GORDON MELTON LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA Gift of THE INSTITUTE FOR THE STUDY OF AMERICAN RELIGION L ROMANISM AS IT IS : y AN EXPOSITION OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM, USE OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE; EMBRACING A FULL ACCOUNT OF ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT AT ROME AND FROM ROME, ITS DISTINCTIVE FEATURES IN THEORY AND PRACTICE, ITS CHARACTERISTIC TENDENCIES AND AIMS, ITS STATISTICAL AND MORAL POSITION, AND ITS SPECIAL RELATIONS TO AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS AND LIBERTIES; THE WHOLE DRAWN ?ROf OFFICIAL AND AUTHENTIC SOURCES, AND ENRICHED WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS, DOCUMENTARY, HISTORICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, ANECDOTICAL, AND PICTORIAL: TO QETHER WITH A FULL AND COMPLETE INDEX, AND AN APPENDIX OF MATTERS From 1871 to 1876. Bev. SAMUEL W. BARNUM, it Editor of the Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible. HARTFORD, CONN: CONNECTICUT PUBLISHING COMPANY ST. LOUIS BIBLE PUBLISHING CO., ST. LOOTB, Mo. