Apostle, and to the holy Ro- 
 man Church, and to the blessed Father, Pope N., and to his successors 
 canonically chosen. I shall assist them to retain and defend against 
 any man whatever, the Roman pontificate, without prejudice to my 
 rank. I shall take care to preserve, defend, and promote the rights, 
 honors, privileges, and authority of the holy Roman Church, of the 
 Pope, and of his successors, as aforesaid. With my whole strength I 
 shall observe, and cause to be observed by others, the rules of the holy 
 Fathers, the decrees, ordinances, or dispositions, and mandates of the 
 Apostolic see. When called to a synod, I shall come, unless prevented 
 by a canonical impediment. I shall perform all the things aforesaid> 
 by a certain messenger, specially authorized for this purpose, a priest 
 of the diocese, or by some other secular, or regular priest of tried vir- 
 tue and piety, well instructed on all the above subjects. I shall not 
 sell, nor give away, nor mortgage, enfeoff anew, nor in any way alien- 
 ate the possessions belonging to my table, without the leave of the Ro- 
 man Pontiff. And should I proceed to any alienation of them, I am 
 willing to contract, by the very fact, the penalties specified in the con- 
 stitution published on this subject.' The Consecrator held the Gospels 
 open on his lap, and received the oath from the bishops elect, who, 
 kneeling, also placed both hands upon the book, and said : ' So may 
 God help me, and these holy Gospels of God.'
 
 272 THE CLERGY. 
 
 " The bishop elect and the assistant bishops now took their seats, and 
 while the consecrator read aloud the examen [= examination], the 
 assistant bishops accompanied his words in a low voice. The con- 
 cludino' questions were answered by the bishops elect. ' Ita ex tola 
 corde, vo!o in omnibus consentire et obedire' [= Thus from my whole 
 heart I desire in all things to consent and to obey]. 
 
 " Among the questions in the examination are the following : 
 
 " Consec. ' Wilt thou teach, both by word and example, the people 
 for whom thou art to be ordained, those things which thou understand- 
 est from the holy Scriptures ? ' 
 
 Elect' I will.' 
 
 " Ques. ' Wilt thou with veneration receive, teach, and keep the 
 traditions of the orthodox fathers, and the decretal constitutions of the 
 holy and apostolic see ? ' 
 
 " Ans. ' I will.' 
 
 " Ques. 'Wilt thou exhibit in all things, fidelity, subjection, and 
 obedience, according to canonical authority, to the blessed Peter the 
 Apostle, to whom was given by God the power of binding and loosing ; 
 and to his Vicar our Lord Pope Pius IX., and to his successors the 
 Roman Pontiffs ? ' 
 
 "Ans.' I will.' 
 
 " The examination having closed, the bishops elect were led to the 
 consecrator before whom they knelt and reverently kissed his hand. 
 Monsignor Bedini, laying off his mitre, turned to the altar, and com- 
 menced the mass, the bishops elect being at his left hand, and the as- 
 sistant bishops at their seats. After the ' confession,' the bishops elect 
 went to the small chapel, laid aside the cope, and, opening the stole, 
 put on the pastoral crook, girded on the stole without crossing it on the 
 breast, were vested with the tunic, dalmatic, and chasuble, and put on 
 the sandals, and, returning, continued the ma*s. The litanies and 
 masses were continued, varying from the usual forms to admit particu- 
 lar ceremonies of the consecration, the bishops elect being part of the 
 time prostrate at the left of the consecrator. The litanies concluded, 
 the consecrator, aided by the assistant bishops, opened the book of Gos- 
 pels, and laid it on the neck and shoulders of the bishops elect severally: 
 each of the bishops touching the head of the bishop elect, saving, ' Re- 
 ceive thou the Holy Ghost.' 
 
 "After prayer, the heads of the bishops elect were bound with linen,
 
 THE CLERGY. 273 
 
 and they then approached Monsignor Bedini severally ; he, kneeling 
 before the altar, began the hymn [of invocation to the Holy Spirit] 
 ' Veni, Creator Spiritus ' [= Come, Creator Spirit], which was contin- 
 ued by the choir. Madam Steffanone was engaged, and sang some solo 
 passages with beautiful effect. When the first verse was performed, 
 the consecrator took his seat in front of the altar, put on his mitre, and 
 taking off his ring and gloves, again put on the ring, and dipping the 
 thumb of his right hand in chrism, he anointed therewith the head 
 of the bishop elect, who knelt before him, first making the sign of the 
 cross upon the crown, and then anointing it entirely, saying, ' May thy 
 head be anointed and consecrated with heavenly blessing in the pontifi- 
 cal order.' 
 
 "The 131st Psalm was then sung by the choir. \VhiIedoingso, 
 the consecrator anointed the hands of the bishop elect, then blessed 
 and handed him the crook or staff of the pastoral office, then blessed 
 the episcopal rings, and placed one on the annular finger of each bishop 
 elect, saying, ' Take this ring as a token of fidelity, so that being gifted 
 with inviolate faith, thou mayst guard the spouse of Christ his holy 
 Church.' 
 
 " The consecrator then took the book of the Gospels from the should- 
 ers of the consecrated, and, together with the assistant bishops, handed it 
 closed to the consecrated, who touched it, the consecrator at the time 
 saying, ' Receive the Gospel, go preach to the people committed to thy 
 care, for God is powerful, that he may increase his grace in thy behalf; 
 who lives and reigns forever.' Amen. 
 
 " The consecrator and the assistant bishops now received the conse- 
 crated to the kiss of peace on the right cheek. The consecrated re- 
 turned with the assistant bishops to his chapel, where he continued the 
 mass to the offertory. The consecrator in like manner continued the 
 mass." 
 
 Archbishop Hughes then preached a sermon from 1 Peter 2 : 
 25, extolling the office of a Roman Catholic bishop. The ser- 
 mon being finished, 
 
 " Monsignor Bedini took his seat before the altar, and the conse- 
 crated bishops, attended by the assistant bishops, presenting themselves, 
 knelt before the consecrator, and offered him 2 lighted torches, 2 loaves, 
 and 2 little casks of wine, then kissed the consecrator's hand. The 
 consecrator and the consecrated bishops then continued the mass at the 
 18
 
 274 THE CLERGY. 
 
 same altar, the latter at the epistle side. The Te Deum was intoned 
 by Monsignor Bedini, his mitre being laid aside, in a full, clear voice. 
 After it had commenced, the consecrated bishops, each between two 
 other bishops, walked down the centre aisle, giving their blessing to 
 the people as they passed, who knelt to receive it. After singing the 
 4 antiphon ' and some other ceremonies, the consecrated bishops received 
 the kiss of peace from their brethren, and the ceremonies concluded." 
 
 The oath which is given above as taken by the bishops is 
 considerably shorter than that which has been taken for cen- 
 turies in Roman Catholic countries ; but agrees with the form 
 given by the late archbishop Kenrick of Baltimore, who says, 
 " the present pope, at the solicitation of the bishops of the 6th 
 council of Baltimore [1846], consented to the omission of the 
 feudal phrases, and sanctioned this simpler formulary, to be 
 used by all the bishops in the United States." Yet a gentle- 
 man who was present at the ceremonies of Oct. 80, 1853, was 
 confident that the longer oath given in the Pontificate Roman- 
 um which he held in his hand at the time, was taken by the 
 bishops elect, and the Decrees of the Plenary council of Balti- 
 more in 1866 contain no modification of the oath. It is believed 
 that nothing regarded as essential was omitted then or is omit- 
 ted now. The oath, as given above, certainly appears to be 
 incomplete. The original oath is thus translated from the Pon- 
 tificale Romanum, published by authority of the popes and re- 
 published at Rome in 1869 by the Congregation of Rites and 
 the Propaganda. 1 
 
 " I, N., elect of the church of N., from this hour henceforward will 
 be " faithful and obedient to the blessed Peter the apostle, and to the 
 holy Roman church, and to our lord, the lord N. [Pius] pope N. [IX.], 
 and to his successors canonically coming in. I will not advise, or con- 
 sent, or do anything, that they may lose life or member, or be taken by an 
 evil deception, or have hands violently laid upon them in any way, or have 
 
 1 The large cut opposite this page is copied from one in the Pontificale Romanum, 
 edition of 1818. 
 
 2 The words in Italics are not in the oath as recorded in the preceding account 
 of the consecration of the bishops, Oct. 30, 1853.
 
 THE CLERGY. 275 
 
 injuries offered to them under any pretense whatsoever. The counsel in- 
 deed, which they shall intrust to me, by themselves, or by their messengers, 
 or letters, I will not, to their harm, knowingly reveal to any one. The 
 Roman papacy and the royalties of St. Peter, I will help them to retain 
 and defend, without prejudice to my order, against every man. The legate 
 of the apostolic see in his going and returning, I will treat honorably and 
 help in his necessities. The rights, honors, privileges, and authority of 
 the holy Roman church, of our lord the pope, and of his aforesaid suc- 
 cessors, I will take care to preserve, defend, increase, and promote. 
 Nor will I be in any counsel, or deed, or working, in which any things 
 may be contrived against our lord himself or the said Roman church, to 
 the injury or prejudice of their persons, right, honor, state, and power. 
 And, if I shall know such things to be taken in hand or managed by any 
 whomsoever, I will hinder this as far as I can ; and as soon as I shall 
 be able, I will make it known to our said lord, or to some other one, by 
 whom it may come to his knowledge. The rules of the holy Fathers, the 
 decrees, ordinances, or dispositions, reservations, provisions, and man- 
 dates apostolical, I will observe with all my might and cause to be ob- 
 served by others. Heretics, schismatics, and rebels against our said 
 lord or his aforesaid successors I will, as far as I can, follow after * and 
 Jight against. When called to a synod, I will come, unless I shall be 
 prevented by a canonical impediment. 1 will myself personally visit 
 the thresholds of the apostles [i. e. Rome~\ every three years 2 ; and I will 
 render to our lord and his aforesaid successors an account of my whole 
 pastoral office and of all things in anywise pertaining to the state of my 
 church, to the discipline of the clergy and people, finally to the salvation 
 of the souls committed to my trust ; and I will in turn humbly receive 
 and with the utmost diligence perform the apostolic commands. But if 
 I shall be detained by a lawful impediment, I will perform all the things 
 aforesaid by a certain messenger specially authorized for this purpose, 
 one of my chapter, or some other one placed in ecclesiastical dignity, 
 
 1 The Latin word here is persequar, from which comes our word " persecute," 
 and which literally signifies " follow perseveringly," hence " pursue," " hunt after," 
 "prosecute," or "persecute." 
 
 2 This period applies to those in Italy and its vicinity ; once hi 4 years is the 
 rule for those in France, Spain, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, &c. ; once 
 in 5 years for those in remoter parts of Europe, in North Africa, &c. ; once in 10 
 years for those in Asia, America, &c. Thus the Pontificate Romanian determines.
 
 276 
 
 THE CLERGY. 
 
 or else having a parsonage ; or, if these are lacking to me, by a priest 
 of the diocese ; and, if the clergy are altogether lacking, by some other 
 secular or regular presbyter, of tried honesty and piety, well-instructed 
 in all the above named subjects. In respect to an impediment of this 
 sort, however, I will give information by legitimate proofs, to be transmit" 
 ted by the aforesaid messenger to the Cardinal proponent of the holy Ro- 
 man church in the Congregation of the Sacred Council. Assuredly the 
 possessions belonging to my table I will not sell, nor give away, nor 
 pledge, nor infeoff anew, or in any way alienate, even with the consent 
 of the chapter of my church, without consulting the Roman pontiff. 
 And if I shall make any alienation, I desire by that very act to incur 
 the penalties set forth in a certain constitution published on this sub- 
 ject. 
 
 " So help me God and these holy Gospels of God." 
 
 The Roman Catholic priests, theological seminaries and ecclesiastical 
 institutions, and ecclesiastical, clerical, or theological students in the 
 archdioceses and dioceses in the United States are thus reported in 
 Sadliers' Catholic Directory for 1870 and 1871 The archdioceses are 
 marked "A." ; the dioceses " D." ; and vicariates apostolic " V. A." 
 
 Theol. Stnd. 
 1870 1871 
 
 Dioceses. 
 
 Priests. Theol. Sem. 
 
 
 1870 1871 1870-1 
 
 Baltimore A. 
 
 195 
 
 195 
 
 12 
 
 
 Cincinnati " 
 
 131 
 
 145 
 
 2 
 
 
 New York 
 
 210 
 
 229 
 
 1 
 
 
 New Orleans " 
 
 145 
 
 153 
 
 1 
 
 
 St. Louis " 
 
 180 
 
 180 
 
 1 
 
 
 Oregon City " 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 .. 
 
 
 San Francisco " 
 
 92 
 
 92 
 
 . . 
 
 
 Albany D. 
 
 170 
 
 170 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Alton 
 
 96 
 
 103 
 
 1 
 
 
 Boston ) 
 
 1 OO 
 
 143 
 
 . . 
 
 
 Springfield (established 1870_)D. ] 
 
 183 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 Brooklyn D. 
 
 81 
 
 91 
 
 1 
 
 
 Buffalo " 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 1 
 
 
 Burlington [Vt] " 
 Charleston [S. C.]" 
 
 28 
 18 
 
 28 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 Chicago " 
 
 142 
 
 154 
 
 . . 
 
 
 Cleveland " 
 
 107 
 
 117 
 
 2 
 
 
 Columbus [Ohio ] " 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Covington 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 Detroit 
 
 88 
 
 93 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Dubuque 
 
 80 
 
 98 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Erie 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 . . 
 
 
 Fort Wayne 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Galveston 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Grass Valley [Cal.] 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 31 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 45 
 
 52 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 95 
 
 68 
 
 30 
 10 
 
 30 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 '. 11 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 12
 
 THE CLERGY. 
 
 277 
 
 Diocese*. 
 
 Priests. Theol. Sem. 
 
 
 1870 1871 1870-1 
 
 Hartford D. 
 
 95 
 
 95 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Harrisburg 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 .. 
 
 
 La Crosse 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 . . 
 
 
 Little Rock 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 . . 
 
 
 Louisville 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 2 
 
 
 Marquette and Sault St. Marie D. 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 Milwaukee D. 
 
 144 
 
 153 
 
 2 
 
 
 Mobile 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 
 Monterey and Los Angeles [Cal.] D. 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Nashville D. 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 . 
 
 
 Natchez 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 Natchitoches " 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Nesqualy [Washington Ter.l D 
 Newark [N. J.] D. 
 
 12 
 92 
 
 13 
 
 88 
 
 *2 
 
 
 Philadelphia " 
 
 169 
 
 170 
 
 4 
 
 
 Pittsburg " 
 
 110 
 
 129 
 
 1 
 
 
 Portland [Me.] " 
 
 38 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 Richmond [Va.] " 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 
 Rochester [N.Y.J " 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 Santa Fe 
 
 81 
 
 81 
 
 . 
 
 
 Savannah 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 . 
 
 
 Scranton " 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 . 
 
 
 St. Joseph [Mo.] " 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 . 
 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 Vincennes " 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 1 
 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 . 
 
 
 Wilmington [Del.] D. 
 Colorado and Utah V. A. 
 
 12 
 11 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 Idaho 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 Florida " \ 
 
 
 14 
 
 . 
 
 
 St Augustine D. J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kansas V. A. 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 . 
 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 N. Carolina " 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 3784 
 
 3968 
 
 36 
 
 
 Theol. Stud. 
 1870 1871 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 90 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 138 
 
 155 
 
 * 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 . . . 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 1086 
 
 952 
 
 These statistics, imperfect, yet the best obtainable, show a gain in 
 1 year of 184 priests, and a loss of 134 ecclesiastical students for the 
 same period, the number of seminaries remaining the same. Making 
 allowance for 3 vicariates apostolic (Arizona, Montana, and the Indian 
 Territory Ea^t of the Rocky Mountains) which are not reported in the 
 Directory for 1871, we may estimate the present number of Roman Cath- 
 olic priests in the United States at just about 4,000. If we suppose the 
 ratio of priests and ecclesiastical students to be the same in the dioceses, 
 &c., which do not report the latter as in those which report both, we 
 shall obtain about 1400 as the whole number of Americans now study- 
 ing for the Roman Catholic priesthood. 
 
 The following list of archbishops, bishop-", and vicars apostolic is 
 from Sadliers' Catholic Directory for 1870, with notes designating the 
 changes made in that for 1871. In the 1st column " A. " stands for
 
 278 
 
 THE CLERGY. 
 
 Archdiocese, " D." for Diocese, and " V. A." for Vicariate Apostolic ; 
 the bishops and archbishops follow in the 2d column ; and the dates 
 of their consecration (marked " C.") and of translation to their present 
 dioceses (marked " tr.") in the 3d column. 
 
 PROVINCE OF BALTIMORE. 
 
 BIOCESB. 
 
 Baltimore, A., 
 
 Most Rev. Martin John Spalding, D.D., C. Sept. 10, 1848 ; tr. May 6, 1864. 
 Charleston, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Patrick N. Lynch, D.D., 
 Erie, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Tobias Mullen, D.D., 
 Harrisburg, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Jeremiah F. Shanahan, D.D., " July 12, 1868. 
 Philadelphia, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. James F. Wood, D.D., 
 Pittsburg, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Michael Domenec, D.D., 
 Richmond, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John McGill, D.D., 
 Savannah, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Augustine Vdrot, 1 D.D., 
 Scranton, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. William O'Hara, D.D., 
 Wheeling, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Richard V. Whelan, D.D., 
 Wilmington, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Thomas A. Becker, D.D., 
 Florida, V. A., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Augustine Verot, 1 D.D., 
 North Carolina, V. A., 
 
 Rt. Rev. James Gibbons, D.D., 
 
 " Mar. 14, 1858. 
 " Aug. 12, 1868. 
 
 " April 26, 1857. 
 
 " Dec. 9, 1860. 
 
 " Nov. 10, 1850. 
 
 " April 25, 1858 ; tr. July 14, 1861 
 
 " July 12, 1868. 
 
 " Mar. 21, 1841 ; tr. in 1850. 
 
 " Aug. 23, 1868. 
 
 [above). 
 
 Administrator Apostolic, 1858 (see 
 
 Cincinnati, A., 
 
 Most Rev. John B. Purcell, D.D., 
 Cleveland, 8 D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Amadeus Rappe, D.D., 
 
 C. Aug. 23, 1868. 
 PROVINCE OF CINCINNATI. 
 
 C. Oct. 13, 1833. 
 " Oct. 10, 1847. 
 
 1 Bishop V6rot was consecrated April 25, 1858, bishop of Danabe in partibus, 
 and made Vicar Apostolic of Florida ; translated to Savannah July 14, 1861 ; to 
 St. Augustine, as a new diocese, in 1870. Ignatius Persico, D.D., is now bishop of 
 Savannah, C. March 8, 1854; tr. in 1870. The other vicars apostolic are also 
 bishops of some diocese in partibus infiddium ("see p. 99). 
 
 2 Bishop Rappe resigned Aug. 22, 1870; and Very Rev. Edward TT<mnjti is 
 " Administrator, sede vacante " [= the see being vacant].
 
 THE CLERGY. 279 
 
 DIOCESE. 
 
 Columbus, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Sylvester H. Rosecrans, D.D., C. Mar. 25, 1862 ; tr. Mar. 3, 1868. 
 Covington, 1 D., 
 
 Very Rev. John A. McGill, Administrator; see vacant. 
 
 Detroit, 1 D., 
 
 Very Rev. Peter Hennaert, " " " ' 
 
 Fort Wayne, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John H. Luers, D.D., C. Jan. 10, 1858. 
 
 Louisville, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. William McCloskey, D.D., " April 19, 1868. 
 
 Marquette and Sault-Saintc-Marie, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Ignatius Mrak, D.D., " Feb. 7, 1869. 
 
 Vincennes, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Maurice de St. Palais, D.D., " Jan. 14, 1849. 
 
 PROVINCE OF NEW ORLEANS. 
 New Orleans, 2 A., 
 
 Most Rev. John M. Odin, D.D., C. Mar. 6, 1842 ; tr. in 1861. ' 
 
 Galveston, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Claudius Maria Dubuis, D.D., " Nov. 23, 1862. 
 Little Rock, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Edward Fitzgerald, D.D., " Feb. 3, 1867. 
 
 Mobile, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John Quinlan, D.D., " Dec. 5, 1859; 
 
 Natchez, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. William H. Elder, D.D., " May 3, 1857. 
 
 Natchitoches, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Augustus Martin, D.D., " Nov. 30, 1853. 
 
 PROVINCE OP NEW YORK. 
 New York, A., 
 
 Most Rev. John McCloskey, D.D., C. Mar. 10, 1844 ; tr. May 6, 1864. 
 
 Albany, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John J. Conroy, D.D., " Oct. 15, 1865. 
 
 Boston, 8 D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John J. Williams, D.D., " Mar. 11, 1866. 
 
 Brooklyn, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John Loughlin, D.D., " Oct. 30, 1853. 
 
 1 Casper H. Borgess, D.D., was consecrated bishop of Detroit, April 24, 1870; 
 Augustus M. Tcebbe, D.D., is bishop of Covington, C. Jan. 9, 1870. 
 
 a Archbishop Odin died near Lyons in France, May 26, 1870; Napoleon J. 
 Perch.6, D.D., is his successor, C. May 1, 1870. 
 
 8 The new diocese of Springfield takes from that of Boston the 5 western coun- 
 ties of Massachusetts ; and Rev. P. T. O'Reilly, D.D., was consecrated its bishop 
 Sept. 25, 1870.
 
 280 THE CLERGY. 
 
 DIOCIS*. 
 
 Buffalo, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Stephen V. Ryan, C. M., D.D., C. Nov. 8, 1868. 
 Burlington, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Louis de Goesbriand, D.D., " Oct. 30, 1863. 
 Hartford, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Francis P. McFarland, D.D., " Mar. 14, 1858. 
 Newark, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. James R. Bayley, D.D., " Oct. 30, 1853. 
 
 Portland, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. David W. Bacon, D.D., " April 22, 1855. 
 
 Rochester, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Bernard J. McQuaid, D.D., " July 12, 1868. 
 
 PHO.VINCE OF OREGON. 1 
 Oregon City, A., 
 
 Most Rev. Francis N. Blanchet, D.D., C. July 25, 1845. 
 Nesqualy, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Augustine M. A. Blanchet, D.D., " Sept. 27, 1846; tr. July 28, '50. 
 Vancouver's Island, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Modest Demers, D.D.,~ " July 18, 1846. 
 
 Columbia, V. A., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Aloysius J. d'Herbomez, D. D., " Oct. 9, 1864. 
 Idaho, V. A., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Louis Lootens, D.D., " Aug. 9, 1868. 
 
 PROVINCE OP ST. Louis. 
 
 St. Louis, A., 
 
 Most Rev. Peter R. Kenrick, D.D., C. Nov. 30, 1841. 
 
 Alton, 2 D., 
 
 Very Rev. Peter J. Baltes, Administrator ; see vacant. 
 
 Chicago, 8 D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. James Duggan, D.D,, C. May 30, 1850; tr. Jan. 21, 1859. 
 
 Dubuque, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John Hennessy, D.D., " Sept. 30, 1866. 
 
 Green Bay, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Joseph Melcher, D.D., " July 12, 1868. 
 
 La Crosse, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Michael Heiss, D.D., " Sept 6, 1868. 
 
 1 The diocese of Vancouver's Island and the Vicariate Apostolic of Columbia, 
 though embraced in the ecclesiastical province of Oregon, are in British America. 
 
 3 Peter J. Baltes, D.D., was consecrated bishop of Alton, January 23, 1870. 
 
 8 Bishop Duggan having retired on account of infirm health, Rt. Rev. Thomas 
 Foley, D.D., was appointed coadjutor and administrator, Nov. 19, 1869, and was 
 consecrated Bp. of Pergamus in partibus, Feb. 27, 1870.
 
 THE CLERGY. 281 
 
 DIOCESE. 
 
 Milwaukee, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John M. Henni, D.D., C. Mar. 19, 1844. 
 
 Nashville, D , 
 
 Rt Rev. Patrick A. Feehan, D.D., " Oct. 1, 1865. 
 
 Santa Fe, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John Lamy, D.D., " Nov. 24, 1850. 
 
 St. Joseph, D., 
 
 Rt Rev. John Hogan, D.D., " Sept. 13, 1868. 
 
 St Paul, D., 
 
 Rt Rev. Thomas L. Grace, D.D., " July 20, 1859. 
 
 Arizona, V. A., 
 
 Rt. Rev. 
 
 Colorado and Utah, V. A., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Joseph P. Machebomf, D.D., " Aug. 16, 1868. 
 Indian Territory, E. of Rocky Mts., V. A., 
 
 Rt. Rev. John B. Miege, D.D., " Mar. 25, 1851. 
 
 Montana, V. A., 
 
 Rt. Rev. 
 
 Nebraska, V. A., 
 
 Rt. Rev. James M. O'Gorman, D.D., " May 8, 1859. 
 
 PROVINCE OF SAN FRANCISCO. 
 San Francisco, A., 
 
 Most Rev. Jos. S. Alemany, D.D., O.S.D., C. June 10, 1850 ; tr. July 19, 1853. 
 Grass Valley, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Eugene O'Connell, D.D., " Feb. 3, 1861. 
 
 Monterey and Los Angeles, D., 
 
 Rt. Rev. Thaddeus Amat, D.D., " Mar. 12, 1854. 
 
 There are now 54 Roman Catholic dioceses in this country 
 (including the 7 archdioceses and the new dioceses of St. Au- 
 gustine and Springfield), 7 vicariates apostolic, and about 4000 
 Roman Catholic priests. 
 
 But the number in this country constitutes but a small part 
 of the whole Roman Catholic priesthood in the world. The 
 number of patriarchates, archbishoprics and bishoprics in 
 the Roman Catholic church, including those of the Oriental 
 churches in communion with it, amounted to 1100 according 
 to the official account in the Annuario Pontificio (= Pontifical 
 Annual) for 1870, as reported in the Catholic Almanac for 1871, 
 6 having been added since the last annual account, and 157 
 sees being vacant at the date of the report. The whole num.
 
 282 THE CLERGY. 
 
 ber of Roman Catholic priests in the world is probably not less 
 than from 100,000 to 150,000. The classes of priests, regu- 
 lar, secular, &c., are described in Chapter II. 
 
 The Roman Catholic priesthood constitute a thoroughly dis- 
 ciplined and efficient army, bound by vows of strict obedience 
 to their superiors, destitute of any family ties to interest them 
 in the ordinary affairs of life, or to attach them to any earthly 
 home or country, and officered by picked veterans, who are 
 not only, like the rest of this army, cut off from ordinary 
 human enjoyments, but are bound by a most solemn oath to 
 devote their lives and energies to the advancement of their 
 church temporally as well as spiritually, and to render faithful 
 and undivided obedience to the pontiff whom they are taught 
 to regard as the infallible Vicar of Jesus Christ and the un- 
 doubted representative of God upon earth. They are surely a 
 power in this world.
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 KELIGIOUS ORDERS. MONKS, NUNS, &c. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL historians place the rise of monasticism or 
 monachism (both derived from the Greek monos = alone) in 
 the early part of the 4th century after Christ, during the Decian 
 persecution. It began in Egypt with Paul of Thebes and St. 
 Anthony, the former of whom died in A.D. 340, and the latter, 
 at the age of 105 years, in A.D. 356. There were in the church, 
 indeed, at an earlier period, ascetics, who, without forsaking 
 all society, sought to mortify the flesh and cultivate an uncom- 
 mon degree of piety by retiring from the ordinary business of 
 life and devoting themselves especially to spiritual exercises ; 
 but Paul of Thebes and Anthony and others like them, taking 
 the prophet Elijah and John the Baptist for their models, and 
 going beyond them, became hermits or anchorites, secluded 
 themselves from all society, dwelt in caves, clothed themselves 
 in rough apparel as in the skins of wild beasts, lived on bread 
 and water, and gave themselves up to prayer, affliction of the 
 body, and conflict with the powers of darkness. * Another step 
 or stage in the development of monachism was the bringing to- 
 gether into a community those who wished to live apart from 
 the world and to devote themselves to spiritual exercises. This 
 is the cloister life or monasticism in the usual sense of the 
 term, and likewise originated in Egypt in the 4th century with 
 one of Anthony's disciples named Pachomius. He founded 
 
 * Among the hermits may be reckoned the pillar-saints or stylites, whose founder, 
 Simeon or Simon, a Syrian, is said to have lived 37 years on a pillar 3 feet in di- 
 ameter, and elevated from 9 to 60 feet above the ground.
 
 284 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 9 monasteries of men and 1 of women, and established a sys- 
 tem of rules requiring the monks or cenobites, as they were 
 called, to practice solitariness, manual labor, spiritual exercises, 
 restraint of the bodily appetites, and strict obedience to their 
 president or abbot. From Egypt the monastic system was 
 carried by Hilarion into Palestine, by Athanasius to Rome, by 
 Eustathius into Armenia and Paphlagonia, by Basil * into 
 Pontus, by Martin into Gaul, <fcc. It spread rapidly over the 
 whole Christian world, and was for centuries the chief reposi- 
 tory of the Christian life. The last step in the development 
 of monasticism was the institution of monastic orders, uniting 
 a number of monasteries under one rule of life and one gov- 
 ernment ; but this step was not taken till the 6th century under 
 St. Benedict, from whom the Benedictines derive their name 
 and origin. 
 
 There was at first no particular vow on entering a monastic 
 life, and no prohibition of quitting it. The monks were also 
 at first all laymen, some of them married and fathers, others 
 unmarried ; but soon there were bishops and other clergy who 
 adopted a strictly monastic life ; and there were monks, who 
 were laymen, but were chosen to be clergymen. " Even at the 
 end of the 4th century," says Gieseler, " monastic life was con- 
 sidered to be the usual preparation, and monachism the nursery 
 for the clergy, especially for bishops." The council of Chalce- 
 don (A.D. 451) declared that monks and nuns were not at lib- 
 
 * " The monks of St. Basil," or " Basilian monks," are named from St. Basil, 
 bishop of Cesarea in Cappadocia, who retired to the deserts of Pontus in the 4th 
 century, and became the spiritual father of, it is said, more than 90,000 monks in 
 his life. The order flourished greatly, in both the Greek and Latin churches, and 
 most of the present Greek monks are said to belong to it. Those of the order in 
 the Latin church were united under one head about 1573 by pope Gregory XIII., 
 who revised the rule given by Basil. The order is claimed to have produced 14 
 popes, many patriarchs, cardinals, and archbishops, 1805 bishops, and 11,805 mar- 
 tyrs, and is still numerous in Southern Europe. The Basilians have a church and 
 college at Sandwich in Canada West. The Preparatory (Ecclesiastical) Seminary 
 at Louisville, Stark Co., Ohio, is directed by the Basilians, who have there a supe- 
 rior and 6 professors, with 28 students.
 
 BELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 285 
 
 erty to marry, but allowed bishops to extend mercy to the of- 
 fenders. At the East the irrevocableness of monastic vows 
 gradually became an established doctrine, and the monasteries 
 were about the middle of the 5th century subjected to a rigor- 
 ous discipline and placed under the jurisdiction of the bishops. 
 The monasticism of the West was less developed than that of 
 the East ; but St. Benedict, in the 6th century, gave it a new 
 form and impulse. He was born at Nursia (now Nor da) in 
 central Italy about A.D. 480 ; and about the age of 14, having 
 been sent to Rome for his education and there been disgusted 
 with the prevalent dissipations, he ran away, and hid himself 
 for 3 years in a cave at Sublacum (= Subiaco') about 30 miles 
 east of Rome. Here he is said to have overcome a Satanic 
 temptation to lust by rolling himself among brambles and thus 
 lacerating his body. Subsequently the monks of a neighboring 
 monastery chose him for their abbot ; but his rigorous disci- 
 pline offended them, and they attempted to poison him. Upon 
 this he returned to his cave, where many joined him, so that 
 he had 12 monasteries under his jurisdiction. About A.D. 529 
 he retired to Monte (== mount) Cassino on the coast between 
 Rome and Naples, where a temple to Apollo still existed. Hav- 
 ing converted the pagan mountaineers to Christianity, he turned 
 their temple into a monastery, introduced a new system of 
 rules for the government of the monks, and instituted the Ben- 
 edictine order. He died about A.D. 543, and the 21st of March 
 is celebrated as his festival. Dr. Murdock, in his translation 
 of Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, gives the following ab- 
 stract of the Benedictine system of rules : 
 
 " According to the Rule of Benedict, the monks were to rise at 2 
 A. M. in the winter (and in summer, at such hours as the abbot might 
 direct) ; repair to the place of worship for vigils ; and then spend the 
 remainder of the night in committing psalms, private meditation, and 
 reading. At sunrise they assembled for matins ; then spent 4 hours in 
 labor ; then 2 hours in reading ; then dined and read in private till 2^ 
 p. M., when they met again for worship ; and afterwards labored till
 
 286 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 their vespers. In their vigils and matins 24 psalms were to he chanted 
 each day, so as to complete the Psalter every week. Besides their 
 social worship, 7 hours each day were devoted to labor, 2 at least to 
 private study, 1 to private meditation, and the rest to meals, sleep, and 
 refreshment. The labor was agriculture, gardening, and various me- 
 chanical trades ; and each one was put to such labor as his superior saw 
 fit ; for they all renounced wholly every species of personal liberty. 
 They ate twice a day at a common table ; first about noon, and then at 
 evening. Both the quantity and the quality of their food were limited. 
 To each was allowed 1 pound of bread per day, and a small quantity 
 of wine. On the public table no meat was allowed, but always 2 kinds 
 of porridge. To the sick, flesh was allowed. While at table, all con- 
 versation was prohibited ; and some one read aloud the whole time. 
 They all served as cooks and waiters by turns of a week each. Their 
 clothing was coarse and simple, and regulated at the discretion of the 
 abbot Each was provided with 2 suits, a knife, a needle, and all 
 other necessaries. They slept in common dormitories of 10 or 20, in 
 separate beds, without undressing, and had a light burning, and an in- 
 spector sleeping in each dormitory. They were allowed no conversa- 
 tion after they retired, nor at any time were they permitted to jest, or 
 to talk for mere amusement. No one could receive a present of any 
 kind, not even from a parent ; nor have any correspondence with per- 
 sons without the monastery, except by its passing under the inspection 
 of the abbot A porter always sat at the gate, which was kept locked 
 day and night ; and no stranger was admitted without leave from the 
 abbot ; and no monk could go out, unless he had permission from the 
 same source. The school for the children of the neighborhood was 
 kept without the walls. The whole establishment was under an abbot, 
 whose power was despotic. His under officers were, a prior or deputy, 
 a steward, a superintendent of the sick and the hospital, an attendant 
 on visitors, a porter, &c., with the necessary assistants, and a number 
 of deans or inspectors over tens, who attended the monks at all times. 
 The abbot was elected by the common suffrage of the brotherhood ; 
 and when inaugurated, he appointed and removed his under officers at 
 pleasure. On great emergencies, he summoned the whole brotherhood 
 to meet in council ; and on more common occasions, only the seniors ; 
 but in either case, after hearing what each one was pleased to say, the 
 decision rested wholly with himself. For admission to the society, a
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 287 
 
 probation of 12 months was required ; during which the applicant was 
 fed and clothed, and employed in the meaner offices of the monks, and 
 closely watched. At the end of his probation, if approved, he took 
 solemn and irrevocable vows of perfect chastity, absolute poverty, and 
 implicit obedience to his superiors in every thing. If he had property, 
 he must give it all away, either to his friends or the poor, or to the 
 monastery ; and never after must possess the least particle of private 
 property, nor claim any personal rights or liberties. For lighter of- 
 fenses, a reprimand was to be administered by some under officer. For 
 greater offenses, after 2 admonitions, a person was debarred his privil- 
 eges, not allowed to read in his turn, or to sit at table, or enjoy his 
 modicum of comforts. If still refractory, he was expelled from the 
 monastery ; yet still might be restored on repentance." 
 
 The cut representing the Benedictine Monk is from Fos- 
 broke's British Monachism. 
 
 The Penny Cyclopedia thus describes 
 the dress of the Benedictine monks and 
 nuns : 
 
 " The habit of the Benedictine monks was 
 a black loose coat, or a gown of stuff' reaching 
 down to their heels, with a cowl or hood of 
 the same, and a scapulary [=a vestment 
 without sleeves] ; and under that another 
 habit, white, as large as the former, made of 
 flannel ; with boots on their leg?. From the 
 color of their outward habit the Benedictines 
 were generally called Black Monks. . . . 
 iStevens,in his Continuation of the Monasticon, 
 
 BENEDICTS MONK. **?*> * fO f * *"** f ^^ m nks W&3 
 
 at first left to the discretion of the abbots, 
 and that St. Benedict did not determine the color of it." 
 
 " The habit of the Benedictine nuns consisted of a black robe, with a 
 ecapulary of the same, and under that robe a tunic of white and undyed 
 wool. "When they went to the choir, they had, over all, a black cowl, 
 like that of the monks." 
 
 As has been already intimated, the Benedictine order spread 
 over Europe with great rapidity. In the 9th century other
 
 288 BELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 monastic rules and societies became extinct, and the Benedic- 
 tines alone flourished. One writer enumerates 200 cardinals, 
 1600 archbishops, 4000 bishops, 15700 abbots and learned men, 
 who all belonged to this order ; another reckons among its mem- 
 bers 24 popes, 15000 bishops, and 40000 canonized or beatified 
 saints, including St. Bernard, St. John of Damascus and others 
 of the most illustrious men in the annals of the Roman Catho- 
 lic church. Augustine with 40 other Benedictine monks came 
 into Britain in A. D. 596, converted the king of Kent and most 
 of his subjects from idolatry to Christianity, and laid the foun- 
 dation of the modern British church, Augustine being the first 
 archbishop of Canterbury. The early Benedictines were un- 
 questionably virtuous, upright, and useful ; they tilled the 
 ground, reclaimed wastes, raised cattle, preserved and copied 
 manuscripts, cultivated the arts and sciences, educated mul- 
 titudes in their schools, and were esteemed holy and prevalent 
 in prayer. But the order grew powerful and rich ; discipline 
 was relaxed ; monasteries became splendid edifices ; voluptuous- 
 ness, indolence, pride, vice and wickedness took possession of the 
 very cloisters. For centuries, however, the most respectable and 
 renowned men of Europe were trained up among the Benedictines. 
 The historians of monachism reckon 23 branches or divisions of 
 this order, distinguished by local or other specific appellations 
 and by slight differences of habit and discipline. The principal of 
 these branches are, theClunians (=Cluniacs orCluniacensians), 
 Cistercians, Camaldolese, Vallembrosians, Grammontensians 
 or Grandimontensians, Carthusians, Fontevraudians, Ber- 
 nardines, Guilbertines, Humiliati, Celestines, Feuillants, Trap- 
 pists, Olivetans, and Benedictines of St. Maur. The Benedic- 
 tine monks of the original stem numbered 1600 in 1858, 
 according to Appletons' Cyclopedia, and their chief seat is still 
 Monte Cassino. The " Statistical Year Book of the Church," 
 as quoted in the CatholicAlmanac for 1870, gives the present 
 number of Benedictine monks as 5000. There are monastic 
 establishments of this order in this country, in the dioceses of 
 Chicago, Covington, Erie, Newark, Pittsburg, St. Paul, Vin-
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, <tC. 289 
 
 cennes, <fcc. " St. Vincent's Abbey of the Benedictine Order,'* 
 near Latrobe, Westmoreland Co., Pa., in the diocese of Pitts- 
 burg, has the following officers, <fec., as reported in Sadliers' 
 Catholic Directory for 1871 : 
 
 Rt. Rev. Boniface Wimmer, O. S. B. [= Order of St. Benedict], Ab- 
 bot of St. Vincent's and President of the American Cassinesian Congre- 
 gation ; Very Rev. Giles Christoph, O. S. B., Prior and Rector ; 
 Rev. Luke "Wimmer, 0. S. B., Sub- Prior and Master of Novices ; Rev. 
 Charles Geyerstanger, Q. S. B., Choir Master ; Rev. Chilian Bernetzed, 
 O. S. B.; Rev. Francis Cannon, O. S. B. ; Rev. Alphonse Heimler, 0. S. 
 B., President of St. Vincent's College ; Rev. Ignatius Trueg, O. S. B., Di- 
 rector of the Scholasticate and Professor ; Rev. Edmund Langenfelder, 
 O. S. B., Chaplain of St. Xavier's Academy [a female seminary con- 
 ducted by the Sisters of Mercy] ; Rev. Andrew Hintenach, 0. S: B., 
 Professor ; Rev. Innocent Wolf, D. D., O. S. B., Professor of Moral 
 Theology ; Rev. John Sommer, O. S. B., Professor of Philosophy ; 
 Rev. Hilary Pfraeugle, D. D., O. S. B., Professor of Dogma ; Rev. 
 Mathias Binder, 0. S. B., Assistant Master of Novices ; Rev. Pius 
 Preisser, 0. S. B. ; Rev. Aloysrus Gorman, 0. S. B., Procurator and 
 Professor ; Rev. Maurus Lynch, 0. S. B. ; Rev. Aurelius McMahon, 
 O. S. B., Professor ; Rev. Laurence Schaier, O. S. B., Professors. There 
 are also in the Abbey, 12 clerics, 17 novices, 60 scholastics, and 70 lay 
 brothers." 
 
 The Benedictines have also a flourishing college for aspir- 
 ants to the priesthood and a monastical seminary connected 
 with their convent in Spencer Co., Indiana, and there are other 
 priests in charge of churches. The priests, lay-brothers, 
 novices, &c., in the United States, number 300 or more. The 
 Benedictine nuns have a convent in Newark, N. J. ; 2 in North- 
 western Pennsylvania ; 2 in Minnesota ; 1 in Chicago, 111. ; 1 
 in Dubois Co., Ind. ; 1 in Covington, Ky. ; 1 in Atchison, Kan. ; 
 1 priory in Nebraska City, Neb. ; with academies, <fec., in all 
 these places ; and probably number in this country 100 nuns, 
 novices, and postulants. 
 
 The Trappists, a branch of the Benedictines, and the most 
 rigorous of Roman Catholic religious orders, are named from the 
 abbey of La Trappe in France, where this order was 
 
 founded in 1666 by the abbe* de Ranee*. They rise at 2 A.. M. ; 
 19
 
 290 
 
 BELTGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 spend 12 hours a day in religious exercises and the rest in hard 
 labor, mostly in the field ; live on water and vegetables ; sleep 
 on a board, with a pillow of straw, without undressing ; prac- 
 tice hospitality ; but are not allowed to indulge in worldly con- 
 versation. They have two abbeys in the United States, each 
 governed by a mitred abbot ; one, " Abbey of our Lady of La 
 Trappe," in Nelson Co.,Ky. ; the other," NewMelleray Abbey," 
 12 miles from Dubuque, Iowa. The Trappist monks number 
 about 4000. and are found in France, Algeria, Belgium, Italy, 
 Ireland, Turkey, and North America. There are also Trappist 
 nuns in France, England, and Nova Scotia ; but none are re- 
 ported in this country. 
 
 The Basilians (described at the beginning of this chapter), 
 and the Benedictines with their branches, are " monks," prop- 
 erly so called ; but among the religious orders are *' regular 
 canons," " friars " or " mendicant monks," and " regular 
 clerks," besides many " congregations." 
 
 As has been said above, the monks were originally laymen ; 
 but St. Augustine (bishop of Hippo, A. D. 395-430) and some 
 
 AUGUSTIMIAW CAKOW. 
 
 FREMONSTRANT. 
 
 other bishops united with their clergy in adopting a strictly 
 monastic life. 'The rule known by the name of St. Augustine 
 was widely followed in later times ; and the order of Augustin-
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 291 
 
 ian canons, consisting of persons ordained or destined to the 
 clerical profession, claims a place among the principal monas- 
 tic institutions. From the 8th century onward the canons 
 formed an intermediate class between the monks and the secu- 
 lar clergy ; but the distinction of regular and secular canons 
 first appears in the llth century. The secular canons were 
 those who resided in the same house and ate at a common 
 table, but had their own perquisites and revenues ; while the 
 regular canons, though less strict in their rule than the monks, 
 renounced all private property and had all things in common, 
 living together under one roof, having a common dormitory and 
 refectory, and obliged to observe the statutes of their order, 
 which required the singing of psalms, <fcc., at the canonical 
 hours, and were principally derived from St. Augustine. The 
 regular canons were hence called " regular canons of St. Au- 
 gustine," or " canons under the rule of St. Augustine," 
 or " Austin [= Augustine] canons." They were numer- 
 ous in England before the Reformation. Bishop Tanner 
 says he found 175 houses of these canons and canonesses in 
 England and Wales. According to Appletons' Cyclopedia they 
 are now " attached to the Lateran basilica and a few other 
 churches." Their habit is described in the Penny Cyclopedia 
 as " a long black cassock, with a white rochet over it, and 
 over that a black cloak and hood. The monks were always 
 shaved, but these canons wore beards and caps on their heads." 
 The canon in the cut, from Fosbroke's British Monachism, 
 has the cap (=biretum) on his head. 
 
 The Premonstrants or Premonstratensians were instituted at 
 Premontrd [in Latin Premonstratum] in the North of France in 
 1120 by St. Norbert, afterwards archbishop of Magdeburg. 
 They followed the rule of St. Augustine, as reformed or 
 altered by St. Norbert, and were also called " White Canons " 
 from their habit, which the Penny Cyclopedia and Bonanni's 
 Catalogue of Religious Orders give as a white cassock with a 
 rochet over it, a long white cloak, and white cap. The common 
 dress, as given in the cut from Fosbroke's British Monachism, 
 was " a tunic girt round the waist, a leaf-formed hood, and
 
 292 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 head-part to throw back, and a bonnet in fashion at the end of the 
 llth century.'* A female branch of the order was also es- 
 tablished, their convents being at first contiguous to those of 
 the monks. The order increased rapidly, especially in France, 
 Germany, and N. W. Europe, and at the Reformation had about 
 2000 convents, about 500 of them for women. They declined 
 greatly in and after the 16th century, and the female branch 
 became nearly extinct. In 1860 they had, according to Ap- 
 pletons' Cyclopedia, 8 convents in Germany (including their chief 
 one at Prague), 11 in Hungary, 2 in France, 4 in Belgium and 
 Holland, 1 in the United States (at Sac Prairie, Wis.), and 1 
 in Cape Colony, South Africa. The female branch in 1860 
 had 5 convents in Poland, Switzerland, and Holland. 
 
 The term "friar" (etymologically = " brother," from the 
 French frere and Latin frater) is now specially applied to a 
 member of one of the 4 mendicant (= begging) orders, viz., 
 Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, and Augustinians. These 
 orders mostly sprang up in the 13th century, and soon sur- 
 passed all the older orders of monks, not only in the purity of 
 their lives, but in the number of their privileges and the mul- 
 titude of their members. Among other uncommon immunities 
 granted them by the popes, they had the liberty of traveling 
 wherever they pleased, conversing with persons of all ranks, 
 instructing the youth and people in general, and hearing con- 
 fessions without reserve or restriction. They were the princi- 
 pal teachers of theology at Paris, Naples, &c., and had flour- 
 ishing monasteries at Oxford and Cambridge. For nearly 3 
 centuries they governed the European church and state with 
 an almost absolute and universal sway ; they maintained the 
 supremacy of the Roman see against the united influence of 
 prelates and kings ; but their unbounded ambition and intoler- 
 able arrogance joined with other causes to make them at length 
 universally odious. 
 
 The Franciscans derive their name and origin from St. 
 Francis, a native of Assisi (ancient Assisium) in central Italy. 
 He was the son of a rich merchant and was born in 1182. He 
 was a dissolute young man ; but after a fit of sickness about
 
 RELIGIOUS OBDEE3 MONKS, NUNS, AC. 293 
 
 1206, he passed to the opposite extreme of religious zeal and 
 self-mortification, and was generally regarded as deranged. 
 Having prevailed on a considerable number of persons to devote 
 themselves with him to absolute poverty, he drew up a rule for 
 their use which was approved by pope Innocent III. in 1210 
 and by the Lateran council in 1215. On the 17th September, 
 1224, the 5 wounds of Christ are said to have been impressed on 
 his hands and feet and side. He died October 4, 1226, and was 
 soon canonized, October 4th being appointed to be his festival. 
 The requisites for admission to his order were absolute poverty, 
 chastity, and obedience, much fasting and prayer, with con- 
 stant efforts to convert sinners. The rules adopted at the first 
 general chapter in 1216 allowed members of the order to accept 
 a limited amount of food, clothing, and other necessaries ; but 
 did not permit them to ride, if they could walk ; required them 
 not to receive pay for services, and, if they found money, to 
 trample it under their feet ; bound them to renounce all use of 
 luxuries, and even of ordinary comforts, to live in common, 
 and to consider their very dress as the property of the church ; 
 forbade any of them, unless entitled by age and character to 
 special privileges, ever to speak to a woman alone, or to speak 
 to one at all, except to urge repentance or give spiritual coun- 
 sel ; and demanded that the unhesitating obedience to a superior 
 should be rendered cheerfully and affectionately. The order 
 increased so fast that 5000 friars attended the 2d general chap- 
 ter or meeting in 1219, when the conversion of the whole hab- 
 itable globe was definitely proposed, and the most prominent 
 disciples were sent forth on separate missions to the various 
 parts of Europe and to Africa. Five of the missionaries were 
 put to death in Morocco in 1220. Francis himself attempted 
 to convert the Saracens in the East, but was compelled to re- 
 turn to Europe, where he was received and heard with enthu- 
 siasm. The members of his order are called from him " Fran- 
 ciscans," from their dress " Gray Friars," and from their hu- 
 mility " Minor Friars " or "Minorites." In consequence of the 
 strife of parties among them, they were divided by Leo X. in 
 1517 into two separate organizations, the milder party, called
 
 29* 
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS. NUNS, AC. 
 
 the " Conventuals," being authorized to elect a magister-gen- 
 eral, whose election must be confirmed by the general, whom 
 the " Observants " or stricter party had the right of electing. 
 The Recollects or Recollets, attempting to surpass the Observ- 
 ants in strictness, are called " Minorites of the stricter observ- 
 ance," but are under the same general with the Conventuals 
 and Observants, while the Capuchins have become a separate 
 order. The habit of the Observants, according to the Jesuit 
 Bonannr s " Catalogue of Religious Orders," published at 
 Rome, 1706-7, consists of a garment of woolen cloth on the 
 naked body, bound with a rope about the loins, a round hood 
 with a sort of collar on the arms, a mantle of the same cloth 
 extending a little below the knees, the color such as is made 
 of 2 parts of black wool of the natural color and 1 of white. 
 They go barefooted, using wooden slippers or leather sandals. 
 The Conventuals are distinguished from the Observants by 
 wearing shoes, a tunic of lighter color, a hood round and nar- 
 row, with a round cape hanging from the shoulders, and hav- 
 ing on the head in the city an ash-colored hat. The cut, from 
 " Fosbroke's British Monachism," represents one of the Ob- 
 servants. 
 
 Among the celebrated Franciscans 
 have been St. Anthony of Padua, 
 Duns Scotus, Roger Bacon, Cardinal 
 Xiinenes, and Popes Nicholas IV., 
 Alexander V., Sixtus IV. and V., 
 and Clement XIV. The Francis- 
 cans, in 1268, had 8000 convents and 
 200,000 monks; and in the 18th 
 century they still, including the Cap- 
 uchins, counted 26,000 convents 
 and 200,000 monks. 
 
 Besides the Franciscan monks, 
 there are also nuns who follow the 
 rule of St. Francis ; and likewise 
 " Brothers and Sisters of the 3d Or- 
 der of St. Francis," also called " Tertiarians," or " Order of 
 
 FRANCISCAN OB GRAY FRIAR.
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 295 
 
 Penitence," or " Penitents of the 3d Order of St. Francis." 
 The " Nuns of the Order of St. Clare," or "Poor Clares," or 
 " Clarists," named from St. Clara of Assist, their first Abbess, 
 were instituted about 1212 by St. Francis, and were subjected 
 to the same vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, as were 
 enjoined on the Franciscan monks ; imitated the males in 
 dress, except that they wore a black veil over a white one ; but 
 were relieved to some extent from fasting, and required to ob- 
 serve long periods of absolute silence. The members of the 
 3d order, which was established by St. Francis in 1221, were 
 allowed to retain their social positions in the world, but were 
 required to wear a dress of a prescribed form and color, to pay 
 all debts and restore unfair gains, to avoid all public exhibi- 
 tions and extrajudicial oaths, to make their wills on entering 
 the order, to be constant in attending church, to refrain from 
 bearing arms unless in defense of their church or native land, 
 <fcc. Many kings, queens and popes (as Louis IX. of France, 
 the mother and wife of Louis XIV., and pope Pius IX.) have 
 belonged to the 3d order. New communities, devoted to 
 teaching, and independent of the parent Tertiarians, have also 
 sprung up. The Elizabethines, called in France " Daughters 
 of Charity,'" are one of these independent communities of 
 women. 
 
 The Franciscans were the first missionaries that came to 
 the New World. They crossed the ocean with Columbus on his 
 2d voyage in 1493, established themselves in San Domingo in 
 1502, and attempted in 1528 to establish themselves in Florida. 
 One of them visited California in 1539, and named the country 
 San Francisgp. AnoUier founded a successful mission in Texas 
 in 1544 ; and subsequently others did the same in Florida, 
 California, Canada, <fcc. They are now reported, under one 
 name or another, as monks, nuns, or tertiarians, in about 20 
 dioceses in the United States. The distinctions of Convent- 
 uals, Observants, and Recollects, are not noticed in the Catholic 
 
 1 The " Daughters of Charity," reported in the United States, are noticed in 
 connection with the " Sisters of Charity."
 
 296 EELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 Directory ; but they have in New York City a Gustos (= Guard- 
 ian) Provincial (Very Rev. Charles da Nazzano), and two 
 Houses, one connected with the German church of St. Francis 
 of Assisi, the other with the Italian Church of St. Anthony of 
 Padua ; a college and convent, with a president, and 7 other 
 priests, 7 professed brothers, 10 tertians, and 120 students, at 
 Allegany, N . Y. ; a convent and ecclesiastical college at Teutop- 
 olis, 111., with a Commissary Provincial and Rector of the college 
 (Very Rev. Mauritius Klostermann, 0. S. F.), and 3 other 
 priests ; a convent and college at Santa Barbara, and another 
 college at Santa Yne"s, both in California ; a Catholic gymna- 
 sium, protectory for boys, and several churches, in and near 
 Cincinnati, 0. ; convents or churches or both, in St. Louis Co., 
 Mo., Boston, Mass., Winsted, Ct., Brooklyn and Buffalo, N. Y., 
 Trenton, N. J., Erie, Pa., Cleveland, 0., Oldenburg, Ind., and 
 Louisville, Ky. The Brothers of the 3d order of St. Francis 
 are reported as having 2 monasteries with an orphan asylum 
 and an academy in Western Pennsylvania, an academy in 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., and a school in Los Angeles, Cal. A " Con- 
 vent of the Sisters of St. Clare " is reported in Cincinnati. 
 " The Sisters of St. Francis " have their mother-house and 
 Institute (or boarding-school) at Oldenburg, Ind., and 15 other 
 schools in the diocese of Vincennes ; a hospital in Cincinnati, 
 and a convent, asylum and schools at Delphos, Ohio ; 3 con- 
 vents in Pennsylvania ; 8 academies and schools in Kentucky, 
 Missouri, and Wisconsin. Under the more formal or different 
 designation of " Sisters of St. Francis Assisium," are reported 
 11 convents in Illinois with 38 professed sisters, 23 novices, 32 
 postulants, and nearly 3000 pupils in schools, and also 20 sisters 
 in charge of St. Francis's Hospital at Buffalo, N. Y. The " Sis- 
 ters of the Poor of St. Francis " are reported at St. Francis's 
 German Hospital in New York, with a convent, superior and 
 13 sisters ; at St. Peter's Hospital in Brooklyn, N. Y. (where 
 are CO religious and 3 postulants) ; at St. Mary's Hospital in 
 Quincy, 111. ; at St. Francis's Hospital in Columbus, 0. ; at a 
 Hospital and Foundling Asylum in Covington, Ky. ; also at hos-
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, 4C. 297 
 
 pitals in Hoboken, Jersey City, and Newark, N. J. " The Sis- 
 ters of the 3d Order of St. Francis " have a convent and acad- 
 emy in Winsted, Ct. ; convents in Albany, Utica, Rome, and 
 Buffalo, a mother-house and novitiate in Syracuse, schools in the 
 above places as well as in Allegany, Schenectady and Oswego, 
 and the Hospital of St. Elizabeth in Utica, all in N. Y. ; a hos- 
 pital and orphan asylum in Tiffin, 0. ; institutions at Menasha 
 and Wequiock, Wis. ; a convent in Philadelphia, with schools 
 in that city, Manayunk, and Bridesburg, Pa. ; St. Joseph's 
 German Hospital in Baltimore, Md. A convent and parochial 
 school in New York city are credited to the " Missionary Sisters 
 of the 3d Order of St. Francis.'* " The Sisters of the 3d Order 
 of St. Francis Seraph " have their mother-house and novitiate 
 near Jefferson, Wis. ; teach 1140 children in 8 parish schools 
 in the State, and in an orphan asylum near Milwaukee ; and 
 number in their community 105, of whom 52 are professed 
 sisters, 37 novices, and 16 postulants. " The Benevolent, 
 Charitable, and Religious Society of St. Francis, Cross Village, 
 Emmet Co., Mich.," not reported in the Catholic Directory, 
 was chartered in 1867, and " consists of 2 separate congrega- 
 tions or convents, one for the brethren and one for the sisters, 
 of the 3d Order of St. Francis- of Assisi." Its objects are to 
 assist sick and suffering persons ; to receive orphan children ; 
 to teach school for Indian children (at present employed 
 for this by the government), orphans, day-scholars, and board- 
 era; and "to work for the salvation of its members in the 
 ways above indicated." The Franciscans and those who are 
 allied with them in name and affinity are thus widely diffused 
 in the United States, numbering probably over 500 males and 
 300 females. The Franciscan monks, though much reduced 
 in number since the French revolution of 1789, are still by 
 far the most numerous of the monastic orders, amounting to 
 50,000 at the present time, according to the Statistical Year- 
 Book of the Church. 
 
 The Capuchins, so called from their capoche or hood, adopted 
 by Matteo (_=. Matthew) Baschi in 1525 from one represented
 
 298 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 \ 
 
 in a painting of St. Francis, are a branch of the Franciscans. 
 They were allowed by Clement VII. in 1528 to wear a beard. 
 Their rule is very strict, requiring them to recite the canonical 
 hours without singing, to say matins at midnight, to spend an 
 hour every morning and evening in mental prayer and silence, 
 to eat the simplest food, to wear a habit of the coarsest kind, 
 with no covering for their head, <fcc. The Capuchins have fur- 
 nished many missionaries, bishops, cardinals, and distinguished 
 writers. They have a house and German church in New York 
 city ; also a convent at Milwaukee, Wis., with " Very Rev. P. 
 Ivo Prass, 0. M. Cp., Guardian ; " a convent and ecclesiastical 
 college at Calvary, Fond du Lac Co., Wis., with a Commissary 
 General and Guardian (Very Rev. Francis Haas, 0. M. Cp.), 
 7 other priests, and a number of clerics, novices, and lay broth- 
 ers. Here also may be noted 2 convents in the diocese of 
 Albany, which are thus reported in the Catholic Directory for 
 18TO and 1871 : 
 
 " Syracuse, Convent of the Assumption Fathers, 0. M. C. Very Rev. 
 Fidelia Dehm, D.D., Commissary General, and Visitor of the Brothers 
 and Sisters of the 3d order of St. Francis, and [8 ?] other Fathers 
 who have charge of missions. 
 
 " Utica, Convent of St. Joseph. Rev. Alphonsus Zoeller, O. M. C., 
 Superior, and 3 Fathers." 
 
 The Dominicans derive their name and origin from Dominic 
 de Guzman, a high-born Spanish ecclesiastic, inventor of the 
 rosary, a zealous preacher, and generally regarded as the founder 
 of the Inquisition. He was born in 1170 ; attempted in 1206 
 to convert the Albigenses ; instituted in 1215 the order of 
 preaching friars on the rule of St. Augustine modified by that 
 of the Premonstratensians, for the purpose of advancing the 
 Catholic church and exterminating heresies, especially that of 
 the Albigenses, by preaching; enjoined on the order, in its 
 first general chapter at Bologna in 1220, absolute poverty and 
 contempt for all permanent revenues and possessions ; died at 
 Bologna in 1221 ; and was canonized in 1234, August 4th 
 being appointed his festival. Miracles were attributed to St.
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 299 
 
 Dominic as well as to St. Francis. The Dominicans were styled 
 " preaching friars " from their office to preach, and convert 
 Jews and heretics ; " black friars," from their dress ; and, in 
 France, " Jacobins " from having their first house in Paris in 
 the Rue St. Jacques (= St. James [or Jacob] street). Like 
 the other mendicant orders, their government is an absolute 
 monarchy. The convent is governed by its prior ; the province, 
 which is a group of convents, by its provincial ; the whole 
 order, by its general, who is elected by the general chapter, 
 which meets annually. This order, like the Franciscans, re- 
 ceived special privileges from the pope, and spread rapidly. In 
 1233 they were placed at the head of the Inquisition (see Chap. 
 XL), and in 1425 acquired the right to receive donations. In 
 1228 a Dominican professorship of theology was established 
 at Paris. They were active in missionary labors and in theo- 
 logical discussions. They were long known as opponents of 
 the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary. They con- 
 trolled the literature of the church through the office of master 
 of the sacred palace at Rome and its connected censorship of 
 books held by Dominic and his Dominican successors. They 
 never had a permanent schism like the Franciscans. They 
 have furnished many bishops and archbishops, 66 cardinals, 4 
 popes (Innocent V., Benedict XL and XIIL, and Pius V.), 
 and many distinguished men, as Albertus Magnus, Thomas 
 Aquinas, Savonarola, Las Casas, Lacordaire, &c. Though they 
 lost greatly atthe Reformation, and early relaxed their strictness, 
 they had more than 1000 convents of monks and nuns in the 18th 
 century. They lost again at and after the French revolution of 
 1789, and have been suppressed in several European countries. 
 Pope Pius IX. undertook and partially accomplished a reform 
 in this and other religious orders ; but, meeting with much oppo- 
 sition, he suspended the right of the general chapter to appoint 
 their general, and appointed a vicar-general from the French 
 disciples of Lacordaire who earnestly seconded his efforts. 
 Bonanni's Catalogue of Religious Orders gives the Dominican
 
 300 
 
 EELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 DOMINICAN NUN. 
 
 habit thus : " The servants of this order are clothed with a 
 
 white woolen garment and scapular 
 and hood round and broad, and over 
 the tunic when they go out of doors 
 they put a black gown shorter than 
 the tunic, which habit the blessed Vir- 
 gin Mother of God prescribed to the 
 venerable father Reginald." St. Dom- 
 inic established an order of nuns, the 
 first members being mostly Albigensian 
 converts. St. Catharine of Sienna, a Do- 
 minican nun of the 14th century, was 
 one of the most influential persons in all 
 Europe. The order at one time num- 
 bered 400 convents, but abandoned their 
 original strictness even earlier than the monks. Bonanni's Cata- 
 logue describes the habit of the Dominican nuns as consisting of 
 " a dress and scapular both white, and a black vail on the head, 
 under which is hid another white covering. They gird the 
 tunic about the loins with a black leather girdle, which is 
 everywhere used by the religious of the order of St. Augus- 
 tine." Fosbroke's British Monachism, from which is taken 
 this cut, says that " the Dominican nun, except the black vail, 
 had the same habit" with the monks. "The habit which 
 comes up to the chin and covers the bosom," in the cut, is 
 called the " wimple," and is sometimes united with the vail, 
 or one is substituted for the other. The third order (= ter- 
 tiarians) of St. Dominic resembles the 3d order of St. Francis, 
 and is also known as " brothers and sisters of penitence of St. 
 Dominic." The Dominican monks now number 4000, accord- 
 ing to the Statistical Year-Book of the Church. Among them, 
 as reported in the Catholic Directory, were the 1st and 2d 
 bishops of the diocese of New York (Concanen, who died in 
 1810, and Connolly who died in 1825) ; and the present arch- 
 bishop of San Francisco (Alemany) is also a Dominican. The 
 monks have convents at Benicia, Cal. ; St. Joseph's, Perry Co.,
 
 BELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 301 
 
 0. ; Louisville and Springfield, Ky. ; a house in New York 
 city ; and churches in all those places, as well as Washington 
 city, San Francisco, Nashville, Memphis, and several other 
 points. It is impossible to make out any accurate statement 
 of the sorts of Dominican nuns in this country. The Domin- 
 ican sisters of the 2d order have a mother-house and novitiate 
 at Racine, Wis. ; and reported in the Catholic Directory for 
 1870, 19 professed sisters, 3 novices, and 5 postulants, wifh an 
 academy at Racine, and parish schools there and elsewhere in 
 the state, containing in all apparently 500 pupils or more. 2 
 " Dominican convents," with schools, are reported in and near 
 New Orleans, La. ; " Dominican Sisters " have 5 academies and 
 other schools, and 2 orphan asylums in Tennessee ; " Sisters 
 of St. Dominic " have academies, schools, and orphan asylums 
 in Illinois, Ohio, California, and Kentucky, with a convent at 
 Benicia, Cal., and a " central-house " at Springfield, Ky. ; 
 " Sisters of the order of St. Dominic " appear also in New 
 York city with 2 convents and parish schools ; also a " con- 
 vent of the order of St. Dominic " (probably of the 3d order) 
 in Brooklyn, N. Y., with a hospital building. " Dominican 
 Sisters of the 3d order " have a mother-house and novitiate at 
 Benton, Wis. ; and reported in the Directory for 1870, 55 sis- 
 ters and 12 novices, with an academy and G other schools and 
 1200 pupils in Wisconsin. They appear also to have a con- 
 vent, academy, and schools in Minnesota. 
 
 The Carmelites, or " Order of St. Mary of Mount Carmel," 
 derive their name from Mount Carmel in Palestine, where the 
 order originated about 1156 from Berthold, a crusader from 
 Calabria. The Carmelites themselves claim the prophet Elijah 
 as their founder, and the Virgin Mary as a Carmelite nun. The 
 rule prescribed to them by Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem, re- 
 quired them, according to Dr. Murdock, to confine themselves 
 to their cells except when at work, and to spend their time in 
 prayer ; to have no private property ; to fast from the feast of 
 the holy cross till Easter, except on Sundays ; to abstain en- 
 tirely from eating flesh; to labor with their hands; and to
 
 302 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 observe total silence from vespers [about 4 P.M. or later] till 
 the tierce of the next day [about 9 A.M.]. Their rule was con- 
 siderably mitigated by Innocent IV. Having left Syria and 
 come to Europe in 1229, they increased greatly in numbers 
 and reputation. The reform in the order attempted by St. 
 Theresa and St. John of the Cross in the 16th century, pro- 
 duced a division into the mitigated or moderate Carmelites, 
 and the strict Carmelites, called "discalced" or "barefooted," 
 because they go with sandals only, the others wearing shoes 
 or being " calced." The present number of Carmelite monks 
 is estimated in the Statistical Year-Book of the Church at 4000. 
 Rev. Charles Loyson, better known as Father Hyacinthe, the 
 eloquent preacher at the church of Notre Dame in Paris, en- 
 tered the order of barefooted Carmelites in 1859. The Car- 
 melites, according to Bonanni, wear a garment, scapular and 
 hood of a brown color, and a white cloak or mantle. A Car- 
 melite convent exists at Cumberland, Md. The female branch 
 of the order was founded in the 15th century. The nuns had 
 a dress like that of the monks, except that the cloak was larger 
 and they wore on their heads a black veil with a white one 
 under it. There were, in 1858, 90 convents of Carmelite nuns, 
 the number in each convent being limited to 21. One of these 
 female convents of the strict rule, founded in the latter part of 
 the 18th century in one of the lower counties of Maryland, has 
 been established in Baltimore for years ; another has been more 
 recently established in Missouri ; and there are 2 or 3 convents 
 of the "3d order of Mount Carmel" in New Orleans, with 
 schools connected. 
 
 The Augustinian eremites (= hermits) or Augustinians or 
 Austin friars must be carefully distinguished from the Augus- 
 tinian canons already described. The order was formed by 
 pope Alexander IV., who about 1256 required various exist- 
 ing sorts of eremites to unite in one fraternity as the " Order 
 of the Eremites of St. Augustine." Martin Luther was an 
 Augustiuian monk. The habit of this order is described in 
 Fosbroke's British Monachism thus : " In the house, a white
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 303 
 
 tunic, and scapulary over it. In the choir or out of doors, a 
 sleeved cowl [= gown with large loose sleeves] and large hood, 
 both black; the hood round before, and hanging to the waist in 
 a point, girt with a black leather thong." The accompanying 
 cut is also from Fosbroke's British Monachism, and agrees with 
 that in Bonanni's Catalogue of Religious Orders. There are 
 about 100 convents of the order, Rome being the chief seat. 
 Several branches, forming the "Discalced [= barefooted] Order 
 of Eremites of St. Augustine," have a severer rule than the 
 main body, and are under vicars-general, who are subordinate 
 to the general of the whole order of the 
 eremites of St. Augustine. There are 
 several religious orders of females 
 under the Augustinian rule. The 
 Augustinians are not numerous in the 
 United States. Under the " Augus- 
 tinian House" in Lansingburg, N. Y., 
 "Very Rev. Thomas Galbery, O.S.A.," 
 is named in the Directory for 1870 as 
 " Commissary-General," but the num- 
 ber of monks is not given, though they 
 are reported as in charge of 5 church- 
 es in Lansingburg and its vicinity. . 
 The Augustinians have churches also 
 in Andover and Lawrence, Mass., and 
 Philadelphia, Pa. The " Augustinian college of St. Thomas 
 of Villanova," near Philadelphia, has a president and 17 pro- 
 fessors and prefects, 7 of them priests, with 73 students. 
 
 The "Order of Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary," or "Ser- 
 vites," founded in 1233 by 7 rich Florentine merchants, adopt- 
 ed the rule of St. Augustine, and obtained from pope Martin 
 V. the privileges of the mendicant orders. The order having 
 become relaxed, it was re-established in 1593 in its original 
 strictness as " Servites-Eremites." Father Paul Sarpi, author of 
 the history of the council of Trent, was a Servite. In 1860, 
 the male branch had, according to Appletons' Cyclopedia, 17 
 
 AUGUSTINIAS EREMITE.
 
 304 BELJGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 houses in Italy, 13 in Germany, 3 in Hungary, and 1 in Swit- 
 zerland. The Catholic Directory for 1871 reports also a con- 
 vent on Doty Island, Winnebago Co., Wis., with a prior, 2 other 
 priests, and a lay-brother ; also the pastor of St. Alphonsus' 
 church in Philadelphia. The female branch never became 
 numerous ; the tertiarians became numerous in Germany, <fcc. ; 
 but neither the nuns nor tertiarians of this order appear to bo 
 reported in this country. 
 
 The " Sisters of Charity of the Order of St. Augustine," in 
 charge of " St. Vincent's Male Orphan* Asylum," and " Charity 
 Hospital," both at Cleveland, 0., have a mother-superior, 25 
 religious, 10 novices, and 150 orphan boys. 
 
 The " Order of our Lady of Mercy," commonly called " Sis- 
 ters of Mercy," founded in Dublin, Ireland, in 1827, by Miss 
 Catharine McAuley, and approved by pope Pius VIII., after- 
 wards adopted the rule of St. Augustine with some modifica- 
 tions, which were approved by pope Gregory XVI. in 18C5, 
 and formally confirmed by him in 1841. Says Appletons' Cy- 
 clopedia: 
 
 " The Sisters of Mercy have in view, besides other charities, the 
 visitation of the sick and prisoners, the instruction of poor girls, and 
 the protection of virtuous women in distress. . . , The Sisters of Mercy 
 are subject to the bishops, and have no general superior, each commu- 
 nity being independent upon the rest of the order. The sisterhood is 
 divided into 2 classes, choir sisters and lay sisters. The choir sisters 
 are employed about the ordinary objects of the order, and the lay sis- 
 ters about the domestic avocations of the convent and such other duties 
 as may be assigned to them. Candidates for membership of either 
 class undergo a preliminary ' postulancy for 6 months ; at the end of 
 that time they assume the white veil and become novices. The novice- 
 ship lasts 2 years. The vows which are taken for life, bind the mem- 
 bers to poverty, chastity, obedience, and the service of the poor, sick, 
 and ignorant. The habit of the order is a black robe with long loose 
 sleeves, a white coif [= cap], and a white or black veil. In the streets 
 a bonnet of black crape is woni instead of the coif and veil." 
 
 The Sisters of Mercy spread rapidly from Dublin over Ire-
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 305 
 
 land, the British Isles and British Colonies. Their first con- 
 vent in the United States was established in 1843 at Pittsburg, 
 Pa., where they now have their mother-house and novitiate 
 for that diocese, also a hospital, house of mercy, and orphan 
 asylum. Their academies in Pennsylvania are at Latrobe, 
 Loretto,Harrisburg, Lebanon (?), and Philadelphia ; they num- 
 ber about 200 sisters, novices, and postulants in their 13 or 14 
 convents and houses in that State ; and teach in the diocese of 
 Pittsburg alone 5000 children. In the diocese of Hartford, 
 which embraces Connecticut and Rhode Island, they have 128 
 sisters, novices, postulants and lay-sisters in 9 convents and 
 houses (Providence 2, South Providence, Newport, Pawtucket, 
 and Woonsocket, R. I.; Hartford, New Haven 2, Ct.), with 7 
 academies undertheir charge, besides free and parochial schools, 
 2 orphan asylums at Hartford, and 1 at South Providence, the 
 whole containing apparently 6395 pupils. Since February 17, 
 1868, the Hamilton School, one of the public schools in New 
 Haven, has been conducted entirely by them, 11 now teaching 
 nearly 500 children (probably included in the above number 
 of pupils) at a cost to the city of $5600 according to the report 
 for the year ending Sept. 1, 1870 (see Chap. XXIV.). The Sis- 
 ters of Mercy now number probably over 900 in their 80 or more 
 convents and houses in 21 different States (Me.,N. H., Mass., 
 R. I., Ct., N. Y., Pa., Md., N. C., S. C., Ga., Mpi., La., Ark., 
 Mo., Tenn., Ky., 111., Iowa, Neb., Cal.), with 39 academies 
 (some of them on a large scale, as at Manchester, N. H., Prov- 
 idence, R. I., Yicksburg, Mpi., <fcc.), 12 orphan asylums, and 
 over 50 other schools (free, parish, or industrial), under their 
 charge, containing in all probably from 20,000 to 25,000 pupils. 
 They have hospitals at Worcester, Albany, Pittsburg (had 
 2680 patients in 1 year), Chicago (cost $75,000), Louisville, 
 Omaha, and San Francisco ; houses of mercy in New York, 
 Pittsburg, and San Francisco ; a house of providence in Chi- 
 cago; a magdalen asylum apparently near San Francisco. 
 Those in Georgia are said in the Catholic Directory to be a
 
 306 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, 4C. 
 
 branch of an order founded (in 1829) by the late Bishop Eng- 
 land of Charleston, " where the nuns renew the vows of relig- 
 ion every year, and live under a rule approved by the Bishop." 
 There are 5 convents in the State, at Savannah, Augusta, Ma- 
 con, Columbus, and Atlanta, containing somewhat over 30 sis- 
 ters. Whether the 30 or 40 sisters in North and South Caro- 
 lina belong to the same branch, or not, is not stated. 
 
 The " Order of Nuns of the Visitation of the Blessed Vir- 
 gin " was instituted in 1610 by St. Francis de Sales, bishop of 
 Geneva in Switzerland, who is said, according to the Roman 
 Breviary, to have converted to Catholicism 72,000 heretics, and, 
 in consequence of miracles attributed to his dead body, was 
 canonized by pope Alexander VII. His festival is held Jan- 
 uary 29th. Madame de Chantal, a rich French widow and 
 associate founder of the order, died in 1641, and was likewise 
 canonized in 1767. The order was established under the rule 
 of St. Augustine with additions by the founder. The Visita- 
 tion nuns, according to Bonanni's Catalogue, "use a black 
 garment, with a cloth, likewise black, which hangs from the 
 head upon the shoulders. A linen veil extending to the breast 
 surrounds the face. They carry, bound to the neck, a silver 
 image of Christ fixed to the cross." The order increased to 
 more than 30 convents before the founder's death in 1622, and 
 to 150 with about 6600 members in 1700. Their first academy 
 in this country was opened in Georgetown, D. C., in 1799, and 
 they have now convents and academies in 9 different states, 
 and in the District of Columbia. They are at Washington and 
 Georgetown, D. C. ; Baltimore, Frederick, and Catonsville, 
 Md. ; St. Louis, Mo. (64 in the community, and 107 boarders 
 in the academy) ; Brooklyn (18 professed choir-sisters, 8 do- 
 mestic sisters, 1 novice, and 135 pupils), and New Utrecht 
 (10 choir-sisters, 7 lay-sisters, 1 novice, 2 postulants, and 40 
 pupils), both on Long Island, N. Y. ; Maysville, Ky. (and ap- 
 parently a boarding and day school at Frankfort, Ky.) ; Ottum- 
 wa, Iowa (18 religious, and 125 pupils) ; Summerville, near 
 Mobile, Ala. (80 pupils) ; Mount de Chantal, near Wheeling
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 307 
 
 (45 professed sisters, 2 novices, 4 postulants, and 70 pupils), 
 also at Parkersburg (8 professed sisters, 2 novices, 1 postulant, 
 80 pupils) and Abingdon (6 professed sisters), the two first 
 in West Virginia, and the last in S. "W. Virginia ; and at Wil- 
 mington, Del. Tho nuns of this order number perhaps 250 in 
 the United States ; and their 15 or 16 establishments for the 
 education of young ladies are evidently designed to be of the 
 first class among the religious orders. That near Wheeling, 
 founded in 1848 and connected with the convent known as Mt. 
 de Chantal, has a beautiful site. The buildings, represented 
 in the cut, have a front of 250 feet, and are fitted to accom- 
 modate 200 boarders ; and the grounds embrace 100 acres. 
 
 WHEELING FEJIALE ACADEMY, NEAR WHEELING, W. VA. 
 
 The " Ursuline Nuns " are named from St. Ursula, said to 
 have been a British princess who with 10,000 other virgins 
 made a pilgrimage to Rome and on the return was massacred 
 with them by the Huns at Cologne ; and were founded in 1537 
 by St. Angela Merici at Brescia in Northern Italy. Originally 
 they were an association of those who might live at their homes, 
 and mixed freely with the world, but devoted themselves to the 
 succor of poverty and of sickness and to the education of the
 
 308 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 young; but in 1604 the first house of Ursuline nuns under 
 the rule of St. Augustine was founded at Paris by Madame de 
 Sainte Beuve, and in 1633 pope Urban VIII. allowed them to 
 take the usual monastic vows and to open schools for the gra- 
 tuitous instruction of girls. After this they increased, espe- 
 cially in France, Germany, and America. The Ursuline con- 
 vent at Quebec was founded March 28, 1639. In 1715 there 
 were more than 350 Ursuline convents in France. Bonanni 
 gives their habit as a black garment girded with a black girdle, 
 and for covering the head a very long black veil ; but some 
 congregations of Ursulines vary from the regular habit in color 
 and shape. According to Appletons' Cyclopedia, "All the Ur- 
 suline convents are placed under the jurisdiction of the dio- 
 cesan bishop, and their mutual coherence is so loose, that many 
 convents do not even know to which of the numerous congre- 
 gations they belong. . . . They are now mainly devoted to the 
 instruction of girls." The same authority gives the number of 
 their houses in 1860 as 534, of which 410 were in France, 2 in 
 Canada, 15 in the United States, 7 in the British islands, 37 
 in Germany, 21 in Belgium and Holland, 10 in Italy, &c. Ac- 
 cording to the Catholic Directory for 1870 and 1871, they 
 now have 18 or 19 convents, and academies at most of 
 them, in 10 different States of the Union ; but full statistics 
 are given for only a small part of them. Their establishments 
 are at East Morrisania, N. Y. ; Cleveland, Toledo, Tiffin, and 
 St. Martin's in Brown Co., 0. ; Alton and Springfield, 111. ; 
 Marquctte, Mich. ; St. Louis, Mo. ; Louisville and Newport, 
 Ky. ; Columbia, S. C. ; Tuscaloosa, Ala. ; New Orleans and 
 Opelousas, La. ; Galveston, San Antonio, Laredo, and Hous- 
 ton, Tex. They report parish or day schools at Morrisania, 
 Galveston, San Antonio, Laredo, Louisville (4 parish schools 
 with 1174 pupils), Newport (400 pupils), and Marquette ; and 
 a hospital in Texas. The largest convents and academies re- 
 ported are at Louisville (56 sisters, 150 pupils), Cleveland (48 
 sisters, 13 novices, 50 boarders), St. Louis (53 in the commu- 
 nity, 5 candidates, 80 boarders), East Morrisania (35 professed,
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, iC. 09 
 
 15 novices, 2 postulants, and 100 pupils). They probably num- 
 ber in this country nearly 500 professed sisters, novices, lay- 
 Bisters, and postulants, and may have 4000 pupils under their 
 charge. The Ursuline convent in Charlestown (now in Somer- 
 ville), Mass., was burned by a mob, Aug. 11, 1834, and has 
 never been rebuilt ; though several Protestant churches, which 
 have been burned in Somerville by incendiaries, have been re- 
 built within a few years, without any appeal for the legislative 
 aid which has been repeatedly sought on account of the burn- 
 ing of the convent. 
 
 The " Alexian Brothers " should also be noticed here. They 
 are named, according to Bonanni's Catalogue of Religious Or- 
 ders, from St. Alexius who, leaving his wife the first night 
 after his marriage, went abroad and served in a strangers' hos- 
 pital at Edessa in Syria. They devoted themselves to burying 
 the dead and taking care of the insane and of those who were 
 sick with infectious diseases. Having existed without any 
 regular rule or religious profession for more than 150 years, 
 Pius II. in 1459 provided for their taking vows. They have 
 the rule of St. Augustine, wear a black garment with a pallium 
 (= cloak) extending a little below their knees, and cover the 
 head with a round hood. They are mentioned by Bonanni as 
 found in Brussels, Antwerp and elsewhere in Belgium and Ger- 
 many. They are reported in the Catholic Directory as in 
 charge of hospitals at St. Louis and Chicago. 
 
 The " regular clerks," or regular clergy, constitute another 
 branch of the religious orders, in addition to the monks proper, 
 the canons, and the friars or mendicant orders. They take the 
 vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in connection with 
 some recognized order or association of priests, but differ from 
 the regular canons in not being under vows of fasting, absti- 
 nence, night watches and silence. The " regular clerks " 
 aimed to restore the ancient virtue and sanctity of the clerical 
 order, and originated in the 16th century, the " Theatins " in 
 1524 being the first, the " Regular Clerks of St. Paul," com- 
 monly called " Barnabites," following in 1533, the " Society
 
 310 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 of Jesus " or Jesuits (see Chapter IX.) in 1540, the " Piarists" 
 or " Fathers of the Pious Schools " about 1597, &c. 
 
 The order of St. Viateur (= St. Viator) is reported in the 
 United States only at Bourbonnais Grove, Kankakee Co., 111., 
 where the superior has charge of the French church of Notre 
 Dame (=our Lady), and where also is St. Viateur's College 
 with 200 pupils. The order is of French origin. It has a col- 
 lege and novitiate at Joliette, and a college at Rigaud, both in 
 the diocese of Montreal, Canada. 
 
 Besides the 4 classes of religious orders, which have now 
 been mentioned (monks proper, canons, friars, and regular 
 clerks), there are numerous " congregations [= associations, 
 or societies] of secular priests," who live in common, but are 
 bound only by simple vows or by none at all. The rules of 
 most of these, according to Appletons' Cyclopedia, are based 
 upon that of the Jesuits, and they are mostly devoted to edu- 
 cational or missionary purposes. Among these " congrega- 
 tions " are the Oratorians, Passionists, Lazarists, Sulpicians, 
 Brethren of the Christian Schools, <fec. 
 
 The " congregations " known as " Oratorians," though not 
 found in the United States, deserve a passing notice. The 
 congregation known in Italy and England as the " Priests of 
 the Oratory " was founded at Rome about the middle of the 
 16th century by St. Philip Neri. who also established the sacred 
 musical entertainments now known as oratorios, this name as 
 well as that of the congregation being derived from the chapel 
 (in Italian oratorio= a place of prayer) where they assembled 
 for their religious exercises. They have flourished mostly in 
 Italy ; but have establishments now in London and Birming- 
 ham, England. The most distinguished Italian Oratorians 
 have been St. Philip Neri and Cardinal Baronius, who suc- 
 ceeded Neri as superior ; while John Henry Newman, D. D., and 
 Frederic Wm. Faber, D. D., have been distinguished English 
 members of the congregation. The French Oratorians, or the 
 " Priests of the Oratory of Jesus," founded at Paris in 1611 
 by abbe* (afterwards cardinal) Peter de Be'rulle, spread rapidly
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 in France and elsewhere, and became distinguished for their 
 many eminent scholars, as Thomassin, Malebranche, the elo- 
 quent Massillon, &c. The French Oratorians were really in- 
 stituted, it is said, to oppose the Jesuits. The French revolu- 
 tion of 1789 put an end to their congregation as to other re- 
 ligious associations ; but they were afterwards reorganized, and 
 had in 1860 one establishment at Paris. 
 
 The " Congregation of Discalced [= Barefooted] Clerks of 
 the Most Holy Cross and Passion of Jesus Christ," usually 
 called " Passionists," was instituted in Italy by Paul Francis 
 Danei, who was canonized in 1867 as St. Paul of the Cross, 
 and their rules were approved by the pope in 1741. They wear 
 
 ST. MICHAEL'S RETREAT, w. HOBOKEN, N. j. 
 
 a black habit, on the left breast of which is the badge a heart 
 surmounted by a cross, and inscribed, " Jesu XPi passio " 
 ( passion of Jesus Christ). The " fathers " or priests, who 
 strictly constitute the " congregation," act as missionaries ; 
 while the lay-brothers do the house-work, tailoring, shoemak- 
 ing, carpenter-work, &c. The Passionists, according to Web- 
 ster's Dictionary,'" unite the mortified life of the Trappists with 
 the activity and zeal of the Jesuits andLazarists." They were
 
 312 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 introduced into the United States in 1855. They have 4 es- 
 tablishments in this country. They have 8 or 9 priests, " with 
 25 students, lay-brothers and novices," at " Blessed Paul's 
 Monastery," Birmingham (near Pittsburg), Pa., where they 
 have 2 churches. They have also at Carrollton (near 
 Baltimore) a monastery, 7 priests, 6 students of philosophy, and 
 5 lay-brothers, and a church ; a monastery with 9 priests, 6 
 clerics, and 3 lay-brothers, and 2 churches at Dunkirk, N. Y. ; 
 also a monastery, "St Michael's Retreat," at West Hoboken, 
 N. J. (opposite New York City), of which a view, drawn and 
 engraved by Mr. John W. Barber, is given in the cut on the 
 preceding page. The officers, &c., of St. Michael's Retreat, are 
 given in the Catholic Directory for 1871 as follows : 
 
 " Very Rev. Father Albums Magno, Provincial ; Very Rev. Basil 
 Keating, Local Superior ; Rev. Victor Carunchio, Vice-Superior ; Rev. 
 Liberatus Bonelli, Rev. Thomas Stephanini, Rev. Timothy Pacitti, Rev. 
 Vitalian Lilla, Rev. Thomas O'Connor, Rev. Eusebius Sotis, Rev. Vin- 
 cent Nagler, Rev. Gabriel Flynn. There are 15 students of theology, 
 and 7 lay-brothers. Applications for missions should be made to the 
 provincial of the order during spring and summer, for the ensuing 
 autumn and winter. The fathers attend 4 missionary stations and the 
 Hudson county alms-house." 
 
 The Lazarists, or " Priests of the Congregation of the Mis- 
 sion," were founded at Paris in 1625 by St. Vincent de Paul, 
 and approved in 1632 by pope Urban VIII. Their office is to 
 itinerate through villages and country districts, to instruct ec- 
 clesiastics in sacred rites and especially to train them in spirit- 
 ual studies. They take some vows ; but their superior can re- 
 lease them from these, whenever it may seem expedient to 
 them. They are commonly called " Lazarists," because they 
 had for their head-quarters the priory of St. Lazarus at Paris. 
 They wear the common black dress of priests. Their present 
 number is given in the Statistical Year-Book of the Church as 
 2000. They are found in various countries of Europe, Asia, 
 and America, also in Algeria and the Philippine Islands. They 
 were introduced into the United States in 1817, and have occu-
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 313 
 
 pied a prominent place among the Roman Catholic clergy. 
 Five bishops (Timon and Ryan of Buffalo, Rosati of New Or- 
 leans and St. Louis, de Neckere of New Orleans, and Amat of 
 Monterey) have belonged to the Congregation of the Mission. 
 Priests of this congregation have charge of churches in the 
 states of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Louisiana, Miss- 
 ouri, and Illinois ; and of the following colleges and seminaries : 
 St. Vincent's Theological and Preparatory Seminary, at Cape 
 Girardeau, Mo., with Yery Rev. A. Verina, C. M., Superior 
 and President of the college, 8 or 9 other priests, and 90 stu- 
 dents ; Ecclesiastical Seminary of our Lady of Angels, at Sus- 
 pension Bridge, Niagara Co., N. Y., with a superior and 8 
 other priests connected with it ; St. Vincent's College, at Los 
 Angeles, Cal., with a superior and 4 other priests ; Mount St. 
 Vincent's Scholasticate and Novitiate, at Germantown, Pa., 
 with Very Rev. John Hayden, C. M., Visitor, 3 other priests, 
 27 students and novices, and 4 lay-brothers ; and a new semi- 
 nary and college in Brooklyn, N. Y., dedicated Sept. 4, 1870, 
 and having a president and 4 other priests. 
 
 Closely allied to the Congregation of the Mission, and likewise 
 deriving their origin from St. Vincent de Paul, are the " Sisters of 
 Charity," whom Mosheim calls the ** Daughters of Charity " or 
 " Virgins of Love." They were founded near Paris about 1633, 
 and placed at first under the charge of Madame Louisa le Gras, 
 their object being, according to Appletons' Cyclopedia, " the care 
 of the poor, especially of the sick, and the education of children. . . 
 They make simple vows, which are renewed every year." They 
 soon had the charge of prisons, free schools, hospitals, and 
 alms-houses in all parts of France, and spread into other lands. 
 They continued their work, though secretly, through the French 
 revolution, and were placed by Napoleon under his mother's 
 protection. In 1848 they numbered throughout the world, ac- 
 cording to Appletons' Cyclopedia, more than 600 establish- 
 ments and 12000 sisters. They were introduced into the 
 United States in 1809 by Mrs. Eliza Ann Seton, who became 
 their first mother-superior. In Sadliers' Catholic Directory for
 
 314 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 1870, the original establishment is reported as " St. Joseph's 
 Sisterhood (Mother-House of the Sisters of Charity in the U. 
 S.), Emmettsburg, Md. Mother Mary Euphemia Blenkinsop, 
 Superior." " Very Rev. Francis Burlando, C. M.,"(r= Con- 
 gregation of the Mission) is also reported as " Superior of the 
 Sisters of Charity, U. S." The " Daughters of Charity, from 
 St. Joseph's, Emmettsburg," who are reported in Louisiana 
 (archdiocese of New Orleans), are of course " Sisters of Chari- 
 ty ; " but whether the " Daughters of Charity," reported in 
 the dioceses of Milwaukee and Monterey, are Sisters of Charity 
 or Elizabethines (see Franciscans), does not fully appear. The 
 Sisters of Charity in the United States seem to belong to 7 or 
 8 distinct organizations, and probably number several thousands 
 in all. Prof. A. J. Schem's " American Ecclesiastical Year- 
 Book," published in 1860, mentions Mother Seton's " distinct 
 rule, 1 followed in the dioceses of New York, Brooklyn, Newark, 
 and Halifax "; and adds, " In 1850, the Sisters in the dioceses 
 of Baltimore, Albany, New Orleans, &c., abandoned Mother Se- 
 ton's rule, and united with the order in France." The Catho- 
 lic Directory for 1871 gives the following statistics in connec- 
 tion with the two Mother-Houses at Yonkers, N. Y., and Madi- 
 son, N. J., which apparently embrace all in the United States 
 who now follow Mother Seton's rule : 
 
 " Mother- House of the Sisters of Charity, Font Hill, near Yonkers, 
 Westchester Co., [N. Y.] Mother M. Jerome Ely, Superior. The 
 community numbers at present 419 members, 344 professed, 67 novi- 
 ces, 8 postulants. They direct 61 different establishments in New 
 York, Jersey City, Brooklyn, New Haven, and Providence." 
 
 Mount St. Vincent's Academy, at Font Hill, which has 280 
 pupils, is represented with the Mother-House, &c., in the cut. 
 
 1 Mother Seton's rule prescribes a black woolen habit (brown for novices), with 
 a cape covering the waist, a white linen collar turned down over the cape, a black 
 cambric cap covering the head and nearly concealing the face, a chaplet of beads 
 suspended from the waist nearly to the feet and a large crucifix attached to it. The 
 habit worn by those who adhere to St. Vincent's rule is of gray flannel, with a 
 white linen " cornet " or horned cap on the head like the_wings of a dove. The 
 two roles also differ in other particulars.
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 315 
 
 Besides Mount St. Vincent's Academy, the Sisters of Charity 
 have under their charge, in the archdiocese of New York alone, 
 which embraces New York city, Staten Island, and 7 counties 
 
 ACADEMY OP KT. ST. VINCENT, NEAR YONKERS, N. T. 
 
 north of these, 50 schools of various sorts (academies, 
 select and parochial schools, and 5 orphan asylums) containing 
 more than 13000 children. In Brooklyn, they have an orphan 
 asylum, academies and schools, with about 3500 pupils in all. 
 For Jersey City and for New Haven no statistics are given ; but 
 those in New Haven have charge of St. Francis' Orphan Asy- 
 lum. At Providence, they have an academy with 50 pupils and 
 a parochial school with 400. The Sisters of Charity have also 
 under their charge, in New York city, St. Vincent's Hospital, 
 St. Joseph's Home for Aged Women, and an asylum for found- 
 lings ; and in Brooklyn, St. Mary's Female Hospital. 
 
 The diocese of Newark reports a branch of the Sisters of 
 Charity, with a mother-house, and 12 or more other houses in 
 the state, a hospital, 4 or 5 asylums, 3 or 4 academies, besides 
 parish and other schools ; but no general statistics are given, ex- 
 cept the following :
 
 316 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 " Mother-House of the Sisters of Charity, Madison, N. J. Mother 
 M. Xavier, Superioress. The community numbers about 150 members. 
 Chaplain, Monsignor Seton, D. D., Prothonotary Apostolic." 
 
 If now we bring together the Sisters of Charity already 
 mentioned and all others that bear this name only without any 
 additional title, together with the above-mentioned " Daugh- 
 ters of Charity," we arrive at the following result: They 
 number probably 1500, and have under their charge probably 
 40,000 pupils ; they are established in 23 states and territo- 
 ries (Mass., R. I., Ct., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., Ala., 
 Mpi., La., Mo., 0., Mich., 111., Wis., Iowa, Kan., Col., N. Mex., 
 Nev., Cal.), and in the District of Columbia: they have about 
 50 asylums for orphans and infants, not far from 60 academies 
 and schools, and about 35 hospitals in the various parts of the 
 United States. Some of their establishments are on a large 
 scale. Thus 3 orphan asylums in New York city contain 918 
 inmates ; St. Mary's Orphan Asylum, near Madison, N. J., has 
 240 ; St. Joseph's Academy at Emmettsburg, Md., has 32 
 teachers, 145 sisters, and 118 pupils ; the Academy of Mt. St. 
 Vincent near Yonkers, N. Y., has 280 pupils ; St. Elizabeth's 
 Academy at Madison, N. J., has 100 ; St. Bridget's Female 
 School in New York city has 961, and St. Mary's in N. Y. 911 
 pupils ; the Charity Hospital at Buffalo has had about 1700 
 patients in a year, and its average number is 300. 
 
 But besides the " Sisters of Charity," simply so called, there 
 are 4 other " congregations " and 1 " order," which have the 
 same general objects as these Sisters of Charity ; but are dis- 
 tinguished from them by some additions to the name, and by 
 differences of connection and organization. They will now be 
 briefly noticed. 
 
 A Canadian organization is reported as " Sisters of Charity, 
 commonly called Gray Nuns," who have their mother-house 
 in Montreal, about 200 sisters belonging to it. Out of their 
 24 houses subject to the mother-house, 2 are in the dio- 
 cese of Boston, and 1 in that of Cleveland, in which dioceses 
 they have 3 asylums for orphans and destitute children, with a
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 317 
 
 hospital. " Gray Nuns " also have academies and schools 
 with 1494 pupils in Plattsburg, Ogdensburg, Hudson, and 
 Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Another Canadian organization, reported as " Sisters of 
 Charity, commonly called Sisters of Providence,"* has its 
 mother-house in Montreal, with 22 houses in Canada and the 
 United States subject to it. They have 16 sisters in Vermont, 
 in charge of an orphan asylum at Burlington, and schools 
 there and at Winooski ; and 33 sisters, with a convent, hos- 
 pital, academies, 2 orphan asylums, <fec., in Washington Ter- 
 ritory. 
 
 The " Sisters of Charity of the order of St. Augustine " 
 have been already mentioned under the Augustinians. 
 
 The" Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary" have 
 apparently 7 convents in Iowa, one of them established at 
 Dubuque in 1833 with a novitiate and mother-superior ; and 
 are found also in Chicago, 111. They report in Iowa 118 pro- 
 fessed sisters, 41 novices, and 12 postulants ; and have in Iowa 
 and Illinois academies and schools with nearly 4000 pupils. 
 
 The " Sisters of Charity of Nazareth " were founded in 
 1812, and have their mother-house near Bardstown, Ky., 
 number " about 200 members in the Society, with about 25 
 novices," and conduct 15 academies and schools in Kentucky, 
 one of which is Nazareth Academy, at the mother-house, with 
 300 boarders. They have also in Louisville an orphan asylum 
 and an infirmary. " Sisters of Nazareth " direct an academy 
 and day school at Holly Springs, Mississippi. 
 
 The Sulpicians, or " Priests of the Mission of St. Sulpice," 
 are a congregation of priests founded, according to Appletons' 
 Cyclopedia, in 1641, by Rev. J. J. Olier, pastor of the church 
 of St. Sulpice in Paris, for the education of pious priests. 
 They were distinguished for theological learning, and flourished 
 in France down to the French revolution of 1789, having at 
 that time 5 theological seminaries in Paris, 15 other diocesan 
 
 * Two other American organizations, known as " Sisters of Providence " and 
 " Oblate Sisters of Providence," are noticed in a subsequent part of this chapter.
 
 318 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 seminaries, and 12 "little" or preparatory seminaries. In 
 1860 they had 19 seminaries in France and 2 in North Amer- 
 ica (at Baltimore and Montreal), and numbered about 200 
 priests. The " Theological Seminary of St. Sulpice and St. 
 Mary's University, conducted by the ' Associated Professors 
 of St. Mary's Seminary of Baltimore City,' " traces its origin 
 back to 1790, and has now a superior (Very Rev. J. Paul 
 Dubreul, D.D.), and 7 other priests, with 60 students. The 
 " Great Seminary " in Montreal is under the direction of 6 
 Sulpician priests, and has 100 seminarians ; and the College of 
 Montreal, also under their charge, has a director and 10 
 other priests, with 300 students. 
 
 The Redemptorists, or " Congregation of the Most Holy 
 Redeemer," often called " Liguorians," were founded in 1732 
 by St. Alfonso (= Alphonsus) de Liguori (= Ligorio), an 
 Italian ecclesiastic and theologian, on nearly the same basis 
 with the Lazarists. Says Appletons' Cyclopedia : 
 
 " The rule of the Redemptorists prescribes, besides the 3 usual 
 monastic vows [of poverty, chastity, and obedience], a fourth, which 
 obliges the members to accept outside of the order no dignity, office, 
 or benefice, except upon an express order of the pope or the superior 
 general, and not to leave the order unless by special permission of 
 the pope. The principal sphere of action of this order has been the 
 conducting of what is called a ' mission,' lasting 1, 2, and sometimes 
 even more weeks, during which time the missionaries endeavor to pre- 
 vail upon all the members of a church to devote their time principally 
 to religious exercises and a thorough reformation of their lives." 
 
 The Redemptorists are much like the Jesuits in their object 
 and course, and have been proscribed with them in some Euro- 
 pean countries. Their present number, according to the Sta- 
 tistical Year-Book of the Church, is 2000. In 1860 they had, 
 according to Appletons' Cyclopedia, 83 houses with about 1300 
 members, in Italy, Germany, France, Belgium, Holland, Brit- 
 ish Isles, and the United States, their labors in this country, 
 which began in 1841, being mostly among the Germans. Ac-
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDEES MONKS, NUNS, AC. 319 
 
 cording to the Catholic Directory of 1871, they number 100 or 
 more members in this country, about 90 of them priests, and 
 have charge of 20 or more churches, mostly at important cen- 
 ters, viz., New York (2), Rochester, Buffalo, and Elmira, N. Y. ; 
 Philadelphia and Pittsburg, Pa. ; Baltimore (4), Annapolis, 
 Ilchester, &c., Md. ; New Orleans (3), La. ; Chatawa, Pike 
 Co., Mpi. ; Detroit, Mich. ; Chicago, 111. ; St. Louis, Mo. 
 They are building a church in Boston ; and the corner stone of a 
 new one in New York, which is expected to cost over $1,000,- 
 000, was laid on Sunday, Sept. 4, 1870. They have 5 convents 
 in Maryland, with a novitiate, and a house of studies, 27 or 28 
 clerical members (including the provincial, "Very Rev. Joseph 
 Helmproecht, C. SS. R."), 5 novices, 36 lay-brothers, and 50 
 students, connected with them ; 2 houses in New York city, 
 with 14 priests and 2 lay-brothers ; and houses in other cities, 
 &c., usually with from 4 to 8 priests, besides lay-brothers, con- 
 nected with each. 
 
 The " Congregation of the Missionary Priests of St. Paul the 
 Apostle," commonly called "Paulists," was established in New 
 York city in 1858 by Rev. Isaac T. Hecker and several other 
 priests, whom the pope allowed to leave the Redemptorists for 
 the purpose of founding an independent organization for mis- 
 sionary purposes, better suited to this country. This congre- 
 gation reports now a house and church in New York, a su- 
 perior (Very Rev. Isaac T. Hecker), 6 other priests, and 12 
 students preparing for the priesthood. "Applications for mis- 
 sions should be made to the superior during spring and summer 
 for the ensuing autumn and winter." The Paulists are the 
 originators of the Catholic Publication Society, of its monthly 
 periodical, "The Catholic World," <fec., and occupy a very 
 influential position. 
 
 The " Congregation of the Missionary Oblates [= persons 
 offered up, or devoted] of Mary Immaculate," usually called 
 " Oblate Fathers," originated, according to Webster's Diction- 
 ary, at Aix in France in 1815, and was introduced into Canada 
 in 1841. They serve as missionaries among lumbermen, fron-
 
 320 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, 4C. 
 
 tier settlers, Indians, the poor, imprisoned, &c. They are con- 
 siderably numerous in Canada and other parts of British Amer- 
 ica, having among them bishops, vicars-general, directors of 
 colleges and theological seminaries, &c. The Catholic Direc- 
 tory for 1871 reports about 30 of them in the United States, 
 with superiors at Buffalo and Plattsburg, N. Y., a vicar-general 
 at Brownsville, Texas, and churches at the above places, also at 
 Lowell, Mass., churches or missions at several places in Northern 
 New York, at over 30 points in Texas, at several places among 
 the Indians in Washington Territory, and at Pembina, &c., in 
 Dakota Territory. 
 
 The "Fathers of the Society of Mary" are reported in the 
 Catholic Directory for 1871 as having the direction of the Col- 
 lege of Jefferson, St. Michael, La., and the charge of a church 
 there. There are 11 priests, including the president and the 
 pastor, 6 lay-brothers, and 100 boarders. 
 
 The " Society of the Fathers of Mercy" numbers 3 priests 
 in New York city, who have charge of St. Vincent de Paul's 
 (French) church, and of "St. Louis' Select French Institute" 
 with 7 lay-teachers. 
 
 " The Brethren of the Christian Schools" were instituted at 
 Rheims by the Abbe* de La Salle in 1679, to provide instruction 
 for the poorer classes. They take the 3 monastic vows at first 
 for 3 years only, and then, if they choose, for life. They live 
 on the simplest fare. Their costume is a coarse black cassock, 
 and a small collar or band about the neck for the house ; a 
 hooded cloak and wide hat for out-door use. Priests may join 
 the order, but no brother is to become a priest or study Latin 
 under the age of 30. In some of their schools Latin and the 
 higher mathematics are taught ; but elementary instruction is 
 the main thing. According to Appletons' Cyclopedia, the order 
 had, in 1856, 827 establishments, 6,666 brethren, 1500 schools, 
 and 300,315 scholars. Of these France had about ; while 
 Canada had 16 establishments, 133 brethren, 29 schools, and 
 6449 scholars; and the United States had 12 establishments, 
 132 brethren, 30 schools, and 5314 scholars. The " School
 
 BELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 321 
 
 Brethren" are reported in the "Statistical Year Book of the 
 Church" as now numbering 16,000. The "Christian Broth- 
 ers," who are numerous in Ireland, and have nearly the same 
 rule and object as the "Brethren of the Christian Schools," 
 form an independent order. Both these names are reported, 
 in the Catholic Directory, from various dioceses in the United 
 States ; but they are evidently used indiscriminately in some 
 cases; and the statistics are eminently incomplete and un- 
 satisfactory. Thus, in the archdiocese of Baltimore the 
 "Brothers of the Christian Schools" are reported as having at 
 Baltimore a community, academy, and parish school, and an 
 academy at Ellicott's Mills, for which no numbers are given ; 
 also, 6 schools (in Baltimore and Washington) with 1400 pupils, 
 and 1 asylum (in Baltimore) with 72 orphans. In Hartford 
 they have 8 brothers, an academy with 75 pupils, and a free 
 school with 410 pupils. They are mentioned also in the re- 
 ports for the dioceses of New Orleans, Chicago (also " Chris- 
 tian Brothers" at the same places), Detroit, Newark, &c. The 
 " Christian Brothers " have, in New York city, a " community" 
 numbering 56, with " Brother Patrick, provincial of the Christian 
 Brothers in the United States," a " college " with 250 students, 
 an "institute" with 390 pupils, 2 "academies" with 250 pu- 
 pils, and 13 parochial schools with 7043 pupils. They have 
 colleges in the dioceses of St. Louis, San Francisco, Galveston, 
 Philadelphia, Santa F6", and St. Joseph. They report also 
 schools in most of these dioceses, as well as in those of Albany 
 (12 orphan asylums, academies and other institutions, with 
 61 brothers and 2728 pupils), Brooklyn, Buffalo, Rochester, 
 Philadelphia (41 brothers and 3000 pupils), &c. Probably 
 the number of brothers belonging to the two orders (if there 
 are two here) and the number of their pupils in the United 
 States are six times the corresponding numbers as given above 
 for the "Brothers of the Christian Schools" for 1856. 
 
 The " Brothers of the Christian Instruction of the Sacred 
 Heart of Jesus and Mary," from Puy, France, are found in 
 
 charge of an orphan asylum and farm with 150 orphan boys in 
 21
 
 322 
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONEYS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 the diocese of Louisville ; the ." Brothers of Christian Instruc- 
 tion" are also reported as having establishments at Mobile 
 and Indianapolis. These are possibly all the same congrega- 
 tion with that founded at Puy in France in 1821 by Abbd Coin- 
 drin. 
 
 The " Congregation of the Holy Cross " have establishments 
 for both males and females at Notre Dame, St. Joseph's Co., 
 
 UNIVERSITY OP NOTRE DAMK, INDIANA. 
 
 Ind., where are their university, one of their numerous acade- 
 mies, &c. The university, incorporated in 1844, has a presi- 
 dent (Rev. W. Corby, C.S.C.), vice-president (Rev. A. Lcmon- 
 nier, C.S.C.), prefect of discipline (Rev. D. J. Spillard, C.S.C.), 
 30 professors and tutors, and 470 pupils, according to the 
 Catholic Directory for 1871. In the "congregation" here are
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 323 
 
 a Superior General (Very Rev. E. Sorin, C.S.C.), a Provincial 
 (Rev. W. Corby, C.S.C., President of the University), and 11 
 other priests, " besides 6 scholastics, 91 professed lay-brothers, 
 52 novices, and 10 postulants, Josephites." * They have also 
 "St. Joseph's Novitiate," with a "Master of Novices" and an- 
 other priest as associate ; " St. Aloysius' Novitiate," with a 
 "Master of Novices Salvatorists," and 3 others of the above 
 priests, respectively styled " Socius (== associate), St. Joseph's 
 Novitiate," "Master of Novices Josephites," and " Socim-" 
 and the " Community of the Sisters of the Holy Cross, Con- 
 vent, and Novitiate at St. Mary's of the Immaculate Concep- 
 tion," the community numbering " 200 professed, 31 novices, 6 
 postulants, engaged in the education of youth and works of 
 mercy," with " Mother Mary Angela, Local and Provincial Su- 
 perior." The members of this congregation, male and female, 
 have the charge of schools, academies, and asylums, not only 
 in the diocese of Fort Wayne, where are their head-quarters, 
 but in the archdioceses of Baltimore, Cincinnati, and New Or- 
 leans, and in the dioceses of Alton, Chicago, Dubuque, &c. 
 Their head-quarters in Canada are at St. Laurent (near Mont- 
 real), where are houses for both sexes, a college, academy, c. 
 
 The " Xavierian Brothers," who established themselves in 
 Louisville, Ky., in 1854, have 25 professed brothers, 18 novices, 
 and 4 postulants, with 10 schools in Louisville, containing 
 more than 8000 boys, and an industrial school for boys near 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 The " Brothers of the Sacred Heart " have academies, orphan 
 asylums, and schools, with more than 600 boys under their care 
 in Kentucky, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 
 
 The " Christian Brothers of the Society of Mary," founded 
 in France in 1816 by Abbe* Chanisnade and others, have a col- 
 lege with 12 brothers and 250 pupils at San Antonio, Texas ; 
 a boarding-school with 300 pupils at Nazareth, and " several 
 
 1 The congregation is composed of 2 societies ; (I.) that of the priests, called 
 " Salvatorists of the Holy Cross "; (2.) that of the brothers, called "Josephites of 
 the Holy Cross."
 
 324 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 flourishing schools" at Cleveland, 0. ; and 750 pupils in 2 
 schools at Rochester, N. Y. They have a provincial (Rev. J. 
 N. Reinbolt) at their boarding-school, Nazareth, 0. The con- 
 gregation had, in 1858, 1665 members and 336 houses, mostly 
 in France. 
 
 The "Congregation of the most Precious Blood" goes back 
 in Ohio to 1844, and embraces, both males and females. " Very 
 Rev. Andrew Kunkler, Provincial C.PP.S." resides at Minster, 
 Auglaize Co., 0., where is the " Boarding-School of the Visi- 
 tation, directed by the Sisters of the Precious Blood." The 
 Sisters have 8 or 9 convents in Ohio and 1 in Indiana. The 
 Seminary of the Congregation is at Carthagena, Mercer Co., 0., 
 directed by 3 priests. 24 priests belonging to the congregation 
 are reported at convents, stations, churches, <fec., in Ohio and 
 Indiana. At Eureka, Cal., are 10 religious, with a superior 
 who is pastor of the church. 
 
 The "Ladies of the Sacred Heart" have about 20 convents 
 in the United States, with academies and other schools under 
 their direction. Appletons' Cyclopedia said in 1862 that there 
 were 3 congregations of them, the oldest founded in 1800 by 
 Mademoiselle Barat, with more than 200 establishments, of 
 which 19 were in North America. The oldest of their estab- 
 lishments in this country appears to be that at St. Charles, Mo., 
 which was founded in 1818, and has now 11 teachers, 22 sis- 
 ters, and 100 pupils. They have also convents and academies 
 at St. Louis and St. Joseph, Mo. ; at St. Michael's, Grand Co- 
 teau, and Natchitoches, La.; at New York (2), Albany, Ken- 
 wood (near Albany), and Rochester, N. Y. ; Philadelphia and 
 Torresdale, Pa. ; Detroit, Mich. ; Chicago, 111. ; also parochial 
 schools at several of these places, and an orphan asylum at St. 
 Louis. They have likewise a convent at St. Mary's Mission in 
 Kansas, where they conduct the female department of the Pota- 
 watamie Indian Manual Labor School. At St. Louis, they 
 have 52 in their community, with 140 pupils in their academy 
 and 140 in the parish school ; at Chicago, also 52, with 135 
 pupils in their seminary and 853 girls in a parish school; in
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 325 
 
 New York, 420 pupils in their 2 academies and 996 in 3 parish 
 schools ; at Kenwood, their provincial (Madame A. Hardy) 
 and novitiate, with 38 in the community, 150 pupils in the 
 academy; at St. Michael's, La., 45 to 50 religious, 150 board- 
 ers, with " some orphans and day-scholars." The " Ladies 
 of the Sacred Heart" probably number 400, and have under 
 their charge 4000 or 5000 pupils, without including the 30 
 "Ladies of the Sacred Heart of Mary" at Cleveland, 0., with 
 their orphan asylum and 160 orphans, or others of this name 
 with schools at Sandusky City, 0. 
 
 The " Sisters of St. Joseph " also, according to Appletons* 
 Cyclopedia, are divided into several congregations, having in 
 all 600 establishments and more than 5000 members. They 
 are established at from 40 to 50 different places in the United 
 States, in charge of numerous academies and schools and or- 
 phan asylums ; they must number at least 600 (including novi- 
 ces and postulants) in their communities, and direct the educa- 
 tion of more than 20,000 children and youth. Their " mother-, 
 house and academy," founded at Carondelet, Mo., in 1840, now 
 reports 66 in the community and 125 pupils. They are found 
 at Carondelet, St. Genevieve, St. Louis, and Hannibal (?), Mo. ; 
 at New Orleans, La. ; at Waterloo, Brussels, Bloomington, Peo- 
 ria, and Chicago, 111. ; at St. Paul, St. Anthony, Mendota, and 
 Minneapolis, Minn.; at Hancock, Sault-Sainte-Marie, and 
 L'Anse (Indian), in N. W. Michigan; at Albany, Troy, Co- 
 hoes, Salina, Saratoga Springs, Binghamton, Oswego, Dunkirk, 
 Cold Springs (in the western part of the State, the seat of a 
 convent and novitiate), Buffalo, Rochester, Canandaigua, Brook- 
 lyn, and Flushing, N. Y. ; at Erie, Meadville, McSherrystown (?) , 
 Philadelphia, Germantown, and Pottsville, Pa. ; at Wheeling 
 (mother-house), Charleston, and Grafton, W. Ya. ; at Savan- 
 nah, Ga. ; and at St. Augustine, Jacksonville, and Mandarin, 
 Fla. They have at St. Louis a deaf and dumb asylum, 2 or- 
 phan asylums and a half-orphan asylum, with 575 inmates in 
 the 3 last institutions ; a deaf and dumb asylum at Buffalo ; a 
 hospital and an orphan asylum at St. Paul, and also at Wheel-
 
 326 EELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 ing; 2 orphan asylums at Philadelphia, and 2 at Rochester; 
 orphan asylums also at Chicago, Brooklyn, Buffalo (in part), 
 Dunkirk, Canandaigua, and Erie ; and a widows' asylum at 
 Philadelphia. According to the Catholic Directory for 1870 
 and 1871, Sisters of St. Joseph, lately obtained from France, 
 have opened schools for colored children in Savannah and in 
 St. Augustine " with great success, the colored children, boys 
 and girls, under their charge giving most satisfactory and en- 
 couraging marks of social and moral improvement. The only 
 thing to be regretted in this matter is the small number of sis- 
 ters with regard to the colored population, and the great ex- 
 pense which attends the support of those schools." The Direc- 
 tory also mentions 50 pupils "in schools for colored pupils" at 
 St. Genevieve. 
 
 The " Sisters of the Congregation of Our Lady " (= Notre 
 Dame, in French), who have their head-quarters in Montreal, 
 number 431 professed sisters, 80 novices and postulants, and 
 13,337 pupils in the boarding schools, academies, and free 
 schools, which they direct principally in Canada and British 
 America. The only establishments in this country known to 
 be connected with that at Montreal are the " Convent and 
 Academy of the Ladies of the Congregation of Notre Dame," 
 at Portland, Me., which reports 14 religious and 90 pupils, 
 also 840 pupils in 2 parochial schools, of which the ladies have 
 charge; and St. Joseph's convent at Cambridgeport, Mass., 
 with 7 sisters, who have charge of schools with 375 pupils. 
 Other establishments, however, as those at Waterbury, Ct., 
 and Bourbonnais Grove, 111., may also belong to this congre- 
 gation. The Catholic Almanac, under January 12th, says : 
 " Margaret Bourgeoys, founder of the Sisters of the Congrega- 
 tion, died at Montreal, 1706." 
 
 There are, however, in the United States many others who 
 are styled in the Catholic Directory of 1871 " Sisters of Notre 
 Dame," or " School-Sisters of Notre Dame," or " Poor School 
 Sisters of Notre Dame," possibly all belonging with those who 
 are thus reported from Milwaukee : " Convent of the School-
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 327 
 
 Sisters of Notre Dame, Mother House and Novitiate, corner of 
 Milwaukee and Knapp streets, Sister Mary Caroline, Superior- 
 ess. Religious, 65 ; novices, 88 ; postulants, 80 ; mission 
 bouses, 78 : with 620 sisters having under their charge, through- 
 out the United States, 27,900 parish school children, over 1375 
 orphans, 640 boarders." 
 
 The establishments named in the Catholic Directory for 1871 
 as belonging to the " School Sisters of Notre Dame " are in 
 Baltimore and Annapolis, Md. ; Philadelphia, Tacony, and Al- 
 legheny City, Pa. ; Chicago, 111. ; Milwaukee, and Elm Grove, 
 and 12 other places, Wis. To these the Directory for 1870 
 added Rochester, N. Y., and Pittsburg, Pa. The " Poor School 
 Sisters of Notre Dame " are reported only at Quincy and Belle- 
 ville in the diocese of Alton ; while the " Sisters of Notre 
 Dame" are reported in that diocese at Quincy, Belleville, 
 Highland, St. Liborius, Shoal Creek Station, Springfield, and 
 Teutopolis, 111. The " Sisters of Notre Dame," or the " Sisters 
 of the Congregation," are reported at Boston (including East 
 and South Boston and Boston Highlands), Lowell, Salem, Law- 
 rence, Chicopee, and Holyoke, Mass. ; Waterbury, Ct. ; New 
 York city, Rochester, and Buffalo, N. Y. ; Newark, N. J. ; 
 Philadelphia and Pittsburg, Pa. ; Cincinnati, and Columbus, 
 0. ; Louisville, Ky. ; Detroit, Mich. ; Green Bay, Wis. ; Man- 
 kato and Hokah, Min. ; West Point, Iowa ; Chicago, Henry, 
 and Bourbonnais Grove, 111. ; St. Louis, Mo. ; New Orleans, 
 La. ; San Francisco, Pueblo of San Jose", and Marysville, Cal. 
 
 The " Sisters of Loretto," or " Daughters of our Lady of 
 Sorrows," were founded in Kentucky in 1812. Their mother- 
 house is at Loretto, Marion Co., Ky. They have " about 250 
 members in the society, with 30 novices." They conduct 
 academies and schools at Loretto, Lebanon, Elizabethtown, 
 Portland, and Curdsville, Ky. ; Cape Girardeau, Edina, and 
 Florissant, Mo. ; Cairo and Chicago, 111. ; Osage Indian Mis- 
 sion, Kan.; Santa F6, Taos, Mora, and Albuquerque, New 
 Mexico ; and Denver, Colorado ; but the statistics of these 
 are given in only a few instances.
 
 328 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 The " Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary," whose 
 head-quarters are at Longueil, near Montreal, have in Canada 
 14 houses with 2263 pupils, and in the United States 10 houses 
 with 1 946 pupils. There are, according to the Catholic Direc- 
 tory for 1870 and 1871, 39 sisters of this community at Port- 
 land, &c., in Oregon, and others at Oakland, Cal., connected 
 with convents, academies, and schools ; but exact statistics are 
 wanting. Possibly the establishments at Rome and Scheneo 
 tady, N. Y., reported as of " Sisters of Jesus and Mary," be- 
 long to this community. 
 
 The " Sisters of St. Ann," whose head-quarters are at La- 
 chine, also in Canada, report 127 sisters and 7 novices. They 
 have, according to the Catholic Directory, 12 houses in the 
 diocese of Montreal with 1480 pupils, and 4 in the United 
 States and British America with 350 pupils. They are re- 
 ported in the United States only at Oswego, N. Y., where 4 of 
 them have charge of " St. Paul's Select and Parochial school." 
 
 A " Community of the Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ " is 
 reported at Hesse Cassel, Allen Co., Ind., numbering 16. 
 " These sisters come from Dermbach, in Nassau. Their object 
 is to teach, take charge of hospitals, orphan asylums, and 
 works of charity in general." They have charge of St. Jo- 
 seph's Hospital at Fort Wayne, Ind. 
 
 The " Sisters of our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd" 
 were instituted and approved by the Holy See in 1835, and in- 
 troduced into the United States in 1849. " The Sisters of our 
 Lady of the Good Shepherd," and " Sisters of the Good Shep- 
 herd," and "Religious of the Good Shepherd," are apparently 
 the same " congregation," which, under one or another of these 
 names, is reported from 14 establishments in 9 states. These 
 are in New York, Buffalo, and Brooklyn, N. Y. ; 2 in Phila- 
 delphia, Pa. ; Baltimore, Md. ; New Orleans, La. ; Cincinnati, 
 Cleveland, and Franklin (near Columbus), 0. ; Louisville, Ky; 
 St. Louis, Mo. ; Chicago, 111. ; St. Paul, Min. They have mag- 
 dalen asylums for women who desire to abandon a vicious life 
 reform; industrial schools for reclaiming young truant
 
 BELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 329 
 
 girls ; protectories for young girls ; reformatories for girls ; 
 and parochial schools. The " Convent of the Good Shep- 
 herd," in New York, reports 40 professed sisters, 33 nov- 
 ices, 6 postulants, and 10 lay-sisters ; and the " House of the 
 Good Shepherd," under their charge, has 546 penitents. As 8 
 or 10 other establishments report 162 in their respective com- 
 munities and (apparently) 916 penitents, magdalens, and other 
 inmates of their asylums and schools, the whole number of 
 those who take or desire to take the vows is probably 350 to 
 400, with 2500 or more penitents and girls under their charge. 
 The " 3d Order of St. Teresa, composed of reformed penitents, 
 who remain for life," and reported in New York and St. Louis, 
 appears to be under the supervision and patronage of this com- 
 munity, and is probably somewhat analogous to the 3d orders 
 of Franciscans, Carmelites, <fec. 
 
 The " Little Sisters of the Poor " have been called the most 
 numerous and popular of the congregations that bind them- 
 selves to the service of the sick and poor. They have asylums 
 for old men and women in New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, 
 Baltimore, and New Orleans ; and their convents or houses are 
 also found in Cleveland and Cincinnati ; but their establish- 
 ments in this country are of recent origin, and the statistics 
 are meager. It may be supposed that they number 60 or 70, 
 and have in their asylums from 300 to 400 aged persons. 
 
 The " Sister-servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary " 
 have their mother-house and novitiate at Monroe, Mich. Here 
 are also a boarding and day school, parish school, and orphan 
 asylum under their charge. They have in all their convents 
 and houses taken together 61 professed members, 17 novices, 
 12 mission-houses, and 2124 pupils. Their establishments are 
 at Monroe, Detroit (several), Adrian, Westphalia, Ann Arbor, 
 East Saginaw, and Stony Creek, Mich. ; Painesville, 0. ; and 
 probably Buffalo, N. Y., where " Ladies of the Immaculate 
 Heart of Mary " are reported. 
 
 In Pennsylvania is another congregation called " Sisters, 
 Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary," who report 81
 
 330 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 sisters and 1990 pupils at 4 establishments in and near Phila- 
 delphia (Reading, Philadelphia, Manayunk, and Frankford), 
 and have likewise convents and academies at Pittston and 
 Susquehannah Depot, Pa. They probably number in all 100 
 sisters and 2200 or 2300 pupils. 
 
 There is a " Convent of the Sisters of the Humility of 
 Mary " at New Bedford, Pa., which has 18 sisters, 8 pupils, 
 and 20 orphans ; and there are " communities of the same sis- 
 ters at Newburg, Louisville, and Harrisburg, 0., for the. di- 
 rection of the schools ; " but no further facts respecting them 
 are reported in the Catholic Directory. 
 
 Academies at Lockport and Elmira, N. Y., and a parochial 
 school at Lockport, are credited in the Catholic Directory to 
 the " Sisters of St. Mary," without further explanation. 
 
 " Daughters of the Cross " have been for nearly 20 years in 
 the diocese of Natchitoches, La. They have a convent and 
 novitiate at Avoyelles ; and academies and other schools at 
 Cocoville, Marksville, Fairfield, Shreveport, Monroe, and He 
 Brevelle, all in that diocese. 
 
 The " Sisters (or " Society ") of the Holy Child Jesus " 
 have a convent and academy at Sharon, Delaware Co., Pa.; 
 also 2 academies and parochial schools in Philadelphia, with a 
 total of 705 pupils in the 5 institutions. 
 
 The " Sisters of the Incarnate "Word " are reported only in 
 Texas. They are established at Brownsville, Victoria, and 
 Houston ; number 32 sisters ; and have about 260 pupils at 
 Brownsville and Victoria. 
 
 There are 2 religious organizations among the colored peo- 
 ple. The " Oblate Sisters of Providence," founded in Balti- 
 more, June 5, 1825, have a convent and orphan asylum for col- 
 ored girls in Baltimore ; a convent and academy in Philadel- 
 phia ; an asylum, academy, boarding and day school in New 
 Orleans. They have probably about 200 girls under their 
 charge. There are also " Sisters of Providence " in Texas, at 
 Castroville, Corpus Christi, Houston, and Austin ; but of what 
 color or organization can not be determined from the Catholic 
 Directory.
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 331 
 
 The " Sisters of the Holy Family," another organization of 
 colored people, have a school for colored girls in New Orleans, 
 and " also prepare a great number of Catholic colored girls for 
 their first communion." 
 
 The " Sisters of Providence," different from those already 
 mentioned by this name, have an institute and mother-house, 
 called " St. Mary's of the Woods," near Terre Haute, Ind. 
 Their ecclesiastical superior is Very Rev. J. Corbe, Vicar Gen. 
 eral of the diocese of Vincennes ; their " mother superior " is 
 " Sister Anastasia." The " Sisters of Providence," says the 
 Catholic Directory, " conduct schools of both grades, common 
 and high ; they have charge of the orphan asylums of the dio- 
 cese, attend invalids in infirmaries, and also visit them at their 
 homes." They appear to be established only in the two dioceses 
 of the state of Indiana. They have an extensive academic in- 
 stitute at their mother-house, other academies or schools at 
 Vincennes, Fort Wayne, Lafayette, Indianapolis, Madi- 
 son, North Madison, Aurora, Evansville, Washington, New 
 Albany, Jasper, Loogootee, Terre Haute, Richmond, and Jef- 
 fersonville ; 2 orphan asylums at Vincennes, and an infirmary 
 at Indianapolis. No statistics are given of them. The Ameri- 
 can Ecclesiastical Year Book, by Prof. A. J. Schem, has this 
 notice : " Sisters of Providence of the Holy Childhood of 
 Jesus, introduced into the United States in 1839 : in Indiana." 
 
 The " St. Agnes Community " were reported in the Catho- 
 lic Directory for 1870 as numbering 57 (sisters, novices and pos- 
 tulants), and as having at Barton, Washington Co., Wis., a 
 mother-house with an academy and boarding-school ; but the 
 Directory for 1871 omits all mention of their establishment at 
 Barton ; gives no report of their present condition beyond men- 
 tioning the 13 places in Wisconsin where they conduct schools ; 
 and removes the community, with their superioress, academy 
 and boarding-school, to Fond du Lac, Wis. 
 
 The " Soeurs Hospitalieres " (=Hospital Sisters) have the 
 direction of an orphan asylum and of an infirmary, both at 
 Galveston t Texas. They appear to number 14 in all.
 
 332 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 There are in San Francisco 2 " Presentation Convents," with 
 28 sisters, 11 novices, 12 postulants, and 1800 pupils in their 
 schools ; but whether these Sisters belong to the " Congrega- 
 tion of the Presentation of the Blessed Mary," or to some other, 
 is not stated. 
 
 The lack of completeness and definiteness in titles, state- 
 ments, and statistics, renders it impossible to present a syste- 
 matic and correct view of the members and operations of the 
 religious orders and congregations in our country. Some 
 schools and charitable establishments, which are evidently un- 
 der the direction of members of a religious organization, either 
 cannot be assigned with certainty where they belong, or must 
 be altogether omitted iii the attempt to systematize the whole. 
 Some dioceses, as, for example, in Ohio, which have more 
 than 35000 children in their parish schools, neglect to men- 
 tion who conduct these schools, though in other dioceses scarce- 
 ly a parish school is named which is not under the charge of 
 some religious order or congregation. In some cases a 
 particular institution is named twice in the same report, 
 perhaps with details which are evidently conjectural, and 
 inconsistent with one another or with other statements. 
 It is very certain that Roman Catholic statistics in this coun- 
 try, and statistics in respect to Roman Catholics, are not 
 infallible. 
 
 There are enumerated in this chapter about 30 religious or- 
 ders and congregations for men, and about 50 for women, the 
 whole numbering in this country, as nearly as can be ascer- 
 tained, more than 2500 males (including the Jesuits), and more 
 than 8000 females, and having under their care considerably 
 more than 200,000 children and youth in the process of edu- 
 cation. More than one-half of the males are priests, and more 
 than 300 are Jesuits. Little notice has been taken of the many 
 religious orders and congregations that have no representatives 
 in this country. 
 
 The whole number of monastic institutions in the Roman 
 Catholic church throughout the world was estimated in Apple-
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 333 
 
 tons' Cyclopedia as follows, for 1860: " Male orders and congrega- 
 tions 83, with about 7065 establishments, and 100,000 members ; 
 female orders and congregations 94, with 9247 houses, and a 
 little more than 100,000 member's." But a later authority, the 
 " Statistical Year-Book of the Church," published at Ratisbon, 
 in Southern Germany, in 1862 by a Carmelite monk, and quoted 
 in the Catholic Almanac for 1870, gives more complete statis- 
 tics, and estimates the whole number of male monasteries and 
 establishments at 8000 with an aggregate of 117,500 mem- 
 bers ; and the whole number of female monasteries and estab- 
 lishments at 10,000, with an aggregate membership of 189 r 
 000. 
 
 Many monastic orders have become extinct ; as, for example, 
 the military orders, which originated during the crusades for 
 the recovery of the Holy Land from the Mohammedans, and 
 filled a large place in the ecclesiastical and political history of 
 Europe after the llth century. Among these were the Knights 
 Hospitalers, also known as the Knights of St. John, or of Rhodes, 
 or of Malta, who held Malta till 1798 ; the Knights Templars, 
 who were exterminated after their condemnation by the coun- 
 cil of Vienne in 1311 ; and the Teutonic Knights, who ceased 
 to exist at the Reformation in the 16th century. 
 
 The monastic constitution, as it now exists, is, in most cases, 
 an absolute monarchy. The " general " of the Franciscans, 
 Dominicans, &c., resides at Rome, and is subordinate only to 
 the pope. Subordinate to the general are the " provincials " 
 or heads of the " provinces," which are the large territorial 
 divisions of the convents or members of an order. In most 
 orders, the " superior " or other head of a convent is elected 
 by the members of the convent ; the superiors in a province 
 elect the provincial ; and the provincials, assembled in a general 
 " chapter " or convention, elect their general. Among the 
 Jesuits, however, and some other orders, the general appoints 
 the provincials and superiors. A " priory " is a convent whose 
 head is styled a " prior " or " prioress," as the Benedictine 
 " priory " at Erie, Pa. An " abbey " is a convent whose head
 
 334 RELIGIOUS 'ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 is styled an " abbot " or " abbess." The head of an abbey 
 is a " mitred abbot," when he has the rank of a bishop, as 
 the Benedictine abbot at Latrobe, Pa., or the Trappist abbot at 
 New Haven, Ky. " St. Vincent's Abbey " at Latrobe, Pa., has 
 2 " priories " attached to it (at Carrolltown and Butler), and 
 several " houses " (at Pittsburg, Greensburg, Indiana, and 
 Johnstown, Pa.). A convent is also sometimes styled a " re- 
 treat " or" house of retreat," as " St. Michael's Retreat " (Pas- 
 sionist, at West Hoboken, N. J.), and " St. Ignatius' House of 
 Retreat" (Jesuit, at Fordham, N. Y.). "Monastery" is 
 applied usually to a convent for male recluses, or monks, some- 
 times to one for females or nuns, " nunnery " being a more 
 definite term for the latter. 
 
 That great evils have been connected with the monastic sys- 
 tem is affirmed unanimously by Protestant writers and by most 
 Roman Catholics also. It is undeniable that the regulation or 
 reformation of convents and monastic orders has largely occu- 
 pied the time and attention of general and other councils, and 
 that convents and monastic orders have often been suppressed 
 in Roman Catholic countries as either useless or injurious. 
 
 In 1490 pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull, setting forth the 
 reprobate lives led by all the English monastic orders, direct- 
 ing archbishop Morton to admonish the heads of all the con- 
 vents in his province to reform themselves and those under 
 them^ and giving him authority to enforce his admonitions 
 upon them. And archbishop Morton, in a letter to the abbot 
 of St. Alban's, describes the monks of that abbey as notoriously 
 guilty, not only of libertinism in all its forms, but of almost 
 every other kind of enormity. Cardinal Wolsey, who was 
 papal legate in England as well as the powerful minister of 
 king Henry VIII., obtained from the pope in 1524 bulls sup- 
 pressing many convents on the ground of the great wicked- 
 ness that prevailed in them, and used their revenues for the 
 building and endowment of what is now Christ Church College 
 at Oxford. Wolsey was the first who set the example of re- 
 forming convents by converting their revenues to different
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 335 
 
 purposes. The subsequent suppression of all the smaller con- 
 vents in England was authorized by a bull of pope Clement 
 VII., November 12, 1528, empowering the legates Wolsey and 
 Campeggio to unite to other monasteries all those containing 
 less than 12 inmates. Says the impartial Hallam, in his Con- 
 stitutional History of England : 
 
 ** No one fact can be better supported by current opinion, and that 
 general testimony which carries conviction, than the relaxed and vicious 
 state of those foundations for many ages before their fall. Ecclesias- 
 tical writers had not then learned, as they have since, the trick of sup- 
 pressing what might excite odium against their church, but speak out 
 boldly and bitterly." 
 
 Other Roman Catholic as well as Protestant countries have 
 followed the example of England in the suppression of con- 
 vents. The Roman Catholic emperor of Germany, Joseph 
 II., in 1781, subjected the monastic fraternities in his domin- 
 ions to diocesan jurisdiction, and suppressed all convents not 
 employed in education, in pastoral duties, or in nursing the 
 sick. The French revolution in 1790 swept away the religious 
 orders in France, and endangered their existence throughout 
 Europe ; but after 1814 they revived again. Convents were 
 almost entirely suppressed in Portugal in 1834 and in Spain- 
 in 1835. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia (except in Polish 
 provinces), Greece, Switzerland, and Protestant states of Ger- 
 many, have also at different times prohibited the existence of 
 monasteries or nunneries in their territories. By a law of 
 the Sardinian government, passed in 1855, the property of 
 2099 monasteries and nunneries was confiscated and sold, and 
 the proceeds were invested for a common school fund ; and by 
 a law of the Italian parliament, passed in June, 1866, all the 
 convents in Italy were closed, and their property was confis- 
 cated for the use of the government. 
 
 That persons who desired to leave convents have been de- 
 tained in them, is affirmed by many and is generally believed. 
 " Miss Bunkley's Book " narrates the particulars of her escape,
 
 336 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 
 
 in November, 1854, from the Mother-house of the Sisters of 
 Charity at Einmettsburg, Md. Miss Mary Ann Smith of 
 Newark, N. J., a member of the Methodist Episcopal church, 
 but of a Roman Catholic family, was confined by her father's 
 authority in St. Mary's Convent, South Orange, N. J., and sub- 
 sequently in the House of the Good Shepherd, New York city, 
 from which latter institution she escaped in the early part of 
 1870. John Evangelist Borzinski, formerly a physician in the 
 convent of the Brothers of Mercy at Prague in Bohemia (Aus- 
 tria), having left the convent and joined a Protestant church 
 in Prussia, in January, 1855, was arrested in March at his 
 father's house in Prosnitz, Bohemia, and imprisoned first in a 
 convent at Prosnitz, and afterwards in the convent of the 
 Brothers of Mercy at Prague, whence he escaped to Prussia in 
 October following. Ubaldus Borzinski, brother of this last, 
 and a member of the same order, addressed to pope Pius IX., 
 in November, 1854, an earnest petition, particularizing 37 in- 
 stances of flagrant immorality and crime committed mostly by 
 officials of his order during 10 or 12 years previous, and en- 
 treating the pope to use his authority for the correction of 
 such abuses ; but, for sending this petition, Ubaldus Borzinski 
 was long imprisoned in a part of the convent used as a mad- 
 house. These, and many other cases that might be mentioned, 
 show certainly that convents may be places of imprisonment. 
 It has been proposed both in America and in England to subject 
 all convents to legislative visitation for the release of those 
 unwillingly detained in them and for the prevention or removal 
 of other abuses ; but Roman Catholics persistently oppose all 
 interference of this sort. 
 
 Dr. De Sanctis, who for many years occupied a high official 
 position at Rome, describes 3 classes of those who become 
 nuns : (1.) Young girls, who become interested in religion 
 and, blindly following the path of piety, believe the priest's 
 declamations against conjugal love and domestic affection as 
 unholy and tending to eradicate the love of Christ ; (2.) Those 
 who, failing to captivate the regard of men, are yet conscious
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 337 
 
 of an irresistible need of loving some object, and therefore 
 seek to be loved, as they say, by the Lord Jesus Christ, who is 
 represented as a young man of marvelous beauty and most 
 winning look, with a heart shining with love, and seen trans- 
 parent in his breast; (3.) Those who, being educated from 
 childhood in the nunnery, remain there, and become nuns 
 without knowing why, and give up with alacrity a world which 
 they have never seen. Dr. De Sanctis alludes to some cases 
 of notorious immorality, and says : 
 
 " As a general thing, however, the convent (so far as Rome is con- 
 cerned) is neither, on the one hand, a terrestrial paradise inhabited by 
 angels, nor, on the other hand, is it generally a place of open and 
 shameless vice." 
 
 In regard to health, Dr. De Sanctis divides the convents of 
 Rome into 2 classes : (1.) Those in which the inmates have 
 no other occupation besides prayer ; (2.) Those in which 
 they are employed in instructing the young. Of nuns in the 
 former class of convents Dr. De Sanctis writes : 
 
 " They go without necessary food ; they wear hair-cloth when na- 
 ture demands restoratives ; they refuse themselves remedies which 
 would arrest disease, and this from a false modesty which forbids the 
 communicating of their ailments to the physician. Many have I known 
 to die of such procedure. You will call these nuns poor victims of de- 
 lusion ; the world will call them mad ; but in the dictionary of the con- 
 vent they are termed ' holy martyrs of sacred^odesty.' " 
 
 In this class of convents are some where the rigor of disci- 
 pline treads under foot the most sacred laws of nature, as the 
 convent of the Vive Sepolte (=buried alive), of which Dr. De 
 Sanctis thus speaks : 
 
 " When a youth I resided in the neighborhood of this convent, and I 
 remember that one day the pope, Leo XII., made an unexpected visit 
 to the institution. It excited much curiosity in the quarter to know 
 the occasion of this visit, which was as follows : A woman had an only 
 daughter who had taken the veil in that convent Left a widow, she
 
 338 BELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 came often to the institution, and with a mother's tears besought that 
 she might be allowed, if not to see, at least to hear the voice of her 
 daughter. What request more just and more sacred from a mother ? 
 But what is there of sacredness and justice that fanaticism does not cor- 
 rupt ? The daughter sent word by the confessor to her mother that, 
 if she did not cease to importune her, she would refuse to speak to her 
 even on the day [once a year] when she would be allowed to do so 
 That day at length arrived ; the widowed mother was the first to pre- 
 sent herself at the door of the convent, and she was told that she could 
 not see her daughter. In despair she asked, Why ? No answer. Was 
 she sick ? No reply. Was she dead ? Not a word. The miserable 
 mother conjectured that her daughter was dead. She ran to the superi- 
 ors to obtain at least the privilege of seeing her corpse, but their hearts 
 were of iron. She went to the pope : a mother's tears touched the 
 breast of Leo XII., and he promised her that on the following morning 
 he would be at the convent and ascertain the fact. He did so, unex- 
 pectedly to all. Those doors, which were accustomed to open only for 
 the admittance of a fresh victim, opened that day to the head of the 
 church of Rome. Seeing the wretched mother who was the occasion of 
 this visit, he called her to him, and ordered her to follow him into the 
 nunnery. The daughter, who, by an excess of barbarous fanaticism, 
 thought to please Heaven by a violation of the holiest laws of nature, 
 concealed herself upon hearing that her mother had entered the con- 
 vent. The pope called together in a hall the entire sisterhood, and 
 commanded them to lift the veils from their faces. The mother's heart 
 throbbed with vehemence ; she looked anxiously from face to face once 
 and again, but her daughter was not there. She believed now that 
 she was dead, and, with a piercing ciy, fell down in a swoon. While 
 she was reviving, the pope peremptorily asked the Mother Superior 
 whether the daughter was dead or alive. She replied, at length, that 
 she was yet living, but having vowed to God that she would eradicate 
 every carnal affection from her breast, she was unwilling even to see 
 her mother again. It was not until the pope ordered her appearance, in 
 virtue of the obedience due to him, and upon pain of mortal sin, that 
 the nun came forth. This outrage upon human nature [see Rom. 1. 
 31 and Mark 7 : 11-13], which might have resulted in parricide, is de- 
 nominated in the vocabulary of monasticism ' virtue in heroic de- 
 gree ? '"
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 339 
 
 The case of Miss Saurin and the Sisters of Mercy at Hull, 
 Eng., called the " Hull convent trial," excited much interest 
 in England in 1869. Said the London Times on the occasion of 
 this trial : 
 
 " The opinion of all Protestant communities that is, the opinion of 
 the most enlightened and progressive part of mankind is that conven- 
 tual vows and the so-called religious life are evils not sufficiently re- 
 deemed by any acts of charity and philanthropy which the persons 
 who embrace them may render to the world. The vow, the perpetual 
 obligation, the pretense that the conventual life is so ineffably high 
 and holy that to abandon it is the most fearful of sins, makes the curse 
 of the system. When once the unhappy victim of ignorance or enthu- 
 siasm, or it may be of domestic persuasion, has taken that vow, which ? 
 judged on any reasonable principles of morality, is a greater sin than 
 the breaking of it can be, there is no retreat, and however much the 
 character may change, however irksome the life may subsequently be- 
 come from causes accidental or natural, there remains only a dull sub- 
 mission, to be enforced by penances and even physical compulsion, 
 where the nun's own strength of will fails her. Now, let us grant 
 what the sisters say that Miss Saurin was unsuited for the religious 
 life. What does it come to except that the system was a bad one un- 
 der which she could not leave that life except with a shadow on her as 
 a nun who had received a formal 'dispensation,' on the ground that she 
 was unfit for the highest calling of her sex ? It is plain that this was 
 what she thought, and what her relatives, priests and nuns themselves, 
 also thought when they bade her keep to the convent until turned out." 
 
 The case of Miss Edith 0' Gorman should here be noticed.. 
 She was born in Ireland in 1842 of Roman Catholic parents, 
 with whom she came to America in 1850. In October, 
 1862, she left her home in Rhode Island with the consent of her 
 parents, and entered St. Elizabeth's convent, Madison, N. 
 J., belonging to the Sisters of Charity. After 3 months' ex.- 
 perience as a candidate, she became a novice under the name 
 of Sister Teresa de Chantal, and went to St. Joseph's Orphan 
 Asylum, Paterson, N. J., where she was at once installed as 
 mother of the orphans. July 25, 1864, after an mmsully short
 
 340 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 i 
 
 novitiate, she took the irrevocable vows of poverty, chastity, and 
 obedience, at the mother-house in Madison. The next month 
 she was sent with 2 other nuns to Hudson City, N. J., to es- 
 tablish the new convent there at St. Joseph's church. Jan. 31, 
 1868, she left the convent because a priest who had fallen in 
 love with her, attempted in the church to violate her person 
 after she had unsuccessfully petitioned the mother-superior to be 
 removed from the place of danger to her soul ; and as a conse- 
 quence an intense abhorrence both of priests and of convents then 
 filled her soul. Her work, " Convent Life Unveiled," publish- 
 ed at Hartford in 1871, narrates the story of her trials and ex- 
 periences during the 6 years of her being a Sister of Charity, of 
 her conversion in 1869, of her lectures on Romanism and other 
 labors up to her marriage in 1870 with Mr. Win. Auffray, for- 
 merly a Roman Catholic and professor in a French university, 
 now an assistant in the French Episcopal church Du St. Es- 
 prit (of the Holy Spirit) in New York city. Rev. Henry A. 
 Cordo, pastor of the North Baptist church in Jersey City, N. 
 J., vouches, in an introductory note, for " her candid story " 
 and the " high regard " in which she is held in that city, in 
 and near which she has long lived, and where she is well known. 
 She gives particulars of the spy-system among the nuns, of 
 their cruelty to orphans and to one another, their eating of 
 worms, their living death and not unfrequent insanity, their in- 
 cessant and reputedly-meritorious warfare against all that is 
 sympathetic and kindly and human, which harmonize with the 
 picture of the convent-life already drawn in these pages. 
 
 The great fact that the nun does not, as she expected, leave 
 the world behind her on the outside of the convent-walls, but 
 carries it with her in her own heart into the very cloister is 
 versified in these lines by Rev. Horatius Bonar, D.D., of Scot- 
 land: 
 
 " This is no heaven ! 
 
 And yet they told me that all heaven was here, 
 This life the foretaste of a life more dear ; 
 That all beyond this convent-cell 
 Was but a fairer hell ;
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. ' 341 
 
 That all was ecstasy and song within, 
 That all without was tempest, gloom and sin. 
 Ah me ! it is not so 
 This is no heaven, I know ! 
 
 ** This is not rest ! 
 
 And yet they told me that all rest was here ; 
 
 Within these walls the medicine and the cheer 
 
 For broken hearts ; that all without 
 
 Was trembling, weariness and doubt ; 
 
 This the sure ark which floats above the wave, 
 
 Strong in life's flood to shelter and to save ; 
 
 This the still mountain-lake, 
 
 Which winds can never shake. 
 
 Ah me ! it is not so 
 
 This. is not rest, I know ! 
 
 " This is not home ! 
 
 And yet for this I left my girlhood's bower, 
 
 Shook the first dew from April's budding flower, 
 
 Cut off my golden hair, 
 
 Forsook the dear and fair, 
 
 And fled, as from a serpent's eyes, 
 
 Home and its holiest charities ; 
 
 Instead of all things beautiful, 
 
 Took this decaying skull, 
 
 Hour after hour to feed my eye, 
 
 As if foul gaze like this could purify ; 
 
 Broke the sweet ties that God had given, 
 
 And sought to win His heaven 
 
 By leaving home-work all undone, 
 
 The home race all unrun, 
 
 The fair home garden all untilled, 
 
 The home affections all unfilled ; 
 
 As if these common rounds of work and love 
 
 Were drags to one whose spirit soared above 
 
 Life's tame and easy circle, and who fain 
 
 Would earn her crown by self-sought toil and pain. 
 
 Led captive by a mystic power, 
 
 Dazzled by visions in the moody hour, 
 
 When, sick of earth, and self, and vanity, 
 
 I longed to be alone or die ; 
 
 Mocked by my own self-brooding heart, 
 
 And plied with every wile and art 
 
 That could seduce a young and yearning soul 
 
 To start for some mysterious goal,
 
 342 EELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 And seek, in cell or savage waste, 
 
 The cure of blighted hope and love misplaced. 
 
 " Yet, 'tis not the hard bed, nor the lattice small, 
 Nor the dull lamp of this cold convent-wall ; 
 'Tis not the frost on these thick prison-bars, 
 Nor the keen shiver of these wintry stars ; 
 Not this coarse raiment, nor this coarser food, 
 Nor bloodless lips of withering womanhood ; 
 'Tis not all these that make me sigh and fret ; 
 'Tis something deeper yet 
 The unutterable void within, 
 The dark fierce warfare with this heart of sin, 
 The inner bondage, fever, storm, and woe, 
 The hopeless conflict with my hellish foe, 
 'Gainst whom the grated lattice is no shield, 
 To whom this cell is victory's chosen field. 
 
 " Here is no balm 
 For stricken hearts ; no calm 
 For fevered souls ; no cure 
 For minds diseased : the impure 
 Becomes impurer in this stagnant air; 
 My cell becomes my tempter and my snare, 
 And vainer dreams than e'er I dreamt before 
 Crowd in at its low door. 
 And I have fled, my God, from Thee, 
 From Thy glad love and liberty ; 
 And left the road where blessings fall like light, 
 For self-made by-paths shaded o'er with night ! 
 
 lead me back, my God, 
 To the forsaken road, 
 
 Life's common beat, that there, 
 Even in the midst of toil and care, 
 
 1 may find Thee, 
 
 And in Thy love be free ! " 
 
 But while most Protestants condemn the whole monastic 
 system as based on the false principles of the meritoriousness 
 of good works and of the superior sanctity of an unmarried 
 or ascetic life, and as dangerous to society from the facilities 
 which it offers to the commission of oifenses against morality 
 and liberty, the Roman Catholic authorities emphatically de- 
 clare the usefulness of monasticism, anathematize those who
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUXS, AC. 343 
 
 oppose it, and endeavor to separate offenses and corruptions 
 from the system itself. 
 
 The council of Trent at its 25th and last session passed a 
 reformatory decree respecting monks and nuns, containing in 
 its 22 chapters the following provisions among others : that 
 all regulars, both men and women, should conform their lives 
 to the rule of their profession ; that no regular should depart 
 from his convent, unless sent or called by his superior, without 
 a written permission ; that no professed nun should be allowed 
 to go forth from the monastery, even for a short time, on any 
 pretext, unless for some lawful cause approved by the bishop, 
 and that no one of any sort or condition, sex or age, should be 
 allowed to enter the inclosure of the monastery, without the 
 bishop's or superior's permission in writing, on pain of excom- 
 munication magistrates being enjoined under the same penalty 
 to aid the bishops, if necessary, in enforcing this regulation, 
 and bishops being urged to their duty by the fear of the judg- 
 ment of God and the eternal curse ; that if any public scandal 
 should arise from the conduct of a regular not subject to a 
 bishop and living in a monastery, the offender should be judged 
 and punished by his superior, or, this failing, by the bishop ; 
 that no females should take the veil without previous exami- 
 nation by the bishop ; that no one, except in cases specified 
 by law, should, under pain of excommunication, either compel 
 a woman to enter a monastery, or hinder her, if she wished 
 to enter ; that any regular, who pretended that he (or she) 
 had entered the religious life through force and fear, or claimed 
 that his profession was made before the requisite age, or any 
 like thing, and wished for any reason to lay aside the habit, 
 should not be heard, unless within 5 years from the date of his 
 profession, and then only on spreading out the alleged causes 
 before his superior and bishop ; but if he had previously laid 
 aside his habit of his own accord, he should by no means be 
 allowed to allege any cause, but should be compelled to return 
 to the monastery, and should be punished as an apostate, and 
 in the mean time should have no benefit of any religious priv-
 
 344 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 ilege ; that since many monasteries had suffered no light dam- 
 age from maladministration in both spiritual and temporal 
 matters, the holy synod desired to bring them back completely 
 to the appropriate discipline of the monastic life, but it was 
 impossible to apply a remedy immediately to all or a common 
 and desirable remedy everywhere, and the synod trusted that 
 the most holy Roman pontiff would, in his piety and prudence, 
 take care, as far as the times would bear, to have suitable reg- 
 ulars appointed to the vacant offices, &c. 
 
 Yet neither the council of Trent nor any other authority has 
 effected any complete and lasting reform of monastic institu- 
 tions. Scipione de Ricci, the Roman Catholic bishop of Pistqja 
 and Prato in Tuscany, earnestly but unsuccessfully attempted 
 near the close of the last century to reform the flagrant disor- 
 ders existing among the monks and nuns in his diocese. Pope 
 Pius IX., at the beginning ot his pontificate, proclaimed it to 
 be one of his chief tasks to accomplish a complete reform of the 
 monastic orders ; but the needed reform was not completed in 
 1870. 
 
 The 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore, held in 1866, devotes 
 9 pages of its decrees to the monks and nuns, attributing to 
 them a great influence for good, and yet prescribing numerous 
 regulations for the purpose of guarding against evils. Thus 
 to prevent conflicts between the authority of bishops and the 
 privileges of regulars, it advises the drawing up of a written 
 instrument, or contract in regard to both spiritual and temporal 
 things, between every superior who establishes a monastery 
 and the bishop of the diocese, and declares that regulars as well 
 as others are subject to the bishop in whatever has respect to 
 the cure of souls and the administration of the sacraments. In 
 the chapter respecting nuns is incorporated a decree of the Ro- 
 man Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, which enumerates 
 5 monasteries (Georgetown, Mobile, Kaskaskia, St. Aloysius, 
 and Baltimore), where the Visitation Nuns take solemn vows; 
 prescribes that the Visitation Nuns in future, after finishing 
 their novitiate, shall take simple vows, and, at the close of 5
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, AC. 345 
 
 (altered to 10, on the petition of this council) years from their 
 profession of simple vows, may take the vows called "solemn," 
 after preliminary spiritual exercises for 10 days ; grants to 
 those who have taken the simple vows all the graces and spirit- 
 ual favors enjoyed by those who have taken the solemn vows ; 
 enacts that the vows taken by all other nuns in the United 
 States shall be simple, except when they have obtained from 
 the holy see a rescript for taking solemn vows ; and altogether 
 disapproves of the recent practice of nuns who travel about in 
 order to collect money for founding new houses or for freeing 
 from debt those already founded. 
 
 The Latin form for the benediction and consecration of vir- 
 gins occupies 25 pages in the Pontificale Romanum of 1818. 
 The key of the whole is given in these questions which the 
 pontiff (= bishop or other mitred dignitary who presides) puts 
 to them at the beginning of the service to be answered affirma- 
 tively : 
 
 " Do you wish to persevere in the purpose of holy virginity ? 
 " Do you promise that you will preserve your virginity forever? 
 " Do you wish to be blessed and consecrated and betrothed to our 
 Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of the Supreme God ?" 
 
 After various genuflections and prostrations and chantings 
 and prayers and sprinklings with holy water, nuns go up two 
 at a time to the pontiff who puts the veil upon each nun's head, 
 saying : 
 
 " Receive the sacred veil, by which you may be known to have des- 
 pised the world, and to have truly and humbly with all the striving of 
 your heart subjected yourself forever as a bride to Jesus Christ ; and 
 may he keep you from all evil and bring you through to eternal life." 
 
 After further chantings and prayer, they go up again in pairs, 
 and the pontiff puts a ring on the ring-finger of each nun's 
 right hand, declaring her espoused to Jesus Christ, upon which 
 the two chant, 
 
 " I have been betrothed to him whom angels serve, whose beauty 
 sun and moon admire."
 
 346 RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 
 
 Afterwards each nun has a crown or wreath put on her head 
 by the bishop with a similar declaration and chanting. Then 
 follow prayers, chanting, and two long nuptial benedictions 
 upon the nuns, who first stand humbly inclined and then kneel. 
 Then the pontiff, sitting on his seat, and wearing his mitre, 
 pronounces the following anathema : 
 
 " By the auihority of Almighty God, and of his blessed apostles 
 Peter and Paul, we firmly and under threat of anathema forbid any 
 one to lead off these virgins or religious persons from the divine service, 
 to which they have been subjected under the banner of chastity, or to 
 plunder their goods, but let them possess these in quiet. But if any 
 one shall have dared to attempt this, let him be cursed in his house 
 and out of his house ; cursed in the city and in the country, cursed in 
 watching and sleeping, cursed in eating and drinking, cursed in walking 
 and sitting ; cursed be his flesh and bones ; from the sole of his foot to 
 the top of his head let him have no soundness. Let there come upon 
 him the curse of man, which the Lord through Moses in the law sent 
 upon the sons of iniquity. Let his name be blotted from the book of 
 the living and not written with the just. Let his part and inheritance 
 be with Cain that slew his brother, with Dathan and Abiram, Avith 
 Ananias and Sapphira, with Simon the sorceror, and Judas the traitor ; 
 and with those who said unto God, ; Depart from us, we desire not the 
 path [knowledge ?] ' of thy ways.' Let him perish at the day of judg- 
 ment ; let everlasting fire devour him with the devil and his angels, 
 unless he shall have made restitution, and come to amendment : let it 
 be done, let it be done." 
 
 The remaining services consist principally of the mass, the 
 delivery of the breviary to the nuns, and their return to the 
 gate of the monastery where the pontiff formally presents them 
 to the abbess. The pontiff then returns to the church and 
 closes the whole with the beginning of the gospel according to 
 John. 
 
 The " Ceremony of Reception" takes place, among the Sis- 
 
 1 The Roman Pontifical, apparently by a perpetuated blunder in its various edi- 
 tions, has here " semitam " (-=path) instead of "scientiam" (= knowledge), which 
 is the correct reading of the Vulgate in Job 21 : 14
 
 TAKING THE VEIL.
 
 EELJGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. 347 
 
 ters of Mercy, &c., when the novice takes the white veil ; the 
 "Ceremony of Profession " is when the novice takes the black 
 veil and the vows with a promise " to persevere until death." 
 Fosbroke's " British Monachism " distinguishes the profession 
 from the consecration of a nun thus : 
 
 "That applied to any woman, whether virgin or not, could be done 
 by an abbot or visitor of the house, after the year of probation, and 
 change of the habit ; but consecration could only be made by the bishop. 
 Nuns Avere usually professed at the age of 1 6, but they could not be 
 consecrated till 25 ; and this veil could only be given on festivals and 
 Sundays." " In the year 446, pope Leo ordered that a nun should 
 receive the veil, consecrated by a bishop, only when she was a virgin." 
 
 The opposite plate, copied from one published by the American 
 and Foreign Christian Union, gives a sufficiently accurate idea 
 of the general appearance of nuns on such occasions.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE JESUITS. 
 
 The most celebrated of all the religious orders in the Roman 
 Catholic church is the " Society of Jesus," more commonly 
 called the " Jesuits." The founder of this order was St. Igna- 
 tius (=Inigo) Loyola, born in 1491, the youngest son of a Span- 
 ish nobleman, and an illiterate, but enthusiastic man. Becoming 
 an officer in the Spanish army, he was severely wounded in 1521 
 and taken prisoner while defending Pampeluna against the 
 French. During his long and tedious confinement, his thoughts 
 were turned towards a religious life, and in 1534 he and 6 
 (afterwards 9) friends and fellow-students at Paris formed a 
 monastic association. Two of these associates, were Francis 
 Xavier, the famous missionary and saint, and James Lay- 
 nez (or Lainez), who was a papal legate at the council 
 of Trent, and Loyola's successor as general of the Jesuits, 
 4 objects were proposed in the new order, which was approved 
 by pope Paul III., Sept. 27, 1540 : (1.) The education of youth ; 
 (2.) The instruction of adults by preaching and other means ; 
 (3.) The defense of the Roman Catholic faith against heretics 
 and unbelievers ; (4.) The propagation of Christianity among 
 heathens and infidels by missionaries. The military principle 
 of strict subordination was introduced into the new order, 
 which was further distinguished from existing orders by the 
 omission of any obligation to keep canonical hours in the choir. 
 The constitutions of the Society, first published in 1558, 2 years 
 after the death of Loyola, and said by cardinal Richelieu to be 
 a model of administrative policy, are divided into 10 parts, 
 which are subdivided into chapters. 
 
 The following from the Penny Cyclopedia is a synopsis of these con- 
 stitutions. " Part i. treats of admission to probation, and specifies the re-
 
 THE JESUITS. 349 
 
 quired qualifications, as health, freedom from any grievous physical 
 imperfection, certificates of good conduct and temper, natural abilities* 
 and the completion of 14 years of age ; also the absolute disqualifications, 
 as having been a murderer, apostate, or other grievous offender, having 
 been subject to a degrading sentence, having belonged to some monas- 
 tic order, being married, insane, or weak-minded, &c. The candidate, 
 if approved, is admitted to a first probation, as a sort of guest for a few 
 weeks, to become acquainted with the mode of living. Afterwards he 
 assumes the dress of the order (black, nearly like that of the secular 
 priest<), and undergoes an examination upon points contained in a 
 printed form. If now approved, the constitutions and regulations are 
 shown to him ; and after confessing and receiving the sacrament, he 
 signs a promise to observe the rules and discipline of the Society, and 
 is then admitted into one of the houses of 2d probation or novitiate. 
 Part ii. directs that those who have been admitted to probation and 
 are found to be unfit for the Society shall be privately and kindly dis- 
 missed, and that those who leave of their own accord shall not in general 
 be sought after. Part iii. treats of the mental, moral and physical 
 education of the novices, whose term generally lasts two years. ' Part 
 iv. treats of the colleges, schools and universities. In the colleges are 
 the scholastics, who, after 2 years' probation, take vows of poverty, chas- 
 tity and obedience, and pursue courses of study, the courses taught 
 being the humanities ( = polite literature) and rhetoric, logic, natural 
 and moral philosophy, metaphysics, theology, and the study of the 
 Scriptures. There are also classes and schools for lay and external 
 pupils. Every college is under a rector who is appointed by the gen- 
 eral or provincial from the class of coadjutors, and is removable at 
 pleasure. In the society's universities are faculties of arts, philosophy, 
 and theology ; not of law or medicine. Part v. treats of the admis- 
 sion of scholars into the body of the Society, as professed or coadjutors. 
 The professed must be over 25 years of age and have studied theology 
 4 years. 2 The profe-sed vow perpetual chastity, poverty, obedi- 
 ence, a peculiar care of the education of youth, and especial obedience 
 
 1 The novices are not allowed to study, but devote their 2 years to prayer and 
 profound meditation, the " Spiritual Exercises " of St. Ignatius being their prin- 
 cipal guide. 
 
 2 lie will commonly have now spent 15 to 17 years in study and teaching since 
 his admission into the Society as a scholastic
 
 350 THE JESUITS. 
 
 to the pope as to any missions to which he may send them. The coad- 
 jutors omit the last of these vows. Part vi. regulates the manner of 
 living in the professed houses, which, unlike the colleges, must depend 
 on the alms of the faithful. The coadjutors not employed in the col- 
 leges and the professed must renounce (but not in favor of the Society) 
 all claims to hereditary succession, and live in the professed houses of 
 charity. There were also lay or secular coadjutors, who took the sim- 
 ple vows, yet continued to enjoy their property and lived in the world. 
 Part vii. treats of the various kinds of missionaries sent by the pope 
 and by the general of the Society, and gives them directions, &o. Part 
 viii. treats of the reports and correspondence of the rectors and pro- 
 vincials with the general, and of the missionaries and other detached 
 fathers with their provincial or other superior ; and also of the general 
 congregations or representative assemblies of the Society. The general 
 receives monthly reports from the provincials, and quarterly reports from 
 the superiors of professed houses, rectors of colleges, &c. These reports 
 contain notes on the disposition, capacities and conduct of individual 
 members, and whatever news or events may affect or interest the 
 Society or any part of it. Every member is to report to his immediate 
 superior any misconduct of a companion. The general congregations 
 are considered necessary only for electing a new general or deliberat- 
 ing on some very weighty matter, such as the dissolution or transfer of 
 its houses and colleges, &c. To one for electing a general, each prov- 
 ince sends its provincial and 2 other professed members, who are 
 chosen by a special provincial congregation consisting of the professed 
 of the province and of those coadjutors who are rectors of colleges. 
 To one for deliberation the provincial sends 2 subordinates, and the 
 general may add others to make up not more than 5 for each province. 
 Part ix. treats of the general, who is chosen for life, resides at Rome 
 is attended by a monitor and 5 assistants, and has absolute power. 
 From his orders there is no appeal ; all must obey him unhesitatingly ; 
 he may expel members, remove them wherever he pleases, inflict pun- 
 ishments, issue new regulations, or alter existing ones. Part x. con- 
 tains advice to all and each of the various classes and members, reconru 
 mending strict discipline, obedience, zealous teaching and preaching ; 
 not to seek after dignities or honors, and even to refuse them unless 
 obliged by the pope ; strict morality, moderation in bodily and mental 
 labor, brotherly charity, &c.
 
 THE JESUITS. 351 
 
 The Jesuits, from the time of their institution to this hour, 
 though with many alternations of success and reverse, have 
 been one of the main supports of the pope's authority, and have 
 exercised immense influence in the world. Says Mosheim : 
 
 "The Romish church, since the time it lost dominion over so many 
 nations, owes more to this single society than to all its other ministers 
 and resources. This being spread in a short time over the greater part 
 of the world, everywhere confirmed the wavering nations, and restrained 
 the progress of sectarians : it gathered into the Romish church a great 
 multitude of worshipers among the barbarous and most distant na- 
 tions : it boldly took the field against the heretics, and sustained for a 
 long time almost alone the brunt of the war, and by its dexterity and 
 acuteness in reasoning, entirely eclipsed the glory of the old disputants : 
 by personal address, by skill in the sagacious management of worldly 
 business, by the knowledge of various arts and sciences, and by other 
 means, it conciliated the good will of kings and princes : by an ingen- 
 ious accommodation of the principles of morals to the propensities of 
 men, it obtained almost the sole direction of the minds of kings and 
 magistrates, to th<? exclusion of the Dominicans and other more rigid 
 divines : and everywhere, it most studiously guarded the authority of 
 the Romish prelate from sustaining further loss. All these things 
 procured for the society immense resources and wealth, and the highest 
 reputation ; but at the same time they excited vast envy, very numer- 
 ous enemies, and frequently exposed the society to the most imminent 
 perils. All the religious orders, the leading men, the public schools, 
 and the magistrates, united to bear down the Jesuits ; and they demon- 
 strated by innumerable books, that nothing could be more ruinous both 
 to religion and to the state, than such a society as this. In some coun- 
 tries, as France, Poland, &c., they were pronounced to be public ene- 
 mies of the country, traitors, and parricides, and were banished with 
 ignominy. Yet the prudence, or, if you choose, the cunning of the 
 association, quieted all these movements, and even turned them dex- 
 terously to the enlargement of their power, and to the fortification of 
 it against all future machinations." 
 
 The Jesuits came into France in 1540, but, through the op- 
 position of the parliament and university of Paris and of many 
 bishops, they had no legal existence in the kingdom till, in
 
 352 THE JESUITS. 
 
 1562, they were recognized as the " fathers of the college of 
 Clermont." But in 1594 they were expelled from France, and 
 one of them put to death, on the charge of being implicated 
 in the attempt to assassinate king Henry IV. The king, how- 
 ever, recalled them in 1603 ; and from that time till their ban- 
 ishment again in 1764, they enjoyed their property, multiplied 
 their colleges and pupils, and exerted a mighty influence in 
 church and state. During this time they had along and bitter 
 controversy with the Jansenists, against whom the bull Uni- 
 genitus was issued in 1713, as already related in Chapter IV. 
 But while Pascal's " Provincial Letters " had long before made 
 the Jesuits objects of universal derision, the hostility of Mad- 
 ame de Pompadour, mistress of Louis XIV., united with the old 
 opposition of the parliament of Paris, and the political and 
 personal dislike of them by Choiseul, the king's minister, and 
 the disaffection towards them of many others, to take advant- 
 age of the Jesuit Lavalette's unfortunate speculations in colo- 
 nial produce, and to procure from the king an order suppress- 
 ing the society in France and confiscating their property. 
 
 In September, 1759, 5 years previously, the Jesuits were 
 hurriedly banished from Portugal and Brazil ; and at the end 
 of March, 1767, the Jesuits throughout Spain were roused at 
 midnight, made acquainted with the royal decree which ex- 
 pelled them from the country, and forthwith sent to the coast 
 where they were shipped for Italy. In 1768, they were also 
 suppressed in the two Sicilies and the duchy of Parma ; but 
 they were continued still in the Sardinian and Papal States. 
 The Catholic powers that had suppressed the order now united 
 in urging the pope to take decisive measures against the Jes- 
 uits ; and on the 21st of July,1773, pope Clement XIV. issued 
 a bull, or rather a brief, in which, after stating the laudable 
 object of those who founded the Society and the services it had 
 rendered to religion, he said that often there had been discord 
 between them and the other ecclesiastical authorities, that 
 many serious charges had been brought against individual 
 members, who seemed to have deviated from the original spirit
 
 THE JESUITS. 353 
 
 of their institutions, that most Catholic princes had found it 
 necessary for the peace of their dominions to expel the Jesuits 
 from them, and that now, for the peace of the Christian world, 
 and the most weighty considerations, and because the Society 
 of Jesus could no longer bring forth those fruits of piety and 
 edification for which it was intended, he declared the said 
 Society to be suppressed and extinct, its statutes annulled, its 
 members who had been ordained priests to be considered as 
 secular priests, and the rest entirely released from their vows. 
 He allowed the old and infirm professed members to remain as 
 guests in the houses of the extinct Society, which were to be 
 managed by commissioners. 
 
 The Jesuits were now suppressed in every Roman Catholic 
 state, and they received an annuity in all but Portugal ; but 
 Russia and Prussia still afforded them an asylum, and a con- 
 tinuance of their educational work among the Roman Catholics 
 in those countries. Their landing on the English shores had 
 been made a capital crime in Elizabeth's reign ; yet they had 
 continued, at the risk of their lives, to pass and repass the 
 channel, to maintain a correspondence with Rome and the 
 enemies of the English government, and to keep Roman Ca- 
 tholicism alive in England. In other Protestant countries like- 
 wise they had acted as the spies and emissaries of the pope. 
 Says Hallam, in his Constitutional History of England : 
 
 " Subtle alike and intrepid, pliant in every direction, unshaken in 
 their aim, the sworn, implacable, unscrupulous enemies of Protestant 
 governments, the Jesuits were the legitimate object of jealousy and 
 restraint. As every member of that society enters into an engagement 
 of absolute, unhesitating obedience to its superior, no one could justly 
 complain that he was presumed capable at least of committing, any 
 crimes that the policy of his monarch might enjoin." 
 
 Says Dr. De Sanctis of their principle of obedience : 
 
 " According to their own expression, a Jesuit should be in the hands- 
 of his superior what a corpse is in the hands of a surgeon," 
 23
 
 354 THE JESUITS. 
 
 Of the energetic and successful labors of Jesuits in heathen 
 lands some notice is given in Chapter X. 
 
 The Penny Cyclopedia speaks thus eulogistically of their 
 career : 
 
 " During two centuries and a quarter [third] which elapsed from 
 (heir foundation to their suppression, the Jesuits rendered great services 
 to education, literature, and the sciences. Throughout all Roman Cath- 
 olic states they may be said to have established the first rational system 
 of college education. Other orders, such as the Fathers of the Chris- 
 tian Doctrine, instituted in 1571, the Clerici Scholarum Piarum [ = 
 Fathers of the Pious Schools], in 1617, and the Brothers of the Chris- 
 tian Schools, or Ignorantins, in 1679, applied themselves more espe- 
 cially to the elementary education of children, though the Jesuits did 
 not altogether neglect this branch. The colleges of the Jesuits were 
 equally open to the noble and the plebeian, the wealthy and the poor : 
 all were subject to the same discipline, received the same instruction, 
 partook of the same plain but wholesome diet, might attain the same 
 rewards, and were subject to the same punishments. In the school, the 
 refectory, or the play-garden of a Jesuits' college, no one could have 
 distinguished the sou of a duke from the son of a peasant. The man- 
 ners of the Jesuits were singularly pleasing, urbane, and courteous, 
 far removed from pedantry, moroseness, or affectation. Their pupils, 
 generally speaking, contracted a lasting attachment for their masters. 
 At the time of their suppression the grief of the youths of the various 
 colleges at separating from their teachers was universal and truly af- 
 fecting. Most of the distinguished men of the 18th century, even 
 those who afterwards turned free-thinkers, and railed at the Jesuits as 
 a society, had received their first education from them ; and some of 
 them have had the frankness to acknowledge the merits of their in- 
 structors. The sceptical Lalande paid them an honest tribute of esteem 
 and of regret at their fall : even Voltaire spoke in their defense. Ores- 
 set addressed to them a most pathetic valedictory poem, ' Les Adieux ' 
 [= the farewells]. The bishop de Bausset, in his ' Vie de Fenelon* 
 [= Life of Fenelon], has inserted a most eloquent account of the Insti- 
 tution of the Jesuits, of their mode of instruction, and of the influence 
 which they had, especially in the towns of France, in preserving social 
 and domestic peace and harmony. For the Jesuits did not exclusively 
 apply themselves to the instruction of youth ; grown-up people volun-
 
 THE JESUITS. 355 
 
 tarily sought their advice concerning their own affairs and pursuits in 
 life, which they always freely bestowed ; they encouraged the timid 
 and weak, they directed the disheartened and the forsaken towards new 
 paths for which they saw that they were qualified ; and whenever they 
 perceived abilities, good will, and honesty, they were sure to lend a 
 helping hand. The doors of the cells of the older professed fathers 
 were often tapped at by trembling hands, and admittance was never 
 refused to the unfortunate. In private life at least, whatever may have 
 been the case in courtly politics, their advice was generally most dis- 
 interested. It has been said that they excelled in the art of taming 
 man, which they effected, not by violence, not by force, but by persua- 
 sion, by kindness, and by appealing to the feelings of their pupils. If 
 ever mankind could be happy in a state of mental subordination and 
 tutelage under kind and considerate guardians, the Jesuits were the 
 men to produce this result ; but they ultimately failed. The human 
 mind is in its nature aspiring, and cannot be permanently controlled ; 
 it cannot be fashioned to one universal measure ; and sooner or later 
 it will elude the grasp of any system, whether military or political, ec- 
 clesiastical or philosophical, and will seek, at any cost, to gratify its 
 instinctive desire for freedom." 
 
 Rev. Dr. De Sanctis, who was for 22 years closely connected 
 with the Jesuits, gives the great maxim or fundamental prin- 
 ciple of the Jesuits and its consequences thus : 
 
 " ' Man was created to praise and adore his Lord and his God, and 
 in serving him he saves his soul.' ... St. Ignatius draws from this 
 principle 2 inferences : (1.) that every thing in this world was created 
 for the use of man, to serve him as the means of salvation, and to 
 serve the Lord through them ; (2.) that man should be indifferent as 
 to the choice of the means, inasmuch as the means should not be con- 
 sidered according to their real value, good or bad, but only in accord- 
 ance with the end proposed ; so that if I perceive that by such or such 
 means, which, in the opinion of worldly men, would be bad, I might, 
 nevertheless, contribute to the glory of God and the salvation of my 
 soul, those are the very ones I ought to choose." l 
 
 ___ 
 
 1 See also Chapters XXII. and XXVL.
 
 356 THE JESUITS. 
 
 As has already been intimated, the Jesuits increased with 
 unexampled rapidity. At the death of their founder in 1556, 
 they numbered over 1000, and had 100 houses in their 12 prov- 
 inces in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. About 60 years 
 later, in 1618, they numbered 13,000 members in 32 provinces. 
 At their expulsion from Portugal in 1759, they reckoned alto- 
 gether 22,589 members, one half of whom were priests ; they 
 had 24 professed houses, 669 colleges, 176 seminaries or board- 
 ing-houses, 61 novitiate-houses, 335 residences, and 273 mis- 
 sions in Protestant and heathen countries. Their principal 
 professed house, and their general's residence, was a vast 
 building attached to the splendid church of II Cresu in Rome.. 
 They had also in Rome the Roman college, the church of St. 
 Ignatius, a novitiate on the Quirinal, <fcc. All these after the 
 suppression of the society were entrusted to secular priests and 
 professors, who however usually followed the Jesuit method 
 and discipline. 
 
 After the suppression of the Jesuits, some not very success- 
 ful attempts were made to restore the order under other names, 
 as the " Society of the Sacred Heart" in 1794, and the "So- 
 ciety of the Faith of Jesus " in 1798 ; but in 1801 pope Pius 
 VII. issued a brief allowing the Jesuits of Russia to live as a 
 society with colleges and schools ; and in 1804 he issued an- 
 other, allowing them to have colleges and schools in the king- 
 dom of the two Sicilies. Finally, he issued his bull, Aug. 7, 
 1814, reestablishing the society with all its former privileges, 
 to be employed in educating youth in any country where the 
 sovereign shall have previously recalled or consented to receive 
 them. Their generals, from. 1814 to 1870, have been, Brzo- 
 zowski, a Pole, and previously vicar-general in Russia, 1814- 
 20 ; Fortis, a Veronese, 1820-29 ; Roothaan, a Hollander, 
 1829-53 ; Beckx, a Belgian, the present general, since 1853. 
 Since the reestablishment of the order, they have reappeared in 
 most civilized countries, and have resumed their missionary 
 operations in heathen lands. In some countries, as in Portu- 
 gal, Switzerland, Spain, the states of Italy, &c., they have been
 
 THE JESUITS. 357 
 
 reestablished by law, and once, twice, or more times suppressed ; 
 in others, as in France, Germany, England, <fec., they have 
 been tolerated temporarily or permanently. The revolution 
 of 1848 endangered them throughout Italy, and their general 
 found a temporary asylum in England. The prevalence of 
 liberal institutions in Italy within the last 20 years has been 
 unfavorable to them ; it was said, in November, 1870, that they 
 had nearly all left Rome quietly and privately, having disposed 
 of all their property, so far as possible, with the privilege of 
 repurchasing at any future time for the price paid them, and 
 having turned over to the German college that which could not 
 be sold. They were suppressed throughout Russia and Poland 
 by the imperial decree of March 25, 1820. They have for 
 years conducted 3 of the 10 Roman Catholic colleges in Eng- 
 land, their principal establishment at Stonyhurst in Lancashire 
 having been in their possession since 1799. They have had 
 several establishments in Ireland for the last 45 years or less, 
 but none in Scotland. 
 
 The Jesuits were sent to Florida in 1566, and soon attempt- 
 ed to establish another mission on the banks of the Chesapeake, 
 but the latter mission was terminated by the murder of the 
 missionaries in 1571 by the Indians, and Florida was then 
 abandoned for Mexico. They established their first mission in 
 the French (now British) possessions in North America in 1611. 
 Quebec became their center for this mission. After Louisiana 
 began to be settled, another center was established at New Or- 
 leans. Another was established in California in 1683 and 
 flourished for many years. Since the reestablishment of the 
 order, the Jesuits have labored with great energy in America. 
 Said Appletons' Cyclopedia in 1860 : 
 
 "The United States and the British possessions in America are 
 among the countries where the order grows most rapidly. They are 
 divided into the province of Maryland, having establishments in the 
 dioceses of Baltimore, Philadelphia, Portland, and Boston ; the vice- 
 province of Missouri, having houses in the dioceses of St. Louis, Louis- 
 ville, Cincinnati, Chicago, and Milwaukee ; the mission of Canada and
 
 358 THE JESUITS. 
 
 New York, having houses in the dioceses of New York, Albany, Buf- 
 falo, Quebec, Montreal, London (Canada West), and Hamilton ; the 
 mission of Louisiana, with houses in the dioceses of New Orleans and 
 Mobile ; and the mission of California. Their colleges in the United 
 States are as follows : college of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Mass. ; 
 of St. Francis Xavier, New York ; St. John's, Fordham, N. Y. ; St. 
 Joseph's, Philadelphia ; St. John's, Frederic, Md. ; Loyola, Baltimore ; 
 Gonzaga, Washington, D. C. ; Georgetown, D. C. ; Spring Hill, near 
 Mobile, Ala. ; St. Louis university, St. Louis, Mo. ; college of the Im- 
 maculate Conception, New Orleans ; St. Charles's, Grand Coteau, La. ; 
 St. Joseph's, Bardstown, Ky. ; St. Xavier's, Cincinnati ; Santa Clara, 
 Cal. ; in Canada, St. Mary's college, diocese of Montreal. The num- 
 ber of Jesuits in the United States at the present time (1860) is 650. 
 In Mexico and the states of Central and South America they have 
 sometimes been admitted, sometimes again expelled, their fate being 
 often dependent on the success or defeat of the several political par- 
 ties." 
 
 A comparison of the above statistics with those of the Cath- 
 olic Directory and of the Catholic Almanac for 1871 shows that 
 all the above colleges, except two, with some others, are now 
 under the control of the Jesuits. Instead of St. John's college, 
 Frederic, Md., a "Novitiate of the Society of Jesus " is now 
 reported there, with a rector and 8 other Jesuit priests attached 
 to it ; and instead of St. Joseph's, Bardstown, Ky., are reported 
 " St. Joseph's Preparatory Seminary " and " St. Thomas' Theo- 
 logical Seminary," without any indication that they are con- 
 trolled by the Jesuits. On the other hand, there are to be 
 added institutions: Canisius' college at Buffalo, N. Y., with 
 a prefect, 2 other priests, and an unordained Jesuit ; " Wood- 
 stock college Theological Seminary and House of Studies for 
 the Scholastics of the Society of Jesus in the United States," 
 at Woodstock, Md., with a rector and 19 other priests and 75 
 scholastics ; St. Stanislaus' Novitiate," at Florissant, Mo., 
 with a rector and 6 other priests ; " St. Ignatius' College," at 
 San Francisco, Cal., with a superior and 350 pupils ; " St. Ig- 
 natius' College," at Chicago, 111., opened for students in Sep-
 
 THE JESUITS. 359 
 
 tember, 1870 ; " St. Gall's Academy, Boston College, for day- 
 scholars only," at Boston, Mass., with a rector, 7 teachers, and 
 115 pupils. 10 of the colleges report about 2450 pupils. There 
 are now, therefore, in the United States, 18 Jesuit colleges, and 
 
 1 academy, besides the 2 novitiates, with probably between 
 3000 and 4000 pupils in them all. A " Convent of the Jesuit 
 Fathers" is reported at Toledo, 0., with a German church, 2 
 fathers for the congregation, 3 others for giving missions, and 
 
 2 brothers ; also a " house of retreat " and a church at Ford- 
 ham, N. Y. The Jesuits have likewise many other churches, 
 including some at the most important points in this country. 
 They have 3 churches in Boston (St. Mary's, Holy Trinity, Im- 
 maculate Conception ' ), besides 3 chapels ; 2 churches in New 
 York city (St. Francis Xavier's and St. Lawrence's), besides 
 the spiritual charge of the Roman Catholics in various hospitals 
 and public institutions, as on Blackwell's Island, Randall's Is- 
 land, &c. ; the church of Our Lady of Mercy at Fordham, St. 
 Joseph's church in Troy, 2 German churches in Buffalo, and 1 
 church at Ellysville, N. Y. ; St. Joseph's and New St. Joseph's 
 churches in Philadelphia, and 10 or 12 other churches, chapels, 
 <fec., in that State ; St. Ignatius' and St. Francis Xavier's churches 
 (the latter exclusively for colored people) in Baltimore, and 
 about 35 other churches and chapels in Maryland; St. Aloy- 
 sius' and St. Joseph's churches in Washington, Holy Trinity 
 at Georgetown, and 2 or 3 chapels in the District of Columbia; 
 St. Mary's at Alexandria, Va. ; St. Joseph's at Mobile, Ala. ; 
 Immaculate Conception at New Orleans, and 2 or 3 others in 
 Louisiana; 2 churches at St. Louis, 2 at Florissant, and about 
 15 other churches and chapels in Missouri ; 3 churches (1 for 
 colored people) and 6 or 7 chapels in Cincinnati, 0. ; 2 in 
 Chicago, 111?; 1 (St. Gall's) in Milwaukee, Wis. ; 1 at Leav- 
 enworth city, and about a dozen in the Osage and Potawatamie 
 (Indian) missions in Kansas ; at Lewiston, Idaho, and 5 or more 
 Indian missions in Idaho and Washington Territories ; a church 
 
 1 A view of the interior of this is given in Chapter XX.
 
 360 THE JESUITS. 
 
 at Helena in Montana, with about 20 stations attended from it ; 
 a church at Albuquerque in New Mexico, and 7 chapels attend- 
 ed from it ; 4 churches in California, at San Francisco, San 
 Jos6 Pueblo, Santa Clara, and Mountain View. The Catholic 
 Directory for 1871 mentions by name 323 Jesuit priests in the 
 United States, as connected with colleges, churches, convents, 
 <fec. There are also several hundred scholastics and lay-broth- 
 ers ; and if the blanks and omissions were all filled out, the 
 present number of members of the order in this country would 
 probably be larger than it was 10 years ago, as the number of 
 colleges and churches controlled by them has certainly increased 
 within that period. Their organization is perfect ; their sub- 
 ordination is complete ; they unquestionably have laid their 
 plans and are mustering their forces and devoting all their 
 powers to possess and to hold this broad land for their master.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 
 
 THE apostles were the earliest Christian missionaries, and 
 their commission came directly from the Great Head of the 
 Church (Matt. 28 : 19, 20). Rome itself was once a field for 
 missionary labors (Rom. 1 : 13). Every country that has 
 been Christianized at all is indebted for this fact to missionaries 
 who came and told the people of Jesus. Many Christian mission- 
 aries of early times have been canonized by the Roman Catholic 
 church. St. Patrick, the apostle of Ireland (see Chap. VII.), 
 was a missionary of the 5th century. St. Columba (== Colum- 
 bas) was an Irish missionary, who labored with success among 
 the Picts and Scots, and died in lona, one of the Hebrides, A.D. 
 597. St. Augustine (or Austin) and other Benedictine monks 
 (see Chap. VIII.) were sent into Britain by pope Gregory 1. near 
 the close of the 6th century and baptized multitudes of the 
 Saxons, who had conquered the ancient Britons (the ancestors 
 of the Welsh), among whom the gospel was introduced by mis- 
 sionaries of the 1st or 2d century. In the 8th century, Wini- 
 frid, an English Benedictine, who was afterwards called Boni- 
 face, "the apostle of Germany," was commissioned by pope 
 Gregory II., and preached the gospel with much success in cen- 
 tral and north-western Germany among the pagan Thuringians, 
 Frieslanders, and Hessians; but he was murdered in A.D. 755, 
 with 50 attendants. Adalbert, bishop of Prague, while on a 
 missionary visit to the Prussians, was murdered by a pagan 
 priest in A.D. 996. Yet, by the labors of missionaries and by
 
 362 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 
 
 other more violent means, Christianity centuries ago became 
 the dominant religion throughout Europe. 
 
 The establishment of the mendicant orders in the 13th cen- 
 tury gave a new impulse to missionary zeal. Some Dominicans 
 and Franciscans were soon sent into Tartary, China, and other 
 countries of Asia as well as into various parts of Africa. The 
 desire for the conversion of the heathen stimulated the passion 
 for maritime discovery which distinguished the 15th century. 
 Says the Penny Cyclopedia : 
 
 "About 1430 pope Martin V. granted plenary indulgence to the 
 Portuguese who conquered pagan and infidel countries. Columbus 
 himself was strongly urged to discovery by the desire of propagating the 
 Roman Catholic religion. . . . On the return of Columbus to Spain from 
 his first voyage, the results wei-e formally announced to pope Alexan- 
 der VI The natives whom Columbus brought to Spain were 
 
 baptized, the king and the prince his son acting as sponsors. In his 
 second voyage to the New World, Columbus was accompanied by priests 
 with church vessels and ornaments, and they received orders to bring 
 the natives within the pale of the church by ' fair means.' 
 
 " The conduct of Cortez in Mexico is an example of the spirit in 
 which conversion was attempted in the New World. Having cast 
 down and destroyed the altars in one of the Mexican temples, a new 
 altar was erected, which was hung with rich mantles and adorned with 
 flowers. Cortez then ordered 4 of the native priests to cut off their 
 hair and to put on white robes, and placing the cross upon the altar, he 
 committed it to their charge. They were taught to make wax-candles, 
 and Cortez enjoined them to keep some of the candles always burning 
 on the altar. A lame old soldier was left by Cortez to reside in the 
 temple, to keep the native priests to their new duties. The church 
 thus constituted was called the 1st Christian church in New Spain 
 [= Mexico]. Father Almedo, who accompanied Cortez in his expe- 
 dition, explained to the Mexicans the ' mystery of the cross.' He then 
 showed them an image of the Virgin, and told them to adore it, and to 
 put up crosses in their temples instead of their accursed images. When 
 the Mexicans began to feel the power of Cortez, some of the chiefs 
 conciliated his favor by presents. 20 native women were presented to 
 him, who were baptized by one of the ecclesiastics, and Cortez gave
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 363 
 
 one to each of his captains. ' These were the first Christian women in 
 New Spain.' The natives, both of India and the New World, soon 
 perceived that one of the means of conciliating their conquerors was to 
 make a profession of Christianity. In Hispaniola [= St. Domingo and 
 Hayti], many natives did this in order to oblige and conciliate Colum- 
 bus. In 1538, Andrea Galvano, governor of the Molucca islands, sent 
 a ship commanded by Francis de Castro towards the north, ' with orders 
 to convert as many as he could to the Christian faith.' Castro him- 
 self baptized many of the principal chiefs of Amboyna. Many similar 
 facts might be adduced to show that at this period true religion made 
 little or no progress in newly discovered countries ; and yet during the 
 ] 6th century not a fleet sailed for India or America without its mis- 
 sionaries." 
 
 The kingdom of Congo in Western Africa was a missionary 
 field of the Roman Catholic church for 2 centuries after its 
 discovery by the Portuguese Diego Cam about 1484. Domini- 
 can, Franciscan, and other missionaries went to Congo in large 
 numbers, and enjoyed there the powerful protection and aid of 
 the Portuguese government ; early in their work the king of 
 Congo and other high officers embraced the Roman Catholic 
 faith ; every public officer in the land was bound, on pain of 
 dismission, to assist the priests in obtaining a general observ- 
 ance of all the rites and ceremonies of the church ; and in a 
 few years, it is said, the whole nation, with only here and there 
 a rare exception, had been baptized, and thus become nominally 
 Christian. The king of Portugal sustained a Jesuit college and 
 a Capuchin monastery at San Salvador, the capital ; there were 
 also in that then flourishing city of 40,000 inhabitants a cathe- 
 dral and 10 other churches. The people of the land were 
 brought to attend mass with great scrupulousness ; they sub- 
 mitted to baptism, said the rosary, and wore the crucifix ; they 
 scourged themselves cruelly in the churches, and carried great 
 logs of wood long distances to the convents, in order to obtain 
 the pardon of their sins ; and for several generations they are 
 said to have observed with apparent earnestness the Roman 
 Catholic rites and ceremonies. Yet there was no real and per-
 
 364 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 
 
 manent improvement of the nation. The king and some of the 
 chiefs imitated the Portuguese in providing themselves with 
 various comforts of living ; but the common people, for the 
 most part, continued to live in thoughtless indolence, inhabit- 
 ing bamboo huts, eating the fruits that grew without cultiva- 
 tion, wearing the scantiest clothing, or going entirely naked ; 
 they had no beasts of burden, no carriages, no decent roads, 
 and but little, except slaves, to sell. Their moral and religious 
 character appears to have been no more improved than was 
 their physical condition. Their religion consisted only in out- 
 ward observances, Christian in name, and Roman Catholic in 
 form, substituted for their former pagan ceremonies, and ap- 
 parently performed with the same hopes and from the same 
 motives. There was no yearning after a life of purity and holi- 
 ness ; and by and by there came a storm. Says Rev. J. L. 
 Wilson, D. D., an American Protestant missionary in Western 
 Africa : 
 
 " When the missionaries set themselves more earnestly to work to 
 root out all the traces of the old religion ; and above all, when they 
 determined to abolish polygamy throughout the land, they assailed 
 heathenism in its strong hold, and aroused hatred and opposition which 
 astounded themselves. In this emergency, when priestly authority 
 and miraculous gifts were of no more avail, they had recourse for aid to 
 the civil arm The severest penalties were enacted against po- 
 lygamy ; the old pagan religion, in all its forms and details, was de- 
 clared illegal, and the heaviest penalties denounced against those who 
 were known to participate in celebrating its rites ; sorcerers and wiz- 
 ards, by whom were meant the priests of the pagan rt ligion, were 
 declared outlaws; at first the penalty denounced against them was 
 decapitation or the flames, but it was afterwards commuted to foreign 
 
 slavery The slightest deviation from the prescribed rules of the 
 
 church was punished by public flogging, and it was not uncommon for 
 females, and even mothers, to be stripped and whipped in public. 
 Sometimes these castigations were inflicted by the missionaries them- 
 selves." 
 
 But in the 17th century Portugal, the main dependence of the
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 365 
 
 missionaries for protection and assistance, had become unable 
 to render them further aid ; and the discovery of this fact 
 opened the way for the natives to manifest their hatred to- 
 wards the missionaries and their religion by neglect, annoy- 
 ance, treachery, and violence. A native prince cruelly perse- 
 cuted the missionaries ; guides would desert them in the midst 
 of dangerous forests ; the means of relief were denied them 
 in sickness ; 6 Capuchins were poisoned at once in one prov- 
 ince, and attempts at poisoning became so frequent that the 
 brethren had to carry with them continually an antidote 
 against poison; one missionary was assassinated and eaten; 
 and, finally, in the 18th century, their excessive sufferings and 
 dangers compelled the missionaries to give up their work and 
 leave the country. Ignorance, superstition, sensuality, and 
 the most degraded heathenism took up their abode in Congo. 
 The English exploring expedition, sent to the Congo river in 
 1816 under Captain Tuckey, found there some " Christians 
 after the Portuguese fashion," who are represented as by far 
 the worst people they had met with. One of them was a priest, 
 who had been ordained by the Capuchin monks of Loando : 
 he could just write his name and that of St. Antonio, and read 
 the Roman ritual ; but his rosary, his relics and his crosses 
 were mixed with his domestic fetishes ; and he not only boasted 
 that he had a wife and 5 concubines, but stoutly maintained 
 that this kind of polygamy was not at all forbidden in the New 
 Testament. In regard to this mission in Congo, Dr. Wilson 
 says: 
 
 " One thing at least may be affirmed without the fear of contradic- 
 tion, that in point of industry, intelligence, and outward comfort, the 
 people of Congo, at the present day, can not compare with thousands 
 and millions of other nations along the coast of Africa, whose fore- 
 fathers never heard even the name of the Christian religion." 
 
 The Jesuits soon after their establishment in 1540 became 
 the most active and energetic missionaries to heathen countries. 
 Francis Xavier, who was canonized by pope Urban VIII. as
 
 366 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 
 
 the " Apostle of the Indies," went in 1542, at the request of the 
 king of Portugal, to India, where the Portuguese mission, 
 established at the conquest of Goa in 1510, had been making 
 slow progress under the Franciscans, Dominicans, &c. Of him 
 and his successors the Penny Cyclopedia thus speaks : 
 
 " Xavier was a man of superior genius, and labored with unexam- 
 pled energy. Having preached the faith with considerable success at 
 Goa, on the coast of Comorin, at Malacca, in the Moluccas, and in 
 Japan, he died in 1552, on the frontiers of China. 
 
 '' In Japan, where Xavier was succeeded by missionaries from Por- 
 tugal, great numbers made a profession of Christianity: in 1596 the 
 converts were estimated at 400,000. The exercise of practical charity, 
 which was inculcated by the Christians, is said to have been the main 
 cause of this success ; the native priests let the sick and needy die of 
 neglect and starvation. After an existence of nearly a century, the 
 protection which the Christian religion had received from the rulers of 
 Japan was withdrawn, and a cruel and bloody persecution commenced, 
 which the native Christians endured with a spirit worthy of the early 
 martyrs. 1 This disastrous termination of the mission has been attrib- 
 uted to the intrigues of the Dutch, who wished to possess themselves 
 of the commercial privileges enjoyed in Japan by the Portuguese. . . . 
 
 *' China was, for a long time, a scene of successful missionary exer- 
 tion under the direction of the Jesuits. Father Roger, a missionary 
 of this order, first preached the gospel in China, in 1581. Matthew 
 Ricci, an Italian Jesuit, was the first missionary who obtained an intro- 
 duction to the court, and is justly regarded as the founder of the 
 Chinese mission. Ricci proceeded to China in 1583, but he was not 
 introduced to the emperor until 1601, when he presented to him a pic- 
 ture of Christ, and another of the Virgin, and obtained permission to 
 preach." 
 
 Ricci and other Jesuit missionaries obtained favor in China 
 on account of their mathematical and scientific knowledge ; 
 one (Schaal) was employed to reform the Chinese calendar 
 and astronomy ; 2 churches were erected in Pekin ; and Chris- 
 
 1 Roman Catholic writers estimate the number of Christians put to tieatli in 
 Japan at nearly two millions*
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 367 
 
 tianity made considerable progress. But in 1665, 3 Domini- 
 cans, 1 Franciscan, and 21 Jesuits were banished to Canton, 
 leaving only 4 missionaries at court. The missionaries, how- 
 ever, afterwards regained the emperor's favor, though the 
 erection of new churches was for a time forbidden, and the 
 Chinese were warned not to desert their ancient faith. In 
 1692 a change occurred, and in 1702 a new church was conse- 
 crated and opened within the palace. The building of new 
 churches was again forbidden in 1717 ; a few years afterwards 
 the missionaries were tolerated only at Pekin and Canton, 
 though the churches are said to have now numbered above 300 
 and the converts more than 300,000. In 1732 the missiona- 
 ries, 30 in number, were banished to Macao. Much of the 
 time since then the Roman Catholic missionaries have been 
 able to visit the converts only by stealth ; violent persecutions 
 have not been unfrequent ; and other unfavorable circumstan- 
 ces have occurred ; yet the mission has been kept up for nearly 
 300 years, and the missionaries have availed themselves of the 
 liberty accorded by recent treaties to push their operations 
 with renewed vigor. 
 
 In the 17th century the Jesuits sent many missionaries to 
 Hindostan and Tonquin ; and great successes were reported, 
 each missionary converting, it was said, 500 to 600 heathen 
 yearly and in the Madura mission at least 1000 a year ; but 
 the missionaries were accused of corrupting the Christian doc- 
 trine, and of favoring the prejudices of the converts in the 
 morality taught and the native ceremonies allowed. Both in 
 India and China the Jesuits were involved in a controversy 
 with the Dominicans respecting the accommodations to native 
 customs which the Jesuits allowed ; and the case being decided 
 at Rome against the Jesuits, the prosperity of their missions 
 declined, and the suppression of the order crippled them still 
 more. 
 
 Of the missions of the Jesuits in America, the Penny Cyclo- 
 pedia, after noticing the conflicting accounts and the difficulty 
 of forming a just estimate, proceeds :
 
 368 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 
 
 "It may perhaps be said with truth that the Jesuit missions in 
 America did little to develop the energy and good qualities of the na- 
 tives, although in Paraguay, and in Upper and Lower California, the 
 missionaries were in possession of all the resources of the country, and 
 enjoyed the extraordinary power which these circumstances conferred. 
 . . . Whether from ignorance of human nature or the unfitness of ec- 
 clesiastics to superintend the whole social economy of a people, the con- 
 verted natives both of North and South America dwindled under their 
 care into the most helpless and ignorant of beings. The object of the 
 experiment was to bring a wild race to domesticated habits, and the 
 Indians were gathered into communities where they worked for a com- 
 mon stock ; but their independent character was destroyed, and nothing 
 better arose in its place. . . . The Jesuits in the course of about a 
 century and a half, converted upwards of a million of the natives of 
 both Americas. In Dr. Forbes's ' California,' compiled from original 
 sources, the process of conversion is described as consisting of the offer 
 of a mess of pottage and holy water ; the acceptance of the latter being 
 the condition of the former grant, and its reception a proof of faith. 
 Attendance to prayers and meals were the exterior evidence of con- 
 version." 
 
 The Congregatio de Propaganda Fide [^congregation for pro- 
 pagating the faith] , founded at Rome in 1622, for the support and 
 direction of foreign missions, is one of the congregations of the 
 cardinals (Chap. V.). The celebrated college of the Propaganda 
 for educating missionaries, which was added to this congrega- 
 tion by Urban VIII. in 1627, is noticed in the account of Rome 
 in Chapter I. " Towards the close of the 17th century," says 
 the Penny Cyclopedia, " there were not fewer than 80 semina- 
 ries in different parts of Europe which prepared and sent out 
 missionaries." At various times colleges have been estab- 
 lished at Rome and elsewhere for the education of natives of 
 particular countries to be missionaries to their countrymen. 
 Of this kind were the Greek, German, English, Irish, Scotch, 
 Belgian, South American, and American (established in 1859 
 for the United States) colleges at Rome ; the English college 
 at Rheims and Douay ; the Chinese college at Naples, &c. 
 There are also seminaries in various missions for training a
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 369 
 
 native clergy ; and some orders (Jesuits, Franciscans, Domini- 
 cans, Lazarists, Carmelites, Capuchins, <fcc.) are charged with 
 the supply of missionaries to certain missionary dioceses. The 
 seminary of foreign missions at Paris has supplied a very large 
 number of Roman Catholic missionaries to China and the coun- 
 tries south of it. The missionary college of All Hallows, near 
 Dublin in Ireland, is of growing importance, and can accommo- 
 date 200 pupils. Other sources of missionaries also exist, 
 which need not be particularly enumerated. 
 
 The first general society of Roman Catholics for the support 
 of missionaries was the " Association for the Propagation of the 
 Faith," formed at Lyons in France, May 3, 1822, and since 
 gradually extended over nearly all the countries in the world. 
 This is the most important of all the Roman Catholic missionary 
 societies, and several popes have warmly recommended it and 
 granted indulgences to all its members on certain conditions. It 
 is a purely voluntary society or association ; it neither appoints 
 nor controls any missionaries ; but simply aids those sent out 
 by other agencies ; its members contribute each one sou [= 
 nearly 1 cent] weekly, and are expected to repeat daily one Pater- 
 noster [= Lord's prayer] and one Ave Maria [== Hail Mary], 
 adding the invocation, " St. Francis Xavier, pray for us ; " the 
 contributors in each diocese are organized in sections, hundreds, 
 and divisions, every 10 contributors paying their contributions 
 to the chief of their section, every 10 of these chiefs to the 
 chief of their hundred, 10 chiefs of hundreds to the chief of 
 their division, each chief appointing his 10 subordinate chiefs, 
 the chiefs of divisions constituting an administrative council for 
 each diocese and making their returns to this council at its 
 sittings, and the whole disbursement of funds being made by 
 the superior councils at Paris and Lyons. The services of all 
 these collectors and managers are gratuitous. The association 
 publishes over 200,000 copies of the " Annals of the Propagation 
 of the Faith " every 2 months, and makes a yearly report of its 
 receipts and disbursements. Its gross receipts were $4,262 in 
 
 1822; $57,650 in 1832; $601,428 in 1842; $891,025 in 1852 . 
 21
 
 870 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 
 
 $940,045 in 1861; during the first 30 years of its existence 
 (1822-51) $8,737,610, of which, just about ($1,753,883) was 
 sent to the United States. 
 
 The " Association of the Holy Childhood of Jesus " is a 
 children's missionary society, also in France. Its object is to 
 rescue pagan children in China and Anam, who are destined 
 to death, and to give them a Christian education. Its annual 
 receipts have been nearly $200,000. 
 
 The " Association of St. Louis " was established in France in 
 1859 to publish and circulate among Mohammedans an Arabic 
 paper ("the Eagle of Paris"), Roman Catholic books, <fec. 
 
 The Leopold Association was formed in Austria in 1829 for 
 the support of Roman Catholic missions in North America. 
 Its annual receipts may have been $50,000. 
 
 Other associations have also been formed in France, Aus- 
 tria, Bavaria, and other countries of Europe, for supporting 
 Roman Catholic missions in North America, Western Africa, 
 Nubia, Asiatic Turkey, Palestine, <fec. 
 
 Some of the differences between Roman Catholics and Prot- 
 estants in regard to missions and missionary operations are 
 readily understood from what has been already said. The 
 direction of Roman Catholic missions belongs, of course, to the 
 bishops and vicars apostolic, who are themselves appointed 
 by the pope and responsible only to him. And while Protest- 
 ant societies send out many married missionaries and support 
 families on missionary ground, the Roman Catholics send 
 single men or communities of sisters who live on the people. 
 Roman Catholic missions are therefore much less expensive 
 than Protestant in proportion to the number of missionary 
 laborers employed. Another grand difference between Roman 
 Catholic and Protestant missionaries is found in the reliance 
 of the former on baptism and other sacraments of the Church 
 for the Christianization of unbelievers rather than on the study 
 and use of the Bible. This point may be illustrated by some 
 extracts from missionary letters published in the " Annals of
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 371 
 
 the Propagation of the Faith." A Roman Catholic missionary 
 in India writes : 
 
 
 
 u To show the Scriptures, without long previous preparation, to a pa- 
 gan, for the purpose of exciting him to a spirit of inquiry, or even to 
 a desire of knowing the truth, is, in my opinion, an absurdity. I have 
 under my care from 7 to 8,000 native Christians, and I should be very 
 much troubled to find, among them all, 4 persons capable of understand- 
 ing the sense of the Bible, or to whom the simple text of the Bible 
 could be of any use. I have prepared for the instruction of my numer- 
 ous flock a little catechism of 10 or 12 pages, in which are explained 
 the principal truths of the gospel. It is prepared in as simple and 
 clear a style as possible, and I have explained it many times to my 
 assembled people, and yet the great majority do not understand it Of 
 what use could the Scriptures be to persons incapable of understanding 
 a little catechism of 10 or 12 pages written in the simplest style ?" 
 
 The apostolic vicar of Su-Tchuen in China, after reporting 
 the baptism in 6 years of over 112,815 pagan children in dan- 
 ger of death and tjie salvation of f of these who actually died 
 the same year they were baptized, proceeds : 
 
 " "We pay faithful persons, men and women, who are acquainted 
 with the diseases of children, to seek and baptize those who are found 
 dangerously ill. It is easy to meet at fairs a crowd of beggars with 
 their children in extreme distress. They may be seen everywhere in 
 the roads, at the gates of the towns and villages, in the most needy con- 
 dition. Our male and female baptizers approach them with soothing, 
 compassionate words, and offer pills to the little sufferers, with expres- 
 sions of the most lively interest The parents willingly permit our 
 people to examine the condition of their children, and to sprinkle on 
 their foreheads some drops of water, securing their salvation while 
 they pronounce the sacramental words. Our Christian baptizers are 
 divided into 2 classes : those who travel about seeking for children- in 
 danger of death ; and those who remain at their posts in the towns and 
 villages and devote themselves to the same work in their respective 
 neighborhoods. I intend to print some rules for their direction, and to 
 stimulate them all in their work. . . . 
 
 " The expenses of a traveling baptizer are 150 francs [= $27.90] 
 a year, including his medicines and board; 100 francs Q$18.60] are.
 
 372 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 
 
 Bufficient for a stationary male baptizer and 80 or 85 francs [$15 or 
 $16] for a female; and yet the number of baptizers is so great that 
 the whole expenses this year [1847] amount to 10,000 francs" [= 
 $1860]. 
 
 From the statistics of Canon Joseph Ortalda's work entitled 
 " Italian Apostolic Missionaries in the Foreign Missions over 
 the Four Parts of the World," published at Turin in 1864, and 
 quoted in the Civilta Cattolica and in the Catholic World for 
 January, 1866, are derived the following statements. Ortalda 
 reckons 2055 Italian foreign missionaries, 529 of them in 
 Europe, 610 in Asia, 167 in Africa, 696 in America, and 53 in 
 Oceanica ; 41 being bishops, 162 secular priests, 490 Jesuits, 
 447 Capuchins, 368 Minor Observants (Franciscans), and the 
 rest mostly monastics of nearly 20 different orders. Ortalda's 
 table of Roman Catholic Missions in Asia gives for the 22 
 apostolic vicariates and 2 apostolic prefectures in the empire 
 of China (including Hong-Kong) 297 missionaries and 446,465 
 Roman Catholics ; for the 10 apostolic vicariates in Farther 
 India, or Indo-China, including Siam, Cochin-China, Tonquin, 
 Ac., 325 missionaries and 561,000 Catholics ; for the apostolic 
 vicariate of Japan 10 missionaries and 12,000 Roman Cath- 
 olics ; for the 20 apostolic vicariates in the East Indies, includ- 
 ing Hindostan, Ceylon, Ava and Pegu, 325 missionaries, 409 
 native priests, and 994,220 Roman Catholics ; for the French 
 colonies in India, 12 missionaries and 7,000 Roman Catholics ; 
 for the Dutch colonies in India and Oceanica, 7 missionaries 
 and 11,000 Roman Catholics ; for Laboan and its vicinity in 
 the Indian Archipelago, 6 missionaries and 3,000 Roman Cath- 
 olics ; for 2 apostolic vicariates, 2 apostolic delegations, and 1 
 apostolic prefecture in Western Asia (Persia, Turkey and Ara- 
 bia) 182 missionaries for 235,286 Roman Catholics under their 
 charge. Since the date of Ortalda's statistics, the number of 
 Roman Catholic priests in China has been estimated at 500 (in 
 1867). The American Year-Book for 1869 gives the Roman 
 Catholic population in China and dependencies as 700,000 ; 
 in Japan, 100,000 ; in Hindostan, Ceylon, and Indo-China,
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 373 
 
 1,600,000; and in the East India islands, 2,000,000. The 
 Roman Catholic population of Africa is mostly in the Portu- 
 guese, French, and British possessions, and is estimated at 
 over 1,100,000. But hardly any of these estimates are thor- 
 oughly reliable. 
 
 In regard to the comparative success of Roman Catholic and 
 Protestant missions, and their power of changing the national 
 thoughts of countries, a recent Protestant reviewer says that 
 the Roman Catholics 
 
 " Count very numerous converts in China and Tonquin, but marked 
 success nowhere else. The national movements in heathen countries 
 are more toward Protestantism than Romanism. The age of Catholic 
 colonization has passed ; and Protestant colonies and missions are rap- 
 idly supplanting paganism in Southern and Western Africa, New Zeal- 
 and, and Australia. The Pacific islands are rapidly becoming Protest- 
 ant Hardly one is Catholic. Madagascar is rapidly following their 
 example. India never will be Catholic, though 300 years of missions 
 have given that faiih every advantage till within 50 years. The re- 
 ligion of the Bible is rapidly permeating the native educated mind, 
 and with this movement Catholicism has little sympathy."
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 
 
 THE " Holy Office," says the Penny Cyclopedia, " is the name 
 of an ecclesiastical tribunal established in the 13th century 
 by popes Honorius III., Gregory IX., and Innocent IV., to 
 try heretics, blasphemers, apostates, relapsed Jews or Moham- 
 medans, witches and wizards, polygamists, and other persons 
 charged with infractions of the canons of the Church. The 
 judges of this court were called inquisitors, whence the tribu- 
 nal itself has been commonly styled the * Holy Inquisition.' " 
 The punishment of heresy and the name of inquisitors were 
 not, indeed, new. In A.D. 325, the emperor Constantino ban- 
 ished the Arians and threatened death to those who should 
 keep and use the books of Arius. Constantius, A.D. 353, for- 
 bade heathen sacrifices under pain of death. The first law 
 under the Christian emperors for punishing heresy with death 
 was set forth by Theodosius I. against the Manicheans, &c., 
 A.D. 382, and Priscillian, a Spanish Gnostic, was beheaded for 
 heresy A.D. 385. The trial and punishment in all such cases 
 were left to the civil magistrate. In process of time, however, 
 councils not only condemned certain doctrines as heretical, but 
 sometimes specified the punishments for heretics, Jews, and 
 apostates ; and bishops, after examining the accused, admon- 
 ished them, if guilty, and then handed them over, if obstinate, 
 to the secular courts. 
 
 Pope Innocent III., who considered heresy the deadliest of 
 sins, sent 2 legates with the title of " inquisitors " into the 
 south of France, to extirpate the heresy of the Albigenses (see
 
 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 375 
 
 Chap. XII.). These legates, by the pope's authority, held their 
 own court, summoned before it suspected heretics, tried, con- 
 demned, and punished them even with death. In 1206, Doin- 
 inic de Guzman, founder of the Dominicans, was associated 
 with them and became one of their most zealous agents. But 
 this was only a local and temporary commission. 
 
 In 1215 the 4th council of the Lateran enacted new and 
 severe canons against heretics, and made it the chief business 
 of the bishops' synodal tribunals to search out and punish here- 
 tics. Pope Honorius III. issued new provisions against heretics, 
 which were enforced by the emperor Frederic II. in 1224, con- 
 demning impenitent heretics to death, and penitent ones to per- 
 petual imprisonment. The council of Toulouse, in which a 
 papal legate presided, ordered in 1229 the establishment of a 
 board of inquisitors in every city, composed of a clergyman and 
 3 laymen. But as many bishops were accused of remissness or 
 partiality, pope Gregory IX. in 1232 and 1233 altered the in- 
 stitution, and established in Germany, Aragon, Southern France, 
 Lombardy, &c., inquisitors' courts or "inquisitorial missions,'* 
 appointing generally Dominican monks as inquisitors. Says 
 the Penny Cyclopedia : 
 
 "The Inquisition was introduced into Rome as well as other parts 
 of Italy by Gregory IX., and intrusted to the Dominicans, but it was a 
 long time before it was established as a distinct and permanent court. 
 Inquisitors were appointed by the pope on particular occasions, who 
 visited the various provinces and towns, proclaiming to all persons the 
 obligation they were under of informing against those whom they knew 
 or suspected of being heretics, under pain of excommunication. At the 
 same time they also made it known that all persons guilty of heresy 
 who came of themselves before the inquisitor within a certain fixed 
 period, and accused themselves and professed repentance, should receive 
 absolution and be only subject to a canonical penance. These penan- 
 ces were public, humiliating, and very severe, as may be seen by a let- 
 ter of St. Dominic concerning a heretic whom he had converted, by the 
 acts of the council of Beziers, A.D. 1233, and of the council of Tarra- 
 cona in 1242. After the expiration of the period of grace, the inquisitor
 
 376 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 
 
 proceeded ex-officio against those who were denounced, the name of 
 the informer being kept secret : he examined witnesses privately in 
 presence of a notary and 2 priests, and having taken down the evi- 
 dence in writing, he read it over to the witnesses, l who were asked 
 whether they confirmed what had been read. If there appeared to he 
 sufficient grounds for proceeding against the accused, the inquisitor or- 
 dered his arrest by the municipal officers, and he was taken to the 
 convent of the Dominicans, if there was one in the town, or to the 
 prison of the ecclesiastical court. He was then interrogated by the 
 inquisitor, and his answers might be used afterwards as evidence 
 against him. If the accused denied the charge of heresy, he was sup- 
 plied with a copy of the instruction and depositions, but without the 
 names of the accuser and witnesses, and with the omission of such cir- 
 cumstances as might discover them. The accused having made his 
 answer or defense, which was taken down in writing, if he denied the 
 charges, the inquisitor, together with the bishop of the diocese or his 
 delegate, if they thought proper, ordered him to be put to the torture a 
 in order to obtain his confession. The torture might be repeated 3 
 times, but it was afterwards ordered to be applied only once ; this regu- 
 lation however was often evaded by suspending the torments and then 
 resuming them, and considering the whole as one torture. If in the 
 end there were not sufficient grounds for the conviction of the prisoner, 
 he was declared to be 'suspected of lieresy,' was obliged to make a 
 public abjuration of all heresies, and was subject to certain penalties, 
 according to the nature of the case. If the accused was convicted of 
 heresy, but professed his repentance, he was condemned to prison for 
 life, a penalty which however might be mitigated by the inquisitor. 
 But if he was a ' relapsed," that is to say, had been tried before, and 
 found guilty, or only strongly suspected, there was no mercy for him ; 
 
 1 The councils of B6ziers and Narbonne, and pope Innocent IV., allowed crim- 
 inals and infamous persons and accomplices to be witnesses, and conviction of here- 
 sy to be effected by their testimony. 
 
 8 According to the Penny Cyclopedia, the first trace of any ecclesiastical sanction 
 of the use of torture, even in the case of heresy or apostasy, is found in a decree of 
 pope Innocent IV,. in 1252; and this decree does not authorize the inquisitors to 
 use it, but calls on civil magistrates to press offenders to confession against them- 
 selves and others by torture ; but subsequently the necessity for secrecy in the pro- 
 ceedings of the inquisition led to the use of torture by the inquisitors themselves.
 
 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 377 
 
 he was ' relaxatus,' that is to say, given over to the lay magistrate, who, 
 according to the civil and canon laws, was bound to put him to death 
 upon the sentence of the inquisitor which declared him a heretic. The 
 only favor shown to the relapsed heretic who confessed and abjured his 
 guilt was, to be strangled before he was burnt If the convicted here- 
 tic was not relapsed, but impenitent, a respite of the sentence was 
 granted in order to effect his conversion, and if he at la<t abjured, his 
 life was spared, and he was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment If 
 he persisted in his impenitence, he was publicly burned alive. Such 
 were the principal characteristics of the old or delegated Inquisition as 
 it existed from the 13th century to the latter part of the loth, and the 
 regulations of which are found in the ' Dlrectorium Inquisitorum' 
 [= Directory of Inquisitors] of Friar Nicholas Eymeric, a native of 
 Catalonia, and a Dominican monk of the 1 4th century, who held the 
 office of chief inquisitor hi Aragon for 42 years." 
 
 In the 15th century the Inquisition had nearly fallen into 
 disuse in Aragon from the extermination of the heretics who 
 had occasioned its introduction ; but it had not yet taken 
 permanent root in Castile and Leon and Portugal. What 
 is called the " Modern or Spanish Inquisition " was intro- 
 duced into Spain in 1480. Alfonso de Hodeja, Dominican 
 prior in Seville, and Friar Philip de Barberis, inquisitor in 
 Sicily, had suggested to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1477 the 
 establishment of the Inquisition in Spain for punishing those 
 Christians who secretly relapsed to Judaism. Isabella hes- 
 itated ; but means were found to alarm her conscience ; and 
 she solicited and obtained in 1478 a papal bull authorizing 
 Ferdinand and Isabella " to appoint 2 or 3 bishops or other 
 dignitaries of the church, aged at least 40 years, of irre- 
 proachable character, graduates in theology and the canon 
 law, who were to be commissioned to seek after and discover, 
 throughout the dominions of the Spanish sovereigns, all apos- 
 tates, heretics, and their abettors, with full power to proceed 
 against them according to law and custom." After the execu- 
 tion of the bull had been suspended for 2 years by Isabella, 
 the sovereigns appointed two Dominicans as inquisitors, with 
 an assessor and a fiscal attorney. Of the commencement of
 
 378 THE HOLY OFFICE OR INQUISITION. 
 
 their work the Penny Cyclopedia thus speaks, a principal au- 
 thority being the Jesuit Mariana's History of Spain : 
 
 " The inquisitors established their court in the Dominican convent 
 of St. Paul of Seville, whence, on the 2d of January, 1481, they is- 
 sued their first edict, by which they ordered the arrest of several new 
 Christians, as they were styled [= converts from Judaism or their 
 children], who were strongly suspected of heresy, and the sequestra- 
 tion of their property, denouncing the pain of excommunication against 
 those who favored or abetted them. The number of prisoners soon be- 
 became *o great, that the Dominican convent not being large enough to 
 contain them, the court was removed to the castle of Triana, in a suburb 
 of Seville. The inquisitors issued another edict, by which they ordered 
 every person, under pain of mortal sin and excommunication, to inform 
 against those who had relapsed into the Jewish faith or rites, or who 
 gave reason for suspecting them of being relapsed, specifying numer- 
 ous indications by which they might be known. Sentences of death 
 soon followed; and in the course of that year, 1481, 298 ' new Chris- 
 tians * were burnt alive in the city of Seville, 2,000 in other parts of 
 Andalusia, and 17,000 were subjected to various penalties. The prop- 
 erty of those who were executed, which was considerable, was confis- 
 cated." 
 
 The terror excited by these executions caused a vast number 
 of ' new Christians ' to emigrate ; some, condemned as contuma- 
 cious, appealed to the pope, who revoked the authority previously 
 given to the sovereigns to appoint other inquisitors, recommend- 
 ed mildness and moderation, and appointed Thomas de Torque- 
 mada inquisitor-general of the kingdoms of Castile and Ara- 
 gon, with full jurisdiction over all inquisitors in Spain and its 
 dependencies. Torquemada chose 2 jurists as his assessors 
 and councilors, and created 4 subordinate courts, at Seville, 
 Cordova, Jaen, and Villa Real (afterwards at Toledo). The 
 organic laws or " instructions " of the new tribunal were 
 framed by Torquemada and his assessors and promulgated in 
 1484 ; new articles were added in 1488 and 1498 ; and the 
 inquisitor-general Valdez in 1561 compiled a new series of or- 
 dinances which regulated ever after the practice and proceed-
 
 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 379 
 
 ings of the Spanish Inquisition. Tho Penny Cyclopedia says 
 of these : 
 
 " They are substantially the same as those already noticed as being 
 in practice by the old Inquisition, but are more minute and rather more 
 unfavorable to the accused. By the old practice, for instance, the 
 names of the witnesses for the prosecution were in many cases com- 
 municated to the accused, to whom they were of great use for his 
 defense. Confiscation of the property of those who were condemned 
 was not generally enforced under the old practice, and this was more 
 particularly the case in the kingdom of Aragon Another im- 
 portant characteristic of the new Spanish Inquisition was its compact 
 organization and independence of all other authorities. The inquisitor- 
 general was appointed for life; he was proposed by the king and ap- 
 proved by the pope. He appointed all other inqui-itors under him, as 
 well as visitors and other agents. He had full and discretionary power 
 by the papal bulls in all matters of heresy. The grand inquisitor, 
 being thus placed as a distinct power between the king and the pope, 
 was in reality independent of both." 
 
 An instance of this independence is the case of Carranza, 
 archbishop of Toledo, who had attended the emperor Charles 
 V. in his last moments, and who, in spite of all the influence of 
 the pope and of the prelates at the council of Trent, was con- 
 fined in the dungeons of the Spanish Inquisition 7 years, and 
 finally, after pope Gregory XIII. had been induced reluctantly 
 to declare that the archbishop was strongly suspected of be- 
 lieving 16 propositions qualified as Lutheran, was sentenced to 
 5 years' imprisonment in a Dominican convent and other pen- 
 ances. The archbishop soon after died in the convent at 
 Rome where he was detained, after solemnly declaring in the 
 presence of several witnesses " that he had never fallen into 
 the errors with which he had been charged ; that his expressions 
 had been distorted into a meaning totally different from his ; 
 that he however humbly submitted to the judgment pronounced 
 by the sovereign pontiff, and heartily forgave all those who had 
 taken part against him in the trial, and would pray for them 
 before the throne of grace." In his epitaph pope Gregory
 
 380 THE HOLY OFFICE OR INQUISITION. 
 
 XIII. had him described as a prelate " illustrious for his birth, 
 his life, his doctrine, his preaching, and his charity." 
 
 The " Congregation of the Holy Office" (see Chapter V.), 
 founded at Rome in 1543 by pope Paul III., consisted at first of 
 6 cardinals, styled " inquisitors-general of the faith," who had 
 the superintendence over all other inquisitors, and full author- 
 ity to proceed, without the concurrence of the bishops, against 
 all heretics or persons suspected of heresy, to punish them, 
 confiscate their property, degrade and deliver to the secular 
 courts all clerical offenders, call in if necessary the assistance 
 of the secular arm, appoint inquisitors and other officials, and 
 hear and decide appeals from other inquisitors, but without 
 interfering with the privileges of the Spanish Inquisition as 
 then established. In 1564 popes Pius IV. and V. confirmed 
 and extended the powers of the Roman Inquisition, which 
 were however resisted in France. Pope Sixtus V., in 1588, 
 made the " Holy Roman and Universal Inquisition " one of his 
 15 congregations, to consist of 12 cardinals with several pre- 
 lates as assessors, several monks as consultors, and clergymen 
 and lawyers styled " qualificators," who prepared the cases. 
 
 The Inquisition as established in Italy in the 16th century, 
 was generally very different from the Spanish Inquisition. 
 The inquisitors, except in Sicily, were instructed to proceed 
 according to the usual form of the ecclesiastical courts ; the 
 depositions and names of the witnesses were to be communi- 
 cated to the accused ; sentence of condemnation was not ac- 
 companied by confiscation, and was subject to the sanction of 
 the temporal sovereign. Among the Neapolitans cases of 
 heresy were tried, as before, by the bishops' courts. Sicily 
 alone, as an old dependency of Aragon, received the Spanish 
 Inquisition. Venice had a political state Inquisition, but the 
 ecclesiastical Inquisition was subject to many checks and its 
 victims were put to death by drowning. 
 
 The Inquisition was abolished in several of the Italian 
 states about a century ago : it was abolished by Napoleon in 
 1808 throughout Italy ; and was reestablished in the States of
 
 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 381 
 
 the Church in 1814, and in Tuscany and Sardinia in 1833 ; and 
 it was finally deprived of its power in Sardinia in 1848, and in 
 the rest of Italy as the free institutions of Sardinia were ex- 
 tended in 1859 and 1870. 
 
 In February, 1849, the Inquisition at Rome, which has been 
 styled " the mildest of all tribunals of this nature," was sup- 
 pressed under the short-lived Roman Republic ; but in June, 
 1849, it was reestablished under Pius IX. in an apartment at 
 the Vatican. Dr. De Sanctis, who had been for 10 years a 
 qualificator of this Inquisition, has given a description of the 
 palace of the Inquisition and of its contents, as these appeared 
 when they were thrown open to the public in April, 1849. 
 From the description published in his book, " Rome, Christian 
 and Papal," the following account is abridged. 
 
 This palace, situated near the Vatican, and entered by iron gates, 
 was composed of 2 rectangles united by a trapezium, the first rectangle 
 for the use of the inquisitors and other officers, the second for the 
 prisoners. In the 1st story, an immense hall led to two large and 
 commodious apartments for the father commissary and the assessor; 
 then came the hall of the tribunal, with the colossal arms of Pius V. 
 (its builder) at one end, a large arm-chair surmounted by a huge cru- 
 cifix, for the father commissary, an elliptical table and 20 chairs for 
 the consultors, and a picture of St. Dominic ; next were the archives, 
 not to be entered, according to an inscription over the door, under pen- 
 alty of excommunication. The " chancery," or 1st part of the archives, 
 contained tables and writing materials and the records of all the mod- 
 ern trials since the middle of the 18th century. The library, or 2d 
 part, contained all the correspondence of the Holy Office, all works 
 in any language which praised the Inquisition, a complete collection 
 of the works of the Italian reformers, and manuscripts found in the 
 possession of heretical priests who were imprisoned or deprived of 
 their property by the censor. The 3d part contained the ancient pro- 
 ceedings from the time of Pius V., as the famous trials of Pasquali, 
 of Paleario, of Carnesecchi and of many others burned in Rome, the 
 plans for the Valteline massacres (of the Waldenses in 1620), the doc- 
 uments of the Gunpowder Plot of England (1605), of the St. Bar- 
 tholomew massacre in France, &c. Beyond the Archives, a trap in
 
 382 THE HOLY OFFICE OE INQUISITION. 
 
 the floor of the room occupied by one of the father " companions " led 
 down by a stair-case to a recent opening made in the wall by order of 
 the republican government, and this ended in a subterranean cavity 
 like a sepulchre, with the earth on its bottom black and spongy, and 
 on one side heaped up, covering half-buried human skeletons. In the 
 middle of the 2d rectangle, where the prisons were, was a dark and 
 damp court-yard, and all around it were small gates with bars of iron, 
 showing where were the old dungeons r little, low, damp cells, hardly 
 large enough to contain one person. Below these cells were subter- 
 ranean passages, fo?med by the ruins of Nero's ancient circus, in one 
 of which still existed about 30 steps of a stone stair-case, which those 
 whom the Inquisition condemned to die by being walled up had to de- 
 scend. These victims, as the skeletons found at the bottom showed, 
 had their hands bound behind their backs, and were buried up to their 
 shoulders in earth mixed with lime ; then the opening was walled up, 
 and they were left to die by starvation. In another small and worse 
 court-yard were 60 very small dungeons in 3 stories, each dungeon 
 having an enormous iron ring fastened to the wall or to the pavement, 
 and used for clasping the prisoner's waist. In the center of one of 
 these dungeons was a large stone covering a hole in which many skel- 
 etons were seen, but whether they were buried dead or alive was not 
 known. Some of the half- effaced inscriptions on these prison-walls 
 were : " The Lord is my shepherd ; I shall not want : " " The caprice 
 and cruelty of man shall never separate me from thy Church, O Christ, 
 my only hope : " " Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteous- 
 ness* sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven." The modern prisons 
 were narrow cells in 2 compartments, separated by a long and narrow 
 corridor. On each door was placed a crucifix, but the Savior's face was 
 represented as menacing and ferocious. In each dungeon was written 
 in large letters a threatening passage from the Bible, as, " Set thou a 
 wicked man over him, and let Satan stand at his right hand ; " "Cursed 
 shalt thou be when thou comest in, and cursed shalt thou be when thou 
 goest out," &c. The ancient hall of torture ' was under ground and 
 approached by a narrow stone stair-case. There was still " fastened 
 into the wall an iron hook which sustained the axis of the wheel, and 
 in the center was a square stone, in which a post was fixed, which 
 
 1 "Pius VII., after his restoration [in 1814], is said to have abolished the use 
 of the torture," says the Penny Cyclopedia.
 
 THE HOLT OFFICE OH INQUISITION. 383 
 
 served for torture by means of a rope. Iron rings fixed in the dome 
 showed the means of other tortures. A large chimney-place in one of 
 the angles of the room indicated the place of torture by fire. But 
 lately this chamber had been converted into the wine cellar of the rev- 
 erend father-inquisitor. At the side of this cellar the republican gov- 
 ernment had had a wall torn down, which, although painted gray and 
 in such a manner as to appear ancient, yet, its mortar having been ex- 
 amined by masons, was recognized to be of very recent construction. 
 This opening conducted into a high room where there were 2 large 
 ovens, made in the form of hives, and these ovens were filled with cal- 
 cined bones. When the inquisition could no longer burn its victims in 
 public, they were burned secretly in these ovens." 
 
 Shoberl, who draws his materials from Catholic writers, 
 gives the following description of the 3 kinds of torture, by 
 the rope, by water, and by fire, commonly used by the Inqui- 
 sition to extort confessions from an accused or suspected per- 
 son : 
 
 " The first, called squassation, consisted in tying back the arms by 
 a cord, fastening weights to bis feet, and drawing him up to the full 
 height of the place by means of a pulley. Having been kept sus- 
 pended for some time, he was suddenly let down with a jerk to within 
 a little distance of the floor, and with repeated shocks all his joints 
 were dislocated ; for this species of torture was continued for an hour 
 and sometimes longer, according to the pleasure of the inquisitors pres- 
 ent, and to what the strength of the sufferer seemed capable of enduring. 
 If this torture was not sufficient to overcome him, that of water was 
 resorted to. He was obliged to swallow a great quantity, and then 
 laid in a wooden trough, provided with a lid that might be pressed 
 down as tight as the operators pleased. Across the trough was a bar, 
 on which the sufferer's back rested, and by which the spine was broken. 
 The torture by fire was equally painful. A very brisk fire was made ; 
 and, the prisoner being extended on the ground, the soles of his feet 
 were rubbed with lard or some other combustible matter, and placed 
 close to the fire, till the agony extorted from him such a confession as 
 his tormentors required. Not satisfied with their success, the judges 
 doomed their miserable victims to the torture a second time, to make 
 them own the motive or intention for the actions which they acknowl-
 
 384 THE HOLY OFFICE OR INQUISITION. 
 
 elged to have committed ; and a third time, to force them to reveal 
 their accomplices or abettors." 
 
 The Auto-da-Ft or Auto-de-FS (= Act of Faith) was the 
 public and solemn reading of extracts from the trials before 
 the court of the Inquisition, and of the sentences pronounced 
 by the judges of that tribunal. The Auto da FS properly ended 
 with the transfer of the offenders to the secular authority for 
 the execution of the sentences ; but it is popularly applied to 
 the execution of the sentences, particularly by burning. The 
 clearing of the prisons of the Inquisition, which is implied in 
 the public and general act, took place in Spain, Portugal, <fec., 
 at the accession or marriage of a king, birth of an heir appar- 
 ent, &c. Similar solemnities on a smaller scale occurred every 
 year on the Friday before Good Friday. The general descrip- 
 tion of an Auto da F6 is thus given by Shoberl : 
 
 " By daybreak, the tolling of the great bell of the cathedral summoned 
 the faithful to the horrid tragedy. Persons of the highest distinction 
 eagerly offered their services to escort the victims ; and grandees were 
 often seen assuming the character of familiars [^servants and spies] of 
 the Inquisition. The Dominicans, with the standard of the execrable 
 tribunal, opened the procession. The condemned walked barefoot, with 
 a pointed cap on their heads, and dressed in a san-benito, a yellow frock 
 with a cross on the breast and on the back, and covered with painted 
 representations of the faces of fiends. The penitents, on whom some 
 penance only was imposed, came first, and after the cross, which was 
 borne behind them, followed such as were doomed to die. Effigies of 
 persons who had escaped, and the remains of the dead that had incur- 
 red condemnation, appeared in the fearful procession lying in black 
 coffins, on which were painted flames and infernal figures ; and it was 
 closed by priests and monks. Passing through the principal streets of 
 the city to the cathedral, a sermon was preached, and their sentence 
 read to the delinquents, each of them standing meanwhile, with an ex- 
 tinguished taper in his hand, before a crucifix. A servant of the Inquis- 
 ition then smote them on the breast with his hand, to signify that the 
 tribunal had ceased to have any power over them. The condemned 
 were then delivered up to an officer of the civil authority, and soon 
 afterwards conducted to the place of execution. Each was asked
 
 THE HOLY OFFICE OR INQUISITION. 385 
 
 in what faith he would die ; if he said, ' in the Catholic,' he was strangled 
 before he was burned ; the others, who persisted in their opinions, were 
 consigned alive to the flames. These Autos da Fi, of* which the pro- 
 fessed historians of the Inquisition give such harrowing details as thrill 
 the blood with horror, the people of both sexes and all ages thronged 
 to witness with transports of satisfaction and joy surpassing those dis- 
 played on any other occasion. Even kings deemed it a meritorious act 
 to attend those cruel exhibitions, with their whole court, and to feast 
 their eyes on the torments of the wretched sufferers." 
 
 At a general Auto da F6 held at Madrid, on Sunday, June 30, 
 1680, by request of king Charles II., and minutely described by 
 Olmo, an officer of the Inquisition, who was present, there were 
 55 condemned to the fire, of whom 21 were present in person, 
 and 34 in effigy. The ceremony, including the procession, 
 mass, sermon, reading of extracts from the processes and sen- 
 tences of all the condemned, and absolution of those who had 
 repented, lasted from 7 A.M. till 9 P.M., while the burning 
 lasted from 4 P.M. till 9 1-2 A.M. of Monday. The Autos da 
 FS became very rare in Spain in the 18th century. The last 
 person burnt by the sentence of the Inquisition in Spain was a 
 woman accused of having made a contract with the devil. She 
 was burnt at Seville, Nov. 7, 1781. The Spanish Inquisition 
 was suppressed by Napoleon's decree in 1808 in the parts occu- 
 pied by the French, and in 1813 by the Cortes ; it was reestab- 
 lished by Ferdinand VII. in 1814, and again suppressed by the 
 Cortes in 1820 ; reestablished under Ferdinand in 1825-6 ; 
 again abolished in 1834, and its property confiscated in 1835 
 to pay the public debt. Col. Lemanouski and his French 
 troops, who destroyed the Inquisition near Madrid in 1809, 
 found in its dungeons, notwithstanding the previous disclaimers 
 of the holy fathers, not only decaying and decayed bodies still 
 chained, but also, as he says, " the living sufferer of every age 
 and of both sexes, from the young man and maiden to those 
 of threescore and ten years, all as naked as when they were 
 born into the world," and " the instruments of torture, of every 
 kind which the ingenuity of men or devils could invent." 
 25
 
 886 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 
 
 The Spanish Inquisition was introduced into Sicily and Sar- 
 dinia as well as the Spanish colonies in America, and the tri- 
 bunals of Lima, Carthagena, and Mexico in America rivaled 
 those of Spain itself in severity. It was established in Portu- 
 gal in 1557 with nearly the same organization as in Spain ; but 
 its power was broken a century ago, and it was abolished about 
 50 years ago in Portugal and its dependencies, including Brazil 
 and Goa. The Inquisition of Goa in the East Indies was long 
 famous for its power and severity. 
 
 Llorente, who had been secretary-general of the Spanish In- 
 quisition, and had at his disposal all its papers, wrote its his- 
 tory after it was suppressed in 1808 by the French. Modern 
 Catholic writers have contested the accuracy of his citations 
 from the documents of the Inquisition ; but Protestant histori- 
 ans generally regard his authority in this respect as unshaken. 
 He estimated the number burned alive in Spain under Torque- 
 mada (inquisitor-general, 1483-98) at 8,800; under Deza (in- 
 quisitor-general, 1499-1506) at 1,664 ; under cardinal Ximenes 
 (inquisitor-general, 1507-17) at 2,536 ; from 1483 to 1808 
 (325 years) at 31,912. He estimated that 17,659 were burned 
 in effigy, and 291,450 subjected to rigorous pains and penances, 
 as imprisonment, galley-slavery, &c., during those 325 
 years in Spain. The number of the victims of the Inquisition 
 in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, and in Portugal, Sicily, 
 Sardinia, and other parts of Europe can not be ascertained. 
 
 The Inquisition is by no means destitute of defenders and 
 advocates in the 19th century. A Protestant missionary in 
 Italy in 1853 wrote thus ; 
 
 " If I had not seen, with my own eyes, articles from the Tablet [of 
 London.], the Univers [of Paris], the Cattolico of Genoa, the Armenia^ 
 and Campana of Turin, the Courier des Alpes, and the Echo du Mont 
 Blanc of Savoy, and a Roman Catholic Journal of Milan, I could not 
 have believed how warm and unanimous the Roman Catholic prelates 
 and their supporters are for the formal reestablishment of the Inquisition, 
 and how sanguine they are in the gradual attainment of this, their dar- 
 ling object, in every country under their control and influence."
 
 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 387 
 
 The Catholic World, published in New York, and " heartily 
 approved " by the archbishop, pope, <fcc., had for its leading ar- 
 ticle in February, 1869, a highly eulogistic account of cardinal 
 Ximenes, the 3d Inquisitor-general in Spain, from which the 
 following is taken : 
 
 " The council of Toulouse, in 1229, issued various decrees relative 
 to the suppression of heresy, and may thus be considered as founding 
 the first Inquisition. The Dominicans especially were employed in the 
 work of extirpating heresy, and but for the exertions of such men the 
 nations of Europe would have been overrun with Manicheism and va- 
 rious other forms of pestilent error. The Jews settled in Spain, pene- 
 trated in disguise every branch of society, and strove in every age to 
 Judaize the people. The Inquisition was directed in a particular 
 manner against this subtle influence, and the peculiar nature of the evil 
 required peculiar remedies and antidotes. It was Judaism in the 
 Church that it labored to extirpate, and not the race of Israel dwelling 
 in the Peninsula. 
 
 "The inquisitors of Seville took office in 1481, and were appointed 
 by the sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella. Nothing was more natural 
 than that they should seek to rid the body politic of a gangrene so 
 fatal as secret Judaism. Yet Sixtus IV. had occasion to rebuke the 
 royal inquisitors for their needless severity and to take measures for 
 the mitigation of their sentences. But the institution was placed 
 more and more under the control of the state, and whether clergymen 
 or laymen were employed, they were alike subservient to the Spanish 
 government. In 1492, when, by a memorable edict, the Jews were 
 ordered to quit Spain, unless they submitted to be baptized, the sphere 
 of the Inquisition's labors became greatly enlarged in consequence of 
 the increased number of Jews who professed Christianity from worldly 
 motives alone. The Moriscos also, or baptized Moors, came within 
 the sphere of its action ; and it was introduced into Granada by the 
 advice of the 2d grand-inquisitor, Deza, in order to prevent their re- 
 lapsing into Islamism. 
 
 " The sovereigns of Castile and Aragon promoted the Inquisition 
 for other motives besides those here alluded to. They used it as an 
 instrument for consolidating their own power and breaking that of the 
 clergy and nobles. Piombal, at a later period, did the same in Portur
 
 388 THE HOLY OFFICE OR INQUISITION. 
 
 gal. Hence it was popular with the lower classes, detested by the 
 aristocracy, and often censured by popes. To these facts Ranke and 
 Balmez abundantly testify, and their evidence is confirmed by that of 
 Henry Leo, Guizot, Havemann, Lenormant, De Maistre, and Spittler. 
 The falsehoods of Llorente respecting the Inquisition have been fully 
 exposed, and those who sift the matter thoroughly will find that it was 
 latterly more a political than a religious institution ; that the cruelties 
 it exercised have been enormously exaggerated ; that it was in ac- 
 cordance with principles universally recognized in its day ; that its 
 punishments, however severe, were in keeping with the ordinary 
 penal laws ; that the popes constantly endeavored to mitigate its de- 
 crees ; that Gregory XIIL, Paul III., Pius IV., and Innocent XIL, 
 in particular, reclaimed against its rigors ; that its institutions were 
 good on the whole ; its proceedings tempered with mercy ; and that 
 Ximenes, the 3d grand-inquisitor, conducted himself in that office with 
 moderation and humanity, provided for the instruction of Jewish and 
 Moorish converts, and ' adopted every expedient to diminish the number 
 of judicial cases reserved for the tribunal of the Inquisition* (Hefele). 
 He caused Lucero, the cruel inquisitor of Cordova, to be arrested, 
 tried, and deposed from his high functions. He protected Lebrija, 
 Vergara, and other learned men from envious aspersions, and kept a 
 strict watch over the officers of the Inquisition, lest they should ex- 
 ceed their instructions or abuse their power. He endeavored, but 
 without success in Ferdinand's lifetime, to exclude laymen from the 
 council, and thus free the tribunal as far as possible from state influence. 
 The number of thos.e who suffered punishment under his regime has 
 been greatly exaggerated by Llorente ; and if he introduced the In- 
 quisition into Oran, America, and the Canary Isles, it must be remem- 
 bered that its jurisdiction extended over the old Christians settled 
 there, and not over the natives. 
 
 "In reviewing Ximenes's conduct in such matters, we must never 
 lose sight of the fact that absolute unity of religion was then the aim of 
 all Catholic governments, whereas circumstances are now altered, and 
 the question of religious liberty, though the same in the abstract, is 
 wholly changed in its practical application." 
 
 A brief answer to this defense of the Inquisition may be 
 found in the words of the Penny Cyclopedia respecting it : 
 
 " The general opinion of Europe, not merely of Protestant but of
 
 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 389 
 
 Roman Catholic Europe, has reprobated and rejected its practice 
 
 It was only in the 13th century that the Inquisition set about discov- 
 ering private and silent heretics, and having once established the 
 principle that it was necessary to ferret out, as it were, all individuals 
 who dissented in their minds from the orthodox church, all kinds of 
 
 means were thought lawful for that purpose It was the horror 
 
 of this terrific code which made nations revolt against this tribunal, 
 which excited the war in the Netherlands that lasted nearly half a 
 ceniury and ended in the separation of one-half of the country from 
 the crown of Spain, which caused rebellions in Aragon, Sicily, Sar- 
 dinia, and Naples, and embittered the religious feuds and wars of the 
 16th and 17th centuries. And yet with all the ingenuity displayed 
 for the discovery and conviction of heretics, it is averred that a great 
 number of individuals put to death by the Inquisition were orthodox 
 Catholics. Among the proofs of this are the letters of Pietro Martire 
 d'Angleria, councilor of the Indies (quoted by Llorente, ch. X.), the 
 trials of Carranza and many other bishops, and even of persons who 
 have been since canonized by the iloman church, such as St. Francis 
 de Borja [ Borgia, 3d general of the Jesuits], St. Ignatius Loyola 
 [founder of the Jesuits], St. Theresa, St. Juan de la Cruz [= St. 
 John of the Cross ; like Theresa, a Carmelite reformer], &c. Even 
 popes have not escaped the attacks of the Inquisition. Sixtus V. 
 having published an Italian translation of the Bible, the Spanish In- 
 quisition placed it upon its index of forbidden books. The same 
 Inquisition condemned the works of Cardinal Noris, a friend of Bene- 
 dict XIV., who wrote in a strong manner to the Inquisitor-general on 
 the subject. These and other disputes of the Spanish Inquisition 
 with Pius V., Clement VIII., and other popes, amply prove the little 
 deference which it paid to the papal authority whenever it came in 
 opposition to its own assumed supremacy. It is an error to suppose 
 that intolerance is peculiar to the Roman Catholic church ; all churches 
 and religions Jews, Mohammedans, and heathens, Arians and ortho- 
 dox, Greeks and Latins, Protestants and Catholics all have persecuted 
 in turn ; but no other church or sect ever invented or enforced for cen- 
 turies a permanent system of persecution that can be in any respect 
 compared with that of the Inquisition." 
 
 The Inquisition was never permanently established in Eng- 
 land, Denmark, Norway, or Sweden; it was established in
 
 890 THE HOLY OFFICE OB INQUISITION. 
 
 Poland only for a short time ; its power in Germany was de- 
 stroyed by the Reformation, though in some parts attempts 
 were made to restore it, and it was wholly abolished by Maria 
 Theresa more than 100 years ago ; in France it was limited by 
 several kings, weakened by various influences, and wholly abol- 
 ished by Henry IV. at the end of the 16th century. In Rome 
 it continued, with interruptions, until 1870. It has now no 
 legal existence in any country, though its decrees are still re- 
 garded as law by the Roman Catholic prelates and clergy. 
 The rescript of the " General Congregation of the Holy Roman 
 and Universal Inquisition," dated August 21, 1850, by which 
 the Odd Fellows, Sons of Temperance and all other secret so- 
 cieties (^Fenians and all) are included with the Freemasons in 
 one general condemnation by the Apostolic See, and in conse- 
 quence their members are deprived of the sacraments, unless 
 they promise never more to belong to those societies, is pub- 
 lished with the decrees of the Baltimore council of 1866.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 It were easy to fill a long chapter with accounts of dreadful 
 persecutions set on foot or sanctioned by the authorities of the 
 Roman Catholic church. 
 
 The 4th Lateran council, held in 1215, under pope Innocent 
 III., is one of the great ecumenical councils ; and, in its 3d 
 canon (see Chapter XXIII.), still unrepealed and undisclaimed, 
 it not only excommunicates and anathematizes every heresy, 
 and decrees that the condemned are to be given up to the sec- 
 ular powers to be punished and to have their goods confiscated ; 
 but directs the secular powers, under pain of excommunication, 
 to endeavor to exterminate all heretics from their countries ; 
 and grants to Catholics who take the cross and arm themselves 
 to exterminate heretics, the same indulgence and holy privilege 
 as to those who joined the crusades for the holy land. This 
 canon was enacted with direct reference to the crusade against 
 the Albigenses, and it sanctioned and held up as a model for all 
 time the principles of procedure which had been adopted in 
 regard to them and their country. The responsibility of the 
 course pursued was assumed for the Roman Catholic church 
 in this language of the council : 
 
 " How much the church has labored by preachers and crusaders to 
 exterminate heretics and injurious persons from the province of Nar- 
 bonne and the parts near it, almost the whole world knows." 
 
 The Albigenses (in French, Albigeoii), so named from Albi 
 or Alby (in Latin, Albiga), a town in Southern France, where
 
 392 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 was held in 1176 a council condemning their opinions, were 
 properly a sect said to be connected with the ancient Mani- 
 cheans and to hold that human bodies were the production of 
 an evil being who arranged according to his own fancy the 
 matter which the one supreme and eternal God had created ; 
 but the name was used in the 12th and 13th centuries, in a 
 more extended sense, for all the sects in the South of France 
 who regarded the papal authority and the Roman Catholic dis- 
 cipline and ceremonies as unlawful and erroneous, and thus in- 
 cluded Waldenses and others who had no taint of Manichean 
 doctrine. The history of the crusade against those who were 
 thus grouped together as Albigenses, and who were in some 
 parts more powerful than the church, is thus given in the 
 Penny Cyclopedia : 
 
 " Pope Innocent III. sent two legates, Peter of Castelnau and one 
 Rainier or Raoul, both Cistercian or Bernardine monks, as his legates 
 to France, in order to extirpate all the. c e heresies. Dominic, a Span- 
 iard, and the founder of the order of Preachers [= Dominicans], re- 
 turning from Rome in 1206, fell in with the legates, and volunteered 
 his services in the same cause. These champions, who, without ask- 
 ing for the advice or the concurrence of the local bishops, and upon the 
 sole authority of the pope, inflicted capital punishment on those here- 
 tics whom they could not convert by argument, were called, in common 
 discourse, Inquisitors : but the famous tribunal of that name was not 
 established until 1233 by Gregory IX., who entrusted it to the Domi- 
 nicans. In 1208, Castelnau, one of the legates, who had become 
 odious by his severities, was murdered near Toulouse ; and Innocent 
 III. on this proclaimed a regular cru-ade against the Albigenses, and 
 aga'nst Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, who supported them. All 
 the French barons were summoned to take the field ; and Simon, Count 
 of Montfort, was appointed chief of the expedition, under the direction 
 however, of Arnald, abbot of the Cistercians, and the pope's new legate. 
 The war began in 1209, and lasted many years, attended by circurn~ 
 stances of the greatest ferocity. At the taking of Beziers, a general 
 massacre of the inhabitants began. The legate being asked by some 
 of the military leaders how they were to distinguish the Albigenses 
 from the orthodox Catholics, of whom there were many in the town, 
 4 Kill them all,' was the reply : ' God will find out his own.' Montfort
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 398 
 
 lost his life at the siege of Toulouse in 1218, and Raymond, his adver- 
 sary, died in 1222. The war, however, was resumed by the sons of 
 the two antagonists ; until pope Honorius III., alarmed at the successes 
 of Raymond VII., induced Louis VI II., king of France, to take the field 
 in person. At last the Count of Toulou>e, pressed on all side-s made 
 peace with the king in 1229. This was a mortal blow to the Albigen- 
 ses. The Inquisition was now permanently established at Toulouse to 
 try those heretics who had escaped the sword. Raymond himself died 
 some years after; and in him the house of the Counts of Toulouse be- 
 came extinct, and its territories reverted to the French crown. The 
 extermination of the Albigenses in the South of France was complete ; 
 the country was devastated.". 
 
 The people commonly called the " Waldenses " or the " Yaw- 
 dois " [pronounced vo-dwaw] , who live in the Alpine Valleys 
 of Piedmont in Northern Italy, have been persecuted for cen- 
 turies by the Roman Catholics. The name " Waldenses " 
 (= Waldensians) is derived from Peter Waldo, a rich mer- 
 chant of Lyons, who became a reformer in the 12th century, 
 and whose disciples were also styled " poor men of Lyons," 
 " Leonists," &c. The French name " Vaudou " (in Latin 
 " Vallenses"*) signifies "men (or "people") of the valleys." 
 These Waldenses or Vaudois claim that their ancestors have 
 inhabited the same country and held the same faith ever 
 since the days of the apostles ; but Mosheim and other eccle- 
 siastical historians disallow this claim of antiquity as a dis- 
 tinct sect, " though," says Mosheim, " it has long been admit- 
 ted that for centuries there had existed in the valleys of Pied- 
 mont various sorts of people, who were not in communion with 
 the church of Rome," and that persons had long lived there 
 " who agreed in many things with the Waldensians." In 
 the middle ages the Waldenses and others of the same faith 
 sent out many missionaries to visit their brethren scattered 
 through France, the north of Spain, Flanders (now in Bel- 
 gium), England, Germany, Poland, Bohemia and other parts 
 of modern Austria, Italy, <fcc. Not only did preachers go 
 On such errands, but many pious peddlers with silks and
 
 394 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 other merchandise carried tracts and Bibles or portions of the 
 Bible, which they distributed privately, as they had opportuni- 
 ty, and thus aided to keep alive and to propagate the religion 
 of the Gospel. These proceedings were offensive to the priests 
 and authorities of the ruling Church. Pope Lucius III. in 1184 
 placed all such heretics under a perpetual anathema ; but still 
 they spread rapidly, especially in Southern France and North- 
 ern Italy. All authorities agree that many Waldenses and Albi- 
 genses, persecuted in France, found a refuge in the valleys of 
 Piedmont. But the inquisitors kept an eye upon them here 
 also, and seized them wherever they went out from these moun- 
 tain fastnesses. On Christmas, 1400, an armed force, furnished 
 by the duke of Savoy at the demand of the pope's legate, unex- 
 pectedly invaded one of the valleys, and killed many Waldenses 
 on the spot, while all that were able fled to a neighboring moun- 
 tain where the morning found 80 infants dead in their cradles from 
 the cold, and their mothers dying by their side. The regular 
 crusades against them, however, date from 1487, when pope 
 Innocent VIII. issued a bull for their extermination ; but the 
 Waldenses defeated the army that then came against them, 
 and the duke of Savoy soon made peace with them. Though the 
 Inquisition continued to seize, imprison and burn its victims as 
 opportunity offered, it was not until 1560 that a new crusade 
 against them was actually begun. In that year the duke of 
 Savoy, after being repeatedly urged by the inquisitor Giacom- 
 ello, sent by pope Paul IV., ordered the Waldenses to attend 
 the Roman Catholic service and forbade them to exercise their 
 own form of worship. They sent the duke a humble supplica- 
 tion with an apology for their faith ; the duke proposed a con- 
 ference between the Roman Catholic divines and theirs, but 
 the pope disapproved of this ; and at last, the duke, importuned 
 by the inquisitor and nuncio and the Spanish court, resorted to 
 arms to enforce obedience. Many atrocities were committed ; 
 some prisoners were burned alive ; and women and children 
 were not spared. The Waldenses defended themselves bravely, 
 and once signally defeated the duke's troops at Pra del Tor, a 
 small basin-like plain among the mountains, with only a nar-
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 3D5 
 
 row entrance. In 1561 the duke granted them peace and an 
 amnesty, with the exercise of their religion within certain limits 
 and on condition that the Roman Catholic worship should also 
 be performed simultaneously in churches in their villages ; but 
 the court of Rome and the monks m Piedmont declaimed 
 loudly against these concessions, and the Inquisition continued 
 to trouble the Waldenses. Charles I. of England twice (1623 
 and 1629) sent an embassy to the duke to intercede for them. 
 But a fiercer storm than any before it was now coming. The 
 duke extirpated the Waldenses from the neighboring marqui- 
 sate of Saluzzo ; though he issued an edict to protect those 
 in the valleys of Pinerolo (= Pignerol) and to check the pre- 
 vailing practice among the Roman Catholic priests and laity 
 of kidnaping the Waldensian children in order to bring them 
 up in the Roman faith. About this time, the Waldensian 
 schools and colleges were suppressed, while Roman Catholic 
 convents were opened in the valleys, and the people were for- 
 bidden, under severe penalties, to send their children abroad 
 for education. 
 
 In 1653 the Capuchins were driven away from their convent 
 in one of the valleys by some Waldenses in a transport of 
 imprudent zeal, and the convent was burned. Peace, however, 
 was reestablished ; but the new duke found that the Waldenses 
 had purchased property and established schools and houses of 
 worship beyond the limits fixed by former edicts ; and in Jan- 
 uary, 1655, he ordered the Waldensian families in the 8 lower 
 communes or districts to sell out their property within 20 days 
 and remove to the 5 communes in the higher part of the valley, 
 or else to embrace the Roman Catholic faith. This order ne- 
 cessitated the hurried removal of more than 1000 families, it 
 is said, in the depth of an uncommonly severe winter. On 
 the 17th of April an army of Piedmontese, French, German 
 and Irish troops, under the Marquis of Pianessa, entered the 
 valleys, and soon gained possession by stratagem of all except 
 the highest parts of the country. At a signal given April 
 24th, a massacre of the Waldenses began, of which the follow-
 
 896 
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 ing condensed account is taken from Rev. Dr. Robert Baird's 
 " Sketches of Protestantism in Italy." 
 
 " Houses and churches were burned to the ground. Infants were 
 remorselessly torn from the breasts of their mothers, and dashed against 
 the walls or the rocks, or had their brains dashed out against each 
 other ; or two soldiers, taking each a leg, rent them asunder, or cut 
 them in two with their swords. The sick were either burned alive, 
 
 WALUENSIAN WOMEN BURIED ALIVE. 
 
 cut in pieces, or thrown down the precipices with their heads tied be- 
 tween their legs. Mothers and daughters were violated in each other's 
 presence, impaled, and either carried naked as ensigns upon pikes at the 
 head of the regiments, or left upon poles by the road-side. Others had 
 their arms and breasts cut off. Men, after being indecently and bar- 
 barously mutilated, were cut up limb by limb, as butchers cut up meat 
 in the shambles ; they had gunpowder thrust into their mouths and
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 397 
 
 other parts of their bodies, and then were blown up. Multitudes 
 had their noses, fingers, and toes amputated, and then left to perish in 
 the snow. Some, both men and women, were buried alive. Some 
 were dragged by the hair on the ground at the tail of a mule. Num- 
 bers were cast into a burning furnace. Young women fled from their 
 pursuers, and leaped down precipices, and were killed, rather than sub- 
 mit to their brutal violence. That these things occurred, we have in 
 proof the depositions of more than 150 witnesses, taken in the pres- 
 
 HEADS OF WALDENSES BLOWN OFF WITH POWDER. 
 
 ence of notaries-public, and of the consistories of the different locali- 
 ties. Morland 1 and Leger* give all the details, with the names of 
 
 1 Sir Samuel Morland, Cromwell's envoy to the duke of Savoy, and author 
 of " History of the Evangelical Churches of Piedmont," published in 1658. 
 
 8 Rev. Jean [= John] Leger, moderator of the Waldcnsian Synod, and author 
 of " General History of the Vaudois Churches," published in French in 1669. 
 From this history are taken the 2 cuts which illustrate the persecution of 1655
 
 398 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 the men and women who suffered the greatest cruelty, as well as the 
 depositions of the witnesses." 
 
 As soon as practicable after this massacre, Leger called 
 together the principal persons who had escaped, drew up a 
 statement, and sent it to all the Protestant states of Europe. 
 The indignation and horror were instant and tremendous. The 
 Protestant cantons of Switzerland, Cromwell (then Protector 
 of England), and the States of Holland sent envoys with re- 
 monstrances to the duke of Savoy. On this occasion, Milton, 
 who was Cromwell's secretary, wrote his celebrated sonnet : 
 
 "Avenge, O Lord, thy slaughter'd saints, whose bones 
 Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold ; 
 Even them who kept the truth so pure of old, 
 When all our fathers worship'd stocks and stones, 
 Forget not : in thy book record their groans, 
 Who were thy sheep, and in their ancient fold, 
 Slain by the bloody Piedmontese, that roll'd 
 Mother with infant down the rocks. Their moans 
 The vales redoubled to the hills, and they 
 To Heaven. Their martyr'd blood and ashes sow 
 O'er all the Italian fields, where still doth sway 
 The triple tyrant ; that from these may grow 
 A hundred fold, who, having learn'd thy way, 
 Early may fly the Babylonian wo." 
 
 Through the mediation of Louis XIV. of France, a conven- 
 tion or treaty was concluded in August, 1665, which Cromwell 
 in a letter to Louis XIV. in 1658 described as " a more con- 
 cealed course of hostility under the name of peace." By it a 
 general amnesty was granted, and the Vaudois were allowed to 
 remain within certain limits, considerably smaller than they 
 occupied before the ducal order of the previous January, and to 
 have the exercise of their religion ; but the Roman Catholic 
 worship was to be performed in the same villages, and Roman 
 Catholic missionaries were to be sent to preach there ; and it 
 was agreed that no Vaudois should be constrained to become 
 a Roman Catholic, and no girls under 10 years, and no boys un- 
 der 12, should be taken from their parents. Large subscrip-
 
 PEESECUTIONS. 399 
 
 tions were made for the relief of the Waldenses ; in 2 years 
 nearly $100,000 were sent them from England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland ; but Cromwell died Sept. 3, 1658, and Charles II. of 
 England squandered on his mistresses a large part (above $70,- 
 000) of the subscription which had been invested for the future 
 aid of the Waldenses.* A new invasion of the valleys with the 
 usual atrocities came in 1663-64 ; and it was both preceded 
 and followed by oppression and suffering. But this was not 
 all. Urged on by Louis XIV. of Prance, duke Victor Amadeus 
 II. of Savoy published, Jan. 31, 1686, an edict ordering the 
 Waldenses to demolish their churches, send away their pas- 
 tors, and either abjure their religion within 15 days or leave 
 the country. Remonstrance was vain ; resistance was success- 
 fully begun, but the Waldenses soon surrendered uncondition- 
 ally ; their lands and goods were confiscated and given up to 
 Roman Catholics ; 2000 children were carried off to be brought 
 up in the Roman Catholic faith ; out of 14000 who were thrown 
 into prisons, 11000 died in a few months, and the 3000 sur- 
 vivors were sent in December across the Alps into Switzerland, 
 where they and those who had already escaped thither were 
 kindly received. Some of the exiles went to Germany,. Hol- 
 land, England, and even America. But in August, 1689, a 
 body of 800, led by Henry Arnaud, secretly recrossed the Alps, 
 forced their passage over a bridge guarded by 2500 French 
 troops, and made what is called " their glorious return to their 
 valleys," where they maintained themselves against the forces 
 of their enemies till April, 1690, when, an open rupture having 
 taken place with Louis XIV., the duke of Savoy issued an 
 edict of amnesty, giving the exiled Waldenses full leave to re- 
 turn to their homes and exercise their religion as before. The 
 Waldenses fought bravely against the French in the war that 
 followed, afforded the duke himself a place ot refuge in 1706, 
 
 * Queen Mary, consort of Win. III., gave the Waldenses 425 a year for several 
 years ; then, after an interval, Queen Anne increased the amount to 500 ( = $2400), 
 which continued to be issued to them by the British government down to 1797. The 
 allowance was then discontinued until 1827, when an annuity of 277 was granted.
 
 400 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 and received a public acknowledgment of their services to 
 him. The bloody persecutions of the Waldenses came now to 
 an end, though they suffered many disabilities and trials, and 
 were mostly confined to their 3 valleys (except under Napoleon, 
 1796-1814) ; but in 1848 they also received from the Sardin- 
 ian government full religious and ecclesiastical liberty, and 
 were placed on a footing of civil and political equality with 
 the Roman Catholics. 
 
 The persecutions of the Protestants in France began with 
 the Reformation itself, and formed only a continuation of the 
 treatment previously bestowed on the Albigenses, Waldenses, 
 and other dissenters from the Roman Catholic church. The 
 first Protestant martyr was John Leclerc, a wool-carder, who 
 became minister of the evangelical church at Meaux, and was 
 there publicly whipped thrice through the city, and branded 
 on his forehead as a heretic. He was afterwards preaching 
 the Gospel at Mctz, and in his imprudent zeal broke in pieces 
 as idolatrous the images of the Virgin and other celebrated 
 saints in a chapel near Metz. Upon this he was seized, sen- 
 tenced to be burnt alive, and taken to the place of execution. 
 Of the tortures which his persecutors inflicted upon him before 
 his death D'Aubigne* writes : 
 
 " Near the scaffold men were heating pincers that were to serve as 
 the instruments of their rage. Leclerc, firm and calm, heard unmoved 
 the wild yells of the monks and people. They began by cutting off 
 his right hand ; then taking up the burning pincers, they fore off his 
 no.e ; after this, they lacerated his arms, and when they had thus man- 
 gled him in several places, they concluded by burning his breasts." 
 
 While the persecutors were thus torturing his body, Leclerc 
 solemnly and with a loud voice recited Psalm 115 : 4-9 ; 
 " Their idols are silver and gold, the work of men's hands," 
 &c. : and after the preliminary tortures were completed, the 
 martyr was burnt by a slow fire, according to his sentence. 
 About the same time (1524) John Chatelain, D. D., an Augus- 
 tine monk, who was associated with Leclerc as an evangelical 
 preacher at Metz, was apprehended, degraded from the priest-
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 401 
 
 hood, and likewise burnt alive. Many other " heretics " were 
 burned alive at Paris, and other places. No efforts were spared 
 to extirpate the reformed doctrine from France. Inquisitors 
 and priests were active and energetic in detecting and punish- 
 ing those who dissented from the established church. Two 
 whole towns in the south of France, Cabridres and Merindol, 
 were destroyed, and their inhabitants were butchered in the 
 streets for being Protestants. Yet the " Huguenots," as they 
 were contemptuously called, increased rapidly amid all their 
 persecutions, and became a formidable party in the realm, 
 with the king of Navarre, the prince of Conde", and many of 
 the nobility and gentry as their friends and supporters. 
 
 But on St. Bartholomew's day, August 24, 1572, occurred 
 the dreadful slaughter of the Huguenots, which is commonly 
 known as the " massacre of St. Bartholomew," or the " Bar- 
 tholomew massacre." In 1570 a treaty was made between 
 king Charles IX. and his Huguenot subjects, on the basis of 
 amnesty, free toleration of the Protestants, &c. Two other 
 treaties had been made and violated since the beginning of 
 1562. But Admiral .Coligny, the leader of the Protestants, 
 lent all his influence to sustain this new treaty, and with most 
 of the Protestant nobility and gentry came to Paris to attend 
 the marriage of Henry, the young king of Navarre, with Mar- 
 garet, sister of Charles IX. The marriage was celebrated 
 with great pomp on Monday, August 18th, and several days 
 were passed in festivities. But on Friday, Admiral Coligny, 
 as he was slowly walking home from a council at the Louvre 
 and engaged in reading a paper, was wounded in his hand and 
 arm by balls discharged by Maurevel, a hired assassin, from a 
 house occupied by a dependent of the duke of Guise, a Cath- 
 olic leader. At 2 o'clock on Sunday morning, a church-bell 
 was tolled to give the appointed signal ; the assassins, with 
 white crosses on their hats and white handkerchiefs on their 
 left arms, sallied forth, guided by torches at the windows of 
 the Catholics, to the houses of the Huguenots, which were 
 
 marked with two white stripes crossed on the door. The- 
 26
 
 402 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 slaughter had been already begun with the murder of the 
 wounded admiral in his bed-chamber. His bleeding body was 
 thrown out of the window into the court below, and joyfully 
 recognized by the duke of Guise, who was there waiting for 
 the murder to be effected. His head was subsequently cut off 
 and presented to the king's mother. Before 5 A. M. other Hu- 
 guenot chiefs had also been murdered in cold blood, and their 
 remains, like his, were treated with brutal indignity. The 
 tocsin was sounded from the parliament-house, and the popu- 
 lace of Paris were called on to join in the carnage and protect 
 their religion and their king against Huguenot treason. " Death 
 to the Huguenots treason courage our game is in the toils 
 kill every man of them it is the king's orders," shouted the 
 court leaders, as they galloped through the streets, and cheered 
 the armed citizens to the slaughter. The Huguenots were 
 butchered in their beds, or as they attempted to escape, without 
 regard to sex, age, or condition. Many Catholics also were 
 now the victims of secret revenge and personal hatred, and 
 died by the hands of Catholic assassins. The slaughter con- 
 tinued partially for 3 days ; though a check was given to it in 
 the latter part of the first day by the king's order, trumpeted 
 through the city, commanding all but officials to go home un- 
 der penalty of death ; and by his proclamation, on the 2d day, 
 forbidding unauthorized persons to kill or plunder, under a like 
 penalty. The king of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, 
 and the prince of Cond^ were in the palace of the Louvre 
 during the massacre, and escaped death by pretending to be- 
 come Catholics. The massacre was not confined to Paris, but 
 spread through France. It is credibly estimated that 30,000 
 were assassinated at this time. The charges of conspiracy and 
 treason made by king Charles and the court party against Co- 
 ligny and the Huguenots have never been substantiated or be- 
 lieved ; Charles himself, after a short and miserable life, filled 
 with remorse, died in 1574 ; his mother, Catharine de' Medici 
 (de Medicis, in French), who was grandniece of Pope Clem- 
 ent VII, , and the ruler of France during the reigns of her
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 403 
 
 sons, Charles IX. and Henry ILL, died in 1589, universally 
 detested in France ; yet the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 
 which she contrived, and which filled England and all Prot- 
 estant countries with indignation and horror, was the occasion 
 of unbounded rejoicing at Rome. A Te Deum was sung by 
 order of pope Gregory XIII. ; a salute was fired from the 
 castle of St. Angelo ; the bells rang ; bonfires blazed ; a medal 
 was struck ; and a painting by Vasari, representing the massa- 
 cre, and bearing in Latin the inscription, " The Pontiff ap- 
 proves the killing of Coligny," was placed in the Vatican, and 
 is still to be seen (Chapter I.X The medal, which is repre- 
 sented in the accompanying cut, bears on one side the portrait 
 of the Pope with the inscription " Gregorius XIII., Pont. Max. 
 An. I." (= Gregory XIII., Chief Pontiff, Year 1) ; on the 
 reverse is the destroying angel, with a cross in one hand and 
 
 ST. BARTHOLOMEW MEDAL. 
 
 a sword in the other, slaying the Protestants, the inscription 
 being " Hugonotorum Strages [Slaughter of the Hugue- 
 nots], 1572." The medal, from which the cut was executed, 
 was purchased at the pontifical mint in Rome a little more 
 than 25 years ago for Sir Culling Eardley Smith. The painting 
 and the medal both testify that in the 19th century the author- 
 ities of the Roman Catholic Church approve the massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew. 
 
 After the king of Navarre ascended the throne of France by 
 the name of Henry IV., he issued, April 15, 1598, the cele- 
 brated edic^, of Nantes, which gave to Protestants free tolera- 
 tion and equal privileges with the Catholics. But Henry was
 
 404 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 assassinated in 1610 by Ravaillac, and the privileges obtained 
 by the Protestants were soon curtailed. In 1685, Louis XIV. 
 revoked the edict of Nantes and proscribed Protestantism. 
 Soldiers had been previously sent into all the provinces to 
 compel the Protestants to abandon their religion ; their public 
 worship was strictly forbidden, and their meetings were broken 
 up by force ; yet Protestants were deprived of their property 
 and made galley-slaves, if they attempted to sell their posses- 
 sions and to emigrate ; and the frontiers were carefully guarded 
 to prevent their escape from the country. Half a million, 
 however, escaped to Switzerland, Holland, Prussia, Denmark, 
 England, and America. These persecuting acts of the French 
 king were applauded by the Roman Catholic prelates and 
 clergy in general as well as by the Roman pontiff, Innocent 
 ,XI. ; and for more than a century not a Protestant place of 
 worship, or public religious service, was allowed in France. 
 
 Only an allusion can here be made to the long and bloody 
 persecutions of the Hussites and others in Bohemia, and of the 
 Protestants in the Netherlands, in which last country, during 
 the reign of the emperor Charles V., it is computed that not 
 less than 50,000 persons lost their lives in consequence of their 
 dissent from the Roman Catholic church. During the short 
 reign of Queen Mary in England (1553-8) about 288 persons 
 suffered death for the same reason, while others died in prison, 
 and multitudes were constrained to flee from the country. 
 Says John Rogers, an English member of the Society of 
 Friends, " Millions, many millions, some declare that fifty mil- 
 lions, and some declare that even nearly seventy millions have 
 .gone to the grave through papal persecution." 
 
 But Roman Catholic persecutions have taken place in the 
 19th century as well as in previous ages. Dr. Kalley, a pious 
 Scotchman, went to the island of Madeira in 1838, for his 
 wife's health. There he studied the Portuguese language, es- 
 tablished a hospital and dispensary for the poor, and schools 
 for their children and for adults, imported and circulated hun- 
 dreds of copies of the Scriptures, and held meetings for read-
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 405 
 
 ing and expounding the Scriptures and for prayer. This be- 
 came known to the priests, and persecution broke out. Dr. 
 Kalley was imprisoned for months in 1843, and compelled to 
 quit the island in 1846. Many of the converts were impris- 
 oned or otherwise persecuted ; and in consequence of mob- 
 violence, encouraged by Roman Catholic priests, about 1000 
 people, who had become Protestants, were compelled to abandon 
 their property and flee from the island. They took refuge in 
 Trinidad and other West India islands ; and the larger part 
 of the exiles subsequently came to the United States, and set- 
 tled in the State of Illinois, at Springfield, Jacksonville, &c. 
 
 The relation of the Roman Catholic church to civil and re- 
 ligious liberty is the subject of Chapter XXVII. Its denial of 
 the right of private judgment is considered in Chapter XXII. ; 
 its assumption and exercise of temporal power, in Chapter 
 XXIII. ; its burning of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, in 
 Chapter VI ; and the bulls In ccena Domini and Unigenitus are 
 noticed in Chapter IV. j 
 
 The whole history of the Inquisition (Chapter XI.) is a his- 
 tory of persecution ; the oath taken by the bishops (Chapter 
 VII.) binds them to persecute heretics ; the Catechism of the 
 Council of Trent claims that heretics and schismatics are still 
 subject to the jurisdiction of the church, " as those who may 
 be summoned by it to judgment, punished, 1 and condemned 
 with an anathema : " the Council of Trent anathematizes those 
 who affirm that baptized infants, who, when grown up, will not 
 confirm the promises made by their godfathers at their baptism, 
 " should be left to their own choice, and not be compelled, in 
 the mean time, to a Christian life by any other punishment 
 than exclusion from the eucharist and other sacraments, until 
 
 1 Prof. Donovan's translation of this catechism, republished by the Catholic Pub- 
 lication Society, interpolates the word " spiritual " in this passage, which it thus 
 loosely renders ; " inasmuch as they are liable to have judgment passed on their 
 opinions, to be visited with spiritual punishments, and denounced with anathema." 
 The original refers to persons rather than opinions, and to temporal as much as to 
 spiritual punishments.
 
 406 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 they repent" and the creed of Pius IV., in repeating which 
 every Roman Catholic declares, "I likewise undoubtedly re- 
 ceive and profess all other things delivered, defined, and de- 
 clared by the Sacred Canons and General Councils," <fec., con- 
 firms the authority of the persecuting canon enacted by the 4th 
 Lateran council and recited at the beginning of the present 
 chapter. 
 
 In reverting to the fact, already admitted, that Protestants 
 have been guilty of persecution, we may use the language of 
 Rev. Prof. G. P. Fisher of Yale College, contained in the New 
 Englander for April, 1870 : 
 
 " There are two important differences between Protestants and Ro- 
 man Catholic*, in regard to this subject. The first is, that the amount 
 of persecution of which Protestants have been guilty is far less than 
 that for which Catholics, in the same period of time, are accountable. 
 Thus, Protestants have never perpetrated such cruelties as were per- 
 petrated in the Netherlands by the Roman Catholics under Philip of 
 Spain and through the Inquisition. This difference is not an unimport- 
 ant one ; since it shows that the misgivings which spring from humane 
 Christian feeling have had far more practical influence in neutralizing 
 the power of wrong principles, among Protestants than among Roman 
 Catholics. It took some time for Protestants to emancipate themselves 
 from the theory of persecution, which was an heir-loom from the mid- 
 dle ages and the Catholic hierarchy ; but even before this happy result 
 was consummated, it was manifest that the old principle of suppressing 
 error by force had relaxed its hold upon the Protestant mind. The 
 main difference between Protestants and Catholics on this subject, how- 
 ever, is that while we disown the theory of persecution, and lament 
 that Protestants should have been so mistaken as to be guilty of it ; 
 while, in short, we heartily repent, so far as one generation can repent 
 of the errors of another, of all the instances of religious persecution 
 in which Protestants bore a part, the Catholic Church makes no such 
 confession and exercises no such compunction." 
 
 That Protestantism is not as a system responsible for perse- 
 secution is evident from the express declarations of Protestant 
 churches. That " the civil magistrate hath no authority in 
 things purely spiritual," and " may not interfere in matters of
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 407 
 
 faith," that " excommunication being a spiritual punishment, 
 it doth not prejudice the excommunicate in, nor deprive him 
 of his civil rights," and that " God alone is Lord of the con- 
 science, and hath left it free from the doctrines and command- 
 ments of men, which are in any thing contrary to His word, 
 or not contained in it," are doctrines officially set forth by the 
 Protestant Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Congregational church- 
 es, and accepted by Protestant churches generally, both in 
 Europe and America. 
 
 There is this difficulty in the way of removing from the Ho- 
 man Catholic church of the 19th century the responsibility for 
 the theory and practice of persecution : the Church, whose au- 
 thorities have so explicitly taught it and whose history is so 
 full of it, must be different from what it was that is, must be 
 neither infallible nor unchangeable or else the Church now 
 must sanction and defend what the Church has openly and 
 undeniably taught and practiced for centuries ; in other words, 
 the Roman Catholic Church is distinctively and preeminently a 
 persecuting church. 
 
 Said the London Times of January 14, 1853, in perfect cor- 
 respondence with some Roman Catholic utterances : 
 
 " The vengeance of Rome against heretics is measured only by her 
 power to punish them."
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE BIBLE. 
 
 " THE BIBLE," said Chillingworth more than two centuries 
 ago, ' the Bible only, is the religion of Protestants." The 
 confessions of all Protestant churches echo this sentiment. 
 " Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation," 
 say the Church of England, the Protestant Episcopal Church 
 in the United States, the Methodist Episcopal Church (in sub- 
 stance), &c. The Westminster Catechism declares, " The holy 
 Scriptures of the Old and New Testament are the word of God, 
 the only rule of faith and obedience." " The supreme stand- 
 ard by which all human conduct, creeds, and opinions should 
 be tried " ; " the only rule of faith and practice " ; and other 
 varying forms, to the same effect, are used to characterize 
 the Bible in the creed and covenants of different Protestant 
 churches. They all agree in taking the Bible as the one suffi- 
 cient guide to heaven. 
 
 But Roman Catholics express themselves differently from 
 Protestants in this matter. They receive the Bible indeed ; 
 but they want something more than the Bible for their guide. 
 Thus the creed of pope Pius IV. declares, after repeating the 
 Nicene creed as held by the church : 
 
 " I most steadfastly admit and embrace apostolic and ecclesiastical 
 traditions, and all other observances and constitutions of the same 
 church. 
 
 " I do also admit the holy scriptures, according to that sense which 
 our holy mother the church has held and does hold, to which it belongs 
 to judge of the true sense and interpretation of the scriptures : neither 
 will I ever take and interpret them otherwise than according to the 
 unanimous consent of the fathers."
 
 THE BIBLE. 409 
 
 The council of Trent passed a decree " respecting the ca- 
 nonical scriptures," and another " respecting the edition and 
 use of the sacred books." These two decrees, occupying about 
 3 pages, are in substance as follows : 
 
 The first places a the unwritten traditions, which, received from the 
 mouth of Christ himself by the apostles, or from the apostles them- 
 selves, the Holy Spirit dictating, have come down to us, as if delivered 
 from hand to hand," on an equality, as to pious affection and venera- 
 tion, with the books of the Old and New Testament ; gives a list of 
 these canonical books, including in the Old Testament ' all the " Apoc- 
 rypha," except I. and II. Esdras and the prayer of Manasses ; and 
 anathematizes any one who may not " receive as sacred and canonical 
 all those books and every part of them, as they are commonly read in 
 the Catholic church, or are contained in the old Vulgate Latin edition, 
 or who may knowingly and deliberately despise the aforesaid tradi- 
 tions." The 2d of these decrees " ordains and declares that this same 
 old and Vulgate edition, which has been approved in the church by 
 the long use of so many ages, shall be held as authentic in public lec- 
 tures, disputations, sermons, and expositions ; and that no one, on any 
 pretext whatever, may dare or presume to reject it :" it likewise forbids 
 
 1 The books which this decree includes in the Old Testament are here given, 
 with their names as printed in the Doaay Bible, and the corresponding book or 
 part [in brackets] of the Old Testament or Apocrypha in the English Bible, 
 wherever the two versions differ : "Genesis; Exodus; Leviticus; Numbers; Deu- 
 teronomy ; Josue [= Joshua] ; Judges ; Ruth; I. Kings, alias I. Samuel ; II. Kings, 
 alias II. Samuel ; III. Kings [= I. Kings] ; IV. Kings [= II. Kings] ; I. Para- 
 lipomenon, alias I. Chronicles ; II. Paralipomenon, alias II. Chronicles ; I. Esdras 
 [= Ezra] ; II. Esdras, alias N (.-hernias [= Nehemiah] ; Tobias [= Tobit, in 
 Apoc.] ; Judith [in Apoc.] ; Esther [10 chapters in O. T., and nearly 7 chapters 
 in Apoc.] ; Job; Psalms; Proverbs; Ecclesiastes ; Canticle of Canticles [= Song 
 of Solomon] ; Wisdom [in Apoc.] ; Ecclesiasticus [in Apoc.] ; Isaias [= Isaiah] ; 
 Jeremias [= Jeremiah] ; Lamentations ; Baruch [in Apoc.] ; Ezechiel [= Ezekiel] > 
 Daniel [= Daniel in O. T. ; and in Apoc., the Song of the 3 Children, the Story 
 of Susanna, and the Idol Bel and the Dragon] ; Osee [= Hosea] ; Joel; Amos; 
 Abdias [= Ohadiah] ; Jonas [Jonah]; Micheas [= Micah] ; Nahnm; Habacuc 
 [= Habakkuk] ; Sophonias [= Zephaniah] ; Aggeus [= Haggai] ; Zacharias 
 [=Zechariah] ; Malachias [= Malachi] ; I. Machabees [= I. Maccabees, in Apoc.] ; 
 II Machabees [= II. Maccabees, in Apoc.]. The New Testament of the two ver- 
 ions is substantially the same, " the Apocalypse " of the Douay being " the Reve- 
 lation of St John the Divine" in the English version.
 
 410 THE BIBLE. 
 
 any interpretation of the scriptures " contrary to that sense which "holy 
 mother church has held and holds, or contrary to the unanimous con- 
 sent of the fathers," the offenders to be " denounced by the ordina- 
 ries [= bishops], and punished with the penalties determined by law" 
 ["a jure" = by legal right or justice] ; it provides for a censorship 
 of Bibles and religious books, under penalty of excommunication and 
 fine for those who print, publish, circulate, or have them wiihout the 
 examination and approval of the ordinary ; and it provides punishment 
 by the bishops for those who pervert the language of holy scripture to 
 profane uses. 
 
 The 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore, held in 1866, after 
 repeating some of the leading parts of the Tridentine decrees, 
 adds another decree, which is thus translated : 
 
 " Since the faithful keeping of the deposit of the Holy Scriptures, 
 committed by the Lord to the Church, requires of the bL-hops to strive 
 with all their strength, lest the word of God, adulterated through the 
 fraud or carelessness of men, be furnished to the faithful, we vehe- 
 mently urge all the pastors of souls of this region, to keep continually 
 before their eyes all those things which have been decreed in the matter 
 of so great moment by the holy council of Trent, commended by the 
 supreme pontiffs, especially by Leo XII. and by Pius VIII. of happy 
 memory, in their encyclical letters, and determined by the most 
 Illustrious and Reverend, John Carroll, Archbishop of Baltimore, in 
 conjunction with the other bishops of this region, at the meeting held 
 in the year 1810 : that they keep away from their own flocks the bibles 
 corrupted by non-Catholics, and permit them to pick out the uncor- 
 rupted food of the word of God only from approved versions and 
 editions. We therefore determine that the Douay version, which has 
 been received in all the churches whose faithful [i. e., whose members] 
 speak English, and deservedly set forth by our predecessors for the 
 use of the faithful, bo retained entirely. But the bishops will take 
 care that for ihe future all editions, both of the New and of the Old 
 Testament of the Douay version, be most faultlessly made [i. e., 
 printed], according to the most approved copy to be designated by 
 them, with annotations which may be selected only from the holy fa- 
 thers of the church, or from learned and Catholic men."
 
 THE BIBLE. 411 
 
 By the " old Vulgate Latin edition " the council of Trent 
 meant the Latin version of the Bible which has long passed as 
 Jerome's. He was one of the most learned and celebrated of 
 the Latin fathers, a monk and priest, born in Dalmatia about 
 A. D. 330, and dying at Bethlehem about A. D. 420. About 
 A. D. 383 he began, at the request of pope Damasus, to revise 
 the old Latin version of the Bible ; and about A. D. 390-404 
 he made a new translation of the Old Testament from the 
 Hebrew. The Latin Bible, which is called by his name, is 
 in some parts a very valuable translation, but is of very une- 
 qual merit, and is thus described by an able English critic and 
 scholar, Rev. B. F. Westcott, in Smith's Dictionary of the 
 Bible : 
 
 " The books of the Old Testament, with one exception, were cer- 
 tainly taken from his [Jerome's] version from the Hebrew ; but this 
 had not only been variously corrupted, but was itself in many particu- 
 lars (especially in the Pentateuch) at variance with his later judg- 
 ment The Psalter [= P.-alms] .... was retained from the Old 
 
 Version, as Jerome had corrected it from the Septuagint [= the an- 
 cient Greek version of the Old Testament]. Of the Apocryphal books 
 Jerome hastily revised or translated two only, Judith and Tobit. The 
 remainder were retained from the Old Version against his judgment ; 
 and the Apocryphal additions to Daniel and Esther, which he had 
 carefully marked as apocryphal in his own version, were treated as 
 
 integral parts of the books In the New Testament the 
 
 text of the Gospels was in the main Jerome's revised edition ; that 
 of the remaining books his very incomplete revision of the old Latin." 
 
 In regard to the editions of the Vulgate published by popes 
 Sixtus V. and Clement VII., see the account of the bull JEter- 
 nus Hie, in Chapter IV. 
 
 The Roman Catholic church, as appears above, accepts and 
 defends the Latin Vulgate Bible as its standard, and anathe- 
 matizes all who appeal from it to any other version, or even to 
 the Hebrew and Greek originals. Moreover, every translation 
 of the Bible into English or any other language must be made
 
 412 THE BIBLE. 
 
 from the Vulgate, and accompanied with notes ; or it can not 
 be acceptable to that church. Thus the title page of a Douay 
 Bible in the author's possession reads : 
 
 " The Holy Bible, translated from the Latin Vulgate : diligently 
 compared with the Hebrew, Greek and other editions, in various lan- 
 guages. With annotations by the Rev. Dr. Challoner ; together with 
 references and an historical and chronological index. With the appro- 
 bation of the provincial council. Baltimore : published by Fielding 
 Lucas, Jr. 138 Market Street." 
 
 The New Testament, translated into English from the Latin 
 Vulgate, and approved by the University of Rheims in France, 
 was published at Rheims in 1582 ; and is hence called the 
 " Rhemish Testament." The Old Testament, translated into 
 English from the Vulgate, and approved by the University of 
 Douay in France in 1609, completed the Roman Catholic ver- 
 sion of the Bible into English, which is therefore called the 
 " Douay Bible." The annotations by Rev. Dr. Challoner, now 
 published in the Douay Bibles of this country, differ much 
 from the notes by the translators in the early editions ; and the 
 version itself, as now published, has been considerably modified 
 in its language* from that which was used by the translators, 
 and is more like the English version of 1611, which is often 
 called king James's Bible, or the authorized version, and is 
 familiar to all English-speaking Protestants as their common 
 
 Bible. 
 
 A few comparisons between the Douay (with its notes) and 
 the common English Bible will be of interest. The edition 
 used of the former is that of which the title page is given 
 above. 
 
 * Thus " arch-synagogue " in Mk. 5 : 35, is now " ruler of the synagogue " ; 
 " longanimity " in Rom. 2:4, is " long-suffering " ; "a new paste, as yon are 
 azymes," in 1 Cor. 5 : 7, is now " a new mass, as you are unleavened " ; " obdurate 
 with the fellatio of sin," in Heb. 3 : 13, is " hardened by the deceitfulness of 
 in," &c.
 
 THE BIBLE. 
 
 413 
 
 DOUAY VERSION. Gen. 1 : 1-3. 
 
 " In the beginning God created heaven 
 and earth. 
 
 "2 And the earth was void and empty, 
 and darkness was upon the face of the 
 deep : and the Spirit of God moved over 
 the waters. 
 
 "3 And God said: Be light made. 
 
 And light was made. 
 
 " 4 And God saw the light that it was 
 good : and he divided the light from the 
 darkness. 
 
 " 5 And he called the light Day, and 
 the darkness Night: and there was eve- 
 ning and morning one day. 
 
 " 6 And God said Lot there be a 
 firmament* made amidst the waters : and 
 let it divide the waters from the waters. 
 
 " 7 And God made a firmament, and 
 divided the waters that were under the 
 firmament, from those that were above 
 the firmament. And it was so. 
 
 " 8 And God called the firmament, 
 Heaven : and the evening and morning 
 were the second day." 
 
 PSALM cxvi. 
 
 " Alleluia. 
 
 " O praise the Lord, all ye nations : 
 praise him, all ye people. 
 
 " 2 For his mercy is confirmed upon 
 us : and the truth of the Lord remaineth 
 for ever." 
 
 ST. MATTHEW 3 : 1-12. 
 
 " Now in those days came John the 
 Baptist preaching in the desert of Ju- 
 dea; 
 
 " 2 And saying : Do penancef : for 
 the kingdom of heaven is at hand. 
 
 ENGLISH VERSION. Gen. 1 : 1-8. 
 
 " In the beginning God created the 
 heaven and the earth. 
 
 " 2 And the earth was without form, 
 and void ; and darkness was upon the 
 face of the deep : and the Spirit of God 
 moved upon the face of the waters. 
 
 " 3 And God said, Let there be light 
 and there was light. 
 
 " 4 And God saw the light that it was 
 good : and God divideth the light from 
 the darkness. 
 
 " 5 And God called the light day, and 
 the darkness he called Night : and the eve- 
 ning and the morn ing were the first day. 
 
 " 6 And God said, Let there be a fir- 
 mament in the midst of the waters : and 
 let it divide the waters from the waters. 
 
 " 7 And God made the firmament, and 
 divided the waters which were under the 
 firmament from the waters which were 
 above the firmament : and it was so. 
 
 " 8 And God called the firmament 
 Heaven : and the evening and the morn- 
 ing were the second day." 
 
 PSALM cxvu. 
 
 " praise the Lord, all ye nations ; 
 praise him, all ye people. 
 
 " 2 For his merciful kindness ic great 
 toward us : and the truth of the Lord 
 endureth for ever. Praise ye the Lord." 
 
 ST. MATTHEW 3 : 1-12. 
 
 " In those days came John the Cap. 
 tist, preaching in the wilderness of Judea, 
 
 " 2 And saying, Repent ye ; for the 
 kingdom of heaven is at hand. 
 
 " * A firmament. By this name is here understood the whole space between 
 the earth and the highest stars. The lower part of which divideth the waters 
 that are upon the earth, from those that are above in the clouds." 
 
 t " Do penance. Pcenitentiam agite, ptravotirt. Which word, according to 
 the use of the scriptures and the holy fathers, does not only signify repentance and 
 amendment of life, but also punishing past sins by fasting, and such like peniten- 
 tial exercises."
 
 414 
 
 THE BIBLE. 
 
 "3 For this is he, who was spoken 
 of by Isaias the prophet, saying : A voice 
 of one crying in the desert : Prepare ye 
 the way of the Lord ; make straight his 
 paths. 
 
 "4 And John himself had his gar- 
 ment of camel's hair, and a leathern 
 girdle about his loins ; and his food was 
 locusts and wild honey. 
 
 " 5 Then went out to him Jerusalem 
 and all Judea, and all the country about 
 Jordan : 
 
 " 6 And they were baptized by him 
 in the Jordan, confessing their sins. 
 
 " 7 And seeing many of the Pharisees 
 and Sadducees * coming to his baptisnv 
 he said to them : Ye brood of vipers, 
 who hath showed you to flee from the 
 wrath to come ? 
 
 " 8 Bring forth, therefore, fruit wor. 
 thy of penance : 
 
 " 9 And think not to say within your- 
 selves : We have Abraham for our father : 
 for I tell you, that God is able of these 
 stones to raise up children to Abraham. 
 
 " 10 For now the axe is laid to the 
 root of the trees. Every tree, therefore, 
 that yieldcth not good fruit, shall be cut 
 down, and cast into the fire. 
 
 "11 I, indeed, baptize you with water 
 unto penance : bnt he who is to come 
 after me, is stronger than I, whose shoes 
 I am not worthy to carry : he shall bap- 
 tize you with the Holy Ghost and with 
 fire. 
 
 "12 Whose fan is in his hand : and 
 he will thoroughly cleanse his floor, and 
 gather his wheat into the barn ; but the 
 chaff he will burn with unquenchable 
 fire." 
 
 " 3 For this is he that was spoken of 
 by tho prophet Esaias, saying, The voice 
 of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare 
 ye the way of the Lord, make his paths 
 straight. 
 
 "4 And the same John had his rai- 
 ment of camel's hair, and a leathern gir- 
 dle about his loins ; and his meat was 
 locusts and and wild honey. 
 
 " 5 Then went out to him Jerusalem, 
 and all Judea, and all the region round 
 about Jordan, 
 
 " 6 And were baptized of him in Jor- 
 dan, confessing their sins. 
 
 " 7 But when he saw many of the 
 Pharisees and Sadducees come to his 
 baptism, he said unto them, O genera- 
 tion of vipers, who hath warned you to 
 flee from the wrath to come ? 
 
 " 8 Bring forth therefore fruits meet 
 for repentance : 
 
 " 9 And think not to say within your- 
 selves, We have Abraham to our father : 
 for I say unto you, that God is able of 
 these stones to raise up children unto 
 Abraham. 
 
 "10 And now also the axe is laid 
 unto the root of the trees : therefore 
 every tree which bringeth not forth good 
 fruit is hewn down, and cast into the 
 fire. 
 
 "11 I indeed baptize you with water 
 unto repentance : but he that cometh 
 after me is mightier than I, whose shoes 
 I am not worthy to bear : he shall bap- 
 tize you with the Holy Ghost, and with 
 fire: 
 
 "12 Whoso fan is in his hand, and 
 he will thoroughly purge his floor, and 
 gather his wheat into the garner ; but 
 he will burn up the chaffwith unquench- 
 able fire." 
 
 " * Pharisee* and Sadducees. These were two sects among the Jews, of which 
 the former were for the most part notorious hypocrites; the latter a kind of free- 
 thinkers in matters of religion. "
 
 THE BIBLE. 
 
 415 
 
 ST. MATTHEW 6 : 9-13. 
 
 " 9 You, therefore, shall pray in this 
 manner : Our Father, who art in heaven, 
 hallo ved be thy name. 
 
 "10 Thy kingdom come. Thy will 
 be done on earth as it is in heaven. 
 
 "11 Give us this day our supersub- 
 stanti; 1 .! bread.* 
 
 " 1-2 And forgive us our debts, as we 
 forgive our debtors. 
 
 " 13 And lead us not into tempta- 
 tion.f But deliver us from evil. Amen." 
 
 ST. JAMES 5 : 14-20. 
 
 " 14 Is any sick among you ? Let Kim 
 bring in J the priests of the church, and 
 let them pray over him, anointing him 
 with oil, in the name of the Lord : 
 
 "15 And the prayer of faith shall 
 save the sick man : and the Lord shall 
 raise him up : and if he be in sins, they 
 shall be forgiven him. 
 
 " 1 6 Confess, therefore, your sins one 
 to another ; || and pray for one another, 
 that you may be saved ; for the continual 
 prayer of a just man availeth much. 
 
 "17 Elias was a man passible like 
 unto us : and with prayer he prayed 
 that it might not rain upon the earth ; 
 and it rained not for three years and six 
 months. 
 
 ST. MATTHEW 6 : 9-13. 
 
 ' 9 After this manner therefore pray 
 ye : Our Father which art in heaven, 
 Hallowed be thy name. 
 
 " 10 Thy kingdom come. Thy will 
 be done in earth as it is in heaven. 
 
 " 1 1 Give us thia day our daily bread. 
 
 "12 And forgive us oar debts, as we 
 forgive our debtors. 
 
 " 13 And lead us not into temptation, 
 but deliver us from evil. For thine is 
 the kingdom, and the power, and the 
 glory, for ever. Amen." 
 
 ST. JAMES 5 14-20. 
 
 "14 Is any sick among you ? let him 
 call for the elders of the church ; and let 
 them pray over him, anointing him with 
 oil in the name of the Lord : 
 
 '15 And the prayer of faith shall 
 save the sick, and the Lord shall raise 
 him up ; and if he have committed sins, 
 they shall be forgiven him. 
 
 "16 Confess your faults one to another, 
 and pray one for another, that ye may 
 be healed. The effectual fervent prayer 
 of a righteous man availeth much. 
 
 "17 Elias was a man subject to like 
 passions as we are, and he prayed ear- 
 nestly that it might not rain : and it 
 rained not on the earth by the space of 
 three years and six months. 
 
 " * Stipersitbstantial bread. In St. Luke the same word is rendered daily brtad. 
 It is understood of the bread of life, which we receive in the Blessed Sacrament." 
 
 " t Lead us not into temptation. That is, suffer us not to be overcome by temp- 
 tation." 
 
 " J Let him bring in, $~c. See here a plain warrant of Scripture for the sacrament 
 of extreme unction, that any controversy against its institution would be against 
 the express words of the sacred text in the plainest terms." 
 
 " || Confess your tins one to another. That is, to the priests of the church, 
 whom, vcr. 14, he had ordered to be called for, and brought in to the sick : more- 
 over, to confess to persons who had no power to forgive sins would be useless. 
 Hence the precept here means, that we must confess to men whom God hath ap- 
 pointed, and who, by their ordination and jurisdiction, have received the power of 
 remitting sins in his name."
 
 416 
 
 THE BIBLE. 
 
 "18 And he prayed again: and the 
 heaven gave rain, and the earth yield- 
 ed her fruit 
 
 "19 My brethren, if any of you shall 
 err from the truth, and any one convert 
 him : 
 
 " 20 He must know, that he who caus- 
 eth a sinner to be converted from the er- 
 ror of his way, shall save his soul from 
 death, and shall cover a multitude of 
 sins." 
 
 1 JOHN 2 : 1-4. 
 
 " My little children, these things I 
 write to you, that you may not sin. But 
 if any man sin, we have an advocate with 
 the Father, Jesus Christ the just: 
 
 " 2 And he is the propitiation for our 
 sins ; and not for ours only, but also for 
 those of the whole world. 
 
 " 3 And in this we do know that we 
 have known him, if we keep his com 
 mandments.* 
 
 "4 He that saith he knoweth him, 
 and keepeth not his commandments, is 
 a liar ; and the truth is not in him." 
 
 "18 And he prayed again, and the 
 heaven gave rain, and the earth brought 
 forth her fruit. 
 
 "19 Brethren, if any of you do err 
 from the truth, and one convert him ; 
 
 "20 Let him know, that he which 
 converteth the sinner from the error of 
 his way shall save a soul from death, 
 and shall hide a multitude of sins." 
 
 1 JOHN 2: 1-4. 
 
 "My little children, these things write 
 I unto you, that ye sin not. And if any 
 man sin, we have an advocate with the 
 Father, Jesus Christ the righteous : 
 
 " 2 And he is the propitiation for our 
 sins : and not for ours only, but also for 
 the sins of the whole world. 
 
 " 3 And hereby we do know that we 
 know him, if we keep his commandments. 
 
 " 4 He that saith, I know him, and 
 keepeth not his commandments, is a liar, 
 and the truth is not in him." 
 
 To a Protestant, the notes in the Douay Bible are altogether 
 the most objectionable part of it. No Protestant, of course, 
 accepts or reverences as inspired truth the additions to the 
 books of Esther and of Daniel, or any of the books which are 
 found in the Douay Old Testament, but not in the Hebrew 
 Bible. But there is much truth in a recent utterance by Prof. 
 Tayler Lewis of Union College : 
 
 " We venture the assertion that a candid man of good education, and 
 whose mind had never been prejudiced on the question, might read 
 chapter after chapter of the Old and New Testament, in the common 
 English version, in the Douay, in the Rheims, in the German of Luther, 
 the Latin Vulgate, &c., without discovering any difference that would 
 
 "* We have known him, if we keep his commandments. He speaks of that prac- 
 tical knowledge by love and affection, which can only be proved by our keeping 
 his commandments ; and without which we cannot be said to know God, as wo 
 should do."
 
 THE BIBLE. 417 
 
 arrest his attention. He might, in this way, read through the whole 
 Scriptures without finding anything that could bear the name of a dog- 
 matic contradiction." 
 
 Yet the opposition of the Roman Catholic church to the 
 common English Bible, or, as they call it, the " Protestant 
 Bible," is well known as no new thing. John Wickliffe (= 
 Wycliffe),the herald of the Reformation, and the earliest transla- 
 tor of the Bible into English, made his translation from the Vul- 
 gate ; but the council of Constance in 1415, more than 30 years 
 after his death, anathematized him as a notorious and scandalous 
 heretic, and ordered his body and bones to be disinterred and 
 cast out from ecclesiastical burial. William Tyndale (= Tyn- 
 dal or Tindal), another English reformer and a translator of 
 the Bible from the Hebrew and Greek originals into clear and 
 simple English, was, through the efforts and influence of 
 Henry VIII. and others, arrested at his retreat on the continent, 
 imprisoned a year and a half in a strong castle, condemned as 
 a heretic, and finally, after uttering his last prayer, " Lord, 
 open the king of England's eyes," was strangled and then 
 burned at the stake, at Vilvoorden (now in Belgium), Oct. 6, 
 1536. Some of the early English versions of the Bible gave 
 much offense to the Roman Catholics by their notes in opposi- 
 tion to the doctrines of the Roman Catholic church ; but Cran- 
 mer's Bible (1540, &c.) and the authorized or Common English 
 Version (published "by authority" of king James I. of Eng- 
 land) omit all controversial or doctrinal notes, without satisfy- 
 ing the Roman Catholic demand at all. The council of Balti- 
 more, giving law to the Roman Catholics in this country, only 
 echo the prevalent and authoritative sentiment of their church 
 when they speak of all but their own versions as " the bibles 
 corrupted by non-Catholics." The Encyclical Letter of pope 
 Gregory XVI. against Bible Societies, <fec., is given in Chapter 
 IV. The 4th of the " 10 rules respecting prohibited books pre- 
 pared by the fathers chosen by the council of Trent, and ap- 
 proved by pope Pius IV.," allowed bibles in the vulgar tongue 
 
 only on the written permission of a bishop or inquisitor, and 
 27
 
 418 THE BIBLE. 
 
 to those persons who, in the bishop's or inquisitor's judgment, 
 with the advice of the parish-priest or confessor, might thus 
 have their faith and piety increased and not injured, the offen- 
 der to be refused absolution till he should give up his bible to 
 the bishop, the bookseller who sold him a copy being also sub- 
 ject to a fine equal to the value of the bible and to further pun- 
 ishment. But this rule, made more stringent by Clement VIII., 
 was so modified by Benedict XIV. " that the perusal of such 
 versions may be considered permitted, as have been published 
 with the approbation of the apostolic see, or with annotations 
 taken from the holy fathers of the church or from learned 
 and Catholic men." 
 
 Bible-burning has been practiced by Roman Catholic priests 
 both in this and in other countries. In November, 1842, Father 
 Telmon, an Oblate missionary from Canada, who held a pro- 
 tracted meeting in the town of Champlain, N. Y., publicly 
 burned 42 (Dr. Cote said, more than 100) Bibles given to the 
 Catholics by Protestant agents of the Bible Society ; but the 
 resident priest, Father Dugas, disapproved of the burning, and 
 the bishop of Montreal, who visited the place 5 days afterwards, 
 expressed disapprobation in strong terms, though it does not 
 appear that any penalty was inflicted on the Oblate father. 
 Bibles were also burned in York, Pa., in 1852 and 1854. 
 Another Bible, loaned to a poor sick Roman Catholic, was 
 taken by the priest (an Austrian immigrant), and returned to 
 the treasurer of the York County Bible Society, with the follow- 
 ing letter (printed as it was written) : 
 
 YORK, March 19th, 1854. 
 
 " SIR, I send yon back the Bible you loaned to Gregory Berger. 
 The reason I do so is, because that book is against Christianity itself. 
 I pray, You shall not judge me as opposed to the reading of Bible, 
 sopposed that, what pretends to be the bible, is realy the bible. But 
 that book which I send to You is party adulterated, partly interpolated, 
 partly mutilated in those parts of it, which you and your fellows and 
 masters can not and could not onderstand, or which are opposed to 
 what you call faith.
 
 THE BIBLE. 419 
 
 " I ask you therefore that you would spare Yourself the trouble 
 of loaning books of that kind to people of my congregation. If I 
 should find more such bibles I would not send them back, but I would 
 burn them for they are worth it. " Respectfully 
 
 "FRANCIS JOSEPH WACHTER, 
 "Pastor of St. Mary's Rom. Catholic Church." 
 
 Bibles and Testaments, even if translated from the Vulgate, 
 have been classed among the prohibited books, and burned, un- 
 less they had the prescribed notes or approbation. Thus in 
 Chili, South America, the agent of the American Bible Society 
 in 1834-5 saw New Testaments of an approved version, but 
 without the notes, publicly and ceremoniously burned by a 
 priest in the public square of one of the cities. Another Bible- 
 burning took place in Chili about 4 years ago. Bibles translated 
 from the Yulgate, and furnished by the British and Foreign Bible 
 Society, were likewise burned in Brazil a few years since. 
 Numerous other cases might be mentioned, in Spain, France, 
 Italy, Syria, &c., were it necessary. 
 
 Bibles published with notes are necessarily more expensive 
 than those without note or comment. The Douay Bible is 
 easily obtained in the United States or in England at prices 
 varying from $1.25 or $1.50 up to $35. But in Roman Catho- 
 lic countries Bibles in the language of the people have usually 
 been costly and scarce, if obtainable at all. Said Kirwan (Rev. 
 Nicholas Murray, D.D.), in his Letters to Chief Justice Taney, 
 published in 1852 under the title " Romanism at Home " ; 
 " The Bible as a rule is unknown in Italy." A correspondent 
 of the New York Commercial Advertiser writing from Aosta 
 in Piedmont about 20 years ago, says : 
 
 " I have traveled from Mount -ZEtna, in Sicily, through the different 
 capitals of the Italian kingdom to the vale of Aosta ; and in all my 
 wanderings I have only seen 3 copies of the "Word of God in the 
 Italian language, namely, one at Pompeii, one at a bookstall in Milan, 
 which had been put in circulation by some English Bible agent, and 
 another at a library in Milan, a very elaborate edition in 1 2 volumes, 
 with copious notes by the archbishoo of Florence price $10."
 
 420 THE BIBLE. 
 
 Another traveler, writing at a dfferent time, speaks of copies 
 of Martini's Bible openly exposed for sale in Rome. Martini's 
 Italian Bible, which is here referred to, was published in the 
 latter part of the 18th century, the translator, Anthony Martini, 
 archbishop of Florence, receiving the benediction and acknow- 
 ledgments of pope Pius VI. in 1778. 
 
 The Anglican bishops, in answering the invitation of pope 
 Pius IX. to attend the Ecumenical Council of 1869-70, said, 
 among other things : 
 
 " Let us humbly ask Thee, canst Thou show us even a single copy 
 of the original Hebrew Old Testament printed in Thine own city, 
 Home, ' The Mother and Mistress of all churches ?' No, not one. 
 One edition of the New Testament in Greek, printed there the other 
 day about 400 years after the invention of printing from the cele- 
 brated Vatican manuscript, we have now gratefully hailed ; after long 
 and anxious delay. But we apprehend that the flock committed to Thy 
 pastoral care has still to wait for an edition from the Roman press, in 
 their own tongue, of the Old or New Testament" 
 
 Spain, Portugal, Austria, and other exclusively Roman 
 Catholic countries, were all in the same position as- Italy in re- 
 gard to Bibles a few years ago. Archbishop Hughes of New 
 York having said that " the art of printing facilitates the dif- 
 fusion ot the Holy Scriptures, and that the Church avails her- 
 self with eagerness of that art for the purpose of multiplying 
 copies of them," Anson G. Phelps, Jr., Esq., of New York, 
 published a letter to the archbishop, asking him u which trans- 
 lation of the Holy Scriptures into the Italian language is ac- 
 ceptable to the Church, and sure to meet the ' patronage of 
 popes, cardinals, and bishops,' " and giving a pledge " to print 
 a large edition of this translation, and send it to Italy for gra- 
 tuitous distribution." The offer appears never to have been 
 accepted, and both Archbishop Hughes and Mr. Phelps died a 
 few years afterwards. The offer has also been repeatedly made 
 by Protestants, both in England and in this country, to print the 
 Douay Bible for free circulation, without the notes, provided 
 the Roman Catholic ecclesiastics would authorize its use among
 
 THE BIBLE. 421 
 
 their people ; but this offer has always been promptly rejected. 
 Yet the Catholic Publication Society of New York has pub- 
 lished and widely circulated a tract entitled " Is it honest ?" the 
 first question of which is 
 
 " Is IT HOXEST to say that the Catholic Church prohibits the use of 
 the Bible when any body who chooses can buy as many as he likes at any 
 Catholic bookstore, and can see on the first page of any one of them the 
 approbation of the bishops of the Catholic church with the Pope at 
 their head, encouraging Catholics to read the Bible, in these words : 
 ' The faithful should be excited to the reading of the Holy Scriptures,' 
 and that not only for the Catholics of the United States, but also for 
 those of the whole world besides ?" 
 
 Those who have attentively and candidly read the preceding 
 part of this chapter, will be able to answer this question without 
 any special assistance.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES, ARTICLES, AND TERMS. 
 
 THE mass is the one great public service of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, in which the offering and consecration of the 
 sacramental bread and wine and the communion or Lord's 
 Supper itself are the essential parts, with a preparation or in- 
 troduction, and a post-communion or conclusion of the service. 
 
 HIGH MASS ELEVATION OF THE HOST. 
 
 The mass is closely connected with the doctrine of transub- 
 stantiation (see Chap. II.), and is regarded as a repetition of 
 the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The late bishop England, in his 
 " Explanation of the Mass," has this definition :
 
 CHUBCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 423 
 
 " The Mass is the principal office of the new law, in which, under 
 the appearance of bread and wine, the Redeemer of the world is 
 offered up in an unbloody manner upon our altars, as a true, proper, 
 and propitiatory sacrifice for the living and the dead." 
 
 The name " mass " (missa, in Latin) is generally derived 
 from the phrase " /te, missa est " (= Go, it [the assembly] is 
 dismissed), anciently used when the catechumens, or candi- 
 dates for admission to the church, who attended the service up 
 to this point, were notified to withdraw, that the church might 
 be by itself at the Lord's Supper; and hence "missa" or 
 " mass" was used to denote this part of the service itself. 
 
 The liturgy used in the mass by the Roman Catholic Church 
 in most parts of Europe and Africa, and throughout America, is 
 contained in the " Roman Missal," or mass-book, and is entirely 
 in Latin.* The name " liturgy " and the principal shaping of 
 the mass are due to pope Gregory I. in the 6th century ; the 
 Roman missal has been revised and published under Pius Y. 
 in 1570, under Clement VIII. in 1604, under Urban VIII. in 
 1634. Certain parts of the mass are invariable, and make up 
 the " Ordinary of the Mass ; " other parts (the Introit, Col- 
 lects, Epistle with its accompaniments, Gospel, Offertory, Se- 
 crets, Preface, Communion, and Post-Communion) vary for the 
 different Sundays of the year, and for the festivals of particular 
 saints or classes of saints, for the dead, for particular objects 
 or occasions or places, &c. The Ambrosian liturgy, still used 
 in the churches of Milan in Italy, differs but little from the 
 Roman ; but the Greek or Eastern church and the Greek Cath- 
 olics have their liturgy in ancient Greek ; the Maronites and 
 Jacobites have theirs in ancient Syriac ; the Armenians and 
 Armeno-Catholics in ancient Armenian, <fec. 
 
 * The council of Trent's 9th canon on the sacrifice of the mass is, " If any one 
 say, that the rite of the Roman Church, in which part of the canon and the words 
 of consecration are uttered in a low voice, is to be condemned ; or that the mass 
 ought to be celebrated only in the vulgar tongue ; or that water is not to be mixed 
 with the wine in offering the chalice, because it is contrary to Christ's institution; 
 let him be anathema."
 
 424 
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 "Low mass " or " private mass " is the ordinary mass, last- 
 ing from 20 to 30 minutes, and read without music. " High 
 mass " is the service in which the responses and some other 
 parts are chanted by the choir. A " solemn high mass," or 
 " solemn mass," is a long and pompous service, used on great 
 festivals and other solemn occasions, in which the deacon and 
 subdeacon officiate, and chanting, singing by a choir, instru- 
 mental music and incense are introduced. 
 
 A " solemn pontifical mass " is a solemn mass celebrated by 
 a bishop. A mass for the dead may be low, high, solemn, or 
 solemn pontifical. A "conventual mass" is one celebrated in 
 a convent. A " votive mass " * is one celebrated for the priest's 
 own devotion, or at the wish of some of the faithful, and dif- 
 ferent from the prescribed mass or masses for the day. Masses 
 for the dead, and votive masses generally, are prohibited on 
 great festivals, <&c., and are subject to special rules as to the 
 
 hours. Private mass may 
 be said, at least after mat- 
 ins and lauds, at any hour 
 from dawn to noon. No 
 sacrifice is offered on Good 
 Friday. 
 
 The 35 illustrations 
 which follow, represent the 
 35 parts of the mass, with 
 the emblematic significa- 
 tion of each in the upper 
 part and named above it, 
 and are copied from those 
 published in " The Garden 
 of the Soul," but Avith much 
 improvement in the en- 
 
 Jcsus enters the Garden. 
 
 Tllli FBIBST GOES TO THE ALTAB. 
 
 graving. 
 
 * Among the votive masses are those of the holy Trinity, of Angels, of the Apos- 
 tles Peter and Paul, of the Holy Ghost, of St. Mary, for any necessity, &c. The 
 mass of the Holy Ghost, often celebrated on great occasions, has a reading of Acts 
 8 : 14-17 ; its gospel from John 14 : 23-31 ; its communion from Acts 2: 2,4; with 
 everal prayers for and invocations of the Holy Ghost.
 
 CHURCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 425 
 
 The priest, having put on the prescribed vestments (see 
 Chap. VII.), and made due preparation, takes the cup in his 
 hand, and bears it elevated before his breast. He goes with 
 downcast eyes, grave step, and upright body. An attendant 
 carries the missal and other things necessary for the celebra- 
 tion, unless they have been made ready previously. On arriv- 
 ing at the altar, the priest bows low with uncovered head to 
 the altar, or to the crucifix on it. He places the cup on the 
 altar, and afterwards makes the sign of the cross by putting 
 his right hand to his forehead, then below his breast, then to 
 
 Jesus prays in the Garden. 
 
 his left and right shoul- 
 ders, and says in a distinct 
 voice (in Latin), " In the 
 name of the Father, and of 
 the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost." Then joining his 
 hands before his breast, he 
 begins the antiphony from 
 Ps. 42 : 4 (= Ps. 43 : 4) 
 "Introibo ad altare Dei [== 
 I will go in to the altar of 
 God] ; " and the attendant 
 responds (also in Latin), 
 " To God who makes joyful 
 my youth." Afterwards the 
 priest and the attendant or attendants alternately say the 42d 
 Psalin* in the Vulgate (=Ps. xliii. in Hebrew and English), 
 with the G-loria Patri (= " Glory be to the Father and to the 
 Son and to the Holy Ghost. As it was in the beginning," &c.), 
 and the above antiphony repeated, with the addition, " Our 
 help is in the name of the Lord." " Who made heaven and 
 earth." The Conftteor [== I confess] or Confession by the 
 priest, bowing low, now follows thus : 
 
 THE PRIEST BEGINS MASS. 
 
 * In masses for the dead, and daring Passion-week, this Psalm and the Gloria 
 Patri are omitted.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 " I confess to Almighty God, to blessed Mary ever Virgin, to blessed 
 Michael the Archangel, to blessed John the Baptist, to the holy Apos- 
 tles Peter and Paul, to all the 
 Jesus falls on his Face. 
 
 saints, and to you, brethren : 
 because I have sinned too 
 much in thought, word, and 
 deed, (thrice he strikes his 
 breast while he says) my fault, 
 my fault, my very great fault. 
 Therefore I beseech blessed 
 Mary ever Virgin, blessed Mi- 
 chael the Archangel, blessed 
 John the Baptist, the holy 
 Apostles Peter and Paul, all 
 the saints, and you, brethren, 
 to pray for me to the Lord our 
 God." The attendants answer, 
 " Almighty God pity thce, and, 
 thy sins being taken away, bring thee through unto eternal life." The 
 priest says, " Amen." Then the attendants repeat the confession, and 
 say "thee, father," where the priest said " you, brethren." 
 
 AT THE CONFITEOB. 
 
 Jesus is betrayed with a Kiss. 
 
 i: 
 
 THE PRIEST KISSES THE ALTAB. 
 
 deign to pardon all my sins." 
 
 Upon this the priest joins 
 his hands, makes absolu- 
 tion, crosses himself, en- 
 gages with the attendants 
 in responsive prayer, and 
 prays in secret at the altar 
 for the pardon of sins. 
 Then joining his hands 
 above the altar, and bow- 
 ing, he says : 
 
 "We pray thee, Lord, by 
 the merits of thy saints, (he 
 kisses the altar in the middle) 
 whose relics are here, and of 
 all the saints, that thou wilt
 
 CHURCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 42T 
 
 Jesus is led Captive. 
 
 At high mass, the celebrant, before saying the introit, blesses 
 the incense, saying, " By him be thou blessed (here he makes 
 the sign of the cross over it), in whose honor thou shalt be 
 burned. Amen." Then, without speaking, he perfumes with 
 it the cross, the relics and 
 images of the saints (if 
 there are any), and the al- 
 tar on all sides. The dea- 
 con then perfumes the priest 
 with it. 
 
 After kissing the altar, 
 the officiating priest goes to 
 its left horn, that is, to the 
 Epistle side of the altar. 
 There, standing before the 
 altar, and making the sign 
 of the cross from his fore- 
 head to his breast, accord- 
 ing to the usual form, he THE PHIE8T GOE3 T0 THE EPI8TLB 8IDB op 
 
 THE ALTAI:. 
 
 begins with a distinct voice 
 
 the introit (= entrance, or introduction) of the mass, and 
 
 goes through it with his 
 
 hands joined before his 
 
 breast. The 
 
 introit is one 
 of the variable parts of the 
 mass, and is composed usu- 
 ally of 2 short passages of 
 Scripture, the 2d being a 
 verse or two of a psalm, 
 and the 1st being repeated 
 after the Gloria Patri. 
 Thus the introit for the 1st 
 Sunday of Advent is com- 
 posed of the 1st 2 verses 
 of Psalm xxiv. (= Psalm 
 xxv. in the English ver- 
 
 Jesus is struck on the Face. 
 
 AT THB ISTROII.
 
 428 
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 Jesus is denied by Peter. 
 
 sion) with the 4th verse, and then the Gloria Patri, and a 
 repetition of the first 2 verses ; the introit for the 2d Sunday 
 of Advent is marked as taken from Is. xxx. and Ps. Ixxix., 
 
 with the Gloria Patri, &c. 
 After finishing the introit, 
 the officiating priest repeats 
 alternately with the attend- 
 ants, with hands joined upon 
 the breast, the Kyrie eleison, 
 which consists of 9 Latin- 
 ized Greek phrases, namely, 
 " Kyrie, eleison " [= " Lord, 
 have mercy"], thrice ut- 
 tered ; then " Christe, eld- 
 son " [= " Christ, have mer- 
 cy"], thrice; then "Kyrie, 
 eleison" thrice again. 
 
 Afterwards the priest at the 
 middle of the altar, extend- 
 ing and joining his hands, 
 and inclining his head some- 
 what, intones, if it is to be 
 said, the hymn, " Gloria in 
 excelsis Deo " ' [=" Glory to 
 God on high "], bowing as 
 he utters the phrases signi- 
 fying, " We worship thee," 
 " We give thanks to thee," 
 " Jesus Christ," and " Re- 
 ceive our prayer," and cross- 
 ing himself as he says, 
 "With the Holy Ghost." 
 
 AT THE KYRIE ELEI8ON. 
 
 Peter converted by a look of Jesus. 
 
 AT THE DOMINIC voBiscoM. After the celebrant has in- 
 
 i This hymn or chant, as translated into English, is found in the Episcopal Book 
 of Common Prayer.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 429 
 
 toned or sung the first words, lie is joined by the attendants 
 or choir. The Crloria in excelsis is omitted on occasions of 
 grief, penance, supplication for the dead, &c. 
 
 Then the priest kisses the middle of the altar, and turning 
 to the people says, "Dominus vobiscum " * [ The Lord be with 
 you], to which the response is, " Et cum spiritu tuo" [= And 
 with thy spirit]. Afterwards he says, " Oremus " [= Let us 
 pray] , and offers the collects or prayers, one or more (up to 
 5 or 7] , as the order for the day demands. At the end of the 
 collect, the people answer, " Amen." On occasions of penance 
 and humiliation, the celebrant says, " Flectamus genua " [= 
 Let us bend our knees] , when he and the people kneel, and at 
 the word "Levate " [= Rise] they rise to the prayer which 
 follows. 
 
 After the collects comes the Epistle, so called because it is 
 generally a passage from one of the Epistles in the New Tes- 
 tament, though it is some- 
 times taken from one of tho 
 Prophets or from some other 
 part of the Old Testament. 
 Bishop England says : 
 
 " At a so'emn mass, the 
 epistle is chanted by the sub- 
 deacon, standing with his face 
 towards the nltar, on the lower 
 platform or floor of the Sanc- 
 tuary, at the south side, or that 
 on his right hand, which is 
 thence called the epistle side 
 of the chancel, of the sanctu- 
 ary, and of the altar. After 
 he concludes, he makes his AT THE EPISTLE. 
 
 reverence to the altar, which represents Christ, by going to the center 
 of the chancel and bending his knee ; then he goes to the celebrant 
 who has continued at the book, reading in a low voice, and kneeling 
 
 Jesus is led to Pilate. 
 
 The Dominm vobiscum is repeated 7 times daring the mass.
 
 430 
 
 CHURCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 obtains his blessing ; he then delivers the book which he has used to 
 the deacon, who remained standing near the celebrant, and removes the 
 book which the celebrant has used to the other side of the altar, while 
 the deacon lays the book which he has received upon the altar. . . . 
 After the Epistle, the Choir performs, and the celebrant reads a few 
 verses, which are called, the Responsory, the Gradual [formerly sung 
 on the steps, in Latin gradus], the Alleluia [= Hallelujah ; omitted 
 on days of penance, as in Lent, &c., and repeated in times of great joy, 
 as at Easter, &c.], the tract [Latin tracttis =drawn out, as in a melan- 
 choly note ; omitted in times of great joy], the sequence or the prose 
 [a sort of hymn, used on the most solemn occasions of Easter, Pente- 
 cost, &c.], the verses are differently called according to their nature or 
 the occasion on which they are sung." 
 
 After the Epistle and its accompaniments the celebrant, 
 bowing down before the altar, repeats the prayer beginning 
 
 Jesus is brought to Herod. 
 
 "Munda cor meum, ac labia 
 mea, Omnipotent Deus [== 
 Cleanse my heart and my 
 lips, Almighty God] ." We 
 quote again from bishop 
 England : 
 
 " He then reads the gospel 
 at the north side, or that at 
 his left hand side, when he 
 faces the altar. 
 
 " In a solemn mass, the dea- 
 con kneels on the lower step 
 of the platform, and prays, 
 " Cleanse," &c. ; then goes to 
 the celebrant for his blessing^ 
 which he asks on his knees, at 
 the Epistle side ; the celebrant bestows it, in the following words : 
 May the Lord be in thy heart and on thy lips, that thou mayst an- 
 nounce his gospel in a worthy and competent manner, in the name of 
 the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost.' Then rising, the 
 deacon descends, and after having made his reverence to the altar, he 
 goes, preceded by the incense-bearer and 2 acolyths with lighted tapers, 
 
 AT MUNDA COB MEUH.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 431 
 
 Jesus is sent back to Pilate. 
 
 and the subdeacon, to the Gospel side ; and having saluted the people, 
 with his face turned towards the north, in the words Dominus vobiscum 
 f_= the Lord be with you], he proclaims the portion of the gospel 
 which he is to publish ; and having marked his forehead, mouth, and 
 breast, with the sign of the cross, he perfumes the book with incense, 
 sings the gospel, points out to the subdeacon the portion which he has 
 
 sung, saying, ffcec sunt verba 
 Christi (= these are the words 
 of Christ).' The subdeacon 
 carries the book open to the 
 celebrant, repeats the same 
 words as he points that portion 
 out, and the celebrant kisses 
 the book, saying ' Credo ' and 
 ' Confiteor* (= I believe and 
 confess). The deacon incense? 
 [= perfumes with incense] 
 the celebrant, and having bowed 
 to him, they resume their 
 places. . . . The people alJ 
 stand during the reading or 
 
 singing of the gospel 
 
 After the gospel the creed is 
 properly introduced, as the profession of that faith, which the gospel 
 has promulgated. That now recited is the creed of Constantinople 
 [= the Nicene creed modified at Constantinople in A. D. 381 ; see 
 Chapter II.] ... It is begun by the celebrant, and taken up by the 
 choir, to show that faith springs from Christ, and through him is estab- 
 lished amongst the people. ... It is said or sung only on Sundays 
 and great festivals. After the celebrant and his attendants repeat it, 
 they sit until the choir has concluded. This is the end of what is called 
 the Mass of Catechumens. . . . 
 
 " The first part of the mass of the faithful is the Offertory. This is 
 a small portion of the Scriptures applicable to the mystery or fact 
 which is commemorated, and of course varies every day. This is 
 called the offertory, because it was sung by the choir whilst the faith- 
 ful made their offerings. . . . But the custom of receiving these 
 contributions has long since gradually ceased. Where there is no 
 choir, the celebrant reads it in a loud voice. After the offertory, at 
 
 AT THE GOSPEL.
 
 AT THE OFFERTORT. 
 
 Jesus is spoiled of his garments. 
 
 432 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 Jesus is Scourged. a solemn mass, or indeed dur- 
 
 ing its performance, the dea- 
 con and sub-deacon go up to 
 the altar, both at the Epistle 
 side ; should the chalice not be 
 on the altar, but placed at the 
 credence-table below, the sub- 
 dencon carries it up. ... In 
 plain masses the celebrant does 
 everything himself. 
 
 "The deacon being on the 
 right hand of the celebrant, 
 uncovers the chalice, which has 
 on its mouth a linen cloth call- 
 ed a purificatory, for 
 wiping the chalice and paten ; 
 the paten is a small plate on 
 which the bread for consecra- 
 tion is placed; (his is laid on 
 the chalice. If the deacon have 
 not spread the corporal upon 
 the altar during the creed, he 
 now takes it from the burse or 
 case in which it is kept, and 
 spreads it on the altar. The 
 corporal is a cloth neatly fold- 
 ed, except when spread upon 
 the altar during the sacrifice, 
 and the bread which afterwards 
 becomes the body (= corpus 
 [in Latin]) and the chalice are 
 AT THE UNVEILING OF THE CHALICE, placed upon it. Taking the 
 paten with the bread on it from the chalice, the deacon gives it to the 
 celebrant, who lifting it up offers it, repeating the prayer, 1 ' Accept,' 
 
 1 This prayer is in full : "Accept, holy Father, Almighty and eternal God, this im- 
 maculate host, which I thy unworthy servant offer to thec my living and true God, for 
 my innumerable sins and offenses and negligences, and for all standing round, but 
 also for all faithful Christians living and dead : that it may profit me and them for 
 salvation unto eternal life. Amen." All the prayers between the offertory and the 
 end of the canon, except the preface uud Lord's prayer, are said in a low voice.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 433 
 
 Jesus is Crowned with Thorns. 
 
 &c., as in the ordinary of the mass. After which, having made 
 therewith the sign of the cross, he lays it on the altar. Meantime 
 the deacon cleanses the chalice, and having put wine into it, the sub- 
 deacon places the water before the celebrant, which he blesses with 
 the sign of the cross, and the prayer, ' O God, who ha creating,' &c. 
 [a prayer to be partakers of Christ's divinity]. The sub-deacon then 
 puts a small quantity of water into the chalice, and the deacon having 
 wiped it carefully, gives it to the celebrant, who being assisted by the 
 deacon, also repeating the prayer, offers it, saying, 'We offer unto thee,' 
 &c. then having made the sign of the cross therewith, he lays hi on 
 the altar, and the deacon covers it with the pall, which is a piece of 
 linen, sometimes ornamented, but always made so stiff, by the sewing 
 it on pasteboard or otherwise, as to rest steadily on the chalice and pre- 
 serve its contents from anything which might defile them. . . . The 
 celebrant then bowing down 
 says the prayer, 'Accept us, O 
 Lord,' &c. [for acceptance of 
 the offerers and their sacrifice] 
 after which, rising he says 
 'Come, O Almighty,' 1 &c. 
 and at the word 'bless,' he 
 makes the sign of the cross 
 over the host and chalice 
 then blesses the incense by the 
 sign of the cross and the prayer, 2 
 'May the Lord,' &c. and per- 
 fumes the bread and wine, and 
 the altar, repeating the prayers 
 which follow. 3 After which 
 he washes his hands, saying the AT THB COVERING OF THE CHALICB. 
 
 i This prayer is-" Come, Sanctifier, almighty and eternal God, bless this sacri- 
 fice prepared to thy holy name." 
 
 * This prayer is-" By the intercession of blessed Michael the archangel stand- 
 ing at the right of the altar of incense, and of all his own elect,may the Lord dei<m 
 to bless [the sign of the cross here] that incense, and receive it as sweet odor. 
 Through Christ our Lord. Amen." 
 
 8 These prayers are that the blessed incense may ascend to God and his pity 
 descend to us that the prayer may be directed as incense, &c. (Ps. HO: 2-4 in 
 Vulgate = Ps. 141 : 2-4 in the English version) and for the kindling in us of a 
 name of love and charity. 
 28
 
 434 
 
 CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 Pilate Washet his Hands. 
 
 prayer, 1 1 will wash,'i &c and then returns to the middle of the 
 
 altar, where bowing down he 
 repeats his request of sacri- 
 fice, saying, ' Receive, O holy 
 Trinity,' a &c., then kissing 
 the altar, he turns round, and 
 expanding his hands, says, 
 'Orate Fratres' 3 [= Pray, 
 brethren] &c. during this 
 and the secret prayer, and the 
 preface, * until just before the 
 Sanctus 5 [= Holy], the dea- 
 con and subdeacon stand in 
 their proper places behind the 
 celebrant, but go up to the al- 
 THB PRIEST WASHETH HIS FINGERS. tar, the deacon on the right 
 
 1 Psalm 25 : 6 12 in Vulgate (=Ps. 26: 6 10 in the Eng version) with the 
 Gloria Patri. The Gloria Patri is omitted in the masses for tdc dead and in 
 Passion week. 
 
 2 This prayer is " Receive, holy Trinity, this oblation, which we offer to thee in 
 commemoration of the sufferinjr, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ our Lord 
 and to the honor of blessed M:iry ever Virgin, and of blessed John the Baptist, and 
 of holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and not only of those, but also of'all saints ; that 
 it may profit thorn unto honor, but us unto salvation : and that they may deign to 
 intercede for us in heaven, whose memory we celebrate on the earth. Through the 
 same Christ o ir Lord. Amen." 
 
 3 The ce!el>rants.iys these first words "Orate Fratres "( = Pray brethren) with his 
 voice a little elevated ; but the remainder [" that my and your sacrifice may be ac- 
 ceptable with God the Almighty Father" J is said inaudibly, or " in a perfectly un- 
 der tone." Then the priest turns round to the altar and joins his hands before his 
 breast ; and the attendant, or bystanders answer, or otherwise the priest himself 
 " May the Lord receive the sacrifice from thy (or, my) hands, to the praise and 
 glory of his name, to our profit also, and that of all his own holy church." The 
 priest with a loud voice says, " Amen." The secret prayer or prayers which fol- 
 low are variable, and correspond with the collects for the day or occasion. At the 
 conclusion of these the priest says in a distinct voice or sings, " Per omnia secufa 
 stculonun " (=through all the ages of ages, i. e., world without end) ; the choir an- 
 swers, " Amen ;" the priest follows,"Z>owt/ius vobiscum " ( = The Lord be with you) ; 
 the response is, " Et cum spiritutuo" ( = And with thy spirit) ; the priest says, 
 " Sursum cort/u,( = Lift up your hearts) ; and is answered. "Hubemus aa Dominum" 
 ( = We have, unto the Lord); then the priest, "Grottos ayanuts Domino Deo 
 nostro" (=Lct us give thanks to the Lord our God) ; and the choir, " Dignum ft 
 justum est" (=lt is proper and right) ; after which he says or sings the preface. 
 * The "preface" is so called, because it immediately precedes and introduces the canon 
 of the mass. There are 11 different prefaces, namely, the common preface, and those 
 ot Christmas, Epiphany, Lent, Easter, Ascension, Pentecost, the Trinity, the Apos- 
 tles, the Cross, and the Virgin Mary. They declare the propriety of gfving thanks 
 to God through Christ, pray to be permitted to worship God with the inhabitants 
 of heaven, and introduce the Sanctus. Some of them refer also to the special occa- 
 sions when they are used. 
 6 The Sanctus, taken from Is. 6 : 3, &c., aud uttered by the celebrant, with the
 
 CHUBCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 435 
 
 and the subdeacoa on the left, 
 to join in the words * Holy, 
 Holy, Holy,' &c. after which 
 the subdeacon having made 
 his reverence tothe altar, des- 
 cends to his former place* 
 and the deacon comes to 
 the left hand side, to 
 assist in turning the leaves of 
 the book, during the canon 
 which immediately follows." 
 
 The "Canon of the 
 Mass," which is said to 
 have been unchanged for 
 nearly 1800 years, includes 
 the consecration of the bread 
 and wine, and the com- 
 munion, and is read in a 
 low voice. 
 
 The canon begins by in- 
 voking the Father of mer- 
 cies, through Jesus Christ 
 his Son, to accept these 
 sacrifices for the holy Cath- 
 olic church, for the pope 
 and bishop and all the 
 orthodox, and professors 
 of the catholic and apostol- 
 ic faith. Then follows 
 the " memento" or " com- 
 memoration of the living," 
 which is thus translated : 
 
 Pilate says, "Behold the Man." 
 
 AT THE ORATE FEATBE8. 
 
 Jesus is Condemned to Die. 
 
 AT THE PREFACE. 
 
 choir and the people, is thus translated : " Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Sabaoth 
 [=hosts]. The heavens and the earth are full of thy glory. Hosanna in the 
 highest. Blessed is he that comcth in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the
 
 436 
 
 CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 " Remember, Lord, thy servants and handmaids, N. and N., ( he 
 joins his hands ; prays a little for those for whom he intends to pray* 
 then with extended hands proceeds :) and all the bystanders, whose 
 faith and devotion are known to thee, for whom we offer to thee, or who 
 offer to thee this sacrifice of praise for themselves and all that belong 
 to them, for the redemption of their souls, for the hope of their wel- 
 fare and safety ; and to thee, the eternal, living and true God, they 
 pay their vows." 
 
 Jesus Bears His Cross. 
 
 To this is added a com- 
 memoration " of the glori- 
 ous ever-virgin Mary," and 
 of the blessed apostles and 
 martyrs, and of all the 
 saints, " to whose merits 
 and prayers thou mayst 
 grant, that we may be de- 
 fended in all things by the 
 aid of thy protection." 
 
 The celebrant now 
 spreads his hands over the 
 bread and wine to be con- 
 secrated, and beseeches the 
 Lord " graciously to ac- 
 cept this oblation of his servitude " in the ministry, " as also 
 of his whole family*' (the congregation), to dispose their 
 days in peace, to preserve them from eternal damnation, 
 and number them in the flock of the elect, "through Christ 
 our Lord." 
 
 Now follows a prayer claimed to have come down from 
 
 AT THE MEMENTO FOR THE LIVING. 
 
 highest." The assistant rings the bell at the Sanctus, for the congregation to 
 join in it. The celebrant crosses himself at the sentence, " Blessed is he that 
 cometh."
 
 CHDRCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 437 
 
 Veronica offers Jesus a Towel. 
 
 CHALICE. 
 
 Jesus is nailed on the Cross. 
 
 the apostles, which, with 
 the rubrics (in parenthesis) 
 and other prayers, is trans- 
 lated from the Missal: 
 
 * * Which oblation webeseech 
 that thou, God, wilt deign to 
 make in all things blessed 
 (thrice he makes the sign of 
 the cross over the oblation), ap- 
 proved, sure, rational, and accep- 
 table ; (he makes the sign of 
 the cross once over the host and 
 once over the chalice) that it 
 may become to us the body and 
 
 blood of thy dearest Son our THB PRIE8T HOLDS HIS HANDS OVEB 
 Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 " * Who the day before he suf- 
 fered (he takes the host) took 
 bread into his own sacred and 
 venerable hands ; (he raises his 
 eyes to heaven) and raising his 
 eyes to heaven to thee, Al- 
 nvghty God, his Father giving 
 thanks to thee, (he makes the 
 sign of the cross over the host) 
 he blessed, brake and gave to 
 his disciples, saying : Take, 
 and eat all ye of this.' 
 
 " Holding the host in both 
 hands between the fore-fingers 
 and thumbs, he utters the words 
 of consecration secretly, distinct- 
 ly, and attentively over the host, 
 
 and at the same time over them all, if more than one are to be conse- 
 crated : 
 
 " ' For this is my body.' 
 
 " Having uttered the words of consecration, immediately he 
 
 THE PBIE3T SIGNS THE DELATION.
 
 438 
 
 CHURCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 THE ELEVATION OF THE HOST. 
 
 Jctus is exalted on the Cross. 
 
 kneels and adores 
 
 the consecrated host ; he 
 rises, shows it to the people, 
 places it back upon the cor- 
 poral, again adores it ; and 
 does not disjoin his thumbs 
 and fingers, except when the 
 host is to be handled, down to 
 the washing of his fingers. 
 
 " Then, having uncovered 
 the chalice, he says: 'In 
 like manner after supper, (he 
 takes the chalice in both 
 hands) taking also this noble 
 chalice into his holy and ven- 
 erable hands, giving thanks 
 likewise to thee, (holding the chalice in his left hand, he makes the 
 sign of the cross over it with his right) he blessed and gave to his dis- 
 ciples, saying : Take and drink all ye of this.' 
 
 "He utters the words of 
 consecration over the chalice, 
 attentively, continuously, and 
 secretly, holding it a little 
 elevated. 
 
 u ' For this is the chalice 
 of my blood, of the new and 
 eternal testament : the mys- 
 tery of faith : which shall be 
 shed for you and for many 
 for the remission of sins.' 
 
 " Having uttered the words 
 of consecration, he replaces the 
 chalice upon the corporal, and 
 saying secretly, ' as oft as ye 
 do this, ye shall do it for a 
 
 AT THB ELEVATION OF THE CHALICE. . , , 
 
 memorial of me. 
 
 u He kneels and adores, rises, shows it to the people, puts it down, 
 covers, and again adores. Then disjoining his hands he says : 
 
 Blood flows from Jesus' wounds.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 439 
 
 u ' Whence also, Lord, we thy servants, but also thy holy people, 
 mindful of the so blessed suffering of the same Christ thy Son our 
 Lord, also of his resurrection from the dead, but also of his glorious 
 ascension into the heavene,offer to thy excellent majesty of thy gifts and 
 presents, (he joins hands and makes the sign of the cross thrice over 
 the host and the chalice at the same time) a pure host, a holy host, an 
 unspotted host, (lie makes the sign of the cross once over the host and 
 once over the chalice) the holy bread of eternal life, and the chalice of 
 perpetual salvation.' 
 
 " "With extended hands he proceeds : 
 
 " ' Upon which mayst thou deign to look with a propitious and serene 
 countenance, and to hold it accepted, as thou didst deign to hold ac- 
 cepted the gifts of thy just boy Abel, and the sacrifice of our patri- 
 arch Abraham, and what thy high priest Melchizedek offered to thee, 
 a holy sacrifice, an immaculate offering.' 
 
 "Bowing low, joiaing his haads and placing them upon the altar, he 
 
 Jesus prays for the World. 
 
 " ' We as suppliants beseech thee, Almighty God ; order these to be 
 borne by the hands of thy holy angel to thy altar on high, hi sight of 
 thy divine majesty ; that as 
 many of us as (he kisses the 
 altar) at this altar shall par- 
 take of thy Son's most sacred 
 (he joins his hands, and makes 
 the sign of the cross once 
 over the body and once over 
 the blood) body and blood, 
 (he crosses himself) may be 
 filled with every heavenly 
 blessing and grace. (He joins 
 his hands.) Through the same 
 Christ our Lord. Amen.' 
 
 " COMMEMORATION FOE 
 
 THE DEAD : 
 
 " ' Remember also, Lord, 
 thy servants and handmaids, 
 N. and N., who have gone before us with the sign of faith, and sleep 
 in the sleep of peace. (He joins his hands, prays a little for those 
 dead, for whom he intends to pray, then with extended hands proceeds) 
 
 AT THE MEMENTO FOR THE DKAD.
 
 440 
 
 CHtJRCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 The conversion of the thief. 
 
 To them Lord and to all who rest in Christ, we pray thee to grant a 
 place of refreshment, of light and peace. (He joins his hands and bows 
 bis head.) Through the same Christ our Lord. Amen.' 
 
 " He strikes his breast with 
 his right hand, saying with his 
 voice a little raised [the prayer 
 beginning] ' Nobis quoque pec- 
 catoribus, [which is thus trans- 
 lated :] 
 
 "'To us also sinners, hop. 
 ing from (he multitude of thy 
 compassions, mayst thou deign 
 to give some part and fellow- 
 ship with thy holy apostles 
 and martyrs ; with John, Ste- 
 phen, Matthias, Barnabas, 
 Ignatius, Alexander, Marcel- 
 linus, Peter, Fdicitas, Perpe- 
 tua, Agatha, Lucia, Agnes, 
 Cecilia, Anastasia, and all 
 thy saints : into whose so- 
 ciety, we beseech thee, not as 
 an appraiser of merit, but as a 
 bestower of pardon, do thou 
 admit us. (lie joins his 
 hands.) Through Christ our 
 Lord. 
 
 " ' Through whom, Lord, 
 thou dost always create, (he 
 now makes the sign of the 
 cross thrice over the host and 
 the chalice at the same time, 
 saying,) sanctify, vivify, bless, 
 and give to us all these good 
 things. (He uncovers the 
 chalice, kneels, takes the host 
 
 AT THB PATEB HOSIER. ^ ^ r j gbt j^ j^j^ 
 
 the chalice with his left : thrice he makes the sign of the cross with the 
 host from one lip of the chalice to the other, saying,) Through him, 
 and with him, and in him, (twice he makes the sign of the 
 
 AT NOBIS QCOQUE PECCATORIBU8. 
 
 Seven words ofjesus on the Cross.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 441 
 
 between the chalice and his breast) there is to thee, Almighty Father, 
 in the unity of the Holy Ghost, (he raises the chalice a little with the 
 host, and says,) all honor and glory. (He replaces the host, [wipes 
 his fingers, if necessary,] covers the chalice, kneels, rises, chants or 
 reads,) World without end. (Answer.) Amen. (He joins his hands.) 
 Let us pray : admonished by salutary precepts, and directed by divine 
 instruction, we dare to say.' " 
 
 The celebrant then extends his hands, and says or sings the 
 Lord's prayer, and is answered at the end with a repetition of 
 the last petition, " But deliver us from evil." The "canon of 
 the mass," properly so called, ends with the prayer preceding 
 the Lord's prayer ; but the next part, which is the preparation 
 for and receiving of the communion, is now also included in 
 the canon. 
 
 In a solemn mass, the deacon, who stands behind the cele- 
 brant during the first part of the Lord's prayer, goes up before 
 the conclusion of it to the celebrant's right, and the subdeacon 
 now also carries up the paten, which he gives to the deacon, 
 and then returns to his 
 place below ; the deacon 
 having wiped the paten, 
 places it in the right hand 
 of the celebrant, who, hav- 
 ing said the " amen " to 
 the Lord's prayer, con- 
 tinues in a low voice the 
 next prayer : 
 
 " Deliver us, we beseech 
 thee, Lord, from all evils 
 past, present, and future ; 
 and the blessed and glorious 
 ever Virgin Mary Mother of 
 God interceding, with thy blessed apostles, Peter and Paul, and 
 Andrew, and all the saints, (he crosses himself with the paten from fore- 
 head to breast, and kisses it) graciously give us peace in our days, that, 
 supported by the help of thy compassion, we may be always both free 
 
 Jesus dies on the Cross. 
 
 AT THE BREAKING OF THE HOST.
 
 442 
 
 CHURCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 The Soul of Jesus descends into Hell. f rO m sin, and secure from 
 
 every disturbance^ (lie 
 places the paten under the 
 host, uncovers the chalice, 
 kneels, rises, takes the host, 
 breaks it through the middle 
 over the chalice, saying,) 
 Through our same Lord Jesus 
 Christ thy Son. (The part 
 which is in his right hand he 
 places upon the paten. Then 
 from the part which remains 
 in his left hand he breaks a 
 small piece, saying,) Who 
 with thee, in the unity of the 
 THE PBIEST PUTS PART OF THE HOST INTO THE Hol J Ghost, Kveth and reign- 
 CHALICE. eth God. (The other middle 
 
 part with his left hand itself he places on the paten, and holding in his 
 right hand the little piece over the chalice, in his left the chalice, he 
 
 The Conversion of many at the Cross. 
 
 says in a distinct voice) World 
 without end. (Answer.) 
 Amen. (With the little piece 
 itself he thrice makes the sign 
 of the cross over the chalice, 
 saying,) The peace of the 
 Lord be ever with you. (Ans.) 
 And with thy spirit. (He 
 puts the little piece into the 
 chalice, saying secretly,) May 
 this mixture and consecration 
 of the body and blood of our 
 Lord Jesus Christ be made to 
 us who receive it unto 
 eternal life. Amen. (He 
 covers the chalice, kneels, ri- 
 ses, and bowing to the sacra- 
 ment, joining his hands, and thrice striking his breast, he says [" in an 
 intelligible voice," the " Agnus Dei, " thus] :) Lamb of God, who 
 
 AT THE AGNUS DEI.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 443 
 
 takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on us. Lamb of God, 
 who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on us. Lamb of 
 God, who takest away the sins of the world, grant us peace.' " 
 
 In masses for the dead, the celebrant does not strike his 
 breast at the Agnus Dei ; instead of the " have mercy on us " 
 is twice said " grant them rest ; " and instead of " grant us 
 peace " is said " grant them eternal rest ; " the prayer for the 
 peace of the church is omitted, as well as the " Peace be with 
 thee, And with thy spirit," which follow it. 
 
 After the Agnus Dei, in ordinary and high masses, the cele- 
 brant offers in secret 3 short prayers ; the first for the peace 
 and unity of the whole church ; the second, that he himself 
 may be freed from his sins and from all evils and may always 
 adhere to Christ's commands and never be separated from him ; 
 the third, that his reception of Christ's body may not be to his 
 condemnation, but to his mental and bodily protection and 
 healing. In high masses, the deacon kneels at the celebrant's 
 right during this first prayer for peace ; then rises ; they both 
 kiss the altar ; and after embracing each other, the celebrant 
 kisses the deacon, saying, "Pax tecum" ( Peace be with 
 thee) ; to which the deacon answers, " Et cum spiritu tuo " 
 (=: And with thy spirit) ; then the deacon, having adored the 
 sacrament on the altar, gives the " peace " in like manner to the 
 subdeacon in his place below ; after which they come up to assist 
 at the altar, while the celebrant continues the two other prayers. 
 
 After these prayers, the celebrant " kneels, rises, and says 
 in secret : 
 
 " ' I will take the heavenly bread, and I will call on the name of the 
 Lord. (Then bowing a little, he takes both parts of the host between 
 the thumb and forefinger of his left hand, and the paten between the 
 same forefinger and the middle finger ; and striking his breast with his 
 right hand, and raising his voice a little, he thrice says, devoutly and 
 humbly,) Lord, I am not worthy [then he goes on secretly] that thou 
 shouldst enter under my roof; but speak by a word only, and my soul 
 shall be healed. (After this, crossing himself with the host over the 
 paten, he says,) May the body of our Lord Jesus Christ keep my soul 
 unto eternal life. Amen. (He reverently takes both parts of the
 
 444 
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SEKYICES, &C. 
 
 AT THE COMMUNION. 
 
 host, joins his hands, and rests a little in meditation on the most holy 
 Jesus is buried. sacrament. Then he uncovers 
 
 the chalice, kneels, collects the 
 fragments, if there are any, wipes 
 the paten over the chalice ["care- 
 fully with the thumb and fore- 
 finger of his right hand, and the 
 fingers themselves,"] saying in 
 the mean time,) "What shalll ren- 
 der to the Lord for all the things 
 that he hath rendered to me ? I 
 will take the chalice of salvation, 
 and I will call upon the name of 
 the Lord. I will call upon the 
 Lord with praises, and I shall be 
 safe from my enemies. ( He takes 
 the cup in his right hand, and 
 crossing himself with it, says,) May the blood of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ keep my soul unto eternal life. Amen. (He takes all the 
 blood with the small piece [of the host put in the chalice]. Having 
 taken this, if there be any to take the communion, he administers it to 
 them, before he purifies himself. Afterwards he says [" secretly "]) 
 What we have taken with our mouth, Lord, may we take with a pure 
 
 mind; and from the temporal 
 gift may there be made to 
 us an eternal remedy. (In the 
 mean time he reaches out the 
 chalice to the attendant, who 
 pours out in it a little wine, with 
 which he purifies himself; then 
 he proceeds:) May thy body, 
 Lord, which I have taken, and 
 blood, which I have drank, ad- 
 here to my bowels : and grant 
 that the stain of wickedness 
 may not remain in me whom 
 the pure and holy sacraments 
 have renewed. Who livest and 
 AT THE ABumoir. rcigncst for ever. Amen. "(He 
 
 Jesus is anointed.
 
 CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 445 
 
 Jesus' Resurrection. 
 
 washes his fingers, wipes, and drinks the ablution, wipes his mouth and 
 the chalice, and folding the corporal, places it on the altar as before : 
 then he goes on with the mass.) " 
 
 Bishop England says : 
 
 " If communion were to be 
 given, it was usually done af- 
 ter the celebrant had commu- 
 nicated himself, and then the 
 
 choir sung some Psalms 
 
 The Psalm usually performed 
 on this occasion in the early 
 days of Christianity, was the 
 33d [=rPs. xxxiv.], 'I will 
 bless the Lord at all times.' 
 The 9th verse [= Ps. 34 : 8], 
 ' O taste and see that the Lord 
 is sweet,' &c., was sometimes 
 chosen as the antiphon. Other 
 Psalms were sometimes taken, 
 
 , ., , ~ -r> i AFTER COMMUNION. 
 
 and then only part of a Psalm, 
 
 and at present but 1 or 2 verses, which is called the ' communion,' 
 though at present the communion is frequently given after mass, and 
 not at this tune." 
 
 The passage of Scrip- 
 ture called" communion " 
 is one of the variable parts 
 of the service, and is read 
 by the celebrant from the 
 missal at the epistle side 
 of the altar. He then 
 goes to the middle of the 
 altar, and, after kissing 
 it, turns to the people and 
 says, " Dominus vobis- 
 cum" (:=the Lord be 
 with you) ; and is an- 
 
 Jesus appears to his disciples. 
 
 AT DO MIXCS VOBISCCM.
 
 446 
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 swered, "Et cum spiritu tuo " 
 
 Jesus 40 days with His disciples. 
 
 AT THE LAST COLLECT. 
 
 And with thy spirit). Ho 
 then returns to the book, 
 and says or sings the post- 
 communion prayers, which 
 are also variable, and cor- 
 respond particularly to the 
 collects. After these are 
 finished, he closes the book, 
 joins his hands before his 
 breast, returns to the mid- 
 dle of the altar, and kisses 
 it. Then. he turns to the 
 people, and says, " Dom- 
 inus vobiscum" to which 
 the response is given as 
 before. After this is said, 
 he stands with his hands 
 joined before his breast, and facing the people, says, if it is to 
 be said, " Ite missa est " (= Go, the mass is over), adding two 
 alleluias in Easter-week ; and then, after the response, " Deo 
 gr alias " (= Thanks to God), returns to the altar. On days 
 
 of penance, when the Ita 
 missa est is not said, ho 
 returns, after the Dominus 
 vobiscum, to the middle of 
 the altar, where, facing 
 that, and joining his hands 
 before his breast, he says, 
 " Benedicamus Domino " 
 (= Let us bless the Lord) ; 
 and is answered, "Deo 
 gratias " (= Thanks to 
 God). But in masses for 
 the dead, he stands in the 
 same way facing the altar 
 and says, " Jlequiescant in 
 
 Jesus ascends into heaven. 
 
 AT THB LAST 
 
 voBisccM.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 pace " (= Let them rest in peace) ; and is answered, " Amen." 
 In the solemn mass, the deacon, instead of the celebrant, says 
 or sings the ltd missa est, Benedicamus Domino, and Requiescant 
 in pace. Before the Dominus vobiscum, there comes in Lent a 
 "prayer over the people" (==oratio super populum), read 
 at the book, and preceded by a call from the celebrant or dea- 
 con " Humiliate capita vestra Deo " (= Bow down your heads 
 to God). 
 
 After the Ite missa est or Senedicamus Domino has been said, 
 the celebrant bows before the middle of the altar and with his 
 hands joined over it, utters a secret prayer to the Trinity for 
 the acceptance of his homage and sacrifice. Then he kisses 
 the altar, stands upright, lifts up his eyes, extends, raises and 
 joins his hands, and bows to the cross as he says, in an intel- 
 ligible voice, " May Almighty God bless you," and turning to 
 the people, he proceeds," Father, and Son, (he makes the sign 
 of. the cross) and Holy Ghost." Ans. " Amen." The cele- 
 brant then goes to the gospel side, and says the last Dominus 
 vobiscum, to which the response is given, as above. 
 
 In masses for the dead the benediction and Dominus volis- 
 
 cum are omitted. The cele- 
 brant then reads John 1 : 
 1-14, he and the congrega- 
 tion kneeling at the words 
 in verse 14 " Hi verbum cartf 
 facium est 9 ' (= And the 
 Word was made flesh), and 
 the whole service being con- 
 cluded with the response 
 " Deo gratias " (= Thanks 
 to God). Instead of this 
 gospel, another is sometimes 
 substituted, as when a fes- 
 tival is celebrated on a Sun- 
 day or holyday, which has a 
 proper gospel of its own. 
 
 The descent of the Holy Ghost. 
 
 AT THE GOSPEL OF ST. JOIIX.
 
 448 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 Besides the Missal, which contains the ritual and rubrics 
 (= directions printed in red letters) pertaining to the various 
 masses, there is also the Breviary or book containing the offices 
 of daily prayer, or the " canonical hours." The name " Bre- 
 viary " (Latin breviarium = abridgment) is traced back to the 
 llth century, and was probably adopted because the offices 
 which it contained had been revised and contracted from the 
 longer forms previously in use. The canonical hours are 
 named " matin " or commonly " matins " (Latin matutinum = 
 morning), " lauds " (laudes = praises), " prime " (prima ~ 
 first), "tierce" (tertia = third), "sext" (sexta =. sixth) 
 "none "or "nones" (nona = ninth), "vespers" (vesper or 
 vespera evening) " complin " or " compline " (completorium 
 = that which completes or fills up the daily service). The 
 canonical hours originated among the ancient monks. Says 
 Fosbroke's British Monachism : 
 
 "Because the Jews separated the day into 4 quarters or greater 
 hours, each containing 3 lesser or common hours, so each canonical 
 hour was presumed to consist of 3 smaller; and the whole 'night and 
 day was then divided into the 8 services of matins, lauds, prune, tierce, 
 sext, nones, vespers, and completorium or complin." 
 
 Matins and lauds thus came between midnight and 6 A. M., 
 then " prime," &c. Says Appletons' Cyclopedia : 
 
 " According to the original custom, still preserved in some- strict 
 monastic orders, matins and lauds should be recited soon after mid- 
 night, prime early in the morning, tierce, sext, and none at 9, 12, and 3, 
 vespers late in the afternoon, and compline in the evening. The usual 
 custom is, however, at present, both in the public singing or recita- 
 tion of the office in choir, and in the private reading of it, to say 
 matins and lauds on the preceding evening, the little hours at some 
 convenient time in the morning, and vespers and compline at any time 
 in the afternoon. The office is obligatory on clergymen in the major 
 orders, the members of monastic communities, and those who hold bene- 
 fices. It is chiefly composed of the psalter, and lessons from the scriptures 
 and the acts of the saints and martyrs, with hymns, versicles, and prayers 
 interspersed. A great variety of offices have been and are in use. The
 
 CHUBCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 449 
 
 one most generally used in the Catholic church of the "West ia the 
 Roman breviary." 
 
 This breviary bears the title : 
 
 " The Roman Breviary restored according to the decree of the most 
 holy council of Trent, edited by order of the holy supreme pontiff Pius 
 V., revised by the authority of Clement VIII. and Urban VIIL, with 
 the offices of the saints most recently granted by the supreme pontiffs 
 unto this day." 
 
 The vignettes of the missal and breviary are both given in 
 Chapter III. 
 
 According to the rubrics in the Roman breviary, the Pater 
 nosier (= Lord's prayer) and Ave Maria (== Hail Mary ; see 
 Chap. XV.) are " said in secret before matins and all the 
 hours, except at complin. . . At the beginning of matins and 
 prime, and at the end of complin, is said also the apostles' 
 creed." For this and the history of various rites and practices in 
 the Roman Catholic church, see Chapter II. 
 
 The 7 sacraments, as already mentioned in Chapter II., are 
 baptism, confirmation, the eucharist, penance, extreme unction, 
 holy orders, and matrimony. 
 
 According to the catechism of the Council of Trent, baptism 
 is "the sacrament of regeneration by water in the word ; " its 
 matter, or element, is " any sort of natural water ; " and its 
 true and essential form, " I baptize thee in the name of the 
 Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." " Baptism 
 may be administered by dipping, pouring or sprinkling." Bish- 
 ops and priests, by right of office ; deacons, by permission of 
 the bishop or priest ; or " in case of necessity, but without its 
 solemn ceremonies, . . . all, even the laity, men and women, to 
 whatever sect they may belong," may administer baptism. 
 " This power extends, in case of necessity, even to Jews, infi- 
 dels, and heretics ; provided, however, they intend to do what 
 the Catholic church does in that act of her ministry." Spon- 
 sors are required at the solemn ceremonies ; and are to watch 
 
 constantly over their spiritual children, and carefully instruct 
 29
 
 450 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 them in the maxims of the Christian life. The baptized person 
 should have only 1 sponsor, or, at most, 1 male (= god-father) 
 and 1 female (= god-mother) ; and cannot lawfully contract 
 marriage with these sponsors or with the baptizer. " Infants, 
 unless baptized, cannot enter heaven." Unbaptized adults are 
 to be invited and prepared to receive baptism. Insane persons, 
 who have no lucid intervals, or who in lucid intervals express a 
 wish to be baptized, may be baptized. Baptism is on no ac- 
 count to be repeated ; but a conditional form may be used when 
 there are reasonable doubts of the validity of the previous 
 baptism. The water to be used in baptism should be conse- 
 crated on the vigils of Easter and Pentecost ; the person to be 
 baptized is brought or conducted to the door of the church and 
 is forbidden to enter until Satan's yoke is cast off, and certain 
 questions in respect to Christian doctrine are answered by the 
 person or the sponsor ; exorcism is used to expel the devil ; 
 salt is put into the person's mouth ; the sign of the cross is 
 marked on his forehead, eyes, breast, shoulders, and ears ; spittle 
 is put on his nostrils and ears ; at the baptismal font, the per- 
 son or his sponsor renounces Satan, and all his works, and all 
 his pomps ; he is anointed with the oil of catechumens on the 
 breast and between the shoulders ; the person or his sponsor 
 makes a profession of all the articles of the creed ; then 
 the question if he will be baptized having been answered affir- 
 matively, the priest administers the baptism* in the name of 
 the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost ; then the 
 priest anoints with chrism the crown of the baptized person's 
 head, puts on him a white garment or kerchief, and puts a burn- 
 ing light into his hand. The name given to the baptized 
 should be taken from some saint. 
 
 He baptizes by pouring water on the head 3 times in the form of a cross ("or by 
 dipping thrice, where this is the custom), the pourings coinciding with the pro- 
 nouncing of the 3 names of the Trinity. The anointing the head with chrism is 
 also in the form of a cross. The service ends with the address : " N. go in peace, 
 and the Lord be with thee." Ans. " Amen." The 2d Plenary Council of 
 Baltimore decreed that priests should never administer baptism outside of the 
 church, except in imminent danger of death, or for some weighty reason.
 
 CIIUSCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 451 
 
 The catechism of the council of Trent teaches that confirma- 
 tion is so called, 
 
 "because, if no obstacle is opposed to its efficacy, the person who re- 
 ceives it, when anointed with the sacred chrism by the hand of the bish- 
 op, who accompanies the unction with these words, ' I sign thee with 
 the sign of the cross, and confirm thee with the chrism of salvation, in 
 the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,' is con- 
 firmed in strength by receiving new virtue, and becomes a perfect sol- 
 dier in Christ. . . . The matter of confirmation is chrism . . .= oint- 
 ment composed of oil and balsam . . . consecrated with solemn cere- 
 monies by the bishop. ... In confirmation, as in baptism, a sponsor 
 is required. l . . . Confirmation may be administered to all, as 
 soon as they have been baptized ; but, until children shall have 
 reached the use of reason, its administration is inexpedient. If not 
 postponed to the age of 1 2, it should therefore be deferred until at least 
 that of 7. ... The forehead of the person to be confirmed is anointed 
 with sacred chrism. . . . When confirmed, he receives a gentle slap on 
 the cheek from the hand of the bishop. . . . Finally, he receives the 
 kiss of peace." 
 
 The imposition of hands in confirmation is made by the bish- 
 op's extending his hands towards the person or persons to be 
 confirmed ; the anointing by his dipping his right thumb in 
 the chrism and making the sign of the cross with it on the fore- 
 head of each ; and he accompanies the slap on the cheek with 
 the words " Pax tecum " (= Peace be with thee). 
 
 The " eucharist " is also called the " sacrifice," " commun- 
 ion," " sacrament of peace and charity," " viaticum" (= pro- 
 vision for a journey ; a name used when administered to one 
 about to depart this life), " supper." It must be consecrated 
 and received only by one who is fasting. The sacramental bread 
 should be of wheat flour and natural water, fresh, without spots, 
 not easily flying to pieces, and unleavened. The wine should 
 be Sauterne, Bordeaux, Catawba, Isabella, or other undoubtedly 
 genuine sort, not Port, Madeira, Sherry, Malaga, &c. The cup 
 
 i The 2d Plenary council of Baltimore passed a decree that " this custom, already 
 introduced in some dioceses of this country, should be everywhere introduced."
 
 "452 CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 is denied to the laity generally. All are to communicate once 
 a year at Easter ; or, in the United States, at some time from 
 the 1st Sunday in Lent to Trinity Sunday. The rites and cere- 
 monies connected with the eucharist are given in the canon of 
 the mass, and in the preceding part of this chapter. 
 
 " Penance " is closely connected with confession (Chap. 
 XVII.) and with offenses and penalties (Chap. XVIII.). 
 
 " Extreme unction " is so called because it is the last to be 
 administered, of all the unctions prescribed by the Roman 
 Catholic church. The matter of this sacrament is holy oil 
 (olive oil) blessed by the bishop on Holy Thursday. With his 
 thumb dipped in this oil, the priest anoints the sick in the 
 form of a cross on the eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, hands, and 
 feet, using at each anointing a prayer thus : 
 
 " Through this holy unction and his own most tender mercy, may 
 the Lord be indulgent to thee in regard to whatever offenses thou hast 
 committed by seeing (or, hearing, smelling, taste and speech, touch, 
 walking). Amen." 
 
 This sacrament is accompanied by the sprinkling of holy 
 water, and the offering of many prayers for the recovery of the 
 sick person, for his deliverance from the power of the devil, 
 <fec. It is to be administered only to one who is regarded 
 as dangerously sick, and who has confessed and received the 
 viaticum ; nor is it to be repeated in the same sickness, unless 
 this is long continued, and the patient has become stronger 
 and again relapsed into a dangerous state. 
 
 For the " sacrament of orders," see Chapter VII. 
 
 " Matrimony " is defined, in the catechism of the Council of 
 Trent, " the conjugal and legitimate union of man and woman, 
 which is to last during life." . . . . " Not only did God 
 institute marriage ; he also, as the Council of Trent declares, 
 rendered it perpetual and indissoluble." 
 
 Polygamy, divorce, clandestine marriage, the solemnization 
 of marriage from Advent to Epiphany and from Ash-Wednesday 
 to the Sunday after Easter, marriage within the prohibited
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 453 
 
 degrees (including first cousins, &c.), marriage with an un- 
 baptized person, or with one under other " impediments," are 
 condemned by the Roman Catholic church, though for some 
 of them dispensations may be obtained. Among the decrees 
 of the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore are the following : 
 
 " Since man is by divine law forbidden to separate those whom 
 God has joined together, we admonish the bishops to prohibit in their 
 synods, under penalty of excommunication from the very fact, the con- 
 tracting of new marriages to the neglect of the lawful bond, by those 
 who have been disjoined by civil divorce." 
 
 " Let the parties to the marriage be admonished, before they contract 
 it, to confess their sins diligently, and to approach piously to the re- 
 ception of the most holy eucharist and the sacrament of matrimony." 
 
 The Council also decrees that the bans of matrimony are 
 to be published, unless there are most weighty reasons to the 
 contrary ; and the pastors are earnestly exhorted to introduce 
 everywhere the practice of blessing the nuptials in the mass. 
 " The Church has always detested the marriages of Catholics 
 with heretics," and " by an ancient law, which the popes have 
 not ceased to inculcate, such marriages are forbidden." The 
 Council exhorts pastors to set forth to their flocks, at least 
 once a year, at Advent or Lent, the great evils growing out 
 of such connections. 
 
 " But if circumstances sometimes advise that those things be per- 
 mitted by apostolic authority, special care shall be taken to provide 
 for the security of conscience and the free exercise of religion on the 
 Catholic side, and for the education of the offspring of each sex in the 
 Catholic faith, by a solemn promise before God in respect to those 
 things ; otherwise it shall in no wise be lawful to assist at those mar- 
 riages. Let priests, moreover, remember that it is forbidden by many 
 decrees of the holy pontiffs to perform any sacred rite or to make use 
 of any sacred garment while marriages of this sort are taking place? 
 and that they are not to take place within the church." 
 
 " We strictly forbid priests to presume to be present at the mar- 
 riages of those who are either united or wishing to be united by a non- 
 Catholic minister."
 
 454 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 The ritual for the celebration of matrimony begins with the 
 priest's asking the bridegroom and bride separately in their 
 own language, 
 
 " N., wilt thou take N., here present, for thy lawful wife (or, hus- 
 band), according to the rite of our holy Mother the Church ?" 
 
 Each having given an affirmative answer, they join their 
 right hands, and the priest proceeds (the rest being in Latin) : 
 
 " I join you together in marriage, hi the name of the Father, (he 
 makes the sign of the cross) and of the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost. Amen." 
 
 He then sprinkles them with holy water ; blesses the ring, 
 which the bridegroom places on the book ; sprinkles the ring 
 with holy water in the form of a cross ; says, as the bridegroom 
 puts the ring on the bride's ring-finger: 
 
 " In the name of the Father, (he makes the sign of the cross) and 
 of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost;" and adds the Kyrie eleison, Pater 
 noster, and other short prayers, to which responses are made. 
 
 The Roman Missal has a " Mass for the Bridegroom and 
 Bride," which may be said on certain days as a votive mass, 
 after the nuptial ceremony. This mass has its own introit, 
 gradual, tract, epistle (Eph. 5: 22-33), gospel (Matt. 19:3-6), 
 and prayers ; but the commemoration of it may be intro- 
 duced into the mass for a Sunday, &c. The following is its 
 nuptial benediction : 
 
 " The God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob be 
 with you, and himself fulfill his own blessing in you ; that you may 
 see your children's children to the third and fourth generation, and 
 afterwards have eternal life without end, by the help of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, who, with the Father and the Holy Ghost, liveth and 
 reigneth God, world without end. Amen." 
 
 The priest solemnly admonishes them to be faithful to one 
 another, to remain chaste in the time of prayer and especially
 
 CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 455 
 
 of fasts and solemnities, to love one another, and to keep them- 
 selves in the fear of God ; and then sprinkles them with holy 
 water ; after which the mass is finished in the usual manner. 
 
 The nuptial benediction is withheld, mass is not celebrated, 
 nor is solemnization of marriage in the church allowed, where 
 one of the parties is a heretic or schismatic. 
 
 But masses and sacraments and public rites do not constitute 
 all the religious worship of the Roman Catholics. The Pater 
 nosier (=Lord's Prayer) and Ave Maria (=Hail Mary) are 
 often repeated, especially in the Rosary (see Chap. XV.). 
 The devotion of the scapulars (see Chap. XIX.) has very great 
 attractions for many. The devotions connected with the 
 Association for the Propagation of the Faith are referred to in 
 Chapter X. Various litanies (^connected series of short 
 prayers, as for mercy, deliverance, intercession with God, 
 &c.) are used more or less, as the Litany of the Saints (see 
 Chap. XV.), of Faith (this and several others are by Pope Pius 
 VI.), of Divine Providence, of the Most Holy Trinity, of the 
 Holy Ghost, of the Infant Jesus, of the Life of Jesus Christ, of 
 the Passion, of the Holy Cross, of the Blessed Sacrament, of 
 the Sacred Heart of Jesus, of the Sacred Heart of Mary, of the 
 Immaculate Conception, of the Holy Name of Mary, of St. 
 Anne, of St. Patrick, of St. Bridget of Ireland, of St. Ignatius, 
 of St. Francis Xavier, of St. Francis de Sales, of St. Jane 
 Frances de Chantal (foundress of the Visitation nuns), &c. 
 Many forms of prayer are published in the devotional manuals 
 approved by the bishops and higher dignitaries. " Confrater- 
 nities " (^brotherhoods) and " sodalities " (= associations) 
 abound among the laity, and many are enrolled as members of 
 them. Says bishop Challoner : 
 
 "These confraternities, or brotherhoods, are certain societies or 
 associations, instituted for the encouragement of devotion, or for pro- 
 moting of certain works ot piety, religion, and charity ; under some 
 rules or regulations, though without being tied to them, so far as that 
 the breach or neglect of them would be sinful. The good of these 
 confraternities is, that thereby good works are promoted, the faithful
 
 456 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 are encouraged to frequent the sacraments, to hear the word of God, 
 mutually to assist one another by their prayers, &c." 
 
 ^The archdiocese of Cincinnati has the following, with others, 
 under the head of " CONFRATERNITIES" : 
 
 "The Archconfraternity of the Immaculate Heart of Mary ; the Con- 
 fraternity of the Sacred Heart of Jesus ; the Confraternity of the 
 Scapular ; the Confraternity of the Rosary ; the St. Patrick's, St. 
 Peter's, and St. Joseph's Benevolent Societies ; the Brotherhood of 
 St. Michael ; the Young Ladies' Sodality of the Immaculate Con- 
 ception ; the Mary and Martha Society , the Sodality of the Most 
 Blessed Sacrament; the Confraternity of the Precious Blood; the 
 Confraternity of Bona Mors [=good death]; the Sodality of the 
 Children of Mary ; the Confraternity of Our Lady of Mount Carmel ; 
 the Sodality of the Blessed Virgin Mary ; the Confraternity of the 
 Living Rosary ; the Society for the Conversion of America ; the 
 Sodality of the Holy Angels ; the Sodality of the Living Rosary ; the 
 Sodality of the Holy Maternity ; the Sodality of the Holy Family ; 
 the Sodality of the Scapular ; the Society of the Holy Infancy ; the 
 Sodality of the Blessed Virgin ; the Society of the Apostleship of 
 Prayer ; St. Vincent of Paul Society ; the Sodality of St. Aloysius ; 
 the Altar Society." 
 
 A number of years ago an "Association for Prayer" was 
 founded in Prance for the conversion of Protestant and other 
 heretical countries to the Roman Catholic faith ; and as early 
 as 1844 it had more than a million of members, who were all 
 furnished with medals, and solemnly engaged to repeat, person- 
 ally or by their children, at least once every day, the Pater 
 Noster (=Lord's Prayer) and Ave Maria (=Hail Mary), with 
 the intention of having these prayers divinely regarded as 
 offered for the extension of their religion. The founder of this 
 association was curate of the Church of St. Eustache in Paris. 
 A Protestant American thus describes a visit to his church 
 twenty or twenty-five years ago : 
 
 u A few years ago, when hi Paris, we went one Sabbath night to 
 the Church of St. Eustache to hear the worthy old curate preach, and
 
 CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 457 
 
 to be a witness of the service of prayer which every Sabbath night 
 follows the sermon. On that occasion the sermon was on Repentance 
 as a preparation for Easter, which was near at hand. The discourse 
 contained many good things such as no evangelical Protestant could 
 object to. Towards its close, however, the doctrine of Penance was 
 dragged in, as usual with Roman Catholic preachers, to the great 
 detriment of the truth contained in the other parts. 
 
 " The sermon being finished, the benevolent old preacher gave notice 
 to the congregation that there would be a season of prayer, after an 
 interval of a few minutes granted for the purpose of allowing those 
 to retire who were unwilling or unable to remain longer. After all 
 was quiet, he arose in the pulpit and stated to the five or six hundred 
 people who staid the subjects of prayer for the occasion. 
 
 " And first of all, he said he desired their prayers for five or six hun- 
 dred young people of the parish (which embraces some 36,000 inhabi- 
 tants), who, he said, were very giddy and thoughtless. ' It is true,' 
 said he, ' that they do not ask your prayers, poor things, but never- 
 theless they greatly need them.' In the next place, he requested their 
 prayers hi behalf of a young man who was present, that had been very 
 profligate, but now desired to abandon his sinful ways. He read a 
 portion of a letter which he had received from this young man. . . . 
 And then the venerable curate asked the prayers of the congregation 
 for 80 poor people and 43 sick persons of the parish some of them, 
 near unto death. He also asked their prayers for 23 Protestants and 
 17 Jews. After that he went on to ask their prayers for Spain, poor, 
 
 distracted Spain ' And finally,' he added, ' do not forget 
 
 England and Russia.' I expected that he would bring in the United 
 States, but he did not that night The Sabbath evening previous, he 
 spoke at some length about England, and said that he had good 
 news to tell of that country namely, 'that 22 ministers of the 
 Anglican, or Established Church, had turned their faces Romeward.' 
 
 "After having announced these general subjects of prayer, he 
 descended from the pulpit, repaired to the altar, went through the 
 service of the mass, and then kneeled down before the altar, and re- 
 mained in that position about twenty minutes, engaged no doubt in 
 prayer ; the congregation in the meanwhile stood up, and, following 
 the choir, chanted the psalms for the evening service. At the close, 
 the people quietly retired ; and this was a Roman Catholic prayer-
 
 458 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 meeting. Although I could not but respect the feelings and apparent 
 devoutiiess of the congregation, among whom were many who were 
 evidently of the middle class of society, I was certainly astonished 
 at this mode of praying for definite and important objects. And yet 
 this is Rome's way of engaging the prayers of her children in behalf 
 of what she deems desirable. It is to repeat the Pater Noster and 
 Ave Maria, or other general prayers, in reference to the objects in 
 question that is, with the intent that these objects are to receive the 
 
 efficacy of the prayers offered upon the occasion Just 
 
 such prayers as we have described are now offering up, at the recom- 
 mendation of the head of the Church, by the Romanists of our country 
 for its conversion to the Romish faith. Such prayer-meetings as that 
 which we have spoken of are now held in many places of our land by 
 the more devout 'faithful,' that this land may be made a Roman 
 Catholic country." 
 
 ' The "missions" of the Oblates, Paulists, Redemptorists, 
 <fec., are referred to in the account of these orders in Chap- 
 ter VIII. The religious exercises of such a " mission " con- 
 sist of confessions, masses, vespers, sermons akin to the 
 "revival sermons" among Protestants, and other measures 
 adapted to arouse the attention, enlist the feelings, and promote 
 the religious activity of all the Roman Catholics in the com- 
 munity where the " mission " is held. 
 
 A procession with the host from the great cathedral in 
 Antwerp, Belgium, is thus described by Rev. J. H. Pettingell, 
 American Seamen's Chaplain at that port in 1866 : 
 
 u And now there comes out a priestly procession with the host, or 
 holy wafer, which makes a tour of some of the streets and lanes of the 
 city for the benefit of the sick, I am told, who are not able to come to 
 the church. First the great bell [of the cathedral] gives notice of its 
 coming : then you will observe two or three women scattering white 
 sand and flowers in the streets through which it is to pass, and from 
 the doors and windows of the shops and houses large lighted candles 
 are hung out, wreathed with flowers ; then comes an officer to clear 
 the way, and after him a band of musicians, and then two very small 
 boys, clothed in white, bearing between them a magnificent basket of
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 459 
 
 flowers, accompanied by a man with a bell, and when he rings it the 
 people in the streets and in the doorways fall upon their knees and 
 cross themselves. Next comes a company of Jesuits, with their books, 
 chanting, and, on either side of them, two long rows of men bearing 
 immense lighted candles, six feet in length, and, interspersed among 
 them, are bearers of large banners, surmounted by golden images and 
 a variety of trinkets. Then comes the priest, gorgeously arrayed, 
 bearing in his hands a gilded vase, adorned with garlands and flowers 
 containing the holy wafer, a few men carrying a large canopy over his 
 head, and boys on all sides with smoking censers, from which they are 
 wafting incense towards this central object of worship : and then follow 
 two long columns of men bearing large lighted lanterns, gorgeously 
 arrayed and lifted high in the air, and after that a crowd of people. 
 The procession which I saw yesterday was some three hours in making 
 the tour, all of them bareheaded, and stopping every now and then and 
 kneeling with the multitude of spectators in the middle of the street. 
 I am told that there is to be next Sabbath a still more magnificent 
 spectacle of the same character." 
 
 Tliis chapter may be fitly concluded with notices of church 
 terms, including ornaments and articles* used in Roman 
 Catholic worship. The engravings are copied from the illus- 
 trated catalogue of Benziger Brothers (New York and Cincin- 
 nati), and from other authentic sources; the definitions and 
 descriptions are from the highest authorities ; and the prices 
 of many of the articles are also given from the catalogues of 
 Benziger Brothers, who are " printers to the Holy Apostolic 
 See," and manufacturers, importers, and dealers in church 
 ornaments, statues, vestments, &c. 
 
 An " Agnus Dei " (=Lamb of God) is a little cake of pure 
 white wax, stamped with the image of a lamb bearing a cross, 
 blessed by the Pope on the Saturday before Low Sunday of his 
 first and every seventh succeeding year, and dipped by him into 
 holy water with which he has mixed chrism and balsam. 
 
 * For vestments and orders of the clergy, see Chapter VII. ; for festivals and 
 holy days, see Chapter XVL
 
 460 CHURCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 An " aisle " (Latin ala = wing) is originally and properly 
 one of the wings or side divisions of a church, usually separated 
 from the nave or center division by columns or pillars ; but in 
 modern pewed churches, the term is popularly applied to any 
 one of the alleys or entrance-ways in the audience-room, which 
 lead to the pews. 
 
 The " altar " is the elevated structure usually oblong or 
 square on which the mass is offered. In what is called a 
 regularly built church, it is placed at the East end of the 
 church. It is consecrated with chrism by a bishop, and has 
 within it a " sepulchre " or hollow receptacle for the relics of 
 saints. It may be plain, or elaborately wrought of the most 
 costly stone. A portable altar, consisting of a consecrated slab 
 of stone, is sometimes used. The altar at mass is covered by 
 three clean "altar-cloths," the uppermost one reaching the 
 base of the altar on both sides. When there are several altars 
 in a church, the principal and most conspicuous of them is the 
 11 high altar." The " altar-bell " is used in the mass, &c. (ex- 
 cept in Holy Week), to call attention at particular times, and 
 costs from 50 cents to $4 (see the cut on p. 461). An " altar- 
 piece " is a painting or other decoration for the altar, and of 
 course may vary greatly in style, material, and expense. 
 " Altar-veil "== antependium. Lithographed "altar-cards" 
 cost from 37 cents up to $3.20 a set. (See Chapters XV., 
 XX.) The altar, says bishop England, 
 
 " is either entirely of stone, or a consecrated stone is placed on a 
 table, or wooden appearance of a tomb ; the vicinity of which is orna- 
 mented with architecture, paintings, statues, vases, relics, &c., where 
 they can be procured. . . . The altar signifies Christ, who is the great 
 corner-stone." 
 
 The "ambry" (=almonry) is a closet or place for utensils, 
 vestments, &c. 
 
 An " ampulla" is a two-handled flask or jug for oil or other 
 liquid. 
 
 The " antependium" (Latin =that which hangs before),
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 also called "altar-veil" or "frontal," is the veil which hangs 
 down before the altar, or covers the front of it. The rubric 
 directs that it shall be of the color of the vestments. 
 
 ALTAR-BELL. 
 
 ANTEPENDIUM OR ALTAR-VEIL. 
 
 " Apse " (=apsis) is a domed and usually semicircular end 
 of a church, behind the altar. 
 
 Badges, for societies, &c., are made of silk, bearing the name 
 of the society, a motto, and a picture of the patron-saint, and 
 vary in price from 20 cents each (for as many as 60) up to 
 81.35 or more, according to the style and decoration. 
 
 A " baldachin" (=baldacchino~) is a species of canopy over 
 an altar, as in St. Peter's at Rome (see Chap. I.). 
 
 Banners, for churches, societies, and schools, are made of 
 silk or other damask, with two paintings or inscriptions (one 
 on each side), borders, fringes, tassels, and cords, and in 
 various styles. Banners are often used in churches, as in the 
 processions with the host on Maundy-Thursday and Good 
 Friday, &c. Some Roman Catholic banners have the Holy 
 Family on one side and the Sacred Heart of Jesus on the other ; 
 some have Jesus blessing the children on one side, and the 
 name of Mary on the other, &c. That represented in Chapter 
 XV. has on it a painting of St. Joseph with the Infant Jesus. 
 The prices of these banners vary according to the material, 
 style, &c., from $16 up to $350 each. 
 
 Baptismal Font ; see Font. 
 
 A basin may be used for washing the priest's hands. 
 
 Beads are used for counting prayers, especially in the 
 rosary.
 
 462 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 Bells are blessed by the bishop before they are hung in the 
 church-towers. The rite is given at length in the Pontificate 
 Romanum, and consists of several psalms, prayers, washing the 
 whole bell inside and outside with salt and water blessed at the 
 time, anointing the bell with the holy oil of the infirm and with 
 holy chrism, perfuming it with burning thyme and frankin- 
 cense and myrrh, &c. The gospel at the end is taken from Luke 
 10 : 38-42, and the sign of the cross is made upon the bell, 
 <fcc., more than 20 times during the ceremony. Each bell is 
 dedicated to some saint. Thus a chime of 4 bells was blessed 
 for the church of the Most Holy Redeemer in 3d street, New 
 York, Dec. 26, 1854, the 4 being dedicated respectively to St. 
 Michael, St. Gabriel, St. Raphael, and St. Alphonsus. A small 
 bell is placed on the altar (see above) for use in the service. 
 
 A bench is required, near the altar, high-backed, and large 
 enough to seat the celebrant with the deacon and subdeacon. 
 It may be richly ornamented, but must not be a chair, nor re- 
 semble a throne. See Chair, Stool, and Throne. 
 Benediction-veil ; see Veil. 
 Boat ; see Incense boat. 
 
 A book-stand is used for holding the missal, breviary, 
 &c. (See Missal-stand.) 
 
 Bouquets for altars are made of green muslin leaves with white 
 and red roses, or of green muslin leaves with white lilies, or 
 with mixed flowers, at from $1.50 to $12 a pair. (See 
 Flowers.) 
 
 Bread is used for cleansing the priest's hands on Holy Satur- 
 day, Ash- Wednesday, &c. (See Wafer.) 
 
 Bread-irons are used for cutting and stamping impressions on 
 the bread or wafers designed for the mass. Bread-irons with 2 
 cutters cost $12 to $15. 
 
 The Breviary is described in a previous part of this chap- 
 ter. 
 
 A "burse" is a case, especially for holding the cor- 
 poral. 
 
 A candelabrum (=candelabre) is a branched candlestick or
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 463 
 
 lamp-stand. Candelabra 'are furnished with 3, 5, 7, or 11 
 lights at from $9.50 to $88 a pair. 
 Candelabra like the one represented 
 in the cut, for 5 lights, varnished, 
 are marked at $16.50 in gold for the 
 pair. (See Girandole and Candle- 
 sticks.) 
 
 Candles are much used in the 
 services of the Roman Catholic 
 church, especially wax candles and 
 often very large ones. At low mass 
 2 candles must be burning at the 
 altar during the whole of the mass ; 
 6 are required at high mass ; a sev- 
 enth is added, if the bishop of the 
 diocese celebrates a solemn pontifical 
 mass ; even 12 and 21 are some- 
 times used. A triple candle, or triangle (see Triangle), is 
 used on Holy Saturday. The paschal candle, 
 which is blessed on Holy Saturday, has in it 5 
 holes in the form of a cross and 5 grains of in- 
 cense in these holes. See Tapers, <fec. 
 
 CANDELABRUM. 
 
 BISHOP'S CANDLESTICK. 
 
 Candlesticks for altars are of various sizes, 
 from 12 to 47 inches in height, and varying in 
 price from $3.60 to $203 a pair in gold. Those 
 like the cut are from 14 to 42 inches in height, 
 and cost $5.30 to $37 a pair in gold. The "bish- 
 op's candlestick " is a hand-candlestick, carried CANDLESTICK FOB 
 and held by a candle-bearer, and used whenever ALTAK -
 
 464 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, 40. 
 
 the bishop officiates. A silver-plated one costs $11.25, and a 
 gilt one $15 in gold. There are also candle sticks for acolytes, 
 from 18 to 22 inches high, and costing $6.70 to $12.50 in 
 gold. 
 
 A canopy, often highly ornamented, may be placed or held, in 
 Roman Catholic edifices and services, above an object of special 
 honor, as an altar, bishop's throne, or consecrated host. The 
 baldacchino (see above) is a permanent canopy ; the umbrellino 
 used in transporting the host from altar to altar is a small 
 portable canopy or umbrella. A canopy is directed to be car- 
 ried over the cele- 
 brant in the " proces- 
 sion with the blessed 
 sacrament " from the 
 altar to the repos- 
 itory on Alaundy- 
 Thursday, and from 
 the repository to the 
 altar on Good Fri- 
 day. Canopies of 
 
 CANOPY USED IN PROCESSION OF THE SACRAMENT, u w }ji^3 re( | Qr <T()ld- 
 
 cloth, interwoven with imitation or real gold flowers and em- 
 blems," cost from $30 to $150 each. 
 
 A carpet is required, at high mass, on the steps and plat- 
 form of the altar, and on the platform of the celebrant's bench 
 in the chancel ; at high mass for the dead, a purple carpet, 
 covering the platform only, is required ; at the solemn pontif- 
 ical mass for the dead, a black carpet is to be extended before 
 the bishop's seat, after mass, for the absolution. 
 
 A " cenotaph "is an empty tomb or a representation of a 
 tomb. Such a representation is used in the church at vespers 
 for the dead on the 1st day of November. 
 
 A censer is a vessel for burning and wafting incense. The 
 sort used in the Roman Catholic church, is goblet-shaped, has 
 a perforated lid, and is swung by chains. It is of course 
 needed at every solemn mass. Censers are of various styles
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 465 
 
 INCEXSE-BOAT. 
 
 and prices from $3.85 up to $29 each, with the accompany 
 ing incense-boat. The sort represented in the 
 cut is silver-plated, and of a fine chased pat- 
 tern, costing, with the boat, from $7 to $8.50. 
 
 The " Ceremonial of the Church " contains 
 (in English) the ceremonies for low mass, high 
 mass, holy week and other fes- 
 tivals, pontifical masses and ves- 
 pers, &c., for the use of the Catho- 
 lic churches in the United States 
 of America, and is published by authority. 
 
 A chafing-dish, with burning coals in it, is 
 also required to be in the sacristy, whenever 
 incense is to be burned, in order to supply the 
 fire for burning it in the censer. 
 
 A chair is not allowed in the sanctuary except for the bishop 
 or some very distinguished person. 
 
 The chalice is the cup or vessel for containing the consecrated 
 wine at the mass or communion-service. Chalices are of glass, 
 silver, gold, <fec., and are often enriched with sculptures and 
 precious stones. That represented in the cut, 
 made of gilding metal, with plain chasing, sil- 
 ver-plated, and gilt on the inside only, costs 
 from $9 to $11, including the paten which ac- 
 companies it. Made of silver, a chalice may 
 cost (with the paten) from $15.50 to $150. 
 Made of gold, its cost may be much greater. 
 
 The chancel is the part of a church about 
 the altar, extending in front of the altar to the 
 railing (formerly lattice-work) which separates 
 it from the nave. 
 
 " Chapel "may be 1. A house or other place CHALICE. 
 of worship, distinct from and subordinate to a church ; as the 
 chapels of the Sisters of Mercy and of St. Mary's academy, 
 attended from St. Peter's cathedral in Cincinnati. 
 
 2. A recess or other part of a church, more or less separated
 
 466 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, kC. 
 
 from the nave or main part of the building, and furnished with 
 an altar and other accommodations for religious service ; as 
 the chapels in the side aisles of St. Peter's at Rome. 
 
 3. A receptacle for the chalice, ciborium, altar-bell, and 
 cruets ; costing, with its contents, from $150 to $287. 
 
 A " chaplet " is a string of beads used for counting prayers. 
 It consists of 55 beads, or $ of a rosary. 
 
 A chime of bells may be used 
 instead of a single small bell. The 
 cut shows a chime of 3 little bells, 
 silver-plated, and costing about $5. 
 The "choir" may be 1. The 
 company of singers in a church 
 or chapel. 2. The part of a 
 church, &c., appropriated to the 
 
 CHIMB OF THBEB LITTLE BELLS. 
 
 singers. 3. The chancel. 
 
 The " chrism," or " holy chrism," is the ointment, which is 
 consecrated by the bishop to be used in baptisms, confir- 
 mations, ordinations, &c. It is composed of olive oil and bal- 
 sam, and is annually consecrated with special ceremonies on 
 Maundy-Thursday. 
 
 " Ciborium " is used to denote 1. An arched and domed 
 structure, supported by 4 lofty columns over 
 an altar. 2. The coffer or case for 
 containing the host. The latter is now 
 the principal use of the term. The ciborium of 
 the cut, made of gilding metal, with plain chas- 
 ing, and the cup and cover gilt inside, costs 
 from $9 for one of 9 inches in height, to $17 (or 
 $30, if all gilt) for one of 13 inches in height. 
 Others, of silver, and of different styles, inside 
 or all gilt, vary in price from $19 to $135. The 
 
 ciborium should have a veil or cover of rich 
 CIBORIUM. material) as of silk> gold cloth) &c> 
 
 A clapper of wood, is used instead of the altar bell, from the 
 Gloria in excelsis of Maundy-Thursday to the Gloria in excehis 
 of Holy Saturday.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 467 
 
 A " confessional " (= concessionary) is a place for a priest 
 to hear confessions. It may be a chair or bench placed in a 
 dark part of the church or chapel ; or a structure erected for 
 the purpose, and furnished with a seat for the priest, and often 
 with a door to shut him in, while he hears confessions. A 
 grate is usually placed on one or both sides of the priest, that 
 the penitent or penitents may whisper the confession through 
 the grate into the priest's ear. (See Chap. XVII.) . 
 
 The " corporal " is a consecrated linen cloth, which is 
 spread on the altar, before the bread (to be made the body 
 [corpus in Latin] of Christ) and wine are placed there and 
 consecrated in the mass. The corporal should be about 22 to 
 24 inches square, of very clean and beautiful linen, starched, 
 with a small cross (not of gold or silver) wrought in the mid- 
 dle. When not in use it should be neatly folded, and kept in 
 the burse. 
 
 Cotton is used for wiping the priest's hands after blessing 
 the font, &c. 
 
 The " credence " is the side-table, near the altar, on which 
 the chalices, paten, host, cruets, <fec., may be placed before high 
 mass, and some of them at other times. 
 
 A " crosier " is the pastoral crook or staff, used by a bishop 
 or abbot, the top of which is bent in the form of a curve, and 
 often richly ornamented. The pastoral staff sometimes termi- 
 nates in a cross, instead of a crook. (See Cross, and Chapter 
 VII.) 
 
 The cross is used in or on Roman Catholic churches, altars, 
 tombs, banners, and vestments ; it is marked in the official signa- 
 tures of bishops and other high ecclesiastics ; bishops, abbots, 
 and abbesses wear it suspended over the breast ; the sign of the 
 cross is made in all religious services as well as in the sacra- 
 ments of the church. The archbishop's cross has 2 trans- 
 verse pieces, and the pope's has 3. (See Crosier and Crucifix, 
 and Chap. XVI.) The " processional cross" (= cross or cruci- 
 fix, which is carried in processions) has a long staff by which 
 it may be borne in an elevated position. Processional crosses,
 
 468 
 
 CHUBCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 from 16 to 32 inches high, cost, if varnished, from $2.70 to 
 $6.60 in gold each ; if silver-plated, from $4.05 to $8.50 ; if 
 
 silver-plated, with rays varnished, 
 as in the cut, from $6.60 to $11 ; 
 or in a still richer style, $14. The 
 staff for a processional cross may 
 be had, silver-plated, for $9.40 in 
 currency. 
 
 A " crucifix " is a cross with the 
 image of Christ suffering upon it. 
 The processional cross, as above rep- 
 resented, is a crucifix. 
 
 A " cruet" is a vessel for holding 
 wine or water at the mass. They are 
 in pairs, one for each liquid, and 
 stand on a plate. The " Ceremonial 
 of the Church" says, in a note, 
 " they should be of glass, not of sil- 
 ver." But Benziger Brothers ad- 
 vertise plain glass cruets at from 
 35 cents to $3 a pair ; those of 
 PROCESSIONAL CROSS AND PART britaimia, with a plate, at $3.75 to 
 
 a pair ; those of cut glass, $12.25 
 and $16, with a metal 
 plate ; the silver cru- 
 ets with German sil- 
 ver plate and han- 
 dles, chased and all 
 gilt, as in the cut, 
 $51 ; and of an extra 
 fine pattern, $70. 
 
 CRUETS WITH PLATE. ^ Crypt " (=1 
 
 hidden part) is a low vaulted chamber under a church or ca< 
 thedral, as at St. Peter's in Rome. Some crypts have become 
 the receptacles of monuments of the dead, as at the abbey of 
 St. Denis in France. 
 
 OF us STAFF.
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 469 
 
 Cushions are used for sitting on, kneeling on, and for sup- 
 porting books. 
 
 The " dorsale " (= dorsel) denotes a veil hanging behind 
 the altar. (Compare Antependium.) 
 
 The " epistle-side " of the altar, chancel, &c., is the right 
 hand side to one facing the altar ; and the south side, when 
 the altar is placed (as it is usually placed, when convenient) 
 at the east end of the church. (See Gospel-side.) 
 
 A ewer, or pitcher, with water in it, for washing the priest's 
 hands, is needed at mass, &c. 
 
 A faldstool (= folding-stool) is a portable seat, made to 
 fold together like a camp-stool, and used by the bishop as a 
 praying-desk and as a chair at ordinations, <fec. It is cush- 
 ioned and covered with a silk cloth, of the color of the vest- 
 ments, which hangs down to the ground on all sides ; and the 
 corners and 2 sides connecting them are higher than the cush- 
 ion, and of gilt metal. 
 
 Fire is needed whenever incense is to be burned. For this 
 purpose a chafing-dish may be 
 provided in the sacristy. A new 
 fire is kindled on Holy Saturday 
 by striking it from a flint outside 
 of the church and lighting coals 
 with it ; and this new fire is 
 blessed by the priest. 
 
 Flowers are often used, but 
 they are forbidden at mass for 
 the dead, &c. (See Bouquets.) 
 
 A " font " (etymologically = 
 fount and fountain) is a vessel or 
 receptacle for the water used in 
 baptism or for the holy water. 
 The baptismal font is blessed on 
 Holy Saturday according to a 
 prescribed rite, in which the pas- BAPTISMAL FONT, OPEX. 
 chal candle is dipped to the bottom of the font, holy water is
 
 470 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 taken from it for sprinkling the priest and people and for sup- 
 plying the holy water vessels at the doors of the church, and 
 then the oil of catechumens and the chrism are put into it 
 before the infants are baptized. Baptismal fonts are usually 
 of marble or stone ; but baptismal fonts of iron have been in- 
 troduced into Roman Catholic churches in this country. 
 " Baptismal fonts with figures on the top representing the 7 
 sacraments and the 4 evangelists on the lower part," cost from 
 $100 to $250. A Holy-water-font of wood with china basin, 6 
 or 8 inches in diameter, costs from $6.30 to $8.40 ; one of zinc, 
 with a basin 7 inches in diameter, costs $7. (See Holy 
 water.) 
 
 Frankincense ; see Incense. 
 
 " Frontal" = antependium. 
 
 " Galilee," in old cathedrals, was a chapel at the principal 
 entrance, where processions ended. 
 
 Genuflection = bending the knee. A genuflection is made 
 by bringing the right knee down to the floor, without bending 
 the body. A genuflection on both knees is made by bending 
 both knees the right one first to the floor ; then, after mak- 
 ing a low bow, rising first from the left knee, and next from 
 the right. 
 
 A " girandole " is a sort of candelabrum or branched can- 
 dlestick. Girandoles with glass pendants and marble base are 
 sold in sets of 3, 1 of them having 2 or 3 lights, and 2 of 
 them but 1 light each, at from $12 to $20 a set. (See Cande- 
 labrum, Candlestick, Lamp, &c.) 
 
 Gongs, from 9 to 11 inches in diameter, appear among the 
 " church ornaments, <fec.," in the catalogue of Benziger Broth- 
 ers. Such a gong, with its striker, costs from $21 to $29. 
 
 The " Gospel-side " of an altar, <fec., is the left-hand side to 
 one who faces the altar, and the opposite to the "Epistle-side," 
 which see. 
 
 " Half-moon " (= luna) is a kind of locket, shaped like a 
 half-moon, used for holding the host in the ostensory. 
 
 " Hassocks " (= thick mats for kneeling on) were common
 
 CHORCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 471 
 
 in the churches of England in olden times. (See Cushions, and 
 Kneeling-cushions.) 
 
 Holy oil ; see Oil. 
 
 Holy water. Says bishop England : 
 
 " It is customary before mass to sprinkle the congregation with holy 
 water, or on entering the church each individual may sprinkle himself 
 from a vessel which contains this water. This ceremony is to remind 
 us of the necessity of entering with purity of heart, having washed 
 
 away the iniquities and distractions of the world The water is 
 
 blessed by first blessing salt, wliich, in imitation of the prophet 
 
 Eliseus [ Elisha], when he healed the waters of Jericho, is cast into 
 the water in the figure of a cross, in the name of the Father and of the 
 
 O 
 
 Son and of the Holy Ghost The proper prayer having been said over 
 the water, the priest entreats the mercy and protection of God upon 
 those who shall sprinkle themselves or their houses therewith, that they 
 may be guarded against the incursions ot the evil spirits, and enabled 
 to serve God. If the clergyman sprinkles it, he repeats the antiphon 
 from the 50th Psalm ' Thou, O Lord, shalt sprinkle me, and I shall 
 be cleansed ; thou shalt wash me, and I shah 1 be made whiter than 
 snow.' Then the entire, or a few verses from the same psalm: 'Have 
 mercy on me, O Lord,' &c. After which he repeats the doxology, i.e., 
 ' Glory be to the Father,' &c., and then the Antiphon again." 
 
 A " holy-water-pot " or " holy-water vase " and sprinkle 
 (= sprinkling-brush) are used in sprinkling the altar and 
 priest and people with the holy water on Sunday. Holy-water- 
 pots, such as is represented in the cut, are from 5 to 7^ inches in 
 diameter, and cost, with sprinkles, from $3.10 to 87.30 in gold 
 each. One silver-plated and chased costs from $9.40 to $13.25 
 in currency. See Font above. 
 
 The " host " is the consecrated bread or wafer that is used 
 in the mass. It must be removed at least once in 8 or 15 days 
 (authorities differ), when that which remains is eaten by the 
 priest. (See Ciborium, Monstrance, Paten, Wafer, <fec.) 
 
 Images and statues of Christ, saints, &c., are numerous in 
 Roman Catholic churches. 
 
 Incense is much used in Roman Catholic services, as in all 
 the solemn masses, at solemn vespers, in the benediction of the
 
 472 
 
 CHUKCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 blessed sacrament (see Ostensory), &c. The natural incense, 
 or frankincense, in small grains, costs 35 to 40 cents a pound. 
 
 The " Incense-boat," so called from its boat-like shape, is the 
 box in which is a quantity of incense for use at any religious 
 service. It accompanies the censer, and is represented with it 
 in the cut above. 
 
 Kneeling-cushions have long been in use. (See Cushions.) 
 
 HOLT- WATER-POT. 
 
 KNEELING-DESK. 
 
 A Kneeling-desk is represented in the cut. The bishop uses 
 the faldstool and a cushion, when he kneels in prayer at or- 
 dinations, <fec. 
 
 Lamps of various forms and styles, both suspended and 
 standing, are of course in use, as well as candlesticks, lanterns, 
 torches, &c. Church-lamps are catalogued with prices varying 
 from $3.85 to $97 in gold each, one of the highest price having 
 6 branch-lights. Lamps are constantly burning in St. Peter's 
 at Rome, and in other great churches, at altars, tombs and 
 shrines of saints, &c. 
 
 " Lantern " may denote 1. The well-known contrivance for 
 inclosing and protecting a lamp or candle; used on various 
 occasions, as in the procession on Corpus Christi, <fcc. 2. A 
 drum-shaped erection for admitting light into a dome or apart- 
 ment, as in the dome of St. Peter's at Rome. 
 
 " Lavatory " is a vessel or place for washing. 
 
 " Lectern," or " lecturn," in old churches, was a reading-
 
 CHTTRCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 473 
 
 desk, or a stand where the epistle and gospel were sung, and 
 certain services for the dead performed. (See Book-stand and 
 Missal-stand.) 
 
 " Luna " = Half-moon. 
 
 The Missal (= mass-book) is described in a previous part 
 of this chapter. 
 
 A missal-stand of black walnut and plain pattern, costs $2.25 
 to $2.75, according to its size ; of ornamental patterns, from $4 
 to $6. (See Book-stand.) 
 
 " Monstrance " = Ostensory. 
 
 The " nave" is the middle or main part of a church; usually 
 separated from the aisles or wings by pillars or columns. 
 
 " Nocturn " is defined in Brande's Encyclopedia, " An office 
 consisting of psalms and prayers, celebrated in the Roman 
 Catholic Church at midnight, after the example of David (Ps. 
 118). It was said to have been introduced into the West by 
 St. Ambrose. It now forms part of the service of matins." 
 
 A " novena " is a nine days' devotion in honor of some 
 mystery of our redemption, or in honor of the Virgin Mary or 
 of some saint, in order to obtain any particular request or 
 blessing. 
 
 Oil is consecrated by the bishop on Maundy-Thursday an- 
 nually for all the churches of his diocese. Pure olive oil is 
 required for this purpose, with balsam (= balm) for the 
 chrism. Three metal vases are provided and covered with 
 silk, on one of which is engraved the words " Oleum Infir* 
 morum " (= oil of the infirm) or the initials " 0. I." ; on 
 another, " Oleum Catechumenorum" (=oil of the 
 catechumens) or " 0. C." ; on the third, which 
 is larger than the others, and is covered with 
 white silk, " Sanctum Chrisma " (= holy 
 chrism) or " S.C." Some balsam is mixed with 
 a little of the oil from the third vase, and this 
 mixture the bishop puts into the vase and mixes 
 with the rest of the oil there. The ceremony, 
 which consists of exorcisms, prayers, chantings, 
 making the sign of the cross with the hand and OIL-STOCK.
 
 474 
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 with the breath, <fec., occupies 16 pages of the Pontificate Roma- 
 num, and 8 or 10 in the "Ceremonial of the Church." The old oils, 
 consecrated the year before, if any had remained in the vases, 
 are put in the church-lamps before the holy sacrament, to be 
 burnt ; and those which remain in pyxes and boxes are burnt 
 with the old silk. Every priest must obtain from the bishop a 
 supply of these consecrated oils for his church. The oil of the 
 infirm is used in extreme unction ; the oil of catechumens in 
 baptism ; the holy chrism in baptism, confirmation, <fec. Oil- 
 stocks for holding the three oils, as represented in the cut, cost 
 from $3.50, when made of silver-plated and gilt metal, to $8.50, 
 when made of silver gilt. A silver oil-stock for the " 0. 1." 
 costs $3.50, if gilt inside only, or $4, if all gilt. (See Chrism 
 and Pyx.) 
 
 An organ is almost indispensable in a Roman Catholic 
 church, at least, if the congregation have the means of pro- 
 
 curing one. Organs were intro- 
 duced into the churches of Western 
 Europe more than 1000 years ago. 
 An "ostensory" (= ostensorium 
 = monstrance = remonstrance) 
 is a transparent pyx or receptacle 
 for the host, which is mounted 
 upon a stand and usually sur- 
 rounded with rays like the sun ; 
 . used for exposing the host to view 
 in the church or in a procession. 
 In the "benediction of (or "with") 
 the blessed sacrament " and in the 
 " 40 hours' exposition," the con- 
 secrated host, fixed in the little 
 half-moon that holds it, is put into 
 the ostensory, which is itself 
 placed upon a throne or place of 
 exposition at the most conspicuous 
 
 OSTENSORY 
 
 STYLED 
 
 part of the altar. (^See Veil.,) Ostensories are of various
 
 CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 475 
 
 materials and styles (French, German, Byzantine, Gothic, 
 Renaissance, &c.), from 19 to 30 inches in height, and vary in 
 price from $25 to $150, or more, if of solid silver or gold ; and 
 the cases, in which they are commonly kept, are covered with 
 morocco-paper or leather, and cost from $5 to $15 additional. 
 The ostensory, represented in the cut, is of the French style, 
 19 inches high, and costs $25, when silver-plated, with rays 
 and ornaments gilt ; or $33, if all gilt. 
 
 Paintings and pictures abound in Roman Catholic churches. 
 (See Chapters I. and XV.) 
 
 A "pall "may be 1. A small piece of linen, stiffened and 
 sometimes ornamented, used to cover the chalice at the mass. 
 
 2. A large black cloth, used to cover a coffin, tomb, or cenotaph. 
 
 3. A consecrated vestment (see Chapter VII.) . 
 Pastoral staff = crosier, which see. 
 
 A " paten " is a plate for the host or consecrated wafer. It 
 is usually small and fits the chalice like a cover. 
 
 " Pax" =peace. " To give (or receive) the pax " is to give 
 (or receive) the salutation " Pax tecum " (= peace be with 
 thee), to which the answer is " Et cum spiritu tuo " (= and 
 with thy spirit). "Pax" was also used formerly to denote a 
 plate of silver or other material on which a crucifix was en- 
 graved, and which was saluted with the " kiss of peace." 
 
 Pews, or fixed seats for the people, are not found in St. 
 Peter's and other large European churches ; but they are used 
 in the United States. 
 
 The "Pontificale Romanum" (= Roman Pontifical) contains, 
 in Latin, the prayers, readings, and forms to be observed in 
 various ecclesiastical rites in which a pontiff (= bishop) 
 officiates. It is issued by the order of the popes. The edition 
 of 1818 bears on its title-page the names of Benedict XIV. and 
 Pius VII. 
 
 A "Prie Dieu" (in French = pray God) is a kneeling- 
 desk, which see. 
 
 Processional cross ; see Cross. 
 
 Pulpits have been placed in churches from the early days of
 
 476 
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 Christianity. The most ancient pulpits now existing are sup- 
 posed to be the two marble pulpits in the basilica of San 
 Lorenzo and the two, also of marble, in the church of San 
 Clemente in Rome, these edifices having been originally built, 
 according to tradition, about 1500 years ago. One of these 
 pulpits is used for reading or chanting the epistle ; the other 
 for the gospel. 
 
 A " purificator," or " purificatory," is a linen cloth, about 
 a foot square, used for wiping the chalice and paten. 
 
 "Pyx" (= Latin pyxis) is the box in which the host or 
 consecrated bread is kept. The pyx repre- 
 sented in the upper cut, made of gilding- 
 metal, silver-plated, and gilt inside, costs 
 $2.75, or, if all gilt, $3.25. The " removal 
 of the pyx " from the altar to the repository 
 on Maundy-Thursday, and the " bringing 
 back the pyx to the altar " on Good 
 Friday and Holy Saturday, on occasions 
 of special ceremony. A " pyx " or box is 
 also used for the holy oils (see Oil above), 
 
 PYX FOE HOLY BREAD. i i i_ J j.1 1 
 
 which, as represented in the lower cut, and 
 made of silver, costs, if the 
 inside only is gilt, $11.25, or, 
 if all gilt, $12.25. 
 
 A " relic-case," also called 
 "reliquary," is a case or re- 
 ceptacle for relics (see Chapter 
 XV.). Reliquaries, made to 
 stand, and varnished, may be 
 had of different sizes and styles, and vary in price from $4 to 812. 
 " Remonstrance " = monstrance, or ostensory, which see. 
 The term " repository " (= a receptacle or place for keeping 
 anything) is specially applied to the vessel or place in which 
 the host is kept. Thus the " Ceremonial " has among its 
 directions for Maundy-Thursday the following in respect to the 
 " Repository for the Blessed Sacrament " : 
 
 PYX FOR THE HOLY OILS
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 477 
 
 " 1. This repository is to be prepared apart from the principal altar 
 of the church, and hung with precious tapestry, which should by no 
 means be of black color ; adorned with flowers and lights, but not with 
 relics or images of saints. 
 
 " 2. The repository or urn, in which the chalice with the Blessed 
 Sacrament is to be placed, should be prepared in the centre of the altar. 
 It should be finely adorned and secured with lock and key. 
 
 " 3. There should be a corporal in the repository. 
 
 " 4. Another corporal on the altar. 
 
 " 5. Steps to reach to the repository, where the chalice is to be 
 placed." 
 
 The " Rituale Romanum " (=Roman Ritual) contains the 
 directions and forms for the administration of baptism, and of 
 other sacraments, for the visitation of the sick and dying, for 
 funerals and offices for the dead, for various benedictions, pro- 
 cessions, prayers, exorcism, &c. It was published by order of 
 pope Paul V., and enlarged and corrected by Benedict XIY. 
 
 " Rood " formerly denoted a crucifix. The " rood-loft " was 
 commonly a gallery over or near the passage from the body of 
 the church into the chancel ; and in it were ttie images of the 
 crucifixion of Christ, or of the Trinity with the Son on the 
 cross, and of Mary, and John, and sometimes of other saints. 
 
 A "rosary" (from Latin rosarium =rose-bed) is a series of 
 prayers consisting of repetitions of the Hail Mary (Ave 
 Maria') and the Lord's prayer (=Paternoster) with the creed 
 and Gloria Patri (= Glory to the Father) ; or the string ol 
 beads on which these repetitions are counted. The rosary con- 
 sists of 165 beads, and is fully described and represented pic- 
 torially in Chapter XV. 
 
 A " sacristy " is an apartment attached to a church in which 
 the sacred utensils, vestments, and other consecrated articles 
 are kept, and where the priest dresses himself ; called "vestry" 
 in some Protestant churches. 
 
 The " sanctuary" is the part of a church about the altar; 
 also called " chancel " or " choir." 
 
 " Scapular " or " scapulary" (properly=a garment worn on
 
 478 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 the shoulder) is applied, in the " devotion of the scapulars," to 
 designate two pieces of brown woolen cloth, each about 3 inches 
 square, attached to a double string, so as to hang over the 
 shoulders, one piece on the back, the other on the breast. The 
 scapular usually has on it a picture of the Virgin Mary, or the ini- 
 tials I. H. S. (for Jesus Hominum Salvator =Jesus the Savior 
 of men) on one piece, and I. M. I. (for Jesus, Mary, and Joseph) 
 on the other. Besides this " Scapular of Mount Carmel," there 
 are 3 other scapulars, likewise composed of 2 small pieces of 
 woolen cloth. These 4 scapulars may all be worn at once. In 
 this case each of the 2 parts is composed of 4 pieces, which are 
 sewed together like the leaves of a book ; and the two parts are 
 joined together by two tape-strings about 18 inches long, so that 
 one part falls on the back, the other on the breast. Of these 4 
 leaves or pieces in each part, the " Scapular of Mount Carmel" is 
 brown and about four inches square ; the " Scapular of our Lady 
 of the Seven Dolors " black and somewhat smaller ; the " Scapular 
 of the Immaculate Conception " is blue and still smaller ; the 
 " Scapular of the Most Holy Trinity" is white and the smallest, 
 with a cross of red and blue wool, in the middle of it. The re- 
 ception and wearing of 1 of these scapulars, and especially the re- 
 ception of the 4 from a priest empowered to give them and the 
 subsequent wearing of them constantly, are regarded as enti- 
 tling the wearer to special and great spiritual privileges (see 
 Chapter XIX.). 
 
 A " sepulchre " may be 1. A tomb or burial-place for 
 a corpse. 2. A hollow receptacle in the altar for the relics of 
 saints. 
 
 A " sprinkle " is a brush or other instrument for sprink- 
 ling holy water ; also called " sprinkling-brush." See Holy 
 Water, above. 
 
 A staff is used for carrying the processional cross. See 
 Cross and Crosier. 
 
 A " station " = a place for standing or stopping, &c. The 
 term is applied to a place, which is not a church or chapel, but 
 is used for religious services at appointed times ; also to a
 
 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 479 
 
 church in which indulgences are granted on certain days. The 
 " stations of the holy cross," also called the " holy way of the 
 cross," consist of 14 representations of the successive stages of 
 our Lord's passion, or of his journey from Ihe hall of Pilate 
 to Calvary, which are set up in regular order round the nave of 
 a church or elsewhere, and visited successively, with meditation 
 and prayer at each station, the devotion being a substitute for 
 an actual pilgrimage to Palestine and a visit to the holy places 
 themselves. The 14 stations of the cross represent (1.) 
 Jesus is condemned to death ; (2.) Jesus is made to bear his 
 cross ; (3.) Jesus falls the first time under his cross ; (4.) 
 Jesus meets his afflicted mother ; (5.) The Cyrenian helps 
 Jesus to carry his cross ; (6.) Veronica wipes the face of Jesus ; 
 (7.) Jesus falls the second time ; (8.) Jesus speaks to the 
 women of Jerusalem ; (9.) Jesus falls the third time ; (10.) 
 Jesus is stripped of his garments ; (11.) Jesus is nailed to the 
 cross ; (12.) Jesus dies on the cross ; (13.) Jesus is -taken 
 down from the cross ; (14.) Jesus is placed in the sepulchre. 
 A set of the " stations of the holy cross, in oil paintings," may 
 vary from 29 inches in height and 21 in width, to 48 inches in 
 height and 36 in width, and costs on stretchers from $110 to 
 $500 in gold ; a set in 14 oil-prints on canvas and stretchers 
 may be from 24 by 17 inches to 34 by 25J inches in size, and 
 from $32 to $75 (gold) in price ; a set in 14 lithographs, plain, 
 colored, <fec., may vary in size from 6 by 9 inches to 24 by 33f 
 inches, and is sold (without frames) at from 90 cents to $31.- 
 50 in currency. 
 
 Statues are among the prominent ornaments of Roman Catho- 
 lic churches and chapels. Statues executed in marble and 
 bronze abound in the churches of Rome, <fec. (see Chapter I.) ; 
 but statues of zinc, painted in natural colors, are now recom- 
 mended for churches and chapels as more durable and service- 
 able. These are made from 1 to 8 feet high, and cost from $5 
 to $350 each. A zinc statue of " Mary, Queen of Heaven," 
 with the Infant Jesus, is represented in Chap. XV., and costs, 
 according to the size (1J to 6 feet), from $16 to $150. Dia-
 
 480 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 
 
 dems and crowns for statues, richly ornamented with stones, 
 cost from $3 to $20. A set of zinc statues for the Christmas- 
 crib, consisting of the Infant Jesus, lying with arms stretched 
 forth, Mary and Joseph kneeling, 3 kings, 4 shepherds, 1 an- 
 gel with the glory round him, and heads of an ox and ass, in 
 all 13 figures, the standing ones 4* feet high, and the others 
 of proportionate size, cost together $677. Statues of compo- 
 sition are imported into the Uni'ed States from Munich in 
 Germany and from France ; but their prices are not given. 
 
 Stools are sometimes used as seats for assistant priests, as- 
 sistant deacons, cope-bearers, &c. See Bench and Chair and 
 Faldstool above. 
 
 A " tabernacle " is a receptacle for something sacred, as for 
 the pyx on the altar (see Chapel 3), for relics (sec Relic-case), 
 &c. 
 
 " Tapers " are small wax-candles (see Candle). Fosbroke's 
 " British Monachism" makes mention of 
 
 " Tapers, ornamented with flowers, used on high festivals to burn 
 before particular images, and be borne in procession." 
 
 " Tenebroe" (Latin = darkness) is the name given to the 
 matins and lauds of Maundy-Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy 
 Saturday (said on the Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday even- 
 ings of Holy- Week), because, during the course of the office, 
 the lights in the church are extinguished. See Chapter XVI. 
 
 A "throne," or chair of state, is directed to be prepared for 
 the bishop, at solemn pontifical mass. It should be a high- 
 backed arm-chair, covered with silk cloth, and placed on a 
 platform 3 steps above the floor of the sanctuary, and on the 
 gospel side of it against the side-walls. Over the chair should 
 be a canopy, with hangings all around ; and by its side should 
 be 2 wooden stools for the assistant deacons, and another placed 
 a little further forward for the assistant priest. A " throne " 
 or small canopy, is required to be erected in the most conspic- 
 uous place on or over the altar, for the benediction and exposi- 
 tion of the Blessed Sacrament (see Ostensory).
 
 CHDECHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 481 
 
 " Thurible " (Latin thuribulum) = censer, which see. 
 
 The herb " thyme " is used in the benediction of bells. See 
 Bells. 
 
 Tongs are required to take fire for the censer from the chaf- 
 ing dish. 
 
 Torches are used " at the benediction, elevation, and proces- 
 sion of the Blessed Sacrament." 
 
 Towels are, of course, needed to wipe the priest's hands after 
 he washes' them in the public services. 
 
 The " Tract" is a part of the mass described in the preced- 
 ing part of this chapter. 
 
 A " triangle," or triangular candlestick, having 
 15 brown wax candles arranged on two sides of a 
 triangle, is used during the office of Tenebrce. The 
 triple candle used on Holy Saturday, and composed L IT 
 of 3 candles of equal height, which are united at the 
 base in a common stock, like a three-pronged fork, i| also 
 called a "triangle." See Candles. 
 
 The " umbrellino" or " umbrella," is a small umbrella- 
 shaped canopy, which is opened 
 and carried over the priest as he is 
 conveying the host or blessed sa- 
 crament in his hands from one 
 altar to another in the same church. 
 Its form, when open, is given in 
 the annexed cut. 
 
 Veils are much used in the cere- 
 monies of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. An " altar-veil " = an- 
 tependium, which see. A " hu- 
 
 t M SP T i- 7 UMBRELLINO FOB TRANSPORTING 
 
 meral veil (from Latin humerus SACRAMENT. 
 
 =shoulder) is a long veil, with which the priest's shoulders 
 and the host may be covered, as he carries the latter in his 
 hands. A white veil is used for covering the ostensory on the 
 altar, before the benediction with the blessed sacrament (see 
 Ostensory) ; and on the side-table at the same time is a white 
 
 " benediction-veil." This benediction-veil is afterwards, when 
 31
 
 482 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 
 
 the benediction is about to be given, taken from the side-table 
 by the censer-bearer and extended on the priest's shoulders ; 
 the priest takes the ostensory, turns the back of it to his face, 
 covers his hands with the extremities of this veil, and holds up 
 the ostensory, while he turns to his. right towards the people 
 and continues to turn in the same direction till he faces the altar 
 again ; he then replaces the ostensory on the altar, and is 
 divested of the benediction-veil, the " benediction with the 
 blessed sacrament " having thus been given while the priest 
 himself was silent. Benediction-veils of " white moire-antique 
 or watered silk, with real gold embroidery, silk lining," cost 
 from $45 to $150 in gold ; others, of gold cloth embroidered, 
 or of white damask interwoven with gold and flowers, are of 
 various prices, from $100 in gold down to $6. 
 
 The " wafer " is the thin leaf-like bread used in the mass. 
 The material, mode of consecration, &c., are described above. 
 See Bread, Host, and the account of the Mass, above. 
 
 Water ; see Holy Water, &c.
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 HONOR PAID TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, AC. 
 
 THE council of Trent at its 25th session passed a decree 
 " concerning the invocation, veneration, and relics of saints, 
 and concerning sacred images." This decree commands bish- 
 ops and other spiritual teachers to teach 
 
 " That the saints, who reign together with Christ, offer to God their 
 prayers for men ; that it is good and useful suppliantly to invoke them, 
 and to flee to their prayers, help, and assistance, on account of the ben- 
 efita to be obtained from God through his Son our Lord Jesus Christ, 
 who is our only Redeemer and Savior : . . . also, that the holy bodies 
 of the holy martyrs and of others living with Christ, which were living 
 members of Christ, and the temple of the Holy Spirit, to be raised by 
 him to eternal life, and glorified, are to be venerated by the faithful, 
 since through them many benefits are bestowed on men by God : . . . . 
 moreover, that the images of Christ, of the God-bearing Virgin, and 
 of other saints, are to be had and retained, especially in churches, and 
 due honor and veneration rendered to them ; not that it is believed that 
 there resides in them any divinity, or virtue, on account of which they are 
 to be worshiped, or that any thing is to be sought from them, or that 
 confidence is to be placed in images, as was formerly done by the Gen- 
 tiles, who put their trust in idols ; but since the honor, which is shown 
 to them, is referred to the originals which they represent ; so that through 
 the images, which we kiss, and before which we uncover the head, and 
 fall down, we adore Christ, and venerate the saints, whose likeness they 
 bear ; . . . . that through the histories of the mysteries of our re- 
 demption, expressed in pictures or other similitudes, the people are in- 
 structed and confirmed in the articles of faith which are to be remem- 
 bered and diligently cherished ; that from ah 1 sacred images great ad- 
 vantage is derived, not only because the people are reminded of the
 
 484 HONORS TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, AC. 
 
 benefits and gifts which are bestowed on them by Christ, but also be~ 
 cause the divine miracles wrought by the saints and their salutary 
 examples are set before the eyes of the faithful, that they may thank 
 God for those, imitate the saints in their own life and manners, and 
 be excited to adore and love God, and to cultivate piety. If any one 
 shall teach or think in opposition to these decrees, let him be ac- 
 cursed 
 
 " The council decrees that it shall be lawful for no one to fix or 
 cause to be fixed, in any place or church, howsoever exempt, any un- 
 usual image, unless it be approved by the bishop ; also, that no new 
 miracles are to be admitted, or new relics received, except with the 
 recognition and approbation of the same bishop, who, as soon as he has 
 been informed of them, and has taken the advice of theologians and 
 other pious men, may do what he shall judge consonant with truth and 
 piety." 
 
 The decree of the council is carefully worded and presents 
 the theory of the subject. The creed of pope Pius IV. (see 
 Chap. II.), the Catechism of the Council of Trent, and all 
 other authorities of the Roman Catholic church, agree in sub- 
 stance with the teaching here given. 
 
 " The Litany of our Lady of Loretto," or " Litany of the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary," is found in various popular prayer-books 
 for the use of Roman Catholics. As given in " The Garden of 
 the Soul," a prayer-book officially approved by " fJohn, Arch- 
 bishop of New York," this anthem occurs twice in it : 
 
 " "We fly to thy patronage, O holy Mother of God, despise not our 
 petitions in our necessities, but deliver us from all dangers, O ever 
 glorious and blessed Virgin." 
 
 This Litany consists of ejaculatory prayers for mercy, ad- 
 dressed to God and Christ, of a longer prayer to be brought 
 to the glory of the resurrection, but principally of appeals 
 (" Pray for us ") addressed to Mary under each of the follow- 
 ing titles : 
 
 " Holy Mary, Holy Mother of God, Holy Virgin of virgins, Mother of 
 Christ, Mother of divine grace, Mother most pure, Mother most chaste, 
 Mother undefiled, Mother untouched, Mother most amiable, Mother most
 
 HONORS TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, &C. 485 
 
 admirable, Mother of our Creator, Mother of our Redeemer, "Virgin most 
 prudent, Virgin most venerable, Virgin most renowned, Virgin most 
 powerful, Virgin most merciful, Virgin most faithful, Mirror of justice, 
 Seat of wisdom, Cause of our joy, Spiritual vessel, Vessel of honor, 
 Vessel of singular devotion, Mystical rose, Tower of David, Tower of 
 ivory, House of gold, Ark of the covenant, Gate of heaven, Morning 
 star, Health of the weak, Refuge of sinners, Comforter of the afflicted, 
 Help of Chi'istians, Queen of angels, Queen of patriarchs, Queen of 
 prophets, Queen of apostles, Queen of martyrs, Queen of confessors, 
 Queen of virgins, Queen of all saints." 
 
 ; The " Rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary " is altogether the 
 most popular form of devotion among Roman Catholics. It 
 has been strongly recommended by many popes, who have 
 granted great indulgences to those who practice it. It is said 
 with beads, and is divided into 15 decades or tens, each decade 
 consisting of the Lord's Prayer (= Pater noster), 10 Hail 
 Marys (= Ave Maria), and Glory be to the Father (= Gloria, 
 Patrj). These 15 decades correspond with the 15 " Mysteries 
 of Redemption," 5 of which are joyful, 5 sorrowful, and 5 
 glorious. The 5 " Joyful Mysteries " the Annunciation, the 
 Visitation, the Nativity, the Presentation, the Finding in the 
 Temple are said on Mondays and Thursdays through the 
 year, and daily from the 1st Sunday in Advent to the Feast 
 of the Purification. The 5 " Sorrowful Mysteries " the Bloody 
 Sweat, the Scourging at the Pillar, the Crowning with Thorns, 
 the Carriage (= carrying) of the Cross, the Crucifixion are 
 said on Tuesdays and Fridays through the year, and daily from 
 Ash-Wednesday to Easter-Sunday. The 5 " Glorious Mys- 
 teries " the Resurrection, the Ascension, the Coming of the 
 Holy Ghost, The Assumption of our Blessed Lady, the Coro- 
 nation of our Blessed Lady are said on the ordinary Sundays, 
 and Wednesdays and Saturdays through the year, and daily 
 from Easter-Sunday to Trinity Sunday. 
 
 The manner of saying the Rosary on the beads may be un- 
 derstood by these directions with the accompanying cut. 
 
 On the cross, say the Apostles' Creed. On the next large bead,
 
 486 HONORS TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, &C. 
 
 say the Lord's Prayer. On the next small bead, say the Hail Mary, 
 thus: 
 
 _ -~- ^ _ <r> i^ 
 
 Hail Mary, full 
 
 of grace, the Lord is 
 with thee : blessed 
 art thou amongst 
 women, and blessed 
 is the fruit of thy 
 womb, Jesus. Who 
 may increase our 
 faith. Holy Mary, 
 Mother of God, pray 
 for us sinners, now, 
 and at the hour of 
 our death. Amen." 
 On the 2d small 
 bead, repeat the Hail 
 Mary, substituting 
 for the above itali- 
 cized words, " Who 
 may strengthen our 
 Hope. n On the 3d 
 small bead, repeat 
 
 the Hail Mary, substituting in the same place, " Who may enliven our 
 Charity" Then, and at the end of every decade, say, ^ 
 
 " Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, 
 as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be, world without 
 end. Amen." 
 
 On the next large bead, and on every large bead, say the Lord's 
 Prayer. In saying the 10 Hail Marys for the 1st " Joyful Mystery," 
 substitute for the above italicized clause, " Who was made man for us ; " 
 in the 2d, " Whom thou didst carry to St. Elizabeth's ;" in the 3d, " Who 
 was born in a stable for us ; " in the 4th, " Who was presented in the 
 temple for us ; " in the 5th, " Whom thou didst find in the temple." 
 
 At the end of the 5 " Joyful Mysteries," and at the end of the 5 
 " Sorrowful " and 5 " Glorious Mysteries," say the Salve Regina (= 
 Hail, Queen) thus : 
 
 " Hail ! Holy Queen, Mother of Mercy, our life, our sweetness, and 
 
 EOSAET ARRANGED IN THE FORM OF A HEART.
 
 HONORS TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, &C. 487 
 
 our hope. To thee do we cry, poor banished children of Eve. To 
 thee. do we send up our sighs, mourning and weeping in this valley of 
 tears. Turn then, O most gracious advocate, thine eyes of mercy to- 
 wards us ; and after this our exile is ended, show us the blessed fruit 
 of thy womb, Jesus. clement ! O pious ! sweet Virgin Mary ! 
 
 " V. Pray for us, O holy Mother of God. 
 
 " R. That we may be made worthy of the promises of Christ." 
 
 In saying the 5 " Sorrowful Mysteries," the clauses substituted in the 
 
 u Hail Marys " for the italicized clause are : (1) " Who sweated blood 
 
 for us ; " (2) " Who was scourged for us ; " (3) " Who was crowned 
 
 with thorns for us; " (4) " Who carried the heavy cross for us ; " (5) 
 
 " Who was crucified and died for us" In saying the 5 " Glorious 
 
 Mysteries," substitute for the italicized clause (1) " Who arose from 
 
 the dead ; " (2) " Who ascended into heaven ; " (3) " Who sent the Holy 
 
 Ghost ; " (4) " Who assumed thee [or, took thee up] into heaven ;" 
 
 (5 ) ' ' Who crowned thee in heaven" 1 
 
 The 5th "Glorious Mystery" "the Coronation of the 
 Blessed Virgin " is represented in the accompanying cut, 
 which is copied from 
 
 ,, mi -r-^ The Fifth Glorious Musteru. 
 
 "The Rosary of the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary," 
 published with the ap- 
 probation of the Most 
 Rev. John Hughes, D. 
 D., Archbishop of New 
 York. 
 
 At the end of the 
 chaplet or rosary, it is 
 customary to say the 
 " Litany of the Blessed 
 Virgin," which is given 
 above. 
 
 The "Living Rosary " is a sort of devotion which began 
 in 1826 at Lyons in France, and was sanctioned by pope 
 
 ^he introduction of the italicized clauses accords with the method of saying the 
 rosary which is practiced by the Jesuits and Redemptorists. These clauses are 
 given with some variations in different books. With these clauses, or instead of 
 them, may be introduced a meditation and prayer for each mystery. 
 
 CORONATION OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN.
 
 488 HONORS TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, AC. 
 
 Gregory XVI. 15 persons form a company or circle, each 
 taking by lot one of the 15 " Mysteries of the Rosary," and 
 and reciting its decade(=10 Hail Marys, with a Lord's 
 Prayer before it and a Gloria Patri) every day. A num- 
 ber of circles united under a clergyman as director, con- 
 stitute a sodality (see Chap. XIV.). 
 
 The " devotion of the Scapulars," another popular mode of 
 honoring the Virgin Mary, has its reputed origin in an appear- 
 ance of the Virgin to Simon Stock, Superior General of the 
 Carmelites, July 16, 1251, and her bestowal on him then of the 
 Scapular of Mount Carmel (see Chapters XIV. and XIX.). 
 
 "We also find in an authorized prayer-book for Roman Gather 
 lics an " Office of the Sacred and Immaculate Heart of Mary," 
 the key-note of which is " Immaculate Heart of Mary ! Inflame 
 our hearts with the love with which you burn for Jesus." In 
 another authorized prayer-book is a " Litany of the Sacred 
 Heart of Mary," containing this petition : " Immaculate Mary, 
 meek and humble of heart. Make our heart according to the 
 Heart of Jesus." 
 
 " The Glories of Mary " is a book translated from the Ital- 
 ian of St. Alphonsus Liguori, founder of the Redemptorists ; 
 officially approved by " f John [Hughes] , Archbishop of New 
 York," in 1852 ; and published in New York by " T. W. 
 Strong, late Edward Dunigan & Bro., Catholic Publishing 
 House." The 5th discourse in the 2dpart of this book is " on 
 the Visitation of Mary," and is thus summed up in the table 
 of contents : 
 
 " Mary is the treasurer of all the divine graces ; therefore he who 
 desires graces, should have recourse to Mary ; and he who lias re- 
 course to Mary, should be secure of obtaining the graces he wishes." 
 
 In the discourse itself this language occurs : 
 
 " St. Bernard. . . . said : Let us then seek grace, and let us seek it 
 through Mary, for what she seeks she finds, and can not be frustrated. If, 
 then, we desire graces, we must go to this treasurer and dispensatrix 
 of graces ; for this is the sovereign will of the Giver of every good, as
 
 HONORS TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, 4C. 489 
 
 St. Bernard himself assures ns, that all graces are dispensed by the 
 hand of Mary. All, all: Totum, totum [Latin, signifying ' all ']; he 
 who says all, excludes nothing. . . . 
 
 " Let us ever remember the two great privileges which this good 
 mother possesses, namely : the desire she has to do us good, and the 
 power she has with her Son to obtain whatever she asks. ... If we 
 also desire the happy visits of this queen of heaven, it will greatly aid 
 us if we often visit her before some image, or in some church dedicated 
 to her." 
 
 The prayer with which this discourse is concluded, has these 
 passages : 
 
 " . ... Ask, ask then for me, Oh most holy Virgin, whatever thou es- 
 teemest best. Thy prayers are never rejected. ... I will live trusting 
 in thee. Thou must think only on saving me. Amen." 
 
 In the 8th discourse, "On the Assumption of Mary," the 
 heads are : 
 
 "1st. How glorious was the triumph of Mary when she ascended to 
 heaven ! 
 "2d. How exalted was the throne to which she was raised in heaven ! " 
 
 The discourse itself says : 
 
 " The Father crowns her by sharing with her his power, the Son his 
 wisdom, the Holy Spirit his love. And all the three divine persons 
 establishing her throne at the right hand of Jesus, declare her univer- 
 sal queen of heaven and of earth, and command angels and all crea- 
 tures to recognize her for their queen, and as queen to serve and obey 
 her " 
 
 A part of the prayer at the end of the discourse is : 
 
 " Oh great, excellent, and most glorious Lady, prostrate at the foot 
 of thy throne, we adore thee from this valley of tears. We rejoice at 
 the immense glory with which our Lord has enriched thee. Now that 
 thou art really queen of heaven and of earth, ah, do not forget us thy 
 poor servants. . . . Obtain for us the holy love of God, a good death, 
 and paradise. Oh Lady, change us from sinners to saints. Perform 
 this miracle that will redound more to thy honor, than if thou didst re*
 
 490 HONORS TO SAINTS, EELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, &C. 
 
 store sight to a thousand blind persons, or raise a thousand from the 
 dead. Thou art so powerful with God, it is enough to say that thou 
 art his mother, his most beloved, full of his grace ; what can he then 
 deny thee ? Oh most lovely queen, we do not pretend to behold thee 
 on the earth, but we desire to go and see thee in paradise ; thou must 
 obtain this for us. Thus we certainly hope. Amen, amen." 
 
 The engraving here given, is copied 
 from one published by Benziger Broth- 
 ers, of New York and Cincinnati ; 
 and represents a statue of Mary queen 
 of heaven with the infant Jesus, which 
 is actually for sale, as noticed in Chap- 
 ter XIV. The declaration of the im- 
 maculate conception of Mary is given 
 in Chapter II. 
 
 But many other saints,* besides 
 Mary, are greatly honored by Roman 
 Catholics. Thus " A Novena to St. 
 Joseph," in the " Garden of the Soul," 
 begins thus : 
 
 " O glorious descendant of the kings of 
 Judah ! inheritor of the virtues of all the 
 patriarchs ! just and happy St. Joseph ! lis- 
 ten to my prayer. Thou art my glorious 
 protector, and shalt ever be, after Jesus and 
 Mary, the object of my most profound ven- 
 
 eration and tender confidence. Thou art 
 
 MARY QUEEN OF HEAVEN the most hidden, though the greatest saint, 
 WITH INFANT JESUS. and art peculiarly the patron of those who 
 serve God with the greatest purity and fervor. In union with all those 
 who have ever been most devoted to thee, I now dedicate myself to thy 
 service ; beseeching thee, for the sake of Jesus Christ, who vouchsafed 
 to love and obey thee as a son, to become a father to me ; and to obtain 
 for me the filial respect, confidence, and love, of a child towards thee. 
 
 *In an alphabetical catalogue of male and female saints, published at Paris in 
 1847, there were enumerated 1 1 28 canonized saints; and the number has been 
 considerably increased since that time, as by the canonization of 27 Japanese mar* 
 tyrs in 1862 (see Chapter IV.), &c.
 
 x- HONOES TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, AC. 491 
 
 O powerful advocate of all Christians ! whose intercession, as St. Teresa 
 assures us, has never been found to fail, deign to intercede for me now, 
 and to implore for me the particular intention of this Novena. (Specify 
 it.) Present me, O great Saint, to the adorable Trinity, with whom 
 thou hadst so glorious and so ultimate a correspondence." 
 
 This novena specially and repeat- 
 edly beseeches St. Joseph, under 
 many titles, as " Guardian of the 
 Word Incarnate," " Spouse of the 
 ever-blessed Virgin," &c., " Pray for 
 us " ; and concludes with the prayer : 
 
 " Assist us, O Lord ! we beseech thee, 
 by the merits of the Spouse of thy most 
 holy Mother, that what our unworthiness 
 can not obtain, may be given us by his in- 
 tercession with thee : who livest and 
 reignest with God the Father in the unity 
 of the Holy Ghost, world without end. 
 Amen." 
 
 The annexed engraving is of a ban- 
 ner, such as is manufactured and sold 
 by Benziger Brothers (see Chapter 
 
 XIV.), representing St. Joseph and BANNER REPRESENTING SAINT 
 the infant Jesus. JOSEPH WITH THE INFANT 
 
 JESCS. 
 
 The Virgin Mary has been constitut- 
 ed the patron saint of the United States, as St. George is of Eng- 
 gland, St. Andrew of Scotland, St. Patrick of Ireland, St. Denis 
 of France, St. James of Spain, St. Nicholas (=rSanta Glaus) of 
 Holland, also of children, maidens, sailors, &c. 
 
 One of the 3 grand relics exhibited at St. Peter's in Rome 
 on Thursday in Holy Week is the " Votto Santo" or "true 
 likeness of our Savior on St. Veronica's handkerchief." Ver- 
 onica (probably a corruption of vera icon =true image) is said 
 to have offered Jesus a handkerchief or towel when he was car-
 
 492 
 
 HONORS TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, &C. 
 
 KEBCHIEF. 
 
 rying his cross (see illustrations of the mass in Chap. XIV.), 
 and his likeness is said to have been then miraculously im- 
 pressed upon it. Accurate representations of this Votto Santo 
 have been sold in Rome for 30 cents each on silk, 8 cents on 
 cotton, or 1 cent on paper. The cut is a fac-simile of 
 the picture on the original handkerchief. The inscription is in 
 Latin " VERA EFFIGIES SACRI VULTUS D'N IESU CHRISTI. Roma 
 in sacrosancta Basilica S. Petri in Vaticano religiosissime as- 
 servatur et colitur." The translation of this is : " True image 
 
 of the sacred countenance of the Lord Jesus 
 
 Christ. It is most religiously preserved and 
 worshiped at Rome in the holy basilica of 
 St. Peter in the Vatican." The saint and the 
 legend are both doubtless mere inventions, 
 without any basis of truth. 
 
 The city of Rome, as appears in Chapter I., 
 1 is full of statues and pictures, which are wor- 
 shiped ; relics abound there and elsewhere 
 [in the " sepulchres" of churches, relic-cases, 
 &c., and, with the " host," cross, &c., are 
 adored, as noticed in Chapter 
 XIV. ; the festivals of saints 
 are spoken of in Chapter 
 XVI.; and miracles in Chap- 
 ter XXVI. 
 
 The Protestant view of this 
 whole subject is strongly ex- 
 pressed by Mr. Cramp in his 
 " Textrbook of Popery " thus : 
 
 "That the Roman Catholic 
 ^ system is an'idolatrous 
 system, has often been as- 
 serted and satisfactorily proved. 
 It is, in fact, scarcely better than 
 RELIQUARIES OR RELIC-CASES. modified paganism. For Venus, 
 Jupiter, Mercury, and the gods and goddesses of ancient history, are 
 substituted the Virgin Mary and the Saints. ... It is only necessary to
 
 HONORS TO SAINTS, BELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, AC. 493 
 
 refer to the ordinary devotions and daily practice of Roman Catholics. 
 God is not the exclusive object of their worship ; his providence is not 
 their sole trust ; nor do they confess their sins to him only, but divide 
 that solemn act between the Deity, the Virgin, and the saints. It is 
 not denied that many of the prayers and devotional exercises prepared 
 for their use seem to savor of piety ; but their good effect is neutral- 
 ized by the perpetual reference to angelic guardians and saintly in- 
 tercessors. ... In short, God is practically excluded ; the intercession 
 of the Savior is forgotten : the saints are all in all. This is true of the 
 multitude. If the sentiments of the enlightened appear somewhat more 
 congenial with Scripture, still it is evident that this branch of the Roman 
 Catholic system, must, in every instance, produce unworthy ideas of the 
 character of the Almighty, who is supposed to withold his blessings till 
 they are wrung from him by the prayers and persuasions of the saints. 
 But he has said that he ' will not give his glory to another.' .... He 
 who associates others with the Redeemer, or substitutes others in his 
 place, treats him with foul indignity, and has no Scriptural warrant to 
 expect a blessing. . . . Creature-worship reaches its utmost height in the 
 Virgin Mary. The devout Roman Catholic pays her the most extrav- 
 agant honor and veneration. The language adopted in addressing the 
 ' Queen of heaven,' can not be acquitted of the charge of blasphemy, 
 since prayers are offered directly to her, as if to a divine being, and 
 blessings are supplicated, as from one who is able to bestow them. In 
 all devotions she has a share. . . . To the ignorant devotee she is more 
 than Christ, than God ; he believes that she can command her Son, 
 that to her intercessions nothing can be denied, and that to her power 
 all things are possible. . . . Irreligion of the worst kind is promoted by 
 the use of relics and images. We say, of the worst kind ; because un- 
 der the specious garb of piety is concealed practical forgetfulness of 
 God. He who is so favored as to obtain possession of something that 
 is called a relic, transfers to it the veneration and trust which he owes 
 to his Creator, and is not a whit superior to the idol-manufacturer of old 
 whose folly is so powerfully exposed in holy writ (Is. 44 : 920). . . . 
 The veneration of images is nothing less than idolatry. The pa^an would 
 make the same excuse as is now made by the papist : he did not wor- 
 ship his image till it was consecrated, and then he supposed his deity 
 to be in some sense present ; yet Scripture unhesitatingly calls him an 
 idolater. The prohibition in the 2d commandment is express, and the 
 reason thereof is weighty and solemn j ' Thou shall not make unto thee
 
 494 
 
 any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, 
 or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the 
 earth ; thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them ; for I 
 the Lord thy God am a jealous God ' (Ex. 20 : 4, 5). In direct con- 
 travention of this command, the Roman Catholic 'bows down and 
 serves ' his image, sets up his light before it, carries it in procession, 
 anathematizes and persecutes those who refuse to render it any honor. 
 It is very easy to affirm that the reverence is paid to the being repre- 
 sented, and not to the representation : it is equally easy to reply that 
 the distinction is too refined for the mass of the people, and that it does 
 not exist in practice. . . . ' Due honor,' x adoration, and idolatry are in- 
 separably connected together. " 
 
 1 See the decree of the Council of Trent at the beginning of this chapter.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 HOLY DATS. 
 
 Holy days occupy a very prominent place in the estimation 
 and practice of Roman Catholics. 
 
 Among the 6 commandments of the church, as given in 
 " A General Catechism of the Christian Doctrine," prepared 
 by order of the National Council, and approved by the late arch- 
 bishop Hughes of New York, are these : 
 
 " 1st. To hear mass, and to rest from servile works on Sundays and 
 Holy days of Obligation. 
 
 " 2d. To keep fast in Lent, the Ember days, the Fridays in Advent, 
 and eves of certain Festivals, and to abstain from flesh on Fridays, and 
 on other appointed days of abstinence." 
 
 The following is taken from Sadliers' Catholic Directory for 
 1871, a few explanations being added in brackets and notes: 
 
 "MOVABLE FEASTS. 
 
 " Septuagesima Sunday, Feb. 5 
 
 Easter Sunday, 1 
 
 April 9 
 
 Sexagesima " "12 
 
 Low 
 
 " 16 
 
 Quinquagesima " "19 
 
 Rogation " 
 
 May 14 
 
 Ash-Wednesday " 22 
 
 Ascension Day, 2 
 
 18 
 
 Quadragesima Sunday " 26 
 
 Pentecost Day, 3 
 
 28 
 
 Mid-Lent " March 19 
 
 Trinity Sunday, 
 
 June 4 
 
 Palm April 2 
 
 Middle of the Year, 
 
 July 2 
 
 Good Friday, " 7 
 
 Advent Sunday, 
 
 Dec. 3 
 
 1 According to the Roman Catholic church, Easter is celebrated on the Sunday 
 following the full moon which occurs on or next after the 21st of March, the 14th 
 day of the moon being counted the time oi full moon. Hence Easter may be aa 
 early as March 22d (in 1818) or as late as April 25th (in 1886).
 
 496 HOLY DAYS. 
 
 "HOLYDAYS OP OBLIGATION. 
 
 " 1. The Circumcision of our Lord [Jan. 1]. The Epiphany 
 [Jan. 6]. The Annunciation of the B. V. Mary [Mar. 25]. The 
 Ascension of our Lord [see above]. Corpus Christi.* The Assump- 
 tion of the B. V.Mary [Aug. 15]. All Saints [Nov. 1]. Immaculate 
 Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary [Dec. 8]. Nativity of our 
 Lord, or Christmas 5 [Dec. 25]. 
 
 " N.B. Sundays, and the feasts which fall on them, are not included 
 in this enumeration. 
 
 "(In some Western Dioceses, the Circumcision, Epiphany, Annun- 
 ciation, and Corpus Christi are not holydays of obligation.) 
 
 "FASTING DAYS. 
 
 i 
 
 " Fridays in Advent. Every day in Lent, Sundays excepted. The 
 Ember-days (see below). The Vigil of Whitsunday or Pentecost, of 
 the Assumption, of All Saints, and of Christmas. 
 
 " N.B. 1. When a fast falls on Monday, the vigil is kept on the 
 Saturday preceding. To fast, consists in abstaining from flesh-meat 
 and eating but one full meal in the day, not before 12 o'clock M. Be- 
 sides this, a collation, or about the one-fourth of a meal, is allowed in 
 the evening. All who have completed their 21st year are obliged to 
 observe the fasts of the Church, unless exempted for some legitimate 
 cause. 
 
 " 2. In some dioceses the Friday of the Ember-days is the only 
 Friday in Advent on which there is an obligation to fast. 
 
 " 3. It has been directed by the Sacred Congregation de Propaganda 
 Fide, that the feast of SS. Peter and Paul be solemnly celebrated in 
 the United States on the Sunday immediately after the 29th of June, 
 
 2 The name " Holy Thursday " is given in the "Garden of the Soul," Brande's 
 Encyclopedia, Webster's Dictionary, &c., to Ascension Day ; but, in the Catholic 
 Almanac, Catholic World, &c., it is a synonym of Maundy-Thursday. 
 
 8 Also called " Whitsunday " or " Whitsuntide," from the white garments 
 worn by catechumens who were baptized at this time. 
 
 * Corpus Christi (= body of Christ) is a feast in honor of the " blessed sacra- 
 ment," according to the doctrine of transubstantiation, and occurs on the Thurs- 
 day after Trinity Sunday. 
 
 6 The name " Christmas " is from the mass then celebrated in honor of Christ's 
 birth.
 
 HOLY DAYS. 497 
 
 and it is the wish of the Sacred Congregation that the Bishops exhort 
 the faithful under their charge to keep fast on the Saturday preceding 
 that solemn celebration. 
 
 "DATS OF ABSTINENCE. 1 
 
 " All Fridays. When Christmas falls on a Friday, abstinence is not 
 of precept. Abstinence on Saturday has been dispensed with for the 
 faithful of the United States, except when a fast falls on that day. 
 Soldiers and sailors in the service of the United States, even in bar- 
 racks, garrisons, etc., are dispensed by the indult [= indulgence, 
 privilege, exemption] of Pope Pius IX., from the rule of abstinence, 
 except on 6 days in each year, namely, Ash-Wednesday, Thursday, 
 Friday, and Saturday in Holy Week, the Vigil of the Assumption, and 
 Christmas Eve. 
 
 " EMBEB-DAYS.* 
 
 " The Ember-days are the Wednesdays, Fridays, and Saturdays 
 which occur, 1st, in whiter, immediately after the 3d Sunday of 
 Advent; 2d, in the spring, immediately after the 1st Sunday in Lent; 
 3d, in the summer, during Whitsun-week ; 4th, in the autumn, im- 
 mediately after the 14th of September. They are days of fasting, 
 and of great antiquity in the Church. The object of their observance 
 is, to consecrate to God the four seasons of the year, by penance ; to 
 obtain his blessing on the fruits of the earth, and to beg of him worthy 
 ministers of the Church. The ordination of clergymen generally takes 
 place, in Catholic countries, on Ember- Saturday." 
 
 The Roman Missal and Breviary have religious services 
 (masses, <fec.) for every day in the year, the greater part of the 
 days being set' apart as the feasts or festivals of saints. It is 
 considered meritorious, but not obligatory on people generally, 
 to attend these services. Some of the festivals, not mentioned 
 above, are thus named and dated : 
 
 1 On " days of abstinence," the eating of flesh-meat is prohibited, but 3 meals 
 are allowed ; but on " fasts " or " fasting days " the eating of flesh-meat is pro- 
 hibited, and only 1 full meals are allowed. 
 
 8 Ember-days are also called " Quarter-tenses." 
 32
 
 498 HOLY DAYS. 
 
 The " Conversion of St. Paul," January 25th ; " Candlemas-day, 1 or 
 the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary," Feb. 2d; "Shrove- 
 tide (= confession-time), also called " Shrove-Tuesday," the day be- 
 fore Ash- Wednesday ; " Holy Week," the week preceding Easter 
 Sunday, in which " Maundy-Thursday," " Good Friday," and " Holy 
 Saturday " occur ; St. Matthias, Feb. 24th; St. Gregory the Great, 
 Mar. 12th; St. Patrick, Mar. 17th; St. Joseph, Mar. 19th; St. 
 George, April 23d; St. Mark, April 25th; SS. (= Saints) Philip and 
 James, May 1st; " Invention (or " Finding") of the Holy Cro?s," also 
 called " Holy Rood-day," a feast, May 3d, in memory of St. Helena's 
 discovery of the Cross of Christ, which is said to have taken place 
 miraculously in A. D. 326 ; St. Barnabas, June llth ; " Nativity of St. 
 John the Baptist," June 24th ; SS. Peter and Paul, June 29th ; St. 
 James the Great, July 25th ; St. Ann, or Anne, mother of the Virgin 
 Mary, July 26th ; St. Lawrence, Aug. 10th ; St. Bartholomew, Aug. 
 24th ; " Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary," Sept. 8th ; St. Matthew, 
 Sept. 21st; St. Michael the Archangel, or "Michaelmas-day," Sept. 
 29th; St. Luke, Oct. 18th; SS. Simon and Jude, Oct. 28th; All 
 Souls, a day of prayer for the souls of all the faithful departed, Nov. 
 2d; St. Andrew, Nov. 30th; St. Thomas, Dec. 21st; St. Stephen, 
 Dec. 26th; St. John, Dec. 27th; Holy Innocents, Dec. 28th; St. 
 Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, Dec. 29th. 
 
 Lent, which begins with Ash- Wednesday, and lasts (Sun- 
 days excepted) till Easter, is the great fast of the Roman 
 Catholic church, and is regarded as commemorative of our 
 Savior's 40 days' fast in the desert. It is preceded, in Rome 
 and elsewhere, by the " carnival " (from the Latin carni 
 vale = to flesh farewell), which is thus described in the Penny 
 Cyclopedia : 
 
 "It is properly a season of feasting, dancing, masquerading, and 
 buffoonery, which begins on the feast of the Epiphany, or Twelfth 
 Day, and ends on Ash- Wednesday, when it is succeeded by the 
 austerities of Lent. Some of the license of the Saturnalia of the 
 ancient Romans is still detected in these long revels, which are now 
 
 1 " It is called Candlemas, because, before mass is said, the church blesses her 
 candles for the whole year, uud makes a procession with them in the hands of the 
 feithful."
 
 HOLY DAYS. 499 
 
 confined to Catholic countries, and seem to be rapidly declining even 
 in them. Milan, 1 Rome, and Naples wqre celebrated for their car- 
 nivals, but they were carried to their highest perfection at Venice. . . . 
 In modern Rome the masquerading in the streets and all the out-of- 
 door amusements are limited to 8 days, during which people pelt each 
 other with sugar-plums, and are treated with horse-races, in which the 
 horses run without any riders on their backs. After the races of the 
 8th day, masquers go about with tapers in their hands, every one 
 trying to light his own at his neighbor's candle, and then blow out his 
 flame. This is the last of their frolics, and is about as rational as any 
 part of a Roman carnival." 
 
 Ash- Wednesday, with which Lent begins, is a day of public 
 penance and humiliation, and is so called from the ceremony 
 of blessing ashes (made from the palms blessed on the Palm- 
 Sunday previous, <fcc.), with which the priest makes the sign of 
 the cross on the foreheads of the people, saying, " Remember, 
 man, that dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt return " 
 (Gen. 3:19). 
 
 On Passion-Sunday (the 5th in Lent, and 2d before Easter), 
 as the passion of Christ approaches, crucifixes, &c., are covered 
 in churches with mourning color. 
 
 But the Holy Week, which immediately precedes Easter- 
 Sunday, constitutes the grand center of attraction at this 
 season, and is thus described in the " Garden of the Soul " : 
 
 " Palm-Sunday, the first day of the Holy Week, is in memory and 
 honor of our Lord's triumphant entry into Jerusalem, so called from 
 the palm-branches strewed under his feet by the Hebrew children, 
 crying, ' Hosanna to the Son of David' (Matt xxi.). And therefore 
 this day the church blesses palms, and makes a solemn procession, in 
 memory of the humble triumph of our Savior, the people bearing 
 palm-branches. And in the Mass is read the passion of our blessed 
 Redeemer from the Gospel of St. Matthew, as that from St. Mark is 
 on Tuesday, and from St. Luke on Wednesday. 
 
 " On Wednesday, Maundy-Thursday, and Good Friday, the office 
 of Tenebra, which signifies darkness, is said or sung in churches, when 
 
 1 The carnival at Milan is now 3 or 4 days longer than is allowed elsewhere.
 
 500 HOLY DAYS. 
 
 the clergy is sufficiently numerous, and the 14 yellow lights in the tri- 
 angular branch extinguished at the end of each psalm, one by one, 
 leaving only that which is a white one at the top lighted ; and at the 
 end of every second verse of the Benedictus? one of the lights on the 
 altar is also extinguished, till the whole six are put out ; and during 
 the psalm Miserere,* the white candle is taken from the triangular 
 branch, and hid till the noise, which is made to represent the convulsed 
 state of nature at the time of the death of her Maker, and then brought 
 forth, and put lighted in the place, on the branch from which it was 
 taken, which is to remind us that the divinity never was separated 
 from the humanity. 
 
 " Maundy- Thursday, in memory of our Lord's last supper, when he 
 instituted the blessed sacrament of his precious body and blood, so called 
 from the first word of the anthem, Mandatum, 3 &c. (John 13 : 34), ' I 
 give you a new command, that you love one another as I have loved 
 you ; ' which is sung on that day in the church, when the prelates begin 
 the ceremony of washing the people's feet, in imitation of Christ's wash- 
 ing those of his disciples before he instituted that blessed sacrament. 
 On Maundy-Thursday there is but one Mass, the organ plays and bells 
 ring during the Gloria in excelsis Deo,* and then cease till the same 
 begins on Holy Saturday. On this day two hosts are consecrated, one 
 of which is left for public adoration the remainder of the day ; and 
 various decorations are usual in this country in honor of this solemnity 
 of the blessed sacrament. 
 
 " Good Friday, the most sacred and memorable day, on which the 
 great and glorious work of our redemption was consummated by our 
 Savior Jesus Christ on his bloody cross, between two thieves at Jeru- 
 salem. The sacred host continues exposed during the office, for there 
 is no Mass on this day ; the passion from St. John is read, the cross is 
 uncovered with great solemnity, and the justly merited relative respect 
 paid by the faithful, as to the image of that on which the redemption 
 
 1 "Benedidus" (= blessed) is the first word uttered by Zacharias in Luke 1 : 
 68-78, and hence the name given to the entire prophecy. 
 
 2 "Miserere*' (= have mercy) is the first word ot Psalm li. [Ps. 1., in the Vul- 
 gate and Douay Bibles], and hence a common name of this penitential psalm. 
 
 < " Mandatum " ( = commandment) is the first word of the Vulgate in John 13 
 34, which is in the English version, " A new commandment I give unto you," &c. 
 * " Gloria in excelsis Deo" = Glory to God on high (see Chap. XIV.).
 
 HOLY DAYS. 501 
 
 of mankind was completed. There is a discourse in general on this 
 occasion. 
 
 " Holy Saturday. The great functions of this day were formerly 
 done in the night, and are begun by blessing the fire, lighting the triple 
 candle, blessing the paschal candle, and grains of incense, in form of 
 five nails, which are stuck into it, reading twelve prophecies concern- 
 ing the great events which those days represent, blessing the font for 
 baptizing ; l . . . and the first Mass and vespers for Easter is said. On be- 
 ginning the Gloria in excelsis Deo, the organ plays and the bells ring, 
 which they had not done from the same time on Maundy-Thursday. 
 From this day till the ascension, the paschal candle is lighted up at the 
 gospel, to remind us that our blessed Savior was with us on the earth 
 till his glorious ascension, instructing his apostles and faithful in all 
 truths. 
 
 " Easter-Day, in Latin Pascha [= passover], a great festival in 
 memory and honor of our Savior's resurrection from the dead on the 
 3d day after his crucifixion (Matt. 28 : 6)." 
 
 The Protestant view of the festivals and fasts of the Roman 
 Catholic church may be presented in very few words. The 
 authority for the institution of them is human, not divine ; the 
 multiplication of them and the enforced observance of so many 
 impose an intolerable burden on industry and thrift and enter- 
 prise, encourage idleness and all its attendant evils, and tend 
 undeniably to the profanation of the Lord's day and the ex- 
 tinction of vital godliness ,7hich are so notorious in all Roman 
 Catholic countries. The observance of days and months and 
 times and years was a characteristic bondage of the Mosaic 
 dispensation, from which Christians are freed (Gal. 4 : 9, 10. 
 Col. 2 : 16) ; but the observance of the Lord's day as the day 
 of holy rest and religious worship and other special duties of 
 the Christian life, is sanctioned by the New Testament (Acts 
 20 : 7. 1 Cor. 16 : 2. Rev. 1 : 10, &c.), and is essential to the 
 physical and moral well-being of mankind. The showy and 
 costly processions, the pompous and elaborate exhibitions of 
 priests and trained artists, and the minute and careful atten- 
 
 i See Chapter XIV.
 
 502 flOLY DAYS. 
 
 tion which is everywhere given by Roman Catholics to the out- 
 ward forms, all tend to an undue exaltation of the visible and 
 earthly at the expense of the spiritual and heavenly, to a su- 
 preme regard for the created and human, and a consequent 
 neglect of the Creator and Redeemer and Lord of all. The 
 regulations for fasting in Lent which are annually published 
 in every diocese, the commandment of abstinence from flesh 
 on Fridays and other days, and the enforcement of these man- 
 made rules by all the terrors of excommunication and, where 
 there is the power, by all the weight of legal penalties also, are 
 an unwarrantable infringement of Christian liberty and a daring 
 usurpation of the prerogative of the Supreme Judge. " For- 
 bidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats, which 
 God hath created to be received with thanksgiving of them 
 which believe and know the truth," are distinctive marks of 
 those who " depart from the faith " (1 Tim. 4 : 1-3). To the 
 priest, bishop, or pope, who claims to decide what and when 
 another professed servant of Christ may eat and drink, and to 
 punish that other for non-conformity to his decision, we may 
 properly use those words which the apostle Paul himself ad- 
 dressed to the Christians at Rome : 
 
 " Who art thou that judgest another man's servant ? to his own 
 master he standeth or falleth. Yea, he shall be holden up ; for God 
 is able to make him stand. . . . For the kingdom of God is not meat 
 and drink ; but righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost " 
 (Rom. 14:4, 17).
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 Confession is denned in the " Catechism of the Council of 
 Trent," 
 
 u A sacramental accusation of one's self, made to obtain pardon by 
 virtue of the keys."* 
 
 This catechism and other catechisms and devotional works 
 agree with it in substance teaches that the institution of con- 
 fession is most useful and even necessary ; that this sacrament 
 was instituted by our Lord Jesus Christ ; 8 and that it is obliga- 
 tory upon all of both sexes, who have arrived at the use of 
 reason, to confess their sins at least once a year. Frequent 
 confession is warmly recommended, especially to those who 
 have eommitted mortal 3 sins. The minister of this sacrament, 
 who is commonly called the " confessor," must be a priest pos- 
 sessing ordinary or delegated jurisdiction, it being provided, 
 
 1 The reference of coarse is to Matt. 16:19. On this passage see the beginning 
 of Chapter III. of this volume. 
 
 8 The proof-text quoted in the catechism is John 20 : 22,23. To this bishop 
 Challoner in his "Catholic Christian Instructed" adds several others (Num. 5 : 6, 7. 
 Matt. 3 : 6. James 5:16. Acts 19 : 18) ; but no Protestant would dream that any 
 or all of these passages not one of which mentions or implies special confession to 
 a priest were sufficient to establish the scriptural authority of such a practice ; and 
 certainly, when it is said (James 5 : 16), "Confess your faults one to another" 
 (= mutually), the inspired writer inculcated confession of others to a priest no 
 more than of a priest to them. 
 
 8 On the distinction between mortal and venial sins, see Chapter XVIII.
 
 504 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 " that no bishop or priest, except in case of necessity, presume 
 to exercise any function in the parish of another without the 
 authority of the ordinary [ bishop]," though, "in case of 
 imminent danger of death, .... it is lawful for any priest, not 
 only to remit all sorts of sins, whatever faculties they might 
 otherwise require, but also to absolve from excommunication." 
 This catechism says expressly : i 
 
 "According to the doctrine of the Catholic Church, a doctrine 
 firmly to be believed and professed by all her children, if the sinner 
 have recourse to the tribunal of penance 1 with a sincere sorrow for his 
 sins, and a firm resolution of avoiding them in future, although he 
 bring not with him that contrition which may be sufficient of itself to 
 obtain the pardon of sin, his sins are forgiven by the minister of 
 religion, through the power of the keys. Justly, then, do the holy 
 fathers proclaim, that by the keys of the church, the gate of heaven is 
 thrown open ; a truth which the decree of the Council of Florence, 
 declaring that the effect of penance is absolution from sin, renders it 
 imperative on all unhesitatingly to believe." 
 
 Collot's Catechism, translated by Mrs. Sadlier, and approved 
 by the late archbishop Hughes, teaches that the virtue of 
 absolution " is that of effacing sin and remitting eternal 
 punishment." 
 
 Secrecy is specially inculcated by the Roman Catholic 
 authorities. Thus the " Catechism of the Council of Trent " 
 says: 
 
 " The faithful are to be admonished that there is no reason what- 
 ever to apprehend, that what is made known in confession will ever be 
 revealed by any priest, or that by it the penitent can, at any time, be 
 brought into danger or difficulty of any sort. All laws human and 
 divine guard the inviolability of the seal of confession, and against its 
 sacrilegious infraction the Church denounces her heaviest chastise- 
 ments." 
 
 '. That is, the confessional, or place where the priest hears confessions, imposes 
 penances, &c.
 
 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 505 
 
 The penitent may make confession either in Latin or in the 
 vulgar tongue (English, &c.). The "confessor" must be 
 clothed, according to the Roman Ritual, &c., with a surplice 
 and stole of a violet color (see Chap. VII.). "The 2d 
 Plenary Council of Baltimore " repeated the acts of former 
 councils, urging the erection of confessionals in all public 
 churches, discountenancing any priest's hearing the confessions 
 of women elsewhere then without the bishop's special license, 
 and providing that confessions of women should never be re- 
 ceived in private houses, except through a grate and in as open 
 a place as possible. 
 
 A " confessional " may be simple, i.e., accommodating but 
 one pejiitent at a time ; or double, i.e., having a place for a 
 
 CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 penitent on each side of the confessor. The accompanying cut 
 is of a simple confessional, and shows the penitent's place by 
 the grate at the end, and the confessor's seat in the closet, 
 which is furnished with a door.
 
 506 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 The " method of confession " is thus given in " The Garden 
 of the Soul," an approved and popular manual for the use of 
 Roman Catholics : 
 
 " 1. Kneeling down at the side of your ghostly [= spiritual] father, 
 make the sign of the cross, saying, 
 
 " In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost. Amen.' 
 
 " Then ask his blessing in these words : 
 
 ' Pray, father, give me your blessing, for I have sinned.' 
 
 u Then say the first part of the Confiteor as follows : 
 
 'I confess to Almighty God, to the Blessed Virgin Mary, to blessed 
 Michael the Archangel, to blessed John Baptist, to the holy apostles 
 Peter and Paul, to all the Saints, and to you, Father, that I have sin- 
 ned exceedingly, in thought, word, and deed, through my fault, through 
 my most grievous fault' 
 
 " 2. After this accuse yourself of your sins, either according to the 
 order of God's commandments, 1 or such other order as you find most 
 helpful to your memory ; adding after each sin, the number of times 
 that you have been guilty of it, and such circumstances as may very 
 considerably aggravate the guilt; but carefully abstaining from such as 
 are impertinent or unnecessary, and from excuses and long narrations. 
 
 " 3. After you have confessed all that you can remember, conclude 
 with this or the like form : 
 
 " ' For these and all other my sins, which I cannot at this present 
 call to my remembrance, I am heartily sorry ; purpose amendment for 
 the future ; and most humbly a?k pardon of God, and penance and 
 absolution of you my ghostly father : 
 
 " ' Therefore I beseech the blessed Mary ever Virgin, blessed Michael 
 the Archangel, blessed John Baptist, the holy apostles Peter and 
 Paul, all the Saints, and you, father, to pray to our Lord God for 
 me.' 
 
 " Then give attentive ear to the instructions and advice of your con- 
 fessor, and humbly accept of the penance enjoined by him. 
 
 i " The Garden of the Soul " lias " An Examination of Conscience upon the 
 Ten Commandments," which occupies 8 pages ; but neither its length, nor the in- 
 delicacy of many of its questions, would allow the insertion of it here.
 
 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 507 
 
 " 4. Whilst the priest gives you absolution, bow down your head, 
 and with great humility call upon God for mercy ; and beg of him that 
 he would be pleased to pronounce the sentence of absolution in heaven, 
 whilst his minister absolves you upon earth. 
 
 "5. After confession, return to your prayers; and after having 
 heartily given God thanks for having admitted you, by the means of 
 this sacrament, to the grace of reconciliation, and received you, like the 
 prodigal child, returning home, make an offering of your confession, to 
 Jesus Christ, begging pardon for whatever defects you may have been 
 guilty of in it : offering up your resolutions to your Savior, and begging 
 grace that you may fulfill them. 
 
 " 6. Be careful to perform your penance in due tinie, and in a peni- 
 tential spirit." 
 
 The " Form of Absolution " is thus translated from the 
 Rituale Romanum (= Roman Ritual) : 
 
 " When therefore he would absolve the penitent, after wholesome 
 penance has been enjoined on him and accepted by him, he first says 
 ' Almighty God pity thee, and forgiving thy sins, lead thee to eternal 
 life. Amen.' Then, raising his right hand toward the penitent, he 
 says : ' Indulgence, absolution and remission of thy sins the Almighty 
 and merciful Lord give thee. Amen. 
 
 " ' Our Lord Jesus Christ absolve thee ; and I by his authority ab- 
 solve thee from every bond of excommunication, suspension, and inter- 
 dict, so far as I can, and thou needest.' 
 
 " Then, ' I absolve thee from thy sins, in the name of the Father, 
 (the sign of the cross) and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. 
 Amen.' 
 
 " If the penitent is a layman, the word ' suspension ' is omitted. 
 
 " ' The passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, the merits of the blessed 
 Virgin Mary, and of all the saints, whatever of good thou mayst have 
 done, and of evil thou mayst have borne, be to thee for the remission 
 of sins, increase of grace, and reward of eternal life. Amen.' 
 
 " In the more frequent and shorter confessions, however, the ' Al- 
 mighty God pity thee,' &c., may be omHted, and it will be sufficient 
 to say : < Our Lord Jesus Christ,' &c., as above, down to ' The passion 
 of our Lord,' &c. 
 
 " But when any great necessity in the danger of death is pressing,
 
 508 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL 
 
 he may say briefly : ' I absolve thee from all censures, and sins, in the 
 name of the Father (sign of the cross), and of the Son, and of the 
 Holy Ghost. Amen." 
 
 " The Catechism of the Council of Trent " claims that con- 
 fession not only removes the sinner's present malady, but 
 serves as an antidote against its easy approach in future ; and 
 that it likewise contributes powerfully to the preservation of 
 social order. On this latter point, it says : 
 
 " Abolish sacramental confession, and, that moment, you deluge so- 
 ciety with all sorts of secret crimes crimes too, and others of still 
 greater enormity, which men, once that they have been depraved by 
 vicious habits, will not dread to commit hi open day. The salutary 
 shame that attends confession, restrains licentiousness, bridles desire, 
 and coerces the evil propensities of corrupt nature." 
 
 In regard to this declaration, Mr. Cramp in his " Text-book 
 of Popery " says : 
 
 " Seldom have so much misrepresentation and untruth been con- 
 veyed in so few words. The very reverse of these statements is the 
 fact, as might be shown by a comparative view of the state of morals 
 in Popish and Protestant countries. History fully warrants the asser- 
 tion, that priestly absolution, as practiced in the Romish church, offers 
 a large bounty to crime, and that the confessional is a school of every 
 vice." 
 
 This is certainly strong language, yet no stronger than has 
 been used by many others who have directly known or care- 
 fully investigated the facts on this subject. Credible testimony 
 to any extent can be brought to show the dangers and immo- 
 ralities incident to and connected with this " sacrament," 
 which is often denominated " auricular [= of the ear, or by 
 the ear] confession." 
 
 Count de Lasteyrie, a French nobleman, gives, in his " His- 
 tory of Auricular Confession," the result of his personal inves- 
 tigations and study of Roman Catholic and other sources of 
 information. He quotes from Tertullian, Chrysostom, Augus- 
 tine, Basil, Ambrose, and other church-fathers to show that 
 among the early Christians confession of sins was made to God
 
 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 509 
 
 alone in the presence of the faithful, that they held, as Augus- 
 tine says expressly, " that man cannot remit sins," and that 
 auricular confession, unknown to the earlier Christians, was 
 the work of popes and councils. St. Leo (== pope Leo I.) 
 and his clergy, about A. D. 450, discountenanced the old custom 
 of public confession on account of the scandals and legal pun- 
 ishments connected with its disclosure of crimes, and put pri- 
 vate confession first to God and then to the priest in the place 
 of the public confession. The ancient custom of confession 
 between laymen was continued in some churches, even down 
 to the 17th century, in spite of the prohibition of it by the 
 popes in 1555, 1574, &c. Finally, pope Clement VIII. about 
 A. D. 1600 invoked the arm of the Inquisition and of the tem- 
 poral power against any who without being priests adminis- 
 tered the sacrament of confession. It was during this interval 
 (A. D. 450-1600) that the practice of private confession to a 
 priest gradually became prevalent throughout Christendom. 
 Auricular confession was first introduced into England in A. D. 
 673 through Theodus, archbishop of Canterbury ; it was made 
 obligatory on all, as a sacrament to be observed at least at 
 Lent, by the council of the Lateran in 1215 ; and the Lateran 
 decree was confirmed by the council of Trent with anath- 
 emas against all who disbelieved the doctrines of the council. 
 Lasteyrie maintains that the immorality inherent in auricular 
 confession will only cease by the abolition of a practice which 
 has produced great evils without doing any good, and says : 
 
 " To form an idea of the crimes that may be committed in the se- 
 crecy of confession, we must consider that these crimes never come to 
 the knowledge of the public, except in extremely rare circumstances ; 
 for this reason, that the perpetrators and witnesses are only two per- 
 sons, equally interested in their remaining unknown, since the discovery 
 would bring them into disrepute ; compromise their social state ; nay, 
 expose them to severe punishments ; whence it must follow, that for 
 one fact of this nature which transpires, there remain several thou- 
 sands which will ever remain unknown. 
 
 4 "We are astounded when we consider the numerous crimes of se- 
 duction, established by a few proces verbaux [= official reports, or
 
 510 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 statements of facts] abstracted from the Inquisition. But how much 
 greater would be our astonishment if, supposing there had been an In- 
 quisition established in every province throughout Christendom from 
 the beginning of sacerdotal confession, it had been possible to search 
 all such registers and present the result to the public ! 
 
 " There is another kind of scandal which has latterly excited the 
 indignation of the public that occasioned by priests, monks, and even 
 bishops, who have exposed in works on morality and theology, designed 
 for the instruction of seminarists, all the lewdness that the most licen- 
 tious and audacious casuists have imagined, to guide young seminarists 
 in the practice of confession." 
 
 Lasteyrie notes and the fact is well known that formulas 
 of interrogatories have been drawn up for the use of confes- 
 sors, minutely specifying different sorts of offenses, especially 
 against what the Roman Catholics count as the 6th command- 
 ment, " Thou shalt not commit adultery." The object of these 
 formulas is to enable the confessor to discover all the sins of 
 the penitents ; and, in order to discover sins of which the pen- 
 itents had not the slightest idea, he teaches them the knowl- 
 edge of them. He thus states the consequences : 
 
 " Thus, from the secrecy in which the evil is produced, two great 
 causes of immorality have arisen.: 1st, the knowledge of vice, given to 
 those who were ignorant of it ; and 2dly, an impulse by which both 
 parties are urged towards a kind of passion into which human nature 
 easily falls. What other effect can be expected from these unchaste 
 conversations which, by exciting the imagination, inspire wishes which 
 may be satisfied the more easily as the satisfaction may remain 
 unknown to the public ? Lastly, confessors are inclined to give full 
 scope to their passions in the confessional, inasmuch as they find, La 
 every other circumstance of their calling, obstacles which their vow of 
 continency imposes upon them. Indeed, what is easier than to seduce 
 a young person who is known to be susceptible, or one who, already 
 corrupted, ever seizes the opportunity of satisfying her inclinations ? 
 an opportunity which invites still more to crime, as both parties are 
 certain that nothing will transpire between two guilty persons equally 
 interested in keeping the secret."
 
 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 511 
 
 ' 
 
 Lasteyrie devotes one chapter to accounts of the seduction 
 of women in Spain by means of confession. He mentions that 
 the brief of pope Paul IV., Jan. 18, 1556, commanding the in- 
 quisitors of Granada to prosecute the priests whom the public 
 voice accused of outraging the confessional, was not published 
 in the usual form, but the confessors were all notified of it, and 
 desired to behave with great prudence for the future, and to let 
 the people remain ignorant of the papal mandate, the result 
 being that a few guilty persons were punished privately so as to 
 avoid scandal. In 1561, 1564, &c., bulls were issued by the 
 same pope against the same evil. An edict published at Seville 
 in 1563 gave rise to such numerous denunciations of confessors 
 by females that it took 120 days 1 to register them all, and the 
 prosecution of the delinquents was abandoned on account of 
 their prodigious number. But the evil was not stopped. New 
 orders were issued by the Inquisition in 1576 ; and other papal 
 bulls and decrees were published in 1614, 1622, &c., in order 
 to put an end to the attempts of the confessors upon women ; 
 but it was all in vain. One Capuchin, who had corrupted, by 
 a pretended revelation from Christ, 13 out of 17 Beguines 2 in 
 one house of which he was the confessor, was condemned by 
 the Inquisition only to make an abjuration, to be confined for 
 5 years in a convent of his order, to be deprived for ever of his 
 power of confessing and preaching, and to do several penances 
 accompanied with strict fasting ; and was moreover scourged 
 by all the monks and lay-brethren of the convent, in the 
 presence of a secretary of the Inquisition. He died in the 3d 
 year of his seclusion ; but his sentence was certainly far milder 
 than the sentences which the Inquisition was accustomed to 
 pronounce upon heretics (see Chapter XI.). Lasteyrie gives 
 
 1 Dr. Edgar says, upon the authority of Gonsalvus and Llorente, that all the in- 
 quisitors and 20 notaries were insufficient to take the depositions of the fair 
 informers in 30 days, and thrice additional terms of 30 days each were appointed 
 for receiving these informations. 
 
 8 These Beguines were probably tertiaries or half-nuns, following the 3d rule of 
 St Francis, and living together as nun without vows.
 
 512 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 many other detailed accounts of priestly seduction of Spanish, 
 French, and Italian women by means of auricular confession ; 
 and dwells at some length on the earnest, but altogether fruit- 
 less attempts of the Tuscan bishop Ricci, near the close of the 
 last century, to reform or remedy the immoralities of this sort 
 in his own diocese. 
 
 The testimony of Lasteyrie is corroborated by that previously 
 published by Rev. Anthony Gavin, who, " having publicly and 
 solemnly abjured the.orrors of the Romish religion." January 
 3, 1716, was regularly licensed by the bishop of London, and 
 became a priest, in good standing, of the Church of England. 
 He had been a priest at Saragossa in Spain, and gives in his 
 " Master-Key of Popery " specimens of confessions and narra- 
 tions of the most revolting immoralities connected with con- 
 fessions and related on his own personal knowledge. 
 
 Rev. Joseph Blanco White, a man of high reputation, was 
 once a Roman Catholic priest at Seville in Spain, but died .in 
 England in 1841. In his " Preservative against Popery " he 
 speaks thus of the claim that confession acts as a check upon 
 men's consciences, and that it often causes restitution of ill- 
 gotten money : 
 
 "I never hear that paltry plea, so frequently used by Roman 
 Catholic writers in this country [England], without indignation. It 
 seems as if they wished to bribe men's love of money to the support of 
 
 then- doctrines Though I have lived only 1 5 years in a Protestant 
 
 country, the voluntary restitution of a sum of money by a poor person, 
 whom the grace of God had called to a truly Christian course of life, 
 has happened within my notice. I acted as a confessor in Spain for 
 many years, and from my own experience can assure you that con- 
 fession does not add one single chance of restitution. I believe on the 
 contrary, that the generality of Roman Catholics depend so much on 
 the mysterious power which they attribute to the absolution of the 
 priest, that they greatly neglect the conditions on which that absolution 
 is often given. The Protestant who earnestly and sincerely wishes 
 for pardon from God, knows that he cannot obtain it unless he is 
 equally earnest in his endeavors to make restitution ; but when the
 
 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 513* 
 
 Romanist has assured to the confessor that he will try his best to in- 
 demnify those he has injured, the words of absolution are to him a sort 
 of charm, that removes the guilt at once, and consequently relieves his 
 uneasiness about restitution. One of the greatest evils of confession is, 
 that it has changed the genuine repentance preached in the Gospel 
 that conversion and change of life which is the only true external sign 
 of the remission of sins through Christ into a ceremony which silences 
 remorse at the slight expense of a doubtful, temporary sorrow for past 
 offenses. As the day of confession approaches (which, for the greatest 
 part, is hardly once a year) the Romanist grows restless and gloomy. 
 He mistakes the shame of a disgusting disclosure for sincere repentance 
 of his sinful actions. He, at length, goes through the disagreeable 
 task, and feels relieved. The old score is now canceled, and he may 
 run into spiritual debt with a lighter heart. This I know from my 
 own experience, both as confessor and as penitent. In the same 
 characters, and from the same experience, I can assure you that the 
 practice of confession is exceedingly injurious to the purity of mind 
 enjoined in the Scriptures. 'Filthy communication' is inseparable 
 from the confessional : the priest in discharge of the duty imposed on 
 him by his church, is bound to listen to the most abominable description 
 of all manner of sins. He must inquire into every circumstance of the 
 most profligate course of life. Men and women, the young and the 
 old, the married and the single, are bound to describe to the confessor 
 the most secret actions and thoughts, which are either sinful in them- 
 selves, or may be so from accidental circumstances. Consider the 
 danger to which the priests themselves are exposed a danger so im- 
 minent, that the popes have, on two occasions, been obliged to issue 
 the most severe laws against confessors who openly attempt the seduc- 
 tion of their female penitents. I will not, however, press this subject; 
 because it cannot be done with sufficient delicacy. Let me conclude 
 by observing, that no invention of the Roman church equals this, as 
 regards the power it gives to the priesthood. One of the greatest 
 difficulties to establish a free and rational government in Popish 
 countries arises from the opposition which free and equal laws 
 meet with from the priests in the confessional. A confessor can 
 promote even treason with safety, in the secrecy which protects his 
 office."
 
 514 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 The late archbishop Kenrick 1 was one of the ablest and most 
 learned Roman Catholics in America. While he was bishop 
 of Philadelphia, he published a Latin work on dogmatic 
 theology in 4 octavo volumes, and another on moral theology 
 in 3 volumes, both of which have been introduced as text-books 
 into Roman Catholic seminaries of this country. In the latter 
 work he devotes one section of seven pages to the " crime of 
 solicitation," in which he gives the papal legislation respecting 
 seduction by the confessional legislation which was, of course, 
 demanded by the existence of the very crimes therein pro- 
 hibited, because such laws are not made for the righteous, but 
 for the lawless and disobedient, for the ungodly and for sinners 
 (1 Tim. 1: 9). Says archbishop Kenrick, as translated by Rev. 
 Edward Beecher, D.D., in his " Papal Conspiracy Exposed " : 
 
 " We scarcely dare to speak concerning that atrocious crime in which 
 the office of hearing confession is perverted to the ruin of souls by im- 
 pious men under the influence of their lusts. Would that we could 
 regard it as solely a conception of the mind and as something invented 
 by the enemies of the faith for the purposes of slander ! But it is not 
 fit that we should be ignorant of the decrees which the pontiffs have 
 issued to defend the sacredness of this sacrament." 
 
 This, it will be noticed, admits the existence of the crimes at 
 which the legislation is aimed. Archbishop Kenrick specifies 
 19 different cases or 19 different ways of of seducing women in 
 connection with the practice of confession, which Dr. Beecher 
 thus translates : 
 
 u 1. Solicitation during the act of confession, 5 cases. 
 ( " 2. Solicitation before the act of confession, 2 cases. 
 " 8. Solicitation immediately after confession, 3 cases. 
 " 4. Solicitation to which confession furnishes an occasion, 4 cases. 
 " 5. Solicitation under the pretext of confession, 2 cases. 
 
 1 Francis P. Kenrick, D.D., bishop of Philadelphia, 1830-51 ; archbishop of 
 Baltimore from 1851 till his death in 1863 ; brother of P. R. Kenrick, D.D., now 
 archbishop of St Louis.
 
 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. ~ 515 
 
 " 6. Solicitation in the confessional, although no confession is made, 
 1 case. 
 
 " 7. Solicitation in any other place besides the confessional, if it is 
 used for purposes of confession, 2 cases." 
 
 The laws on some of these cases are thus given : 
 
 " I. 5. Any thing written on paper adapted to excite love, or a love- 
 letter, delivered in the tribunal, is equivalent to solicitation in the con- 
 fessional. 
 
 " IV., 2. ... Who from any frailty discovered in confession, takes 
 an occaion afterwards to tempt the female who has confessed. 
 
 " 3. Whoever shall remind a female, either by word or sign, of a 
 sin which she has revealed in confession, whilst at another time he 
 solicits her, is justly considered as having taken an occasion to solicit 
 from confession, and is guilty of violating the seal i.e f , of secrecy. 
 
 " 4. Who solicits a female to sin, promising that he will afterwards 
 receive her to make confession. . . . 
 
 " V. If a priest suggests to a female refusing to comply with his de- 
 sires, on account of exposing her reputation to peril, that she should 
 send for him under a pretext of desiring to confess to him, he is to be 
 regarded as soliciting under pretext of confession." 
 
 Archbishop Kenrick was for 12 years the head of the 
 Roman Catholic church in the United States after he thus ad- 
 mitted the existence of such crimes in connection with the 
 confessional, and published the papal legislation in respect to 
 them. The Protestant may well ask, Was he a slanderer of 
 the confessional and of his church, or are these alleged dan- 
 gers and crimes real and terrible ? 
 
 " But there are laws and penalties against those priests who 
 thus abuse the sacrament of confession," the Roman Catholic 
 may rejoin ; to which the Protestant may reply, Of what use 
 are laws and penalties, unless they are enforced ? Human 
 laws will not execute themselves ; sinning priests are doubt- 
 less sometimes punished by their bishops ; they have been 
 mildly punished by the Inquisition, as has been already stated ; 
 but the offenders at Seville escaped punishment, because they 
 were so numerous, and the officers of the Inquisition were
 
 516 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. 
 
 doubtless no better than they. It is declared to be the injured 
 female's duty to report the offending priest to the Inquisition 
 or to the bishop ; but suppose she fails to substantiate her 
 charge byjother testimony than her own, she herself may not 
 only incur his vengeance, but may be punished for slandering 
 the priest. Listen to Archbishop Kenrick further : 
 
 " No one is to be condemned to those most severe punishments on the 
 accusation of one witness. 
 
 " It is the pleasure of the pope that false charges against innocent 
 priests shall subject the accuser to deserved retribution." 
 
 The priest who attempts to seduce a woman by means of the 
 confessional may therefore laugh at human penalties ; no one 
 knows the fact but himself and his victim ; or if she communi- 
 cates it to others, she only publishes her own shame, and be- 
 comes a slanderer of her spiritual guide and intercessor with 
 God. He can not be convicted of sin on her testimony, but 
 she may be punished without mercy for bringing up an evil re- 
 port of the priesthood, the sacraments, the church. The priest 
 knows all the secrets of every female heart in his parish, and, 
 as the church teaches, holds the keys of the kingdom of heaven ; 
 not a girl or a woman within his jurisdiction but must blush and 
 tremble before him ; she must confess to him every unchaste 
 thought, desire, and action under pain of eternal damnation ; 
 she is taught from her infancy to reverence him, to regard him 
 as the infallible representative of the Lord Jesus Christ and 
 his word as the word of God himself to her. The so-called 
 sacrament of confession is a mere human invention, unscrip- 
 tural and anti-scriptural, unalterably and grossly immoral in 
 its nature and tendency, fraught with the most imminent and 
 dreadful danger, temporal and spiritual, to priest and to peo- 
 ple, to the church and to mankind, for this world and for the 
 world to come. Such is the Protestant view based upon innu- 
 .merable and incontrovertible facts.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 
 
 THE word " penance," as well as " penitence," comes from 
 the Latin pcenitentia, and is commonly used in the Douay Bible 
 where pcenitentia occurs in the Latin Vulgate ; and thus" pen- 
 ance " takes the place of " repentance," and " do penance " of 
 " repent," as applied to man in the English Bible (e. g. 1 Kings 
 8 : 47. Job 42 : 6. Matt. 3 : 2, 8, 11. 11 : 20, 21. Heb. 6 : 1, 6, 
 <fec. See also Chap. XIII.). But " penance " and " peni- 
 tence " now express very different ideas. " Penance," accord- 
 ing to the Roman Catholic authorities (see Chap. II.), in- 
 volves contrition, confession, and satisfaction. " Contrition," 
 when it is perfect, according to the Catechism of the Council 
 of Trent, " blots out sin l ; " but this is so rare, that " through 
 perfect contrition alone, very few indeed could hope to obtain 
 the pardon of their sins." " Confession " is the subject of the 
 preceding chapter. " Satisfaction " is defined " the compen- 
 sation made by man to God, by doing something in atonement 
 for the sins which he has committed." The satisfaction which 
 Christ makes on the cross, it is declared, " gives to man's ac- 
 tions merit 2 before God " ; but the satisfaction which is 
 
 1 Protestants believe that no amount or degree of contrition can efface sin ; that 
 the salvation which God bestows is of grace through faith ; and that the blood of 
 Jesus Christ cleanses " from all sin " those who walk in the light, or heartily trust 
 and obey God (Eph. 2 : 8, 9. 1 John 1 : 7, &c.). 
 
 2 The idea of human merit before God is regarded by Protestants as in direct 
 contradiction to the Scriptures, which represent salvation as wholly of grace " not 
 of works, lest any man should boast " /Rom. 3 : 24. 4:2. Eph. 2 : 8, 9, &c.)
 
 518 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 
 
 called " canonical," and constitutes part of the sacrament of 
 penance, is something prayer, fasting, or alms-deeds " which 
 is imposed by the priest, and which must be accompanied 
 with a deliberate and firm purpose carefully to avoid sin for the 
 future." This canonical satisfaction, which is imposed by the 
 priest when penitents are absolved from their sins, and which 
 is itself often called " penance," is directed by the council of 
 Trent to be proportioned to the nature of the offense and the 
 capability of the offender. 
 
 And here comes in the grand distinction between " mortal " 
 (= deadly) and" venial" (= pardonable) sins. 1 The Catechism 
 of the Council of Trent says : 
 
 1 The following questions and answers are taken from " A General Catechism of 
 the Christian Doctrine, prepared by order of the National Council, for the use of 
 Catholics in the United States of America. Approved by the Most Rev. John 
 Hughes, D. D., Archbishop of New York." 
 
 " Q. What is mortal sin ? 
 
 " A. Mortal sin is that which kills the soul, and deserves hell. 
 
 " Q. How does mortal sin kill the soul ? 
 
 " A. Mortal sin kills the soul by destroying the life of the soul, which is the 
 grace of God. 
 
 " Q. What is venial sin ? 
 
 " A. Venial sin is that which does not kill the soul, yet displeases God. 
 
 " Q. Are ant/ others condemned to hell beside the devils or bad angels ? 
 
 " A. All who die enemies to God, that is, all who die in the state of mortal sln^ 
 go to hell." 
 
 Collet's " Doctrinal and Scriptural Catechism," translated by Mrs. Sadlicr, and 
 also approved by the late archbishop Hughes, teaches that a sin is venial, " when 
 its matter is trivial (some little passing distractions, some idle words, the loss of a 
 little time, a little unwillingness to obey, &c.), or when the consent is imperfect 
 (when the will is not fully determined), even although the matter be considerable." 
 
 Bishop Challoner's " Catholic Christian Instructed," published by " The Cath- 
 olic Publication Society," says : 
 
 " All those sins are to be esteemed mortal which the word of God represents to 
 us as hateful to God, against which he pronounces a woe, or of which it declares 
 that such as do those things shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven : of these 
 we have many instances (Rom. 1 : 29, 30, 31. 1 Cor. 6 : 9, 10. Gal. 5 : 19, 20, 21. x 
 Eph. 5 : 5. Apocalypse 21 : 8 ; and in the Old Testament, Is. v., Ezek. xviii., &c.). 
 But though it be very easy to know that some sins are mortal, and others but ven- 
 ial, yet to pretend to be able always perfectly to distinguish which are mortal and 
 which are not, is above the reach of the most able divines ; and therefore a pru-
 
 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 519 
 
 a All mortal sins must be revealed to the minister of religion : venial 
 Bins, which do not separate us from the grace of God, and into which 
 we frequently fall, although, as the experience of the pious proves, 
 proper and profitable to be confessed, may be omitted without sin, and 
 expiated by a variety of other means." 
 
 The Roman Catholic church, as Dr. Wiseman says, " pro- 
 fesses to be divinely authorized to exact interior assent to all 
 that it teaches, under the penalty of being separated from its 
 communion " (see Chapter II.) ; in other words, it claims the 
 right to enforce complete uniformity ol belief and practice, 
 and hence excommunicates every one who violates a command- 
 ment of the church, unless he makes the required satisfaction 
 by " doing penance." 
 
 The " General Catechism of the Christian Doctrine," cited 
 in the note on p. 518, has the following questions and answers : 
 
 [ " Q. How many are the commandments of the Church ? 
 
 " A. The commandments of the Church are chiefly six, which are : 
 " 1st. To hear mass, and to rest from servile works on Sundays and 
 Holydays of obligation. 1 
 
 " 2d. To keep fast in Lent, the Ember-days, the Fridays in Advent, 
 and eves of certain Festivals, and to abstain from flesh on Fridays, and 
 on other appointed days of abstinence. 
 
 " 3d. To confess our sins to our Pastor, or other Priest, duly author- 
 ized, at least once a year. 2 
 
 " 4th. To receive the Blessed Sacrament at Easter or thereabout. 3 
 " 5th. To contribute to the support of our Pastors. 4 
 
 dent Christian will not easily pass over sins in confession, under the pretense of 
 their being venial, unless he be certain of it. And this caution is more particu- 
 larly necessary in certain cases, where persons being ashamed to confess their sins, 
 are willing to persuade themselves they are but venial ; for in such cases it is much 
 to be feared, lest their self-love should bias their judgment." 
 
 1 On Holydays, Fasts, Festivals, &c., see Chapter XVI. ; on Mass, see Chapter 
 XIV. a On Confession, see Chapter XVII. 
 
 8 The decree of the 4th Lateran council about annual communion with the an- 
 nexed penalty " Let one living otherwise be prohibited from entering a church, 
 and, when he dies, let him be deprived of Christian burial " was again promul- 
 gated by the 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1866, at whose request the Holy 
 See granted them the privilege of " prolonging the time of the paschal communion 
 from the first Sunday of Lent to Trinity Sunday inclusive." 
 
 * See Chapter XXL
 
 520 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 
 
 " 6th. Not to many within certain degrees of kindred ; nor pri- 
 vately without witnesses ; nor to solemnize marriage at certain prohib- 
 ited times." l 
 
 " Q. Say the seven deadly sins f 
 
 "A. The seven deadly sins are; 1. Pride; 2. Covetousness ; 3. 
 Lust; 4. Wrath; 5. Gluttony; 6. Envy; 7. Sloth. The contrary 
 virtues are; 1. Humility ; 2. Liberality; 3. Chastity; 4. Meekness; 
 5. Temperance ; 6. Brotherly love ; 7. Diligence. 
 
 " Q. Say the six sins against the Holy Ghost ? 
 
 " A. 1. Presumption of God's mercy ; 2. Despair ; 3. Impugning the 
 known truth ; 4. Envy at another's spiritual good ; 5. Obstinacy in 
 sin ; 6. Final impenitence, are the six sins against the Holy Ghost. 
 
 " Q. Say the four sins that cry to heaven for vengeance f 
 
 "A. 1 . Wilful murder ; 2. Sodomy ; 3. Oppression of the poor ; 
 4. Defrauding laborers of their wages, are the four sins crying to 
 heaven for vengeance. 
 
 " Q. Say the nine ways of being accessory to another person's sins ? 
 
 " A. One may be accessory to another person's sin : 1. By Counsel ; 
 2. By Command ; 3. By Consent ; 4. By Provocation ; 5. By Praise 
 or Flattery ; G. By Concealment ; 7. By Partaking ; 8. By Silence ; 
 9. By Defending ill-done things." 
 
 But the preceding do not make up the whole catalogue of 
 mortal sins. The following sentences from a pastoral letter, 
 issued in February, 1856, by Rt. Rev. Armand Francis Mary 
 de Charbonnel, then (and until 1859) bishop of Toronto in 
 Canada, are given in the appendix to the 7th Annual Report 
 of the American and Foreign Christian Union, and are un- 
 doubtedly authentic : 
 
 " Parents and guardians are guilty of mortal sin if their children 
 about 7 years old do not know the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, 
 the Commandments, the manner of hearing Mass and of making their 
 Confession with sincerity and contrition. 
 
 " Catholic electors in this country, who do not use their electoral 
 power in behalf of separate schools, are also guilty of mortal sin. 
 Likewise parents not making the sacrifices necessary to secure such 
 schools, or sending their children to mixed schools. 
 
 , -s-t 
 
 l See Chapter XIV.
 
 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 521 
 
 * Moreover the Confessor who would give absolution to such parents, 
 electors, or legislators [see Chapter XXIII.] as support mixed 
 schools to the prejudice of separate schools, would be guilty of a mortal 
 sin. 
 
 " It is a gross and very common error to believe that to drink in 
 violation of one's pledge is a sin in itself. To drink beyond measure 
 is a mortal or venial sin of intemperance according to the degree of 
 drunkenness ; but to drink with moderation, though in violation of 
 one's pledge, is not a sin unless the pledge has been taken with an ob- 
 ligatory intention, or by way of a vow or oath ; which should never 
 be done without a spiritual father's advice." 
 
 There are some offenses, commonly called " reserved cases," 
 for which none but the pope can grant absolution j 1 and hence 
 on Thursday and Friday of Holy Week, a cardinal, armed with 
 the delegated powers of the pope, and known as the " grand 
 penitentiary," sits at St. Peter's to receive confessions of such 
 crimes, and to absolve from them. Among these " reserved 
 cases " are " the cases of those who falsely before ecclesiasti- 
 cal judges charge innocent priests with solicitation, or wickedly 
 procure that to be done by others ; " " the case of those confes- 
 sors who have dared to absolve an accomplice in foul crime ; " J 
 the case of those mothers who are the cause of their children's 
 not receiving baptism ; s and " the more weighty causes and 
 crimes.' "* 
 
 According to the Roman Pontifical, 
 
 " Excommunication is threefold, to wit, minor, major, and anathema. 
 The minor excommunication is occasioned by participation only with 
 an excommunicate, and from such a simple priest can absolve without 
 
 1 The Bishop may also, according to the " 2d Plenary council of Baltimore," with- 
 draw certain crimes from the jurisdiction of priests and reserve them for his own 
 hearing and adjudication. 
 
 * " Instruction of the Holy Roman and Universal Inquisition," in the appendix 
 to the Acts and Decrees of the 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore. 
 
 i Collot's Catechism, cited on p. 518, note. 
 
 Council of Trent, in the decree on penance. The decree does not enumerate 
 these " more weighty causes and crimes."
 
 622 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 
 
 the precaution of an oath ; but in such a case let the excommunicate 
 confess to his own priest, saying: ' I confess to God, and to thee (N.) 
 that I am an excommunicate because I participated with (such an) ex- 
 communicate in prayer, (or) conversation, (or) drinking, (or) eating with 
 him.' The priest absolving him, speaks in words of this sort : ' By 
 the authority of Almighty God, granted to me, I absolve thee from 
 the bond of this excommunication, which thou hast confessed ; 
 and from any other like it (if thou art held by any), so far as I can, 
 and ought ; and I restore thee to the sacraments of the church. In 
 the name of the Father (sign of the cross), and of the Son (sign of the 
 cross), and of the Holy (sign of the cross) Spirit.' 
 
 " But the major excommunication, which a bishop promulgates by 
 reading through a written sentence, is brought out thus : ' Since I, N., 
 have, to show clearly the wickedness, lawfully admonished (such a one) 
 for the first, second, third, and fourth time, to do, (or) not to do 
 (such a thing) ; but he has disdained to fulfill a command of this sort, 
 because obedience would seem to be of no advantage to the humble, if 
 contempt was not harmful to the contumacious : Therefore by the au- 
 thority of Almighty God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and of the 
 blessed apostles Peter and Paul, and of all the saints, his own obsti- 
 nacy demanding it, I excommunicate him in writing ; and I denounce 
 him as one to be shunned until he shall have fulfilled what is com- 
 manded, that his spirit may be saved in the day of judgment.' " 
 
 The absolution from the major excommunication is more for- 
 mal, requiring the excommunicate to take an oath of obedience, 
 to appear, stripped to his shirt, before the bishop for the pur- 
 pose of being reconciled to the church, to make suitable satis- 
 faction, <fec. 
 
 The anathema, or solemn excommunication for greater 
 crimes which is pronounced by the bishop arrayed in his 
 amice and stole and purple cope and mitre, and assisted by 12 
 surpliced priests, while the bishop and priests all hold burning 
 candles in their hands, and the bishop sits on a faldstool before 
 the high altar or in some other public place runs thus, ac- 
 cording to the Roman Pontifical of 1868 : 
 
 Because N., at the suggestion of the devil, disregarding through 
 apostasy the Christian promise which he made in baptism, does not
 
 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 528 
 
 fear to lay waste the Church of God, to plunder the Church's goods, 
 and violently to oppress Christ's poor ; therefore we, anxious, lest he 
 perish through pastoral neglect, for which we may have to give account 
 at the tremendous judgment before the Chief Shepherd our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, according to the terrible threat which our Lord himself utters : 
 If thou tha.lt not have announced to the unrighteous his unrighteous- 
 ness, his blood will I require at thy hand ; we admonish him canoni- 
 cally, for the first, second, third, and also the fourth time to convince 
 him of his wickedness, inviting him to amendment, satisfaction, and 
 penance, and taking hold of him with paternal affection. But he him- 
 self, Oh sorrow ! spurning wholesome admonitions, puffed up with a 
 spirit of pride, disdains to make satisfaction to the Church of God, 
 which he has injured. Well are we informed by the teachings of the 
 Lord and of his apostles, what we ought to do in respect to prevari- 
 cators of this sort. For the Lord says : If thy hand or thy foot cause 
 thee to offend, cut it off, and cast it from thee. And the apostle says: 
 Take away the evil one from among you. And again : If he, who is 
 called a brother, is a fornicator, or covetous, or a server of idols, or a 
 railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner, with such a one not so much 
 as to eat. And John, best-beloved disciple of Christ, forbids to salute 
 such an impious man, saying : Receive him not into the house, nor say 
 to him, God save you. For he that saith to him, God save you, com- 
 municateth with his wicked works. Therefore fulfilling the precepts 
 of the Lord and of his apostles, we cut off from the body of the Church 
 with the sword of excommunication a rotten limb, that can not be heal- 
 ed, that does not bear medicine, lest the remaining limbs of the body be 
 infected with so deadly a disease as with poison. Therefore because he 
 has despised our admonitions and frequent exhortations, because, having 
 been for the third time, according to the Lord's precept, called, he has 
 disdained to come to amendment and penance, because he has neither 
 considered his own fault, nor confessed it, nor by sending an embassy 
 alleged any excuse, nor asked forgiveness, but, the devil hardening his 
 heart, perseveres in the wickedness begun, as the apostle says : Ac- 
 cording to his own hardness and impenitent heart lie treasures up to 
 himself wrath against the day of wrath : therefore, by the judgment of 
 Almighty God^ Father, and Son, and Holy Spirit, and of blessed 
 Peter the prince of the apostles, and of all the Saints, also by the au- 
 thority of our own mediocrity, and by the power, divinely placed in us,
 
 524 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 
 
 of binding and loosing in heaven and in earth, we do separate him, 
 with all his accomplices and favorers, from the perception of the pre- 
 cious Body and Blood of the Lord, and from the fellowship of all 
 Christians, and we exclude him from the limits of holy mother Church 
 in heaven and in earth, and we pronounce him to be excommunicated 
 and anathematized ; and we adjudge him condemned with the devil 
 and his angels and all the reprobate to eternal fire t until he may re- 
 cover himself from the snares of the devil, and return to amendment 
 and penance, and make satisfaction to the Church, which he has injured : 
 delivering him to Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit 
 may be saved in the day of judgment.' 
 
 " And all answer, ' Be it done, be it done, be it done.' " 
 " When this is done, both the pontiff and the priests ought to 
 throw down to the ground the burning candles which they hold in their 
 hands. Then let a letter be sent to the priests through the parishes, 
 and also to neighboring bishops, containing the excommunicate's 
 name and the cause of excommunication." 
 
 The absolution from the anathema and the reconciliation 
 are similar to those following the major excommunication ; but, 
 like the anathema, require the presence of the pontiff and 12 
 priests. There are also distinct forms for the public expul- 
 sion from the cathedral church on Ash-Wednesday and the 
 reconciliation on Maundy-Thursday, of those on whom for 
 " more weighty offenses " a solemn penance has been imposed. 
 
 Closely connected with the doctrines respecting sin and pen- 
 ance, and indeed essential to the enforcement of these and 
 other doctrines, is the doctrine of purgatory. In its ex- 
 position of the 5th article of the creed " He descended into 
 hell" (see Chap. II.), the Catechism of the Council of Trent 
 
 " Hell here signifies those secret abodes in which are detained the 
 souls that have not been admitted to the regions of bliss. . . . These 
 abodes are not all of the same nature, for amongst them is that most 
 loathsome and dark prison in which the souls of the damned are buried 
 with the unclean spirits, in eternal and inextinguishable fire. This dread
 
 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 525 
 
 abode is called Gehenna, the bottomless pit, and, strictly speaking 
 means hell. Amongst them is also the fire of purgatory, in which the 
 souls of just men are cleansed by a temporary punishment, in order to 
 be admitted into their eternal country, ' into which nothing defiled enter- 
 eth.'. . . . Lastly, the third kind of abode is that into which the souls 
 of the just, who died before Christ, were received, and where, without 
 experiencing any sort of pain, and supported by the blessed hope of re- 
 demption, they enjoyed peaceful repose. To liberate these souls, who, 
 in the bosom of Abraham, were expecting the Savior, Christ the Lord 
 descended into hell." 
 
 The essential part of the short decree of the council of Trent 
 respecting purgatory is : 
 
 " Since the Catholic church, instructed by the Holy Spirit, from the 
 sacred writings and the ancient tradition of the fathers, has taught in 
 holy councils, and lastly in this ecumenical synod, that there is a purga- 
 tory, and that the souls there detained are helped by the suffrages of 
 the faithful, but especially by the acceptable sacrifice of the altar ; the 
 holy synod commands the bishops diligently to strive that the whole- 
 some doctrine of purgatory, handed down by venerable fathers and holy 
 councils, be believed by Christ's faithful, held, taught, and every where 
 preached." 
 
 We add the following from the " General Catechism," quoted 
 in the note on p. 518, inserting in brackets the places 
 quoted : 
 
 " Q. In what cases do souls go to Purgatory ? 
 
 " A. Souls go to purgatory when they die in less sins, which we call 
 venial, or when they have not satisfied the justice of God for former 
 transgressions. 
 
 Q. How do you prove there is a Purgatory ? 
 
 u A. "We prove there is a Purgatory, because the Scripture teaches 
 that ' God will render to every man according to his works ' [Rom. 2 : 
 6] ; and that ' nothing defiled shall enter heaven ' [Apocalypse, or Rev. 
 21: 27] ; and that some Christians 'shall be saved, yet so as by fire ' 
 Cl Cor. 3 : 15]; and that 'it is a holy and wholesome thought to pray
 
 526 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 
 
 for the dead, that they may be loosed from their sins ' [2 Maccabees 
 12: 46]." 
 
 Roman Catholic theologians, though agreed as to the exis- 
 tence of purgatory, differ as to its situation and the nature of 
 its punishments. Cardinal Bellarmin reckoned 8 variations 
 of opinion in respect to this. The schoolmen of the middle ages 
 maintained and this appears to be the prevalent opinion 
 that the vast cavity in the central region of the earth is divided 
 into 4 apartments, namely : (1.) hell ; (2.) purgatory ; (3.) 
 the limbo of infants who died unbaptized, and who endure the 
 eternal punishment of loss, but not of sense ; (4.) the limbo of 
 the fathers, now untenanted, since Christ liberated the Old 
 Testament saints who had occupied it till his descent into it. 
 The pains of purification in purgatory have been represented as 
 so horribly severe that no sufferings ever borne in this world 
 can be compared with them. How long they continue is un- 
 known ; but the process of cleansing is thought to be very 
 gradual, and, in some cases, not to be completed till the day of 
 judgment. Rev. T. S. Preston, chancellor of the archdiocese 
 of New York, is reported to have said in a recent discourse : 
 
 u The pains which souls suffer in purgatory I believe to be a bitter 
 feeling of loss and separation from God, and a pain of fire, somewhat 
 akin to the fire of hell, but with a purifying power." 
 
 Bishop Challoner, in his " Catholic Christian Instructed," 
 says: 
 
 " We have the strongest grounds imaginable from all kinds of argu- 
 ments, from scripture, from perpetual tradition, from the authority and 
 declaration of the Church of God, and from reason." 
 
 A Protestant naturally believes that this bold declaration 
 was intended to make up in positiveness of assertion what it 
 lacks in weight of argument. The Scriptural argument which 
 is given above, is certainly of no weight whatever. The free
 
 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 527 
 
 and full salvation of the Gospel of Christ is consistent alike 
 with the just punishment of unbelievers, with the narrow escape 
 of some believers from destruction, and with different degrees 
 of eternal glory or reward proportioned to the manifested love 1 
 and devotedness of different believers, and the invention of a pur- 
 gatory is sanctioned by no accredited revelation of God. The 
 2d book of the Maccabees, on which reliance is placed, has no 
 claim to be regarded as an inspired book ; was never a part 
 of the Hebrew Old Testament ; was pronounced apocryphal by 
 Jerome (one of the great fathers of the Church, and the trans- 
 lator of the Bible into Latin ; see Chap. XIII.), by popes Greg- 
 ory the Great and Sixtus V., by cardinals Hugo, Ximenes, 
 Cajetan, &c. ; and owes all its authority among Roman Catho- 
 lics to the hasty and peremptory decree of the council of Trent 
 in 1546, at a session when only about 53 were present. The 
 doctrine of purgatory is a human invention (see Chapter II.) ; 
 it is unscriptural and dangerous ; it represents the atonement 
 of Christ and the influence of the Holy Spirit as insufficient for 
 the salvation of ordinary Christians ; it encourages the com- 
 mission of sin and the delay of repentance with the hope of 
 purification after death ; with its connected doctrines of con- 
 fession and absolution, of offenses and penalties, it places the 
 penitent in the power of the confessor, and makes the priest the 
 ruler of heaven and earth and hell. Let it be remembered that 
 the priest is the sole judge of offenses and penalties at the tri- 
 bunal of penance ; that he will decide a particular theft or 
 breach of chastity or act of treason to be venial, and the read- 
 ing of the Bible 2 or a doubt about the immaculate conception 
 
 1 " Faith which worketh by love " (Gal. 5 : 6). 
 
 1 Cases like this are well authenticated. A poor girl, perhaps living in a Prot- 
 estant family, hears the Bible read, and reads a few verses in the Gos- 
 pel of John ; she is delighted to hear and to read of Jesns and of his sal- 
 vation ; but she goes to confession and tells the priest what she has done ; 
 he in a rage calls the book she has read " a wicked book," " an accursed 
 book ; " she must never dare to read it again ; she must never dare to be present at 
 Protestant worship in the family or elsewhere ; she must fast many times and say 
 many Pater-nosters ; hell and purgatory are before her ; let her do penance and 
 beware I
 
 528 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. 
 
 or the eating of a mouthful of meat on Friday to be a mortal 
 sin ; that while he claims the power to grant absolution for all 
 sins, both venial and mortal, and teaches that there is no sal- 
 vation out of the Church, he threatens with excommunication 
 and purgatory and hell those who do not confess to him all 
 their sins or do not accept the penances which he prescribes. 
 Surely here is machinery that may and does enslave and crush 
 and ruin souls.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 INDULGENCES. 
 
 The Council of Trent passed the following decree in respect 
 to indulgences : 
 
 " Since the power of bestowing indulgences was granted by Christ 
 to the church, and the power of this sort, divinely given her, she has 
 used even from the most ancient times ; the holy synod teaches and 
 enjoins that the use of indulgences, especially salutary to Christian 
 people, and approved by the authority of holy councils, is to be retained 
 in the church ; and it anathematizes those, who either assert that they 
 are useless, or deny that the power of granting them is in the church. 
 Nevertheless, it desires that moderation, according to the old and ap- 
 proved custom in the church, be shown in granting them, lest by too 
 great facility ecclesiastical discipline be weakened. But desiring the 
 amendment and correction of the abuses which have crept in among 
 them, and by reason of which this honorable name of indulgences is 
 blasphemed by heretics, it determines generally by the present decree 
 that all improper gains for obtaining these, whence has flowed the 
 principal cause of abuses among Christian people, are to be altogether 
 abolished. But since the other abuses, which have arisen from super- 
 stition, ignorance, irreverence, or other source in any way whatever, 
 cannot conveniently, on account of the multiplied corruptions of the 
 places and provinces in which these are committed, be specially pro- 
 hibited ; it commands all bishops, that each diligently collect the abuses 
 of this sort belonging to his own church, and report them in the first 
 provincial synod : that after they are examined and the opinion of other 
 bishops is obtained, they may be at once referred to the supreme 
 Roman pontiff, by whose authority and prudence may be determined 
 what is expedient for the whole church ; that thus the gift of holy in- 
 34
 
 530 INDULGENCES. 
 
 diligences may be dispensed to the faithful piously, solemnly, and un- 
 corruptly." 
 
 It will be noticed that the Council of Trent does not define 
 the nature, or the benefit, or the proper use of indulgences ; nor 
 does it specify any improper use ; though it curses those who 
 pronounce them useless, or dispute the right to grant them. 
 
 Pope Leo X. had explained the doctrine of indulgences thus, 
 as translated by Mr. Cramp : 
 
 " The Roman church, whom other churches are bound to follow as 
 their mother, hath taught that the Roman pontiff, the successor of 
 Peter in regard to the keys, and the vicar of Jesus Christ upon earth 
 possessing the power of the keys, 1 by which power all hindrances are re- 
 moved out of the way of the faithful, that is to say, the guilt of actual 
 sins by the sacrament of penance and the temporal punishment due 
 for those sins, according to the divine justice, by ecclesiastical 
 indulgence ; that the Roman pontiff may, for reasonable causes, by his 
 apostolic authority grant indulgences, out of the superabundant merits 
 of Christ and the saints, to the faithful who are united to Christ by 
 charity, as well for the living as for the dead ; and that in thus dis- 
 pensing the treasure of the merits of Jesus Christ and the saints, he 
 either confers the indulgence by the method of absolution, or transfers 
 it by the method of suffrage. Wherefore all persons, whether living 
 or dead, who really obtain any indulgences of this kind, are delivered 
 from so much temporal punishment, due according to divine justice for 
 their actual sins, as is equivalent to the value of the indulgence 
 bestowed and received." 
 
 Bishop Challoner, in his " Catholic Christian Instructed," 
 defines an indulgence thus : 
 
 " An indulgence is simply a remission, or mitigation, of those tem- 
 poral punishments, which the sinner still owes to the eternal justice, 
 even after the forgiveness of the guilt of his offense." 
 
 Archbishop Butler's Catechism says of an indulgence 
 " It releases from canonical penances, enjoined by the church on 
 J- See, on this power of the keys, &c., Chapters II., XVII., and XVIII.
 
 INDULGENCES. 531 
 
 penitents, for certain sins It also remits the temporary punish- 
 ments, with which God often visits our sins, and which must be suffered 
 in this life, or in the next ; unless canceled by indulgences, by acts of 
 penance, or other good works." 
 
 Collet's Catechism devotes 3 pages to its section on in- 
 dulgences. 
 
 It distinguishes indulgences as partial or plenary ; defines a plenary 
 indulgence as u that which remits all the temporal punishment due for 
 sin," while a partial indulgence remits only a part of this punishment ; 
 and reckons 3 sorts of plenary indulgences, viz : (1.) The "jubilee,"* 
 which now occurs every 25 years (formerly, once in 100 then 50 
 then 33 years), and usually brings with it the three privileges, that 
 then one may choose his confessor at will, that the confessor may then 
 absolve reserved cases and censures, and that he may also change his 
 vows, except those of religion and chastity ; (2.) That given under the 
 form of jubilee, as on a pope's accession, or other important occasion ; 
 (3.) The simple plenary indulgence, which is granted only to certain 
 persons in certain places, as to confraternities, &c. The pope may 
 grant indulgences unrestrictedly ; bishops may also grant indulgences 
 for a year at the dedication of a church, and 40 days on other 
 occasions. The conditions of gaining indulgences are defined to be 
 (1.) To be tnily penitent ; (2.) To fulfill the conditions prescribed by 
 the church. The final question and answer are : 
 
 " Q. In what state is a person who has truly gained the jubilee? 
 
 " A. In the same state in which he was after baptism : in the state 
 of grace, without spot or stain, and with the same rights." 
 
 The following brief of indulgence is published in SadlierV 
 Catholic Directory for 1870 and 1871 : 
 
 ST. PATRICK'S DAY. 
 
 " Most Holy Father : 
 
 James Frederic, Bishop of Philadelphia, most humbly begs that 
 Your Holiness would deign to grant to all the faithful of his Diocese 
 who, having duly confessed and worthily approached the Holy Sacra- 
 ment of the Eucharist, on the FEAST OF ST. PATRICK, OK WITHIN 
 ITS OCTAVE, shall visit their respective churches, a Plenary Indulgence,
 
 532 INDULGENCES. 
 
 which may be gained every year, and which may also be applied hi 
 suffrage 1 of the souls in Purgatory. 
 
 Et, &c., &c. 
 
 " From an audience of the Most Holy Father, had on the 15th day 
 of June, 1862, our Most Holy Father Pius IX., by the Grace of God, 
 Pope, the case having been laid before him by me, the undersigned, 
 Secretary of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the 
 Faith, out of his goodness, graciously condescended to our request, on 
 condition of praying according to the intention of the Supreme 
 Pontiff. 
 
 " At Rome, in the House of the aforesaid Congregation, on the day 
 and year above mentioned. 
 
 H. CAPALTI, Secretary." 
 
 The following, translated from the original Italian, repre- 
 sents, as nearly as possible in English, an indulgence sold at 
 Palermo, in Sicily, and engraved in fac-simile in Sir Culling 
 Eardley Smith's " Romanism of Italy." The apostles Peter and 
 Paul ornament the upper left-hand corner, and the arms of 
 Gregory XVI. are on the corner opposite. Below are the Pa- 
 pal Commissioner's arms on the right, and the impression of 
 a cross on the left, with the Commissioner's signature (here, 
 for want of room, printed perpendicularly instead of horizon- 
 tally) between them. 
 
 1 " Suffrage " here denotes favor, aid, or assistance. It is also used, as in the 
 creed of pope Pius IV., to denote " the expression of assent on the part of a con- 
 gregation to a petition as uttered by a minister ; united response or prayer " 
 (Webster's Dictionary).
 
 INDULGENCES. 
 
 "MDCCCXXXXIV. 
 
 533 
 
 "BULL OF THE MOST HOLT CROSS, 
 
 By which the Supreme Pontiff Gregory XVI. 
 
 granted Plenary Indulgence to the deceased faithful 
 
 For the year 1844. 
 
 GREGORY XVI. 
 
 " The Holy Job, to express the ingratitude of his friends who aban- 
 doned him in his misfortunes, thus with energetic expressions mani- 
 fested his feeling : ' My brethren have passed by me, as the torrent 
 that passeth swiftly in the valleys ' (Job 6 : 15). The unhappy souls 
 that dwell in purgatory, knowing that God has placed their pardon in 
 the hands of the faithful, and that the completion of their happiness 
 in a certain way depends on them, wait with holy impatience for offices 
 of such great moment to be rendered to them ; but seeing, that so far 
 from being touched by the pains which they suffer, they maintain an. 
 insensibility quite contrary to Christian charity, they bitterly exclaim, 
 like Holy Job, ' Our brethren have passed by us.' Wherefore our Holy 
 Father, moved by pastoral zeal for those souls, exhorts you, O faith- 
 ful, to cooperate for the alleviation of their pains by the indulgences 
 which he concedes to you. 
 
 " And to you, D. Antonino di Natalt, who have given .the wonted 
 pious alms fixed by us, Ferdinando M. Cardinal Pignatelli, Arch- 
 bishop of Palermo, General Apostolic Commissioner of the Holy 
 Cross, for the soul of Luciano di Hatcde, and have received this Holy 
 Bull : to you is confirmed the above Indulgence, 
 
 " Given in Palermo, 6 September, 1843.
 
 634 
 
 INDULGENCES. 
 "IV. 
 
 In 1853, " Monsignor (= my Lord) Gaetano Bedini, Arch- 
 bishop of Thebes, Apostolic Nuncio," came to the United 
 States and was received with great honor as a special repre- 
 sentative of pope Pius IX. (see Chap. VII.). While in this 
 country he is reputed to have sold numerous indulgences to 
 different classes of people, one of which, printed in Italian 
 and highly prized by its owner in New York city, was copied 
 by an Italian Christian, translated, and published in 1854 as 
 authentic in the American and Foreign Christian Union, then 
 edited by Rev. Robert Baird, D. D., and Rev. E. R. Fairchild, 
 D. D. The translation is as follows : 
 
 " Copy of a Prayer found in the Tomb of our Lord Jesus Christ in 
 Jerusalem, and preserved by His Holiness, and by Charles V. in their 
 oratories, in silver cases. fChiavari, Printed by Botto. 
 
 " St. Elizabeth, Queen of Hungary, St. Matilda and St. Bridget, 
 desiring to know certain things relating to the sufferings of Jesus 
 Christ, made a special prayer, to whom Jesus Christ appeared, and 
 spoke as follows : 
 
 " My beloved handmaids, know ye, that the armed soldiers were 
 in number 125. Those who led me bound, were 33. The ex- 
 ecutioners of justice were 33. Blows inflicted on my head, 30. 
 When taken prisoner in the garden, to take me to the ground,
 
 INDULGENCES. 535 
 
 they gave me 105 kicks. They struck my head and breast with 
 their hands 168; on the shoulders, 80. I was dragged with cords 
 and by my hair 23 times ; spit in the face 30 times. Beaten with 
 6666 blows. On the body 100 wounds ; on the head 100. They 
 gave me a mortal bruise. On the cross I was hung up by the hair 
 2 hours at a time. I gave 129 sighs. I was dragged and drawn by 
 the beard 23 times. Punctures by the thorns on my head, 100. Mor- 
 tal wounds by thorns on the forehead, 3. Wounds made by the sol- 
 diers, who conducted me, 308. By those who guarded me, 3. The 
 drops of blood shed by me, 4380. 
 
 " Whoever daily recites 3 Paters and 3 Aves is granted, by Pius 
 IX., One Hundred years of Indulgence, corresponding with the number 
 of drops of blood which I shed ; and if he lives like a good Christian, 
 he grants him five graces, viz.: 
 
 " 1st. Plenary indulgence and the remission of all his sins. 
 
 " 2d. He shall be freed from the pains of purgatory. 
 
 u 3d. If he dies before reaching the age of 12 years, he shall be as 
 if he had reached that age. 
 
 " 4th. He shall be as if he were a martyr, and had shed his blood 
 for the faith. 
 
 " 5th. I will come from heaven to earth for his soul, and for the 
 souls of his relations, to the 4th generation. 
 
 " He who carries this prayer with him shall not die under condem- 
 nation, nor a bad death, nor by sudden death ; he shall be safe from 
 contagion, from plagues, from arrow-shots ; and shall not die without 
 confession ; he shall be safe from his enemies, from the power of jus- 
 tice and from all malevolent men and false witnesses. 
 
 44 Women whom [This promise is so indelicate and ridiculous, that 
 the editors of the A. & F. C. U. suppress it] 
 
 u In houses where this prayer is kept there shall be no treachery, 
 nor other evil things ; and 40 days before death the inhabitant shall 
 see the Blessed Virgin Mary. 
 
 " A certain captain, while in his travels, saw a head which had been 
 cut off from its body. The head spoke and said : ' As you are going 
 to Barcelona, O traveler, bring me a confessor, that he may confess 
 me. It is 3 days since I was killed by robbers, and I cannot die until 
 I have been confessed.' When a confessor was brought by the cap- 
 tain, the head being alive, confessed, and soon after expired, when this 
 prayer was found on its back.
 
 536 INDULGENCES. 
 
 " Now then recite 3 Paters and 3 Aves, for the blessed souls [in 
 Purgatory], and they may be applied to the soul nearest your heart." 
 
 In 1517, the Dominican friar John Tetzel proclaimed in 
 Germany the indulgence which pope Leo X. had issued to 
 promote the building of St. Peter's, and by the authority of 
 his superiors published " full remission of all sins," both for 
 the living ond for souls in purgatory, as granted by the apos- 
 tolic bull to those who purchased his documents. It was his 
 traffic in indulgences that roused the indignation of Luther and 
 thus became the occasion of the Reformation in Germany. 
 D'Aubignd thus translates some of Tetzel's declarations to the 
 multitudes that thronged round him and his chest for receiving 
 the indulgence-money : 
 
 " Come and I will give you letters, all properly sealed, by which 
 even the sins you intend to commit may be pardoned. ... I would not 
 change my privileges for those of St. Peter in heaven ; for I have 
 saved more souls by my indulgences than the apostle by his sermons. 
 
 . . . There is no sin so great that an indulgence can not remit 
 
 Indulgences avail not only for the living, but for the dead. ... At 
 the very instant that the money rattles at the bottom of the chest, the 
 soul escapes from purgatory, and flies liberated to heaven." 
 
 D'Aubigne* thus translates one of Tetzel's letters of absolution : 
 " May our Lord Jesus Christ have pity on thee, N. N., and absolve 
 thee by the merits of his most holy passion ! And I, in virtue of the 
 apostolical power that has been confided to me, absolve thee from all 
 ecclesiastical censures, judgments, and penalties, which thou mayst 
 have incurred ; moreover, from all excesses, sins, and crimes that thou 
 mayst have committed, however great and enormous they may be, and 
 from whatsoever cause, were they even reserved for our most holy 
 father the pope and for the apostolic see. I blot out all the stains of 
 inability and all marks of infamy that thou mayst have drawn upon 
 thyself on this occasion. I remit the penalties that thou shouldst 
 have endured in purgatory. I restore thee anew to participation in 
 the sacraments of the church. I incorporate thee afresh in the com- 
 munion of saints, and reestablish thee in the purity and innocence 
 which thou hadst at thy baptism. So that in the hour of death, the 
 gate by which sinners enter the place of torments and punishment 
 shall be closed against thee, and, on the contrary, the gate leading to
 
 INDULGENCES. 
 
 53T 
 
 the paradise of joy shall be open. And if thou shouldst not die for long 
 years, this grace will remain unalterable until thy last hour shall arrive. 
 " In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Amen. 
 " Friar John Tetzel, commissary, has signed this with his own hand." 
 The scapulars are described in Chapter XIV. Many graces 
 and indulgences are attached to these. The members of the 
 Confraternity of the Scapular of our Lady of 
 Mount Carmel, for example, have, besides 
 the shorter purgatory and divers other bene- 
 fits, a number of plenary and partial indul- 
 gences, which are fully enumerated in " The 
 Golden Book of the Confraternities," pub- 
 lished by T. W. Strong, New York, with the 
 approbation of the late archbishop Hughes. 
 It may suffice to quote the plenary indul- 
 gences, with the names of the popes grant- 
 ing them : 
 
 " A plenary indulgence is granted to the mem- 
 bers of the Holy Scapular of Mount Carmel : SCAPULAR OF MOUNT 
 
 CARMEL. 
 
 " 1st. Oil the day of admission into the Con- 
 fraternity of the Scapular. (Paul V.) 
 
 "2d. On the festival of our Lady of Mount Carmel, July 16th, or 
 on any day during the Octave. (Paul V., Benedict XIV.) 
 
 " 3d. On the day in each month on which there is a procession in 
 honor of the Blessed Virgin, for all who assist at the procession. 
 
 " If it be impossible for them to attend, it will suffice for them to visit the church 
 of the Confraternity ; or, if that cannot be done, to recite the Little Office of our 
 Lady, or the Lord's Prayer and Hail Mary 50 times, with an act of contrition, and 
 a resolution to confess and communicate as soon as it can conveniently be done. 
 (Paul V., Clement X.) 
 
 " 4th. At the hour of death for those who devoutly pronounce, or at 
 least say in their hearts, the holy name of Jesus. (Paul V.) 
 
 " 5th. Every time that other confraternities have a plenary indul- 
 gence. (Sixtus IV., Clement VII.) 
 
 " 6th. A plenary indulgence on all the festivals of our Lord, on 
 those of the Blessed Virgin, and on the twelve Apostles, as well as on 
 those of the saints and beatified members of the Carmelite Order. 
 (Gregory XVI.)
 
 538 INDULGENCES. 
 
 " 7th. Besides the above indulgences, all who wear the holy Scapu- 
 lar, may gain a plenary indulgence on any two days, at their option, in 
 every week. (Gregory XVI.) 
 
 " N. B. There are 3 conditions to be observed in order to gain the above ple- 
 nary indulgences, viz., to confess, to communicate, and to visit a church, and 
 to say therein some prayers (such as 5 Paters and Aves, the Litany of Jesus, or of 
 the Blessed Virgin), for the exaltation of the Catholic church, the propagation of 
 our holy Faith, peace and concord among Christian kings and princes, the extirpa- 
 tion of heresies and schisms, the conversion of sinners and infidel nations, and for 
 all the intentions of the same holy Church." 
 
 The 3 other scapulars described in Chapter XIV. also convey 
 their peculiar indulgences, provided they are received from a 
 priest empowered to grant them, and are worn constantly. 
 The Scapular of the Immaculate Conception, for example, is 
 is said by St. Liguori to have 433 plenary indulgences, besides 
 innumerable temporary ones. Those who wear the 4 scapulars 
 duly conferred and observe the conditions annexed are entitled 
 to 10 special plenary indulgences, besides those enumerated as 
 belonging to the scapular of Mount Carmel, <fec. The red 
 " Scapular of our Lord's Passion, and of the Sacred Hearts of 
 Jesus and Mary " was established by a papal rescript, June 25, 
 1847, with the following indulgences, according to the " Golden 
 Book of the Confraternities : " 
 
 u 1. Every Friday an indulgence of 7 years and 7 quarantines [= 
 periods of 40 days each] for all persons, who, wearing this scapular, 
 shall approach the Holy Communion, and recite, 5 times, Our Father, 
 Hail Mary, and Glory be to the Father, in honor of the Passion of our 
 Lord. 
 
 " 2. An indulgence of 3 years and 3 quarantines for such persons as 
 shall at any time, meditate half an hour on the Passion with humble 
 and contrite hearts. 
 
 " 3. An indulgence of 200 days for all the faithful, who, kissing 
 with compunction the said scapular, shall recite this verse : We 
 beseech Thee, therefore, help Thy servants, whom Tbou hast redeemed 
 with Thy precious blood. ' " 
 
 By another rescript, March 21, 1848, pope Pius IX. further 
 granted
 
 INDULGENCES. 539 
 
 ^. 
 " A plenary indulgence on every Friday to all the faithful, who, 
 
 wearing the scapular, having confessed and communicated, shall 
 devoutly meditate for a short time upon the Passion of our Lord, 
 and pray for concord among Christian princes, for the extirpation of 
 heresy, and for the exaltation of our holy Mother the Church." 
 
 This new red scapular is conferred by the Lazarist priests ; 
 the scapular of the Immaculate Conception, &c., by the Redemp- 
 torists ; that of Mount Carmel, of course, by the Carmelites. 
 
 The following is the 5th question in the widely-circulated 
 tract, " Is it honest? " published in New York by the Catholic 
 Publication Society : 
 
 " Is IT HONEST to assert that the Catholic Church grants any indul- 
 gence or permission to commit sin When an indulgence, according to 
 her universally received doctrine, was never dreamed of hy Catholics 
 to imply, in any case whatever, any permission to commit the least 
 sin ; and when an indulgence has no application whatever to sin until 
 after sin has been repented of and pardoned ? " 
 
 The inconsistency between the theoretical and the practical 
 views of an indulgence, apparent to every Protestant who reads 
 this chapter, are thus clearly set forth by Rev. William H. 
 Goodrich, D.D., the respected pastor of the 1st Presbyterian 
 Church, Cleveland, Ohio : 
 
 "If you go to an intelligent priest or a cultivated Romanist, or 
 search for yourself the authorities on this subject, you will find that 
 indulgence in the Roman Catholic Church is always conditioned on 
 contrition, confession, and reparation. But this is not the way in which 
 the doctrine is understood by the mass of the people. The crowds of 
 common believers who see posted all about the churches of Rome, 
 printed notices, prescribing the prayers and performances which 
 secure plenary indulgence, never understand these offers in any other 
 way than that the simple observance exempts them from so many 
 days or years of pain in purgatory. The theory of Papal indulgence 
 is, that all the good works of the saints, over and above what is neces- 
 sary toward a satisfaction for their own sins, are deposited, so to speak, 
 together with the infinite merits of Christ, in one treasury, the keys of
 
 540 INDULGENCES. 
 
 which are committed to the Pope. In granting an indulgence, the 
 Pope transfers a part of this superabundant merit to particular per- 
 sons, who satisfy with it the Divine justice. He bestows it in forms 
 most various, and for divers fees and considerations. He makes it a 
 prerogative of certain churches. To worship in them or at certain 
 altars is to gain indulgence.* A short prayer at the crucifix which 
 stands in the centre of the Coliseum obtains large indulgence. A vast 
 revenue has been derived from this single source. Much time of those 
 who inhabit monasteries and other devotees in Italy is spent in fulfiling 
 these conditions by which the horrors of purgatory can be abridged. 
 Indeed it is calculated that, by extraordinary diligence through a course 
 of years, a monk can pray himself and about five other of his friends 
 clean out of purgatory. Now the contradiction between the abstract 
 doctrine of indulgence and the common belief and hope of the people 
 in it, has existed for centuries, and never has been corrected. The 
 reason was naively given by an eminent Catholic theologian thus : 
 ' If,' he says, ' we should state these explanations in preaching the doc- 
 trine of indulgences, they would not find so many purchasers.' In 
 other words, the Church conceals the truth for the sake of the gain 
 brought to her coffers by popular ignorance. The brigand who turns 
 from his course of outrage to kneel at the shrine of the immaculate 
 Virgin, and recite the Hail Mary so many times, believes that he 
 thereby averts the retribution of his crimes. And he, and all like 
 ignorant souls, are left to that deception untaught and undelivered. To 
 them the whole doctrine of indulgences is a strong delusion, for which 
 the Church of Rome is responsible." 
 
 * " In a Circular Letter, read in the Romanist churches in New York, Sept. 19th 
 [1869], the Pope supplicates the united prayers of all the faithful in behalf of the 
 coming Council, and adds : ' As prayers are more agreeable to God when they 
 ascend from a soul purified from all stain, he opens with Apostolic liberality the 
 , celestial treasury of indulgences plenary and remission of all sins to all the faithful 
 of both sexes who shall, between the 1st of June and the close of the Council, visit 
 certain churches, (in New York, the Cathedral in Mulberry street, St. Anne's in 
 Eighth street, and the Nativity in Second avenue,) or at least one of them twice, 
 who, in addition to the accustomed fast of the Ember Days, shall fast for three 
 days even not consecutively, and confess their sins and receive the Eucharist. This 
 indulgence is applicable to the souls in Purgatory.' "
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 
 
 The first Christians, persecuted, and compelled to seek 
 privacy rather than publicity in their assemblies for worship, 
 met where they could in private houses, in the open fields, in 
 unfrequented places, in dens and caves of the earth. At the be- 
 ginning of the 3d century, according to Coleman's Christian 
 Antiquities, we first hear of buildings specially set apart for 
 the worship of God. By an edict in A.D. 303 the emperor 
 Diocletian ordered the sacred edifices or churches of the 
 Christians, of which there were then more than 40 at Rome, to 
 be razed to the ground. They were afterwards rebuilt ; and, 
 under Constantino and his successors, some pagan temples 
 were transformed into Christian churches. In Rome, in Con- 
 stantinople, in Jerusalem, and elsewhere, magnificent edifices 
 were now built, and solemnly dedicated to the worship of God. 
 The emperor Justinian I. made church-building the great busi- 
 ness of his life, and claimed that in building the magnificent and 
 colossal church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, which cost 
 nearly $5,000,000, he had surpassed Solomon. Many churches 
 were built in Europe in the 6th century and afterwards in the 
 Byzantine or ancient Gothic style of architecture, which is said 
 to have been introduced under Theodoric. The modern Gothic 
 style, distinguished by its pointed arch, became prevalent in the 
 13th century ; and vast cathedrals were now erected, exceeding 
 in size and architectural beauty all previous works of the kind. 
 The churches on the continent of Europe, according to Branded 
 Encyclopedia, " are usually ranged under 7 classes : Pontifical,
 
 542 C HURCH-EDIFICES. 
 
 as St. Peter's, where the pope occasionally officiates ; Patri- 
 archal, where the government is in a patriarch ; Metropolitan, 
 where an archbishop is the head ; Cathedral, where a bishop 
 presides ; Collegiate, when attached to a college ; Parochial, 
 attached to a parish ; and Conventual, when belonging to a 
 convent." 
 
 Nearly 20 of the churches in Rome are described more or 
 less fully in Chapter I. ; while the terms applied to the various 
 parts of a church and church-articles generally are noticed in 
 Chapter XIV. 
 
 The Roman Catholic cathedrals in Cologne, Strasbourg, 
 Milan, Toledo, Seville, and other cities in various parts of con- 
 tinental Europe, are of great size and magnificence, and of 
 immense cost. One or two may be taken for a moment's 
 attention. 
 
 The great cathedral of Cologne, built in the form of a cross, 
 511 feet long and 231 feet broad, with a roof supported by 100 
 columns, the 4 center ones each 30 feet in circumference, was 
 begun in 1248 on a plan which would make it the grandest and 
 most beautiful Gothic church in the world ; but it is still unfin- 
 ished, though the kings of Prussia have expended upon it 
 nearly $2,000,000 since 1842, when the work of completing it 
 was commenced. The " chapel of the Magi " or of " the 3 
 kings of Cologne " is behind the high altar in this cathedral, and 
 contains the reputed remains of the wise men who came from 
 the East to Bethlehem to see the infant Jesus, their skulls being 
 crowned with diamonds, their names written in rubies, the 
 silver case for their bones also ornamented with precious 
 stones, and this case and the surrounding valuables in the 
 chapel being together valued at $6,000,000. 
 
 The cathedral of Seville, which was founded in 1401 and 
 completed in 1519, has its exterior of various orders, but its in- 
 terior is exclusively Gothic. According to Cardinal Wiseman, 
 its length is 443 feet, its breadth 275 feet, and the height of its 
 nave 134 feet. Its tower or belfry, called the " Giralda," 350 
 feet high, is surmounted by a statue of Faith weighing 2800
 
 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 543 
 
 Ibs., holding a labarum or banner of Constantino, and turning on 
 a pivot so that it acts as a weathercock. It has 5 wide aisles, 
 separated by 4 rows of enormous clustered columns, 8 in each 
 row. Its organ contains 5300 pipes with 110 stops. It has 
 93 exquisitely painted windows. Its marble floor cost $125,- 
 000. Its 37 chapels are rich in splendid paintings and other 
 works of art. Its high altar is ornamented with the richest 
 marbles, paintings, statues, gilding, and, on grand festivals, 
 with immense silver mirrors in the form of stars and crowns. 
 Its tabernacle for the host, made of solid silver, 12 feet high, 
 and of enormous weight, hides within itself a temple of the 
 purest gold ; and this, again, has within it a very large ciborium 
 of the same precious metal, but covered with diamonds and 
 other jewels. Its vast size, dimly seen by the light admitted 
 through its richly-stained windows, its lofty and enormously 
 massy clustered columns, the prodigious elevation of its vaulted 
 roof, the sombre richness of its ornaments, and its solemn 
 stillness, all combine to produce in the beholder an instanta- 
 neous and overwhelming sense of awe. 
 
 On this side of the Atlantic, also, Roman Catholics have 
 erected, and are now erecting, large and costly churches. One 
 of the parish churches of Montreal that of Notre Dame (= 
 our Lady) on the Place d* Armes is of the Gothic style, with 
 2 lofty towers at the front corners, and is thus described by 
 Messrs. D. & J. Sadlier & Co., of New York and Montreal : 
 
 The length of the church is 256 feet, and its breadth 135 feet. 
 The height of the principal towers is 220 feet, and of the others 115 
 feet each ; and the great window at the high altar is 64 feet in height 
 by 32 in breadth. The total number of pews is 1244, capable of seat- 
 ing between six and seven thousand persons. In the northwest tower 
 is a fine chime of bells, and in the northeast tower is placed the largest 
 bell in America, being one cast expressly for this church, weighing 
 29,400 Ibs." 
 
 The Catholic cathedral at Baltimore, at the corner of Cathe- 
 dral and Mulberry streets, and adjoining the residence of arch-
 
 544 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 
 
 bishop Spalding, is represented in the engraving opposite, and 
 is considered the most imposing church-edifice in the city. It 
 is thus described in Appletons' Companion Hand-book of 
 Travel : 
 
 " It is built of granite, in the form of a cross, and is 190 feet long, 
 177 broad, at the arms of the cross, and 127 feet high, from the floor 
 to the top of the cross that surmounts the dome. The building is well 
 lighted by windows in the dome, which are concealed from the view of 
 persons below. At the West end rise two tall towers, crowned with 
 Saracenic cupolas, resembling the minarets of a Mohammedan mosque. 
 This church has the largest 1 organ in the United States, having 6000 
 pipes and 36 stops. It is ornamented with two excellent paintings 
 one, ' The Descent from the Cross,' was presented by Louis XVI. ; the 
 other, ' St. Louis burying his officers and soldiers slain before Tunis,' 
 was presented by Charles X. of France." 
 
 The " church of the Immaculate Conception," the interior of 
 which about the altar is also represented on the opposite page, 
 is but one of the nearly 20 Roman Catholic churches in the 
 city of Boston. This church, as well as St. Mary's and Holy 
 Trinity, in the same city, is in the possession of the Jesuits, 
 who have 6 or 7 priests connected with this church and with 
 the Boston College, which is on Harrison avenue near the 
 church. 
 
 The new cathedral in Boston, the building of which was com- 
 menced some years ago, is to be of Roxbury pudding-stone, 
 and is expected to cost $5,000,000. 
 
 If we take a particular view of the Roman Catholic churches in 
 this country, we shall find them especially those recently erect- 
 ed or now in progress not inferior to those of any other denomi- 
 nation in spaciousness, commanding position, artistic splendor 
 and general attractiveness. Look at the state of Connecticut, 
 in which very few Roman Catholics could be found 40 
 years ago, and begin at the S. W. corner. In Stamford 
 one of the finest sites in the village has been secured for their 
 
 1 An organ recently erected in Boston is larger than this.
 
 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 545 
 
 use ; in Nor walk their new and expensive stone church ap- 
 proaches completion ; in Bridgeport they have 2 churches, 
 each furnished with its pastor and another priest ; in New 
 Haven they have now 3 churches of brick and 1 of stone, and 
 the corner-stone of the new church of St. Mary Immaculate on 
 Hillhouse avenue which is to be a showy Gothic edifice of 
 trap-rock and granite, the main building 75 by 147^ feet, with 
 the chancel and sacristy extending back to Temple st., the 
 tower 228 feet high, the body of the church capable of seating 
 1600 persons, and the proposed galleries 1200 more was laid 
 on Thursday, September 22, 1870. Hartford has its 2 Roman 
 Catholic churches ; and about 50 other cities and towns of Con- 
 necticut have each a church-edifice formally dedicated and set 
 apart for Roman Catholic worship, besides nearly 50 other 
 places of worship where no separate church-edifice exists. 
 
 The new cathedral in New York city, situated on the East 
 side of 5th avenue between 51st and 52d streets, and designed 
 to be, when completed, the most magnificent ecclesiastical 
 building on this continent, is thus described in Appletons' 
 " New York Illustrated : " 
 
 " St. Patrick's Cathedral . . . was projected by the late Archbishop 
 Hughes, who laid the corner-stone in 1858, during which and the fol- 
 lowing year the foundations were laid and a portion of the superstruc- 
 ture built, when work was temporarily suspended. Upon the acces- 
 sion of Archbishop McCloskey, however, a new impetus was given to 
 the work, which has been vigorously prosecuted ever since. 
 " The ground occupied (extreme length, 332 feet; general breadth, 
 132 feet, with an extreme breadth at the transepts of 174 feet) is the 
 most elevated on Fifth avenue, there being a gradual descent both 
 toward the south, and toward Central Park on the north 
 
 " A stratum of solid rock which in some places is 20 feet below 
 the surface, necessitating a cutting into steps to receive the mason- 
 work supports the foundations, which are of immense blocks of stone, 
 laid by derricks in cement-mortar. The first base-course is of Maine 
 granite the same as was used in the Treasury Building at the national 
 35
 
 546 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 
 
 capital, and the upper surface of the foundations, upon which it rests, 
 are chisel-dressed, and apparently as solid as the crust of the earth. 
 
 " The material above the base-course is of white marble, from the 
 quarries of Pleasantville, Westchester Co. a highly crystaline stone, 
 productive of very beautiful effects, especially in the columns and 
 elaborations of the work. 
 
 " The style of the building is decorated Gothic that which pre- 
 vailed in Europe from the beginning of the 13th century to the close 
 of the 14th and will constitute a judicious mean between the heaviness 
 of the latter period and the over-elaboration of later times.. . .It appears 
 to be more nearly modeled upon the celebrated Cathedral of 
 Cologne 
 
 " The decoration of the front (Fifth Avenue) will be unsurpassed in 
 this or any other country. There will be a tower and spire on each 
 corner, each measuring 328 feet from the ground to the summit of the 
 cross, and each 32 feet square at the base, and thence to the point at 
 which the form assumes the octagonal a height of 136 feet. The 
 towers maintain the square form to this height, then rise in octagonal 
 lanterns, 54 feet in height, and then spring into magnificent spires to a 
 further elevation of 138 feet. The towers and spires are to be orna- 
 mented with buttresses, niches with statues, and pinnacles so arranged 
 as to disguise the change from the square to the octagon. 
 
 "The central gable, between the two towers, will be 156 feet high. 
 The main entrance will be richly decorated, flanked on either side by 
 a large painted window, and embowered in carved symbols of 
 religion. It is intended to have this structure under roof within 10 
 years." 
 
 The new church of St. Ann on 12th St., New York, was 
 dedicated on Sunday, January 1, 1871, the corner-stone having 
 been laid July 10, 1870. The rector of this church, Rev. 
 Thomas S. Preston, who is also chancellor of the archdiocese 
 of New York, and was formerly a minister of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church in New York city, is said to have the care, 
 in his present parish, of between 4,000 and 5,000 souls. The 
 following description of St. Ann's church is from the N. Y. 
 Daily Tribune of Dec. 31, 1870 : 
 
 a Its style is the French Gothic of the thirteenth century, which has
 
 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 547 
 
 been carried out with all possible purity and exactness of detail. The 
 building is 166 feet long by 63 feet wide, and 56^- feet high from the 
 floor to the under side of the nave groining. It is divided into a nave 
 with an apsidal termination, and two aisles, the whole vaulted. The 
 lofty clere-story is lit up by large stained-glass windows. Around the 
 apse these windows contain life-size figures of Christ and the Twelve 
 Apostles, and in the chapels which flank the chancel two quatre-foil 
 openings are glazed with figures of the Virgin Mary and St. Joseph. 
 The interior wood-work is all made of walnut and chestnut, oiled and 
 elaborately carved and gilded. The organ-case, 37 feet high by 30 feet 
 wide, is also highly enriched in the same manner. Particular attention 
 has been bestowed on the decorations ot the sanctuary, which 
 is inclosed by a bronze altar-railing of exquisite workmanship. 
 The high altar is enshrined by a traceried arcade, which is 
 richly colored, and is, as well as the two side altars, made entirely 
 of native marbles of different colors. The baldacchino is of pure white 
 Vermont statuary marble, and was carved from one solid block weighing 
 two tons. It now weighs nearly three-quarters of a ton. The high 
 altar is probably one of the chastest and yet richest architectural 
 designs which this country can boast. The altars in the side- chapels 
 are in the same style. Twenty-two large candlesticks are placed on 
 the three altars. They are of tasteful and unique design, and jeweled 
 in various colors. The groining of the ceiling is painted sky-blue, 
 spangled with gold stars. The general effect is rich, harmonious, and 
 chaste. . . .The building will easily seat 1,600 persons. With the school- 
 house and parsonage it will cost about $130,000." 
 
 The new church of St. Alphonsus, the corner-stone ot which 
 was laid on Sunday, September 4, 1870, is also in New York, 
 and is to have entrances at both ends on Laurens and Thomp- 
 son streets, the principal entrance being the eastern one on 
 Laurens st. The base is to be of granite, and the fronts of 
 Ohio sandstone. The church will be 162 feet deep and 78 feet 
 wide, with 3 aisles and 3 galleries. The greatest height from 
 the floor to the ceiling will be sixty feet, the least 32. The 
 steeple will be on Laurens st., and its height from the ground 
 to the top of the cross will be 180 feet. This edifice, built in 
 the Romanesque style of the 12th century, and belonging to the 
 Redemptorists, is to be completed in the fall of 1871. The 
 estimated expense of it is more than $1,000,000.
 
 548 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 
 
 Of the 40 or more Roman Catholic church-edifices in New 
 York City, there are others, besides the above-mentioned, which 
 are large and costly ; as the church of the Most Holy 
 Redeemer, in 3d st., also belonging to the Redemptorists, 
 which is very large, and richly decorated with marble columns 
 and a magnificent altar; St. Stephen's, in E. 28th st., which 
 has been called one of the grandest churches in the city ; the 
 present St. Patrick's cathedral, on the corner of Prince and 
 Mott streets, &c. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1871, a new Roman Catholic church 
 was also dedicated in Trenton, N. J. This is of freestone, in 
 the later Gothic style, 160 feet deep and 66 wide, with a roof 
 80 feet high and a spire to be 210 feet, the whole to cost, when 
 completed, $140,000. 
 
 Of the 40 Roman Catholic churches in the city and county 
 of Philadelphia, the cathedral of St. Peter and St. Paul, built 
 of red sandstone in the Roman style, and crowned with a dome 
 210 feet high, is one of the largest and most costly churches in 
 Philadelphia; the church of the Assumption, also of sandstone, 
 but Gothic, with 2 towers and spires, has much architectural 
 interest, <fec. 
 
 Baltimore has 16 Roman Catholic churches besides the 
 cathedral, and many chapels. St. Alphonsus's church, St. 
 Vincent de Paul's, <fcc., are large and elegant. 
 
 Washington City has no less than 9 Roman Catholic 
 churches, besides the " Chapel of Blessed Martin de Porras," 
 for colored people. 
 
 In some cities the Roman Catholic churches both in size and 
 in number surpass those of any other denomination. In New 
 Orleans, they have 25 churches, besides the new one for the 
 Redemptorists. The cathedral of St. Louis, erected in 1850, 
 is a noble Gothic edifice with two lofty towers in front. In St. 
 Louis, they have about the same number as in New Orleans, 
 and here also St. Louis's cathedral is a very imposing 
 structure, 136 feet by 84, with a polished freestone front and 
 Doric portico, and a chime of bells in its tower. Chicago has
 
 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 549 
 
 26 Roman Catholic churches, the cathedral of the Holy Name 
 and St. Patrick's church being among the largest and most 
 elegant religious edifices in the city. In Cincinnati, the num- 
 ber is still larger, and includes St. Peter's cathedral, which is 
 regarded as perhaps the finest building of its kind in the West. 
 This cathedral is 200 feet long, 80 broad, and 60 high, with a 
 spire 250 feet high, and cost, with the ground, $114,000. Its 
 roof is principally supported by 18 Corinthian fluted pillars of 
 freestone, each 3 feet in diameter and 35 in height. The 
 <ceiling is of stucco-work, rich and expensive ; the roof is 
 covered with iron plates ; the organ is of immense size, having 
 2 3 700 pipes and 44 stops ; the altar is of the purest Carrara 
 marble, beautifully embellished ; the painting of St. Peter is 
 by the celebrated Spanish artist Murillo, and was presented by 
 Cardinal Fesch, uncle of Napoleon. In San Francisco, which 
 was owned and occupied for nearly 60 years (1776-1834) by 
 the Roman Catholic Mission of San Francisco de Assisi, there 
 are now 10 or 12 churches of that denomination, including St. 
 Mary's cathedral, on the corner of California and Dupont 
 streets, and the church of St. Francis of Assisium on Vallejo 
 street, which are among the principal churches of that flourish- 
 ing city. 
 
 The " Catholic Chronology for the United States," in the 
 Catholic Almanac for 1871, contains the names and dates of 
 26 corner-stones of Roman Catholic churches laid in the 12 
 months ending Sept. 1, 1870, and of 36 churches and chapels 
 dedicated during the same period. The 26 corner-stones laid 
 were in 14 different states, viz.: N. H., 1; Mass., 2 ; R. L, 1; 
 Ct., 1 ; N. Y., 8 ; N. J., 3, including the cathedral at Newark; 
 Pa., 2; Del., 1; Va., 1; Mich., 1; Wis., 1; Minn., 1; Mo., 2, 
 including the cathedral at St. Joseph ; Cal., 1, of the cathedral 
 at San Francisco. The 36 dedications were also in 14 states, 
 viz.: Me., 1 cathedral ; Mass., 5 churches ; Ct., 1 ; N. Y., 11, 
 including 4 in New York city; N. J., 4, including the 
 cathedral-chapel ; Pa., 3 ; Md., 2 ; Ala., 2 ; La., 1 ; Ky., 1 ; 
 0., 2 ; 111., 1 ; Minn., 1 ; Cal., 1. 20 of the corner-stones were
 
 650 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 
 
 laid on Sunday ; 2 on Wednesday ; and 4 on Thursday. 27 
 of the churches and chapels were dedicated on Sunday ; 1 on 
 Monday ; 1 on "Wednesday ; 5 on Thursday ; 2 on Saturday. 
 
 The Roman Catholics exercise great shrewdness in the loca- 
 tion, erection, decoration and use of their church-edifices. They 
 select the most eligible sites ; huild, often slowly, but of the 
 choicest and most durable materials ; and they not unfre- 
 quently, in cities, use the same edifice for 3 or 4 different con- 
 gregations on Sundays. They lay every art and science under 
 tribute to heighten the scenic effect to please to captivate 
 to bring into complete subjection to their own religious and 
 ecclesiastical system. In reference to their claim to have 
 seized and subordinated to their religion all the fine arts in 
 their highest possible perfection and splendor, Rev. John 
 Gumming, D. D., of the Scotch Presbyterian Church in Lon- 
 don, Eng. , speaks thus : 
 
 " The Sisline chapel and the dome of St. Peter's are radiant with 
 the magnificent creations of Raphael and Michael Angelo. The 
 Flemish churches have in them all the masterpieces of Rubens, and 
 many of the Spanish and Portuguese churches the chefs d' auvre [= 
 masterpieces] of Murillo. Moreover, the works of the artists are essen- 
 tially Romish. They lavished their splendid powers, not on Chris- 
 tianity, but on Romanism. The gems of Raphael are Madonnas [= 
 pictures of my Lady, i. e., the Virgin Mary]. Titian's best production 
 is a Virgin and child, and Guido's great work is the Madonna detta 
 pieta [=:my Lady of Piety J. Mozart and Haydn lent their magnifi- 
 cent music to the Romish masses. To many this splendid outside has 
 been sufficient evidence that all is pure within. If you look at its mag- 
 nificent cathedrals, ... you see the very stone seeming to burst into 
 blossom, and the interior presenting a magnificence so grand that the 
 man has no taste who does not admire it. He only has no Christianity 
 who thinks there is no salvation without it. But after all, if I wished 
 to see the noblest cathedral in the world, and to worship in the grandest, 
 I would ask you to come to the blue hills which I have trodden in my 
 younger days, where the living rock is the only pulpit, the vast ravine 
 the only cathedral aisle, where God's thunder celebrates his power, and 
 lightning writes his glory in the sky, and the anthem peals from six
 
 CHURCH-EDIFICES. 551 
 
 
 
 thousand voices worshiping the LORD of hosts and all your magnifi- 
 cent cathedrals sink into paltriness in comparison with a sight so grand, 
 a spectacle so august. After all, if I wanted pictures, let me have 
 GOD'S emphatic portrait of himself, the Bible. Let me read there an 
 autograph of Deity. Let me take the true crucifix, the 53d chapter 
 of Isaiah that is the Protestant crucifix and study it, instead of 
 looking at a piece of inanimate wood. Then we shall act like Chris- 
 tians, because we shall be doing what Scripture tells us. If we have 
 no splendid images and paintings in our churches, let our lives 
 be living likenesses of CHRIST JESUS. If we have not many splendidly 
 decorated churches, let our bodies be temples of the HOLT GHOST. 
 If we have not swinging censers, and incense rising to the sky, let us 
 lift up holy hands unto GOD. If we are not Roman Catholics, but 
 Catholics, let us live like Christians, and see that (here is Christianity 
 beyond the horizon of the church, or sect, or party to which you 
 belong."
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 
 
 THE ownership of church-property is a matter in which 
 many feel a deep and abiding interest ; and it is certainly not 
 a thing of trifling importance. Nor is it neglected in the at- 
 tention of the ecclesiastical authorities to the multitudinous 
 details of the Roman Catholic system. 
 
 It was formerly the case in this country that the Roman 
 Catholic church-edifice and other church-property in any 
 parish was usually held and controlled by trustees appointed 
 by the donors or by the people for whose benefit the church, 
 &c., existed ; but the late bishop England of Charleston (John 
 England, D. D., bishop 1820-42) complained that this " trus- 
 tee-system " was one of the greatest obstacles in the way of the 
 Roman Catholic church in this country, and since his time a 
 great change has been effected in the tenure and control of 
 Roman Catholic church-property in the United States. 
 
 The 2d plenary council of Baltimore, held in 1866, devotes 
 10 pages of its " Acts and Decrees " to the tenure an^ safe- 
 keeping of churches and ecclesiastical property, and recites 
 various decrees passed by the provincial councils of Baltimore, 
 &c., in respect to this matter. From this source are trans- 
 lated or epitomized the following particulars : 
 
 The first council of Baltimore 6ay : 
 
 ". . . We greatly desire, that no church hereafter be erected or conse- 
 crated, unless it shall have been assigned by a written instrument, 
 whenever possible, to the bishop in whose diocese it is to be erected, 
 for divine worship and the use of the faithful, the privileges of Regulars 
 being preserved unimpaired. . . ."
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 553 
 
 The summary of a decree by the Roman Congregation of the Propa- 
 ganda in 1840 is thus given : 
 
 "That every bishop ought to make a will, in which let him constitute 
 as his heir one of his fellow-bishops of the region, whom he may have 
 judged more suitable in the Lord, to the end that, being thus constituted 
 heir, he may deliver to the successor of the deceased bi.-hop all the 
 property which came to him by right of inheritance of this sort ; yet 
 this must by no means be expressed in the will itself, but be signified to 
 the heir thus constituted by a letter which he ought to burn after read- 
 ing it through. A bishop who has a coadjutor ought to make him his heir." 
 
 Bishops and priests are cautioned against loading church-property 
 with debt ; and it is decreed " that lay-persons may never be allowed 
 to speak to the people in churches, without the bishop's license, after 
 they have been consecrated or only blessed." 
 
 The 7th council laid down this general principle : 
 
 " The Fathers decreed that all churches, and other ecclesiastical 
 goods, which, acquired either by donation or by the offerings of the 
 faithful, are to be applied to works of charity or religion, belong to 
 the ordinary [= bishop] ; unless it appear, and be evident in writing, 
 that they were delivered to some regular order or congregation of 
 priests for their use." 
 
 The 1st plenary council of Baltimore strictly forbids laymen's inter- 
 meddling with the administration of gifts for divine worship or for charity, 
 without the free consent of the bishops ; and declares that those who 
 infringe this regulation are subject to the penalties pronounced by the 
 council of Trent upon those who unlawfully take possession of ecclesi- 
 astical property, these penalties being an anathema absolution from 
 which can be given only by the pope and also, in the case of an ec- 
 clesiastic, deprivation of his benefices, of his right to discharge his ec- 
 clesiastical functions, &c. 
 
 The 2d plenary council of Baltimore speaks of full liberty as requir- 
 ing that the laws and provisions made by the church itself should be 
 admitted in the civil court also in respect to ecclesiastical goods, as 
 churches, cemeteries, &c., and thus civil power be given them ; and 
 extends to all the churches of this country these 6 regulations in respect 
 to trustees hi whatever mode they may be chosen which were 
 adopted in the 3d provincial council of New York in 1861, and ap- 
 proved by the holy see : 
 
 " 1. That no one be admitted to the number of trustees, respecting
 
 554 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 
 
 whom, at the election itself, or a little before, it was established that he 
 had given his name to any secret society, or had not received the Eas- 
 ter sacrament 
 
 " 2. Let the trustees understand well that it is altogether unlawful 
 for' them either to transfer the least part of the church's goods to their 
 own uses under any title or pretext, or to extraneous uses, except by the 
 bishop's leave, and in accordance with the apostolic constitutions respect- 
 ing the alienation of ecclesiastical property. 
 
 " 3. [Forbids the trustees to appropriate money, except for ordinary 
 expenses, beyond a certain sum, without the bishop's written consent.] 
 
 " 4. Let trustees know, that it belongs to the bishop to nominate and 
 create a pastor of a church, and to continue him in office, or the con- 
 trary. It also belongs to the bishop alone to bestow a certain sum of 
 money on the pastors of souls for their support ; nor is it lawful for 
 trustees to retain, or diminish, or increase wages of this sort. 
 
 " 5. It belongs to the pastor to appoint the organist, singers, sexton, 
 keeper or attendant, schoolmaster (if there is any school in the parish), 
 and other men of this sort, who serve the altar or church. 
 
 " 6. [Warns trustees not to prescribe any thing as law or rule for 
 the parishioners without the pastor's advice, and provides that any con- 
 troversy between the pastor and the trustees shall be decided by the 
 bishop, " whose judgment and opinions all shall obey."J 
 
 In this connection we may cite a passage from the pastoral 
 letter of the 1st plenary council of Baltimore held in 1852 : 
 
 " Whatever is offered to GOD, and solemnly consecrated to His service, 
 whether it be the material temple in which His worshipers assemble, or 
 the ground set apart for the interment of those who repose in GOD'S- 
 field awaiting the promised resurrection, or property, real or personal, 
 intended for the purposes of Divine service, or for the education, support, 
 and maintenance of the clergy, every such thing is sacred and belongs 
 to the Church, and cannot be withdrawn from the service of GOD with- 
 out the guilt of sacrilege. The donor or donors of such gifts can exer- 
 cise no right of ownership over them. With these temporal things, 
 thus separated from common purposes and set apart for the service of 
 the sanctuary, the Church cannot allow any interference that is not 
 subordinate to her authority. The Bishop of each diocese is the repre- 
 sentative and organ of that authority, and without his sanction, no ar-
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 555 
 
 rangement, howsoever in itself of a purely temporal nature, that has ref- 
 erence to religious worship, has, or can have, force or validity. When- 
 ever the Bishop deems it advisable to acquiesce in arrangements for the 
 administration of Church temporalities which have not originated with 
 the ecclesiastical authority, or which may have arisen from ignorance of 
 its rights, or from a spirit of opposition to them, we declare that such 
 arrangements have force and effect in the Catholic Church, in conse- 
 quence of such acquiescence, and not from any other cause or principle 
 whatever, And we furthermore declare, that whenever the Bishop of 
 a diocese recognizes such arrangements, or acquiesces in them, those 
 charged with the care of church temporalities, whether laymen or 
 clergymen, are bound to render an annual account of their administra- 
 tion to the Bishop, agreeably to the rule prescribed in such cases by the 
 Holy Council of Trent." 
 
 The transfer of church-edifices and church-property to the 
 exclusive control of the bishops has not been effected without 
 some controversy and some extreme measures, and is due in 
 great part to the late archbishop Hughes.* His first efforts, 
 after he became bishop, being directed towards this end, brought 
 him directly into conflict with the lay-trustees, who, according 
 to the prevalent custom, held and managed the church-property 
 in the city and state of New York, which with part of New 
 Jersey at first constituted his diocese. At his first diocesan 
 synod, Aug., 1842, decrees were passed respecting church-prop- 
 erty which were enforced in his pastoral letter dated Sept. 
 8, 1842, and embodied in the " Rules for the Administration 
 of Churches without Trustees," published by him in 1845. 
 The German church of St. Louis in Buffalo, whose property 
 was held under a deed executed in 1829 and under a legisla- 
 tive act of incorporation, strenuously opposed the requirement 
 of bishop Hughes and of bishop Timon (1st bishop of the dio- 
 cese of Buffalo, 1847 67), and twice sent one of their trustees 
 
 John Hughes, D.D., born in the north of Ireland in 1798 ; priest in Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., 1825 38; consecrated bishop of Basileopolis in partibus and coadjutor 
 to bishop Dubois of New York, Jan. 7, 1838 ; made bishop of New York on the 
 death of bishop Dubois in 1842 ; created first archbishop of New York in 1850; 
 died Jan. 3, 1864.
 
 556 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 
 
 to Rome in regard to the matter. In the height of the contrcK 
 versy the church was closed for a long time. The pope di- 
 rected Monsignor Bedim (see Chapters VII. and XIX.) to 
 hear and decide the case as his nuncio or representative. 
 Accordingly, Oct. 22, 1853, the trustees had an inter- 
 view with the nuncio and presented to him a memorial 
 containing the particulars of their grievances. The nun- 
 cio, October 25th, sent them a written communication, de- 
 ciding that the congregation should conform to the bishop's 
 requirement that the trustees should take the necessary steps 
 to effect this as soon as possible that the administrators ap- 
 pointed by the bishop should manage the church-property, use 
 all that they received in the church, and at fixed periods give 
 an account of their administration to the bishop and to the 
 faithful that frequent the church. To this communication the 
 trustees on the same day sent a reply, the essential part of 
 which is 
 
 " . . . . We see nothing in your Excellency's answer but a repetition 
 of the demand made by the Rt. Rev. Bishop Timon, that is, entire sub- 
 mission and that our Act of Incorporation should be annulled, and that 
 the appointment of a Committee instead of a Board of Trustees should 
 be made by him, which has been the cause of our difficulties. Up to the 
 time of the beginning of the?e difficulties, we never meddled with the 
 spiritual, leaving it entirely to the Pastor and Bishop ; but, as to the 
 temporalities, we had always the control, subject nevertheless to the 
 yearly inspection of the Rt. Rev. Bishop and Pastor fand at any time 
 within the fiscal year) over the amount expended and received, and 
 which the Pastor always found correct As to the annulling of the Act 
 of Incorporation, there is not the least shadow of thought, as we be- 
 lieve that temporalities have nothing to do with spiritualities. ..." 
 
 The final letter of the nuncio, Oct. 26th, declared their 
 answer " truly painful," expressed his conviction that they dis- 
 regarded altogether Catholic principles, and deplored their sad 
 position, if they persisted. 
 
 Bishop Timon, Nov. 19th, issued a pastoral letter to the con- 
 gregation of the St. Louis church, warning them of the sentence
 
 QHURCH PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 657 
 
 of excommunication to be pronounced upon those who resist ; 
 and, on the 22d June, 1854, the bishop officially declared the 
 7 " so-called trustees of St. Louis Church," whom he mentioned 
 by name, " to be excommunicated with the major or greater 
 excommunication ; " and further, " that all who may hencefor- 
 ward accept the office of Trustee in St. Louis church, to con- 
 tinue the present unholy opposition to church discipline, will, 
 ipso facto, that is, by the very fact, incur the same major ex- 
 communication." 
 
 Other Roman Catholic congregations besides that of St. Louis, 
 also resisted for a time the requirement of the bishops to surren- 
 der their church-property ; but one after another complied with 
 the requirement, and thus harmony was generally restored.* 
 In 1855, however, the New York legislature passed the " church- 
 tenure bill," designed to vest the title of church-property in a 
 religious corporation formed by the congregation or religious 
 society occupying and enjoying it, and to prevent any ecclesias- 
 tic from transmitting such property to his successor ; but this 
 law was repealed in about 8 years. 
 
 In 1866 a petition was presented to the Massachusetts legis- 
 lature from the late bishop Fitzpatrick and others praying for 
 an act " authorizing the several Roman Catholic churches or 
 congregations in this commonwealth to assume corporate pow- 
 ers, with the same rights to hold property and estate which re- 
 ligious parishes have by law, and that such corporate powers, 
 in every case, shall be vested in the Roman Catholic bishop and 
 
 *Rev. Charles Chiuiquy, of St. Anne, Kankakee Co., 111., who with many 
 French Canadians of his former flock had left the Roman Catholic church, said in 
 1859: 
 
 " We began our struggles with the church of Rome by resisting the abominable 
 abuses of her bishops. A church built by the French Canadians for their own use, 
 and a parsonage erected by them for their priest, had been transferred from their 
 hands to another congregation without their permission, and sold and the money 
 pocketed by the ' holy ' embassadors of Rome. And when we went to ask in a re- 
 spectful way from the bishop by what authority he had done all these things, he 
 dismissed my countrymen with these words : " French Canadians, you do not 
 know your religion. If you knew it, you would acknowledge that I have the right 
 to sell your churches and church-property and pocket the money, and go and eat 
 and drink it where I like. ' "
 
 558 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 
 
 the vicar-general of the diocese in which such church or con- 
 gregation may be the pastor of such church or congregation 
 for the time being, and two laymen thereof, to be appointed by 
 the said bishop, vicar-general and pastor or a majority of 
 them 1 ; " but the committee on parishes and religious societies, 
 of which the late Rev. Samuel M. Worcester, D.D., was chair- 
 man, made an able and unanimous report unfavorable to the peti- 
 tion. The Committee say: 
 
 " . . . . By this arrangement the congregational or society corpora- 
 tions would ' in every case ' be merely nominal. The real corporation 
 would be composed of the 3 ecclesiastics and the 2 laymen of their 
 choice ; the members of the congregational body having no vote in the 
 appointment of their nominal representatives. In short, the congrega- 
 tional corporations would have no corporate powers whatever. 
 
 " No such anomalous bodies, we affirm with all confidence, can ever 
 be created or legalized by an act of the legislature. They would be 
 contrary to the whole theory and purpose of our civil and religious in- 
 stitutions. 
 
 " At present, the title-deeds of all Roman Catholic church-property 
 in the State are in the name and in the hands of the bishop. By his 
 will he transmits the whole to his successor, there being no law to the 
 contrary although in fact he owns not a dollar of all the value. Thus 
 Bishop Williams comes into possession of all the numerous and costly 
 estates, which the late Bishop Fitzpatrick 2 either received from his 
 predecessor or added by his own administrative exertions. 
 
 " The holding of so much property, now amounting to hundreds of 
 thousands and to millions and which in the future may be increased 
 indefinitely and immensely gives to the incumbent of the bishopric, 
 as every one must see, a vast power of influence, political as well as ec- 
 clesiastical. And this power would be none the less, if the change 
 should be made which is proposed in the petition now before us. ... 
 
 1 This proposed act for Massachusetts is substantially the law of the state of New- 
 York, enacted in 1863 ; and hence this report may be considered a review of the 
 existing law of N. Y. 
 
 * John B. Fitzpatrick, D.D., bishop of Boston, died Feb. 13, 1866 ; his successor, 
 John J. Williams, D.D., was consecrated March 11, 1866.
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 559 
 
 " It has indeed been alleged in favor of the scheme suggested, that 
 it would serve to popularize the existing method of administration. 
 This view is more superficial and specious than satisfactory. . . . 
 
 " If it should so happen that the ' two laymen ' should be disposed to 
 unite in a vote or remonstrance against any measure, their opposition 
 could easily be neutralized or rendered powerless. The probability, 
 however, would be, that no laymen would be taken into the councils 
 and the pecuniary trusts of the ecclesiastics, except those who would 
 be cordially subservient to the appointing power. And thus, as already 
 intimated, the corporation with ' the corporate powers ' would be the 
 3 ecclesiastics, with the form or shadow only of lay element, and that 
 of their own choosing and at thrir own disposal. 
 
 " The bishop is nominated by other bishops, but is appointed by the 
 sovereign pontiff at Rome. The vicar-general, 1 who is the bishop's 
 deputy, is appointed by the bishop, as is also each one of the pastors of 
 the congregations. As the 3 ecclesiastics would appoint the 2 laymen, 
 the 5, in any case of need or pleasure, could summarily be resolved into 
 3, the 3 into 2, and the 2 into 1. 
 
 " In the whole extending scries of close corporations, which the leg- 
 islature is desired to create, the bishop, from his relation to his deputy 
 and to the 3 others, in all cases would have just as much of uncontrol- 
 lable power as if he were a corporation sole. 
 
 " This virtually he now is. And there is not the least evidence that 
 in the extraordinary scheme of corporations now proposed, Bishop 
 Fitzpatrick intended, or Bishop Williams expects, to part with the 
 smallest portion of his authority and control in respect to Roman 
 Catholic church-property. 
 
 " Great as this property now is, it is constantly becoming greater. 
 And it is an insuperable objection to the prayer of the petitioners, that 
 no limitation of the amount of property to be held is provided or suggest- 
 ed. 2 The only argument which is of weight in favor of the petitioners, 
 
 1 Some dioceses have 2 vicars-general, as Alton, Burlington, Cincinnati, Phil- 
 adelphia, St. Louis, &c. 
 
 2 In 1 855, the Hon. Erastus Brooks, in the Senate of New York, estimated the 
 church property of which archbishop Hughes was the legal owner, to be worth 
 nearly $5,000,000. Putnam's Magazine for July, 1869, estimated the landed estate 
 then held or controlled by the 5 Roman Catholic prelates in the State of New 
 York (the archbishop of New York, and the bishops of Albany, Brooklyn, Buffalo, 
 and Rochester), to be worth from $30,000,000 to $50,000,000. But Mr. James 
 Parton, in the Atlantic Monthly for April, 1868, valued that in the archdiocese of 
 New York alone at $50,000,000.
 
 560 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 
 
 is the possible failure on the part of the bishop to make and secure hia 
 will, so that all the church-property in his hands shall be passed on to 
 his successor, without any liability to interference from legal heirs. 
 The weight of this argument is not great. What the probabilities are 
 of such a failure every one may be left to judge for himself. 
 
 " But the bishop has in his own power an adequate provision for the 
 contingency in question, without any new act of the legislature. He 
 has only to distribute all the church-property where it really belongs 
 that is, among the different congregations duly organized and thus 
 qualified each to take its own part and care respectively, and dis- 
 charge its own legitimate and rightful responsibilities. 
 
 " There would also be an avoidance hereafter of the very heavy ex- 
 pense which, under the internal revenue laws, is now required in the 
 transfer of the title-deeds of a deceased bishop to his successor. This 
 anticipated expense, as we understand, was the immediate occasion of 
 the present petition to the legislature. It was intimated by the legal 
 counsel of the petitioners, that the members of these congregations are 
 migratory, and in general could not well be relied upon in the man- 
 agement of church-property and affairs. We would merely appeal to 
 the common observation of intelligent persons to sustain us, when we 
 affirm that there is both permanency and competency in these congre- 
 gations, as well as in those of their Protestant neighbors, for a perfor- 
 mance of the simple duties of such offices as parishes or religious socie- 
 ties usually require. 
 
 " The Committee also cannot see any good reason why those who 
 build the church-edifices, and who so abundantly support their pastors, 
 bishops, and other ecclesiastics, should not have the control of those 
 edifices in their own name, as their own corporate property for religious 
 purposes, according to the existing laws of the Commonwealth. 
 
 " The corporate organization and administration of Roman Catholic 
 parishes or societies, we cannot doubt, would give very general satis- 
 faction to the members ; and, according to our American principles and 
 experience, would add to their mental activity, their self-respect, and 
 all their capabilities of usefulness as good citizens. . . . 
 
 "It would be a flagrant injustice, an abuse of power unpardonable in 
 a legislature of Massachusetts, whatever may be done elsewhere, 
 if any of our fellow-citizens should be denied the fullness of that liberty 
 to which, by the smiles of our God upon us, we are so signally indebted.
 
 CHURCH-PBOPERTY AND REVENUES. 561 
 
 And this we certainly and unmistakably should deny to our Roman 
 
 Catholic fellow-citizens, if we should grant the prayer of the petitioners. 
 
 
 The revenues or incomes of Roman Catholic churches, priests, 
 &c., are derived from pew-rents, masses for the dead or other 
 special objects, marriages, burials in consecrated ground, in- 
 dulgences, fairs, &c. 
 
 Many Protestants firmly believe that Roman Catholic priests 
 are as a body exceedingly skillful and successful practitioners of 
 the art of raising money for ecclesiastical purposes. It is well 
 known that St. Peter's and other European churches are not fur- 
 nished with pews ; but chair-rents, or payments for the occupancy 
 of chairs either for single services or for the half-year or year, 
 are , with some exceptions, exacted in Roman Catholic churches 
 in France, those who do not occupy chairs being compelled to 
 stand or kneel or take the benches fastened to the walls. In 
 this country, however, Roman Catholic churches, as well as 
 others, have pews and incomes from pew-rents. Now since, in 
 the larger churches at least, there are several masses every 
 Sunday and holy day, and attendance is required at only one 
 mass on any given day, the same seat or pew may obviously be 
 rented to as many different persons as there are regular masses 
 for each Sunday ; and so both the amount of church-accommo- 
 dations and the amount of pew-rent collected may be several 
 times as great as in Protestant churches where individuals or 
 families are considered to be entitled to their seats at all the 
 services of the church. A Roman Catholic church capable of 
 seating 1000 persons may have 3 masses on Sundays, &c., and thus 
 accommodate 3000 persons, who may all contribute their share 
 towards the income of the church. And these contributions 
 or payments are often if not generally much greater propor- 
 tionally than many Protestants think themselves able to pay 
 for religious objects. They, of course, may vary with the per- 
 sonal influence of the priest. A Roman Catholic servant-girl 
 who pays $1 a month for her pew-rent, and purchases a rosary, 
 crucifix, &c., which the priest has blessed, may be called oa 
 36
 
 562 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 
 
 for extraordinary contributions, as when the corner-stone of a 
 church is laid, or the edifice is dedicated, or the altar or the organ 
 or the bell is to be bought, or a fair is held to raise money for an 
 asylum or hospital or some other distinctively Catholic object. 
 On such occasions, also, appeals are often made directly or indi- 
 rectly to Protestants, who are expected to respond with greater 
 or less liberality. The declaration, too, is not unheard of, that 
 " Protestants must pay for the new church," that is, by an in- 
 crease in the wages paid to servant-girls and laborers that they 
 may thus be able to give more for this object. About 15 years 
 ago the bishop went to Brandon, Vt., and, after speaking to the 
 congregation on Sunday very sharply about their then unfinished 
 church-edifice, and notifying them that he should take things 
 into his own hands and finish the edifice himself, he proceeded 
 thus, according to a letter written and published at the time by 
 a Protestant missionary, Rev. J. L ' Heureux : 
 
 " He called all the Roman Catholics of the place to meet him. He 
 then informed them that a collection for the completion of the house 
 must be taken, and ordered the man who had charge of the door to 
 shut it, and to keep it shut, and let no person go out. He then ad- 
 dressed the congregation with much severity, and assured them that 
 not one should go out until he had made a contribution, or had paid 
 his share toward finishing the building. This produced a wonderful 
 scene. The people feared the wrath of the bishop, and yet many did 
 not wish to pay, or to such an amount as he demanded. Great con- 
 fusion arose. Some who had heard me preach ventured to cry out ; 
 ' We do not expect to buy heaven with our money.' On that outcry, 
 a multitude rushed to the door to force a way out. But the bishop 
 ran after them, and shouted to the door-keeper to maintain his 
 position, and keep the door fast. The effort of the people was in 
 vain. The bishop conquered, and obtained the money." 
 
 In regard to fees for masses, the 2d Plenary Council of Bal- 
 timore says: 
 
 ** Just pay or alms for celebrating a mass which one is not bound to 
 celebrate for another may lawfully be received. We determine
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 663 
 
 this only, that no one exact more, nor regularly less, than may have 
 appeared to his bishop fit and just." 
 
 The council likewise left to the bishops the matter of founda- 
 tions for masses, by which a certain sum of money is paid for 
 the celebration of a mass or masses either for ever or for a 
 certain number of years ; and the consent of the bishop, or of 
 the prelate of the order, is required before such foundations 
 may be accepted. 
 
 In " The Pilot," published at Boston, June 4, 1870, are 3 
 advertisements of masses instituted under the sanction of the 
 ecclesiastical authorities, viz : (1.) A mass every Saturday 
 forever, " for the intention of those contributing $5, or a 
 greater amount, to the erection of St. Joseph's cathedral, 
 Columbus, 0." (2.) A daily mass for 100 years, beginning 
 March 21, 1866, in the St. Benedict's church, Atchison, Kan- 
 sas, " in favor and according to the intention of those who 
 contribute $100 towards the erection of our new church." (3.) 
 Two high masses every year, as long as the monastery exists, for 
 all who within one year from May 21, 1870, forward $5 for fin- 
 ishing and paying some pressing debts of the Benedictine Abbey 
 of St. Louis on the Lake in Minnesota; also certain prize-gifts of 
 real estate in Minnesota, for which " tickets with the numbers 
 will be forwarded by mail on the receipt of money." It is no 
 secret that in the United States as well as in Italy (see Chapter 
 I.), lotteries any statute-law or precept of morality to the 
 contrary notwithstanding are commonly used by Roman 
 Catholics for the promotion of what are regarded as religious 
 and charitable objects, covetousness and gambling being thus 
 baptized and clothed in the garb of an angel of light. 
 
 A general idea of the expense of masses for the dead may be 
 formed from the following particulars. A case was tried in 
 Rochester, N. Y., in January, 1855, in which it appeared in 
 evidence that the sum of $3 was paid to the priest for "reposing 
 the soul " of an Irish Catholic named Quigley, who was killed 
 on the railroad. A person in the employ of a certain company
 
 564 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 
 
 in Montreal having been accidentally killed, the following bill 
 in French, signed by the priest, and amounting to $26.65 (5s. 
 = $1), was paid by the company: 
 
 " Account of the expenses of burying the late 
 
 "Cost of coffin, - - 10 
 
 Cost of service, 30s., - - - 1 10 
 
 Crape, 10s., - 10 
 
 15 Low Masses, - - - 15 
 
 1 Anniversary service, 60s., - - - - 300 
 
 2 Ibs. of wax tapers, 3s. 8d., - - - - 83 
 
 6133" 
 
 The fees for burial in consecrated ground are a considerable 
 sometimes very large source of revenue. One of Hon. 
 Erastus Brooks's letters to archbishop Hughes not contained, 
 however, in the archbishop's book entitled " Brooksiana," pub- 
 lished in 1855, and purporting to be " the controversy between 
 Senator Brooks and archbishop Hughes" related, as a review 
 said at the time, to " Calvary Cemetery, and the oppression of 
 the poor, practiced under the rules which govern their burial 
 there, and which bring an immense annual revenue to his 
 treasury." A communication published in the New York 
 " Observer " of April 16, 1857 the truth of which was denied 
 by archbishop Hughes, but declared by the editors to be con- 
 firmed by reliable witnesses and ready to be made good in a 
 court of justice asserted that an Irish seamstress, who was 
 nursed by her sister and provided with a room gratuitously by 
 a Protestant family, was taken, when apparently recovering her 
 health, by the Sisters of Charity, who kept her 4 weeks, ex- 
 acted all her money (812), and then turned her sick and 
 penniless out of doors that her sister, after paying her board 
 for a while in a private house, 
 
 " Got her into Bellevue Hospital [New York], where she died, 
 and was buried in the bishop's burial-place at the expense of her 
 sister, who still lived with me, by paying $10 for the ground. Mar-
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 565 
 
 garet, another female servant, not a Romanist, and a boy living at my 
 house, with others, attended the funeral in two coaches. At the 
 burying-ground, they were detained in the hot sun until they could 
 send to town for a certificate of payment having neglected to bring it 
 with them ; and the corpse was not allowed its resting-place until the 
 certificate was in the priest's hands at the grave-yard." 
 
 Rev. P. J. Leo, a missionary of the American and Foreign 
 Christian Union, throws some light upon marriage-fees in the 
 following dialogue between a young Irishman in Rhode Island 
 and the priest to whom he went to make the arrangements for 
 being married : 
 
 " The priest, knowing that the bride had considerable money, told 
 him that he should charge $25 for performing the ceremony. The 
 young man said, ' I think it altogether too much, your riverence/ 
 ' Then I shan't marry you.' ' Then I shall go and get somebody else 
 to do it.' ' Then I will excommunicate you.' ' Then I will go to 
 another church.' ' Then you shan't have the girl.' ' Perhaps I can 
 get another.' 'What! what! do you dare meet me?' T troth, your 
 riverence, I'll tell you what I've been thinking of lately. I've been 
 thinking that the churches and the girls are pretty much alike.' 'What 
 do you mean ? ' ' Why, because, you know, if one won't have you, 
 another will.' " 
 
 The salaries of Roman Catholic priests who have charge of 
 parishes, according to the principles laid down in this chapter, 
 are paid by the bishop, to whom all church-property belongs. 
 They, of course, may be very different in different parishes ; 
 but are naturally much less than those of Protestant ministers, 
 who usually have families. The priests of each of the 3 prin- 
 cipal Roman Catholic churches in New Haven, for example, are 
 provided with a furnished parsonage, in addition to the salary 
 of $300 to the pastor, and $500 to the assistant pastor or 
 pastors (2 at St. Patrick's, and 1 each at St. John's and St 
 Mary's) of each church. St. Boniface's (German Catholic) 
 church has been recently organized, and St. Francis's of Tair 
 Haven was not in the city till the summer of 1870, and the
 
 566 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 
 
 salaries of their pastors are not reported in the City Directory 
 for 1870, which gives the salaries of the rest. 
 
 Churches have been built by the sale of indulgences, as St. 
 Peter's, Notre Dame in Paris, &c. (see Chapter XIX.). 
 " Rome," said an eminent American Protestant, " sells hopes 
 for the living and peace for the dead, for money, according to 
 an established tariff of prices." Compare with this the words 
 of the Apostle Peter himself : "Thy money perish with thee, 
 because thou hast thought that the gift of God may be purchased 
 with money" (Acts 8: 20). The tract " Taxa cancellarice 
 apostolicce et Taxa sanctce poenilentice" published by Marcellus 
 Silber at Campo Fiore near Rome, 1514, and often reprinted, 
 contained the tariff of dues to be paid to the Papal Chancery 
 for all absolutions and dispensations ; and fixed the price of 
 absolving a dean from a murder at 20 crowns (= $20) ; of 
 allowing a bishop or abbot to commit murder when he pleases, 
 at 300 livres (= about $55) ; of allowing a clergyman to be 
 guilty of most abominable unchastity, about f>19, &c. Of this 
 book a French Catholic divine, Claude Espence, indignantly 
 wrote in the 16th century, that it was then openly exposed for 
 sale at Paris like a venal prostitute, giving license to commit 
 very many crimes, and offering absolution from all after they 
 have been committed. This book was subsequently placed on 
 the index or list of prohibited books, under the claim, as there 
 were some differences in different editions, that it had been 
 corrupted by Protestants ; but the book was not disowned by 
 them at the time of its first publication. It is certain that the 
 sale of indulgences, the pardon of sins, the appropriation of the 
 annats or first-fruits (= the first year's income from a bene- 
 fice or bishopric), <fec., have been productive of large revenues 
 to the see of Rome. 
 
 "Peter-pence," "fee of Rome," "Rome-scot," &c., were 
 names given to the annual tax of a penny a house or family, 
 which was collected for the pope in England from the 8th to 
 the 16th century. A similar tax, varying in amount, has been 
 levied upon Roman Catholics in other countries. The amount
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. 567 
 
 of Peter-pence contributed in the United States in 1850 is re- 
 ported as $25,978.24. The amount of Peter-pence contributed 
 throughout the world in 1861 is said to have been 14,000,000 
 francs, or nearly $2,600,000. A recent Roman journal asserted 
 that "while the annual expenditure of the pontifical government 
 amounted to 812,000,000, its income was not more than 
 $6,900,000 ; and even with the addition of the obolus of St. 
 Peter [= Peter-pence] there existed a deficit of $3,850,000." 
 This statement would make the recent income from this source 
 about $1,250,000 annually. Another statement makes it 
 11,000,000 francs, or somewhat over $2,000,000. " The Peter- 
 pence Association" is reported with its officers in the archdio- 
 cese of Baltimore. The 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore directed 
 that an annual collection for the pope should " be henceforth 
 taken up in all the dioceses in this country, on the Sunday 
 within the octave of the feast of SS. Peter and Paul, or such 
 other Sunday as the Ordinary may direct." 
 
 The church-property of the Roman Catholic church in the 
 United States is of immense value ; its yearly revenues are 
 very great ; it has and will have all the power in the land 
 which the control and use of money will give it.
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 DENIAL OF THE RIGHT ,OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT. 
 
 THIS subject, already noticed incidentally, deserves a sepa- 
 rate consideration. Says cardinal Wiseman in his account 
 of the Roman Catholic church (see Chapter II.) : 
 
 " The Catholic church . . . professes to be divinely authorized to 
 exact interior assent to all that it teaches." 
 
 The same cardinal says in his preface to the Exercises of 
 St. Ignatius : 
 
 " In the Catholic church no one is ever allowed to trust himself in 
 spiritual matters. The sovereign pontiff is obliged to submit himself 
 to the direction of another in whatever concerns his own soul." 
 
 Says St. Philip Neri, founder of the Oratorians : 
 
 " Let him that desires to grow in godliness, give himself up to a 
 learned confessor, and be obedient to him as to God." 
 
 Says St. Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits, in his Exercises : 
 
 " That we may in all things attain the truth, that we may not err 
 in any thing, we ought ever to hold it as a fixed principle, that what 1 
 see white, I believe to be black, if the Hierarchical Church so define it." 
 
 Said Father Ignatius (= Hon. and Rev. Mr. Spencer) of 
 England, after being "inhibited" by cardinal Wiseman from 
 fulfilling his pledge to attend a meeting at Exeter Hall : 
 
 " We do not act as individuals : we act in concert as members of a 
 great organization." 
 
 The creed of pope Pius IV. (see Chapter II.) and the de- 
 crees of the council of Trent (see Chapter XIII.) bind every
 
 DENIAL OP THE RIGHT OP PRIVATE JUDGMENT. 569 
 
 Roman Catholic to surrender his own judgment ot what the 
 Scriptures teach, and to receive the interpretation of " the 
 Church." Bishop England amplifies this article of the creed 
 thus : 
 
 " The Church requires of her children, that they shall conform their 
 minds to that meaning, which has been received in the beginning with 
 the books themselves, from their inspired compilers : and that they 
 will never take and interpret them otherwise than according to the 
 unanimous consent of those fathers, who in every age have given to us 
 the uninterrupted testimony of this original signification. She knows 
 of no principle of common sense, or of religion, upon which any in- 
 dividual could, after the lapse of centuries, assume to himself the pre- 
 rogative of discovering the true meaning of any passage of the Bible 
 to be different from that which is thus testified by the unanimous 
 declaration of the great bulk of Christendom." 1 
 
 " The Philosophy of Conversion " (that is, from Protestant- 
 ism, infidelity, <fec., to Roman Catholicism) is the title of an 
 elaborate article in "The Catholic World" for Jan., 1867, 
 which may be considered as almost an official exposition of 
 the subject. This article shows clearly that a true Roman 
 Catholic must give up his right of private judgment. It says : 
 
 " Whether from the external Saharas of Christian skepticism, or 
 whether from beneath the shadow of the truth itself, the path he fol- 
 lows leads to one goal, the goal of unconditional submission. Conver- 
 sion may come to him through the successive adoption of Catholic 
 dogmas, through fondness for external rites and forms, through per- 
 sonal friendship and familiarity, through any of those myriad ways 
 by which God bends the steps of his elect towards Heaven ; but when 
 
 1 This " unanimous declaration of the great bulk of Christendom " is regarded 
 by Protestants as a myth or unfounded boast. Certain it is that nearly 20 years 
 ago a reward of 100 (= nearly $500) was publicly offered in Manchester, Eng., 
 " to any person who can produce the unanimous consent of the Fathers in their 
 interpretation of the Scriptures." At the same time and place, a like reward of 
 100 was offered " for the best method of discovering the true church without the 
 exercise of private judgment." These rewards were not accepted, though one of 
 the most distinguished controversialists of the Roman Catholic church was then 
 in the city. The " unanimous consent of the Fathers " is, like the infallibility of 
 popes and councils (see Chapters III. and VI. J, a very troublesome point.
 
 570 DENIAL OP THE BIGHT OP PRIVATE JUDGMENT. 
 
 it comes, it is the same change for each, for every one the abnegation 
 of all choice and self-affirmation, and the complete subjection of the 
 heart and will to the obedience of faith. Then, and then only, is the 
 work ended and the conversion made complete. What the Church 
 teaches is from that hour the faith of that Christian heart. What the 
 Church commands is the law of that Christian will " 
 
 Of those who, in the exercise of their private judgment, 
 arrive at doctrines identical or nearly identical with those 
 which the Roman Catholic church teaches, and, as a result of 
 this identity, accept her formularies as expressive of their 
 faith, the article says : 
 
 " These men apparently hang over the Church, ready to drop, like 
 ripe fruit, into her open bosom. Nevertheless, whatever of her sym- 
 bolism they may cherish, they cherish, not because it is hers, but be- 
 cause it is their own. It is not truth which she has taught them ; they 
 have discovered it themselves. It brings them no nearer to her in 
 heart. It does not subject their will to hers. On the contrary, it often 
 begets in them an arrogance of her divine security, as if their simi- 
 larity to her constituted them her equals in the authority of God. 
 Such men are not with the Church, whatever proximity they seem to 
 have " 
 
 The New York Tablet, in giving a synopsis of Rev. T. S. 
 Preston's lecture on the temporal power of the pope, says : 
 
 " There is no difference of opinion among Catholics on this subject, 
 for we do not allow any difference 011 such questions. The decrees of 
 the Church forbid it" 
 
 A commentary on this declaration is found in the fact that 
 Rev. Thomas Farrell, who had been for about 15 years in 
 charge of St. Joseph's church in New York city, wrote a letter 
 of sympathy with the great meeting for Italian unity held in 
 the Academy of Music, January 13, 1871, and was tried before 
 the archbishop and his council for his liberality of views and 
 freedom of expression. The result was a vote in favor of re- 
 moving Father Farrell from his charge, and he was informed 
 by a note from the archbishop, Feb. 7th, that he must retract
 
 DENIAL OF THE RIGHT OP PRIVATE JUDGMENT. 571 
 
 or be removed ; but his church and parish protested against 
 his removal, and their petition being seconded by most of the 
 parish priests of the city, he was subsequently restored to his 
 parish by the archbishop after his humble submission. 
 
 The excellent and learned Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray 
 in France, 1695-1715, being censured by pope Innocent XII. 
 as a religious enthusiast, read from his own pulpit the pope's 
 condemnation of his opinions, and publicly proclaimed his 
 submission to the mandate which silenced his utterance of 
 what he regarded as divine truth. 
 
 Other cases may also be cited to show the opposition be- 
 tween the Roman Catholic church and what Protestants un- 
 derstand by the right of private judgment, &c. Galileo, who 
 had been required in 1616 never again to teach the Coperni- 
 can doctrine of the earth's motion, was formally condemned 
 by the Inquisition at Rome, June 22, 1633, for maintaining 
 the propositions " that the sun is the centre of the world, and 
 immovable from its place," and " that the earth is not the 
 center of the world, nor immovable, but that it moves, and 
 also with a diurnal motion," and was compelled to take an 
 oath on the Gospels thus : 
 
 u With a sincere heart and unfeigned faith I abjure, curse, and de- 
 test the said errors and heresies (viz., that the earth moves, &c.) ; I 
 swear that I will never in future say or assert any thing, verbally or 
 in writing, which may give rise to a similar suspicion against me. . . . 
 
 " I Galileo Galilei have abjured as above with my own hand." 
 
 After the French revolution of 1830, the Abbe* de Lainen- 
 nais founded the journal ISavenir (= the future), in which 
 he aimed to combine democracy with papal supremacy, and 
 liberal opinions with Catholic doctrines. He was assisted by 
 Pere (= Father) Lacordaire, Count de Montalembert, &c. 
 They advocated in their journal, among other things, liberty 
 of worship, of conscience, and of the press ; the prelates and 
 Jesuits met them with violent opposition and denunciation ; in 
 November, 1831, the publication of ISavenir was suspended ; 
 3 of its editors, named above, went to Rome and sought the
 
 572 DENIAL OP THE BIGHT OP PRIVATE JUDGMENT. 
 
 papal approbation without receiving any attention at the 
 time ; the pope, however, in an encyclical letter, dated Aug. 
 15, 1832, condemned the doctrines of L'avenir, and charac- 
 terized as a delirium the idea that " liberty of conscience and 
 of worship is the right of every man ; " l the editors were cited 
 to Rome and signed their submission ; the brilliant Lamen- 
 nais, having become a skeptic, died in 1854, and, in accord- 
 ance with his will, he was buried without any religious service, 
 and his grave, in the Potter's Field, is unmarked by any stone ; 
 Lacordaire became a Dominican and the most celebrated 
 preacher of his time, lived the life of a devotee and ascetic, 
 and after abundant self inflicted flagellations and fastings and 
 other " punishments " of the flesh, died in 1861 ; Montalem- 
 bert, who was in 1843 the recognized leader of the Catholic 
 party in the French legislative assembly, and in 1863 an elo- 
 quent advocate of liberty of conscience in an assembly of 
 Catholic Liberals at Malines, was denounced by the ultramon- 
 tane journals, while he was on his death-bed in 1870, as an 
 enemy of the Church, and French bishops were forbidden by 
 the pope to celebrate a public mass for his soul after his death. 
 Father Hyacinthe, originally Charles Loyson, a Sulpician 
 priest 1851-9, and subsequently a Barefooted Carmelite 1859 
 69, became the successor of the eloquent Lacordaire and of 
 the Jesuit Ravignan as preacher in the cathedral of Notre 
 Dame in Paris, 1864. He was an earnest, devout, and loyal 
 member of the Roman Catholic church, yet has been styled 
 in a Protestant sense Scriptural and evangelical in his preach- 
 ing, giving prominence to the Bible and its grand truths of the 
 apostasy and ruin of our race through the sin of Adam, of the 
 universality of human guilt, of the great atonement by the Son 
 of God, of the certainty of the future punishment of the im- 
 penitent, and of the sovereignty of God in his providence over 
 men. He also held and fully expressed the opinion that the true 
 church of Jesus Christ includes many who are not in outward 
 
 1 This utterance of Gregory XVI. was cited with approval by Pius IX. in his 
 encyclical letter of Dec. 8, 1864.
 
 DENIAL OP THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT. 573 
 
 and visible communion with the Roman Catholic church, and 
 that the true home of religion is not so much in the cloister as 
 in the family ; and he was an outspoken and patriotic lover of 
 liberty in distinction from all personal and absolute govern- 
 ment. But this earnest, enthusiastic, eloquent, and popular 
 orator gave so much offense to the Roman court by the lib- 
 erality of his views, and especially by his address before the 
 Peace League at Paris, July 10, 1869, that he was censured 
 by the Carmelite General at Rome, and ordered " not to 
 print any letters or speech, and to take no part in the Peace 
 League or any other meeting which has not an exclusively 
 Catholic and religious object." To this he replied in his letter 
 of Sept. 20, 1869, withdrawing from his monastery as well as 
 from his pulpit, and saying : 
 
 " In acting thus, I am not unfaithful to my vows ; I promised mo- 
 nastical obedience, but within the limits of the honesty of my con- 
 science and the dignity of my person and ministry. I promised it 
 subject to that higher law of justice and ' royal liberty' which, accord- 
 ing to St. James the Apostle, is the proper law of the Christian 
 
 I raise, therefore, before the Holy Father and the Council, my pro- 
 test, as a Christian and a priest, against those doctrines and those 
 practices which are called Roman, but which are not Christian, 
 and which, by their encroachments, always more audacious and 
 more baneful, tend to change the constitution of the Church, the 
 basis and the form of its teaching, and even the spirit of its piety. 
 I protest against the divorce, as impious as it is insensate, sought 
 to be effected between the Church, which is our eternal mother, 
 and the society of the 19th century, of which we are the temporal 
 children, and toward which we have also duties and regards. I pro- 
 test against that opposition, more radical and more frightful still, to 
 human nature, attacked and outraged by these false doctors, in its 
 most indestructible and most holy aspirations. I protest, above all, 
 against the sacrilegious perversion of the Gospel of the Son of God 
 himself, the spirit and the letter of which are alike trampled under 
 foot by the Pharisaism of the new land. It is my most profound con- 
 viction that if France in particular, and the Lathi races in general, are 
 given up to social, moral, and religious anarchy, the principal cause
 
 574 DENIAL OP THE RIGHT OP PRIViTE JUDGMENT. 
 
 undoubtedly is not Catholicism itself, but the manner in which Cathol- 
 icism has for a long time been understood and practiced. . . ." 
 
 Father Hyacinthe, after withdrawing from his monastery, 
 visited the United States ; but his career as a Roman Catholic 
 priest was ended by his "secularization" or deposition from 
 the priestly office. 
 
 Rev. Dr. John Joseph Ignatius Dollinger, professor in the 
 university of Munich in Southern Germany, a Roman Cath- 
 olic priest since 1822, a man of excellent character as well 
 as of profound learning, accounted indeed the first of living 
 Catholic divines, was summoned by his bishop, in the spring 
 of 1871, to give in his adhesion to the dogma of papal in- 
 fallibility within 10 days. He refused to accept the doc- 
 trine for the reasons that it is irreconcilable with the Scrip- 
 tures as interpreted by the Fathers, and with the belief and 
 tradition of churchmen in all ages ; is supported principally 
 by forged, ungenuine documents ; is contradicted by the doc- 
 trines published by 2 general councils and several popes in 
 the 15th century ; is incompatible with the constitution of 
 Bavaria and several other European States ; was enacted by 
 a council which was not free ; and tends to the repression 
 of man's intellectual activity and to a temporal and spiritual 
 terrorism. Dr. Dollinger was, therefore, excommunicated. 
 Neither he nor any one else, however learned or competent, is 
 allowed to judge for himself in the Roman Catholic church. 
 All must submit to authority, or cease to be Roman Catholics. 
 The exercise of the right of private judgment is not tolerated 
 within the pale of that church. See Chapters VI., XL, XII., 
 
 xxvn. 
 
 " The right of private judgment " is thus defined by an able 
 English Protestant : 
 
 " The right for which we plead is the right of each person to exer- 
 cise his mind on every subject brought before him to examine the 
 claims of every teacher and every book which professes to have come 
 from GOD to try every doctrine pressed on his attention, by the 
 Touchstone of Truth, the Sacred Scriptures to ' prove all things, and
 
 DENIAL OF THE RIGHT OP PRIVATE JUDGMENT. 575 
 
 hold fast that which is good ' to do all this, without permitting any 
 human authority to prevent him, without bowing submissively before 
 any such self-constituted human tribunal. 
 
 " * But he may err in the exercise of this right.' We grant it. ' To 
 err is human,' even in things of vastest importance. But if a man 
 must refrain from exercising a right because he may possibly err in 
 using it, he must forego all his rights, and become a maniac or a fool. 
 Men do not so act in secular affairs, and they should not in those that 
 are religious. If a man errs in either, the fault is his own ; if he errs 
 in his judgment respecting religion, he is accountable to GOD." 
 
 Without exercising this right of private judgment, no one 
 can embrace or have any religion, whether Roman Catholic or 
 any other ; nor can the Roman Catholic or any other church 
 prove itself a true church, or show that it is not a base impos- 
 ture, without appealing to, and thus conceding for the time, 
 this very right of private judgment. The recognition of this 
 right is essential to the existence of both civil and religious 
 liberty. No one who does not exercise it, knows or can know 
 whether his own path leads to heaven or to hell. Since God 
 has made mankind capable of reasoning and judging, it is 
 certainly their duty, as God requires, to " prove all things," 
 i. e., to put them to the proof, or examine them (1 Thess. 5 : 
 21), to "judge " even what professed apostles say (1 Cor. 10 : 
 15), to " be ready always to give an answer to every man that 
 asketh a reason " of their hope (1 Pet. 3 : 15), to " beware 
 of false prophets" (Matt. 7 : 15), to " try the spirits whether 
 they are of God " (1 John 4:1); and in fulfilling this, our 
 bounden duty, we, who are made after the similitude of 
 God (Jas. 3:9), and who must give account, each of him- 
 self, to God (Rom. 14 : 12), must examine for ourselves and 
 judge for ourselves in view of our solemn and individual re- 
 sponsibility to the God of truth and life and glory.
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OF TEMPORAL POWER. 
 
 For more than 1,000 years the popes of Rome have possessed 
 and exercised temporal power in Rome and elsewhere, as is re- 
 lated in Chapter III. 
 
 The extent and limits of the temporal power appertaining to 
 the pope and to the Roman Catholic church have been differ- 
 ently stated by different Roman Catholic authorities. " The 
 Catholic World " for December, 1870, in discussing the pope's 
 " rights as the Vicar of Christ and the Vicegerent of God upon 
 earth," speaks thus : 
 
 "... We distinguish between the personal sovereignty of the Vicar of 
 Christ, which consists in his independence of and superiority over all 
 civil sovereignty, and his real and administrative sovereignty, which con- 
 sists in his rightful possession of kingly power over a specific territory 
 with its inhabitants. The former is of divine right and inherent in his 
 spiritual supremacy ; the latter is of human right, and attached to that 
 supremacy. In regard to the divine right of the personal sovereignty 
 of the pope, we say, first, that it is a necessary consequence of the im- 
 munity of the whole hierarchy from the coactive jurisdiction of tem- 
 poral tribunals, always held by Catholic tradition as a right conferred 
 by Jesus Christ The Council of Lateran (5th) under the Sover- 
 eign Pontiff Leo X., in its 9th session says : ' Since no power is given 
 to laymen over ecclesiastics either by divine or human right.' .... So, 
 also, the Council of Trent, session xxv., chapter 20, de Reform., says : 
 4 The immunity of the church and of ecclesiastical persons was estab- 
 lished by the ordinance of God and by ecclesiastical sanctions.' It 
 follows, of course, a fortiori [= from a stronger reason or ground], 
 that the pope, as the supreme judge of all ecclesiastical causes and
 
 ASSUMPTION AND EXE3CISB OP TEMPORAL POWER. 577 
 
 persons in the external forum, is himself above all power, whether ec- 
 clesiastical or lay, and can be judged by no one It has always 
 
 been the Catholic interpretation of this passage [Matt. 17 : 23-26] that 
 the successors of Peter are by divine right sovereigns, owing no sub- 
 jection, even in temporals, to any civil authority, and that whatever 
 obedience they have voluntarily rendered at certain times to emperors 
 has been merely a condescension, like that of our Lord himself on the 
 earth, practiced for the sake of the common good. 
 
 " The temporal power of the popes over certain provinces adjacent 
 to the city of Rome, and over the city itself, is derived . . . . ' from the 
 munificence and liberality of sovereign princes, the voluntary and free 
 gift of the people, long prescription, onerous contracts, and other legit- 
 imate titles ' [Cardinal Soglia]. This is a human right, or right founded 
 on human law and authority. It is, however, a perfect right, and one 
 which, according to the principles of Catholic morality, cannot be taken 
 back by the parties which originally conceded it. Moreover, as a right 
 conceded to the Roman church for the benefit of religion and the ser- 
 vice of Almighty God, it is classed among things sacred, which cannot 
 be invaded without the guilt of sacrilege " 2 
 
 Among the "errors of our times" mentioned in the "syllabus'* 
 or list attached to pope Pius IX/s Encyclical Letter of Dec. 
 8, 1864, are the 3 following, which were pointed out by the 
 pope in 1851 : 
 
 1 It is very certain if we may exercise our Protestant " private judgment " (see 
 Chapter XXII.) that Origen, Augustine, Jerome, &c., were mistaken in assuming 
 that the "tribute-money" in Matt. 17:24-27 (24-26 in the Vulgate and Douay 
 Bibles) was paid to the Roman emperor in acknowledgment of his sovereignty : 
 this tax was the didrachma or half-shekel tax (Ex. 30 : 13) paid to the sanctuary or 
 temple at Jerusalem, from which burden of the Mosaic law Jesus and all his dis- 
 ciples are free, since they are children or heirs of God (Rom. 8:16, 17), and are 
 not, as the Jews, under bondage to the law (Gal. 2:4. 3:24-26. 5:1). Even 
 Augustine saw that all Christians are here placed on the same footing with Christ 
 and Peter in respect to this tax or burden ; for he says, " But the Savior, when he 
 ordered it to be given for himself and for Peter, seems to have paid for all." It is 
 therefore entirely unwarrantable to limit to Peter and his successors, or to the 
 clergy, the freedom which is here declared to belong to all God's children, what- 
 ever their office or station. 
 
 3 For an answer to this argument,, see Chapter III. 
 37
 
 578 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OP TEMPORAL POWER. 
 
 " The church has not the power of availing herself of force, or any 
 direct or indirect temporal power." 
 
 " The Roman pontiffs and ecumenical councils have exceeded the 
 limits of their power, have usurped the rights of princes, and have 
 even committed errors in defining matter relating to dogma and 
 morals." 
 
 " In addition to the authority inherent in the episcopate, further 
 temporal power is granted to it by the civil power, either expressly 
 or tacitly, but on that account also revocable by the civil power when- 
 ever it pleases." 
 
 The condemnation of these propositions by the " infallible " 
 Pius IX. turns our thoughts to the 13th century, when pope In- 
 nocent III. 'and the 4th Lateran council made taxes or con- 
 tributions to the necessities of the state dependent on the 
 pope's permission, and not only anathematized all heretics, but 
 assumed the right of compelling the secular powers to exter- 
 minate heretics, of absolving from their allegiance all the sub- 
 jects of any secular prince or power that should refuse 
 obedience to this mandate of the church, and of depriving of 
 civil rights all who favor heretics. Part of canon 3d of this 
 council is thus translated : 
 
 u 3. But let the secular powers be admonished and induced and, 
 if necessary, compelled by ecclesiastical censure to take an oath pub- 
 licly for the defense of the faith, that they will strive to exterminate 
 from the lands subject to their jurisdiction all heretics ; and thus 
 henceforth, whensoever any one shall come into power either perpetual 
 or temporal, let him be bound to confirm this section by oath. But if 
 a temporal lord, having been required and admonished by the church, 
 shall neglect to purge his land of this heretical filthiness, let him be 
 excommunicated by the archbishop and the other bishops of the 
 province. And, if he shall disdain to give satisfaction within a year, 
 let this be made known to the supreme Pontiff: that he may declare 
 the subjects thenceforth freed from allegiance to him, and may put out 
 the land for the occupation of Catholics, who may, on exterminating 
 the heretics, take possession of it without any objection, and keep it in 
 the purity of the faith: the right of the principal lord [= temporal
 
 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OP TEMPORAL POWER. 579 
 
 sovereign] being preserved, provided he offer no obstacle about this, nor 
 put any hindrance in the way : the same law nevertheless being 
 observed in respect to those who have no principal lords [= sover- 
 eigns]. .... 
 
 " 5. Moreover, we decree that those who trust, receive, defend, and 
 favor heretics lie under excommunication : and we firmly ordain that, 
 after any such person shall be marked as excommunicated, if he dis- 
 dain to give satisfaction within a year, he be thenceforth made in- 
 famous by the very law, and be not admitted to public offices or councils; 
 nor to the choice of any persons for things of this sort, nor to the giving 
 testimony. Let him also be incapable of making a will or of coming 
 into succession as an heir. Let no one be compelled to answer in 
 court at his suit about any matter, but let him be compelled to answer 
 
 at the suits of others But if any disdain to avoid such persons 
 
 after they have been pointed out by the church, let them be smitten 
 down by the sentence of excommunication so as to render proper satis- 
 faction " 
 
 The above canon was enacted by a council acknowledged by 
 the Roman Catholic church to be ecumenical and authoritative 
 over the whole church ; it was put in force against the Albigenses 
 and others (see Chapter XII.) ; it has never been repealed by 
 any competent and acknowledged authority ; and it is now a 
 part of the " canon law " of the church (see Chapter III.). 
 
 The late archbishop Kenrick of Baltimore published in 1845, 
 while bishop of Philadelphia, an octavo volume entitled, " The 
 Primacy of the Apostolic See Vindicated." In this volume he 
 
 ** The Popes never pretended to have received from Christ universal 
 dominion, or even any dominion in temporal matters ; but in the middle 
 ages they were at the head of the Christian confederacy, and they used 
 the influence, authority, and power wherewith they were invested by 
 the force of circumstances, for the benefit of all, sanctioning the govern- 
 ing authority by their blessing, and directing and controlling it by re- 
 ligious principle* 
 
 " The Church had an undoubted r ght to punish any immoral act by 
 ecclesiastical censure, and sue exercised it as she found it necessary or
 
 580 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OP TEMPORAL POWER. 
 
 i 
 
 expedient. The whole range of social duties thus fell within her in* 
 fluence : the morality of every act, whether of prince or vassal, was a 
 legitimate subject of her cognizance, and the privileges of religious com- 
 munion were withdrawn from those who trampled under foot moral ob- 
 ligations. It may appear that in this way the whole civil authority 
 was virtually claimed by the popes : yet it was not so in reality, unless 
 as far as the circumstances of the times placed civil power and influ- 
 ence in their hands. To declare the sinfulness of an act was reserved 
 to the judgment of the pontiff; to punish it by the censures of the 
 church was an exercise of his power ; but to enforce the sentence by 
 civil penalties required the action of the secular authority." 1 
 
 In respect to the deposing power archbishop Kenrick thus 
 speaks : 
 
 " St. Gregory VII., whose family name was Hildebrand, is the first 
 pope who claimed the right to depose kings. ... St. Gregory VII. in 
 undertaking to depose Henry IV. relied on the power of binding and 
 loosing, because this power was directly exercised in pronouncing ex- 
 communication, and its consequence appeared in the deposition. In 
 extending it to the loosing of the subjects from the oath of allegiance, 
 he presupposed the violation on the part of the sovereign of the trust 
 
 1 The persecutions of the Albigenses, Waldenses, &c., by the command of popes 
 and councils (see Chapter XII. ) and the burning of Huss and of Jerome of Prague 
 by order of the council of Constance (see Chapter VI.) and of many others who 
 were condemned by the Inquisition (see Chapter XI.), may illustrate the distinction, 
 which Archbishop Kenrick here makes between the spiritual and temporal powers 
 or authorities. 'The persecuted martyrs would probably fail to appreciate the prac- 
 tical importance of this distinction in their case ; for the temporal or secular author- 
 ities readily and rigorously executed the terrible sentences whi ch the spiritual 
 authorities pronounced or indicated. And wherever the Roman Catholic church is 
 dominant, it is expected that excommunications and other " spiritual " weap- 
 ons will make themselves felt in " temporal " penalties, as civil disabilities, fines, 
 imprisonments, tortures, and death ; and neither the quantity nor the quality of 
 these penalties is essentially changed by the " secular " or " spiritual " title of 
 those who execute the " spiritual " sentence. Nor is the assumption of the tempo- 
 ral power a whit the less real, when the spiritual power can secure its ends by the 
 control and use of 2 sets of subservient officers secular and spiritual than if the 
 whole process from beginning to end was conducted by bishops and other " spiri- 
 tual " officials without any form of delivery to the secular power.
 
 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OP TEMPORAL POWER. 581 
 
 reposed in him, and of the oaths which he had taken to fulfill it, and of all 
 the conditions on which the promise of allegiance was made : and con- 
 sequently that the obligation of the oath had ceased, which he under- 
 took to declare authoritatively. . . . Allegiance was at that period, 
 sworn to Christian princes, on the express condition that they should 
 protect and uphold the Church and her authority : the violation of that 
 condition loosed the bond of the oath, and left the subject free. When 
 the nation had one faith, all the public institutions were grounded on it, 
 and interwoven with it, by the common religious instinct, independent 
 of compacts and of laws. . . . The social compact between the sovereign 
 and subject was based on that faith, and dependent on ir. ... It is 
 no principle of Catholic doctrine that princes forfeit their rights over 
 their subjects, by heresy, or infidelity, independently of the social com- 
 pact to which I have just referred. . . . The excommunication and sen- 
 tence of deposition, fulminated by St. Pius V. and renewed by Six- 
 tus V., against Elizabeth of England, may be considered the latest at- 
 tempt to exercise the deposing power, no act of the kind having been 
 performed since the reign of this latter pontiff, who, however, issued a 
 like sentence against Henry of Navarre. The grounds of the sentence 
 of Pius were the illegitimacy of Elizabeth, her profession of heresy, 
 her crimes against religion and her faithful subjects ; to which was 
 added, in thr renewal of the sentence by Sixtus, her cruelty to the un- 
 fortunate Mary Stuart. ..." 
 
 Archbishop Kenrick, in speaking of the act of pope Adrian 
 IV. authorizing Henry II. of England to invade Ireland and 
 subject it to the British crown, quotes without indorsing it 
 "the judgment of eminent Italian writers," that the pontiffs 
 grant of Ireland to Henry is no more than the sanction of 
 Henry's enterprise, and the pontiffs assertion that " Ireland and 
 all the islands on which the light of Christianity shone belonged 
 to the Holy See," is expressive only of their dependence in 
 spiritual matters. The bull of Alexander VI. fixing limits 
 whereby the dominions of the kings of Portugal and Spain in 
 the new world should be distinguished, the archbishop in like 
 manner represents as " the public sanction of that which in 
 itself was just [in this case, u the right acquired by the fact of. 
 discovery"] on the general principles of the law of nations."
 
 582 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OF TEMPORAL POWER. 
 
 Archbishop Kenrick's position in regard to the temporal 
 power of the pope is substantially that of the faculties of 
 divinity and of the civil and canon law in the University of 
 Douay in January, 1789, and of the faculties of several other 
 French and Spanish universities given about the same time. 
 It has been substantially the position of the Gallican party 
 (see Chapters III. and VI.), Bossuet and the French clergy in 
 1682 declaring that the pope has no temporal, but only spiritual 
 rights, as Christ's vicegerent. It was the position maintained 
 by Hon. Joseph R. Chandler in the U. S. House of Representa- 
 tives, January, 1855, when he said : 
 
 " Mr. Chairman, I deny that the bishop of Rome has, or that he 
 claims for himself, the right to interfere with the political relations of 
 any other country than that of which he is himself the sovereign." 
 
 But Gallicanism is not the standard doctrine of the Roman 
 Catholic. church. It was condemned by pope Innocent XI. in 
 his brief of April 11, 1682, and more formally by pope Alex- 
 ander VIII. in his bull of Aug. 4, 1690, both pronouncing the 
 declarations of the French clergy of 1682 to be null and void. 
 Pope Pius VI. also, in the bull Auctorem fidei, issued in 1791, 
 reiterated the previous condemnations of the Gallican doctrine. 
 Pius VII., who was pope 1800-1821, in his instructions to his 
 nuncio at Vienna which were copied by M. Daunou (a Roman 
 Catholic civilian of France) from the papal archives that 
 Bonaparte removed to Paris, and published in Daunou's History 
 of the Court of Rome spoke thus in reference to the claims of 
 some Protestant princes on church-property in Germany for 
 indemnity for certain injuries : 
 
 " Not only has the church succeeded to prevent heretics from pos- 
 sessing themselves of ecclesiastical property, but she has established 
 the confiscation and the loss of goods as the punishment of those guilty 
 of the crime of heresy. This punishment, as it respects the goods of 
 individuals, is decreed by a bull of Innocent III. ; and, in respect of 
 principalities and fiefs, it is a rule of the canon law (Chap. Absolutes
 
 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OP TEMPORAL POWER. 583 
 
 xvi., De Haereticis) that the subjects of a heretical prince are en- 
 franchised from every duty towards him and dispensed from all fealty 
 and homage. However slightly one may be versed in history, he can- 
 not but know that sentences of deposition have been pronounced by 
 pontiffs and by councils against princes guilty of heresy. 1 Indeed we 
 have fallen upon such calamitous times, times of such humiliation to 
 the spouse of Jesus Christ, that it is not possible for her to practice 
 nor expedient to invoke her most sacred maxims of just rigor against 
 the enemies and rebels of the faith. But if she cannot exercise her 
 right of deposing heretics from their principalities and of declaring 
 their goods forfeited, can she ever positively permit herself to be de- 
 spoiled to add to them new principalities and new goods ? What 
 occasion of deriding the church would not be given to the heretics and 
 unbelievers themselves, who, insulting over her grief, would say that 
 means at length had been found out to make her tolerant ! " 
 
 The doctrine thus set forth by Pius VII. and his predecessors 
 is consistent, not so evidently with the Gallican view and that 
 of archbishop Kenrick, &c., as with that of the Lateran council, 
 of the syllabus previously cited, of the bull In ccena Domini 
 (see Chapter IV.), of the allocutions and encyclical letters of 
 Pius IX., referred to in the syllabus and in this chapter, and of 
 the following from one of the ablest Roman Catholic publica- 
 tions in this country a publication formally indorsed by all 
 the Roman Catholic archbishops and bishops in this country 
 Brownson's Quarterly Review, for April, 1854 : 
 
 "... Even supposing the church to have only spiritual power, what 
 question can come up between man and man, between sovereign and 
 sovereign, or sovereign and subject, that does not come within the 
 legitimate jurisdiction of the Church, and on which she has not by 
 divine right the power to pronounce a judicial sentence ? None ? 
 Then the power she exercised over sovereigns in the middle ages was 
 not a usurpation, was not derived from the concessions of princes or 
 
 1 It has been estimated that the popes have pronounced sentences of deposition 
 against at least 64 emperors and kings, only a few of whom are named in this 
 chapter.
 
 584 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OP TEMPORAL POWER. 
 
 the consent of the people, but it was and is hers by divine right ; and 
 whoso resists it rebels against the King of kings and Lord of lords. 
 This is the ground on which we defend the power exercised over 
 sovereigns by popes and councils in the middle ages." 
 
 Dr. Brownson also said: 
 
 " All history fails to show an instance in which the pope, in deposing 
 a temporal sovereign, professes to do it by the authority vested in him 
 by the pious belief of the faithful, generally received maxims, the 
 opinion of the age, the concessions of sovereigns, or the civil constitu- 
 tion and public laws of Catholic states. On the contrary, he always 
 claims to do it by the authority committed to him as the successor of 
 the prince of the apostles, by the authority of his apostolic ministry, 
 by the authority committed to him of binding and loosing, by the 
 authority of Almighty God, of Jesus Christ, King of kings and Lord 
 of lords, who-e minister, though unworthy, he asserts that he is ; or 
 some such formula, which solemnly and expressly sets forth that his 
 authority is held by divine right, by virtue of his ministry, and exer- 
 cised solely in his character of vicar of Jesus Christ on earth. To this, 
 we believe, there is not a single exception. Wherever the popes cite 
 their titles, they never, so far as we can find, cite a human title, but 
 always a divine title. Whence is this ? Did the popes cite a false 
 title ? Were they ignorant of their own title ? or was tliis assertion 
 ot title an empty form, meaning nothing? 
 
 " One of two things, it seems to us, must be admitted, if we have 
 regard to the undeniable facts in the case ; namely, either the popes 
 usurped the authority they exercised over sovereigns in the middle ages, 
 or they possessed it by virtue of their title as vicars of Jesus Christ on 
 
 earth The principal Catholic authorities are certainly in favor 
 
 of the divine right The Gallican doctrine was, from the be- 
 ginning, the doctrine of the courts, in opposition to that of the vicars 
 of Jesus Christ, and should, therefore, be regarded by every Catholic 
 with suspicion " 
 
 Protestants must believe Dr. Brownson's to be the authorized 
 Roman Catholic view when they consider what popes and 
 priests have done and are doing in this nineteenth century. 
 
 Pope Pius IX. in 1870 forbade the Roman Catholic bishops
 
 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OP TEMPORAL POWER. 585 
 
 in Spain to take an oath of fidelity to the new constitution of 
 that country; he had, in his allocution of June 22, 1867, de- 
 clared null and void the decrees of the Austrian government 
 establishing liberty of opinion and of the press, admitting and 
 confirming civil marriage, and withdrawing from the Roman 
 Catholic church the control of the public schools and of ceme- 
 teries ; he had also, in his allocution of Jan. 23, 1855, declared 
 the acts of the Sardinian government suppressing monasteries, 
 <fec., to be entirely worthless and invalid, maintained the in- 
 violable supremacy of the Holy See in Sardinia, and spoken of 
 the penalties and censures established by the apostolic con- 
 stitutions, and by the canons especially of the council of Trent 
 against the plunderers and profaners of holy things, as ap- 
 plicable in this case ; and he had likewise, in his allocution of 
 Dec. 15, 1856, condemned, disallowed, and declared absolutely 
 null and void all the acts of the Mexican government abolishing 
 the ecclesiastical courts, allowing the exercise of all religions, 
 confiscating the property of the church, and in other ways 
 contravening the supreme authority claimed by the pope ; and 
 he had in the same allocution condemned various acts of South 
 American governments, by which he complained that the 
 church was most grievously oppressed and persecuted. 
 Accordant with all these was the tenor of an article in the 
 Civilta Cattolica of Rome in the early part of 1870, fore- 
 shadowing what was then expected to be decreed by the 
 Ecumenical council, and declaring that, if governments make 
 laws at variance with the decrees of the council, the subjects 
 will not be held to observe them ; and that, if governments 
 separate church and state, they must expect terrible revolutions 
 to overthrow them. 
 
 The late archbishop Hughes in October, 1841, publicly ap- 
 proved and advocated a political ticket for senators and as- 
 semblymen from New York city, and required from his immense 
 audience a pledge of adherence to his nomination, which was 
 given at once and most enthusiastically. The same influential
 
 586 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OP TEMPORAL POWER. 
 
 prelate by a call addressed, July 16, 1863, to " the men of New 
 York who are now called in many of the papers rioters," in- 
 viting them to visit him at his house at 2 p. m., the next day, 
 and promising that in coming and going they should " not be 
 disturbed by any exhibition of municipal or military presence " 
 assembled at the appointed time and place thousands of 
 Irish Catholics, whom he called his children and who in return 
 called him " greater than either the president or governor," 
 and advised them the bloody riots of July 13-15, in which an 
 Irish Catholic mob had maltreated and murdered unoffending 
 negroes, having then been put down to stay at home and 
 obey the laws, and bestowed on them his blessing which they 
 received with uncovered heads. About the same time pope Pius 
 IX., who was the only European sovereign that recognized the 
 Southern Confederacy as an independent government, appointed 
 archbishops Hughes of New York and Odin of New Orleans 
 to settle our national troubles this was during the Rebellion 
 and to admonish our chief rulers and people. 
 
 July 6, 1856, bishop Charbonnel of Toronto (since resigned 
 and become a Capuchin in France) excommunicated 4 members 
 of the Canadian government (Messrs. Couchon, Cartier, Lemi- 
 eux, and Drummond) for not voting in the provincial parlia- 
 ment according to his requirement in respect to education and 
 legacies to priests (see Chapter XVIII.). 
 
 The bishops of the Roman Catholic church are under oath 
 to obey and enforce all the mandates of the pope (see Chapter 
 VII.). In connection with this fact and the course of arch- 
 bishop Hughes during the New York riots of 1863, we may read 
 the following from the [Roman Catholic] " Freeman's Jour- 
 nal " of January 14, 1854 : 
 
 " Trembling Mayors and embarassed Governors shall appeal to 
 Catholic Bishops to lend them their most active exertions toward pois- 
 ing on its basis the fabric of our Republic and the hopes of the Consti- 
 tution." 
 
 And "Apostolicus" a correspondent of the Baltimore Clip- 
 per in the spring of 1853, said :
 
 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OP TEMPORAL POWER. 587 
 
 " I say with Brovrason, that if the Church should declare that the 
 Constitution and every existence of this or any other country should be 
 extinguished, it is a solemn audience of God himself, and every good 
 Catholic would be bound, under the penalty of the terrible punishment 
 pronounced against the disobedient, to obey." 
 
 A Protestant may add, to sustain his view of the assumption 
 and exercise of temporal power by the Roman Catholic church, 
 that priests, in this country as well as elsewhere, have quelled 
 riots, taken away and burned Bibles (see Chapter XII.), boxed 
 ;ears for disobedience, whipped boys for attending Protestant 
 worship, refused burial-rites and graves to offenders, set them- 
 selves above law in refusing to give testimony of offenses made 
 known to them at the confessional (see Chapter XVII.), in, 
 claiming official exemption from the draft during the late rebel- 
 lion, &c.
 
 CHAPTER XXIY. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 " The Acts and Decrees of the 2d Plenary Council of Balti- 
 more," which was held in 1866, having been sanctioned by the 
 authorities at Rome, are the law for the Roman Catholic church 
 in the United States. Title ix. of these decrees, is " on the 
 training and pious instruction of youth : " and from its first 
 chapter, " on parochial schools to be everywhere founded," we 
 make the following extracts, the 1st and 2d paragraphs being 
 repetitions of decrees made apparently in 1852, and the others 
 being first enacted in 1866 : 
 
 " 429. Since it is evident that a mode of public education has 
 been so entered on in most of these provinces, that it is serviceable to 
 heresies, the minds of Catholic children being gradually and impercep- 
 tibly imbued with the false principles of the sects, we admonish pas- 
 tors to provide with their utmost exertion for the Christian and Catho- 
 lic education of Catholic children, and to watch diligently lest they use 
 the Protestant version of the Bible or recite the songs and prayers of 
 the sects. Thus must they watch lest books or exercises of this sort 
 be introduced into the public schools with danger to faith and piety. 
 But with constancy and moderation must resistance be everywhere 
 made to these attempts of the sects, the aid of those who are in authority 
 being besought to apply the proper remedy. . . . 
 
 " We exhort the bishops, and, in view of the very grievous evils 
 which are wont to follow from youth not rightly instructed, we beseech 
 them by the bowels of Divine mercy, to take care that schools be es- 
 tablished in connection with every church in their dioceses ; and, if 
 needful, and circumstances permit, to provide that from the revenues
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 589 
 
 of the church with which a school is connected, suitable teachers be 
 kept in it. 1 . . . . 
 
 " 435. But since, on account of poverty, schools exclusively 
 Catholic can not yet be kept in all the parishes, and there is no place 
 for the daily and needful instruction except in public schools, the more 
 precautions ought to be taken that Catholic youth may suffer from 
 these the least possible harm. To this end let catechisings and schools 
 of Christian instruction be established. Let the pastors assemble the 
 boys and girls at their own church on Sundays and other festivals, and 
 sometimes even oftener, to teach them studiously and diligently the 
 elements of Christian learning 
 
 " 437. Let him [the pastor] in all possible ways induce parents to 
 do their part. Let him rouse them by encouragements, terrify them 
 by threats, move them by entreaties, to send their children to church 
 at the stated time of catechising. But these let him allure by little 
 gifts and rewards to a more eager attendance and learning. For what 
 the teachers of heresy do daily, in order to draw Catholic boys to their 
 own schools, imbue them with the poison of error, and sacrifice them to 
 everlasting misfortune ; that shall not the minister of God and of her 
 most holy religion studiously and diligently perform, that he may save 
 them that belong to him, and not lose any of those whom the Father 
 has given to his own Christ ? . . . . 
 
 " 440. Let the pastors of souls sedulously labor, that the parents, 
 
 i These paragraphs may be fitly supplemented hy an extract from the pastoral 
 letter of the Baltimore council of 1852 : 
 
 " Encourage the establishment and support of Catholic schools ; make every 
 sacrifice which may be necessary for this object : spare our hearts the pain of be- 
 holding the youth whom, after the example of our Master, we so much love, in- 
 volved in all the evils of an uncatholic education, evils too multiplied and too ob- 
 vious to require that we should do more than raise our voices in solemn protest 
 against the system from which they spring. In urging on you the discharge of this 
 duty, we are acting on the suggestion of the Sovereign Pontiff, who in an encycli- 
 cal letter, dated 21st Nov., 1851, calls on all the bishops of the Catholic world to 
 provide for the religious education of youth. We are following the examplo of the 
 Irish hierarchy, who arc courageously opposing the introduction of a system based 
 on the principle which we condemn, and who are now endeavoring to unite religious 
 with secular instruction of the highest order by the institution of a Catholic Uni- 
 versity, an undertaking in the success of which we necessarily feel a deep interest, 
 and which, as having been suggested by the Sovereign Pontiff, powerfully appeals 
 to the sympathies of the whole Catholic world."
 
 590 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 who are intrusted to their charge, bring forward their children, who 
 have arrived at years of discretion, well-prepared for receiving the 
 sacraments of the holy eucharist and confirmation : and, to accomplish 
 this end, let them oftener through the year, especially when Easter 
 approaches, publicly in the churches admonish the people hi respect to 
 this most weighty duty, through the non-observance of which parents 
 expose themselves to the greatest danger of losing salvation, and 
 therefore are to be driven from the sacraments, until they come 
 to themselves and give satisfaction for their duty." 
 
 The 2d chapter of the 9th title or part of the Baltimore 
 council's decrees is " on establishing schools of industry 
 or reformatories." It opens with a lamentation over the 
 devil's enmity and his success in transferring baptized Catholic 
 children from mother church to his own camp by the aid of 
 heretics and haters of all religion. It charges these with 
 seizing and shutting up in "houses of refuge" Catholic 
 orphans and other children who have none to care for them, 
 changing their names, and educating them to heresy and 
 hatred of their ancestral faith, under the specious name of 
 philanthropy. It declares that some bishops have established 
 in their dioceses houses for the reception of those children 
 whose religion or salvation is imperiled, " that they may be 
 kept safe from rapacious wolves, and learn the principles 
 of Christian faith and morals." The bishops are earnestly ex- 
 horted to establish these " houses of refuge " or " of protec- 
 tion," or " industrial schools," or " reformatory schools or 
 houses," as they are variously called, especially in the neighbor- 
 hood of the larger cities. Most of these are under the control 
 of some religious order or congregation, and are accordingly 
 noticed in Chapter VIII. of this volume. 
 
 Chapter iii. of title ix. of the Council's Decrees is " on 
 founding a university of letters." It speaks of the Catholic 
 academies and colleges already in existence ; also of the theo- 
 logical and missionary colleges here and in Europe (see Chap- 
 ters VII., VIII., IX., X.) ; utters the wish that there might be in 
 this region one grand college or university, comprehending in
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 591 
 
 itself the privileges and advantages of all the colleges at home 
 and abroad, and furnishing instruction in every branch of learn- 
 ing and science both sacred and profane ; and closes with sub- 
 mitting to the future judgment of the Fathers the question 
 whether or not the time has come for founding such a univer- 
 sity. 
 
 Such is the general legislation of the Roman Catholic church 
 in this country on the subject of education. Their periodical 
 press and other publications have likewise spoken explicitly. 
 
 Thus " The Catholic World " for January, 1870, having 
 spoken in defense of " the public grants to certain Catholic 
 schools " in New York, continues : 
 
 " Give us either schools to which we can send our children, or divide 
 the schools equitably between Catholics and Protestants, and we will 
 solicit no special grants of the sort. . . . We are opposed to the common 
 schools as they are, because our church condemns them;. .. .but if 
 Protestants want them for themselves, they can have them. . . . We do 
 not approve the system even for them, any more than we do their 
 heresy and schism, which we account ' deadly sins ; ' but if they insist 
 on having godless schools for their children, they can have them ; we 
 cannot hinder them. The system might be modified so that we could 
 accept it ; but it depends on them so to modify it or not, for they have 
 the power. ..." 
 
 The same, in the number for April, 1870, speaks thus : 
 
 .... " The difference between Catholics and Protestants is not a 
 difference in details or particulars only, but a difference in principle. 
 Catholicity must be taught as a whole, in its unity and its integrity, or 
 it is not taught at all. It must everywhere be all or nothing. ..." 
 
 The same, in opposing the plan of national education advocated 
 by U. S. Senator Henry Wilson of Mass., and others, says, April, 
 1871: 
 
 "... As there is for us Catholics only one church, there is and can 
 be no proper education for us not given by or under the direction and 
 control of the Catholic church."
 
 692 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 " The New York Tablet " of November 20, 1869, speaking of 
 the vote of the School Board of Cincinnati " to exclude the 
 Bible and all religious instruction from the public schools of 
 the city " (see the account in this chapter), says : 
 
 " .... If tlii? has been done with a view of reconciling Catholics to 
 the common school system, its purpose will not be realized. It does 
 not meet nor in any degree lessen our objection to the public school 
 system, and only proves the impracticability of that system in a mixed 
 community of Catholics and Protestants ; for it proves that the schools 
 must, to be sustained, become thoroughly godless. But to us godless 
 schools are still less acceptable than sectarian schools, and we object 
 less to the reading of king James's Bible, even, in the schools, than we 
 do to the exclusion of all religious instruction. American Protestan- 
 tism of the orthodox stamp is a far less evil than German infidelity. 
 
 The same newspaper, under date of Nov. 27, 1869, proposes 
 that the prevalent system of public schools for all the children 
 at the public expense be thus modified in respect to the Roman 
 Catholics : 
 
 " . . . . Appropriate to the support of Catholic schools the proportion of 
 the public money according to the number of children they educate, and 
 leave the selection of teachers, the studies, the discipline, the whole in- 
 ternal management, to the Catholic educational authorities, and you 
 may, in all other respects, in all prudential matters, let them remain 
 as now, under public control and management, and public boards, re- 
 gents, commissioners, and trustees, if you will. ..." 
 
 It says also, Dec. 25, 1869 : 
 
 "... ."We hold education to be a function of the Church, not of the 
 State ; and in our case we do not, and will not, accept the state as ed- 
 ucator. ..." 
 
 Says the Freeman's Journal, Nov. 20, 1869 : 
 
 <*.... If the Catholic translation of the books of Holy Writ,
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 593 
 
 which is to be found in the homes of all our better educated Catholics, 
 were to be dissected by the ablest Catholic theologians in the land, 
 and merely lessons to be taken from it such as Catholic mothers read 
 to their children ; and with all the notes and comments in the popular 
 edition, and others added, with the highest Catholic endorsement and 
 if these admirable Bible lessons, and these alone, were to be ruled as 
 to be read in all the public schools, this would not diminish, in any 
 substantial degree, the objection we Catholics have to letting Catholic 
 children attend the public schools. ..." 
 
 The same, under date of Dec. 11, 1869, says : 
 
 " . . . . The Catholic solution of this muddle about Bible or no Bible 
 in schools, is, * Hands off! ' No State taxation or donation for any 
 schools. You look to your children, and we will look to ours. We 
 don't want you to be taxed for Catholic schools. "We do not want to be 
 taxed for Protestant, or for godless, schools. Let the public-school 
 system go to where it came from the devil. "We want Christian schools, 
 and the State cannot tell us what Christianity is. ... " 
 
 Cardinal Cullen, who is archbishop of Dublin, Ireland, is- 
 sued a pastoral letter to his clergy before the meeting of the 
 Vatican council, a synopsis of which is published in " The 
 Pilot " of Boston, June 4, 1870. In this letter he opposes 
 " common, united, and unsectarian instructions " in schools as 
 " a godless system of education," and continues : 
 
 " It is evidently our duty, without interfering with other?, to insist 
 on obtaining Catholic schools, lower and middle, for Catholic children, 
 and also Catholic colleges and universities for the more advanced stages 
 of youth. Whilst Protestants have schools, and colleges and universi- 
 ties, richly endowed by the public, for themselves, we can not be satis- 
 fied, or consider ourselves fairly treated, unless similar privileges are 
 granted to us. ... " 
 
 Details and statistics, showing what the Roman Catholics 
 have done and are doing for education in this country, may be 
 seen in the chapters of this volume on the clergy, on the Jesuits, 
 and especially in Chapter VIII., on the monastic orders aod con- 
 gregations. 
 
 38
 
 594 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The avowed principles of the Roman Catholics in regard to 
 education and their efforts to carry out these principles have 
 involved them in various controversies within the last 80 years, 
 in New York, Cincinnati, Boston, &c. 
 
 The New York Public School Society was an association of 
 benevolent men, formed in 1805 for the education of poor and 
 neglected children in that city, and disbanded July 22, 1853. 
 In these 48 years it established, with the aid of the N. Y. 
 state school-fund, numerous schools, in which probably half a 
 million of children received the elements of a good secular educa- 
 tion together with instruction in the sacred Scriptures ; and it also 
 trained up many excellent teachers, and watched over the gen- 
 eral interests of education. As early as 1823 it opposed ap- 
 propriations from the public school-fund for sustaining " secta- 
 rian " or " church " schools. The first case of this sort, that of 
 the appropriation made to the schools of the Bethel Baptist 
 church, was argued before the legislature of the state, and re- 
 ferred to the board of the city corporation ; and then a com- 
 mittee of this last body, after hearing the parties, made a re- 
 port which though Baptists, Methodists, Episcopalians, and 
 Roman Catholics were united in seeking a share in the school- 
 fund apparently settled the principle for the time that sec- 
 tarian schools were not to be sustained or aided from the pub- 
 lic money. But in 1831 and annually afterwards, the " Roman 
 Catholic Benevolent Society " obtained, through the " Sisters 
 of Charity," in spite of the Public School Society's opposition, 
 a grant of $1500 from the corporation of the city for the Orphan 
 Asylum schools under their care. In Sept., 1840, the Roman 
 Catholics, under the lead of bishop (afterwards archbishop) 
 Hughes, petitioned the common council of New York to desig- 
 nate 7 Catholic schools, as " entitled to participate in the com- 
 mon school fund, upon complying with the requirements of the 
 law." This petition was opposed by the Public School Society, 
 Methodist and other Protestant ministers, <fec., and, after hear- 
 ing both sides at length and visiting the schools, the common 
 council denied the petition. The Roman Catholics next ap-
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 595 
 
 pealed to the legislature, obtained aid and encouragement from 
 Governor Win. H. Seward and Secretary of State John 0. 
 Spencer, and a bill in their favor passed the assembly, but was 
 lost in the senate. The Roman Catholics then, under the guid- 
 ance of bishop Hughes, nominated and voted for an indepen- 
 dent ticket at the ensuing election, and showed themselves so 
 strong politically that some modification of the school system 
 was soon made in that state. In the mean time the controversy 
 went on in New York city ; the Roman Catholics declared the 
 common schools to be sectarian, because the Protestant version 
 of the Bible was used in them ; the Protestants proposed that 
 only such passages of'the Bible should be read in the schools as 
 are translated in the same way in the English and Douay ver- 
 sions ; and also that the text-books used in the schools should 
 be submitted to the inspection of leading Roman Catholics, and 
 any offensive phrases discovered should be changed or struck 
 out. But these concessions were insufficient to satisfy the 
 Roman Catholic party. The common school system of the 
 state must be introduced into the city of New York. Accord- 
 ingly " ward schools " were established, and placed under the di- 
 rection of persons chosen by the people of their respective 
 wards, subject to such general regulations of the Board of Edu- 
 cation as would exclude sectarianism. The Public School 
 Society now proposed to the legislature to retire from the 
 scene, and, this being allowed, it transferred its schools and 
 property in 1853 to the corporation of the city to be managed 
 by the corporation's Board of Education, like the ward schools, 
 and was disbanded. The Bible and prayer and all direct re- 
 ligious teaching were withdrawn from the common schools ; and 
 then arose the new cry that the schools were " atheistical " or 
 " godless," and the new demand that Roman Catholic schools 
 and orphan asylums should have their share of all public school- 
 money according to the number of their pupils. This demand 
 has been so far complied with that the following sums have 
 been voted from the public treasury of the city of New York to 
 Roman Catholic schools, orphan asylums, <fec., since 1860 : in
 
 596 EDUCATIONAL POLICY Itf THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1861, $18,791.27 ; in 1862, $9,153.63 ; in 1863, $78,000 ; in 
 1864, $73,000 ; in 1865, $40,000 ; in 1865, $21,607.24 ; in 
 1867, $120,000 ; in 1868, $124,424.60 ; in 1869, $412,062.26 ; 
 and the total amount for these 9 years was $897,039. During 
 the same period (1861-9) the sum of $284,491.33 ($116,680.- 
 21 of it in 1869) was voted from the same treasury to all other 
 religious and charitable institutions, Protestant, Jewish, and 
 public. In the " tax-levy " law for the city, passed by the leg- 
 islature of New York May 12, 1869, the following section was 
 inserted and enacted with the rest : 
 
 " Sec. 10. Hereafter, an annual amount, equal to 20 per cent, on 
 the excise moneys, received for said city in 1868, to be distributed 
 Tinder the direction of an officer to be appointed for that purpose by 
 the Board of Education of said city (whose compensation shall be 
 paid from such amount), for the support of schools educating children 
 gratuitously in said city, who are not provided for in the common 
 schools thereof, excepting therefrom schools receiving contributions 
 for their support from the City Treasury." 
 
 This section, which provided for the annual distribution of 
 nearly $250,000 to sectarian schools nearly j of it to Roman 
 Catholic schools was, through the vigorous efforts of Prof. 
 Francis Lieber, LL.D., and of the Union League Club, and 
 on the petition of more than 100,000 voters, repealed by the 
 legislature April 24, 1870. 
 
 The famous Cincinnati controversy in 1869 had special 
 reference to the reading of the Bible in the public schools. 
 The reading of the Bible without note or comment was a daily 
 exercise in these schools from their first establishment 40 years 
 before ; and instruction in the elemental truths and principles 
 of religion was always given without any sectarian teaching 
 or interference with the rights of conscience. In 1842, at the 
 representation of bishop (now archbishop) Purcell, (1) that 
 the books used contained passages obnoxious to the Roman 
 Catholics, (2) that their children were required to read the 
 Protestant Testament and Bible, and (3) that the district
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 597 
 
 libraries contained objectionable works to which their children 
 had access without their parents' knowledge : the School- 
 Board of Cincinnati (1) invited bishop Purcell to point out 
 all that was obnoxious in the books used in the English and 
 German common schools, (2) resolved " that no pupil of the 
 common schools be required to read the Testament or Bible, 
 if its parents or guardians desire that it may be excused from 
 that exercise," and (3) that no child should take books from 
 the district libraries, except at the request of its parent or 
 guardian at the beginning of each session. It was stated in 
 1869, that the rule adopted in 1842 had long been inoperative 
 and had been for 25 years omitted from the standing rules of 
 the Board. " The Board of Trustees and Visitors of Common 
 Schools," as they were then called, adopted the following rule 
 in 1852 : 
 
 " The opening exercises in ever}' department shall commence by 
 reading a portion of the Bible by or under the direction of the teacher, 
 and appropriate singing by the pupils. The pupils of the common 
 schools may read such version of the Sacred Scriptures as their parents 
 or guardians may prefer, provided that such preference of any version, 
 except the one now in use, 1 be communicated by the parents and guar- 
 dians to the principal teachers, and that no notes or marginal readings 
 be allowed in the schools, or comments made by the teachers on the 
 text of any version that is or may be introduced." 
 
 The alleged use of sectarian or. obnoxious text-books is 
 mentioned in the school report in 1853. In the 33d report, 
 for the school year ending June 30, 1862, is thte following ut- 
 terance of the board : 
 
 " We are forced, very reluctantly, to notice intimations from an in- 
 fluential quarter, that the division of the school fund must and will be 
 again agitated and demanded. We should be relieved from any neces- 
 sity of reply as to this point by the fact that the Constitution of the 
 State imperatively prohibits the right or control of anv part of the 
 
 1 Namely, the English, or King James's version, published by the American 
 Bible Society, &c.
 
 698 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 school funds, by any religious or other sect. The threat is accom- 
 panied, however, by reproaches against our schools so groundless and 
 so easily refuted, that we need only state as facts that for 20 years our 
 standing request that any offensive exercises, or books, or passages in 
 books, used in our schools, be made known to us, has never been an- 
 swered ; that for nearly 10 years we have offered to supply teachers 
 and schools in every orphan asylum whatever having a sufficient num- 
 ber of children to warrant the employment of a teacher ; that we have 
 always carefully excused pupils whose parents desired it from attend- 
 ing the religious exercises with which our schools are daily opened, 
 and that, in order to encourage pupils to attend the religious teachings 
 which their parents prefer, we have expressly required that they shall 
 be excused from school one half day, or two quarter days each week. 
 It has also been suggested, and, doubtless, such an arrangement may 
 be effected, if sufficient numbers encourage it, that at the hours so 
 allowed children of different denominations of religion might receive 
 the instructions of the clergy in school-rooms temporarily set apart to 
 them." 
 
 The rule adopted by the Board in 1852, as noticed above, 
 remained in force till Nov. 1, 1869, when this body, now known 
 as " The Board of Education of Cincinnati," passed, by a vote 
 of 22 (besides the president of the board) to 14 (besides 1 
 absent member, who afterwards caused his vote to be recorded 
 with the minority), the following resolutions: 
 
 " Resolved, That religious instruction, and the reading of religious 
 books including the Holy Bible, are prohibited in the common schools 
 of Cincinnati, it being the true object and intent of this rule to allow 
 the chi'dren of the parents of all sects and opinions, in matters of faith 
 and worship, to enjoy alike the benefit of the common school fund. 
 
 " Resolved, That so much of the regulations on the course of study 
 and text books in the Intermediate and District Schools (page 213, 
 Annual Report), as reads as follows : ' The opening exercises in every 
 department shall commence by reading a portion of the Bible by or 
 under the direction of the teacher, and appropriate singing by the pu- 
 pils,' be repealed." 
 
 This action of the Board of Education was the direct occa--
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 599 
 
 sion of the suit of John D. Minor and others against tho 
 Board of Education of Cincinnati and others. An order re- 
 straining the promulgation and enforcement of said resolu- 
 tions was obtained Nov. 2, 1869. The case was brought to 
 trial before the Superior Court of Cincinnati, Nov. 30, 1869, 
 Judges Storer, Taft, and Hagans being on the bench : it was 
 ably argued by 6 lawyers, 3 on each side ; and on the 18th of 
 Feb., 1870, judgment was entered for the plaintiffs, the essen- 
 tial points in which are 
 
 " . . . . that the resolutions passed by the said Board of Education 
 on the 1st day of November, A.D. 1869, and which are set forth in the 
 petition, were passed without warrant or authority in law, and are in 
 violation of the provisions of the 7th section in the 1st article or the 
 Bill of Rights' in the Constitution of this State, and are an abuse of the 
 powers of said Board, and are, therefore, declared to be null and void. 
 .... It is therefore adjudged and ordered, that the restraining order 
 heretofore entered in this action be made perpetual, and .... all .... 
 are enjoined not to give or permit any force or effect to be given to 
 said resolutions in the common schools of said city . . . ." 
 
 Judge Taft, dissenting from the majority of the court, said : 
 
 " On the whole case, my conclusions are that the Board of Education 
 had the power to pass both the 1st and the 2d of these resolutions, and 
 whether expedient or inexpedient, this Court has no lawful authority 
 to restrain it from acting under either of them ; that, upon the plead- 
 
 1 This 7th section of the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of Ohio reads thus : 
 T " All m-jn have a natural and indefeasible right to worship Almighty God accord- 
 ing to the dictates of their own conscience. No person shall be compelled to at- 
 tend, erect or support any place of worship, or maintain any form of worship, 
 against his consent; and no preference shall be given, by law, to any religious 
 society : nor shall any interference with the rights of conscience be permitted. No 
 religious test shall be required as a qualification for office, nor shall any person be 
 incompetent to be a witness on account of his religious belief; but nothing hereiu 
 shall be construed to dispense with oaths and affirmations. Religion, morality, 
 and knowledge, however, being essential to good government, it shall be the dutj 
 of the General Assembly to pass suitable laws to protect every religious denomi- 
 nation in the peaceable enjoyment of its own mode of public worship, and to en- 
 courage schools and the means of instruction."
 
 600 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ings and the evidence in the case, the Board, in adopting the 1st of 
 these resolutions, acted with a justice and liberality warranted by the 
 Bill of Rights, and made necessary by the facts 1 ; and that, in adopting 
 the 2d, it performed a duty imposed upon it by the language and the 
 spirit of the Constitution of Ohio." 
 
 The motion for a new trial of this case was overruled by the 
 court ; and so the decision of the court practically restored the 
 reading of the Bible in the public schools of Cincinnati. 
 
 The General Statutes of Massachusetts read thus, Chap. 38, 
 Sect. 27: 
 
 " The school committee shall require the daily reading of some portion 
 of the Bible in the common English version ; but shall never direct any 
 school books calculated to favor the tenets of any particular sect of 
 Christians to be purchased or used in any of the town schools." 
 
 The first part of this section is, of course, distasteful to the 
 Roman Catholic authorities ; but the state law does not specify 
 whether the reading shall be by the teacher, or by one or more 
 of the scholars, or by both teacher and scholars. There was, 
 however, in 1859 an organized resistance to " the enforced use 
 of the Protestant version of the Bible," to " the enforced learn- 
 ing and reciting of the 10 commandments in their Protestant 
 form," and to " the enforced union in chanting the Lord's 
 prayer, and other religious chants," as these were then prac- 
 ticed in the Boston public schools ; and about 400 pupils were 
 for a time withdrawn or expelled from the schools ; but the 
 larger part soon returned and conformed to the rules. 
 
 i The defendants insisted that in passing these resolutions they discharged a 
 solemn dr.ty under the Constitution and laws of the State: a duty, which had be- 
 come urgent by reason of the great and discordant variety of religious faiths in the 
 city [Roman Catholic, Jewish, Protestant, infidel] ; that they had found it impos- 
 sible to provide religious instruction without offending the consciences of many ; 
 and that practically about to * of the children entitled to the benefit of tbo schools, 
 were excluded by the rules, as they stood before the resolutions were passed; that 
 the compulsory reading from the king James version of the Bible, with singing, as 
 an opening exercise in the schools, daily, is regarded as a form of worship, and is 
 a violation of the 2d sentence, as given above, in the 7th section of the Bill of Eights.
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATE3. 601 
 
 The Revised Statutes of Connecticut neither require nor for- 
 bid the reading of the Bible, prayer, and other religious exer- 
 cises ; and these are therefore left to be regulated by the school- 
 visitors or by the people of the various towns or school-districts. 
 In the city of New Haven the Roman Catholics have in an impor- 
 tant respect gained their object, the Hamilton school being sub- 
 stantially a Roman Catholic school supported at the public ex- 
 pense. The school election held on Monday, Sept. 16, 1867, 
 when 5 of the 9 members of the Board were chosen, 2 of them 
 to fill extraordinary vacancies, is thus spoken of in " The New 
 Englander " of the next month : 
 
 " An avowedly Roman Catholic ticket was elected by a majority of 
 70 votes. The day before the balloting 2 of the Roman Catholic pas- 
 tors of the city exhorted their parishioners to show their strength 
 against the ' Yankees' ; and in the 3d of the churches, the pastor being 
 absent, the Catholic ticket was distributed through the children of the 
 Sunday school. One of the priests is reported to have said that he had 
 been trying for years to secure public money for his parish school, and 
 now was the tune to demand it." 
 
 The subsequent steps are thus narrated in the Report of the 
 Board of Education for New Haven City District, for the year 
 ending Sept. 1, 1868, signed by Hon. Lucien W. Sperry, Presi- 
 dent: 
 
 ' r u Early in the year, Rev. Matthew Hart, in behalf of parents resid- 
 ing in the eastern part of the district, made application to the Board to 
 receive the pupils of St. Patrick's school (about 600 children) and in- 
 struct them as pupils of the public schools. The Board, after due con- 
 sideration, believing it to be their duty to provide for the instruction of 
 all children, residents of the School District, who make application, so 
 far as it is in their power, decided to comply with the request, if suita- 
 ble accommodations could be secured. The reply of the board was 
 communicated in the following resolutions. 
 
 " ' Whereas application has been made to this Board by Rev. Mat. 
 thew Hart, requesting it to provide for the education of scholars now in 
 St. Patrick's school and for other children La that neighborhood, now
 
 602 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 unprovided with seats in any school, and whereas this Board recog- 
 nizes the duty of furnishing to all suitable applicants the opportunities 
 for education in the public schools under its charge, and whereas it 
 has at this time no suitable building immediately available for the 
 purpose of a school in that part of the district, therefore 
 
 " ( Resolved, That the Board is ready to rent for temporary use the 
 building now occupied by St. Patrick's school, or any building eligible 
 for the purpose, and to commence and maintain therein a public school 
 for the children of that neighborhood on exactly the same basis as 
 all other schools under their charge. 
 
 " ' Resolved, That the committee on School Buildings be requested 
 to inquire and report to the Board, as to a controlling lease of one or 
 both the buildings now occupied by the St. Patrick's school, what al- 
 terations, if any, will be necessary to fit them for the use of a public 
 school, and the expenses attending the same ; said lease to commence 
 in time so that the rooms can be prepared for occupancy by the dis- 
 trict for the May term of 1868.' 
 
 " An agreement having been made for the rental of the building 
 previously occupied by the school, after a thorough reconstruction at 
 the expense of the owners, the school was opened under the charge 
 and instruction of 10 teachers *, who had been previously examined 
 by the Superintendent of Schools, and found fully qualified for their 
 duties. The studies and exercises were regulated, like all other schools 
 of the district, by ' time-tables,' containing a programme of recitations 
 covering the whole time of each school-day. Frequent visits have 
 been made by the Superintendent, members of the Board, citizens and 
 strangers from abroad ; and the results, thus far, are quite satisfactory ; 
 exhibiting regularity of attendance, good order and earnest attention 
 to duties, flighty commendable to teachers and pupils. In all, respects 
 the school has been conducted in the same manner, and governed by 
 the same rules as all other schools of the district." 
 
 It is proper to add to the above official statement, that the 
 " Hamilton School " is generally understood to be an exclu- 
 sively Roman Catholic school ; that the teachers are all Sisters 
 of Mercy, and, together with all the scholars, are under the 
 spiritual direction and control of the Roman Catholic bishop, 
 
 1 Afterwards increased to 11, all Sisters of Mercy. The school was reorgan- 
 ized and went into operation on Monday, Feb. 17, 1868 (see Chapter VIII.).
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 603 
 
 acting through the pastor of St. Patrick's church or other 
 subordinates, and securing for the pupils, by the opportunity 
 of imparting religious instruction freely to the school out of 
 school hours, a thoroughly Roman Catholic training ; that 
 under the head of " Parochial Schools," the Catholic Direc- 
 tory for 1870 has " St. Patrick's, New Haven Pupils 700, 
 under the charge of the Sisters of Mercy;" and the Catholic 
 Directory for 1871 has " St. Patrick's, New Haven Pupils 730, 
 under the charge of the Sisters of Mercy." In other words, 
 the " Hamilton School " is essentially a Roman Catholic paro- 
 chial school, complying with the letter of the school-law, and 
 supported at the public expense. 
 
 In New Britain, Ct., the Roman Catholic school was adopted 
 by the town, Nov. 12, 1862, and has since been known as" the 
 town school." It is supported by the town at an expense, for 
 the school-year ending Aug. 31, 1870, of over $8000. It has 
 a male principal (a graduate of the State Normal School) and 
 6 female teachers, all Roman Catholics, selected by the priest 
 or other authority, and approved by the school-visitors of the 
 town ; and 609 different scholars during the school-year, 540 
 in winter and 563 in summer. It comes under the same reg- 
 ulations generally as the other schools ; is in many respects 
 well conducted ; but is meant to be, and is, a thoroughly de- 
 nominational or sectarian school supported from the public 
 treasury. 
 
 In Waterbury, Ct., the parochial school, organized and con- 
 trolled by the pastor of the church of the Immaculate Concep- 
 tion (Rev. Thomas F. Hendricken, D.D.), was several years 
 ago taken under the care of the Board of Education, of which 
 Dr. Hendricken has usually been a member, with the under- 
 standing that it was to consist, as before, of Roman Catholic 
 children and teachers, and the opening and closing exercises 
 were to be distinctively Roman Catholic as they had been ; 
 but the school was to conform in all respects to the laws of 
 the District. This school is now called the " East Main St. 
 School," with 5 teachers supported at the public expense, but
 
 604 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 is as fully a Roman Catholic school as ever. Accordingly, the 
 Catholic Directory for 1870 and 1871 contains the following 
 under the head of " parochial schools " : 
 
 "Immaculate Conception, "Waterbury, Ct. Boys 200, under the 
 charge of lay teachers ; girls 175, under the direction of secular 
 teachers." 
 
 Besides the East Main St. school, some other public schools 
 in Waterbury are composed exclusively or mostly of Roman 
 Catholic children, and have Roman Catholic teachers who em- 
 ploy a Roman Catholic form of worship in the school ; while 
 in the other public schools with Protestant teachers, the Eng- 
 lish Bible is read in the opening exercises, though some of 
 these schools also have a majority of Roman Catholic pupils. 
 
 The Catholic Directory for 1870 says : " 14 public schools 
 in the city of Manchester, [N. H.,] are attended by 14 Sisters 
 of Mercy." 
 
 It is said that in 1853 the Roman Catholics demanded State 
 aid for their schools in 8 different States (Mass., N. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Md., Mich., 0., Cal.), and since that time the demand 
 has been repeated and will, of course, continue to be made. 
 In the exercises of exclusively Catholic schools it is believed 
 that the Bible is never read by or to the scholars ; but such 
 avowedly sectarian works as La Salle's " Treatise on the Duty 
 of a Christian towards God," and Collot's " Doctrinal and 
 Scriptural Catechism" (see Chapters XVIII., XIX.) are used 
 as class-books for reading or study. The exercises during 
 school-hours may be modified where these schools are adopted 
 as public schools, and come under the supervision of boards 
 of education and school-visitors ; but Roman Catholic schools 
 will be denominational schools, whether the religious instruc- 
 tion is given in or out of school-hours, and whether they are 
 supported by Roman Catholics only or from the public treas- 
 ury. The appropriation of public money to the support of 
 Roman Catholic schools is unjust to those citizens and tax- 
 payers who conscientiously believe that this system of religious 
 instruction and of religion is both wrong in itself and fraught
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 605 
 
 with the most injurious consequences both to individuals and 
 to the community ; it tends to foster and perpetuate religious 
 animosities and social jealousies and unneighborly strifes ; it 
 is such a union of church and state as is forbidden by the 
 whole spirit and tenor of our American institutions. 1 The 
 state must have laws to secure good order ; it may, for the 
 protection and security of its own life, put down vice, and both 
 promote and enforce morality ; but Protestants have political 
 and civil rights as well as Roman Catholics ; and the support 
 of Roman Catholic schools at the public expense is a violation 
 of those rights. 
 
 Let us now listen to an earnest advocate of the present 
 school-system, Rev. B. G. Northrop, Secretary of the Board 
 of Education for the State of Connecticut since January 1, 
 1867, and previously, from 1857 onward, agent of the Massa- 
 chusetts Board of Education. In his annual report dated 
 May, 1870, he speaks thus : 
 
 " Our school-system should be unsectarian. Its primary purpose is 
 intellectual training. In its practical workings it has always been es- 
 sentially secular, while its moral influence has been great and good. 
 The, Bible is generally read without objection in our schools. Much 
 as I value its influence and desire its continued use, I oppose coercion, 
 and advocate full religious freedom and equality. Wherever there is 
 opposition to this time-honored usage, I would permit the largest lib- 
 erty of dissent, and cheerfully allow parents to decide whether chil- 
 dren shall read or not read, or be present or absent when the Bible 
 is read. Roman Catholic children may read from the Douay version, 
 and the Jews from the Old Testament ; or still better, the teacher may 
 read a brief selection, or if it be preferred, let the Bible reading oc- 
 cur at the close of the session, after the objectors have retired. Com- 
 pulsory reading will defeat its own aim and induce resistance and 
 reaction. 
 
 Recent discussions and opposition have deepened and developed the 
 
 1 The 4th section of the Declaration of Rights, which constitutes Article I. of 
 the Constitution of Connecticut, reads thus : " No preference shall be given by 
 law to any Christian sect or mode of worship."
 
 606 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 devotion of the masses to our common schools. On no other question 
 do they so thoroughly fraternize without reference to distinctions of 
 race, religion or politics. The Irbh and Germans evince commend- 
 able interest in our schools. Said a parent to me : * I attended church- 
 Bchools without learning enough to tell O from a cart wheel. I mean 
 to give my children an education, for I have sadly felt the need of it. ' 
 At a late anniversary of one of the best high-schools in Connecticut, 
 the valedictorian was a Catholic Irish pupil. This honor was award- 
 ed her on the ground of scholarship, and for the last year the higher posi- 
 tion of assistant teacher in the same high-school has been worthily 
 filled by her. This is but one of the many illustrations of the fact that 
 the children of the rich and the poor sit side by side, forgetful of social 
 distinctions, and that the richest prizes of scholarship are often proudly 
 carried to the humblest home. 
 
 " Sectarian schools as a system for the masses have everywhere 
 failed. 24 years ago the Presbyterian church [Old School] attempted 
 to organize and support denominational schools throughout its 
 bounds. . . . The experiment utterly failed. The sects were too 
 numerous and unequal to permit denominational schools. The two 
 systems, common and sectarian schools, cannot coexist. . . . 
 
 " Our schools may be unsectarian and yet not irreligious. It is 
 poor logic which contends that unless they are positively religious, they 
 must be infidel or atheistic. Even if the Bible were not read at all, 
 it does not follow that our schools would be godless. Our teachers 
 are largely religious persons. By example as well as precept they 
 are seeking to implant the divine law of love in the hearts of their pu- 
 pils, that the fruits of honor, honesty, truth and right may appear in 
 their life. The habits of order, punctuality, self-control, and obedience 
 here formed are favorable to virtue 
 
 " But while purely intellectual culture is favorable to good morals, 
 it cannot furnish adequate security against vice and crime. There is 
 no necessary connection between knowledge and virtue. ... In ad- 
 dition to all the public school can effect, the combined influences of the 
 family, the Sabbath school and the Church are needed to educate the 
 conscience For its fullest development and efficiency, the in- 
 tellect needs the aid of the conscience, and the highest achievements 
 of the mind will not be effected, when the soul is dark and debased. 
 Moral culture has a tendency both to awaken and sustain mental activ-
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 607 
 
 ity, while moral degeneracy induces a dimness of intellectual vision 
 and sometimes a perfect palsy of the mental powers." 
 
 A distinctively Protestant view of the Roman Catholic pro- 
 cedure on this subject is thus given by Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, 
 in an article first published in " The Christian Union " 
 in 1870 : 
 
 " It is no secret that the Roman Catholic Church is utterly and ir- 
 revocably opposed to our common-school system. We do not blame 
 them for that. They have a perfect right to provide a better way. 
 We only insist that they shall present their substitute openly, so that 
 there can be no mistaking the issue. Then we shall be quite content 
 to leave the result to the verdict of the American people. 
 
 " No doubt they honestly desire to do thn. We expect to deserve 
 their thanks for assisting them to set their plan fairly before the peo- 
 ple. 
 
 " For as yet modesty has prevented the ecclesiastical leaders from 
 
 unfolding it. Or they wait for 'a more convenient season.' They 
 do themselves and the people injustice. Their plan, which now for 
 some time they have been discu-sing in secret conclave, is so admira- 
 ble that it will take time thoroughly to understand its character and 
 appreciate its merits. We are not sworn to secrecy, and we speak 
 what we do know. 
 
 " The plan, then, which is now under consideration, and which awaits 
 only some perfecting of details before it is officially promulgated, is this. 
 It will be proposed that any private association may open a public 
 school. Its doors shall be thrown open to the public. There shall be 
 no conditions of admission other than those which the Board of Educa- 
 tion may prescribe. Its teachers shall all be subject to the examination of 
 the Board, and shall receive their certificates from it. The schools 
 shall be at all times open to its visitation, and subject, within reasona- 
 ble bounds, to such regulations as it may enact. In the school-hours 
 proper, there shall be no religious teaching. But when the session is 
 ended, the teachers may employ additional hours in giving such relig- 
 ious instruction as they see fit. Attendance on these extra hours shall 
 not however be compulsory. Scholars may attend or not, at the option 
 of their parents. Such schools, thus established, may draw from the 
 school-fund an amount in proportion to the number of scholars in actual
 
 608 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 attendance. Such, in its substantial features, is the plan at no distant 
 day to be proposed as a compromise between the contending parties. 
 
 " The advantages of this scheme are manifest. It will involve the 
 state in no additional expenditure. It will indeed save something, for 
 the association will provide the rooms and the text books. Secular 
 instruction will be furnished at the expense of the State. It will be 
 furnished under the direction of the State. At the same time an oppor- 
 tunity will be afforded to the Church to instruct its own children in re- 
 ligious truth. Thus religious and secular instruction will go hand in 
 hand. Protestantism and Romanism will live in peace. The lion and 
 the lamb will lie down together, and a little child shall lead them. 
 
 " These advantages are so manifest that it is no wonder that the 
 cooperation of some of the more unprejudiced Protestants is confident- 
 ly counted on. 
 
 " But there are also some other advantages in this plan which are 
 not so manifest to the public. These advantages have been carefully 
 considered in the secret councils of the holy Fathers. They must par- 
 don us if, despite their modesty, we reveal these advantages also. 
 
 " The Roman Catholic church is served by a self-denying band of 
 unmarried ' brothers and sisters.' "Who more appropriate to under- 
 take the education of the children of the Church? It is intended to as- 
 sign these ' brothers and sisters' to the work of popular education. 
 They are men and women of unquestionable culture. They will easily 
 pass the examination of the Boards of Education. In many, if not 
 most of the local Boards of New York city, the majority is already 
 Roman Catholic. These Boards will not be hard on the servants of 
 their own Divine Mistress their Mother Church. If now and then a 
 candidate fails to pass examination, the Church, which is preeminent 
 in the virtue of meekness, will know how gracefully to yield. Another 
 ' sister ' will be easily provided. These ' brothers and sisters ' have 
 already with commendable zeal consecrated their all to the Church. 
 Their salaries will not be their own. Unmarried, they have neither 
 wives nor children to support. They live in the ' homes ' which the 
 Church provides for them. The money which the State pays to them 
 they will hand over to the Church. This money the Church purposes 
 to employ religiously in the work of education. The salaries paid to 
 Protestant teachers will barely support them. There will be no sur- 
 plus among the Protestants to expend in school-rooms and school-appa-
 
 EDUCATIONAL POLICT IN THE UNITED STATES. 609 
 
 ratus. The Roman Catholic school-house will rival, in its adaptation 
 to the ends of the Church, the Roman Catholic cathedral. That great 
 class who are only Protestants because they are not Roman Catholics, 
 will be gathered into these schools. In a few years the State will be 
 supporting with its funds the Roman Catholic Church, to educate in its 
 creed the children of the Republic. 
 
 " This is the plan ; these are advantages, as they are seen by Roman 
 Catholic eyes. Can it be possible that Protestants will decline the 
 feast thus skillfully prepared for them ? Could anything do more to 
 prove the singular perversity of the Protestant community than the re- 
 fusal to give its educational interests into the hands of that power, 
 whose educational efforts have been so brilliantly successful in France, 
 in Italy, in Spain, and in the South American Republics ? [See Ch. 
 XXV.] 
 
 " We beg our Roman Catholic brethren to unfold this plan, which 
 they have done themselves the injustice to discuss only in secret. The 
 American people need only to understand it thoroughly to appreciate 
 it We beg leave to assure the holy Fathers of our cordial coopera- 
 tion in making their benign purpose fully understood."
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 RELATION OP THE SYSTEM TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND 
 PROSPERITY. 
 
 The general intelligence and prosperity of a people are closely- 
 connected with the diffusion of knowledge among them by 
 means of schools and books and newspapers. 
 
 That the system of public schools which prevails in our 
 Northern States is of Protestant origin is thus conceded by 
 The Catholic World" in its number for April, 1870 : 
 
 " . . . . It is to the credit of the American people that they have,- 
 at least the Calvinistic portion of them, from the earliest colonial times, 
 taken a deep interest in the education of the young. The American 
 Congregationalists and Presbyterians, who were the only original set- 
 tlers of the eastern and middle colonies, have from the first taken the 
 lead in education, and founded, sustained, and conducted most of our 
 institutions of learning. . . . Indeed, it is hardly too much to say that 
 our present system of common schools at the public expense owes its 
 origin to Congregationalists and the influence they have exerted. . . . 
 The system originated in New England, strictly speaking, in Massa- 
 chusetts. ..." 
 
 Americans commonly regard the general diffusion of educa- 
 tion and knowledge among the people as a positive blessing of 
 our land ; but let us hear " The Catholic World " for April, 
 1871: 
 
 " Education is the American hobby regarded, as uneducated or 
 poorly educated people usually regard it, as a sort of panacea for all the 
 ills that flesh is heir to. We ourselves, as Catholics, are as decidedly as
 
 RELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 611 
 
 any other class of American citizens in favor of universal education, 
 as thorough and extensive as possible if its quality suits us. We do 
 not, indeed, prize so highly as some of our countrymen appear to do the 
 simple ability to read, write, and cipher. . . . Some men are born to be 
 leaders, and the rest are born to be led. . . . The best ordered and ad- 
 ministered state is that in which the few are well educated and lead, 
 and the many are trained to obedience, are willing to be directed, con- 
 tent to follow, and do not aspire to be leaders. ... In extending edu- 
 cation and endeavoring to train all to be leaders, we have only extend- 
 ed presumption, pretension, conceit, indocility, and brought incapacity to 
 the surface. . . . We believe the peasantry in old Catholic countries, 
 two centuries ago, were better educated, although for the most part 
 unable to read or write, than are the great body of the American peo- 
 ple to-day. They had faith, they had morality, they had a sense of re- 
 ligion, they were instructed in the great principles and essential truths 
 of the Gospel, were trained to be wise unto salvation, and they had the 
 virtues without which wise, stable, and efficient government is imprac- 
 ticable. 1 We hear it said, or rather read in the journals, that the superi- 
 ority the Prussian troops have shown to the French is due to their supe- 
 rior education. We do not believe a word of it We have seen no 
 evidence that the French common soldiers are not as well educated and 
 as intelligent as the Prussian. 1 The superiority is due to the fact that 
 
 1 This will seem to Protestants the embodiment of two proverbs, neither of which 
 is in very good repute : 1. " Where ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise." 2. 
 " Ignorance is the mother of devotion." 
 
 * No fact is better established than that the Prussian system of public education 
 is the most efficient to be found on the continent of Europe. Attendance at school 
 from the age of 6 to 14 is enforced by law. The present system of public 
 schools in France for primary education is especially due to the Protestant Guizot, 
 who was minister of public instruction at the time, and was instituted by law June 
 28, 1833. Since that time the gross ignorance which formerly prevailed among the 
 community has to a great extent disappeared, for in 1863 there were 116 pupils for 
 every 1000 inhabitants ; but in Prussia about that time (1864) nearly 154 in every 
 1000 were in the primary schools. The French minister of war reported in 1866 
 that 30 per cent, of the conscripts were unable to read. Of the Prussian recruits in 
 1864-5, there were 75 percent. " satisfactorily instructed," which can not mean less 
 than able to read and write. It is further stated, that the French Catholics " rarely 
 visit school after 11 or 12 years of age, Protestants commonly remaining until 
 about 16." France is distinctively and overwhelmingly Catholic, while Prussia it 
 well known to be Protestant
 
 612 RELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 
 
 the Prussian officers were better educated in their profession, were less 
 overweening in their confidence of victory, and maintained better and se- 
 verer discipline in their armies, than the French officers. The Northern 
 armies in our recent civil war had no advantage in the superior educa- 
 tion of the rank and file over the Southern armies, where both were 
 equally well officered and commanded. 1 .... Good officers, with an 
 able general at their head, can make an efficient army out of almost any 
 materials. 2 .... For the great mass of the people, the education needed 
 is not secular education, which simply sharpens the intellect, and gen- 
 erates pride and presumption, but moral and religious education, which 
 trains up children in the way they should go, which teaches them to be 
 honest and loyal, modest and unpretending, docile and respectful to their 
 superiors, open and ingenuous, obedient and submissive to rightful au- 
 thority, parental or conjugal, civil or ecclesiastical ; to know and keep 
 the commandments of God and the precepts of the church ; and to 
 place the salvation of the soul before all else in life. This sort of edu- 
 cation can be given only by the church or under her direction and con- 
 trol : and as there is for us Catholics only one church, there is and can 
 be no proper education for us not given by or under the direction and 
 control of the Catholic church. . . . 
 
 Orestes A. Brownson, LL.D., has been a leading champion 
 of the Roman Catholic church since he joined it in 1844. 
 " Brownson's Quarterly Review " ably defended the Roman 
 Catholic doctrine for about 20 years from 1844 onward, was 
 indorsed by all the bishops, and was regularly republished in 
 London. In the number for January, 1862, it spoke thus on 
 the quality of the Roman Catholic schools and colleges : 
 
 " . . . . They practically fail to recognize human progress. . . . As 
 far as we are able to trace the effect of the most approved Catholic 
 
 1 Candid and judicious persons, who are acquainted with the facts, will certainly 
 deny the truth of this assertion, and regard it as utterly rash and reckless. 
 
 2 Undoubtedly ; but would it not be more difficult to make an efficient army out 
 of ignorant and prejudiced Hindoos and Hottentots than out of intelligent Euro- 
 peans or Americans ? And, other things being equal, is not a well-officered and 
 ably-commanded army of intelligent Europeans or Americans more efficient and 
 formidable than a like army of ignorant Hindoos or Hottentots or Indians t If 
 so, then intelligence is worth something, and the proverb is true that " knowledge 
 is power."
 
 I 
 RELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 613 
 
 education of our day, whether at home or abroad, it tends to repress 
 rather than quicken the life of the pupil, to unfit rather than prepare 
 him for the active and zealous discharge either of his religious or his 
 social duties. They who are educated in our schools seem misplaced 
 and mistimed in the world, as it born and educated for a world that 
 has ceased to exist. . . . Comparatively few ot them [Cathoh'c gradu- 
 ates] take their stand as scholars or as men, on a level with the Catholics 
 of non- Catholic colleges, and those who do take that stand do it by 
 throwing aside nearly all they learned from their Alma Mater, and 
 adopting the ideas and principles, the modes of thought and 
 action they find in the general civilization of the country in which they 
 live. . . . The cause of the failure of what we call Catholic education is, 
 in our judgment, in the fact that we educate not for the present or the 
 future, but for the past. . . . We do not mean that the dogmas are not 
 scrupulously taught in all our schools and colleges, nor that the words 
 of the Catechism are not duly insisted upon. We concede this, and that 
 gives to our so-called Catholic schools a merit which no others have or 
 can have. . . . There can be no question that what passes for Cathoh'c 
 education in this or any other country, has its ideal of perfection in the 
 past, and that it resists as un-Catholic, irreligious and opposed to God, 
 the tendencies of modern civilization. . . . The work it gives its sub- 
 jects or prepares them to perform is not the work of carrying it for- 
 ward, but that of resisting it, driving it back, anathematizing it as at 
 war with the Gospel, and either of neglecting it altogether or taking 
 refuge in the cloister, in an exclusive or exaggerated asceticism, always 
 bordering on immorality, or of restoring a former order of civiliza- 
 tion, no longer a living order, and which humanity has evidently left 
 behind and is resolved shall never be restored . . . . " 
 
 The Protestant view of this matter is thus expressed by the 
 " Evangelical Messenger," published at Cleveland, 0. : 
 
 " . . . . Where Catholicism has its own way, it keeps the people in 
 the darkness of ignorance. They have no free schools in Spain, nor 
 Italy, nor in the Central and Southern American States. In fact, the 
 rule is, that Catholicism and general intelligence exist together in in- 
 verse proportions. Where Catholicism has full sway, where Protestan-
 
 614 EELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 
 
 tism does not exist to dispute its supremacy, there the Catholic church 
 refuses to educate the masses at all. But when Protestantism exists, 
 there it sets itself to work to educate, and demands the exclusive right 
 to educate demands that the State itself has no right to educate at all, 
 that the Church alone is intrusted with the matter of instructing the 
 people, and that the people or government have no business with it. 
 
 In Italy the priests and monks have long been numerous, 
 and had the control of popular education up to 1860 (see Chap- 
 ters I., III., VIII., IX.) ; but the schools were few and in- 
 efficient ; " the vast majority of the inhabitants were left to 
 grow up in brutish ignorance," and " were taught that it was 
 part of religion not to think." Rev. Dr. Wylie, in his " Awak- 
 ening of Italy," gives the following statistics from the tables 
 published in 1864 at Turin by Signer C. Manteucci, ex-minister 
 of public instruction, and compiled from the most authentic 
 sources. The census of 1862 is the basis of comparison. 
 
 ". . . . Of every thousand males in the old provinces [= Sardinia] 
 and Lombardy, 539 were, more or less, able to read, and 461 did not 
 know their letters. Of every thousand females, 426 could read, 574 
 could not. That is, throughout the whole population, about half were 
 able to read. 
 
 " In Emilia, Tuscany, the Marches, and Umbria, of every thousand 
 males, 359 could read, leaving 641 who could not. Of every thousand 
 females, 250 could read, 750 could not. A little over only of the 
 whole population in these provinces could read. 
 
 " In Naples and Sicily, of every thousand males, 165 were able to 
 read, 835 could not. Of every thousand females, 62 could read, 038 
 could not. That is, in every hundred of the population in these Nea- 
 politan provinces, about 10 only were able to read. ..." 
 
 Since 1858 the Italian government has been earnestly endeav- 
 oring to establish elementary schools in all the communes of the 
 land ; and in 1862 schools existed in 7290 out of 7721 communes 
 in the Italian kingdom. There were then 21,352 schools (926 
 upper and 12,565 lower schools for boys ; 270 upper and 7,592
 
 RELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 615 
 
 lower schools for girls) for all Italy ; and there were in them 
 801,202 of the 2,345,093 children between 5 and 10 years of 
 age. The ratio of pupils to inhabitants was in the old prov- 
 inces and Lombardy, 1 pupil for every 13 inhabitants ; in the 
 central region, 1 for 42 ; in Naples and Sicily, 1 for 73 ; in the 
 whole kingdom, 1 for 26.* The Italians have begun to appre- 
 ciate the advantages of education, and to avail themselves of 
 them, especially in the northern parts of the kingdom. 
 
 But with all the improvement manifest, the census of 1864 
 gave only 3,884,245 in Italy who could read and write. As 
 the whole population was then 21,703,710, this makes nearly 
 179 in every 1000 able to read and write, leaving 821, or con- 
 siderably more than I of the population, unable to read and 
 write. 
 
 In regard to Spain, we have a most intelligent and compe- 
 tent American witness, Henry C. Kingsley, Esq., who was in 
 Spain in 1868-9, while the revolution which dethroned queen 
 Isabella was in progress, and writes thus : 
 
 " . . . . For 300 years the Spaniards have been oppressed by the 
 church and the State. The monarchs have amassed wealth, the Epis- 
 copal sees are among the richest in Europe, while the people are im- 
 poverished. With no incentive to labor, with no stimulus to exertion, 
 the Spaniards are indolent The cities and large towns are full of beg- 
 gars. From the best information we can obtain, in the absence of re- 
 liable statistics, we believe that at least 75 per cent of the people of 
 Spain cannot read or write. "We have ourselves seen, since the revo- 
 lution, in several of the large cities, groups of men standing orsitting 
 around some reader of the publications of the day, showing both their 
 inability to read themselves and their interest in the questions discussed. 
 The Spaniards are naturally quick of observation and comprehension, 
 but the lack of ability to read in so large a proportion: of the population 
 is a serious drawback to their progress. ..." 
 
 *The ratio of pupils in all the schools of Connecticut to all'the inhabitants of the 
 State in the year ending Aug. 31, J869, was about.21^to>eYery 1000,. or more than. 
 1 for 5.
 
 616 RELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 
 
 Of Switzerland, the population of which is partly Protestant 
 and partly Roman Catholic, the Penny Cyclopedia thus speaks 
 in 1842 : 
 
 * The Protestant cantons, and even those districts of mixed cantons 
 which are inhabited by Protestants, are, generally speaking, more in- 
 dustrious, more refined, more advanced in instruction than their Roman 
 Catholic neighbors. This is an old distinction which still exists : it has 
 been repeatedly noticed by foreign as well as native writers ; for what- 
 ever may be the cause or causes of it, the fact is undeniable, and it at- 
 tracts the notice even of the passing traveler. It cannot be merely owing 
 to the difference of soil and climate, as Freyburg is as much favored by 
 nature as its neighbors Bern and Vaud, and yet the contrast is striking 
 in crossing the borders. Franscini, of the canton of Ticino, himself a 
 Roman Catholic and a priest, admits the fact [in his statistics of Swit- 
 zerland]; and he attributes it to various causes : (1.) The much great- 
 er number of clerical persons who are supported by the people in the 
 Roman Catholic cantons. . . (2.) The numerous convents, about 60 
 in all, several of which have large landed property, which, according 
 to Franscini and Leresche, is ill administered and ill cultivated. . . . 
 (3.) Education is, according to Franscini's statement, more neglected 
 by the Roman Catholics than by the Protestants, especially in those 
 branches which are connected with commerce and industry. (4.) The Ro- 
 man Catholics spend much money in building and ornamenting churches, 
 having several altars or chapels in each of them, and a quantity of cost- 
 ly utensils, clerical dress, and appendages and votive offerings. Many 
 of them also pay for dispensation from fasting during Lent, &c. (5.) 
 The Roman Catholics spend much time in church ; many of them at* 
 tend mass or vespers, or some other service every day : there are also 
 processions, pilgrimages, and other practices, which, though not express- 
 ly commanded by their religion, are recommended as meritorious. 
 (6.) The Protestants abstain from work only on Sundays, but the 
 Roman Catholics have between 20 and 25 other holidays in the course 
 of the year, during which, not only do they not work, but their cattle 
 and their mills remain inactive. Franscini, by multiplying these holi- 
 days by the number of persons able to work, calculates the total loss at 
 about 8 million days of labor in the year. At the same time these un- 
 producth e days occasion an additional expenditure, or rather waste, in 
 eating and drinking ; so that the loss becomes double. ..."
 
 RELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 617 
 
 Ireland has long been a Roman Catholic stronghold, the 
 Protestant population being almost confined to Ulster (the nor- 
 thern province) and to parts of Leinster (which includes Dub- 
 lin). It is well known that Ireland suffered terribly in the fam- 
 ine of 1847, when the potato crop failed, and about 1,000,000 
 died that its population decreased by death and emigration 
 from 8,175,124 in 1841 to 6,515,794 in 1851 that the number 
 of dwellings decreased in the same time from 1,384,360 to 1,115, 
 007 nearly 270,000 being thus swept away in those 10 years. 
 But the causes of this terrible calamity reach further back. In 
 1841 more than of all the dwellings in Ireland were built of 
 mud ; nearly of all the families in the land lived in dwellings 
 of but one apartment each ; f of them lived by manual labor 
 and subsisted on potatoes ; nearly were out of work and in 
 distress 30 weeks in the year ; not less than were either pau- 
 pers or on the verge of pauperism. Ireland was impoverished be- 
 fore the famine ; and this completed the prostration. The most 
 enterprising and hardy of the yeomanry had been for years mi- 
 grating across the Atlantic to America ; and now there are 
 more Irish in America than in Ireland itself. But to the gen-< 
 eral wretchedness of Ireland, in 1847 as well as before and 
 since that time, there has been one remarkable exception. The 
 Protestant province of Ulster has prospered while the rest de- 
 clined, and scarcely knew the scenes of horror which were so 
 common in the Catholic provinces during the famine. The 
 intelligence and thrift of Protestant Ulster are in strong con- 
 trast with the ignorance and discomfort of Roman Catholic 
 Munster and Connaught. 
 
 The following statistics were taken from the New York Ob- 
 server in 1869 : 
 
 " In the Protestant countries of Great Britain and Prussia, where 20 
 can read and write, there are but 13 in the Roman Catholic countries 
 of France and Austria. In European countries, 1 in every 10 are in 
 schools in the Protestant countries, and but 1 in 124 in the Roman 
 Catholic. In 6 leading Protestant countries in Europe, 1 newspaper 
 or magazine is published to every 315 inhabitants; while in 6 Roman,
 
 618 GELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 
 
 Catholic there is but 1 to every 2715. The value of what is produced 
 each year by industry in Spain is $6 to each inhabitant ; in France, 
 $7^; Prussia, $8 ; and in Great Britain, $31. There are about ^ more 
 paupers in the Roman Catholic countries of Europe than in the Prot- 
 estant. . . ." 
 
 Similar statements and statistics may be multiplied. France 
 and Prussia are compared in the note on p. 611. It was esti- 
 mated in 1850, that at least of the 20,000,000 of people in 
 Spanish America (Mexico, Cuba, Central America, the N. and 
 W. parts of South America, <fec.,) were unable to read, while the 
 ignorance of the priests was proverbial. Since that time pro- 
 gress in intelligence and general prosperity has been made in 
 some of the Spanish American states as well as in Brazil ; but 
 they are all still far behind Protestant countries. Canada 
 owes its progress in intelligence, thrift, and enterprise mainly 
 to its Protestant population; and the same may be said of 
 Nova Scotia, and other American countries of mixed population. 
 California Avas taken possession of long ago by Roman Catholic 
 missionaries (see Chapter X.) ; but it never prospered till it 
 became a part of the United States of America. That the 
 Roman Catholics in this country are far more intelligent and 
 prosperous than in Italy or Spain or Ireland will probably be 
 readily admitted ; but it must be something besides Roman Ca- 
 tholicism that makes this difference. Roman Catholic newspa- 
 pers are a necessity in this country ; for it would not answer to 
 let Protestants fill the whole field with their newspapers which 
 are proscribed by the authority of the infallible Church. 
 
 Rev. Hiram Mattison, D.D., prepared in the fall of 1868 
 with careful labor and research a pamphlet on " Romanism," 
 from which the following statistics are taken : 
 
 In 1855 the Roman Catholics had 21 periodicals in the United 
 States, including Brownson's Quarterly Review, 1 monthly, and 19 
 weeklies, 4 of the weeklies being in German, and 1 (the Southern 
 Journal) published at New Orleans every Sunday morning. Brown- 
 fion's Quarterly, the Southern Journal, and 10 others of their period- 
 icals were subsequently discontinued. In 1868 they had 33 period- 
 icals, 5 of them monthly, 2 semi-monthly, and 26 weekly, 11 ( of the
 
 BELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 619 
 
 whole) in German, 1 in French, and 21 in English. The following 
 is the complete list : 
 
 The Pilot, Boston, Mass. 
 
 New York Tablet, New York. 
 
 Freeman's Journal, " 
 
 Catholic World (monthly), New York. 
 
 Alto und Neue Welt (illustrated, month- 
 ly), New York. 
 
 Katholisches Hausbnch, New York. 
 
 Katholische Kirchen-Zeitung, " 
 
 Catholic Chronicle, Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Central-Zeitung, Buffalo, " 
 
 Aurora (German), " * 
 
 Universe, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Catholic Standard, Philadelphia, Pa, 
 
 Guardian Angel (S. S. Monthly ), Phil- 
 adelphia, Pa. 
 
 Pittsburg Catholic, Pittsbnrg, Pa, 
 
 Catholic Mirror, Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Katholische Volks-Zeitung, Baltimore, 
 Md. 
 
 Messenger of the Sacred Heart of Jesus 
 (monthly), Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Charleston Gazette, Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Banner of the South, Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 Morning Star, New Orleans, La. 
 
 Le Propagateur Catholique, New Or- 
 leans, La 
 
 Catholic Guardian, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Hcrold des Glaubens, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Katholischer Glaubensbote, Louisville, 
 Ky. 
 
 Catholic Telegraph, Cincinnati, O. 
 
 Wahrheits-frennd, " " 
 
 Ave Maria (monthly), Notre Dame, Ind. 
 
 Katholischer Wochenblatt, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Young Catholic's Guide (S. S.), Chi- 
 cago, m. 
 
 Sunday School Messenger (small), Chi- 
 cago, HI. 
 
 Der Wanderer, St. Paul, Min. 
 
 Northwestern Chronicle, St Paul, Min. 
 
 Catholic Monitor, San Francisco, Cali- 
 fornia. 1 
 
 u The Catholic World is large and ably edited ; 3 and the Pilot, 
 
 1 "The Catholic World" for Dec., 1870, mentions 3 additional magazines, viz.: 
 " Annals of the Propagation of the Faith ; " " De La Salle Monthly," published 
 by an association of young men in New York; and the " Owl," edited by the boys 
 of Santa Clara College, California. It adds, " There are no Catholic reviews. We 
 had an admirable one, but we let it die for lack of subscribers." Of Roman Cath- 
 olic newspapers, it says, " They are few in number and weak in circulation. . . . 
 With the exception of the ' Pilot,' which probably owes its prosperity more to its 
 national [Irish ?] than its religious character, we do not believe there is a Catholic 
 paper in the United States with over 10,000 paying subscribers, and very few 
 of them have even half that number." " Saint Peter " is the title of a Roman 
 Catholic journal recently started in New York ; " The Catholic Record " is a new 
 magazine of Philadelphia ; and there are probably a few others not here mentioned. 
 
 2 " The Catholic World " of Dec., 1870, declares itself " more successful than 
 any former Catholic magazine in America, . . . generally recognized, within and 
 without the Church, as the leading organ of Catholic thought, and the leading 
 exponent of Catholic sentiment, ... and furthermore cheered by the blessing of 
 the Holy See, and the cordial approval and assistance of the bishops and clergy of 
 the United States." Its subscription-list is " large enough to pay all the expenses 
 of manufacture and leave a considerable sum for the payment of contributors; "
 
 620 RELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 
 
 Freeman's Journal, Tablet, Universe, and Telegraph are also ably 
 edited ; but their circulation is limited compared with that of our 
 
 ablest Protestant Journals In the number of their periodicals 
 
 the Romanists about equal the Methodists and Baptists 1 respectively, 
 and yet, from the limited circulation which many of their issues have, 
 it is not probable that they circulate over ^ as many papers as either 
 the Methodists or Baptists. They have 11^ per cent, of the religious 
 periodicals, and may possibly circulate 10 per cent, of the religious 
 periodical literature of the country." 2 
 
 Dr. Mattison enumerates " 18 3 Catholic bookstores in the 
 United States," of which 3 are in Boston, 6 (including " The 
 Catholic Publication Society ") in New York, 2 in Philadelphia, 
 3 in Baltimore, and 1 each in Albany, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and 
 Chicago. Some of these firms publish extensively. 4 " The Cath- 
 olic Publication Society," instituted by the Paulists under 
 Eev. I. T. Hecker in 1865 (see Chapter VIII.), publishes " The 
 Catholic "World," " The Catholic Family Almanac," Sunday- 
 school books, Prayer-books, and other Religious books, Tracts, 
 &c. Its tracts and other cheap publications are sold at cost, 
 or less,* and extensively circulated both at the East and the 
 
 yet " such periodicals as ' Harper's Monthly ' count ten purchasers for every one 
 of ours." 
 
 1 Dr. Mattison, who speaks thus, reckons 32 Methodist periodicals, 36 Baptist, 
 and 277 (in 1860) of all denominations. 
 
 3 "The Catholic World" of Dec., 1870, speaking of the thousands of pupils 
 graduated every year from Roman Catholic colleges and from high-class seminaries 
 for young women, asks,"Why is it that this great army of young educated Catholics 
 has yet done nothing to foster Catholic literature ? " and continues, " The writers 
 of even moderate note who have been trained by our own seminaries, can be 
 counted on the fingers of one hand ; the readers well, sometimes it seems to us 
 hardly an exaggeration to say that there are none." 
 
 8 This number should probably be doubled for 1871. 
 
 * "The Catholic World" for Dec., 1870, speaks thus of Roman Catholic liter- 
 ature and its circulation : " The clergy are liberal purchasers of books ; of contro- 
 versial volumes a certain number can generally be disposed of to Protestants ; but 
 
 Catholic laymen hardly look at the literature of their own denomination 
 
 All Catholic publishers who have made money in the business have made it by the 
 sale of prayer-books and school-books. . ." 
 
 6 The Catholic World says the Society's " tracts are sold at about 12 per cent, 
 less than the cost of manufacture ; " and " the price of [the society's] volumes has 
 always been below the standards of Protestant houses."
 
 RELATION TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. 621 
 
 West. Dr. Mattison concludes that all the Roman Catholic 
 publications in the United States, including periodicals, books, 
 and tracts, will not half equal those of the Methodist Episcopal 
 church ' ; that in books and tracts the Roman Catholics fall 
 behind the Presbyterian Boards of Publication, the American 
 Tract Society, and other Protestant institutions ; that the 
 Roman Catholics probably do not issue more than 5 per cent, 
 of the whole amount published in this country by all the pub- 
 lishing houses (private, denominational, <fec.) ; yet, as they 
 issue few publications that are not intensely Catholic whether 
 newspapers, school-readers, or any thing else the sectarian 
 influence of their press is greater in proportion to the number 
 of books, &c., printed than is that of the Protestant press 
 which issues so much that has no denominational or Protestant 
 bearing whatever. 
 
 This much may be said by the Protestant, that Roman Cath- 
 olicism has never, of itself, made or tended to make the mass 
 of the people intelligent or prosperous ; and that every fair 
 comparison which is instituted between Romanism and Prot- 
 estantism in respect to schools, school-systems, general intel- 
 ligence, and general prosperity, gives a result unfavorable to 
 the Roman Catholic church, as might be expected from its 
 do'ctrines of infallibility and its repression of private judg- 
 ment and of individual liberty and enterprise. 
 
 1 The various Methodist Book-concerns alone publish some 2000 different vol- 
 umes.
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 
 
 No intelligent and candid Protestant will deny either that 
 there have been many excellent persons in connection with the 
 Roman Catholic church, or that there may be and are now 
 many good Christians who are regarded both by themselves 
 and others as true Roman Catholics. In an article published 
 in " The Christian World " of August, 1869, Rev. Wm. H. 
 Goodrich, D.D., a leading Presbyterian pastor in Cleveland, 
 0., says : 
 
 "... Individual Romanists are often Christians. . . Especially 
 among the lowly and simple-hearted, there are those to whom God has 
 revealed himself through all the veils of form which man has inter- 
 posed Nor would we question that among the priesthood of 
 
 Rome, especially in Germany, France, and our own country, there are 
 individual men devoutly consecrated to Christ, who accept the admix- 
 tures of evil in that Church as a necessity which they deplore, and 
 who hope, especially in this land, to see their Church at last purged of 
 these admixtures and made pure and evangelical. . . ." 
 
 But the admission that the Roman Catholic Church not 
 only possesses the faith once delivered to the saints, but em- 
 braces in it many real Christians, is perfectly consistent with 
 the view of Dr. Goodrich and Protestants generally that this 
 same church, which its adherents denominate the " Holy Ro- 
 man Church," is fundamentally corrupt, and that its system 
 of faith and practice is essentially and inherently hostile to 
 good morals. 
 
 Says the pastoral letter of the 2d plenary council of Balti'
 
 MORAL INFLUENCE OF THE SYSTEM, 
 
 more to the Roman Catholic clergy and laity of this country 
 in 1866 : 
 
 " It is a melancholy fact, and a very humiliating avowal for us to 
 make, that a very large proportion of the idle and vicious youth of 
 our principal cities are the children of Catholic parents." 
 
 Rev. M. Hobart Seymour, an intelligent and pains-taking 
 clergyman of the church of England, who carefully studied 
 the Roman Catholic church and system at Rome and else- 
 where, gives in his " Evenings with the Romanists" written 
 about 1854, an introductory chapter on " the moral results of 
 the Romish System," which embodies various statistics re- 
 specting crime drawn directly from official returns in the sev- 
 eral countries named. 
 
 Thus the comparative numbers of committals (or trials) for 
 murder as given by Mr. Seymour for each million of the popu-* 
 lation, according to the censuses next preceding 1854, were 
 these : 
 
 Prot. England, 4 to the million. E. C. Lombardy, 45 to the million. 
 
 B. C. Belgium, 18 
 " Ireland, 19 
 " Sardinia, 20 
 " France, 31 
 " Austria, 36 
 
 Tuscany, 56 " 
 Bavaria, 68 " 
 Sicily, 90 " 
 
 Papal States, 113" 
 Naples, 174 " 
 
 The New Englander for July, 1869, and Jan., 1870, contains 
 some additional statistics and later statements on this subject 
 from official returns. These give the following proportion of 
 convictions for murder and attempts at murder, and for infanti- 
 cide, in England and France in the year 1865-6 : 
 
 England, 1 J convictions to the million for murder, &c. ; France, 1 2 convictions 
 to the million. England, 5 convictions to the million for infanticide ; France, 10 
 convictions to the million. 
 
 The returns of suicides in England and France for the 4 years 
 1862-5 give the following yearly average :
 
 624 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 
 
 , England, 64 suicides to the million ; France, 127 suicides to the million. 
 
 There were in the Papal States in 1867 according to offi- 
 cial (French) returns 186 murders to each million of the pop- 
 ulation. 
 
 | Mr. Seymour gave also in 1854 various statistics showing the 
 immorality of Roman Catholic cities and countries in Europe to 
 be decidedly greater than that of similar Protestant cities and 
 countries, and often twice, thrice, <fec., as great, and said : 
 
 " Name any Protestant country or city in Europe, and let its depths 
 of vice and immorality be measured and named, and I will name a 
 Roman Catholic country or city whose depths of vice and immorality 
 are lower still." 
 
 Mr. Seymour's statistics were widely published and stood for 
 years unimpeached. But in April, 1869, " The Catholic World " 
 attempted to break the force of his argument by citing the case of 
 Protestant Stockholm, which it alleged that Mr. Seymour willful- 
 ly suppressed, and where, according to it, the rate of illegitimate 
 births to the whole number of births " is over 50 to the hun- 
 dred, quite equal to that of Vienna." t To this the New Eng- 
 lander of January, 1870, replies : 
 
 " It seems to us sufficient to say first, that the statement of the 
 * Catholic World ' is untrue. At the time of Mr. Seymour's state- 
 ment the official return of illegitimacy in Stockholm was 29 per cent., 
 which is considerably less than ' over 50 to the hundred.' Secondly, 
 that the following eleven Roman Catholic cities were worse than the 
 notoriously worst of all Protestant cities ; Paris, 33 per cent. ; Brussels, 
 35; Munich, 48 ; Vienna, 51 ; Laibach, 38 ; Brunn, 42; Lintz, 46; 
 Prague, 47 ; Lemberg, 47 ; Klagenfort, 56 ; Gratz, 65 per cent." 
 
 The official statistics of Germany, as given in the 
 New Englander for January, 1870, show an average of 
 117 illegitimate births in every 1000 births in the Protes-- 
 taut provinces, and of 186 in 1000 in the Roman Catholic 
 provinces ; those of Austria gave for the Roman Catholic prov- 
 inces in 1866 an average of 215 illegitimate births in every
 
 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 625 
 
 1000 births, and in the mixed provinces (containing 9 up to 83 
 per cent, of Roman Catholics, the remainder Protestants, 
 Greeks, &c.) an average of 60 in every 1000. The average 
 number of illegitimate births in every 1000 births for the various 
 nations of Europe is as follows : 
 
 PROTESTANT. ROMAN CATHOLIC. 
 
 Denmark, 110 Baden, 162 
 
 England, Scotland and Wales, 67 Bavaria, 225 
 
 Holland (35 per cent. K. C.), 40 Belgium, 72 
 
 Prussia, with Saxony and Hanover, 83 France, 75 
 
 Sweden, with Norway, 96 German Austria, 181 
 
 Switzerland (41 percent. R. C.), 55 Italy [defective], 51 
 
 Wurtemberg (between R. C.Baden Spain [defective], 55 
 
 and Bavaria), 164 
 
 Average, 117 
 
 Average, 88 or, rejecting Italy and Spain, 145 
 
 Taking the average birth-rate in Europe, 1 a year for every 
 28 of population, the returns in Italy show that more than J of the 
 births fail to be registered ; and the official returns for Spain are 
 notoriously untrustworthy. It has been said the official returns 
 for Ireland gave only 3.8 per cent, of illegitimate births, and most 
 of this in the Protestant counties ; but the registrar-general com- 
 plains that many births and deaths are not registered ; and the 
 comparison of 1 birth only for every 42 of the population as re- 
 turned, with the average European birth-rate of 1 in 28, would 
 imply that nearly of the births in Ireland are unregistered. 
 The percentage ot illegitimate births in Italy, Spain, and Ire- 
 land may therefore be much larger than the imperfect official 
 returns indicate, and is of course unreliable. 
 
 Other statistics of immorality given in the New Englander, 
 are such as these. Roman Catholic Dublin contains a larger 
 proportion of prostitutes than any other British or Irish city, 
 viz., 1 for every 301 inhabitants, London having 1 for 579. The 
 Roman Catholic chaplain of the jail in Liverpool, Eng., re- 
 ported 1812 commitments to it of Protestant women and S083 
 of Roman Catholic women in 1864 ; also, 605 commitments to 
 it of disorderly prostitutes who were classed as Protestants, 
 
 and 921 of disorderly Roman Catholic prostitutes in 9 months 
 40
 
 626 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 
 
 (Jan. Sept.) of that year, the population of the city being 
 about | Protestant and Roman Catholic. In the United States, 
 Roman Catholic priests claim the chaplaincies of jails and pris- 
 ons on the ground (which is probably correct) that the major- 
 ity of the inmates of these institutions are Roman Catholics. 
 This would agree with the pastoral letter, already cited, of the 
 plenary council of Baltimore. The New York Tribune for 
 August 1, 1870, published some carefully prepared statistics 
 from official sources, from which the following are taken : 
 
 New York city had in 1855 a population of 629,810 ; in 1860, 813,- 
 669 (probably greater than the truth) ; in 1865, of 726,386. In 1855 it 
 had 175,735 Irish-born inhabitants ; 95,986 German-born ; and a total 
 of 326,183 foreign-born. In 1865 it had 161,334 Irish-born ; 107,269 
 German-born ; and a total of 319,074 foreign-born. But as the foreign- 
 born population continue their peculiar influence though at least the 
 first generation of their children who are born in this country and are 
 hence officially returned as native-born, " we must count at least 65 per 
 cent., instead of less than 44 of our population, as of foreign habits, be- 
 liefs and prejudices. . . . 
 
 "The worst rowdies and most dangerous criminals in anil around the me- 
 tropolis are the children of foreign-born ancestors, and truth demands the 
 statement that ^ of such rowdies and criminals are of Irish descent." The 
 arrests by the New York city police for the 10 years 1860-69 gave 217,- 
 649 of native-born (including, of course, the children, bornhere, of foreign- 
 born population) ; 357,726 of Irish-born ; 73,684 of German-born ; 57," 
 061 of others ; 706,120 arrests in all. " Thus it appears that while due 
 proportion of arrests to nationality required 5 67 in every 1000 of native- 
 born, there were but 308 ; where the Irish sqould have had but 
 322, they really had 506 ; the German proportion was 147, but they 
 had only 104 : all others, chiefly foreigners, required 63, and had 81. 
 The native arrests were 308 in 1000 ; all foreign together were G92 in 
 1000. Native arrests were only 53 per cent, of due proportion; Irish 
 arrests were 129 per cent, more than their share. The Germans are 
 considerably under their share, and other foreigners are a little over. 
 Now when we consider that f of the arrests classed as natives are the 
 children of foreign parents, and substantially foreign themselves, we 
 have in round numbers of arrests about as follows for the 10 years :
 
 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 627 
 
 United States, 55,000; Ireland, 460,000; Germany, 115,000; all 
 others, 86,000. Such is the lesson of the police records. ..." 
 
 The following returns of criminals in the penitentiary and city pris- 
 ons of New York from annual reports of the Ten Governors who have 
 charge of public institutions, show the same general characteristics as 
 to nativity with the police returns given above : 
 
 " Place. Native. Irish. German. 
 
 Penitentiary, 1,807 2,096 529 
 
 City Prisons, 25,295 44,237 8,251 " 
 
 The immorality of the city of Rome, though denied by " The 
 Catholic World," has been currently believed by both Catho- 
 lics and Protestants for centuries. Martin Luther visited 
 Rome about 1510, while he was yet an earnest Roman Catholic, 
 and he was astonished and shocked at what came under his no- 
 tice in that "holy city." Said he : 
 
 " No one can imagine what sins and infamous actions are committed 
 in Rome ; they must be seen and heard to be believed. Thus, they are 
 in the habit of saying, ' If there is a hell, Rome is built over it : ' it is an 
 abyss whence issues every kind of sin." 
 
 Said Macchiavelli, the famous Florentine statesman and 
 diplomatist of the 16th century, who lived and died a Roman 
 Catholic : 
 
 " The scandalous examples and the crimes of the court of Rome 
 are the cause why Italy has lost every principle of piety and all relig- 
 ious feeling. We Italians are indebted principally to the Church and 
 the priests for having become impious and immoral." 
 
 Rev. Nicholas Murray, D. D., long the influential and hon- 
 ored pastor of the 1st Presbyterian church in Elizabethtown, 
 N. J., who was born in Ireland and brought up a Roman Cath- 
 olic, visited Rome in 1851 in order to see " Romanism at home." 
 He fully confirms the testimony of Luther, and in his "Kir- 
 wan's Letters to Chief Justice Taney " he gives astounding par- 
 ticulars of the gambling, theatre-going, lewdness, and general
 
 628 MORAL INFLUENCE OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 immorality of the Roman Catholic priests in Rome and else- 
 where. He states that "the priests are the corrupters of the 
 people and mainly through the confessional and the women ; " 
 that " domestic love and confidence, as a rule, are unknown 
 in Rome; " that " there is no morality in Rome." 
 
 Rev. Luigi [=Lewis] De Sanctis, D. D., was born in Rome 
 in 1809, and was a Roman Catholic priest and confessor for 15 
 years, being 8 years curate of a principal parish of Rome (the 
 Magdalene), 10 years a qualificator of the Inquisition, also a 
 professor of theology in the Roman University, &c. He be- 
 came a Protestant in 1847, was subsequently a Protestant min- 
 ister at Turin, <fec., and died Dec. 31, 1869, while actively en- 
 gaged as professor of theology in the new "Waldensian Semina- 
 ry at Florence and editor of a religious newspaper. He wrote 
 over 20 volumes in defense of Protestantism, and is both an in- 
 telligent and reliable witness. His authority has been cited 
 in respect to nunneries (Chap. VIII.) , the Inquisition (Chap. 
 XI.), &c. He speaks of "the immorality of the Roman cler- 
 gy," of "the habits of idleness, the vain or guilty conversations 
 and pastimes, the vicious habits in which they engage;" of 
 " the numerous instances of the public disorders of priests, 
 monks, and nuns ;" of the reasons why "the culpable immo- 
 ralities of the priests remain so often unpunished," these rea- 
 sons being, (1.) because the cardinal-vicar (who had jurisdic- 
 tion over priests, prostitutes, &c.) " never proceeds against a 
 priest unless there be scandal, that is, unless the neighbors 
 complain; " (2.) because " many of these complaints are consid- 
 ered as calumnies ; ... for what would the people say if they 
 knew that the most zealous priests are sometimes the worst? " 
 In regard to prostitutes in Rome he says that " each curate has 
 a register of all those who live within the limits of his parish ;" 
 that " when a curate is tired of one of these women, he has 
 only to denounce her to the vicar, and, if she have not powerful 
 protectors, she is immediately imprisoned or exiled ; but she 
 cannot be subject to either if the curate does not complain of 
 her." Dr. De Sanctis says also:
 
 MORAL INFLUENCE OF THE SYSTEM. 629 
 
 " To understand the religion of Rome as a religion of money, one 
 must visit Rome, and proceed to the Datario, where all the bishop- 
 rics of the world are for sale ; where the prices of ecclesiastical bene- 
 fices and matrimonial dispensations are bargained for ; or to the ' office 
 of briefs,' where all other dispensations are for s"ale. ... It is at 
 Rome only that Popery Jesuitized, so to speak, can be known in its es- 
 sential form ; it is at the office of the Secretary of State, at ' the chan- 
 cery of extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs,' that this whole mystery of 
 iniquity unveils itself. . . . The Jesuits . . . have substituted for 
 the worship in spirit and truth taught by Scripture, a material, sensual, 
 and lying worship. Their policy proclaims liberty of the conscience and 
 religious freedom in those countries where they can profit by the pos- 
 session of those rights, but it denounces them with the utmost bitter- 
 ness at home. ..." 
 
 Pope Pius IX., in an encyclical to the archbishops and bish- 
 ops of Italy, Dec. 8, 1849, exhorts them to unremitting watch- 
 fulness over their flocks, 
 
 " as it is to be feared that the people, too little instructed in the 
 Christian doctrine and in the law of God, and blunted by a long indul- 
 gence in vice, with difficulty perceive the snares laid for them. . . More- 
 over, every effort must be used to inspire the faithful with the utmost 
 detestation against those crimes which are a scandal to our neighbors. 
 For you know how greatly the number of those has increased who 
 openly dare to blaspheme the Saints of Heaven, and even the most 
 holy name of God, or who are known to live in concubinage, nay, even 
 in incest. ..." 
 
 W. J. Stillman, Esq., late United States Consul in Rome, 
 who resided there from 1861 to 1865, and had full opportunity 
 for becoming acquainted with the government and people, says 
 in a letter published in the New York Tribune of Jan. 9, 1871 : 
 
 "... "Worse than any thing that we can conceive, was the system 
 of debauchery kept up by the priesthood. It was a proverb among the 
 Romans that, ' if one would go to a house of ill-fame he must go by day, 
 at night the priests had all the places,' and another, ' that all married 
 women were seduced by the priests.' The amours and profligacy of
 
 630 MORAL INFLUENCE OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 Antonelli were as well known as those of the late Emperor of France, 
 and no one who has lived in Rome long can be unaware that the immo- 
 rality of that city (except among the obstinate Liberals who rejected all 
 prerogatives of the Church, as such) was greater than any city in Eu- 
 rope, except Vienna and Naples, and worse in its type than that of the 
 latter city. . . " 
 
 The general unreliableness of Irish Catholic laborers, both 
 male and female, is notorious. They are, with some marked 
 and honorable exceptions, careless, wasteful, unfaithful to prom- 
 ises, unscrupulous as to the means of gaining a desired end, 
 regardless alike of truth in their assertions and of the claims of 
 Christian benevolence towards their employers, especially if they 
 are Protestants. They expect to go to mass once on Sundays and 
 holy days, spend the rest of the sacred day in idleness, visiting, or 
 something worse, and reach heaven by confession and penance 
 and the Virgin Mary.* The Baltimore Episcopal Methodist has 
 thus graphically delineated the character of Irish domestic 
 "help:" 
 
 " Industrious and thriftless ; devout and profane ; chaste and foul- 
 tongued ; choleric and forgiving ; warm-hearted and utterly unreliable ; 
 ready to turn a funeral into a frolic or a frolic into a funeral ; Bridget 
 passes through life, finding situations only to lose them, and seeming to 
 have no other purpose in existence than to torment the housekeepers of 
 Christendom." 
 
 The Roman Catholic church sometimes suppresses the 2d 
 commandment of the decalogue in its catechisms, &c. Of 
 works published in this country, " The Catechism of the Coun- 
 cil of Trent," the " General Catechism of the Christian Doc- 
 trine prepared by order of the National Council," " St. John's 
 Manual," <fec., bring the 1st and 2d commandments into the 1st 
 and divide the 10th into 9th and 10th. Butler's Catechism, as 
 published in New York (see Chapter XIX., <fec.), gives the 10 
 commandments thus, word for word : 
 
 "1. I am the Lord thy God, thou shall not have strange gods before 
 me, &c." 
 
 *On their unthriftiness see Chapter XXV. ; cm saints, holy-days, confession and 
 penance, see Chapters XV. XVIIL
 
 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM* 
 
 K 2. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 
 " 3. Remember that thou keep holy the Sabbath day. 
 a 4. Honor thy father and thy mother. 
 5. Thou shalt not kill. 
 u 6. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 
 " 7. Thou shalt not steal. 
 
 u 8. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor. 
 " 9. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife. 
 " 10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's goods. Exodus xx." 
 
 Collet's " Doctrinal and Scriptural Catechism " (see Chap. 
 XIX.) abridges the commandments still more, giving the 1st 
 on p. 277 as " Thou shalt not have strange gods before me," 
 and then devoting more than 30 pages to this command as thus 
 given ; yet on pp. 275-6 the copy of the commandments, " as 
 they are recorded in the Holy Scripture, book of Exodus, ch. 
 xx.," gives the 1st as above with this in addition : " Thou shalt 
 not make to thyself a graven thing : thou shalt not adore them 
 nor serve them." The catechisms published in this country are 
 thus inconsistent in their citations of this commandment ; those 
 published in thoroughly Roman Catholic countries probably 
 omit more uniformly that part of their 1st commandment 
 which we properly call the 2d commandment. 
 
 It is well known that the Roman Catholic church boasts of 
 many miracles performed in modern times. The Roman 
 Breviary, " The Glories of Mary," and other devotional works, 
 are full of accounts of miracles, of which this is a specimen 
 from " The Glories of Mary : " 
 
 A certain married man who lived viciously, having been prevailed on 
 by his virtuous wife to say a " Hail Mary " every time he passed be- 
 fore her altar, was one night about to sin, when he saw a lamp burn- 
 ing before an image of the Virgin holding the infant Jesus. Upon say- 
 ing " Hail Mary," he saw the infant covered with wounds and fresh 
 blood flowing from them ; and then he began to weep for having 
 wounded his Redeemer by his sins ; but the infant turning away from 
 him, he besought the intercession of the Virgin Mary, who began to 
 entreat her Son to pardon him, and, on his continued refusal, she put
 
 632 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 
 
 the infant in the niche and prostrated herself before him, saying, " My 
 Son, I will not leave thy feet till thou hast pardoned this sinner." Then 
 Jesus said, " My mother, I can deny thee nothing ; dost thou wish for 
 his pardon? for love of thee I will pardon him. Let him come and 
 kiss my wounds." As the weeping sinner kissed the infant's wounds, 
 they were healed ; Jesus embraced him as a sign of pardon ; and the man 
 afterwards led a holy life, and was ever full of love to the blessed Vir- 
 gin, his benefactress. 
 
 In the cathedral at Naples are shown two old vials said to 
 contain the blood of St. Jaimarius, which is ordinarily coagu- 
 lated, but miraculously liquefies and boils, usually in Septem- 
 ber, May, and December, when the saint's head looks at it. The 
 Roman Breviary says that his remains once extinguished a fiery 
 eruption of Mount Vesuvius. It is a well-known story, and is 
 related by Rev. Dr. Murray as confirmed to him in Naples, that 
 when the French in Napoleon's day occupied Naples, the blood 
 of St. Jaimarius wrathfully refused to liquefy, and a riot of the 
 populace was imminent ; but the French commander having 
 been informed, cannons were planted before the church and at 
 the corners of the streets, and orders were sent to the priests 
 that unless the blood liquefied in 10 minutes, the church and 
 city would be fired, whereupon in about 5 minutes the blood 
 boiled up, and the people rejoiced. 
 
 The " holy coat of Treves " is said to be the seamless coat of 
 our Savior (John 19: 23, 24), sold to the apostles by the 
 soldier who obtained it by lot, concealed in the house of a 
 Christian family for 3 centuries, discovered in the 4th century 
 by the empress Helena in Palestine, and brought by her to 
 Treves in Rhenish Prussia, where it was miraculously identi- 
 fied in 1196, and has been miraculously preserved from pillage, 
 fire, &c., till this age, though it was not publicly exhibited till 
 1512. It was exhibited with great eclat from Aug. 18th to 
 Oct. 6th, 1844, and was then visited by at least 500,000 (some 
 say 1,000,000 or 1,100,000) persons, who gave at least $100,- 
 000, bought 80,000 medals of the Virgin Mary, besides pur- 
 chasing chaplets and other articles of devotion, producing in
 
 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 633 
 
 all an income to bishop Arnold of Treves and to the church 
 of probably $200,000 to $400,000. During this time the city 
 was crowded to overflowing ; processions were continually pass- 
 ing through the streets and public places ; theatres, menager- 
 ies, puppet-shows, and other scenes of mirth and revelry 
 abounded ; pilgrims begged alms on the road and brought of- 
 ferings ; and many miraculous cures are said to have been 
 effected by the holy coat, especially one of Miss Droste de Wis- 
 chering, .niece of the Archbishop of Cologne, who had a paraly- 
 zed leg, and was restored August 30th by touching the relic 
 three times. It is proper to add that, as the city of Argen- 
 teuil in France claims that the Lord's coat was deposited 
 there and not in Treves, and as many other cities and villages 
 claim to possess it or a part of it, there must be a mistake or 
 an imposture somewhere. 
 
 In the Neapolitan city of Bari is said to be one of the sacred 
 thorns that wounded the head of Jesus. This thorn dropped 
 blood on Good Friday, March 25, 1842, and on the same day 
 in 1852 about 1 A.M. The same miracle took place at Andria 
 (about 30 miles from Bari), which also has a sacred thorn; 
 and according to the rule must take place in 1864 and 1910, 
 but not between those years, as Good Friday only then comes 
 on the 25th of March. 
 
 On Saturday, Sept. 19, 1846, the Virgin Mary is said to have 
 appeared to two young shepherds near a spring or fountain 
 (which she changed from intermittent to perennial) on the 
 mountain of La Salette in S. E. France. A Roman Catholic 
 journal of Paris, Le Moniteur Caiholique (= The Catholic Mon- 
 itor) of Feb. 13, 1850, declared that more than 100 wonderful 
 cures had been effected the preceding year with many remark- 
 able conversions ; that more than 50,000 pilgrims had visited 
 the spot ; and that there was a great demand for water from 
 the fountain, and for mementoes of the holy apparition, as 
 pamphlets, images, engravings, medals, &c. The story of the ap- 
 parition at La Salette was not however credited by all Roman 
 Catholics, though strenuously maintained by the priests of the
 
 634 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 
 
 vicinity and their bishop. Cardinal Bonald, archbishop of 
 Lyons and " primate of all the Gauls," addressed a circular to 
 all the priests of his diocese, cautioning them against apocry- 
 phal miracles, attributing these to pecuniary speculation, charg- 
 ing their authors with aiming at procuring dishonest gain, 
 and forbidding the publishing from the pulpit, without leave, of 
 any account of a miracle, even though its authenticity should be 
 attested by another bishop. Abbe" Deleon, a priest in the dio- 
 cese of Grenoble, published " an address to the pope " and a 
 work entitled " La Salette a Valley of Lies," in both of which 
 it was maintained, with proofs, that the apparition was got up 
 by Mademoiselle de Lamerlidre, a half-crazy nun, who person- 
 ated the Virgin Mary. The nun so charged brought a suit for 
 defamation against the abbe* before the court at Grenoble, suing 
 for damages to the amount of 20,000 francs (=$4000 nearly). 
 The abbe* was acquitted ; but the nun carried the case by appeal 
 to a higher court, which sat with closed doors in May, 1857, 
 confirmed the decision of the court below, and condemned her 
 to pay the expenses of the prosecution. The young shep- 
 herds (a girl of 13 named Melanie, and a boy ot 11 named 
 Maximin) were soon spoiled by the notice they attracted, and 
 both turned out badly. 
 
 Rev. Ramon Monsalvatge, who was in early life a Spanish 
 monk, and afterwards a Carlist soldier, but for years a Protest- 
 ant minister in South America, relates that atone time a church 
 was ransacked which had a much-worshiped image of the Vir- 
 gin that sometimes shed tears ; and it was discovered that this 
 was effected by tubes filled with water raised to the proper lev- 
 el, so that a little shaking would cause a few drops to spill over. 
 In another church was a venerated image of Christ, apparently 
 of marble, but really of papier machS and hollow, so that a 
 stream of boiling water thrown into it would exude through it 
 and form globules of moisture on the surface. 
 
 Many pretended miracles have been exposed ; and many oth- 
 ers seem to a Protestant to need no formal exposure or refuta- 
 tion. The miracles of the Bible have their weighty reasons
 
 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 635 
 
 Justifying the interposition of God and the suspension of the 
 laws of nature ; but many of the Roman Catholic miracles show 
 no sufficient reason for their performance and no divine wisdom 
 in their mode or object. Protestants will agree with the Cath- 
 olic theologian, Henry Klee, in saying, 
 
 " Miracles have generally been considered as a manifestation of the 
 presence and majesty of God ; they should be neither absurd nor im- 
 moral, nor conducive to erroneous doctrine, nor unworthy of the Deity." 
 
 St. Augustine, too, uttered a weighty sentiment when he said, 
 
 " The end of true miracles is the glory of God, which is completely 
 independent of an interested human worship." 
 
 As to the professedly miraculous cures which are reported, 
 they are no more wonderful than the cures attributed to ani- 
 mal magnetism and spiritualism and the quackery of various 
 kinds of which the history of medicine is full. Every physician, 
 or metaphysician knows how powerful in certain circumstances 
 is the effect of sympathy or faith or fear or other mental emo- 
 tion upon the bodily condition. There is no need and no just 
 cause for supposing a miracle or a supernatural interposition 
 either of the devil or of the Virgin Mary in every case which 
 we cannot understand and explain, and certainly no propriety 
 or rationality in believing professed miracles which are not 
 duly substantiated. Our Savior's miracles were not wrought 
 in a corner, but challenged the closest investigation and the se- 
 verest scrutiny of foes as well as of friends ; but the reputed mira- 
 cles of modern times are often performed in the presence of 
 those only who are interested to believe them, or in a place 
 where the distance of spectators, especially the sceptical, or the 
 dimness of the light, or some other circumstance is favorable 
 to the practice of deception, or at least, renders the suspicion of 
 fraud not unnatural to those who are either sceptical or cau- 
 tious about believing. 
 
 The frauds which have undoubtedly been connected with 
 pretended miracles and the so-called relics of saints, the dis-
 
 636 MORAL INFLUENCE OP THE SYSTEM. 
 
 honest subterfuges which have been practiced by Jesuits and 
 others (see Chapter IV., on the bull dEternus ille and Bellar- 
 min's course ; Chapter IX., <fcc.), the immoralities practiced 
 or planned and protected by popes and councils and monastics 
 (see Chapters III., VI., VIII.), the savage cruelties of inquis- 
 itors and persecutors (see Chapters XI., XII.) ,the hostility to 
 and misrepresentation of the " Protestant Bibles" (see Chapter 
 XIII.), the formalism and heartlessness so characteristic of 
 Roman Catholic worship generally (see Chapter XIV.), the sub- 
 stitution of honor to saints and relics and pictures and images 
 for the worship due to God only and of honor to saints' days 
 for due regard to the Lord's day (see Chapters XV., XVI.), the 
 abominations connected with confession and the confessional, 
 offenses and penalties and indulgences (see Chapters XVII. 
 XIX.), the attempts to centralize all power in the Roman hi- 
 erarchy and to make the people unthinking and unreasoning 
 machines (see Chapters XXI. XXIV.), all these things, with 
 what has been set forth in the present chapter, are to Protest- 
 ants so many conclusive arguments to show that the Roman 
 Catholic system is inherently and incorrigibly hostile to true 
 and Scriptural morality.
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 RELATION OF THE SYSTEM TO. CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 NOTHING, perhaps, would be more distasteful to the mass of 
 Roman Catholic laymen in this country, or would be more 
 speedily and decidedly resented by them, than the charge 
 against them or their church, of hostility to liberty.* Not 
 only would they at once deny the charge as a slander, but 
 they might point to Lord Baltimore and the Roman Catholic 
 colony of Maryland as the first to establish religious liberty 
 on this continent f to the Roman Catholic " Charles Carroll 
 of Carrollton " as one of the signers of the Declaration of 
 Independence and to many others who have, been Roman 
 Catholics and also earnest supporters of our free institutions. 
 All this candid Protestants may and do freely admit, except 
 the priority of Maryland and the Roman Catholics in the ad- 
 vocacy or establishment of true religious liberty in America. 
 
 * Said archbishop Purcell of Cincinnati, in a sermon delivered October 6, 1867, 
 and since published by him r " The church leaves to the human mind all needful 
 liberty. She refuses it none but what is a ' cloak for malice.' " 
 
 t This claim for Maryland and the Roman Catholics is often indorsed by 
 Protestants. Thus Bancroft in his History of the United States speaks of Sir 
 George Calvert, who was the first baron of (or lord) Baltimore and father of Ce- 
 cilius Calvert (2d Lord Baltimore) and of Leonard Calvert (1st governor of Mary- 
 land) : " He was the first in tho history of the Christian world to seek for religious 
 security and peace by the practic of justice, and not by the exercise of power ; to 
 plan the establishment of popular institutions with the enjoyment of liberty of 
 conscience ; to advance the career of civilization by recognizing the rightful equal- 
 ity of all Christian sects. The asylum of Papists was the spot, where, in a remote 
 corner of the world, on the banks of rivers which, as yet, had hardly been ex- 
 plored, the mild forbearance of a proprietary adopted religious freedom as the 
 basis of the state."
 
 638 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 The charter of Maryland was granted by king Charles I. of 
 England to the 2d Lord Baltimore, June 20, 1632 ; a settle- 
 ment was begun March 27, 1634 ; but neither the charter nor 
 the governor's oath nor any early law of the colony broached 
 any idea of tolerance or protection except for believers in Jesus 
 Christ. Roman Catholics certainly had religious liberty in 
 Maryland, for the colony was founded to be an asylum for 
 them ; Protestants who had rights in England must have rights 
 in Maryland also under the charter and laws of the colony ; 
 but, by the Maryland " act of toleration " of 1649 which pro- 
 hibited molesting or discountenancing on account of his re- 
 ligion any believer in Jesus Christ, those who denied the 
 Trinity (i. e., Jews, Socinians, Unitarians, &c.) were to be 
 punished with death, and those who reproached the Virgin 
 Mary, &c., were to be fined, whipped, and for the 3d offense 
 banished ; and " all unseasonable disputations in points of 
 religion" were forbidden as early as 1638. On the other hand 
 Roger Williams as early as 1631 publicly maintained " soul- 
 liberty " in Boston and Salem, Mass., and denied the right of 
 magistrates to punish for any but civil offenses ; he preached 
 in Plymouth without molestation for about 2 years, 1631-3 ; 
 banished from the colony of Massachusetts in the latter part 
 of 1635, he founded Providence in June, 1636, as a " shelter 
 for persons distressed for conscience ; " and there a common- 
 wealth was established on the principle of subjection to the 
 orderly-expressed will of the majority, " only in civil things," 
 one of the earliest laws being that no man shall be molested 
 for his conscience. Bancroft, in his History of the United 
 States, rhetorically says of Roger Williams : 
 
 " He was the first person in modern Christendom to assert in its 
 plenitude the doctrine of the liberty of conscience, the equality of 
 opinions before the law." 
 
 It is certain that Roger Williams and his colony advocated 
 and practically exemplified the principle of full religious free- 
 dom, and that liberty soon became a sacred principle among
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 639 
 
 the Independents of England. The right of private judgment 
 and the fact of individual responsibility to God are indeed the 
 Scriptural basis of Protestantism itself as well as of civil and 
 religious liberty. Menno and others in the 16th century pro- 
 tested against the interference of the civil power with the 
 rights of conscience. John Robinson, the minister of the 
 Pilgrims who settled Plymouth, solemnly charged them in his 
 parting advice " to follow him no further than he followed 
 Christ," and to be ready to receive anything which God might 
 reveal to them by any other instrument of his ; because " he 
 was very confident the Lord had more light and truth yet to 
 break forth out of his Holy Word.'* He had already said in 
 1610 in his " Justification of Separation from the Church of 
 England": 
 
 " "We may not stint or circumscribe either our knowledge, or faith, 
 or obedience, within straiter bounds than the whole revealed will of 
 God, in the knowledge and obedience whereof we must daily increase 
 and edify ourselves ; much less must we suffer ourselves to be stripped 
 of any liberty which Christ our Lord hath purchased for us, and given 
 us to use for our good (GaL 5:1)." 
 
 Still more clearly and in the same century spoke Robert 
 Barclay, a Scottish Quaker, and an associate of William Penn 
 (the founder of Pennsylvania) and of George Fox : 
 
 " Since God hath assumed to himself the power and dominion of the 
 conscience, who alone can rightly instruct and govern it, therefore it is 
 not lawful for any whosoever, by virtue of any authority or principal- 
 ity they boast in the government of this world, to force the consciences 
 of others ; and therefore all killing, banishing, fining, imprisoning, and 
 other such things which are inflicted upon men for the alone exercise 
 of their conscience or difference in worship or opinion, proceeded! 
 from the spirit of Cain the murderer, and is contrary to the truth ; 
 providing always that no man, under the pretense of conscience, preju- 
 dice his neighbor in his life or estate, or do any thing destructive to or 
 inconsistent with human society ; in which case the law is for the trans- 
 gressor, and justice is to be administered upon all without respect of 
 persons."
 
 640 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 It was in the Protestant colonies of New England, New 
 Jersey, Pennsylvania, &c., rather than in Roman Catholic 
 Maryland, that the first seeds of American liberty, both civil 
 and religious, were planted. 
 
 But in order to determine the relation of the Roman Cath- 
 olic church and system to liberty, it is needful to inquire into 
 the position and course, not so much of individual Roman 
 Catholics in this and other countries, as of the authorities and 
 leaders of the Church, or of the Church itself as an organized 
 body acting through these. 
 
 The encyclical letter of pope Gregory XVI. in 1844, in 
 which he condemned not only the Christian Alliance, but also 
 the religious liberty or liberty of conscience which it sought 
 to promote, is given in Chapter IY. The present pope, Pius IX., 
 says in his encyclical of Dec. 8, 1864 : 
 
 "... As you are well aware, venerable brethren, there are a 
 great number of men in the present day who, applying to civil society 
 the impious and absurd principle of naturalism, as it is called, dare to 
 teach ' that the perfect right of public society and civil progress abso- 
 lutely require a condition of human society constituted and governed 
 without regard to all considerations of religion, as if it had no existence, 
 or at least without making any distinction between true religion and 
 heresy.' And, contrary to the teachings of the Holy Scriptures, 
 of the Church, and of the Fathers, they do not hesitate to affirm ' that 
 the best condition of society is that in which the power of the laity is 
 not compelled to inflict the penalties of law upon violators of the Cath- 
 olic religion unless required by considerations of public safety.' Ac- 
 tuated by an idea of social government so absolutely false, they do not 
 hesitate further to propagate this erroneous opinion, very hurtful to the 
 safety of the Catholic church and of souls, and termed ' delirium ' by 
 our predecessor, Gregory XVI., of excellent memory, viz : ' Liberty 
 of conscience and of worship is the right of every man a right which 
 ought to be proclaimed and established by law in every well-constitu- 
 ted State : and that citizens are entitled to make known and declare, 
 with a liberty which neither the ecclesiastical nor the civil authority 
 can limit, their convictions, of whatever kind, either by word of mouth, 
 or through the press, or by other means. But in making these
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 641 
 
 rash assertions they do not reflect, they do not consider that they preach 
 the liberty of perdition. ..." 
 
 Among the " principal errors of our time" mentioned in the 
 appended Syllabus as previously condemned by Pius IX., are: 
 
 " 55. The Church must be separated from the State and the State 
 from the Church. (Alloc. 'Acerbissimum,' Sept. 27, 1862.)" 
 
 " 77. In the present day it is no longer necessary that the Catholic 
 religion shall be held as the only religion of the State, to the exclusion 
 of all other modes of worship. (Alloc. Nemo vestrum, July 26, 1855.)" 
 
 " 80. The Roman Pontifi can and ought to reconcile himself to and 
 agree with progress, liberalism, and modern civilization. (Alloc. Jam- 
 dudum cemimus, March 18, 1861.)" 
 
 The " Nicaragua Gazette" of January 1, 1870, published 
 the following letter from Cardinal Antonelli (see Chap. V.) to 
 the bishop of Nicaragua in Central America : 
 
 " We have lately been informed here that an attempt has been made 
 to change the order of things hitherto existing in that republic, by pub- 
 lishing a programme in which are enunciated ' freedom of education' 
 and of worship. Both these principles are not only contrary to the 
 laws of God and of the Church, but are in contradiction with the con- 
 cordat established between the Holy See and that republic. Although 
 we doubt not that your most illustrious and reverend lordship will do 
 all in your power against maxims so destructive to the Church and to 
 society, still we deem it by no means superfluous to stimulate your well- 
 known zeal to see that the clergy, and above all the curates, 1 do their 
 duty. G. Cardinal ANTONELLI." 
 
 Rev. Dr. "Wylie of Edinburgh, in his " Awakening of Italy," 
 published in 1866, cites the catechisms of Father Giovanni 
 Perrone, professor of theology in the Roman College, " and by 
 common consent Rome's first living theologian." These cat- 
 echisms have been circulated " in scores of thousands, not in 
 Italy only, but in France, in Spain, and in Germany." In his 
 Catechism on Protestantism, Perrone maintains that its first 
 
 iQn the duties of the curates or priests having the charge of souls, see Chs. VII, 
 XVIL, XVIIL, &c. 
 
 41
 
 642 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 propagators " deserved the gallows," and that it is " horrible in 
 theory, immoral in practice ; it is an outrage on God and man ; 
 it is destructive to society, and at war with good sense and de- 
 cency." In his Catechism on the Catholic Church, Perrone 
 teaches that " heresy, being a crime against the state, ought 
 to be proceeded against by the civil power and the Inquis- 
 ition." He adds, that "in countries where heretics are the 
 majority, this method need not be taken." 
 
 Said " The Catholic World" of January, 1870 : 
 
 "... My right of conscience is the law for the state, and prohib- 
 its it from enacting anything that violates it. My conscience is my 
 church, the Catholic Church ; and any restriction of her freedom, or 
 any act in violation of her rights, violates or abridges my right or free- 
 dom of conscience, which, where equal rights are recognized, the state 
 has no right to do in my case any more than in that of any other. . . 
 The state is just as much bound to respect, protect, and defend the 
 Catholic Church in her faith, her constitution, her discipline and her 
 worship, as if she were the only religious body in the nation. 1 Other 
 religious bodies exist and have, not before God, but before civil society, 
 equal rights with her ; and if the state can do nothing to violate their 
 rights of conscience, it can do nothing to violate hers, as it in fact does 
 in its legislation in regard to marriage and divorce, both here and in 
 nearly all European states and empires. It cannot violate the Catho- 
 lic conscience in order to conform to the Protestant conscience. ..." 
 
 "The Catholic World" of April, 1870, also said : 
 " The Church is instituted, as every Catholic.who understands his re- 
 ligion believes, to guard and defend the rights of God on earth against 
 any and every enemy, at all times and in all places. She therefore 
 does not and cannot accept, or in any degree favor, liberty in the Prot- 
 estant sense of liberty. . . . 
 
 " The Catholic World " said also in July, 1870 : 
 
 x The argument here seems to be, that all the legislation of the state, all the civil 
 and religious rights of others, and even the public safety must bow to the suprem- 
 acy of the Roman Catholic church ; that the Roman Catholic church is unques- 
 tionably and infallibly right ; and that every thing which conflicts with the decision 
 of pope or ecumenical council violates the Catholic's right of conscience, and must 
 bo abolished or annihilated.
 
 BELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY". 643 
 
 ... The Catholic Church is the medium and channel through 
 which the will of God is expressed. . . . While the state has rights, 
 she has them only in virtue and by permission of the superior author- 
 ity, and that authority can only be expressed through the church. . . 
 
 Government and legislation informed, directed, and guided 
 
 by Catholic justice is the most humane, benignant, equal, just, merci- 
 ful, and forbearing of any that can possibly exist, and the temporal 
 government of the head of the Church is to-day the best in the world. 1 
 . . The Constitution and Declaration of Independence guarantee life, lib- 
 erty, and the pursuit of happiness. The Catholic values his life that 
 he may devote it to the service of the church, and if required, offer it 
 for her safety and honor ; liberty, to be and remain Catholic, enjoy free- 
 dom in the exercise of his religion, and transmit this priceless inheri- 
 tance unimpaired to his descendants ; the pursuit of happiness, that he 
 may attain the happiness of heaven ! . . The constitution and govern- 
 ment of the United States have the approval of the holy see. The 
 Catholic is satisfied with the laws of his country, and only dissatisfied 
 with local legislation, which contravenes the implied pledges of the con- 
 stitution and the common law, based upon the canon law. . . . Free- 
 dom in religion entitles him to protection against open and secret attacks 
 upon what he holds most dear, under the guise of state education, and 
 which are invariably made in every system of uncatholic or infidel ed- 
 ucation. ..." 
 
 The 4 following extracts from Roman Catholic periodicals, 
 harmonizing with what has preceded, are taken from "The 
 American and Foreign Christian Union " for March and Sep- 
 tember, 1852, and August,1854, where they are doubtless correct- 
 ly quoted from the originals. The first is from a Roman Catholic 
 newspaper in England quoted the " Rambler," and fully endorsed 
 by the " Freeman's Journal " of New York under date of June 
 26,1852: 
 
 " Religious liberty, hi the sense of a liberty possessed by every man 
 to choose his own religion, is one of the most wicked delusions ever 
 fouled upon this age by the father of all deceit. The very name of 
 liberty except in the sense of a permission to do certain definite acts 
 ought to be banished from the domain of religion. . . . No man has a 
 
 iThis was written before the Italian occupation of Rome (see Chapters I. and III.).
 
 644 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 right to choose his religion. ... Catholicism is the most intolerant of 
 creeds. It is intolerance itself, for it is truth itself. We might as ra- 
 tionally maintain that a sane man has a right to believe that 2 and 2 
 do not make 4, as this theory of religious liberty. Its impiety is only 
 equaled by its absurdity." 
 
 " The Shepherd of the Valley," published at St. Louis, Mo., 
 up to 1854, said, Nov. 23, 1851 : 
 
 " The Church is of necessity intolerant. Heresy she endures when 
 and where she must ; but she hates it, and directs all her energies to 
 its destruction. If Catholics ever gain an immense numerical majority, 
 religious freedom in this country is at an end. So our enemies say. 
 So we believe." 
 
 The same newspaper said also : 
 
 " . . . . The civil power has its limits ; it may overstep them ; for it 
 is not infallible, like the Church ; when it does so, obedience at once 
 ceases to be a duty. The question of the justice or injustice of a civil 
 enactment, is one, however, which the individual is not competent to de- 
 cide ; the fact of the necessity of a tribunal capable of determining a 
 point like this, is presumptive evidence in favor of the claims of the 
 Church ; and the fact that the Church is such a tribunal, is a sufficient 
 answer to all those who declaim against her as an enemy of the rights 
 of man. Civil liberty cannot exist without the Church. l Where she 
 is not recognized, anarchy or despotism must of necessity prevail, 
 Grant that no tribunal exists capable of pronouncing when the State 
 transcends its powers, when man is freed from the obligation of obedi- 
 ience, and when it becomes sinful to obey, and you either establish des- 
 potism by asserting that every state enactment must of necessity be 
 obeyed, or destroy government altogether, and introduce universal dis- 
 order, by applying to practical life that most absurd of all doctrines, 
 the doctrine of the right of private judgment !...." 
 
 Brownson's Quarterly Review for October, 1852, had these 
 words : / 
 
 i It seems to follow from this, that Protestants do not know what civil liberty is, 
 and cannot possess it without coming under the benevolent control of the Roman 
 Catholic church, liko the Waldcnses in 1655, &c. See Chapters XII., XXII., 
 and XXIII. ,
 
 EELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 645 
 
 " . . . . All the rights the sects have or can have are derived from the 
 State, and rest on expediency. As they have in their character of 
 sects, hostile to the true religion, no rights under the law of nature or 
 the law of God, they are neither wronged nor deprived of liberty if the 
 State refuses to grant them any rights at all 
 
 " The sorriest sight to us is a Catholic throwing up his cap and 
 shouting, * All hail, Democracy. ' . . . " 
 
 The New York Tablet, as quoted in the " Christian World " 
 of July, 1867, has this view of religious liberty : 
 
 ". . . No self-appointed missionaries of self-created societies have 
 any rights against the national religion of any country, and no claim 
 even to toleration. The Catholic missionary has the right to freedom 
 because he goes clothed with the authority of God, and because he 
 he is sent by authority that has from God the right to send him. 
 To refuse to hear him is to refuse to hear God, and to close a Catholic 
 church is to shut up the house of God. The Catholic missionary 
 is sent by the church that has authority from God to send him ; the 
 Protestant missionary is sent by nobody, and can oblige nobody in the 
 name of God or religion to hear him. Our Protestant friends should 
 bear this in mind. They have as Protestants no authority in religion, 
 and count for nothing in the church of God. . . . They have from God 
 no right of propagandism, and religious liberty is in no sense violated 
 when the national authority, whether Catholic or Pagan, closes their 
 mouths and their places of holding forth. ..." 
 
 While the pope continued to be the temporal ruler of Rome 
 (see Chapter III.), the Roman people had not religious liberty, 
 in our sense of the phrase ; and Protestant worship in public 
 was not permitted within the walls of Rome, except in the 
 house of a minister accredited to the pope by a foreign govern- 
 ment and as sheltered by the flag of his country.* An Ameri- 
 
 * The British chapel has been for years just outside the People's gate (=Porta 
 del Popolo) at the N. extremity of the city ; and the Protestant cemetery is on the 
 opposite side, near the gate of St. Paul. An American Protestant service, which 
 was commenced in Dec., 1849, in the house of Rev. G. H. Hastings for the ao>
 
 616 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 can Protestant who had been for some time traveling in Italy, 
 wrote thus from Rome, Aug. 13, 1850,f to Rev. Robert Baird, 
 D. D. : 
 
 " .... A man who intends to write the truth about Roman affairs, 
 must hold himself ready to be sent out of the country. . . . The govern- 
 ment resorts to every possible manoeuvre to compel attendance upon mass, 
 and especially upon the few occasions of preaching. Every employe of 
 the government is obliged to sign a promise of regular attendance at 
 church, and every man who does not wish to embroil himself with the 
 police, have his house searched, and be arrested upon suspicions secretly 
 lodged against him, must make some show of fidelity to the established 
 religion. . . . Could you pass a month here at Rome, where every family 
 is mourning for some member in prison or exile, and witness the terrors 
 of Popery, backed up by French tyranny, and see how the priests lord 
 it over the land, your heart would bleed for the poor Italians, and you 
 would find all language too feeble to express your detestation of the 
 baptized Paganism which here crushes men's souls to the earth. ..." 
 
 "W. J. Stillman, Esq., late U. S. consul at Rome, writes to 
 the N. Y. Tribune of Jan. 9, 1871, respecting the Roman gov- 
 ernment from 1861 to 1865 : 
 
 " .... I know that spies were placed at the doors of the places of 
 Protestant worship, to see if any Romans went in, and that one friend 
 of mine, a surgeon in the French hospital, was arrested for having 
 waited on his wife (an English woman), and carried at night to the 
 prison of the Holy Office (the euphonic for the Inquisition), where he 
 was menaced with severe punishment if he not only did not abstain from 
 courtesies to Protestantism but compel his wife to leave the Anglican 
 communion and enter the Roman, and he finally escaped from them by 
 an appeal to French protection as an employe. 
 
 commodation of Americans visiting Home, was twice closed by the government, 
 and then the American chapel was fitted up in the house of Hon. Lewis Cass, Jr., 
 Charge d 1 Affaires of the U. S., in 1851, "the first Protestant chapel ever sanc- 
 tioned by the Papal government in the city of Rome," though there was also a 
 Protestant chapel at the the Prussian ambassador's without any governmental sanc- 
 tion. The American chapel was closed by the pope about 15 years after its estab- 
 lishment in Rome; and its services were afterwards conducted outside of the walls. 
 t This was after the return of the pope from Gaeta (see Chap. III.)
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 647 
 
 u The brother of one of my most intimate friends was arrested in his 
 bed at night, carried off by officers of the Holy Office, and never heard 
 of again, until years after, when a released prisoner came to tell the 
 survivor that his brother had died in the prison with him, and was 
 buried in the earth of the dungeon. 
 
 "Another of my friends, Castellani, the jeweler, was under so severe 
 police surveillance that for several years he had not dared to walk in 
 the street with any of his friends, and when his father died, the body 
 was taken possession of by the police at the door of the house, the 
 coffin surrounded by a detachment of officials, carried to the church, 
 and the next day buried, all tokens of respect to the deceased being 
 forbidden, and all participation in the services by his friends. He and 
 his sons were Liberals in opinion. 
 
 " The system of terrorism was such that liberal Romans dai'ed meet 
 only in public, and never permitted a stranger to approach them in 
 conversation. I never dared enter the house of a Roman friend for 
 fear of bringing on him a domiciliary visit. . . . 
 
 " I can conceive no system of torture worse than this terrible espion- 
 age, under which every patriotic Roman lay fearful of his own breath 
 one scarcely daring to speak to another, except in tropes and innuen- 
 does. They suffered the penalty of crime for the wish merely to be free. 
 Had it not been for the system of counter-espionage kept up by the 
 Roman Committee on the Government, no Liberal could have lived in 
 Rome. When suspected, they generally had warning by their own 
 spies. . . . 
 
 " The Roman government of my time was the embodiment of the spirit 
 of the Papacy of the Middle Ages. It had its rod over its subjects, as 
 it always has done. If the world made progress outside its walls, it 
 was strong enough to repress mercilessly all evidence of it within. ..." 
 
 At Ancona, in the Papal States, a proclamation was issued 
 June 24, 1843, prohibiting Jews from employing Christian 
 nurses or Christian servants, from owning or renting real es- 
 tate out of a Jewish quarter, from eating or sleeping out of 
 the Jewish quarter of a city, or living in a city destitute of a 
 Jewish quarter, from frequenting Christian houses, from travel- 
 ing about in the State without a license, from dealing in holy 
 furniture or any books or having Drohibited books, &c., the
 
 648 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 penalties being fine and imprisonment. This proclamation 
 was issued to enforce previous laws, which specified as penal- 
 ties whipping and other corporal punishments. 
 
 The " Mortara case " occupied much attention in Europe a 
 few years ago. Edgaro Mortara, about 7 years old, the son of 
 a Jew at Bologna, then in the Pontifical States, was in 1858 
 forcibly taken from his parents and placed in a Catholic 
 school at Rome, where he subsequently became a monk in one 
 of the principal convents, and was known as Don Pio Mortara. 
 The ground on which he was taken from his parents was his 
 alleged baptism, where an infant and dangerously sick, by a 
 servant-girl living in the family, and the consequent obligation 
 of the Church, into which he was thus introduced, to see that he 
 was placed under Christian influences. Notwithstanding the 
 evidence presented by the Jews that the servant was of disrep- 
 utable character and told the story of the child's illness and 
 baptism out of malice to the parents, and that the family-phy- 
 sician and others directly contradicted her story, the pope re- 
 tained the child and confirmed him, and threatened the Jews 
 with severe penalties if they made any more ado about the 
 matter. 
 
 The condition of things in Italy down to a very recent period 
 is thus described by Rev. Win. Clark, a Protestant minister 
 who has resided in that country since 1863 : 
 
 u A few years ago the vast weight of the Papal power bore down, 
 with its oppressing and deadening influence, upon all this beautiful 
 land. Not a Bible could be sold, not a voice could be heard preach- 
 ing Christ, on any part of the Italian soil ; the punishment for such an 
 offense was imprisonment or death. The few friends of the Redeemer, 
 sometimes in caves, sometimes in the woods, were accustomed, with fear 
 and trembling, to meet together to pray." 
 
 In 1848 the king of Sardinia (Charles Albert, father of Vic- 
 tor Emanuel II., the present king) promulgated a liberal con- 
 stitution for his kingdom. But in Tuscany, the laws against 
 religious liberty became more stringent after 1848. Thus in
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 649 
 
 the spring of 1851 Count Piero Guicciardini and 5 others were 
 arrested, imprisoned and afterwards banished some for a 
 year, others for six months for the offense of possessing and 
 reading the New Testament, John xv. being the portion they 
 were reading when the armed police broke in upon their little 
 meeting. The next winter Francesco Madiai and his wife Rosa 
 were arrested for reading and teaching the Bible in their own 
 household ; they were confined in a loathsome prison for many 
 months ; and in June, 1852, they were, by a vote of 3 judges 
 against 2, condemned the husband to 56 months' imprisonment 
 at hard labor at Volterra, the wife to 45 months' imprisoment at 
 hard labor at Lucca, 50 miles from her husband. These cases, 
 especially that of the Madiai, excited great interest in Europe and 
 America ; personal appeals to the Grand Duke of Tuscany were 
 made by men of high character from Great Britain, Holland, 
 France, Germany, and Switzerland ; large meetings were held in 
 New York and other cities to promote the cause of religious 
 liberty and to request the President of- the United States 
 (Mr. Fillmore) to exert his influence in behalf of these peo- 
 ple ; a letter was sent by Mr. Everett, then Secretary of State, 
 asking as a favor to the President that Francesco and Rosa 
 Madiai might be liberated and permitted to come, if so disposed,. 
 to this country ; and they were released from prison in 1853. 
 But the cases of Count Guicciardini and the Madiai were not 
 alone. In 1857 the American and Foreign Christian Union 
 reported thus : 
 
 " Since 1849, thirty-three persons have been imprisoned or exiled, 
 and above a hundred others have been harassed by the police, for little 
 else than reading the Bible." 
 
 Free institutions have been extended over Italy, as one part 
 of it after another has come under the sceptre of Victor Eman- 
 uel (see Chs. I. and III.) ; but Victor Emanuel and all who 
 have been concerned in the extension of free institutions in 
 Italy have been strenuously opposed and (in Nov., 1870) 
 anathematized by the Holy See.
 
 650 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 Restrictions upon religious liberty long existed in France (see 
 Chap. XII.) ; and while the principle of religious liberty was 
 established by the constitutions of 1789, 1814,1830, and 1852, 
 the right was often practically denied under the laws (some of 
 them in March, 1852) requiring special licenses for holding 
 meetings, fec. U Univers Religieux [=the Religious Universe] , 
 a Roman Catholic newspaper of Paris, said in 1853 : 
 
 " France is a Catholic country ; the dissenters go for nothing. 
 France ought to be governed according to the Catholic rule ; the laws 
 must be Catholic." 
 
 Spain has been for ages one of the most intolerant of all 
 European countries (see Chap. XI.), though 5 times within 
 60 years (1812-14, 1820-23, 1837-43, 1854-56, 1868 till now) 
 it has had a liberal constitution. Isabella II. (born 1830 ; 
 queen 1833-68) was a devoted Roman Catholic, and, though 
 known to be a drunkard and universally believed to be an adul- 
 teress, she received the golden rose from pope Pius IX. in the 
 spring of 1868, as his " best-beloved daughter in Jesus Christ." 
 One of her subjects, Manuel Matamoros, a young man of 23, 
 was converted at Gibraltar in 1857 by the blessing of God upon 
 a Protestant service which he attended, and a copy of the New 
 Testament which was there presented to him ; and he then 
 went to telling his countrymen of Christ and his full salvation 
 and exhorting them to believe and be saved. He labored suc- 
 cessfully in Malaga, Seville, Granada, Jaen, and Barcelona, 
 winning numbers to Christ, including his mother and other rel- 
 atives in Malaga ; but on the 7th Oct., 1860, he was arrest- 
 ed and imprisoned at Barcelona, a letter to him having been 
 found on the person ot Jose Alhama at Granada, suggesting 
 the propriety ot a petition to the Cortes for freedom ot worship. 
 About this time between 40 and 50 persons were also arrested at 
 Seville, Granada, <fec., for meeting to read the Bible and wor- 
 ship God. A few days after the arrest of Matamoros, the au- 
 thorities came to the prison, and the judge demanded of him, 
 " Do you profess the Catholic, Apostolic, Roman religion ? " 
 Matamoros answered:
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 651 
 
 " My religion is that of Jesus Christ ; my rule of faith is the word 
 of God, or the Holy Bible, without one word more or less : such is 
 the hasis of my belief. . . The Catholic, Apostolic, Roman church 
 not being based on these principles, I do not believe in her dogmas, 
 and still less do I obey her in her practices." 
 
 To the question of the judge, " Are you aware what you are 
 saying ? " he answers plainly and boldly : 
 
 " Yes, sir, and I will not retract : I have put my hand to the plow, 
 and I will not withdraw it." 
 
 His reply astonished the members of the tribunal, who had 
 not heard the like for many years. But he languished in 
 prison till 1863 before he was brought to trial. Then, all 
 attempts to fasten upon him and his companions any political 
 offense having utterly failed, he was sentenced for his heresy 
 to 11 years' hard labor in the galleys. Most of his compan- 
 ions had been released after a long imprisonment, but Alhama 
 and a few others were likewise condemned to the galleys. But 
 this was not the end of the matter. Europe was roused in 
 sympathy with the sufferers and in condemnation of the out- 
 rage on freedom. The ambassadors of Prussia, France, and 
 other nations were charged to use their good offices for the 
 relief of the victims of oppression. Special committees of 
 influential men were sent simultaneously from each nation to 
 plead their cause at Madrid, and the Evangelical Alliance be- 
 sought all Christians to pray for God's blessing on these efforts. 
 Jews and liberal Catholics united with Protestants in petitions 
 to the queen. 30,000 French ladies begged her not thus to 
 disgrace the Christian name in the 19th century. The press 
 of England, France, Belgium, Switzerland, and Germany 
 teemed with denunciations of Isabella's intolerance. Public 
 opinion was everywhere arrayed against her. Before the dep- 
 uties were presented at Madrid in 1863, we are told that the 
 sentence was commuted to banishment from Spain. But the 
 health of Matamoros was broken down by his sufferings, and 
 he died a Christian's death at Lausanne in Switzerland, July
 
 652 BELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 31, 1866. The legal penalty of professing any other than the 
 Roman Catholic religion continued to be death till the revolu- 
 tion of 1868 broke out and Isabella was banished from the 
 country. Then religious as well as civil liberty was estab- 
 lished in Spain, though the pope forbade the Spanish bishops 
 to take oath under the new constitution, and the Roman Cath- 
 olic priesthood has vigorously opposed the liberal changes in 
 the government and laws. The first public Protestant relig- 
 ious service in Madrid was held January 24, 1869. 
 
 Portugal has likewise been exclusively and intolerantly Ro- 
 man Catholic (see Chs. X.-XIL). By a royal decree of Dec. 
 10, 1852, whoever offends in respect to the Roman Catholic 
 religion (by other public worship, or by any public word or 
 act in opposition to it) must be imprisoned from 1 to 3 years 
 and heavily fined, and any Portuguese thus offending must lose 
 all political rights, including honors and the right to teach or 
 to be a witness, executor, guardian, or member of any family 
 council ; but it was reported in 1870 that the baptism of a 
 Protestant child had recently been permitted for the first time, 
 and that the Protestant chapel at Oporto, closed for some time 
 on account of the prosecution of the pastor, had been reopened. 
 
 Austria has been some of the time the leading Catholic 
 power of Europe, and under its absolute despotism freedom 
 has been everywhere repressed. In 1855, a concordat (= 
 agreement) between pope Pius IX. and the Austrian emperor 
 was made, by which all the decrees and ordinances of the pope 
 were made binding in Austria, without needing any previous 
 sanction by the government ; and the Roman Catholic bishops 
 were empowered to exercise full control over the public schools, 
 to prohibit all books judged by them to be injurious to the in- 
 terests of morality or of the church, to punish Roman Cath- 
 olic clergymen and laymen for violating the ordinances of the 
 church, and to require the assistance of the secular authority 
 for the infliction of these punishments. For a tune the people 
 of Austria groaned under this concordat, and Austrian despot- 
 ism became a synonym for the most intolerable oppression ;
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 653 
 
 but within the last 10 years a great change has taken place, 
 especially since the Austrians were defeated by the Prussians 
 at the battle of Sadowa in 1866. In spite of the utmost 
 efforts of the Roman Catholic bishops and priests the concordat 
 was abrogated in 1867 ; and the chain of despotism has now 
 been broken completely. The passport-system has been abol- 
 ished ; the validity of civil marriage has been affirmed ; the 
 liberty of the press am}, of worship and of education and of 
 burial in cemeteries has been conceded ; Bibles and religious 
 literature may be circulated without restraint ; and the whole 
 Austrian empire has been waked up by its newly-acquired 
 freedom to unwonted activity and enterprise and prosperity. 
 The pope issued his allocution June 22, 1868, condemning 
 " those abominable laws sanctioned by the Austrian govern- 
 ment," which establish " free liberty for all opinions, liberty 
 of the press," <fcc. " laws which are in flagrant contradiction 
 with the doctrines of the Catholic religion, with our power," 
 &c., and saying expressly : " In virtue of this same authority 
 which appertains to us, we declare those decrees null and 
 powerless in themselves and in their effect both as regards 
 the present and the future." 
 
 Said Castelar the eloquent liberal orator in the Spanish 
 Cortes of 1869, 
 
 " There is not a single progressive principle which has not been 
 cursed by the Catholic church. This is true of England and Ger- 
 many, as well as of Catholic countries. The church cursed the French 
 revolution, the Belgian constitution, and the Italian independence; 
 nevertheless, all these principles have unrolled themselves in spite of 
 it. Not a constitution has been born, not a single progress made, not 
 a solitary reform effected, which has not been under the terrible anath- 
 emas of the Church." 
 
 Turn now to the New World, and look at the state of things 
 in New Granada. Settled by Spaniards, and long subject to 
 Spain, its institutions were of course like those of the mother 
 country. The Inquisition, especially at Carthagena (see Chap. 
 XI.), was a formidable antagonist to all freedom. But in
 
 654 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 1810 New Granada threw off the Spanish yoke and became in- 
 dependent. Subsequently it became a part of the republic of 
 Colombia ; but in 1832 New Granada became again an indepen- 
 dent republic by itself. Its laws passed in 1851, expelling the 
 Jesuits, protecting monks and nuns who abandoned a monas- 
 tic life, giving the appointment of parish priests and the regu- 
 lation of their salaries to the people of each parish, abolishing 
 the ecclesiastical court, and curtailing ecclesiastical revenues, 
 and its new constitution establishing freedom in education and 
 religion, called forth an allocution from Pope Pius IX., Sept. 
 27, 1852, in which he set forth the grievances of the Roman 
 Catholic church in that republic, and did " censure, condemn, 
 and declare utterly null and void all the aforesaid decrees," and 
 admonished " all those by whose instrumentality and orders 
 they were put forth, that they seriously consider the penalties 
 and censures which have been constituted by the apostolical 
 constitutions and the sacred canons of councils against those 
 who violate and profane sacred persons and things and the eccle- 
 siastical power, and who usurp the rights of this apostolic See." 
 But, in spite of the open opposition of the pope and the Jesuits 
 and a portion of the Roman Catholic priesthood and others, 
 the union of church and state was terminated, and civil and re- 
 ligious liberty was established in that country (now called the 
 United States of Colombia) as in our own. 
 
 Everywhere in South America the influence of the Roman 
 Catholic church has been in opposition to civil and religious 
 liberty ; and, though Colombia has taken more advanced ground 
 in respect to liberty than has been taken either by her sister 
 republics or by the empire of Brazil, still in most South Amer- 
 ican countries toleration of other religions has been secured. 
 The new constitution of Peru, however, which was proclaimed in 
 1867, allowed the exercise of worship to the Roman Catholic re- 
 ligion only. The concordat between the republic of Ecuador and 
 the Pope, which was concluded in 1863, established Roman 
 Catholicism as the religion of the state ; prohibited the practice 
 of any other mode of worship ; confiscated every book forbid-
 
 BELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 655 
 
 den by a bishop; pledged to the bishops the aid of the govern- 
 ment in putting down every one who might attempt to lead the 
 faithful into the paths of error ; exempted ecclesiastics from be- 
 ing tried for offenses, except before an ecclesiastical court ; and 
 provided that no criminal could be seized in a church or a clois- 
 ter without the express consent of the church-authorities. In 
 South America, as elsewhere, ignorance (see Chap. XXV.) is 
 the mother of superstition and bigotry, and the bosom friend 
 of oppression and tyranny. The Bible-burnings in Chili and 
 Brazil are specimens of the intolerance which hates and de- 
 stroys whatever interferes with the undivided and absolute sway 
 of the Roman Catholic church (see Chap. XIII.) . 
 
 Mexico was, like the other Spanish colonies in America, ex- 
 clusively and intolerantly Roman Catholic for 300 years. The 
 church had the first place in wealth and power ; and the Inqui- 
 sition kept an ignorant and superstitious people in complete 
 subservience to the Roman Catholic hierarchy. Said the abbe 
 Domenech (historian of Maximilian's expedition) in 1867 ; 
 
 " Mexico, under Spanish rule, was eminently a monastic state. Not 
 only three-fifths of the cities were occupied with convents and church- 
 es, but there were convents which occupied a large part of the city." 
 
 In 1821 Mexico became independent of Spain ; but a long 
 and terrible struggle ensued between the progressive or "liberal" 
 party on one side and the " conservative" or monarchical or 
 church party on the other. The former, throwing off an op- 
 pressive despotism and contending at first only for civil liberty 
 and progress, became gradually more enlightened and were 
 thus led to adopt religious liberty as a fundamental principle. 
 The Roman Catholic priesthood on the other hand united with 
 the rich aristocrats who favored a monarchy, and they together 
 opposed all enlightenment of the masses, and all increase of pop- 
 ular liberty. In 1833, under the presidency of Gen. Santa An- 
 na, the Mexican Congress abrogated the pope's supremacy over 
 the Mexican church, suppressed the convents, and abolished 
 the compulsory payment of tithes to the priests. Insurrec-
 
 656 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 tions, revolutions, and wars now followed one another in quick 
 succession. In 1856, under the presidency of Comonfort, de- 
 crees were issued confiscating the immense property of the 
 Roman Catholic church not used for worship, and forbidding 
 its clergy to hold real estate. In 1857 the Mexican Congress 
 promulgated a new liberal constitution, modeled after that of 
 our own country, and establishing as fundamental rights free- 
 dom of the body and of the soul, of opinion and worship, of ed- 
 cation and the press. Various laws for reform followed, and 
 were opposed by excommunications of the liberals and by civil 
 war. Comonfort resigned ; Gen. Zuloaga was made president 
 by the conservatives, though the constitution provided that the 
 chief justice of the supreme court (who was Benito Juarez, alib- 
 eral) should succeed to the vacant presidency. Zuloaga defeat- 
 ed Juarez, and was in turn deposed by Gen. Robles, who at- 
 tempted in vain to unite the two parties. Gen. Miramon then 
 became chief of the conservatives, but was compelled to flee 
 from the country in 1860 with the archbishop of Mexico, bish- 
 ops, and other leaders of his party. Miramon had previously 
 been for a time master of the city of Mexico, and, in order to 
 obtain a loan of $200,000, had issued bonds to the amount of 
 $15,000,000, which were largely held in France, and thus be- 
 came the occasion of French intervention, ostensibly to secure 
 the payment of them, but really to aid the Church party 
 in establishing a monarchy and regaining what they had lost. 
 Maximilian Joseph, archduke of Austria, having been pro- 
 claimed emperor by the Church party with the archbishop of 
 Mexico at their head, accepted the position and went to Mexi- 
 co, where after a four years' struggle his French and Mexican 
 supporters were defeated. Maximilian was executed June 19, 
 1867 ; Juarez and the liberals were successful ; and civil and re- 
 ligious liberty appear now to be firmly established. Protest- 
 antism and the Bible are reputed to be firmly rooted in North- 
 ern Mexico, and more than 50 evangelical " congregations" ex- 
 ist in the capital and the region around it. 
 
 The great island of Cuba, which lies so near to our own
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 657 
 
 shores, has been like Spain itself in religion and in intolerance, 
 with the additional disadvantage of having of its population 
 in a state of personal slavery. The following authentic story is 
 illustrative and suggestive. A few years ago the wife of an 
 American Protestant died at a plantation in Matanzas : her be- 
 reaved husband, loth to commit the precious remains, like those 
 of a dog, to the festering mass of corruption in the burying- 
 ground, and finding that the charges by the bishop and other 
 officials for the removal of the remains out of the country would 
 amount to 81500 or $2000, and even more, if more could be 
 forced from him, determined to run the risk of taking it away 
 without authority. The penalty for this was a fine of $5000 and 
 imprisonment for 5 years at the option of the Church ; moreover, 
 if the remains were found in any vessel, that vessel might be 
 confiscated by sentence of the ecclesiastical court. The pen- 
 alty for burying anywhere, except in the disgusting burying- 
 ground, was a fine of $2000. The husband, however, proceed- 
 ed to fulfill his wife's dying request not to bury her there. He 
 obtained a metallic coffin, put it in a box, nailed it up himself, 
 and with the help of some negroes whom he bribed, hid it in a 
 grave privately dug in a thicket. About 6 weeks after her 
 death, he succeeded in finding an old acquaintance, who was wil- 
 ling to take the box, if it was put on board his vessel and his 
 owners were guaranteed against loss. On a dark and stormy 
 night, therefore, the husband and 2 hired boatmen took their 
 precious freight in a row-boat about midnight ; passed down the 
 river and bay through the surf and the heavy sea, without being 
 observed from the forts or the guard-boat ; and, when it was al- 
 most daylight, reached the vessel, where the box was soon placed 
 under the hatches. The bereaved husband made his way back to 
 the plantation ; and when the storm ceased, 3 days afterward, 
 the vessel sailed. But the church-authorities had heard of the 
 metallic coffin, and sought earnestly, though in vain, to discov- 
 er the use made of it. After waiting another week, the mourn- 
 er, who had thus far been mercifully preserved, took passage 
 with his little daughter for his own land of liberty, saying, as he 
 43
 
 658 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 left the beautiful island where intolerance reigned, " How hide- 
 ous is tyranny under the garb of false religion ! " 
 
 In Canada the Roman Catholic hierarchy have excommuni- 
 cated legislators who dared to vote in opposition to their de- 
 mands (see Chs. XVIII. & XXIII.) ; they have threatened to 
 excommunicate the members of the Montreal Institute, if they 
 did not exclude from their library every volume objectionable 
 to the priests and from their news-room every anti-clerical 
 newspaper ; and when about the beginning of 1870 one of the 
 members named Guibord died, the priests refused him burial 
 except in a lot set apart for suicides and heretics. Colpor- 
 teurs, engaged in circulating Bibles and religious books and 
 tracts, have often been lawlessly beaten by Roman Catholics ; 
 an Irish Catholic mob attacked and broke up a public meeting 
 in Quebec in 1853, while Gavazzi was lecturing on Romanism ; 
 and the same thing was unsuccessfully attempted at Montreal 
 two nights afterward, but defeated by the police and military 
 who killed 10 or 12 assailants and others. 
 
 Like opposition to civil and religious liberty has been man- 
 ifested in our own country. An orderly open-air religious meet- 
 ing, held for several Sunday afternoons in Tompkins square, 
 New York, under the auspices of the N. Y. Young Men's 
 Christian Association in 1868, was stopped through Roman 
 Catholic influence by order of the acting president of the Com- 
 mon Council, the order being afterwards countermanded by 
 Mayor (now Governor) Hoffman, and the countermand revoked 
 the next day. Protestant lecturers on the confessional and 
 other Roman Catholic peculiarities have frequently been inter- 
 rupted, insulted, and maltreated by Roman Catholics. Miss 
 Edith O'Gorman, the escaped nun (see Chap. VIII.), lectured 
 in the Methodist church at Madison, N. J., on the evenings of 
 April 14 and 15, 1869, on " Convent Life" and the " Romish 
 Priesthood." The first lecture was frequently interrupted and 
 otherwise disturbed by Roman Catholics ; the second lecture 
 was disturbed by a noisy mob outside, and was followed by a 
 rush of the mob at her with yells and abusive language and a
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL A.ND EELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 659 
 
 pistol-shot, which, however, missed its aim, the ball passing 
 over her head. The mob afterwards surrounded the house 
 where she was, threw stones, used abusive language, and 
 did not disperse till midnight ; but she was protected by a 
 strong guard of citizens, with some constables and nearly all 
 the students of the Drew (Methodist) Theological Seminary. 
 Says Miss 0' Gorman in her book : 
 
 "... The responsible heads of the Roman Catholic church made 
 every effort to free the rioters, and the result was that through Cath- 
 olic influence the would-be assassin was not convicted, though there 
 were witnesses who could swear to his identity, and when the witnesses 
 were called, the Grand Jury refused to hear them, and the rioters were 
 set free without even a fine or reprimand. . . ." 
 
 But the Roman Catholics of Madison and its neighborhood 
 are not the only offenders against order and liberty. Inter- 
 ruptions and rumors of intended assault and of assassination 
 have attended Miss 0' Gorman's lecturing elsewhere ; though 
 Rev. I. T. Hecker and other Roman Catholics may lecture 
 freely without any disturbance from Protestants. Rev. Mr. 
 White of Jacksonville, 111., it is reported, attempted to lecture 
 at Columbus, 0., in February, 1870, on the " Secrets of the 
 Confessional," when an Irish mob assaulted him with brick- 
 bats, and the police rescued him with difficulty. 
 
 Protestants charge these and other similar infringements of 
 liberty, which are certainly discountenanced by many respecta- 
 ble Roman Catholics, upon the Roman Catholic system. This 
 system in their view is unchangeably opposed to both civil and re- 
 ligious liberty ; and the liberal principles and practice of many 
 sincere Roman Catholics do not disprove this opposition. 
 The principles of the Roman Catholic church are intolerant, 
 and do not change. Said Rev. Leonard Bacon, D. D., at the 
 anniversary of the American and Foreign Christian Union in 
 1853: 
 
 "... That Church of Rome is founded on a rock indeed, not that
 
 660 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 
 
 on which Christ has founded his Church ; but the rock on which that 
 Church is founded is the denial of religious liberty. I will tell you 
 where you will find the true exponent of Romanism. Wherever you 
 can get a mob of Irishmen to break up a Sunday-school and assail the 
 children in the streets, there is the infallible, the immutable doctrine of 
 the Church of Rome, the application of physical force as pertaining to 
 religion. Dr. Kalley had an opportunity to see it in the island of 
 Madeira [see Ch. XII.]. There not only the Church but the govern- 
 ment was Catholic, and the people were ' Catholic,' and even the pow- 
 er of the British government, of which he was a subject, could not 
 have protected him, but for his concealment. That is the immutability 
 of the Church of Rome, and it is in relation to this very point that 
 we are to maintain our conflict in this country. ..." 
 
 The Protestant may present his argument in respect to the 
 subject of the present chapter thus : The Roman Catholic church 
 is organized as an absolute and self-perpetuating monarchy 
 (see Chapter II.) ; the pope, who is declared to be the su- 
 preme and infallible head of the church, is chosen by the car- 
 dinals, whom his predecessors have appointed, according to 
 their own will and from their own number (see Chs. III. and 
 V.) ; every bishop of the church throughout the world is ap- 
 pointed by the pope with or against the advice of other bish- 
 ops, and takes an oath of obedience to the pope, and every 
 priest is dependent on his bishop for place and support, and is 
 pledged to obey the bishop (see Chs. VII. and XXL) ; the 
 religious orders and congregations are so many trained and 
 disciplined subordinates, solemnly bound to obey the pope and 
 the hierarchy under him (see Chap. VIII.) ; the right of 
 private judgment is abjured by all these and condemned by 
 the church (see Chap. XXII.) ; through confession and pen- 
 ance and absolution and excommunication and indulgence the 
 priests, and through them their supreme head, have access to 
 every Roman Catholic heart and control over every Roman Cath- 
 olic conscience (see Chs. XVII.-XIX.) ; persecution and the 
 inquisition have been used to enforce their decrees, and may 
 be so used again, if it seem best to the pope and those whose
 
 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. 661 
 
 advice he asks or takes (see Chs. XI. and XII.) ; the declared 
 sentiments of the pope and of the leaders of opinion in the 
 Roman Catholic church, as given in this chapter, are unfavor- 
 able to Protestant notions of civil and religious liberty ; and, 
 whatever individual Roman Catholics have done or may do 
 for the defense or promotion of such liberty, it is still a fact 
 that the tendency of the Roman Catholic system, the authority 
 of those who wield the power in and by the church, and the 
 actual influence of the church as an organized whole, have 
 been decidedly and positively favorable to despotism in church 
 and state, and unfavorable to freedom.
 
 CHAPTER XXVHI. 
 
 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL POWER OP THE BOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 THE simple fact that the adherents of the Roman Catholic 
 church in this and other countries are so numerous, gives to 
 that church great power in the world. Wherever Roman 
 Catholics are increasing both in number and efficiency, there, 
 of course, the power of that church is increasing ; wherever 
 they are increasing in number only, provided there is no de- 
 crease in the amount of zeal and activity, they may also be 
 gaining in real power. 
 
 That a large part of the population of the United States 
 consists of Roman Catholics, admits of no doubt. But this 
 number is variously stated.* " The Catholic World " in Dec., 
 1870, speaks repeatedly of the " 6,000,000 or 7,000,000 Cath- 
 olics of the United States." The returns of population from 
 the various archdioceses (marked "A."), dioceses (" D."), 
 and vicariates apostolic (" V. A."), are given as follows in 
 Sadliers' Catholic Directory for 1870 and 1871 : 
 
 1870. 1871. 
 
 i Baltimore A., 
 
 139,000 139,000 
 
 Cincinnati 
 New York 
 New Orleans 
 Oregon City 
 San Francisco 
 St. Louis 
 
 about 116,000 
 
 * For statistics of the Roman Catholic bishops and other clergy, see Chapter 
 VII. Since that chapter, however, was put in type, another diocese (Plattsburg, 
 taken from Albany) is reported in the State of New York. The statistics of 
 monks, nuns, &c., are given in Chapter VIII.
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 663 
 
 Albany D., 
 
 Alton " 
 
 Boston 
 
 Springfield 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Burlington 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Covington 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Dubuque 
 
 Erie 
 
 Fort Wayne 
 
 Galveston 
 
 Grass Valley 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 Harrisburg 
 
 Hartford 
 
 La Crosse 
 
 Little Rock 
 
 Louisville " 
 
 Marquette and Sanlt St. Marie D., 
 
 Milwaukee D., 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Monterey and Los Angeles D., 
 
 Nashville D., 
 
 Natchez " 
 
 Natchitoches " 
 
 Nesqualy " 
 
 Newark " 
 
 Philadelphia " 
 
 Pittsburg " 
 
 Portland " 
 
 Richmond " 
 
 Rochester " 
 
 Santa F6 " about 
 
 Savannah " 
 
 Scranton " 
 
 St. Joseph ' 
 
 St. Paul < 
 
 Vincennes ' 
 
 1870. 
 
 over 230,000 
 about 83,000 
 
 350,000 
 
 about 34,000 
 
 estimated 400,000 
 100,000 
 60,000 
 about 20,000 
 at least 150,000 
 
 about 40,000 
 46,000 
 about 15,000 [1] 
 
 " 14,000 
 at least 50,000 
 25,000 
 200,000 
 
 1871. 
 
 over 250,000 
 about 85,000 
 ( " 250,000 
 
 about 34,000 
 
 about 2,000 
 " 100,000 
 22,000 
 155,000 
 11,000 
 30,000 
 
 about 24,000 
 " 10,000 
 
 about 220,000 
 " 118,01)0 
 60,000 
 about 17,000 
 
 103,000 
 20,000 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 about 85,000 
 between 75,000 and 80,000 
 about 15,000 
 
 100,000 
 60,000 
 
 about 30,000 
 at least 150,000 
 
 about 40,000 
 50,000 
 
 about 150,000 
 " 14,000 
 
 between 50,000 and 55,000 : 
 25,000 ' 
 200,000 
 
 about 2,000 
 " 100,000 
 " 20,000 
 
 about 14,000 
 " 30,000 
 
 about 24,000 
 " 8,000 
 
 about 225,000 
 " 150,000 
 
 about 17,000 
 
 about 103,000 
 " 20,000 
 
 about 85,000 
 
 between 75,000 and 80,000 
 
 about 20,000
 
 664 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 1870. 1871. 
 
 Wilmington D., 
 
 Colorado and Utah V. A., about 12,000 about 12,500 
 
 Florida V. A. (= St. Augustine D.), 
 Idaho V. A 
 
 Kansas " 
 
 Nebraska " 
 North Carolina V. A., about 1,200 about 1,300 
 
 The returns from 36 out of 58 archdioceses, dioceses, <fec., 
 in the Directory for 1870 foot up 3,040,700 ; and the returns 
 from 34 out of 59 archdioceses, <fec., in the Directory for 1871 
 foot up 2,654,800. If now we add 715,000 to the returns for 
 1871 from those of 1870 for the 4 dioceses of Springfield, 
 Chicago, Milwaukee, and Portland, we have 3,369,800 for 38 
 out of 59 archdioceses, <fec. ; and if we fill out the other 21 
 blanks proportionately, we make the number of Roman Cath- 
 olics in the United States as indicated by these official returns 
 to be about 5,232,000. 
 
 In " The Catholic World " for April, 1865, appeared the 
 estimate for 1860 of M. Rameur, originally published in a 
 French periodical (Le Correspondent). M. Rameur multiplied 
 the number of Roman Catholic priests by 2,000, and thus ob- 
 tained as his result a Roman Catholic population in this coun- 
 try of 4,400,000. A similar process would give 8,000,000 
 now, 1,000,000 or 2,000,000 more than the present estimate 
 of " The Catholic World." New York State was then cred- 
 ited with 800,000 ; Pennsylvania with 550,000 (4 of its 5 dio- 
 ceses reported 403,000 in the Catholic Directory for 1870, and 
 440,000 in that for 1871) ; Ohio with 400,000 (101,000 more 
 than its 3 dioceses now report) ; Indiana with 140,000 (10,- 
 000 or 15,000 more than its 2 dioceses now report) ; Ken- 
 tucky with 150,000 (20,000 more than its 2 dioceses now re- 
 port). On the other hand Connecticut and Rhode Island 
 were credited then with 100,000, but now with 200,000 ; Mas- 
 sachusetts then with 160,000, now with 350,000 or more; 
 Maine and New Hampshire then with 52,000, now with 60,000 ; 
 Vermont then with 30,000, now with 34,000. 
 
 "The Catholic World " the next year (1866) published
 
 POWEB OF THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 665 
 
 another estimate from the Civilta Cattolica of Rome, making 
 the Roman Catholic population of the United States to be 
 5,000,000. 
 
 " The Catholic World " for January, 1870, rates the num- 
 ber of Roman Catholics in New York City at 400,000. 
 
 The following are Protestant estimates of the Roman Cath- 
 olic population in the United States. Prof. A. J. Schem esti- 
 mated them in 1868 at 4,500,000, and in 1869 (in the Amer- 
 ican Year-Book) at 5,000,000. "The New York Observer 
 Year- Book and Almanac" for 1871 also estimates them at 
 5,000,000. Rev. Hiram Mattison, D.D., who paid much atten- 
 tion to this subject, calculated 1,000 population or 550 adults 
 on an average to each priest, and thus estimated the whole 
 Roman Catholic population of the country in 1868 at 3,248,- 
 000, or 1,786,400 adults. " The Christian World " for April, 
 1871, says : 
 
 "After carefully investigating the evidence from Roman Catholic 
 sources of the statistics of American Romanism, we fully accord with 
 the estimate of the best-informed writers, which gives the number of 
 about four millions as the full proportion of the Roman Catholic pop- 
 ulation in the United States." 
 
 It is evident that the official and unofficial estimates by 
 Roman Catholics of their population in this country are by no 
 means exact and reliable. They are all given in round num- 
 bers, and most of them disclaim any exactness by saying 
 "about" or "over" or "at least" or " between " such and 
 such numbers (see also Chap. VIII.). They include, of 
 course, men, women, and children, as all baptized persons are 
 counted church-members. Some of the Protestant estimates, 
 on the other hand, may be too low. In the utter uncertainty 
 of the case, we may regard the present number of real and 
 nominal Roman Catholics in this country as somewhere be- 
 tween 4 and 6 millions. 
 
 The Roman Catholic population has certainly increased 
 rapidly in the United States since we became a nation. They 
 were indeed the first settlers of Maryland (see Chap. XXVII.),
 
 666 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 and also of other states (Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Lou- 
 isiana, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, 
 California) , which have been admitted into the Union since 
 1800. They had however no bishop till Aug. 15, 1790, when 
 Rev. John Carroll was consecrated the first bishop of Balti- 
 more. The whole number of Roman Catholics then in the 
 United States was estimated by Monsieur E. Rameur (article 
 translated and published in the first number of " The Catholic 
 World," April, 1865) at 30,000, of whom 16,000 were in 
 Maryland, 7,000 or 8,000 in Pennsylvania, 3,000 at Detroit 
 and Vincennes, about 2500 in Southern Illinois, and 1500 in 
 other parts of the country. In 1793, the new see of New Or- 
 leans was established ; but this was not in the United States 
 till about 10 years later. In 1808, 3 new sees were estab- 
 lished ; Rev. Luke Concanon (Irish Dominican) was conse- 
 crated bishop of New York the same year ; and in 1810 Rev. 
 John B. Cheverus (French) was consecrated bishop of Boston, 
 and Rev. Benedict J. Flaget (French) was consecrated bishop 
 of Bardstown, the last see now taking its name from Louis- 
 ville. At that time there were, according to M. Rameur, 
 68 priests and about 100,000 Roman Catholics in the United 
 States. M. Rameur's estimates at the dates mentioned may 
 be given and compared thus : 
 
 Year. No. Catholics. Whole Popnlation. Part of the whole. 
 
 1790, 30,000 3,929,827 1 for everj 131 
 
 1808, 100,000 6,500,000 1 
 
 1830, 450,000 12,866,020 1 
 
 1840, 960,000 17,069,453 1 
 
 1850, 2,150,000 23,191,876 1 
 
 65 
 29 
 18 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 1860, 4,400,000 31,429,891 1 
 
 The whole population of the United States in 1870 being 
 38,549,534, and the Roman Catholics probably numbering from 
 4 to 6 millions, they now constitute from one-tenth to one- 
 sixth of the inhabitants of the land. While the whole popu- 
 lation has increased since 1790 nearly tenfold, the Roman 
 Catholics in this country have increased from 130 to 200-fold. 
 
 But how has this great increase taken place ? The answer.
 
 POWER OP THE ROM IN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 667 
 
 is, in 4 different ways ; (1) immigration, (2) annexation, (3) 
 multiplication of children, (4) conversions of Protestants. 
 
 That immigration has been a principal source of Roman 
 Catholic increase in this country might easily be told 'without 
 any citation of statistics. Go into almost any Roman Cath- 
 olic congregation, east of the Mississippi, and outside of Mary- 
 land, and you find it composed almost exclusively of foreigners 
 and their children and grandchildren. The total number of 
 foreign-born passengers who arrived at the ports of the United 
 States in 51 years, 1820-1870 inclusive, is given as 7,555,015; 
 and from 1783 to 1820 the N. Y. Observer Year-Book esti- 
 mates the foreign-born passengers at 300,000. It is safe to 
 conclude that a majority of these 8,000,000 nearly say 4 
 millions at least have been Roman Catholics ; for in 20 
 
 o 
 
 years (May, 1847-Dec., 1867), when 3 million foreigners 
 landed on our shores, there were about a million and a half 
 from Ireland (seven-eighths of them being probably Roman 
 Catholics) and nearly as many from Germany ( of these 
 being probably Roman Catholics). 
 
 Annexation has been a second source of Roman Catholic 
 increase. All the regions annexed to the United States 
 Louisiana (including the State and the region N. and N. W. 
 of it) in 1803 Florida in 1820 Texas in 1846 California,. 
 &c., in 1848 and subsequently were originally settled by 
 Spanish or French Roman Catholics ; and hence the annex- 
 ation of them to the United States considerably increased the 
 number of Roman Catholics in our country. 
 
 Family-increase, or the multiplication of children, has also 
 favored the Roman Catholic population in the United States. 
 The elaborate article in " The Catholic World " for April, 
 1865, already referred to, affirms that " Catholic families in- 
 crease much faster than others." In respect to this affirma- 
 tion, Dr. Mattison says : 
 
 "This is undoubtedly true, and for these reasons: (1.) The great 
 body of Roman Catholics, men and women, belong to the laboring 
 class, and as a result of their habitual physical exercise, are more
 
 668 POWER OP THE BOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 hardy than the average of native-born Americans, and decidedly more 
 vigorous and healthy than the non-laboring class. (2.) In the creed 
 of the Romanists abortionism is properly regarded as murder, and 
 great pains are taken to impress this view upon their people. 1 . . . 
 Go where you will, East or "West, the same fact is patent 4 or 5 chil- 
 dren to a family, while non-Catholics have but 2 or 3. 3 ... With 
 every Catholic precinct or neighborhood swarming with children, and 
 every child baptized and held fast forever by priests and parents, why 
 should not Romanists increase ? " 
 
 Under this head also may be classed the increase from the 
 children of " mixed marriages, which," according to the Catho- 
 lic "World, " generally turn but to the advantage of the Church, 
 especially in the case of educated people in the upper ranks of 
 society. Not only are the children of these marriages brought 
 up Catholics, but almost always, as experience shows us, the 
 Protestant parent becomes a Catholic also." To this conclu- 
 sion Dr. Mattison assents, because of the ante-nuptial pledge 
 to this effect which is exacted (see Chap. XIV.), the special 
 influences then exerted for the Protestant's conversion, and his 
 indifference to religion which first leads to such a marriage 
 and then readily yields to prospects of pecuniary or political 
 advancement. 
 
 The fourth source of Koman Catholic increase in this coun- 
 
 1 There is no doubt that Roman Catholic priests assiduously use both the pulpit 
 and the confessional to inculcate upon the married the duty of having as many 
 children as they can, and array all the terrors of penance and purgatory and hell 
 against those who practice shameful and perilous sins for the purpose of prevent- 
 ing the birth of living children. 
 
 8 The author's observations incline him to agree with the conclusions of Rev. 
 Wm. B. Clarke in his " Report on the Decrease of the Native Population," made 
 to the General Association of Connecticut in 1868, that " the foreign births in New 
 England do not exceed those among the native population, the conditions being 
 made equal, in the proportion of more than 4 to 3, and that they more likely fall 
 quite below this figure j " and that " the probable average number of children born 
 in this day to an American family is not over 4," which " suffices for little more 
 than to preserve the existing population," while in the early times of New England 
 the rate seems to have been 5 or possibly 6 in a family, thus increasing the popu- 
 lation 24 per cent, every 10 years and doubling it every 33 years.
 
 POWER OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 669 
 
 try is by conversions of Protestants. Roman Catholics 
 claim numerous accessions from this source. Thus a writer in 
 "The Catholic World " for Dec., 1866, affirmed on the author- 
 ity of "reliable statistics" that " within the last 50 years no 
 less than 41 clergymen of the American Episcopal church 
 alone " have become Roman Catholics, and expressed the 
 opinion that the number of converts from each of the other 
 sects will " fall little short " of this. And an editorial foot- 
 note adds : " Judging from the statistics of the past few years 
 in the dioceses of New York, the number of converts in the 
 United States must exceed 30,000." 
 
 In regard to this statement it may be said, that the number 
 of converts from the Episcopal clergy is probably correct. The 
 (Protestant Episcopal) " Banner of the Cross " published the 
 following list of 38 Episcopal clergymen in this country who 
 became Roman Catholics from 1815 to 1858 inclusive, with the 
 year of each conversion and the Episcopal diocese to which the 
 convert belonged, and some remarks. The star denotes one 
 who became a Roman Catholic priest : 
 
 No 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 II. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 
 Names. Tear. Diocese. 
 
 *Virgil H. Barber 1815 N. Y. 
 Daniel Barber " N. H. 
 
 John Kewley, M. D. 1816 N. Y. 
 
 Geo. E. Ironsides 
 Calvin White 
 Anneslcy 
 
 1818 N. Y. 
 1820 Ct. 
 
 N. J. 
 
 1835 Mpi. 
 1839 Mass. 
 1842 N. Y. 
 1845 Md. 
 
 Pierce Connolly 
 
 * Geo. F. Haskins 
 
 * James R. Bayley 
 
 * Nathl. A. Hewit 
 
 Henry Major 1846 Pa. 
 
 Wm Henry Holt " Vt. 
 Elgar P. Wadhams " N. Y. 
 George Allen 1847 Pa. 
 
 C. Donald M'Leod 1849 N. C. 
 J. Murray Forbes, D.D. " N. Y. 
 Thos. S. Preston " " 
 
 Jed'h. Huntington, M.D," S. C. 
 Wm. J. Bakewall 1 850 W. N. Y. 
 
 No. Names. Tear. Diocese. 
 
 20. George L. Roberts 1850 Ind. 
 
 21. Gardiner Jones " Ga. 
 
 22. Ferdinand E. White 1851 N. Y. 
 
 23. Edward J. Ives " Ct 
 
 24. Wm. Everett " X. Y. 
 
 25. Henry L. Richards 1852 Ohio. 
 
 26. Peter S. Burchan " N. Y. 
 
 27. Frederick W. Pollard " Mass. 
 
 28. Norman C. Stoughton " N. Y. 
 
 29. L. S. Ives, D. D., LL. D." N. C. 
 
 30. Francis A. Baker 1853 Md. 
 
 31. Dwight E. Lyman " Pa. 
 
 32. John M'Keon 1854 111. 
 
 33. Homer Wheaton 1855 N. Y. 
 
 34. Benj. W. Whicher " W. N. Y. 
 
 35. Wm. Markoe " Wis. 
 
 36. *Geo. H. Doane, M. D. " N. J. 
 
 37. Geo. C. Foote 1857 Pa. 
 
 38. J. Ambler Weed 1853 Va.
 
 670 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 Of these Nos. 1, 2, 8, 10, 12, were originally Congregation- 
 alists ; Nos. 4, 5, 7, 15, 29, 31, 32, originally Presbyterians ; 
 Nos. 11, 14, 20, 22, 30, originally Methodists ; and Nos. 3 and 
 5 subsequently so. No. 3 was first a Romanist, then a Meth- 
 odist, afterwards rector of St. George's (P. E.) chapel, N. Y. 
 No. 7 returned to the church of England. No. 9 is R. C. bishop 
 of Newark. No. 16 was rector of St. Luke's (P. E.) church, 
 N. Y., to 1849 ; R. C. priest to 1859 ; Dean of (P. E.) Gen. 
 Theol. Sem., N. Y., 1870. No. 17 was assistant of No. 16 at St. 
 Luke's, and is now chancellor of the R. C. archdiocese of New 
 York, and rector of St. Anne's church, New York city (see Chap. 
 XX.). No. 19 was originally an English Unitarian, then a Low- 
 churchman ; has since returned to the Episcopal church. No. 
 29 was the Protestant Episcopal bishop of North Carolina ; his 
 wife, daughter of bishop Ilobart of N. Y., followed him into 
 the R. C. Church. 
 
 One of the most recent and noted converts from among the 
 Episcopal clergy is Rev. James Kent Stone, D. D. (son of Rev. 
 John S. Stone, D. D., and grandson of Chancellor Kent of N. 
 Y.), president of Kenyon College, Ohio, in 1867-8, and of 
 ,Hobart College at Geneva, N. Y., in 1868-9, who joined the 
 Roman Catholic church, Dec. 8, 1869, and has since published 
 a book entitled " The Invitation Heeded ; or, Reasons for a 
 Return to Catholic Unity." Mrs. Seton, foundress of the Sis- 
 ters of Charity in this country (see Chap. VIII.) , and a relative 
 of the above-mentioned bishop Bayley of Newark, was also origi- 
 nally a member of the Protestant Episcopal Church. 
 
 But the number of converts from the clergy of other Protes- 
 tant denominations is certainly much exaggerated in the above 
 statement. " The Catholic World," for January, 1870, men- 
 tions, in its review of Bp. Bayley's Early History of the Catho- 
 lic Church in New York, " the conversion of the Rev. Mr. 
 Richards, sent from New York as a Methodist preacher to 
 Western New York and Canada," who " died a few years since, 
 a zealous and devoted Sulpician priest of the seminary at Mon- 
 treal." ,"The Catholic World" for April, 1865, mentions
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 671 
 
 Rev. John Thayer, " a rich Presbyterian minister of Boston," 
 as converted and becoming a priest and an apostle in the early 
 history of Roman Catholicism in that city. The newspapers in 
 March, 1870, reported that Rev. John H. Wagner, formerly 
 pastor of the Grace Reformed church in Pittsburg, Pa., and 
 Rev. "W. W. Everts, D. D., a Baptist pastor in Chicago, 111., had 
 joined the Roman Catholic church. This report, like others 
 that are often circulated, was only partially true. Rev. Dr. 
 Everts remaining a staunch Protestant. The cases of real 
 transition of Protestant clergymen to the Roman Catholic church 
 are extremely rare, except among the High-church Episco- 
 palians. In the New Englander for January, 1867, Rev. Leon- 
 ard Bacon, D. D., of New Haven, Ct., who has been long and 
 extensively acquainted with Congregational, Presbyterian, Bap- 
 tist, and Methodist ministers in the United States, thus answers 
 " The Catholic World " in respect to conversions to Romanism 
 from among them : 
 
 "... From a date as early as the publication of the Oxford Traets 1 
 [1833-41], we have been observing the natural history (if we have not 
 explored the philosophy) of clerical conversion or perversion to Ro- 
 manism. But in all our memory we find no instance of that phenomenon 
 occurring in any one of those 4 great Protestant bodies. We have 
 known instances of young ministers, or candidates for the ministry, or 
 theological students, going over into the Protestant Episcopal Church, 
 and then, after a sufficient course of Tractarianism, passing on to Rome. 
 But all such instances are among the ' 41 clergymen of the American 
 Episcopal Church,' whom our philosopher counts up as converts, him- 
 
 * * The object of the " Tracts for the Times," originated at Oxford, Eng., by Rev. 
 John H, Newman, with the cooperation of Rev. R. H. Froudc, Rev. John Keble, 
 Rev. Edward B. Pusey, D. D., &c., was to "unprotestantize the Church of Eng- 
 land," or to bring it back to a point where it would not differ from the Roman Cath- 
 olic church. Tract No. 90 by Mr. Newman was especially famous, its object being 
 to show that one might believe the decrees of the Council of Trent and subscribe 
 to the 39 articles of the Church of England. Dr. Pusey's connection with these 
 Tracts gave rise to the names " Puseyism" and " Puseyites," to indicate the sys- 
 tem and the advocates of it. From the special attention paid to peculiar rites and 
 ceremonies, came the names " Ritualism" and " Ritualists." Other distinctive 
 names are " Tractarianism," the " Oxford movement," &c.
 
 672 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 self being evidently one of them ; and certainly he cannot expect to 
 strengthen his argument, or to illustrate his philosophy of conversion, by 
 counting them twice. Dr. O. A. Brownson cannot be named as an ex- 
 ception. That remarkable man never had any clerical standing or 
 title among Protestants, except as a Universalist preacher. He, after 
 working his way through Uuiversalism into a more avowed and consist- 
 ent scheme of unbelief, and finding in his philosophy no satisfaction 
 for his restless soul, bowed at last to the pretended infallibility of the 
 Church of Rome, hoping, it would seem, to gain in that way the rest 
 of an assured belief. . . . ' 
 
 As to the conversions from Protestantism to Roman Cathol- 
 icism, Protestants who have had an opportunity of judging, be- 
 lieve that they are not as numerous as the editor of " The 
 Catholic World " represents, and far less numerous than the 
 conversions from Romanism to Protestantism. Dr. Bacon in 
 1867 supposed the numbers of those who have gone into the 
 Roman Catholic church from without and of those who have 
 gone out of it into Protestantism or into infidelity or irreligion 
 to be in the ratio of 3 to 5 ; and the personal investigations 
 of the author of this volume tend to show that this supposition 
 is by no means extravagant. Dr. Mattison in the fall of 1868 
 expressed his belief that the conversions from among non-Cath- 
 olics had not amounted to 1000 a year for the previous 20 
 years. The late Roman Catholic bishop of Charleston (John 
 England, D. D.) wrote in 1836 to the central council, at Lyons 
 in France, of the Association for the Propagation of the Faith 
 (see Chap. X.), giving certain estimates and conclusions re- 
 specting Roman Catholic immigration to this country and the 
 great loss to the Church from the defections of these immi- 
 grants, and expressing himself thus in view of his facts and 
 figures : 
 
 " If I say upon the foregoing data that we ought, if there were no 
 loss, to have five millions of Catholics in the United States, and that 
 we have less than one million and a quarter, there must have been a 
 loss of three millions and three quarters at least ; and the persons so 
 lost are found among the various sects to the amount of thrice the num- 
 ber of the Catholic population of the whole country."
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 673 
 
 The bishop doubtless was guilty of exaggeration in his state- 
 ments ; but the exaggeration only shows the great facts more 
 strongly. In the fall of 1851 Rev. Robert Mullen, an intelli- 
 gent Roman Catholic priest, was sent to the United States to 
 collect funds fora projected Roman Catholic University at 
 Thurles in Ireland. He traveled extensively in the United States, 
 visited many of the principal cities, carefully surveyed the 
 state and prospects of his church, and was charged with mes- 
 sages from several of the bishops to keep the Irish Catho- 
 lics from emigrating to America on account of their spiritual 
 danger in this country. Thus the bishop of Charleston (Igna- 
 tius A. Reynolds, D. D., bishop 1844-55), after giving his ap- 
 proval of the object of his visit to America, said to him : "You 
 will serve religion still more by proceeding on your return to 
 Ireland, from parish to parish, telling the people not to lose 
 their immortal souls by coming here." And archbishop 
 Hughes said to him : "The people at home [Ireland] do not ful- 
 ly understand the position of the emigrants thousands being 
 lost in the large cities, whilst in the country the faith has died 
 out in multitudes." Mr. Mullen published a letter in the Tab- 
 let, a Roman Catholic newspaper of Dublin, from which the fol- 
 lowing statistics of Roman Catholicism in the United States 
 were taken and published in " The American and Foreign 
 Christian Union" for August, 1852 : 
 
 Catholic emigrants from Ireland, 1835 to 1844, 800,000 
 
 " " " 1844 to 1852, 1,200,000 
 
 " " " other countries, 250,000 
 
 American Catholic population 12 years ago [1840], 1,200,000' 
 
 Increase by births since, 500,000 
 
 Number of converts, 20,000 
 
 Number who ought to be Catholics, 5,970,000 
 
 " " are " 1,980,000 
 
 Number lost to the Catholic Church in the TL S., 1,990,000 
 
 Still further, archbishop Purcell of Cincinnati was reported 
 in the newspapers of Dec., 1870, as complaining " that the 
 
 Catholic church is losing hundreds of German members whx> 
 43
 
 674 POWER OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 prefer Protestant preaching in German to the Catholic preach- 
 ing in English, and who also want to belong to more societies 
 than the Church provides." 
 
 A few instances of conversions to Protestantism may be 
 here noted. Let us begin with the 1000 (more or less) from 
 Madeira now settled in Illinois (see Chap. XII.), and with the 
 5000 French Canadians also in Illinois, who were reported to 
 have become Protestants in 4 years in connection with Father 
 Chiniquy and others (see Chap. XXL). The author can spec- 
 ify single German Protestant churches in different cities, that 
 had received to the communion more persons than all the Ro- 
 man Catholic churches in those particular cities had together 
 received of converts from Protestantism. As long ago as 1850 
 the American and Foreign Christian Union reported " several 
 churches composed mainly of converted Romanists, that have 
 Lutheran, German Reformed, Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, 
 Baptist, and Methodist ministers as their preachers or pastors." 
 About the same time 5 Irishmen, all converted Roman Catho- 
 lics, were laboring in the city of New York as evangelists and 
 colporteurs in the service of the American and Foreign Chris- 
 tian Union, which in 1851 reported 78 missionaries in its ser- 
 vice in the United States, many of them being converted Ro- 
 manists. Many converted Roman Catholics and some conver- 
 ted priests are or have been numbered among the earnest and 
 useful Protestant ministers of this country : but Protestants 
 do not make of them a separate class, nor ordinarily take 
 any pains to give special publicity to their former position or 
 their present labors, and their ministerial associates as well 
 as the people generally may often be unacquainted with the fact 
 that they ever were Roman Catholics. It would not, indeed, at 
 least in some cases, be wise or prudent to draw to them the par- 
 ticular attention of bigoted Roman Catholics (see Chap. 
 XXVII.) . One of them attained in his life-time a special promi- 
 nence through his widely disseminated controversial writings 
 the late Rev. Nicholas Murray, D. D., better known to many 
 as the author of " Kirwan's Letters" once a poor Irish Cath-
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 675 
 
 olic boy, but for more than 30 years a Presbyterian pastor at 
 Wilkesbarre, Pa., and Elizabethtown, N. J., and in 1849 mod- 
 erator of the General Assembly of the (Old School) Presby- 
 terian Church in the United States. 
 
 Enough has been said to give, at least, probability to the 
 Protestant claim that more Roman Catholics in this country 
 are lost to their church than are gained to it by proselytism, 
 though the renunciation of fellowship with that church usually 
 especially among the Irish brings with it and after it bitter 
 opposition and persecution. Yet many who were once counted 
 as Protestants have become and are becoming Roman Catholics. 
 " The Catholic World" specifies the Episcopalians and the Uni- 
 tarians as the two sects, and the cities of New York and Bos- 
 ton as the two places, which furnish the most converts to the 
 Roman Catholic church. Probably the Roman Catholic edu- 
 cational establishments (see Chs. VIII. and XXIV.) have 
 more influence than any other single instrumentality in whi- 
 ning Protestant youth to that church. According to M. Ram- 
 eur and other Roman Catholics, these " are resorted to by 
 numbers of Protestant youth of both sexes. No compulsion is 
 used to make them Catholics, no undue influence is exerted ; 
 but facts and doctrines speak for themselves ; " and as a result, 
 seven-tenths of the Protestants thus educated become Roman 
 Catholics. In one convent nearly 20 Protestant girls renounced 
 Protestantism and were baptized by the priest in three months. 
 Of 40 Protestant girls sent at one time to a nunnery in Mon- 
 treal, it is said that 38 became Roman Catholics. And these 
 baptisms or conversions may take place without the parents' 
 knowledge. Dr. Mattison has pertinently asked : 
 
 " "Will Protestants ever take warning, and keep their children from 
 these proselyting institutions ? " 
 
 In the ways already specified Roman Catholics are increas- 
 ing in number in this country ; and number is one element of 
 power. But Roman Catholics have a great deal of sagacity or 
 worldly wisdom, and they avail themselves of all the elements .
 
 676 POWER OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 of power within their reach. The late Rev. Hiram Mattison, 
 D.D.,of the Methodist Episcopal church, whose pamphlet on 
 " Romanism," written in 1868, condenses much valuable matter 
 into a small compass, specifies 9 " new expedients " as adopted 
 by them in this country. We transfer to these pages his lead- 
 ing ideas and tacts thus : 
 
 " 1. Special efforts are being made, and will still be made, to make 
 converts from the leading families of the nation. Romanism . . . will 
 compass sea and land to make a proselyte from the family of a 
 senator, or governor, or judge, or one high in military command. 1 . . . 
 
 " 2. Special efforts are being made to amass great wealth, in the 
 form of costly churches, convents, and other real estate. The eviden- 
 ces of this are seen on every hand. And to carry out the plan the 
 poor subjects of the hierarchy are taxed almost to poverty. In most 
 of the cities every servant-girl is obliged to pay $5 to $15 a year for 
 these purposes alone. In one village in New England every servant- 
 girl is taxed $125 to build a church, payable in 5 annual installments. 
 This was not so 20 years ago. . . . The masses are so priest-ridden that 
 they can save nothing, and when sickness or age overtakes them must 
 be supported in our public institutions, and by taxes paid mainly by 
 Protestants 2 .... 
 
 " 3. Special efforts are being made to draw the children of Protes- 
 tants into Roman Catholic schools, to pervert them to Romanism. In 
 one country town we found that the ' Sisters ' have visited many Prot- 
 testant families who had girls to be educated, to assure their parents 
 that they had nothing to do with their religion, &c. In other cases 
 they will take Protestant children at half-price, and even gratuitously. 
 In still another case, we were told that a carriage was provided to take 
 the Protestant girls to and from the Sisters' school daily. And all this, 
 
 1 The daughter of the late Gen. Winfield Scott was educated in a convent, and 
 consequently turned Roman Catholic ; and the son of the late Chancellor "Wai. 
 worth is now a R. C. priest in Albany, N. Y. Rev. T. S. Preston of New York, 
 who is said to have the care of 4000 or 5000 souls in his parish, " has especially de- 
 voted himself to the drawing of converts into the Catholic fold." 
 
 2 See Chapters VIII., XX., XXL, XXV., &c. Protestants are solicited and 
 often prevailed on hy various motives to contribute to their church-building, and 
 kindred objects ; but do Roman Catholics follow the example of Protestants and 
 contribute to build Protestant churches, &c. ? If not, why not ?
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 677 
 
 while hundreds of Catholic girls were growing up in the same village 
 without learning even to read and write. And so it is in other places. 1 
 
 " 4. The establishing of parochial schools in connection with every 
 church, is another of their chosen lines of policy. These are not so much 
 to proselyte the children of Protestants, as to isolate their own children 
 from all Protestant influences. . . They are rearing a race in our midst 
 as a generation of foreigners a class that will never assimilate to 
 American ideas, and can but become a most dangerous element in 
 society. 2 
 
 " 5. A desperate effort is being made all over the land to break up 
 our American public school system, and induce the various state legis- 
 latures to support the Roman Catholic schools, with all their sectarian 
 charities. 3 . . . 
 
 " 6. The Catholic priesthood design to use the votes of their de- 
 luded subjects as a corruption-fund, to buy up common councils and 
 legislatures, and thus secure appropriations from the public funds of 
 every chief city and state in the Union. This species of public robbery 
 is already in successful operation in various sections. 4 ... In our large 
 cities, where Romanism bears sway, the same policy is pursued. The 
 politicians want votes, to get into position to plunder the city treasury, 
 and the Romish priests have votes at command, and want money. 
 Hence a bargain is easily struck. And hence tens of thousands are 
 every year at least, wrung from the pockets. of the Protestant tax-pay- 
 ers of the city of New York, by an infamous city government, and 
 given to the Roman Catholics in return for their political support. In 
 1867-68 the state of New York appropriated $25,000 to the ' House 
 of the Good Shepherd,' a Roman Catholic Bastile, where persons who 
 embrace Protestantism are locked up, and starved, and threatened into 
 
 1 See Chapters VIII., XXIV., XXV. The declaration of their non-interference 
 with the religion of the pupils is common ; but there is evidence that all are requir- 
 ed to attend Roman Catholic worship and to bow to images, pictures, &c. (see 
 Chs. XIV, XV,), that frequent and systematic instruction in the Catholic dcctrina 
 is given, and that the regulations make it almost impossible to read the Bible (except 
 the Douay) and practice secret prayer. Coercion is not used; but such influences 
 are used that, as stated on p. 675, the majority become Roman Catholics. 
 
 j See Chapters XXII XXVII. 8 See Chapter XXIV , &c. 
 
 < Dr. Mattison here instances the State of New York, the educational legislation 
 of which is described in Chapter XXIV.
 
 6T8 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 submission to Popery. After the abduction of Miss Mary Ann Smith 
 [see Chap. VIIL], and her imprisonment in that nunnery, and while the 
 suit for her release was still pending in the courts, the supervisors of 
 the city and county of New York appropriated $15,000 more to the 
 same institution as a defiance to the Protestant sentiment of the city, 
 and to concentrate the Catholic vote of the city upon Seymour and 
 Hoffman 1 . . . . 
 
 " 7. Special efforts are being made to place Roman Catholics in 
 office everywhere, and to the greatest possible extent. This requisi- 
 tion upon ' the faithful ' first emanated from Rome itself, and was pro- 
 mulgated hi this country by the great Catholic council recently held in 
 Baltimore [1866]. . . In many of our principal cities most of the 
 offices are held by Romanists. 2 The same is true in many counties in 
 the rural districts, especially in the mining regions of Pennsylvania, 
 and wherever the Romanists are in the majority. In this way Roman- 
 ism hopes to get the whole country under its control ; first, the larger 
 cities ; then, state after state ; and finally, the general government. 
 And at the rate they have been getting into places of power for the 
 last 10 years, it will not be 10 years before one-half of all the offices 
 
 1 For instances of clerical politicians and of intermeddling with politics by Roman 
 Catholic bishops, &c., see Chapters XVIII., XXI., XXIII., XXIV., &c. 
 
 2 The following list of Irish office-holders in New York city at the end of 1868, 
 from Putnam's Magazine for July, 1869, will fairly exhibit the Roman Catholic 
 office-holders at that time, the non-Catholic Irish being more than counterbalanced 
 by non-Irish Catholics : Sheriff, Register, Comptroller, City Chamberlain, Cor- 
 poration Counsel, Police Commissioner, President of the Croton' Board, Acting 
 Mayor and President of the Board of Aldermen, President of the Board of Council- 
 men, Clerk of the Common Council, Clerk of the Board of Councilmen, President 
 of the Board of Supervisors, 5 Justices of the Courts of Record, all the Civil Jus- 
 tices, all but two of the Police Justices, all the Police Court Clerks, 3 out of 4 Coro- 
 ners, 2 Members of Congress, 3 out of 5 State Senators, 18 out of 21 Members of 
 Assembly, 14-19ths of the Common Council, and 8-10ths of the Supervisors. 
 Besides these, the Magazine notices non-Catholic officers or candidates," who find it 
 to their interest to be liberal contributors to Catholic charities or building-funds, or 
 promptly-paying pew-owners in one or more Catholic churches." Of the 4 
 leaders of the notorious " Tammany ring " in New York, two (Peter B. Sweeney 
 and R. B. Connolly) are well known to be Roman Catholics 1 ; the other two (Wm. 
 M. Tweed and A. Oakey Hall) are supposed to call themselves something else.
 
 POWEB OP THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 679 
 
 in the land from school-trustee to the Chief Justice, Lieutenant-Gen- 
 eral, and the President, will be filled by Roman Catholics - 1 . . 
 
 " 8. Special efforts are being put forth to secure the freedmen of 
 the Southern States to the Pbpal church. To this end over 30 
 ' Christian Brothers ' the teaching corps of Romanism were re- 
 cently landed at New Orleans ; and over a thousand ' sisters,' or nuns 
 of various orders, have gone into these slates within a year. And 
 $600,000 in gold has been sent from the treasury of the Propaganda 
 to aid in the accomplishment of this great object. 2 . . 
 
 " 9. Romanism is seeking to prevent apostasies by persecuting all 
 who embrace the true faith of Christ, and thus striking terror through 
 all ranks of their unhappy subjects. This policy is being vigorously 
 pushed in this country, and is potent for evil. If persons ibrmerly 
 Catholics embrace Christ, and join a Protestant church, they are in 
 many places in danger of being murdered outright by the Catholics. 
 In other cases they are kidnaped and locked up in convents ; and by 
 poor fare, hard labor, and threats, reduced to submission, after the man- 
 ner of the Inquisition elsewhere. Witness the case of Mary Ann 
 Smith, a young girl of Newark, N. J., who for joining the Methodist 
 Episcopal church was forcibly abducted from the Methodist family in 
 which she was living, and has been confined in a convent in New York 
 city for months [see Chap. VIII.]. And such things are common 
 throughout the country. Wherever we go, almost, we hear either of 
 the sudden disappearance of persons who have professed conversion to 
 Christ and renounced Romanism, or of their violent persecution. In 
 one case in New York a mother tore the hair from the head of her 
 daughter, knocked her down, and stamped upon and cursed her. In 
 another instance a mother beat her daughter till she became a cripple 
 for life. We saw and conversed with the poor victim of this outrage, 
 and she is still faithful to her Savior. At Ogdensburg, N. Y., a young 
 lad, whose parents were Romanists, who had joined the Methodist 
 Episcopal church, was seized by a Roman Catholic constable without 
 any legal proce-s whatever, and not only locked up for 3 days, but ac- 
 tually put in irons, and was only released upon a writ of habeas corpus. 
 
 i Dr. Mattison added the note (fall of 1868) : " It is said that nearly every promi- 
 nent officer in the army, except Gen. Grant, is a Roman Catholic.". 
 * See Chapters VHT., X., XXIV.
 
 680 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 And Miss Smith testifies that there are other girls confined in the 
 nunnery where she is imprisoned for the same cause that she is, namely, 
 for ' changing their religion.' ... A minister goes forth and preaches 
 Christ to Romanists ; some are convinced, and turn away from the 
 follies of Popery ; whereupon they are either murdered, or seized and 
 locked up in a dungeon. And that this last is done is openly declared 
 in their churches as a warning to others. A friend in the West who 
 is well informed upon the subject, writes us that but for this ter- 
 rorism in the Romish church there are thousands who would renounce 
 and abandon Romanism forever. ... So far as Romanism has power to 
 prevent it, there is no religious freedom in the land. 1 ..." 
 
 There is no doubt that Roman Catholics have increased and 
 are still increasing in the United States in political and social 
 power. The prophecy of Father. Hecker and others that the 
 Roman Catholics in this country will be more numerous and 
 stronger than the Protestants during the present generation or 
 before the year 1900, is well known. The Roman Catholics 
 undoubtedly expect to control both our country and Great 
 Britain in the not very distant future ; and they are using their 
 utmost exertions to bring about that (to them) glorious result. 
 "We have noted their progress in this country ; let us now 
 glance at their prospects in the land that has long been the 
 stronghold of Protestantism in Europe. 
 
 In 1780, the Roman Catholic population in England ap- 
 peared, from a return made to the House of Lords, to be about 
 70,000 with 359 priests. 8 peers, 19 baronets, and about 150 
 gentlemen [= those who, like the nobility, had their coats of 
 arms, and ranked above the common people, but, unlike the 
 nobility, were without a title] were then Roman Catholics. 
 The whole population of England and Wales then is estimated 
 at about 7,815,000, the Roman Catholics being thus a little less 
 than 1 per cent. In 1857 the Roman Catholics had in Eng- 
 land and Wales 985 priests, more than 20 peers, more than 
 40 baronets and more than 40 members of Parliament. 
 The next year (1858) the number of church-going Ro- 
 
 i See Chapter XXVTL
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 681 
 
 man Catholics was returned to the House of Lords as 
 670,786 or 3 per cent, of the whole population. The 
 present Roman Catholic population of England and Wales is 
 estimated at 1,000,000 or 5 per cent, of the whole population. 
 The " Oxford movement," already spoken of as somewhat 
 affecting the Protestant Episcopal church in this country, has 
 much more seriously affected the established church of Eng- 
 land. It is estimated that 200 Roman Catholic priests in Eng- 
 land ( of the whole) were once clergymen of the church of 
 England ; and among the leading laity is a like proportion of 
 those who once belonged to the established church. Roman 
 Catholic papers in England reported about 2100 or 2200 con- 
 verts to their faith in England in 1868, about one-half of them 
 in London, most of them in the upper, middle and professional 
 classes, a majority of them males, including 2 peers, 19 clergy 
 of the church of England, 7 or 8 university graduates, <fec. 
 The London Register (Roman Catholic) in its review of 
 1869 estimated the number of converts to Roman Catholicism 
 in London alone at about 2,000, and said : " From every Rit- 
 ualistic congregation there is a constant stream of converts drift- 
 ing towards us. In various parts of the country different Ang- 
 lican clergymen have been received to the number of some ten 
 or a dozen, and at least as many ladies connected with various 
 Anglican sisterhoods." Among the notable converts of for- 
 mer years are Rev. John H. Newman, D.D. (1845; superior 
 of the Oratory [see Chap. VIII.]), Henry E. Manning, D.D. 
 (1851 ; now R. C. archbishop of Westminister, as successor to 
 cardinal Wiseman), Rev. Frederic Wm. Faber, D. D. (1845; 
 also an Oratorian), Rev. Henry and Robert Isaac Wilberforce 
 (sons of Wm. Wilberforce, the philanthropist), Hon. and Rev. 
 G. Spencer (better known as " Father Ignatius," the Passion- 
 ist), Mr. Edmund S. Ffoulkes (since returned to the church of 
 England), the earl of Gainsborough, &c. Many influences 
 combine to promote the increase of Roman Catholicism in Eng- 
 land as in the United States, such as the immigration from Ire- 
 land, the worldliness and formalism connected with the estab-
 
 682 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 lished church, and the social and political influence which the 
 Roman Catholic church has gained within the past score or 
 two of years. A speech of the late cardinal Wiseman in the 
 Roman Catholic assembly at Malines (= Mechlin) in Belgium 
 in 1863 is said in " The Christian World " of January, 1864, 
 to have contained these statements : 
 
 In London, since 1829, the Roman Catholic churches have increased 
 from 29 to 102 ; nunneries from 1 to 25 ; monasteries from to 15. 
 
 " You are aware that when the Catholic hierarchy was reestablished 
 in England in 1850, a violent storm of public opinion burst upon us. . . 
 But I hasten to add that our fellow-countrymen have since that time 
 made reparation lo us so completely, that all recollection of those un- 
 happy days is now entirely effaced from our memory. It has required 
 ten years to obtain the remedy of our principal grievances ; ten years 
 of efforts and struggles. At last we have succeeded. And by what 
 means have we succeeded ? I will tell you. Observe, first, that we 
 have not chosen the government under which we live, but we have con- 
 sidered it to be our duty to draw from it every aid possible. We have 
 used the means which Providence placed at our disposal to ameliorate 
 our condition. We have recognized two persons in the State, the 
 Crown and the nation. We do not acknowledge any third power be- 
 tween these and us. Being thus placed, the principal object of our 
 efforts has been to gain the necessary support in Parliament. But we 
 are only a small group, a family, so to speak ; and how were we to 
 procure a majority in Parliament ? All [Catholic?] England only 
 sends one member to the House of Commons. Yet we did not de- 
 spair. Catholics observed that the electors were divided between two 
 parties, and they found that by combining their strength, and then 
 bringing it to bear in favor of one side or the other, they could cause 
 that side to succeed which appeared the more disposed to do them jus- 
 tice. Thus we have taught the two parties in the state to count the 
 power of the Catholics as something." 
 
 In accordance with the above is the language of " The 
 Catholic World " for July, 1870, in its leading article entitled 
 " The Catholic of the 19th century :"
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 " The Catholic, like the church, is one and the same in all ages and 
 all times. . . The most obvious, interesting, and important view of the 
 Catholic in his relations to the century is that of voting. . . . We do not 
 hesitate to affirm that in performing our duties as citizens, electors, and 
 public officers, we should always and under all circumstances act simply 
 as Catholics ; that we should be governed and directed by the immutable 
 principles of our religion, and should take dogmatic faith and the con- 
 clusions drawn from it, as expressed and defined in Catholic philoso- 
 phy, theology, and morality, as the only rule of our private, public and 
 political conduct. Those things which are condemned by Catholic jus- 
 tice we should condemn ; those things which are affirmed, we should 
 affirm " 
 
 Protestants will naturally understand by such language that 
 Roman Catholics in England and America are expected to re- 
 nounce the right of private judgment which their church has 
 condemned, to accept the decrees of their church and of their 
 infallible pope as the law binding their consciences and deter- 
 mining their whole course, " always and under all circum- 
 stances [to] act simply as Catholics," and as therefore bound 
 to aim first and mainly to provide for the interests of their 
 church and to be " governed and directed by the immutable 
 principles " of their religion, which involve complete and unhes- 
 itating obedience to their spiritual guides in voting and " per- 
 forming [all] duties as citizens, electors, and public officers " 
 (see Chs. II., VII., XVIII., XXIL, XXIII., XXVII., &c.). 
 
 But there is another view to be taken of this matter in respect 
 to Great Britain also. While the number of Roman Catholics 
 has been increasing in England and Scotland (the number in 
 Scotland being estimated at 250,000, or about ^ of the popula- 
 tion), there has been a great falling off in Ireland. In 1834 
 there were in Ireland, according to the returns of the Commis- 
 sioners of Public Instruction, 6,431,008 Roman Catholics, and 
 1,523,094 Protestants, or nearly 4^ Roman Catholics to 1 Prot- 
 estant ; but the most recent account (1869) makes the number 
 of Roman Catholics in Ireland only 4,490,583, while the Prot- 
 estants number 1,273,960, or 3 Roman Catholics to 1 Prot*
 
 684 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 estant. The Roman Catholics in Ireland have been diminish- 
 ed both by emigration (see Chap. XXV.) and by conversions 
 to Protestantism. They probably lost from 1841 to 1861 about 
 2 millions in population. The (Protestant) bishop of Tuam 
 confirmed 400 converted Irish Romanists in 1849 ; and stated 
 in 1851 that in a year not less than 10,000 had forsaken the 
 Roman Catholic communion in his diocese alone. Two Roman 
 Catholic papers of Dublin may here be quoted. Said the " Tab- 
 let," Nov. 8, 1851 : " It is not Tuam, nor Cashel, nor Armagh, 
 that are the chief seats of successful proselytism, but this very 
 city [Dublin] in which we live." Said the " Nation " of Nov. 
 20, 1852 : " There can no longer be any question that the 
 systematized proselytism has met with an immense success 
 in Connaught and Kerry. It is true that the altars of the Catho- 
 lic church have been deserted by thousands born and baptized 
 in the ancient faith of Ireland." Rev. Dr. Bair<J in 1855 esti- 
 mated that 40,000 Romanists had been converted in the 7 or 
 8 years previous. There were hundreds, if not thousands, of 
 conversions among the Roman Catholics in the revival of 1858. 
 In one month, within a year or two, 5 Roman Catholic priests 
 entered one Protestant church in Dublin. Cardinal Cullen 
 declared 3 or 4 years ago, that 18 institutions were then " found 
 in Dublin, with the impious design of destroying the faith and 
 morals of the poor Catholics ;" that " at least 5000 a year suc- 
 cumb to their influence ; " and that these 18 institutions made 
 up apparently " but a third or fourth part of the organization 
 formed for the same purpose." Prof. A. J. Schem, in the 
 American Year-Book for 1869, estimated the Roman Catholic 
 population of Great Britain and Ireland at 6,100,000, about 
 330,000 less than the Roman Catholic population of Ireland 
 alone in 1834. The Civilta Cattolica (the Jesuit magazine at 
 Rome), as quoted in "The Catholic World" for January, 
 1866, reckoned the Roman Catholics in Great Britain and Ire- 
 land at 7,500,000 ; but this estimate is doubtless made up in 
 the same way as those in the United States, and is, like them,
 
 POWER OP THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 685 
 
 largely conjectural and probably exaggerated. In spite, there- 
 fore, of their increase in England and Scotland, the Roman 
 Catholics appear to have lost rather than gained in numbers in 
 Great Britain and Ireland, taken together, in the last 35 years. 
 That the Roman Catholic church has suffered losses on the 
 continent of Europe in respect to numbers and to both social 
 and political influence, appears plain. The progress of civil 
 and religious liberty in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Austria, 
 within the last 5 years has been in direct opposition to the 
 strenuous efforts and anathemas of the church-authorities (see 
 Chap. XXVII.). Austria, which had been for ages one of 
 the main supports of the papal power, has been driven out of 
 Italy, defeated by Protestant Prussia in the great battle of 
 Sadowa, and excluded from Germany ; France, the other 
 main support of the papal power, has been defeated more 
 completely even than Austria by the same Prussia, and the 
 Prussian king is now the German emperor ; and the temporal 
 power of the pope has now been overthrown. Since 1866 
 Protestant Europe has been politically stronger than Catholic 
 Europe ; and Protestantism can claim legal rights at this day 
 throughout Europe. In Spain a few hundreds had secretly be- 
 come Protestants before the revolution of 1868 ; but since that 
 event flourishing Protestant theological schools have been es- 
 tablished ; Protestant churches and preaching-stations are lo- 
 cated in Seville, Madrid, Cadiz, Malaga, Yalladolid, and other 
 cities, and some of them are crowded with hearers of the 
 gospel ; Sunday-schools are started ; public free-schools are 
 opened or opening in all parts of the kingdom ; many copies 
 of the Bible have been sold ; 60 priests at Madrid are re- 
 ported to have left the Roman Catholic church, and formed a 
 new free church. In Italy, also, a Protestant theological 
 school has existed for several years at Milan ; numerous Prot- 
 estant missionaries are laboring efficiently and successfully ; 
 many Protestant schools have been established ; churches 
 have been formed here and there, 2 large ones in Milan, and 
 some of the others with more than 100 members each ; and,
 
 686 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 said Rev. Wm. Clark, Missionary Director of the American 
 and Foreign Christian Union at Milan, in 1869 : " In no land, 
 heathen or Catholic, have visible fruits been more abundant 
 for the comparative smallness of the culture." In the Gen- 
 eral Assembly of the Free Churches of Italy, held at Milan 
 in June, 1870, 33 churches were reported, and a declara- 
 tion of fundamental principles was unanimously adopted, 
 the first of which is u God, the Father, Son, and Holy 
 Spirit, has manifested His will in revelation, which is the 
 Bible, the only perfect and immutable rule of faith and con- 
 duct." There are also Waldensian churches in Italy. The 
 year 1871 finds Protestant preachers and preaching (Free- 
 church and Waldensian) in 4 or 5 different places in Rome 
 itself, the eloquent Gavazzi, once a Roman Catholic priest, 
 being one of these Free-church preachers, and the con- 
 stantly increasing attendance giving great encouragement. 
 In France thousands of Roman Catholics have been converted. 
 In Lyons and its vicinity alone 900 Roman Catholics were 
 converted from 1825 to 1850. To contain these converts and 
 others in other parts of the country the Protestants of France 
 from 1825 to 1868 opened 150 new chapels or places of wor- 
 ship. The number of these in Paris increased during this 
 time from 2 to 40 ; and 20 Protestant newspapers and period- 
 icals were also reported in 1868 in the place of the none in 
 1802. In Bohemia, Hungary, and other parts of Austria many 
 conversions to Protestantism have taken place within 25 years, 
 notwithstanding the discouragements and disabilities attending 
 the profession of Protestantism. Now the Austrian prime 
 minister himself, Count Von Beust, is a Protestant. In Bel- 
 gium it was estimated by Rev. Dr. Baird in 1855 that as many 
 as 6,000 or 8,000 Roman Catholics had been converted within 
 a few years, and the number has since been much increased. 
 Of Germany, the Univers, a leading Roman Catholic news- 
 paper of Paris, said, as quoted by Dr. Mattison in 1868 : " In 
 all the Catholic cities of Germany the statistical returns make 
 it apparent that the number of Protestants is increasing in a
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 687 
 
 fearful manner." Many things, indeed, in Germany seem now 
 more favorable to Protestantism than to Roman Catholicism. 
 The accomplishment of German unity under a Protestant sov- 
 ereign, the fact that his prime minister has interfered in other 
 countries for the protection and furtherance of civil and relig- 
 ious liberty, the sympathy which the excommunicated Dollin- 
 ger (see Chap. XXII . is receiving not only in Bavaria, but 
 throughout Germany, in Austria, and even in Rome itself, 
 from Roman Catholic priests and professors, from civil and 
 ecclesiastical dignitaries, and from influential laymen and from 
 the people generally, as well as the progress of evangelical 
 religion, all betoken a loss rather than a gain to the Roman 
 Catholic church in Germany. " Taking Europe as a whole," 
 said Dr. Mattison, " Romanism is rapidly declining, and espe- 
 cially in her ancient strongholds and former seats of power." 
 It is undeniable that when the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth 
 in 1620, the great leading nations of the world Germany, 
 Spain, France, Italy, Portugal, Poland were all Roman Cath- 
 olic ; now not one of the 4 leading nations (Great Britain, 
 Germany, the United States, and Russia) is Roman Catholic, 
 but 3 of the 4 are Protestant, while Russia sympathizes more 
 with them than with Roman Catholics. 
 
 In the New "World, Protestantism has accomplished a pre- 
 paratory work and has its converts and churches in Chili ; it 
 has made a beginning in Colombia ; it is advancing so rapidly 
 in Mexico, that a Mexican recently said, " Beyond a doubt, 
 Mexico hastens to throw herself into the arms of Jesus Christ." 
 The dominion of Canada, originally settled by Roman Cath- 
 olics and long controlled by them, has been subject to Great 
 Britain since 1763, and is now divided between the Roman 
 Catholics and Protestants. A document was published in the 
 Montreal Witness of Aug. 27, 1870, in which 120 French 
 Roman Catholics formally announced to M. Rousselot, parish 
 priest of Montreal, their renunciation of Romanism, and their 
 decision to follow Jesus Christ alone. 
 
 While the Roman Catholic power in the world is far less rcl-
 
 688 
 
 POWER OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 atively than it was 250 years ago or even 20 years ago, it is un- 
 questionably increasing in some parts, especially in England 
 and the United States. Says " The Catholic World" for Jan- 
 uary, 1870 ; 
 
 " "We have certainly gained ground in Protestant nations, but proba- 
 bly not much more than we have lost in old Catholic nations." 
 
 And we may here also quote a somewhat boastful saying of 
 " The Catholic World " in Oct., 1869, and compare it with the 
 facts and conclusions set forth in this and the tenth chapters : 
 
 " All historians agree that the triumphs of Protestantism closed with 
 the first 50 years of its existence." 
 
 We will conclude this chapter with a summary of recent sta- 
 tistics from Roman Catholic and Protestant authorities. The 
 former are from an article (which may be considered semi-offi- 
 cial) in the Civilta Cattolica of Rome, translated and published 
 in " The Catholic World" for January, 1866 ; the latter are from 
 " The New York Observer Year-Book and Almanac, 1871." 
 
 Country. Roman 
 
 Catholics 
 
 Roman Catholics 
 
 No. Protestants 
 
 Total Population 
 
 by Civilta Cattolica. by Obs. Year-Book. by Obs. Year-Book. by Obs. Year-Book. 
 
 United States, 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 33,500,000 
 
 40,000,000 * 
 
 Mexico, 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 8,200,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 8,218,080 
 
 Central Ameri- ) 
 can llepublies, ) 
 
 2,900,000 
 
 2,660,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 2,665,000 
 
 U. S. of Colombia, ) 
 or New Granada, J 
 
 3,100,000 
 
 2,890,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 2,920,473 
 
 Venezuela, 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 Ecuador, 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 Peru, 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Bolivia, 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 
 1,987,352 
 
 Chili, 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 1,950,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 2,084,960 
 
 Brazil, 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 11,100,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 11,780,000 
 
 Argentine Rep., 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 1,340,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 1,465,00'J 
 
 Paraguay, 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 1,337,000 
 
 
 1,337,431 
 
 Uraguay, 
 
 360,000 
 
 237,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 350,000 
 
 Hayti, 1 
 San Domingo, } 
 
 800,000 
 
 ( 560,000 
 | 135,000 
 
 10,000 
 1,000 
 
 572,000 
 136,500 
 
 British N. America, 
 
 1,560,000 
 
 1,700,000 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 3,880,000 2 
 
 J This includes 10,000 of the Eastern or Greek Church in Alaska. The census 
 of 1870 makes the total population of the United States 38,549,534, according to 
 the latest correction, May 1, 1871. 
 
 2 Thi8 includes the Dominion of Canada, Prince Edward island, Newfoundland, 
 British Columbia, the Red River Colony, and the Bermudas.
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 689 
 
 Country. Rom. Cath. by 
 Cn-tfta Cattolica. 
 
 Rom. Cath. by 
 Obs. Year-Book. 
 
 Protestants by 
 Obs. Year-Book. 
 
 Total Pop. by 
 Obs. Year-Book. 
 
 British W. In- ) 210 QQQ 
 dies & Guiana, ) 
 
 150,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 1,130,910 
 
 Danish Possessions ) 
 
 
 
 
 (Greenland, St.Thos., > 34,000 
 
 9,200 
 
 38,000 
 
 48, 231 
 
 St. John, St. Cruz), ) 
 
 
 
 
 French Guiana & ) n nR rv\n 
 W. Indies, \ 806 00 
 
 314,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 315,677 
 
 Cuba Porto Rico, ) 2 ,260,000 
 &c. (Spanish), ) 
 
 1,977,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,979,838 
 
 Dutch Guiana ) in nnn 
 o IIT T i- r 40.000 
 & W. Indies, ) 
 
 32,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 92,521 
 
 St. Bartholomew, } 
 W. L (Swedish), ) 
 
 800 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,898 
 
 Patagonia & Ter- ) 
 ra del Fuego, ) 
 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 All America, 46,970,000 
 
 47,192,000 
 
 36,459,000 
 
 86,996,871 l 
 
 Portugal, 4,300,000 
 
 4,340,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 4,351, 519 2 
 
 Spain, 17,000,000 
 
 16,280,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 16,302,625 
 
 Andorra (between ) 
 France & Spain), } 12 . 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 France, 30,000,000 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 38,192,094 
 
 Germany, 13,31 1,000(?) 
 
 12,810,000 
 
 24,033,000 
 
 38,521,900 
 
 Austria, 30,000,000 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 35,553,000 
 
 Italy, 23,530,000 
 
 24,717,500 
 
 6,000 
 
 25,099,495 a 
 
 Switzerlana, 1,120,000 
 
 1,023,000 
 
 l,482,00a 
 
 2,510,494 
 
 Holland, 1,509,000 
 
 1,450,000 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 3,752,623* 
 
 Belgium, 4,800,000 
 
 4,850,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 4,984,451 
 
 Great Britain, 7,500,000 
 
 6,100,000 
 
 2-3,400,000 
 
 29,484,971 & 
 
 Denmark, 5,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,675,000 
 
 1, 684,004 s 
 
 Sweden, 7,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 5,760,000 
 
 5,771,539^ 
 
 Turkey, 1,130,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 18,683,367 8 
 
 Greece, 100,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,348,522 9 
 
 Kussia, 7,000,000(7) 
 
 6,7G9,QO& 
 
 4,122,000 
 
 67,260,431 
 
 ,A11 Europe ,147,394,000 
 
 142,117,500 
 
 68,028,000 
 
 293,5 13,035 10 
 
 1 This includes the 10,000 of the Greek Church in Alaska, besides Pagans, &c. 
 
 2 This includes 363,658 for the Azores and Madeira isles. 
 
 8 This includes 5,700 for the republic of San Marino and 1887 for Monaco. 
 
 including 199,958 for Luxemburg. 
 
 Including 163,683 for Heligoland, Gibraltar, and Malta. 
 
 c lncluding 75,909 for Faroe islands and Iceland. 
 I- 'Including 1,701,478 for Norway. 
 
 Including 3,864,848 for Roumania (=Wallachia and Moldavia), 1,078,281 for 
 Sorvia, and 196,238 for Montenegro. 
 
 "Including 251,712 in the Ionian islands. 
 
 10 0f these the Greek, Armenian and other Eastern churches have 2000 in Ger- 
 many, 3,200,000 in Austria, 12,500,000 in Turkey, 52,810,000 in Russia, 1,270,000 
 in Greece, and 69,782,000 in all Europe. 130,000 are added for Moldavia and. 
 "Wallachia in the Cioilta Cattolica column, as this placed them in Asia. 
 44
 
 69(5 POWER OF THE 
 Country. Rom. Cath. by 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 Rom. Catb. by Protestants by Total Pop. by 
 
 Cii-itta Cattolica. 
 
 Obs. Year-Book. 
 
 Obs. Year-Book. Obs. Year-Book. 
 
 Asiatic Russia, 
 
 100,000(?) 
 
 25,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 9,748,017 
 
 Asiatic Turkey, 
 
 600,000(?) 
 
 260,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 16,463,000 
 
 Arabia, 
 
 
 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 Persia, 
 
 120,000(7) 
 
 10,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Afghanistan and Herat, 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 Beloochistan, 
 
 
 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Turkistan, 
 
 
 
 
 7,870,000 
 
 China & de- ) 
 pendencies, > 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 477,500,000 
 
 Japan, 
 
 
 100,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 35,000,000 
 
 East Indies, 
 
 y^ie.ooo 1 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 670,000 
 
 243,838,891 a 
 
 All Asia & ) 
 Asiatic islands, ' 
 
 9,036,000 
 
 4,695,000 
 
 713,000 
 
 805,419,477 s 
 
 Australasia, 
 
 470,000* 
 
 252,397 s 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 
 Sandwich Islands, &c., 30,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 150,000 s 
 
 
 All Oceanica, 
 
 500,000 
 
 350,000? 
 
 1,450,000 
 
 4,192,000 s 
 
 a The Civilta Cattolica reckons 1,100,000 Catholics in British India ; 25,000 in 
 Netherland India ; 170,000 in French India; 546,000 in Portuguese India, Islands, 
 and Macao ; 4,750,000 in Spanish India and Philippine Islands ; 600,000 in 
 Anam ; 25,000 in Siara. 
 
 2 The Observer Year-Book reckons 193,340,414 in East India ( =Hindoostan_) and 
 British Burmah ; 2,049,728 in Ceylon ; 20,769,945 in Farther India ; 27,678,804 in 
 the East India islands. It makes the no. of Roman Catholics in the East India isl- 
 ands to be 2,000,000, and of Protestants there 170,000 ; the number of Roman Cath- 
 olics in the rest of the East Indies 1,600,000, and of Protestants in the same 500,000. 
 
 8 0f these there belong to the Greek and other Eastern churches 4,885,000 in 
 Asiatic Russia ; 3,000,000 in Asiatic Turkey ; 300,000 in Persia ; 1,000 in China 
 and its dependencies ; 300,000 in the East Indies ; making 8,486,000 in Asia and 
 the Asiatic islands. 
 
 4 Australasia = Australia or New Holland, Tasmania or Van Diomcn's Land, 
 New Caledonia, New Zealand, &c. The Civilta CaUolica reckons 300,000 Roman 
 Catholics in New Holland ; 40,000 in Tasmania; 60,000 in New Zealand; 70,- 
 000 in New Caledonia and adjoining islands. 
 
 6 The Observer Year-Book makes the number of Roman Catholics in New South 
 Wales 99,193, in South Australia, 15,594; in Victoria, 107,610; in New Zealand, 
 about 30,000. New South Wales, S. Australia, and Victoria are all in Australia 
 or New Holland. 
 
 6 This is the Observer Year-Book's estimate for " the Sandwich, Fiji, and other 
 islands." 
 
 7 This apparently allows about 75,000 for the parts of Australasia and Polynesia 
 not specially named, as Tasmania, New Caledonia, Society islands, &c. 
 
 8 The Observer Year-Book says : " The total population of Australia according 
 to the latest census was 1,313,946 ; the population of the islands is estimated at 
 2,823,925; total, 4,192,000."
 
 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 691 
 
 Country. Rom. Oath, by 
 
 Cicitta Cattolica. 
 
 British Africa, 1 180,000 
 French " 2 430,000 
 Portuguese" 8 950,000 
 Spanish " * 285,000 
 Angola, Bengue- ) 
 la, Mozambique, ) 
 Algeria, 
 
 Egypt, 172,000 
 
 Abyssinia, 2,000,000 
 
 Liberia, 4,000 
 
 Morocco &Fez,) 3QflQO 
 Tunis & Tripoli, ) 
 Madagascar, 10,000 
 
 Orange Free State, 
 Transvaal Republic, 
 Kaffraria, ) 
 a. > 
 
 Basutos, 
 
 Gallas, 
 
 10,000 
 
 Rom. Cath. by 
 Obs. Year-Boot. 
 
 140,000 
 
 133,000 
 
 439,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 190,000 
 50,000 
 30,000 
 
 ( 200 
 
 ( 10,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 All Africa, 4,071,000 1,106,200 
 
 All the world, 207,801,000 195,460,200 
 
 Protestants by 
 Obs. Y ear-Book. 
 
 500,000 
 
 Total Pop. by 
 Obs. Year-Book. 
 
 10,000 
 10,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 50,000 
 15,000 
 30,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 685,000 
 107,335,000 
 
 190,950,000* 
 1,380,880,423 
 
 The inhabitants of the world are thus classified in the N. Y. 
 Observer Year-Book for 1871 : 
 
 iThe Civilta Cattolica puts the Roman Catholics of the British Possessions on 
 the African continent (Sierra Leone, Cape and Natal colonies, &c.) at 30,000, and 
 of Mauritius and other islands at 150,000. 
 
 2 The Cwilta Cattoltca puts the Roman Catholics of Reunion (=Bourbon) and 
 other French islands at 180,000, and of the continental possessions (in Senegambia, 
 Ac.) at 250,000. 
 
 8 The Civilla Cattolica puts the Catholics of Madeira and other Portuguese islands 
 at 260,000, and of other possessions in Africa at 690,000. The Observer Year- 
 Book reckons the Azores and Madeira islands with Portugal. 
 
 4 The Civilta Cattolica puts the Catholics of the Canaries at 260,000, and of 
 other Spanish possessions at 25,000. 
 
 6 Among these are reckoned 3,200,000 Copts, Abyssinians, and other Eastern 
 Christians, viz., 200,000 in Egypt, and 3,000,000 in Abyssinia. 
 
 6 This incudes a population of 81,478,000 for the Eastern churches, viz., the 
 Greek, Armenian, Nestorian, Jacobite, Coptic, and Abyssinian churches. These 
 are found mostly in Russia, Turkey, and the neighlxmng countries. The Civilta 
 Cattolica puts the total population at 840,000,000, the Eastern churches at 70,000,- 
 000, and Protestants at 66,000,000.
 
 692 POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 Christians, 388,600,000 Pagans, 200,000,000 
 
 Buddhists, 360,000,000 Mohammedans, 165,000,000 
 
 Other Asiatic Religions, 260,000,000 Jews, 7,000,000 
 
 They are thus classified in the Civilta Cattolica : 
 
 Christianity, 344,000,000 Buddhism, 180,000,000 
 
 Judaism, 4,000,000 Worship of Con- -. 
 
 Islamism, 100,000,000 fucins, Sin to, ', 152,000,000 
 
 Brahminism, 60,000,OCO of Spirits, &c., ; 
 
 Total, 840,000,000 
 
 It will be noticed that the Observer Year-Book makes the 
 whole population of the world 1,380,880,423 ; while the Civil- 
 ta Cattolica makes it only 840,000,000. The former gives to 
 the Eastern churches not in communion with the Roman Cath- 
 olic church, a population of 81,478,000, and to Protestantism 
 107,335,000 ; while the latter gives to the Eastern Churches 
 70,000,000, and to Protestantism only 66,000,000. There are, 
 indeed, great differences in the accuracy and reliability of sta- 
 tistics and other statements as published by Protestants and 
 even by infidels ; but the statistics of population and estimates 
 of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church by Roman Cath- 
 olics, whether priests or laymen, whether put forth officially 
 or semi-officially at Rome, or published with or without author- 
 ity in New York or Providence or anywhere else, are, in the au- 
 thor's opinion, uniformly to be regarded and treated as nothing 
 more than approximations to the truth, or, in less courteous 
 phrase, as more or less successful conjectures. Yet it seems de- 
 sirable and eminently proper that Roman Catholics as well as 
 Protestants should, in this respect as well as in others, have 
 full opportunity to tell their own story in their own way. 
 Truth will never suffer from careful comparison and from can- 
 did and earnest investigation. Only error and falsehood have 
 cause to dread the light. Truth has power, because God is 
 with it and for it. The ancient prophecy is surely advancing 
 towards its complete fulfillment : 
 
 " And the kingdom and dominion, and the greatness of the kingdom 
 under the whole heaven, shall be given to the people of the saints of 
 the Most High, whose kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and all do- 
 minions shall serve and obey him " (Dan. 7 : 27).
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 WE now close our survey of the Roman Catholic system. We 
 have studied its origin and development, its principles and aims, 
 its tendencies and relations, its professions and its actual work- 
 ings. We have seen it at Rome and away from Rome, under 
 absolute governments and in lands of law and liberty, in alli- 
 ance with the state and in separation from the state, among civ- 
 ilized and barbarous nations, in all latitudes and climates and 
 conditions, in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and the islands 
 of the sea. We have heard both sides, giving its friends a fair 
 opportunity to speak for it and its enemies an equally fair oppor- 
 tunity to speak against it. We have taken its decrees and canons 
 of councils, its encyclical letters and bulls and briefs and rescripts 
 of popes, its Missal and Breviary, its Ritual and Pontifical, and 
 other standard authorities, and had them faithfully translated 
 from the original Latin of editions which bore the official sanction 
 of its dignitaries ; we have quoted from its approved publica- 
 tions in English, its Ceremonial and catechisms, its pastoral 
 letters and periodicals, its controversial and devotional works ; 
 we have cited the most accurate and impartial writers of history 
 and statistics, and the best qualified observers of facts ; we 
 have allowed those converted to Roman Catholicism and those 
 converted from it to tell us plainly what they knew and what 
 they thought ; we have gathered from all accessible sources 
 statements, arguments, illustrations, and the materials for these, 
 and have had them all so arranged and spread out before us 
 that we could take a view of them at once ; we have earnestly
 
 694 CONCLUSION. 
 
 sought the light and the truth without any fear as Protestants 
 of being led astray from God and right if we were only honest 
 and candid and careful and prayerful. "Well said that sturdy 
 Protestant, John Milton, in defending the liberty of the press 
 more than two centuries ago : 
 
 " Though all the winds of doctrine were let loose to play upon the 
 earth, so Truth be in the field, we do injuriously ... to misdoubt her 
 strength. Let her and falsehood grapple ; who ever knew Truth put 
 to the worse in a free and open encounter ? . . . . For who knows not 
 that Truth is strong, next to the Almighty ? She needs no policies, 
 nor stratagems, nor licensings, to make her victorious ; those are the 
 shifts and the defenses that error uses against her power ; give her but 
 room, and do not bind her when she sleeps." 
 
 The famous tract " Is it honest ? " published by " The Catho- 
 lic Publication Society," enforces its plea to " examine the 
 doctrines of the Catholic Church," and to " read the works of 
 Catholics" by an apparent agreement with our principle of 
 dealing candidly and fairly with all, thus : 
 
 " See both sides. Examine, and be fair, for Americans love fair 
 play." 
 
 " Looking," therefore, " unto Jesus, the author and finisher of 
 our faith" (Heb. 12 : 2), and having confidence that the Spirit of 
 truth, whom he sends, is both able and willing to guide us into 
 all truth (John 16 : 13) and to give to his kingdom of truth its 
 promised and glorious triumph (John 18 : 37. Rev. 11 : 15). 
 we can afford to let Roman Catholics as well as Protestants 
 make their own statements and bring forth their strongest and 
 most plausible arguments in defense of their system. What 
 there is of God's truth and workmanship in their church will 
 stand and ought to stand, and whatever there is in it of 
 error and of human or Satanic workmanship must fall and be 
 brought to naught. 
 
 From the survey which we have now taken, it is evident that 
 the Roman Catholic church not only has been, but is now, 
 a mighty power in this world. Nor is it difficult to see some 
 of its sources of strength.
 
 CONCLUSION. 695 
 
 There 19 that skillfully compacted and efficient organization, 
 centralized in the pope as the reputed vicegerent of God upon 
 earth and the infallible vicar of Jesus Christ, making every 
 archbishop and bishop throughout the world isolated and self- 
 devoted as he may be directly dependent upon the pope for 
 office and authority and binding each by a most solemn oath to 
 render obedience to him, reaching through its priests who are 
 dissevered from the ties of family and country, and canonically 
 subject to their bishops the hearts and consciences of its 200 
 million members and controlling them at the confessional and 
 by its sacraments and its terrors of excommunication and pur- 
 gatory and its various powers and appliances suited to every 
 case, having also a disciplined and well-officered army in its re- 
 ligious orders and congregations which are likewise separated 
 from the rest of the community and bound to obey their re- 
 spective heads and those heads in direct communication with 
 the central power in Rome this wonderfully-contrived and 
 compacted organization, embracing from one-fourth to one- 
 seventh of the earth's population, and directed in all its parts 
 and through all its extent of operation by a single will, is surely 
 capable of accomplishing great results by sagaciously using its 
 resources and concentrating its efforts upon any given point or 
 points as it may seem desirable or needful (see Chs. II., III., 
 VII., VIII., IX., XIV., XVII., XXI., Ac.). 
 
 Look too at the known antiquity of the Roman Catholic 
 church an antiquity which naturally challenges respect, rever- 
 ence, homage. For 18 centuries it has been an organized 
 church. It can point to its martyrs and confessors, its fathers 
 and primitive Christians, its multitudes of holy men and women 
 whose names have been famous from age to age. It stands up 
 by the side of those who dissent from it and question its 
 claims, as a venerable ancient by the side of some impertinent 
 and conceited youngsters who cannot or will not appreciate the 
 superiority of " holy mother church," and who ought therefore 
 to be checked, restrained, censured, punished. The principle that, 
 other things being equal, the old are wiser than the young, may
 
 696 CONCLUSION. 
 
 be used to defend and strengthen the Boman Catholic church. 
 But see Chapters II., III., XXVI. , &c. 
 
 This church has another advantage in its assumed apostolical 
 preeminence as the sole authorized channel of Divine grace to 
 saints and sinners. It is never weary of ringing the changes 
 upon " St. Peter and the church St. Peter, the prince of the 
 apostles St. Peter, the rock on which the church is built 
 St. Peter, the founder and first bishop of the church of Rome 
 St. Peter, from whom, through a regular and unbroken line 
 of his canonically consecrated successors, has come down to 
 the present pope the undoubted supremacy of the church of 
 Christ on earth the church, which has the guardianship of 
 Divine truth the church, out of which there is no salvation 
 the church, against which the gates of hell shall not pre- 
 vail " (see Chs. II., III., &c.). 
 
 The long-continued greatness and glory of Rome adds an- 
 other element of strength for the Roman Catholic church. 
 Rome was for ages the acknowledged mistress of the world ; 
 and it became natural to look to Rome as the source of author- 
 ity. The temporal supremacy of Rome opened the way for 
 her spiritual supremacy, and helped to perpetuate the latter, 
 when it was once established (see Chap. I.). 
 
 Another and an important element of strength to the Roman 
 Catholic church is found in its large endowments and accumu- 
 lated wealth. It holds its church-edifices and monasteries and 
 educational and charitable establishments by such a tenure as 
 to be independent of contemporary fear or favor (see Chs. 
 VII., VIII., XXI., XXIV.). By the skillful use of the polit- 
 ical and social influence (see Ch. XXVIII.) connected with its 
 wealth and numbers and centralized organization it has facil- 
 ities for advancing to honor and otherwise repaying those who 
 sustain and honor it, and for hindering or preventing the pros- 
 perity and advancement of those who oppose it. It has made 
 and does make alliances with politicians and others for the 
 furtherance of its own ends. The picture which was drawn
 
 CONCLUSION. 697 
 
 of a western city (Columbus, 0.) a few years ago, is true of 
 others also : 
 
 The Roman Catholics " hold the power, and have for years. And 
 hence we have never been able, within my knowledge, and it is safe 
 to say, perhaps, within the knowledge of the ' oldest inhabitant,' to 
 elect a municipal officer who has not, either in the outset or the issue, 
 both drunk and gambled, and been notoriously profligate besides. We 
 can hardly elect a sheriff who is not a disgrace to the name of honesty, 
 or a county attorney who is not a libel on law. And in some of the 
 wards of our city, in our hotly contested elections, it is almost worth a 
 man's life to vote any other than the Irishman's ticket. And to-day, 
 because of this element and the power it wields, hard upon a thousand 
 * doggeries' [= grog-shops] openly defy the law; gambling-dens keep 
 open doors upon our most public streets, while to keep such an estab- 
 lishment is a penitentiary offense ; and we cannot get a grand jury in 
 the county that will find a bill of indictment against either the propri- 
 etor of a faro-bank, a liquor-saloon, or a brothel ! " 
 
 . Roman Catholicism has also an element of great power in 
 its grandeur and showy magnificence. It has its grand cathe- 
 drals and churches in the most desirable situations : it has its 
 gorgeous ceremonies and pompous processions with all the 
 adjuncts of unrivaled music and artistic splendor; it appro- 
 priates to itself all the fine arts in their most fascinating and 
 impressive forms ; it makes use of every device to affect the 
 senses and through them to influence the feelings. And it 
 will specially attract those who love a pretentious or dreamy 
 religion, the self-righteous and those who are fond of parade, 
 those who love and seek great things for themselves (see Chs. 
 XIV. and XX.). 
 
 The Roman Catholic church has certainly an element of 
 strength in its admitted reception and advocacy of Scriptural 
 truth (see Chap. II.). It claims as its own every doctrine 
 revealed in the Bible, every duty therein enjoined, every truth 
 and every practice of holiness. No Christian, however much 
 opposed to the Roman Catholic church, can deny that the 
 Roman Catholics receive and maintain much truth ; but it is
 
 698 CONCLUSION. 
 
 this mixture of truth with error which makes the combination 
 defensible and plausible and hence dangerous. The nutritious 
 sugar or refreshing water may be the vehicle for introducing 
 into the stomach the most deadly poison. 
 
 The Roman Catholic church is no absurd and meaningless 
 bugbear, but a living and active organism, formidable in its 
 strength and efficiency. Those who know little of its power 
 may make themselves merry over its pretensions ; but many 
 a Protestant can echo the sentiment uttered by the late Rev. 
 Richard Cecil of the Church of England : 
 
 " Popery was the masterpiece of Satan." 
 
 And a Roman Catholic, the noted Father Ignatius of Eng- 
 land, has adopted this sentiment in a measure, by saying to 
 Rev. Dr. Gumming : 
 
 " Sir, if the church of Rome be not the church of Christ, it is the 
 masterpiece of the Devil." 
 
 And strongly does Dr. Cumming enforce this idea : 
 
 " So said Father Ignatius. So say I. I believe there was immense 
 meaning in his words. It is the one or the other. And I believe 
 that one great danger to which Protestants are subject is the constant 
 habit of supposing that Rome is a coarse and vulgar imposture, unfit 
 for the light of the 19th century ; instead of feeling that it is the gigan- 
 tic conspiracy of Satan, worked out by the archangel's wickedness and 
 will. Antichrist, with his people, constituting the church of Rome ; 
 CHRIST, in the midst of his, constituting its correlative, the church of 
 the living GOD. Despise it, it will overwhelm you ; tamper with it, 
 it will ensnare and captive you; resist it in the name of GOD, and 
 like its author the Devil, it will instantly flee from you. It is the 
 masterpiece of Satan beyond dispute, and only by viewing it in that 
 light will you be enabled rightly to estimate your danger and its in- 
 herent element of progress and power." 
 
 But the Protestant sees also elements of weakness in the 
 Roman Catholic system. These have been dwelt upon in the 
 various chapters of the present volume. "We have seen that 
 its main arguments rest on assumption, pretension and show ;
 
 CONCLUSION. 699 
 
 that it is externally strong and apparently united, but inter- 
 nally weak. Its Jesuitism and Jansenism (see Chs. III., IV., 
 IX.), its many contentions in and between and about religious 
 orders (see Chap. VIII.), its Ultramontanism and Gallicanism 
 and Liberalism (see Chs. II., HI., IV., VI., XXII., XXIII.), its 
 fluctuations and contradictions between " infallible " popes and 
 " infallible " councils (see Chs. III., IV., VI., <fec.), its consti- 
 tutional and ineradicable hostility to liberty and progress (see 
 Chs. IV., XXVII., <fec.), and its absolute inability to retain 
 control of many who are classed among its members (see Chs. 
 XXII., XXIII., XXIV., XXVII., XXVIII.), are all signs of 
 something besides Divine power in it. Corruption and tyran* 
 ny and selfishness and sin have flourished and do now flourish 
 in it and through it ; it cramps and debases the intellect ; it 
 sensualizes the affections ; it perverts the judgment and con- 
 science ; it domineers over the ignorant and allows them to re- 
 main in their ignorance ; it opposes the appeal to individual 
 responsibility, and the attempt to raise mankind to a higher 
 level of Christian intelligence and civilization and righteous- 
 ness ; it has, through its highest authorities, sanctioned and 
 protected violence and fraud and treachery and murder ; it has 
 furnished an open door for every sin and a dungeon for every 
 virtue ; it has put itself out of sympathy with the friends of 
 Christian liberty and love and of the pure Gospel of Christ and 
 of the open Bible ; its affiliations and friendships are with those 
 that love darkness rather than light because their deeds are 
 evil. The evidence of all this is seen in every chapter 
 of this volume, and would fill a thousand volumes. Eo- 
 man Catholicism, claiming infallibility, can not repudiate 
 the errors of the past* can not change for the better (see 
 
 * In an article on the " Apostasy of Dr. Dollinger" (see Chap. XXII.)," The Catho- 
 lic World " for June, 1871, speaks thus : 
 
 "... The law is clear and plain. All dogmatic decrees of the pope, made 
 with or without his general council, are infallible and irreformable. Once made, 
 no pope or council can reverse them. . . The church can never change, never re- 
 form her faith, never retract her decisions, never dispense her children from an ob- 
 ligation she has once imposed on them of receiving a definition as the true expres- 
 sion of a dogma contained la the divine revelation. To do so, would be to destroy
 
 700 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Chap. n.). " Always and everywhere the same " (in Latin, 
 " semper el ulique eadem ") is its motto. It may be apparently 
 modified in some respects, while its spirit and tendency and 
 aims remain unaltered. It may conceal its odious features and 
 plausibly explain its obnoxious actions ; it may have in its com- 
 munion many true friends of both God and man ; yet as a sys- 
 tem it is perpetually at war with American institutions and 
 with the prosperity and safety of the American people. It has 
 more and plainer marks of the " synagogue of Satan " than 
 of the Church of God. 
 
 It was a saying of that noble Frenchman who periled his 
 life and fortune to establish American liberty a saying which 
 has been controverted, but is fully authenticated by Prof. S. F. 
 B. Morse : 
 
 " If ever the liberty of the United States is destroyed, it will be by 
 Romish priests." 
 
 Lafayette is claimed as a Catholic ; but he was a Gallican 
 Catholic (see Chap. XXIII., &c.), a liberal Catholic, or he 
 would never have uttered this warning to the American peo- 
 ple. Many other Catholics have been true friends of liberty ; 
 but the Roman Catholic system is irreconcilably hostile to true 
 liberty. The two great principles of that system (1) you 
 must believe as the church decrees and (2) there is no sal- 
 vation outside of the church bind every Roman Catholic, and 
 tend to make him both a subject and a tool of despotism. 
 
 herself, and fall down to the level of the sects. The idle talk of writers for the 
 secular press, whether they pretend to call themselves Catholics or not, about the 
 church conforming herself to liberal principles and the spirit of the age, is simply 
 worthy of laughter and derision. No Catholic who has a grain of sense will pay 
 any heed to opinions or monitions coming from such an incompetent source. The 
 church is the only judge of the nature and extent of her own powers, and of the 
 proper mode of exercising them. The pontiffs, prelates, pastors, priests, and 
 theologians of the church, are her authorized expositors and interpreters, her advo- 
 cates and defenders. Those who desire to be her worthy members, and those who 
 wish to learn what she really is, will seek from them, and from them only, or from 
 authors and writings which they have sanctioned, instruction in the true Catholic 
 doctrine. . . "
 
 CONCLUSION. 701 
 
 The Duke of Richmond, who was governor of Canada half a 
 century ago, and had conversed with many of the sovereigns 
 and princes of Europe, was considered as uttering remarkable 
 language when he spoke thus of the United States in 1819, and 
 declared that he was expressing the unanimous opinion of those 
 sovereigns and princes : 
 
 " The church of Rome has a design upon that country, and it will, in 
 time, be the established religion, and will aid in the destruction of that 
 republic. " 
 
 But this language does not appear so remarkable now. Look 
 at the progress and altered demeanor of Roman Catholicism in 
 this country. It came into the land a fugitive and an exile ; it 
 was pitied and sheltered and warmed and fed ; it has become 
 great and mighty ; it now grasps all the reins of power, and 
 demands as its right the possession and control of every privil- 
 ege and of every advantage. " My right of conscience is the law 
 for the state," says " The Catholic World." " My conscience 
 is my church, the Catholic church," it continues ; "and any re- 
 striction of her freedom, or any act in violation of her rights, 
 violates or abridges my right or freedom of conscience." All, 
 therefore, that the Roman Catholic church has ever enacted or 
 demanded ; all her educational and ecclesiastical system, her 
 exemption of the priesthood from civil jurisdiction, her assump- 
 tions of entire supremacy, her persecuting decrees, her whole 
 canon law, may become American law, just as soon as it shall 
 seem expedient to demand and become possible to secure their 
 enforcement ; and there are politicians and tradesmen who are 
 ready for selfish ends to do all they can to help forward this 
 grand consummation. Even now we can begin to see the ap- 
 plicability of La Fontaine's fable, which has been thus render- 
 ed into English verse : 
 
 " A houseless dog with a small litter 
 To whom the cold was very hitter, 
 Another kindly dog approached, 
 And all her household sorrows broached;
 
 702 CONCLUSION. 
 
 In short, got leave herself to shut 
 Within the other's friendly hut. 
 At proper time the lender came 
 Her borrowed premises to claim. 
 Mama crawled feebly to the door 
 And humbly begged a fortnight more ; 
 'Her little pups could hardly walk.' 
 The lender yielded to her talk. 
 Another fortnight passed away, 
 The pups grew stronger every day ; 
 And when again the friend did come 
 To ask for her own house and home, 
 The dog, as if she would have bit her, 
 Eeplied, ' I'm ready with my litter 
 To go when you can turn me out. 
 My pups are now grown fierce and stout ; 
 And if for your old house you fight, 
 You'll find that they can scratch and bite.' 
 
 " MORAL. 
 
 " If in your house the foe steps his one foot, 
 He'll surely put the other in to boot." 
 
 But what can and should American Protestants do in re- 
 spect to Roman Catholics and the Roman Catholic church ? 
 
 1. Draw a broad line of distinction, and put the Roman 
 Catholic church and system on the one side of it, and the indi- 
 viduals who are connected with that church and system on the 
 other. Let it be remembered that Roman Catholics may be 
 better than their system, more enlightened than their church. 
 Some members of a family may have little or no share in the 
 stupidities, the follies, the vices that characterize the rest. 
 And it is one of the blessed inconsistencies of mankind, that 
 often they do not see or do not adopt all the logical conse- 
 quences of their own theories. At any rate, the Roman Catho- 
 lics of our land are now our countrymen and our fellow-im- 
 mortals ; and it is our duty to regard and treat them as such. 
 We may abhor the church and the system by which they are 
 held in subjection, while we have compassion on the poor vic- 
 tims of error and delusion. 
 
 2. Do not shrink from looking the threatening dangers
 
 CONCLUSION. 703 
 
 full in the face. The Roman Catholic church has an efficient 
 organization, and a numerous and devoted membership ; it is 
 admirably fitted to win and control multitudes ; its leaders are 
 well-informed, wide-awake, sagacious, energetic, and often 
 self-sacrificing for their church, quick to detect all weak points 
 and to make the most of all advantages, observant of men and 
 of measures, ready to avail themselves whenever it is expedi- 
 ent of Protestant weapons, able to command the services of 
 Protestant helpers, united in their plans and movements, ani- 
 mated by their view of the past and the present, and jubilant 
 in their confident expectation of speedy and complete suprem- 
 acy throughout this whole land. 
 
 3. Do not patronize or help Roman Catholic churches, 
 schools, convents, hospitals, or any of their institutions. The 
 tendency and influence of all these institutions is preeminently 
 denominational, as has been already shown (Chs. VII., VIII., 
 XX., XXI., XXIV., <fcc.). Every thing is under the control 
 of the hierarchy for the purposes and objects of the Roman 
 Catholic church. Every dollar and every scholar is a contri- 
 bution to be made the most of for the church. Every Roman 
 Catholic priest and monk and nun, whether in a school or sem- 
 inary or hospital or elsewhere, is specially bound to make 
 every day's work tell for the advantage of" holy mother church." 
 Take a very recent illustration. In consideration of valuable 
 services rendered by the Sisters of Mercy at Charleston, S. C., 
 to sick and wounded Union officers and soldiers, Congress in 
 April, 1871, made an appropriation to these Sisters of 
 $20,000 for the purpose of rebuilding their orphan asylum 
 which was destroyed during the war. To meet an objection 
 respecting the danger that the money appropriated might be 
 diverted to other uses, the bishop of Charleston is said to have 
 written a letter to assure Congress that the Sisters of Mercy 
 there were a corporate body, and that no priest could even 
 handle the money. The appropriation was warmly urged, and 
 was voted unanimously by the House of Representatives. The 
 same month the Lady Superior and a companion went to
 
 704 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Washington to get the money ; but a Roman Catholic priest 
 from Charleston peremptorily ordered them away, and they 
 obeyed ; then the priest went to the Treasury department, and 
 as the representative of the Sisters obtained the warrant for 
 the money. It is not necessary to inquire further into the fate 
 of the appropriation, for by Roman Catholic ecclesiastical law 
 (see Chs. VIII. and XXI.) it is subject to the control of the 
 bishop. That which is given for one object may, at the discre- 
 tion of the bishop,be appropriated to another and different ob- 
 ject ; and there is no remedy, except through the bishop's ec- 
 clesiastical superiors. Yet Protestants give money, land, 
 building-material, assistance in one way and another, any 
 thing that is wanted, to erect, endow and support Roman 
 Catholic institutions, and thus to aid in establishing and per- 
 petuating the mighty power of the Roman Catholic hierarchy. 
 This is not the way to " be wise as serpents and harmless as 
 doves" (Matt. 10 : 16), or to be " good stewards " of that 
 which God has graciously bestowed upon us (1 Pet. 4: 10), or 
 even to be " faithful in that which is least" (Luke 16 : 10). 
 
 4. Make it a matter of conscience to understand and oppose 
 the Roman Catholic system in all its characteristic forms and 
 schemes. If, as Protestants fully believe, it is the grand foe, 
 here and everywhere, of evangelical religion, of civil and reli- 
 gious liberty, of popular enlightenment and national prosperity, 
 of the temporal and spiritual well-being of mankind ; then it 
 certainly ought to be must be brought to the light, and kept 
 in the light, and annihilated by the blaze of light and the weap- 
 ons of truth. There can be no compromise no middle course. 
 The alternative is simply We must destroy its power, or it 
 will destroy us and all we hold dear. 
 
 5. Show to Roman Catholics a better way and a better relig- 
 ion than theirs. By precept and by example, by every ex- 
 cellence of earnest Christian life and effort, American Protes- 
 tants should prove the heavenly superiority of true faith and 
 love. Well has that veteran controversialist, Rev. Leonard 
 Bacon, D.D., spoken upon this point:
 
 CONCLUSION. 705 
 
 "... "We can never do any good to our Roman Catholic neighbors 
 without treating them courteously and kindly. Let us testify against 
 their errors constantly and intelligibly, but always courteously. Let 
 us treat them as well as we can. If to us they are heretics, far astray 
 from the simplicity of the Gospel, let us remember that to them we are 
 heretics, self-excluded from that church in which alone there is salva- 
 tion : and ' putting ourselves in their place,' let us treat them as we 
 would that they should treat us." 
 
 Says another Christian minister, Rev. T. DeWitt Talmage. 
 
 "... Let me venture the statement that bitter denunciation and car- 
 icature on the "part of good, but mistaken men, never pulled down one 
 Roman Catholic church, but has built five hundred. Whatever a man 
 takes as his religion he holds as sacred and not to be laughed at. . . 
 There is only one way to make a man give up his religion, and that is 
 by showing him a better. . . . Violence of Christian denunciation only 
 rouses up opposition. Depend upon it, if we use worldly weapons and 
 a worldly policy, Romanism will beat us. They are more than a 
 match for us in anathema. * . .We cannot compete in bitterness with a 
 church that burned John Oldcastle, 3 and scattered the ashes of 
 "Wickliffe, 3 and massacred the Waldenses, and exterminated the 
 Albigenses,* and dug the Inquisition, 5 and roasted over slow 
 fires Nicholas Ridley, 6 and had medals struck in honor of St. Bar- 
 tholomew's massacre, 7 and took God's dear children and cut out their 
 tongues, and poured hot lead into their ears, and tore out their nails 
 
 i See Chapters IV. and XVIII. 
 
 3 Sir John Oldcastle, called " the good," was the first martyr and the first au- 
 thor among the nobility of England. He married the heiress of Lord Cobham, 
 aud thus obtained that title. He was an able and learned man, and a leading re- 
 former. He was excommunicated, charged with being the leader of a pretended 
 conspiracy of the Lollards or Wickliffites, apprehended, summarily tried and con- 
 demned as a rebel and heretic, aud then hung in chains on a gallows in St. Giles's 
 Fields, London, with a fire kindled under him by which he was roasted to death, 
 in December, 1417. 
 
 8 See pp. 211, 417. * See Chapter XII. 6 See Chapter XI. 
 e Nicholas Ridley, bishop of London, distinguished among the English Reformers 
 for his piety, learning, and solid judgment, was burned at the stake with the faith- 
 ful and honest HughLatimer, bishop of Worcester, at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555. 
 
 i The Bartholomew massacre is described on pp. 401-3. A fac-simile of the 
 medal is given on p. 403. 
 45
 
 706 CONCLUSION. 
 
 with pincers, and let water fall upon their heads until it wore to the 
 brain, and wrenched their bodies limb from limb, and into the wine- 
 press of its wrath threw the red clusters of a million human hearts 
 till under the trampling of their feet the blood foamed to the lip of 
 their impearled chalices. 1 
 
 " The weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but spiritual and 
 mighty through God to the pulling down of strongholds. . . To the pen- 
 ances, the costly indulgences, and fatiguing genuflections of Romanism, 
 we will oppose a broad-armed Gospel that without money, and without 
 price, and without penances, and without crossings, invites a world to 
 be saved a free Bible a free salvation a free heaven ! 2 . . . Against 
 the bedwarfed Roman Catholic literature, we will bring the battering- 
 ram of a Christian printing-press. 3 ... To the celibacy of the Romish 
 priesthood I oppose the happy households of the Christian ministry. 4 . . 
 To the Roman Catholic schools and colleges, . . . we will oppose free 
 schools. 5 . . In opposition to the Latinized service of Romish churches, 6 
 we set plain prayers that all may follow, and plain preaching that 
 
 all can understand In opposition to Romish cathedrals 
 
 dark, damp, and fetid, 7 we will set cheerful churches, with fre=h 
 air and plenty of light. . . In opposition to the artistic chanting in 
 Romish cathedrals, I set congregational singing. ... In opposition to 
 the bigotry of the Romish church, I set the broad platform of Chris- 
 tian brotherhood. All outside their church are cursed as heretics. 
 We oppose that procedure by offering our blessing to all who believe 
 in the Lord Jesus Christ, be they Protestant or Roman Catholic, Cal- 
 vinist or Arminian, sprinkled or immersed : one Lord one faith one 
 baptism one cross one Holy Ghost one judgment-seat one doxo- 
 logy one heaven ! " 
 
 There is room for all who love their country and their race 
 to lend a helping-hand towards this good work. Let honesty 
 and uprightness and Christian kindness be our rule in business 
 and in politics as well as in religion ; let every one, whether su- 
 perior or equal or inferior, employer or neighbor or dependent, 
 recognize his or her own peculiar opportunities and obligations 
 
 See Chs. XI., XIL See Chs. XIII., XIV., XVIII., XIX. "Sec Chap. 
 XXV. < See Chs. VIL, VIII. * See Chap. XXIV. eSee Chao. XIV 
 'See Chap. XX.
 
 CONCLUSION. 707 
 
 to benefit the needy and the stranger, the widow and the father- 
 less ; let the church and the Sunday-school and the free-school 
 and the family have room and help for each to do its own ap- 
 propriate and beneficent work ; let Christian ministers and 
 Christian people, like their Master, seek to save the lost, not 
 officially or in set ways merely, but by all the devices of warm- 
 hearted heavenly love ; and when, through Christian faithful- 
 ness or neighborly kindness or in any other mode, the way 
 has been opened to a child's or a parent's heart, and prejudices 
 have been partially overcome, and hopeful progress has been 
 made in the direction of light and truth and righteousness, let 
 not Pharisaic horror, or aristocratic exclusiveness, or mean- 
 spirited envy, or sectarian jealousy, or an itching to say and 
 do smart things, or vain-glorious boasting, or uncharitable ac- 
 cusation or insinuation or taunt, or any other earthly and un- 
 worthy feeling or influence or course, rekindle the fierce old 
 fires of prejudice and hatred which may be dormant and for 
 a time invisible without being quenched and thus destroy 
 perhaps forever all the good accomplished or intended for the 
 poor exile. Every American, who prizes the blessings of in- 
 telligence and freedom and true Christianity, may aid more or 
 less directly and efficiently towards making the Roman Catho- 
 lics of our land partakers of these same blessings. And, 
 
 6. TVe may be encouraged *to believe that the Roman Cath- 
 olic system shall be brought to naught and those who are now 
 Roman Catholics themselves become real, earnest, faithful Chris- 
 tians. Some of the signs of the times are noticed in Chapters 
 XXIV., XXVIII., &c. Many of our Roman Catholic neighbors 
 have already found out that public schools American schools 
 are far superior to their parochial schools in all that qualifies 
 for success and usefulness in life ; and others are finding it 
 out day by day ; and many of them will have for their chil- 
 dren that which they themselves see and know is best for them. 
 They have found that this is a land of liberty ; and that, as 
 one consequence of this, the priest cannot domineer over them 
 as in the old country. They are learning to think and act for
 
 708 CONCLUSION. 
 
 themselves in one way and another. Even Fenianism, which 
 has flourished in spite of priestly opposition and churchly anath- 
 ema (Chs. XI., XXI., XXII.), may be in this way a blessing 
 in disguise. And the lamentation, which comes to us, of im- 
 mense losses to the Roman Catholic church in this country 
 (see Chap. XXVIII.), is another encouragement to American 
 Protestants to labor in hope. Many of the first generation, 
 and more of the second, among the Roman Catholics of Irish 
 or German or other foreign origin, pass entirely beyond the 
 control of the Roman Catholic church. Many of them have 
 become and are becoming enlightened Protestant Christians. 
 And through the power of social and Christian influence these 
 changes prepare the way for other and still greater changes 
 to follow them. But still further, our fathers' God and our 
 God is with us, and will be with us, if we are faithful to honor 
 him ; and " if God be for us, who can be against us " (Rom. 
 8 : 31) ? His dealings with our nation in the past are an 
 earnest of what he will do with us hereafter. He has brought 
 us safely through terrible dangers ; he has brought these Ro- 
 man Catholics to our very doors and into our houses to give 
 us the opportunity and make us feel the necessity of trying to 
 save them in order to save ourselves and our children from 
 ruin. And the victory or defeat here is a victory or defeat for 
 the world. The relations of our country to the rest of this 
 continent, to Europe and Asia and Africa and the isles of the 
 sea, to the whole population of the globe, are such that a vic- 
 tory here for liberty and truth and righteousness and heavenly 
 love is a victory for them everywhere, and a defeat here will 
 tend to the triumph of darkness and death everywhere. But 
 God knows all this, and is interested in all this. His church 
 is a living church among Protestants in this land ; it is built, 
 not upon Peter alone, but " upon the foundation of the apos- 
 tles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner- 
 stone ; " it shall be " a holy temple in the Lord ; " " and the 
 gates of hell shall not prevail against it " (Eph. 2 : 20, 21. 
 Matt. 16 : 18). The promises of God are of no doubtful sig-
 
 CONCLUSION. 709 
 
 nificance ; but they belong only to those who fulfill the condi- 
 tions on which they are based. Egypt and Assyria and Baby- 
 lon and Persia as well as Greece and Rome and other names 
 of ancient power and renown attest the truth of the ancient 
 prophet's declaration ; " The nation and kingdom that will not 
 serve thee [= Jerusalem, or Zion, the seat and representative 
 of God's church or people] shall perish ; yea, those nations 
 shall be utterly wasted " (Is. 60 : 12). No false and corrupt 
 church no Christless people can have the blessings which 
 God has pledge 1 himself to bestow on his true and living 
 church and Christ's own people. The assumptions and pre- 
 tensions which may deceive men, do not deceive God or prevail 
 with him. It is " in Christ Jesus " not in the Virgin Mary, 
 or the apostle Peter, or other departed saints, or in any pre- 
 tended saints, living or dead, but in Christ Jesus that " all the 
 promises of God are yea and amen" (2 Cor. 1 : 20). Every 
 thing of real and permanent value to our nation, including 
 the continuance of temporal prosperity and of republican in- 
 stitutions, as well as the bestowment of spiritual blessings, 
 depends upon the existence and exercise of Christian love and 
 faithfulness, or upon a vital union with the Lord Jesus Christ. 
 The past history and present condition of unhappy France 
 may teach us that a long-lived republic must have virtue and 
 religion for its basis. No substitute for these can be found in 
 glory or magnificence or wealth or power or fashion or inge- 
 nuity or learning or wisdom or any other department or species 
 of worldly preeminence. 
 
 American Protestants, we glory not in Peter or Paul or 
 Mary ; but whatever foes may assail or threaten us if we 
 are Christ's, then the victory over them is ours, and whatever 
 we need before this victory or after it or with it is also ours, 
 infallibly and irresistibly and unendingly; for the inspired 
 apostle has spoken distinctly and expressly : 
 
 " Let no man glory in men : for all things are yours ; whether 
 Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas [= Peter], or the world, or life, or death,
 
 710 CONCLUSION. 
 
 or things present, or things to come ; all are yours ; and ye are Christ's j 
 and Christ is God's" (1 Cor. 3 : 21-23). 
 
 And the beloved disciple has thus recorded his vision of the 
 yet future victory in which all the truly faithful shall have a 
 part : 
 
 " And the seventh angel sounded ; and there were great voices in 
 heaven, saying, The kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms 
 of our Lord, and of his Christ ; and he shall reign for ever and ever " 
 (Rev. 11:15). 
 
 Let a New England Protestant (Rev. Timothy Dwight, D. D., 
 President of Yale College, 1795-1817) express for us the 
 spirit of a multitude of these Scriptural promises : 
 
 , " Sure as Thy truth shall last, 
 
 To Zion shall be given 
 The brightest glories earth can yield, 
 And brighter bliss of heaven." 
 
 And yet, let it never be forgotten for a moment that the con- 
 summation of all these bright hopes involves work, present, 
 earnest, diligent, whole-souled WORK, for all and for each of 
 those who would either share in the triumph personally or 
 would have our nation blessed. God's plans and promises will 
 never fail ; but, as in the case of the apostle Paul and his 
 companions who had to save themselves from imminent death 
 after God had assured them there should be no loss of life 
 among them (Acts 27 : 22-44), so now the realization of the 
 predicted future triumphs of Zion demands of men the use of 
 the appropriate means. The deep-laid plots of the Roman 
 Catholics to gain the supreme control in our land must be 
 understood and defeated ; all good citizens mnst unite to pre- 
 serve order and sustain law and give to wisdom and virtue 
 the first place in the government and in society as well as in 
 the family and in the church. The Roman Catholic church is 
 the same in America as in Ireland and in Spain and in 
 Rome ; its modes of action may be greatly modified here 
 and now, and its whole outward appearance may be chang-
 
 CONCLUSION. 711 
 
 ed, but it never changes (see pp. 699, 700) ; in it not the 
 intelligent people, but the pope and the cardinals and the bish- 
 ops and the priests bear rule ; and, while its animating spirit 
 is the same now as when the 4th Lateran council was held 
 (see pp. 391, 578-9) or the Inquisition (see Chap. XI.) was 
 at the height of its power, the misunderstanding and hatred 
 of Protestantism which prevail among its members and the 
 bigoted fury of the Catholic populace are the same now as 
 when the massacres of the Waldenses or of the Huguenots* or 
 of the Irish Protestants! were perpetrated. 
 
 Overweening confidence in our u manifest destiny" as the 
 great American nation has well nigh been our destruction. The 
 great conflict of 1861-5 came upon us while we were reposing in 
 fancied security ; and the signs of another impending conflict are 
 neither few nor small. The Roman Catholic church is rapidly 
 gaining the power in our land. Its multitudes of adherents 
 work and pray and talk and vote as a unit under the direction 
 of keen-sighted and quick-witted leaders ; while Protestants, dis- 
 united, eager perhaps for the success of this or that party, or busy 
 here and there in plans an*l. labors for themselves and their fam- 
 ilies, pay little attention to vlic dangers which threaten our liber- 
 ties and our welfare. Irish Catholic mobs, like those of 1863J 
 
 * For the massacres of the Waldenses and of the Huguenots, see Chapter XII. 
 
 tin the Irish massacres, which began Oct. 23, 1641, and did not entirely cease 
 till Sept., 1643, at least 40,000 to 50,000 Protestants were murdered. The bru- 
 tality of the Irish Catholics was frightful. Clarendon says of the Protestants who 
 " escaped best," that they " were robbed of all they had, to their very shirts, and 
 so turned naked to endure the sharpness of the season ; and by that means, and 
 for want of relief, many thousands of them perished by hunger and cold." 
 
 Jin the New York riots of July 13-15, 1863 (see p. 586), the fury of the mob, 
 at first directed against the officers and buildings connected with the draft for fill- 
 ing up the armies of the national government, was soon attracted towards the ne- 
 groes, who were chased about, dragged forth from their hiding-places, maltreated, 
 murdered by beating or shooting or hanging or burning with the most awful 
 cruelty. A colored orphan-asylum ("Protestant, of course) was burned to the 
 ground, and the lives of the helpless inmates were saved only by the daring inter- 
 position of a few determined friends. Many other most shameful outrages were
 
 712 CONCLUSION. 
 
 and 1871* in New York city, are liable to occur in other places 
 and at other times, and must be put down by the civil authori- 
 ties or by the military or by armed citizens at a terrible sacri- 
 fice of property and of life ; but most American Protestants 
 shut their eyes to these and other signs of the times, and trust 
 that all will be well without any special exertion of theirs. The 
 salvation of America depends, under God, on the faithfulness 
 of his friends in America, and on the actual and manifest ex- 
 istence here of a virtuous and intelligent Christian people, a 
 nation who shall be each and all workers of righteousness 
 and laborers together with God. 
 
 committed in various parts of the city, before the civil and military authorities 
 succeeded in quelling the riots. 
 
 *The New York riot of July 12, 1871, was connected with the celebration of the 
 battle of the Boyne, which took place July 1 (old style), 1690, about 30 miles 
 N. W. of Dublin in Ireland, and in which the English army under king William 
 III. of England (prince of Orange, whence the name " Orangemen " assumed by 
 lodges of Irish Protestants in 1795) gained a decisive victory over the Irish and 
 French under the ex-king James II. (uncle and father-in-law and predecessor of 
 William on the English throne), who was both a Roman Catholic and a tyrant. 
 The Orangemen of New York, Jersey City, &c., proposed to celebrate this battle, 
 as heretofore, by processions, &c. The procession in Jersey City, under the reso- 
 lute protection of the civil and military power, was unmolested. The Orangemen 
 of New York had been mobbed and a large number killed and wounded at a pic- 
 nic in Elm Park, July 12, 1870 ; and in consequence of the bitter opposition and 
 threats of the Irish Catholics, Mayor Hall and Police-Superintendent Kelso pro- 
 hibited the inarching of the Orangemen in procession in 1871. Governor Hoffman, 
 however, countermanded this prohibition, and declared that the Orangemen had a 
 right to parade, and should be supported, if necessary, by the whole police and 
 military force of the State. Accordingly, the Orangemen marched in an orderly 
 procession a short distance, but they and their protectors were attacked by the mob, 
 and the procession was broken up. The mob was fired upon and finally put 
 down; but about 40 persons (soldiers, policemen, rioters, and spectators) were 
 killed, and from 100 to 200 wounded, some of them fatally. The fiendish rage of 
 the rabble was shown in the murderous use of pistols and other weapons by Irish 
 Catholic women as well as men against the Orangemen and those who sympa- 
 thized with them, in the savage threats against Gov. Hoffman, in the wanton kill- 
 ing of a little girl (Mary York) who wore an orange-colored scarf, &c.
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 Many important events and developments in regard to the Roman Catholic 
 church are now to be added to those which have been noticed in the previous 
 pages of this work. The same Pope remains for a little while longer; but 
 his associates, his situation, and his relations in many respects, have greatly 
 changed. The influence of the Syllabus and of the decrees of the Vatican 
 Council is becoming more and more apparent both in Europe and in America ; 
 the antagonism between the Ultramontane view of the Roman Catholic sys- 
 tem and the fundamental ideas either of Protestantism or of modern society 
 is everywhere becoming more sharply defined and more evidently irreconcil- 
 able ; and the relative position and power of the opposing forces are, or should 
 be, of intense interest to every Christian, every philanthropist, and every 
 patriot. The brief statistics, which are here presented, fitly supplement the 
 more detailed statements already given, and form, by comparison with them, 
 the basis of a comprehensive and definite knowledge of the whole field. The 
 collection and arrangement and condensation of the voluminous materials 
 which the author needed to consult and use for the illustration of the last 5 
 years of Roman Catholic history, and of the many exciting topics involved 
 in this history, have required an unexpectedly large amount of labor, and, 
 in connection with the almost daily occurrence of events demanding more or 
 less notice, have delayed the appearance of the work with its new matter far 
 beyond the anticipated period of publication ; but it is hoped that the results 
 of this labor as exhibited in this appendix, in addition to what is contained in 
 the body of the work, will make the readers wise to understand the signs of 
 the times, and will continue to meet the want, which this volume has confes- 
 sedly met as no other single book has hitherto met it, of "A STANDARD WORK 
 in its department a work which may be appealed to with confidence by every 
 one who prizes truth and loves his country, as containing facts and views and 
 arguments which he needs to know a reliable and faithful ' Exposition of 
 the Roman Catholic System for the Use of the American People.' " 
 
 NEW HAVEN, July 4, 1877.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 PAG*. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO TOB APPENDIX, 713 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS TO THE APPENDIX, 714 
 
 PART I. THE POPE AND CARDINALS, 715-17 
 
 PART II. STATISTICS of R. C. Population, Clergy, &c., 717-18 
 
 PART III. VATICANISM, ULTRAMONTANISM, &c., 718-86 
 
 1. Definitions and Statements, from Boniface VIII in the bull Unam Sanclam, 
 Pius IX in the Syllabut, &c., Abp. Manning, Benedict XIV, Council of Trent, and 
 Protestants. 2. The Gladstone Controversy ; Mr. Gladstone, Abp. Manning, Dr. 
 Newman, and recent writers on this subject. 
 
 PART IV. ROMANISM IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 726-64 
 
 1. Italy. 2. Germany and its States ; Bismarck, Jesuits and other religions, 
 Falk laws, and the connected contest. 3. Switzerland; Bps. Lachat and Mer- 
 millod, new constitution, and conflict. 4. Austria and its laws. 5. Belgium ; 
 its conflict, Louise Lateau, &c. 6. Spain ; its changes, new constitution, nun- 
 cio's protest, intolerance approved, persecutors (Peter Arbnes, &c.) canonized. 
 7. France : Napoleon III, Prea. Thiers, Pres. MacMahon, Paray-le-Monial and 
 the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Lourdes, Waddington and university degrees. 8. 
 Great Britain and Ireland; converts, Mgr. Capel and his university college and 
 public school, George Gordon, Rev. R. O'Keefe, Justice Keogh's decision, Irish 
 university bill. 9. South America ; Venezuela and its new laws, conflicts In 
 Brazil and Chili, Ecuador and its late president, Peru, church-party in Colombia. 
 10. Central America ; liberty of worship, riot, exclusion of R. C. religious orders. 
 $ 11. Mexico; changes and conflicts, anti-Protestant riots, murder of Rev. J. L. 
 Stephens, massacre at Acapulco, Protestant churches and missions, new laws, 
 revolution of 1866-7. 12. Dominion of Canada ; Canadian Institute and Gnibord 
 case, Vercheres conflict, Judge Ronthier's decision, Richer's suit, Langevin's elec- 
 tion set aside, Indian church at Oka destrojed, Rev. C. Chiniquy, New Brunswick 
 school-law. 
 
 PART V. ROMANISM IN THE UNITED STATES, 764-97 
 
 1. Ecclesiastical Statistics; R. C. dioceses, bishops, priests, churches and other 
 institutions, population. 2. Religions Orders and Congregations : their names, 
 number of bishops, priests, male and female members, pupils, colleges, and churches 
 belonging to each. 3. Conflict in regard to schools ; American System by Pres. 
 Oilman; R. C. view from Catholic World, Bp. Fitzpatrick, the Syllabus, and Ad- 
 dress of the Propaganda, illustrated in its 3 leading principles by the Gray Nuns 
 law, &c.; decision in Cincinnati case by Supreme Court of Ohio-, the State's rela. 
 tions towards education, by Pres. Woolsey ; unsectarian. public schools in Ohio 
 and other state conventions, Pres. Grant's speech and message, Hon. J. G. Elaine's 
 constitutional amendment. Republican and Democn_t->, national platforms 4. 
 Contest respecting chaplaincies and religious exercises in pud!' 1 , schools and legis- 
 lative bodies, and in the army and navy ; facts and statistics, R. C. view, Gcghan 
 law, Protestant view. 5. Contests respecting the tenure and taxation of eccle- 
 siastical property : tendencies, complaints, abuses, arguments for and against ex- 
 emption, Pres. Grant's message. $ 0. Contest in regard to the supremacy of church 
 or state ; R. C. claims, dangers from convents and other uninspected institutions, 
 priests overriding civil law, rights to use force, rights of conscience. 7. Con- 
 tests with secret societies ; temperance societies, Fenians, Ancient Order of Hiber- 
 nians, alternative of subserviency or war. Conclusion. 
 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX, 838 to end.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 PART I. THE POPE AND CARDINALS. 
 
 Pius IX has now been pope longer than any of his predecessors, having 
 completed the 30th year of his pontificate June 16, 1876, and the 84th year of 
 his life the month previous (see p. 138, &c.). May 21, 1877, marks the 50th 
 anniversary of his being consecrated bishop. He has lost his temporal domin- 
 ion, and the French protectorate was formally terminated in 1874 when the 
 frigate Orenoque was withdrawn from Civita Vecchia. But the Italian gov- 
 ernment has, by the law of May 13, 1871, declared the pope's person as sacred 
 as the king's ; given him precedence even of the king on public occasions ; 
 settled on him the Vatican 1 palace and its dependencies (= the Leonine city), 
 the Lateran palace, and the villa or palace at Castel Gandolf o, with an annual 
 appropriation of $622,500 to support the palaces, cardinals, &c. ; guaranteed 
 to him and his cardinals and councils personal liberty and protection from 
 violence ; exempted his papers and correspondence from search or seizure, 
 and insured to them free transmission through the Italian mails ; in short, 
 has secured to him his honor and state, his ecclesiastical authority and the 
 regulation of his household, with provision for paying all the expenses. He 
 has, however, refused the Italian appropriation, his income from Peter'a 
 pence, 2 &c., rendering this unnecessary (see p. 726). 
 
 Comparing the list of cardinals in Sadliers' Catholic Directory for 1877 with 
 that for 1870 (see pp. 191-4), we find 60 in the former and 55 3 in the latter; 
 
 1 King Victor Emanuel took possession of the Quirinal palace after the Italians occu- 
 pied Rome. 
 
 The "Catholic Review" for Sept. 20th, 1873, estimated the amonnt of Peter's pence 
 " since 1870 " at about 125,000,000 francs (= about $25,000,000) or over $9,000,000 a year. In 
 the summer of 1875 he received about $6,000,000 by the will of the ex-emperor Ferdinand 
 of Austria. May 6, 1876, the Roman correspondent of " At Home and Abroad " (English ; 
 quoted in the " Christian World " for Aug., 1876) wrote : " May and June will see a greater 
 concourse of visitors in the capital of Italy than have flocked hither since the fall of the 
 temporal power [1870]. As usual, the gifts to the pope are extraordinarily large ; . . . a 
 aingle donor from South America brings no less than 1,000,000 francs " [-= about $200,000]. 
 Among the " large donations received of late," he mentions $50,000 annual interest from 
 the estate of the late duke of Modena; $100,000 bequeathed by Signora Gismondi; 
 $160,000 bequeathed by Signer Agostini Quint! ; $40,000 from the diocese of Ghent (see 
 p.72C) ; $14,000 from the Italian pilgrimage and other sources one morning, &c. 
 
 13 new cardinals (7 Italian, 2 French, 3 Spanish, 1 English) are announced ; 2 for April 
 3, 1876 (Bp. d 1 Avanza, Franzelin [Jesuit]) ; 11 for March 12, 1877 (Nina, Sbaretti, Bp. Serar 
 fina, Bp. di Canossa, Abp. Apnzzo, Abp. Coverot, de Falloux dn Coudray, Patriarch Ben- 
 enavides, Abp. Gurcia-Gil [Dominican] , Abp. Paya y Rico, Abp. Howard). Total 65, others 
 being dead.
 
 716 APPENDIX. 
 
 1 cardinal bishop of 1870 (Louis Amat di S. Filippo e Sorzo) remains ; 4 
 others, cardinal priests in 1870 (di Pietro, Sacconi, Guidi, Biglio), are now 
 cardinal bishops ; 22 or 34 (de Angelis, Casoni, Prince Schwartzenberg, As- 
 quini, de Traetto, Sforza [inserted in 1871 ; see p. 190], Donnet, Morichini, 
 Pecci, Antonucci, Panebianco, Trevisanto, de Luca, Bizzarri, la Sastra y 
 Cuesta, Pitra, Bonnechose [inserted in 1871 ; see p. 190], Cullen, Hohenlohe, 
 Bonaparte, Ferrieri, Berardi, Moreno, la Valletta) are, as in 1870, cardinal 
 priests ; 5 (Caterini, Mertel, Consolini [printed as priest in 1870, as deacon 
 afterwards ; see p. 191], Borromeo, Capalti) remain cardinal deacons. 
 Further, 1 cardinal bishop (Patrizi died Dec. 1, 1876), 21 cardinal priests, 
 and 4 cardinal deacons (Antonelli died Nov. 6, 1876, aged 70 ; see pp. 194-7), 
 who were on the list of 1870, now disappear as dead; 18 appear now as 
 cardinal priests, and 3 (besides Consolini) as cardinal deacons, who were not 
 on the list of 1870. Of the 18 new cardinal priests, 9 were appointed Dec. 
 22, 1873 (Ignatius do Nascimento Moraes Cardoso, abp. of Lisbon, born at 
 Murca, Portugal, Dec. 20, 1811 ; Rene Francis Regnier, abp. of Cambray, 
 born at St. Quentin July 17, 1794; Maximilian von Tarnoczy, abp. of Salz- 
 burg, born at Schwatz Oct. 24, 1806 ; Flavius Chigi, abp. of Mira in partibus 
 infidelium, born in Rome May 31, 1810; Alessander Franchi, abp. of Thess- 
 alonica in partibus, prefect of the Propaganda, born in Rome June 25, 1819 ; 
 Joseph Hippolyte Guibert, abp. of Paris, born at Aix Dec. 13, 1802 ; Mariano 
 Falcinelli Antoniacci, O. S. B., born at Assisi Nov. 10, 1806; Louis Oreglia 
 di Santo Stefano, abp. of Damietta in partibus, born at Bene July 9, 1828 ; 
 John Simor, abp. of Gran, Hungary, born at Alba Reale Aug. 22, 1813) ; 5 
 were appointed March 15, 1875 (Peter Gianelli, abp. of Sardia, secretary of 
 the Congregation of the Council, born Aug. 11, 1807 ; Mieceslaus Ledochowski, 
 abp. of Gnesen and Posen, born at Gork Oct. 29, 1822; John McCloskey, 1 
 
 1 Abp. McCloskey, the first U. S. cardinal (portrait, p. 764), studied 11 years at Mt. St. 
 Mary's College and Theological Seminary, Emmettsburg, Md.; was ordained priest Jan. 
 12, 1834 ; studied at Rome 1835-7 ; was consecrated bp. of Axiere in partibus and coadjutor 
 to the bp. of N. Y. March 10, 1844; became bp. of Albany May 21, 1847, and abp. of N. Y. 
 May 6, 1864. He derives his title as cardinal priest from the church of Santa Maria sopra 
 Minerva (see pp. 64, 279). He is understood to be a member of the Congregations of the 
 Index, of Bishops and Regulars, and of Rites (see pp. 199-201). The famous Index Expur- 
 gaioriug or Index LVbrorum Expurgandarum [ expurgatory index, or list of books to bo 
 expurgated, that is, cleared of certain offensive passages] and Index Prohlbitorius or In- 
 dex lAbrorum ProhVMorum [= prohibitory index, or index of prohibited book?, that is, 
 of books forbidden to be read as heretical and injurious to faith and moral?] are under the 
 control of the Congregation of the Index, which takes cognizance of all books and publi- 
 cations (including newspapers, placards, &c.) and of authors and editors, wherever there 
 is a R. C. bishop or priest. While Rome was under the pope's temporal power, the censor- 
 ship of the press exercised there under this body was very rigid (see pp. 87-8, 145, &c.). 
 Even now, a Roman Catholic, whose book or publication is prohibited, must be dealt with, 
 that is, punished by excommunication, if not by corporal punishment. If his book is or- 
 dered to be expurgated, he must express his contrition, conform the next edition to the 
 order, and pay the fee (about $25 for expurgating a quarto volume, $20 for an octavo, &c.), 
 before the book receives any permission to be printed. Other fees must also be paid for 
 a final permission, approbation, &c. The Index Profiibitoriut in 1869 contained 27,596
 
 THE POPE AJiD CARDINALS. 717 
 
 abp. of New York, born in Brooklyn, N. Y., March 10, 1810; Henry Edward 
 Manning, abp. of Westminster, born at Totteridge July 15, 1808 [see pp. 681, 
 719] ; Victor Augustus Isidore Deschamps, C. SS. R.[= of the Congregation 
 of the Most Sacred Redeemer, or Redemptorist], abp. of Mechlin, born at 
 Mella Dec. 6, 1810) ; 4 were appointed Sept. 17, 1875 (Thomas Mary Martinelli, 
 O. S. A., born at Lucca Feb. 23, 1827, appointed cardinal deacon Dec. 22, 
 1873; Roger Louis E. Antici Mattei, patriarch of Constantinople, auditor 
 general of the Apostolic Chamber, born in Rome March 23, 1811, created car- 
 dinal in petto [= in the breast, or in secret] March 15, 1875; John Simeoni, 1 
 abp. of Chalcedonia in partibus, born in Pagliano Dec. 27, 1816 ; Godefroy 
 Broussais St. Marc, abp. of Rennes, born in Rennes Feb. 4, 1803). The 3 
 new cardinal deacons, all appointed Sept. 17, 1875, are Lorenzo Hilarion 
 Randi, vice-chamberlain to the Holy Roman Church, born at Bagnacavallo 
 July 12, 1818, reserved in petto [= in secret] March 15, 1875 ; Bartolomeo 
 [= Bartholomew] Pacca, major-domo to His Holiness, born at Benevento 
 Feb. 25, 1817, reserved in petto March 15, 1875 ; Dominic Bartolini, born at 
 Rome May 16, 1813. 48 of these cardinals, who may elect the next pope, were 
 appointed by the present pope ; the other 7 were appointed by Gregory XVI. 
 37 of them (including Cardinal Bonaparte) appear to be Italians ; 6 are French ; 
 the remaining 12 are of nearly as many different countries (see note 3 , p. 715). 
 
 PAKT II. STATISTICS. 
 
 The Catholic Family Almanac for 1876 calculates the Roman Catholics in 
 the world to be 211,123,158 ; those hi America (N. and S., with the "West 
 Indies) to be 48,308,236 ; those in the United States to be 6,000,000 (see pp. 
 688-92, 765-7). 
 
 Sadliers' Catholic Directory for 1877 contains a " list of all the patriarchs, 
 archbishops, and bishops in the Catholic church throughout the world." It 
 gives the names of 12 patriarchs and 870 archbishops and bishops, leaving 
 more than 80 blanks, but including a large number of merely titular dignita- 
 ries. According to the same authority, the Roman Catholics have, in Great 
 Britain, 21 archbishops and bishops, 2024 clergy of all grades, and 1294 
 churches, chapels, and stations ; in Ireland, 30 archbishops and bishops (be- 
 sides 3 without local jurisdiction), 1084 parishes, 986 parish priests, and prob- 
 ably about 3440 priests of all sorts; hi the British Possessions in North 
 America, 4 archbishops, 25 bishops, 1645 priests, 1363 churches, 434 chapels 
 
 condemned works, including Protestant Bibles and books of devotion, the works of Lord 
 Bacon, Copernicus, Galileo, Erasmus, John Locke, Shakspeare, Milton, Dante, Cervantes* 
 Sir Isaac Newton, Vattel, Humboldt, Wm. E. Channing, J. L. Motley, &c., &c. A fee of 
 $60 may purchase a license for 6 months to read prohibited books (see the Christian World 
 for April, 1872, pp. 115-19, and Nov., 1875, pp. 331-8). 
 
 1 Abp. Simeoni was nnncio to Madrid in 1875 (see p. 740), and succeeded Antonelli as 
 secretary of state Dec., 1876.
 
 718 APPEHTDIX. 
 
 and stations, 18 theological seminaries, 443 ecclesiastical students, 44 colleges, 
 189 academies and select schools, 3139 parish schools, 47 asylums, 46 hospitals, 
 and a population of 1,882,000; in the British West Indies, Honduras, and 
 Guiana, 1 archbishop, 2 bishops, 66 priests, 39 churches, 1 college, 3 acade- 
 mies, 5 parish schools, 2 asylums, and 1 hospital. 
 
 Robenstein's Denominational Statistics (quoted in Christian World for March, 
 1876) make the present B. C. population of England and Wales about 973,000 ; 
 of Great Britain and Ireland " little more than 5 millions," or 18 per cent, of 
 the population (nearly 31 millions), their increase in the United Kingdom 
 since 1801 being 28 per cent., that of Protestants being 120 per cent, (see p. 
 
 For B. C. ecclesiastical and religious statistics of the U. S. in detail, see 
 pp. 764-71. 
 
 PART III. VATICANISM, ULTRAMONTANISM, &C. 
 
 1. Definitions and Statements. "Vaticanism" denotes the 
 characteristic spirit and principles of the Vatican court and council (see pp. 
 227-53, &c.). " Curialism" [from cttrio-=court] and " Ultramontanisin" [=the 
 doctrine of those beyond the mountains or south of the Alps] express substan- 
 tially the same idea. The decree of the Vatican council declaring the suprem- 
 acy and infallibility of the pope (see pp. 111-18) is understood by the pope 
 and the dominant party in the Roman Catholic church (who are hence called 
 Infallibilists) and by Protestants generally to maintain the pretensions respect- 
 ing the pope's prerogatives which were put forth by the popes of the middle 
 ages (see pp. 128-30). Pope Boniface VIII, in the bull Unam Sanctum (the 
 Latin words with which it begins, = " one holy Catholic church," &c.) issued 
 Nov. 18, 1302, declared that in Peter's power there are two swords, the spirit- 
 ual and the temporal; and added, "Assuredly, he who denies that 'the tem- 
 poral sword is in the power of Peter, gives ill heed to the word of the Lord, 
 saying, 'Put up again thy sword into the sheath' (Matt, xxvi, 52). Each, 
 therefore, namely, the spiritual and the material sword, is in the power of the 
 Church. But the latter is to be wielded for the Church ; the former by the 
 Church: the former by the hand of the priest, the latter by the hand of 
 kings and soldiers, but at the suggestion and sufferance of the priest. How- 
 ever, one sword ought to be under the other, and the temporal authority ought 
 to be subject to the spiritual ; for when the apostle says, ' There is no power 
 but from God : and those that are, are ordained of God ' (Bom. xiii, 1), yet 
 they would not have been ordained, unless one sword were under the other, 
 and as if inferior were brought up by the other to the highest exaltation. . . . 
 Whosoever therefore resists this power so ordained by God, resists the ordi- 
 nance of God (Bom. xiii, 2), unless like Manichrous he feign that there are 
 two principles : which we judge false and heretical : because, as Moses wit- 
 nesses, not in the beginnings, but in the beginning God created heaven and
 
 HIS EMINENCE HENRY EDWARD CARDINAL MANNING.
 
 VATICANISM, TTLTRAMONTANISM, &C. 719 
 
 earth (Gen. i, 1). Moreover, we declare, affirm, define, and pronounce it to 
 be altogether necessary to salvation for every human creature to be subject 
 to the Roman pontiff." 
 
 In consonance with this, the Syllabus of Dec. 8, 1864, marks as errors the 
 propositions (24, 23, 25, 55, 77, 80) given on pp. 578 and 641, also the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 "41. An indirect negative power over religious affairs belongs to the civil 
 power even when exercised by an unbelieving ruler ; to it therefore belongs 
 not only the right which they call exequatur, but also the right of appeal (as 
 they term it) from abuse. " "42. In a conflict of laws between the two pow- 
 ers, the civil right prevails." 
 
 March 6, 1873, the pope taught thus officially in a brief (as given by Prof. 
 J. A. Dorner, D.D., before the Evangelical Alliance in N. Y.) : " It is a relig- 
 ious duty, and the will of God, that they [Roman Catholics] should devote 
 themselves necessarily and absolutely to the wishes and monitions of the holy 
 throne [= the pope speaking from his throne], and that all wisdom for be- 
 lievers consists in absolute obedience and ready constant dependence upon the 
 throne of St. Peter." 
 
 Abp. Manning 1 , in his " Csesarism and Ultramontanism," published in 1874, 
 maintained the right of the spiritual power (the Church) to define the border- 
 line between itself and the civil power (the State), and hence its supremacy 
 over the latter ; and declared this to be "the doctrine of the bull Unam Sane- 
 tarn, and of the Syllabus, and of the Vatican council," and, "in fact, Ultra- 
 montanism." He says: "The spiritual power knows, with divine certainty, 
 the limits of its own jurisdiction : and it knows, therefore, the limits and the 
 competence of the civil power. It is thereby, in matters of religion and con- 
 science, supreme Any power which is independent, and can alone fix 
 
 the limits of its own jurisdiction, and can thereby fix the limits of all other 
 jurisdictions, is, ipso facto [= by this very fact], supreme. But the Church 
 of Jesus Christ, within the sphere of revelation, of faith and morals, is all this, 
 or is nothing, or worse than nothing, an imposture and a usurpation that is, 
 it is Christ or Antichrist." In 1872 he said, in the introduction to his Sermons 
 on Ecclesiastical Subjects; "The Holy See is Ultramontane, the Vatican 
 l 
 
 Henry Edward Manning, D.D., cardinal (see p. 717), archbishop of Westminster, and 
 metropolitan or official head of the R. C. church in England, born July 15, 1803 ; graduated 
 at Balliol college, Oxford, 1830, afterwards fellow, of Merton college, vicar of Lavington, 
 and archdeacon of Chichester in the Church of England ; became a Roman Catholic in 
 1851 ; resided some time in Rome ; afterwards became provost of the chapter of Westmin- 
 ster, founded a congregation of the Oblatea of St. Charles, and, after the death of cardinal 
 Wiseman in 1865, was appointed abp. of Westminster ; was made cardinal March 15, 1875, 
 and took possession of his titular church (St. Gregory's) at Rome March 30, 1875. He has 
 published "Sermons on Ecclesiastical Subjects" (3 vols.). and various other works, doc- 
 trinal, controversial, &c. He and the late Rev. Samuel Wilberforce (D.D.; son of Wm. 
 Wilberforce [see p. 681] ; bp. of Oxford 1845-69 ; bp. of Winchester 1869-73) married 
 daughters of Rev. J. Sargent, of Petworth ; but the sisters both died young, before their 
 husbands gained much prominence. See portrait opposite.
 
 720 APPEITDIX. 
 
 council was Ultramontane, the whole episcopate is Ultramontane, the whole 
 priesthood, the whole body of the faithful throughout all nations, excepting 
 only a handful here and there of rationalistic or liberal Catholics, all are Ultra- 
 montane. Ultramontanism is Popery, and Popery is Catholicism." 
 
 As the R. C. church claims to be " the mother and mistress of all churches," 
 so the pope is set forth as entitled to obedience from all bapt'zad persons, in- 
 cluding heretics. Thus, pope Benedict XIV formally declared, that "he who 
 receives baptism from a heretic becomes, by virtue thereof, a member of the 
 Catholic church." The council of Trent (canons 4, 8, 13, 14, on baptism) 
 anathematized those who deny that heretics, as baptized persons (see p. 449), 
 are bound to obedience to the Church, and pope Pius IX, in his letter of Aug. 
 7, 1873 to the Emperor William of Germany, says, " every one who has been 
 baptized belongs in some way or other, which to define more precisely would 
 be here out of place, belongs, I say, to the Pope." 
 
 The R. C. system as represented by the Pope and his court, in other words, 
 official Romanism, or "Vaticanism," sets itself, in the view of Protestants, 
 against personal freedom, national authority and security, and modern civili- 
 zation; undermines the foundations of civil and religious liberty; sets at 
 naught the welfare of the citizen ; interferes with his domestic and spiritual 
 relations, and with his allegiance to his government ; and blocks up the path 
 of all intelligent and permanent social or Christian development. Hence in 
 many countries there have been great conflicts since 1870. 
 
 2. The '* Gladstone controversy '" began thus. In the " Con- 
 temporary Review" for Oct., 1874, Mr. Gladstone, "speaking of the question 
 whether a handful of the clergy are or are not engaged in an utterly hopeless 
 and visionary effort to Romanize the Church and people of England," said : 
 "At no time since the bloody reign of Mary has such a scheme been possible. 
 But if it had been possible in the 17th or 1 8th centuries, it would still have 
 become impossible in the 19th: when Rome has substituted for the proud 
 boast of semper eadem [= always the same ; see p. 700] a policy of violence 
 and change in faith ; when she has refurbished and paraded anew every rusty 
 tool she was fondly thought to have disused ; when no one can become her 
 convert without renouncing his moral and mental freedom, and placing his 
 civil loyalty and duty at the mercy of another ; and when she has equally re- 
 pudiated modern thought and ancient history." 
 
 1 So named from Rt. Hon. \Vm. E. Gladstone, one of the ablest of British statesmen, 
 a strenuous high-churchman and long a leader of the liberal party ; who was born in Liver- 
 pool, Eng., Dec. 29, 1809; graduated in 1831 with the highest honors of Oxford university ; 
 has been member of parliament from 1832 onward (for Oxford university 1847-455) ; a junior 
 lord of the treasury 1834-5; under secretary for colonial affairs 2 months in 1835; member 
 of the privy council from 1841 ; vice-president of the board of trade and master of the 
 mint 1841-3 ; president of the board of trade 1843-5 ; secretary for the colonies 1845-6 ; chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer 1852-6; lord high commissioner extraordinary to the Ionian is- 
 lands 1858-9 ; chancellor of the exchequer again 1859-66 ; first lord of the treasury and 
 prime minister Dec., 1868 Feb. 17, 1874. Between his entrance Into the Cabinet in 1841 
 and his resignation in 1874, he was about 20 years a member of the Cabinet. The arti- 
 cles and pamphlets in the " Gladstone controversy " were published in the latter part of 
 1874 and the beginning of 1875. See portrait, opposite p. 729.
 
 GLADSTONE CONTROVERSY. 721 
 
 Some of Mr. Gladstone's friends who had become Roman Catholics made 
 this passage the subject of expostulation. Mr. Gladstone then published 
 " The Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance ; a Political Ex- 
 postulation :" in which he defended lu's positions from the Vatican decrees 
 (see pp. 114-18), the Syllabus and Encyclical of 1864 (see pp. 230, 718-19, 
 &c.), and maintained "that the Head of their Church, so supported as undoubt- 
 edly to speak with its highest authority, claims from Roman Catholics a plenary 
 obedience to whatever he may desire in relation . . to faith, . . morals, 
 and ... all that concerns the government and discipline of the church : 
 that, of this, much lies within the domain of the State ; that to obviate all 
 misapprehension, the Pope demands for himself the right to determine the 
 province of his own rights, and has so defined it in formal documents as to 
 warrant any and every invasion of the civil sphere ; and that this new version 
 of the principles of the Papal church inexorably binds its members to the ad- 
 mission of these exorbitant claims, without any refuge or reservation on behalf 
 of their duty to the crown." 
 
 Mr. Gladstone's "tract" elicited more than 20 replies, the most noticeable 
 being from Cardinal Abp. Manning and Dr. Newman. 
 
 Abp. Manning's reply, " The Vatican Decrees in their bearing on Civil Al- 
 legiance," has 5 chapters on the propositions : " 1. That the Vatican decrees 
 have in no jot or tittle changed either the obligations or the conditions of civil 
 allegiance." He argues that "the pope had at all times the power to rule the 
 whole church not only in faith and morals, but also in all things which pertain 
 to discipline and government ;" that "it was never lawful to Catholics to deny 
 the infallibility of a Pontifical act ex catfiedra ;" that " Gallicanism was the 
 only formal interruption of the universal belief of the Church in the infallibil- 
 ity of the pope," and this was extinguished by the Vatican council ; and " that 
 the civil allegiance of Catholics is as undivided as that of all Christians, and 
 of all men who recognize a divine or natural moral law." "2. That the re- 
 lations of the Catholic church to the civil powers of the world have been im- 
 mutably fixed from the beginning, inasmuch as they arise out of the Divine 
 constitution of the Church, and out of civil society of the natural order." 
 Here he reaffirms the independency and supremacy of the church (see p. 719), 
 and affirms its authority from God to judge of a ruler's deviation from the law 
 of God, " and by all its powers to enforce the correction of that departure 
 from justice." He distinguishes temporal and spiritual, direct and indirect 
 authority. He gives the bull Unam Sanctam (see p. 718) in English and in 
 Latin, with the interpretations of it, and says, " It is only when nations and 
 kingdoms become socially subject to the supreme doctrinal and judicial 
 authority of the Church that th3 conditions of its exsrcisa are verified." 
 "3. That any collisions now existing have been brought on by changes, not 
 on the part of the Catholic church, much less of the Vatican council, but on 
 the part of the civil powers, and that by reason of a systematic conspiracy 
 against the Holy See." This refers to the conflict in Germany, the Falk laws, 
 &c. "4. That by these changes and collisions the civil powers of Europe 
 
 46
 
 722 APPENDIX. 
 
 are destroying their own stability." This refers to Italy, the extension of the 
 Italian power over Rome, &c. " 5. That the motive of the Vatican council 
 in denning the infallibility of the Roman pontiff was not any temporal policy, 
 nor was it for any temporal end; but that it defined that truth in the face of 
 all temporal dangers, in order to guard the Divine deposit of Christianity, and 
 to vindicate the Divine certainty of faith." Under this he gives 15 reasons for 
 defining the doctrine, and comments on the definition itself. 
 
 Dr. Newman's' reply, dated Dec. 27, 1874, entitled, "A Letter addressed 
 to His Grace the Duke of Norfolk on occasion of Mr. Gladstone's recent Ex- 
 postulation," consists of 10 sections; (1) Introductory Remarks ; (2) The An- 
 cient Church ; (3) The Papal Church ; (4) Divided Allegiance ; (5) Conscience ; 
 (6) The Encyclical of 1864 ; (7) The Syllabus ; (8) The Vatican Council; (9) 
 The Vatican Definition ; (10) Conclusion. Dr. N. claims that the concentra- 
 tion of power in the Pope in the middle ages was not the Pope's work, but 
 " necessary for the civilization of Europe," and " limited to the ages of faith ;'' 
 affirms that the weight of the Pope's "hand upon us as private men is abso- 
 lutely unappreciable;" acknowledges and quotes the 4th Lateran council, 
 &c., to show "extreme cases in which conscience may come into collision 
 with the word of a Pope, and is to be followed in spite of that word ;" argues 
 that the " liberty of conscience " condemned by the encyclical of 1864 " is the 
 liberty of every one to give public utterance, in every possible shape, by every 
 possible channel, without any let or hindrance from God or man, to all his 
 notions whatsoever;" 2 asserts that "the Syllabus has no dogmatic force," 
 differs from "the original and authoritative documents [allocutions, &c.]to 
 which the Syllabus pointedly refers," is to be obeyed by having recourse to 
 them, and can be understood only by understanding scientific theology ; de- 
 clares his own constant reception of the pope's infallibility, though he form- 
 erly disbelieved that the dogma would be defined ; alleges that pope Honorius 
 did not teach heresy ex cathedra ; limits the Pope's infallibility to "the di- 
 rect answer to the special question which he happens to be considering ;" 
 allows exceptions to all dogmas (except such as relate to persons) hi their 
 actual application ; denies that Mr. Gladstone has proved his main point of an 
 irreversible change in the political attitude of the Church by the Vatican de- 
 cree of the pope's supremacy and infallibility ; and avers that a Roman Cath- 
 
 1 John Henry Newman, D. D., superior of the Congregation of the Oratory (see p. 810), 
 whom Mr. Gladstone calls " the first living theologian now within the Roman commu- 
 nion," born in London, Feb. 21, 1801 ; graduated (1822?) at Trinity college, Oxford; after- 
 wards more than twenty years at Oxford as fellow and tutor of Oriel college, vice-principal 
 and tutor of St. Alban's hall, public examiner of the university, and vicar of the church of 
 St Mary the Virgin (1828^43); originator and principal writer of the "Tracts for the 
 Times " (1833-41 ; see p. 671) ; admitted to the Roman Catholic church Oct. 9, 1845 ; called 
 by Dr. (afterwards cardinal) Wiseman to St. Mary's college, Oscott; went thence to Rome, 
 where he was ordained priest; established the Congregation of the Oratory 1848, and Boon 
 opened its first house at Birmingham ; rector of the Catholic university in Ireland, 1852, 
 &c. ; afterwards again at Birmingham. 
 
 But see the pope's interpretation In condemning Austrian laws (p. 653).
 
 GLADSTONE CONTROVERSY. 723 
 
 r 
 
 olic has and maintains his own opinion and his private judgment just as much 
 as a Protestant, " whenever, and so far as, the church, the oracle of Revelation, 
 does not speak." 
 
 Mr. Gladstone's rejoinder, " Vaticanism : An Answer to Reproofs and Re- 
 plies," has 9 sections or parts, as follows : 1 claims that not one of his an- 
 tagonists has apprehended or stated with accuracy his principal charge, which 
 was not against Roman Catholics [see pp. 622, 702], but against "Rome," 
 that is, "the Papal chair, and its advisers and abettors," "that system, politi- 
 cal rather than religious, which in Germany is well termed Vaticanism, . . . 
 its contrivers and conscious promoters." "The Vatican decrees do, in the 
 strictest sense, establish for the Pope a supreme command over loyalty and 
 civil duty. To the vast majority of Roman Catholics they are, and in all 
 likelihood will long in their carefully enveloped meaning remain, practically 
 unknown. Of that small minority who have spoken or fitted themselves to 
 speak, a portion reject them. Another portion receive them with an express 
 reserve, to me perfectly satisfactory, against all their civil consequences. 
 Another portion seem to suspend their judgment. ... A very large class, as it 
 seems to me, think they receive these decrees, and do not. They are involved 
 in inconsistency, and that inconsistency is dangerous. ..." 2 examines 
 the Syllabus, and shows its high authority and claim to obedience. 3, 4, 
 treat of the Vatican council and the infallibility of the Pope in their breach 
 with history, as shown (1) from the eminently loyal and thoroughly anti-Ul- 
 tramontane opinions and declarations of the Roman Catholics of Great Britain 
 and Ireland for two centuries (especially in 1757, 1788-9, 1810 1 , 1825-6), and 
 (2) from the history of the council of Constance (see pp. 210-15). 5, "the 
 Vatican council and obedience to the Pope," shows the insufficiency of abp. 
 Manning's proofs of the previous authorization of the claim to unconditional 
 obedience, and of Dn Newman's "exceptions to this precept of obedience." 
 6 treats of "the revived claims of the papal chair: (1) the deposing power; 
 (2) the use of force." Mr. G. describes the growth of the Pope's power in 
 the middle ages (see pp. 127-30), the claim of power from God over the nations 
 and kingdoms, &c. (see pp. 576-87, 718-19), the unsatisfactory disavowals 
 now of a universal monarchy or direct temporal power, &c. Pope Pius IX 
 describes the deposing power as " a right which the popes exercised in virtue 
 of their authority when the general good demanded it." Abp. Manning's as- 
 surance that the members of his communion would not use force if they were 
 able, is met with Innocent Ill's famous brief Novit [= he knew], which, in a 
 passage omitted by Abp. Manning, maintains that "we are able and also bound 
 to coerce," and quotes in proof Jer. i, 10. Dr. Newman's limitation of the use 
 of force is offset by article 24th in the Jesuit Schrader's list of affirmative 
 propositions answering to the Syllabus and approved by the Pope: "The 
 Church has the power to apply external coercion : she has also a temporal 
 
 1 He qnotea from Abp. P. R. Kenrick's undelivered speech before the Vatican council 
 (now published in English by the American Tract Society, N. Y., as edited by Rev. Leon- 
 ard W. Bacon).
 
 724 APPENDIX. 
 
 authority direct and indirect;" the remark being appended, "Not souls alone 
 are subject to her authority." Mr. G. discusses ( 7) the "warrant of alle- 
 giance according to the Vatican," and finds that the popes enforce the duty of 
 obedience only to those rulers who "do right, Rome being the measure of 
 right ;" that the pope is an irresponsible foreigner, deriving the larger part of 
 his power from foreign sources, acting on masses at each point (if he pleases) 
 of their contact with the laws of their country, ruling consciences and actually 
 declaring civil laws null and void (see pp. 1GG-8, 584-5, 788-00), &c. 8 is 
 "on the intrinsic nature and conditions of the Papal infallibility decreed in 
 the Vatican Council. . . . The priests are absolute over the people; the bish- 
 ops over both ; the pope over all. ..." Mr. G. claims that the Pope may now 
 alter the already defined doctrines of the faith, or the utterances of any other 
 pope, his followers being helpless if he only says he does not alter them ; that 
 Ms pleasure is supreme over the interpretation of these as of the Scriptures, 
 over the canon or written law of the Church, over all law, as he can annul it 
 or dispense with it. Thus, under the concordat with Napoleon the French 
 sees were abolished, and their bishops were deposed. He is infallible in faith 
 and morals when he speaks ex cathedra, and he himself is the final judge which 
 of his utterances shall be utterances ex cathedra. The declaration of papal in- 
 spiration already claimed and ascribed by some is no more impossible than 
 was that of papal infallibility, in which the Council of the Vatican authorita- 
 tively falsified the assurance given to the British government in 1810 by the 
 whole synod of Irish prelates. Mr. G. also questisns the origin and applica- 
 tion of the limitation of the pope's infallibility to his speaking ex cathedra ; and 
 claims that, since "decrees ex cathedra are infallible, but determinations what 
 decrees are ex cathedra are fallible, . . . the private person [R. C. layman], 
 after he has with all docility handed over his mind and its freedom to the 
 Schola Theologorum [= school of theologians], can never certainly know with 
 'divine faith,' when he is on the rock of infallibility, when on the shifting 
 quicksands of a merely human persuasion." In conclusion, Mr. G. holds that 
 he has proved his positions ; notices a protest raised by Abp. Manning and 
 Mgr. Capel against this discussion in the name of peace; and rejoins, "that 
 now, and in great part since the Vatican decrees, the church of Rome, through 
 the court of Rome and its head, the Pope, is in direct feud with Portugal, 
 with Spain, with Germany, with Switzerland, with Austria, with Russia, 
 with Brazil, and with most of South America ; in short, with the far larger 
 part of Christendom. The particulars may be found in, nay, they almost fill 
 the Speeches, Letters, Allocutions of the Pope himself. 1 He renews his 
 
 Mr. Gladstone published, in the Quarterly Review for January, 1875 (reprinted in 
 pamphlet form), an article on the " Speeches of Pope Pius IX." These speeches, number- 
 ing 200 and filling two volumes of 1100 pages in all, were uttered by the Pope between 
 Oct. 20, 1870, and Sept. 18, 1873, collected (moat of them fully reported) and published at 
 Rome as alone authentic and complete by Rev. Don Pasqualc dc Franciscis, apparently 
 printed at the Papal press, and openly sold at the bookshop of the Propaganda. "Out of 
 tiiesc 2!0 speeches," gays Mr. G., "about 280 seem to be addressed to the great political
 
 GLADSTONE CONTROVERSY. 725 
 
 " charge of an intention, on the part of Vaticanism, to promote the restora- 
 tion of the temporal sovereignty of the Pope, on the first favorable oppor- 
 tunity, by foreign arms, and without reference to the wishes of those who 
 were once his people. From Abp. Manning downward, not so much as one 
 of those who have answered me from the standing-ground of Vaticanism 
 has disavowed this project : many of them have openly professed that they 
 adopt it, and glory in it. Thus my main practical accusation is admitted ; 
 and the main motive which prompted me is justified. . ..." 
 
 Under the date of Feb. 26, 1875, Dr. Newman sent out his " Postscript to 
 a Letter addressed to His Grace the Duke of Norfolk, on occasion of Mr. 
 Gladstone's recent Expostulation, and in answer to his ' Vaticanism. ' " This 
 pamphlet the last in the series is brief (28 pp.), and reaffirms his former 
 positions, with some additional quotations and explanations. The most im- 
 portant addition respects marriages. Mr. Gladstone claimed that English non- 
 Roman marriages are in the eye of the Pope purely civil marriages, though 
 generally made under the sanctions of religion, and are not regarded as "filthy 
 concubinages" simply because the disciplinary decrees of the council of Trent 
 are not canonically in force in England. Dr. N. thinks Mr. G. obscure or 
 incorrect, and says : " It is also a religious marriage, if the parties, without a 
 priest, by a mutual act of consent, as in the presence of God, marry themselves ; 
 and such a vow of each to other is, according to our theology, really the con- 
 stituting act, the matter and form, the sacrament of marriage :" . . . and 
 he quotes St. Alfonso Liguori and Abp. Kenrick's moral theology as authori- 
 ties declaring the validity of marriages among heretics, &c. (but see p. 745). 
 He also says: " If Protestants are to speculate about our future, they should 
 be impartial enough to recollect, that if, on the one hand, we believe that a 
 Pope can add to our articles of faith, so, on the other, we hold also that a 
 heretical Pope, ipso facto, ceases to be Pope by reason of his heresy 1 ." 
 
 The Congregational Quarterly for Jan., 1876, notices a recent volume ("Re- 
 sults of the Expostulation "), which sets forth the present phases of Roman 
 Catholicism, under 4 heads : (1) the Ultramontane faith (see p. 718), held by 
 Abp. Manning, Mgr. Capel, the Jesuits, &c. ; (2) the Minimizing faith, which 
 makes endless exceptions to the general rule, and allows ultimately the right 
 of private judgment, held by Dr. Newman, Bp. Fessler, &c. ; (3) the Gallican 
 faith, which denies the pope's power over princes in temporal matters, subor- 
 dinates the pope to a general council, maintains the ancient liberties of the 
 church, denies the pope's infallibility, was held by Dr. Doyle (bp. of Kildare 
 
 purpose which is now the main aim of all Papal effort that of the triumph and liberation 
 of the Church in Rome itself, and the re-establishment of peace. When the Pope speaks 
 of the liberation of the Church, he means merely this, that it is to set its foot on the neck 
 of every other power ; and when he speaks of peace in Italy, ho means the overthrow of 
 the established order." 
 
 i Was not Honorins I (see pp. 158, 206-7) pope until he died? And is he not recognized 
 now as pope during his whole life 1 And would not Dr. Newman or any one else be ex- 
 communicated for refusing to recognize an actually reigning pope heretic or not f How 
 can a heretical pope be got rid of?
 
 726 APPENDIX. 
 
 in Ireland 1819-34) and the Irish and English hierarchies from 1790 to 1826, 
 and is now held by Lords Acton and Camoys ; (4) the Gallico-Ultramontane 
 faith, which admits papal infallibility as a dogma declared by a general coun- 
 cil, and is held by most of the R. C. bishops, priests, and laity. " The weak- 
 ness of the Roman hierarchy is seen in its being obliged to tolerate such dis- 
 cordant elements. Its strength is seen in the fact that it holds such ele- 
 ments together. The effect of Mr. Gladstone's expostulation is seen in its 
 drawing out replies and defenses which evince the existence of these parties 
 in the church of Rome." 
 
 An American work published at the close of 1876 ("The Papacy and the 
 Civil Power," by Hon. Richard "W. Thompson, appointed Secretary of the 
 Navy, March, 1877) presents in its 750 pages an elaborate and able discussion 
 of this part of our great subject; while another recent work by a Canadian 
 Episcopalian ("Roman Catholicism, Old and New, from the Standpoint of 
 the Infallibility Doctrine, by John Schulte, D.D., Ph.D., Rector of Port Bur- 
 well, Ontario"), formerly a R. C. priest and professor of divinity, with courte- 
 ous and convincing argument disproves the infallibility of either Church or 
 Pope, and thus subverts the very foundations of Vaticanism. 
 
 PAET IV. EOMANISM IN FOEEIGN COUNTEIES. 
 
 1. Italy. Though the Pope still has 3 palaces, a large income and 
 troops of servants, with perfect freedom of motion and of communication (he 
 received about 6,200 visitors June 16, 1871, and 100,000 letters June 16, 1874), 
 he calls himself and is called "the prisoner of the Vatican" or "the poor 
 prisoner of the Vatican 1 " (see p. 715). He has excommunicated the Italian 
 government, and declared reconciliation with it impossible. His discourses, 
 published openly at Rome (see p. 724), style the Italian government and its 
 followers "wolves," "impious," "children of Satan," "enemies of God," 
 "monsters of hell," &c.; and describe Rome as "holy" under his dominion 
 (see pp. 86-9, 627), but now a sink of corruption, with devils walking through 
 its streets. On the other hand, the Italian law of 1866 abolishing religious 
 corporations (monasteries, &c.; see p. 335) was in 1873 extended to the prov- 
 ince and city of Rome; the costly houses of the Jesuits, &c., were sold to the 
 highest bidder 2 , and the avails have been devoted mostly to the cause of pub- 
 lic education; some parishes near Mantua have been allowed to elect their 
 own pastors and control their own parsonages and revenues. While the R. 
 
 1 In 1874 straw said by priests to bo from the Pope's dungeon was sold In Savoy, at 
 Antwerp, &c.; also, thousands of photographs representing the Pope in chains under 
 guard, looking out between iron bars from a dismal cell, were sold at Ghent in Belgium. 
 It was said that one-half of the money from these sales went to the Vatican. Who in- 
 vented these deceptions, is not stated. 
 
 9 The sales of ecclesiastical property up to the end of Sept., 1876, according to the Italian 
 official journal, amounted to 514,118,000 francs or about $100,000,000, and still continue to 
 bring in $150,000 to $800,000 monthly.
 
 BOMANISM Itf ITALY. 727 
 
 C. religion is still the religion of the state and, nominally at least, of the vast 
 majority of the population of Italy, the observance of most of the week-day 
 church-festivals has been made voluntary rather than obligatory upon the 
 people ; pilgrimages and religious processions (except carrying the host, with- 
 out sound of bell, to the sick and dying) have been prohibited as really politi- 
 cal in their character, though ostensibly religious ; Protestantism is tolerated 
 by law ; more than 150 Protestant churches and preaching stations existed in 
 Rome and in other parts of Italy in 1874, with some thousands of Protestant 
 church-members ("VValdensians, Free Church of Italy, Methodists, Baptists, 
 Episcopalians, &c.); there are also numerous Protestant Sunday-schools and 
 week-day schools, besides Protestant theological schools, colporteurs, periodi- 
 cals, &c. In the Quarterly Review for January, 1875, Mr. Gladstone spoke 
 thus of the condition of Rome since 1870 : "After taking some pains to make 
 inquiry from impartial sources, we are able to state that the police of the 
 national Rome is superior to that of Papal Rome, that order is well maintained, 
 crime energetically dealt with. It is known that at the time of the forcible 
 occupation in 1370 a number of bad characters streamed into the city ; but by 
 energetic action on the part of the government, ill-supported we fear by the 
 clergy, they were by degrees got rid of, and soon ceased to form a noticeable 
 feature in the condition of the place. For ostensible morality the streets will 
 compare favorably with the Boulevards of Paris, and for security they may 
 generally challenge the thoroughfares of London. . . . ' The city is clean and 
 well kept. There are not half the number of priests or friars in the streets, 
 and mendicancy is not a tenth part of what it was formerly.' ... It has been 
 our care to obtain from Rome itself some figures, on which reliance may be 
 placed. They indicate the comparative state of Roman crime in the 2 last 
 full years of the Papal rule (1868, 1869), and the 3 full years (1871, 1872, 
 1873) of the Italian rule : 
 
 1868 1869 1871 1872 1873 
 
 Highway robberies, 236 123 103 85 26 
 
 Thefts, 802 714 785 859 698 
 
 Crimes of violence, 938 886 972 861 603 
 
 1976 1723 1860 1805 1327 
 
 "In 1870, which was a mixed year, and does not assist the comparison, and 
 which was also a year of crisis, the total was 2118, and the crimes of violence 
 were no less than 1175. . . . The two first of the Italian years were affected 
 by the cause to which we have referred. . . . The average of the 3 years is 
 1665, against 1723 in the last Papal year. The year 1873, in which alone we 
 may consider that the special cause of disturbance had ceased to operate, 
 shows a reduction of 391, or more than 22 per cent, on the last year of the - 
 Pope. Yet more remarkable is the comparison if we strike out the category 
 of thefts, the least serious of the three in kind. We then obtain the following 
 figures: For the last Papal year, 1869, 1009; for 1873, 634; or a diminution
 
 728 APPENDIX. 
 
 of nearly 40 per cent." But Vaticanism aims at restoring the Pope's temporal 
 government (see pp. 50, 147-50, 724-5). 
 
 2. Germany. The new German empire, whose emperor ("Wm. I, 
 king of Prussia from 1861) was crowned at Versailles, January 18, 1871, and 
 whose constitution is dated April 16, 1871, has no established religion; pro- 
 visions in respect to established or privileged churches, religious institutions, 
 creeds, &c., are left to the constitutions and laws of the states of the empire 1 . 
 Yet the creation of this empire, with Protestant Prussia at its head, 2 became 
 the occasion of a most violent controversy and of new and important ecclesi- 
 astical laws. Its fundamental law, laid down by the German national parlia- 
 ment at Frankfort in 1848, thus recognizes religious freedom (Art. 3, 14) : 
 " Every religious society manages its own affairs, but remains subject to the 
 general laws of the State." The Prussian constitution, adopting this princi- 
 ple, January 31, 1850, more fully than any other German state or European 
 country had adopted it, said (Art. 15): "The Evangelical and the Roman 
 Catholic church, 3 as well as every other religious society, arranges and con- 
 ducts its affairs independently, 4 and remains in the possession and enjoyment 
 of institutions, foundations, and moneys devoted to the maintenance of its 
 worship, or to its several educational and benevolent purposes." Also (Art. 
 18) : " The right of nominating, proposing, electing, or confirming candidates 
 to any office in the church, so far as that right attaches to the State and is not 
 derived from patronage or other specific legal title, is abandoned, except in 
 respect to the appointment of chaplains for the army and public institutions." 
 
 1 According to the Statesman's Year-Book for ISf), the 26 States of the empire have 69 
 members In the Bundesrath [= federal council, answering to the U. S. senate], and are 
 popularly represented by 397 deputies in the Reichstag [= diet of the realm, answering to 
 the U. S. house of representatives!. The population of the empire, by the census of Dec. 
 1, 1871, was 41,060,695; and of Prussia (including Lauenburg) was 24,689,252. 
 
 2 The wars of 1866 with Austria and of 1870 with France were not for religion, but for 
 German nationality to secure freedom from foreign domination and to unite all the Ger- 
 man states into one nation. There is now a German nation in the heart of Europe, able 
 to protect itself and restrain its neighbors. 
 
 8 The " Evangelical church " (formed by uniting the Lutheran and Reformed churches 
 in 1817) and the Roman Catholic church, are the only bodies legally called "churches" 
 in the old provinces of Prussia, and embrace 99-100 of the population. The R. C. church 
 has 2 archbishops (Gnesen-Posen and Cologne), and 10 bishops in Prussia (Culm, Ermeland, 
 Breslau, Mflneter, Paderborn, Treves, Osnabriick, Hildesheim, Fulda, and Limburg). 
 Moravians, Old Lutherans. Wesleyans, Anglicans, Baptists, &c., are not legally styled 
 "churches," though some of these religious bodies have corporate rights." 
 
 4 The General German law formerly gave to the State authorities a direction in the in- 
 ternal affairs of the churches, the decision (to some extent) of sacramental questions and 
 an oversight of the churches according to their arbitrary discretion. This system of 
 guardianship is now surrendered ; but the rights of legislation and of general oversight 
 remain, and the exercise of these is regulated not extended by the Falk laws (see p. 
 730, Ac.). The R. C. church is now independent within its sphere more truly than ever 
 before in Prussia; but the State determines by its laws and responsible officers the limits 
 of the church's independence, and takes measures to prevent the church (or those that ex- 
 ercise authority in it) from transgressing those limits to the harm of the State or of its 
 law-abiding citizens.
 
 KOMANISM IN GERMANY. 729 
 
 In 1873, the Prussian parliament added to Art. 15 the clause, "but remains 
 subject to the laws of the State and to the oversight of the State, as determined 
 by the law;" and to Art. 18 the sentence, "Further, the law regulates the 
 powers of the State, with respect to the preparatory training, the institution, 
 and the deposition of clergymen and religious officers, and fixes the limits of 
 church discipline." 
 
 Prince Bismarck 1 is regarded as the father of German unity. "The key 
 to Bismarck's politics," says Rev. Dr. J. P. Thompson, "is given in these 
 words devotion to the unity of Germany as the supreme good of Germany 
 herself, and as the best guarantee of the peace and prosperity of Europe." In 
 1870-1 the French clergy tried to give a religious character to the Franco- 
 Prussian war ; Bismarck complained of this to Cardinal Antonelli, who de- 
 clined to interfere. Afterwards the Pope sought the intervention of Germany 
 to restore to him his lost temporal power ; but the emperor and chancellor and 
 parliament all declined to interfere. Soon afterwards, the Ultramontane party 
 in the parliament took a position against the subjection of the Church to the 
 laws of the State as laid down in the Frankfort constitution of 1848 (see above). 
 July 8, 1871, the Catholic department in the Prussian Ministry of Public 
 Worship was abolished. About this time the bp. of Ermeland suspended Dr. 
 Wollmann, long a teacher of religion at the gymnasium of Braunsberg, for 
 refusing to submit to the dogma of the Pope's infallibility, demanded his re- 
 moval from office, and afterwards excommunicated him and Prof. Michelis, 
 also of Braunsberg (see p. 737) ; but, as they had violated no law, the Prussian 
 government continued them in their positions. The German parliament passed 
 a law Nov., 1871, against the misuse of the pulpit for disturbing the public 
 peace. In March, 1872, a Prussian law declared the supervision of all the 
 schools to belong to the State, and forbade all other supervision. July 4, 1872, 
 the emperor approved a national law for suppressing the Jesuits, 2 &c., which 
 is thus given in the Catholic World for Oct., 1872 : 
 
 " 1. The Order of the Company of Jesus, orders akin to it, and congrega-" 
 tions of a similar character, are excluded from the German territory. The 
 establishment of residences for these orders is prohibited. The establishments 
 actually in existence must be suppressed within a period to be determined by 
 
 1 Otto Edward Leopold von Bismarck-SchOnhausen, was born at SchOnhausen, April I, 
 1815 ; studied jurisprudence at GOttingen, and Berlin ; was admitted to the bar June, 1835; 
 married Johanna Frederica Charlotte Dorothea Eleouore von Putkammer July 28, 1847 ; 
 member of the United Diet of Prussia, 1847-8; .conservative leader in the 2d chamber 
 1849-51 ; ambassador to the German Diet at Frankfort 1851-8 ; ambassador to Russia 1859-62, 
 and to France 1862 ; appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and President of the Council 
 of Ministers of Prussia Sept. 23, 1862 ; also Chancellor of the German Empire January 19, 
 1871 ; resigned the presidency of the Council of Ministers Dec. 20, 1872, and was re-ap- 
 pointed Nov. 9, 1873. He was created a Count Sept. 20, 1865, and Prince in 1871. He com- 
 bines a keen sagacity in regard to events and men with an unflinching will and rare ex- 
 ecutive ability. Attempts to assassinate him were made by Blind in May, 1866, and by 
 Kullmann in July, 1874; but he is still Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Prussia and 
 Chancellor of the German Empire. See portrait opposite. 
 
 According to the Catholic World, the Jesuits in Germany then numbered 703 men.
 
 730 APPENDIX. 
 
 the Federal Council, but which shall not exceed 6 months. 2. The members 
 of the Company of Jesus, of orders akin to it, and of congregations of a simi- 
 lar character, may be expelled the Federal territory, if they are foreigners. 
 If natives, residences within fixed limits may be forbidden them, or imposed 
 upon them. The measures necessary for the execution of this law, and for 
 the certainty of this execution, shall be adopted by the Federal Council." 
 
 January 23, 1872, Dr. Falk 1 became the Prussian Minister of Public In- 
 struction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. In January, 1873, he brought forward 
 the "Falk laws," which in May became laws of Prussia. Here follow the 
 most important parts of these 4 laws, as translated by John Brown Paton, and 
 published in the (English) Fortnightly Review for May 1, 1874, a few verbal 
 changes being made. The notes are largely from Mr. Paton's articles in the 
 Fortnightly Review, 1874-5. 
 
 I. "A law concerning the limits of the right to exercise the means of dis- 
 cipline and punishment that belong to a Church. 
 
 " 1. No church or religious society is authorized to threaten, execute, 
 or officially publish any other punishment or discipline than that which be- 
 longs strictly to the domain of religion, or which involves either the with- 
 drawal of some right that is esteemed and is influential within the church or 
 religious society, or exclusion from the church or religious society. No pun- 
 ishment or discipline which affects the person, or property, or freedom, or 
 which is defamatory, is allowed. 
 
 " 2. No penalty or kind of discipline allowed in 1 may be inflicted or 
 denounced against a member of a church or religious society on either of these 
 grounds : (a) Because he has done that which the laws of the State, or the 1 
 lawful ordinances of the civil authorities, have enjoined ; (5) Because he has 
 or has not voted, ua public elections, in a certain manner. 
 
 " 3. In like manner, no such penalty or discipline shall be threatened, 
 inflicted, or denounced in order either (a) To cause any one to discontinue 
 that which the laws of the State or the lawful ordinances of the civil authori- 
 ties have enjoined ; or (5) To induce any one to vote or not to vote, in a cer- 
 tain manner, in a public election. ' 
 
 " 4. The infliction of the penalties and kind of discipline allowed by this 
 law must not be made known to the public, but may be communicated to the 
 members of the community. Further, such penalties and kinds of discipline 
 are neither to be inflicted nor denounced in an opprobrious manner." 8 
 
 > Born Aug. 10, 1827 ; studied jurisprudence at Brcslau 1844-7 ; deputy to the 3d chamber 
 of Prussia 1858-70; member- of the German diet of the realm 1870-1. 
 
 3 This law guards the rights of laymen and obedient subjects against ecclesiastical tyr- 
 anny, as against excommunication for sending children to the public schools, performing 
 military service, voting for a disapproved candidate, &c. It allows the minor excommu- 
 nication, but forbids the oft-used major excommunication and anathema (see pp. 521-4) of 
 the R, C. Church, the Jewish ban, and the rigid Mennonite excommunication, which cut 
 off the offender from all social Intercourse, and may reduce him to beggary or starvation. 
 When the bp. of Ermeland excommunicated Dr. Wollman and Prof. Michelis (see p. 729), 
 the faithful were adjured In a diocesan journal to have no intercourse with them, uot to 
 visit, salute, give them information, &c.
 
 TALK LAWS. 731 
 
 II. "A law concerning secession from a Church. 1 
 
 " 1. Secession from a Church takes place and has civil recognition after 
 a declaration has been made by the person seceding before a judg? of his dis- 
 trict. In the case of those who leave one Church for another, the existing 
 law remains in force. If any one, passing over to another Church, wishes to 
 be freed from the taxes attached to his former communion, he must observe 
 the forms prescribed in this law." 2 
 
 2 requires formal notice of such a declaration to be made in writing be- 
 forehand. 
 
 " 3. The declaration of secession liberates the seceder from the obliga- 
 tions which arise from personal connection with a Church or parochial com- 
 munity. This exemption takes effect from the end of the calendar year 
 following that hi which the declaration was made. In the case of any extra- 
 ordinary expenditure for building, which has been declared to be necessary 
 previous to the close of that calendar year in which the secession was declared, 
 the seceder must contribute, till the end of the 3d year following his secession, 
 the same amount as if he had not seceded. Those obligations are not affected 
 by this act of secession, which do not arise from personal connection with a 
 Church or parochial community, especially obligations which are attached, by 
 virtue of their legal title, to certain real estates, or which rest either on all 
 real estates, or real estates of a certain description, hi a district irrespective of 
 their ownership. 
 
 " 5. Any claim for surplice fees, and other payments for particular offi- 
 cial services, can only be exacted by a clergyman from such persons as do not 
 belong to the Church, when such services have been undertaken by him at 
 their request. 
 
 "8. The regulations laid down in the preceding sections, concerning 
 Churches, apply likewise to all religious bodies which have corporate rights." 
 
 1 This law applies to Evangelical and R. C. Churches, Old Lutherans and Moravians in 
 the old provinces of Prussia ; to Mennonites in East Friesland and Schleswig, Netherland 
 Reformers in Elberfeld, and in Schleswig to Anglicans and Baptists and Reformed and 
 the Jansenist church at Nordstrand ; but not to unincorporated religions societies, the 
 rights of whose members are determined by their own rules or by thn law of private rights. 
 
 2 The civil rights of the Prussians were largely entrusted to the Evangelical and R. C. 
 clergy, who officially registered the births, baptisms, confirmations, marriages and deaths, 
 besides deciding, or helping to decide, all cases of divorce. No child could leave school or 
 be apprenticed until he had received confirmation. One could indeed pass from one Church 
 to another, by regularly participating in the services of the latter, receiving its sacraments, 
 or giving formal notice of the change ; but to pass out of either Church without joining 
 the other, was difficult, and gave no relief or exemption from Church dues. The present 
 law remedies the latter grievances; the law of civil marriage and the law that the clergy 
 of the State-churches shall not be ex qfflcio school-inspectors, also favor liberty. Church- 
 members and non-church-members now have equal rights and burdens as citizens. Chris- 
 tianity is in a measure separated from odious police regulations and unavoidable assess- 
 ments. It was stated in June, 1875, that during the previous year 16,700 Catholics in 
 Prussia embraced Protestantism.
 
 732 APPENDIX. 
 
 HI. "Law concerning the training [ 1-14] and installation [ 15, &c.] 
 of the Clergy. 1 
 
 " g 1, 2, 3. A pastoral office in one of the Christian Churches can be held 
 only by a German, whose literary training has satisfied the requirements of 
 the law, and against whose appointment the State has raised no 'protest. This 
 regulation applies indifferently to temporary or permanent appointments, to 
 assistants and substitutes, and to every change of office in the future. 
 
 " 4. To enter upon the clerical office, it is requisite to have passed the 
 final examination at a German gymnasium, to have completed a 3 years' theo- 
 logical course at a German university, and to have passed a literary examina- 
 tion appointed by the State. 
 
 " 6 & 7. The theological course can be pursued in those Church semi- 
 naries which are now in existence, intended for the scientific training of 
 theological students, if the Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs considers that 
 their course is equal to that of the university. This regulation, however, ap- 
 plies only to the seminaries in those places in which there is no theological 
 faculty, and avails only for those students who belong to the diocese for which 
 
 1 This law requires for young R. C. and "Evangelical" ecclesiastics the same training 
 which the State system of education requires for other Prussian youth, interferes with no 
 special and subsequent preparations for the clerical office, but maintains the right of the 
 laity to the ministrations of an educated clergy, and endeavors to guard the State against 
 the anti-national influence of a priesthood educated from childhood in semi-monastic sem- 
 inaries managed solely by their Church-authorities. The students who follow the pre- 
 scribed university course of 3 years, need not attend any lectures which wound their faith ; 
 for many German universities have a R. C. theological faculty (usually with an Ultramon- 
 tane majority of professors), and the students are not confined either to particular classes 
 and instructors or to one university for their whole course. For years the Prussian law had 
 required that all who entered the Evangelical or R. C. ministry should have passed not only 
 through the gymnasium and 3 years' university course, but also through a trial examina- 
 tion on knowledge and character, conducted for the Evangelical candidates by the consis- 
 tory for each province, and for theR. C. by the bishop and the governor of the district, and 
 all must be approved by the government and take an oath of fealty. Those who brought 
 certificates from foreign universities and seminaries were to be examined in literary culture 
 by the governor. But this law, which continued In force in the Evangelical church, had 
 been, since 1848, especially since 1855, disregarded In the R. C. church, the bishops alone 
 determining and rapidly degrading the amount and character of clerical education, and the 
 theological institutions controlled by them becoming much more numerous. The State 
 which creates church-parishes with their bounds, provides for collecting church-dues gen- 
 erally, gives to bishoprics and institutions connected with them (seminaries, &c.,) annual 
 endowments amounting to $306,600, pays to R. C. incumbents or their substitutes in the 
 Rhenish provinces and in poor or new communities more than $365,000 a year, secures 
 compulsory education of the children (except a few) in the faith of the State-churches, 
 authorizes and protects within certain limits (see Law II above) ecclesiastical discipline 
 and jurisdiction, makes clergymen important officers of the State (school-inspectors 
 [though not now ex-officio\, almoners for poor, registrars of births, confirmations, mar- 
 riages [recently modified], &c.), confers on them civil rank and special immunities (as 
 exemption from military service and taxes on incomes) claims the right of prescribing 
 qualifications for their holding this position of high trust and influence. Bavaria, Baden, 
 Wurtemberj*, also prescribe qualifications some of them more rigorous than Prussia's-" 
 for priests' obtaining benefices.
 
 TALK LAWS. 733 
 
 the seminary is erected. During the prescribed university course, students 
 must not belong to a Church seminary. 
 
 " 8. The State examination is only open to those who have fulfilled the 
 requirements of the law concerning their education at the gymnasium and their 
 theological university course. The examination is public, and shall test 
 whether the candidate has the general scientific culture necessary for his vo- 
 cation, especially hi the departments of philosophy, history, and German 
 literature. 
 
 " 9. All Church institutions for the training of the clergy boys' semi- 
 naries, clerical seminaries, preachers' and priests' seminaries, pensions [= 
 boarding-schools] or halls [= colleges] are subject to the oversight of the 
 State, .... and are amenable to inspection by commissioners whom the chief 
 President [= governor] of the province nominates. 
 
 " 11. For an appointment in a boys' seminary or pension, the same qual- 
 ifications are necessary as for the corresponding position in a Prussian gymna- 
 sium ; for an appointment in a theological institution, the same qualifications 
 as for teaching in theology at the German university ; and for an appointment 
 in an institution devoted to training in practical theology, the same qualifica- 
 tions as are prescribed for the clergy in this law. 
 
 " 13. If the prescription contained in 9-11, or the regulations made 
 by the State authorities be not observed, then the Minister of Ecclesiastical 
 Affairs is empowered to reserve the State allowance to the institution, or to 
 close it till they be observed. (An appeal, however, is allowed to the Royal 
 Tribunal for Ecclesiastical Affairs.) 
 
 " 14. No more boys' seminaries or pensions are to be erected, and no new 
 scholars are to be received into those now existing. 
 
 " 15. Ecclesiastical superiors are required, when appointing any one to 
 a clerical office, to communicate both his name and the office to the chief 
 President. The same must be done when a clergyman is moved from one post 
 to another, or when a temporary appointment becomes permanent. Within 
 30 days after receiving such communication, the chief President can enter a 
 protest against the appointment. 
 
 "16. The protest is allowable on the following grounds : (a) If the legal 
 requirements for assuming the clerical office are wanting. (Z>) If the presentee 
 has been condemned, or is under trial, for a crime or misdemeanor which the 
 law visits with imprisonment, with forfeiture of civil rights, or with degrada- 
 tion from public office, (c) If there are patent facts which justify the assump- 
 tion that he will oppose 'the laws of the State or the legal ordinances of the 
 authorities, or will disturb the public peace. The facts which sustain the 
 protest must be communicated along with it. An appeal likewise lies against 
 this protest. 
 
 " 18. Every parochial living must be permanently filled within a year 
 from the date of its vacancy. This interval may be prolonged, in case of 
 necessity, by the chief President, who is empowered, after the expiration of 
 the interval allowed, to compel the refilling of the vacancy, by a fine not ex-
 
 734 APPENDIX. 
 
 ceeding $730 ; and this penalty may be repeated till the law is obeyed. Fur- 
 ther, the Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs is empowered to reserve, until the 
 law is obeyed, the State endowment both of the living and of the ecclesiastical 
 superior, who has to collate or institute to the living. 
 
 " 19. The prescriptions of 18 apply to the so-called succursal districts 
 or parishes of the French law. 
 
 "21. Imprisonment, the forfeiture of civil rights, and the disqualifica- 
 tion to hold public office, involves to a clergyman the deprivation of his office, 
 tke inability to discharge clerical duties, and the loss of his official income. 
 
 " 22, 23. This law is made effective by punishments in fines, which 
 may amount, in the case of clergymen to $73, in the case of ecclesiastical su- 
 periors to $730 ; further, 
 
 " 28. The law has no force in cases where the State, either on the ground 
 of patronage or other legal title, cooperates in the filling up of ecclesiastical 
 offices." 1 
 
 IV. " Law concerning the disciplinary power with which the Church is 
 armed, and the creation of a royal tribunal for Church affairs." 2 
 
 " 1. Church discipline over ministers of the Church can only be exercised 
 by German Church-courts. 
 
 " 2. Ecclesiastical penalties which affect personal freedom or property, 
 can only be inflicted after the accused has been allowed a hearing in his de- 
 fense. Removal from office, deposition, exchange, suspension, involuntary 
 banishment to a ' retreat,' must always follow a proper judicial inquiry, and 
 in all cases the judgment must be given in writing, with a statement of its 
 grounds. 
 
 1 The 2d part of this law [ 15-28] is designed chiefly to guarantee to the clergy suitable 
 permanence in their livings and comparative freedom in their pastoral office. The French 
 law introduced into France, Belgium, Rhenish Prussia, &c., an order of secular priests 
 called desservants appointed by the bishop and removable at his pleasure in numerous 
 "succursal" [ dependent] districts. Thus the archbishopric of Cologne has 57 ordinary 
 parishes and 582 " succursal " districts. An incumbent regularly inducted into his bene- 
 fice becomes legal proprietor of its revenues ; but of late years a bishop often appointed 
 a temporary occupant, removable at his will, and thus secured the revenues of the beneftce 
 for other church uses. The present law curtails tho bishop's power in both of the above 
 cases, and gives or rather restores to the clergy the common rights of citizens. The R. C. 
 canon law, which had been evaded in Prussia for 20 years, regards the incumbent as legal 
 owner of the revenues of his benefice, insists on his right to the permanent possession of 
 it, subject to judicial deposition by tho lawful Church authorities, and even limits the 
 right and facilities of resignation. It also requires the bishop, or his vicar-general, to in- 
 stitute a clergyman in a vacant parish within 6 months after it has been vacated. Accord- 
 ing to tho general civil law of Prussia, benefices themselves and church-property belong- 
 not to the priest or bishop but to the commune or society or association of the inhabitants 
 of the parish, in short, to the laity. Admission to a benefice is obtained only by presentation 
 from a patron, the number of benefices to which a bishop may collate being usually fixed 
 either by a concordat or by a law of the State. Church-government and discipline have 
 been accepted and allowed in the law by the State, which here acts and for 1000 years 
 has acted as the representative of the laity. See Law IV and notes, below. 
 
 This law applies only to the two State-churches. It provides for the legal security of 
 the clergy.
 
 FALK LAWS. 735 
 
 . " 3. All corporal punishment is forbidden as a means of disciplinary cor- 
 rection. 
 
 " 4. Fines shall not exceed 30 thalers [= about $22], or one month's offi- 
 cial income, if that is higher. 
 
 *' 5. Punishment which consists in privation of freedom can only be 
 inflicted by committal to a penitentiary. And confinement there may not 
 exceed 3 months, or be either begun or continued against the will of the 
 prisoner. 1 
 
 " 6. These penitentiaries are subject to the inspection of the State. 
 
 " 7~9- The carrying out of a disciplinary sentence by the power of ' the 
 Executive,' can only take place when the chief President, after examination, 
 declares it to be proper. 
 
 " 10. An appeal to State-courts is open : generally for protection under 
 this law ; and further, 
 
 " 11. "When deposition from Church-office has been decreed as a discipli- 
 nary punishment, or otherwise, against the will of the person sentenced, and 
 the judgment plainly opposes the clear facts of the case, or when it violates 
 the laws of the State, or common civil rights. This appeal ( 12) is open to 
 any one, after he has tried in vain to obtain a remedy from the superior Church- 
 courts, but must be made by the chief President if there is any public interest 
 involved, and if the Church-courts either refuse a remedy or postpone it beyond 
 a certain interval. 
 
 "24. Church-officers who violate the prescriptions of the law, or the 
 regulations of the authorities, in respect to their office and their clerical duties, 
 so injuriously that their continuance in office appears incompatible with pub- 
 lic order, can, at the instance of the State authorities, be tried and deposed 
 from their office by a judicial sentence. Such deposition from an office in- 
 volves legal disqualification for the discharge of its functions, the forfeiture of 
 its income, and its being declared vacant. 
 
 " 31. Church ministers who perform official functions after their deposi- 
 tion are to be fined to an amount not exceeding $73 ; in cases of repetition, to 
 amounts not exceeding $730. 
 
 " 32-34. These cases of appeal are to be tried by a new court, styled 
 the Royal Tribunal for Ecclesiastical Affairs, which is to be composed of 11 
 members nominated by the Cabinet and appointed by the King. Of these 11, 
 the President and 5 other members must be State judges. Those who hold 
 any State office belong to this tribunal during their continuance in that office, 
 the others are appointed for life. The decisions of this tribunal are without 
 appeal. 2 
 
 1 8 4, 5, are a relic of the old feudal power of the bishop ; but 5 modifies this power by 
 forbidding the confinement of a priest who refuses to undergo it. The other sections 
 Btill further limit the bishop's power and sweep away tyrannous abuses. See Law III and 
 notes, above ; note 2 below. 
 
 8 In every modern state that has civil freedom, any man who is wronged in his eccle- 
 siastical relations may appeal to the State. The Code Napoleon allows "an appeal as of 
 abuse," when there is " usurpation or excess " of power, violation of the laws or regulations
 
 736 APPENDIX. 
 
 " 35. The requirements of State sanction to ecclesiastical disciplinary 
 sentences, and the right of recourse to the State against abuse of the discipli- 
 nary and penal power of the Church, so far as these are grounded in the law 
 as it has hitherto stood, are no longer of avail." 
 
 By an amendment, May, 1874, to the preceding Falk laws, the State can 
 decree the sequestration of the goods of an ecclesiastical post not occupied 
 according to the Falk laws ; the Royal Court for Ecclesiastical Affairs may 
 depose a bishop, and then the cathedral chapter is summoned to elect his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 Before the close of 1873, Abp. (now Cardinal, see p. 716) Ledochowski of 
 Posen disobeyed the Falk laws in 43 instances ; had his annual allowance of 
 $875 from the government taken away, his seminary closed, teachers forbid- 
 den to ask his permission to give religious instruction, his furniture seized ; 
 and his fines amounted to $15,330. He was imprisoned Feb. 3, 1874, and 
 declared in April incapable of clerical functions ; a state official was appointed 
 to take charge of the affairs of the diocese ; at the Pope's intercession his im- 
 prisonment was shortened 1 year; he was released Feb. 3, 1876. 
 
 The Prussian government continued to maintain its laws by fines of the dis- 
 obedient bishops and clergy, imprisonments, deprivations of pay, depositions 
 from office, &c.; and in the latter part of 1875 it was stated that the R. C. 
 priests were then generally obedient to the civil law. It proceeded in 1875 
 to enact laws for excluding the R. C. religious orders and congregations 1 (ex- 
 cept those engaged in nursing the sick) and for opening Catholic parish 
 churches to Old Catholic' 2 congregations, and enabling the latter to claim their 
 
 of the republic, breach of the rules consecrated by the canons received in France, attempt 
 on the liberties, franchises and customs of the Gallican church, or any undertaking or any 
 proceeding which, in the exercise of worship, may compromise the honor of citizens, arbi- 
 trarily trouble their conscience, or degenerate into oppression or injury or public scandal 
 against them. But while in France this appeal is to the administration then in power, 
 which may be lax or rigorous towards the church according to its temper or circumstances, 
 this new Prussian law establishes a permanent court, expressly defines the occasions and 
 grounds and methods of appeal to it, giving it no power arbitrarily to determine any 
 point in the doctrine or ritual or discipline of either the R. C. or the Evangelical church, 
 but guarding the equitable or legal rights of Prussian subjects in their relationships with 
 one another in each church. In consequence of the union of Church and State the bishops 
 and clergy are treated ($ 24, &c.) as officers of the State. In Austria, even under the con- 
 cordat, by the law of May 27, 1832, a priest convicted of crime was to be removed from his 
 benefice and disqualified for taking another without the express consent of the emperor. 
 
 1 These had then about 9,000 members in Prussia, and about 20,000 in all Germany. la 
 1865 the R. C. church had in Germany and Austria 1007 convents, 19,503 religious of 
 both sexes, and 30,340 priests. 
 
 8 Those who with DGllinger (see p. 574), Hyacinthe (see pp. 572-4), &c., rejected the 
 Vatican decrees and the dogma of immaculate conception, styled themselves, as adhering 
 to the ancient basis, "Old Catholics." Sept. 22, 1871, they determined, in their conirress 
 at Munich (Prof. Schulle of Bonn being president), to organize regular congregations for 
 worship. In their congress at Cologne, Sept., 1872, they resolved to disown the authority 
 of the pope and his bishops, and to return to the election of bishops by the clergy and 
 people. At Cologne, June 4, 1378, Dr. Joseph H. Keinkens, professor of theology at Bres- 
 lau, was elected missionary bishop of the German empire. lie was consecrated, Aug. llth,
 
 KOM ANISM IN GERMANT. 737 
 
 proportionate share in the church lands and revenues; and in the fall of 1876 
 to place under lay direction the orphanages then controlled by R. C. commu- 
 nities. 
 
 Of course, these laws and proceedings have been met with great op- 
 position. The bishop of Enneland, called to account March 11, 1872, by Dr. 
 Talk, for violating Prussian laws in excommunicating Drs. Wollmann and 
 Michelis without special sanction of the State in each case, avowed his obedi- 
 ence to the canonical law wherever it was in conflict with the law of the 
 country. His salary was then withheld. The bishops in their meeting at 
 Fulda in the autumn complained bitterly of the persecution, and the pope, in 
 an allocution Dec. 22, 1872, severely denounced the anti-Catholic legislation. 
 The German government then broke off diplomatic intercourse with the Papal 
 court. The bishops determined not to submit to the laws. From 1849 on- 
 ward the Ultramontanes had asserted the divine right of sovereignty in the 
 Church ; but the State now began again to assert and maintain its own 1 divine 
 right of sovereignty. 
 
 Abp. Manning, in his reply to Mr. Gladstone's Expostulation, said in 1875 : 
 " The laws resisted now by the bishops and Catholics of Prussia are not the 
 old laws of their country, but innovations, intolerable to conscience, newly 
 introduced, and inflicted upon them by the fine and imprisonment of 5 bishops 1 
 and 1409, it is even said 1709, clergy." 2 
 
 In an encyclical letter to the archbishops and bishops of Prussia, Feb. 5, 
 1875, the Pope declared the ecclesiastical laws of Germany, and especially of 
 Prussia, to be " null and void." 
 
 An Italian Ultramontane journal, the Voce della VeritcL [= voice of truth], 
 said in November, 1874: "The contest will continue as long as Prussia ex- 
 ists, for its cause lies in the very nature of that state. Prussia must always 
 
 by the Jansenist bp. of Deventer in Holland, and was at once recognized as a Catholic 
 bishop by the Prussian government which paid him a salary as such. Old Catholics favor 
 a federation or union of Christian churches and many important reforms, as the use of the 
 Scriptures by the laity and of the vulgar tongue in church-services, the revocability of 
 monastic vows, the restoration of the cup to the laity, the abolition of indulgences, of Mari- 
 olatry, &c. In 1876 there were reported to the Old Catholic Synod in Germany (first heldMay, 
 1874, and next in May, 1875) GOclergy and HSorganized congregations with 49,331 members, 
 of which Prussia had 35 congregations with 20,524 members. To the Old Catholic Synod 
 in Switzerland there were reported in 1876, 50 organized congregations with priests and 25 
 without priests, having in all 73,380 members. This Synod elected Dr. Edward Herzog, 
 pastor at Berne and professor of Catholic theology in Berne University, to be the "Chris- 
 tian Catholic" bishop of Switzerland. The Old Catholics of Italy organized a national 
 church at Naples, May 1, 1875, and elected Dominico Panelli, abp. of Lydda, to be bishop; 
 
 i In the autumn of 1876 only 4 R. C. bishops (Ermeland, Culm, Ounabruck, Limburg), 
 were regularly administering dioceses ; others were dead, exiles, or deposed by govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The new Prussian policy was initiated in Baden In 1860, followed by Wurtemberg in 
 1862, and in 1874 in principle by Austria. The principle of state supremacy was sanctioned 
 by pope Pius VII in a bull (1821), which embodied the relations of the R. C. church and 
 the Prussian government, and according to which, the bishops nominated by the yope 
 must be acceptable to the government. 
 
 47
 
 738 APPENDIX. 
 
 be the chief and deadly enemy of Rome ; it is the wall and fortress of Prot- 
 estant Germany. "With Prussia stands or falls the war with the Church in 
 Europe." 
 
 3. Switzerland, like Prussia, has a union of Church and State. Bp. 
 Eugene Lachat, of Basel, 1 was elected in 1863 in accordance with Leo XII's 
 bull of May 7, 1828, which was sanctioned by the 7 cantons in the diocese 
 (Soleure, Aargau, Thurgau, Zug, Lucerne and the R. C. parishes of Bern and 
 Basel), they then reserving the sovereign rights of their governments and requir- 
 ing the bishop to swear obedience and fidelity to them. But Bp. Lachat disre- 
 garded his oath to the diocesan states, and obeyed the pope and the canon law 
 in collecting Peter's pence, in promulgating the Syllabus and Vatican decrees, 
 in matters of education and marriage, in excommunicating and dismissing anti- 
 infallibilist priests, &c. Representatives from the 7 diocesan states met Jan. 
 28, 1873, withdrew their consent to Bp. Lachat's taking possession of the see 
 of Basel, declared the diocese vacant, and prohibited his exercising episcopal 
 functions in it. Zug and Lucerne, however, did not sign the decree, and con- 
 tinued to submit to his authority. In January, 1873, the pope issued a brief 
 appointing M. Gaspar Mermillod (previously R. C. cure or pastor of Geneva, 
 and now made bp. of Hebron in partibua) to be vicar apostolic of the canton 
 of Geneva. This contravened the express declarations of the federal govern- 
 ment, and pope Pius VI's brief of 1819 "forever" placing the Catholics of 
 Geneva under the bp. of Freyburg. Without consulting the civil authority, 
 Bp. Mermillod had the pope's brief read from the pulpits, and was immediate- 
 ly exiled till he should recognize the right of the civil authority. The coun- 
 cil of State refused to recognize him as bishop or pastor, requested the bp. 
 of Freyburg to appoint a pastor to the vacant charge, and, on his refusal, au- 
 thorized the parishes to elect periodically their own pastors. Rev. Charles 
 Loyson 2 (better known as Father Hyacinthe ; see pp. 572-4) and 2 other Old 
 Catholics were elected pastors of Geneva ; but Mr. Loyson resigned in 1874, 
 as the cantonal government undertook to control the doctrines and internal 
 affairs of the churches ; and he then organized in Geneva a " Christian Catho- 
 lic " church independent of the State. The new constitution of Switzerland 
 (in force from May 29, 1874) establishes complete liberty of conscience and 
 of creed ; free exercise of worship within the limits compatible with public 
 order and proper behavior; liberty of the press and of speech; compulsory 
 civil marriage. It prohibits the creation of bishoprics without approval by 
 the confederation; the reception of the Jesuits and affiliated societies; all 
 clerical and scholastic functions to Jesuits and members of other orders regard- 
 ed as dangerous or disturbing ; and the foundation of new convents or societies. 
 It abolishes the death penalty and corporal punishment. Education is legally 
 
 > There were 5 bishoprics in Switzerland, viz., Basel, Coire (or Chur), St. Gall, Frey- 
 T>ur. and Sion ; and 6,000 R. C. priests. 
 
 He rejected the Vatican decrees ; married in London, Eng., 1872, Mra. Emilie J. Merrl- 
 man, an American lady; preached some time in Geneva, without connection with th 
 government, before his election as pastor in M. Mermillod's place ; now (187T) in Paris.
 
 EOMANISM IN SWrrZEELAND. 739 
 
 compulsory, but not enforced in R. C. cantons as in Protestant. The pope 
 had, already, in his encyclical of Nov. 21, 1873, severely condemned the 
 measures against the Church ; and the Federal council, Dec. 12, 1873, inform- 
 ed the papal nuncio that the confederacy would no longer recognize a Papal 
 diplomatic agent. Here, also, the conflict may be expected to continue. 
 
 4. Austria. The Emperor, Aug. 11, 1870, declared the concordat of 
 1855 abolished. Proposed laws for regulating the external affairs of the church 
 in Austria were declared in the pope's encyclical of March 7, 1874, to be, like 
 those of Prussia, ruinous to the church (see p. 585) ; but they were subse- 
 quently enacted as laws. Religious liberty, however, is imperfectly known 
 in this empire. 
 
 5. Belgium. Here Ultramontanists control the country and the leg- 
 islature ; the Liberals prevail in the large cities. Religious equality, as Leo- 
 pold I (king 1831-65) was a Protestant, is a fundamental principle in its 
 constitution ; but the R. C. priests (appointed by the bishops) and bishops 
 (appointed by the pope) are all paid by the State, manage the public schools, 
 obtain the suppression of schools not subject to the Church, rule the uni- 
 versity of Louvain and fill the vacant chairs in other universities, multiply 
 convents and churches and have an immense property, and interfere openly 
 with elections. Thus before the muncipal election in Antwerp in 1875, " it 
 was publicly declared from the altar that to vote for a Liberal would insure 
 excommunication and damnation, and that absolution would be refused to the 
 readers of Liberal papers." The Liberals, however, carried the election by an 
 increased majority. About the same time the pope entreated Belgian pilgrims 
 to Rome to demand of their government that the sacrament of marriage (see 
 pp. 452-5) should precede civil marriage ; but this demand in opposition to 
 religious liberty and the constitution, roused a storm of indignant remonstrance. 
 Elections have been followed by riots ; processions ostensibly religious, yet 
 distinctively political in their character, have been attended by serious distur- 
 bances and bloodshed in Brussels, Liege, &c. ; and some Ultramontanes have 
 publicly threatened the country with "a bath of blood." Canon Morel of 
 Angers (France), who in his book, " Liberal pranks of some Catholic authors," 
 defended the Spanish inquisition (see Chap. XI), the use of torture, &c., was 
 congratulated by Pius IX in a letter dated Oct. 7, 1874, for his defense of 
 " wholesome doctrine against the pretensions of those who are styled liberal 
 Catholics," and was subsequently, "because of his intelligence and the rec- 
 titude of his writings," appointed consulter of the Congregation of the Index 
 (see pp. 199, 716, 743). Louise Lateau, a young woman born in 1850 in the 
 little village of Bois d'Haine, about 30 miles S. of Brussels, is claimed to have 
 been, since April, 18C8, the subject every Friday of bleedings from the 5 
 wounds of Christ on her hands and feet and side, also from her forehead (see 
 p. 293), and of ecstatic visions every Friday since July 17, 1868 ; to have been 
 nourished solely, since March, 1871, by the consecrated wafer (which she could 
 distinguish from what was unconsecrated) ; and to have been wakened from 
 her trances only by the R, C. bishop or some one specially delegated by him
 
 740 APPENDIX. 
 
 to waken her. These phenomena are claimed to be miraculous. But she has 
 been most of her life a victim of nervous disease, given to the most ardent 
 contemplation of our Savior's sufferings and death. She was reported as dying 
 in 1876. Scientists ascribe her epileptic trances and bleedings to a well-known 
 disease and the equally well known influence of the mind over the body ; Prof. 
 Schwann of the university of Liege disproved the exclusive power of the 
 bishop or his special delegate to waken her; and the commission of the 
 Royal Academy of Medicine of Belgium, consisting of 3 R. C. physicians, 
 reported the answer of physiology in her case to be, " she eats," which those 
 who maintain her miraculous abstinence must first disprove. 
 
 6. Spain has had a continuance of troubles. Amadeus, 2d son of the 
 king of Italy, was elected by the Cortes king of Spain Nov. 16, and accepted 
 Dec. 4, 1870 ; abdicated Feb. 11, 1873. After him came a republic again till 
 Dec. 31, 1874, when Alfonso XII, son of ex-queen Isabella, was proclaimed 
 king. Alfonso, born Nov. 28, 1857, landed at Barcelona and assumed the 
 government Jan. 9, 1875. The Carlist rebellion which broke out in 1872, 
 ended in the early part of 1876. By decrees of the Cortes in 1835-6 all con- 
 ventual establishments were suppressed, and their property confiscated for the 
 benefit of the nation ; and after a long dispute with the pope, the Spanish 
 government was authorized by the concordat of August, 1859, to sell all ec- 
 clesiastical property, except churches and parsonages, in return for an equal 
 amount of untransferable public-debt certificates bearing 3 per cent, interest. 
 The concordat of 1851 which provided for the establishment of the R. C. 
 church in Spain to the exclusion of all other churches, worship, and teaching, 
 was set aside by a liberal constitution in 1854-6, and again from 1869 onward 
 (see pp. 650-2). 
 
 The llth article of the new constitution, proposed in 1875 and adopted in 
 1876, apparently provided, like its predecessors, for religious liberty, but in- 
 troduced an important restriction, thus: "The Catholic Apostolic Roman 
 religion is the religion of the State. The nation pledges itself to maintain its 
 worship and its ministers. No one shall be molested on Spanish soil for his 
 religious opinions, nor for his particular form of worship, so long as he keeps 
 within the bounds of Christian morality. But no other ceremonies and no 
 other public manifestations than those of the religion of the State shall be 
 permitted." This measure of toleration was most strenuously opposed from 
 the Vatican. The papal nuncio, Abp. Simeoni (see cardinals, p. 717), issued 
 in the autumn of 1875 a protest, of which the most important portions follow, 
 as translated and published in the Christian "World for January, 1876 : 
 
 " The draft of the Constitution is so drawn up that at the first glance one 
 sees the great difference between what it orders and what is presented by the 
 1st article of the Concordat. In that article it is said : ' The Catholic Apos- 
 tolic Roman religion, to the exclusion of any other mode of worship, continu- 
 ing to be the sole religion of the Spanish nation, shall for ever retain, in the 
 dominions of His Catholic Majesty, all the rights and prerogatives which it 
 ought to enjoy, according to the law of God and the ancient canons.' ThU
 
 BOMA1TCSM IN 8PAI1S. 741 
 
 article expressly declares and sanctions, as is evident, the principle of religious 
 unity : it recognizes, moreover, that the sole religion of the State is the Cath- 
 olic religion, and excludes the profession of any other mode or belief of worship. 
 The llth article of the new Constitution, on the contrary, does not declare 
 that the Catholic religion is the sole and only religion of the Spanish nation ; 
 still less does it express the exclusion of every other mode of worship than the 
 Catholic. And, in going on to order, in its 2d part, that ' no one may be dis- 
 turbed in Spanish territory, either for religious opinion, or for the exercise of 
 his respective mode of worship, provided that Christian morality be respected,' 
 it explicitly authorizes the public exercise of any mode of worship whatever, 
 guaranteeing thus the liberty of worship, by religious toleration, contrary to 
 the letter and spirit of the aforesaid article of the Concordat. The Catholic 
 religion is, in fact, the sole religion of that nation, to the exclusion of any 
 other mode of worship ; and as it is announced expressly with this character 
 in the secondary proposition of the article mentioned, when it is agreed by the 
 principal proposition that this religion shall be f cr ever maintained, there must 
 also be understood to be admitted, relative to the manner of maintaining it, 
 the exclusion of every other mode of worship ; and, in the same manner that 
 this exclusion was hi the mind of the high contracting parties, it enters into the 
 reciprocal obligation contracted and expressed in the article. . . . But it is not 
 only article 1st of the Concordat which is struck at by the new Constitution. 
 Article 2d . . . establishes and orders that the teaching in the public and pri- 
 vate schools of every kind shall be fully conformed to the doctrine of the 
 Catholic religion ; and, to this end, it was equally agreed that the bishops and 
 other diocesan prelates charged, in virtue of their ministry, to watch over the 
 purity of the faith, the morals and religious education of youth, should be 
 free from all let and hindrance in the exercise of this right and this duty. By 
 article 3d, in order fully to assure to the prelates entire liberty in the use of 
 their property and hi the exercise of their pastoral functions, the Catholic 
 Queen and her government promised to the episcopate aid and succor, with 
 all the power of the temporal arm, whenever it had to oppose itself to the 
 malignity of those men who seek to pervert the souls and corrupt the morals 
 of the faithful, or when they would hinder the printing, the introduction, and 
 the circulation of evil books. But, by stating in the 2d paragraph of the llth. 
 article of the new Constitution that ' no one may be disturbed in Spanish ter- 
 ritory, either for religious opinions or for the exercise of his religious opinions, 
 provided that Christian morality be respected,' this result is reached, that 
 even the public or private teaching of anti-Catholic doctrines is a matter out- 
 side the cognizance of the law, and can not be hindered or repressed, either 
 by the civil or the religious authority ; hi other words, it is implicitly author- 
 ized and positively admitted. Here is certainly a manifest infraction of article 
 2d of the Concordat, by which it is agreed solemnly and in formal terms that 
 the public and private teaching of schools of every kind shall be fully con- 
 formed to the doctrine of the Catholic church." 
 This protest from the nuncio was followed (Feb., 1876) by a petition from
 
 742 APPENDIX. 
 
 the abp. of Toledo (who is primate of Spain) and other prelates that the Cor- 
 tes would " grant religious unity and prohibit any other worship in Spain," 
 and by a protest (March, 1876) from the Vatican against the article of the 
 Constitution sanctioning religious toleration, to which protest King Alfonso 
 replied that the religious liberty clause was not inconsistent with the spirit of 
 the Concordat. However, the proposed llth article of the Constitution passed 
 both houses of the national legislature, being adopted by the Senate in June, 
 1 876. But the prohibition of ' ' other ceremonies or public manifestations " of 
 other religions, the closing of Protestant schools taught by foreigners, the re- 
 moval of placards or signs of Protestant chapels and other establishments, the 
 forced resignation of professors in the university at Madrid for refusing to 
 submit their lectures to an ecclesiastical censorship before delivery, the changes 
 in the civil marriage law, 1 &c., plainly indicate a curtailment of the religious 
 liberty which existed in Spain after the banishment of Queen Isabella, and 
 under which Spain had, in 1874, 35 Protestant churches or preaching stations, 
 43 Protestant schools, and 4 evangelical newspapers (3 published in Madrid). 
 Intolerance in Spain is thus defended in the N. Y. Tablet of July 22, 1876 : 
 " . . . . Intolerance of error is, on the contrary, of the essence of the Catholic 
 church. She knows herself to be in possession of most certain and infallible 
 
 truth, all outside of which that contradicts it ever so little is fatal error 
 
 It is her obvious duty to labor to prevent the dissemination of error 
 
 In a country like this, where toleration of all religions is an established polit- 
 ical principle, and where in point of fact the followers of other religions taken 
 together far outnumber the faithful, were it even possible, it would not only 
 be an imprudence of which the church is incapable, but it would be the height 
 of madness to attempt to give any other expression to her intolerance than 
 that of words; and those words, too, the gentlest and the most charitable. 
 But the case is very different in such a country as Spain. That people have 
 been Catholic ever since they believed the sovereign, government, people 
 all Catholic [see pp. 385-9.] No doubt, if the propagandists of Protestantism, 
 or of any form of unbelief, were to be allowed to ply their trade, many a weak 
 soul some from one cause, some from another would fall under temptation. 
 The Church knows that the most terrible loss any individual can suffer is that 
 of his soul, and that the most precious boon a nation can have is religious 
 unity. . . . She has no desire to molest individuals in their private convic- 
 tions, however foolish, unintelligent, and eccentric they may be ; but she tells 
 the governors of the peoples, with unflinching firmness, that they must not 
 allow error of any kind to be promulgated. She is the divinely-commissioned 
 
 1 By a decree published Feb. 9, 1873, the marriages of the ex-priests and nuns who had 
 been married under the civil marriage law of June 18, 1870, were all at once annulled, 
 though their children born at any time before the end of 300 days after Feb. 9, 1815, were 
 recognized as legitimate. A previous decree, published Jan. 29, 1875, threatened the sus- 
 pension of periodicals that should "insult religious persons and things." The first act of 
 the new government, before Alfonso landed in Spain, had been to suspend all liberal (in- 
 cluding Protestant) newspapers in Madrid ; but the suspension was, on personal applica- 
 tion, soon terminated.
 
 KOMANISM IN SPAIN. 743 
 
 witness of the truth. Her raison d'etre [= " reason for being," or " ground 
 of having existence "] is to be intolerant of error ; and were she to consent to 
 its dissemination, she wouid be, what she never can be, a traitor to her Divine 
 Spouse." 1 
 
 That this intolerance (see also pp. 644-5, &c.) is approved by the pope seems 
 clear from his appointing Abp. Simeoni a cardinal in Sept., 1875, and secre- 
 tary of state in Dec., 1876 [see pp. 194, 717] ; and from his canonizing Peter 
 Arbues. This man, born about 1441 at Epila in Aragon, and becoming a monk 
 at Saragossa in 1476, was in 1484-5 a judge of the Inquisition there under 
 Torquemada (see pp. 378, 386), and a most eager persecutor of heretics. It is 
 said that as judge he caused the death of 8,000 persons in 16 months by burn- 
 ing, torture, &c.; and he was therefore styled " the bloodhound of Saragossa." 
 He died Sept. 17, 1485, from being stabbed by emissaries of John de Lavadia 
 (whose sister he had sentenced to death) and John Sperandius (whose father 
 he had imprisoned) ; miracles were said to have attested his sanctity ; Lavadia 
 and Sperandius, who were professed Hebrew Christians, and 200 of their 
 agents and friends, were put to death within a year ; Peter Arbues was beati- 
 fied 2 by pope Alexander VII in 1661, and became St. Peter Arbues in 1867. 
 Such a canonization must appear to a Protestant to be the pope's official sanc- 
 tion of persecution and the Spanish Inquisition. And this conclusion is con- 
 firmed by his canonizing in 1869 Abp. Kanezewitsch, who in the 16th century 
 by bloody persecution forced the Greek Catholics in Poland to submit to the 
 pope 3 (see p. 739). 
 
 7. France has passed through great changes. Napoleon III, who began 
 the war of 1870 against the Prussians, was defeated, captured, exiled, and died 
 in England Jan. 9, 1873; and France has been a republic since Sept., 1870. 
 On the resignation of Thiers, 4 May 24, 1873, Marshal MacMahon 5 was chosen 
 his successor; and he was afterwards (Nov. 19, 1873) appointed president for 
 7 years. Great exertions have been put forth through the worship of the 
 
 1 These principles are also avowed by Cardinal Manning in a letter published in the Pall 
 Mall Gazette, London, Sept. 26, 1376. 
 
 * Beatification a pope's official declaration that the person named is blessed or received 
 to heaven and therefore to be reverenced is the first step towards canonization. 
 
 It is reported that in January, 1875, 45 parishes of the " United" Greek Catholics In 
 Russian Poland, embracing 26 priests and 50,000 people threw off the pope's supremacy, 
 and were admitted, by permission of the czar, to the Greek church ; but Russia tolerates 
 conversions to this church ouly, and these parishes may be no better now than before. 
 
 4 Louis Adolphe Thiers, an able journalist, historian of France, and statesman ; born at 
 Marseilles, April 16, 1797; repeatedly (1832-40) minister of the interior, and minister of 
 foreign affairs and premier under King Louis Philippe ; president of the French republic 
 I871-3. 
 
 Marie Kdme Patrice Maurice de MacMahon, born at Sully, July 13, 1808, son of a peer 
 of France, of Irish descent ; educated at the military school of St. Cyr ; entered the army, 
 and distinguished himself in Algeria (1830, &c.), at Sebastopol in the Crimean war (Sept. 
 8, 1835), and at Magenta in the Italian war (June 4, 1859) ; became captain in 1833, colonel 
 in 1845, brigadier general in 1848, general of division in 1852, senator of France with the 
 grand cross of the legion of honor in 1855, marshal of France and duke of Magenta in 1859, 
 president in 1873.
 
 744 APPEXDIX. 
 
 Sacred Heart, through pilgrimages to Paray-le-Monial, 1 La Salette (see pp. 
 633-4), Lourdes, 9 Rome, &c., through new educational institutions, and in 
 other ways, to promote Ultramontanism in France. But, Jan. 20, 1874, the 
 French government publicly renounced its protectorate of the pope's temporal 
 government; Protestants increase in number and influence for good; in 
 March, 1876, the republicans having carried the elections, "Wm. H. Wadding- 
 ton, a French Protestant of English descent and education, becoming Minis- 
 ter of Public Instruction and Worship, announced that no sectarian institu- 
 tions would be allowed to assume the functions of the national schools and 
 confer degrees equal to those conferred by the State institutions ; but the bill 
 for restoring to the State the sole privilege of conferring degrees, though 
 passed (388 to 128) by the Chamber of Deputies, June 7th, was rejected in 
 the Senate (144 to 139) July 21, 1876. France has now (1877) a reaction. 
 
 8. Great Britain and Ireland. The " Gladstone Controversy " 
 has been noticed (see pp. 720, &c.). Monsignor Capel gives the number of 
 persons 3 received every year into the R. C. church in England as "at least 
 2000;" says "about 40 of our London Catholic clergy were formerly Protest- 
 ants;" specifies as converts the abp. of Westminster (Cardinal Manning), 5 
 "eminent professors of the Catholic University College," various literary and 
 
 1 A town of France, about 180 miles nearly S. E. from Paris. Here, at the convent of the 
 Visitation (see pp. 306-7), about 200 years ago. Marguerite Marie [ Margaret Mary] 
 Alacoque had her alleged visions and revelations of the sacred heart of Jesus. Born 
 July 22, 1647, she early suffered from rheumatism, paralysis, pains in the sides, and ul- 
 cerated limbs ; at 17 tortured herself with knotted cords, iron chains, needles, potsherds ; 
 entered as a novice May 25, 1671 ; was regarded by the abbess as insane ; had most terrible 
 headaches ; saw Christ place his crown of thorns on her brow ; saw him also take out her 
 heart, plunge it into his own flaming heart, and replace it in her breast, when he revealed 
 to her his purpose of establishing the worship of the Sacred Heart ; had in 1674-5 for her 
 confessor the Jesuit La Colombidre, who consecrated himself, June 21, 1675, to the new 
 worship ; died Oct. 17, 1690. Through the exertions of the Jesuits, the Sisters of the Vis- 
 itation, Bp. Languet (who wrote her life), &c., the new devotion spread ; and though 
 petitions for it were repeatedly ^.1697, 1727, 1729) rejected by the Congregation of Sacred 
 Rites (see pp. 199, 200), and physiologists regarded her as a victim of nymphomania, Mary 
 Alacoque was beatified by Pius IX Aug. 19, 1864 ; churches, congregations (Brothers of the 
 Sacred Heart; Ladies of the Sacred Heart), cities, (Marseilles first, Aug. 16, 1720), dioceses, 
 countries, and finally the whole Catholic church (June 16, 1875), have been dedicated to the 
 Sacred Heart of Jesus. Multitudes of pilgrims visit Paray-le-Monial ; 20,000 were at the 
 shrine June 4, 1875. 
 
 8 A town of France, near Tarbes, at the foot of the Pyrenees, where in 1858 the Virgin 
 Mary is said to have appeared 18 times (Feb. 11-July 16) in the grotto of Massabielle to Ber- 
 nadette Soubirous, a poor and ignorant girl of 14, puny and asthmatic ; commissioned 
 her to tell the priests to build a chapel there to her honor; directed her to drink and 
 wash at the fountain which then came out from a spot previously dry, and has since 
 flowed freely, many miracles of healing being attributed to its water. A marble statue in- 
 scribed with her words in French, '! am the Immaculate Conception," now fills the niche 
 where she appeared ; a magnificent church crowns the summit of the rock ; half a million 
 of pilgrims have visited the place ia a year; and Bernadette became a Sister of Charity at 
 Nevem. 
 
 The Marquis of Ripon, grandmaster of the Freemasons in England, became a R. C. in 
 1874 (see p. 681).
 
 IN GEEAT BRITAIN". 745 
 
 scientific men, the editors of the Dublin Review, Month, Tablet, &c.; and 
 claims " that the work of the Church is making immense and solid progress in 
 England" (seep. 718). This "Rt. Rev. Monsignor Capel, D.D.," is rector, 
 and professor of Christian Doctrine, in the "Catholic University College, 
 Kensington, London, England, founded [in 1874] (for young men above the 
 age of 17) by the Catholic Hierarchy of England, at the suggestion and with 
 the blessing of the Holy Father;" also director of the "Kensington Catholic 
 Public School, London, England, opened in February, 1875, for the sons of 
 Gentlemen, between the ages of 9 and 17 (or 18)." These 2 new institutions 
 are to supply the place, to Roman Catholics, of Oxford and Cambridge uni- 
 versities, and of Eton and other great schools. 
 
 The following narrative, condensed from the N. Y. Times of May 3, 1875, 
 illustrates the conflict of ecclesiastical with civil law (see pp. 729, 725) : George 
 Gordon and the daughter of a merchant at Rio de Janeiro, both parties being 
 Protestants and British subjects, were married by a clergyman of the Church 
 of England at the house of the British ambassador to Brazil. They lived 25 
 years as man and wife ; and then, Mr. Gordon having become a Roman Catho- 
 lic, and obtained from the Roman Inquisition a decision that his 1st marriage 
 was null and void, married Baroness von Beulwitz, also a R. C., the ceremony 
 being performed in a R. C. church in Manchester. The next year a child 
 was born to him of this 2d marriage. His 1st wife appealed to the Courts in 
 Edinburgh, where he appears to have previously lived, for the restitution of 
 conjugal rights. He admitted all the facts alleged by her ; but pleaded the 
 law of the R. C. church in defence of his conduct, because his first marriage, 
 not having been performed by a R. C. priest, was, according to the decree cf 
 the council of Trent, clandestine and void (see p. 794). 
 
 Cases in Ireland illustrate the completeness of subordination in the R. C. 
 church. Rev. R. O'Keefe, parish priest of Callan, was suspended from his 
 office in 1872 for bringing an action at law against a fellow-priest ; he and 
 most of his parisioners resisted the suspension as arbitrary and imcanonical : 
 they were laid under an interdict by Cardinal Cullen ; he thereupon sued the 
 cardinal for libel, and obtained one farthing damages ; he was dismissed from 
 a workhouse chaplaincy through the cardinal's influence, and was imprisoned 
 by the cardinal nearly 4 months before Oct. 8, 1875, when he wrote to the 
 English premier (Disraeli) " that the power of life and death which Cardinal 
 Cullen exercised over him had been conferred upon him by the Irish govern- 
 ment ; that his Eminence had admitted on oath that he possessed no jurisdic- 
 tion over him, except what he derived from a Papal rescript which the Court 
 of Queen's Bench in Ireland pronounced to be an illegal and invalid docu- 
 ment." Afterwards his house was demolished by a mob ; and in 1876 he for- 
 mally submitted to his ecclesiastical superior, to live henceforward in retire- 
 ment with a small annual allowance. May 27, 1872, Justice Keogh delivered 
 a decision upon the claims of 2 rivals to a seat in parliament, from which it 
 appeared that many priests in the county of Galway interfered with the freedom 
 of election, by denouncing their political opponents from the altar, threatening
 
 746 APPETO)IX. 
 
 the supporters of the opposing candidate with being regarded as renegades, 
 instigating the peasantry to acts of intimidation and violence, &c. This de- 
 cision of a R. C. justice, it is also reported, brought upon him much abuse 
 from the partisans of the priests, and endangered his life. Irish Roman Catho- 
 lics had long complained of being compelled to contribute to the support of a 
 system of education in which Protestant doctrines were taught ; and the Glad- 
 stone ministry, desiring to do for Ireland "all that justice could demand in re- 
 gard to matters of conscience and of civil equality," brought forward the Irish 
 University Bill of February, 1873. This bill proposed to establish a great 
 unsectarian University for Ireland, excluding from its own teaching theology 
 and other branches (as moral philosophy and modern history) with which 
 theology is connected, and inviting every religious sect to teach these subjects 
 to the students of its own communion. But all the R. C. members of the 
 House of Commons voted against this bill, through the influence of the R. C. 
 prelates of Ireland ; and the defeat of it (March 12, 1873) was followed by 
 the resignation of the Gladstone ministry in less than a year. The Roman 
 Catholics demanded a R. C. university, endowed by the State, but governed 
 and officered exclusively by Roman Catholics. 
 
 9. South America. Venezuela, under Pres. Guzman Blanco, is hi 
 conflict with Vaticanism. Civil marriage was made obligatory in 1873. By a 
 decree in 1876 for establishing religious liberty, Venezuela suppressed monas- 
 tic institutions ; separated Church and State ; prohibited the ingress or egress 
 of ministers of religion considered prejudicial to the public safety or to the 
 sovereignty of the republic, refused to recognize or admit to her territory any 
 archbishop, bishop, ecclesiastical chapter, &c.; declared churches incapable 
 of holding real estate ; made it unlawful to publish, circulate, or execute in 
 Venezuelan territory any syllabus, bull, brief, rescript, encyclical, pastoral, 
 or edict from any ecclesiastical authorities ; prohibited ministers of any de- 
 nomination, in discourses, or in documents for publication, from criticising or 
 censuring as contrary to religion the laws, decrees, orders, sentences, or pro- 
 visions of the legislative, executive, judicial or municipal authority, or in any 
 way provoking to disobedience of the laws ; forbade their devoting themselves 
 to public instruction ; and assigned to popular instruction tho part of the 
 public expenditures heretofore assigned to ecclesiastical purposes. This decree 
 apparently makes the civil authorities supreme over consciences and churches. 
 
 In Brazil, the bp. of Olinda (commonly called bp. of Pernambuco), Don Vital 
 Maria Gonzales de Oliveira, attempted in 1873 to carry out the decrees against 
 freemasons (see p. 390), and required the " Brotherhood 1 of the Most Holy 
 Sacrament " to expel them from its fellowship. The Brotherhood, refusing 
 to comply, were excommunicated in a body, and appealed to the emperor for 
 
 1 " Brotherhoods," numerous In Brazil, are religious benefit-societies, having corporate 
 rights, requiring of members entrance-fees and annual subscriptions, supporting them, if 
 sick or poor, providing a funeral and masses for the dead, contributing to the erection and 
 support of churches, often becoming rich from donations and legacies, and exerting great 
 social and religious influence.
 
 ROXANIS3I IN SOUTH AMEEICA. 747 
 
 redress ; tlie Council of State found that the pope's bulls against freemasons 
 had never received the emperor's assent and were therefore invalid in Brazil, 
 and that the bishop had exceeded his authority in requiring the brotherhoods 
 to expel them, in denying the need of the royal assent to papal decisions, and 
 publicly attacking the legality of an appeal to the emperor, and judged that 
 the appellants should have relief; the emperor approved this decision, and 
 commanded the bishop to carry it into effect within one month from the date 
 (June 12, 1873) ; the bishop refused and published a pastoral letter containing 
 a brief of Pius IX dated May 29th, confirming previous anathemas against the 
 freemasons, commanding all bishops of Brazil to execute the papal orders 
 against them, and authorizing them to dissolve the infected brotherhoods, and 
 create others in their place ; the bishops of Olinda and of Para were tried, 
 condemned to 4 years' imprisonment for obeying the pope's mandates in defi- 
 ance of the government, and imprisoned, and their vicegerents were prosecuted ; 
 in November, 1874, a formidable religious insurrection broke out about 100D 
 miles N. E. of the capital, but it was soon suppressed and followed by an im- 
 perial edict for the expulsion of the Jesuits as its instigators ; September 17, 
 1875, an imperial decree was issued pardoning the imprisoned bishops with the 
 governors and other ecclesiastics of their dioceses, who were involved in the 
 conflict growing out of the interdicts laid on the brotherhoods in those 
 dioceses, and dropping the suits instituted for this cause ; and it was tele- 
 graphed from Rome Oct. 5th : "In consequence of the amnesty proclaimed by 
 the Brazilian government in the religious question, His Holiness Pope Pius 
 IX has just removed the interdicts fulminated by the bishops of Para and 
 Olinda against the brotherhoods of their dioceses." Thus the great conflict 
 between the R. C. ecclesiastics and the civil government was quieted. Edu- 
 cation, religious liberty, and Protestantism have made noticeable progress in 
 the empire. 
 
 Chili has its conflict. The first Protestant church-edifice in the country 
 was erected in Valparaiso in 1855, the R. C. clergy unsuccessfully endeavor- 
 ing to prevent its completion and occupancy for worship. The Chilian laws 
 forbidding mixed marriages (between Roman Catholics and Protestants) and 
 requiring all marriages to be recorded by the parish priest, have been the oc- 
 casion of much immorality, hypocrisy, and trouble. In 1874-5 measures 
 were taken looking towards the separation of Church and State and the estab- 
 lishment of complete religious liberty ; a law was enacted placing ecclesiastics 
 and monastics (previously exempt in person and property from civil jurisdic- 
 tion) on the same footing with laymen before the ordinary courts of law ; the 
 archbishop and bishops then issued a pastoral letter pronouncing the major 
 excommunication upon the president and the members of his government, 
 upon the parliament that voted the new law, and upon all the citizens that 
 should obey it, but the letter and excommunications were publicly burned in 
 Santiago, and the opposition to ecclesiastical domination became more out- 
 spoken, vigorous, and general. 
 
 Ecuador has distinguished itself by ita devotion to the Holy See (see pp.
 
 748 APPEISDIX. 
 
 654-5), its official dedication of the country in 1873 to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, 
 and its appropriation to the pope, in the same year, of 1-10 of its annual revenues 
 during the Italian occupation of Rome. But the president, Don Gabriel Gar- 
 cia Moreno, who had held his office since 1861, and maintained almost absolute 
 power by the help of the Jesuits, was assassinated Aug. 6, 1875. Pope Pius 
 IX pronounced him (Sept. 18, 1875) "the worthy president;" ascribed his 
 death " to the vengeance of the freemasons;" spoke of him as "happy who 
 lost his life in defense of the Church and in his endeavor to establish in his coun- 
 try an era of peace and justice, the inseparable companions of the Catholic 
 religion ;" and declared Ecuador " the model to be imitated by all the states 
 of the new world, not only in things material, but in those which are purely 
 spiritual [?]." But Senor Flores, minister of Ecuador to the U. S., is report- 
 ed to have characterized him, with greater correctness apparently, as " cold- 
 hearted, relentless, domineering, and often inhumanly cruel," " ruling by 
 impulse, and not by judgment," and moved by "an insane ambition." In- 
 tolerance of any other than R. C. -worship still prevails in both Ecuador and 
 Peru. 
 
 The church-party in Antioquia, Canca, &c., took up arms against the na- 
 tional government of Colombia (= New Granada) in the summer of 1876, 
 but were soon reported to be defeated and dispersed (see p. 654). 
 
 10. Central America. March 15, 1873, Senor Rufino Barrios, 
 then lieut. gen. of the army, and provisional head of the government of Gua- 
 temala, since (May, 1 874) elected president, signed a decree establishing liberty 
 of worship throughout the republic of Guatemala. Previously the R. C. was 
 the established and only worship. 
 
 June 20, 1875, at San Miguel the 2d city of the republic of San Salvador, a 
 R. C. priest, Jose Manuel Palacios, preached a violent sermon against the 
 government and the rich. Thereupon a mob liberated the convicts, massacred 
 the garrison with its officers and many honorable citizens, pillaged and fired 
 the city, which was saved from destruction by the arrival of troops from a 
 distance. The R. C. bishop of San Salvador and his clergy had been for some 
 time hostile to the government because it organized public schools on the 
 German plan, taxed R. C. church-property, &c. ; and he had issued a pastoral 
 letter which the government suppressed as seditious. After the outbreak the 
 bishop and several of the clergy were banished for instigating it ; 50 or more 
 of the rioters were executed ; and vigorous measures were taken by the pres- 
 ident (Marshal St. Jago Gonzalez) to re-establish and preserve order. The 
 governments of San Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras exclude from their 
 respective states the religious orders of the R. C. church. 
 
 11. Mexico. President Juarez (see p. 658) died in office July 18, 1 872, 
 and was succeeded, according to law, by Don Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, the 
 chief justice, who was regularly elected president Nov. 2, 1873. The priestly 
 party have continued resolutely to oppose religious liberty, and have called to 
 their aid secret societies, 1 persecutions, riots, murders, insurrections, and rev- 
 
 The " Catholic Society," a semi-secret organization, was extended over the country.
 
 B03IA3TSX IN MEXICO. 749 
 
 olutions. A few cases only can here be particularized. On Sunday, Feb. 
 23, 1873, the first Protestant services were held m the city of Toluca, about 
 40 miles S. W. of Mexico city, by Rev. Maxwell Phillips (a Presbyterian 
 missionary from the U. S.) and Senor Aguilar (a Mexican convert). The 
 morning services were undisturbed ; but at evening a mob of about 209 in the 
 street shouted "Death to the Protestants;" hurled a great stone through the 
 window when the worshipers began to pray ; and, but for the arrival of the 
 police guard, would have done further damage. The next Wednesday even- 
 ing, about 100 Protestants being assembled for worship, a mob of about 60 
 rushed towards the building, but were repulsed by the police. The murder 
 of Rev. John L. Stephens 1 at Ahualulco, Western Mexico, March 2, 1874, 
 was incited by a sermon which the cura or parish priest preached in the R. C. 
 church on Sunday, March 1st, in which he said " It is necessary to cut down, 
 even to the roots, the tree that bears bad fruit. You may interpret these 
 words as you please." At 1 o'clock, Monday morning, a mob of over 200 
 men armed with muskets, axes, clubs, and swords, approached Mr. Stephens's 
 house, crying, " Long live the religion ! Long live the Senor cura ! Death to 
 the Protestants!" While this mob were breaking down the front door, Mr. 
 Stephens took refuge in a hay-loft, which was soon entered by a crowd in- 
 cluding some soldiers who were acting as guards to the prison and town. 
 Seeing these soldiers, he ran to meet them and exclaimed, " Protect me ! Pro- 
 tect me!" They replied, "They come! They come!" At the same time 
 soldiers and others fired upon him, killing him instantly. Then the assailants 
 cut his head to pieces with their swords, robbed the dead body and the house 
 of everything belonging to him, burned in the public square the small English 
 Bible that was in his hand when he died and his other books, and celebrated 
 
 1 Mr. Stephens, born at Swar.sea, Wales, Oct. 19, 1847, came to the U. S. while a child 
 with his mother and family, his father being drowned in 1850 ; united with the Congrega- 
 tional church at Petaluma, Cal., 1366; studied 2 1-2 years at Petalnma Baptist College; 
 studied nearly three years and graduated In 1872 with the first class at the Pacific Theo- 
 logical Seminary ; was licensed to preach April 9, 1872, and preached for a time to the 
 Congregational church at South Yalk-jo, Cal.; was ordained to the ministry Sept. 19, 1872; 
 soon after went with his seminary classmate, Rev. David Walking, and Mrs. Watkins, as 
 missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to Guadala- 
 jara or Guadalaxara (275 miles W. N. W. from Moxico city), where they established a mis- 
 sion, and met with much encouragement as well as violent opposition from R. C. priests 
 and their adherents ; moved himself to Ahualulco (40 miles from Guadalajara) Dec. 2, 1873 ; 
 established at once day and night schools, with interesting preaching services twice on the 
 Sabbath and twice during the week ; labored there earnestly and successfully in these and 
 other ways to reclaim the people from sin and do them good until at the end of 3 months 
 he was assassinated. He was, according to the testimony of his instructors and associates, 
 amiable and greatly beloved, thoroughly consecrated to his Divine Master, ardent, ener- 
 getic, and hopeful, a whole-souled and useful Christian. He died in the 27th year of his 
 age ; but his usefulness at Ahualulco and elsewhere continues. 40 persons at Ahualulco 
 were received as members of a Protestant church In July, 1876 ; and the next month 150 
 Protestant church-members were reported in Guadalajara. The murder of Mr. S. led to the 
 passing of the new Mexican law by which a clergyman or other person who by writing, 
 discourse, or other means incites another to murder or injure any one, or brings the law 
 into contempt, shall be punished as a principal In the offense thus committed.
 
 750 APPETO)IX. 
 
 their deed by entering the church and ringing twice a merry peal of bells. 
 The corpse was secretly buried by 5 of his friends Monday night. One of 
 Mr. Stephens's converts was taken from the house by force and assassinated in 
 the public streets. Another who was with Mr. Stephens at the house escaped 
 to the mountains. It was intended to kill Mr. Watkins also at Guadalajara; 
 but the would-be assassin who went to Mr. Ws house Sunday, March 1st, 
 was suspected and failed to accomplish his object. The governor of the state 
 (Jalisco or Guadalajara) sent 300 soldiers to Ahualulco on the day of the mur- 
 der ; the parish priest and 30 or 40 of the mob were arrested and tried ; 9 
 were under sentence of death the next August, awaiting the result of their 
 appeal to the supreme court ; the cura and others were released ; in 1875 five 
 of the murderers were executed ; but a new plot for a general attack on the 
 Protestants in Guadalajara Feb. 11, 1875, was providentially frustrated by an 
 unexpected and severe earthquake on that day. The massacre at Acapulco 
 occurred Jan. 26, 1875. Rev. M. N. Hutchinson, superintendent of American 
 Presbyterian missions in Mexico, had recently organized a church there. On 
 the evening named, while Mr. II. was absent from the meeting on account of 
 illness, a R. C. mob, armed with machetes [= heavy sword-like knives] and 
 rifles, attacked the Protestants in their place of worship, killed 3 men and 1 
 woman, and wounded 11 men, 2 of them mortally. One of the killed was 
 Henry Morris, an American colored citizen, born in Boston, Mass., but long 
 resident in Acapulco, who went to the door to quiet the assailants. His body 
 was dreadfully mangled, and his head nearly cut off. Mr. Hutchinson took 
 refuge on board an American man-of-war then in the harbor, and subsequent- 
 ly, by advice of the American consul, fled to San Francisco, returning to the 
 city of Mexico through the U. S. Gen. Mejia, commander of the castle, ordered 
 out the troops, and dispersed the mob, of whom 5 were killed and 11 wounded. 
 Capt. Queen of the U. S. frigate Saranac reported to the navy department, 
 after investigating the affair, that a majority of the people of Acapulco ap- 
 proved of the extermination of the Protestants ; that a petition had been pre- 
 sented to the governor of the state, asking for the expulsion of the Protestants ; 
 that a formal accusation against the R. C. curate [= parish priest] was pend- 
 ing, but, though there was reason to believe the curate's teaching instigated the 
 assault, and he had never in his sermons condemned the outrage, there seemed 
 to be no prospect that either he or the other offenders would be punished, and 
 that any energetic steps to this end on the part of the civil authorities would 
 occasion a fresh outbreak. 
 
 Those who commit such offenses as the foregoing claim to be religious, act 
 as Roman Catholics and under the influence of R. C. priests, and, it is confi- 
 dently asserted by the victims and the most trustworthy witnesses, are often 
 led by a priest in person. The civil authorities have a reverence for the priests 
 which interferes with the punishment of any of them, though manifestly and 
 notoriously guilty, especially if their offenses are against Protestants. 
 
 Yet Protestants are more numerous and influential in Mexico now than at 
 any former time. " The Church of Jesus in Mexico," an evangelical organi-
 
 IS MEXICO. 751 
 
 I 
 
 zation started and led by the late Rev. Francisco Aguilar (formerly a R. C. 
 presbyter, who preached faithfully some years, till he died in 18 J5), Pruden- 
 cio Hernandez, Rev. Henry Chauncey Riley, D.D. (a Protestant Episcopal 
 minister, born in Chili, S. A.; pastor of a Spanish American church in New 
 York city before he went to Mexico, about January, 1839, to begin the mis- 
 sion of the American and Foreign Christian Union in that city), the late Rev. 
 Manuel Aguas 1 , and other earnest Christians, had in its connection, at the close 
 of 1876, over 60 congregations, mostly in Central and Southern Mexico, 5 of 
 them in Mexico city. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign 
 Missions has its missions in Northern 2 and Western Mexico, with 13 organized 
 churches and over 400 church members in 1876, besides thousands of converts 
 and sympathizers scattered through cities and towns where no organized Prot- 
 estant church exists. The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions employed 
 in Mexico 33 missionaries and assistant missionaries, and reported 2300 com- 
 municants in May, 1876. The Southern Presbyterian Board has also a mission 
 in Mexico. The 1st Methodist Episcopal church in Mexico was organized at 
 the capital, Jan. 26, 1873, with 4 members, one of whom, Rev. Ignacio Rami- 
 rez, D.D., had been long a leading Dominican priest. In Sept., 1876, the 
 Methodists liad in Mexico 16 congregations with 16 native preachers. With 
 all this increase of Protestants within the past 5 years, there has been great 
 progress in knowledge of the Bible, in spiritual life and in practical Christian- 
 ity. 
 
 Sept. 25, 1873, a decree was formally subscribed by the members of the 
 Mexican congress, which (1) declares the separation of church and state, and 
 forbids congress to make laws for establishing or prohibiting any religion ; (2) 
 makes marriage a civil contract ; (3) incapacitates religious institutions for 
 holding property ; (4) substitutes affirmation or promise to speak the truth 
 and fulfill obligation for the religious oath ; (5) abrogates contracts or promises 
 which interfere with any one's liberty, whether for education, work, or re- 
 ligious vow. The government required all employed by it " to keep and 
 make keep these laws," or to lose their places. The day these laws were pub- 
 
 > Once a Dominican friar, and for years a distinguished preacher in the R. C. cathedral 
 in Mexico, but an earnest and prayerful student of the Bible from 1869, and in 1871-2 an 
 eloquent, laborious and useful Protestant minister in the same city. He often preached 12 
 times a week ; he wrote ably and pnngently ; and was the leading man among the Mexican 
 Protestants. He fell asleep in Jesus Oct. 18, 1872. 
 
 Tho mission of the A. B. C. P. M. to Northern Mexico was begun by Miss Melinda 
 Rankin, who went as an independent missionary teacher to Texas in 1847; opened a 
 school for Mexican children at Brownsville, Tex., in 1832; built there, with help from U. 
 8. friends, a Protestant Seminary for Mexican girls in 1854 : went to Monterey in 1SC5, and, 
 assisted by friends, built a mission-house there for chapel, schools, and residence ; obtained 
 the help of Rev. John Beveridge in lSfi9 ; and in 1873 transferred the whole mission with 6 
 regularly organized churches to the American Board. Her Bible-teaching and religious 
 ecrvices in her schools, her distribution of Bibles and religious publications by colporters 
 and others, and her exemplary and active Christian life, were the means of great good. 
 The American and Foreign Christian Union, ladies in Hartford and New Haven, Conn., 
 and other friends, aided her with money and sympathy and prayer.
 
 752 APPEKDIX. 
 
 llshed, tlie R. C. church issued the major excommunication against all who 
 voted for or promise to keep these laws. Dec. 20, 1874, the Mexican congress 
 forbade the Sisters of Charity to live in community, their houses having been 
 used by friars and Ultramontane conspirators for political meetings. This 
 decree, however, neither expelled them from the country (as has been incor- 
 rectly said), nor prohibited the Sisters from individually continuing their 
 works of charity ; but the Sisters chose to leave (and did leave) Mexico rather 
 than give up living together. Other laws passed in 1874 vest in the state the 
 ownership of all church buildings, allowing to Roman Catholics only a certain 
 number in each city, town, &c.; abolish public feast-days; prohibit wearing 
 a religious habit in the streets ; forbid the clergy's receiving gifts for services 
 to the sick or dying; recognize no bishops, &c., as church dignitaries, but give 
 all church-members alike the right of petition. At the end of 1876 a revolu- 
 tion placed Gen. Porfirio Diaz in power, exiled Lerdo de Tejada, who had 
 been formally re-elected president by 7536 electoral votes against 752 ; and 
 overthrew the assumed authority of Chief Justice Iglesias, who, having de- 
 clared the election invalid on account of frauds, &c., claimed the presidency 
 as vacant, and called in Diaz to enforce his claim. May 2, 1877, the Mexican 
 congress unanimously declared Gen. Diaz duly elected constitutional presi- 
 dent of Mexico, and he was inaugurated May Gth. 
 
 i 12. Dominion of Canada. The famous " Guibord case" is con- 
 nected with iSInstitut Canadien [= the Canadian Institute], formed in Mont- 
 real, Dec. 17, 1844, by some young men "to extend and develop a taste for 
 science, art, and literature," and incorporated in 1852. This Institute estab- 
 lished the first French public library and reading-room in Montreal, met 
 weekly for discussing publicly important questions and reading essays, and 
 became very popular and influential. In 1858 the clergy tried unsuccessfully 
 to limit its membership to Roman Catholics; to exclude from its reading- 
 room the Witness 1 and the Semeur Canadien [= Canadian Sower], both 
 Protestant newspapers ; and to have a list of books made out to be excluded 
 from its library. The Institute voted that its library contained no improper 
 books, and that it was the sole judge of the morality of its library. April 13, 
 
 1858, the R. C. bishop of Montreal 2 published a pastoral blaming this action, 
 i . . 
 
 1 The Witness was established in Montreal by John Dougall about 1846. John Dougall 
 and Son now issue the Dally Witness, Montreal Witness (tri-weekly), Weekly Witness, 
 Northern Messenger, and New Dominion Monthly, having an aggregate circulation in 1875 
 of 70,000 copies. For the important services of the Witness and its proprietors in the cause 
 of civil and religious liberty, godliness, and public morality, a public testimonial was 
 got up in 1876 by leading Canadians. See p. 763. 
 
 a Ignace [ Ignatius] Bourget, a French Canadian, born Oct. 30, 1799; consecrated bp. 
 of Telmessa in partibus, and coadjutor of Bp. Lartigue of Montreal, July 23, 1S37 ; bp. of 
 Montreal April 23, 1840 July 10, 1876; since bp. of Martianopolis. He maintained the 
 highest claims of hierarchical power ; introduced into Montreal a canonical chapter, and 
 the rites and practices of the Roman liturgy ; brought in tho Jesuits and 15 or 20 other 
 religious communities; founded many charitable and educational institutions; failed 
 repeatedly to found there a Jesuit university ; attempted to enforce a political declaration 
 ("Catholic programme") as a test to bo subscribed by all candidates for parliament,
 
 GUIBOED CASE. 753 
 
 since the council of Trent declared that judging of the morality of books be- 
 longs to the bishop, and since also the library contained books that were in 
 the Index at Rome ; citing a decision of the council of Trent that those who 
 kept or read heretical books would incur sentence of excommunication, and 
 that any who read or kept books forbidden on other grounds, would be sub- 
 ject to severe punishment ; appealing to the Institute to alter its resolution, 
 for otherwise no Catholic would continue to belong to it; and saying, "It is 
 not we who pronounce this terrible excommunication in question, but the 
 Church whose salutary decrees we only publish." The Institute, not rescind- 
 ing its resolution, sought in vain for years a better understanding with the 
 bishop. In 1865, 17 R. C. members of the Institute appealed to Rome against 
 the bishop's pastoral, but received no answer, though Mr. Gonzalve Doutre 
 went to Rome in 1869 as their representative. But Bp. Bourget sent from 
 Rome a circular dated July 16, 1869, and a pastoral letter Aug., 1869, publish- 
 ing the sentence of the Holy Office against connection with the Canadian In- 
 stitute while it taught pernicious doctrine, and the decree of the Congregation 
 of the Index against publishing, keeping, or reading the Institute's Year-Book 
 for 1868, ' and pointing out that any one who persisted in keeping or reading 
 the Year-Book, or in remaining a member of the Institute, would be deprived 
 of the sacrament, even at the point of death. The Institute met Sept. 23, 
 1869, and resolved " (1) That the Canadian Institute, founded for a purpose 
 purely literary and scientific, has no sort of doctrinal teaching, and excludes 
 with care all teaching of pernicious doctrines. (2) That the Catholic mem- 
 bers of the Canadian Institute, having been informed of the condemnation of 
 the Canadian Institute's Year-Book of 1868 by decree of the Roman authority, 
 declare that they submit purely and simply to this decree." But the bishop's 
 letter from Rome dated Oct. 30, 1869, and received by the Administrator of 
 his diocese at Montreal Nov. 17th, denounced this submission as hypocritical 
 for 5 reasons, the 3d being " Because this submission forms part of the 
 report of the committee, unanimously approved by the Institute, in which is 
 proclaimed a resolution, kept secret until then, which establishes the principle 
 of religious toleration, which has been the chief ground of the condemnation 
 of the Institute." This "chief ground" is found in no previous document in 
 the case. The bishop's letter concludes " All will understand that in a mat- 
 fcr so grave there is no absolution to give even at the point of death to those 
 who will not renounce the Institute, which has only committed an act of 
 hypocrisy in feigning to submit itself to the Holy See." 
 
 Catholics being told that all who refused to subscribe to it were unworthy of their votes 
 and enemies to the church, and priests being exhorted to attend strictly to the political 
 consciences of their parishionere. His offensive interference in political matters, his in- 
 tolerant Ultramontanism, his reputed partiality towards the French Canadians to the 
 Blighting of the English-speaking people, atid his unyielding adherence to his own de- 
 terminations, roused much opposition, and thus probably led to his translation to a nomi- 
 nal see. He still resides in Montreal. 
 
 This Year-Book contained addresses for religions tolerance by Hon. L- A- Bessanllet, 
 Hon. Horace Greeley of N. Y., &c. See pp. 193, 200, 716 note. 
 
 48
 
 754 APPENDIX. 
 
 M 
 
 Of this Canadian Institute Joseph Guibord was 1st vice-president in 1852, 
 and a member from about 1847 till his death at the age of 62, Nov. 18, 1869. 
 He was a French-Canadian B.C. (see portrait), pew-holder in St. Peter's church, 
 member of 2 R. C. societies under priests, devotedly pious, sincerely attached 
 to the doctrines of his church, faithful in his religious observances, amiable, 
 modest, studious, and of irreproachable morals. He was a well-qualified 
 printer, 36 years in one establishment (Louis Perrault, and L. Perrault and 
 Son), and long its foreman. He was highly esteemed by the R. C. clergy and 
 others for ability and trustworthiness. But his steadfast adherence to the 
 Canadian Institute subjected him to the bishop's displeasure. Being danger- 
 ously ill about 1863, he sent for a priest, who administered unction to him, 
 but refused to administer the communion, because he would not withdraw 
 from the Institute. He was one of the 17 who appealed to Rome against the 
 bishop in 1865. He died by paralysis too suddenly to send for a priest. Two 
 days after Guibord's death, his widow caused a request to be made to the 
 curate and clerk of the Fabrique, to bury him in the cemetery 1 , and tendered 
 the usual fees. The curate refused burial in the larger part, but offered it 
 without religious rites in the other pait. The offer of the widow's agent to 
 accept burial in the larger part without religious services, was rejected. Sun- 
 day, Nov. 21st, about 250 of Guibord's friends met at his late residence to ac- 
 company the body to the R. C. cemetery ; but, burial except in the smaller 
 part being again refused, the body was placed in a vault at the English ceme- 
 tery, after short addresses by several friends. Nov. 23d, the widow petitioned 
 ; the Superior ^Court for a writ of mandamus requiring the curate and wardens 
 of the Fabrique, on receipt of the customary fees, to bury Guibord's body in 
 the R. C. parochial cemetery, and to enter such burial in the civil register. 
 Nov. 24th, a judge of the court ordered a writ of mandamus to issue ; but the 
 writ issued summoned the defendants to show cause why a writ of mandamus 
 should not be issued. The defendants petitioned that the writ be annulled 
 for irregularity, traversed the plaintiff's petition, and pleaded (1) as in their 
 petition ; (2) that they did not refuse to bury Guibord, but have a right to 
 point out the place for his burial, and are ready to give him such burial as he 
 is entitled to ; (3) that the service of the R. C. religion in Canada is free, and 
 the exercise of its religious ceremonies independent of all civil interference or 
 control ; that the respondents are legal proprietors of the R. C. parish church 
 of Montreal, and of its parsonage, cemeteries, and other dependencies, all sub- 
 
 i The R. C. cemetery of La Cdte des Neiges is controlled by "La Fdbrique de Montreal' 11 
 [ the vestry-board of Montreal], consisting of the cure [ curate or parish priest] and 
 marguUllers [*= church-wardens] as managers of the temporalities of the church of Notre 
 Dame. It is divided into 2 parts ; the smaller for burying unbaptized infants, suicides, 
 Ac., dying without the help and sacraments of the church; the larger for the burial of 
 ordinary Roman Catholics with the rites of the church. Neither part was consecrated as 
 a whole, but each grave in the larger part was consecrated separately. The rights and 
 title of cure of the parish of Montreal belong to the Seminary of St. Sulpice (see p. 318). 
 Rev. Victor Rousselot has been cure of Notre Dame (the church and civil parish of Mon- 
 treal) since April 7, 1866, and thus keeper of the registers and president of the Fabrlque.
 
 JOSEPH GUIBORD.
 
 GUIBOED CASE. 755' 
 
 ject to the exclusive control and management of the respondents and of the 
 superior R. C. ecclesiastical authority ; that the respondents by law may point 
 out the precise spot in the cemetery for each burial ; that they are also civil 
 officers within certain limits, having certain duties defined by law, and are 
 legally responsible in that capacity and sphere only ; that the respondents are 
 thus set over the burial of Roman Catholics dying in the parish of Montreal, 
 and have, according to R. C. custom, assigned one part of the cemetery for 
 the burial of Roman Catholics who are buried with R. C. religious ceremonies, 
 and other part for the burial of those who are deprived of ecclesiastical burial ; 
 that Joseph Guibord was a member of the Canadian Institute, and as such 
 notoriously subject to canonical penalties involving deprivation of ecclesiasti- 
 cal burial ; that immediately after Guibord's death, the curate of the parish 
 consulted the administrator of the diocese, who replied by a decree declaring 
 that, since Joseph Guibord was a member of the Canadian Institute at the 
 time of his death, ecclesiastical burial could not be granted to him ; that the 
 respondents repeatedly informed the plaintiffs agents of the administrator's 
 decree, of the consequent impossibility of granting ecclesiastical burial, and 
 of their readiness as civil officers to bury the remains civilly, and authenticate 
 the death according to law, which offer was never accepted by the plaintiff or 
 her agents ; that the plaintiff could not claim more than civil burial, and that 
 under the conditions laid down by the ecclesiastical laws of the R. C. church, 
 which the respondents had never refused ; that they had refused nothing but 
 ecclesiastical burial, and were responsible for this only before the religious 
 and not before the civil authority. The widow answered with demurrers, 
 traverses of the facts alleged, and a statement of the dispute between the In- 
 stitute, the bishop and the court of Rome. The defendants repeated that the 
 civil courts were incompetent to question a decision of the ecclesiastical author- 
 ities on ecclesiastical matters, or inquire into the grounds of refusing eccle- 
 siastical burial to Guibord ; cited the decrees of the council of Trent [see p. 
 753] and the proceedings relating to the Institute ; averred that Guibord at his: 
 death was a "public sinner" and liable to canonical penalties including pri- 
 vation of sepulture, that the bishop's judgment imposing this penalty on 
 members of the Institute remained in full force, that the administrator of the 
 diocese had properly issued the decree depriving Guibord of ecclesiastical 
 burial, and that this was a decree by name. Justice Mondelet in the Superior 
 Court gave judgment for the widow, May 2, 1870, and ordered a peremptory 
 writ of mandamus. The Fdbrique appealed to the Court of Revision, which, 
 Sept. 10, 1870, reversed this judgment, quashed the writ originally issued, 
 and dismissed the mandamus with costs. The widow then appealed to the 
 Court of Queen's Bench, and presented petitions of recusation [= refusal as 
 partial] against 4 of the 5 judges of this court, as Roman Catholics and bound 
 by the Syllabus of 1864 to deny the State's authority, even indirectly, over 
 matters of religion and to maintain the supremacy of the Roman authority 
 over that of all sovereigns, including Queen Victoria. The court, Dec. 9, 
 1870, threw out these petitions as charging treason and perjury against the
 
 756 APPENDIX. 
 
 judges recused, and declared that they could not be sustained. This court, Sept. 
 7, 1871, affirmed the judgment of the Court of Revision ; but the judges dis- 
 agreed as to the grounds of their decision. Then the widow appealed 1 to Her 
 Majesty's Privy Council, but died 2 before the case was decided, bequeathing 
 her property to the Canadian Institute, which was allowed to continue the 
 appeal. The case came before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 
 June 27, 1874, and they delivered an elaborate decision Nov. 21st. They de- 
 clared that the writ was in proper form according to the Code of Procedure 
 for Lower Canada; that, though the petition was vague, the court might 
 specify distinctly what the defendants must do according to usage and law 
 (as, bury ecclesiastically, bury in the larger part of the cemetery, register the 
 burial), and peremptorily command this ; that the defendants are " les Cure et 
 Marguilliers " [= the curate and church-wardens], for the time being, in their 
 corporate capacity as holders of the land and administrators of the cemetery, 
 and that the cure in his individual or spiritual capacity is not a party to this 
 suit. As to the merits of the case and the grave questions raised by the 3d 
 plea, they declared these must be determined in accordance with the law of 
 the R. C. church in Lower Canada ; that before the cession in 1762 the es- 
 tablished church of the province of Quebec, as of France, was the R. C. church, 
 its law being modified by " the liberties of the Galilean church," " the appeal 
 as from abuse" (see p. 735) being to the Superior Council of Canada; that the 
 R. C. church in Canada continued to be recognized by the State, retaining its 
 endowments and certain rights (as about tithes and taxes for parochial ceme- 
 teries) enforceable at law, which may give rise to questions between the clergy 
 and laity determinable only by the municipal courts ; that the decision of a 
 tribunal constituted by any association for determining questions respecting 
 the violation of its rules by any of its members " will be binding when it has 
 acted within the scope of its authority, has observed such forms as the rules 
 
 1 This appeal to the Privy Council in England involved heavy expense, towards which 
 the Canadian Institute contributed $1,000, and various citizens of Montreal, R. C. and 
 Protestant, made up the remainder. Joseph Doutre, Esq., went to England to represent 
 the Canadian Institute, and participated in the argument before the Privy Council. He 
 was born in 1825 ; was an early member of the Institute, and president of it in 1853-3, 
 1867, and 1875 ; author of a prize essay in 1851 on " the best means of spending time in 
 the interests of the family and of the country ;" manager in 1853-4 of the greatand success- 
 ful struggle to abolish the feudal tenure ; for years an energetic, persistent, and able leader 
 In the cause of intellectual and religious freedom; long a prominent lawyer in Montreal, 
 becoming queen's counsel in 1863, counsel in 1875 for the Dominion government before the 
 Fisheries Commission under the Washington treaty with the U. 8., and counsel for the 
 widow through the Guibord case without fee and at much personal expense and self- 
 sacrifice. 
 
 * Madame Guibord, called " Dame Henriette Brown " in the legal documents, an Irish- 
 Canadian Roman Catholic, distracted at the reputed dishonor to her husband's memory 
 and her vain attempts to secure for his remains Christian burial, and surrounded by people 
 who tried to persuade her that she could not be saved if she had recourse to law against 
 the clergy, almost lost her reason, and undoubtedly died of trouble March 24, 1873, aged 
 65. She was regularly buried in consecrated ground in a lot conveyed to the Guibord es- 
 tate in 1873 in the R. C. parochial cemetery.
 
 GTJIBOED CASE. 757 
 
 require, if any forms be prescribed, and, if not, has proceeded in a manner 
 consonant with the principles of justice ;" that the cure and marguilliera are 
 only proprietors of the parochial cemetery, as a parson in England is the 
 owner of the church-yard, subject to the right of the parishioner to be buried 
 therein ; that the refusal of ecclesiastical burial with the consequent separation 
 of Guibord's grave from the ordinary place of sepulture, implies degradation, 
 not to say infamy; that, if the act of a bishop (who is by canon law an ordi- 
 nary judge) in pronouncing ecclesiastical penalties against a II. C. subject 
 be questioned in a court of justice, that court must inquire whether that act 
 accords with the law and rules of discipline of the R. C. church in Lower 
 Canada, and whether the sentence, if any, was regularly pronounced by a com- 
 petent authority ; that the ecclesiastical law upon the point is in the Quebec 
 ritual, which, like the Roman ritual, justifies refusal of ecclesiastical burial 
 to (1) Jews, infidels, heretics, apostates, schismatics, and all non-professors 
 of the Catholic religion ; (2) unbaptized infants ; (3) persons by name ex- 
 communicated or interdicted ; (4) those killed by anger or despair ; (5) those 
 slain in a duel ; (6) those who, without legitimate excuse, shall not have per- 
 formed their paschal duty ; (7) those notoriously guilty of any mortal sin ; 
 (8) public sinners dying impenitent, as concubinaries, prostitutes, sorcerers 
 and actors in farces, usurers, &c. ; that the refusal of ecclesiastical burial to 
 Guibord could not be justified by the 1st, 2d, 3d (not excommunicated by 
 name), 4th, 5th, 6th (not refusing, but being refused sacraments), or 7th of 
 these rules ; that being a member of the Institute does not make one a "public 
 sinner " to whom Christian burial can be legally refused, and that the eccle- 
 siastical law of France usually required a personal sentence to constitute a man 
 a public sinner; that no such personal sentence was ever passed against 
 Guibord; that no sentence at all was passed even after Guibord's death, 
 the administrator's letter to the curate (called a decree) having no essential 
 element of a judicial sentence; that the rule of the council of Trent respect- 
 ing prohibited books seems without authority in this case, because (1) France 
 never admitted the decrees of this council to have effect by their own inherent 
 force, and (2) France has expressly repudiated the authority of the Congrega- 
 tion of the Index and of the Inquisition ; that respondents have not shown 
 that Guibord was, at his death, under any such valid ecclesiastical sentence or 
 censure as would, by any law binding upon Roman Catholics in Canada, jus- 
 tify denying ecclesiastical sepulture to his remains. They therefore advised 
 that the decrees of the Courts of Queen's Bench and of Review be reversed ; 
 that the original decree of the Superior Court be varied, and that the defend- 
 ants pay the Canadian Institute the costs, as below. Nov. 28, 1874, the Judi- 
 cial Committee's report was read in the Privy Council, and approved by Her 
 Majesty, " by and with the advice of Her Privy Council ;" the decrees of the 
 Court of Queen's Bench and of the Superior Court in Review were reversed 
 with costs ; and Her Majesty ordered the original order of the Superior Court 
 to be so varied "that a peremptory writ of mandamus be issued, directed to 
 'Lea Cure et MarguiUiers de F (Euvre et Fabrique de Notre-Dame de Montreal'
 
 758 APPENDIX. 
 
 [== the Curate and Church-wardens of the work and Fabrique of Notre-Dame 
 of Montreal], commanding them, upon application being made to them by or 
 on behalf of Institut Canadien, and upon tender or payment to them of the 
 usual and accustomed fees, to prepare, or permit to be prepared, a grave in 
 that part of the cemetery in which the remains of Roman Catholics, who re- 
 ceive ecclesiastical burial, are usually interred, for the burial of the remains 
 of the said Joseph Guibord, and that upon such remains being brought to the 
 said cemetery for that purpose, at a reasonable and proper time, they do bury 
 the said remains in the said part of the said cemetery, or permit them to be 
 buried there ; and it is further ordered that the defendants do pay to the 
 Canadian Institute all the costs of the widow in all the lower courts, except 
 such costs as were occasioned by the plea of recusatio judicis [= refusal of the 
 judge], which should be borne by the appellants ; and likewise the sum of 
 one thousand and seventy-nine pounds eighteen shillings and four pence ster- 
 ling [= over $5000], for the cost of this appeal. Whereof the Governor, 
 Lieutenant-Governor, or Commander-in-Chief of the Dominion of Canada, for 
 the time being, and all other persons whom it may concern, are to take notice 
 and govern themselves accordingly." 
 
 Aug. 12, 1875, Mr. Doutre received the official decree of the Privy Council 
 commanding the burial of Guibord's remains as above. Thursday, Sept. 2d, 
 was fixed by the officers of the Institute for the burial. The lot in which 
 Madame Guibord had been buried (7 feet long, 4 feet wide at one end and 7 
 feet at the other) would not allow the 2 coffins to lie side by side ; and his 
 grave was dug, under the direction of the Institute, over her coffin, which 
 was a little more than 3 feet below the surface of the ground. His coffin was 
 carried out from the vault of the Mount Royal Cemetery, identified as brought 
 there Nov. 20, 1869, placed on a hearse surmounted by a cross, with the British 
 flag over the coffin, and taken, accompanied by Mr. Doutre and others in 
 carriages, to the Catholic cemetery, which was reached about 3 P. M. The 
 gates of this cemetery were found closed and barred. A crowd of 300 or 400 
 men there (mostly French-Canadians, many armed with pick-handles, with a 
 pile of stones inside the gates) greeted the hearse with jeers and yells of defi- 
 ance. Mr. Doutre and his friends alighted and held a consultation, while the 
 more violent of the mob compelled the driver of the hearse to turn his horses, 
 and drive off the road. Mr. Doutre sent a bailiff to notify tile guardian of 
 the cemetery and ask to have the gates opened ; the guardian replied that he 
 was powerless to open them against the mob ; some of the mob seized the 
 horses' heads, started them off with kicks and blows about 20 rods, and stoned 
 the retreating hearse ; the crowd had now increased to nearly 1000, about 
 being Liberal French-Canadians and English Protestants mostly armed with 
 revolvers, and both sides being greatly excited ; but the prudent and earnest 
 expostulations of Mr. Doutre and others prevented a bloody battle, and at 4 
 P. M. the officers of the Institute decided to reconvey the coffin to the vault 1 
 
 1 As this vault would probably be attacked to obtain possnsslon of Guibord's remains, 
 an armed guard was stationed there by the authorities till the filial burial.
 
 GUIBOED CASE. 759 
 
 of the Protestant cemetery, which was accordingly done, the mob rushing for 
 the hearse as it moved off, and Guibord's friends with some Protestants closing 
 in behind it. The mayor and chief of police with 50 men arrived at the ceme- 
 tery about 5 P. M., and were cheered by the small remaining mob, who also 
 opened the gates for them. Bp. Bourget had that morning notified the mayor 
 of trouble expected there, and the mayor saw the chief of police who appre- 
 hended no disturbance; the Nouveau Monde [= New World, the bishop's 
 organ] and other clerical newspapers had been for weeks complaining of the 
 persecution of the church, of the injustice of the Privy Council's decision, and 
 of the desecration of the cemetery should an excommunicated man be buried 
 in its consecrated part ; from no R. C. pulpit or press was a word uttered to 
 calm the anticipated excitement, nor was any priest openly present for that 
 purpose at the time and place appointed ; Rev. V. Rousselot had publicly ex- 
 pressed his determination to go to prison rather than obey the mandate for 
 burial ; and Mr. Doutre declared before the Superior Court the same month 
 his ability to prove, that a priest in his cassock had publicly used language to 
 incite a crowd to go there and keep the gates shut, that the guardian of the 
 cemetery had men organized to resist the entry of the procession, that the 
 workmen on the Notre-Dame parish church had leave of absence that after- 
 noon and were incited to go there for the same purpose, and that the Fabrique 
 or its officers were at the bottom of the disturbance at the cemetery. Attempts 
 to punish the delinquents failed, however, because the Superior Court required 
 a formal return and certificate from the Fodnnque to prove their neglect to 
 obey the order for Guibord's burial ; and the grand jury, of whom J were 
 French Canadians, refused to find any bill against 15 rioters indicted upon de- 
 cisive testimony ; but legal measures were taken by Mr. Doutre and others for 
 calling out a military force to keep the peace during the next attempt at burial. 1 
 Bp. Bourget issued a pastoral letter, Sept. 8th, threatening to curse Guibord's 
 grave should he be buried in consecrated ground. The bishops of Quebec 
 published in October their opinion that ecclesiastical burial appertains solely to 
 the judgment of the Church, and their lament over the outrage perpetrated in 
 the name of Gallican liberties. Oct. 17th another pastoral from the bishop 
 was read in the R. C. churches in Montreal, discussing the holiness of the 
 Catholic cemetery, the Church's decision against Guibord, and the Privy, 
 Council's decision, and claiming credit for only cursing the grave, and not) 
 purposing to throw his body out of the cemetery as was done, shortly after the 
 conquest, with the bodies of 3 soldiers uncanonically buried there. 
 
 The final burial of Guibord took place Tuesday, Nov. 16, 1875. Prepara- 
 tions had been made to prevent the disinterment of Guibord (1) by making 
 a stone sarcophagus, weighing about 8 tons, in two parts to inclose the coffin 
 by being riveted together ; but Mayor Kingston objected that carrying this 
 sarcophagus to the cemetery would probably cause a disturbance, and the In- 
 stitute voted, Nov. 15th, to gain their end (2) by covering the coffin with' 
 Portland cement mixed with scrap iron, which on hardening would form a 
 substance as hard as stone and more difficult to drill. In addition to other
 
 760 APPENDIX. 
 
 measures against disturbances, the R. C. priests in the city and district of 
 Montreal, at the Mayor's request, commanded their people, on Sunday, Nov. 
 14th, not to go near the funeral or look at it. On Monday Mr. Doutre filed 
 the mandamus for the burial, served a copy of it on tha Seminary of St. Sul- 
 pice, and demanded that Rev. V. Rousselot should perform ecclesiastical rites 
 over the remains the next morning ; but Mr. R. refused ecclesiastical burial 
 to Guibord against the bishop's will, offered him civil interment in the other 
 part, protested "against the violation of the cemetery, of the laws of the 
 Church, and of the liberties of Catholics in Lower Canada," and declared that 
 he should be "present at 11 o'clock at this burial, but only as a civil officer." 
 The secretary of the Fabrique refused the fees ($4. 35) tendered before burial. 
 On the morning of Nov. 16th, the grave (dug Sept. 3d and filled up by the 
 mob that day) was again dug (under the direction of Mr. A. Boisseau, Super- 
 intendent of the Institute, and with the official cognizance of the sexton and 
 the secretary of the Fabrique) over and around Madame Guiborrl's coffin, the 
 hole being 8 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, and 4 ft. deep, to be filled by the 2 coffins 
 and the thick layer of Portland cement around them both ; a squad of police 
 was stationed round the burial lot from 9.15 A. M. till after the burial ; 100 
 policemen, 40 of them armed with rifles, proceeded with their chief to the 
 Protestant cemetery, where, the mayor and other officials having arrived, the 
 coffin containing Guibord's remains was taken from the vault, and properly 
 identified ; then the remains were borne in procession again to the R. C. ceme- 
 tery, escorted now by the police, the military (about 1100 artillery, riflemen, 
 '&c.), who had been marched to the vicinity, following the procession at a dis- 
 tance to the village of CQte des Neiges, where they were halted during the 
 burial; at about 11.30 A. M. the escort of police arrived at the gates of the 
 Catholic cemetery, which had just been closed, evidently in jest, by a crowd 
 'of young people, but were then opened, and were taken off by the sexton ; 
 soon afterwards the funeral procession and police entered the cemetery and 
 'proceeded to the grave, where the coffin was placed over Madame Guibord's 
 coffin, and the process of filling the grave with the liquid cement, &c., was 
 soon completed, earth being piled on above the cement which came nearly to 
 the surface of the ground ; meanwhile Rev. Mr. Rousselot visited the grave 
 as a civil officer and ascertained from Mr. Boisseau its depth (4 feet, by 
 authority of the cemetery at Madame G's first interment) and the proper 
 identification of Guibord's body, and Mayor Kingston and Judge Coursol 
 twice visited the cemetery and found no disturbance ; the military and police 
 were marched away after the burial was completed and the rain began to fall ; 
 but, to prevent the threatened disinterment, a guard of police was again sta- 
 tioned at the grave before night, and was continued until the cement had time 
 to be hardened into solid rock. Bp. Bourget issued another letter to his peo- 
 ple Nov. 16th, dwelling on their respect for the cemetery, their docility to the 
 voice of their pastors, and the cursedness of Guibord's grave and soul, and 
 proposing to have the cemetery made a place of pilgrimage, and honored by 
 .the construction in it (as at Rome) of the Stations of the Cross. It is worthy
 
 ROMANISM IN CANADA. 761 
 
 of remark that, during the 6 years between Guibord's death and burial, at least 
 11 other members of the Canadian Institute died and were buried in consecrated 
 ground, though some of them were freemasons and one was a suicide, and the 
 fact of their membership in the Institute till death was in some cases not only 
 notorious, but distinctly notified to the bishop either officially or through the 
 newspapers. Many members of the Institute, including M. Gonzalve Doutre, 
 were married ecclesiastically without trouble. But not long after Guibord's 
 burial, the Quebec provincial legislature under priestly influence passed a law 
 giving to the bishop of each diocese the sole right of determining who shall 
 or shall not be buried in the R. C. cemeteries. This law is said to have been 
 the first infringement of the old treaty of cession, by which the R. C. church 
 has its legal position in the province, and may lead to other changes in the 
 future. 
 
 A collision between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities in the parish of 
 Verchfires, 20 to 25 miles N. E. of Montreal, was thus reported in the N. Y. 
 Weekly Witness of Sept. 30, 1875. " Several years ago the municipal council 
 of that parish decided to run a road through the property of the Church for 
 the convenience of the public, and proceeded to appropriate the required terri- 
 tory. The local Fabrique resisted the claim of the parish, and the case went 
 to the courts, and finally to the Privy Council. The ecclesiastical authorities, 
 defeated in every court, applied to the R. C. bp. of Montreal, who launched 
 immediately a mandate, which was read in the R. C. church on Tuesday last. 
 By the terms of this decree the parishioners are commanded to make restitu- 
 tion of the property usurped to the Fabrique under pain of excommunication, 
 and to pay the costs of the legal processes, which amount to $10,000." 
 
 The Ultramontane claims of ecclesiastical immunity were before this fully 
 conceded by Hon. A. B. Routhier in a suit at Sorel before the Superior Court 
 of Quebec. Rev. Urgele Archambeault of the parish of St. Barthelemi de- 
 nounced from the pulpit one Derouin who had applied for a liquor license, 
 urging his congregation to drive him out of the parish. Derouin sued the 
 priest for defamation. Judge Routhier decided " that ecclesiastics cannot be 
 prosecuted before secular tribunals for ecclesiastical matters, and that in mat- 
 ters of that sort priests are answerable to their bishop. That a layman who 
 alleges that he has been defamed by a cure in a sermon pronounced from the 
 pulpit can not prosecute for damages before civil tribunals for defamation, 
 preaching being essentially an ecclesiastical matter. ..." But a higher court, 
 in the latter part of 1874, decided that Judge Routhier's judgment was " sub- 
 versive of all rights of the citizen, and calculated to put the priest above the 
 law, and by these means to abandon to the caprice or malevolence of a cure or. 
 
 his vicar the reputation, the character, and the fortune of his parishioners 
 
 In principle as well as in fact the judgment appealed from is unfounded; it ( 
 must be reversed and the defendant must be condemned." 
 
 Rev. R. Blanchard of the parish of St. Ephrem d'Upton having denounced 
 as a bad Catholic and man a blacksmith named Richer (who had talked freely 
 of clerical fables and frailties) and forbidden his parishioners to have any deal-,
 
 762 APPENDIX. 
 
 ings with Mm on pain of being deprived of the sacraments, Richer sued the 
 priest for taking away his means of support; the lower court gave judgment 
 for the priest ; but the Superior Court of Montreal reversed this decision, and 
 gave the plaintiff $100 damages. 
 
 R. C. priests and bishops in Canada have often used ecclesiastical weapons 
 in political matters (see pp. 520-1, 586, 595, 752). Feb. 28, 1877, the Supreme 
 Court of the Dominion through Judge Taschereau (R. C. and brother of the 
 R. C. abp. of Quebec), the chief justice and 2 associates coinciding, decided 
 that undue influence, sufficient to annul the election, had been used, and ac- 
 cordingly set aside the election of Mr. Langevin (a former cabinet minister, 
 and brother of the R. C. bp. of Rimouski) to the provincial house of com- 
 mons. The clergy were not denied free and full discussion of all public ques- 
 tions; but they threatened electors with everlasting punishment, if they voted 
 for Mr. Tremblay ; while Mr. Langevin received their public support, and was 
 elected over Mr. Tremblay by the practice of a system of intimidation. Clergy- 
 men and laymen were declared equally amenable to the law. 
 
 The destruction of the Indian church at Oka took place Dec. 14, 1875. 
 The wealthy Seminary of St. Sulpice, which has the seigniory of Montreal, 
 holds also the seigniory of the Two Mountains (N. W. of Montreal, and in- 
 cluding the village of Oka), originally by a grant from the French king for 
 the benefit of the Indians, but for nearly 40 years past by an absolute title 
 from the English government. The Indians at Oka (a remnant of the Iroquois) 
 claim the land, which they have occupied for centuries ; but the Seminary 
 has resisted their claim, had them imprisoned for cutting wood, and en- 
 deavored to drive them from their homesteads. A Methodist chapel holding 
 350 was built at Oka about 1872, on land bought of an Indian woman and 
 previously possessed by Indians for over 60 years, with funds obtained from 
 Montreal and other places in Canada. After this was built and regularly 
 crowded with attentive worshipers, previously Roman Catholics, the Seminary 
 of St. Sulpice brought an action to have it removed, and obtained a judgment 
 (in the absence of the Indians' attorney) ordering the Indians to remove the 
 building or pay $500. The Indians were then informed that the church should 
 not be molested ; but in the afternoon of Dec. 14, 1875, while the Indians 
 were away, about 25 French Canadians tore down the church, and on the 16th 
 the material, except the seats and windows, was carried to the R. C. priests' 
 residence. This outrage increased the trouble. June 14, 1877, the provincial 
 police put 5 Indians in jail ; rumors were circulated that warrants were out 
 for the arrest of all the males, who then hastily armed to defend themselves ; 
 early the next morning the R. C. church, parsonage, etc., were burned. 
 
 Rev. Charles Chiniquy (see pp. 557, 674 ; portrait, p. 764), a French Canadian, 
 born in 1809, early familiar with the Scriptures, was for 23 years (1833-56) a 
 R. C. priest, placed at Beauport in 1838, and at Kamouraska in 1842. Bp. 
 ' Bourget publicly styled him in 1849 "the Apostle of Temperance in Canada " 
 and one of his best priests, and induced the pope to send him a magnificent 
 crucifix. In 1850 he received the pope's benediction for himself and the tern-
 
 FATHER CHINIQUY. 763 
 
 perance cause, and Bp. Bourget from the cathedral pulpit invited the people of 
 Montreal to attend the presentation of a gold medal to him as a public token of 
 respect and gratitude. He had converted to temperance over 200,000 persons 
 in 18 months, preaching more than 500 sermons in 120 parishes, and being per- 
 mitted by the bishops to preach everywhere and hear confessions. On leaving 
 Canada for the U. S. in 1851 he received Bp. Bourget's benediction with a chal- 
 ice and a letter of thanks, though he had just been interdicted on a false charge 
 by a prostitute. He led a colony of French Canadians to St. Anne, Kankakee 
 Co. , 111. , where he and his congregation became Protestants in 1856. Perhaps 
 no man living knows more of the interior workings of the R. C. system. 
 His little book, "The Priest, The "Woman, and The Confessional, 1 " is full 
 of startling facts derived principally from his own knowledge. Thus, after 
 mentioning his having heard the confession of a dying priest, that he had de- 
 stroyed the purity of 95, and scandalized or destroyed at least 1000, out of 1500 
 females whom he had heard in the confessional, he adds : "I have heard the 
 confessions of more than 200 priests, and, to say the truth, as God knows it, 
 I must declare that only 21 had not to weep over the secret or public sins com- 
 mitted through the irresistibly corrupting influences of auricular confession!" 
 His lectures on the confessional and other peculiarities of the R. C. system, 
 delivered in Montreal in 1875, and all the discussions growing out of these lec- 
 tures, were published in the Montreal Witness. Bp. Bourget, in April, 1875, 
 with the approbation of Abp. Taschereau of Quebec, prohibited the faithful 
 from reading the Witness, even its advertisements (it had more advertisements 
 than any other newspaper in Montreal), under the penalty of being debarred 
 from the sacraments ; but the Witness survived and flourished ; and the labors 
 of Father Chiniquy were attended with a remarkable and continuous awaken- 
 ing, which in 1876 alone led 2287 French Catholics in Montreal to abjure the 
 R. C. church (see note, p. 764). He and his co-laborers were indeed slan- 
 dered and publicly cursed ; often chased in the streets by furious mobs ; some- 
 times stoned or fired at by would-be assassins ; but determinedly and courage- 
 ously protected by Protestants and friends at the risk of their own lives- The 
 use of such violence was after a while found unprofitable there, and was dis- 
 couraged by the ecclesiastics, though other modes of opposition were contin- 
 ued. Said Father Chiniquy in a public address in Montreal in the early part 
 of 1876 : "I fear many of you do not understand the manly action of the 
 French Canadian who comes to me and says, ' Sir, I am ready to cut all the 
 ties which unite me to my father, my mother or friends, and give up all that 
 is dear to my heart, and come to follow Christ. ' If you do not understand 
 that this is the work of God, I have nothing to say." He then spoke of a 
 young man cursed by his father, forsaken by his" wife, and separated from his 
 child, because, in obedience to his conviction of duty to God and his own soul, 
 he left the R. C. church ; of 4 young men turned out of their father's house, 
 and fainting with hunger, for the same reason ; and continued : " I have more 
 than 300 men who are starving noble men who never beg ; who would rather 
 faint than ask for bread. Where will they go ? They have lost their em-
 
 764 APPENDIX. 
 
 It 
 
 ployment. The greater part of them had good positions ; but the day they 
 left the Church of Rome, they were turned out of them, and in some cases with 
 wages unpaid. People, in the name of God, I ask you to come to their help. 
 In the nams of Christ, do something for these sufferers. (Applause.) ..." 
 The misrepresentations respecting this earnest and eloquent minister, his wife 
 and children, and his work are endless ; but Protestants have no doubt that 
 his 23 years of labor since his leaving the R. C. church have been productive 
 of great good. 1 
 
 In the province of New Brunswick the Common School Act for providing 
 unsectarian public schools by tax for all, passed in 1871 and becoming opera- 
 tive in Jan., 1872, was bitterly opposed by R. C. bishops in public meetings, 
 before the governor-gsneral, and in the parliamsnt of the Dominion of Cana- 
 da ; its constitutionality was sustained against them by the law-officers of the 
 British crown twice, by the Supreme Court of New Brunswick unanimously, 
 and by the Privy Council in 1874 ; then the lower house of the Dominion par- 
 liament was led to ask the queen's influence for procuring separate schools 
 for Roman Catholics in New Brunswick ; R. C. ecclesiastics refused to pay 
 the taxes, and their property (including Bp. Sweeny's carriage) was conse- 
 quently levied on by the officers of the law ; riotous proceedings at Caraquet 
 resulted in the death of a sheriff's officer and of a rioter, Jan. 23-7, 1875 ; but 
 New Brunswick has, like the United States, her unsectarian school system 
 (see pp. 583-C09, 771, &c.)for promoting knowledge and virtue. 
 
 PART V. ROMANISM IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1. Ecclesiastical Statistics. The following table, compiled from 
 the official reports in Sadliers' Catholic Directory for 1877, exhibits the latest 
 statistics of each archdiocese (in small capitals), followed by the dioceses and 
 vicariates apostolic of its province in order ; the name of each archbishop and 
 bishop ; the date of his consecration or translation from another diocese ; the 
 number of priests, regular and secular, in each diocese ; its number of churches, 
 finished or in process of erection ; number of chapels and stations for preach- 
 ing; theological seminaries and other ecclesiastical institutions; religious in- 
 stitutions or communities (convents, monasteries, &c.) ; literary institutions 
 (colleges, academies, select schools, &c.); parochial schools; asylums, pro- 
 tectorates, industrial schools, and hospitals of all kinds; Roman Catholic 
 population. Compare pp. 276, 278, 662, &c. An interrogation point marks 
 an inference or estimate from the data given. 
 
 1 In a lecture at Ottawa in May, 1876, Mr. C. estimated that 16,000 Roman CathoMcs, 
 8,000 of them In Montreal, had been converted through his instrumentality since his own 
 conversion in 1856. In January, 1877, a church was opened for him in the n^w part of 
 Montreal in the midst of a large French-Canadian factory-population, with tho hope of his 
 turning many of them to righteousness.
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL STATISTICS, IT. 8. 
 
 765 
 
 Diocese. 
 
 Abp. or Dp. 
 
 Consecr. or Tr 
 
 i 
 
 Churches. 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 K d 3 ' 
 
 Asylums, <tc 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Population. 
 
 B.VLTIMORK 
 
 J. R. Bayley 1 
 
 r. July 80, 18 
 
 2. 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 27 7( 
 
 on ... 
 
 Charleston 
 
 P. N. Lynch 
 
 o. Mar. 14, 18 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 Richmond 
 
 J. Gibbons* 
 
 T. July 30, 18 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 ' 18.000 
 
 Savannah 
 
 Wm. H. Gross 
 
 c. April 27, 18 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 ' 25,000 
 
 St. Augustine 8 
 
 Vacant: Admin. 
 
 P. Dufan 
 
 
 XI 
 
 \ 
 
 
 i i 
 
 lo'ooo 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 J. J. Kain 
 
 c. May 23, 18" 
 
 
 5 
 
 50? 
 
 
 1 ; 
 
 2 18,000 
 
 Wilmington 
 
 T. A. Becker 
 
 c. Aug. 16, 18t 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 1? 12,500 
 
 N. Carolina (V. A. 
 
 Vacant: Admin. 
 
 Bp. Gibbons* 
 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 1.'700 
 
 BOSTON* 
 
 f. J. Williams 
 
 c. Mar. 11, 18 
 
 20 
 
 13. 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 4? 310,000 
 
 Burlington 
 
 L. de Goesbriand 
 
 c. Oct 80, 18o 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 1 34000 
 
 Hartford 
 
 l\ Galberry 
 
 c. Mar. 19, 18* 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 
 19 < 
 
 i 150,000 
 
 Portland 
 
 J. A. Healy 
 
 c. June 2, 18* 
 
 6 
 
 7. 
 
 21 
 
 5? 
 
 ' 12 
 
 
 Providence* 
 
 T. F. Hendricken 
 
 c. April 28, 187 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 15 ; 
 
 2 136,000 
 
 Springfield 
 
 P. T. O'Reilly 
 
 o. Sept. 25, 18* 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 
 5 i 
 
 2 150,000 
 
 CINCINNATI 
 
 J. B. Purcell 
 
 c. Oct. 13, 183 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 15 1' 
 
 9? 240,000 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 R. Gilmour 
 
 o. April 14, 187 
 
 j; 
 
 lift 
 
 i 
 
 
 8? 11 1 
 
 4? 150,000 
 
 Columbus 
 
 S. H. Rosecrans 
 
 T. Mar. 3, 181 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 3 60,000 
 
 Covington 
 
 A. M. Toebbe 
 
 o. Jan. 9, 187 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 
 5? 11 
 
 4 40.000 
 
 Detroit 
 
 C. H. Borgess 
 
 c. April 24, 18* 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 86? 
 
 
 1? 64 
 
 10 175,000 
 
 Fort Wayne 
 
 f. Owenger 
 
 c. April 14, 187 
 
 8 
 
 lOfc 
 
 84? 
 
 
 16 53 
 
 4 70,000 
 
 Louisville 
 
 Wm. McCloskey 
 
 c. May 24, 186 
 
 1st 
 
 10 
 
 28? 
 
 
 t? 63 
 
 10 100.000 
 
 Vincennes 
 
 M. de St. Palais 
 
 c. Jan. 14 184 
 
 10 
 
 148 
 
 f 
 
 
 3? 200? 
 
 5 85.000? 
 
 MILWAUKEE* 
 
 J. M. Hennl 
 
 c. Mar. 19, 184 
 
 21 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 5? 250? ( 
 
 J? 189.000 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 F. X. Krautbaner 
 
 c. June 29, 187 
 
 b 
 
 KM 
 
 t 
 
 * 
 
 r? 27? . 
 
 . 61,000? 
 
 La Crosse 
 
 M. Hciss 
 
 c. Sept. 6, 186 
 
 4 
 
 88 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 '< 18 
 
 2 45,000 
 
 Marquette 
 
 I. Mrak 
 
 c. Feb. 7, 186 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 . 20.000 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 T. L. Grace 
 
 c. July 24, 185 
 
 7 
 
 146 
 
 48 
 
 1 
 
 44? 
 
 5 96,000 
 
 N. Minn.* (V. A.) 
 
 R. Seidenbnsh 
 
 c. May 30, 187 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 16,500 
 
 NEW ORLEANS 
 
 V. J. Perch6 
 
 c. May 1, 187 
 
 17 
 
 95 
 
 27 
 
 1 
 
 '? 40? S 
 
 250,000 
 
 Galveston 
 
 C. M. Dubnis 
 
 c. Nov. 23, 186 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 9? 
 
 1J 
 
 
 2 25.000 
 
 Little Rock 8 
 
 E. Fitzgerald 
 
 . Feb. 3, 186 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 6,800 
 
 Mobile 
 
 J. Quinlan 
 
 . Dec. 4, 185 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 56? 
 
 IS 
 
 20 ' 
 
 4 16,000 
 
 Natchez 
 
 Vm. H. Elder 
 
 . May 3, 185 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 86? 
 
 13 
 
 6 11 4 
 
 ? 12,500 
 
 Natchitoches* 
 
 Vacant: Admin. 
 
 P.F.Dicharry 
 
 1 
 
 18? 
 
 60? 
 
 7? 
 
 8 11? . 
 
 30,000 
 
 San Antonio 10 
 
 *.. D. Pellicer 
 
 . Dec. 8, 187 
 
 3o 
 
 40 
 
 50? 
 
 9? 
 
 i. 18 
 
 2 40,000 
 
 Brownsv. 10 (V.A.) 
 
 ). Manucy 
 
 . Dec. 8, 1ST 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 360? 
 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 J. McCloskey" 
 
 . May 6, 186 
 
 30 
 
 150 
 
 87 
 
 3< 
 
 <S 95 8 
 
 7 600,000 
 
 Albany 
 
 i 1 . McXierny 1 * 
 
 . April 21, 187 
 
 15 
 
 158 
 
 133 
 
 10 
 
 4 41? 1 
 
 7 200,000 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 '. Loughlin 
 
 . Oct. 30, 185 
 
 128 
 
 71 
 
 25? 
 
 22? 
 
 ? 60? 1 
 
 .... 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 S. V. Ryan 
 
 . Nov. 8, 1868 
 
 14 
 
 94? 
 
 42? 
 
 0* 
 
 6 60? 14 
 
 ? 110.000 
 
 Newark 
 
 I. A. Corrigan 
 
 . May 4, 187 
 
 160 
 
 127 
 
 32 
 
 19? 
 
 2 76 1 
 
 4 186,000 
 
 Ogdensbnrg 1 * 
 
 E. P. Wadhams 
 
 . May 5, 1872 
 
 51 
 
 75? 
 
 49? 
 
 I 
 
 6 8 . 
 
 55,000 
 
 Rochester 
 
 B. J. McQuaid 
 
 . July 12, 1S68 
 
 60 
 
 76? 
 
 \ 
 
 11? 
 
 ? 34? 
 
 7 65,000? 
 
 OREGON CITY 
 
 P. N. Blanchet 
 
 . July 25, 1845 
 
 2 
 
 18? 
 
 75? 
 
 j 
 
 8 6? 
 
 2 20,000 
 
 Nesqnally 
 
 \. M. A. Blanchet 
 
 . May 31, 1850 
 
 17 
 
 20? 
 
 17? 
 
 6? 
 
 ? 1 
 
 3 10,000 
 
 Idaho (V. A.) 
 
 Vacant: Admin. 
 
 \bp. Blanchet 14 
 
 14 
 
 10? 
 
 50? 
 
 ; 
 
 1 3 
 
 2 5,650 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 f. F. Wood 14 
 
 April 26, 1857 
 
 227 
 
 126 
 
 78 
 
 40? 
 
 9 59? 12 
 
 ? 250,000 
 
 Allegheny 1 * 
 
 I. Domenec 
 
 r. Mar. 19, 1876 
 
 95 
 
 62 
 
 44 
 
 11? 
 
 S 26 
 
 
 Erie 
 
 '. Mullen 
 
 c. Aug. 2, 1868 
 
 61 
 
 78 
 
 36? 
 
 14? 
 
 21 
 
 45,000 
 
 Harriebnrg 
 
 . F. Shanahan 
 
 s.July 12,1868 
 
 37 
 
 51 
 
 24 
 
 14? 
 
 5 22 
 
 1 20.000 
 
 Pittsburgh 17 
 
 J. Tnigg 
 
 c. Mar. 19, 1876 
 
 73 
 
 61? 
 
 13? 
 
 15? 
 
 ' 36 ' 
 
 
 Scran ton 
 
 Wm. O'Hara 
 
 3. July 18, 1868 
 
 58 
 
 70 
 
 46 
 
 10 
 
 i 9 
 
 60,000 
 
 ST. Louis 
 
 P. R. Kenrick 18 
 
 3. Nov. 30, 1S41 
 
 231 
 
 201 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 1 180? 20 
 
 350.000 
 
 Alton 
 
 '. J. Baltes 
 
 3. Jan. 23. 1870 
 
 130 
 
 159i 
 
 85? 
 
 23? 
 
 1 81 8 
 
 100,000 
 
 Chicago 19 
 
 \ Foley 
 
 3. Feb. 27, 187( 
 
 306 
 
 80? 
 
 138 
 
 22? 
 
 1 108* 8' 
 
 300,000 
 
 Dubnque 
 
 '. Hennessy 
 
 3. Sept. 3o! 1866 
 
 145 
 
 61? 
 
 105? 
 
 1? 
 
 57? ' 
 
 100,000 
 
 Nashville 
 
 '. A. Feehan 
 
 3. Nov. 1, 1865 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 18? 
 
 ? 
 
 25? J 
 
 
 St. Joseph 
 Kansas (.V. A.) 
 
 . J. Hogan 
 .. M. Fink 
 
 3. Sept. 13, 1868 
 3. June 11, 1871 
 
 25 
 60 
 
 29 
 80 
 
 28? 
 46? 
 
 14? 
 H 
 
 12? .. 
 I 18 '* 
 
 18.000 
 40,000 
 
 Nebraska (V. A.) 
 
 as. O'Connor 
 
 3. Ang. 20, 1876 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 80 
 
 * 
 
 \ 2? 4 
 
 23.000 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 . S. Alemany* 1 
 
 p. July 29, 1853 
 
 21 
 
 93 
 
 16 
 
 ? 
 
 83? 95 
 
 120,000 
 
 Grass Valley 
 
 S. O'Connell 
 
 ;. Feb. 3, 1861 
 
 32? 
 
 85 
 
 70 
 
 9 
 
 3? 
 
 14,000 
 
 Monterey &c. 
 
 '. Amat** 
 
 \ Mar. 12, 1854 
 
 41 
 
 32 
 
 43 
 
 
 8 4! 
 
 34,000 
 
 SANTA FE* 
 
 . B. Lamy 
 
 !. Nov. 24, 1&50 
 
 60 
 
 28 
 
 170 
 
 j 
 
 25? S 
 
 99.000 
 
 Arizona (V. A.) 
 Colorado (V. A.) 
 
 . B. Halpointe 
 . P. Machebeuf 
 
 . June 20, 1869 
 . Ang. 16, 1868 
 
 10 
 22 
 
 6? 
 4? 
 
 18? 
 60? 
 
 j 
 J 
 
 4 .. 
 
 1 
 
 18.800 
 18,500 
 
 Totals, approximately. 
 
 296 
 
 453 
 
 530 
 
 804 
 
 28354 
 
 5,474,950
 
 766 APPENDIX. 
 
 There are 11 archdioceses and 11 archbishops ; 48 other dioceses (including 
 Peoria), all now having bishops (see notes); while the archbishop of St. 
 Louis and the bishops of Albany and Chicago and Monterey have coadjutor- 
 bishops. 6 of the 8 vicariates apostolic are filled by bishops in partibua, and 
 the other 2 (N. Carolina and Idaho) are administered by an archbishop or 
 bishop who has also his own diocese. There are therefore 69 R. C. archbishops 
 and bishops in the II. S., and 67 sees (including vicariates apostolic). Com- 
 paring with the list on pp. 279-81, we find 4 new archdioceses (Boston, Phila- 
 delphia, Milwaukee and Santa Fe) ; 5 new dioceses (Providence, Ogdensburg, 
 San Antonio, Peoria, Allegheny) ; 2 new vicariates apostolic (Brownsville and 
 
 NOTES ON THE TABLE, p. 765. 
 
 I Abp. Bayley, bora in N. Y. Aug. 23, 1814 ; became a P. E. priest (see p. 669); ordained R. 
 C. priest March 2, 1812 ; bp. of Newark 1353-72 (see p. 280). He is nephew of the late Mot.ier 
 Seton (see p. 313). 
 
 a Bp. Gibbons, previously bp. of Adramyttnm inpartibus, and vicar apostolic of N. Car- 
 olina, was translated to Richmond 1872 ; is also "administrator apostolic" of the vicariate 
 apostolic of N. Carolina. 
 
 John Moore, D.D., was csnsecrated bp. of St. Augustine May 13, 1877. 
 Boston was made an archbishopric 1875. Bp. Williams was created abp. Feb. 12, 1875. 
 Established 1872 ; formerly in Hartford and Boston dioceses. 
 Milwaukee was made an archdiocese and its bishop an archbishop in 1875. 
 The vicariate apostolic of Northern Minnesota was taken from the diocese of St. Paul 
 Feb. 12, 1875. 
 
 8 Comprising the State of Arkansas. The Indian Territory, which is under this bishop's 
 charge, and has 4300 out of the 6800 R. C. population, is soon to be made a vicariate or prc- 
 fectship under a Benedictine. 
 
 Francis X. Leray was consecrated bp. of Natchitoches April 22, 1877. 
 10 The diocese of San Antonio and the vicariate apostolic of Brownsville were both taken 
 from the diocese of Galveston in 1874. 
 
 II See p. 716 ; portrait opposite p. 764. 
 
 13 J. J. Conroy (see p. 279) appears as nominal bishop ; but F. McNierny was appointed 
 bp. of Rhesina inpartibus and coadjutor to the bp. of Albany Dec. 22, 1871, and adminis- 
 trator of the diocese Jan. 18, 1874. 
 
 13 Ogdensburg was taken in 1872 from the diocese of Albany. 
 
 14 Abp. Blanchet of Oregon was appointed administrator of this vicariate July 16, 1876, 
 when the resignation of Bp. Lootens (see p. 280) was accepted in Rome. 
 
 Philadelphia was made an archdiocese Feb. 12, 1875. Bp. Wood was created arch- 
 bishop June 17, 1875 (see p. 278). 
 
 16 Allegheny was taken from the diocese of Pittsburgh in 1876, Bp. Domenec having 
 been over the whole (see p. 278). 
 
 17 The number of parochial schools is supplied from the Directory for 1876. 
 
 18 P. J. Ryan was consecrated April 14, 1872, bp. of Tricomla inpartibus, and coadjutor 
 of Abp. Kenrick. 
 
 19 The new diocese of Peoria, has existed nominally since 1875 without a bishop ; but 
 James L. Spalding is named as bp. elect in Sadliers' Directory for 1877. Bp. Duggan of 
 Chicago retired on account of infirm health ; and Bp. Foley administers the diocese as 
 "bishop of Pergamus tnparlibus infldelium." 
 
 Kansas takes the place of "Indian Territory E. of Rocky Mts." (see p. 281). 
 ' Utah Territory is temporarily under the administration of Abp. Alemany. 
 " Francis Mora was consecrated Aug. 8, 1873, bp. of Mossy nopolis inpartibus and coad- 
 jutor of Bp. Amat in the diocese of Monterey and Los Angeles. 
 19 Santa Fe became an archdiocese, and Bp. Lamy an archbishop in 1875.
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL STATISTICS, TT. 8. 767 
 
 N. Minnesota) ; while 1 vicariate apostolic has disappeared (Montana, divided 
 between Idaho and Nebraska). The priests exceed the estimate for 1871 (see 
 p. 277) by about 1300 ; the churches exceed the number reported in the U. S. 
 census of 1870 by 1339 ; the chapels and stations increased about 380 over 
 those reported the year before. In the 59 dioceses which report both priests 
 and R. C. population, there is one priest to every 1175 people ; and taking 
 the same ratio for the other 7 dioceses, we should have a total of 6,221,075 
 Roman Catholics in the U. S. This nearly agrees with the estimate (6,000,000) 
 of the Catholic Almanac for 1876, and is as accurate as the inexact returns 
 admit. 1 
 
 3. Religious Orders and Congregations. During the years 
 1871-6 some of these have largely increased in the U. S. Not far from 300 
 religious, male and female, are noticed in Sadliers' Catholic Directory as com- 
 ing to the U. S. in 1875 from Germany, Mexico, &c. The increase of "the 
 religious " in the U. S. may be seen by comparing chapters VIII and IX (pp. 
 283-360) with the following table, which has been compiled with great labor 
 principally from the returns of the bishops, &c., in Sadliers' Catholic Direc- 
 tory for 1877 (supplemented in several cases by special information from the 
 officials), and which presents, it is believed, the best attainable summary of 
 their present condition. The Basilians, Premonstrants, Sozurs ffospitaliereg, 
 are not now reported in the U. S. Several new congregations, however, are 
 now reported. The interrogation point (?) indicates an estimate supplying 
 some deficiency in the published returns. Under "Bishops, &c.," are in- 
 cluded mitred abbots and vicars apostolic belonging to the order; under 
 " Brothers, &c.," male members of the community, as lay brothers, novices, 
 theological students, and postulants ; under "Sisters, &c.," all female mem- 
 bers of the communities. Ten R. C. colleges and most of the bishops and 
 priests do not belong to any religious order or congregation. The "Pupils " 
 are in colleges, schools, orphan asylums, protectories, &c. The full names 
 of the orders, &c., are generally given in chapters VIII and IX, which see. 
 
 1 Thus Bp. Lamy of Santa Fe, in the Directories for 1870 and 1871, reported tho-R. C. 
 population of his diocese (= New Mexico) to be "about 90,000 Mexicans, about 12,000 
 Pueblo Indians, 1,000 Americans ;' and in the Directories for 1876 and 1877, the report was 
 " about 90,000 Mexicans, about 8,000 Pueblo Indians, 1,000 Americans " (with a correction 
 for 1876, not repeated for 1877, " Population, for 90,000 read 95,000 ") ; but the U. S. census 
 for 1870 gave the whole population of New Mexico as only 91,874. The Directory for 1877, 
 as compared with the Directory for 1876, adds 100,000 to the R. C. population of St. Louis 
 archdiocese ; 10,000 to that of Milwaukee ; 16,000 to the diocese of St. Paul ; 5,000 each to 
 Covington, LaCrosse, and Erie; 500 each to Natchez and Little Rock; 11,000 to the vica- 
 riate of Nebraska; 4,150 to that of Idaho; 100 to that of N. Carolina. It takes off 14,000 
 from the diocese of Newark ; 8,000 from that of Providence; 5,000 each from Hartford and 
 Detroit ; 2,500 from Wilmington. Most of these estimates of population are avowedly in- 
 exact, though the best we can get from R, C. sources (see pp. 6C2-6, 688-92). A common 
 mode of estimating the R. C. population is, Multiply the number of the baptisms in a year 
 by the ratio of the baptisms to the population. The number of the baptisms may be 
 exactly kiiown ; and usually there la about 1 baptism annually to 19 or 20 Roinau Catholics 
 in a given city, &c.
 
 768 
 
 Name of Order or Congregation. 
 
 \i 
 
 x 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 j 
 
 Brothers, 
 &c. 
 
 Sisters, <c. 
 
 Total 
 Relijjwus. 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 Churches. 
 
 Benedictines' 
 
 6 
 
 l:W 
 
 350'r 
 
 260: 
 
 7(W? 
 
 6,750. 
 
 5 
 
 86 
 
 Trappists* 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 100? 
 
 
 121? 
 
 
 
 2? 
 
 Franciscans* 
 
 
 171 
 
 271? 
 
 1,510: 
 
 1,955? 
 
 37,000? 
 
 8 
 
 81 
 
 Capuchins 
 
 
 45 
 
 60? 
 
 
 95? 
 
 260? 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 Dominicans* 
 
 1 
 
 69 
 
 49 
 
 857? 
 
 976? 
 
 16,500? 
 
 
 17 
 
 Curmelitps* 
 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 120? 
 
 149? 
 
 720? 
 
 
 11 
 
 Augustinians 4 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 81 
 
 
 61 
 
 75 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 Servites 7 ' 
 
 
 8 
 
 6? 
 
 4 
 
 18? 
 
 100 
 
 
 2 
 
 Sisters of Charity of Orderof St. Augustine 
 Sisters of Mercy ' 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 1,560? 
 
 75 
 1,500? 
 
 185 
 40,750? 
 
 
 
 Visitation Nuns 
 
 
 
 
 350? 
 
 350? 
 
 1.600? 
 
 
 
 Ursuline Nnns 
 
 
 
 
 625? 
 
 625? 
 
 9,000? 
 
 
 
 Alexiun Brothers* 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 Order of St. Viiitenr* 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 
 15 
 
 600? 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Passionists 
 
 
 43 
 
 57? 
 
 
 100? 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Lazarists, > or Congregation of the Mission 
 Sisters of Charity 
 
 2 
 
 81 
 
 175? 
 
 2,400? 
 
 258? 
 2,400? 
 
 865? 
 68,000? 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 " " " called Gray Nuns 1 '(Montreal) 
 
 
 
 
 25? 
 
 25? 
 
 225? 
 
 
 
 Gray Nuns" (from Ottawa) in N. Y. State 
 
 
 
 
 55? 
 
 65? 
 
 1,3*5? 
 
 
 
 Sisters of Charity or of Providence 
 
 
 
 
 100? 
 
 100? 
 
 750? 
 
 
 
 " " " of B. V. M. 
 
 
 
 
 850? 
 
 850? 
 
 6410 
 
 
 
 " " " of Nazareth 
 
 
 
 
 840 
 
 340 
 
 2,500? 
 
 
 
 " " Christian Charity 13 
 
 
 
 
 100? 
 
 100? 
 
 8,700? 
 
 
 
 Brothers of Charity'* 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 20(1 
 
 
 
 Sulpicians 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 
 18 
 
 285 
 
 . 
 
 S 
 
 Kedempturists 18 
 
 1 
 
 124 
 
 260? 
 
 
 885? 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 Patilists 
 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Oblates of Mary Immaculate 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 100? 
 
 i 
 
 20 
 
 Father* of the Society of Mary 
 Brothers of Mary, 18 <fcc. 
 
 
 11 
 4 
 
 8? 
 100? 
 
 
 19? 
 104? 
 
 180 
 6,355? 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 Fathers of Mercy 
 
 
 9 
 
 l-i 
 
 
 21 
 
 300 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 Christian Brothers 
 
 
 
 875? 
 
 
 875? 
 
 29,500? 
 
 1:5 
 
 
 Brothers of the Sacred Heart 17 
 
 
 
 63? 
 
 
 63? 
 
 1,600? 
 
 i 
 
 
 Missionaries of the Sacred Heart' 8 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Congregation of the Resurrection 19 
 
 
 13? 
 
 10? 
 
 
 23? 
 
 103 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 " " " Holy Cross, 20 &c. 
 
 
 30 
 
 295? 
 
 464? 
 
 789? 
 
 7,650? 
 
 t 
 
 8 
 
 " " " Holy Ghost 4 ' 
 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 2? 
 
 Xavierlan Brothers 
 
 
 
 82? 
 
 
 82? 
 
 1,875? 
 
 
 
 Congregation of the Most Precious Blood 
 
 
 53 
 
 60? 
 
 300? 
 
 413? 
 
 3,640? 
 
 i 
 
 45 
 
 Ladies of the Sacred Heart, 83 &c. 
 
 
 
 
 700? 
 
 700? 
 
 12.4U):' 
 
 
 
 Sisters of St. Joseph 
 
 
 
 
 1,364? 
 
 1,364? 
 
 89.500? 
 
 
 
 " " Notre Darne 
 
 
 
 
 1,775? 
 
 1,775? 
 
 69.50(1? 
 
 \ 
 
 
 " " Loretto 
 
 
 
 
 494 
 
 4!)4 
 
 8,850? 
 
 
 
 " " Holy Names of Jesus and Mary 21 
 
 
 
 
 100? 
 
 100? 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 " " St. Ann" 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 ]4 
 
 873 
 
 
 
 Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ 
 
 
 
 
 44? 
 
 44? 
 
 560? 
 
 
 
 Sisters of the Good Shepherd" 
 
 
 
 
 600? 
 
 600? 
 
 8,400? 
 
 
 
 3d Order of St. Teresa 
 
 
 
 
 250? 
 
 250? 
 
 
 
 
 Little Sisters of the Poor 57 
 
 
 
 
 166? 
 
 166? 
 
 
 
 
 Servants ot the Immaculate Heart of Mary 
 Sisters of the Humility of Mary 
 
 
 
 
 815? 
 100? 
 
 815? 
 100? 
 
 10,700? 
 1,500? 
 
 
 
 " " St. Mary 
 
 
 
 
 60? 
 
 60? 
 
 650? 
 
 
 
 Daughters of the Cro9 
 
 
 
 
 80? 
 
 80? 
 
 800? 
 
 
 
 Sisters of the Holy Child Jesna 
 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 68 
 
 492 
 
 
 
 ** " " Incarnate Word 
 
 
 
 
 118? 
 
 118? 
 
 834? 
 
 
 
 Oblate Sisters of Providence 
 
 
 
 
 15? 
 
 15? 
 
 50? 
 
 
 
 bisters of the Holy Family 
 
 
 
 
 25? 
 
 25? 
 
 170 
 
 
 
 * " Divine Providence" 
 
 
 
 
 80? 
 
 80? 
 
 1,000? 
 
 
 
 " " Providence 3 * 
 
 
 
 
 175? 
 
 175? 
 
 6,000? 
 
 
 
 " " St. Felix 3 " 
 
 
 
 
 4? 
 
 4? 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 " " St. Agnes 
 
 
 
 
 175? 
 
 175? 
 
 2,700? 
 
 
 
 " " the Perpetual Adoration" 
 
 
 
 
 22? 
 
 22? 
 
 850? 
 
 
 
 " " " Immaculate Conception 38 
 
 
 
 
 15? 
 
 15? 
 
 800? 
 
 
 
 " " " Presentation 33 
 
 
 
 
 98? 
 
 98? 
 
 2,6W? 
 
 
 
 Jesuits, or "Society of Jesus" 3 * 
 
 
 445 
 
 823? 
 
 
 1,268? 
 
 6,750? 
 
 8 
 
 135 
 
 Oblates of St. Charles 3 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 giou* orders or congregations J 
 
 :! 
 
 13S9-: 
 
 3741? 
 
 KU37? 
 
 21,280? 
 
 403.586? 
 
 il 
 
 >13?
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDEES AITD CONGREGATIONS, TJ. S. 769 
 
 Few of the above numbers are to be regarded as strictly accurate ; but the 
 imperfect returns forbid any nearer approach to accuracy at present. The 
 Catholic "World for June, 1874, estimated that the sisters [= female religious] 
 were then educating nearly 300,000 girls in the "thousands of free schools, 
 
 NOTES ON THE TABLE, p. 7G8. 
 
 The Benedictines have 4 abbeys and 4 mitred abbots (St. Vincent's, at Beatty's Station, 
 Pa., Rt. Rev. B. Wimmer, abbot ; St. Louis on the Lake, at St. Joseph, Stearns Co., Minn., 
 Rt. Rev. Alexius Edelbrock, abbot; St. Meinrad's [of Swiss origin], in Spencer Co., Ind., 
 Rt. Rev. P. Martin Marty, abbot; St. Benedict's, at Atchison, Kan., Rt. Rev. Innocent 
 Wolfe, abbot elect), 9 priories, a new convent in Gaston Co., N. C., and a mission near 
 Savannah, Ga. ; 20 or more convents of women (1 of colored women, at Savannah), 9 hav- 
 ing prioresses. The vicars apostolic of Kansas and N. Minnesota are Benedictines. 
 
 8 The Trappisls are a congregation of the Cistercian order, their vicar general residing 
 at La Trappe in France and being subject to the general of the Cistercians at Rome. The 
 Cistercians were founded at Citeaux (Latin Cistercium) in France in 1008 by St. Robert, 
 who followed the rule of St. Benedict, to which other constitutions were afterwards added. 
 The Tiappists in the U. S. have 2 abbeys and 2 mitred abbots (New Melleray abbey, near 
 Dubuque, Iowa, lit Rev. Ephrem McDonald, abbot ; at Gethsemane, Ky , Rt. Rev. M. Ben- 
 edict, abbot). The former has now, as the prior courteously informed the author, CO mem- 
 bers (including 10 priests) on a farm of 2000 acres ; the latter has apparently 10 priests and 
 perhaps 30 other members. 
 
 3 20 Franciscan priests (occupying 12 churches), 4 lay-brothers, and 10 students, are now 
 reported as Conventuals. These have the 2 convents at Syracuse and Utica noted on p. 
 298 ; and are at Hoboken and Trenton, N. J., Louisville, Ky.. and St. Louis, Mo. At West 
 Paterson, N. J., is a convent of Franciscan Recollects, with 6 priests and 5 brothers. 
 Franciscan sisters (3d order, &c ) have 25 hospitals under their care. 
 
 4 Abp. Alemany of San Francisco is a Dominican. 
 
 8 All the Carmelite priests in the U. S. are reported as "calced" (see p. 302). 
 8 Bp. Galberry of Hartford was provincial of the Augustiuian monks in the U. S. in 1875 
 (see p. 303). 
 
 7 The Servites have a new church at Chicago, 111., and nuns now at Menasha, Wis. 
 
 8 The Alexian Brothers number 19 brothers, 8 novices, 4 postulants, at their hospital in 
 Chicago ; and 9 brothers, 5 novices, 2 postulants (as they inform the author) at the hospital 
 in St. Louis. 
 
 8 These have now schools and a chapel at Ogdensburg, N. Y. They number 104 religious 
 and 33 novices In Canada and U. 8. 
 
 10 Bps. Ryan of Buffalo and Amat of Monterey are Lazarists. 
 
 11 These Gray Nuns, whose mother-house is at Montreal, are at Salem and Lawrence, 
 Mass.; Toledo, O.; and Fort Totten, Dacota Ter. They number 28 houses in Canada and 
 U. S. and 290 persons. See p. 316. 
 
 14 These Gray Nuns, whose mother-house is at Ottawa, Canada, number 250, with 4 
 establishments in the U. S. (Buffalo, Medina, Ogdensburg, and Plattsburg, N. Y.). See 
 pp. 317, 779. 
 
 13 Founded at Paderborn, in Westphalia, Germany, by Paulina von MalHnkrodt, their 
 superior general ; came recently to U. S. 
 
 4 Founded in Belgium in 1809 by Canon P. Trieste, number 44(31 professed) in Montreal, 
 where they direct the Reform School of the province of Quebec. They took charge of the 
 "House of the Angel Guardian," an asylum for boys in Boston, Mass., in Feb., 1874, aa 
 they informed the author. 
 
 16 Bp. Gross of Savannah is a Redemptorist 
 
 Under these are included 5 " Brothers of Our Lady " and a school of 520 pupils at Alle. 
 gheny, Pa. 
 
 49
 
 770 APPENDIX. 
 
 parish, orphan, and industrial," and 50,000 to 60,000 more in "nearly 400 
 academies and 240 select schools;" and the same for Oct., 1874, made the 
 whole number of these girls 380,000. These statements are probably exag- 
 gerated; the sisters have many boys in their schools; but the 3104 R. C. 
 
 1T These arc the "Brothers of the Christian Instruction of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and 
 Mary" (see pp. 321-22, 323). 
 
 18 Newly established at Water! owr. N. Y. 
 
 19 New in this country ; apparently in Marion Co., T.y. (where their St. Mary's college is) 
 and in Polish churches in Chicago and Texas ; but information was refused to the author. 
 
 80 About 72 " Marianitc Sisters of the Cross " in N. Y. and La., having their mother-house 
 at Le Mans, France, arc here included. See pp. 322-3. 
 
 21 "The Congregation of the Holy Ghost and of the Immaculate Heart of Mary" was 
 formed in 1813 by the union of the Cong'n of the Holy Ghost (formed in 1703) and that of 
 the Sacred Heart of Mary (formed in 1S41). It is a missionary organization, having estab- 
 lishments in France (its superior general is in Paris), Ireland, on the coasts of Africa, in 
 the E. and W. Indies, French Guiana, U. S., &c. Introduced into the U. S. about 1872, it 
 is established at Sharpsburg and Perrysville, Pa., with a scholasticate or training-school 
 for missions at the latter place (condensed from information furnished the author by the 
 superior). 
 
 M "Ladies of the Sacred Heart of Mary " (Vt. and O.), " Sisters of the Sacred Heart of 
 Mary" (X. Y.), "Ladies of the Sacred Heart of Jesus" (La.), and " Sisters of the Sacred 
 Agonizing Heart of Jesus" (Texas), are all included here with "Ladies of the Sacred 
 Heart," whose statistics are very incomplete. 
 
 In the U. S. are 3 different congregations of Notre Dame, having their respective 
 mother-houses at Montreal, Cincinnati, and Milwaukee (see pp. 326 7). The Montreal con- 
 gregation (founded there in 1653) reports 589 professed sisters, 99 novices and postulants, 
 5584 pupils in Montreal, and 10483 pupils and CO missions outside of Montreal in the Do- 
 minion of Canada and the U. S. The Cincinnati congregation (from Namur, Belgium) re- 
 ports no numbers, but has members in Mass., O., Cal., &c., and probably the college for 
 young ladies at Marysville, Cal. The Milwaukee congregation, "School Sisters of Notre 
 Dame" (founded in France in 1597), reports 90 religious, 109 novices, and 70 postulants, 
 with 100 mission-houses and 880 sisters in U. S. and Canada teaching 36000 pupils. 
 
 24 Report 324 professed sisters, 33 novices, 28 postulants, and 4776 pupils, in Canada and 
 U. S. (see p. 328). 
 
 25 Report 251 sisters, 42 novices, and 3642 pupils in Canada and U. S. (see p. 328). 
 Have 19 establishments in 17 different cities of the U. S. See pp. 328-9. 
 
 M Have probably 1600 pour and aged in their 16 asylums in 15 different cities. 
 as in Ohio and in Texas. See p. 330. 
 
 20 In Michigan and especially Indiana. See p. 831. 
 
 8 Recently established at Polonia, Wis., among the Poles. 
 
 i " The Sisters of the Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament " are recently es- 
 tablished in La. and Mo. 
 
 * a Recently established among the Poles in Texas. 
 
 ss The "Presentation convents' 1 in California (see p. 332) now have 72 inmates, and re- 
 port 1500 to 1600 pupils; tho N. Y. "Presentation convent," of Irish origin, founded in 
 1874, now numbering 17 inmates, and the 4 " Sisters of the Presentation " recently estab- 
 lished at Glenn's Falls, N. Y., have together994 pupils ; and the " Sisters of the Presenta- 
 tion of the B. V. M. ," also recently established near Dubuque, Iowa, have 80 pupils. These 
 are probably 3 distinct communities or religious congregations. 
 
 The Society seems now to have 3 provinces in the U. S. (Maryland, with establishments 
 In Mass., Pa., Md., D. C., and Va.; Missouri, embracing Mo., 111.. WH, and S. W. Ohio; 
 Texas) ; and 6 Missions (N. Y. and Canada ; German mission with houses in Western N. Y. 
 and Ohio ; New Orleans, in Ala. and La. ; New Mexico and Colorado ; California and Indians
 
 RELIGIOUS ORDERS AND CONGREGATION'S, U. S. 771 
 
 schools and literary institutions in the TJ. 8. (see p. 765) have in them many 
 male religious and secular teachers, and the whole number of pupils in them 
 all may be 500,000 or even more. It is certain that the number of members 
 of most of the R. C. religious orders and congregations in the U. S., the num- 
 ber of their schools, and the aggregate number of their scholars, have all in- 
 creased some of them rapidly and greatly within the past five years ; while 
 their zeal, activity, and influence have not been perceptibly abated. 
 
 3. Conflict in regard to Schools. " The American System of 
 Public Instruction " is well described in the following document, drawn up 
 in 1872 by Prof. Daniel C. Oilman of Yale College (now President of the 
 Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.), at the request of the Japanese 
 embassy, and indorsed by the presidents of 18 colleges (Yale, Harvard, &c.), 
 several State superintendents of public instruction, &c. "I. Education Uni- 
 versal. The American people maintain in every State a system of education 
 which begins with the infant or primary school and goes on to the grammar 
 and high schools. These are called "Public Schools," and are supported 
 chiefly by voluntary taxation, but partly by the income of funds derived from 
 the sale of government lands, or from the gifts of individuals. II. Public 
 
 of Rocky Mts.). The statistics forwarded to the author by the courtesy of the provincial 
 of Maryland April 6, 1877, give the following numbers : "N. Y. and Can., 73 priests, 116 
 scholastics, 119 brothers; Mo., 109 priests, 109 sch., 98 br.; Md., 100 priests, 96 ech., 94 
 br.; Cal., Oregon, and Montana, 65 priests, 21 sch., 49 br.; New Mex. and Col., 24 priests, 
 sch., 12 br.; La. and Ala., 44 priests, 51 sch., 36 br.; Texas, 8 priests, 2 sch., 2 br." Sub- 
 stituting for "N. Y. and Canada" these statistics of the N. Y. mission forwarded the au- 
 thor Mar. 24, 1877 from its superior general (" la this portion of the U. S. there are at 
 present 60 priests, 88 scholastics, and 58 coadjutors or lay-brothers, in all, 156 members of 
 the Society of Jesus"), adding for the German mission (apparently omitted by copyist's 
 mistake) 35 priests, 1 sch., and 6 ? (= 2 + " several ") brothers reported in Buffalo and 
 Cleveland dioceses in Sadliers' Directory for 1877, we obtain 445 priests, 318 sch., 355? bro- 
 thers ; and if to these 1118 we add 150 for the novices (mostly nnreported), we have a total of 
 probably 1208. There appear to be 4 novitiates, adding 1 in Ulster Co., N. Y., and 1 (ap- 
 parently) in New Mexico, to the 2 on p. 358. " Woodstock College " (see p. 358) is really a 
 theological seminary ; but St. Mary's college in Potawatamie Co., Kansas, is new. The 
 students in the colleges number, as the provincial informa the author, "about 3200;" to 
 these we may add 2000 boys in their parochial school at Chicago, 250 pupils in St. Gall's 
 school at Milwaukee, and perhaps 300 for several schools not reporting numbers. Sadliers' 
 Catholic Directory for 1877 reports 29 Jesuit priests in Canada. Applctons' American 
 Cyclopedia reported 1062 Jesuits in N. Y. and Canada in 1874; the similar returns now 
 given amount to about 1270, showing an increase of about 208 in 2 or 3 years, without 
 taking account of novices. The American Cyclopedia erave the number of Jesuits in the 
 world in 1873 aa 9266 ; the Catholic World for Oct, 1872, gave their number in the world 
 as 8809. 
 
 B These, founded at Milan 1570, were established in England by Rev. (now Cardinal) n. 
 E. Manning (see p. 719). According to the American Cyclopedia, they have in London 
 (1874?) 5 houses and 4 city missions ; and at St. Charles College, Bayswater, attached to the 
 London Oblates, but distinct in idea and institution, is " St. Joseph's Society of the Sacred 
 Heart for Foreign Missions'" with a central house at Mix Hill near London, charged by 
 Pius IX with the spiritual care of the American freedmen, and having 3 missions to the 
 blacks in U. S. (at Baltimore, Charleston, and Louisville), Bp. Vaughan of Salford, Eng., 
 being their superior general.
 
 772 APPE1STDIX. 
 
 Schools have been tried for 250 years. Their estimate of the value of education 
 is based upon an experience of nearly two centuries and a half, from the 
 earliest settlement of New England, when public schools, high schools, and 
 colleges were established in a region which was then almost a wilderness. 
 The general principles then recognized are still approved in the older portions 
 of the country, and are adopted in every new State and Territory which enters 
 the Union. III. The well known advantages of Education. It is universally 
 conceded that a good system of education fosters virtue, truth, submission to 
 authority, enterprise and thrift, and thereby promotes national prosperity and 
 power ; on the other hand, that ignorance tends to laziness, poverty, vice, 
 crime, riot, and consequently to national weakness. . IV. State action indis- 
 pensable. Universal education can not be secured without aid from the pub- 
 lic authorities ; or in other words the State, for its own protection and prog- 
 ress, should see that public schools are established in which at least the rudi- 
 ments of an education may be acquired by every boy and girl. V. The Schools 
 are free, are open to all, and give moral not sectarian 1 lessons. The schools 
 thus carried on by the public, for the public, are (a) free from charges of tui- 
 tion ; (5) they are open to children from all classes in society ; (c) no attempt 
 is authorized to teach in them the peculiar doctrines of any religious body, 
 though the Bible is generally read in the schools, and (<f) the universal virtues, 
 truth, obedience, industry, reverence, patriotism and unselfishness, are con- 
 stantly inculcated. VI. Private Schools allowed and protected by law. While 
 Public Schools are established everywhere, the government allows the largest 
 liberty to Private Schools. Individuals, societies, and churches are free to 
 open schools and receive freely any who will come to them, and in the exercise 
 of this right they are assured of the most sacred protection of the laws. VII. 
 Special Schools for special cases. Special schools for special cases are often 
 provided, particularly in the large towns ; for example, Evening Schools for 
 those who are at work by day ; Truant Schools for unruly and irregular chil- 
 dren ; Normal Schools for training the local teachers ; High Schools for ad- 
 vanced instructions ; Drawing Schools for mechanics, and Industrial Schools 
 for teaching the elements of useful trades. VIII. Local responsibility under 
 State supervision. In school matters, as in other public business, the respon- 
 sibilities are distributed and are brought as much as possible to the people. 
 The federal government being a Union of many States, leaves to them the 
 control of public instruction. The several States mark out, each for itself, 
 the general principles to be followed, and exercise a general supervision over 
 the workings of the system ; subordinate districts or towns determine and 
 carry out the details of the system. IX. Universities and Colleges essential. 
 Institutions of the highest class, such as Universities, Colleges, Schools of 
 
 1 The German system gives religious instructions by teachers of the different religious 
 denominations at appointed hours, parents being allowed to determine under which their 
 children shall be placed, or to secure their exemption from such Instruction (see p. 782). 
 The Irish plan presents a system of religious instruction which embraces only the com- 
 mon principles, and omits the distinctive features of Protestantism and Roman Catholi- 
 cism (eee p. 787, &c.).
 
 COIfPLICT IX REGARD TO SCHOOLS, IT. S. 773 
 
 Science, &c., are in a few of the States maintained at the public expense ; in 
 most they are supported by endowments under the direction of private cor- 
 porations, which are exempted from taxation. Consequently, where tuition 
 is charged the rate is always low. They are regarded as essential to the wel- 
 fare of the land, and are everywhere protected and encouraged by favorable 
 laws and charters." 
 
 The R. C. view is thus given in the Catholic World for January, 1872 : 
 "... Let us now sum up in brief our objections to the further continuance 
 of the present public-school system : I. All education should be based and 
 conducted on true religious principles. II. The State has no right to teach 
 religion in its schools. III. State or public schools without religion are god- 
 less. IV. As such, they are incapable of forming the character of our chil- 
 dren, or teaching them morality according to the Christian principle. V. In 
 endeavoring to avoid what is called sectarianism, they defeat the ends of even 
 mere secular education. Xow, it may be asked, what remedy do we propose 
 for the evils which our public-school system has already produced ? What 
 substitute are we prepared to offsr that will both satisfy the demands of re- 
 ligion and the requirements of the State ? We answer, by the establishment 
 of denominational schools for Catholics, wherever practicable, under the 
 supervision of the proper ecclesiastical authorities, and likewise for such of 
 the sects as do not approve of mixed schools. How are these schools to be 
 sustained ? In either of two ways. If the State will insist on levying a gen- 
 eral school tax, let it be divided pro rata, according to the number of pupils 
 taught in each school : let the denominational schools have their proper pro- 
 portion, and the mixed or non-religious schools theirs. The amount thus ap- 
 portioned to the Catholic schools might be deposited with a board or other 
 executive body, to be composed in whole or in part of clerics and laymen, and, 
 if necessary, let the State appoint proper officials to see that accurate returns 
 of attendance are made. The other way, which to our mind is much prefer- 
 able, would be to abolish altogether the school tax, and throw upon the parents 
 of all denominations or of no denomination the responsibility of educating 
 their own children." 
 
 The same magazine for April, 1873, speaks thus : "... The Catholic view 
 was so admirably expressed by the late Bishop Fitzpatrick, of Boston, in his 
 letter on the Eliot School difficulty (see p. 600), that we must give it to our 
 readers : ' I. Catholics can not, under any circumstances, acknowledge, re- 
 ceive, and use, as a complete collection and faithful version of the inspired 
 books which compose the written Word of God, the English Protestant trans- 
 lation of the Bible. Still less can they so acknowledge, accept, or use it, when 
 its enforcement as such is coupled expressly with the rejection of that version 
 which their own Church approves and adopts as being correct and authentic ; 
 and yet this is required of them by law. The law, as administered, holds 
 forth the Protestant version to the Catholic child, and says, ' Receive this as 
 the Bible.' The Catholic child answers, 'I can not so receive it.' The law 
 as administered, says you must, or else you must be scourged and finally ban-
 
 774 APPENDIX. 
 
 ished from the school. II. The acceptance and recital of the Decalogue, un- 
 der the form and words in which Protestants clothe it, is offensive to the con- 
 science and belief of Catholics, inasmuch as that form and those words are 
 viewed by them, and have not unfrequently been used by their adversaries, 
 as a means of attack upon certain tenets and practices which, under the teach- 
 ings of the Church, they hold as true and sacred. III. The chanting of the 
 Lord's Prayer, of psalms, of hymns addressed to God, performed by many 
 persons in unison, being neither a scholastic exercise nor a recreation, can only 
 be regarded as an act of public worship indeed, it is professedly intended as 
 such in the regulations which govern our public schools. It would seem that 
 the principles which guide Protestants and Catholics, in relation to commu- 
 nion in public worship, are widely different. Protestants, however diverse 
 may be their religious opinions Trinitarians, who assert that Jesus Christ is 
 true God, and Unitarians, who deny that he is true God find no difficulty to 
 offer in brotherhood a blended and apparently harmonious worship, and in so 
 doing they give and receive mutual satisfaction, mutual edification. The 
 Catholic cannot act in this manner. He can not present himself before the 
 Divine presence in what would be for him a merely simulated union of prayer 
 and adoration. His church expressly forbids him to do so. She considers 
 indifference in matters of religion, indifference as to the distinction of positive 
 doctrines in faith, as a great evil which promiscuous worship would tend to 
 spread more widely and increase. Hence the prohibition of such worship ; 
 and the Catholic can not join in it without doing violence to his sense of re- 
 ligious duty.' " 
 
 The Syllabus of Errors condemned by Pope. Pius IX specifies the following 
 errors respecting public schools and education : 
 
 "45. The whole direction of public schools, in which the youth of any 
 Christian State are instructed, episcopal seminaries only being to some extent 
 excepted, may and should be assigned to the civil authority, and indeed so 
 assigned that no other authority whatsoever may have any recognized right 
 of interfering in the discipline of the schools, in the direction of the studies, 
 in the conferring of the degrees, in the choice or approval of the teachers." 
 
 " 47. The best system of civil society demands that popular schools, which 
 are open to all children of every class of society, and public institutes gener- 
 ally, which are designed for instruction in letters and the more difficult studies 
 and for conducting the education of youth, be freed from all authority, direc- 
 tion, and interference of the Church, and be subjected to the full sway of the 
 civil and political authority in accordance with the sentiments of the rulers 
 and in conformity with the prevalent opinions of the age." 
 
 "48. That system of instructing youth, which is separated from the Cath- 
 olic faith and from the power of the Church and which has regard only, or at 
 least primarily, to the knowledge of merely natural things and the ends of 
 social life on earth, may be approved by Catholic men." 
 
 An address from the Roman Congregation of the Propaganda (see pp. 199, 
 888), translated and published in the St. Louis Globe-Democrat of March 29,
 
 CONFLICT IX REGARD TO SCHOOLS, U. 8. 775 
 
 1877, and in the N. Y. Times of April 9, 1877, fixes authoritatively the R. C. 
 law on the public schools of the U. S. and the relation of the li. C. church to 
 them. It declares the public school system "full of danger and very much 
 opposed to Catholic interests," because [1] "it excludes all religious teach- 
 ing;" [2] " teachers are employed indiscriminately from every sect, and . . . 
 [are] free ... to infuse errors and the seed of vice into the tender minds ;" 
 [3] "in these schools, or at least in many of them, the youth of both sexes are 
 gathered in the same class-room for lessons, and are compelled to sit upon the 
 same bench, the boys next to the girls." It thus quotes and applies the words 
 of the Pope to the abp. of Freyburg, July 14, 18G4 : 
 
 " 'Certainly if this most pernicious design of driving the authority of the 
 Church from the schools should be formed or should be in process of execu- 
 tion in any places or countries whatsoever, and the young should be unhappily 
 exposed to injury of their faith, the Church not only ought, with persevering 
 zeal, to use every endeavor, sparing no pains, so that the young should have 
 the necessary Christian education and instruction, but also would be forced to 
 admonish all the faithful that schools of this kind, opposed to the Church, can 
 not in conscience be frequented.' 
 
 " These words being founded on natural and divine law, lay down a gen- 
 eral principle, have a general force, and pertain to all those regions where this 
 most pernicious system of educating youth has unhappily been introduced. 
 
 " It behooveth the Bishops then, by every power and work to preserve the 
 flock committed to their care from every danger from the public schools. But 
 all agree that nothing is so necessary for this as that Catholics should have in 
 every place their own schools, which should not be inferior to the public 
 schools. Provision should be made with all care for building Catholic schools, 
 where they are wanting, or for enlarging and more perfectly providing and 
 furnishing them, so that they may equal the public schools in instruction and 
 management. And for carrying out so holy and so necessary a purpose, the 
 members of religious congregations, either men or women, may, if it seems 
 fit to the Bishops, be employed with benefit, and that the expenses necessary 
 for so great a work may be supplied by the faithful, it is very necessary when 
 opportunity offers, both in sermons and in private conversation, to remind 
 them that they will be grievously derelict in their duty if they do not provide 
 Catholic schools by every effort and outlay. 
 
 "Especially those Catholics who excel in wealth and influence among the 
 people, and who are members of legislative bodies, are to be admonished of 
 this. And in truth, in these countries no civil law hinders Catholics from in- 
 structing, when it shall seem proper to them, their children into all knowledge 
 and piety in their own schools. Catholics, therefore, have it in their power 
 easily to avert the detriment which the system of public schools threatens to 
 the Catholic religion. 
 
 " But let all be persuaded that it is of the utmost importance, not only to 
 individual citizens and families, but to the flourishing American nation itself, 
 (which has given so great hopes of itself to the Church,) that religion and 
 piety should not be expelled from your schools.
 
 776 APPEITDIX. 
 
 " However, the Sacred Congregation is not ignorant that sometimes circum- 
 stances are such that Catholic parents may in conscience send their children 
 to the public schools. But they can not do so unless they have a sufficient 
 reason for it. Whether such reason is sufficient in any particular case or not 
 is to be left to the conscience and judgment of the Bishop ; and from what 
 has been said, that sufficient reason will commonly exist when there is no 
 Catholic school at hand, or when that which offers is not sufficiently suited 
 for educating the young properly and suitably to their condition. But that 
 these public schools may be frequented without sin, it is necessary that the 
 danger of perversion (which is always more or less connected with their sys- 
 tem) should be changed from proximate to remote. Therefore, it is first to 
 be ascertained whether in the schools, concerning attendance at which there 
 is question, the danger of perversion is such that it clearly can not be made re- 
 mote, as, whether sometimes things are done or taught there contrary to Cath- 
 olic doctrine and good morals, and which can not be heard or done without 
 detriment to the soul. For such danger, as is self-evident, is to be avoided, 
 no matter at what cost even that of life. 
 
 "Moreover, that the young may without sin be permitted to attend the 
 public schools they should duly and diligently receive, at least, the necessary 
 Christian education and instruction outside the time of school. 
 
 "Wherefore, let Pastors and missionaries, mindful of what the Council of 
 Baltimore most providently determined about this matter [see pp. 588-9], 
 diligently attend to catechism classes, and especially exert themselves in ex- 
 plaining those truths of faith and morals which are more attacked by heretics 
 and unbelievers. Let them endeavor with great care, one while by the fre- 
 quent use of the sacraments, one while by devotion to the Blessed Virgin, to 
 strengthen the young exposed to so many dangers, and let them stimulate them 
 over and over to hold firmly to their religion. But the parents themselves, 
 and those who hold their place, should watch with solicitude over their chil- 
 dren, and either themselves, or if they be not able, others for them, should 
 interrogate the children concerning the lessons heard ; they should examine 
 their books, and if they perceive anything hurtful therein they should supply 
 antidotes ; and they should wholly keep them away from and prohibit them 
 the intercourse and association with those fellow-pupils from whom danger to 
 faith and morals might threaten, or whose morals might be corrupt.' 
 
 " But whatsoever parents neglect to give this necessary Christian instruction 
 and education, or allow them to frequent schools in which the ruin of their 
 souls can not be avoided ; or, in fine, although there be a suitable Catholic 
 school, properly provided and arranged, in the same place, or although they 
 may be able to educate their children in a Catholic manner in another place, 
 nevertheless send them to the public schools without a sufficient reason, and 
 without taking the precautions by which the danger of perversion Avill be 
 changed from proximate to remote such parents, if they be contumacious, 
 can not be absolved in the sacrament of penance, as is manifest from the Cath- 
 olic doctrine of morals."
 
 COXFLICT IX EEGAED TO SCHOOLS, TJ. S. 777 
 
 The views and schemes of the Roman Catholic church in respect to popular 
 education involve these 3 leading principles : 
 
 I. The R. G. church claims exclusive control of the education of all R. C. 
 cJdldren. All children, whose parents, one or both, are or have been Roman 
 Catholics, or who have themselves been baptized by a R. C. priest or lay-per- 
 son, 1 are regarded by the authorities of that church as R. C. children. The 
 R. C. church would, if possible, keep its children separate from all others by 
 its parochial schools ; its authorities would rather destroy the public-school 
 system 2 than have R. C. children attend a school with religious exercises in 
 which Protestants can unite or a school without any religious exercises or in- 
 struction ; they have less dread of perpetuating the divisions, alienations, ani- 
 mosities, and bitter strifes of the past and of the present, than they have of 
 the decrease of their priestly power and of the prevalence of what they call 
 heresy. The American public-school system seeks the welfare of the whole 
 people ; it would educate together the rich and the poor, the black and the 
 white, Protestants and Roman Catholics and Jews, New Englanders and Ger- 
 mans, Northerners and Southerners, Irish and French, English and Scotch, 
 Scandinavians and Chinese, all of every condition and race and religion; it 
 would acquaint them with one another, remove their prejudices, and fit them 
 for intelligent and harmonious participation in the privileges and duties of 
 American citizens ; it would prepare the way for Christian freedom and Chris- 
 tian fellowship. Many R. C. laymen approve and even firmly support our 
 unsectarian free-school system ; but though they might, if united and resolute, 
 maintain their children's right to attend the public schools, and make it im- 
 possible to carry out the church-laws on this subject, they have no voice in 
 the government of the R. C. church, and n direct influence in controlling its 
 course. The position of the R. C. church as an organized body is determined 
 by its laws and its hierarchy. Its authorities and its organs repudiate and op- 
 pose all education for Roman Catholic children which is not "given by or 
 under the direction and control of the Catholic church." (See Chap. XXTV, 
 pp. 588-93, &c.) 
 
 II. The R. C. church authorities, and their leaders in general, demand for 
 their own sectarian schools a share of the public money. R. C. schools must be 
 distinctively and exclusively sectarian. Certainly, R. C. worship, and no other, 
 
 I The claim to all baptized persons (heretics, &c.) seems to be partially held in abeyance 
 (see pp. 648, 720). 
 
 II Abp. Purcell, in the Catholic Telegraph of Aug. 10, 1876, published a "Declaration to 
 the People of the United States," which declared, "The Catholic bishops and clergy have 
 no intention whatever to interfere with your public-school system; 1 ' pleaded for "the 
 right [which no one denies them] of having schools of our own, from which religion shall 
 not be excluded;" affirmed their disposition to waive their just claim " to exemption from 
 taxation for the support of other schools, or to a share of the public-school fund in propor- 
 tion to the number of pupils in their schools;" and asserted, "All we ask is to be let 
 alone in following the dictates of our own conscience." Abp. Purcell's "Declaration" 
 may be regarded as a temporary modification of other R. C. claims, or an exercise of his 
 private judgment; but it defends their right to R. C. schools for R. C. children, and must 
 be subordinated in other respects to higher authority (see pp. 588, 77-M5, &c.).
 
 778 APPENDIX. 
 
 is there maintained ; no infraction of a law or regulation of the R. C. church 
 would there be permitted ; every such school must be subject to the visitation 
 and influence of the R. C. priest, and must have its religious exercises and its 
 recitation of the catechism, either in the proper school-hours or outside of these ; 
 it must tend and aim to keep Roman Catholics in their own church and, so 
 far as may be, to bring heretics to submit to that church, or it must sooner or 
 later fall under ecclesiastical condemnation. But no appropriation of public 
 money to such an institution can be made, and no aid can be granted to it by 
 the State, without directly or indirectly involving an official support of the 
 R. C. church, and consequently a union of Church and State. But public 
 money lias been sought and obtained for these sectarian schools (see pp. 591-5, 
 601-5). Thus, it was reported in 1872 that at Loretto, Cambria Co., Pa., 
 originally settled by Roman Catholics, the R. C. catechism was then regular- 
 ly taught in the public school, this school thus continuing to be (as before) a 
 R. C. school, and Protestants being told that if they did not like it they might 
 keep their children at home ; though the Roman Catholics at Ebensburg in 
 the same county, where the English Bible was read in the public school, 
 fiercely opposed this reading as sectarian teaching. At East St. Louis, 111. , the 
 School Board bought for $9000 an old R. C. building, which, when new, cost 
 about $4000 ; liired for $1200 a year the basement of the new R. C. church ; 
 established public schools in each place, that in the basement of the church 
 being composed mostly of R. C. children, taught by R. C. teachers, led daily 
 in procession to R. C. worship, supported by the payment of public money 
 for both rent and teachers, and apparently reported in Sadliers' Directory for 
 1876 and 1877 (and previously) as one of their two parochial schools in that 
 place. The Protestants at St. Cloud, Minn., about the beginning of 1876, 
 complained to the State superintendent of schools that the superintendent of 
 public schools at St. Cloud, a Roman Catholic, had introduced a R. C. read- 
 ing book (containing prayers to the virgin Mary, &c.) into the schools under 
 his charge, though the State constitution expressly forbids sectarian teaching 
 in public schools, and allowed the Protestant children to be sent home at 
 an earlier hour two days in the week, while the R. C. priest instructed the 
 R. C. children in the catechism. Bp. Persico, R. C. bp. of Savannah 1870-2, 
 obtained for R. C. schools in that city a share of the public money from the 
 Board of Education. In the early part of 1875 the Roman Catholics in New 
 York city and in Buffalo, N. Y., and, at the end of 1875, in Jersey City, N. 
 J., formally proposed to the public-school authorities that the latter should 
 take under their charge the R. C. parochial schools, appoint for them R. C. 
 teachers, &c. Bp. Gilmour had done likewise in Cleveland, O. , as early as 
 1873. The same proposal has been made elsewhere. The plan is thus set 
 forth by Bp. McQuaid of Rochester, N. Y., a leader in this work: "Our 
 object is to gather in the children, in large cities, whose parents are, many of 
 them, too ignorant, or lack time to give them proper instruction. The State 
 can not reach all these children, but we can, and we do not ask the State to 
 pay for the religious influences we throw around these children, but simply for
 
 COKTLICT r* REGARD TO SCHOOLS, T7. S. 779 
 
 the secular teaching they receive. We erect the buildings, provide the teachers, 
 who shall, however, be subject to the examinations required by the State, and 
 then, for a nominal rental, we allow the State full control of these schools dur- 
 ing the ordinary school hours, in which time only secular instruction shall be 
 given. Before and after such hours we propose to give the pupils such relig- 
 ious teaching as we deem essential in the education of youth. The plan is 
 already in practical operation in Corning, Elmira, and Lima, 1 and by the co- 
 operation of republicans, and still more markedly in the schools of the Chil- 
 dren's Aid Society in New York " (see pp. 601-5, 607-9). Assuredly R. C. 
 church-authorities and leaders have demanded and obtained for R. C. schools 
 a share of the public money, and will demand and obtain this share whenever 
 it is possible and expedient. 
 
 III. The B. C. church uses 'political and otlier influences for the accom- 
 plisJiment of its educational schemes. It is notorious that R. C. bishops and 
 priests have often instructed their flocks how to vote at elections, favored or 
 opposed men and measures in view of the interests of the R. C. church in the 
 case (see pp. 585-6, 595-6, 601, 752, 762, 764, &c.), and "advised" or "aided" 
 politicians in respect to educational and other public matters. Thus it was 
 currently reported that R. C. influences defeated the proposed constitution of 
 Ohio in Aug., 1874, on account of its provisions for public schools; dictated 
 the "Geghan law" of 1875 (see p. 788) ; obtained in N. T. the "Gray Nuns 
 law" of May 15, 1875 ; 2 secured the indefinite postponement, in the Ct. house 
 of representatives July 22, 1875 (by a vote of 111 democrats against 94 repub- 
 licans and 4 democrats), of a proposed amendment to the constitution pro- 
 hibiting aid from the public funds to sectarian schools ; effected the displace- 
 ment, in great measure, of Protestant teachers by Roman Catholics 3 in the 
 public schools of Detroit and Chicago, &c. The New Jersey constitutional 
 
 1 Also at Ponghkeepsie and Albion, all in N. Y. state. The claim is made (as in a re- 
 port Sept. 14, 1873, to the N. Y. City Board of Education^ that such schools are not " re- 
 ligions or denominational within the meaning of the statute," because the instruction in 
 the regular school-hours, gay 9 A. M. to 3 P. M., is non-sectarian ; but they certainly are 
 managed in the interest and for the benefit of the R. C. church, controlled by the authori- 
 ties of this church, and taught its doctrines ; and they would be denounced and broken 
 np by those authorities, if they were not substantially doing the work of R. C. parochial 
 schools, while they have the special and weighty recommendation of being supported by 
 the public. 
 
 a This law authorized " the Sisterhood of Gray Nuns in the State of N. Y." " to grant 
 diplomas and honorary testimonials, in such form and under such regulations as its Board 
 of Trustees may determine, to any person who shall have or may hereafter be graduated at 
 any Seminary of learning of said corporation located within this State ; and any such 
 graduate to whom a diploma may be awarded, may file such diploma, or a duplicate there- 
 of, in the Department of Public Instruction, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 may thereupon, in his discretion, issue a certificate to the effect that such graduate is a 
 qualified teacher of the Common Schools of this State." This law, conferring privileges 
 whieh no Protestant school had or could obtain, was repealed early in 1876. 
 
 * The reputed intrigues of Mrs. Sullivan (a Roman Catholic) in the appointment of school 
 officers and teachers in Chicago led to the shooting of Francis Hanford (a Protestant who 
 opposed them) by her husband, Alexander Sullivan, Aug. 14, 1876.
 
 780 APPENDIX. - i 
 
 amendments prohibiting sectarian appropriations and guaranteeing free public 
 schools, which were adopted by the people Sept. 7, 1875, were strenuously 
 opposed by addresses from R. C. pulpits, by ballots distributed in R. C. 
 churches, by circulars and other modes of inculcating the views of the R. C. 
 ecclesiastics respecting them. The " Acts and Decrees of the 2d Plenary 
 Council of Baltimore " (see p. 588) and the more recent address of the Propa- 
 ganda (see pp. 774-6), inculcate obtaining the assistance of those who are in 
 authority. The Lenten pastoral for 1873 of Bp. Gilmour of Cleveland in- 
 structed his flock that no candidate for office should receive their votes with- 
 out first pledging himself to support the division of the school funds, and 
 authorized confessors to refuse the sacraments to those parents who contempt- 
 uously or without sufficient reason refuse to send their children to a R. C. 
 school. Bp. Baltesof Alton, according to the Christian "World for Aug., 1875, 
 has promulgated this with other rules for the societies (see pp. 455-6) in his 
 diocese: "Societies can not have members who send their children to the 
 public schools." And this is the penalty : " For non-compliance with these 
 regulations, societies cannot go to communion in a body wearing regalia, nor 
 meet in any building belonging to the church, nor have their meetings nor 
 business announced in the church, nor be admitted to the church wearing re- 
 galia and accompanying the corpse of a deceased member, nor give a lecture 
 or other entertainment for the benefit of or in the name of the society in any 
 building belonging to the church." This, of course, includes temperance 
 societies, &c. Rev. David B. Walker, one of the Jesuit preachers at St. Law- 
 rence's church, N. Y. city, spoke thus in his church on Sunday March 14, 1875 
 (as reported in the N. Y. Herald the next day) : "The public schools are the 
 nurseries of vice. They are godless schools, and they who send their children 
 to them can not expect the mercy of God. They ought not to expect the 
 sacraments of the church in their dying moments. I hope you and I will live 
 to see the day when it will be understood that parents who commit this great 
 sin will be refused the sacraments of the church. ' What ! let them die with- 
 out the sacraments of the church ?' you will ask. Yes, I say so. I would as 
 soon administer the sacraments to a dog as to such Catholics. Did not Jesus 
 Christ suffer one of his apostles to die without the rites of the church in de- 
 spair ? So would I let these wretched Catholics perish." 
 
 The decision of the Superior Court, which declared null and void the reso- 
 lutions of the Cincinnati Board of Education prohibiting religious instruction 
 and Bible-reading in the common schools of that city (see pp. 599, 600), was 
 reversed by the Supreme Court of Ohio at its December term, 1872, the fol- 
 lowing points being decided : " 1. The Constitution of the State does not en- 
 join or require religious instruction, or the reading of religious books, in the 
 public schools of the State. 2. The legislature having placed the management 
 of the public schools under the exclusive control of directors, trustees, and 
 boards of education, the courts have no rightful authority to interfere by 
 directing what instruction shall be given, or what books shall be read therein." 
 
 This subject is thus clearly presented in an address by Rev. T. D. Woolsey,
 
 CONFLICT IN EEGARD TO SCHOOLS, TJ. S. 781 
 
 D.D., LL.D., ex-president of Yale College, before the General Conference of 
 the Congregational Churches of Ct., Nov. 16, 1876 : 
 
 " The relations of the state towards education, including the control of pub- 
 lic schools, may be briefly summed up under the following heads : 
 
 " 1. The state's right of teaching is a clear one, founded ... on the ground 
 of the rights of the child, the immense benefit of education to the child, and the 
 vast advantage of educated children to a community. The state then ought 
 to provide an education at least for those who are too poor to pay the expenses 
 of private tuition. 
 
 "2. The state's right to educate does not exclude the rights of private per- 
 sons to set up schools of their own, and to direct the education of their chil- 
 dren. . . . 
 
 "3. The state, as guardian of rights, and for public reasons, may compel 
 parents to send their children to school. . . . 
 
 "4. Whatever system is adopted by the state, whether the system is under 
 public supervisors or local committees, or both, there is a necessity and a duty 
 of teaching moral duties to the children in some shape or other. . . . There 
 are hundreds of children in the most well trained communities, who receive 
 no moral instruction at home, who learn to lie, swear, get drunk, to become 
 lewd and dishonest from their parents themselves. . . . 
 
 " 5. . . . "We can, in a system of morals, considered in the abstract, separate 
 religion from it, but in the practical part even of a book on ethics, there is an 
 unavoidable necessity of bringing the two into connection. If there is a God, 
 and it can be made out that He abhors injustice, His opinions, apart from His 
 penalties, are an efficient motive against injustice, against falsehood, fraud and 
 every form of evil. . . . 
 
 " 6. How shall the books used in schools be selected, and how far shall the 
 master or mistress go in instruction without book ? (a) The secretary of a 
 board may select the books, or the local board may have some originating or 
 concurring power. I see no necessity of absolute uniformity, but there is a 
 necessity of having among the reading books such as will teach the children 
 their duties, including those toward God! (b) The teacher ought to be able 
 orally to say such things to the scholars as would, help the instructions in mo- 
 rality. ... If school is a place where lewdness, swearing, abuse of the small- 
 er children, ill manners, can be propagated, the master ought to have the power 
 of stopping the propagation, not merely by flogging, but in more persuasive 
 ways. 
 
 "7. If other books of morals inculcating the existence of God can be and 
 ought to be introduced, why not the Bible ? The grand peculiarity of the 
 religion of the Scriptures is that it is intensely moral, because religion and 
 morality are united together. . . . 
 
 "8. There can be no objection to the Bible as a reading book in schools as 
 it respects its style of English, its morals and its religion, except from two 
 extreme sources. On the one hand stand Jews, who reject the New Testa- 
 ment, -with the infidels who reject the Old and the New; on the other
 
 782 APPENDIX. 
 
 the Roman Catholics. The objection of the first two classes "would not be 
 offered in one out of fifty school districts, so that the objection is of very little 
 practical importance. ... If there is any plea against the overthrow of the 
 family faith, or want of faith, the remedy might be to allow the children of 
 aggrieved parents to remain away while the Bible is read. 
 
 " 9. But the objections from the Catholics are more serious [see pp. 773-80], 
 ... I think . . . that the Catholics will steadily aim to overthrow the mixed 
 schools and to secure the establishment by the state of schools where their 
 children may be kept apart from Protestant children. . . Catholic priests have 
 sometimes made a compromise between this extreme and that of having the 
 Bible read hi the schools according to King James's version. The Douay 
 version might be used, or the priest might once a week take up an hour or two, 
 perhaps out of school time, in catechising the Catholic part of the scholars. I 
 should have no more objection to this than to concessions such as the Apostle 
 Paul would make to weak consciences yet under bondage to partial falsehoods 
 and vain scruples. But I am satisfied that the school question will really 
 amount, hereafter, to a plea to give up all mixed schools. The Catholics will 
 join until that time shall come, with all infidels, and many political interests, 
 in keeping religion out of schools in whatever form it presents itself and asks 
 for admittance. But . . . they want education for their children, and they 
 will claim aid from the state, and this the more because they belong in great 
 measure to nationalities where the voluntary principle has been discouraged 
 by institutions civil and religious. 
 
 "10. We now ask whether this coming demand will be, and whether it 
 ought to be, granted. That it will not be granted I consider certain. ... If 
 granted, it must be granted also, as far as I can see, to any denomination of 
 Protestants that wishes such subvention. Indeed, . . there is involved in 
 our subject another of no small importance, that of companionship. My boy, 
 I may feel, ought not to be exposed to the hearing of filthy or profane language 
 in the public school, and I put him into another, where these immoralities, as 
 far as I can discern, are not practiced. May I not urge a claim on this ground 
 of conscience, to have at least so much of the school expenses in the school of 
 my choice remitted, as would equal the dues or the expenses in the public 
 place of instruction ? 
 
 "11. The reasons for such a system and those against it may now be con- 
 sidered. And for one, I must declare myself unable on any ground of theory, 
 to accept the total separation of church and state. If a state may foster edu- 
 cation, or the fine arts, or the industrial, or even may furnish help to the 
 poor, it may for aught I see give aid to religion, provided only that perfect 
 freedom of opinion and worship is not invaded. Religion . . is in fact the 
 principal auxiliary in all common interests. . . . But, while religion is a prime 
 interest of the state, and may be allied with it on some plan or other, without 
 injustice, in practice it must be separated, because men of equal rights cannot 
 agree what is the truth. We come then to purely practical considerations. 
 And first, what would be the result, if the system were pursued of aiding the
 
 CONFLICT IN KEGARD TO SCHOOLS, IT. S. 783 
 
 adherents of every church according to their numbers, provided this could be 
 satisfactory to all? The great objection to this lies in the separation of the 
 sects and their children so that they will not meet or have communication until 
 after boyhood is past. This would intensify existing differences or alienations ; 
 it would almost make castes in society ; the sectarian schools would aggravate 
 all the evils from sectarianism. Besides this there would be a large residuum 
 of children from irreligious families gathered in schools of their own within 
 which the same irreligious influence would be felt among the boys without 
 any chance of counteraction. Such results as the odiums pervading society 
 and the tabooing as it were of the irreligious families, are not to be endured, 
 and the system would have to fail on the contemplation of them, without be- 
 ing put to the test of experiment. Or we may make another supposition, that 
 the Protestants join in the public schools, and the Catholics withdraw from 
 them, preferring to have their children in ignorance rather than to expose them 
 to the contamination of teaching conducted as it is now. This would certainly 
 be much to be regretted, but we can scarcely doubt that in all large places the 
 Catholics would set up schools of their own, and in the end get what they 
 wish at a somewhat higher cost to the members of the denomination. There 
 is no danger, as I apprehend, that the Catholics, if they wished, could, unaided, 
 succeed in breaking up the school system, or by uniting with some political 
 party or other could carry their own ends. For such a proceeding would 
 unite all Protestants together, and the party would assuredly work out its 
 own destruction. 
 
 " 12. We come back now, from these possibilities, to the present state of 
 things, and ask whether the public schools can be maintained, as they are, if 
 the reading of the Bible should be opposed by a considerable minority ; whether 
 the reading of it as a school book would, on account of the good it would be 
 likely to do, be worth retaining ; and whether any relief ought to be extended 
 to tender consciences, (a) I question very much whether the formal reading 
 by rote of the Bible in schools, as a school book, does so much good as to be 
 justly regarded as essential. The children are not generally in a state of mind 
 to receive instruction from it. Its meaning cannot be explained where the 
 style is archaic, or the sense obscure beyond the comprehension of children. 
 Still something valuable may be gained by the children through familiarity 
 with the Gospels, and some influences even from a perfunctory formal treat- 
 ment of this school exercise may pass over into the child's future life. (&) If 
 any of the inhabitants of a school district should object to this for conscience' 
 sake, I would grant every indulgence consistent with school order, for instance, 
 would allow a lesson from some other book to be substituted in its place, (c) 
 To cling tenaciously to the reading of the Bible, against a considerable minori- 
 ty in the school district, or the state, could be insisted on, I should think, only 
 on the ground that this exercise is of vast importance for the moral and spirit- 
 ual welfare of the children, which I am not prepared to admit. Thus, as a 
 practical question, I would have this decided according to the sentiment of 
 people. But if this be so, there can be little or no objection to a system of
 
 784 APPENDIX. 
 
 training by books on practical morality, adapted to the capacity of boys and 
 girls. The great evil in tliis country now is not that the Bible is not held in 
 honor, but that children are left to grow up with little moral instruction at 
 home, and many of them fail to have the want supplied anywhere else. It 
 certainly can not be a difficult matter for the sects of Christians to agree upon 
 a system of teaching the main object of which will be to lay the seeds of moral 
 principle in the minds and consciences of the young, before life and its strug- 
 gles shall tempt them to feel that success and skillful use of means to the pro- 
 curement of an end are the great objects to be gained. The chief danger, as 
 it seems to me now, is, that smartness, adroitness, all the practical qualities 
 which run along just on the edge of knavery, are so much admired by the 
 average voters who have had only a school training. The state of Massachu- 
 setts, in one of its constitutions, declares it to be the duty of all instructors of 
 youth to impress on their minds 'the principles of piety and justice, and a 
 sacred regard for truth ; love of their country, humanity, and universal be- 
 nevolence ; chastity, moderation, and temperance ; and those virtues which 
 are the ornaments of human society, and the basis upon which a republican 
 constitution is founded.' These words are admirable, but I fear that such in- 
 struction is doled out in scanty measures, even in the most intelligent and 
 cultivated state of the Union, since in one of its most intelligent districts neith- 
 er bad reputation nor a general character for falsehood can injure a smart man 
 when he seeks office." 
 
 Various political conventions have advocated unsectarian public schools. 
 Thus, the Ohio Republican state convention, June 2, 1875, declared "4th. 
 We stand by free education, our public-school system, the taxation of all for 
 its support, and no division of the school fund. 5th. Under our republican 
 system of government there should be no connection, direct or indirect, be- 
 tween church and state, and we oppose all legislation in the interest of any 
 particular sect. Upon this subject we should not fail to profit by the expe- 
 rience of foreign governments, where the efforts of the church to control the 
 state constitute an evil of great magnitude, and endanger the power and pros- 
 perity of the people." Similarly, the Ohio Democratic state convention, June 
 17, 1875, declared " We favor the complete separation of church and state ; 
 religious independence and absolute freedom of opinion ; equal and exact jus- 
 tice to all religious societies ; and purely secular education, at the expense of 
 the tax-payers, without division among, or control by, any sect, directly or 
 indirectly, of any portion of the public-school fund." Other political state 
 conventions have either not spoken on this subject (as the Ct. and N. Y. Dem- 
 ocratic in 1875-6, &c.), or have made similar declarations (as the Ct. and N. 
 Y. Republican in 1875-6, Wis. Democratic in 1875, &c.). A number of the 
 states have constitutional 1 or statutory provisions designed to prevent appro- 
 priations to sectarian schools ; but they often fail to answer this end. 
 
 1 Thus Missouri adopted a constitutional amendment several years ago, declaring, 
 "Neither the general assembly nor any county, city, town, township, school district, or 
 other municipal corporation, shall ever make any appropriation or pay from any public
 
 CONFLICT IN REGARD TO SCHOOLS, TJ. S. 785 
 
 President Grant, at the reunion of the army of the Tennessee, at Des Moines, 
 Iowa, Sept. 29, 1875, is reported to have said : "... If we are to have 
 another contest in the near future of our national existence, I predict that the 
 dividing line will not be Mason and Dixon's, but between patriotism and in- 
 telligence on one side, and superstition, ambition and ignorance on the other. 
 In this centennial year the work of strengthening the foundation of the struc- 
 ture laid by our forefathers 100 years ago at Lexington should be begun. Let 
 us all labor for the security of free thought, free speech, free press, pure mor- 
 als, unfettered religious sentiments, and equal rights and privileges for all men, 
 irrespective of nationality, color or religion ; encourage free schools, and re- 
 solve that not one dollar appropriated to them shall be applied to the support 
 of any sectarian school ; resolve that neither state nor nation shall support 
 institutions save those where every child in the land may get a common school 
 education, unmixed with atheistic, pagan or sectarian teachings. Leave the 
 matter of religion to the family altar, the church, and the private school sup- 
 ported entirely by private contributions. Keep the church and the state for- 
 ever separate. With these safeguards I believe the battles which created the 
 army of the Tennessee will not have been fought in vain." 
 
 In his message to Congress Dec. 7, 1875, President Grant said: "... We 
 are a republic, whereof one man is as good as another before the law. Under 
 such a form of government it is of the greatest importance that all should be 
 possessed of education and intelligence enough to cast a vote with a right un- 
 derstanding of its meaning. A large association of ignorant men can not, for 
 any considerable period, oppose a successful resistance to tyranny and oppres- 
 sion from the educated few, but will inevitably sink into acquiescence to the 
 will of intelligence, whether directed by the demagogue or priestcraft. Hence 
 the education of the masses becomes of the first necessity for the preservation 
 of our institutions. They are worth preserving, because they have secured 
 the greatest good to the greatest proportion of the population of any form 
 of government yet devised. All other forms of government approach it just 
 in proportion to the general diffusion of education and independence of thought 
 and action. As the primary step, therefore, to our advancement in all that 
 has marked our progress in the past century, I suggest for your earnest consid- 
 eration, and most earnestly recommend that a constitutional amendment be 
 submitted to the legislatures of the several states for ratification, making it the 
 duty of each of the several states to establish and forever maintain free public 
 schools, adequate to the education of all the children in the rudimentary bran- 
 ches within their respective limits, irrespective of sex, color, birthplace or 
 religion ; forbidding the teaching in said schools of religious, atheistic or 
 pagan tenets, and prohibiting the granting of any school funds, or school taxes, 
 
 fund whatever anything in aid of any creed, church, or sectarian purpose, or to help sup- 
 port or sustain any school, academy, seminary, college, university, or other-Institution of 
 learning controlled by any creed, church, or sectarian denomination whatever ; nor shall 
 any grant or donation of personal property or real estate ever be made by state, county, 
 city, town, or such public corporation for any creed, church, cr sectarian purposes what- 
 ever." 
 
 50
 
 786 APPENDIX. 
 
 or any part thereof, either by legislative, municipal, or other authority, for the 
 benefit or in aid, directly or indirectly, of any religious sect or denomination, 
 or in aid or for the benefit of any other object of any nature or kind what- 
 ever . . . ." 
 
 Dec. 14, 1875, Hon. James G. Blaine proposed in the U. S. House of Repre- 
 sentatives the following amendment to the Constitution of the U. S. as Article 
 16: "No state shall make any law respecting an establishment of reli- 
 gion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; and no money raised by taxa- 
 tion in any state for the support of public schools, or derived from any public 
 fund thereof, shall ever be under the control of any religious sect, nor shall 
 any money so raised ever be divided between religious sects or denominations." 
 The judiciary committee of the House added the clause, " This article shall 
 not vest, enlarge, or diminish legislative power in Congress," and the House 
 passed the whole (Aug. 4) by a vote of 166 to 5, the nays being all democrats 
 (2 from -Kentucky and 3 from Alabama). In the Senate the proposed article 
 was still further amended by its judiciary committee so as to read thus : "Ar- 
 ticle 16. No state shall make any law respecting an establishment of religion 
 or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, and no religious test shall be required 
 as a qualification to any office or public trust under any state. No public prop- 
 erty and no public revenue of, nor any loan of credit by or under the author- 
 ity of the U. S., or any state, territory, district, or municipal corporation, shall 
 be appropriated to or made or used for the support of any school, educational 
 or other institution under the control of any religious or anti-religious sect, 
 organization, or denomination, or wherein the particular creed or tenets shall 
 be read or taught in any school or institution supported in whole or in part by 
 such revenue or loan of credit, and no such appropriation or loan of credit 
 shall be made to any religious or anti-religious sect, organization or denomi- 
 nation, or to promote its interests or tenets. This article shall not be construed 
 to prohibit the reading of the Bible in any school or institution, and it shall 
 not have the effect to impair the rights of property already vested. Section 
 2. Congress shall have power by appropriate legislation to provide for the 
 prevention and punishment of violations of this article." This proposed 
 amendment was defeated in the Senate, 28 Republicans (not two-thirds) vo- 
 ting for it, and 16 Democrats against it. 
 
 While this proposed amendment was before Congress, both the great polit- 
 ical parties agitated the subject. The Republican national convention at 
 Cincinnati, June 15, 1876, declared "The public-school system of the sev- 
 eral states is the bulwark of the American republic, and, with a view to its 
 security and permanence, we recommend an amendment to the constitution 
 of the U. S., forbidding the application of any public funds or property for 
 the benefit of any schools or institutions under sectarian control." The Dem- 
 ocratic national platform, adopted at St. Louis, June 23, 1876, charges the 
 Republican party with making a "false issue with which they would enkin- 
 dle sectarian strife in respect to the public schools, of which the establish- 
 ment and support belong exclusively to the several states, and which the
 
 CONFLICT IN KEGAED TO SCHOOLS, U. S. 787 
 
 Democratic party has cherished from their foundation and is resolved to main- 
 tain without partiality or preference for any class, sect, or creed, and without 
 contribution from the treasury to any of them." 
 
 4. Another contest respects chaplaincies and religious 
 exercises in public institutions and legislative bodies, and 
 in the army and navy. Congress has for each house a chaplain with 
 $900 salary ; some state legislatures have paid chaplains, some unpaid ones 
 (perhaps ministers at the capital officiating in turn), and some have none ; the 
 president may appoint for the U. S. army 30 post chaplains, 4 regimental 
 chaplains, and a chaplain for each regiment of colored troops, with a salary 
 of $1500 each ; he may appoint 24 chaplains for vessels of the U. S. navy ; laws 
 of the various states authorize the appointment of chaplains for state prisons, 
 penitentiaries, jails, asylums, reform schools, almshouses, hospitals, militia 
 regiments, &c. (See "Religion and the State," by Rev. S. T. Spear, D.D.) 
 
 The ' ' Catholic "World " has ably presented the R. C. views and claims. Thus 
 in April, 1873, it said : " The state in our times and in almost every country 
 undertakes the restraint and custody of the persons of idiots, lunatics, drunk- 
 ards, and other persons of unsound mind, for their safety ; of paupers, for their 
 maintenance ; and of minors, unprovided with natural guardians, for purposes 
 of their education, reformation, and maintenance. . . Having done this, it is the 
 duty of the state to leave free the consciences of its wards and prisoners, and 
 to give every facility to the ministers of every church and religious persuasion 
 to have free and unrestricted access to the children and prisoners belonging to 
 
 those respective churches or persuasions "VVe complain that our 
 
 Catholic children in institutions which are supported in whole or in part by 
 public funds funds, therefore, in which we have a common property with 
 our fellow-citizens instead of being allowed the instruction and practice of 
 their Catholic religion, are taught Protestantism hi its, to us, most offensive 
 form, and are thus exposed to the almost certain loss of their faith. . . . [For 
 example,] the Five Points House of Industry [N. Y.], which received, from 
 1858 to 1869, the sum of $30,731.69 from our Board of Education, states hi 
 its charter, among the objects for which it was incorporated, the following : 
 * III. To imbue the objects of its care with the pure principles of Christian- 
 ity, as revealed in the Holy Scriptures, without bias from the distinctive pe- 
 culiarities of any individual sect.' .... We insist that the state shall obey 
 its own constitution, and let religion alone. ... If any sect undertakes to 
 help the state to do its work, by establishing reformatories, protectories, and 
 asylums for its own children, excluding all other religions and the children of 
 other religions, we shall not object to its receiving a just per capita [= by 
 heads, that is, an allowance or appropriation for every head or person] from 
 the state ; a::d under this system we claim the same and no more for purely 
 Catholic institutions doing the work of the state in respect to Catholic children. 
 If, however, sectarian, unsectarian, or non-Catholic institutions receive sup- 
 port from the state and receive the children of the Catholic church and of 
 other persuasions, they must be conducted upon the same principle with state
 
 788 APPENDIX. 
 
 institutions, and in them 'no law respecting the establishment of a religion' 
 must be made or enforced, but the most perfect liberty of conscience must 
 
 prevail " The same, in April, 1875, enumerates in K Y. state 3 state 
 
 prisons, 7 penitentiaries, and 4 reformatories , of which only 3 penitentiaries 
 (Blackwell's Island, King's Co., and Albany) and 1 reformatory (Catholic 
 Protectory, Westchester Co ) have mass and R. C. sacraments ; declares that 
 " Catholic as well as Protestant chaplains are appointed to the various prisons 
 and reformatories, as also to the army and navy," 1 in Great Britain, in British- 
 American provinces, and practically throughout Europe ; claims that " in our 
 public institutions there is, in the case of Catholic inmates, a constant and 
 persistent violation of the constitution of the state regarding freedom of relig- 
 ious profession and worship ;" and argues that every such institution should 
 have a R. C. chaplain. 
 
 In accordance with these views a bill was introduced into the N. Y. legisla- 
 ture, and simultaneously (March 30, 1875) the " Geghan law" [so called from its 
 proposer, an Irish R. C. member of the legislature] was enacted in Ohio as 
 follows: "An Act to secure liberty of conscience in matters of religion to 
 persons imprisoned or detained by authority of law. 1. Be it enacted by 
 the General Assembly of the State of Ohio That as liberty of conscience is 
 not forfeited by reason of conviction of crime or by reason of detention in any 
 penal, reformatory, or eleemosynary institution, or any house of refuge, work- 
 house, jail, or public asylum in this State, no person in any such institution 
 shall be compelled to attend religious worship or instructions of a form which 
 is against the dictates of his or her conscience ; and it shall be the duty of 
 every director, trustee, superintendent or other person having in charge any 
 such institution, to furnish ample and equal facilities to all such persons for 
 receiving the ministrations of the authorized clergyman of their own religious 
 denominations or persuasions, under such reasonable rules and regulations as 
 the trustees, directors, managers, or superintendent shall make ; but no such 
 rules shall be so construed as to prevent the clergyman of any denomination 
 from fully administering the rites of his denomination to such inmates : pro- 
 vided such ministrations entail no expense on the public treasury. 2. This 
 act shall take effect from and after its passage." 
 
 The above argument and law appear innocent and fair. But " My conscience 
 is my church " (see p. 642), says the Catholic World for April, 1870. Every 
 refusal to concede whatever the pope claims, becomes thus a violation of the 
 R. C. conscience, and an infringement of R. C. " liberty of conscience." The 
 denial of the right of private judgment (see pp. 568-9, &c.) and the alleged 
 supremacy and infallibility of the pope (see pp. 114-18) logically involve (so 
 Protestants think) the substitution of a corporate or foreign or artificial "con- 
 science " (so-called) in the place of that conscience which God has put into 
 every man to bear witness for Him (Rom. ii. 15). Thus Romanism or ortho- 
 
 1 This article acknowledges 2 R. C. chaplains in the U. 8. army, none in the U. S. navy. 
 Sadliers' Catholic Directory reports an "Army and Navy Chaplain" at the Pensacola Navy 
 Yard, and a " Chaplain, U. S. A," at Fort Boise, Idaho Territory.
 
 CHAPLAINCIES IN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS, &C., U. S. 789 
 
 dox Roman Catholicism steps in between man and his God who has ordained 
 that "every one of us shall give account of himself to God" (Rom. xiv, 12), 
 and claims perfect submission and obedience to the Pope as occupying the 
 place of God, clothed with the authority of God, uttering the decrees and 
 awarding the sentences of God, showing himself, in short, to be God (2 Thess. 
 ii, 4). The Pope, as vicar of Jesus Christ and divinely-appointed head of the 
 Church, claims absolute control of the consciences of all Roman Catholics 
 (see pp. 719-20). The Geghan law has accordingly been "described as con- 
 ferring upon the Church of Rome exclusive privileges and opportunities for 
 proselytizing in the prisons of the State." The R. C. priest, under this law, 
 could claim and secure the privilege of "fully administering the rites of his 
 denomination to such inmates " as are or are said to be of his denomination ; 
 few minors, criminals, or paupers, in a public institution, would wish to en- 
 gage in a contest with him and with all Roman Catholics, if he should claim 
 them as his, forbid their reading the Bible or attending Protestant services, 
 and require them to go to his Sunday school, confession, mass, &c.; he might 
 claim them on the alleged ground of R. C. parentage or baptism or attendance 
 on R. C. worship, and all opposition or interference by the authorities or pri- 
 vate persons, however well-grounded, would be represented as persecution 
 of the R. C. church and an offense against R. C. "liberty of conscience ;" the 
 efforts of Protestant chaplains and of lay-laborers of any denomination, and 
 of the State itself, to reform or benefit such inmates would or might be 
 practically terminated or nullified. In fact, notwithstanding the proviso of 
 the law about "no expense on the public treasury," the warden of the Ohio 
 penitentiary certified (the Cincinnati Gazette publishing the voucher in the 
 summer of 1875) an account of $67.65 against that institution "for books for 
 Catholic church ;" and the law itself was summarily repealed by the next 
 legislature, Jan. 21, 1876. A law similar to the Geghan law was passed in 
 Massachusetts 1 in 1875, and in Minnesota in 1874 ; and R. C. ecclesiastics will 
 doubtless demand such a law, sooner or later, in all the states. 
 
 The system of national and state chaplaincies is undoubtedly open to objec- 
 tions. Criminals, paupers, minors, &c., in public institutions, soldiers in the 
 army and sailors in the navy, are not unfeeling and soulless machines ; they 
 have rights of conscience which should never be disregarded ; but the condi- 
 tion of these classes is exceptional, and should be treated as exceptional ; they 
 
 i The R. C. priest who visits the Massachusetts state prison under this law, used sub- 
 stantially the following words, while recently preaching in the prison chapel, as reported 
 in the Congregationalist of April 11, 1877: "I have talked to you in private about attend- 
 ing the prayer-meeting and Sabbath school, but as I see many faces at Sabbath school that 
 I recognize as Catholics, I take this time publicly to command you in the future to abstain 
 from attending such services. Teachers of all denominations or religions are in attend- 
 ances and I command you in future to recognize none of them as your spiritual advisers, 
 not even the chaplain, although he may be a good man. The law is not binding on you as 
 to attendance at Sabbath school, but I can not stop you from attending the other service ; 
 but I hope the time will soon come when it will not be obligatory, and I am doing what I 
 can to bring about euch a result. In future, therefore, I forbid you to read the Bible, or 
 have anything to do with the Sabbath school or prayer-meeting."
 
 790 APPENDIX. 
 
 are deprived of personal liberty, in consequence of crime, or improvidence, or 
 misfortune, or by undertaking military or naval service ; they are thus shut 
 out from all society, except such as the state or nation sees fit to allow them, 
 and can not adequately supply their own moral and spiritual wants, which 
 must be unwarrantably neglected, or met either by governmental provision 
 (through chaplains, teachers, or other officers), or by voluntary effort (sys- 
 tematic or unsystematic, associated or individual, denominational or unde- 
 nominational) on the part of others than the government officials or them- 
 selves. The state has a divine right of self-protection and supreme control 
 for its own objects (Rom. xiii, 1-7) ; it may refuse to satisfy the perverted 
 conscience of a Thug whose religion is to murder, or of a Mormon whose 
 prophet may require him to multiply wives or to cheat or kill a Gentile, or of 
 an Ultramontane Roman Catholic whose pope or bishop or priest may command 
 and even enforce obedience to the extent of conspiracy and treason and open 
 rebellion; it may adopt the best means of combining benefit to the whole 
 community with the punishment of incorrigible evil-doers and the reformation 
 of the reformable and the comfort of the needy and the training for virtue and 
 usefulness of all the dependent classes, though its course may operate to the 
 disadvantage or ruin of the R. C. church or of any other denomination. The 
 denomination or organization of any kind that would ruin or endanger the 
 state, which is the organized aggregate or embodiment of the people for civil 
 government, must itself suffer harm and loss, if not annihilation, in the un- 
 avoidable conflict. The present contest in Prussia is a struggle for life or 
 death between the ecclesiastical and the civil powers (see pp. 728-38). A 
 republic is among the " powers that be" (Rom. xiii, 1), and therefore has as 
 divine a right to live and defend its life as any monarchy under the sun. The 
 declaration of Peter and the other Apostles, "We ought to obey God rather 
 than men " (Acts v, 29), is a divine warrant for opposing any alleged succes- 
 sor of Peter or any other man or body of men who may claim and attempt to 
 enforce supremacy over the state whether on the plea of conscience and obe- 
 dience to God or on any other plea. The contest in respect to chaplaincies 
 and religious exercises in public institutions, &c., has begun and must be con- 
 tinued ; it must be determined for government chaplaincies or against them, 
 for division of labor there by denominations or against it, for complete volim* 
 taryism in this matter or against it, not by narrow considerations of prosely- 
 tism and sectarian advantages or disadvantages, but by the more weighty rea- 
 sons of public safety and morality and of the permanent well-being of the 
 whole people taken individually and collectively with all their capacities and 
 aspirations and hopes and rights. 
 
 5. There must be contests in respect to the tenure and 
 taxation of ecclesiastical property. The tendency of the R. C. 
 church is to increase its wealth and concentrate the control of it. Its costly 
 and durable churches are generally owned or controlled by the bishops (see 
 chapters XX and XXI). A R. C. church-edifice or other church-property 
 in Prussia, Switzerland, &c., belongs to the parish, to the laity (see pp. 734,
 
 CONTESTS ABOUT ECCLESIASTICAL PEOPEETY, TJ. S. 791 
 
 738) ; the same was once the fact among Roman Catholics in this country 
 (see p. 552) ; and in most Protestant denominations here the laity hold the 
 church-property. As the R. C. laity become better educated and associate 
 more with Protestants in this free country, they will notice and begin to ap- 
 preciate the rights which others have and they themselves have not ; and the 
 rapid accumulation of property and power in the hands of the bishops will 
 almost force the conviction, in spite of their prejudices and training, that they 
 ought to control the edifices which they pay for 1 and the church-property 
 which is ostensibly held for their benefit (see pp. 557-61). Moreover, they 
 as well as Protestants must sometime see that it is undesirable and unsafe 
 since money is power that ecclesiastics, who have no domestic ties or sym- 
 pathies, but are absolutely dependent for place and support upon an alien 
 sovereign, should have, as great property-holders, so much omnipresent con- 
 trol over the prosperity and temporal as well as spiritual interests of the com- 
 munity. 
 
 Houses of worship of all religious denominations and all church-property 
 used exclusively for religious purposes have generally been exempt from 
 taxation in this country ; but the conviction is unquestionably gaining ground 
 that church-property must be taxed like other property. According to the 
 TJ. S. census, the value of church-property in the TJ. 8. in 1850 was $87,328,801; 
 in 1860 it was $171,397,932; in 1870 it was $354,483,581; the value thus 
 being doubled in 10 years, and quadrupled in 20 years, before 1870. The 
 value of R. C. church-property, however, was multiplied more than six-fold 
 in these 20 years, being $9,256,758 in 1850 and $60,985,566 in 1870, and in- 
 creased relatively from 10^ per cent, of the whole to 17 per cent. This rapid 
 increase, especially of R. C. church-property, and the notoriously unjust 
 exemptions of R. C. ecclesiastical property 9 from its share of public burdens, 
 
 1 Thus certain Roman Catholics in New Hampshire complained of being sometimes de- 
 barred from public worship in the church they aided to build unless they paid an entrance 
 fee, of being sometimes abused by the priest in open meeting on Sunday, <fec.; but the 
 Supreme Court in 1875 decided that they showed no right of ownership in the church, and 
 declined to interfere in matters of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. 
 
 * Examples are, the votes of the N. Y. Board of Aldermen, Oct. 21, 1876, permitting St. 
 Patrick's cathedral to make its sewer connection (which by long-established and uniform 
 rule would have cost $700) without charge, and of the same, November 9, 1876, almost 
 unanimously giving thia permission after Mayor Wickham's veto of the previous vote of 
 permission. The whole plot of ground bounded by 50th and 51st streets and 4th and 5th 
 avenues (once known as "Block 62," and including the site of this cathedral) having been 
 under lease from the city since May 1, 1799, for 4 bushels of wheat annually, was sold and 
 conveyed' by the city aathorities to the trustees of St. Patrick's cathedral, &c., Nov. 11, 
 1852, for the sum of $33.32. When Madison avenue was afterwards opened through thia 
 block, the city paid $24,000 for the land taken for this avenue, and $8,928.84 assessed on 
 the property for enhanced value, which assessment the archbishop and nominal proprietors 
 refused to pay. This property was estimated in 1872 to be worth $1,500.000. Four other 
 large plots (2 embracing the ground, now 2 blocks, between 51st and 52d streets and 4th 
 and 5th avenues; 1-2 block on Madison avenue between 81st and 8'2d streets; 1 block on 
 Lexington avenue between 68th and 9th streets) are under perpetual leases from the city 
 to Roman Catholic institutions at annual rents of $1 each, the 1st and 2d from 1846 and
 
 792 APPENDIX. 
 
 will naturally bring on a conflict in respect to taxation of ecclesiastical prop- 
 erty and religious corporations. Of course, the principle of taxation or ex- 
 emption should, as there is no established religion, be applied impartially to 
 all religious denominations, R. C., Protestant, Jewish, or Pagan. According 
 to Rev. S. T. Spear, D.D., in his "Religion and the State," the constitutions 
 of Missouri and Alabama subject all church-property to taxation; those of 
 Minnesota and Kansas exempt from taxation all houses of worship and church- 
 property used for religious purposes, and that of Arkansas exempts all houses 
 used exclusively for public worship ; but in 32 states the matter is expressly 
 or impliedly placed within the jurisdiction of the state legislatures. Taxation 
 is argued from the governmental protection of religious corporations, &c. , for 
 which they should be taxed like other corporations or individuals ; from the 
 necessary increase of taxes on tax-paying property 1 in consequence of. this pres- 
 ent exemption ; from the tendency of taxation to check extravagance in church- 
 building and accumulation of ecclesiastical property, &c. Exemption is 
 argued from the benefit of church-edifices, &c. , to the community ; from the 
 lack of remunerative income from such property ; from the alleged necessity 
 of taxing or exempting alike all charitable and benevolent and educational in- 
 stitutions, cemeteries, &c. But it is certain that degrees of benefit or of dan- 
 ger, of needed encouragement or discouragement, may be proper bases of 
 discrimination in respect to taxation, exemption from taxation, or appropria- 
 tion of public money. It is also a fact that the accumulation of R. C. eccle- 
 siastical property in other countries has been so great and so burdensome and 
 so corrupting as to provoke, if not necessitate, confiscation or revolution, or 
 both (see pp. 334-5, 656, 752, &c.). President Grant in his message to Con- 
 gress Dec. 7, 1875, after proposing a constitutional amendment for the main- 
 tenance of unsectarian free schools (see pp. 785-6), proceeded : " I would also 
 call your attention to the importance of correcting an evil, that, if permitted to 
 
 1857 to the R. C. Orphan Asylum, the 3d from 1866 to the Sisters of Mercy, the 4th from 
 1870 to the Sisters of Charity. In March, 1872, the 1st and 2d of these plots were estimated 
 to be worth 1,500,000; the 3d $200,000; the 4th $300,000. In the 3 years 189-70-71 the R. 
 C. church in the city of N. Y. drew from the public treasury $1,396,388.51 in cash for the 
 support of its church-schools, asylums, convents, and churches (see report of Committee 
 on Political Reform, March 6, 1872, signed by Dexter A. Hawkins, chairman, and Charles 
 Collins, secretary). The leaders of the Tammany ring of 1871 (see p. 078) have been de- 
 prived of their power; but the R. C. church receives and practices as much favoritism in 
 N. Y. as ever. Hon. John Kelly, whose wife Is Cardinal McCloskcy's niece, has been since 
 1872 the leader of Tammany Hall, and was appointed comptroller of N. Y. city, Dec. 7, 187fi. 
 In June, 1876, Judge Lawrence of the Supreme Court granted a decree securing the Acad- 
 emy of the Sacred Heart In N. Y. perpetually from payment of taxes, that institution 
 being then $42,000 in arrears for 5 years' assessed taxes, and claiming to occupy for school- 
 purposes all its large and valuable premises (75 acres?). In Brooklyn, N. Y., half a dozen 
 entire blocks of buildings near Atlantic avenue, Immensely valuable, bequeathed to the 
 R. C. church by an Irishman who was said to be in his second childhood, occupied as ware- 
 houses and stores, and extending from the water to above Court St., are exempted from 
 taxation (so says N. Y. Weekly Witness, Nov. 9, 1876). 
 
 i Thus in Montreal, Canada, according to the N. Y. Witness, the exemption of ecclesi- 
 astical property adds 25 pur cent, to the taxea on the taxed property.
 
 CONTESTS ABOUT ECCLESIASTICAL PROPERTY, U. 8. 793 
 
 continue, -will probably lead to great trouble in our land before the close of the 
 19th century. It is the accumulation of vast amounts of untaxed church- 
 property. In 1850, I believe, the church-property of the U. S. which paid 
 no tax, municipal or state, amounted to about $83,000,000. In 1860 the 
 amount had doubled. In 1875 it is about $1,000,000,000. By 1900, with- 
 out any check, it is safe to say, this property will reach a sum exceeding 
 $3,000,000,000. So vast a sum, receiving all the protection and benefits of 
 the government, without bearing its proportion of the burdens and expenses 
 of the same, will not be looked upon acquiescently by those who have to pay 
 taxes. In a growing country where real estate enhances so rapidly with time 
 as in the U. S., there is scarcely a limit to the wealth that may be acquired 
 by corporations, religious or otherwise, if allowed to retain real estate without 
 taxation. The contemplation of so vast a property as is here alluded to, with- 
 out taxation, may lead to sequestration, without constitutional authority, and 
 through blood. I would suggest the taxation of all property equally, whether 
 church or corporation, exempting only the last resting place of the dead and 
 possibly, with proper restrictions, church-edifices." How he would have 
 this suggestion carried out, whether by amendment to the constitution of the 
 U. S. making such taxation obligatory on state and local authorities, or by 
 some slower mode of influencing public opinion and thus securing concurrent 
 action in the different states, is not stated : but that the matter is important, 
 and that both the tenure and the taxation of ecclesiastical property will be the 
 occasion of conflicts with Romanism in the U. S., for which due preparation 
 should be made, can hardly be doubted. 
 
 6. There must come in the U. S. a contest in regard to 
 the supremacy of church or state. The contests, present and pro- 
 spective, which have been already noticed, depend more or less upon the 
 Roman church's claim of supremacy (see pp. 718, &c.). The state may 
 assist the hierarchy in training their children, managing their people, control- 
 ling their property ; but must not interfere to guard the rights of these chil- 
 dren or people or even the nation's life. Everywhere the R. C. hierarchy 
 claims and, so far as it can, enforces the supremacy of the pope and "the im- 
 munity of the church and of ecclesiastical persons" from the jurisdiction of 
 the civil authorities (see p. 576). These claims are far-reaching and porten- 
 tous. 
 
 The multiplication of convents, orphan asylums, and other R. C. institutions, 
 not subject to visitation and supervision by the civil authorities (see p. 336), 
 is, in the eyes of Protestants, dangerous to liberty and to virtue. It is certain 
 that persons have been involuntarily and unlawfully confined or imprisoned 
 in such institutions; 1 that the secrecy which characterizes them is favorable 
 
 i In the summer of 1875, Mary Gatcly, a servant girl, was, at her father's instance, ar- 
 rested by a police-officer in Jersey City, N. J., on a warrant for assault ; forcibly taken by 
 her father and the officer from the house where she lived to Newark, and there confined in 
 the House of the Good Shepherd (N. Y. Weekly Witness, July 15th, 1875). See also pp. 
 677-8. &C.
 
 794 APPEKTDIX. 
 
 to the commission and concealment of crimes ; and that those who thus retire 
 from the world are sometimes, at least, no better than others who live in the 
 world, and would not be treated unjustly if they were similarly subject to the 
 scrutiny of mankind. A foundling asylum, like that in New York, for in- 
 stance, whose doors and records alike are closed to the administrators of the 
 law, may encourage licentiousness and child-stealing, and screen even murder. 
 Baby-farming may be as detrimental to the health and life of infants, when 
 carried on by the " Sisters of Charity, commonly called Gray Nuns " of Mon- 
 treal, 1 as it would be in establishments less ecclesiastical and more open to 
 inspection. R. C. orphan-asylums and kindred institutions are of course 
 strictly sectarian, and may be used, with or without the connivance of their 
 managers, for purposes of oppression, abduction, revenge, avarice, prosely- 
 tism, &c. Protestants cannot readily avoid believing that the persistent op- 
 position of the R. C. hierarchy and their allies to the visitation and supervis- 
 ion of R. C. institutions by the civil authorities is often due to something 
 besides holy and heavenly aims. " For every one that doeth evil, hateth the 
 light, neither cometh to the light, lest his deeds should be reproved. But he 
 that doeth truth cometh to the light, that his deeds may be made manifest 
 that they are wrought in God" (John iii, 20, 21). 
 
 The R. C. priest, not unfrequently, sets himself above the civil law. Thus 
 the R. C. priest at Manistee, Mich., was reported at Christmas, 1876, to be 
 making a sensation by denying the right of the state to require him to return 
 certificates of marriage and consequently refusing to obey the civil law on that 
 subject. He could certainly plead that, according to the canon law and the 
 Syllabus, marriage and divorce are ecclesiastical matters, with which the 
 civil authority has no right to intermeddle; 1 and that he himself as a priest 
 
 1 The Montreal Witness published a detailed account (summarized in N. Y. Weekly Wit- 
 ness of April 20, 1876) of an infant taken by the Gray Nuns to board, but sent out into the 
 country by them, and not recovered by its fathtr (Peter Nangler, from N. Y.), till it was 
 dying of starva* ion and want of care. The bishop's organ, Le Nouveau Monde l=-The New 
 World] admitted that The greater number of the children received at this institution die 
 within the first year, but attributed this to the hardships Buffered by them before their 
 reception at the foundling hospital, they being often frozen, sick, ulcerated, with limbs 
 broken, or otherwise ailing, on their arrival. The system of baby-farming practiced by 
 these nuns is described in the Witness as connected with exposure, coarse food, poverty- 
 stricken abodes, destitution of medical or other proper care, and death in the majority of 
 cases. 
 
 i Rev. James McGlew, R. C. priest at Chelsea, Mass., repeatedly denounced from the altar 
 Robert C. Fanning and Mrs. Fanning as fornicators and living in mortal sin, because they 
 had been married only by a justice of the peace; he was thereupon sued by Mr. Fanning 
 for libel, but the jury disagreed (10 for the plaintiff, 2 for the priest) and were discharged 
 in May, 1875; the case was, however, settled June 20, 1876, each party paying half the 
 costs, and the priest publishing a statement that he simply meant " that Fanning in being 
 married by a magistrate had violated the rules of the Catholic church, and as a Catholic 
 was censurable." The Syllabus has among its condemned errors : "71. The Tridentine 
 form [of solemnizing marriage] does not bind under the penalty of nullity where the civil 
 law prescribes another form and determines the marriage by this new form to be valid." 
 "73. Marriage, truly so-called, may exist by virtue of a merely civil contract; and it ia
 
 SUPREMACY OF CHURCH OR STATE, U. S. 795 
 
 has a divine right of immunity from all subjection to civil government (see p. 
 576). But the people of the U. S. deny his principle and disallow his prac- 
 tice. Another case illustrates another phase. A few years ago, Patrick Bun- 
 bury, a zealous R. C. of Kalamazoo, Mich., having, under his priest's influence, 
 mortgaged his farm to raise $10,000 for completing a new church, and being 
 in danger, after the priest's death, of losing his farm by foreclosure of the 
 mortgage, as both the parish and the bishop refused to repay the loan, com- 
 menced a civil suit against the bishop. He was at once excommunicated, and 
 frightened into withdrawing the suit ; and though he obtained absolution, his 
 anxiety of mind brought on illness and death. Thus he lost both his money 
 and his life. But this use of excommunication to shield an ecclesiastic from 
 legal responsibility led to the introduction of a bill into the legislature to pun- 
 ish by fine of from $1000 to $5000, or imprisonment of from 1 year to 5 years, 
 any priest or bishop who should excommunicate or threaten to excommuni- 
 cate any member of the church with the intent to prevent him from commen- 
 cing any suit or collecting any claim. In the U. S. as in Prussia, the state must 
 defend its subjects from ecclesiastical tyranny. Other claims and occasions of 
 conflict with R. C. ecclesiastics are noted on pp. 586-7, 730, 761-2. 
 
 The right to use force in behalf of the R. C. church has been claimed and 
 often exercised. The Syllabus condemns as an error the denial of this right 
 (see pp. 578, 723), and every R. C. mob harmonizes with the Syllabus on this 
 point (see pp. 658-60). If the.people of this country maintain free speech and 
 a free press (and no political party which openly denies these rights can 
 live in the U. S ), the Vaticanism which denies these rights and the intolerant 
 violence which would crush them out must be resisted, and their power to 
 harm must be destroyed. Roman Catholics must be compelled, if necessary, 
 to let others have in this free country such liberty as they claim for themselves. 
 It is safe in any town or city to speak in favor of the convent and the confes- 
 sional ; it must be made as safe everywhere to speak against them. Orange- 
 men and Fenians must stand on the same footing; and so must converts to 
 Romanism and converts to Protestantism. The civil law, impartial in its pro- 
 tection and in itsrestraint, must be obeyed by all, whether ecclesiastics or 
 laymen. There is far less danger, in the view of Protestants, that the civil 
 legislator or judge will usurp the prerogatives of conscience and of God, than 
 that either the pope who claims a divine right of directing consciences, or 
 some of those who rule in his name, will act as lords over God's heritage (1 
 Pet. v, 3), calling evil good and good evil, putting darkness for light and light 
 for darkness (Is. v, 20). Every personal conscience has its rights, but it may 
 be perverted or seared with a hot iron (1 Tim. iv, 2) ; the misguided con- 
 science is to be treated with tender and respectful consideration ; but the for- 
 eign dictator of conscience and his decrees which he would enforce upon others 
 as the utterances of their conscience, are not entitled to the rights of con- 
 false, cither that the contract of marriage among Christians is always a sacrament, or that 
 the contract is void if the sacrament is excluded." " 74. Matrimonial causes and espou- 
 sals belong by their own nature to ciril jurisdiction."
 
 796 APPENDIX. 
 
 science here while they repudiate all the responsibilities of humanity and of 
 reason (see pp. 724, 788-90). 
 
 7. Romanism must have its contests here with the 
 secret societies which it can not control. Secrecy is neither 
 unknown nor regarded as wrong in itself in the R. C. church ; it characterizes 
 the confessional, the conclave, the multitudinous orders and congregations, 
 and indeed, we might say, almost all the proceedings of the ecclesiastics and 
 religious. But whatever organization is not presided over or directed by R. 
 C. ecclesiastics, especially if it has any element of secrecy or independence in 
 regard to them, must come under the ban, and must somehow be made to 
 feel its condemnation. Thus, the Father Matthew Temperance Society of 
 Lynn, Mass., got up a picnic without permission from their parish-priest, who 
 from the altar forbade his people to attend it. But discriminations are some- 
 times made in cases which seem to outsiders to be alike, Joseph Guibord, for 
 example, being refused ecclesiastical burial for belonging to the Canadian In- 
 stitute, while others received it who belonged to the same Institute (see p. 
 761). Some freemasons also and some Fenians have been buried with the 
 regular public ceremonies, though the organizations themselves are declared 
 to be under condemnation (see p. 390). The refusal of Cardinal Cullen (Feb., 
 1877) to allow the remains of John O'Mahony, head-center of the Fenians, to 
 lie in state in Dublin Cathedral, and the published reasons for this, including 
 the condemnation cf Fenianism by the R. C. .church, show the antagonism 
 between this secret order and the hierarchy. Dec. 15, 1875, Abp. Wood of 
 Philadelphia issued a circular letter, condemning the Ancient Order of Hiber- 
 nians ; and the members of this order who are known as "Molly Maguires" 
 were soon accordingly publicly excommunicated by the priests at Shenandoah 
 and other places in Pennsylvania. February 11, 1877, a pastoral from Bp. 
 O'Hara of Scranton, excommunicating the Ancient Order of Hibernians and 
 instructing the clergy to refuse the sacraments to all members of this order, 
 was read in the churches of his diocese. But the organization in April, 1877, 
 was declared to have altered its constitution, cut off its members in 3 counties 
 of Pennsylvania, and made its peace with the hierarchy (see pp. 776, 780). In 
 this as well as in other countries, the contest must come long and bitter, it 
 may be between the secret organizations which are controlled at Rome, and 
 those which are not controlled at Rome, but have members in the R. C. church. 
 There must be subserviency to Rome or war with Rome, for "the right of 
 private judgment " is rank heresy in the eyes of the Pope and of all whom he 
 recognizes as his loyal subjects (see chap. XXII). Vaticanism has no tolerance 
 for liberalism, no love for mental or moral independence, no affinity with real 
 democracy or republicanism ; but it will use whatever persons or organizations 
 or parties it can make tributary to its own ends, and it will use them just 
 where and while it can make them thus tributary ; it is not squeamish over 
 inconsistencies or appearances of evil ; it can bind or loose, pardon or indulge, 
 bless or curse, enrich or beggar, honor or disgrace, beatify or excommunicate, 
 canonize or anathematize ; with all its multitudinous resources and auxiliaries,
 
 CONTESTS WITH SECRET SOCIETIES, U. S. 797 
 
 with all its array of means and instruments, with all the prestige of its an- 
 tiquity and grandeur and unquestioned power, with all its appeals to sense 
 and, imagination, with all its allurements and fascinations and promises of 
 good here and hereafter, with all its frowns and thunders and threatenings of 
 unutterable evil in this world and in purgatory and in hell, it is ready for the 
 combat to put down all insubordination among its own people, to root out 
 from among them every organization which it can not control, to make them 
 all yield full homage to the bishop of Rome, who, though "servant of the 
 servants of God," demands implicit obedience from every member of the 
 church. 
 
 But with all its difficulties and conflicts, internal and external, Romanism 
 has still strength and skill and determination enough to make it needful that 
 all Protestants and all Christians should "put on the whole armor of God," 
 that they "may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For we wres- 
 tle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, 
 against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness 
 in high places " (Eph. vi, 11, 12). Jesus Christ and His Church shall have a 
 complete and glorious victory ; but only those who do the will of God truly 
 belong to His Church or can share in its victory (Matt, vii, 21 ; xvi, 18).
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND EXPLANATORY. 
 
 Aaron, 262. 
 
 Abbey, Abbot, Abbess, 128, 207, 210, 216, 236-7. 
 240, 268-9, 264-90, 295. 333-4, 346-7, 467, 566. 
 
 Abdias ( = Obadiah), 409. 
 
 Abingdon, Va.,307. 
 
 Abiram, 346. 
 
 Ablution. 444 (cut), 445. 
 
 Abortionism, 668. 
 
 Abraham. Abram, 20, 414, 454, 625. 
 
 Abruzzi, 195. 
 
 Abruzzo, 157. 
 
 Absolution, 92, 129, 168, 418. 426, 464,504,521-2, 
 524, 527, 530, 536-7, 553, 566, 660. 
 
 Abaolutos, 682. 
 
 Abstinence, 309, 495, 497, 502, 619. 
 
 Abyssinia, -ans, 70, 691. 
 
 Academies, Chs. VIII., XXIV., &c. ; see Educa- 
 tion. Academy of Music (N. Y.), 150,670. 
 
 Acerbissimum, 641. 
 
 Achaia, 31. 
 
 Acolyte, -lyth, 255-6, 430, 464. 
 
 A>-i/iiii Paolo, A. Verging, A. Felice, 74. 
 
 Actium, Battle of, 31, 35. 
 
 Act of Kaith ; see Auto ila Ft. Faith. 
 
 Acts of the Apostles, 122. 
 
 Adalbert, Bp., 3il. 
 
 Adam, 91, 104, 5?2. 
 
 Adeodatus (pope), 158. 
 
 Administrator (of a vacant diocese), 278-80. 
 
 Adoration, 43S, 443, 493-4, 500, &c.; see Idolatry, 
 Images, Veneration, &c. 
 
 Adrian (emperor, &c.) ; see Hadrian. 
 
 Adrian (Mich. 1.329. 
 
 Adriatic Sea, 31, 31, 49, 60, 126, 138. 
 
 A'lsumus, Domitif, 23J. 
 
 Adultery. 510, 650, &c ; see Immorality, &c. 
 
 Advent, 2ol, 427-8, 452-3, 485, 495-7, 619. 
 
 -Knca-i ; see Eneas. 
 
 ,l>c-ul;ipiu-i, 42. 
 
 jEternus iUe, 170-1, 411, 636. 
 
 JStna, Mount, 419. 
 
 Afghanistan, 690. 
 
 A fortiori, 676 
 
 Africa, -an. 27, 29, 81, 34, 40. 46. 110. 155-7, 
 275, 292 3, 35:3, 362-6, 370, 372-3, 423, 691, 693, 
 708. 
 
 Agapetus I. (pope), 157. 
 " II. " 160. 
 
 Agatha, St., 440. 
 
 Agatho, St. (pope), 117, 158, 208. 
 
 Aggeus(= Haggai), 409. 
 
 Agnes, St., 63, 84, 259, 440. Basilica of St. 
 AgneH (Rome). 6*J, 63, 84. The St. A. Commu- 
 nity OV'iH.), 331. 
 
 Aifnus D'i(= Lamb of God), 442-3 (cut), 469. 
 
 Agram, 192. 
 
 Agrippa, Marcus, 80 ; see Herod Agrippa. 
 
 Ailly, !>'; gee D'Ailly. 
 
 Ai.e, 460, Chs. I., XX., &o. 
 
 Alx (France), 319. 
 
 A jure, 410. 
 
 Ala, 460. 
 
 Alabama, 316, 549, 666; see places marked 
 
 "(Ala.)". 
 
 Alameda y Brea, Cardinal de, 192. 
 Alaric, 46. 
 Alaska, 688-9. 
 Alb, 143, 2 >8-60, 264. 
 Alba Longa (Italy), 21. 
 Albani, Cardinal, 188. 
 
 " Villa, 69. 
 
 Albano (Italy), 157, 187, 191. 
 Albany (N. Y.) and its Diocese, 270, 276, 279, 
 
 297-8, 305, 314, 3*1, 324-5, 358, 659, 619-20, 
 
 6*52-3, 676. 
 Alberic, 127. 
 Albert (antipope), 161. 
 Albert (patriarch of Jerusalem), 3H1. 
 Albi, Albiga, Alby, 391. 
 Albigenses, Albigensians, Albigeois, 208, 298, 
 
 300, 374-5, 391-4, 400, 579-80, 705. 
 Alboin, 47. 
 
 Albuquerque (N. Mex.), 327, 360. 
 Albus(= white), 258. 
 Alemany, Abp. J. S., 241, 281, 300. 
 Alessandria (North Italy), 1>3. 
 Alexander I., St. (pope), 155, 440. 
 II. (pope), 119, 161. 
 
 TTT ' 11 189 
 
 III. 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 VI. 
 
 161, 188, 208. 
 162, 303. 
 
 131,163,209,294. 
 61, 75, 133-4, 163, 
 
 581. 
 
 6'., 163. 306. 
 164, 582. 
 
 " VII. 
 " VIII. 
 " Severus (emperor), 37. 
 
 Alexandria (Egypt), 73, 124, *05, 218, 258. 
 " (Tft.), 359. 
 
 Alexian (= of Alexius) Brothers, 309. 
 
 Alexius, St., 309. 
 
 Alfieri, 152. 
 
 Algeria, Algiers, 290, 312, 691. 
 
 Albania, Jose, 650-1. 
 
 Alias (= elsewhere, otherwise), 409. 
 
 Allegany (N. Y.), 296-7. 
 
 Allegheny City (Pa.), 327. 
 
 Allegiance, Release from, 128, 678,580-1. 
 
 Alleluia (= Hallelujah = Praise the Lord), 413, 
 430, 446 
 
 Allen, George, 669-70. 
 
 Allen Co. (Ind.). 328. 
 
 All Hallows College (Ireland), 369. 
 
 Allocution, Allocutio, 165-6, 197, 230, 232, 239, 
 251,583,585,641,653-4. 
 
 All Saints' Day. 195, 496. 
 
 All Souls' Day, 498. 
 
 Allumiera, 194. 
 
 Alma Mater (= nourishing mother, foster-moth- 
 er ; hence, the college or seminary where one 
 was educated), 613.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 799 
 
 Almanac, Catholic ; see Catholic Family Al- 
 manac. 
 
 Almedo. Father, 362. 
 
 Almighty God, H>3, 149, 227, 426, 430, 432-3, 
 437, 439. 447, 493, 506, 522-3, 681, 5b9, 6i*4. 
 
 Almonry (= Ambrv), 460. 
 
 Alms, Alms-deeds, 106, 618, 633, 633, &c.; see 
 Aayluuis, lieggars, &c. 
 
 Almshouse, 71- 
 
 Aloysius. Church of St. (Washington, D. C.), 
 359. Monastery of St. A.. 344. Novitiate of 
 St. A., 323. Sodality of St A., 4o6. 
 
 Alphonsu?, Uiureh of St. (N. Y.). 319, 547; 
 (1'Uiladelphia) 304; (Baltimore) 648. Bell, 
 462. 
 
 Alps, Alpine, 28, 50, 393, 398-9. 
 
 Altar, 6(5-7, 140, 144, 234-5, 237-8, 247, 2704, 
 362, 460, &c , in Chs. XIV., XX , &c. 
 A.-bell, 4CO (cut), 466. A.-card, A. -cloth, 
 A.-piece,4bU. A. -Society ,456. A. -veil, 430-1, 
 481. See also High A. 
 
 Al!e vnd Keue Welt (N. Y. magazine), 619. 
 
 Alton (111.) and Diocese, 276,280, 308, 323,327, 
 559.663. 
 
 Amadeus VIII. of Savoy, 218 ; see Felix V. 
 
 Amat, Bp T., 281, 313. 
 
 Ambassador, 189, 198, 210-1, 219, 221, 235 ; see 
 Legate, Nuncio, &c. 
 
 Ambrose, St. (bp of Milan), 57, 235. 473,508. 
 Ambrosian (= of Ambrose), 240, 423. 
 
 Amboyna, 363. 
 
 Ambry, 400. 
 
 Amelia (Central Italy), 191. 
 
 America, -an, 19,20, 65, 9*-9,109, 133. 136,139, 
 15 '.. 154, 173, 178, 1*3, 186, 231, 237; 246. 266. 
 270, 275, 277, 2S9, 308, 312, &J6, 339. 356-7, 
 333-4, 367-8, 372, 386, 388, 399, 404, 423, 456, 
 453, 514, 543. 56 ', 5r, 6u5. 607, 609-12, 615, 
 617-9, 637, 640, 645-6, 649, 655, 657, 065, 66M), 
 671, 673, 677, S3, 689, 693-4, 700, 702, 704, 
 707 12 ; see British A., North A., South A. 
 
 American and foreign Christian Union : (the 
 Society) 185, 347, 620, 665, 649 659, 674, 686 ; 
 (the magazine) 53t-6, 643-5, 673; see Chris- 
 tian \\orld. 
 
 American Bible Society, 183, 419, 597 ; see Bible 
 Societies. 
 
 American Ecclesiastical Year-Book, 314, 331. 
 
 American Protestant Society, 185. 
 
 American Tract Society, 621. 
 
 American Year Book, 372,665, 684. 
 
 Ainherst (Mass.), 145. 
 
 Amice, Amict. 258 60, 522. 
 
 Amos(O. T.). 409. 
 
 Amphitheatre, 76-7. 
 
 Ampulla, 460. 
 
 Amsterdam (Holland),^, 197. 
 
 An. (= Anno = Year), 403. 
 
 Anabaptists, 167. 
 
 Anacletus, St. (bp. of Rome), 64, 154-5. 
 " II. (antipope), 161. 
 
 Anagni (Central Italy), 162. 
 
 Anam (S.E. Asia), 37u, 690 ; see East Indies, &c. 
 
 Ananias, 346. 
 
 Anastasia, St , 440 
 
 Anastasia. Sister, 331. 
 
 Auastasius, St. (pope), 156. 
 " II , St. (pope), 167. 
 
 " (antipope ),VU. 
 
 " III. (pope), 159. 
 
 " IV. " 161. 
 
 Anathema, Anathematize. 95, 107, 111-18, 167-8. 
 225, 229-3'", 267, 342. 346, 891. 394,4<'5, 49, 
 411, 417, 423, 484, 494, 609, 21-4, 529, 553, 
 613,649,653,685,705,708. 
 
 Anchorites, 283. 
 
 Ancona ^Italy j,47, 49,50, 136, 163, 193-4, 647. 
 
 Ancus Martius (king), 21, 63. 
 
 Andalusia ( Spain), 378. 
 
 Andorra (between trance and Spain), 689. 
 
 Andover (Mass.), 303. 
 
 Andrea delta Voile, Ch'h of ant j (Rome) 63. 
 
 Andrew, St., 441, 491, 498. Church of St. Aa. 
 
 drew of the Valley (Rome), 63. 
 Andria(S. Italy), 633. 
 Angel 261, 424, 439, 456, 48", 493, 618, 624, 
 
 5S3. 
 
 Angelis, Cardinal de, 191, 234. 
 Angelo, Michael, C3, 55. 64, 66, 142.660. 
 
 " Castle of St., 65, ',b. U9, 198, 4< 3. 
 Angleria, 1'ietro Martire d', 389. . 
 
 Anglican (=of England, or of the Church of 
 
 England), 420, 457, &t6, 681.' 
 Angola, 691. 
 
 Anicetus, St (pope), 155. 
 Animal Magnetism, C35. 
 Ann or Anne, St., 4i5, 498. Church of St. A. 
 
 (N Y ),540,646-7, 670. Sisters of St. A. ,328. 
 Annals of the 1'ropagation of the iaith, 109, 
 
 339-71, 619. 
 
 Annapoiis (Md.), 319, 327. 
 Ann Arbor (Mich.), 319. 
 Annats, 217,566 
 Anne ( blnglbh queen), 399. 
 Annesley , Mr . 609. 
 Annexation to L'. S., 667. 
 Annotations (on the Bible), 410, 412, 418. 
 Anntiario Pontiftcio, 281. 
 Annunciation of the B V. M., 4P5, 496. 
 Anointing, 273, 416, 444 (cut), 460-2, 462. 
 Antependium, 46<>-l (cut), 469-70, 481. 
 Anterus, St. (pope). 156 
 Anthem, 484, 600 ; see Choir, Hymn, Singing, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Anthemius (emperor), 39. 
 Anthony, St., 283. 
 Anthony of Padua, St., 294. Church of St. A. 
 
 of P. (N. Y.I, 296. 
 Anti-Catholics, 176. 
 Antichrist, 698. 
 
 Antioch (Syria), 69,90, 121-4, 2(5, 218. 
 Antiochus the Great, 30. 
 Antiphon, Antiphony, 274, 425, 445, 471. 
 Antipope, 154 164, &c ; FCC Tope. 
 Antiquity, 19, 20, 92-6, 108, 112-13, 118, 120, 
 
 6956, &c. 
 Antium, 67. 
 Antonelli, Cardinal James (=Giacomo), 141, 
 
 194-7, L37, 630, 641. 
 Antonine Column (Rome), 83. 
 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius. 37, 43, 68,83. 
 
 " Pius, 36-7, 43, 82. 
 
 Antonio (= Anthony), St , 365. 
 Antonucci, Cardinal, 192 3 
 Antony, Mark (= Marcus Antonius), 33-5. 
 Antwerp (Belgium), 3u9, *5b. 
 Aosta(.\. Italy\419. 
 Apennines, 50j 126 
 Apocalypse (N. T ), 409. 
 Apocrypha, -al. 409, ill, 525-6. 
 Apollo, 41, 67 285. 
 Apollos, 709. 
 Apostate, Apostasy, <>43, 349 Chs. XI., XVIII., 
 
 XXII. ,679, 609, &c. 
 Apostle, 123. 361, 386, 4'9, 43t, 436-7, 440, 523, 
 
 637, 647, 632. 67<> ; see I'eter, Paul, &c. 
 
 Apostles' Creed. 2C9, 449, 477, 485-6, 620, 524. 
 Apostleship of Prayer, 466. 
 Apostolic, -al (= of an apostle, of the apostles ; 
 
 hence, of a pope, as successor of the apostles.)
 
 800 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 232-3, 271, 372,418, 453, &c. A. Commissary, 
 135 ; compare 533. A. Delegations and Pre- 
 fectures, 3. A. Succession, 91, 97, 113, 124, 
 229. &c. A. Vicar and Vicariate ; see Vicar 
 Apostolic, &c. 
 
 Aooxtoticus, 5S6-.7. 
 
 Appian tt'ay (Home), 53, 64, 75, 78. 
 
 Appletons' Companion iland-Book of Travel, 
 641. 
 
 Appletons' New American Cyclopedia, 154-64, 
 215-16, 288, 291-2, 303-4, 308, 310,313, 317-18, 
 320, 324-5, 3*3, 357-8, 448-9. 
 
 Appletons' New York Illustrated, 545-6. 
 
 Apw, Apsis, 231,247, 461, 547. Apsidal(=aa an 
 apsis). 547 
 
 A'/ita Virgo, 74. 
 
 Aqueducts (Home,), 74, 79. 
 
 Aquensian Council, 175. 
 
 Aqiiila (man). l3 ; (city of Italy)194. 
 
 Aquilcia (in N. Italy), 114, 155. 
 
 Aquinas, St. Thomas, 95, ll'l, 299. 
 
 Arabi.i, -an, -ic, 37, 59. 93, 242. 370, 372, 690. 
 
 Am Ctfli, or Santa Maria di Ara Call, Church 
 (Uom?). 63 
 
 Aragon, Arragon (Spain), 134.375, &c., in Chap. 
 XI. 
 
 Arcadian ( = of Arcadia in Greece), 21. 
 
 Arcadius (emperor), 38. 
 
 Archbishop (Abp.), 93,5)3,102.124, 138, 166, 168, 
 170, 1.'3, 175, 177, 185, 138, 190-3, 199, 202, 
 5110, 21i, 220-1, 227, 235-8. 240. 242, 244-6, 
 253-9, 262, 261. 270. 277-81, 284, 283, 291, 299, 
 800, 379, 337, 410, 419, 420, 467, 484, 487-8, 
 6' 19. 5 IS, 533-4, 542, 555,564, 570-1,578,593, 
 629, 633-4, 65(5, 695 ; see Archdiocese, Metro- 
 politan, Province, names of particular Arch- 
 bishops, &c 
 
 Archbishopric, 281. 
 
 Archponfraternity, 456 : see Confraternity. 
 
 Archdiocese, 276-81, 526. 616, 602,664,670, &c.; 
 see Archbishop, Archbishopric. 
 
 Archsvnagogue, 412. 
 
 Ardea'lin Italy), 159. 
 
 Arduno(king), 152. 
 
 Anenteuil (in France), 633. 
 
 Argentine Republic (3. A.), 688. 
 
 Arius, Ariau, Arianism, 156, 204, 374, 389. 
 
 Arizona, !477, 281. 
 
 Arkansas, 305, 606 ; see places marked "(Ark.)". 
 
 Armagh (Ireland), 684. 
 
 Armenia, -an, 31. 40, 70, 109. 177, 284, 423 
 Armenian Church, 101,109, 219, 242, 267, 423, 
 689, 691. Armeno-Catholics (= Armenians 
 who submit to the Pope). 423 
 
 Arminian ( = a follower of Arminius), 706. 
 
 Armonia, 386. 
 
 Arnald (Cistercian abbot), 392. 
 
 Arnaldo da Brescia (= Arnold of Brescia), 208. 
 
 Arnaud, Henry, 399. 
 
 Arnold, Bp., 633. 
 
 Arrests, 626-7. 
 
 Arthur, Her \Vm., 198. 
 
 Ascension (festival). 434, 485, 495-6, 601. 
 
 Ascetic, 283, 342, 572, 613, &c.; gee Monastic, 
 &c. 
 
 Ascoli (Central Italy), 162, 191. 
 
 Ash- Wednesday, 452, 462, 485, 495, 497-9, 524. 
 
 Asia.-atic, 30-1, 40. 43, 109, 275, 312, 356, 862, 
 372, 689-90, 692-3, 708. Asiatic Religions, 
 692 A. Russia, 690. A. Turkey, 310, 690. 
 
 Asia Minor, 3", 2<4. 
 
 Asquint, Cardinal, 192. 
 
 Assessors, 2<H), 37i-8, 880-1. 
 
 AiwW, Axxisium, 232, 295 ; see Francis (St.), 
 Clara (St.). 
 
 Association for Prayer, 456. 
 
 " " Propagation of the Faith, 369-70, 
 
 672. 
 
 Association of the Holy Childhood of Jesus, 370. 
 " ' St. Louis, 370. 
 
 Assumption of the B. V M. or of our Blessed 
 Lady (festival), 61, 485, 489-90, 496-7. Church 
 of the A. (Baltimore), 643. Convent of the 
 A. Fathers (Syracuse, N. Y.), 298. 
 
 Assyria, 709. 
 
 Astolphus (Lombard king), 47. 
 
 Asylum, 71, 296, &c., in Chap VTTI., 562; see 
 Orphan A., Foundling A., &c. A. in church- 
 es, &c., 137. 
 
 Atchison (Kan.), 289, 563. 
 
 Athanasius, St. (bp. of Alexandria, Egypt), 67, 
 
 Athens (Greece), Athenian, 20, 43, 154-6. 
 
 Atlanta (Ga.), 306, 619. 
 
 Atlantic Monthly, 659. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean, 20, 40, 543, 617. 
 
 Atonement, 672, &c.; see Propitiation, &c. 
 
 Attila (king ot the Huns), 46. 
 
 Aubigne, J. H. Merle d'; see Merle d' Aubigne. 
 
 Auctorem Fidei, 177,582. 
 
 Auffray, \Vm., 340. 
 
 Auglaize Co. (0.), 324. 
 
 Augsburg (S. Germany), 95. 
 
 Augusta (Ua.), 306. 
 
 Augustine or Austin, St. (bp. of Hippo), 57, 
 235, 290-1, 298, 300, 302-4, 306, 308-9, 317, 
 508-9, 577, 635. 
 
 Augustine or Austin, St. (abp. of Canterbury), 
 288,361. 
 
 Augustine, St. (Fla.) ; see St. Augustine. 
 
 Augustinian (or Austin) Canons, 290-1 (cut). 
 
 " " " Eremites or Friars, Au- 
 
 gustine Eremites, Augustinians (0. S. A.), 
 292, 302-3 (cut), 317, 40u. 
 
 Augustulus, 39, 46. 
 
 Augustus Cesar, 22-3, 26, 34-6, 39, 40, 72, 74, 75, 
 78. 
 
 Aula(= hall), 247 
 
 Aurelian (emperor), 37. 43, 53 
 
 Aurelius Claudius (emperor), 37 : see Antoninus 
 and Probus. 
 
 Auricular Confession, 508-9, &c.; see Confession. 
 
 Aurora (Ind.), 831. 
 
 " (R. C. newspaper), 619. 
 
 Auspice Maria, 262. 
 
 Austin Canons and Friars ; see Augustinian. 
 
 Austin, St.; see Augustine, St. 
 
 Austin (Tex.), 330 
 
 Australia, -an, 237, 373, 690. 
 
 Australasia, 99, 690. 
 
 Austria, -an, 49, 109, 137. 139, 151-2, 183,188, 
 198, 210, 220, 245, 249, 336, 370, 393, 418, 420, 
 585, 617,623-5, 652-3, 656. 685-7, 689. 
 
 Authority, 108, 120-6, 145, 230, 244, 248, 260-1, 
 274-6, 351, 375, 378, 389, 392, 403, 465, 501, 
 607, 522-3, 526-7, 629, 654-6, 557, 574-5, 640, 
 643, 645, 661, 695, &c.; see Supremacy, Tem- 
 poral Power, &c. 
 
 Authorized Version of the Scriptures, 412, 417, 
 &c 
 
 Auto da Fe.Auto de Fe, 884-5 (plate). 
 
 Autumn, 497. 
 
 Auxerre ( France), 62. 
 
 Ava(Burmah), 372. 
 
 At-e Maria, Ave, 369, 535, &c.: see Hall Mary. 
 
 Ave Maria (R. C. magazine), 619. 
 
 Ai'tnir, L', 571-2. 
 
 Aventine Hill or Mount (Rome), 51, 63, 78. 
 
 Avignon (France), 49, 65, 130-2, 162. 
 
 Avitus (emperor), 39.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 801 
 
 Aroyelles (La.), 330. 
 
 Azores, 110,689, 691. 
 
 Azymes (= unleavened bread), 412. 
 
 Babuino, Via d/(Rome),73. 
 
 Babylon, -ouian, 123, 130, &8, 709. 
 
 Bacchus, 41. 
 
 Bacon, Bp. D. W., 280. 
 
 " Rev. Leonard, D. D., 183-4, 659-60, 671-2, 
 
 704-5. 
 
 Bacon, Roger, 294. 
 Baden (Germany), 210,625. 
 Badges, 461. 
 Baird, Rev. Robert, D. D., 396-8, 534, 646, 684, 
 
 686. 
 
 Baker, Francis A., 669-70. 
 Bakewell, Win. J., 669-70. 
 Baldachin, Baldacchino, 66, 248, 461, 464, 647. 
 Baldwin (emperor), 62. 
 Balmez, 388. 
 
 Balsam, Balm, 451, 459, 466, 473. 
 Baltes, Bp. P. J., 280. 
 Baltimore (Md ). 233, 241, 262, 265, 268, 274, 
 
 276, 278, 297, 302, 306, 312, 314, 318-19, 321, 
 
 323, 327-30, 344, 357 9, 390. 410, 412, 614, 
 
 543-4, 548, 552, 579, 619-20, 662. 666. 
 Baltimore Clipper (newspaper*, 586. 
 
 " Episcopal Methodist (newspaper), 630. 
 " Lord ( lst= George Calvert), 637. 
 " " (2d= Cecilius Calvert), 637-8. 
 
 Balutius, 176. 
 Bamberg (Germany), 245. 
 Bambino, Satitissimo, 63. 
 Bancroft's (Hon. George) History of U. S., 637-8. 
 Banner, 459, 461. 467, 491 (cut), 543. 
 Banner of the Cross (newspaper), 669-70. 
 
 " " " South (R. C. newspaper), 619. 
 Bans of Matrimony, 453. 
 Baptism, Baptized. 91, 103-4, 1%, 109, 361-3, 
 
 370-2, a37, 405, 414, 449-51, 466, 469-70, 477, 
 
 521-2, 531, 563, 648, 652, 665, 668, 675,684, 
 
 706. 
 Baptist, 90. 340, 594, 620, 671, 674 ; see John 
 
 the Baptist. 
 
 Barat, Mademoiselle, 324. 
 Barber, Daniel, 669-70. 
 " John \V., 312. 
 " Virgil II , 669-70. 
 Barberini Palace (Rome), 69. 
 Barberis, Friar Philip de, 377. 
 Barcelona (.Spain), 535, 650. 
 Barclay, Robert, 639. 
 
 Bardstown (Ky.) and Diocese, 317, 358, 666. 
 Barefoot. Barefooted, 302, 311, 384, 672. 
 Bareheaded, 45V. 
 Bari(.S. Italv), 633. 
 Barili, Cardinal, 194, 247. 
 Barnabas, St . 440, 498. 
 Barnahites, 309. 
 
 Jtarnabo, Cardinal, 186, 192. 237. 
 Barnard. Hon. Daniel D., 143. 
 Baronius. Cardinal, 93, 310. 
 Bartholomew's Day, St.. 401, 498. Massacre of 
 
 St. B's Day, or B. Massacre, 66, 381, 401-3, 
 
 705. Island of St. B. (Rome), 62; see St. 
 
 Bartholomew ( W. I.). 
 Barton (Wis.).33l. 
 Baruch (Apocrypha), 4^9. 
 Baschi, Mattoo'( = Matthew), 297. 
 Basel, Basil (Switzerland) = Basle. 
 Basil (emperor). 3>7. 
 Basil, St., 28 1, 508. 
 BasileopolU, 555. 
 
 Basilian Monks, Racilians, 284, 290. 
 Basilica, 54 63 : see Peter's (St.), &0. 
 Basin, 461. 
 
 51 
 
 Basle (Switzerland), and Council of B., 133, 
 
 214-18, 225. 
 
 Bastile (= a tower ; especially, the old citadel of 
 Paris, used as a state-prison and destroyed 
 in 1789 ; figuratively, a prison under arbitrary 
 and irresponsible management), 677. 
 Basutos (Africa), 691. 
 Baths (Rome), 78-9 ; see Diocletian, &c. 
 Battle-axes, 142. 
 Bausset, Bp. dc, 354. 
 Bavaria, -an, 109, 161, 210, 245, 249, 370, 574. 
 
 623, 625. 687. 
 
 Bayley, Bp. James R., 270, 280, 669 70. 
 Beads, 95, 461, &c.; see Chaplet, Rosary. 
 Beards, 291, 298. 
 Becker, Bp. T A., 278 
 Becket, St. Thomas a, 498. 
 Beckx (Jesuit general). 356. 
 Bedini, Abp., 270-4, 534, 656. 
 Beecher, Rev. Edward, D. I)., 514-15. 
 
 " Rev. Henry Ward, 607-9. 
 Beggars, 86, 88, 871.-615 ; see Mendicity, Mendi- 
 cants, Paupers, &c. 
 Beghards and Beguins, 209. 
 Beguines, 511 ; compare 209. 
 Bel and the Dragon (Apocrypha), 409. 
 Belfry, 542-3; see Bell. 
 
 Belgium, -an, 98, 108, 188, 233, 245, 290, 292, 
 308-9, 318, 356, 3*58, 393, 417, 458, 623, 625, 
 651,653,682,686,689. 
 Belisarius. 47. 
 Bell, 68, 198 236, 384, 401, 458-9, 462. 466, 481. 
 
 500 1,543, 562 ; see Chime, Clapper. 
 Bellarmin, Cardinal, 171-2, 209, 214-15, 526, 
 
 638. 
 
 Belleville (111.), 327. 
 Bellevne Hospital (N. T.), 564. 
 Belluno(N. Italy), 138, 164. 
 Beloochistan(Asia), 690. 
 Belvedere (Vatican, Rome), 66-7. 
 Bench, 462, 464, 467, 480, 561. 
 BeneiJtcamus Domino, 446-7. 
 Benedict, St ,94,284-5, &c.; see Benedictines. 
 
 St. B's Church (Atchiaon, Kan.), 563. 
 Benedict I. (pope), 157. 
 " II. " 158. 
 " HI. " 159. 
 " IV. " 159. 
 " V. " 160. 
 " VI. " 160. 
 " VII. " 160. 
 " VIII. " 160. 
 " IX. " 160-1. 
 " X. (pope?), 161. 
 " XI. (pope), 132. 1G2, 299. 
 " XII. " 162'. 
 
 " XIII. (Avignon pope), 131-2, 162-3, 
 209,211,299. 
 Benedict XIII. (pope), 164, 175, 186. 
 
 " XIV. " 62, 99, 102, 164, 175-6, 
 199,389,418,475,477,537. 
 Benedictine Monks, Benedictines (O. S. B.), 94, 
 284^0 (cut), 333-4. 301. B. of St Maur, 288. 
 Benediction, 141, 144, 248-9, 252, 345-7, 420, 
 447, 454, 477, 481-2 : see Blessing, &c. B. of 
 Blessed Sacrament, 471 2, 474, 480-2. B -Veil, 
 264, 462, 481-2. 
 &nerltctus. 600. 
 
 Benefice, 166, 189, 217, 223. 208, 5"-3,5G6, 629.. 
 Benevento(3. Italy), 161, 192. 
 Benevolent Societies, 456. 
 Benguela ( Africa), 691. 
 Benicia(Cal.), 300-1. 
 Benton (Wis.), 301. 
 Benziger Brothers, 122, 263-4, 459-82, 490-L
 
 802 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Berardi, Cardinal, 194. 
 
 Berger, Gregory, 418. 
 
 Berlin (Prussia), 20. 
 
 Bermuda Islands, 688. 
 
 Born, Berne (Switzerland), 616. 
 
 Bernard (king of Italy), 48. 
 
 Bernard, St., 80, 110, 117, 288, 488-9. 
 
 Bernardine Monks, Bernardiues, 288, 392. 
 
 Bernetzed, Rev. C., 289. 
 
 Bernini, 65, 66, 73. 
 
 Berttiold,301. 
 
 Berulle, Cardinal de, 310. 
 
 Besancon (France), 192, 245. 
 
 Bethel Baptist Church (N. Y.), 594. 
 
 Bethlehem (Judea), 36, 411, 642. 
 
 Beast, Count Von, 688. 
 
 Beziers (France), 375-6, 392. 
 
 Bible, 67, 91, 173-83, 370, 373. 382. 389, 394, 
 408-21, 517, 627, 587-8, 592, &c., in Chap. 
 XXIV., 634, 636, 648-51, 653, 666, 658, 6(7, 
 685-6,697,699,706; see Douay Bible, Scrip- 
 tures, Vulgate, &c. Bible-burning, 44, 418-19, 
 655. Bible Societies, 137, 173-84, 230, 418-19 ; 
 see American B. S. 
 
 Biglio, Cardinal, 191, 193, 234, 237,241 
 
 Bilio = Biglio 
 
 Billiard-table, 142. 
 
 Billiet, Cardinal, 193. 
 
 Binder, Rev M., 289. 
 
 Binghauiton (N. Y.). 325. 
 
 Biretta, Bi return, Birretus, 258, 270, 291. 
 
 Birmingham (Eng.), 185, 310. 
 
 Birmingham (Pa.), 3l2. 
 
 Bishop (Up.), 91-3, 98, 102, 109-10, 115, 124-5, 
 128-9, 139-40, 148, 165-6, 168, 170, 173, 175, 
 187-9, 191-3, 19 /, 199, 202, &c., in Ch. VI., 
 257-9, 261-2, 268-81, 284-5, 288, 290, 298-300, 
 804,333, 308, 313, 320. 343-7, 351, 361,370, 
 372, 374-7, 380, 389, 392, 405. 410, 417-18, 
 420-1, 424, 435, 449, 451-3, 455, 460,462-7, 469, 
 
 ! 472-3, 480, 4834, 497, 502, 604-5, 610, 512, 
 . 514-13, 520-5, 527, 631, 542, 552, &c., in Chap. 
 : XXI., 572, 578, 580, 583-4, 586, 588-90, 602, 
 ; 619,629,634, 641, 652-7, 660,666,670,672-3, 
 j 695, 703-5; nee Diocese, Ordinary, Pontiff, 
 names of particular Bishops. &c. Ecumen- 
 ical or Universal I}., 93, 120. B. of Rome, 
 93-5, 98, 103. 119, 123, 205-6, 682, &c. ; see 
 Pope. B's Candlestick, 463. 
 
 Bishopric, 281, 558, 538, 629 ; see Diocese. 
 
 Bizzarri, Cardinal, 181, 193, 234, 241. 
 
 Black, 258, 262-4, 287, 291, 294-5, 300, 302, 304, 
 303, 308-9. 311-12, 314, 320, 347, 349, 384, 464, 
 475, 477-8, 668. B. Friars (= Dominicans), 
 299. B. Monks (= Benedictines), 287. B. 
 Pope ( = General of the Jesuits), 237. 
 
 Blackwell's Island (N. Y.), 359. 
 
 Blanchet, Abp. V. N., 280. 
 " Bp. A. M. A., 280. 
 
 Blasphemy, 99, 493, 629. 
 
 Blenkinsop, Mother Mary E.. 314. 
 
 Blessed Virgin, Blessed Virgin Mary, B. V. M., 
 487, 493, &c. ; see Mary the Virgin. 
 
 Blessing, 430, 453, 461-2,467, 469, 471, 499, 501, 
 661,583, &c. ; see Benediction. 
 
 Blood, Confraternity of the Precious, 456. 
 
 Blood, Congregation of the Most Precious, 324. 
 
 Bloody Sweat, the, 485. 
 
 Bloomington (111.), 325. 
 
 Blue, 270, 478, 647. 
 
 Boards of Education, Chap. XXIV. 
 
 Bohemia, -an, 211, 216, 336, 393, 404, 686. 
 
 Bolivia (S. A.), 688. ' 
 
 Bologna (Italy), 131, 133, 161, 1G3-4, 193,210, 
 220, 225, 298, 648. 
 
 Bonald, Cardinal de, 190-1, 634. 
 
 Bono. Mors, Confraternity of, 456. 
 
 Bonanni's Catalogue of Religious Orders, 291. 
 
 2U4, 299, 300, 302, 306, 308-9. 
 Bonaparte, Cardinal, 194 ; see Napoleon, 
 llonar, Rev. Horatius, D. D., 340-2. 
 lipnaven, 268. 
 Bonaventura, St., 78. 
 Bonelli, Kev. L.,312. 
 Boniface I., St. (pope), 157. 
 
 " II., " ' 157. 
 
 " III. (pope), 157. 
 
 " IV. " 157. 
 
 " V. " 158. 
 
 " VI. " 159. 
 
 " VII. (pope?), 130. 
 
 " VIII. (pope), ISO, 132, 162 
 
 " IX. " 68, 131, 102. 
 Boniface (apostle of Germany), 381. St. B'a 
 
 Cnurch (New Haven), 565-6. 
 Bonnechose, Cardinal de, 190-1, 237, 251. 
 
 dex of Prohibited Books, &c. 
 
 Booksellers, 204, 418. Bookstore, 421, 620. 
 
 Book Stand, 462. 
 
 Boots, 287. 
 
 Bordeaux (France), 192, 451. 
 
 Borgess,Bp. C.,2i9. 
 
 Borghese Palace and Villa (Rome), 69. 
 
 Borgia, Roderic (= Alexander VI.), 133. Cesar 
 B., 133-4. Lucretia B., 134. 
 
 Borgia (or Borja^, St. Francis de, 389. 
 
 Borgo, the (Rome), 85 ; see Leonine city. 
 
 Borroineo. St. Charles, 102. 
 
 " ' Cardinal Edward, 194, 239. 
 
 Borzinski, John E. and Ubaldus, 333. 
 
 Bossuet (Bp. of Meaux, France), 582. 
 
 Boston ( Mass ) and Diocese, 202, 270, 276,279, 
 296, 318, 319, 327, 357, 359, 544, 558, 563, 
 593-4, 600, 619-20, 638, 633, 666, 671, 675 ; see 
 East B., South B., &c. B. College, 359, 544. 
 B. Highlands, 32 <. 
 
 Botto, 534. 
 
 Boulogne (France), 268. 
 
 Bouquets, 462, 469. 
 
 Bourbon, Isle of, 110, 691. 
 " Kings, 137. 
 
 Bourbonnais Grove (111.), 310,326-7. 
 
 Bourg-Argental (France), 192. 
 
 Bourgeoys, Margaret, 3^3. 
 
 Bourget, Bp. I., 245. 
 
 Boyne (river in Ireland), 712. 
 
 Brahminism, 692. 
 
 Bramante, 55, 65-6. 
 
 Brande's ( W. T .), Encyclopedia of Science, Lite- 
 rature and Art, 473. 495, 641-2. 
 
 Brandes, Dr. Karl. 122, 127. 
 
 Brandon (Vt.), 662. 
 
 Brazil (S. A.), -ian, 109, 237, 270, 352, 886, 
 419, 618, 654-5. 688. 
 
 Bread, 2S7, 422-3, 432-3, 435-6, 451, 462, 467, 471, 
 476, 482 ; see Eucharist, Mass. 
 
 Bread-irons, 462. 
 
 Breakspear, Nicholas (=IIadrian IV., pope), 
 
 Brescia (N. Italy), 208, 307. 
 
 Brethren of the Christian Schools, 310, 320-1, 
 
 854. 
 Breviary, Breviarium, 104, 110, 120, 190, 206, 
 
 303, 346, 448-9, 462 497, 631-2. 
 Bride, Bridegroom, 454, 665. 
 Bridesburg(l'a.), 297. 
 Bridgeport (Ct.), 645.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 803 
 
 Bridget, St. (patroness of Ireland) 455, 634; 
 
 (Irish girl) 630. St. B's Female School (N.Y.), 
 
 316. 
 Brief, 172-3. 177, 251, 352-3, 356, 511, 531, 582, 
 
 629, 693. 
 
 Brigand, Brigandage, 102, 137, 195-7, 640. 
 Britain, British Isles, British, Briton, 31, 33, 40, 
 
 320, 357. B. Columbia, 288, 688. 
 
 Britannia, 468. 
 
 Bronte (Sicily). 193 
 
 Bronze, 56, 479, &c. 
 
 Brooklyn (N. Y.), 91, 202, 270, 276, 279, 296, 
 301, 306, 313-15, 31, 325-6, 328-9, 659, 663. 
 
 Brooks, lion. Erastus, 559, 564. 
 
 Brooksiana, 664. 
 
 Brother, Brothers, 292, 294, 608, &c., see Or- 
 ders (Religious). Brotherhoods, 455-6. 
 Brothers of Christian Charity, 270 B. of the 
 Christian Instruction of the Sacred Heart of 
 Jesus and Mary, 321-2. B. of the Sacred 
 Heart, 323 B. of Mercy, 336. 
 
 Brown (color), 302-3, 314, 478, 481. 
 
 Brown Co. (0.), 308. 
 
 Brownson, Orestes A., LL.D., 684, 586, 612, 
 672. B's Quarterly Review, 683-4, 612-13,' 
 618 19, 644-5. 
 
 Brownsville (Tex.), 320, 330. 
 
 Brunn (Austria), 624 
 
 Brussels (Belgium), 264, 309, 624. 
 
 Brussels (111.), 325. 
 
 Brutus, Marcus Junius, 34-6. 
 
 Brzozowski, 354. 
 
 Buddhism, -ists, 692. 
 
 Buffalo (N. Y ) and Diocese, 202, 211, 270,276, 
 280, 296-7, 313, 316-21, 325-9, 358-9, 555, 659, 
 619, 633. 
 
 Bull, Bulla, 132, 135, 166-72, 198, 210, 214, 217, 
 220-1, 227, 331-5, 352, 350, 377, 379, 394. 405, 
 611,533-4,536,582,693. 
 
 Buukli-y, Miss Josephine M., 335-6. 
 
 Burchun, Peter S.,609. 
 
 Burgundy (France), 1*31, 218. 
 
 Burial, B.-rites, 501,504,587, 658 ; see Burying- 
 ground, Cemetery. 
 
 Burlando, Very Rev. F , 314. 
 
 Burlington (Vt.) and Diocese, 202, 246, 270,276, 
 280,317,659,663. 
 
 Bunnah (S. E. Asia), 690. 
 
 Burning of Heretics, 212-13, 364, 377.394, &c., 
 in i ii. XI., 705 ; see Heretic, Inquisition, Per- 
 secution. 
 
 Burse, 432, 462, 467. 
 
 Burying-ground, 505, 657 ; see Burial, Cemetery. 
 
 Butler (Abp. James) and his Catechism, 530-1. 
 630-1. 
 
 Butler! Pa. ),331. 
 
 B. V. M. (= Blessed Virgin Mary), 495, &c ; see 
 Mary the Virgin. 
 
 Byron, Lord George G., 75-6. 
 
 Byzantine (= of liyzantium, now Constantino- 
 ple), 4/5,541. 
 
 Cabrieres ( France), 401. 
 
 Cadiz (-pain), IsM, 68-5. 
 
 CalTi-arin, Kaffr iria ( Africa), 691. 
 
 C.-igliari (SarJii.ia , 1J1. 
 
 Cain, 34 i, 633. 
 
 Cairo ( 11.), 327. 
 
 Caius, St. ( pope>, 15*5. 
 
 Ciyetan, Cardr.rU, 211, 527. 
 
 Calabria (>paia), -an, 100, 301. 
 
 Caloed. 302. 
 
 Caledonians, 40. 
 
 California, Cal., 109, 295-6, 301, 305, 316, 357-8, 
 
 360, 368, 649, 604, 618-19, 666-7. 
 California St. (San Francisco), 549. 
 Caligula (emperor), 36, 46, 72, 78. 
 Calixtug, St. (pope), 84, 155. 
 " II. " 161,207. 
 " III. " 133,163. 
 " III. (antipope),161. 
 Calotte, 258. 
 Calpurnius, 268. 
 Calvary, 261, 479. 
 Calvary Cemetery (Newtown, L. I., near N.Y.), 
 
 564. 
 
 Calvary (Wis ), 298. 
 
 Calvert, Sir George, Cecilius, and Leonard, 637-8. 
 Calvinism, -ist, -istic, 90, 167-8, 176-7, 610, 670, 
 
 706. 
 
 Cam, Diego, 363. 
 Camaldolese, 189, 288. 
 Cambray (France), 98, 134, 210, 671. 
 Cambridge (Eng.), 292. 
 Cambridgeport iMass.), 326. 
 Camillus, 27. 
 
 Campagna (Italy), 51, 74. 
 Campana (R. C. newspaper), 386. 
 Campania (Italy), 28, 155, 157-8. 
 Campeggio, 336 
 
 Campidoglio (Rome), 68 ; see Capitol. 
 Campo Fiore ( Italy), 666. 
 Campus Martius (Rome), 83, 85 ; see Mars. 
 Canaan, 20. 
 Canada (Can.). Canadian, 109, 237, 245, 284, 295, 
 
 308, 310, 316-17. 319-aO, 323, 326, 328, 357-8, 
 
 418, 520, 557, 586, 618, 658, 670, 674, 687-8, 
 
 701. 
 
 Canandaigua (N. Y.I, 325-6 
 Canary Isles, Canaries, 110, 388, 691. 
 Cancetleria ( = Chancery), 69. 
 Candelabrum, Candelabre, 462-3 (cut), 470. 
 Candia, Peter de, 131, 209 ; see Alexander V. 
 Candle, 143, 249, 458-9, 463, 472, 480-1, 498-9, 
 
 501, 522-4. Candle-bearer, 463. Candlemas, 
 
 93. Candlestick, 462-4, 470, 472 647. 
 Canisius' College (Buffalo, N. Y.), 358. 
 Cannae, 28. 
 Cannon, Rev. F., 289. 
 Canon (of a Council), 104-8, 204, 219, 244, 248, 
 
 267,374^5, 391, 406, 423. 678-9, 85, 654, 693. 
 Canon < priest i, 144, 175, 237, 290-2, 309-10. 
 Canonesses, 291. 
 
 Canonical Hours, 290, 298, 348, 448. 
 Canonical Scriptures, 409 ; see Lible, &c. 
 Canonist, 200. 
 Canonization, 95, 165, 293, 298, 306, 361, 365, 
 
 389, 490. 
 Canon Law, 98, 107, 125, 130, 135, 185, 200,241, 
 
 265-6, 377, 579, 582-3, 643, 701. 
 Canon of the Mass, 93, 423 432, 434-41, 452. 
 Canopy, 234, 270, 459,461, 464 \cut /( 480-1. 
 Canossa, 129 
 
 Canterbury (Eng.\ 288, 498, 609. 
 Canticle of Canticles (Q. T.), 4C9 
 Canton China , 367 . 
 Cap, 189, 258, 291, 314, 384. 
 Capalti, Cardinal Annibal (=Hannibar, 191, 
 
 191, 231, 532 
 
 Cape, 294,314, fee. : see Dress, IL.bit. 
 Cape Colony, '292, 691. 
 Cape Giranieau (Mo. ',313 327. 
 Capella =Chapel), 66. 
 Cape Verd Islands, 110. 
 Capitol, Capitoline Hill or Mount (Rome), 51, 53, 
 
 63,68,69,78,81,83,85,86. 
 Caporhe 297. 
 Cappa, 261.
 
 804 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Cappadocia (Asia Minor), 284. 
 
 Capua (Italy), 28, 32. 
 
 Capuchins (0. M. C.), 143, 238, 294, 297-8, 363, 
 
 335,3dy,372, 395,611,586. 
 Caracalla, 37, 46, 78. C's Baths, 78-80. 
 Cardinal, 63, 86, 96, 98, 110, 128, 131, 133-5, 140, 
 
 143-4, 165, 169, 177, 185, 187-201, 209-11, 213, 
 
 216, 219-21, 227, 232-43, 245, 251, 380, 660 ; 
 
 see names of particular Cardinals. C.- Vicar, 
 
 87, 190, 628. C.-Vice-chanceUor, 69, 191. 
 Cardo, Carclinalis, 187. 
 Carinus (emperor), 37. 
 
 Carlist (= partisan of Carlos or Charles), 634. 
 Carloinan/i'rench king), 48. 
 Carloviugian (= of Charlemagne), 48. 
 Caruiel, Mount (Palestine), 301, 478, 488,539; 
 
 see Carmelites, Our Lady of >lt. C., Scapular, 
 
 &c. 
 Carmelites, 143, 292, 301-2, 329, 333, 369, 389, 
 
 488, 637, 539, 572-3. 
 Carneseechi, 381. 
 Carnival, Carnivale, 68, 498-9. 
 Carondelet (Mo.), 325. 
 Carpet, 464. 
 Carpiento (Italy), 192. 
 Carranza, Abp., 379-80, 389. 
 Carrara (Italy), 549. 
 
 Carriage (= carrying) of the Cross, the, 485. 
 Carroll, lion. Charles. 637. 
 
 " Abp. John, 410, 666. 
 Carrollton ^Md.), 312, 637. 
 Carrolltowu (Pa.), 334. 
 Carthage (N. Africa), Carthaginians, 27-31, 45-6, 
 
 117. 
 
 Carthagena (Colombia, S. A.), 386, 653. 
 Carthagena(0.),324. 
 Carthusians, 61, 288. 
 Cartier,Mr.,586. 
 Carunchio, Rev. V.^ 312. 
 Carus (emperor), 3<. 
 Casas, Las, 299. 
 Cashel (Ireland), 684. 
 Casoni, Cardinal, 191. 
 Cass, Hon. Lewis, Jr., 646. 
 Cassmesian (U. S.), Monte Cassino (Italy), 94, 
 
 286, 288-9. 
 
 CasBius, Caius, 34-5. Quintus C.,33. 
 Cassock, 258-9, 261-2, 291, 320. 
 Castelar, 653. 
 
 Castt.1 Gandolfo (near Rome), 69. 
 Castellani, 647. 
 Castclnau, Peter of, 392. 
 Castile (Spain), 377-8, 387. 
 Castor and Pollux, 41. 
 Castro (Italy), 133. . 
 Castro, Francis de, 363. 
 Castro ville (Tex.), 330. 
 Catacombs (Home), 83-4. 
 Catalonia (Spain ). 377. 
 Catawba (wine), 451. 
 Catechism, Catechising, 871, 408, 603, 580, 589, 
 
 613, 633-1. Oil, 693; see Collofs C., General 
 
 C., &c. C. of the Council of Trent, 102-3, 
 
 119, 255-8, 405, 449-52, 484, 603-4, 508, 517-19, 
 
 524 5, 630. 
 
 Catechumens, 257, 423, 431 ; see Oil of C. 
 Catena, 231. 
 
 Caterini, Cardinal 194, 241. 
 Cathari, 208. 
 Catharine. St., 110,300. 
 Catharine de' Medici (= C. deMedicis), 402-3. 
 Cathedra, 68. 
 Cathedral, 100, 176, 221, 265, 863, 384, 458, 468, 
 
 470, 624, 641-61, 609, 632, 697, 706. C. (Bal- 
 
 timore), 5434 (plate). C. Street (Baltimore), 
 
 643. 
 Catholic Chronicle (newspaper), 619. 
 
 Church, 90, 103, &c ; see Roman C. 
 Directory ; seeSadliers' C. 1). 
 " Family Almanac, The Illustrated, 
 
 154 64, 2024, 208, 215, 219, 281, 288, 326, 333, 
 
 358, 495, 649-50, 620 
 Catholic Guardian (newspaper), 619. 
 " Mirror " 619. 
 
 " Monitor " 619. 
 
 " Publication Society (N. Y.), 202-3, 319, 
 
 405,421,518,539,620,694. 
 Catholic Record (monthly), 619. 
 " Standard (newspaper), 619. 
 " Telegraph " 619-20. 
 
 " World (monthly), 89, 111 18, 147-8, 203, 
 
 221-4,232-40,242,247-8. 319,372, 387-8,495, 
 
 569-70.576-7,691, 610-12, 619-20, 624,642-3, 
 
 662, 664-72. 675, 682-5, 688-92, 699-701. , 
 
 Catiline, 32, 81-2. 
 Catons ville ( M d . ) , 806. 
 Cattolico (newspaper), 386. 
 Caulik, Cardinal, 190, 192. 
 Cavallo, Monte (Rome), 67. 
 Ceocano (Italy), 194. 
 Cecil, Rev. Richard, 698. 
 Cecilia, St., 440. 
 
 Celestine I., St. (pope), 117, 157, 205. 
 " II. (antipope), 161. 
 " II. (pope;, 161. 
 " III. " 162. 
 IV. " 162. 
 " V. " 162. 
 Celestines, 288. 
 
 Celian Hill or Mount (Rome). 51, 53, 65. 
 Celibacy, 93-4, 101, 104, 1*8-9, 267, 706 ; see 
 
 Clergy, Monasticism. 
 Cemetery, 663-4, 664, 685, 645, 653, &c. ; see 
 
 Burial, Burying-ground. 
 Cenobites, 284. 
 Cenotaph, 464, 475. 
 Censer, 236, 459, 464-5 (cut), 472, 481, 651. 
 
 Censer-bearer, 482. 
 Censor (of ancient Rome), 23, 35. Censor, -ship 
 
 (of books, &e.), 88, 183, 299, 381, 410. 
 Central America, -an, 368, 613, 618, 641, 688. 
 Central Park (N. Y.),545. 
 Central Zeitung (German newspaper), 619. 
 Cephas (= Peter), 112, 709. 
 Ceprano (Italy), 49, 87. 
 Ceremonial of the rhurch, 465, 468, 474, 693. 
 Ceremonies, 104, 108, 144, 242, 257, 2704, 346-7, 
 
 367, 385, 392, 4734, 500, 697, &c., see Forms, 
 
 Mass. Rites and Ceremonies, &c. 
 Ceres, 41. 
 Cesar Julius, 22, 334,36,78,196; see Augustus, 
 
 Cesars, &c. 
 
 Cesarea (Cappadocia). 284. 
 Cesarca (Palestine). 121, 124. 
 Cesars, the, 33-6,40,434, 48, 78 ; see Augustus, 
 
 Cesar, Claudius, Tiberius, &c. 
 Ceylon, 109, 372, 690. 
 Chafing-dish, 465, 469, 481. 
 Chair, 462, 465, 467, 469, 480, 661, &c. Pope's 
 
 Sedan-C., 146 (cut). C. of St. Peter, 66-9 
 
 (cut). Ohair-rents, 661. 
 Chalcedon (Asia Minor), 93,203,205-6,284. 
 Chaldean, 242. 
 Chalice, 212, 257, 423, 432-3 (cuts), 43742 (cuts), 
 
 444-5, 465-7 (cut), 476, 477 ; see Cup. 
 Challoner, Bp., 412, 455, 503, 618,526, 630. 
 Chamberv (Savoy), 193. 
 Champlain(N. Y.), 418. 
 Champorgueil (France?), 193.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 805 
 
 Chancel. 114, 429, 464-6, 469, 477, 545, 547. 
 Chancellor, 148, 191, 210, 526, 646, 670 ; see Car- 
 dinal Vite-ct.a icellor, Chancery. 
 Chancery, Papal, l"a,666, 629. 0. (of Inquisi- 
 tion), 381. 
 
 Chandler. Hon. Joseph R.,582. 
 Chanisnade, Abbe, 323. 
 Chant, 236, 239, 242, 247-8, 345-6, 424, 441, 459. 
 
 473, 476, 600, 7u6. 
 Chantal, Madame (or St.) Jane Frances de, 306, 
 
 455 
 Chantal, Mount de, 306-7. 
 
 " Sister Teresa de, 339. 
 Chapel (in Church), 57, 61-2, 271 3, 465-6, 542, 
 
 616, &c. : see < hurches and chapels. 
 Chapelle( France?), 193 
 Chaplain, -cy, 233 7, 289.316, 458, 625-6. 
 Chaplet, 314, 466, 487, 632 ; see Rosary. 
 Chapter ( = meeting), 201, 238, 275, 293,298-9, 
 
 333. 
 
 Charbonnel, Bp. A F. M. de, 520-1, 586. 
 Charge </' Affaires, 646. 
 
 Charity. Daughters and Sisters of; Fee Daugh- 
 ters of <J., Sisters of C. Charity Hospital, 304, 
 316 
 
 Charlemagne (Fr. emperor), 47-8, 65,94, 126-7. 
 Charles the Bald (IT. emperor), 48. 
 
 " " Fat ' " 48-9. 
 
 " VI. ( b'r. king), 210. 
 
 " IX. " " 401-3. 
 
 " X. " " 544. 
 
 " V. (Ger. emperor), 136, 379, 404. 
 
 " " ( ?),534. 
 
 " II. (Sp. king), 385. 
 
 " I. (Eng. kiug), 395, 638. 
 
 " II. " " 399. 
 
 " Albert (Sard, kingi, 649. 
 Charles's College, St. (Grand Coteau, La.), 358. 
 Charleston (\V. Va.), 325. 
 
 " (3- C.I and Diocese, 276, 278, 306, 
 552, 619, &J3. 672-3, 703-4. C. Gazette, 619. 
 Charlestown (Mass. ), 309. 
 Chaste, Chastity, 287, 293, 454, 527, &c. ; see 
 
 Continence, Vows, &c. 
 Chasuble, 23ij 259-60, 272. 
 ChatawaJMpi.), 319. 
 Chatelain, John. D. D., 400. 
 Chatham (New Brunswick), 245. 
 Cheever, Rev. Geo. B. D.D.. 183-4. 
 Cliefd' 1 aiiL-rt. 650. 
 Chesape.ke Bay (Md.), 357. 
 Cheverus, Bp. J. B.,6t36. 
 Chiaramonti Cardinal ( = Pius VII.), 136. 
 Chisivari( Italy (.534. 
 
 Chicago ( 1 11. ) and Diocese. 19, 51, 276, 280, 288-9, 
 305. 309, 317, 319 321, 323-8, 307-9, 548-9, 
 619 20, 663-4. 671. 
 Chicopee (Mass.), 327. 
 
 Child and Childhood, Holy ; see Holy Child, &c. 
 Childe Harold, 75-6. 
 Children, Multiplication of, 667-8. 
 Children of Mary, 456. 
 Chili (S. A.), 138, 419,655, 687-8. 
 Chilliugworth, Rev. \\'m., 408. 
 Chime of Bells, 462, 466, 643, 548. 
 Chimere, 259. 
 
 China, Chinese, 100, 1,19, 237, 362, 366-72, 690. 
 Chiniquy, Rev. Charles, 557, 674. 
 Choir, 234, 233-40, 242, 273, 237, 348, 424, 430-1, 
 
 445,448, 457,466.477 ; see Sistine 0. C.-mas- 
 
 ter, 289. C.-sisters, 3^4, &c., in Chap. VIII. 
 Choiseul (Fr. minister), K2. 
 Chrism, 273, 450-1, 459-60, 462, 466, 470, 
 
 473-4. 
 Christ ; see Jesus Christ. 
 
 Christ Church College (Oxford, Eng.), 334. 
 C/iriste eleisun, 428. 
 
 Christendom, 168, 509-10, 669, 630, C33. 
 Christian, Christianity, 42-5, 90, 125, 129, 361, 
 
 712 &c.; see Jesus Christ. 
 Christian Alliance, The, 178-85, 640. 
 Christian Brothers of the Society of Mary, 323-4. 
 Christian Doctrine ^ see Catechism, Doctrine, 
 
 &c. -Fathers of the C. D., 354. 
 Christian Instruction, Brothers of, 321-2. 
 Christian Schools, Brethren of the, 310, 320-1. 
 Christian Union, The, 607-9. 
 Christian World, The (anti-Catholic monthly, 
 
 N. Y.), 622, 645, 665, 682; see American and 
 
 Foreign Christian Union. 
 Christmas, 61, 63, 394, 434, 496-7. C. -crib, 
 
 480; see Bambino. 
 Christoph, Very Rev. G., 283. 
 Christopher (pope ?), 159. 
 Chronicles, I. & 11. (0. T.), 409. 
 Chrysostom, St. John, 57, 235, 508. 
 Church, 606, &c. ; see Roman Catholic, States 
 
 of the C., &c. C. and State, 145-7, 152-3, 
 
 230, 585, 605, 641,654, 693. C. -lamps; see 
 
 Lamps. C. of England ; see England (Church 
 
 of). C. -property and revenues, 131, 167. 
 
 540-67, 682, 585, 588-9, 654, 676,096. C.- 
 
 terms, articles, &c., 362, 459-82. 
 Churches and Chapels, 54-65, 188, 198, 01,284, 
 
 &c., in Ch. VIII., 363, 366-7, 899. 400, 450, 
 
 453, 455, 461, &c., in Ch. XIV., 483, 489,499, 
 
 505,531, 537-8, 640, 652, &c., in Chs. XX. 
 
 (plates) and XXI., 589-60, 616. 634, 645-7, 
 
 652, 655, 676, 682, 685-6, 6J7, 703, 705. 
 Ciborium, 466 (cut), 543. 
 Cicero, 32, 35, 67, 81. 
 Cilician, 32. 
 Cincinnati (0.) and Diocese, 122, 246, 264, 276, 
 
 278, 296, 323, 327-9, 357-9, 456, 459, 549, 559, 
 
 592, 594, 596-600, 619-20, 637, 662, 673. C. 
 
 School-Boar J and Board of Education, 696-600. 
 Cincture, 259-61, 264, 30J ; see Girdle. 
 Circello, Cape and Mount, 60. 
 Circumcision, The, 493. 
 Circus (Rome), 77-8. C. Maximus, 72, 78. 
 Cisalpine, 101, 225. 
 Cistercian, 176, 288, 392. 
 Civil Authority, Jurisdiction. Power, 99, 384, 
 
 &c. ; see Ecclesiastical, Secular, Temporal, &c. 
 Civil Liberty, Ch. XXVII., 687, 704, 7u7, &c. 
 Civilta Cattolica, 70, 372, 685, 665, 684, 688-92. 
 Civita VecMa (Italy), 60, C3. 
 Clapper, 466. 
 Clara (or Clare), St., 295. Nuns of the Order of 
 
 St. Clare, Poor Clares, Clarists, 205-6. Clara 
 
 College, Santa, 358. 619. 
 Clarendon, Earl of, 711. 
 Clark, Rev. Wm.. 648, 686. 
 Clarke. Rev. Wm. B., 668. 
 Claud 'it et aperit.ZGZ. 
 Claudius Cesar, 33,39,40,59, 122. C. Marcel- 
 
 lus ; see Marcellus. C. Tacitus ; see Tacitus. 
 Clement of Rome = Clemens Komanus = St. 
 
 dementi, (bp. of Rome), 122, 154-5. Church 
 
 of St. C. (Rome), 476. 
 Clement II. (pope), 161. 
 
 " III. (antipope), 129,161. 
 
 " (pope), 162. 
 " IV. " 132. 
 " V. " 60,162,209. 
 " VI. " ICO, 132. 
 " VII. (Avignon pope), 131, 162-3, 298. 
 " " _(pope at Rome), 1-J3, 335, 4u2, 411, 
 
 " VIII. (antipope), 132, 103.
 
 806 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Clement VIIT. (pope), 163. 171-2. 199, 389, 418, 
 423, 449, 609. 
 
 " IX. (pope), 103, 200. 
 
 " X. " 77,163,537. 
 
 " XI. " 77,164,168,177. 
 
 " XII. " 164. 
 
 " XIII. " 164. 
 
 " XIV. " 164,168,294.852. 
 Clemente ( = Clement), Church of San (= St.), 
 
 in Home, 476. 
 Clergy, -men, 100-1. 127, 168, 187-8, 201,208, 
 
 698,619-20, 623, 641, 652,666,669,081; see 
 Priests, Regular, t-ecular, &c. 
 
 Clerici Scholarum Piarum , 354. 
 
 Clerics, 199, 223, 289, &c., in Ch. VIII. 
 
 Clerks (= clergy, priests). 290, &c. 
 
 Clermont, College of (Paris, France), 352. 
 
 Cletus (bp. of Home?), 122, 155. 
 
 Cleveland (O.) and Diocese, 246, 270. 270, 278, 
 .96, 304, 308, 316, 324-5, 328-9, 539, 613, 622, 
 663. 
 
 Cloaca Maxima (Rome), 85. 
 
 Cloak, 269, 261, &c. ; see Dress, Habit. 
 
 Cluny, Clugni, Clugny (France), 128. Clu- 
 nians, Cluniacs, Cluniacensians (= Benedic- 
 tines of the abbey of Cluny, or following its 
 rule), 288. 
 
 Coadjutor (of bp.), 270, 280, 553, 555; (among 
 Jesuits) 349-50. 
 
 Cobham, Lord, 705. 
 
 Cochin-China (S. K. Asia), 109, 372; see E. In- 
 dies, Farther India. 
 
 Cocoville(La.), 33*. 
 
 Coffin, 384, 475, 564, 647, 657 ; see Dead. 
 
 Cohoes(N. Y.), 325. 
 
 Coif(= cap), 304. 
 
 Coindrin, Abbe, 322. 
 
 Cold Springs ( i\ estern N. Y.), 325. 
 
 Coleman's(ltev. Lyman, D. D.) Christian Anti- 
 quities, 541. 
 
 Coligny, Admiral, 401-3. 
 
 Coliseum or Colosseum (Rome), G9, 76-7, 79, 80, 
 82-3, 64'\ 
 
 Collar, 294, 314, &c. ; see Habit. 
 
 Collatinus, 23. 
 
 Collation, 496. 
 
 Collect (= collective prayer), 423, 429, 446 (cut). 
 
 College, Collegia, 61*. 70, 109, 284, &c., in Chs. 
 VIII., IX., and XXIV., 363, 368-9, 642,613, 
 620, 706; see Cardinals (Ch. V.), Education, 
 &c. Collegiate Church, 175, 542. Collegia 
 Romano (Rome), 51, 70. 
 
 Collot's (Rev. P.I Doctrinal and Scriptural Cat- 
 echism, 256, 604, 613, 521, 631, 604, 630. 
 
 Collyridians, 93. 
 
 Cologne (Germany ), 307, 542, 546, 633. 
 
 Colombia. U. S. of (S. A ), 654, 687-8 ; see New 
 Granada. 
 
 Colonna 1'amily, 49, 134. Otto C. (= Martin 
 V.), 132, 211. Cardinal C., 171. Prince John 
 C., 283. 
 
 Color, 261, 461, 469, 199, &c. ; see Black, Blue, 
 Brown, Green, Purple, Red, Scarlet, Violet, 
 Whit*. 
 
 Colorado, 277, 281, 316, 664 ; and places marked 
 "(Col.)". 
 
 Colored Populntion, 326, 330-1 ; see Freedmen, 
 Negroes, Slaves. 
 
 Colosseum ; see Coliseum. 
 
 Colportagc, Colporteurs, 186, 658. 
 
 Columba or Columbas, St., 861. 
 Columbaria (Koine), 84-6. 
 
 Columbia, District of (D. C.), 306, 315, 35>. 
 Columbia (S. C.), 3C8. 
 
 Columbia, British, 2S8, 688 ; see British Ameri- 
 ca. 
 
 Columbus (Ga.), 306. 
 Columbus (0.) and Diocese, 276, 279, 295, 327-8, 
 
 663, 659, 663, 697. 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, 133, 95, 362-3. 
 Cometo( Italy?), 1W). 
 Commandments, The Ten, 506, 520, 600, 630-1. 
 
 2d Commandment , 4i,3-4, C30-1. 6th ( = 7th) 
 
 Commandment, 510. 
 
 Commandments of the Church, 495, 519-20. 
 Commemoration, 454. 
 Commissary (of the Inquisition), 200, 381 ; (of 
 
 Indulgences) 537. C. Provincial, 293. C. 
 
 General, 298, 303. 
 
 Commissioner, Apostolical (= Papal), 532-4. 
 Commodus (emperor), 37, 46. 
 Common Prayer, Book of, 103, 428. 
 Common Schools, Chs. XXIV. and XXV. ; see 
 
 Education. 
 
 Commons, House of (British), 109, 682. 
 Communion, Communicating, 412-3, 435, 444-5 
 
 (cut), 451, 137-9, &c. ; see Eucharist, Lord's 
 
 Supper, Mass. 
 
 Community, 321, &c., in Ch. VIII. 
 Comonfort (Mexican president), 656. 
 Complin, Compline, Completortuin, 448-9. 
 Compostello (Spain), 193. 
 Concanen, Bp. Luke, SCO, 666. 
 Conciliabulttm (= a little council), 216. 
 Conclave, 69, 98, 136, 197-8, 209. 
 Concord, Temple of (Rome), 81. 
 Concordat, 98, 136, 19, 2n7, 213. 641. 652, 654. 
 Concubinage, Concubines, 217, 3U5, 629. 
 Conde, Prince of, 401-2. 
 Confession, 92, 95, 104, 129, 292, 349, 415, 452-3, 
 
 458, 467, 498, 503-17, 519-20, 62;, 6io, 63."^0, 
 
 630, 636, 660; Bee Penance, Stole, &c. C. (in 
 
 mass), 425-6, 493, &c. 
 Confessional, Concessionary, 467, 604-5 (cut), 
 
 610-16, 587, 628, 636, 658-9, 668, 695. 
 Confessor, 338, 418, 503-16, 627, 631, 535, 568, 
 
 628. C. (oft hristianitv) 695. 
 Confirmation, 104, 449, 461, 466,474,690,648, 
 
 6*4. 
 
 Confiteor, 238, 425 6, 431, 506. 
 Confraternities, 455-6, 531, 637-8. 
 Confucius, worship of, 692. 
 t ongo (Africa), 363-5. 
 Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, 358 ; see 
 
 Propaganda. 
 Congregations of Cardinals, 98, 197, 199-201, 
 
 380. Congregation of the Council, 1 ( 5, 199, 
 
 200, 276. C. of the Index, 177-8. 1S1, 199- 
 201. il. of the Propaganda: see Propaganda. 
 C. of the Holy Ofli<e 199-201, 38", 3aO ; see 
 Inquisition. (J. of Bishops and Regulars, 199, 
 
 201, 344-5. C. of Rites, 191, 199, 2il, 274; 
 see Rites. C. of Schools, 199, 200. C. of the 
 Consistory. 199. *J. of the Examination of 
 Bishops, 199. C. of Ecclesiastical Immuni- 
 ties, 199 C. of the Residence of Bishops, 191, 
 199. C. of Indulgences, 200 ; see Indulgen- 
 ces. C. of Extraordinary Affairs. 2''0. C. of 
 Oriental Rites, 200. <J. for Preservation of St. 
 Peter's. 191. 
 
 Congregations (= committees) of the Vatican 
 Countil, 232-3. General C. (= meetings) of 
 the V. < '., 233-4, 240-6, 252. 
 
 Congregations (monastic), 90, 81^-23, 663. C60, 
 695 C. of Discalccd Clerks of the Most Holy 
 Cross and Passion of .Tesi's ' hrist 311-12 ; Fee 
 Passionists. C. of the Mission (C. M.), 312,
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 SOT 
 
 814 ; see Lazarists. C of the Most Holy Re- 
 deemer (0. S3. K ) 313-19; see Kedumptor* 
 ists. C. of the Missionary Priests of St. .Paul, 
 or Paulists, 319. 0. of the Missionary Oblates 
 of Mary Immaculate (0. M. I.), 319-20. 0. 
 of the Holy Cross (0. S. ), 322-3. C. of the 
 Most Precious Blood (0. PP. S.), 324. C. of 
 our Lady (= Kotre Dame), 326-7. 0. of the 
 Presentation of the Blessed Mary, 332. 
 
 Congregations (of J esuits) , 330. 
 
 Congregations, Evangelical (Mexico), 656. 
 
 Congregational Churches, Cougregationalists, 
 40.', 610, 670-1. 
 
 Congress, Mexican, 655-6. 
 
 Connaught (Ireland), 617, 684. 
 
 Connecticut, 202, 305, 316, 544-5, 549, 601-6, 
 615, 664, 668 ; see places marked "(Ct.)". 
 
 Connolly, Abp. Thomas L., 245. Bp John C., 
 300. Rev. Pierce C., 66J-70. Richard B C , 
 678. 
 
 Conon (pope), 158. 
 
 Conroy, Bp. J. J., 279. 
 
 Conscience, 453, 512, 573, 599, 600, 606, 637, 
 642, 660, &c., in Ch. XXVII., 699, 701, 704; 
 see Liberty, Intolerance, &c. 
 
 Consecration of Bishops, 270-6. C. of Virgins, 
 3i5-7. 
 
 Conservative, 137-8, 655-6. 
 
 Consistory, Consistorial, 98, 165, 197, 230. 
 
 Consolini, Cardinal, 191, 194. 
 
 Constance (S. Germany), 210-12. Council of C., 
 95, 131, 203-4, 209-17, 225, 417, 530. 
 
 Constans (emperor), 38. 
 
 Constantine I. the Great (emperor), 37-8, 44-6, 
 65, 6J-3, 65, 73, 80, 83, 126, 204-5, 374, 541, 
 643. 
 
 Constantine II. (emperor), 38, 156. 
 
 Constantine (pope), 158. 
 
 Constantine (antipope), 158. 
 
 Constantine Pogonatus (emperor), 206. 
 
 Constantinople (= city of Constantine ; pre- 
 viously Bvzantium), 20, 38, 40, 62, 93, 95, 116, 
 124, 126, 203-7, 218-19, 431, 541. 
 
 Constantius Chlorus (emperor), 37, 44. 
 
 Constantius IT. (emperor), 38, 74, 374. 
 
 Constitution (papal). 169, 171, 176-6, 186, 244, 
 246, 2V1-2, 276, 408, 554, 685, 642, 654. 
 
 Constitution of the U. S., 687, 643. C. of Ct., 
 605. C. of Ohio, 599, 600. 
 
 Constitutions, Liberal, Ch. XXVII. C. of the 
 Jesuits, 348-50. 
 
 Consul (ancient Rome), 23-4,33-5, 75. C. (gov- 
 ernmental and commercial agent), 629,646. 
 C. General, 154. 
 
 Consul tors (= Counselors), 380-1 ; see Counsel- 
 ors. 
 
 Conti, Ottavio, 16^ ; see John XII. 
 
 Continence, 256, 610 ; see Celibacy, Chastity, 
 Vows. 
 
 Contrition, 104, 517, 537, 539 ; see Penance. 
 
 Convent, 64, 78, 80. 109, 289. &c ,in Chs. VIII. 
 and IX., 363, 376, 378-9, 395, 511, 616, 648, 
 655,675-6, 679, 703; see Monastery, Nun- 
 nery, &c. Conventual Church, and Mass, 
 124, 542, &c. 
 
 Convent Life Unveiled (Miss O'Gonnan), 340. 
 
 Conventuals (Franciscans), 294-5. 
 
 Conversion of America. Society for the, 466. 
 C. of Protestants, 667-72, 675-6, &c., in Ch. 
 XXVIII. C. to Protestantism, 672-5, &c., 
 in Ch. XXVIII. 
 
 Conversion of St. Paul, 498. 
 
 Convocation, 165, 210, 216, 227. 
 
 Cope, 235-6, 238, 259, 263, 270-2. 622. C.-bear- 
 jr, 480. 
 
 Copt, Coptic, 237, 242, 691. 
 
 Corbe, Rev. J.,331. 
 
 Corby.Rev. VV., 322-3. 
 
 Cord, 143 ; see Cincture, Girdle. 
 
 Cordo, Rev. Henry A., 340. 
 
 Cordova, Corduba (Spain), 205, 265, 378, 388. 
 
 Corinth (Greece), 31, 43, 45. Corinthian (in 
 architecture i, 61, 80-2, 549. 
 
 Cornelia ^mother of the Gracchi), 31. 
 
 Cornelius Scipio (= Scipio Afrieanus,), 29. 
 
 Cornelius. St. (pope), 156. 
 
 Cornet, 314. 
 
 Coronation of our Blessed Lady or B. V. M., 
 485, 487 (cut;. 
 
 Corporal, 432, 438, 445, 462, 467, 477. 
 
 Corpus, 432. 467. 
 
 Corpus C/insti (festival"!, 472, 493. 
 
 Corpus Christi (Tex.), 330. 
 
 Corruptions, 92, 367, 417, 529, 622, 699, &c. 
 
 i orsi, Cardinal de, 192. 
 
 Corsica (island;, 23. 
 
 Corso, Via del C., 64, 70, 73, 83, 86, 249. 
 
 Cortes (of Spain i, 385, 650, 653. 
 
 Cortez, Ferdinand (= Hernando Cortes), 362. 
 
 Cossa, Balthasar, 131 ; see John XXIII. 
 
 Cote, Rev. C. H. 0., M. I)., 418. 
 
 Couchon, Mr., 586. 
 
 Councils, 94-5, 128, 131-2, 167, 170, 175, 202-4. 
 374-6, 387, 391-2, 412, 504-5, 509, 625, 529, 
 652-3, 573-4 ; see Ecumenical, General, Decrees, 
 Constance, Nice, Trent, Vatican, &c. Coun- 
 cil-hall, Vatican (St. Peter's;, 234-5, 237-8, 
 250. 
 
 Counselors or Councilors, 200, 378 ; see Consult- 
 ors. 
 
 Coup d> eglise, 230. 
 
 Courier des Alpes (= Courier of the Alps), 386. 
 
 Court, Papal, 187-201,573, &c. 
 
 Courtenay, Peter de, 62. 
 
 Covington (Ky.) and Diocese, 276, 279, 288-9, 
 296,663. 
 
 Cowl, 287, 303, &c.; see Habit. 
 
 Cramp's (J. M.) Text-Book of Popery, 492, 508, 
 630. 
 
 Cranmer, Abp. Thomas, 417. 
 
 Crape, 564. 
 
 Crassus, 32-3. 75-6. 
 
 Creation, 413. 
 
 Credence-table, Credence, 432, 467. 
 
 Credo, 431. 
 
 Creed, Apostles' (?), 477. Nicene C., 103, 408, 
 431-2. C. of Pope Pius IV.. 103-7, 242, 268, 
 406, 408, 450, 484, 568, 609, 668. 
 
 Cremona ( Italy), 163. 
 
 Crescenzio, 75. 
 
 Cretan, 163. 
 
 Cric, a blunder for McCrie, 179. 
 
 Crime, Criminals, Chap. XXVI., &c.; see Moral, 
 &c. 
 
 Crista, Abbey de, 176. 
 
 Croce (= Cross), 62. 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, 397-9. 
 
 Crook, 270, 272 3 ; see Crosier. 
 
 Crosier, 93, 262 (cut). 467 ; see Crook. 
 
 Cross, 199, 236, 239, 259-63, '273, 306, 311, 362, 
 365,384, 391, 401, 403, 425, 427, 431,433-4, 
 437-44, 450-2, 454, 459, 462-3, 467-8, 471, 473, 
 477-9, 484-5, 487, 492, 498, 500, 506-8, 517, 622, 
 632-4 (cut), 642, 544, 546, 706 ; see Crucifix. 
 The true C., 62. Basilica of the Holy C. in 
 Jerusalem (Rome), 62. College of the Holy 
 C. (Worcester, Mass.), 358. Daughters of tho 
 C., 330. Feast of the Holy C., 301. 
 
 Cross Village (Mich.), 297.
 
 808 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Crown, 480 ; see Diadem, &c. The Crowning 
 with Thorns, 485. 
 
 Crucifix. 143, 3b3, 381-2, 384, 425, 467-8, 475, 
 477, 499, 540, 551, 561 ; see Cross. The Cruci- 
 fixion, 485, 501. 
 
 Cruets, 4C6-S (cut). 
 
 Crusades, Crusaders, 129-30, 208, 301,333, 391-4. 
 
 Crypt, 55, 468. 
 
 Cuba (W. I.), 618. 656-8, 689. 
 
 Cubas (Spain?), 193. 
 
 Cuesta, 1 ardinal, 193. 
 
 Cuftc Character, 59 
 
 Cullen, Cardinal, 193, 233,237,593,684. 
 
 Cumberland (Md.), 302. 
 
 Cumming, llev. John, D. D., 550, 698. 
 
 Cup withheld from the laity, 95, 451-2 ; see 
 Chalice. 
 
 Cupid, 42. 
 
 Cupola, 55, 544. 
 
 Curate, 100, 269, 456 7, 628, 641. 
 
 Curdsville (Ky.),327. 
 
 Cure, 100, 143. 
 
 Curia (=Court), 199, &c. 
 
 Curialists, 209, 214 ; see Ultramontane, &c. 
 
 Curule Chair, 68, 237-8. 
 
 Cushions, 469, 471-2. 
 
 Custos Provincial, 296. 
 
 Cyprus (island), 131. 
 
 Cyrenian ( = one of Cyreno in N. Africa), 479. 
 
 Cyril, St. (patriarch of Alexandria in Kgypt), 
 117, 173(0, ^>5, 258. 
 
 Cyzicus (Asia), 204. 
 
 Dacia, 40. 
 
 D'Ailly, Peter, 210. 
 
 Dakota, 320. 
 
 Dalmatia, -ans, 31, 33, 156, 158, 259. 411. 
 
 Dalmatic, 259, 263, 272. 
 
 Damascus (Syria), 20. 
 
 Damask, 234, 203-4, 461, 482. 
 
 Damasus I., St. (pope), 156, 411. 
 " II. " 161. 
 
 Danabe, 278. 
 
 Danei, Paul Francis, 311. 
 
 Daniel (0. T. and Apocrypha), 409, 411. 
 
 Danish, 689 ; see Denmark. 
 
 Dante, 152. 
 
 Danube (river in Austria, &c.), 40. 
 
 Datario, 629. 
 
 Dathan, 346. 
 
 D'Aubigne ; see Merle d' Aubigne. 
 
 Daughters of Charity, 295, 313-14, 816. D. of 
 our Lady of Sorrows, 327. D. of the Cross, 
 330. 
 
 Daunou, M., 582. 
 
 David, 473, 499. 
 
 Deacon, 104, 123, 156, 187-8, 190-1,194,196, 239, 
 255-9, 262, 208, 424, 427, 430, 432-5, 441, 443, 
 447, 449, 462, 480, 504. 
 
 Dead, 261, 423-4, 432, 464, 468, 473, 477, 493, 
 530, 536, 561, 503, 566, &c. ; see Coffin, Mass, 
 Prayer, &c. 
 
 Dean, 191, 238, 566. 
 
 Debt, 553, &c. 
 
 Deception, 635, 699, &c. 
 
 Decius (emperor), 37, 43. Decian (= of Decius) 
 persecution, 283. 
 
 Declaration of 1 ndependence, 151-2, 637, 643. 
 
 Decrees of Councils and Popes, &c., 101-2, 104-7, 
 127-8. 186, 204-6, 213-iO. 224-5, 239-41, 243 53, 
 268-9.271,274, 343-5, 387, 390, 409-10,450-1, 
 453, 483-4 509, 611, 614, 619, 521, 525, 627, 
 629-30, 652-5, 568. 570, 676, 578-9, 682, 685, 
 688-91, 652, li'iO, 683, 6'J3, 699-701 ; Bee Canon 
 Law, Discipline. &c. 
 
 DC Ecclesia, 252-3. 
 
 De Fide, 252. 
 
 Definitions. 97, 165-6, 172-3, 185-6, 202-3, 254-9, 
 333-4, 459-82, &c. 
 
 De Hfzreticis ( = on heretics), 583. 
 
 Dehrn, Very Rev. F., 298. 
 
 De La Salle Monthly, 619. 
 
 Delaware, 316, 549, and places marked "(Del.)". 
 
 Delaware Co. (Pa.), 330. 
 
 Delegations ; see Apostolic D. 
 
 Deleon, Abbe, 634. 
 
 Delphos(0.),296. 
 
 Demers, Bp. M., 280. 
 
 Democracy, 645, &c. 
 
 Denis, St., 491; see Dionysius. Denis, Abbey 
 of St.. 468. 
 
 Denmark and Danish, 131, 335, 389, 404, 625, 
 689. 
 
 Denver (Col.), 327. 
 
 Deodatus ; see Deusdedit. 
 
 Deo Gratias, 271, 446-7. 
 
 De Officio Episcoporum. 252. 
 
 De Pareo Catechisnw,2&, 
 
 Deposing Power, 580-1, &c. ; see Temporal Pow- 
 er, &c. 
 
 De Primatu Romani Pnntijicis, 252. 
 
 De Propaganda Fide, 368 ; see Propaganda. 
 
 Deputations, 233, 246-7. 
 
 Derm bach (Germany), 328. 
 
 Der Wanderer (=the Wanderer; German news- 
 paper), 619. 
 
 DeSanctis, Luigi, D.D., 59, 198-9, 3368, 353, 
 355, 628-9. 
 
 Desiderius (Lombard king), 47. 
 
 Detroit (Mich.) and Diocese, 276, 279, 319, 321, 
 324, 327. 329, 663, 606. 
 
 Deusdedit I., or Deodatus (pope), 158. 
 " II., or Adeodatus (pope), 158. 
 
 Deuteronomy (0. T.). 409. 
 
 Develin, John E., 148. 
 
 De Vita et Honestate Cltricorum , 252. 
 
 Devil, 346, 385, 450, 452, 518, 522-4, 593, 635, 
 698; 'see Satan. 
 
 Devotions and Devotional Exercises, 422, 455, 
 &c., in Chs. XIV., XV. Devotion of the 
 Scapulars, 477, 488. 
 
 Deza (Spanish inquisitor), 386-7. 
 
 Diadems, 479-80 ; see Crown, &c. 
 
 Diamond, 145, 642-3. 
 
 Diana, 41. 
 
 Diario di Roma, 173. 
 
 Didius Julianus (emperor), 37. 
 
 Didrac/ima, 677. 
 
 Digmim et justum est, 434. 
 
 Diocese, Diocesan, 202-3, 217, 231, 234, 246, 250, 
 267, 266, 268, 276-81, 288, 296. 298, 332, 335, 
 369, 451, 473, 496, 555, 558, 634, 662-4, 669, 
 684, &c. ; see Bishop and names of particular 
 Dioceses. 
 
 Diocletian (emperor), 37, 44, 541. D's Baths 
 (Home), 64, 71, 74, 80. 
 
 Dionysius (= Denis), St., 156 ; see Denis. 
 
 Dioscorus (antipope), 157. 
 
 Director of the Schplasticate, 289. 
 
 Directorium Inquisitorum (= Inquisitors' Di- 
 rectory), 377. 
 
 Directory ; dee Sadliers' Catholic Directory. 
 
 Discalced, 302-3, 311. 
 
 Discipline, 101 2, 107, 120-1, 185. 224, 226, 233, 
 241-3, 275, 285, 288, 337, 344, 349-60, 354. 392, 
 629, 667, 642 ; see Canon Law, Confession, 
 Decrees, Offenses, &c. 
 
 Dispensations, 463, 616, 629. 
 
 District of Columbia (D. C.), 306, 315, 359 ; see 
 Georgetown, Washington. 
 
 Divorce, 452-3, 642 j see Marriage.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 809 
 
 Dlx, Gen. John A., 153-4. 
 
 Doane, Kev. Goo. II., M. D., 669. 
 
 Doctors, 210-11, 258. 
 
 Doctrine, or Dogma, 101, 110-18, 121, 229, 243-4, 
 289, 374, 380, 4U7, 417, 603, 530, 639-40, 6tS9, 
 573-4, 578, 582, 613, 629, 651, 653. 677, 697, 
 
 a dome), 466. 
 Domenec, Bp. M., 278. 
 Domenech, Abbe, 655. 
 Domestic Help, 630 ; see Laborers, Servants. 
 Domenichino, 67. 
 
 Domine quo vaiJis (Church at Rome), 64. 
 Dominic de Guzman, St., 95, 298-301, 375, 381, 
 
 392. 
 Dominican Monks, Dominicans, 64, 95, 110, 135, 
 
 193, 208, 292, 298-301, 333, 351, 362-3, 366-7, 
 
 3159. 375-9, 384, 392, 53o, 666. 
 Dominici Gregis, 176. 
 Dominws Vobiscum, 428 (cut), 429, 431, 434, 
 
 445-7 (cuts). 
 
 Domitian (emperor), 36, 40, 43, 76. 
 Domnus ; see Douus. 
 Donuet, Cardinal, 192. 
 Donovan, Rev. Prof. J., 405. 
 Donus or Domnus I. (pope), 158. 
 
 " " " II. ' 160. 
 Do penance, 413, 517, 527, &c. ; see Penance. 
 Doria Palace i^tome), 69. 
 Dnvia, Princess, 71- 
 Doric (architecture), 65, 548, &c. 
 Dorsale, Dorset, 469. 
 Doty Island (Wis.), 304. 
 Douay (France), 368, 412, 682. D. Version of 
 
 the Bible, 409-10, 412-17, 419-21, 600, 617, 577, 
 
 692-3, 595, 605, 677. 
 Douro (river in Spain, &c.), 28. 
 Doxology, 471, 706, &c. 
 Draft. 687, 711. 
 
 Dragon, the Idol Bel and the (Apocrypha), 409. 
 Dress, 189, 195, 199, 258-65, 286, 295, 300, 349, 
 
 362, 3J4, 414. &c. ; see Habit, &c. 
 Drew Theol. Seminary (Madison, N. J.), 659. 
 Drummond, Mr., 588. 
 Drunkard, 650, 697 ; see Temperance, &c. 
 Dublin (Ireland), 98, 103, 193, 301, 3o9, 338, 593, 
 
 617. 625, 673, 684. 712. 
 Dubois, Abbe, 109-10. 
 Dubois, Bp. .loan, 555. 
 Dubois Co. (Ind.). 289. 
 Dubreul, Very Rev. J. P., 318. 
 Dubuis, Bp. C. M., 279. 
 Dubuque (Iowa) and Diocese, 276, 280, 290, 317, 
 
 663. 
 
 Dugas, Father, 418. 
 Duggan, Bp. J., 280. 
 
 Dungeons, 332, 385, 699 ; see Prisons, &c. 
 Dunigan and Brother. Edward, 438. 
 Dunkirk (N. Y.), 312, 325-6. 
 Dupanloup, Bp., 245. 
 Dupont St. (San Francisco), 649. 
 Du St. Esprit (French Church, N. Y.), 340. 
 Dutch, 19, 163. 366, 372, 689 ; see Holland. 
 Dutch Reformed, 674. 
 Duty of American Protestants, 702, &c. 
 Dwight. Rev. Pres. Timothy, 710. 
 Eagle of Paris (Arabic paper). The, 370. 
 Bast and Eastern ( K. Europe and Asia), 34, 38, 
 
 45-8, 62, 94,116, 126, 129. 177, 205-6, 227, 233, 
 
 259, 262, 285, 293, 423. 542. Eastern Church, 
 
 227, 688-92, &c. ; see Greek, Armenian, &c. 
 East and Eastern (U. S.), 610, 620, 668. 
 East Boston (Mass.), 327 ; see Boston. 
 
 Easter Sunday and week, 59, 196, 301, 430, 434, 
 446, 450, 452, 457, 485, 495, 498 9, 501. 519, 
 654, 590 ; see Maundy Thursday, Uood Friday, 
 Holy Saturday. 
 
 Eastern ; see East. 
 
 East India, 690 ; see Hindoostan. E. I. Islands, 
 373, 690. E. Indies, 3.2, 386, 690 ; see Far- 
 ther India, India, &c. 
 
 East Main St. School (\Vaterbury, Ct.),603. 
 
 East Morrisania (N. Y.), 308. 
 
 East Saginaw (Mich.), 329. 
 
 Eborac.um (= York, .tug.), 44. 
 
 Ebro (river of Spain), 28, 48. 
 
 Ecclesiastes (0. T.), 409. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Council or Synod. 202-3 ; see 
 Councils, Synods, &c. E. Immunities ; see 
 Exemption, Immunity, Congregation of E. 
 Immunities. K. Jurisdiction, 9d, 125-6,200; 
 see Authority, &c. E. Property ; see Church 
 Property. E. Seminaries aud Students, 264-6, 
 276-7, &c. ; see Seminaries, Theological Semi- 
 naries, Theol. Students. &c. 
 
 Ecclesiasticus (Apocrypha), 409. 
 
 Echo du Mont Bianc (newspaper), 386. 
 
 Ecuador (S. A.), 654, 686. 
 
 Ecumenical Listiop, 93. E. Councils, 116, 
 202-.J3, 391, 420, oZ5, 678, 642. 
 
 Eden, 147. 
 
 Edessa (now Oorfa or Urfa, Asiatic Turkey). 
 309. 
 
 Edgar, Rev. Samuel, D. D., 125. 
 
 Edict of Nantes, 4034. 
 
 Edile, 33. 237. 
 
 Edina (Mo.). 327. 
 
 Edinburgh (Scotland), 40, 641. 
 
 Education. 70, 100, 230, 264-7, 307, &c., in Chs. 
 VIII., IX., XXIV.. XXV., 395, 453, 580, 641, 
 643, 653-4, 656, 675-7, 701; see Colleges, 
 Schools, Seminaries, Universities, &c. 
 
 Effigy, 384-6 ; see Image, &c. 
 
 Egeria, 42. 
 
 Egypt J Africa), 20, 31, 34, 40, 44, 72-3, 2834, 
 
 Eighth St. (N. Y.),540. 
 
 Elagabalus (emperor), 37. 
 
 Elder, 124, 415. 
 
 Elder, Bp. \Vm. II., 279. 
 
 Election (of bishops, &c.). 207, 219. 209-70, 286 ; 
 
 (of pope) 187, 197-8, 208-9, 211. 213 ; see Abbot, 
 
 Bishop, Pope, &c. 
 Electors (of Germany), 210; (= voters) 520-1, 
 
 682-3. 
 
 Eleutherius, St. Chp. of Rome\ 155. 
 Elias or Elijah, 283. 301, 415. 
 Elisha or Eliseus, 471. 
 Elizabeth (mother of John the Baptist \ St., 
 
 486. Hospital of St. E. (Utica.N. V.),297. 
 
 St. E's Academy and Con vent (Madison, N. J .), 
 
 316, 339. 
 
 Elizabeth (queen of Hungary), St., 534. 
 Elizabeth (queen of England;, 353,581. 
 Elizabeth town (N. J.),674. 
 Elizabethtown (Ky.1, 327. 
 Elizabethines, 295, 314. 
 Ellendorf, J.,124. 
 Ellicott's Mills (Md.t, 321. 
 Ellysville (N. Y.), 839. 
 Elm Grove (Wis.), 327. 
 Elm Park(N. Y.\712. 
 ElmiraiN. Y.), 319,330. 
 Ely, Mother M. J., 314. 
 Ember-days, 495-7, 619, 540. Ember-Saturday, 
 
 4i?7. 
 Emblematic Significations of the Mass, 424, &c. 
 
 1 35 cuts;.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Embroidery, 2634, 482 &c.; see Dress, &c. 
 
 Kmilia (Central Italy), 614. 
 
 Eminence, His, 189, &<.; see Cardinal. 
 
 Kn 11 net Co. ' Mich. i, 297. 
 
 Emmettsburif (Md.i, 814, 316, 336. 
 
 Emperors of Home, 34, 86-40, 48-9, 186-7, 374, 
 677 ; see East, West, Home. Emperors of Ger- 
 many, 220, &c.; see Germany. 
 
 Employe ( = one employed , 646. 
 
 Encyclical Letter, 1(56 1(3-83, 230-1, 410, 417, 
 572, 577, 583, 589, 629, 640-1, 693. 
 
 Eneas, 21, 41. 
 
 England and English people, 19, 40, 90, 99, 119, 
 131, 134, 139, Ibl, 173, 185, 188, 195 6, 211, 
 213, 233 23i , 241. 290-1, 310, 334-6, 339, 353, 
 357, 361, 3i38, 381, 389. 398-9, 403-4, 409, 
 411, 417, 419-20, 457, 471, 491, 609, 667-8, 
 574, 581. 623-5 638-9,643 646, 651, 653, 670, 
 680-3. 685, 688, 698, 705, 712 ; see Britain, Great 
 Britain, English. Church of E., 100,403, 512, 
 623, 639, 6*0-1,681,698. 
 
 England, New ; see New England. 
 
 England, bp. John, 259-62,306, 422,429-35, 445, 
 460, 4d, 652, 569, 672-3. 
 
 English (language;, 103, 226, 254, 265, 410 12, 
 417, 428. 465. 505, 532, 619, 674, 701. E. .Ver- 
 sion of the Bible, 412-17, 425, 427, 433-4, 600, 
 517, 595, 697, 600 ; see Bible, James 1. 
 
 Engravings, 633, &c.; see Pictures, &c. 
 
 Ennodius, 59. 
 
 Enterprise, 617-18, 621, 653, &c. 
 
 Envoys, 207. 219 398 ; see Ambassador, Nuncio. 
 
 Ephesus (Asia) , 124, 205. Council of E., 113, 
 203,205,235.268. 
 
 Epiphany, 63, 240, 434, 462, 496, 498. 
 
 Episcopacy, 90 
 
 Episcopal and Episcopalian ; see Protestant 
 Episcopal, England (Church of;, Methodist 
 Episcopal, Bishops, Dress. 
 
 Epistle, 266, 423, 429 (cut;, 430, 454, 473, 476 
 Epistle-side, 274, 427 (cut;, 430, 432, 445, 
 469-70. 
 
 Eremites ( = hermits'), 302. &c 
 
 Erie ' Pa.) and Diocese, 276, 278, 288, 296, 325-6, 
 333,663. 
 
 Esaias ( = Isaiah), 414. 
 
 Esdraa, I. and II. (Apocrypha\ 409. 
 
 Esdras, I. and II. (= Ezra and Nehemiah.O. T.), 
 409. 
 
 Espence. Rev. Claude. 566. 
 
 Espionage, 87. 145, 647 ; see Spy-system. 
 
 Esprit, ( hurch Dv St. (N. Y. , 340. 
 
 Esquiline Hill (Rome), 61, 61, 80,84. 
 
 Established Church, 457 ; see England (Church 
 of). 
 
 Este, Alfonso d', 134. 
 
 Esther iO. T. and Apoc.), 409, 411. 
 
 Et (= and ,632, &c. 
 
 E> mm xpiritu tun, 429, 434, 443, 446, 475. 
 
 Eternal city, the. 19, 86. 
 
 Etna, Mount. 419. 
 
 Et verbum faro fartum est. 447. 
 
 Eucharist 91, 95. 104, 222, 406, 449. 451-3, 640, 
 690 ; see Communion, Lord's Supper. 
 
 Eudoxia (empress , 46. 
 
 Eugene (= Eugcnius) I. (pope), 1S8. 
 " II. <r 159. 
 
 " III. " 161. 
 
 " IV. " 132-3,163,214, 
 
 216, 218. 
 
 Eugenius (usurping emperor), 38 see Eugene. 
 
 Eulaliuf! lantipopei, 157. 
 
 Euphrates. 40, 123. 
 
 Eureka (Cal.,, 324. 
 
 Europe and European, 19, 20, 40, 48, 65, 86-7, 
 94, 108, 129 A 132-3. 135-6, 139, 152 195 6, 221, 
 
 690. 611-12, 615, 617-18, 624-5. C30. 642, 648-9! 
 651-2. 680, 685, 687, 689, 693, 701, 708. 
 
 Eusebius, St. (pope;, 156. 
 
 Eusebius (bp. of Cesarea and historian). 44, 
 121. 205. 
 
 Eustache, Church of St. (Paris), 456. 
 
 Eustathius, 284. 
 
 Eutychian ; St. (pope), 156. 
 
 Eutychianism (from Eutyches, an abbot of Con- 
 stantinople), 205. 
 
 Eutychius vbp. of Constantinople-), 206. 
 
 Evander, 21. 
 
 Evangelical Alliance, 651. 
 
 Evangelical Messenger (Cleveland, 0.), 613-14. 
 
 Evangelists, 470, &c.; see Gospel. 
 
 Evansville ,lnd.), 331. 
 
 Evaristus, ct. (bp. of Rome), 154-5. 
 
 Eve, 487. 
 
 Everett, Hon. Edward, 649. 
 
 Everett, William, 669. 
 
 Everts, Rev. \V. W., D.D.,671, 
 
 Ewer, 469. 
 
 Ecamtn (= examination), 272. 
 
 Exarch, Exarchate, 47 8. 126-7 ; see Ravenna. 
 
 Ex cathedra, 101, 118 
 
 Excommunication, 95. 102, 128, 131-3, 135-6, 
 139, 146, 148, 167-8, 171, 208-9, 223, 343, 376, 
 3,8, 381, 391, 407, 410, 453. 602, 04, 507, 
 521-4. 628, 557, 565, 674, 678-9, 686, 666, 658, 
 6CO, 695, 705 ; see Anathema. 
 
 Exemption. 587, 701 ; see Immunities. 
 
 Exeter Hall (London, Eng.;, 568. 
 
 Exodus T.), 409,631. 
 
 Exorcism and Exorcist. 255-6, 450, 473. 477. 
 
 Exposition of the Scriptures. 409 ; see Interpre- 
 tation, Preaching, &c. 40 hours' Exposition 
 (of the Sacrament;, 474, 480. 
 
 Extermination (of heretics), 673-9 ; see Heretics, 
 Persecution. &c. 
 
 External pupil*, 349, &c. 
 
 Extreme Unction, 104, 415, 449, 452, 474. 
 
 Eymeric, Friar Nicholas 377. 
 
 Ezekiel or Ezechiel (0. T.), 409. 
 
 Ezra, O. T.), 409. 
 
 Faber, V. \\'., D. D.. 310, 681. 
 
 Fabian, St. ( pope j, 156. 
 
 Fabius Maxiuius, 29. 
 
 Fabriano. 247. 
 
 Fagagna (N. Italy). 192. 
 
 Fairchild, Rev. E. R., D. D., 634. 
 
 Fairfield (La.), 330. 
 
 Fair Haven (New Haven, Ct.), 665. 
 
 Fairs,, 561-2. 
 
 Faith and the Faith, 42. 243, 407-8, 418, 431, 
 439, 455, 483, 486, 51i. 627, 638, 642-3, 590, 
 698, 622, 639,642, 679, 683-4, 686,099. Vati- 
 can Committee on F., 233, 241-3, 245, 252. 
 Act of F ; see Auto da Fe. tociety of the F. 
 of Jesus, 356. 
 
 Faldstool, 469, 472, 480, 622. 
 
 Fame, 42. 
 
 Familiars (of Inquisition), 384. 
 
 Family, Holy ; see Holy Family. 
 
 Family -increase, 667-8. 
 
 Fano (Central Italy), 168, 194. 
 
 Famese Gardens, F. Palace (Rome), 69, 78. 
 
 Faroe Islands, 689. 
 
 Farrell, Rev. Thomas, 670-1. 
 
 Farther India, 372, 690; see East Indies, India. 
 
 Fasts and Fasting, 93, 106, 204, 293, 295, 301, 8o9,
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 811 
 
 413, 451, 455, 495-502, 511, 518, 527, 640, 616. 
 Fates, 42. 
 Father, 258, 311, 41M8, 506, 609, &c.; see Pope, 
 
 Priest, Holy father, &c. The F. (God), 205, 
 
 209, &c. F., Son, and Holy Ghost, 167, 227, 
 
 425, 430, 447,449-51, 464,471,486,489, 491, 
 
 503-8, 522-3,637,686. 
 Fathers of the (Juristian Doctrine, 354. F. of 
 
 the Pious Schools, 3<9. F. of the Society of 
 
 Mary, 320. Society of the F. of Mercy, 32. 
 Fathers of the Church, 104, 106, 181, 272, 408, 
 
 410-11, 413, 418, 504,608, 527, 574, 640, 695. 
 Faustina (wife of Antoninus), 82. 
 Feasts ; see Festivals. 
 Feehan, Up. P A., 281. 
 Fees ; see Church-Property and Revenues. 
 Felicitas, St.,440. 
 Felix I., St. (pope), 156. 
 
 " II. (pope or antipope?), 156. 
 
 " III. (or II.) St. (.pope), 157. 
 
 " IV. (or III.) " 157. 
 
 " V. (antipope?), 133, 163, 218. 
 Fenelon, Abp , 354, 571. 
 Fenians and Fenianism, 390, 708. 
 Ferdinand (V. of Castile and II. of Aragon), 
 
 husband of Isabella, 6' , 65, 134. 377, 387-8. 
 Ferdinand VII (king of Spain), 385. 
 Fenno (Central Italy). 191. 
 Ferrara (Central Italy), 133-4, 191, 215-16, 218. 
 Ferretti, Cardinal, 191 , 193. 
 Ferrieri, Cardinal, 194. 
 Fesch, Cardinal Joseph, 549. 
 Fessler, Bp. Joseph, 233, 238; see Pollen (Bp. 
 
 of St.) 
 Festivals and Feasts, 93, 231, 285, 298, 301, 306, 
 
 347, 423-4, 431, 447, 459, 465, 480, 485, 492, 
 
 495-502, 519, 537, 543, 589. 
 Fetishes, 335. 
 FeuilUmts, 288. 
 Fez(N. \V Africa), 691. 
 Ffoulkes, Kdmund S., 681. 
 Fiends, 384 ; see Devil. 
 Fifth Avenue (N. Y.), 545-6. 
 Fifty-first and Fifty-second Streets (X. Y.), 545. 
 Fiji Islands (Pacific Ocean), 690. 
 Filastre, \Vm., 210. 
 Filio'/ue, 205 
 
 Fillmore, President Millard, 649. 
 Finding in the Temple, the, 485. 
 Fine Arts, Chs. XIV., XX., 697, &c. 
 Fire, 469, 501 
 Fiscal Attorney, 377. 
 Fisher, Rev. Geo. P. , D. D. ( Prof, in Yale College), 
 
 406. 
 
 Fisherman's Seal, 172. 
 Fitzgertld, Bp E., 2i"9. 
 Fitzpitrick, Bp John B., 270, 657-9. 
 Flaget, Bp. B. J.,666. 
 Flaminian Way (Rome), 53 
 Flan iers (iu Belgium, &c ) and Flemish, 393. 
 
 550. 
 
 Flavius and Flavian.76 ; see Vespasian. 
 Fieetnmus genua, 429. 
 Flemish ; see Flanders. 
 Flora, 41 
 Florence (I talv) and Florentine, 53, 71, 114, 116, 
 
 13-1, 154, 163, 192,204, 215-16, 218-19,228,303, 
 
 419 20, 5ft4, 627-8. 
 Floriau (emperor), 37. 
 Florida, 19,277-8,295,357,664,663-7; Bee places 
 
 marked "(Fla >". 
 Florissant (Mo ), 327, 58-9. 
 Flowers, 264 832, 458-9, 462, 464, 469, 477, 480, 
 
 482. 
 Flushing (N. Y.), 325. 
 
 Flynn, Rev. O., 812. 
 
 Fo-kien (China), 109. 
 
 Foley , Bp. Thomas, 280 
 
 Foligno( Central Italy), 192. 
 
 Fond du Lac (\Vis.J, 331. F. du L. Co. (Wis.), 
 298. 
 
 Font (Baptismal or Holy Water), 450, 461, 467, 
 469-71 (cut), 601. 
 
 Fontana, Cardinal, 190, 193. 
 " Carlo, 55. 
 " Domeuico, 63-7, 72-3. 
 
 Fontana de 1 Termini or F. dell' Acqua Felice, 
 F. tli Treei, F. Paolina (all in Route), 74. 
 
 Fontevraudians, 288. 
 
 Font Hill (N. Y.), 314. 
 
 Foote, Geo. C., 669. 
 
 Forbes, J. M., D. D., 669-70. Dr. F., 368. 
 
 Fordham (N. Y.), 334, 358-9. 
 
 Foreign Missions ; see Missions. 
 
 Formalism, 681, &c.; see Forms, Rites, &c. 
 
 Forms, 345, 449-55,502, 507, 521-4, 622, &c.; see 
 Ceremonies, Rites, &c. 
 
 Fornication, 128, &c.; see Immorality, Solicita- 
 tion, &c 
 
 Forsyth Joseph, 69, 81. 
 
 Fortune, 42, 81. 
 
 Fort Wayne (Ind.) and Diocese, 276, 279, 323, 
 328, 331, 663. 
 
 Forum, Roman, 81-2. 
 
 Fosbroke's British Monachism. 287, 291, 294, 
 300, 302-3, 347, 448, 480. 
 
 Foundations for Masses, 5(33. 
 
 Foundling Asylums or Hospitals, 71, 296, &c., in 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 Fox, George, 639. 
 
 France and French, 31, 33, 48-50, 56, 69, 75. 78, 
 8S-7, 94, 103-9, 126, 128, 130-7, 139, 141. 143, 
 151, 154, 161-2, 168, 170, 176, 188. 193,208-11, 
 213, 219-21, 2-25, !i33, 237. 244-5, 249. 253, 264, 
 268,270, 2io, 279, 289-92, '297,299, 303, 303, 
 
 487, 503, 512, 544, 546, 557, 5ol, 564, 606, 
 571-3, 532, 609, 611-12, 617-19, 622-5, 630, 
 632-3, 641, 646, 649-51, 653, 656, 6o4, 666-7, 
 672, 674, 6S5-7, 639-91, 703, 712. 
 
 Francis, St. (= St Francis of Assisi, San Fran- 
 cisco de Assisi, &c.), 292-9, 511 ; see Francis- 
 cans. Church of St. F. (N Y ), 296; (New 
 Haven, Ct ), 565-6. Ch'hof St. F. of Assisium 
 (San Francisco, Cal.), 549. St F's Hospital 
 (Buffalo, N. Y.J.296 ; St. F.'s Hospital (Colum- 
 bus, O ),293; St. F.'s German Hospital (N.Y.), 
 2J6. St. F.'s Orphan Asylum (New Haven, 
 Ct.), 315. Benevolent, Charitable, and Re- 
 ligious Society of St F. (Cross Village, Mich.), 
 297. Mission of San Francisco d- Assisi (San 
 Francisco, Cal ), 549. Sisters of St. F. and of 
 St. F. Assisium, 293 Sisters of the Poor of St 
 F., 293-7. Sisters (and Missionary Sisters) of 
 the 3d Order of St. F., and Sisters of the 3d 
 Order of St. F. Seraph, 297. 
 
 Francis I. (king of France), 219. 
 
 Franciscans or Franciscan Friars, 192-3, 208, 
 292-8, 314, 329, 333, 362-3, 386-7, 369, 372 ; 
 see Francis (St.). 
 
 Francisco. San : (the Saint) se Francis, St.; 
 (the city) see San Francisco. 
 
 Francis de Sales, *t., 306, 455. 
 
 Franco-Italian, 196. 
 
 Frankford(Pa.). 330. 
 
 Frankfort (Ky.), 306. 
 
 Frankfort on the Maine (Germany), 94. 
 
 Frankincense, 462, 470, 472.
 
 812 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Franklin (0.), 328. 
 Franscini, 616. 
 
 Frascati (Central Italy), 187, 191. 
 Frater (= brother), 292. 
 Fratricelli (= little brothers), 209. 
 Fraud, 226, 635-6, 699, &c. 
 Frederic 11 (emperor of Germany), 208, 375. 
 Frederick (Md.), 308, 358. 
 Free Churches, 685-6. 
 Freedom, 707, &c.; see Civil Liberty, &c. 
 Freedmen, 25, 679 ; see Colored Population, Ne- 
 groes, Slaves, &c. 
 Freeman's Journal (N. Y.), 586, 592-3, 619-20, 
 
 643-4. 
 
 Freemasons, 390 
 
 Free Schools, Ch. XXIV., 706-7, &c. 
 Frere(= brother), 292. 
 Freyburg (Switzerland), 616. 
 Friars, 71, 85, 94 290, 292-304, 309-10, 636-7. 
 Friday, 384, 4t>5-7, 502, 519, 5^8, 638 ; see Good 
 
 Friday. 
 Friends, Society of, 404 ; see Barclay, Fox, Penn, 
 
 Quakers, Rogers. 
 Frieslanders, 361. 
 Fringes, 263, 461. 
 Frock, 384 ; see Dress, Habit. 
 Frontal, 461, 470. 
 Frosinonef Central Italy), 157. 
 Froude, Rev. 11. 11., 671. 
 Furies, 42. 
 
 Furstenberg, Abp. Prince, 245. 
 Gabriel, St. (angel). 462. 
 Gaeta (S. Italy), 139, 161, 165, 173, 646. 
 Gainsborough, Earl of, 681. 
 Galba (emperor), 36. 
 Galbery, Very Kev. T., 303. 
 Galerius (emperor), 37-8, 44. 
 Galilee (in cathedrals), 470. 
 Galileo, 571. 
 Gall, Academy of St. (Boston, Mass.), 359. 
 
 " Church " " (Milwaukee, \Vis.),359. 
 Gallas (Africa), 691. 
 
 Galleries, 66, ^34, 545, 547 ; see Picture-Gallery 
 Galley, G.-slave, G.-slavery, 386, 404,651; see 
 
 Slave 
 Galilean, G. Church. Gallicanism, 102, 215, 221, 
 
 252, 682-4, 699, 7UO ; see Cisalpine, Curialist, 
 
 Ultramontane 
 Gallienus (emperor), 37. 
 Galloons, 263: see Dress. 
 Callus (emperor), 37. 
 Galvano, Andrea, 363 
 Galveston (Tex.) and Diocese, 276, 279, 308, 321, 
 
 331,663. 
 
 Gambling, 88, 627 
 
 Gandolfi Family, 68. Castel Gandolfo, 68, 140 
 Garden of the Soul, The, 424, 484-5, 490, 496, 
 
 499-5*11, 506-7. 
 
 GaribaHi, Giuseppe (= Joseph), 60. 
 Garlands, 459 ; see Flowers 
 Garments, 93, 414, 450, 453. &c.; see Dress, 
 
 Habit. 
 
 Gasparoni, 197. 
 Gas-works (Rome). 78. 
 Gaul, Gauls, 56-8,31, 33-4, 44,187, 284, 634 ; see 
 
 France, Gnllican. 
 Gav.azzi, Father Alessandro (= Alexander), 658, 
 
 686 
 
 Gavin, Rev. Anthony. 512. 
 Gazette df France, 246. 
 Gehenna, 525 
 Gelasius, St. (pope), 1S7. 
 II. " 161. 
 " of Cyzicus, 2"4-5. 
 Gems, 236 ; see Diamond, Precious Stones, &c. 
 
 General, G. Superior, or Superior G., 220-1,294, 
 
 299, 303-4, 31tS, 323, 333, 348 50, 306, 488, 573. 
 
 General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church ; 
 
 see Presbyterian. 
 General Association of Ct., 668 
 General Catechism of Christian Doctrine, 495, 
 
 518-20, 525-6, 630. 
 General Chapter, 293 ; see Chapter. 
 General Councils, 1> 1, 107, 114, 117, 202-3, 209, 
 
 213-14, 219, 227, 229, 334, 408, 6U9. 
 General Intelligence and Prosperity, Ch. XX (. 
 Genesis (0. T.), 409, 413. Gen. 1 : 1-8, 413. 
 Genesna, 177. 
 Geneva (Switzerland), 306. 
 Geneva (N. Y.), 6.~0. 
 Genius, 41. 
 
 Genoa (Italy), 162-3, 386. 
 Gentiles, 120, 123, 1S4, 483. 
 Genuflection, 345, 470, 706. 
 George, St., 49), 498. St. G.'s Chapel (N. Y.), 
 
 670. 
 Georgetown (D. C.), 306, 344, 358. G. College, 
 
 358. 
 
 Georgia (State), 305-6, and places marked"(Ga.)". 
 Gcrbert, 160 ; see .-ylvester II. 
 German ; see Germany. G. Reformed Church, 
 
 204, 674. G. Silver, 468. 
 German town (Pa ), 313. 325. 
 Germany and German, 31, 33, 47-9, 83,95,127-9, 
 131, 135-6, 141, 161-2. 168, 193, 207-11, 213, 
 215, 220-1, 224-5, 2S3, 233, 245, 206, 275, 
 292, 296, 298, 304, 308-9, 318, 333, 335, 357, 
 359, 361, 368, 375, 390, 393, 31)5, 399, 416, 475, 
 480, 636, 555, 565, 582, 692, 697, fr'6, 618-19, 
 622, 624-7, 641, 649, 651, 653,667, 673-4,685-7, 
 689, 708. 
 
 Gerson, John C., 210. 
 Gerusalemme (= Jerusalem), 62. 
 Gesu, Church of 11 (Rome), 63, 356. 
 Geta (emperor), 37. 
 Geyerstanger, Rev. C.,289. 
 Giacomello, 394. 
 Gibbon, Edward. 54. 
 Gibbons, Bp. James, 278. 
 Gibraltar (^pain), 650, 689. 
 Gieseler, Dr. John C. L., 45, 134,154,158-61, 
 
 167, 206, 213, 219, 284. 
 Gillett, Rev. Ezra H , D. D. (Prof. N. Y. City 
 
 University), 210. 
 Gioberti, 151 
 Giralcia, 642-3. 
 Girandole, 470. 
 
 Girdle, 414. &c ; see Cincture, Habit, Cord. 
 Gladiator, 26, 32, 45, 69, 76-7. 
 Glasgow (Scotland), 40. 
 Glass, 66, 465, 468, &c. 
 Gloria in txcelsis Deo, 428-9, 466, 500-1. 
 Gloria Patri, 425, 427-8, 434, 477, 485-6, 488, 
 
 538. 
 
 Glorious Mysteries. 485-7. 
 Glories of Mary, The, 488-90, 631-2. 
 Glory be to the Father, &c., 538 ; see Gloria 
 
 Patri. 
 
 Glover. T. James. 148. 
 Glycerius (emperor), 39. 
 Gnostic, 374 
 
 Goa (Ilindoostan), 366, 386. 
 Godeau, 44. 
 
 Godfather, Godmother, 405, 450 ; see Sponsors. 
 Godless Schools, 591-3, 695, 606. 
 Goesbriand, Bp I,, de, 27d, 280. 
 Gold, Golden, 236. 249,233-4, 270,400, 463, &c., 
 in Chs. XIV., XX , 679 -G.-cloth, 263-4, 464, 
 466, 482. The Golden Book of the Confrater- 
 nities, 537-9. Golden Rose, 650.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 813 
 
 Gonelia, Cardinal, 190, 194. 
 
 Gongs, 470. 
 
 Gonsalvus, 511. 
 
 Gonzaga, Cardinal, 221. 
 
 Gonzaga College, 358. 
 
 Good Friday, 231, 3S4, 424, 461, 464, 476, 480, 
 496-601,521,633. 
 
 Goodrich, Rev. Win. H., D. D., 539-40, 622. 
 
 Good Shepherd, Sisters of our Lady of Charity 
 of the, or Sisters of our Lady of the G. S., or Sis- 
 ters of the G. S., or Religious of the G. S., 328-9. 
 Convent and Ilouse of the G. S. (N. Y.), 329, 
 338, 677-8. 
 
 Gordian (emperor), 87. 
 
 Gorman, Rev. A., ~ 
 
 Gospels or Book of the Gospels, 238, 242, 247, 
 271-3, 411. 571. Gospel-side, 431, 447,469-70, 
 480. 
 
 Gothic, 64, 475, 541-3, 545-6, 548. 
 
 Goths, 46-7, 71-5; see Ostrogoths, Visigoths, 
 &c. 
 
 Government by authority, 108, &c.; see Tempo- 
 ral Power, &c. 
 
 Gown, 300, &c.; see Habit. 
 
 Gracchus, Caius Sempronius, 24, 32 ; Tiberius 
 Sempronius G., 31-2. 
 
 Grace, Divine, 168-9, 185, 222, 255, 345, 488, 
 517, 519, 531, 537, 696. 
 
 Grace, Bp. T. L., 281. 
 
 Graces, the, 42. 
 
 Grace Reformed Church (Pittsbnrg, Pa.), 671. 
 
 Gradual, Gradus, 430, 454. 
 
 Grafton(\V. Va.), 325. 
 
 Grammontensians, 288. 
 
 Granada (Spain), 337, 511. 650. 
 
 Grand Coteau ( La. ), 32 1, 358. 
 
 Grandimontensians, 288. 
 
 Grand Penitentiary, 621 ; see Penitentiary. 
 
 Grant, Gen. U. S. (= President), 679. 
 
 Gras, Madame Louisa le, 313 
 
 Grasselini, Cardinal, 194. 
 
 Grass Valley (Cal.) and Diocese, 276, 281, 663. 
 
 Grate (for Confessional), 4ti7, 505. 
 
 Gratian (Emperor). 38, 114. 
 
 Gratias agamus Domino, etc., 434. 
 
 Gratz (Austria), 624. 
 
 Graves, 587, 657, &c ; see Burial, Cemetery, 
 Tomb, &c. 
 
 Gray or Grey (color), 314. G. Friars, 293. G. 
 Nuns, 3115-17. 
 
 Great Britain, 275, 617-18, 649, 680-5, 687, 689 ; 
 see Britain, England, &c. 
 
 Great Seminary (Montreal), 318. 
 
 Greece and the Greeks. 20-1, 28, 31, 34, 45, 70, 
 126, 154-8, 238, 254, 335, 3HS, 689, 709. Greek 
 Church and Greek Christians, 95, 101, 116, 
 119, 204, 207, 209, 218-19, 228, 267, 284, 389. 
 423, 625, 683-91 Greek Catholics (= Greek 
 Christians who submit to the Pope), 423, &c. 
 Greek Emperors, 218, &c.; see East, Em- 
 peror. Greek Language, 67. 202, 222, 242, 265, 
 283, 411-12, 417, 420, 42.3, 428. 
 
 Green (color), 261. 263-4, 462. Greenish, 234. 
 
 Green Bay ( \Vis.) and Diocese, 276, 280, 327, 663. 
 
 Greenland, 639. 
 
 Greensburg ( Pa.), 334. 
 
 Greenwich CEng.), 51. 
 
 Gregorian (named from Pope Gregory I.) Chant, 
 239-40, 265. G. University (Rome), 70. 
 
 Gregorius XIII. Pont. Alax. An. /., 403 ; see 
 Gregory XIII. 
 
 Gregory I. the Great (pope\ 93, 115, 119, 157, 
 
 361. 423, 498, 627 ; see Gregorian. 
 Gregory II. (pope), 158, 361. 
 
 " III. " 158 
 
 " IV. " 159. 
 
 " V. " 100. 
 
 " VI. (pope?), 160-1. 
 
 ' VII. (pope), 66, 96, 119, 128-9, 161, 267, 
 580. 
 Gregory VIII. (antipope), 161. 
 
 ' " (pope), 161. 
 
 " IX. " 162 374-5, 392. 
 
 " X. " 162.209. 
 
 " XI. " 129, 1(3. 167. 
 
 " XII. " 131,162-3,167,203,209, 
 211. 
 Gregory XIII. (pope), 67, 70, 163, 199, 284, 
 
 3.9-80, 338, 403 ; see Gregorius. 
 Gregory XIV. (pope), 163, 171. 
 
 " XV. 163, 199. 
 
 " XVI. " 137-8, 143, 164, 173-83, 
 186, 188-90, 304, 417, 488, 522-3 (cut), 537-8, 
 672, 640. 
 
 Gregory Nazianzen, 205. 
 Grenoble (France), 634. 
 Cresset, 354. 
 Grey ; see Gray. 
 Grisons (Switzerland), 179. 
 Guardian (of Capuchins), 298. 
 Guardian Angel (R. C. magazine), 619. 
 Guatemala, 194 ; see Central America. 
 Guiana (S. A.), 6S9. 
 GuSbert, 129 ; see Clement III. 
 Guibord, M.,658. 
 Guicciardini, Count Piero, 649. 
 Guidi, Cardinal, 193, 245. 
 Guido, 550. 
 Guilbertines, 288. 
 Guise, Duke of, 401-2. 
 Guizot, 388, 611. 
 Gunpowder Plot, 381. 
 Guzman ; see Dominic de G. 
 Gymnasium, 206, &c. ; see Education, Orders 
 
 (Religious). 
 
 Haas, Very Rev. Francis, 293. 
 Habakkuk, Habacuc (O. T.), 409. 
 Habeas corpus ( = you may have the body ; a le- 
 gal writ to bring before a judge one unlaw- 
 fully held in prison, &c.), 679. 
 Habemus ad Domimtm, 434. 
 Habit, 237, 291, 29i, 293, 300, 302-4, 311, 314,320. 
 Hadrian or Adrian (emperor), 36, 43, 75. 
 Hadrian or Adrian I. (pope), 158. 204. 
 
 II. ' 118,159,206-7. 
 " III. ' 159. 
 
 " IV. ' 161,581. 
 
 " V. ' 162. 
 
 " VI. ' 163. 
 
 Hrzc tttnt verbaCliristi, 431. 
 Hagans, Judge, 599. 
 Haggai(0. T.),409. 
 Hail Mary (= Are Maria), 369, 449, 455-6, 458, 
 
 485-8, 535-8, 540, 631. 
 Halberdiers, 143. 
 Half-moon, 470, 473-4. 
 Halifax (Nova Scotia), 245, 314. 
 Hall, A. Oakey (Mayor of N. Y.), 678, 712. 
 Hall, Rev. E. Edwin, 140. 
 Hallam Henry, 13", 132, 185, 224-5, 335, 353. 
 Hallelujah, 430 ; see Alleluia. 
 Hamilcar, 28. 
 Hamilton (Canada), 358. 
 
 Hamilton School (New Haven, Ct.), 305, 601-3. 
 Hancock (Min.), 325. 
 Handkerchief, St. Veronica's, 491.
 
 814 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Handmaids of Jesus Christ, Community of the 
 
 Poor, 3-8. 
 
 Hannibal, 28, 29, 31. 
 Hannibal (Mo.), 325. 
 Hannin, Very Rev. E., 278. 
 Hanover (Germany), 626. 
 Hapsburg, 49. 
 Hardy, Madame A., 825. 
 Harper's Monthly Magazine, 620. 
 Harrisburg ( Ha.) and Diocese, 277-8, 305, 663. 
 Harrisburg(0.), 330. 
 Harrison Avenue (Boston, Mass.), 544. 
 Hart, Rev. Matthew, 601-2. 
 Hartford (Ct.) and Diocese, 61, 202,270,277, 
 
 280, 305. 321, 3ft, 645, 663. 
 Hasdrubal ( Hannibal's brother-in-law), 23; (Han- 
 nibal's brother), 29. 
 Hassocks, 470-1. 
 Haskins, George F., 669-70. 
 Hastings, Rev. G. H., 645-6. 
 Hat, ltk, 262, 294, 320, &c. : see Cap, Dress, 
 
 Habit. 
 
 Havemann, 388. 
 Hayden, Very Rev. John, 813. 
 Haydn, Joseph (composer), 650. 
 Hayti, 109, 8ii3, 688 ; see St. Domingo, Hispanlola. 
 Heart, Immaculate ; see Immaculate H. 
 Heart, Sacred ; see Sacred H. 
 Heathen; see Idolatry, Pagan, Persecution, 
 
 Rome, &c. 
 Hebrew, 67, 222, 266, 411-12, 416-17, 420, 42',, 
 
 499, 527. 
 
 Hebrides (= Western Islands, off Scotland), 361. 
 Hebron (Palestine), 20. 
 Hecker, Very Rev. Isaac T., 148, 235, 319, 620, 
 
 659,680. 
 
 Hefele.Bp.,215,388. 
 Heimler, Kev. A.. 289. 
 Heiss, Bp. M., 241, 280. 
 Helena, St. (empress), 62, 498, 632. 
 Helena (Montana). 360. 
 Heligoland (in North Sea), 689. 
 Heliogabalus (emperor), 37. 
 Heliopolis (Egypt). 72-3. 
 Hell, 112, 117, 121, 442 (cut), 518, 524-8, 676, 
 
 627, 668. 696, 708. 
 Helmproecht, Very Rev. J., 319. 
 Hendricken, Rev. Thos. F., D.D., 603. 
 Hennaert, Very Rev. P., 279. 
 Hennessy, Bp J., 280. 
 Henni, Bp J. M , 281. 
 Henry IV. (emperor Germany), 66, 128-9, 680. 
 
 " V. " ' 129, 207. 
 
 Henry III. (French king), 4C3. 
 
 " IV. " 352,390,401-3,681. 
 
 Henry II. (English king), 681. 
 
 " VIII. " 334,417. 
 
 Henry (111.), 327. 
 Herbomez, Bp. A. J. d', 280. 
 Hercules, 41. 
 Heresy, Heretic, 107, 169, 174, 176, 182, 208 9, 
 
 212, 223, 226, 228-9, 252, 275, 298-9, 306, 848, 
 
 374. &c., in Chs. XI. and XII., 417, 449, 4:3, 
 
 465-6. 511, 63>J-9, 678-9, 681-3, 688, 590-1, 
 
 640, 642, 661, 658, 7<5-6; see Inquisition, 
 
 Persecution, lie. 
 
 Hcrmeneutics, 266 ; see Interpretation, &c. 
 Hermits, 283, .12-3. 
 
 Herod Agrippa I., 122-8. II. Antipas, 260. 
 Hirnlft dfs Glaubetu (German paper), 619. 
 Heruli, 46-7. 
 HeMe Cassel (Ind.), 328. 
 Hessians, 861. 
 Heureux, Rev. J. L', 662. 
 liewit, Rev. Nathaniel Augustus, 669-70. 
 
 Hierarchy. 124, 406,' 576, 689, 636, 655, 653, 660, 
 676, (>8_, 704, &c ; see Bishop, Archbishop, 
 Pope, &c. 
 
 Hiereus, 254. 
 
 Highland! Ml.), 327. 
 
 Hilarion, 284. 
 
 Hilary, St. (pope), 157. 
 
 Hildebrand, 128, &c. ; see Gregory VII. 
 
 Ilillhouse Avenue (New Haven, Ct.), 645. 
 
 Uindoostan or Hindustan, Hindoos, 372, 612, 
 69it, &c. ; see East India, India, &c. 
 
 Hintenach, Rev. A., 289. 
 
 Hippo (N. Africa), 290. 
 
 Hispaniola, 363 ; see Hayti, San Domingo. 
 
 Hobart, Bp. John H., 670. 
 
 Hobart College (Geneva, N. Y.), 670. 
 
 Hoboken(N. J.), 207. 
 
 Hodeja, Alfonso de. 377. 
 
 Hoffman, Mayor & Gov. John T., 658, 678, 
 712 
 
 Hogan. Bp. J., 281. 
 
 Hokah (Min ), 327. 
 
 Hohenlohe, Cardinal de, 193, 237. 
 
 Holland, Josiah G., M. D., 88. 
 
 Holland, Hollanders, 48, 292, 308, 318, 356, 398, 
 399, 404, 491, 625, 649, 689 : see Dutch. 
 
 Holly Springs (Mpi.K 317. 
 
 Holt, Rev. Edwin, 183-4. 
 
 Holt, Wm. H., 669. 
 
 Holy Child Jesus, Sisters (or Society) of the, 
 330. Sisters of Providence of the H. Child- 
 hood of Jesus, 331. Association of the H. 
 Childhood of Jesus. 370. II. Coat of Treves, 
 632-3. H. Cross, 301, 358, 455, 498, &c. ; see 
 Congregation of the H. Cross, Cross, &c. H. 
 Day, 447, 459, 495-502, 619, 661, 616, 630. H. 
 Family, 461. Sisters of the H. Family, 331. 
 Sodality of the H. Family, 466. H. Father, 
 or His Holiness, 119, 141, &c. ; see Pope. 
 H. Ghost, or H. Spirit, 103, 106, 115, 117, 2' 5, 
 209, 213, 235-6, 157, 261, 2,'2, 3*', 409, 414, 
 424, 428, 441-2, 447 (cut), 455,485,502,520, 
 625, 527, 661, 706 : see Father (fon and II G.), 
 Mass, &c. The Society of the H. Infancy, 
 466. H. Innocents' Day, 498. H. Inquisi- 
 tion ; see Inquisition. Holy Land, 208-9, 333, 
 &c. ; see Palestine. H. League. 134. Modality 
 of the U. Maternity, 456 Cathedral of the 
 H. Name (Chicago. 111.), 649. l.itany of the 
 H. Name of Mary, 455. Sisters of the H. 
 Names of Jesus and Mary, 328. H. office; 
 see Congregation of the H. O., Inquisition. 
 II. Oil; see Oil U. Orders; see Orders. 
 Holy-rood day, 498 ; see Rood. H. Saturday, 
 462-3, 466, 469 476, 480-1, 497-8, 50i>-l. H. 
 Scriptures ; see Bible, Scriptures. II. fee, 120, 
 264, &c. ; see Pope.- H. Sepulchre (at ,'cru- 
 salem', 129, &c ; see Crusades, Sepulchre. 
 H. Thursday, 452, 495, 621. H Trinity; see 
 Trinity. H. Water, 345, 368. 452, 454-5, 4, r 9, 
 469, 471, 478. ll-W..Pot or Vase. 471. H. 
 Week, 96, 460, 465, 480, 491, 497-5ul, 621. 
 
 Holy oke( Mass.) 827. 
 
 Hong Kong (China). 372. 
 
 Honorius (emperor), 33, 46, 53, 76, 77. 
 " I. (pope), 158, 2>i6-7. 
 " II. (antipope). 161. 
 " " (pope). 161. 
 " III. " 162,374-6,393. 
 " IV. " 162. 
 
 Hood, 261, 287, 291, 294. 297, 300, 302 & 3. , tee 
 Habit.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 815 
 
 Hope, 42, 4S6. 
 
 Horace (Roman poet), 81. 
 
 llonni.sdas (pope), 116, 157. 
 
 Horse-races, 499. 
 
 Hosea(O. T.>, 4C9. 
 
 Hosius (bp. of Corduba), 205. 
 
 Uoppital, 70-1, 138, 188, 296, Ac., in Ch. VIII., 
 4" 4, 662, 646, 7C3, &c II. Sisters, 831. 
 
 Hospitalers, Knights, 333. 
 
 Host (= victim or sacrifice), 422 (cut), 432, 437- 
 44 (cuts), 458, 464, 467, 470, 474-6, 4sl, 492, 
 500, 543 ; FCC Mass. 
 
 Hottentots, 612. 
 
 Hours, 191, 44S ; see Canonical Hours. 
 
 House of Commons, H. of Lords ; see Commons, 
 Lords. Parliament. II. for Friars, Nuns, &c., 
 296, '298-9, 3('3-5, 334, 350, &c ,in Chs. VIII., 
 IX II. of Kefuge, 59', &c. ; Bee Asylum, 
 Industrial School, Orphan Asylum, &c. H. 
 of Retreat, 334, 39. 
 
 Houston (Tex.), 3d 3, 330. 
 
 Hudson, (N. Y.', 317. 
 
 Hudson City (N. J.), 340. 
 
 Hudson County (N. J.) 312. 
 
 Hughes, Abp. John, 273, 420,487-8,604,518. 
 5r, 545, 555, 564. 585-*, 694-5, 673. 
 
 Hugo, Cardinal, 627. 
 
 Hugonotorum Stragrs, 403. 
 
 Huguenots, 167, 4"l-3, 711. 
 
 Hull iEng.), and II. Convent Trial, 339. 
 
 Humeral Veil and Hutnerus, 481. 
 
 Humiliate capita, etc., 447. 
 
 Humiliati, 1&8. 
 
 Humility of Mary, Sisters of the, 330. 
 
 Huns and Hungary, 40, 46, 109, 237,245,292, 
 304, 3 '7, 534, 68(5. 
 
 Huntington, Jedidiah, M. D , 669. 
 
 Huss,Kev. ..ohn, 210-12, 215, 405, 680. Huss- 
 ites, 167, 214, 404. 
 
 Hyacinthe, Father, 302, 572-4. 
 
 Uyginus, 8t. (bp. of Borne), 165. 
 
 Hymen, 42. 
 
 Hymns, 235-40, 428, 448 ; see Chant, Singing, &c. 
 
 Iceland, 689. 
 
 Ironium (A.-ia), 238. 
 
 Iconoclastic ( = image-breaking) ; see Images. 
 
 Idaho, 277, 2SO, 359, 664 
 
 Idolatry, Idols, 96, 288, 400. 483, 492-4 ; see 
 Rome. Idol Bel and the Dragon (Apoc ), 409. 
 
 Ignatius (bp. of Antioch), St., 440; see I.Loyola. 
 
 Ignatius (bp. of Constantinople), 207. 
 
 Ignatius, Father, 668, 681, 69S. 
 
 Iguatius Loyola (or Ignatius), St., 63, 34<*-9, 
 355, 389, 568. Church of St. I. (Rome), 356 ; 
 (Baltimore) 359. St. I.'s College (Chicago, 
 111. 1,358-9; (SanKrancisco, Cal.),358. St. I.'s 
 House of Retreat (Fordham, N. Y.), 334. 
 Litany of St. I., 455. 
 
 Ignorance, 226, 365, 371, 640, 611, fcc., in Ch. 
 X.KV., 655, 699 ; see Intelligence. 
 
 Ignorantius, 304 ; see Brothers of the Christian 
 Schools. 
 
 I. II. S., 478. 
 
 JlchesterlMd ), 319. 
 
 IleBrevelle(La.),330. 
 
 H G'su (= the .lesus), 63, 856. 
 
 Illegitimacy, 624-5. 
 
 Illinois (state), 296, 801,305,313,316-17,405, 
 (49,666, 674, and places marked "(HI.)". 
 
 Hlyricum,33. 
 
 Images, Image-worship. 934, 106, 126, 207. 222, 
 306. 32, 400, 427.459. 4(58, 471. 477, 480, 4S3-4, 
 489, 493. 651, 631. 633-4. 636, 677 ; see Jesus, 
 Mary, .-ainto, Statues, &o. 
 
 I. M. I., 478. 
 
 Immaculate Conception of the B. V M., or Im- 
 maculate Conception, 98, 110. 139, 227, 31, 
 29a. 323, 45.T-6. 490, 496, 6*7, 658-9. Church 
 of the Im. Conception (Boston). 359. 544 (cut); 
 (New Orleans) 369; (tt'aterbury. Ct.) 603-4. 
 College of the I. C. iNew Orleans), 358. 
 Scapular of the I. C , 478. 
 
 Immaculate Heart of Mary , Sister-servants of the, 
 329 j-isters, Servants of the l.H of Mary, 
 329-30. Archconfraternity of the I. H. of 
 Mary. 456. Office of the Sacred and I. H. of 
 Mary, 488. 
 
 Immigration and Immigrants into the U S. and 
 England, 667, 81, &c 
 
 Immorality. 99, 107. 131. 1%, 288, 336-7. 508-16, 
 613. 624, &c , in Ch. XXVI. ,697 ; see Morali- 
 ty, &c. 
 
 Immunity of Clergy, 67R-7, 655, 701. 
 
 Imola (Central Italy), 138. 
 
 Imposition of Hands, 451. 
 
 Impediments, 453. 
 
 Incarnate \Vord. 491, &c.; see Jesus Christ. 
 Sisters of the I U'., 330. 
 
 Incense, 144. 136, 424, 427. 431, 433. 459, 463-4, 
 469, 471-2. 601, 551. l.-bearer, 430. l.-boat, 
 462. 46i (cut), 472. 
 
 Incest. 629. 
 
 In Ccena Domini, 166-8. 406, 683 
 
 Increase of the R. C. Church in the U. S., &c., 
 Ch. XXVI II. 
 
 Independence. Declaration of, 151-2, 637, 643. 
 
 Independents, 689. 
 
 Inrlex Expurgatorin.t, Index of Prohibited 
 Books, 176, 179, 389, 417, 566 see Congrega- 
 tion of the Index. 
 
 India (Asia), 70, 99, 109, 363, 366-7, 371-3, 690 ; 
 see East Indies, Farther India, Hindostan, 
 Indies, &c. 
 
 Indiana !.-tate\ 324, 331, 664, 666; and places 
 marked "(Ind.)". 
 
 Indiana (Pa.), 334. 
 
 Indianopolis (!nd.(, 3?2, 321. 
 
 Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago (S. E. 
 of Asia), 3". 2. 
 
 Indian Territory E. cf the Rocky Mts.. 277,281. 
 
 Indians. 109, 297, 320, 324-5, Jaf, 367, 359, 612. 
 
 Indies, 389. 
 
 Indo Chinese, 372. 
 
 Indulgences, 92, 10, 134-5, 141, 222-3, 248, 362, 
 309, 391, 4^9, 485, 497, 507, K.9-40, 661, 666, 
 63'3, 660, 706 ; see Congregation of I. 
 
 Indult, 497. 
 
 Industrial Schools, 71, 328, &c., in Ch. VIII., 
 590 
 
 Infallible, -bility, 96, 107, 110-11. 116-18, 121, 
 140, 172, 197, i03, 215, 228, 31, 241, 44-60, 
 252, 32, 407, 569, 674, 621. 642, 644. 660, 672, 
 688, 696, 699. 
 
 Infant, 450, 470, 626; see Unbaptized, &c. 
 Infant. Jesus, 63, 455, 4C1, 4/J-SO, 490 (cut), 
 491 (cut), 631-2. 
 
 Infanticide, 623. 
 
 Infidel, Infidelity, 449, 538, 681, 692, 600, 672, 
 692 ; see Naturalism, Rationalism, &c. 
 
 Infirm, Oil of the, 473. 
 
 In/go (= Ignatius), 348. 
 
 Innocent 1., St. (pope), 157. 
 " II. " 161,208. 
 
 " III. (antipopel. 161. 
 " " (pope), l.o, 130, 162, 176-6, 208, 
 93, 874. 391-2, 678, 682. 
 TV /.mrt.! co IRO cfi s?i ari; 
 
 - >. t -T . wtr*-, Vli'. 
 
 IV. (pope), 69, 1G2, 08, 874, 376. 
 
 V. " 172, 99. 
 
 VI. " 162, 
 
 VII. " 131, 162.
 
 816 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Innocent Till, (pope), 163,334,394. 
 
 IX. " 163. 
 
 X. " 73.163. 
 
 " XI. " 103,404,582. 
 
 " XII. " 68, 164, 388, 571. 
 
 " XIII. " 164. 
 Innocents' Day, Holy, 498. 
 In parlibus injitletium, or in partibus, 99, 278, 
 280, 565. 
 
 679, 711. 
 
 Insane, 450. 
 
 Institutes, 296, &c., in Ch. VIII.; see Educa- 
 tion. 
 
 Integra integre, 234. 
 
 Intelligence, 365, 610, &c., in Ch. XXV., 699, 707. 
 
 Intent, Intention, 456, 458, 532, 538, 663. 
 
 Interdict, 132, 135, 217, 219, 607. 
 
 Interpretation of Scripture, 104, 408-9, 668-9 ; 
 see Henneneutics. 
 
 Intolerance, 389, 644, 650-2, 656-9. 
 
 Intoning, 23d, 239-40, 242, 247, 274, 428-9 ; see 
 Chant. 
 
 Introibo ad altare Dei, 425. 
 
 liitroit, 423, 427-8 (cut), 454. 
 
 Invention ( = finding) of the Holy Cross, 498. 
 
 Investiture, 207-8. 
 
 Invitation Heeded, The. 670. 
 
 Invocation of Saints, 483 4. 
 
 lona (off Scotland), 361. 
 
 Ionic (= of Ionia), 66. 81. 
 
 Iowa (State), 305, 316-17, and places marked 
 "(Iowa)". 
 
 Ipso facto, 557. 
 
 Ireland and the Irish, 90, 98, 152, 170, 193, 233, 
 237, 245, 270. 275, 290, 304, 320, 339, 357, 361, 
 338-9, 395, 399, 455, 491, 655, 563-6, 581, 686, 
 689, 606, 617 19, 623, 625-7, 630, 658-60, 666-7, 
 673-5, 678,681, 683-5, 697, 708, 711-12. Irish 
 Massacres, 711. 
 
 Irenoeus, St. i,bp. of Lyons), 114. 
 
 Irene (empress of the East), 200. 
 
 Irish ; see Ireland. 
 
 Iron, 470,549, &c. 
 
 Ironsides, George E., 669-70. 
 
 Isaac, 454. 
 
 Isabella (queen of Castile and wife of Ferdinand), 
 61, 65, 377, 387. 
 
 Isabella II. (queen of Spain), 615, 650-2. 
 
 Isabella (wine), 451. 
 
 Isaiah or Isaias (0. T.), 409, 414, 428, 651. 
 
 Isidorian Decretals, 127. 
 
 Is it honest ? 421, 539, 694. 
 
 Islamism, 387.692; see Mohammed, &c. 
 
 /so/a di San Rirtolomeo (Ilome), 62, 
 
 Israel, 20, 387. 
 
 Ita ex toto coriie volo . . . obedire, 272. 
 
 Italy and Italian, 23-9, 31-3, 46-50, 63. 71, 95, 
 100, 102, 108, 126, 129-32, 1*5, 138-41. 148-54, 
 162-6, 1/3, 175. 178-84, 187-8. 193-4 209, 211, 
 213, 218-20. 2i>6, 2*3, 23(5, 238, 245, 253, 270, 
 
 <wo, tii*. -MO, ou, W, DO*. 04U, 008, OiU. 
 
 609, 613-15, 618, 625, 627-9, 641, 643, , 
 648-9 353, 685-7. 689. King and Kingdom of 
 I., 4.-51, 89, 128, 138, 138, 140, 148-64, 165, 
 835, 649, 686. 
 
 Ite, misia est, 423, 446-7. 
 
 Ives, Bp. Levi S., and wife, 669-70. 
 
 Ives, Edward J., 669. 
 
 Jacksonville (Fla.), 325. 
 
 Jacksonville (111.), 405, G69. 
 
 acob,299,454. 
 
 acobini, Monsignor, 247. 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 Jacobins, 299 ; see Dominicans. 
 
 Jacobite Church, Jacobites, 423,691. 
 
 Jacques (= James or Jacob), Hue St., 299. 
 
 Jaen (Spain), 378, 650. 
 
 Jail, 625-6 ; see Prison, &c. 
 
 Jamdudum cernimus, 641. 
 
 James, St., 121, 299, 491, 498, 573. Epistle of 
 J. (5 : 14-20), 415. St. J . the Great, 498. 
 
 James I. (king of England) and King J . : s Bible, 
 412, 417, 592, 600 ; see Bible, English B. 
 
 James II. (king of England;, 712. 
 
 Jamestown (.Va.), 19. 
 
 Janicutum, Janicular Mount, 52-3, 74, 122. 
 
 Jansenism, -ists, 168-70, 177, 352, 699. 
 
 Januarius, Blood of St., 632. 
 
 Janus, 26, 35, 41 ; see I'ope and Council. 
 
 Japan, -ese, 165, 195, 366, 372, 490, 690. 
 
 Jasper (Ind.), 331. 
 
 Jebusites, 20. 
 
 Jefferson (Ind.), 331. 
 
 Jefferson (\Vis.),297. 
 
 Jefferson, College of (St. Michael, La.), 230. _ 
 
 Jehovah, 82, 145. 
 
 Jeremiah, Jeremias (0. T.), 409. 
 
 Jericho (Palestine), 471. 
 
 Jerome, St., 57, 67, 172, 174, 235, 411, 527, 577. 
 
 Jerome of Prague, 212 13, 405, 580. 
 
 Jersey City (N. J.),297, 314-15, 340, 712. 
 
 Jerusalem (Palestine), 20, 33,62, 121-4, 129, 218, 
 235, 301, 414, 479, 499, 500, 534, 541, 577, 709. 
 
 Jesi( Italy), 192. 
 
 Jesuits or Society of Jesus, Jesuitism, 63, 70, 
 154, 168, 171, 224, 230-1,237, 294, 310-11, 318 
 332-4, 348-60, 363, 335-9, 372, 378, 389, 459, 487 
 644, 568, 571-2, 593, 629, 636, 654, 684, 699. 
 
 Jesus Christ, 36, 60-1, 63-5, 88,92,94-5, 103-6, 
 112-18, 120, 123, 125. 149, 180,205-6,212-13, 
 217, 219, 228-9, 254, 260-2, 282, 293, 306, 311, 
 321, 327, 330-1, 336-7. 345, a56, 381, 366, 370, 
 382, 416, 422-3, 425-46 (cuts), 451. 455, 460-1, 
 467-8, 471, 477-9, 483-93, 496, 498-503. 507, 
 513, 516-7, 523, 525-7, 529-30, 534, 636-9, 642, 
 647, 651, 572-3, 576-7, 679, 582-4, 589, 622, 
 632-5. 638-9, 648, 650-1, 660, 679, 687, 694-6, 
 698, 706, 708-10. 
 
 Jesus Hominum Salvator, I. II. S., 478. 
 
 Jesus, Society of; see Jesuits. 
 
 Jesu XPi pafsio. 311. 
 
 Jews, Jewish, 61 . 85, 88, 120, 123, 145, 252, 254, 
 262, 299, 374, 378, 387-9. 414, 448-9, 457, 677, 
 696,600, 606, 638, 647-6, 651, 692; see He- 
 brew, Judaism. 
 
 Joan, Pope (?), 159. 
 
 Job<0. T.), 409,533. 
 
 Joel (0. T.), 409. 
 
 John the Baptist, 283, 413-14, 426, 434, 498, 
 606. Knights of St. J. of Jerusalem, 333. 
 
 John the Apostle, St., 440, 477, 498, 600, 523, 
 627 ; see Gospel of St. J. Revelation of St. J. 
 the Divine (N. T.), 409. First Epistle of J. 
 (2 : 1-4), 416. St. J.'s Church (New Haven, 
 Ct.), 665. St. J.'g College (Fordham, N. Y.), 
 358; (Frederick, Md.) 358. St. J.'s Manual, 
 630. Basilica of St. J. Lateran (Rome), 60, 
 73. 
 
 John the Notary (usurping emperor), 39. 
 
 John (Roman patrician), 61. 
 
 John I. (pope), 157. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 157. 
 157. 
 158. 
 158. 
 168.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 817 
 
 John VII. (pope), 158. 
 " VIII. or joan (female pope?), 159. 
 " (pope;, 159. 
 " IX. " 159. 
 " X. " 159. 
 " XI. " 159. 
 " XII. " 127,160. 
 
 XIII. " 160. 
 
 XIV. " 160. 
 
 XV. " 160. 
 
 XVI. or XV. (pope), 95, 160. 
 
 " or XVII. (popeorantipope?), 160. 
 
 XVII. or XVI. (pope?), 160. 
 
 XVIII. (pope), 160. 
 
 ' XIX. or XV11I. (pope), 160. 
 
 " XX. (? antipope), 100. 
 
 " XXI or XIX. or XX. (pope), 162. 
 
 " XXII. (pope), 162. 
 
 " XXIII. ' 131.163,209-11,214. 
 
 John (bp. of Antioch), 205. 
 
 John (bp. of Sabina), 100 ; see Sylvester HI. 
 
 John Gratian, loO ; see Gregory VI. 
 
 John of the Cross, St., 302, 389. 
 
 John of Damascus. St., 288. 
 
 tJohn, Abp. of New York, 484, 488. 
 
 Johnstown (Pa.), 334. 
 
 Joliette(an.), 310. 
 
 Jonah or Jonas (0 T.), 409. 
 
 Jones, Gardiner. 669. 
 
 Jordan (river), 414. 
 
 Joseph, St., 166, 456, 461, 478, 480, 490-1 (cut), 
 498, 547. St. J.'s Academy (Emmettsburg, 
 Md ), 316. St J 's Cathedral (Columbus, 0.), 
 663. St. J.'s Church (N.Y.), 570-1; (Troy, 
 N.Y.)359; (Hudson City, N. J.)340; (Wash- 
 ington, D. C.)359; (Mobile, Ala.) 359 ; and 
 
 (Cambridgeport, Mass.), 326; (Utica, N. Y.) 
 298. St. J.'s German Hospital (Baltimore, 
 Md.), 297. St. J.'s Home for Aged Women 
 (N. Y.), 315. St. J.'s Hospital (fort Wayne, 
 Ind.i, 328. St. J.'s Novitiate (Notre Dame, 
 Ind.), 323 St J.'s Orphan Asylum (Patersou, 
 N. J.), 339. St. J.'s Preparatory Seminary 
 (Bardstown, Ky ), 358. St. J.'s Sisterhood 
 (Emmettsburg, Md.), 314. Sisters of St. J., 
 325-6. 
 
 Joseph II. (emperor of Germany), 168, 335. 
 
 Josephites of the Holy Cross, 323. 
 
 Joshua or .losue (0. T.), 4v9. 
 
 Journals, 619, 633. &c. ; see Newspapers. 
 
 Jovian (emperor), 33. 
 
 Joyful Mysteries, 485-6. 
 
 Juan de la Cruz, St , 302, 389. 
 
 Juarez, Benito (President of Mexico), 656. 
 
 Jubilees. 166, 531. 
 
 Judaism, 377-8, 387 ; see Jews. 
 
 Judas Iscariot, 346. 
 
 Jude, St., 498. 
 
 Judea (Palestine). 36, 145, 413-14. 
 
 Judges (O. T.), 409. 
 
 Judica, 233. 
 
 Judith (Apocrypha), 409, 411. 
 
 Jugurtha, 82. 
 
 Julia (mother of Augustus), 34. 
 
 Julian the Apostate (emperor), 38, 45. 
 
 Julian, Cardinal, 216. 
 
 Julianus, Didius (emperor), 87. 
 
 Julian Year, 31. 
 
 Julius Caesar or Cesar. 33, &c. ; see Cesar. 
 
 Julius I., St. (pope), 156. 
 
 " II. " 55,134-5,163,219-20. 
 41 UI. " 163, 220-1, 225. 
 
 52 
 
 Juno, 41. 
 
 Jupiter, 41, 63, 81,83, 492. 
 
 Justification, 104-6, 222. 
 
 Justinian I. (emperor), 47, 126, 206, 541. 
 
 Kaffraria or Caffraria (Africa), 091. 
 
 Kalley, Dr., 404-5, 660. 
 
 Kankakee Co. ( 111.), 310, 557. 
 
 Kansas (State), 277, 316, 324, 359, 664 ; and plu 
 
 ces marked "(Kan.)". 
 Kaskaskia(lll.),344. 
 
 Katholiscke Kirchen-Zeitung (Ger. paper), 6 1 9. 
 Katkolische Volks-Zeitung 619. 
 
 Katholisther Glaubensbote 619. 
 
 Katholischer Wochenblatt 619. 
 
 Katholiscties Hausbuch " 619. 
 
 Keating, Very Rev. Basil, 312. 
 Keble, Rev. John, 671. 
 Kelso, Jas. J. (Police-Superintendent, N. Y.), 
 
 712. 
 Kenrick, Abp. Francis P. (Baltimore), 274, 514- 
 
 16, 579-83. 
 Keurick, Abp. Peter R. (St. Louis), 241, 280, 
 
 514. 
 
 Kent (Eng.), 288. 
 Kent, Chancellor James, 670. 
 Kentucky (State), 293, 301,305,317,327,549, 
 
 664, and places marked ''(Ky.)". 
 Ken wood (N.Y.), 324-5. 
 Kenyon College (0.), 670. 
 Kerry (Ireland), 684. 
 Kewley, John, M. D., 669-70. 
 Keys, 112, 12<>-1 (cut), 262. 503-4, 616, 530, 539. 
 Kidnaping, 102, 395, 679 ; see Persecutions. 
 Kiansi (China), 109. 
 
 King James's Bible, 412, &c. ; see James I. 
 Kings, I , II., III., IV. (0. T.), 409. 
 Kings of Rome, List of, 21. 
 Kingsley, Henry C., Esq., 615. 
 Kirwan ( = Rev. N. Murray, D. D.), 137, 419, 
 
 627-8, 674-5 
 Kiss of Peace, 198, 273, 443, 451, 475 ; see Pax 
 
 tecum. 
 
 Kisaing the Altar, 426 (cut), 427, 434, 443,445-7. 
 Kissing the Scapular, 538. 
 Klageufort (Austria), 624. 
 Klee, Henry, 635. 
 Klostermann, Very Rev. M., 296. 
 Knapp St. (Milwaukee, Wis.), 327. 
 Kneeling, 429-30, 433, 440-3, 447, 459, 469, &c., 
 
 in Chap. XIV., 561. K. Cushions, 472. K.- 
 
 Desks and Stands, 234 233, 472 (cut>, 475. 
 Knights Hospitalers, 333. K. of St. John, K. 
 
 of Rhodes, K. of Malta, 333. K. Templars, 
 
 209, 333. Teutonic K., 333. 
 Koran, 59 ; see Arabic, Islamism, Mohammed. 
 Kunkler, Very Rev. A., 324. 
 Kyrie eleison, 428, 454. 
 Labarum, 543. 
 Laboan (S.E. of Asia), 372. 
 Laborers, 562, 630. 
 Lace, 284. 
 
 Lachine (Canada), 328. 
 Lacordaire, Rev. J. B. H., 151, 299, 571-2. 
 La Crosse ( Wis.) and Diocese. 241, 277, 280, 663. 
 Ladies of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, 329. 
 Ladies of the Sacred Heart, 324-5. Ladies of the- 
 
 S. H. of Mary, 325. 
 
 Lady, My or Our. 550, &c. ; see Mary the Virgin. 
 Lafayette, Gen., 700. 
 Lafayette (Ind.), 831. 
 La Fontaine, Jean (= John)de, 701-2. 
 Laibach (Austria), 624. 
 Laics, 199 ; see Laymen. 
 
 Lainez ; see Laynez. 1 
 
 Laity ; see Laymen. , : .
 
 818 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 I/alande (Fr. astronomer), 354. 
 
 Lamb, 259, 459. L. of God ; gee Agnus Dei, 
 
 Jesus Christ. 
 
 Lambruschini, Cardinal, 190, 193. 
 Lamennais, Abbe II. V. II. de, 671. 
 Lamentations 0. T ). 409. 
 Lamp, 66, 69, 470, 472, 474, 631, &c. 
 Lamy, Up. J.,2^1. 
 Lancashire (Eng I, 357. 
 Lando or Lantlus (pope), 159. 
 Langenfelder, Kev. K., 289. 
 L'Anse(Mich.), 325. 
 Lansingburg (N. Y ), 303. 
 Lantern, 66, 69, 459, 472, 646,'&c. 
 Laocoon, 67. 
 Lappets, 262. 
 
 Lapsed, 105 ; nee Relapsed. 
 Laredo (Tex.), 3 J8. 
 Lares, 41. 
 La Salle, Abbe J. B. de, 320. La Salle's Treatise 
 
 on the Duty of a Christian, 604. 
 La Salette (France), 633-4. 
 Las Casas, 299 
 Laateyrie, Count C. P. de, 608-12. 
 
 Lateran Basilica (Rome), 60, 68, 207-8. 291. L. 
 0-, 95. 125, 128, 135, 175,204,207-S, 
 
 Councils, 60; 95 
 
 219-20, 22 .,'293, 375, 391,406,609,519,576; 
 
 678-9, 583, 711. L. Palace (Rome), 60, 68 
 Lateranus, Plautius, 60. 
 Latimer, Bp. Hugh, 705. 
 Latin, 62, 67, 94, 111,119,170,173,185,187, 
 
 222, 23?, 241-2, 265, 271,320.409.411,423, 
 
 ' 218, 233, 284, 339, &c. ; gee Roman Catholic 
 Church. Latinity, 238. Latinized, 428, 706. 
 
 La Trappe ; see Trappe, Trappists. 
 
 Latrobe (Pa. I, 289, 305, 334. 
 
 Lauds, Laudes, 424, 448. 
 
 Laurens St. (X Y.), 547. 
 
 Laurentius ( = Lawrence ; an tipope), 157. 
 
 Lausanne (Switzerland), 218, 651. 
 
 Lavalette, 352. 
 
 Lavatory, 472. 
 
 Lawrence, Basilica of St. (Rome), 62, 476. 
 Church of St. L.( = &m Lorenzo ; Rome), 82 ; 
 (N. Y.J359. 
 
 Lawrence (Mass.), 303, 327. 
 
 Lawyers, 148, 380, &c. ; see Canon Law. 
 
 Laymen and Laity, 188, 239 40, 254, 284, 290, 
 376, 387, 395, 449. 452, 455, 607, 609, 653, 655, 
 668-60,620, 623. 637, 640, 662, 681, 687, 692. 
 
 ; Lay-brothers, 289, &c., in Ch. VIII., 611. 
 Lay-pupil-s, 349, &c. Lay-sisters, 304, &c.,in 
 Chap. VIII 
 
 Laynez or Lainez), James, 348 
 
 Lazarists, or Priests of the Congregation of the 
 Mission, 310-13, 318, 369. 639. 
 
 Lazarus, Priory of St. (Paris), 812. 
 
 Leavenworth City (Kan.), 359. 
 
 Lebanon (mountain of Syria) ; see Libanus. 
 
 Lebanon (1'a.), 305. 
 
 Lebanon (Ky.), 327. 
 
 Lebrija. 883 
 
 Leclerc, Rev. John, 400. 
 
 Le Correspondent (= The Correspondent), 664. 
 
 Lectern or Lecturn, 472-8 
 
 Lector ( = reader), 256 ; see Reader. 
 
 Lectures, Public, 409. 
 
 Legate (of pope), 101, 191, 204-6, 207, 216.220-1, 
 225-6, 275, 334-6, 348, 3 7 4-5, 392, 394 ; see Am- 
 bassador, Envoy, &c. L. a latere. 189. 
 
 Leger, Rev. Jean (= John), 897-8. 
 
 Leinster (Ireland), 617. 
 
 Lemanouski, Col., 385. 
 
 Lcmberg (Austria), 624. 
 
 Lemieux, Mr., 586. 
 
 Lemonnier, Rev. A., 322. 
 
 Le Moniteur Catlwlitjue, 633. 
 
 Lenormant, 388. 
 
 Lent, 261, 43J, 434, 447, 452-3, 495-502, 609, 519. 
 
 616. 
 
 Leo the Isaurian (emperor), 94. 
 Leo I., the Great, St. (pope), 93.112,157,205-6, 
 
 347,509. 
 Leo II., St. (pope), 158,206. 
 
 4 III. " " 158. 
 
 IV. " " 53,159. 
 
 V. " 159. 
 
 VI. " 159. 
 
 VII. " 159. 
 
 VIII. (pope or antipope?), 160. 
 
 IX. (pope), 128, 161. 
 
 X. " 135-6, 163, 199, 293, 630, 536, 
 576. 
 
 " XI. (pope), 163. 
 
 " XII. " 137, 164, 177, 181, 188, 337-8, 
 410. 
 
 Leo, Henry, 388. 
 
 Leo, Rev. P. J.,565. 
 
 Leon (Spain), 377. 
 
 Leonine City (Rome), 53, 85. 
 
 Leonists, 393. 
 
 Leopold Association, 370. 
 
 Lepidus, Marcus JEmilius, 35. 
 
 Le Propagateur Catlioliyue, 619. 
 
 Leresche, 616. 
 
 Les Adieux, 354. 
 
 Levate, 429. 
 
 Leviticus (0. T.). 409. 
 
 Lewdness, 627, &c ; see Immorality, Libertin- 
 ism, Licentiousness, &c. 
 
 Lewis, Prof. Tayler, LL.D., 416. 
 
 Lewiston (Idaho , 3.i9. 
 
 Libanus (= Mt. Lebanon in Syria), 109. 
 
 Liberals and Liberalism, 138-9, 230, 671-3, 630, 
 641, 647, 653, 655-6, 659, 699, 700. 
 
 Liberia (Africa), 691. 
 
 Liberian Basilica (Rome), 61. 
 
 Liberius (pope), 61, 156. 
 
 Libertinism, 334, Chap. XXVI., &c., ; see Im- 
 morality, &c. 
 
 Liberty (of speech, press, conscience, &c.), 88-9, 
 405, 602, 660, 571-2, 675, 685, 621, 629, 637-61, 
 693 4, 699, 700 ; see Religious Liberty, &c. 
 
 Libius Severus (emperor), 39. 
 
 Libraries, 66-7, 70. Vatican Library, 66-7. 
 
 Libya (N. Africa). 30. 
 
 Licentiousness, 608 ; see Immorality, Lewdness, 
 &c 
 
 Licinian (from Cains Licinius Stolo, Roman trib- 
 une and consul) Law, 24. 
 
 Licinius i emperor), 38, 44-5. 
 
 Lieber, Prof. Francis, LL.D., 596. 
 
 Lights, 236, 256, 430, 450, 477, 480, 499, 600 ; 
 see Candle, Lamp, Lantern, &c. 
 
 Liguori (or Ligorio), St. Alfonso de, 318, 538. 
 Liguorians, 318 ; see Rcdemptorists. 
 
 Lilla, Rev. V., 312. 
 
 Lima (Peru, S. A .), 386. 
 
 Limbo, 626. 
 
 UnU ( Austria), 624. 
 
 Linus, St. (bp. of Rome?), 122, 154-5. 
 
 List of Bishops and Archbishops in U. S., 278- 
 81 ; of Cardinals, 190-4 ; of Emperors of 
 Rome, 36-9 ; of Kings of Rome, 21 ; of Popes 
 and Antipopes, 154-64 ; of R. C. Periodicals in 
 U. S., 619; see Tables. 
 
 Litanies, 239, 242, 247, 272, 455, 484-6, 638.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 819 
 
 Literature, 620, 653, 706. &c. ; see Books, &c. 
 
 Little Catechism, 244, 252. 
 
 Little Office of Our Lady, 537. 
 
 Little Uock (Ark.) and Diocese, 245, 277, 279, 
 
 663. 
 
 Little Sisters of the Poor, 329 ! 
 Liturgies, 265. 
 
 Liturgies, 93, 201, 242, 267, 423. 
 Liverpool (Eng.J, 626-6. 
 Living Rosary, 456, 487-8. 
 Llorente, Don Juan Antonio, 386, 388-9, 611. 
 Lockport(N. Y.),330. 
 Loggia, pi. Loggie, 66. 
 Lollards. 705. 
 Lombards, Lombard? (N. Italy), 47, 126, 129, 
 
 375,614-15, 623. 
 London (Can.), 358. 
 London (Eng ), 20, 173, 197, 310. 512, 550, 612, 
 
 625, 681-2, 705. L. Kegister, 681. L. Times ; 
 
 see Times (London). 
 Longanimity, 412. 
 Long Island (N. YJl, 306. 
 Longueil iC'an.), 328. 
 Loogootee(Ind.), 331. 
 Lootens.Bp. L.,280. 
 Lord, Our, 496, &c.; see Jestis Christ. Lord's 
 
 Day, 636, &c.; see Sunday. Lord's Prayer, 
 
 369, 415, 43i, 440-1, 449, 454-6, 458, 477, 483-8, 
 
 520, 527, 535-8, 600. Lord's Supper, 167, 
 
 422-3. &c.; see Eucharist, Mass. 
 Lords, House of, t80-l. 
 Lorenzo, Church of San (Rome), 62. 82; see 
 
 Laurentius, Lawrence. 
 Loretto (Pa.), 305. 
 Loretto (Ky.), 327. 
 Loretto, Litany of Our Lady of, 484. 
 Loretto, Sisters of, 327. 
 Lorraine (France and Germany), 161, 221. 
 Los Angeles (Cal.) and Diocese, 277, 281, 296, 
 
 313, 6rf3. 
 Losses of the K. C. Church, 672, &c., in Ch. 
 
 XXVIII., 708 
 
 Lothaire (French emperor), 48. 
 Lotteries, 88, 563. 
 Loughlin, Bp. John, 270, 279. 
 Louis I. U JJtbonnaire (Fr. emperor), 48. 
 
 " II. " " 48, 
 
 " the German (king of Germany), 48. 
 
 ' VIII. (Fr. king), 393. 
 
 " IX. (= St. Louis ; Fr. king), 295, 370, 
 
 644. Cathedral of St. L (St Louis, Mo.), 
 
 648 ; (New Orleans, La.), 548. Church of St 
 
 L. (BuBalo, N. Y.), 555 7. Abbey of St. L. 
 
 on the Lake (Min.), 563. St. L.'s Select 
 
 French Institute (N. Y.), 320. 
 Louis XII. (king of France), 134-5. 
 
 " XIV. " " " 295,352,398-9,404 
 
 " XVI. " " " 544. 
 
 < Philippe" " " 137,139. 
 Louisiana (State). 109, 305, 313, 316, 357-9, 549. 
 
 663-7, and places marked "(La.)". 
 Louisville (ivy.) and Diocese, 277, 279, 296, 
 
 301, 3U5, 80S, 317, 322-3, 327-8, 357, 619, 663, 
 
 6G6. 
 
 Louisville (0.), 284. 330. 
 Louvre (Palace of Paris \ 401-2. 
 Low churchman, 670. Low Mass, 424,463, 465, 
 
 &c., in Ch. XIV. ,664; see Mass. Low Sun- 
 day, 243, 459, 495. 
 Lowell (Mass.), 320, 327. 
 Lower Canada see Canada. 
 Loyola, St. Ignatius ; see Ignatius Loyola. 
 
 Loyola College (Baltimore, Md.), 358. 
 Loyson, Rev. Charles, 302 ; see Uyacinthe 
 
 (Father). 
 
 Luc*, Cardinal dc, 191, 193, 234, 240. 
 Luca, Chevalier Fred, de, 154. 
 Lucas, Fielding, Jr., 412. 
 Lucca (Italy), 156, 161, 649. 
 Lucero (Sp. Inquisitor), 388. 
 Lucia St., 440. 
 Lucina, St., 84. 
 Lucius, St. (pope), 156. 
 " II. " 161. 
 " III. " 161,394. 
 Ludovisi, Villa (Rome), 69. 
 Luers, Bp. J.H., 279. 
 Luke, St. (evangelist), 123, 498-9. St L.* 
 
 Church (N. Y.j, 670. 
 Luna (=moon), 41, 470, 473. 
 Luna, Peter de, 131 ; see Benedict XIH. 
 Lunatic Asylum, 71, &c., in Ch VIII. 
 L' Univers Religieux, 650. 
 Lustrum, Lustre, 236. 
 Luther, Martin, 60, 135, 141, 220, 302, 416, 536, 
 
 627. 
 
 Lutheran, 103, 167, 176-7, 379, 674. 
 Luxemburg (Holland or Germany;, 166, 689. 
 Lyman, Dwight E., 669-70. 
 Lynch, Bp. P. N., 278. 
 Lynch, Rev. M.,289. 
 Lyons (France), 115-16, 191, 204. 208-9, 219, 228, 
 
 236, 245, 279, 369, 393, 487, 634, 672, 686. 
 Macao i China), 367 690. 
 McAuley, Catharine, 304. 
 
 Maccabees or Machabees, I. and II. (Apocry- 
 pha), 409, 625-7. 
 McCarron, Rev. Mr., 271. 
 Macchiavelli, Niccolo(= Nicholas), 627. 
 McCloskey, Abp. John, 148, 241, 270, 279, 545. 
 McCloskey, Bp. Win., 279. 
 McCrie, Thomas, D. D., 179. 
 Mace-Bearers, 143. 
 Mac cilo n and Macedonians, 30. Macedonian 
 
 Wars, 30. 
 
 McFarland, Bp. Francis P., 280. 
 McGill, Bp. J.,278.. 
 McGUl, Very Rev. J. A., 279. 
 Machabees ; see Maccabees. 
 McIIale, Abp. John, 245. 
 Macheboeuf, Bp. J. P.. 281. 
 McKeon, John, Esq., 148. 
 McKeon, Rev. John, 669-70. 
 McLeod, Rev. C. Donald, 669-70. 
 McMahon, Rev. A., 289. 
 Macon (Ga.), 306. 
 Macotera (Spain), 193. 
 McQuaid, Bp. B. J., 280. 
 McSherrystown (Pa.), 325. 
 Madiai, Francesco and Rosa, 649. 
 Madagascar, ( African island), 873, 691. 
 Madeira (island or islands), 110. 414, 660, 674. 
 
 689, 691. M. wine, 451. 
 Maderno. Carlo, 66. 
 
 Madison (N. J.), 314, 316, 839-40, 658-9. 
 JJad ! son(lnd.),331. 
 Madonna ( = My Lady, t. e., the Virgin Mary), 
 
 550. Madonna delta pieta, 550. 
 Madrid (Spain , 20, 385, 651-2, 685. 
 Madura liindostan), 387. 
 Magazines, 617-21. 
 Magdalen Asylums and Magdalens, 328-9, &e.. 
 
 in Ch. Till. 
 
 Magdalene Parish (Rome), 628. 
 Magdeburg (1'russia), 291. 
 Magi, Chapel of the (Cologne, Germany), 542. 
 Modifier (= master)-general , 2H3. 
 Magistrates, 343, 851, 374, 376-7, 406-7. 
 Magnentius fwnperor). 38. 
 Magnesia (Asia Minor) ,30.
 
 820 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Magno, Very Rev. A. 312. 
 
 Magnus, Albertus, 29J. 
 
 Mails, 145. 
 
 Maine (State), 305, 545, 549, 664, and places 
 
 marked "(Me.)". 
 Maistre, De, 388. 
 Major, Henry, 669-70. 
 Majorian (emperor), 39. 
 Major Orders, 448 ; see Orders (Holy). 
 Malacca, 366. 
 
 Malachi. Malackias (0. T), 409. 
 Maladministration, 131,344. 
 Malaga (Spain), 650, 685. M. wine, 451. 
 Malebranche, Nicolas, 311. 
 Malines (= Mechlin in Belgium), 572, 682. 
 Malta (island), 333, 689. Knights of M., 333.' 
 Mamertine Prison (Rome), 82. 
 Mauiertines (in Sicily), 27. 
 Manassea, Prayer of (Apocrypha), 409. 
 Manayunk (Pa.), 297, 330. 
 Manchester (Eng.), 569. 
 Manchester (N. H.), 305, 604. 
 Mandarin (Fla.), 325. 
 Mandatum, 500. 
 Manhattan (= N. T. island), 19. Manhattan- 
 
 ville(in N. Y. city), 270. 
 Manichean and Manicheism, 374, 387, 392. 
 Maniple 259-60 263. 
 Mankato(Min.), 327. 
 Manning, Abp. Henry E., 241, 681. 
 Manteucci, Signer 0., 614-15. 
 Mantle, 189, 294, 302, 362 ; see Dress, Habit. 
 Marble, 56, 76, 470, 476, 479, 543, 547-9, 634, 
 
 fee 
 
 Marcellinus, St. (pope 1 ), 138, 156, 410. 
 Marcellus I., St. (pope), 156. 
 
 II. " 163,221. 
 
 Marcellus, Christopher, 125. 
 Marcellus, Claudius, 29. 
 Marches, the (Central Italy), 130, 133-4, 614. 
 Marchi, Father, 84. 
 Marchionni, Carlo, 65. 
 Marcian (emperor of the East), 205. 
 Marcus, St. (pope), 156. 
 Marforio (Rome). 73. 
 
 Margaret wife of Henry IV. of France), 401. 
 Maria ( = Mary ), 61, 63-4, 71 , 80-1. 
 Mariana's History of Spain, 378. 
 Maria Theresa (German empress), 390. 
 Marinus I. or Martin II. (pope), 158. 
 " II." " HI. (f 159. 
 Marion Co. (Ky.), 327. 
 Marius, Caius, 32. 
 Mark, Festival of St., 498. Gospel of St. M., 
 
 499. 
 
 Mark, Cardinal of St., 210. 
 Market St. (Baltimore, Md.), 412. 
 Markoe, \Vm., 669. 
 Marksville (La.), 330. 
 Maromte.". 109, 267, 423. 
 Marozia 127 
 Marquette (Mich.) and Diocese, 277, 279, 308, 
 
 660. 
 
 Marquisette, 263. 
 Marriage, 99, 101, 128, 204, 267-8, 284-5,370,401, 
 
 462, 520, 561, 685, 642, 668 ; see Celibacy, Mat- 
 rimony, Monastics, Priests, &c. 
 Mars (god), 21, 41, 73. Field of M. (Rome), 25, 
 
 83, 85. 
 Martin I. (pope), 168. 
 
 " II. " 158 ; gee Marinus I. 
 
 " III. " 159 ; see Marinus II. 
 
 " IV. (pope), 162. 
 1 " V. " 132, 163, 203, 211, 214-16, 
 
 803, 862. 
 
 Martin, Bp. Aug., 279. 
 
 Martin (bp. of Tours), 284. 
 
 Martini, Abp. Anthony, 420. 
 
 Martyrs, 93. 165, 284. 337, 366, 400, 436, 441, 
 448, 483, 635, 580, 69o, 705. 
 
 Mary, the Virgin. 61, 63-4, 92-3, 103, 105, 110, 
 166, 173, 182, 238, 261-2, 300-1, 303, 306, 317, 
 319, 321, 323-5, 327, 329-30, 332, 362, 366, 400, 
 419, 424, 426, 434, 436, 455-6, 461, 478, 477-80, 
 48393, 496, 498, C06-7, 535,537-8,540,650, 
 630-5, 638, 709. Academy of ft. M. (Cincin- 
 nati, O), 465. Basilica of St. M. Major 
 (Rome), 61-2. Cathedral of St. M. (San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal.), 549. Church of St M. (Boston, 
 Mass.), 359,644; (New Haven, Ct.) 665 ; (Al- 
 exandria, Va.) a59. Church of St. M. of the 
 Angels (Rome), 63, 80 ; of the People'- St. M. 
 (Rome), 64 ; of St. M. at the Martyrs (= Pan- 
 theon, Rome), 81 ; of St. M. of the Sacred 
 Mount (Rome), 64 ; of St. M. of the Miracles 
 (Rome), 64 ; of St. M. on Minerva iRome), 64, 
 143 ; of St. M. of the Foot-print (Rome), 64 ; 
 of St. M. the Greater (Trent, Austria), 220; 
 of St. M. Immaculate (New Haven, Ct.), 645. 
 St. M.'g College (Montreal Diocese, Can.), 
 358. Convent of St. M. (So. Orange, N. J.), 
 336 ; of St. M. of the Immaculate Conception 
 (St. Joseph's Co., Ind.), 323. Fathers of the 
 Society of M., 320. St. M.'s Female Hospital 
 (Brooklyn, N. Y.), 315 St. M.'s Female 
 School (N. Y.). 316. St M.'s Hospital 
 (Quincy, 111.), 293. Mother-House and Insti- 
 tute, St. M. of the Woods (near Terre Haute, 
 Ind.), 331. Order of St. M. of Mount Carmel 
 (= Carmelites), 301. St. M.'s Orphan Asy- 
 lum (Madison, N. J.), 316. Associated Pro- 
 fessors of St. M.'s Seminary and St. M.'s 
 University (Baltimore, Md.), 318. Workhouse 
 of St. M. of the Angels (Rome), 71. 
 
 Mary (Christian at Rome), 123. 
 
 Mary and Martha Society, 456. 
 
 Mary I. (Eng. queen, 1553-8), 404. 
 
 Mary II. " 1689-94), 399. 
 
 Mary,or Mary Stuart (queen of Scotland), 581. 
 
 Mary Angela, Mother, 323. 
 
 Mary Caroline, lister, 327. 
 
 Maryland (State 1 ), 802. 305, 313, 316, 319, 357, 
 359, 549, 604, 637-8, 640, 665-7. 
 
 Marysville (Cal.), 327. 
 
 Masinissa, 29. 
 
 Masquerading 498-9. 
 
 Mass, 924, 105, 140, 143, 168, 234, 242, 247, 254- 
 62, 2724, 346, 363, 385, 42248, &c., in Ch. 
 XIV., 495, &c., in Ch. XVI., 519-20, 650, 561- 
 4, 616, 630. 616 ; see Dead, High M., Low M., 
 Solemn M., &c. M.-book, 423, 473, &c. ; see 
 Missal. M. for the Bridegroom and Bride, 
 454 ; for the Dead, 425, 434, 443. 446, 464, 469 
 672 ; of the Holy Ghost, 197, 240, 424. 
 
 Massachusetts (Stated, 19, 279, 305, 316,649, 
 657 61, 600, 604-5. 610, 638, 664. 
 
 Massacre ; see Bartholomew, Irish, Persecution, 
 Waldenses, &c. 
 
 Massillon, J. B.,311. 
 
 Mastai Ferretti, 138 ; see Pius IX. 
 
 Master of Ceremonies, 235-7,242; of Novices, 
 289, 323, &c., in Ch. VIII. ; of the Sacred 
 Palace, 299. 
 
 Master-key of Popery. 612. 
 
 Matamoros. Manuel, 6oO. 
 
 Matanzas (Cuba^. 657. 
 
 Maternity, Sodality of the Holy, 456. 
 
 Mathleu, Cardinal, 192, 245. 
 
 Matilda, Countess. 129 ; = St. M., 534? 
 
 Matin, Matins, 286-6, 298, 424, 448-9, 473.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 821 
 
 Matrimony, 104, 222, 449, 452-6 ; see Marriage. 
 
 Mattanin, Cardinal, 190. 194 
 
 Mattel, Cardinal, 191, 238. 
 
 Matthew, Festival of St., 498. Gospel of St 
 
 M-, 499 ; (3: 1-12) 413-14 ; (6: 9-13; 415 ; (16: 
 
 18, 1) 120. 
 
 Matthias, St., 120. 440. 
 Matthieu 245 ; see Mathieu. 
 Mattison ,' Kev Iliram, D.D., 266, 618-21, 665, 
 
 667-8, 672, 675-80, 686-7. 
 Matutiniim, 448. 
 Maundy-Thursday. 167-8, 461, 464, 466, 476, 
 
 480, 491, 495. 497-601, 524. 
 Maur, Benedictines of St., 288. 
 Maurevel, 401 
 Maurice of Saxony, 221. 
 Mauritius (island;, 110, 691. 
 Maxentius (emperor,, 38, 44, 78, 83. 
 Maxima quitiem ( = even the greatest), 165. 
 Maximilian I. (emperor Germany;, 1345. 
 Maximilian Josepli (emperor Mexico;, 653-6. 
 Maximian (emperor), 37, 44. 
 Maximin, Alaximinus (emperor), 37, 43-4. 
 Maximin Daza (.emperor ?;, 44-5. 
 Maximin (French shepherd-boy), 634. 
 Maximus (emperor), 39. 46. 
 Mayence (Germany j, 132 ; see Mentz. 
 Maysville (Ky.;, 306. 
 Mazziui, Giuseppe (= Joseph), 0. 
 Meadville (Pa ;, 32o. 
 Meaux (France:, 400. 
 Mechlin or Maliues (Belgium), 572, 682. 
 Medals, 403, 456, 632-3, &c. St. Bartholomew's 
 
 Medal, 403, 705. 
 
 Mediator, 255 ; see Jesus Christ, Saints, &c. 
 Medici, 13; , 402. 
 Mediterranean Sea, 32. 40, 49-51. 
 Meetings, Keligious, 404-u, &c., in Chs. XI.. 
 
 XII., XXV11., &c. 
 Melanie (Fr. shepherd -girl), 634. 
 Melchiades. St. (.pope;, 156. 
 Melchizedek. 20, 439. 
 Melcher, Bp J ., 280. 
 Meletius (bp. of Antioch), 205. 
 Memento for the Living, 435-6 (cut) ; for the 
 
 Dead, 439 40 (cut). 
 Memphis (Tenn.;, 301. 
 Menageries. 633 
 Menasba (Wis ,, 297. 
 Mendicant Monks or M. Orders, 208, 290, 292- 
 
 3i>4 ; 309, 3tti; see Mendicity. 
 
 Mendicity, 137 : fee Beggars, Mendicant Monks, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Mendota (Min ). 325. 
 Menelaus (king of Sparta), 73. 
 Menno (Dutch reformer). 639. 
 Mentz ( = Mayence in Germany), 132, 210. 
 Mephitis, 42. 
 Mercer Co. ( 0.\ 324. 
 Mercury, 41, 492. 
 Mercy, i-isters of; see Sisters of Mercy. Society 
 
 of the lathers of M., 320. 
 Merici, St. Angela, 307. 
 Merindol (France . 401. 
 Merit, 617,680 .= 33-40. 
 Merle d'Aubigne. J. H., 179, 400, 536. 
 Merode, Monsignor dc, 140. 
 Mertel, cardinal. 194. 
 Mesopotamia < Asia . 33, 40. 
 Mrsxana, now Messina (Sicily). 27. 
 Messenger of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (R. C. 
 
 Magazine , fi!9. 
 Metella Cecilia, 75 6. 
 Metensians (= people of Metz), 176 
 Methodism, Methodist, Methodist Episcopal 
 
 Church, 90, 266, 336, 408,594,620-1,658-9. 
 
 670-1, 674, 676, 679. 
 Metropolitan, and M. Bishop, Church, Council. 
 
 &c., 102, 187, 202-3,207,268,205,269,642; 
 
 see Archbishop. 
 Metz (France), 176, 400. 
 Mexico, Mexican. 233, 237, 357-8, 362, 386, 685, 
 
 618, 665-6, 687-8. 
 Micah, Micheas (0. T.), 409. 
 
 Michael, St. (Archangel), 75, 426, 433, 456, 462, 
 
 498, 606. Hospital of St. M. (komej, 71. s-t. 
 
 M.'s Betreat (W lloboken, N. J.J, 311-12 
 
 (cut). 334. 
 
 Michael 111. (emperor of East), 207. 
 Michael Angelo ; see Angelo (Michael). 
 Michaelmas (=mass of fct. Michael; -day, 498. 
 Micheas (= Jiicah in 0. T.), 409. 
 Michigan (State), 316, 649, 604, 666, and places 
 
 marked '(iJich.)". 
 Middle Ages, 406, 626, 583 4, 647. 
 Middle Colonies or States (U. S.), 610. 
 Mid -Lent Sunday, 496. 
 Miege. Bp. J. B., 281 
 Milan (Italy), 49, 71. 161-3,175,212,221,245, 
 
 386, 419, 423, 499, 642, 685-6. 
 Milevi (N. Africa), 117. 
 Milhau( France), 191. 
 Military Orders, 333. 
 Milton, John, 398, 694. 
 Milwaukee (\Vis.) and Diocese, 277,281,297-8, 
 
 314, &7, a&7, 359, 663-4. Milwaukee St. (M.), 
 
 OBI. 
 
 Minarets, 544. 
 
 .Minerva, 41. 64. 
 
 Minneapolis (Min.), 325. 
 
 Minnesota (ctate;, 289, 301, 649, 563. and places 
 
 marked "(Min )'. 
 Minor, John D , 699, 600. 
 Minor Friars & M. Observants; see Minorites. 
 Minor Orders, 255-6, 258, 262, 2b7 ; see Orders 
 
 (Holy). 
 Minorites, Minor Friars, Minor Observants, 143, 
 
 293, 372 ; see Franciscans. 
 Minster (O.), 324. 
 Miracles, 63. 267, 298, 306,484,489,492,498, 
 
 631-6. 
 
 Miramon, Gen., 656. 
 Mirrors, 643. 
 Miserere, 600. 
 
 Missa, 423 ; see Ite missa est. 
 Missal, 138 (cut), 171, 423, 425, 437, 445, 447, 
 
 449, 454. 462, 473, 497, 6t>3. M. -stand, 473. 
 Mission, Missionary, 100. 1,85. 195. 233. 263. 293. 
 
 295, 29899, 31112 318-19.324. 327.348-50, 
 
 356-9, 361-73 375, 393 4, 398. 458, 549, 590, 
 
 6i4, 685-8. Mission-house, 327, &c., in Ch. 
 
 V11I. 
 Mississippi (river), 667; (state), 305, 316,666, 
 
 and places marked ''(Mpi )". 
 Missouri (state), 296, 302, 305,313, 316, 357, 359, 
 
 619, 66*5. 
 
 Miter. Mitered ; see Mitre. 
 
 Mithridates king of Pontus, Asia), 32. 
 
 Mitre, or Miter 93, 119 (cut), 143 4, 235-9, 249, 
 259, 261-2 (cute), 264, 270-4, 346, 622. Mitred 
 or Mitered (= having a mitre, wearing a mi- 
 tre), 23i5, 240 290. 334, 345. 
 
 Mobile (Ala.) and Diocese, 277, 279, 306,322,344, 
 358 9, 663. 
 
 Mobs, 405, 658-60 ; see Persecution, Uiot, &c. 
 
 Mohammed, 56. Mohammedans, 338, 370, 374, 
 389, 544, 692 ; see Islamism, Saracens, Turks, 
 &c. 
 
 Mohilow, 177. 
 
 Moire-antique, 263-4 ; see Dress.
 
 822 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Moldavia (European Turkey). 40, 089. 
 Molucca Islands. Moluccas, 363, 366. 
 .Mnii.-.ciii.-ni . 283, &c.; see Monastic. 
 Mouaco (N. Italy). 689. 
 Monastery, 284, 334, &c., in Oh. VIII., 573-4, 
 
 68^ see Monastic, Monk. 
 Monastic, Monasticism, 267, 283, 372, 448, 685. 
 
 593, 636, 655, &c. ; see Monks, Oiders (Relig 
 
 ious). &c. 
 Monasticism (by Sir Wm. Dugdale, Capt. John 
 
 Stevens. &c.) 287. 
 Monitor, 350. 
 Monk, 85, 94, 126. 143 4, 207, 290. ?34, 380, 384, 
 
 411,448,510-11,540, 614, 628, 634,648,654, 
 
 7u3; see Knar, Monastic, Regular, &c. 
 Monophysites, 206. 
 Monos, 283. 
 Monothelites, 206. 
 Monroe (Mich.). 329. 
 Monroe ( La ), 330. 
 Monsalvatge, Kev. Ramon, 634. 
 JHonseigneui or Monsignor (= my lord), 140-1, 
 
 233, 238, 247. 270 &c ; see Bishop. 
 Monstrance, 471. 47o-4, 476. 
 Monfcilto (Italy), 193. 
 Monfcalembert, i ount de, 571-2. 
 Montana (U. S. Territory), 277, 281. 360. 
 Monte (= mouii't), ..285. &c. 
 Monte, Cardinal del, 220 ; see Julius III. 
 Montenegro (Turkey?), 689. 
 Monterey (Oal.) and Diocese, 246, 277, 281, 313- 
 
 14,663. 
 
 Moutfort, Simon, Count of, 392-3. 
 Montreal (Can.) and Diocese, 245, 310, 316-18. 
 
 323, 326, 328, 358, 418. 543, 564, 658, 670, 675. 
 
 687. M. Institute, 668. M Witness, 687. 
 Monuments for the Dead, 468 ; see Burial, &c. 
 Moors & Moorish, 387-8 ; see Morocco. 
 Mora(N. Mex.), 327 
 Morality, Moral Law, Morals, 107, 339, 351, 355, 
 
 36r, 510, 5o3, 578-8i>, 699, 605-6, 622-36, 683-4 ; 
 
 see Immorality, Licentiousness, &c. 
 Moreno, Cardinal, 194 
 Morgan, Lady Sydney 0..56. 
 Morichini. Cardinal, 192. 
 Morimund Abbey, 176. 
 Moriscos, 387. 
 Norland, Sir Samuel, 397. 
 Morning Star (R. t). newspaper). 619. 
 Morocco (N W Africa) , 293, 691. 
 Morone, Cardinal, 221. 
 Morrisania (N Y.), 308. 
 Morse, Prof. Samuel F. B., 700. 
 Mortal Sin, 338, 3,'8, 503, 618-20, 528. 
 Mortara, Kdgaro (= Don Pio M.), 648. 
 Morton. Abp., 331. 
 Moses and Mosaic Law, 346, 501. 677. 
 Mosheim, Jobn L Von, D. D., 92-3, 134,154, 
 
 15*. 161, 225 6, 285, 313, 351, 393. 
 Mosque, 644 
 Mother Church, Holy, 104, 408, 410. Mother 
 
 House. 296, &c , in Ch. VIII. Mother Su- 
 perior, 304, &c., in < h VIII. Mother of God, 
 
 106, &c.; see Mary the Virgin. 
 Mott St. (N. Y.), 648. 
 Mountain View (Cal.), 860 
 Mount St. Vincent, Academy of (Yonkers, 
 
 N. Y.), 314-16 (cut). 
 Mourning, 499. 
 Movable Feasts, 495. 
 Mozambique (Africa), 691. 
 Mozart, J. C. U'olfgang A., 650. 
 Mozette, 261 ; see Dress. 
 Mrak, Up Ignatius. 279. 
 Muguos, Jigidius, 132 i see Clement VIII. 
 
 Mulberry St. (N. Y.), 270, 540 ; (Baltimore) 543. 
 
 Mullen, Bp. T.,278. 
 
 Mullen, Rev. Robert, 673. 
 
 Muncla ear meum, etc., 430 (cut). 
 
 Munich (Germany ), 245, 480, 574, 624. 
 
 Minister (Ireland), 617. 
 
 Murder, 666, 586, 6^3-4, 668, 679-80, 699, &c. 
 
 Murdock, James, D.D., 154, 200, 225, 285-7, 
 
 301-2 ; see Mosheim. 
 Murillo, B. E. (Spanish artist), 649-50. 
 Murray. Rev. Nicholas, D. D., 627-8, 632, 674, 
 
 &c.; see Kirwan. 
 Murray, Bp., 170. 
 Murviedro (Spain), 28. 
 Muses, 42. 
 
 Museums (Rome), 67 8, 70, 73. 
 Music, Musicians, 424, 458, 650, 697, &c.; see 
 
 Choir, Organ, Singing, &c. 
 Myrrh, 462. 
 Mysteries of Redemption or of the Rosary, 485, 
 
 488. 
 
 Nagler, Rev. V., 312. 
 Nahum^O. T.),409. 
 Name, Baptismal, 450. Holy Name, 328, 455 ; 
 
 see Holy. 
 
 Nantes (France), 403-4. 
 Naples (Italy) and Neapolitan, 49, 53, 69, 87, 
 
 131. 139, 158, 162-4, 190, 192, 221,^5,292, 
 
 368, 380, 389, 499, 614-15, 623, 630, 632-3. 
 Napoleon I (emperor of France), 50, 133, 136, 
 
 313, 380, 385, 400, 549, 632. 
 Napoleon III. (emperor of France), 50, 78, 630. 
 Narbonne (France), 376, 391. 
 Nardi, Monsignor, 233. 
 Nardoni, 87. 
 N arses, 47. 
 
 Nashville (Ten.) and Diocese, 277, 281, 301, 663. 
 Nassau ^Germany), 328. 
 Natal Colony (S. Africa), 691. 
 Natale, D. A. di, and L. di, 533. 
 Natchez (Miss.) and Diocese, 277, 279, 663. 
 Natchitoches(La )and Diocese, 277, 279, 324,663. 
 Nation, The (Dublin newspaper), 684. 
 National Council, 202-3, 495, 6i8 ; see Plenary 
 
 Council. 
 Nativity, the, 485, 498 ; see John the Baptist, 
 
 Mary the Virgin. Church of the N. (N. Y.), 
 
 640. 
 
 Naturalism, 111, 230, 640. 
 Navarre (now in Spain), king of, 401-3, 681. 
 Navarro, Mr., 148. 
 
 Nave, 5ti-8, 237, 460, 465-6, 473, 479, 542, &c. 
 Nazareth (O.j, 323-4. 
 Nazareth Academy (near Bardstown, Ky.), and 
 
 Sisters of charity of Nazareth, 317. 
 Nazzano, Very Rev. C. da, 296 
 Neapolitan (= of Naples) , see Naples. 
 Nebraska (State), 277. 281,305, 664, and places 
 
 marked ''(Neb.)". 
 Nebraska City (Neb.), 289. 
 Neckere, Bp L. de, 313. 
 Negroes, 586, 711 ; see Colored, Freedmen, 
 
 Slaves, &c. 
 
 Nehemiah, Nthemias (0. T.), 409. 
 Nektarius, 205. 
 Nelson Co (Ky.), 290. 
 Nemo vestrum (= no one of you), 641. 
 Nepof (emperor), 39. 
 Neptune, 41. 
 
 Neri, St. Philip, 185, 310, 568 
 Nero (emperor), 27, 36, 43, 46, 63-4, 60, 64-5, 78, 
 
 82, 122-3, 134, 382. 
 Nerva emperor), 36, 75. 
 Nesqualy ( Washington Terr.) and Diocese, 277, 
 
 280, 608.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 823 
 
 Nestorius and Nestorianism, ,205. Nestorian 
 Church, 691. 
 
 Netherlands (= Holland), 389, 404, 406; see 
 Holland. Netherland India (= Dutch East 
 India), 690 ; see Dutch. 
 
 Nevada (State). 310. 
 
 New Albany (Ind ), 331. 
 
 Newark (N. J.) and Diocese. 202, 270, 277, 280, 
 288-9, 297, 314-15, 321, 327, 336, 649, 663, 670, 
 679. 
 
 New Bedford, (Pa.) 330. 
 
 New Britain (Ct.), 603. 
 
 Newburg (0.), 330. 
 
 New Caledonia (in Australasia), 690. 
 
 Ncwcastle-upon-'fyne (Eng.), 40. 
 
 New Christians, 818. 
 
 New England (U. S.), 19, 148, 202, 610, 640, 668, 
 676, 710. 
 
 New Englander (quarterly), 406, 601, 623-5, 
 671-2. 
 
 Newfoundland (island), 688. 
 
 New Granada (ri. A.), 653-4 ; see Colombia. 
 
 New Hampshire (State), 305, 649, 664, and places 
 marked -'(N. H.)". 
 
 New Haven (Ct.), 305, 314-15, 545,665-6,601, 
 671. 
 
 New Haven (Nelson Co., Ky.), 334. 
 
 New Holland, 69<) ; see Australia. 
 
 New Jersey (State), 148, 202, 316, 549, 566, 604, 
 640. 
 
 Newman, John II., D. D , 810, 671, 681. 
 
 New Melleray Abbey (Iowa), 290. 
 
 New Mexico (U. S. Ter.), 316, 360, and places 
 marked '-(N. Mex.)". 
 
 New Orleans (La.) and Archdiocese, 98, 246, 268, 
 276, 279, 301-2, 308, 313-14, 319, 321, 323, 325. 
 327-31, 357-9, 548, 586, 618-19, 662, 666, 679. 
 
 Newport (U. I.), 305. 
 
 Newport (Ky.), 308. 
 
 New South Wales (Australia), 690. 
 
 New Spain, 362-3 ; see Mexico. 
 
 Newspapers, 610, 617-21, 628, 650, 658, 673, 684, 
 686, &c.; see Books, Periodicals, &c. 
 
 New Testament, 88, 122 3, 222, 268, 365, 408 12, 
 416, 41920, 429, 438, & I, 696, 649-50; see 
 Bible, Gospel, Scriptures, books marked 
 "(N.T.)", &c. 
 
 New York (ity and Archdiocese, 19, 122, 148, 150, 
 154, 178-9, 183, 202, 241, 246, 262, 264, 270, 
 276, 279, 2967, 300-1, 305, 314-16, 319-21, 
 324-5, 327-9, 336. 358-9, 387, 420, 459, 462, 484, 
 487-8, 490 495, 518, 526, 534, 537, 539 40, 643, 
 645-7, 549, 555, 559, 564, 570, 585-6, 591. 594-6, 
 608, 619-20, 626-7, 630, 643, 649. 658, 662, 
 665-6 670. 674-9, 692, 711 12. N. Y. Com- 
 mercial Advertiser, 419. N. Y. Daily Tribune, 
 248, 546-7, 626-7, 629-30, 646-7. N. Y. Daily 
 Times, 270-4. N. Y. Observer, 564-5, 617-18. 
 N. Y. Observer Year-Book and Almanac for 
 1871, 665, 667, 688-92. N. Y. Public School 
 Society, 694-6. N. Y. Tablet,670. 692, 619-20, 
 645. N.Y. Young Men's Christian Associa- 
 tion, 658. 
 
 New York (State), 148, 202, 305, 313, 816, 320, 
 649, 555, 557-9, 59t, 604, 662, 664, 669-70, 677 ; 
 see above, and places marked "(N. Y.)". 
 
 New Utrecht (Long Island. N. Y.), 306. 
 
 New World, 295, 362-3, 653, 687 ; see America. 
 
 New Zealand (Australasia), 373, 690. 
 
 Niagara Co. (N. Y.), 313. 
 
 Nicaragua (Central America), 641. N. Gazette, 
 641. 
 
 Nice (Asia Minor) and Nicene, 94, 203-7, 222, 
 235. 408 ; see Creed, Council. 
 
 Nicholas, St (bp. of Myra in Asia Minor), 491. 
 
 Nicholas I., St. (pope), 115, 159. 
 " II. " 161,187. 
 " III. " 102. 
 " IV. " 162,294. 
 " V. (antipope), 162. 
 " " (pope), 65, 66, 74,163. 
 
 Nicolini, 152. 
 
 Noailles, Cardinal de, 170. 
 
 Nob is fjuoque peccatoribus, 440 (cut). 
 
 Noble Guard (the pope's), 141, 144, 237. N. Or- 
 ders (pontifical), 191. 
 
 Nocturn, 473. Nocturnal Psalmody, 256. 
 
 Nona, None, Nones, 448. 
 
 Non-Catholics, 173, 228, 410, 417, 453, 613, 672, 
 678. 
 
 Non Placet, 243, 245-7. 
 
 Non Possumus, 147. 
 
 Norbert, St. (abp. of Magdeburg), 291. 
 
 Norcia (Italy), 285 ; see Nursia. 
 
 Noris, Cardinal, 389. 
 
 North America, 109, 290, 318, 324, 357, 368, 370, 
 688 ; see America, New World, &c. 
 
 North Baptist Church (Jersey > ity, N. J.), 340. 
 
 North Carolina (state), 277-8, 305-6, 664, 670; 
 and places marked "(N. C.)". 
 
 Northern States and Men (in U. S.), 610, 612. 
 
 North Madison (Ind.), 331. 
 
 Northrop, Rev. B. G., 605. 
 
 Northwestern Chronicle, 619. 
 
 Norwalk (Ct.), 545. 
 
 Norway (Europe), 335, 389, 625, 689. 
 
 Notaries, 223, 239, 244, 271, 376, 397, 511. 
 
 Notes on the Bible, 412, 416-17, 419-20, 593, 696 ; 
 see Annotations. 
 
 Notizie, 154. 
 
 Notre Dame (= our Lady, i.e., the Virgin Mary), 
 Cathedral of (Paris), 302, 666, 572. N. D. 
 Church (Montreal, Canada), 643; (Bourbon- 
 nais Grove, 111.) 310. Congregation of N. D., 
 or Sisters of N. D.,or School-Sister? of N. D., 
 326-7. University of N. D. [322-3 (cut)] at a 
 place called N. D. (Ind.), 322, 619. 
 
 Nova J-cotia, 290, 618. 
 
 Novatian (antipope), 156. 
 
 Novena, 473, 490-1. 
 
 Novice and Novitiate (= time or place of being 
 a novice), 289, &c., in Chs. VIII. and IX. 
 Novitiate of the Society of Jesus (Frederick, 
 Md.). 358. 
 
 Nubia (Africa), 370. 
 
 Null and Void, 682, 585, 653-4. 
 
 Numa Pompilius (king), 21, 26, 42. 
 
 Numbers (O. T.), 409. 
 
 Numerian (emperor), 37. 
 
 Numidian (= of Numidia, now Algeria), 29. 
 
 Numitor (king), 21. 
 
 Nun, 85, 94, 126, 143, 334. &c., in Ch. VIII., 
 611. 628, 634, 6o4, 658, 679, 703 ; see Orders 
 (Religious), Religious, &c. 
 
 Nuncio (= pope's ambassador), 177, 195, 199, 
 270, 394, 534, 556, 682 
 
 Nunnery, 334. &c., in Ch. VIII., 676, 680, 682. 
 
 Nuptial Benediction, 454-5. 
 
 Nursia, 285 ; see Norcia. 
 
 Nymphs, 42. 
 
 Oakland (Cal.), 328. 
 
 Oath of a Priest, Bishop, &c., 107, 227,268, 271, 
 274-6, 282, 405, 686, 660, 695. Other Oaths 
 (of allegiance, obedience, &c.), 295, 622, 671, 
 678, 580-1, 585, 662. 
 
 Obadiah (0. T.), 409. 
 
 Obedience, 227, 247, 268, 271-2, 282, 287, 293, 
 a38, 349-50, 353, 522, 670, 673. 611, 639, 644, 
 661), 683, 695 ; see Oath, Vow. 
 
 Obelisks (Rome), 73-4.
 
 824 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Oblate Fathers, or Oblates, 319-20, 418,458. 
 
 Oblate Sisters of Providence, 317, 330. 
 
 Oblation, 436-7, &c. 
 
 Obligation, Holy J)ays of, 495-6, 519. 
 
 Oiinlus (:m ancient Greek coin = 3>, cents). 
 
 667. 
 
 Observant, 294-5 (rut), 372 ; see Franciscan. 
 Observatory (in Kome), 61, (0. 
 O. 0. (=oil of the catechumens), 473. 
 Oceanica, 690. 
 O'Oonnell, Bp. E., 281. 
 O'Connor, Rev. T., 312. 
 O'Conor, Charles, Esq., 148. 
 Octave (= the week following a festival), 567, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Octavian, 127 ; see John XII. 
 Octavian, Octavianus, or Octavius, 34-6 ; se 
 
 Augustus Cesw. 
 Odd bellows, 390. 
 Odenathus (emperor), 37. 
 Odin, Abp. J. M , 246, 279, 586. 
 Odissius, -168. 
 
 Odoacer (king of Italy), 46-7. 
 (Ecumenical ; B< Ecumenical. 
 Offenses and Peaalties, 452, 610, 517-28, 636, 638, 
 
 &c., in Ch. XXVII. 
 Offertory, 273, 413, 431-2. 
 Offices filled by Roman Catholics, 678-9. 
 Ogdensburg (N. Y.), 317, 679. 
 O'Gorman, Up. J. M.,281. 
 O'Gorman, Miss Edith, 339 40, 658-9. 
 O'Hara, Bp. \\'m., 278. 
 Ohio (State), 284, 301, 316, 324, 332, 547, 549, 
 
 599, 600, 604, 664. and places marked "(0.)". 
 O. I. (=oil of the infirm), 473. 
 Oikoumene, 202 
 Oil of Catechumens, 450, 470, 4734. O. of the 
 
 Infirm, 46*2, 473-4. Olive 0., 451-2, 460, 466, 
 
 4734, 476. O. -stock, 473 4 (cut). 
 Oldcastle, Sir John, 705. 
 Oldenburg (Ind.), 296. 
 Old School, 608, 675. 
 Old Testament, 222, 408-12, 416, 420, 429, 518, 
 
 626-7, 605; see Bible, Scriptures, books 
 
 marked "(0. T.)", &c. 
 Oleum Cateckumenorum ( =0. C.) and O. In- 
 
 firmorum (=0. I.), 473. 
 Olier, Rev. J. J.,317. 
 Olivetans, 288. 
 
 Olmo (officer of Inquisition), 385. 
 Olmutz (Austria), 245. 
 Olybrius (emperor), 39. 
 Omaha (Neb.), 305. 
 
 O. M. C. and 0. M Tp. (= of the Order of Cap- 
 uchin Minorites), 298 ; see Capuchins 
 Onano( Italy?), 194. 
 Opelousas(La.), 308. 
 Opilius Macrinus (emperor), 37. 
 Oporto (Portugal), 652. 
 Oran (N. Africa), 388. 
 Orange, Prince of, 712. 
 Orange-colored, 712. 
 Orange Kree State (A. Africa), 691. 
 Orangemen, 712. 
 Orary , 259 ; see Stole. 
 Orate Fratre.i ,434-5 (cut). 
 Oratio super Populum, 447. 
 Oratorinn*, or Priests of the Oratory, 185, 
 
 310-11,568,681. 
 Oratorio, 310. 
 Order of Penitence, 295 ; see Penitence (Order 
 
 of ). 3d Order ; see Third Order. - 
 Orders, Holy, 104, 222, 255-8, 261, 267,448-9, 
 
 462. 459. Military 0., 333. Minor 0., 255-6. 
 
 Noble 0., 191. Religious 0., or Monastic 
 
 0., 189. 201, 221, 224, 241, 283-360, 372, 448 
 553, 6tf3, 690, 660, 695. 699. 
 
 Ordinary (= bishop), 410, c. 0. (= the com- 
 monly-used part) of the Mass, 423, 433, &c.. 
 in Ch. XIV. 
 
 Ordination, 255-8, 262, 267-8, 466, 469, 497 ; see 
 Orders (Holy), &c. 
 
 Oregon (State), 328. 
 
 Oregon City (Oregon) and Archdiocese, 245, 277, 
 280, 662. 
 
 O'Reilly, Bp. Bernard, 270. 
 
 O'Reilly, Bp. P. T.,279. 
 
 Oremus, 429. 
 
 Orfei, Cardinal, 193. 
 
 Organ, 474, 500-1, 5434, 547, 549, 562. 
 
 Oriental, 67, 70. 219, 245 ; see East. 0. Prelates, 
 Rites, &c., 233, 23J, 267, '281 ; see Congrega- 
 tion of 0. Rites, Prelates, Rites, &c. 
 
 Origen, 577. 
 
 Original Sin, 91, 96, 104-5, 110. 
 
 Orleans (France), 245. 
 
 Ornaments, 459, &c. 
 
 Orphan Asylums, 8J, 133, 296, &c., in Ch. VIII., 
 690, 594, &c., in Ch. XXIV., 70J4, 711. 
 
 Orsini Family, 49, 134. Prince Dominic 0., 
 233. 
 
 Orialda, Canon Joseph, 372. 
 
 Orvieto (Central Italy), l'J3. 
 
 0. S. A. (= of the Order of St. Augustine), 803. 
 
 Osage Indian Mission, 327, 359. 
 
 0. S. B. (=of the Order of St. Benedict), 289. 
 
 Osee (= Hosea, 0. T.), 409. 
 
 0. S. F. ( = of the Order of St. Francis), 296. 
 
 Ostensorium, Ostensory, 471, 474-6 (cut), 480-2. 
 
 Ostia(S. VV. of Rome) and Ostian, 61, 1S, 191. 
 
 Ostrogoths (= Eastern Uoths), 4i. 
 
 Oswego (N. Y.), 297, 325. 3Z8. 
 
 Otho (Roman emperor), 36. 
 " (German emperor), 160. 
 
 Ottumwa (Iowa), 30b'. 
 
 Our Blessed Lady (= Mary the Virgin), 485, &c. 
 
 Our Father. 538, &c.; see Lord's Prayer. 
 
 Our Lady (= Notre Dame, i. e. Mary), Congre- 
 gation of, 325-7. Abbey of 0. L. of La Trappe, 
 290. Church of 0. L. of Mercy (Fordham, 
 N. Y.), 359. Confraternity of 0. L. of Mount 
 Carrnel, or of the Scapular of 0. L. of Mt. 
 Carmel, 456, 537. Daughters of 0. L. of Sor- 
 rows, 327. Ecclesiastical Seminary of 0. L. 
 of Angels, 313. Litany of L. of Loretto, 
 484 5. Order of 0. L. of Mercy, 304, &c. 
 Scapular of 0. L. of the 7 Dolors (= Griefs, 
 Sorrows), 478. Sisters of 0. L. of Charity of 
 the Good Shepherd, or of 0. L. of the Good 
 Shepherd, 328-9. See Mary the Virgin. 
 
 Our Lord, 496, &c.; see Jesus Christ. Scapu- 
 lar of Our Lord's Passion, &c., 538 9. 
 
 Owl, The (R. C. magazine). 619. 
 
 Oxford (Eng.), 292, 334,671, 705. O. Movement 
 and 0. Tracts, 671, 681. 
 
 Pacecco. Cardinal, 176. 
 
 Pachomius, 283. 
 
 Pacific (Ocean, islands, &c.), 373. 
 
 Pacitti, Rev T., 312. 
 
 Padua (N. Italy), 294 ; see Anthony of P. 
 
 Pagan, -ism, 645-6, 692; see Heathen, Idol, 
 &c. 
 
 Painesville (0.), 329. 
 
 Paintings, 235, 403, 460-1, 475, 6434, 551 ; see 
 Pictures, &c. 
 
 Palaces (Rome), 43, 65-9, 299. 
 
 Palais, Bp. M. deSt.,279. 
 
 Palatine Hill or Mount (Rome), 21,51,63,78, 
 81, 85. P. Judges, 188. Elector P. (Ger- 
 many), 210, 212.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 825 
 
 Paleario, Aonio (= Antonio dalla Paglia), 381. 
 
 Palermo (Sicily), 194, 632-4. 
 
 Pales, 42. 
 
 Palestine or the Holy Land, 31, 43, 109, 122, 
 284,301,370,479, 632. 
 
 Palestriua (musical composer), 238 ; (city of 
 Central Italy), 187, 191. 
 
 Paliano (Central Italy), 193. 
 
 Pall, Pallium, 63, 259,309, 433, 475. 
 
 Pallas (goddess), 41. 
 
 Pallavicino, Cardinal Sforza, 176, 227. 
 
 Palm-Sunday, 496, 499. 
 
 Pampeluna (Spain), 348. 
 
 Pan (god), 41. 
 
 Panebianco, Cardinal, 193. 
 
 Pantheism, -istic, 165, 230, 252. 
 
 Pantheon (Rome), 634, 69, 70, 80-1. 
 
 Pantini. Cardinal, 190, 194. 
 
 Papa, 119 ; see t'ope. Papacy, Papal, Papist, 
 90, 120, 127, 381, &c. Papal Conspiracy Ex- 
 posed, 514 Papal States, 130, &c.; see States 
 of the Church. 
 
 Paphlagonia (Asia Minor), 284. 
 
 Papier Macke, 634. 
 
 Paracciani, Cardinal, 191-2. 
 
 Paradise, 489-90, 637. 
 
 Paraguay (S. A.), 368, 688. 
 
 Paralipomenon, I. and II. (0. T.), 409. 
 
 Parian Marble. 75. 
 
 Paris (France), 20. 86-7,98,132,136. 170, 190, 
 192, 197, 210, 244-6. 292, 299, 302, 308, 310, 
 312-13,317, 348. 351, 369-70, 386,401-2,456, 
 490, 666, 572-3, 582, 624, 633, 650, 686. 
 
 Parish and Parochial, 100. 187, 267, 269, 457, 
 504, 516, 524, 542, 646, 552, &c., in Ch. XXI., 
 671, 688, &c., in Ch. XXIV.. 628, 654, 673, 
 677. P. Priest. 100-1, 224, 418, 571, 654, 687. 
 P. Schools, 297, &c., in Chs. VIII. and 
 XXIV., 707, &c. 
 
 Parkersburg (\V. Va.), 307. 
 
 Parliament, British, 170, 680, 682. Canadian P., 
 686. P. (=high judicial court) of Paris, 
 351-2, 402. 
 
 Parma (Italy), 168, 352. 
 
 Parochial ( =of a parish) ; see Parish. 
 
 Parsonage, 276, 557, 665. 
 
 Parthians, 33, 41. 
 
 Parton, James, 559. 
 
 Pascal (Blaise) and his Provincial Letters, 352. 
 
 Pascha (= passover), 501 .Paschal Candle, 463, 
 469, 501. Paschal Communion, 619. 
 
 Paschal (antipope), 158. 
 " I. (pope). 159. 
 , ri:*ir' 161. 
 " III. (antipppe), 161. 
 
 Pasquali (=Ludovico Paschall, or Louis Pas- 
 chal), 3S1. 
 
 Pasquin, 73. 
 
 Passavalli,Monsignor, 238. 
 
 Passion (of Jesus <'hrist), 455, 479, 499, 600, 607, 
 636, 633-9; see Scapular, &c. P.-Sunday, 
 499. P.- Week. 425, 434. 
 
 Passionists, 310-12, 334, 681. 
 
 Passover. 501 : see Pascha. 
 
 Pastor, 269, 399. 410, 453, 519, 645, 554, 556, 
 658-60, 565-6, 588 90, 601. 603, 652. 671, 674-5, 
 70 ; see Rector, &c. Pastoral Letter. 266, 
 620-1 554-7. 589,, r .93, 622-3, 626. 693. Pasto- 
 ral Staff; see Crosier, Crnok. Pastoralis offi- 
 cii, 175. Pastori ( =shepherds or pastors), 252. 
 
 Patagonia (S. A.), 689. 
 
 Patarenians. 208 
 
 Paten, 257, 432, 441-4, 465. 471, 475. 
 
 Paternoster (=our Father) or Pater (=Pather), 
 635, &c. ; see Lord's Prayer. 
 
 Paterson (N. J.), 339. 
 
 Patriarch, Patriarchate, Patriarchal, 124, 165, 
 173, 193, 205-7. 218, 221, 227, 233-4. 23o-7, 240, 
 242, 258-9, 281, 284, 31)1,542 ; see Ecumenical, 
 Universal, &c. 
 
 Patrick, St., 268, 361, 455-6. 491, "93. 531. St. 
 P's Cathedral (N Y.), 148, 2; ., 540, 545-6 
 (new), 548. St. P's Church ( bingo), 549 ; 
 (New Haven) 566, 603; Farocuial School 
 (New Haven), 601-3. 
 
 Patrick, Brother, 321. 
 
 Patrizi, Cardinal, 191, 237-8,242. 
 
 Patroclus. 73. 
 
 Patron Saint, 461, 491. 
 
 Paul the Apostle. St., 45, 62. 83, 123, 166, 174, 
 227, 261. 319. 346, 426, 434, 441, 498, 502, 606, 
 522, 632-3 (cut), 709-1<>. Basilica of St. P. 
 (Rome), 61-2. Convent of St. P. (Seville, 
 Spain). 378. Oate of St. P. (Rome), 61, 78, 
 645. ^t. P's Select and Parochial School (Os- 
 wego, N. Y.), 828. Pauline & Paulists ; see 
 below. See also Peter. 
 
 Paul I. (pope), 158. 
 " II. " 163. 
 " III. " 66, 163, 199, 220, 225, 348, 380, 
 
 388. 
 
 " IV. " 163,221,394,611. 
 " V. " 55,163,477,637. 
 
 Paul of Thebes, 283. 
 
 Paul of the Cross, St., 311. Blessed P's Monas- 
 tery (Birmingham, Pa.), 312. 
 
 Paul, St. Vincent de (= of), 312-14, 456. 
 Church of St. Vincent de P. (Baltimore), 548 ; 
 (N. Y.) 320. 
 
 Pauline Chapel (Vatican Palace. Rome), 66-7; 
 (Uuirinal Palace, Rome) 07, 143. P. fountain 
 (Rome), 74. 
 
 Paulinus, 174. 
 
 Paulists, 148, 319, 458, 620. 
 
 Paupers, Pauperism, 617 18; see Alms, Beggars, 
 Mendicity, &c. 
 
 Pavia (Italy), 59,215. 
 
 Pawtucket (R. I ), 305. 
 
 Pax (= peace), 475. Pax tecum, 144, 443, 451, 
 475 Pax vob[iscum], 138 J see Kiss of Peace. 
 
 Peace ; see Pax, Kiss. 
 
 Pecci, Cardinal, 192. 
 
 Pecore (= sheep), 252. 
 
 Peddlers, 393. 
 
 Pegu (S. E Asia), 372 ; see Farther India, &c. 
 
 Pekin (China), 366-7. 
 
 Pelagianism (from Pelagius, a British monk of 
 the 5th century), 205. 
 
 Pelagius I. (pope), 157. 
 II. " 157. 
 
 Pembina (Dakota Ter.), 320. 
 
 Penalties ; see Offenses, Punishments, Anathe- 
 ma. Excommunication. &c. 
 
 Penance. 92. 104-6, 214, 261. 375, 334, 8*6, 413- 
 14, 429-30, 446 449. 452, 457, 497, 499, 504, 
 &c., in Ch. XVII. ,517, &c.. in Ch. XVIII., 
 630, &c., in Ch. XIX., 630. 660, 668. 706. 
 
 Penates ( = Roman household gods), 41. 
 
 Peniscola (Spain), 211. 
 
 Penitence, 517 ; see Penance. Order of P., 
 294-5 ; see Tertiarians. 
 
 Penitent, 138. 384, 4*57,605, &o., in Ch. XVII., 
 618, &c , in < - h. XVIII. Penitents of the 3d 
 Order, 295, 329 ; see Tertiarians. 
 
 Penitentiary, Grand (= pope's deputy for peni- 
 tents). 621. 
 
 Penitentiary (= prison for penance or peni- 
 tence). 627. 
 
 Penn, \Vm., 639. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 289, 296, 305, 313, 316, 329, 649,
 
 826 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 604, 639-40, 6G4, 666, 678, and places marked 
 "(Pa.)". 
 
 Penny Cyclopedia (of the Society for the Diffu- 
 sion of Useful Knowledge ; London, 1833-46 ; 
 27 volumes large 8vo, and 2 vols. of supple- 
 ment ; edited by Prof. George Long of Univer- 
 sity College, London), 9(5-110, 13 1', 154-64, 198, 
 287, 348-50, 353-4, 3J2-3j 3S6-8, 3/4-9, 382, 
 388-9, 392-3, 498-9, 616. 
 
 Pentapolis (= 5 cities j a region in Central Italy), 
 47, 126. 
 
 Pentateuch (= 5 books of Moses in O. T.), 411. 
 
 Pentecost (=50th day, i e., from the Passover), 
 430, 431, 450, 493. 
 
 People's Place, tlie (Rome), 72 and panorama. 
 
 Peoria(IU.), 325 
 
 Pepin (French king) 47, 126-7. 
 
 Perche, Bp. N. .1.. 279. 
 
 Pergamus (Asia Minor), 280. 
 
 Periodicals, 70, 617-21, 643-6, 664, 686, 693 ; see 
 Books, Newspapers, &c. 
 
 Perjury, 209 ; see Fraud, &c. 
 
 Per omnia secula seculorum, 434. 
 
 Perpetua, St., 4*1. 
 
 Perrone, Prof. Giovanni, 641-2. 
 
 Perry Co. (0.), 300. 
 
 Persecution of Christians by Heathen, &c., 43- 
 4, 129-30, 283, 389, 611. P. by Roman Catho- 
 lics, R. C. Persecutors, 102, 170, 275, 389, 391- 
 407, 494, 680. 636, 660, 675, 679, 701 ; see 
 Authority, Crusades, Heretics, Intolerance, 
 &c P. of Roman Catholics by Pagans, &c., 
 109, 3(55-7, 339. 585. 
 
 Persia (Asia), -sian, 177, 238, 245, 372, 690, 709. 
 
 Persico, Bp. Ignatius, 278. 
 
 Persia (Christian woman at Rome), 123. 
 
 Pertinax (emperor), 37. 
 
 Peru (3. A.), 654, 688. 
 
 Perugia (Central Italy), 133, 192. 
 
 Petau or Petavius, 154. 
 
 Peter the Apostle, St., 54, 66-9, 64-5, 824, 91, 
 93, 97, 108, 111-25, 133, 142, 148-9, 154, 138, 
 172, 174, 178-80, 182, 218-19, 227, 237, 243, 
 259, 268, 271-2, 274-5, 346, 426, 428 (cuts;, 434, 
 440-1, 456, 488, 503, 522-3, 530, 532-3 (cut), 
 636, 549, 566 7. 577, 696, 708-9. -St. P. (R. 0. 
 
 newspaper in N. Y.), 619 St. P'g Basilica 
 (Rome), or simply St. Peter's, 54-60, 69, 110, 
 129, 135, 1S2, 191, 196. 234-7, 239, 242, 219, 
 461, 468, 472. 475, 491-2, 521, 536, 542, 550, 
 661, 663. St. P's Cathedral (Cincinnati, 0.), 
 465, 549. St. P's Church ( N. Y. ), 143.-Church 
 of St. P. on Montorio (Rome), 65, 74. St. 
 P's Hospital (Brooklyn, N. Y.), 298. 3t. P's 
 Place (Rome), 72. P's Pence, or Peter-pence. 
 235, 556-7 ; the P. P. Association, 667. Cath- 
 edral of St. P. & St. Paul (Philadelphia, Pa.), 
 648. Feast of St. P. & St. Paul, 496, 498.667. 
 Mass of 3t P. & St. Paul, 424. 
 
 Peter of Castelnau, 392. 
 
 Peter-pence, St. Peter's, &c. ; see above, under 
 
 Peter. 
 
 Petersburg. St. (Russia), 20. 
 Pettingell, Rev. John H., 458-9. 
 Pews and Pewed (= having pews), 460. 475, 543, 
 
 661. Pew-rents, b<il, 678. 
 Pfraeugle, Rev. H 289. 
 Pharisees, -saism, 414, 673, 707. 
 Pharsalia 'in Theisaly, European Turkey), 34. 
 Phelps, Anson O., Jr.. 420. 
 Phenician (= of Phenicia, which embraced 
 
 Tyre, Sldon, &e ), 27. 
 
 Philadelphia (Pa.) & Diocese, 277-8, 297. 303-5, 
 319, 321, 324-30, 857-9, 614, 631, 648, 665, 659, 
 679, 619-20, 663. 
 
 Philip, St., 498. 
 
 Philip the Arabian (emperor), 37. 
 
 Philip (antipope), 158. 
 
 Philip II. (king of Spain), 221, 224. 406. 
 
 Philip the fair (king of France), 132. 
 
 Philippine Islands (3. E. of China), 120. 312, 690. 
 
 Philippi (Macedonia, European Turkey), 35. 
 
 Philosophy, 2tio-tj, 289, 3i9, 6S3. 
 
 Phocas (emperor of the .East), 82. 
 
 1'hotius (bp. of Constantinople), 207. 
 
 Piacenza( = Placentia, N. Italy), ItfO, 162, 168. 
 
 Pianessa, Marquis of, 395. 
 
 Piarists, 31U. 
 
 Piazza (= square, or place), 72. Rome has 
 
 P. Colonna, 83 ; P. del Campidoglio, 68 ; P. 
 
 del Popolo, 52, 70, 72-3, 83 ; P di Pasquino, 
 
 73 ; P. di Spagna. 70. 73 ; P. di San Pietro, 
 
 72; P. Navona, 69, 73, &c. 
 Plots (from Latin pictus= painted or tattooed ; 
 
 an ancient people of Scotland), 361. 
 Pictures, 366, 461, 475, 483, 492, 551, 636, 677 ; 
 
 see Paintings. ricture-galleries (Rome), 67-8. 
 Piedmont, -ese, 393-400, 419. 
 Pietro, Cardinal de, 191-2 
 Pietro, San (= St. Peter), 56, 65, 74. 
 Piety, 42. 
 
 Pignatelli, Cardinal & Abp , 533. 
 Pignerol (= Pinerolo, Piedmont), 395. 
 Pike Co. (Mpi.), 319. 
 Pilate, Pontius, 60, 103,260, 429 (cut), 431 (cut). 
 
 434-5 (cuts), 479. 
 Pilgrimages & Pilgrims 616, 633. Pilgrims (of 
 
 Plymouth, Mass ), 639, 687. 
 Pillar (on chasuble), 259, 261. 
 Pillar-saints, 283 
 
 Pilot, The (Boston newspaper), 563, 593, 619. 
 Pincers, 400 
 Pincian Gardens, and P. Mount or Hill (Rome), 
 
 52 72,74,83. 
 
 Pinerolo (= Pignerol, Piedmont), 395. 
 Pintelli, Baccio, 66. 
 Piombal, 387. 
 
 Pious Schools, Fathers of the, 310, 354. 
 Pisa (Italy), -san, 134-5, 161, 163, 192, 209-10. 
 
 219. 
 
 Pistoja (Italy), 177, 344. 
 Pitcher, 469. 
 Pitra, Cardinal, 193, 237. 
 Pittsburg (Pa.) and Diocese, 277-8, 2SS-9, 305, 
 
 312, 319, 327, 334. 619-20,663, 671 P. Catho- 
 lic (newspaper', 619. 
 Pitts ton (Pa.), 330. 
 Pius I., St. (pope), 155. 
 II. " 163,309. 
 
 " III. " . 134, 163- 
 " IV. " 102, 103, 176, 199, 221, 225, 
 
 252, aSO. 388, 417 ; see Creed. 
 " V.. St. (pope), 69. 163, 167-8, 299, 380-1, 
 
 389,423,449.581. 
 " VI. (pope), 65; 114-15, 136, 164, 177, 455, 
 
 " VII. (pope), 136-7, 164, 200, 356, 382, 475, 
 
 682-3. 
 
 " VIII. (pope), 137, 1'H, 177, 188, 304, 410. 
 " IX. " 61. 85, 98, 110, 138-42, 145, 
 14S-52, 164, 167, 172, 185 6, 188. 190-1, 
 196, 200, 227-53, 272. 274, 295, 299. a36, 
 344, 381, 420. 497, 632. 634-5, 538, 572, 
 677-8, 583-6, 029, 640-1, 648, 650, 652-4. 
 Place ff Armm (Montreal), 643. 
 Placet, 239, 243, 246-8. P. juxta modum, 243, 
 
 245-6. 
 
 Plattsburg (N. Y.). 317, 662 (diocese). 
 Pleasantville (N. Y.), 646. 
 Plebiidtum, 147.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 827 
 
 Indulgence, 362, 631-40, &<.; see Indulgence. 
 
 Pluto, 41. 
 
 Plymouth, (.Mass ), 19, 633-9, 687. 
 
 Po (river of Italy), 6v>, lio. 
 
 Paenitentia, 617. Panitentiam agite, 413. 
 
 Poetry, 75- 5, 340-2, 701-2. 
 
 Poland, Pole, Polish, 109, 131, 292, 333, 351, 
 336-7. 390. 393. 687. 
 
 Police, 87, 183, 626-7, 646-7, 649,658-9. 
 
 Political Policy & Corruption, 677-8, 696-7, 700. 
 
 Pollard, Fred'k W., &$. 
 
 Pollux ; see Castor & P. 
 
 Pollen, Joseph Up. of St., 118. 
 
 Polygamy, -mist, 364-5, 374. 
 
 Polynesia, 690. 
 
 Pomona, 41. 
 
 Pompadour, Madame de, 352 
 
 Pompeii (Italy), 419. 
 
 Pompey the Great (= Cneius Pompeius Mag- 
 nus), 32-4, 6i. 
 
 Pon*e(=bridge), 52. Rome has P. di (htattro 
 Capi, 62 ; P. di San Bartolomeo, 52 ; P. Hot- 
 to, 62, 85 ; P. Sant' Angela, 62; P. Sisto, 62, 
 74. 
 
 Pontefelice (Central Italy), 62. 
 
 Pontian, St. (pope), 156. 
 
 Pontifex Maximus (= Chief Pontiff), 403. 
 
 Pontiff, Pontifical, 119, 258, 345, 403, 475, 641, 
 700, &c.; see Bishop, Pope. Heathen Pontiffs, 
 33, 33, 42, 119, 25. Pontifical Annual, 281. 
 P. High Mass or P. Mass, 238, 424. -Roman 
 Pontifical ; see Pnnti_ficale homanum. P. 
 States = States of the Church. 
 
 Ponti/icale homanttm (= Roman Pontifical), 
 274-6, 345-7, 462, 474-5, 621-2, 693. 
 
 Pontus (part of Asia Minor on the Black Sea), 
 32,2?4. 
 
 Poor Clares, 295 ; fee Clarists. Community of 
 the P. Handmaids of Jesus Christ, 328. Little 
 Sisters of the Poor, 329. P. Men of Lvons, 
 393. P. School-sisters of Notre Dame, 32 --7. 
 
 Pope & Popes, the 95, 97-101, 119, &c , in Chs. 
 Ill -VI . 262, 2(59-71, 274-6, 284, 288, 292, 294 
 6, 299, 313, 33-5, 333, 347-8, 300, 352, &31-2, 
 3(39-70, 375, &c., iu Ch. XI., 387-9, 392, 394, 
 403, 410, 417, 420-1, 435, 453, 459, 4(57, 475, 
 485, 487, 602, 509, 611, 513,516. 521, 629, {31- 
 2, 636-8, 640, 542, 663, 656, 559, 666-8, 571-4, 
 6i6-87, 689, 591. 619, 634, 636. 640-3, 645-6, 
 649-60, 652-5, 660-1, 683, 685, 693, 695-6, 699, 
 700 ; see Primacy, Infallibility, &c. P. as 
 Temporal Prince, 49, 140, &c. ; see Rome, 
 Temporal Power, &c 'Ine P. and the Coun- 
 cil, by Janus, 219. Rome & the Popes, by 
 Brandes, 122, 127. 
 
 Popery, 90, &c. 
 
 Porras, Chapel of Blessed Martin de (Washing- 
 ton, D. C.), 648. 
 
 Porta (= gate), 63 4, &c. Rome has 20 gates, 
 P. del Popolo, 63-4, 69, 645 j P. San Sebasti- 
 ano, 53, &c. 
 
 Porta, Gijioomo della, 65. 
 
 Porter, 255-6, 286. 
 
 Portici (3. Itaiy, near Naples), 139. 
 
 Portland (Me.) & Diocese, 202, 277, 280, 326, 357, 
 663-4. 
 
 Portland (Ky.), 327. 
 
 Portland (Oregon), 328. 
 
 Porto (S. \V. of Rome), 187-8, 191. 
 
 Porto Rico (.V. I.), 689. 
 
 Portrait, 403, &c ; see Painting, Pictures. 
 
 Portugal, 108, 226, 335, 352-3, 356, 363-6, 877, 
 
 334, 3S6-8, 420, 581, CS5, C87, 6S9, 601. Por- 
 tuguese, 110, 102, 188, 3ti2-6, 373, 336, 404, 
 450, 6SO-1. 
 
 Port Wine (from Oporto, Portugal), 451. 
 
 Post-communion, 422-3, 446. 
 
 Postulants (= candidates to be received as not- 
 ices), 289, &c., in Chap. VIII. 
 
 Postulala (= requests, demands), 250. 
 
 Potawatomie Indian Manual Labor School & 
 Mission, 324, 359. 
 
 Potitus, 2ti8. 
 
 Potter's Held (Paris, France), 572. 
 
 Pottsville(Pa.), 325. 
 
 Poverty, 287, 293, &c. ; see Tows. 
 
 Power of the Roman Catholic i hurch, 662, &c., 
 in Ch. XXV1I1., 694-8; see Weakness. 
 
 PP. (= Papa, i. e., Pope). 138 (tuts), 182. 
 
 Pra del Tor (Piedmont), 394. 
 
 Prcesepe, til. 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction, 219. 
 
 Prague (in Bohemia, Austria), 192, 245, 292, 336, 
 3ol, 624; see Jerome of P. 
 
 Prass, Very Rev. P. Ivo, 298. 
 
 Prato (Italy), 344. 
 
 Prayer, Prayers, 106, 185, 236, 239-40, 242. 247, 
 255, 2GO 1, 293, 298, 301, S3r, 346 6, 349, 3(58-9, 
 405, 415, 424, &c., in Chs. XIV. and XV., 507, 
 518, 534-6, 539-40, 588, 595, 601, 677, 706 ; see 
 Devotion, &c. P. -books, 620. P. of Manasses 
 (Apocrypha), 409. Roman Catholic P.-meet- 
 ing, 457-8. Praying-Desk, 49. 
 
 Preacher, Preaching, 213, 267. 273, 299, 302. 348, 
 350, 3-31, 336, 380, 391, 393, 398, 4UO, 456-7, 
 511, 540, 572, 646, 648, 670, 674, 686 ; see Ser- 
 mons. Preaching Friars, or Order of Preach- 
 ers, 298-9,392; see Dominicans. P.-stations, 
 635. P.-stoles,263. 
 
 Prebend, -ary, 175. 
 
 Precious Blood, Confraternity of the, 456. P. 
 Stones, 238, 435,542. 
 
 Predestination, 168. 
 
 1'reface (in Mass), 423, 432. 434-5 (cut). 
 
 Prefects, 191-2, 200, 303, 322, &c., in Ch. VIII. ; 
 see Apostolic Prefectures. 
 
 Preisser, Rev. P., 289. 
 
 Prelate, 140, 143, 150, 165, 170, 173, 198-200, 
 202, 205, 207, 5MW-11, 219, 221, 225, 227, 231, ' 
 233, 233-6, -'39 ; see Dishop, &c. 
 
 Premonstrauts, Preuionstratensians, 91-2 (cut), 
 298. 
 
 Premontre, Premonstratum (France), 291. 
 
 Presbyter, Presbuteros, 124, 205, 254. 2*8, 276. 
 
 Presbyterian (Church, General Assemblies, &c.), 
 229, 407, 539, 550, 6 '6, 610, 621-2, 610-1, 674-5. 
 
 Presentation, the, 485. P Convents, 332. 
 
 Press, the, 185, Chs. XXV and XXVII. ; see 
 Printing, Books, Censorship, Liberty. The 
 P. and St. James Chronicle, 231. 
 
 Preston, Rev. Thomas S., 148, 526, 646, 570, 
 669-70, 676. 
 
 Pretorian Camp (Rome), 54, 83. P. Guards, 37, 
 39. 
 
 Prie Dieu, 238, 247, 475 ; see Kneeling-Desk, 
 Praving-Desk, &c. 
 
 Priest, 85, 91, K>4, 128, 191 , 196-7, 199, 204, 210, 
 226, 229 30, 254-82, 289. 2!*5, 3d3, 361-6, 376, 
 834, 394-5, 401, 405, 411, 415, 418-19, 424, &c., 
 in Ch. XIV., 499, 501-2, 5(>4-lo, 513-19, 521-2, 
 524, 527, 638-9, 544-5, 553. 657, 560-1. 663-5, 
 
 see Clergy , Table. Priests of the Congregation 
 of the Mission, 312, 314 ; see Lazarists P. of 
 the Mission of St. Sulpice. 317 ; see Sulpidans.
 
 828 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 P. of the Oratory, P. of the Oratory of Jesus, 
 310. 
 
 Prignano, Bn.rtolomeo, 131 ; see Urban VI. 
 
 Prnna ( = priiue, first), 448 ; see Prime. 
 
 Primacy of the Pope. 93, 111-18, 120-5, 244-9, 
 252-3. 
 
 Primate, 173, 236-7, 240, 242, 634. Primatial 
 (of a primate) Council, 203 ; see Natfonaland 
 Plenary Councils. 
 
 Prime (=prima ; canonical hour), 448. 
 
 Prince Edward Island, 688. 
 
 Prince of the Apostles, 123, 523, &c. ; see Peter. 
 
 Prince St. (N. Y.).648. 
 
 Printers to the Holy Apostolic See, 459, &c. 
 
 Printing, 132, 176, 420 ; fee Press Books, &c. 
 
 Prior, -ess, -y, 1^8, 289, 299, 304, 312, 333-4, 377. 
 
 Priscilla (wife of Aquila), Ii3. 
 
 Priscillian (.Spanish Gnostic), 374. 
 
 Prisons, 71, 82 87~, 137, Chs. XI., XII., XXVI., 
 646-7, 649-51. 
 
 Private Judgment not allowed, 102, 108, 174, 
 229,405, 668-75,621, 639, 644.660, 683 P. 
 Mass, 424, &c.,in Ch. XIV. ; see Mass. 
 
 Probation (in convents, &c.), 349, &c., in Chs. 
 VIII., IX. 
 
 Probus, Aurelius (emperor). 37. 
 
 Processions, 93, 142, 144, 249, 270, 384-5, 458, 
 461, 464, 467, 470, 474. 477, 480-1, 498-9, 501, 
 537, 616, 633, 697, 712. Processional Cross, 
 467-8, 475, 478. 
 
 Proces Verbaux, 509. 
 
 Procopius, 74. 
 
 Procurator, 221, 289. 
 
 Professed (monks, nuns, &c.), 349-50. &c., in 
 Chs. VII 1 .. IX. Ceremony of Profession, 347. 
 Profession of Faith, 242, 252. 
 
 Professor (in college, &c.), Professorship, 284, 
 289, 299, 303, &e., in Ch. VIII., 36o, 574,628, 
 641, 687 ; see Colleges, &c. 
 
 Prohibited Books, 417,419, 618, 647, &c. ; see 
 Index of P. B. P. Degrees, 452-3, 520. 
 
 Promoters (=olncers for moving business for- 
 ward), 233, 242. 
 
 Propaganda, College of the, 70, 73, 368. Con- 
 gregation of the P.. 138 (cut), 17*, 185-6, 192, 
 199, 269-70, 274, 368, 496-7, 532, 553, 679. 
 
 Propagation of the Faith, Annals of the, 109, 
 369. Association (or Society) for the P. of the 
 
 i F., 339-70, 455. Congregation for the P. of 
 the l\, 185-6 ; see Propaganda. 
 
 Propitiation, 415. 
 
 Proscribed Boeks, &c. ; see Prohibited B. 
 
 Prose (in Mass), 430. 
 
 Proselytes, Proselytism, 675, &c. 
 
 Prosnitz (Bohemia , 336. 
 
 Prosperity, General. Ch. XXV., 653, 704. 
 
 Prostitutes. 625, 628, &c. : see Immorality. 
 
 Prostrations. 315, &c. 
 
 Protectories, 296, &c.,in Oh. VIII. 
 
 Protest (bv Roman Catholics), 147-50. 
 
 Protestant, -ism, 102, 13(3, 163, 221, 223-4, 228- 
 9,231,252, 254-5,26(5-7,309. 335-6,353,356, 
 364, 370, 373, 383 388-9 3J6, 3t8, 400, 401-8, 
 416-18, 42'", 456-8, 477, 612, 615, 627, 651. 560- 
 2, 664-6, 669. 671-2, 577. 582, 587-8, &c., in 
 Ch. XXIV., 610-11, 613-14, 616-18, 620-2, Chs 
 XXVI..XXVIlI.,69i, 698, 702-4, 708-12. P. 
 Bible. 63 i, Chs XIII., XXIV., &c. ; see Bible. 
 English Bible, &c. P. Episcopal, Ki3, 340, 
 407-8, 428, 548, 694, 669-71, 675, 681. P. 
 Views, 59, 86-9. 91-6, 102, 120-5, 134, 143-5, 
 148, 150 3, 171-2, 183-4, 190. 195-7, 204, 215, 
 225-6. 128-31, 248-55, 266 7, 274, 282, 3-J2, 334, 
 839-42, 351, 353, 800, 302-4, 3<58, 373, 386, 388- 
 , 398, 405-8, 411, 416-17, 419-20, 456-9, 492-4, 
 
 498-9, 501-3, 508, 512-18, 515-17,526-8, 53340, 
 650-1, 657-61, 666, 574-5, 579-80, 5S4, 587, 604- 
 6, 607-9, 611-14. 621-2, 6^,7-30, 634-40, 645-8, 
 659-61, 665-73,675-80, 83-4, 686-712. [The 
 above pages often contain other than Protes- 
 testant views also ; but the reader can easily 
 discriminate.] 
 
 Provence (S E. France), 130. 
 
 Proverbs (0. T.), 409. 
 
 Providence (R. I.), 51, 3 5, 314-15, 638, 692. 
 
 Providence, Divine, 456, 5i2, 682. Sisters of P.. 
 317,33,-!. 
 
 Province, Provincial, 109, 02-3, 217. 221, 223, 
 265, 268-9, 278-81, 296, 299, 312, 319, 3il, 3_3, 
 333-4, 319-50. 357, 365, 412, 529, 552-3; see 
 Archbishop, Sic. 
 
 Provincial Letters, Pascal's, 352. 
 
 Proxies, 227. 
 
 Prussia, -an, 50, 109, 131, 183, 2-19. 336, 353, 361, 
 404, 542, 611-12, 617-18, 625, (332, 64(3, (351, 685. 
 
 Psalm, Psalms (0. T.), 233, 4^9, 411, 427, 433, 
 445,457, 462, 471, 473, 500. I's. xxxiv. (= 
 xxxiii. in Vulgate, &c.,) 445 Pa. xliii. 
 (^= xlii. in Vulg.), 425.^-f a. cxvii. (= cxvi. 
 in Douay, &c.), 413. 
 
 Psalter (= Book of Psalms), 286, 411, 448. 
 
 Public Schools, Chs. XXIV., XXV., 677, 707; 
 see Education. 
 
 Publisher*, 264, 483, 620-1. 
 
 Pudens (Roman Senator?), 57. 
 
 Pudentiana, Church of St. (Rome), 188. Cardi- 
 nal St. P., 188. 
 
 Pueblo of San Jose (Cal.), 327, 330 
 
 Puente, Cardinal de la. 190, 193. 
 
 Pulpit, 238-9, 247, 251, 457, 475-6, 571, 573, 634, 
 668 : see Preacher, Sermon. 
 
 Punic Wars, 2(5-3'J. 
 
 Punishments, 374, &c., in Chs. XI., XII., 418, 
 616, 526, &c., in Chs. XVII.. XV1I1., 572, 
 579-80. &c , in Ch. XXIII., 638, &c., in Ch. 
 XXVII. ; see Indulgence, Offenses, &c. 
 
 Puppet shows, 633. 
 
 Purcell, Abp. J. B., 246, 278, 593-7, 637, 673. 
 
 Purgatory, 94, 106, 222-3, 524-8, 532-3, 535-6, 
 639-40, 668, 695. 
 
 Purification of the B. V. M., Feast of the, 486, 
 498. 
 
 Purificator, -y, 432, 476. 
 
 Puritans, 90 ; see Pilgrims. 
 
 Purple, 2ol, 234, 261, 263-4, 464, 522. 
 
 Fusey.Rev. E. B., D.D., 671. Puseyism, -ite, 
 671. 
 
 Putnam's (Geo. P.) World's Progress, 154-64. 
 P's Magazine. 659, 678. 
 
 Puy (France), 321-2. 
 
 Pyx, Pyxis, 474, 476 (cuts), 480. 
 
 Quadragesima Sunday, 496. 
 
 Quaglia. Cardinal, 190. 
 
 Quaker, 639 
 
 Qualificator, 200, 330-1, 628. 
 
 Quarantine (= 40 days), 538. 
 
 Quarterly Review (British), 230 1. 
 
 Quarter tenses, 497. 
 
 Quatre-foil, 547. 
 
 Quebec (Can.), 308, 357-8, 658. 
 
 Queen of Heaven, 479, 489-90 (cut), 493, &c. , 
 see Coronation, Mary the Virgin. 
 
 Quesnel, Father Paschasius. 1(58-70, 177. 
 
 Questoc (in ancient Rome), 33 ; (papal) 223. 
 
 Quigley, Mr., 663. 
 
 Quincy (111.), 296. 327. 
 
 Quinlan, Bp. J.,279. 
 
 Quinn.Rev. Win., 148. 
 
 Quinquagesima Sunday, 495. 
 
 Quirinal (= of Quirinus) 1IU1 (Rome), 51, 67, 83,
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 829 
 
 355. Q. Palace (of the Pope, on Q. Hill), 63-4, 
 67-8, 70, 74, 80, 83, 13(5, 139-40, 143, 197. 
 
 Quiriuus ( = Romulus, as a god), 21. 
 Quoil sancta Kardicensis Synociiu, 175. 
 
 Raccolta, 185-6. 
 
 Rwiae, (\Vis.), 301. 
 
 Radbert, Paschasius, 95. 
 
 Radicofani (Tuscany, Italy), 49. 
 
 Ragazzonl, lip. Jeroms. 222-4. 
 
 Raiment, 414 ; see Dress. 
 
 Rainaldi, 64. 
 
 Rainier or Raoul, 392. 
 
 Rambler, The (English R. C. newspaper), 643-4. 
 
 Rameur, Monsieur E., 664, 666, 675. 
 
 Ranee, Abbe do, 289. 
 
 Randall's Island (N. Y.), 359. 
 
 Ranke, Leopold, 224, 388. 
 
 Raoul, 392. 
 
 Raphael, St. (angel), 462. 
 
 Raphael, or R. d'Crbino (painter), 66-7, 81, 650. 
 
 Rappe, Bp Amadeus. 270, 278. 
 
 Rationalism, -istic, ill, 165, 230, 252. 
 
 Rationarium Temporum (= table of chronolo- 
 gy), 154. 
 
 Ratisbon (Germany), 331. 
 
 Rauscher, Cardinal de, Ia2, 241, 245. 
 
 Ravaillac, 404. 
 
 Ravenna (Central Italy), 33, 38, 46-7, 126, 159, 
 193. 
 
 Raymond VI. (Count of Toulouse), 392-3. 
 " VII. " " " 393. 
 
 R. C. (=Roman Catholic). Table of Contents, &c. 
 
 Reader (minor order), 255 6. 
 
 Reading, Uhs. X., XXIV., XXV., &c. ; see Edu- 
 cation. R. the Bible in Schools, Ch. XXIV. 
 R.-Desk, 472-3. 
 
 Reading (Pa.), 330 
 
 Rebellion, the (in U. S.), 586-7, 711-12. 
 
 Reception, Ceremony of, 346-7. 
 
 Recollects or Recollets. 294 5. 
 
 Rector, 269, 289, 296, 349, &c., in Chs. VIII., 
 IX.. 546 ; see Pastor. 
 
 Red, 189, 201, 231, 259, 261, 2634, 462, 464, 478, 
 533-9, 548 ; see Color. 
 
 Redeemer, 261, 423, &c. ; see Jesus Christ. 
 Church of the Most Holy R. (N. Y.), 462, 5*8. 
 Congregation of the Most Holy R., 318 ; see 
 Redemptorists. 
 
 Redemptorists, 318-19, 458, 487-8, 639, 547-8. 
 
 Red River Colony (N. of Minnesota), 688. 
 
 Reformation, the (16th century), 107, 135-6, 159, 
 179, 22), 290, 292, 299. 333, 390, 400, 417. 
 
 Reformatories, 71, 80, 329, &c., in Ch. VIII., 
 690 : see Industrial Schools, &c. 
 
 Regime (= rule), 338. 
 
 Reginald, Father, 300. 
 
 Regular Canons, R -I'lergv.R. -Orders, Regulars, 
 100, 143, 233, 267, 282, 290 1, 309-10, 343 5, 552 ; 
 see Congregation of Bishops & Regulars, &c. 
 R. Clerks of St Paul, or Barnabites, 309. 
 
 Reinbolt, Rev. J. N., 324. 
 
 Reisach, Cardinal de, 190-2, 234. 
 
 Relapsed, 374, &c., in Chs. XI., XII. 
 
 Relaxatus ( = unloosed, i. e , given over), 377. 
 
 Relics, 94, 106, 222, 3*55, 42S-7, 460, 476-8, 480, 
 483-4, 491-3, 633, 635 6. Relic-case or Reli- 
 quary, 47(5 (cuts), 480, 492 (ruts). 
 
 Religious, 109, 201, 223, 268, 283-317 ; see Monks, 
 Nuns, Regulars, &c. 
 
 Religious Freedom & Liberty, 116, 152, 165, 
 179-84, 230, 3^8, 400, 653. 675, 605, 629, 637, 
 &c. ('^h XXVII.), 680, 687, 704 ; see Liberty. 
 
 Reliquary, 47' ! , &c ; see Relic-case. 
 
 Remonstrance (= monstrance, ostensory), 474. 
 476. 
 
 Remus (brother of Romulus), 21, 68. 
 
 Renaissance, 475. 
 
 Reparation, ; 89 ; see Satisfaction. 
 
 Repentance, 375-6, 406, 413-14, 457. 613, 617 
 
 627. 
 
 Repository, 464, 476-7. 
 Representatives, U. S. House of, 682, 703. 
 Rfyuiescant in pace ( = let them rest in peace ; 
 
 singular, requiescat in pace = let him rest in 
 
 peace), 448-7. 
 
 Rescript, 185-6, 345, 638, 693. 
 Reserved Cases, 521, 631, 536. 
 Kesponsory, 430. 
 
 Resurrection, 103, 445 (cut), 485, 501. 
 Retreat (= monastery), 334, &c., in Chs. VIII., 
 
 IX. 
 
 Reunion (= Isle of Bourbon), 601. 
 Revelation of St. John the L-iviue (N. T.), 409. 
 Revenues, 654, &c. : see Church Property and 
 
 R. 
 
 Revival of Letters (15th century), 132. R. Ser- 
 mons, 458. 
 Revue ciu Monde Catholique (= Review of the 
 
 Catholic World), 199. 
 Reynolds, Bp. Ignatius A., 673. 
 Rhea, 41. 
 Rheims (France), 320, 368, 412. Rhemish (=- of 
 
 R.) Testament, 412, 416. 
 Rhemish ; see Rheims. 
 Rhenish ; see Rhine. 
 Rhine (river of Germany, &c.), Rhenish (= of 
 
 the R.), 40. 
 Rhode Island (State), 202, 305, 316, 339, 649, 
 
 565, 664, and places marked " (R. I.)." 
 Rhodes (island in the Mediterranean), Knights 
 
 of, 333. 
 Ribbons, 262. 
 
 Ricci, Bp. Scipione de, 344, 512. 
 Matthew, 366. 
 
 " Monsignor, 140. 
 Richards, Henry L., 669. 
 " Rev Mr., 670. 
 Richelieu, Cardinal, 348. 
 Richmond (Va.) & Diocese, 277-8, 663- 
 " (Ind.), 331. 
 " Duke of, 701. 
 
 Ridley, Bp. Nicholas, 705. 
 Rienzi, Cola di, 60. 
 Rieti (Central Italy), 192. 
 Rigaud (Can.), 310. 
 Rights, Civil & Political, 605, 629, 642-5, 652, 
 
 701, &c.; see Liberty Connecticut Declara- 
 tion of R., 605. Ohio Bill of R., 599, 6<H>. 
 Ring ibishop's or pope's), 199, OS, 273. R. 
 
 & R.-finger (bride's or nun's), 345, 454. 
 Rirmi ( districts or wards in Rome), 85-6. 
 Riots, Rioters, 686-7, 659, 711-1<! ; see Mobs, &c. 
 Ripa Grande. Port of the (Rome), 52, 71. 
 Ripetta, Port of the (Rome), 52, 73. 
 Rites and Ceremonies, 92, 226, ^42, 245, 254, 265, 
 
 363 4, 449, 452 5, 462, 469-71, 476, 569, 671 ; 
 
 see Congregation of Rites, Ritual, &c. 
 Ritual, 448, 454 ; see Liturgy, Missal, Rites, 
 
 &c. Roman Ritual, Ritnalf Romnnum, 365, 
 
 477, 505, -507-8, 693. Ritualism, -ist, 671, 681. 
 Robert (emperor), 62. 
 Robert of Geneva, 131 : see Clement VII. 
 Roberti, Cardinal, 190, 194. 
 Roberts, George L., 669-70. 
 Robes ; see Dress, Vestments, &c. 
 Robinson, Rev. John (pastor of the Pilgrims), 
 
 639. 
 
 Robles, Oen., 656. 
 Rochester (X. Y.) & Diocese, 148, 202, 245, 277, 
 
 280, 319, 321, 324-7, 659, 563, 003.
 
 830 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Rochet, 1S9, 259, 261, 291 ; see Dress. 
 
 Rogation Sunday , 495. 
 
 Roger, Father, 30(5. 
 
 Rogers, John (English Quaker & Lawyer), 404. 
 
 Romagnn (Central Italy), 49, 60, 133-4. 
 
 Roman Breviary, 448-9, &c. ; see Breviary. 
 
 Roman Catholic Benevolent Society (N. Y.), 594. 
 R. C. Church, 90-118, &c.; see Table of Con- 
 tents. R. C. Views, 66-59, &c.. in Ch I., 97- 
 118, 120-2, 124-5, 127, 134. 145-60, 154 64, 165, 
 &c., in Ch. IV., 202-5, &c., in Ch. VI., 254-8, 
 &c.. in Chs. VII -IX , 371, &c., in Ch. X., 
 388-8, &c., in Ch. XI., 391, 403. 408, &c.,in 
 Ch. Xlfl., 422-3, &c.,inCh. XIV. ,483, &c., 
 in Ch. XV., 49J 501, &c., in Ch. XVI.. 6' 3-4, 
 608, 514, &c., in Ch. XVII., 517-26, 529, 539, 
 &c.,in Ch. XIX., 652-6, &c., in Ch. XXI , 
 668-70, 576-87, 683-93, 61o-13, 616, 619-2". 623- 
 4. 629, 631-5, 637, 640-6, 653, 655, 662-9, 672 5, 
 681-4, 6-6-92, 6tt5-7<l. 
 
 Roman Ohurch, 90, 95, 103, 106, 121, &c. ; see 
 Roman Catholic. R. Congregations, 199, 
 &c. ; see Congregations. 
 
 Romanesque, 54 i. 
 
 Roman Inquisition, 69, 200, 375, 380-3, 390, 621. 
 
 Romanism, 71, 90, &c. ; see Table of Contents. 
 It. at Home, 419, &c. ; see Kirwan. 
 
 Roman Missal, 423, &c. ; see Missal. R. Pon- 
 tiff, lid, &c. ; see Pontiff, Pope. R. Ponti- 
 fical, 475, &c. ; see Pontijicale Romanum. 
 R. Ritual, 477, &c. ; see Ritual (Roman). 
 
 Romans, Epistle to the (N. T.), 121, 1*3, &c. 
 
 Roman Style, 648. 
 
 liomanus (pope), 159. 
 
 Homanus Pontifex (= Roman Pontiff), 176 ; see 
 Pontiff, Pontifex. 
 
 Rome (the city in Italy). 19-89, 119-64, 187-2% 
 207-8, 219, 227-53, 275, 380-3, 403, 656, 627, 
 &c. Its Antiquity, 19, 20, 6y6. Dates of its 
 foundation, 21. Early Kings, 21,23,26, 34. 
 Senate and Senators (ancient), 22-3, 31-2, 34 
 -5, 37, 40, 57-8, 237 ; (modern) Senator, 49, 
 86, 144 Patricians, 22-5, 61 ; (modern) Pa- 
 trician, 128-7. Patrons & Clients, 22-6. The 
 Republic, 23-35 ; later Republics, 60, 126, 139, 
 151, 3S1. Consuls, 23-4, 33-6, 75. Military 
 Tribunes, 23, 33. Censors, 23, 35.'' I'eople 
 of R.", '2-3. Plebeians, 22-5, 31. Tribunes of 
 the People, 23, 31-2. 35, 40. Veto, 23, 33. 
 Debtor & Creditor, 23. The 12 Tables, 23. 
 Equestrian Order or Knights, 24. Tribes, 24- 
 6. Popular Assemblies, 24-5. Kreedmen, 25. 
 Slaves, 25-6, 31-2. Gladiators, 26, 32, 45, 69, 
 
 ' 76-7. Soldiers, 28, 33-8, 47. vVars 26-35, 40- 
 1, 46-7, &c. Temple of Janus, 28, 35. R. 
 Burned, 27, 43, 46. Invaded and Burned by 
 Gauls, 26-7. Dominion over Italy, 27. t'unic 
 Wars, 28-30 Wars in the East, '30-1. Insur- 
 rections & Civil Wars, 31-2, 34-5, 44-5, &c. 
 Dictators, 31, 34-5. Social \Var, 32. Cati- 
 line's Conspiracies, 32. 1st Triumvirate, 33. 
 E'lile, 33, 237 Cesar Dictator & Emperor, 
 34. 2d Triumvirate, 35. Battle of Actium, 
 33. Augustus, 35-6, 39. Empire & Emper- 
 ors, 31, 3546. List of Emperors, 36-9. East- 
 ern & Western Empire, 38-46. Territory of 
 11.. 21, 25. 31-3, 40-1. Its Heathen Gods, 
 Priests, & Institutions, 21-2, 33, 35, 41 3, 80-1. 
 R. became Christian, 45. Deterioration of 
 Character, 26, 32, 35, 46-6. 627, &c. Its Per- 
 secutions of Christians, 43-4 ; see Persecu- 
 tions.- Fall of the Western Empire, 46. R. 
 imil'-r the Goths, 47 ; under the Eastern Em- 
 pire & Exarch of Ravenna, 47 ; Charlemagne, 
 &c., 48-9, 126-7 ; under the Popes, 47, 49, 60, 
 
 86-9, 119-64, 187-201, 667, 576, &c., 5n Ch. 
 XXIII , 623, &c., in Ch. XXVI., 643, 645 8 ; 
 under the King of Ituly, 50, 147-54, 648-9. 
 Situation & Climate, Hills and River, Ports 
 & Bridges, 51-3. Its Roads and Railroads, 53, 
 137-8. Telegraph, 137. Walls and Gates, 53, 
 645 Panorama, Frontispiece, 16 (explana- 
 tion), 64. Basilicas and Churches, 54-65, 476, 
 641. Palaces, 65-9, 381-3.Villas, 69. Col- 
 leges & University, 69, 70, 137, 3o6, 868, 628, 
 641. Periodicals, 70. Hospitals, 70-1, 138. 
 Work-house, 71. Squares or Places. 62. 64, 72- 
 3. Obelisks, 73-4. Fountains & Aqueducts, 
 74. Castle of St. Angelo, 65. 76, 129, 198, 403. 
 Antiquities, 75-85, 382. Population, 85. 
 Districts or Wards, 85-6. Government & 
 Condition, 86-9, &c. ; see above, " under the 
 Popes ". Duchy, 127. R.-scot, 666. Rome- 
 ward, 457. See also Carnival, Uorse-Races, 
 &c. 
 
 Rome(N. Y.). 297, 328. 
 
 Romish, 90, &c. 
 
 Romulus (1st king of Rome), 21, 24, 41, 63, 68. 
 
 Romulus Augustulus (last emperor), 39, 46. 
 
 Romulus, sou of emperor Maxentius, 78. 
 
 Konciglione (Central Italy), 133. 
 
 Rood (= crucifix) and R.-loft, 477, 498. 
 
 Hoothaan (Jesuit general), 356 
 
 Hope, 294 ; see Cord, Girdle. 
 
 Rosarium, 477. 
 
 Rosary of B. V. M., 95, 298, 363, 365, 455-6. 461, 
 466, 477, 485-8, 561. 
 
 Rosati, Bp. J.,313. 
 
 Rosecrans, Bp. S. H., 279. 
 
 Kosmini, 151. 
 
 Rossi, Count, 69, 139. 
 
 Koth (Bavaria, Germany), 192. 
 
 Rotonda, La (=Pantheon, Rome), 80. 
 
 Rouen (France), 191. 
 
 Roumania (Turkey in Europe), 689. 
 
 Rousselot, M., 687. 
 
 Kovigo(N. Italy), 193. 
 
 Roxbury (Mass.), 544. 
 
 Rubens (Flemish painter), 650. 
 
 Rubicon (river of Central Italy), 33-4. 
 
 Rubies, 642. 
 
 Rubrics, 437, 448-9, 461. 
 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg (em p. Germany), 49, 130. 
 
 hules, Monastic, &c., 284-7. 290-1, 293, 298, 
 3014, 306, 309, 311, 314, 318, 343, 349-50, 455. 
 511. 
 
 Russia, -an, 204, 335, 353, 356-7, 457, 687, 689-91. 
 
 Kuth (O. T ), 409. 
 
 Ryan, Bp. S. V., 241, 280, 313. 
 
 Sabbath & S.-school, 456-7, 459, 606, 631 ; see 
 Lord's Day, Sunday and Sunday-school. 
 
 Sabina (Central Italy), 160, 187, 191. 
 
 Sabines, 21, 159. 
 
 Sabinian (pope), 157. 
 
 Sacconi, Cardinal, 193. 
 
 &acerilos, 254. 
 
 Sac Prairie (VVis.), 292. 
 
 Sacrament, the Blessed or Holy, 61, 237,349, 
 415, 451. 455-6, 464 474, 477, 480-1, 496, 100, 
 519, 631, 554 ; see Benediction, Eucharist, 
 Lord's >>upper 
 
 Sacraments, 91, 95, 104. 178, 222, 265, 344, 370, 
 390, 406, 449, 455, 46* , 470-2, 477, 603-16, 612, 
 636, 690, 695. 
 
 Sacred Heart, Brothers of the, 323. Ladies of 
 the 8. II., 324-5. Ladies of the S. H. of Mnry, 
 326. Brothers of the Christian Instruction of 
 the S. II. of Jesus and Mary, 321-2. Confra- 
 ternity of the S. H. of Jesus, 456. Litany of 
 the S. H. of Jesus, 455 ; of Mary, 455, 488.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Office of the S. and Immaculate H. of Mary, 
 488. 8. II. of Jesus, 461. Scapular of our 
 Lord's Passion, and of the S. Hearts of Jesus 
 and Mry, 538-9. Society of the S. H., 356. 
 See Jesus, Mary. 
 
 Sacred Orders : see Orders (Holy). 
 
 Sacred \Vay (Rome), 82. 
 
 Sacrifice, 254. 422-4, 451, 525, &c. ; see Mass. 
 
 Sacrilege, 5V i, &c. 
 
 Sacristy, 465, 469, 477, 645. 
 
 Sadducces, 414. 
 
 Sadiier & Co., Messrs. D. & J., 543. 
 
 Sadiier, Mrs. J ,604,518 
 
 fcadliers' Catholic Directory, 190-4, 276-81, 289, 
 295-8, 300-1, 303-5, 308-9. 312-16, 318, 320-2, 
 326 8, 330-1, 358, 360, 495-f, 531-2, 603-4, 662-4. 
 
 Sadowa (Germany), 663, 685. 
 
 Safe-conduct, 212. 
 
 Suginaw (Mich.) : see East Saginaw. 
 
 Saguntum (Spain), 28 
 
 Sahuras (=* spiritual deserts), 569. 
 
 Saint, Saints. 106, 222, 261, 265, 288, 348, 398, 
 423, 426, 434, 436, 440 1, 448-50, 455, 400, 471- 
 3, 477-8, 483-94, 506, 622-3, 626, 530, 636-7, 
 639, 63S, 709, and saints under their names. 
 
 St. Agnes Community, 331. 
 
 St. Aloysius, 344 : see Aloysius (St.). 
 
 St. Anthony (Min.), 325. 
 
 St. Augustine (Ha.) and Diocese, 19, 277-8, 281, 
 325-6, 664 : for the saint, see Augustine (St.). 
 
 St. Bartholomew (\V. I.), 689. 
 
 St. Charles (Mo.), 324. 
 
 St. Croix <= Santa Cruz, W. I.), 689. 
 
 St. Domin-to ( = San Domingo, W. I.), 295, 363, 
 688: see Hispaniola, llayti. 
 
 Sainte Beuve, Madame de, 308. 
 
 St. Genevicve (Mo.), 325-6 
 
 St. Giles's Fields (London, Eng.), 705. 
 
 St. Giusto( Italy?), 194 
 
 St. Jan or John (\V. I.), 689. 
 
 St. John, RBT. Ambrose, 185. 
 
 St. Joseph (Mo.), and Diocese, 277, 281, 321, 324, 
 549,663. 
 
 St. Joseph 's(0. ), 300. 
 
 St. Joseph's Co. (Ind.), 322. 
 
 St. Laurent (Can.). 323. 
 
 St. liboriustlll.l. 327. 
 
 St. Louis (Mo.) and Archdiocese, 241, 245, 276, 
 280, 306, 38-9, 313, 319, 321, 324-5, 327-9, 
 357-9, 514, 548, 559, 619, 64i, 662. St. L. Uni- 
 Tersity, 358. 
 
 St. Louis Co (Mo.1,296. 
 
 St. Martin's (0.), 3t8. 
 
 St. Mary's Mission (Kan.), 324. 
 
 St. Mary's of the \Voods (Ind.), 331. 
 
 St. Michael or St. Michael's (La.), 320, 324-5. 
 
 St. Paul (Min.) and Diocese, 277, 281, 288, 325, 
 328, 619, 663. 
 
 St. I eter (II. C. newspaper, N. Y-), 619. 
 
 St. Peter's, 64-9, &c. : see Peter, Basilica of St. 
 
 St. Thomas (\V. I.), 689. 
 
 Sola Kegia (= hall royal), 66-7. 
 
 Salaries, 1S9, 554, 565-6, 608, 654. 
 
 Salem (Palestine), 20. 
 
 Salem (Mass.), 327, 638. 
 
 Salerno (S. Italy), 119. 
 
 Sales, St. Francis de ; see Francis de S. (St.). 
 
 Salina(N. Y.), 325. 
 
 Salt, 450, 402, 471. 
 
 Saluzzo ( Piedmont), 395. 
 
 Salvation ; see Chs. XVII.-XIX., 700, 705-6, 
 &c. ; see Mn, &c. 
 
 Salvatorists of the Holy Cross, 323. 
 
 Salre AVana,486. 
 
 Salvi, 74. 
 
 Samolte (= of Samnium, or the region of Bene- 
 
 vento, in Italy), 157. 
 Samuel, 1. and II. (O. T.), 4*9. 
 San (= St.) Antonio (Tex.), 308,323; see An- 
 thony (*t.). 
 San benito, 384. 
 
 Sanctuary, 4i9, 465, 477, 480, 547. 
 Sanctus (= holy), 248, 434. 
 Sand, 458. 
 
 Sandals, 272, 294, 302 ; see Shoes. 
 San (= St.) Domingo, 25, 363, 688 ; see Hayti, 
 
 Hispaniola. 
 
 Sandusky City (0.). 325. 
 Sandwich (Can.), 284. 
 Sandwich Islands, 690. 
 San Francisco (Cal.) & Archdiocese, 241, 276, 281, 
 
 295, 3K)-1, 305, 321, 327, 332, 358. 360,649. 
 
 619, 662. 
 
 Sangallo, Antonio de, 66. 
 San jose Pueblo (Cal.) 380 , see P. of San J. 
 San Marino (Italy). 689. 
 San Salvador (Congo, Africa), 3*53. 
 Santa Anna, Gen., 655 ; see Ann (St). 
 Santa Barbara (Cal.), 296. 
 Santa Clara (Cal.), 300. S. C. College, 358, 619. 
 Santa Clans, 491. 
 
 Santa Cruz (= St. Croix, W. I.). 689. 
 Santa Fe(\. Hex.) & Diocese, 277, 281,321,327, 
 
 663. 
 
 Santa Rufina (near Rome, Italy), 187-8, 191. 
 Santa Ynes (Cal.), 296. 
 Santiago (Chili, S. A.), 138. 
 Santo Spirito (= Holy Spirit ; Roman hospital), 
 
 70. 
 
 Sapphira, 346. 
 
 Saracen, -ic. 293, 644 ; see Mohammed, &c. 
 Saragossa (Spain), 512. 
 Saratoga Springs (N. Y.), 325. 
 Sardinia (island), -an, 28, 157 : (kingdom) 60, 
 
 139, 157, 335, 352, 381, 38fi, 389, 585, 614-15, 
 
 623. 648 ; see Italy (kingdom of). 
 Sarpi, Father Paul, 226, 303. 
 Sarzana , N. Italy). 163, 193. 
 Sastra y Cuestra, Cardinal de la, 193. 
 Satan, -ic, 92, 382, 450, 624, 694, t98, 700 ; see 
 
 Devil. 
 Satin, 270. 
 Satisfaction, 517-19, 622, 539-40, 590, &c. j see 
 
 Penance. 
 Saturn, 41,81. 
 
 Saturnalia ( = Festival of Saturn, Dec. 19), 498. 
 Sault Sainte Marie (=St. Mary's Fall; Mich.) 
 
 & Diocese, 277, 279, 325, 663. 
 Saurin. Miss, 339. 
 Sauterne (France) wine, 451. 
 Savannah (Ga.) & Diocese, 241, 246,277-8,306, 
 
 325-6,663. 
 
 Savior, Saviour ; see Jesus Christ. 
 Savona (N. Italy), 163 
 Savonarola, Girolamo (= Jerome), 299. 
 Savoy (Italy ; but annexed to France in I860), 
 
 131, 162, 386, 394, 397-9. 
 Saxony, Saxon. 13<>, 161, 210, 221. 361, 625. 
 S. C. (= sacred chrism), 473-4 ; see Chrism. 
 Sea/a Regia ( = staircase royal , 6*5, 236. 
 Scapular, -y, 287, 300, 302-3, 455-6, 477-8, 637-9, 
 
 (cut). 
 Scarf, 712. 
 
 Scarlet, 201, 270 ; see Red, &c. 
 Scepter or Sceptre, 208. 
 Schaal. Adam, 366. 
 
 Schaff, Rev. Prof. Philip, D.D., 122, 204. 
 Schaier, Kev. L., 289. 
 
 Schem, Prof. Alexander J., 314, 331. 666, 684. 
 Schema, pi. Schtmata, 234, 240-3, 245-7, 251.
 
 832 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Schenectadv(X. Y.), 297, 328. 
 
 Schism, -atie, 108, 167, 203, 203, 209, 229, 275, 
 21)9, 455, 633, 591 ; fee Heresy, Persecution, 
 Unity. S. of the West, 131-3, '4)9. 
 
 Scholastics, 2S9, 349. &c., ia Chs. VIII., IX. 
 
 School, Schools, 70-1, 80, 2iO, 286, &c., in Chs. 
 Vill, IX., XXIV, XXV., 404,401,520-1, 
 554, 585, 643,052, 6V 7, 685, 703, 706 ; see Edu- 
 cation, Congregation of Schools S. -books, 
 620-1, kc.S. brethren, 320-1. S.-fund, 694, 
 &c., in Ch. XXIV. S.-master, 554. S.- 
 men, 626. S. Sisters of Notre Dame, 3.26-7. 
 
 Schukburg, Sir George, 51. 
 
 tchwartzenberg, Cardinal, 192, 237, 245. 
 
 Ssientiam, 345. 
 
 Scipio Africanus. 29, 31. S. A. the Younger, 30, 
 32 
 
 Scotland, Scot, Scotch, Scottish, 40, 131, 237, 
 fc63, 340, 357, 3U1, 368, 399,404, 491, 550, 625, 
 6u9, 683, 685. 
 
 Scott, Gen. Winfield, 676. 
 
 Scotus, Duns, Ii94 
 
 Scourging at the Pillar, the. 485. 
 
 Scranton (Pa.) & Diocese, 277-8, 663. 
 
 639-40, 6t)7, 710 ; see Bible, Bible Societies, 
 Douay, Vulgate, &c. 
 
 Scrutatores ( = searchers, examiners) . 233. 
 
 Sculptures, 465. Gallery of 8., 67, 69. 
 
 Seals, the Pope's, 106, 172. 
 
 Sebastian's Church, St. (Rome), 84. St. S's Gate 
 (Home), 64, 75,78-9,84. 
 
 Second Avenue (N. ^Y.), 540. 
 
 Secrecy, 376, 504. 509-10, 513, 515. 607. 
 
 Secret, Secrets (in Mass), 4:i3, 425, 434, 437-8, 
 442-4, 447, 449. 
 
 Secret Societies, 137, 168. 230, 390, 554. 
 
 Secretary of Briefs, 172, 191. Secretaries of Con- 
 gregations, 19J, 200, 532. Sec'y of the Cong, 
 of the Propaganda, 185-6. S of State, 189, 
 194-7, 629. S. of Vatican Council, 118,233, 
 233-9, 243. 
 
 Secular Canons, 291. S. Clergy or Priests, 100, 
 143, 282, 349, 353.372. S. Courts, Arm, Pow- 
 ers, &c.,374, 330, 391, 652; see Temporal. 
 Secularization, 674. 
 
 Seilf. vacante ( = the see being vacant), 278. 
 
 Seduction, 511-15. 
 
 See (= bishopric), 120, &c. ; see Bishop, &c. 
 See of Rome. 97, &c. ; see Pope, &c. 
 
 Scgui( Italy), 158. 
 
 Pejanus, 83. 
 
 Seminaries, 100, 620, 703, &c. ; see Education, 
 Schools, &c. Ecclesiastical, or Monastic, or 
 Theological ;., 224, 264-6, 276-7, 289, &c., in 
 Ch. V11I., 368-9, 614, 685. Female S.. 289, 
 &c., in Ch. VIII. Preparatory S., 264-6, 284, 
 &c., in Chs. VIII., IX. Seminarists, 610. 
 
 Semitam, 346. 
 
 Semper et ubiqtre farfem, 700. 
 
 Sempronian Laws, 32. 
 
 Senator, Senators, 22-3, 49, &c. ; see under 
 Home. 
 
 Fenegambia (Africa), 691. 
 
 Septimiua Severus (emperor), 37, 40, 43, 73, 75, 
 
 oZ. 
 
 Septuagesima Sunday, 495. 
 Septuagint, 411. 
 Sepulchre, 129, 460, 478-9, 492. 
 Sequence (in Mass), 430. 
 6rgiusI.,St. (pope), 158,204. 
 
 H II. " 159. 
 
 " (antipope), 159. 
 
 SergiusIII. (antipope), 159. 
 " " (pope), 159. 
 " IV. ' 160. 
 
 Sermon, 238, 273, 384-5, 409, 457-8, 501, 536, 637 ; 
 
 see Preach in*. 
 
 Servant-girls, 561-2. 648, 676. 
 Servant of the servants of God, 111, 119, &c. ; 
 
 see Pope. 
 Servants of the B. V. M., Order of the, 303-4 ; see 
 
 ervites, &c. 
 Servia (Turkey in Europe), 
 
 Servius Tullius (king), 21, 24, 53, 83. 
 Sessorian Basilica and Palace (Rome), 62. 
 Seton, Mrs. Eliza A., 313-14, 6.0. 
 
 " Monsignor, 316. 
 Severinus (pope), 157 
 Severus (emperor), 37, 39, &c. ; see Alexander 
 
 S., Septimius S., Libius S 
 Seville (-pain), 193, 265, 377-8, 335, 387, 511-12. 
 
 515,542-3,650,635. 
 Seward, Hon. Win. H., 595. 
 Sexagesima Sunday, 495. 
 Sext, Sexta, 448. 
 Sexton, 554. 
 Sextus TarquSn, 23. 
 Seymour, Rev. M. Hobart, 623-4. 
 
 ' Hon. Horatio, 678. 
 Sforza, Cardinal, 190. 
 Shanahan, Bp. J. *'., 278. 
 Sharon (Pa.), 330. 
 
 Shepherd of the Valley, The (R. C. paper), 644. 
 Shepherd, Religious or Sisters of the Good, 328-9. 
 Sherry wine, 451. 
 Shirt, 522, 711 ; see Dress, Habit. 
 Shoal Creek Station (111.), 327. 
 Shoberl, Frederic, 384-6. 
 
 Shoes, 302 ; see Sandals, Slippers, Calced, &c. 
 Shreveport (La.), 330. 
 Shrines, 472. 
 
 Shrove-tide, S. -Tuesday, 498. 
 Siam (S. E. Asia), 372, 690. 
 Siberia (N. Asia), 690. 
 Sicily, Sicilian, 27. 50, 130-1, 158, 377, 380, 386, 
 
 389, 419, 532, 614-15, 6^3. The Two Sicilies 
 
 (= the island of Sicily and S Italy), 352, 356 ; 
 
 see Naples Italy. 
 Siena or Sienna (Italy), 161, 191,215,300; see 
 
 Catharine (St.) 
 Sierra Leone (\V. Africa), 691. 
 Sigismund (emperor of Germany), 210, 212. 
 Silber, Marcellus. 566. 
 Silence, Silent, 295, 298, 302, 309, 482. 
 Silesia ( Prussia), 210. 
 Silk, 263-4, 393, 461, 466, 469, 4734, 480, 482, 
 
 492, &c. ; see Dress. 
 Silver, 263, 306, 400, 465, &c in Chs. XIV., XX. 
 
 S. -plated, 464, &c., in Ch XIV. 
 Silvestri, Cardinal de, 193, 245. 
 Silvia (mother of Romulus'). 21. 
 Simeon (or Simon) the Stylite, 283. 
 Simon, or Simon Peter ; see Peter (St.). 
 Simon, St. (apostle, called S. Zelotes, &c.), 498. 
 Simon the Sorcerer, 346. 
 Simon (or Simeon) the Stylite, 283. 
 Simon Count of Montfort", 392-3. 
 Simony, 128, 131, 168. 
 Simor, Abp.,245. 
 Simple Vows, 345, 350 ; see Vows. 
 Simplicius. St. (pope), 167. 
 Sin, 91, 339,341, 416-16, 426, 432, 443, Chs. 
 
 XVII.-XIX., 666, 691. 631, 699; see Mortal 
 
 S., Original S., Venial S., Salvation, &c.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 833 
 
 Singers. Pinging. 234. 298, 424, 431, 434, 447-8, 
 466, 554, 598, 706 : see Choir. 
 
 giuigaglia (Italy), 138, 191-2, 194 
 
 Sinto. Worship of, 692. [Sintoists worship 
 genii.] 
 
 Siricius, St. (pope), 158. 
 
 Sisinnius " ' K>8. 
 
 Sisters, 296, &c.. in Ch. VIII., 370, 608. 676, 679. 
 S. of Charity. 71, 295, 313-1 1, 336, 339-40, 
 664, 594,670. S. of C., or Gray Nuns, 316-17. 
 8. of G or S. of Providence, 317 S. of C. of 
 the Order of St. Augustiue, 304, 317. S of C 
 of the B. V. M., 817 S. of C. of Nazareth, 
 817. S. of the Congregation of Our Lady ( = 
 of Notre Dame), 3i6 7 S. of the Holy Child 
 Jesus, 330. S. of the Holy Family, 331. S. 
 of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary. 328. 
 8. of the Humility of Mary, 30. S. of the In- 
 carnate Word, 3JO. S. of .(esus and Mary , 328. 
 S. of Loretto, 327. S. of Mercy, 289, 304-6, 
 339, 346-7, 465, 602-4, 703-4. S. of Nazareth, 
 317. S. of Our Lady of Charity of the Good 
 Shepherd, or of Our L. of the G. S., or of the 
 G. S , 328-9. S. of Providence, 317, 330-1. 
 S. of P. of the Holy Childhood of .1 esus, 331. 
 8. of St. Ann. 828. S. of St. Joseph, 325. S. 
 of St. Mary, 330. Sister-servants of the Im- 
 maculate Heart of Mary, 329. Sisters, Ser- 
 vants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, 329- 
 30. 
 
 Sistine(=of Sixtus) Chapel in the Vatican Pal- 
 ace (Rome), 66, 190, 195, 23J, 240, 550. S. 
 Choir, 234, 248. 
 
 Sixtine (=of Sixtus\ 171 S. Chapel in the Vat- 
 ican ; see Sistine C. S. Chapel in St. Mary 
 Major (Rome), 61. 
 
 Sixtus I., >t. ipope), 155. 
 
 II.' 
 III.' 
 IV. 
 
 156. 
 157. 
 
 (pope), 52, 66. 105, 134, 163, 294, 
 387,537. 
 
 " V. (pope), 55, 61,66.72. 163, 17(V2, 
 175,188.199.200,294,380, 
 3S9, 411, 627, 581. 
 Skeptic, Skepticism, 569, 572. 
 Slap, 451. 
 
 Slaves , Slavery , 25-6, 31-2, 384 , 657 ; see Galley-P . 
 Slavonic '= of the S/ai-i or Sciaci, who settled 
 
 and gave name to Slavonia or Sclavonia, in 
 
 Austria). 242. 
 Slippers, 143-1, 195, 294, &c. ; see Sandals, 
 
 Shoes, &c. 
 Smith, Slis Mary Ann, 335, 678-80. 
 
 " Sir Culling Eardley, Baronet, 173-82, 
 
 403,532. 
 Smith's (\Vm., LL.D.) Dictionary of the Bible, 
 
 411. 
 
 Soano (Italv), 128. 
 
 Societies. 45">, 461, &e. , see Secret S., Society. 
 Society of the Faith of Jesus, 356. S. of the 
 
 Holy Child Jesus. 330. S. of Jesus. 348, &c. : 
 
 see Jesuits. Christian Brothers of the S. of 
 
 Mary, 323-4 Fathers of the S of Mary, 320. 
 
 S. of the Sacred Heart, 356. 
 Society Islands (S. Pacific Ocean), 690. 
 Socinians 638. 
 Sod us, 323. 
 Sodalities, 455-6, 488. 
 S(ntr$ , ffaxpitaKfrrt, 331. 
 Soglia, Cardinal, 577. 
 &>/(=the sun), 41. 
 Solemn High Mass, 424, 429-32, 441,447, 464, 
 
 471, &c. : see Mass. S. Pontifical Mass, 
 
 424, 463-5. 430, &c.; see Mass. S Vows, 
 
 345 ; see Vows. 
 
 53 
 
 Solemnities, 4oo, &c. : see Festivals, Rites, &c. 
 
 Solicitation, 514-15, 521-2. 
 
 Solomon (king of Israel :, 541. 
 
 Solway Frith (between England and Scotland), 
 
 Somerville (Mass.). 309. 
 
 Soinmer, Rev. J.,289 
 
 Son, the ; see Son of God. 
 
 Song of Solomon (0. T.), 409. 
 
 Song of the 3 ChUdren , the (Apocrypha), 409. 
 
 Songs, 588 ; see Singing, Hymns, Music, &c. 
 
 Sonnino (near Terracina, Italy), 194, 197. 
 
 Son of God, or the S., 205, 209. 255. 345, &c. ; 
 
 see Jesus Christ j see Father, S., and Holy 
 
 Ghost, &c. 
 
 Sons of Temperance, 390 
 Sophia, Church of St. (Constantinople), 541. 
 Sophonias ( = Zephaniah, O. T.) 409. 
 Sorrow ; see Contrition, Penance. Sorrowful 
 
 Mysteries, 485-7. 
 Sorzo, Cardinal S. Felippo. 191. 
 Soter, St. (pope), 156. 
 Sotis, Rev. ., 312. 
 
 Soul- Liberty, 638; see Conscience, Liberty, &c. 
 South, Southern (U. 8.), 612, 679. 
 South America, -an, 61, 109, 233. 237, 358, 368, 
 
 419,585,609,613,618,634,654-5; see America, 
 
 and the names of rf. A places, &o. 
 South Australia. 690 ; see Australia. 
 South Boston (Mass.), 327 ; see Boston. 
 South Carolina (state), 306-6, and places marked 
 
 Southern; see South. S. Confederacy, 586. 
 
 The S. Journal, 618. 
 South Orange (N. J.),336. 
 South Providence (R. I.), 305. 
 Sovereign Pontiff, 119, 202, &c. ; see Pontiff, 
 
 Spain, 28 9, 33-4,44,46,48,61. 65, 108-9,131, 
 133, 139, 168, 176, 198, 211, 221, 224. 226, 245, 
 265,275. a35, a02, a06, 362, 377-8, aS4-9, 393, 
 4(16, 419-20, 457, 491, 511-12, 581, 585, 609, 
 613, 618, 625, 641. 650-3, 655, 657, 685, 687,689, 
 711 ; see Spaniard, &P. 
 
 Ppslding, Abp. M. J., 233,241, 278, 544. 
 
 Spaniard. Spanish, 109, 134, 141. 156, 162-3, 188, 
 220-1,225, 233.237,215, 265,298,348, 374,377, 
 379-80. 385-7, 3S9, 392, 394. 512, 549-50, 681, 
 615, 618, 634, 652-5, 667, 689-91 ; see Spain. 
 
 Spartacus. 32. 
 
 Spears, 142. 
 
 Spencer, Hon. & Rev. G , 568, 681. 
 " Hon. John C., 695. 
 
 Spencer Co. (Ind.), 289. 
 
 Sperry, Hon. Lucien \V ,601-2. 
 
 Spies and Spy-system, 87, 340, 353, 645-7 ; see 
 Espionage. 
 
 Spillard, Rev. D. J., 322. 
 
 Spirit ; see Holy Ghost, Soul, &c. Worship of 
 Spirits, 692. Spiritual Exercises, 349, &c. 
 Spiritualism, 635. 
 
 Spittle, 430. 
 
 Spittler, 388. 
 
 Spoleto (Central Italy), 49, 130, 133. 
 
 Sponsors, 362, 449-61. 
 
 Spring, 497. 
 
 Springfield (Mass.) & Diocese, 202, 277, 279, 281, 
 663-4 
 
 Springfield (Ky.1, 301. 
 
 Springfield (111.), 308, 327, 405. 
 
 Spring Hill College (near Mobile, Ala.), 358. 
 
 Sprinkle, Sprinkling-Brush, 471,478. 
 
 Sprinkling with Holy Water ; Me Holy Water. 
 
 Squassation, 383. 
 
 Si (=Saints), 496, 498, &c.
 
 834 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Staff (Bishop's), 203 ; sec Crosier, &c. 
 
 Stairs, tlie Holy (Home), 60. 
 
 Stamford i'Ct.), 544 6. 
 
 Stanislaus' Novitiate, St. (Florissant, Mo.), 358. 
 
 Stark Co. (0.), 234. 
 
 Starrs, Very Rev. \Vm., D.D., 148. 
 
 State-carriage (the 1'ope's), 142 (cut). 
 
 Staten Island (N. Y ), 315. 
 
 States of the Church, or Papal States (Italy), 49, 
 
 60.130, 133-8,145-7, 157-8,102-5,200,3801, 
 
 623-4, 64" ; see i'ope, Temporal Sovereign, &c. 
 Station, 478-9. Stations of the Holy Cross, 479. 
 Statistical Year-Look of the Church, 288, 297, 
 
 300, 302, 312, 318, 321, 333. 
 Statistics, in Chs. II., VII.-XII., XV.. XX., 
 
 XXI., XXIV.-XXVI., XXVIII. 
 Statues, 55, 459-60. 471, 479-8% 492, 542-3, 546. 
 Strfano Rolando, Church of San (Home), 65. 
 Ste'ffanone, Madame, 273. 
 Stella, Munsi<;nor 140-1. 
 Stenographers, 241. 
 Stephanini, Kev. T., 312. 
 Stephen (1st Christian martyr), Church of St. 
 
 (llome), 65; (New York) 648. at. Stephen's 
 
 Day, 65, 498. 
 Stephen, I., St. (pope), 156. 
 
 " II. (pope), 158. 
 
 " III. or II. (pope), 158. 
 
 ' IV. or III. " 158. 
 
 " V. or IV. " 158-9,205. 
 
 " VI. or V. " 159. 
 
 VII. or VI. " 159. 
 \ " VIII. or VII. " 159. 
 
 " IX. or VIII. (pope), 159. 
 
 " X. or IX. (pope?), 161. 
 Stevens, Capt. John (continuator of Dugdale's 
 
 Monasticon), 287. 
 Btillman, W. J., 629-30, 646-7. 
 Stock, Simon, 488. 
 Stockholm (Sweden), 624. 
 Stole, 257, 259-60, 262-3, 272, 505, 522. 
 Stone, 430, 470, 545, &c. 
 Stone, James Kent, D.D., and John S., D.D., 
 
 670. 
 
 Stony Creek (Mich ). 329. 
 Stonyhurst ' Eng.), 357. 
 Stool, 462, 480 ; see Bench, Chair, Throne. 
 Storer, Judge B.,699. 
 Storrs, Uev. Richard 8., Jr., D. D., 91. 
 Story of Susanna, the (Apocrypha), 409. 
 Stoughton, Norman C.,669. 
 Strasburg or >trasbourg (France), 542. 
 Strength, Sources of H. C. , 694-8. 
 Strong, T. \V., 488, 637. 
 Stuart, Mary (queen of Scotland), 681. 
 Students, 284, &c., in Oh. VIII. 
 Stylites, 283. 
 Subdeacon, 101, 104, 255-6, 258-9, 262, 424, 429, 
 
 431-5, 441, 443 ; see Orders (Holy.). 
 Subinro, Sublacum (Central Italy), 192, 285. 
 Eublician Bridge (Rome), 63. 
 Sub-prior, 289. 
 Successor of St. Peter, 120, 122, 124, &c. ; see 
 
 Pope. 
 
 8u-Chuen or Su-Tchnen (China), 109, 371. 
 SulTragan Bishops, 187. 
 Suffrages, 166, 620, 630, 632, &c. (see Prayers) ; 
 
 169 'See Votes>. 
 Suicides, 623-4, 658 
 Sulpice, Church of St. (Paris), 317; Priests of 
 
 the Mission of St. 8., or Sulpicians, 317-18, 
 
 &c. ; .Seminaries of St. 8. (Baltimore and Mon- 
 treal), 318. 
 
 Sulpicians, 310, 317-18, 572, 670. 
 glimmer, 497. 
 
 Siimmerville ( Via.), 306. 
 
 Sun, the, 41,72. 
 
 Sunday, SOI, bl9, 347, 385, 401, 423, 427-8, 431, 
 447, 452, 454, 471, 485, 495, &c., in Ch. XVI., 
 619,646-7,649,5(31-2,567, 589,616, 618, 630, 
 633, 658; see Sabbath. S. School, 601, 606, 
 619-20,660, G85, 707. S. School Messenger, 
 619. ' 
 
 Superstitions, 226. 
 
 Supersubstantial Bread, 415. 
 
 Supper, 451 , see Lord's Supper, Eucharist, &c. 
 
 Supremacy of Councils, 213-18. S. of the Pope, 
 
 97 8, 108, 110-18, 120-5, 140, 215, 218-19, 231, 
 
 241,292,571,576-87,642, 655, 660, 696, 701; 
 
 see Authority, Primacy, &c. 
 Surplice, 189, 258-9, '^62, 2G4, 505. Surpliced 
 
 (=wearing a surplice), 522. 
 Sursum cortta, 434. 
 
 Susanna, the story of (Apocrypha), 409. 
 Suspension, 507, 553. 
 Suspension Bridge ( S. Y.), 313. 
 Susquehanna Depot ( Pa.), 330. 
 Sutri (Central Halv), 160. 
 Su-Tchuen or Su-Ohuen (China), 109, 371. 
 Sweden (N. Europe;, Swedish, 131, 335, 389, 
 
 625, 689. 
 
 Sweeney, Peter B , 678. 
 
 Swiss: see Switzerland. S. Guards, 142-4, 237. 
 Switzerland (Europe), Swiss, 131, 136, 215, 292, 
 
 304, 335, 353, 398-9, 404, 616, 625, 649, 651, 
 
 689. 
 
 Sylla (or Sulla), Lucius Cornelius. 32. 
 Syllabus (= list or catalogue), 230-1, 577-8, 583, 
 
 641. 
 
 Sylverius (pope), 157. 
 Sylvester I., sit (pope), 156, 205. 
 " II. " 160. 
 " III. " 160-1. 
 Symmachus, St. (pope), 157. 
 Synod, 102, 117, 187, 202-3, 453, &c.; see Coun- 
 cil. 
 
 Syracuse (N. Y.), 297-8. 
 Syria ( W. Asia), -an, -ac, 30-3, 43, 109, 155, 158. 
 
 237, 242, 283. 302, 309, 419, 423. 
 Tabernacle, 480, 543. 
 Tabernia, 268. 
 Table of R. C. Priests, &c., in U. S., 276-7 ; see 
 
 List, Statistics, &c 
 Tablet, the iK. C. newspaper of London, but of 
 
 Dublin before 1852), 386, 673, 684 ; see New 
 
 York Tablet 
 
 Tacitus, Claudius (emperor), 37. 
 Tacony (Pa.), 327 
 Taft, Judge Alphonso, 599-600. 
 Talbot, Monsignor, 140. 
 Talmage, Rev. T. DeVVitt, 705-6. 
 Tammany Ring, 678. 
 
 Taney, Chief .lustice Roger B., 137, 419, 627. 
 Tannei, Bp.,291. 
 Taos(X. Mex. 1,327. 
 
 Tapers, 93, 430, 463, 480, 499 ; see Candles, Wax. 
 Tapestry, 234, 477. 
 
 Tarasius (patriarch of Constantinople), 203 
 Tarquin (= Tarquinhis) the Klder (king), 21, 
 
 78, 85. T. the Proud (last king of Rome,, 21-i 
 Tarracona or Tarracona (Spain), 375. 
 Tarsus (Asia Minor), 44. 
 Tartary (Central Arfai, 302; see Turkistan. 
 Tasmania (Australasia), 690. 
 Tassels, 263,401. 
 Taxa Canrrltaria:, etc., 666. 
 Taxee, 677-8, 593, 593, 676.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 835 
 
 Teachers. 589, &c. ; see Education, Schools, &c. 
 
 Te Deum, 240, 242, 248-9, 274, 403. 
 
 Telesphorus, St. (pope), 155. 
 
 TeUers, 233. 
 
 Telmon, Father, 418. 
 
 Temperance Pledge, &c., 621 ; see Sons of T. 
 
 Templars, Knights, 323. 
 
 Temple St. (New Haven. Ct.), 545. 
 
 Temporal Power, 99, 125, &c., in Ch. in., 165- 
 6, 168. 208, 230-1, 275, 405, 509, 570, 573-87, 
 643, &c. in Ch. XXVII. ; see Authority, 
 Pope, Theocracy. &c. 
 
 Tenebrcr., 430 1, 499-500. 
 
 Tennessee (State), 301, 305, and places marked 
 " (Tenn.) ". 
 
 Teresa, St. ; see Theresa. 
 
 Terminrs, 42. 
 
 Te Rogamus, Audi Nos, 239. 
 
 Terra del Fuego (= land of fire ; S. A.), 689. 
 
 Terranova (Sicily ?), 193. 
 
 Terre Haute (Ind.), 331. 
 
 Tertia, 448. 
 
 Tertiarians, or Tertians, or Tertiaries, 294-6, 300- 
 2, 304, 329, 511. 
 
 Tertullian, 174, 508. 
 
 Testaccio, Monte (Rome), 78.. 
 
 Tetzel, John, 135, 533-7. 
 
 Teutonic Knights, 333. 
 
 Teutopohs (111.), 296, 327. 
 
 Texas (State), 295, 308, 320, 330, 666-7, and 
 places marked "(Tex ) ". 
 
 Thayer, Rev. John, 671. 
 
 Theatins, 309. 
 
 Theatres and Theatre-going, 627, 633. 
 
 Thebes (Egypt), 270, 283, 534. 
 
 Theocracy, 145. 
 
 Theodora, 127. 
 
 Theodore or Theodoras (pope), 158. 
 
 l_ " " " (antipope), 158. 
 
 " " " II. (pope), 159. 
 
 Theodoric the Great (Gothic king), 47, 641. 
 
 Theodoric (antipope), 161. 
 
 Theodorus ; see Theodore. 
 
 Theodosius the Great (emperor), 38, 205, 374. 
 II. (emperor of the East), 205. 
 
 Theodns (abp. of Canterbury). 509. 
 
 Theologians, 199, 200, 232, 234-5, 484, 526, 540, 
 635, t>4l, 700; see below. 
 
 Theological College or Seminary, 138. Chs. 
 VIII., IX., &c. ; see Education, Semi- 
 naries, &c T. Seminary of St. Sulpice ( Bal- 
 timore), 318. Table of T. Students in the U. 
 S., 276-7. 
 
 Theology, 265-6, 289, 292, 299, 349, 377,510, 514, 
 628, 083 ; see Theologi ins, &c. 
 
 Tueophylact (antipope), 108. 
 
 Theresa ( = Teresa), St., 302, 329, 389, 491. 
 
 Third Order, 294, &c. ; sec Tertiarians. 
 
 Third St. (N. Y.), 548. 
 
 Thomas the Apostle, Festival of St., 493. St. 
 T's Theological Seminary (Bardstown, Ky.). 
 SOS. College of St. T. of VUlanova (Philadel- 
 phia, Pa.), Jj03. 
 
 Thomas a lieckc-t, Festival of St., 498. 
 
 Thomaasin, 81 1. 
 
 Thompson, Rev. Joseph S , D.D., IiL.D., 150. 
 
 Thompson, St (N. Y.),547. 
 
 Thorn Sacred. 603. 
 
 Three Children, The Song of the (Apocrypha), 
 409. 
 
 Throne (of bp. or popp), 144, 229, 247, 271, 462, 
 461, 480; (for book, iiost, &c.) 238-9, 247, 474, 
 480. 
 
 Thurible, Thurfhitlum, 481. 
 
 Thuriugians, 3 Jl. 
 
 Thurles (Ireland), 673. 
 
 Thyme. 462. 481. 
 
 Tiara, 93, 120 (cut), 143, 236. 
 
 Tiber (river of Home), 40, 44, 51-3, 69, 74-5, 78, 
 
 83, 85-6. Tiberine Island, 52. 
 Tiberius Cesar (emperor), 3<>, 39, 42, 45, 78, 83. 
 Ticino (Switzerland), 616. 
 Tierce. 302,448. 
 Ti.Tin(O.), 297,308. 
 Tillemont, 69. 
 Times, The (London newspaper), 339, 407 ; sea 
 
 New York Times. 
 Timon. Bp. John, 270, 313, 555-7. 
 Tindal ; see Tyndale. 
 Tithes, 655 ; see Church-Property, &c. 
 Titian (Italian painter), 550. 
 Titus Tatius (Sabine king). 21. 
 Titus (emperor), 3G 76. 80, 82. 
 Tivo" (Central Italy), 157 159. 
 Tobias, Tobit (Apocrypha), 409, 411. 
 Todi (Italy), 158. 
 Toebbe. Bp.A. M., 279. 
 Toga. 258. 
 
 Toledo (Spain), 878 9. 542. 
 Toledo (O.), 192, 308, 359. 
 Toleration, Tolerance, 230, 403, 633, 645, 654. 
 Tomb, 460, 464, 467, 472, 475, 478 ; see Burial, &c. 
 Tompkins Square (N. Y.), 6otf. 
 Tongs, 481. 
 
 Tonkin or Torquin (S. E. Asial, 109, 367,372. 
 Tonsure, 104, 212, 256, 258, 265. 
 Torches, 273, 401,472, 481 ; see Lights, Candles, 
 
 fee. 
 
 Toronto (Can.), 520, 586. 
 Torquemada, Thomas de, 378, 38fi. 
 Torraiende Valasso (Spain ?), 192. 
 Torresdale (Pa.). 324. 
 Torture, 137, 376, 382, 384-5, 580. 
 Totila tGothic king), 47. 
 Totum, 489. 
 
 Toulouse (France), 176, 375, 387, 392-3. 
 Towels, 437, 481, 491. 
 Tower, 68, 75, 542-4, 546, 648. &c. 
 Town-School, the (New Britain, Ct.), 603. 
 Tract, Tractus (in Mass), 430, 454, 481. 
 Tracts, 183-4, 394, 620-1,658. T. for the Times, 
 
 and Tractariani.Mn, 671. 
 Traditions, 104 108, 117, 174, 181, 232. 244, 272, 
 
 408-9, 476, 525-6, 574. 
 Traetto, Cardinal Dominic Carafa de, 192. 
 Trajan (emperor), 36, 40. 43, 78, 80, 83. 
 Transalpine, 101 , see Cisalpine, Ultramontane. 
 Transept. 66, 234. 237, 545, &c. 
 Transfiguration, 67. 
 
 Transubstantiation, 95, 105, 225, 422, 496. 
 Transylvania S E. Austria), 40. 
 Transvaal Republic (S. Africa), 691. 
 Trappe. Abbey of La (France), 289. Trappists, 
 
 288-90,311,334. 
 Trastecere , Home), 85. 
 Treason, 168, 4<i2, 513. 
 
 Treasury Building ( Washington, I> C.), 545-6. 
 Trent (S. W. Austria), 220 4. Council off., 95, 
 
 101, 107, 170. 175 6, 200. 204, 2LO-7, 219, 235, 
 
 234-5. 30S. 3434. 848.3.9, 405, 409-11. 417, 
 
 423, 449, 452, 618, 6Bl, 5l5, 527, 5^9-30. 553, 
 
 655, 568, 676, 565, 671 ; see Counciu, Tridea- 
 
 Trenton 'N T . J.), 296, 548. 
 
 Treves (Germany), 632-3. 
 
 Trevisanto, Cardinal, 1<J3, 245. 
 
 Treviso(X. Italy), 132. 
 
 Trhn-i : pain >, Castle of, 378. 
 
 Triangle, 4'J3, 481. 
 
 Tribune ; see under Rome, and N. Y. Tribune.
 
 836 
 
 GENERAL INDEX 
 
 Tridentine (= of Trent, of the Council of Trent) 
 
 175, 220, &c. ; see Trent (council of). 
 Trinidad (vV. I.), 4o5. 
 
 Trinity, Holy, 434, 447, 450, 455, 477, 491, 638 
 see Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. -Church o: 
 the H. T. (Boston) 359, 544 ; (Georgetown, D. 
 
 j C.) 359. Mass of the H. T., 424. Scapular of 
 the Most H. T,478. T.Sunday, 452, 485, 
 496,519. 
 
 Trinkets, 459, &c. 
 Triple Candle, 601 ; see Triangle. 
 Troy (Asia Minor), Trojan, 21. 
 Troy (N Y.), 325. 
 Trueg, Kev A., 289. 
 Trullus (Constantinople) and Trullan Council, 
 204. 
 
 Trustees and Trustee-system, 552, &c., in Ch. 
 XXI. 
 
 Tryphena and Tryphosa, 123. 
 
 Tuam (Ireland), 245, 681. 
 
 Tuckey, Capt , 365. 
 
 Tullus Hostilius (king of Rome), 21. 
 
 Tunic, 189 268-9,272,287, 291, 294, 300, 303 ; see 
 Dress, Habit. 
 
 Tunis (N. Africa), 27, 544. 
 
 Turin (Italy), 194, 372, 386, 614, 628. 
 
 Turkey (Europe and Asia). Turks, 31, 38, 40, 130, 
 133-5,245, 290,372,689-90; see Asiatic Tur- 
 key, Asia Minor, Syria, &c. 
 
 Turkistan, 690 ; see Tartary. 
 
 Turnan (Austria?), 192. 
 
 Turpin, Dick, 197. 
 
 Tuscaloosa (Ala.), 308. 
 
 Tuscany (Italy), Tuscan, 128, 154, 156-7, 159, 161, 
 163, 314, 3S1, 612, 614-15, 623, 648 9. 
 
 Tweed, \V'm M., 678. 
 
 Twelfth Day, 498. 
 
 Twenty-eighth St. (N. Y.), 548. 
 
 Tyler, Rev. Prof. Wm. 8., D.D., 145. 
 
 Ty ndale (or Tindal, or Tyndal), Win., 417 (plate). 
 
 Tyne (river of England), 40. 
 
 Tyre (Phenicia, Asiatic Turkey) J27. 
 
 Tyrol (S. W. Austria), 220. 
 
 Udalrich (bp. of Augsburg), St., 95. 
 
 Ulster (Ireland), 617. 
 
 Ultramontane, -ism, -ist, 230-1,244, 572, 699 j see 
 Transalpine, Gallican, &c. 
 
 Umana( Italy?), 193. 
 
 Umbrella. 481. Umbrellino, 464, 481. 
 
 Umbria( Italy), 134, 614. 
 
 Unanimous Consent of the Fathers, 104, 403, 410. 
 669. 
 
 Unbaptized, 450, 453, 621, &c. ; see Baptism. 
 
 Unchangeableness, 228, 699, 700, 711 ; see Infal- 
 libility. 
 
 Unchastity, 666 ; see Chastity, Adultery, Forni- 
 cation, &c. 
 
 Unction ; see Extreme Unction, Anointing. 
 
 Vnigenitus, 166, 168-70, 177, 186, 352, 405. 
 
 Union College (Schenectady.N. Y.J, 416. 
 
 Union League Club (N. Y.), 696. 
 
 Unitarians, 638, 670, 676. 
 
 United States of America, or United States, 19, 
 70, 109. 149, 152-4. 202. 229. 233, 241, 245, 274, 
 , 276-7, 290, 292, 295, 297, 305, 307-8, 310, 312- 
 14,316-18,320-1, 324-8,331, 345,357-60.3.38, 
 370, 405, 408. 419, 421, 457, 46% 475, 491, 496-7, 
 615, 518, 534, 544, 549, 563, 667, 674. 682. 588, 
 &c., in Ch. XXIV., 618-22, 626-7, 629, 637-8, 
 643, 646, 649. 662, 688 &c., in Ch. XXVIII., 
 700-1 ; see America, &c. U. 8. of Colombia , 
 see Colombia. 
 
 Unity and Uniformity Required, 108, 111-18, 
 388, 619, 668-75, 699. 
 
 Vnivers (Paris newspaper), 386, 686. 
 
 Universal Eisaop, 120, 124, 203, &c. ; see Ecu- 
 menical, Patriarch, Pope. 
 
 UniversalLsm, -it, 6i'2. 
 
 Universe (R. C. newspaper), 619-20. 
 
 Universities, 100,103,210-11, 2'8, 318, &c., in 
 Chs. VIII., IX., XXIV., 412, 574, 682,589-91, 
 673. 681 ; see Colleges, also particular Univer- 
 sities by their locations and names, as Home, 
 Douay, Gregorian, &c. 
 
 Uraguay (3 A.), 688. 
 
 Urban I , St. (pope), 155. 
 " II. " 161. 
 
 " III. " 161. 
 
 " IV. " 162. 
 
 " V. " 162. 
 
 " VI. " 162. 
 
 i vii. 163, in. 
 
 'VIII. " 163, 167, 199, 308, 812, 
 
 365, 3ti8, 423, 449. 
 Urbane (a Christian at Rome), 123. 
 Urbino, Duchy of (Italy), 133. 
 Ursinus or Ursicinus (antipope), 156. 
 Ursula, St., 307. 
 Ursuline Nuns, 307 9. 
 
 U. S. or U. S. A. = United States of America. 
 Utah ( U. S. Territory), 277, 281, 664. 
 Utica (N. Y.), 297-8. 
 Vail, 295, &c.; see Veil. 
 ValJez (Sp. inquisitor general), 378. 
 Valence ^France), 135. 
 Valencia ( Spain I. 133. 
 Valens (emperor), 38. 
 Valentine (pope;, 159. 
 Valentine, Duke (= Duke of Valentinoia), 134 ; 
 
 see Borgia (Cesar). 
 Valentinian I. (emperor), 38. 
 " II. " 38. 
 " III. " 39,46. 
 Valerian (emperor). 37, 43. 
 Valet-ile-ckambre, 140-1. 
 Valladolid (Spain), 685. 
 Vallaraius, 174. 
 
 Vallejo St. (San Francisco, Cal.), 649. 
 Valleinbrosians, 288 
 Vallenses, 393 ; see Waldenses. 
 Vallette, Cardinal la, 194. 
 Valteline(N. Italy). 381. 
 Vancouver's Island (British America), 280. 
 Vandals, 46. 
 
 Van Diemen's Land, 690. 
 Varro, 21. 
 Vasari, 403. 
 
 Vases, 93, 459-60, 473-4. 
 Vasi & Nibby's Guide of Rome, 154-64. 
 Vatican Basilica (Rome) 227, 492, &c. ; see Peter 
 
 (Basilica of St.). V. t'einetery, 62, 84. V. 
 
 Council, 111-18, 140, 191, 204, 215, 227-53, 
 
 640, 685, 693. V. Hill or Mount, 62, 54, 122. 
 
 V. Manuscript, 67, 420. V. Palace, 66-7, 75, 
 
 85. 140-2, 170, 197. 235-6, 381, 403. V. Press, 
 
 170-2, 200. V. Quarter, 53. 
 Vand (canton of Switzerland), 616. 
 Vaudois, 393, &c. , see Waldenses. 
 Veil or Vail, 295, 300. 302, 304, 306, 345, &c., 
 
 in Ch. VIII., 469, 474, 481-2 ; see Antepend- 
 
 ium, Habit, &c. 
 
 Velvet, 263, 270 ; see Canopy, Dress. 
 Velletri (Central Italy), 191. 
 Veneration of Saints', Images, &c., 483, &c., in 
 
 Ch. XV. 
 
 Venetians ; see Venice. 
 Venezuela (S. A.), 688. 
 Venial Sins, 618-19, 525, 627-8, &c. ; see Mortal 
 
 Sins, Sin. 
 Venice and Venetians, 59, 67, 134, 136, 162-4
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 837 
 
 168, 193, 220, 380. Gulf of V., 31, 49. 
 Veni Creator Spiritus, 236, 239, 247,273. 
 Veni Sancte Spiritus, 238. 
 
 Venosti, Visconti. 164. 
 
 Venus (goddess), 41. 492. 
 Vera effigies .... lesu Christ i, etc., 492. 
 Vera icon, 491. 
 
 Vergara, 388. 
 
 Verina, Very Rev. A., 313. 
 
 Vermont (State), 317, 647, 664, and places mark- 
 ed "(Vt). 
 
 Veron's Rule of Faith, 103. 
 
 Verona (N. Italy) and Veronese, 356. 
 
 Veronica, St. (?), 437 (cut), 479, 491-2 (cut). 
 
 Verot, lip Augustine, 241, 278. 
 
 Versicle, 238-9, 448 
 
 Vespasian (emperor), 36, 76. 78, 81, 85. 
 
 Vesper, Vesptra, 448. Vespers, 302, 448, 458, 
 464,471,501,616. 
 
 Vesta (goddess), 41-2. Vestal Virgins, 42. 
 
 Vestment, 259-60, 263-4, 270, &c. Vestments, 
 201,212,425,459-61,467, 469,475, 477, &c. ; 
 see Dress. 
 
 Vestry, 477. 
 
 Vesuvius, Mount, 632. 
 
 Via del Babuino, V. del Corso, V. delle Ripetta 
 (all streets of Rome), 73. 
 
 Viateur (= Viator), Order of St., 310. St. V's 
 College (Bourbonnais Grove, 111.), 310. 
 
 Viaticum, 451-2. 
 
 Viator, St., 31" ; see Viateur. 
 
 Vicar Apostolic and Vicariates Apostolic, 98-9, 
 109, 276-81, 870, 662, 664. V. General, 148, 
 191, 299, 303, 320, 331, 356, 558-9. V of .lesus 
 Christ, 120, &c. ; see Pope, Jesus Christ. 
 Vicar of Rome, 190 ; see Cardinal Vicar. 
 
 Vice, 624. &c., in Oh. XXVI. 
 
 Vice Chancellor, Cardinal, 69, 191. 
 
 Vicegerent, 108. 144, 676, &c. ; see Authority, 
 Pope, Supremacy, &c. 
 
 Vice-province, 357. 
 
 Vicksburg . Mpi.i, 305. 
 
 Victor I., St. (pope), 165. 
 " II. " 161. 
 
 " III. " 161. 
 
 " IV. (antipope\ 161. 
 " V. or IV. (pope . 161. 
 
 Vctor Amadeus 1 1 . (duke of Savoy) , 399. 
 
 Victor Emanuel II. (king of Sardinia and of 
 Italy), 50, 147, 152, 154, 648-9 
 
 Victoria (Australia), 690. 
 
 Victoria (Tex.), 330 
 
 Vie de Fenelon, 354. 
 
 Vienna (Austria), 20, 60, 137, 192, 241, 682, 624, 
 630. 
 
 Vienne (France) 204, 209. 
 
 Vigil or Vigilitis (pope), 157, 206. 
 
 Vigils, 2S&-6, 496-7. 
 
 Vignola, 53 
 
 Villanova, 303 
 
 Villa Real (Spain). 378. 
 
 Villas (in Rome), 69. 
 
 Vilvoorden (Belgium) ,417. 
 
 Viminal Ilill (Rome), 51. 
 
 Vincennes (Tnd.) & Diocese, 277, 279, 288, 296, 
 331,663.666. 
 
 Vincent de Paul, St. ; see Paul (St V. de). 
 
 Vincent's Abbey. St. (Latrobe, Pa >, 289, 334. 
 St V's Colleee (Latrobe. Pa. ). 289 ; (Los An- 
 geles, Cal.) 313. St. V's Hospital (New York), 
 815. St. Vs Male Orphan Asylum (Cleveland, 
 O.), 304. St. V's Theological and Preparatory 
 Seminary (Cape Girardeau Mo.), 313. Mount 
 St. V's Academy (Yonkers, N Y.), 314-16 (cut). 
 Mount St. V's Scholasticate and Novitiate 
 
 (Gennantown, Va ), 813. 
 Violet, 261. 505. 
 Virgin Mary, or the Virgin ; see Mary the Virgin. 
 
 Virgins of Love, 313. Benediction & Con- 
 secration of Virgins, 345-7. 
 Virginia (State;, Itf, 316, 649, and places marked 
 
 -(Va.)". 
 Visitation of the B. V. M., or the Visitation, 
 
 485, 488-9 Boarding-school of the V. (Mins- 
 ter, 0.), 324. V. Nuns, or Order of Nuns of 
 
 the Visitation of the B. V. M., 306 7, 344-5, 
 
 455. 
 
 Vitalian or Fi*aJant(pope), 94, 158. 
 Vitellius (emperor), 36. 
 Vitiges (Gothic king), 47, 79. 
 Viva Pio Nona Papa infallibile, V. Pio Nona, 
 
 V. il Papa infattibUe. V. il trionfo dei Cat- 
 
 tolici, 248-9. ' 
 
 Vive Sepnlte. Convent of the (Rome), 337. 
 Voltaire. 354 
 Vol terra (Italy), 649. 
 Voting. 683 : see Electors, &c. 
 Votive (= according to vow or wish) Mass, 424, 
 
 454, &c., in Ch. XIV. ; see Mass. 
 Votto Santo, 491-2. 
 Vows, 284, 287. 295, 304, 306, 309, 312-13, 318, 
 
 320. 329, 339-40, 344-6, 349-50, 353, 511, 531. 
 Vulcan (god), 41. 
 Vulgate Bible, or Vulgate Latin Bible. 170-2, 
 
 346, 409, 411-12, 416-17, 419, 425, 433 4, 600, 
 
 617, 577. 
 
 Wachter, Rev. Francis Joseph, 419. 
 Wadhams, Edgar P., 669. 
 Wafer, 458 9, 462, 471, 475, 482 ; see Host. 
 Wagner, Rev. John H., 671. 
 Wahrheitt-frennd (German paper), 619. 
 Waldenses. Waldensians, 381, 693-100,580, 628, 
 
 644, 686. 705. 711. 
 Waldo, Peter. 393. 
 Wales and Welsh, 291, 361, 625, 680-1; see 
 
 Britain. &c. 
 
 Walworth Hon. Reuben H., 676. 
 Wallachia (Turkey in Europe), 40, 689. 
 Washing feet, 5< 0. 
 
 Washington (D. C.), 61, 301. 306, 321, 358, 645-6. 
 AVashington (Ind.), 331. 
 Washington Territory. 317, 320, 359 
 Water, 449-51, 462, 468-9, 471 ; see Holy Water. 
 Waterbury (ft.), 326-7, 603-4. 
 Waterloo (111.), 325. 
 Wax. 459 \V. Tapers and Candles, 93, 362, 
 
 463. 480-1, 564. 
 Way of the Cross, Holy, 479. 
 Weakness of the R. C. System, 698-700 ; see 
 
 Strength. 
 
 Webster's (Noah) Dictionary, 311, 495. 
 Weed, J. Ambler, 669. 
 Welsh ; see Wales. 
 Wequiock rWis.),297. 
 Wesley an. 196 ; see Methodist. 
 West, the (Europe), 195. 285, 4734 ; see Pchism. 
 
 Empire of the W. (Rome and Europe), 38, 
 
 46, 48 9, 116, 126 -The W.. and Western (U. 
 
 S.), 19, 496, 549, 621, 668, 680. 
 Westchester Co. (N. Y.), 314, 546. 
 Westoott, Rev. Brooke F., 172, 411. 
 Western ; see Africa, Schism, West, &c. W. 
 
 Church or Churches, 206-6, &c.; see Latin, 
 
 Roman, fcc. 
 
 West Hoboken (N. J.), 311-12, 334. 
 West Indies, West India Islands, 109, 405, 689. 
 Westminster (Eng ), 96, 99, 185, 188, 241, 681. 
 
 W. Catechism, 408. 
 Westmoreland Co. (Pa.), 289. 
 Westphalia (Pa.), 329.
 
 838 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 West Point (Towal, 327. 
 
 West Virginia, 307, & places marked " (W. 
 
 Va.)". 
 
 Wheat Flonr, 451. 
 Wheaton, Homer, 669. 
 Wheeling <.W. Va.) & Diocese, 277-8, 306-7, 
 
 3i>, 6(53. VV. Female Academy, 307 (cut). 
 Whelan, Br>. R. V., 278. 
 Wliicher, Benjamin W., 669. 
 Whipping, 633, 648. 
 White (color), 233-61, 287. 291, 294-5, 300, 302, 
 
 801, 314, 347, 362, 401, 453, 453-9, 46>, 464, 
 
 473, 481-2, 530, 533; see Color, &c, W. 
 
 Canons, 291 ; see ('remonstrants. 
 White, Calvin. 669-70. 
 
 Ferdinand E , 669-70. 
 
 " Rev. Joseph Blanco, 512-13. 
 
 " Rev. Mr., 659. 
 Whitsnnday,-tide. 496;-week, 497. 
 Wickliffe. Kev. John, 211, 215, 417, 705. 
 
 Wickliffltes. 167, 705. 
 
 Wilberforce. Win. & Henry & Robert I., 681. 
 Wilkesbarre (Pa ), 675. 
 William III. (king of England), 399, 712; see 
 
 Orange (Prince of). 
 Williams, Bp. John J., 279. 558-9. 
 
 " Rev. Roger, 633-9. 
 Willis, Nathaniel P., 77, 142. 
 Wills, 553, 55.3, &c. 
 
 Wilmington (Del.) & Diocese, 277-8, 307,664. 
 Wilson, Hon. Henry (U. S. Senator), 591. 
 
 Rev. J. Leighton, D.D.. 3(54-5. 
 Wimmer, Rt. Rev. B., and Rev. L., 239. 
 Wimple, 300; see Habit. 
 Windows. Painted, &c., 543, 546-7, &c.; see 
 
 Glass, &c. 
 Wine. 257, 273. 236, 422-3, 433, 435-6, 451, 465, 
 
 467-8; see Cup, Kucharist, Mass, &c. 
 WinifrH (= Boniface, apostle Germany), 361. 
 Wiunebago Co. (Wis.), 304. 
 Winooski (Vt.). 317. 
 Winsted (Ct ), 296-7. 
 Winter, 4i)7. 
 
 Wischei ing. Miss Droste de, 633. 
 Wisconsin (State), 296, 301, 31(i, 327, 331, 549, 
 
 and places marked "vWis.)". 
 Wisdom Apocrypha), 409. 
 Wis-.man, Cardinal Nicholas, 56-9, 98-110, 
 
 183, 285, 519, 542. 5T8, 631-2. 
 Wiseman, Rev. W. J., 122. 
 Witnesses, 3T6, 379-80, 599. 628. B52, 659. 
 Wittenberg or Witt.emberg ^Germany), 135. 
 Wolf. Riw Innocent, 289. 
 Wolf suckling Romulus & Remus, 68. 
 Wolsey, Cardinal Thomas, 334-5. 
 Women. 5:)5. 585, &c.; see Nuns, &c. 
 Wood, Bp. J. F., 278, 531. 
 
 Woodstock (Md.), & W. College, 358. 
 
 Woonsocket (R. L), 305. 
 
 Worcester (En,'.), 705. 
 
 Worcester (Mass.), 305. 358. 
 
 Worcester. Rev. Samuel M., D.D., 558-61. . 
 
 Word of God, and The Word, 229, 639, &c.; 
 see Scriptures, Incarnate W., &c. 
 
 World, The ; see Statistics, Clergy, Missions, 
 Power, &c. 
 
 Worms (Gennanyt, 123, 1*6. 
 
 Worms, Eating of, 340. 
 
 Worship, 201, 394-5, 303, 404, 455, 459, 492, 
 527, 541, 553. 593-600, 634-5, 629, 635-6, 641-2, 
 650, 65i-4, 656. 677; PC -. Prayor, &c. 
 
 Writing, Cha. X. XXIV. XXV, &c.; see Edu- 
 cation. Written Instrument, Chs. VII & 
 XXI, 552, &c. 
 
 Wiirtemberg (Germany), 625. 
 
 Wycliffe ; soe Wickliffe. 
 
 Wylie, Rev. J. A., LL.D., 86-7, 143, 145-7, 
 190, 194-6, 191, 614-15, 641-2. 
 
 Xavier, St. Francis, 343, 3(15-6, 3f?9, 455. 
 Church of St. F. X. (N. Y ), 353 ; (Balti- 
 more, Md ) 359. College of St. F. X. (N. 
 Y.), 353; of St. X. (Cincinnati). 353. St. 
 X 's Academy (Latrobe, Pa.), 289. 
 
 Xavier, Mother M., 316. 
 
 Xavierian Brothers, 323. 
 
 Ximenes, Cardinal (or Cardinil Francisco 
 Ximenez de Cisneros), 294. 38S-8, 527. 
 
 Yale College (New Haven, Ct ), 406, 7(0. 
 
 Year-Book; see American Ecclesiastical Y.- 
 B., American Y.-B., New York Observer 
 Y.-B., Statistical Y.-B. of the Church. 
 
 Yellow, 3*4, 503: see Color. 
 
 Yonkers(tf.Y.), 314-16. 
 
 York (Eng ), 44 ; see New York. 
 
 York. & York Co. (Pa.), 418. 
 
 York, Mary, 712. 
 
 Young Catholic's Guide (R.C.magazine),619. 
 
 Young Men's Christian Association, N. Y., 
 658. 
 
 Zabarclla, Cardinal, 213. 
 
 Zacharias (father of John the Baptist), 500. 
 
 Zacharias (= Zechariah in O. T.). 409. 
 
 Zaoharias or Zachary, St. (pope), 158. 
 
 Zama (N. Africa), 29. 
 
 Zechariah (= Zacharias in O. T.), 409. 
 
 Zephaniah (O. T.), 409. 
 
 Zephyrinus St. (pope), 155. 
 
 Zinc, 479, &c. 
 
 4ion. 709-10. 
 
 Zoan (Egypt), 20. 
 
 Zoeller, Rev. A., 298. 
 
 Zosimus I., St. (pope), 157. 
 
 Zouaves, 143, 147-8. 
 
 Zuloaga, Gen., 656. 
 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 NOTE. Consult the preceding General Index frequently for further information. 
 
 Abbess, 744. Abbeys, Abbotsin U. S., 767-9. 
 Abduction, 793-4 ; sen 336, 678 80. 
 Absolution granted. 795; refused, 739, 753, 
 
 776; see Sacraments. 
 Academies, 718, 770; see Literary instit. 
 Acapulco (Mexico\. 750. 
 Acton, Lord. 726 (English noble). 
 Administrator (or Admin.) of adioceae; of 
 
 Montreal, 753, 755, 757; in U. S., 765-6. 
 
 A. apostolic, 766. A. of a vicariate, 766. 
 Africa, 770 (coasts). 
 A'-ruas, Rev. Manuel, 751. 
 Aguil ir. Rev. Francicco, 751 ; Sefior , 749. 
 Ahualulco (Mexico), 749. 
 Aix (France), 716. 
 
 Al.ibama or Ala . 770-1. 786 ; see Mobile. 
 Alac qiifi. Margaret Mary, 744 note. 
 Alban f s hall, St., (Oxford, Eng.) 722.
 
 IIS'DEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 839 
 
 ATbany(N. Y.) diocese and bp., 716, 765-6; 
 penitentiary, 7H3. 
 
 Alba Reals ( Stuhlweissenburg, Hungary). 
 716. 
 
 Albion OT. Y.\ 779. 
 
 Alex.iudc"- VI[ (pope). 743. 
 
 Alfonso XII (kin-,' of Spain), 740, 742. 
 
 Algeria or Algiers (country in Africa), 743. 
 
 Allegheny (iM.). 769; diocese and bp., 765-6. 
 
 Allegiance to civil government, IM, 121-6; 
 see Suprema y. Civil Authority, &c. 
 
 Allocutions, 7J2, 74, 737. 
 
 Alinshonse-!, 7S7-93 (chaplains, &c.). 
 
 Altar, 7915 (prohibition); see Denunciation. 
 
 Alton (III.) diocese and bp , 765, 780. 
 
 Amadous, (king of Spain). 740. 
 
 Am-ri'M,- an, 717, 726, 7J3; see British A., 
 Centnl A., North A., South A., Spanish 
 A. Komanit-rn in A., 74(5-97. A. and For- 
 eign Chr. Union, 751. A. B.iard of Com- 
 missioners for Foreign Missions or A. B. 
 C. F. M., 7)!), 751. A citizen. 750, 777. 
 A. consul, 7.30. A. Cyclopedia (Apple- 
 tons'i, 771. A. f reedmen. 77 1 . A. man-of- 
 war, 753 A. pop. in New Mexico, 767. 
 A. Systrni of Public Instruction, described, 
 771-3; discussed, 774-87. A. TractSociety 
 (N. Y.), 7*3. 
 
 Anathema, 733, 747, 790 : Bee Cursing. 
 
 Ancient Order of Hiberniansor A. O. H., 796. 
 
 Angers (France) cathedral, 739 (misplaced). 
 
 Anglican, -s, 728, 7-J1 ; sue Church of England. 
 
 Antonelli, Cardinal, 716, 7:7, 729. 
 
 Antwerp (Belgium), 726, 739. 
 
 Apostles' declaration 790; gee Temperance. 
 
 Appeal from abuse. 719, 7'i5 6, 750; from bp. 
 to Koine, 753, 751; to courts and Privy 
 Council. 755-01 ; to emperor, 746-7 ; to 
 Royal Tribunal (Prussia), 7*3, 735-6. 
 
 Appendix, 715-97; contents, 714 ; introd. note, 
 713. 
 
 Appropriations, 748, 792; see Public. 
 
 Aragon (Spain), 743. 
 
 Arlmes, St. 1'eier, 743. 
 
 Archambeault, Kev. U., 761. 
 
 Archbishop or Abp., 717-18 (statistics), 728, 
 73?, 74S, 747, 764-7 (in U. S.), 791 ; see Ken- 
 rick, Mcl'loskey, &c. Archbishopric of 
 Cologne. 734. Archdioceses in U. S., 764-7. 
 
 Arizona Ter, vicar apostolic, &c.. 765. 
 
 Arkansas (State), 766 ; see Little Rock. 
 
 Army (chaplains, &c ). 787-90. 
 
 Assassination, 748-9-50 Assassins, 763. 
 
 Assist (Italy), 71U. 
 
 Asylums, Brit. America & W. I., 718; U. S., 
 764-5, ~&\ 770 ; chaplains, &c., 737-90; N. 
 Y. public money, 792 note ; see Foundling, 
 Orphan, <fec. 
 
 Atchison <Kan.), 7G9. 
 
 At Home and Abroad fEng. periodical), 715. 
 
 Atlantic avenue (Brooklyn. N. Y.), 792. 
 
 Austria. 715. 724. 728; "convents, &c., 736; 
 laws, 722, 737. 739. 
 
 Authority; see Civil, Conflicts, Direct, Ec- 
 clesiastical, Indirect, National, Power, 
 Spiritual, Supremacy, Temporal. 
 
 Authors heretical, 716; see Heresy, &c. 
 
 Baby-farming, 794. 
 
 Bacon. Lord Francis, 717; Rev. L. W., 723. 
 
 Baden (Germany), 732, 737. 
 
 Bagnacavallo (Italy), 717. 
 
 Balliol college (Oxford. Eng.), 719. 
 
 Baltes, Bp. P. J., 7i>5, 780. 
 
 Baltimore (Md.) abp. and archdiocese, 7R5; 
 Johns Hopkins University, 771; mission 
 
 to blacks, 771 ; Plenary Council, 776, 780. 
 
 Ban (Jewish) forbidden, 7^0; (K. C.) used, 
 7l>6; see Anathema, Excommunication. 
 
 Banishment, 734 ; see Expulsion. 
 
 Baptism, 720, 731, 767. Baptized bound to 
 obey R. C. church, 720, 777, 780. 
 
 Baptists, 727, 7^8, 731. Baptist college, 749. i 
 
 Barcelona (Spain), 740. 
 
 Birrios, President R., 743. 
 
 Basel or Basle (Switzerland), 730. 
 
 Bavaria (Germany), 732. 
 
 Bayswater (England), 771. 
 
 Beatify, Beatification, 743.744, 796. 
 
 Beatty's Station (Pa ), 769. 
 
 Beauport (Canada), 762. 
 
 Beggar. -y, 730, 796; pee Mendicancy. , 
 
 Belgium, 726 note (fraud), 734 (law), 739-40; 
 religions, 769, 770. 
 
 Bene (Italy), 716. 
 
 Benedict, St., 769 note. B. XIV (pope). 720. 
 
 Benedictines or O. S. B., 716, 768-9 ; see 285-9. 
 
 Benediction of bishop, 763; of pope, 762. 
 
 Benefices, 732, 734, 736. 
 
 Benevento (Italy). 717. 
 
 Berlin (Prussia,) 730. 
 
 Bern or Berne (Switz.) & nniv., 737 note, 738. 
 
 Beulwitz, Baroness von, 745. 
 
 Beveridge, Rev. J., 751. 
 
 Bible, Douay, 782; English or King James's, 
 772-3-4,782; Protestant, 717 note; see 
 Scriptures. B. burning, 749 ; distribution 
 & knowledge, 751; reading, 772-3-4,778, 
 780-4, 789 ; study & teaching, 751, 787. 
 
 Birmingham (Eng.), 722. 
 
 Bishop or Bp., 7I7-1S (statistics), 724-6-8, 
 732-4-5-6-7-8-9, 741-6-7. 752^3, 7<il, 764-9 (U. 
 S. statistics). 775-7, 779-SO. 790, 193; see 
 Appeal, Coadjutor, Inpartibus, &c B. of 
 Rome, 797; see Pope. Old Catholic & 
 Christian C. bishops,737note. Bishoprics, 
 738 note ; see Diocese. 
 
 Bismarck. Prince, 729; portrait, opp. 729. 
 
 Blacks. Education, 777 ; Missions to, 771. 
 
 Blackwell's Island (X. Y.) penitentiary, 788. 
 
 Blaine, Hon. James G . 786. 
 
 Blanchard, Kev. K.. 761. 
 
 Blanco, President Guzman, 746. 
 
 Bloodhound of Saragossa, 743. 
 
 Board of Aldermen, 791 (N. Y.) ; of Educa- 
 tion, 778 (St. Cloud), 779 (N. Y.), 780 (Cin- 
 cinnaii, &c.). 787 (N. Y.). 
 
 Bois d'Haine (Belgium), 739. 
 
 Boise. Fort, (Idaho) 788. 
 
 Boisseau, Mr. A., 760. 
 
 Boniface VIII (pope). 718. 
 
 Bonn (Rhenish Prussia), 736. 
 
 Books in schools, 781 ; prohibited, &c., 716-17 
 note, 741, 752-3. 757; see Bible, &c. 
 
 Boston (Mass.),750, 765-6 (abp., &c.), 769, 773. 
 
 Bouriret, Bp. I., 752-63. 
 
 Braunsberg (Prussia), 729. 
 
 Brazil (S. A.), 724, 745, 746-7. 
 
 Breslau (Prussia), 728, 730. 736. 
 
 Brief of pope. 733. 746, 747. 
 
 British ambassador, 745; America, 717-18 
 (statistics), 788 ; flag, 758 ; government, 724 ; 
 subjects, 745 : see Great Britain, Ac. 
 
 Brooklyn (N. Y.), 717, 765-6 (diocese & bp.), 
 792 note. 
 
 Brothers, &c., 767-71 (U. S. statistics); of 
 the Sacred Heart. &c., 744, 768, 770. 
 
 Brotherhoods, 746-7 (Brazil). 
 
 Brown, Dame Henriette. 756. 
 
 Brownsville (Tex..), 751 ; ricar anostollc^Ac.," 
 765-6. _
 
 840 
 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 Brussels (Belgium), 739. 
 
 Buffalo (N. Y.),769, 778; bp. & diocese, 763, 
 769, 771. 
 
 Bull or pope, 738, 746, 747. 
 
 Burial iu consecrated ground refused or 
 granted, 754, 75t>-7, 761 ; of Guibord order- 
 ed, 750-8 ; register, 754, 756. 
 
 Burlington (Vt.) bp. & diocese, 765. 
 
 California or Cal., 749, 770-1 ; see Grass Val- 
 ley, Monterey, San Francisco. 
 
 Cam bray (France), 716. 
 
 Cambria Co. (I'a.), 778. 
 
 Cambridge (Eng.), 745. 
 
 Camoys, (English) Lord, 726. 
 
 Canada, Canadian, 720, 762, 769, 771 ; Domin- 
 ion of, 752-64, 770 ; Lower, 756, 757, 760 ; 
 Superior Council, 756 ; *ee Institute, <fcc. 
 
 Candidates for church-offices, 728; for polit- 
 ical offices, 730, 752, 78<>; see Voting. 
 
 Canon law, Canons, 724, 734, 736-7-8, 740, 757, 
 794 ; see Chapter, Uucan^nical, &c. 
 
 Canonization, 7-i3, 796. 
 
 Capi-1, MK signor, 724, 725, 744-5. 
 
 Cardinals, 71o-l7, 743 ; see Cullen, &c. 
 
 Carlist (= of Carlos or Charlet) rebellion, 740. 
 
 Castel Gandolfo (Italy), 715; Bee 68. 
 
 Catechism, 776, 7<8, ttii (catechising). 
 
 Cathedral; Bee Dublin, Montreal, Patrick's 
 (St.) C. chapter, 736; see Chapter. 
 
 Catholic (-= Roman Catholic), 731, &c.; see 
 Old C., Chrirtiau C., Greek C., Hierarchy, 
 His C. Majesty, Roman C. C. Directory ; 
 see Sadliers' C. D. C. Dep't of Ministry 
 of Worship, 7:$. C. Family Almanac, 717, 
 767.-C. Protectory (N. Y.), 788. C. Pub- 
 lic School (London, Eng.), 745. C. Review 
 (R. C. newspaper, N. Y. and Brooklyn), 
 715. C. Society, 748 C. Telegraph (Cin- 
 cinnati), 777. C. University College (Lon- 
 don, Eng.), 744-5; univ. in Ireland, 722. C. 
 Wor.d (M. Y.), 729, 769-70, 771, 773-4, 7o7-8. 
 
 Cemetery exempt from taxes, 792-^8; lit. 
 Royal (Bug. Prot., Montreal), 751^0; K. 
 C., 754-61 (Montreal) ; Consecration of, 
 754-6,'<61; Desecratiou,709-60; Uoliness,759. 
 
 Censorship of consciences, 753 (see Con- 
 science) ; of lectures, 742 ; of press, 716. 
 
 Central America, 748. 
 
 Chalice, 763. 
 
 Chapels, Prot., 742, 762; R. C., 717-18,764-7. 
 
 Chaplains, Chaplaincies, 728, 745, 787-s<0. 
 
 Chapt. r (at cathedral, &c.), 736, 746, 752. 
 
 Charity ; see Brothers, Sisters of C. Chari- 
 table institutions, 752, 787-90, 792. 
 
 Charles, Oblatesof St.,719,7>>8, 771 (college). 
 
 Charleston (S. C.), 77'1 ; diocese & bp., 765. 
 
 Chelsea (jlass.), 7it4, 
 
 Chicago, (lil.), 769, 770, 771, 779 ; diocese & 
 bp., 7U5-6. 
 
 Chichester (Eng.), archdeacon of, 719. 
 
 Children's Aid boc'y (N. Y.), 779; education 
 (It.C.), 777, 7 18, 7'cU ; Bee Parish schools, <fcc. 
 
 Chili (S. A.), 74/, 751. 
 
 Chiniquy, Itev. C., 762-4; portrait, opp. 764. 
 
 Christ s wounds, 739; Bee Jesus Christ, !>a- 
 cred Heart. C hr'n Brothers, 768. C. Cath- 
 olic b|i., 7 37 note ; church, 738. C. Charity, 
 fcistere of, 768-9. C. freedom & fellow- 
 ship, 177, 797. Christians & Christianity, 
 751, 784, tbi'-S, 7!)5. Chr'n World (N. Y. 
 monthly), 715, 717. 718, 740-1, 7'80. 
 
 Chnrcli & Sute. 726-3S, 740-3, 746, 747, 751, 
 778. 782, 7>4, 785-6. The Church, 718-X6, 
 797; see Appeal, Discipline, Established, 
 Heretics, bpaiiish, Supremacy. C. of Eng- 
 
 land, 719, 745; eee Anglican. C. of Jesna 
 in Mexico, 750-1. Church-cuurts, 734; 
 
 schools, 772, 792 (see Parish schools); ser- 
 vices, vulgar tongue in, 737; wardens. 754, 
 756. Churches, 717-18 (Brit, statistics), 
 736-7, 739, 740, 744, 746, 764-9 (R. C. in U. 
 S.), 781, 792, 796; Bee Benefice, Cong'], 
 Indian, Presbyterian, ProtesiaiH.R.C.. &c. 
 
 Cincinnati (O.) archd. and abp., 765; Board 
 of Education, 78J ; Con?_''n of Notre Dame, 
 770; Gazette, 789; Repub. Convention, 786. 
 
 Ciatercium or Citeuux (France), 769. 
 
 Civil authority or government supreme, 
 718-19. 721, 7*8-38, 7-i8-9, 746, 747, 7i/J; lib- 
 erty opposed by Vaticanism, 720. "i52; loy- 
 alty (see Allegiance), 720; marriage, 725, 
 738 (see Marriage); riirhts, 731; see Con- 
 flicts, Eccles., Exemptions, Immunities. 
 
 Civilization against Vaticanism, 720. 
 
 Civita Vecchia (Italy), 715. 
 
 Clergy, -men, 717-18, (Crit. statistics), 729-37 
 (Prussia), 744 (converts), 752 (Alex, laws), 
 754, 779-60 (politics), 78 -90 (access t-> pris- 
 oners, &e.), 796 ; see Priests, Suits, &c. 
 
 Clerics (= cl.-rgytnen), 7i'3. 
 
 Cleveland (U.) diocese and bp., 765, 771. 778, 
 780. 
 
 Coadjutor-bishops, 766. Coadjutors, 771. 
 
 Code .Napoleon, 7.J5. 
 
 Colleges in Brit. America, 718; in U. S., 764, 
 767-71, 7V2-3; Bee Catholic, Charles, Mary, 
 Liteia;y Inst., University, Yale, <Ssc. 
 
 Collins, Charles, 792. 
 
 Cologne (itnenisii Prussia), 728 (abp.), 734 
 (see), 736. 
 
 Colombia (S. A.), 748. 
 
 Colombiere, La, 744. 
 
 Colorado vie. apost., &c., 7G5, 770-1 (Jesuits). 
 
 Colored women, 709 ; see Blacks, Freeunien. 
 
 Columbia, District of, (or D. C.) 770. 
 
 Columbus (O.) diocese and bp., 765. 
 
 Commons, House of, 746 (Brit.). 762 (Quebec). 
 
 Communion refused, 7u4; see Absolution, &c. 
 
 Communities (U. C.), 752; see Religious. 
 
 Companionship in schools, 762. 
 
 Company of Jesus, 7*9-30; see Jesuits. 
 
 Compulsory civil marriage, 738; euucution, 
 732, 738-9, 781. 
 
 Conception, Immaculate, 736,744; see Mary. 
 
 Concordat, 734, 7'36, 739, 740-2. 
 
 Confessions, 703. Confessional, 763, 795, 796. 
 
 Confiscation of eccles. property, 726. 740, 752. 
 792. 
 
 Conflicts with Vaticanism, 720, 721, 724, 
 726-38, 739, 745-6-7, 748-64, 771-97. 
 
 Congregation of the Alost, Holy Redeemer, 
 717 (see 818, 768-9) ; of the Oratory, 7*2 ; 
 see Congregations (Religious). 
 
 Congregational church, 749, 781 (Ct. conf. 
 of churches). C. Quarterly (Boston), 7i5. 
 
 Cougregatiouulist (Boston newspaper), 78i). 
 
 Congregations of Cardinals, 710; see Index, 
 Propaganda, Sacred Kite.-. Religious, 717, 
 722,729-30,736-7, 738, 7'4l (Sacred Heart), 
 767-71 (U. S. statistics), 775, 75)6 ; see Con- 
 gregation. 
 
 Congress, Mexican, 751-2; Old Catholic, 736; 
 U. S., 7K5-C, 787, 792-3. 
 
 Connecticut or Conn, or Ct., 750, 779 (II. of 
 R.), 781 (Gen. Couf .), 764 ; see Hartford. i 
 
 Conscience, 722, 736, 737, 777, 7S2-3, 767-90, 
 795-6 ; see Private Judgment. Control of,
 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 841 
 
 724, 753, 789-00, 795-6. Corporate. &c., 
 
 7aS-90. Liberty of, 722, 738, 787-90. 
 
 Consecration of bishops U. S., 764-0 (dates). 
 
 Constance, Council of, 7^3. 
 
 Constitution of Ala., 792; of A. O. H , 796; 
 
 of Ark., 793; of Belgium, 739; of Ct., 77!) 
 
 (prgaowd Hiuend't) ; of Germany, 728, 729 ; 
 
 of Kan., 792; of Mass , 781; of Minn., 79.!: 
 
 of Mo , 784-5 (ameud't), 792; of N. J , 779-80 
 
 (ameud'ts); of N. Y., 787-8; of Ohio, 779 
 
 (proposed), 780; of Prussia, 72S-9; of Spain, 
 
 740-2 ; of Switzerland, 738-9 ; of Trappists, 
 
 769; of the U. S., proposed amend'ts, 783-6 
 
 (schools), 792-3 (church-property ?). 
 
 Contemporary Review (English), 720. 
 Conventions, Political, 784, 7a6-7. 
 
 Convents, 73fi note, 733, 739, 740, 744, 764-6 
 (U. S.), 769 notes, 79i note, 793, 790, .fee. 
 
 Converts to Protestantism, 727, 731, 749-51, 
 702. 763, 764, 795 ; to Romanism, 744-5. 795. 
 
 Corning (.V. Y.), 779. 
 
 Corporal punishment forbidden, 735, 738. 
 
 Corporations, Religious, 7^6 (organizations 
 of religious), 731 (churches with corporate 
 right s), 792-3 (churches, &c., with corporate 
 rights). 
 
 Council, Cong'n of the, 716. General, 723, 
 725-6; see Baltimore, Constance, Trent, 
 Vatican. C. of state, 738;. see Federal, 
 Privy. 
 
 Coursol, Judge, 7CO. 
 
 Courcof Queen's Bench, 745 (Ireland), 755-6-7 
 (Can ) ; of Revision or Keview, 7*3-6-7 
 (Can..). Superior C,, Can. , 754-5, 757, 759, 
 762; Cincinnati. 780. Supreme C., Can , 
 762; Mox.,753; N"ew Brunswick, 704 ; N H., 
 791;N.Y.,79I; O.,780. Supremacy of civil 
 or municipal, 756, 75T, 761; see Tribunal, Va- 
 tican. Court si. (Brooklyn, N. Y.), 792. 
 
 Coviugton (Ky ) diocese and bp., 765, 767. 
 
 Creed, Liberty of, 7o8; 8"6 Religious liberty. 
 
 Crime, 727 (at Rome), 730, 772, 588-90 (liberty 
 of conscience), 7WJ-4. 
 
 Crucilix, 702. 
 
 C.SS.R.,717; see Redemptorists, 318, 768-9. 
 
 Culleu, Cardinal, 716, 7-*5, 796. 
 
 Culm (Prussia), Dp. of, 728, 737. 
 
 Cup, Old Catholics would restore the, 737. 
 
 Cura or Cure or Curate (= paribh-priest), 
 733, 749, 7:>0, 754-6-6-7-8, 761. 
 
 Curialism, 7 18. 
 
 Cursing a grave, 759-30; person, 763; see 
 Anathema. 
 
 Dakota Territory, 769. 
 
 Damages in suits at law, 745, 761-2. 
 
 Death from excommunication, 793 ; penalty 
 abolish d, 733; see Register. 
 
 Decalogue (Protestant version) rejected, 774. 
 
 Deceptions, 72(5. 
 
 Decision of association's tribunal, 756-7. 
 
 Decree, Civil, 740,748, 151 ; se_j Law. Eccles., 
 75.J, 755, Voi' ; see Trent, Vatican, &c. 
 
 Defamation, 730, 701 ; see Appeal, Libel. 
 
 Demucrats,-ic. 7T9, 784, 736-7. 
 
 Denominational chaplaincies, 787-90; dis- 
 loyalty, 790; schools, 772, 779; see Secta- 
 rian. 
 
 Denunciation by priest, 761-2; from altar, 
 739, 745, 791 ; from pulpit, 761 ; fee Cursing. 
 
 Deposing bishops, 730, 737 ; clergymen, 729, 
 734-6 ; Kings, 723 (power). 
 
 Derouin, M. , 701. 
 
 DessaulU'S, lion. L. A., 753. 
 
 J)esservantn, 734. 
 
 Detroit (Mich.) 779; diocese & bp., 765, 767. 
 
 Deventer (Holland), Bp. of, 737. 
 
 Diaz, Gen. and President, 752. 
 
 Diet of Get many, 728-29-30 ; of Prussia, 729. 
 
 Diocese, 73i (Ger.), 7:38 (Swiss), 747, 704-7 
 (U. S.), 7%; see Administrator. Bishop. 
 
 Direct authority or power, 721, 723, 7'24. 
 
 Discipline of church, 721 (subject to pope); 
 limited in Prussia, 729, 7.0, 732, 734-6. 
 Disciplinary decrees, Council of Trent, 725. 
 
 Discourses unlawful, 740, 749; see Seruums. 
 
 Disraeli, Benj'n (British premier), 745. 
 
 Divorces, 731, 794 ; see Marriages. 
 
 Doctrine in court, 736, 738; pernicious, 753. 
 
 DOllinger, Dr. J. J. I., 736; see 574. 
 
 Dominicans, 7i5, 751, 7<!S-9 (U. S. statistics). 
 
 Dominion of Canada, 7">2-61 ; see Canada. 
 
 Dorner, J. A , D.D., Prof. univ. of Berlin, 719. 
 
 Douay Hiblo, 7ri2. 
 
 Dougall, John, 7.V2; and Son, 752. 
 
 Doutre, G., 753, 761 ; Joseph, 7oo, 758-60. 
 
 Doyle, Bp. James W., 7'ii>-6. 
 
 Dublin (Ireland) cathedral, 796; T?eview, 745. 
 
 Dubuque (Iowa), 765 (diocese & bp.), 709-70. 
 
 Dungeon (?) of pope. 7-6. 
 
 Duties taught in school, 781 ; see Morality. 
 
 East Friesland (Prussia), 731. 
 " Indies, 770. 
 " Sr. Louis (111.), 778. 
 
 Ebensburg (Pa.), 778. 
 
 Ecclesiastical aflairs. Minister of, 730, 732, 
 7*3 ; Royal Tribunal for, 7:33. E. authority, 
 7)5, 755, 761, 790 (conflict). E. burial, 751- 
 <>0, 706; see Burial. E. chapter, 740; see 
 Chapter E domination or tyranny, 739, 
 747, 795; see Discipline, Exemptions, Im- 
 munities. E. edict prohibited. 74b. E. 
 institutions in U. S., 764-5. E. laws. 728- 
 36, 737, 745, 7o5, 757, 700 E. penalties, 757 ; 
 see Appeal. E. property, 726, 740, 747, 751, 
 790-3. E. students, 7t8, 769 note. E. wea- 
 pons in politics, 702; see Elections, &c. 
 Ecclesiastics must obey civil law, 795; 
 Prussian training. 732; work in secret, 
 796. See Civil, Theological, &c. 
 
 Ecuador (S. A.), 747-8. 
 
 Edinburgh (Scotland), 745. 
 
 Editors, Heretical, &c., 716; R. C., 745. 
 
 Education, 726, 728, 732, 7:38, 746, 747, 781;-4 
 (state's relations) ; see Boards of E., Chil- 
 dren, Compulsory, Instruction, Public, 
 Schools. Educational institutions, 744, 
 752, 792; see Literary, Parish, &c. 
 Eighty-first and 82d streets (N. Y.), 791-2. 
 Elberfeid (Prussia), 731. 
 
 Election of bishops and pastors by people, 
 726, 736 ; see Voting. 
 
 Eleemosynary inst'ns, .788 : see Charitable. 
 
 Sliot school (Boston) difficulty, 773. 
 
 Slmira (N. Y.), 779. 
 
 Smmettsburg (Md.), 716. 
 Emperor Napoleon I, 723, 735 ; III, 743 ; of 
 Austria (Francis Joseph I), 736; of Brazil 
 (Pedro II). 740-7; William of Germany, 
 720, 728, 7^9. 
 
 Encyclicals, 721, 722, 737, 739, 746. 
 Endowments, 732, 746. 
 
 periodicals, 7t5, 130; see Bible, Church, 
 London, Manning, &c. 
 ntrancc-fee to church, 791. 
 piscopalians, 726, 727 ; see Anglican.Churcb. 
 of England, Prot E.; Methodist E. 
 Erie (Pa.) diocese & bp.,705, 707.
 
 842 
 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 Ermeland (Prussia), Bp. of, 728-9-30, 737. 
 
 Established church, 750; see Church. 
 
 Eton (England) school, 745. 
 
 Europe, -can, 721, 722, 723, 729, 788. Roman- 
 ism in E., 726-46. 
 
 Evangelical Alliance, 719 ; church In Prussia, 
 723-36 ; churches in Mexico, 750-1 . 
 
 Examination for Prussian clergy, 732-3. 
 
 Ex cathedra, 7-il, 722, 704. 
 
 Exclusion from church, &c., 730-1 ; of other 
 religions, 74\>-3; see Excommunication, 
 Expulsion, &c. 
 
 Excommunicate, Desecration by burying an, 
 759. Excommunication, 7l6, 729, 73), 7:!S, 
 739, 746, 753, 757, 761, 795, 796; major, 730, 
 737, 747, 751-2; tee Anathema. 
 
 Execution of rioters, &c., 748, 750. 
 
 Exemptions from taxation, 773, 777, 791-3; 
 of clergy, 732, 747; see Immunities, Taxes. 
 
 Exequatur (an official recognition), 719. 
 
 Exiles, 737 note, 738; see Banishment, Ex- 
 pulsion. 
 
 Expostulation, Gladstone's, 721-2.725-6,737. 
 
 Expulsion f iom country, 729-30, 747. 748, 750, 
 752; from a society, 746-7; see Exiles. 
 
 Gallican, Supremacy, Vatican decrees, &c. 
 Falk, Dr., 730, 737 : laws, 721, 728, 730-7. 
 Fanning, Robert C. and Mrs., 794. 
 Father Matthew Temperance Society, 796. 
 Favoritism for R. C. church, 791-2 note. 
 Fealty or Fidelity, Oath of, 733, 733. 
 Feast-days, Public. 752; see Festivals. 
 Federal council, Ger., 728, 730 ; Switz., 739. 
 Fees for burial, 754, 758, 760; for expurga- 
 
 gatiou, &c., 716; for prohibited books, 
 
 717; Surpl.ce, 731. 
 Feimns and Feniaiiism, 795, 796. 
 
 Feudal power, 735; tenure ended Can., 756. 
 
 Fiftieth & 51st streets, N. Y., 731 ; 61st <fc 
 5>d sis. N. Y., 791-2. Fifth avenue, 791-2. 
 
 Fines, 795; of Fa!k laws, 731-5-6-7. 
 
 Fitzpatrick, Bp. John B., 773-4. 
 
 Five Points House of Industry (N. Y.), 787-8. 
 
 Flores, Seiior, 748. 
 
 Force, Use of, 723, 795. 
 
 Fort Boise 1 (Idaho Ter.), 783. 
 " Toiten (Dakota Ter ), 769. 
 " Wayne fand.) diocese & bp., 765. 
 
 Fortnightly Review (English), 730. 
 
 Foundling asylum or hospital, 794. 
 
 Fourth and Fifth avenues, N. Y., 791-2. 
 
 France, 723, 729, 734, 73li, 739, 743-4. 756, 757, 
 709- 70; see Paris. French Canadian, 752- 
 3-4-S-9, 702-3-4; cardinals, 715, 717; Cath- 
 olics, 703 ; children, 777 ; clergy, 729 ; 
 Guiana, 7rO; kuig, 762; law. 734; public 
 library, &c., 752 ; sees. 724 ; see Galilean. 
 
 Franciscis, Hev. Don Pasquale de, 724. 
 
 Frankfort (Germany), 7^8, 729. 
 
 Free church of Italy (see 6^6), 727; schools, 
 709-70, 772, 780, 785; see Puolic schools. 
 
 Freedmen, American, 771. 
 
 Freedom of clergy, 731; of opinion & wor- 
 ship, 7:58, 741, 743, 782, 784-<i, 787-90. Vat- 
 icuiiieim against, 7aO, 756; see Liberty, 
 Private judgment. 
 
 Freemasons, 744, 746-7, 743, 761, 796. 
 
 French ; HOC France. 
 
 Jfreyburg, Freiburg, &c. (Swiss diocese), 
 
 733. Abp. of, 775 (Baden, Germany). 
 
 Friars, 727, 751, 752; see Orders. 
 
 Friesland, East, (Prussia) 731. 
 
 Fulda (Prussia), 728, 737. 
 
 F.inds for schools, 771, 777, 784 ; Bee Public, 
 
 Gall, St., 738 (Swiss diocese), 771 (school). 
 
 Gallican church liberties, 725, 736, 756, 759; 
 faith, or Gallicanism, 721, 725-6. Galileo- 
 Ul tramontane faith, 726. 
 
 Galveston (Tex.) diocese and bp., 765-6. 
 
 Galway (Ireland), 746. 
 
 Gaston Co. (N. C ) convent, 769. 
 
 Gately, Mary, 793. 
 
 Gcghan law. 779, 783-9. 
 
 Geneva (Mviss city and canton), 738. 
 
 Georgia or Ga., 709 ; see Savannah. 
 
 Germany, 720- 1 .-3-4, 723-38, 707, 769. Ger- 
 man empire & emperor, 728 ; law, 728^9-30, 
 737; literature, 733; mission (Jesuit in U. 
 S.), 770-1 ; school-pystem, 748, 772. 
 
 Gethsemane (Ky.), 709. 
 
 Ghent (Belgium), 715, 726. 
 
 Gilman, Prof, and Pres. D. C., 771-3. 
 
 Gilm..ur, Bp. Richard, 765, 778, 780. 
 
 Gismondi, feignora, 715. 
 
 Gladstone, Kt. Hon. VVm. E., 720-6, 727-8; 
 portrait, opp. 72'.). G. Controversy, 720-6, 
 714; ministry, 720, 746. 
 
 Glen's Falls, (X. Y.). 770. 
 
 Gnesenand_Posen (Prussia), Abp. of, 716, 728. 
 
 God, Opinions of, &c., 7t>l ; lord of con- 
 scien -e, 788-90 ; source of authority, 718. 
 
 Gonzales de Oliveira, Bp., 746. 
 
 'Jonzalez, President (ol San Salvador), 743. 
 
 Gordon, George, 745. 
 
 GOttingen (Prussia), 729. 
 
 Government of church subject to the pope, 
 721 : see Authority, British, State. 
 
 Governor or G. General of the Dominion of 
 Canada, 758, 764; or Chief of a province 
 (Prussia), 732, 733 ; of diocese (Brazil), 747. 
 
 Gran (Hungary), 7i6. 
 
 Granada, New, 743. 
 
 Gr.mt (Pres.) on schools, 785-6; on taxing 
 eccles. property, 792-3. 
 
 Grass Valley <Cal.) diocese & bp., 765. 
 
 Gray Nuns (from Ottawa), 708-9, 779 (law) ; 
 (of Montreal) 708-9, 794 (baby-farming). 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, 717-18 (statistics), 
 723, 744-16 : see British, England, &c. 
 
 Oreek Catholics, 743 ; church, 743. 
 
 Greeley, lion. Horace, 753. 
 
 Green Bay (Wis.) diocese and bp., 763. 
 
 Gregory XVI (pope), 717. 
 
 Gregory's church at Rome. St., 719. 
 
 Guadalajara or Guadalaxara (Mex.), 749-50. 
 
 Guardianship by civil law, 728, 730, 732, 735-6 ; 
 of poor, prisoners, &c., 787-90; of rights 
 and safety, 781, 79:3-6. 
 
 Guatemala (Central America),'. 748. 
 
 Guiana (S. A.), French, 770. 
 
 Guibprd case, 752-61. Joseph, 754, 796 ; por- 
 trait,opp. 754. Madame Henriet te, 754-6-8. 
 
 Gymnasium (German), 729, 732, 733. 
 
 Hauford, Killing of Francis, 779. 
 
 Harrisburg (1'a.) diocese & bp., 765. 
 
 Hartford (Ct.), 751 ; diocese & bp., 765-6-7. 
 
 Harvard university (Mass.), President of, 771. 
 
 Hawkins, Dexter A., 792. 
 
 Heart, 744; see Sacred, &c. 
 
 Hebrew Christians, 74'i; see Jews. 
 
 Herald, N. Y. Daily. 780. 
 
 Heresy, 796. Heretical books, 716-17 (see 
 Index); marriages, 725; pope, 725; teach- 
 ing, 718. Heretics to obey the church, 720,
 
 INDEX TO THE APPE1STDIX. 
 
 843 
 
 777 ; to be converted, 778 ; see Persecution. 
 
 Hernandez, Prudencio, 751. 
 
 Hierarchy,-ies, 726, 745, 793-4, 798. 
 
 Hildesheim (i russia), Bp. of, 728. 
 
 Kingston, Hon. Wm. II., (M.D., D.C.L., &c ; 
 miyor of Montreal) 759-60. 
 
 History, Examination in, 733. Vaticanism 
 breaks with. 720, 723. 
 
 HobokenOT. J.), 769. 
 
 Holland (Europe), 737. 
 
 Holy Father, His Holiness ( Pope), 717, 745 ; 
 see Pope, Relk'ious orders. II. office (=- 
 Inquisition), 753. IT. Scriptures, 737; see 
 Bible. II. Ke'i (=- pope), 721, 747, 75a 
 
 Honduras, 7/8, 748. 
 
 Honorius I (pope), 722, 725. 
 
 Hospitals, 718, 769, 787-90 (Chaplains, &c.); 
 see Asylums, Foundling. 
 
 Host carried to sick, &c., 727. 
 
 House of Representatives, U. S., 728, 785; 
 Ct., 779. II. of G. Shepherd, 793; see 703- 
 70. IIou*es of worship untaxed, 791-3. 
 
 Hungiry (Europe), 716. 
 
 Hutchinson, Hev. M N., 750. 
 
 Hyacinthe, Father, 736, 738. 
 
 Hymns, Binding forbidden, 774. 
 
 Idaho Ter., 788; vicar apost, &c., 765-7. 
 
 Iglesias, Chief Justice. 752. 
 
 Illinois or 111., 763, 769, 770; see Alton, 
 Chicago. 
 
 Immaculate conception, 736, 744; see Mary. 
 
 Immunities of clergy, 732, 747, 793; see Ex- 
 emption, Suit. 
 
 Imprisonment and liberty of conscience, 
 788-90 ; of bishops and clergy, 736, 737, 745, 
 747, 795; of Indians, 7(12; unlawful, 735, 
 793; see Penitentiary, &c. 
 
 Incumbents, 732, 734; see Cure, Parish 
 priests, rastore, &c. 
 
 Independence, 79!>; of chnrrh, 719, 721, 728. 
 
 Indi-x, Congregation of tiie, 7i6. 739,753.757. 
 Index Exp'iryatoriw, &c., 716; Prohibito- 
 rius, &c., 716. 753. 
 
 Indiana or Ind , 709, 770 ; see Fort Wayne, 
 Vincennes, &c. 
 
 Indians (Iroqnois) and church. 762; of Rocky 
 rats., 770-1. Indian Territory, 766. 
 
 Indie* ; see East 1., West I. 
 
 Indirect authority or power, 719, 721, 723-4, 
 755 (of state): see Civil, Kccles'l, &c. 
 
 Indu'genccs, Old Catholic view of, 737. 
 
 Industrial >-chools, 770, 772 see Asylums. 
 
 Inexactness of statistics, 767, 769. 
 
 Infallibility of the church. 72') : of the pope, 
 718-26, 729. 783-90. -Infallibilists, 718. 
 Anti-infallibili-'ts, 738. 
 
 Infants; see Baby-farming, Children. In- 
 fant school, 771. 
 
 Infidels and schools, 781-4. 
 
 Innocent 111 (pope). 7iJ. 
 
 In partibus i JiUelium, or In partibus, 716, 
 717, 738, 766. 
 
 Inquisition, Koman. 745, 753 (Holy Office), 
 757; Spanish, 739, 743. 
 
 Installation of clergy, 732-4. 
 
 Institute, The Canadian, or L'lwtitut Cana- 
 dien, 752-61, 7 ( .6; Pres., 756; Sup't, 760; 
 Vice-Pros., 754 ; Year-Book, 753. 
 
 Institutions, Public, &c., 787-90 (chnplain- 
 cirs, &c ) ; R. C . 791-2, 79 J-4 ; see Chari- 
 table. Eccles , Educational, Li t'y.Rcligious. 
 
 Instruction, Mmisterof public, 730. 744; Reg- 
 ulation of public, 74S; BOO American, Edu- 
 cation. Public, *uperinten ent. 
 
 Insurrection, Religious, 747, 748. 
 
 Interdict, 745, 747, 763 (made void). 
 
 Interrogation point, 704-5, 767-8. 771. 
 
 Intimidation, 739, 746, 75); see Mob-, Voting. 
 
 Intolerance, 740-3, 748, 753 ; see Toleration. 
 
 Iowa, 769, 770; seeDubuque. 
 
 Ipso facto, 719, 725. 
 
 Ireland, 717-18 (statistics), 722, 723, 744-6. 
 
 Irish, 743, 770, 777, 788. 79J- bishops, 724, 
 
 726 ; Canadian, 756 ; school system, 772 ; 
 
 university hill, 746. 
 Iroquois Indians, 702. 
 Isabella, ex-queen of Spain, 740, 742. 
 Italy, Italian, 715, 722, 725, 726-8, 737, 740, 743, 
 
 748. It. cardinals, 715, 717. 
 Jails, Chaplains. &c., in, 787-90. 
 Jalisco (Mcx.), 750. 
 Janseuist, 731. 737. 
 Jersey City (N. J.), 779, 793. 
 Jesuits (=- Co. of Jesus, Society of J.), 715, 
 
 725. 726, 729-30, 738, 744, 747, 7-irf, 752, 708 
 
 & 77J-1 (U. S.), 780. 
 Jesus Christ, 719. 739, 774, 780, 797; see Sa. 
 
 cred Heart, and 766-71. Church of Jesus, 
 
 750-1. Company (or Society) of Jesus, 729- 
 
 30,770-1; see Jesuit s. 
 Jew, ish, 730, 777,781-2, 792; f>e Hebrew. 
 Johns Hopkins university (Baltimore), 771. 
 Joseph; see St. Joseph. 
 Juarez, President, 718. 
 Judge, 743; see Conscience, Court, Tribunal. 
 Judgment in writing, 731 ; see Private J. 
 Justice, Chief, 752 (Mexico), 762 (Canada). 
 Kalamazoo (Mich.), 795. 
 Kamouraska (Canada), 762. 
 Kanezewitsch, Abp., 743. 
 Kankakee Co. (111.), 7<>3. 
 Kansas (or Kan.), 705-6 (vlcarlate apostolic, 
 
 &c.), 769 (Benedictines), 771 (Jesuits). 
 Kelly, Hon. John, 792. 
 Keni-ick, Abp. F. P., 725; Abp. P. R., 723, 
 
 765-6. 
 
 Kensington (Eng.), 745. 
 Kentucky or Ky., 709, 786; see Covington, 
 
 Louisville, &c. 
 Keogh, Justice. 745-6. 
 Kildare (Ireland), Bp. of, 725. 
 King, 715. 723, 740. King's sword under 
 
 spiritual, 718; see Civil. Deposing. K. 
 
 James's version of Bible, 782 ; poe Bible. 
 King's Co. (N. Y.)peniteutiury, 788. 
 Lachat, Bp. Eugene, 7#5. 
 La Cote dex Ntiges (Canada) ; cemetery, 754 ; 
 
 village, 760. 
 
 LaCrosse (Wis ) diocece & bp., 765. 7i7. 
 Ladies of the Sacred Heart, &c., 744, 708, 770. 
 La Fabnque de Montreal, 754. 
 Laity ; see Layman. 
 Lamy, Bp. and Abp. J. B., 765-7. 
 Langevin, Hon. II. L , 762. 
 Lanfjuet, Bp. J. J., 744. 
 Larugue, Bp. J. J., 752. 
 La Salette (France), 744. 
 Lateau, Louise.. 739-40. 
 Lateral! council (4th), 722; palace, 715. 
 Lauenburg fPrussia), 728. 
 Lavadie, John de, 743. 
 Lavington 'Eng.), 719. 
 Law, 729, 7?>4, 739; see Canon, Civil, Decree, 
 
 Eccles., Falk, Geghan, German, Gray nuns, 
 
 Guardianship, Mexican, Immunities. 
 Lawrence (Mass.), 769. Judge A. R., 792. 
 
 St. L.'s church (N. Y.), 780.
 
 844 
 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 Ledochowski, Cardinal, 716, 73f>. 
 
 Legislature of Mich., 795; of N. Y., 78; of 
 Ohio, 783. L.'s p >wcr to tax. 702. Le"is- 
 lative ch iplains, &c., 787 -SO ; influen e, 775. 
 
 Le Mans (r'rance), 770. 
 
 Le Nouveau Monde: sae Nouveau Monde. 
 
 Leo XII (jiope), 733. ' 
 
 Lconino city, 7i5. 
 
 Leopold I (king of Belgium), 739, 740. 
 
 Lcrdo de Tcjada, Pres., 748, 752. 
 
 Let Cure et Alcrgvikiers, 7C6, 757. 
 
 Letters from and to pope, 715, 724, 7C6. 
 
 Lexington (Ma**.). 785. L.av. (N.Y.), 791-2. 
 
 Libel, 745 ; sec Defamation. 
 
 Liberals, 739, 753. Liberalism, 796. 
 
 Liberty, 731. Abrogation of promises 
 againt, 75 1 ; 6ee CiviL Conscience, Free- 
 dom, Galilean, Press, Religious, Speech. 
 
 Liege (Belgian)), 7C3, 740. 
 
 Liguori, St. Alfonso, 735. 
 
 Lima (N. Y.), 779. 
 
 Limburg (i j rus.-ia), Ep. of. 728, 737. 
 
 ISInstitut Canadian; see Institute. 
 
 Lisbon (Portuisl), Abo. of, 71G. 
 
 Literary Ins'.itution* in U S., 7G4-5. 
 
 Little Rocic (Ark.) diocese & bp., 765-6, 707. 
 
 Liturgy, Homan, 752. 
 
 Living; st-e Bcnollco, Parish, Parochial. 
 
 London (Eng.), 7-2, 727, 733, 744, 7i'l. 
 
 Loretto ( -a.), 773. Sisters of L.. 708. 
 
 Los Ancrelcs (CcL); see Monterey. 
 
 Louis Philippe (!;mg of the French). 7-13. 
 
 Louisiana or La., 7<0, 771 ; see Natchitoches, 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Louisville (Ky.). 7G9, 771 ; diocese & bp., 705. 
 
 Lourdes (France), 744. 
 
 Louvain (Belgium) university, 739. 
 
 Loyalty; see Allegiance, Civil. 
 
 Loyson, Rev. Charles; see Ilyacinthe. 
 
 Lucca (Italy), 717. 
 
 Lutheran church and Old Lutherans, 728,731. 
 
 Lynn (Mass.), 7%. 
 
 McCloskey, Cardinal John, Abp. of N. Y., 
 71(>-17, 705-0; portrait, opposite 704. 
 
 McGlew, Rev. James, 794. 
 
 MacMahon, Prcs., 743. 
 
 McOuaid, Bp. Bernard J., 705, 778. 
 
 Madison av. nue (M. Y.), 791. 
 
 Madrid (Spain), 717 note, 742. 
 
 Magenta (Italy), 743; duke, 743. 
 
 Maiesty Her, (= Queen Victoria) 756-7. 
 
 Mallinkrodt, Paulina von, 709. 
 
 Manchester (Eng.), 745. 
 
 Mandamus. 754-H, 7(iO. 
 
 Mandate. 701 ; see Decree (Eccles.), Manda- 
 mus. &c. 
 
 Munichaeus, 718. 
 
 Manistee (Mich.), 794. 
 
 Manning, Cardinal. 717, 719-20 (and note), 
 721-2, 723, 7C4, 72'., 737, 743, 744, 771 ; por- 
 
 . trait, opposite 719. 
 
 Mantua (Italy), 720. 
 
 MarguUllcrs. 754, 757. 
 
 Mnriolatry, Old Catholics wd. abolish, 737. 
 
 Marlon Co. (Ky.), 77>). 
 
 Marquctte (Mich.) diocese & bp.. 705. 
 
 Martlafos, 7:5, TO, 745, 701, 794-5; annulled, 
 74.!,7:5,794-5C'); re"istered,731, 732,7,7. 
 Certificates, 7'it Civil, 725. 7,1. 7:^, 7:;9, 
 742, 740, 751, 794. Mixed forbidden, 747. 
 Sacrament, 739, 795. 
 
 Marseilles (France) 743, 744. 
 
 Mary, queen of England. 720. M. the Virgin, 
 M., or H. V. M., 744; church (Oxford, Eng ), 
 7i3; college, 710 ([Mount St.] Md.), 723 
 
 (Eng.), 770 (Ky.), 771 (Kan.) ; Prayers to, 
 
 770. 778; see Our La 'v. 
 Maryland or Md., 70, 7.0-1 ; see Baltimore. 
 Marysvllle (Cat.), 7^0. 
 Mass, 746, 788 (in public institutions). 
 Massabielle grotto (France), 744. 
 Massachusetts or Mass., 750, 709, 770, 784,789, 
 
 794, 7U7 ; eee Boston, Springfield, &c. 
 M^assacrcs, 748, 753. 
 Matrimony; Bee Marriages. 
 May or of Montreal, 7..9-60; of N. Y., 791. 
 Mechlin or Malines (Belgium), 717. 
 Medina (iV. Y.). 769. 
 Meetings, Political, 752, 764. 
 Mcjia, Gen., 750. 
 Mella ( Melle, Belgium?), 717. 
 Menasha (Wis.). 7t,9. 
 Mendicancy, 727; see Beggar. 
 Mennonites, 730, 731. 
 Mental freedom ; sec Freedom, &C. 
 Mercy, listers of, 703, 792. 
 Mermillod, Bp. G., 733. 
 Mcrriman. Mrs. E. J., 738. 
 Mcrtoncoilige (Oxford, Eng.), 719. 
 Methodist chapel, &c., 702; M. Episcopal 
 
 church, Methodists, 727, 751. 
 Mexico, 748-52, 707; laws, 749, 751-2. 
 TIgr., 724, 725; Monsignor. which see. 
 Michclis, Prof, and Dr., 729, 733, 737. 
 Michigan or Mich., 770, 794, 705 ; see Detroit, 
 
 Marquctte. 
 
 Middle ages, 718, 722, 723. 
 I.lilan (Italy), 771. 
 
 Military out, 750, 759-00; service, 730, 73?. 
 Militia regiments, chaplains, &c., 787-90. 
 Milwaukee (\Vis.), lip. & abp. & archdiocese, 
 
 7G5-fi, 707, 770 (A'o're Dame), 771 (school). 
 Minimizing faith. 7C5; see Newman. 
 Minnesota or Minn., 7o9, 7G9 ; see Northern 
 
 M., St. I'aul. 
 
 Ministers, Cabinet. 7C9, 733, 743, 744 : coun- 
 cil (see Prime Minister), 729; toU. S., 748. 
 
 Ministers or clergy disciplinable, 734-5; 
 
 restricted, 740. Prut. Minisicrs, 751. See 
 
 Clergy, Instructs :n, Priest, &c. 
 Miracles, 733, 743, 744. 
 Missions, Missionaries, Prot, 749-51 ; R. C., 
 
 768-71, 770. St. Joseph's Society of S. H. 
 
 for Foreign M , 771. Mission-houses, 770. 
 Missouri or Mo., 709, 770; sec St. Joseph, 
 
 St. Louis. 
 
 Mitred abbots, 767-9. 
 Mix Hill (Eng.), 771. 
 Mixed schools, 782; see Unsectarlan. 
 Mobile (Ala.) diocese and bp., 705-0. 
 Mobs, 745, 748, 749-50, 758-9, 703, 795. 
 Modi na. Duke of, 715. 
 Modern civilization. Vaticanism atrainst. 720; 
 
 history not in nnsecturian teaching, 746. 
 Molly Maguires, 790. 
 Monastic institutions suppressed, 746; vows 
 
 made revocable, 737 ; see Convents, Ex- 
 emptions. Scmi-monas'ic education, 732. 
 Mondelet, Justice Charles J. E., 755. 
 Money, 791 ; PI'-C Public m. 
 MonUs, 743, 709: pei- Fri .re. 
 Montana Ter, 771, 707 (vicar apostolic, <fcc.). 
 Monsignor or Mgr., 724, 7-5, 744, 745. 
 Monterey (North Mexico), 751.' M. end Los 
 
 Angeles (Cal.) diocese and bp., 705- 1 !, 769. 
 Month, The, (Eng. R. C. periodical) 745. 
 Montreal (Can.), 'J52-<)4, 7.,9, 770, 792, 794 ; seo 
 
 Witness. Bp. of, 752-5, 7.V7-03. 
 Moral freedom (see Freedom i; philosophy 
 
 not in onsectariau teaching, 740. Morality
 
 I1STDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 845 
 
 of books, 753; public, 752: taught in schools 
 772, 781, 783-4; (monils) uiider the pope 
 721, 727 ; BOO Supremacy. 
 Moravians, 7.8, 731. 
 Morel, Canon, 739. 
 
 Moreno, Cardinal, 716; President, 748. 
 Mormon's conscience, 790. 
 Morris, Henry, TiO. 
 Mortal sin, 791. 
 Moses, 718. 
 
 Mother-houses, 769, 770. 
 Mount St. Mary's college (Md.), 716. 
 Munich (Bavaria, Germany), 736. 
 Mflnster (Prussia), Bp. of, 728. 
 Murca (Portugal), 716. 
 Murder, 794; see Assassination, Massacre. 
 Namnr (Belgium), 770. 
 Nangler, Peter, 794. 
 Napfes (Italy), 737. 
 Napoleon 1, 724 (concordat), 735 (code) ; HI, 
 
 743. 
 
 Nashville, (Ky.) diocese and bp., 765. 
 Natchez (Mpi.) diocese & bp., 765, 767. 
 Natchitoches (La.) diocese <fc bp., 765-6. 
 Natior.al authority, Vaticanism against, 720 ; 
 
 chaplains, &c., 787-90; conventions, 786-7. 
 Navy, U. 8., 72, 750, 7S7-90 (chaplains, &c.). 
 Nebraska vicariate apostolic, &c., 765-7. 
 Nesqually (Wash. Ter.) diocese & bp.. 7R5-6. 
 Niitherlani Reformers ori)utchRefonn'd,731. 
 Nevers (France), 744. 
 
 Newark (N. J.), 793; diocese & bp., 765-6-7. 
 New Brunswick (Dominion of Canada), 764. 
 New Dominion Monthly, 152. 
 New England, 772. New Euglanders, 777. 
 New Granada (S. A.), 748. 
 NewHampshire orN.H.,791; see Portland,&c. 
 New Haven (Ct), 751. 
 
 New Jersey or N . J. , 769, 778, 793; see Newark. 
 Newman, Rev. John H., D. D., 721, 722-3, 725. 
 New Mexico Ter. or New Mcx., 767, 770-1. 
 New Orleans (La.) archdiocese and abp. , 765 ; 
 
 mission of Jesuits, 770. 
 Newspapers, clerical, 737, 759; prohibited, 
 
 716, 739, 742 (see Protestant, Witness, &c.) ; 
 
 used for notification, 761. 
 New Testament, 781 ; see Bible. 
 Now York or N. Y. (city), 716, 719, 723, 751, 
 
 753, 765-6 (archdiocese & abp.K 766, 778-9- 
 
 80,791-2 (cxemptions),794 ; see Five Points, 
 
 Herald, Tablet, Times. Witness, &c. N. 
 
 Y. (state), 7 17, 768, 770-1,773; conventions, 
 
 784; mission (Jesuit), 771; prisons, Ac., 
 
 788; see Albany, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Ogdens- 
 
 burg, Rochester, &c. 
 Nordstrand (Schleswig, Prussia), 731. 
 Norfolk, Dake of, 722, 725. 
 North Carolina, 769; vicar apost, 765-6, 767. 
 Northern Messenger. 752. 
 Northern Minnesota vicar apost., 765-7, 769. 
 Notre Dame church & parish (Montreal), 754, 
 
 757-8-9 ; Congregations, 763, 770. 
 Nouveau Sfrm.de or Le N. M. (Montreal R. C. 
 
 newspaper), 759, 794. 
 Novices, 744, 767-71. Novitiates, 771. 
 Navit (= he knew ; poke's brief), 723. 
 Null and void. 724. 737, 745, 794-5 note. 
 Nuncio, 717 note, 739, 740-1. 
 Nuns, 742 (married), 71.8-9 (Servites, &c.). 
 Oath of fealty, 732, 7S3; abolished, 751. 
 Obedience from baptized, 720 ; to Pope, &c., 
 
 789-90, 797; to civil law refused, 794-6; see 
 
 Authority, Subordination, &c. 
 Oblatcs of St. Charles, 719. 768, 771. 
 Ogdensburg (N. Y.), 769 ; diocese & bp. , 765-. 
 
 O'TIara, Bp. Wm.. 765. 796. 
 
 Ohio or O , 769. 770, 779, 784, 788-9; see Cin- 
 cinnati, Cleveland, Columbus. 
 
 Oka (Canada), 7H2. 
 
 O'Keefe, Rev. R., 745. 
 
 Old Catholics, 730-7; Lntherars. 728 (see 
 Lutherans) ; Testament, 781 (see Bible). 
 
 Olinda (Brazil), Bp. of, 746-7. 
 
 Oliveira, Bp. Gonzales de, 746. 
 
 O'Mahony, John, 796. 
 
 Opinion, 723; see Private Judgment. 
 
 Oratory, Congregation of the, 722. 
 
 Orders, Religious. 736-7, 738, 748, 767-71 (T7. 
 8. statistics), 796. 
 
 Ordinary judge, 757. 
 
 Oregon, 77i. O. city archd. & abp., 765-6. 
 
 Oriel college (Oxford, Eng.), 722. 
 
 Orphan A y lums, 7H7, 770, 792 (X. Y.), 793-4 ; 
 Bee Asylums, Pupils. 
 
 O. S. A.. 717 ; see A ugnstinians, 303, 768-9. 
 
 O. S. B., 716; see Benedictines. 
 
 Oscott (Eng ), 722. 
 
 Osnabrflck (Prussia), Bp. of. 728, 737. 
 
 Ottawa (Canada). 764, 768-9 (Gray Nuns). 
 
 Our Lady ; see Mnry, Notre Dame, &c. 
 
 Oxford (Eng.), 719, 722, 745. 
 
 Pacific Theol. Seminary (Cal.). 749. 
 
 1'aderborn (Prussia), Bp. of, 728, 769. 
 
 Pagan, 785. 792. 
 
 Palacios. Rev. J. M., 748. 
 
 Pall Mall Gazette, 743. 
 
 Panel 11, Dominico, 737 (abp. A bp.). 
 
 Papacy and Civil Power, Thompson's, 726. 
 
 Papal,; 722-3-4-5-7, 737, 739, 745, 746. 
 
 Para (Brazil), Bp. of, 747. 
 
 Paray-le-Monial (France), 744. 
 
 Paris (France), 716, 727, 738, 770. 
 
 Parish or parochial community, 717, 726, 731, 
 732, 734, 738, 754-5, 761, 790, 795; church & 
 property, 734, 736-7, 740, 7:4, 757, 790-1 ; 
 priests, 717, 745, 750, 754, 796 ; schools, 718, 
 764-6, 769-71, 777-80; Bee Benefice, Paro- 
 chial, Pastor, Priest, Sectarian, &c. 
 Parishioners, 753, 757, 7C1. 
 
 Parliament, British, 745-6; Can. Dominion, 
 752, 764 ; Can. prov., 752, 761 ; Chilian, 747 ; 
 German! 728, 729 ; Prussian, 729. 
 
 Parochial living, 733-4 ; 8t-e Parish. 
 
 Parsonage. 740; underparish, 726 ; see Parish. 
 
 Pasquale deFranciscis, Rev. Don, 724. 
 
 Pastor, 7:6, 782-3, 737, 738, 776 ; see Curd, 
 Parish,&c. Pastoral letter or pastoral, 746, 
 747, 748, 752-3, 759, 760, 7.SO, 798. 
 
 Patcrson (N. J.), West, 769. 
 
 Paton, J. B., 730. 
 
 Patriarch, 715, 717. 
 
 Patrick's cathedral (N. Y.), St., 791. 
 
 Patronage, 7i8, 734. 
 
 Paul the Apostle, 782; see St. Paul. 
 
 Paupers in state's custody, 787,&c.; see Poor. 
 
 Pay of clergy stopped, 735-6-7, 739. 
 
 P. E. Protestant Episcopal, which see. 
 
 PencJ institutions, 7>; see Penitentiary, 
 State-prison, &c. 
 
 Penalty, Limit of church. 730, 734-6. 
 
 Penance not absolving, 776. 
 
 Penitentiary (bishop's place for penitents), 
 735 ; Chaplains, &c., in public penitentia- 
 ries, 787-90; in N. Y. state, 788. 
 
 Pennsylvania or Pa., 769, 770, 778, 796. 
 
 'ensacola (Fla.) navy yard, 788. 
 
 ?eoria(Ill.) diocese & bp., 766. 
 
 Periodicals, 727 ; see Editors, Newspapers. 
 
 'ernambuco (Brazil), Bp. of, 746. 
 
 ?errault, Louis, 754. L. P. & Son, 754.
 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 Perrysville (Pa.), 770. 
 
 Persecution & persecutors of heretics, 743, 
 70i ; of It. C. church, 737, 759, 789. 
 
 Persico, Up. I., 778; see 278. 
 
 Personal liberty. No. 78 1-90; opposed. 720. 
 
 Petaluma (Cal.), 749; Baptist college, 749. 
 
 Peter, St., 718, 7i9, 754 (ch., Montreal), 790 
 (words) ; Arbues, 743 P.'s Pence. 715, 738. 
 
 Philadelphia (Pa ) archd. & abp., 7(55-0, 796. 
 
 Phillips, Kev. Maxwell, 749. 
 
 Philosophy, Examin. in. 733 ; pee Moral P. 
 
 Physiology & physiologists teacn, 740, 744. 
 
 Pilgrimage, Pilgrims. 715, 727, 739, 744, 760. 
 
 Pittsburgh (Pa.) diocese and bp., 765-6. 
 
 Pius VII (pope), 737. 
 
 Pius IX (pope), 71.-.. 720, 723, 724, 726, 736, 739, 
 744, 748, 762. 771, 77 , 775. 7!6 ; speeches, 724, 
 721) ; sen Allocutions, Brief, Bull, Encycli- 
 cals, Syllabus. 
 
 Plattsbur,'(N. Y.), 769. 
 
 Poland, 743. Poles & churches in U. 8., 770. 
 
 Police, 727, 731, 749, 759-60, 793 ; chief, 759-60. 
 
 Political conventions, influence, &c., 752-3, 
 764. 779-80, 784-6-7, 792. 
 
 Polon ; a (Wis.), 770. 
 
 Poor and aged, 77'0 : education, 777, 781. Lit- 
 tle Sistersof P..&C..768, 770. See Paupers. 
 
 Pope and cardinals, 715-17; as God, 789-90 ; 
 authority disowned, 736; see Infallibility, 
 Papal, Pius IX, Supremacy, &c. 
 
 Popery, 720. 
 
 Population, 728; R. C., 717-18, 728, 764-7. 
 
 Portland (Me.) diocese & bp., 765. 
 
 Portugal, 716,724. 
 
 Posen (Prussia), Abp. Gnesen &, 716, 728, 736. 
 
 Potawatamie Co. (Kan.), 771. 
 
 Poughkeepsie (N. Y ), 779. 
 
 Power, Spiritual and Temporal, 718-26; see 
 Authority, Civil, Eccles., Supremacy, &c. 
 
 Prayer-meeting, not attend, 78). 
 
 Preachers, 751. Preaching, 749; stations (R. 
 C.), 742, 764-7; see Clergy, Ministers. 
 
 Prefect of Propaganda, 716. Prefectship,766. 
 
 Prelates, 716; see Bishops. 
 
 Premier, 743, 743; see Prime minister. 
 
 Prcsbyt'T, It. C., 751. Presbyterian Boards 
 of Missions, 751. Presbyterians, 749, 750. 
 
 President of Council of Ministers, 729; of 
 province, chief. 733. 735, 736 ; of republic, 
 74(5, 747, 748, 7.V2: of U. 8., 785, 787, 792 ; of 
 university or college, 771, 781. 
 
 Press, Liberty of, 738, 795. 
 
 Priests, 716-17-18, 7.'2-4-6-7, 732-4-5-6-8-9, 
 745-6-9-50, 759-62, 764-9 (II. S.), 771 note, 
 700-4-5; see Clergy, Confessions, Eccles'l, 
 Incumbent, Minister, Parish-p., Suit, &c. 
 
 Primate of Spain, 742. 
 
 Prime minister, 729 ; see Premier. 
 
 Priories, Prior, Prioresses, 769. 
 
 Prisoner of the Vatican, 726; see State. 
 
 Private judgment, 723, 777, 788, 796 ; schools, 
 772,78). 
 
 Privy council, Queen's, 756-8, 761, 764. 
 
 Processions. Ileiigiotis, 726, 739. 
 
 Professors of divinity, &c., 72H, 736, 742, 745. 
 
 Prohibited books, &c., 716-17 (see Books, 
 Newspapers); inst.ructlon.780; worship,774. 
 
 Propaganda, 716, 724. 774-6 (address), 780. 
 
 Property, Eccles., 726; see Church, Eccles'l. 
 
 Prosclytism, 789-90. 794. 
 
 Protectories. 7(i7, 787 ; see Asylums. 
 
 Protests. 733, 710-2. 
 
 Protestant churches & members, 727 (It.),749- 
 BO-51 (Mex ); Episcopal or P. E., 751, 766 
 (see Episcopalians); missionary services, 
 
 719-51 ; newspapers. 742, 752; schools. 727, 
 742, 749, 751; vievvs,718, 720, 725, 743, 746, 764, 
 794, 795-6. Protestants, Protestantism, 
 717, 727, 731, 738, 739, 742, 744, 745, 747, 749, 
 750-1, 758-9, 703, 779. 787, 797. P. & Itoman 
 Catholics, 723, 733, 747, 756, 772 note, 774, 
 777,779,783,788,791,792. 
 
 Providence (R. I.) diocese & bp., 765-6. 767. 
 
 Provincial, 769 (Augustinian), 771 (Jesuit). 
 
 Prussia, 728-38, 790, 795 ; laws, 729-36. 
 
 Psalms and hymns, Singing prohibited, 774. 
 
 Public instruction ; see Minister, Snperint. 
 P. money,792; R.C. demand,777-80, 782-7, 
 791-8 note. P. schools, 730, 739, 748, 764, 
 771-87; R.C. law, 774-6; see_ American. Ger- 
 man, Irish, Schools. P. sinner, 755, 757. 
 
 Publications prohibited. 716-17; see Index. 
 
 Pueblo (=- village or town) Indians. 767. 
 
 Pulkammer,- J. F. C. D. E. von, 7,9 note. 
 
 Pulpit not tolie misused, 729, 749 note, 761-2. 
 
 Punishment, 716, 749, 750; see Execution, 
 Imprisonment. Corporal p. forbidden, 735, 
 738. Limits of church p., 730, 734-6. 
 
 Pupils, R. C., 767-71. 
 
 Purcell, Abp. John B., 765, 777. 
 
 Pyrenees <mts.), 744. 
 
 Quarterly Review (England), 724, 727. 
 
 Quebec, Abp. & bihhops, 759, 763; Province, 
 756, 769. Q. ritual, 757; Superior court, 761. 
 
 Queen; see Isabella, Victoria. Q.'s Bench, 
 Court, 745 ; counsel, 756. 
 
 Queen, Capt. W. W., 750. 
 
 Quirinal palace, 715. 
 
 Ramirez, Rev. Dr. Ignacio, 751. 
 
 Rankin, Miss M., 751. 
 
 R. C., 719; = Roman Catholic, which see. 
 
 Rebellion, Carlist, 740. 
 
 Jtecusatio judicis, 758. Recusation, 755-6-8. 
 
 Kedemptorists or C. SS. R., 717, 768-9. 
 
 Reformatories or Reform-schools, 769, 787-90 
 (chaplains, &c.) ; see Asylums, Schools. 
 
 Reformed church, 72S, 731 ; s-e Netherland. 
 
 Kegisterof marriages, births, deaths, burials, 
 &c., 731-2 (Prussia), 754 (Can.). 
 
 Reinkens, Bp. J. II., 736. 
 
 " Religion and the State," Spear's, 787, 792. 
 R. in schools, 772-87, &c ; see Church & 
 State, Corporation8,Denom'l,Pub.Schools, 
 Sect'n. Religious equality, 739. It. exer- 
 cises in publicinstitutions, <fcc., 7>7-90. 
 R. habit, wearing, 752. R. institutions in 
 U. S., 764-".. R liberty, 728, 739, 740-3, 746, 
 747, 751, 752, 7.>4-5; Vaticani-m against, 
 720, 739, 743-52; see Freedom, Toleration. 
 R. orders & cousrreyatious in U. a., 767- 
 71. It. unity, 741-3. 
 
 Removal from ecclee. office, 729, 734. 
 
 Heunes (France), 717. 
 
 Representatives; sec House of R. 
 
 Republics, 740. 741, 74S. 790. Republicanism, 
 796. Republicans, 741, 779, 764, 786. 
 
 Rescript, 745, 746; see 185. 
 
 Reservation of allowances, &c., 732, 733. 
 
 Results of the Expostulation, 725-6. 
 
 Review; see Catholic, Contemporary, Dub- 
 lin, Fortnightly. Quarterly. 
 
 Revolutions, 748-0. 75). 792. 
 
 Rhine, Rhenish. 732, 734. 
 
 Richer, M. .761. 
 
 Richmond (Va.) diocese & bp.. 765-6. 
 
 Right, Civil, 719. 761. Slate guards rir-hta, 
 781 ; see Liberty, Petition, Private Judg't. 
 
 Riley, Rev. Dr. U. C., 751. 
 
 Uimonki (Can.), Bp. of, 7fl2. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 745.
 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 847 
 
 Riots, 739, 748, 764 ; see Insurrections, Mobs. 
 Uioters, 748, 750. 
 
 Ripon, Marquis of, 744. 
 
 Ritual guarded, 736; Quebec & Roman, 757. 
 
 Kobenstein's Denominational statistics, 718. 
 
 Robert, St.. 7(iP. 
 
 Rochester (N. Y.) diocese & bp., 765, 778. 
 
 Rocky mts., 70(5. 771. 
 
 Roman authority (see 199-201 ; Rom-). 733, 
 753. R. Catho'ic chaplains, 787-8. If C. 
 church, 718, 719, 720, 722, 728-37, 756; 
 churches, 745, 749, 750, 75!), 761. R. Cath- 
 olicism, Phases of, 725-6; tschu Ite's Old and 
 New. 726 R. Catholics, 71 7-1 8 (Brit.,) 723, 
 731,750.752, 754, 756, 767(IT.S. f tatistics); si-e 
 Catholics, Converts, Protestant, Schools, 
 Subjection. K. C. views, 718-20, 721-3, 
 725-6, 737-8, 739, 740-3, 748, 752-5, 760, 761. 
 773-80. 782-4. 787-3, 793, 794-5. R. chiirch 
 (=R.C. church). 717. 722, 793. R.hierarchy, 
 7->6. R. c.-ng'n of Propaganda, 716. 724, 
 774-6,780; see Index. Propaganda, Sacred 
 Rites. Romanism, 720, 788-9; in foreign 
 countries, 72K-64; in U.S., 764-97. R. rit- 
 nal, 757; see Rome. 
 
 Rome (Italy), 715. 716, 717, 719, 722. 724-5-6-7, 
 744, 748, 753, 760, 766; = Vaticanism. 720, 
 123. R. or church of R. (= R. C. church), 
 726, 737, 764, 7%. Bp. of R. (== the Pope), 
 797, &c. Court of R., 755; see Roman au- 
 thority. Roman correspondent, 715. 
 
 Rousselot, Rev. V., 754, 759, 760. 
 
 Routhier, Judge A. B., 761. 
 
 Royal Academy, 740; Tribunal. 733-6. 
 
 Russia, 729, 743. Russian Poland, 743. 
 
 Sacraments, Deprivation of, 753, 754, 757, 
 761-2-3, 780, 796. Receiving, 731, 7-8, 795. 
 
 Sacred Heart of Jesus, 743-4, 748; Academy 
 (N. Y ), 792; Brothers, &c., 744, 768, 770. 
 Cong'n of Sncred Rites, 744; see 199. SOI. 
 
 Sadliers' CatholicDirectory, 715, 717, 764, 767, 
 771, 778, 738. 
 
 Sailors and soldiers, 787-90. 
 
 Saint (or St.) Albau's hall, 722. St. Anne 
 <IH.), 763. St. Augustine (Fla.) diocese & 
 bp., 765-6. St. Barthelemi (Can.), 761 
 St. Bern-diet, 769. St. Cloud (Minn.), 778. 
 St. Cyr (France), 743. St. Ephrem d'Upton 
 ((an.), 761. St. Gall. Bp. of, 738; school, 
 771. St. Gregory's church (Rome).719. St. 
 ' Joseph (Minn ), 769 ; St. J (Mo.) diocese & 
 bp.. 765; Sisters, 768: Society, 771. St. 
 Lawrence (N. Y. church), 780 St. Louis 
 (Mo.) archdiocese & abp., 765-6, 7*i7, 769 
 (hospital), 786 (convention) ; Globe-Demo- 
 crat, 774. St. Mary : see Mary. St. Paul; 
 782 ; St. P. (Minn.) diocese & bp., 765-6-7. 
 St. Peter, see Peter. St Quentin (France), 
 716. St. Sulpice Seminary (Montreal), 754, 
 760, 762. 
 
 Salary, 737, 787 (chaplains) ; see Pay, 
 
 Salem (Mass.), 769. 
 
 S.ilford (En-,' .), Bp. of, 771. 
 
 Salzburg (Austria), Abp. of, 716. 
 
 San Antonio (Tex.) diocese and bp., 765-6. 
 
 San Francisco (Cal.), 750; abp., &c., 765-6-9. 
 
 Sin Miguel (Central America), 748. 
 
 San Salvador (Central America) & bp., 748. 
 
 Sante F6 (New Mex.) archd. &abp., 765-6-7. 
 
 San fa Maria nopra Minerva (ch., Rome), 716. 
 
 Santiago (Chili), 747. 
 
 Saragossa (Spain), 743. 
 
 Sannac (U. S. frigate), 750. 
 
 Sargent, Rev. J., 719. 
 
 Savannah (Ga.), 769; bp., &c., 765, 769, 778. 
 
 Savoy (S. E. France), 726. 
 
 hchleswig (Prussia). 731. 
 
 SchOnhauseu (Prussia t. 729. 
 
 School inspectors, 731,732. Schools, 718,727, 
 729, 739, 741, 742, 749, 764-5. 767-70 (U. C. 
 in U. S.), 771-N7 (contest in U. S.); see 
 Academics, Asylums, Bible, Free, Parish, 
 Public, Pupils, Select, Sunday, Theol., 
 Training. Unsectarian. S. Sisters of Notre 
 Damejm.S Systems, 764.771-3, 773-'.i,&c. 
 
 Schulte, Prof. J.F.R.von,73i; Rev. Dr. J.,726. 
 
 Schwann, Prof . 740. 
 
 Schwatz (Austria), 716. 
 
 Scranton (Pa.) dio e>e & bp., 765. 796. 
 
 Scriptures, Use of, 737; see Bible. 
 
 Sevastopol (Russia), 743. 
 
 Secession from a church, 73t (Falk law). 
 
 Secrecy,793-4-6. Secret Sociel ies, 748, 796-7. 
 
 Secretary of State, 717, 743 ; of navy, 726. 
 
 Sectarian institutions & degrees, 744, 777-9; 
 echools,741, 773-iM), 782-6, &c. ; teachings, 
 746, 772, 778; see Denom'l, Unsectarian. 
 
 See. 724, 753, 766 (in U. S.) ; see Holy, Bishop. 
 
 Select Schools, 718, 770 ; see Literary iustiu 
 
 Semeur Canadten, 752. 
 
 Seminary, 733.751 ; see St. Snlplce, Theol'l. 
 
 Senate Fr., 743-4 ; Sp , 742 ; U.S.. 728. 7h6. 
 
 Sentence, how to be valid. 757 ; see Court. 
 
 Seqnestration,736. 793; see Confiscation. 
 
 " Sermons on Eccles. Subjects," Manning's, 
 719-20; Violent, 743; see Discourses. 
 
 Sharpsburg (Pa.), 770. 
 
 Shenandoah (Pa.), 796. 
 
 simeoni, Cardinal, 717, 740-3. 
 
 Sinner; see Mortal, Public. 
 
 Sisters, 767-70 (U. S.); of Charity, 741. 752, 
 768 (U. S.), 792 (N. Y.) ; Gray Nuns, 768-9, 
 794; of Mercy, 768, 792 (N. Y.). 
 
 68th & 69th streets (N. Y.), 791-2. 
 
 Society of Jesus, 763, 770-1 ; see Jesuits. 
 Societies, R. C.. 760. 796-7. 
 
 Soldiers and Sailors, 737-90. 
 
 Sorel (Canada), 761 . 
 
 Soubirous, Bernadette. 744. 
 
 So.itn. America or S. A.. 715, 717, 724, 746-8, 
 751 ; Vallejo (Cal.), 749. 
 
 Sovereignty; see Authority. Supremacy. 
 
 Spain, 724, 740-3 ; cardinals, 715 ; church, 751. 
 
 Spear, Rev. Dr. Samuel T., 787, 792. 
 
 Speech, Liberty of, 738, 795. See Pius IX. 
 
 Spencer Co. (Tnd.), 769. 
 
 Sperandi is, John, 743. 
 
 Spiritual sword or authority, 718-19. 721. 
 
 Springfield (Mass.) diocese & bp., 765. 
 
 Starvation, 730. 794. 
 
 Stat,e, The, 719, 721-6, 728-38, 734. 746, 790; 
 see Authority, Church & S., &c. S. & 
 schools, 771-87; chaplaincies, 787-90; pris- 
 ons, 737-90. " Statesman's Year-Book," 
 723. 
 
 Stations of the cross, 760; for preaching, 
 717-18, 764-6. 
 
 Statistics, 717-18, 727, 723 notes, 731 n , 736 
 n., 737 & n., 738 n., 742, 744, 749-52, 763-4, 
 764-71, 787, 7*8, 791, 791-2 n, 
 
 Stearns Co. (Minn.), 769. 
 
 Stephens. Rev. John L., 749-50. 
 
 Straw sold, 726. 
 
 Students, 769, 771 ; see Eccles'l, Pupils. 
 
 Subjection of all to Rome, 745-6, 71*9, 796; 
 of clergy to civil law, 729, 739, 795; see 
 Authority, &c. 
 
 Snccnrsal districts or parishes, 734. 
 
 Suicides without religvus burial, 754 ; T 761. 
 
 Suits ag't clergy, 756, 761, 7ti2, 794, 795.
 
 848 
 
 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. 
 
 Sullivan, Alexander and Mrs., 779. 
 
 Bully (France), 743. 
 
 Sunday school*, 727, 789. 
 
 Superintend'! of pub. instruction or schools, 
 State, 771, 778, 779; city. &c., 778. 
 
 Superior, 722, 770; general, 709-70-1. 
 
 Supremacy of churcii or state, 793-6 ; of pope, 
 718-id, 738, 755, 78S-90, 793-6; of state sanc- 
 tioned by p.ipe, 737 uote. 
 
 Suspension of priests, <fcc., 729, 734, 745. 
 
 Swansea (Wales), 749. 
 
 Sweeny. Bu. John, 764. 
 
 Switzerland, Swiss, 724, 737-8-9, 769, 790, 
 
 Sword, 718; see Authority, Power, &c. 
 
 Syllabus of 1864, 719, 721, 722, 723, 73d, 746, 
 755, 774, 794-5. 
 
 Syracuse (N. Y.), 769. 
 
 Tablet, N. Y., 742-3; London, 745. 
 
 Tammany hall and ring, 792. 
 
 Tarbes (France), 744. 
 
 Taschereau, Abp. E A., & Judge, 762-3. 
 
 Taxes, cemetery, 756 ; church, 731 ; school, 
 764, 771, 7T3; on church property, 748, 790- 
 93; see Exemptions. 
 
 Teacher, 72.4, 73 i, 751, 779; see Schools. 
 
 Temperance apostle, 762; cause, 762-3; so- 
 cieties, 730, 7;)tt. 
 
 Temporal power aiding, 713, 741 ; of pope, 
 715-16, 721-3-4-5-8-9, 744; see Authority. 
 
 Tennessee ; see Nashville. Army, 785. 
 
 Tenure of eccles'l property, 790-1. 
 
 Test, Political, 752; Religious, 786. 
 
 Texas or Tex., 751, 770-1 ; see Brownsville, 
 Galveston, San Antonio. 
 
 Theological faculty, 732; seminaries, 716, 
 718,727,732-3,73:!, 764-6 (U. S.), 771; stu- 
 dents (see Eccles'l), 732, 767; studies ex- 
 cluded, 748. 
 
 Thiers, Pres. L. A., 743. 
 
 Thompson, lion. li. W., 726 ; Rev. Dr. J. P., 
 729. 
 
 Times, N. Y. Daily, 775. 
 
 Toledo (Ohio), 769; (Spain) Abp. of, 742. 
 
 Toleration, 727, 740, 743 note, 753, 796 ; see 
 Religious liberty. Intolerance. 
 
 Toluca (Mexico), 749. 
 
 Torture, 739 (defended), 743, 744 (self). 
 
 Totteridge (Bug.), 717. 
 
 Tracts for the Times, 722 ; see 671. 
 
 Training of clenry, 732-3 ; school, 770. 
 
 Translation of bishops. &c., in U. S., 764-6. 
 
 Trappists, 768-9 LaTrappe, 769. 
 
 Treason charged, 755-6, 790. 
 
 Tremblay, M. , 762. 
 
 Trent, Council of, 720 ; on marriage, 725, 745, 
 794; on books, 753-5-7; see Books, &c. 
 
 Trenton (N. J.), 769. 
 
 Treves (Prussia), Bp. of, 728. 
 
 Tribunal for Eccles. Affairs, 733-6; see Courts. 
 
 Trieste, Canon P., 769. 
 
 Trinity college (Oxford, Eng.), 722. 
 
 Ulster Co. (J?. Y.), 771. 
 
 Ultramontane,-i8m,-ists, 718-26, 729, 732, 737, 
 739, 744, 752, 753, 761, 790. 
 
 Unam Sanctam, 718-19, 721. 
 
 Unbaptized infants no eccles. burial, 754. 
 
 Uncanonical, 745 ; see Canon law. 
 
 Unction, Extreme, 754. 
 
 United Greek Catholics, 743; Kingdom ( 
 Great Britain & Ireland), 718; see G. B.,&c. 
 
 United States or U. S.. 716, 717, 718, 749, 756, 
 763, 764-97 ; see Congress, &c. 
 
 University certincates, 732 ; course for pas- 
 tor, 732-3; essential, 772; see Cambridge, 
 Catholic, Colleges, Irish, Kensington, Lou- 
 vain, Madrid, Oxford, <fcc. 
 
 Unsectarian institutions opposed, 787-8; 
 schools, 764, 772, 777, 779, 785-6, 792; uni- 
 versity, 746 ; see Sectarian. 
 
 Utah Territory, 766. 
 
 Utica (N. Y.), 769. 
 
 Vacant office, 735 ; parish, 734, 738. 
 
 Vatican council, 718, 721-6; court, 718, 724, 
 73 r, 740; decrees, 721-2-4, 730, 733; palace, 
 715, 726. Vaticanism, 718-26, 728, 795, 796 ; 
 see Conflicts. 
 
 Vaughan, Bp. Herbert, 771. 
 
 Venezuela (S. A.), 746. 
 
 Vercheres (Canada), 761. 
 
 Vermont or Vt., 770 ; see Burlington. 
 
 Versailles (France), 728. 
 
 Vicar, 722 ; & vicariates apostolic, 738, 764-9 ; 
 general, 734, 769; of Christ, 789. 
 
 Vice in pub. schools, 775, 780; see Virtue. 
 
 Victor Emannel (king of Italy), 715. 
 
 Vjctoria (queen of Great Britain), 755. 
 
 Vincennes (Ind.) diocese and bp., 765. 
 
 Virgin ; see Mary the V. 
 
 Virginia, 770; see Richmond, Wheeling. 
 
 Virtue promoted by good education, 772. 
 
 Visions, 739, 744. 
 
 Visitation by civil authorities, 793-4. V. 
 convent, nuns, &c., 744, 768. 
 
 Voce della Verita (R. C. journal), 737. 
 
 Voting free, 730; interfered with, 739, 745-6, 
 752, 753, 762, 779-80 ; see Political. 
 
 Vows abrogated, 751. 
 
 Waddington, Hon. Win. H.,744. 
 
 Waldensians, 727. 
 
 Wales (Great Britain), 718, 749. 
 
 Walker, Rev. David B., 780. 
 
 Watertown (N. Y.), 770. 
 
 Watkins, Rev. David and Mrs., 749-50. 
 
 Wesleyans, 728. 
 
 Westchester Co. (N. Y.), 788. 
 
 West Indies or W. I., 717, 718, 770. 
 
 Westminster (Eng.), Abp. of, 717, 719, 744. 
 
 Westphalia (Germany), 769. 
 
 Wheeling (W. Va.) diocese & bp., 765. 
 
 Wickham.Hon. Wm. H. (mayor of N.Y.),791. 
 
 Wilberforce, Wm. & Bp. Samuel, 719. 
 
 William I (emp. Germany), 720, 728. 
 
 Wilmington (Del.) diocese & bp., 765,767. 
 
 Winchester (Eng.), Bp. of, 719. 
 
 Wisconsin or Wis., 769, 770, 784 (conv.) ; see 
 Green Bay, La Crosse, Milwaukee. 
 
 Wiseman, Cardinal, 719 ; see 96. 
 
 Witness, Montreal, 752, 763, 794. N. Y. 
 Weekly, 761, 792, 793, 794. 
 
 Wollmann, Dr., 729, 730. 737. 
 
 Wood, Bp. and Abp. J. F., 765-6, 796. 
 
 Woolsey, Ex-pres. T. D., 780-4. 
 
 Woodstock college (Md.), 771. 
 
 World's R. C. statistics, 717 ; Jesuits, 771. 
 
 Worship disturbed, 749, 750-; Houses of, 791- 
 3 ; Minister or Ministry of public, 729,744 ; 
 R. C. exclusive, 774, 777-8, 789 ; see Free- 
 dom, Relig. liberty, &c. 
 
 Wflrtemberg (Germany), 732, 737 note. 
 
 Yale college, 771, 781.
 
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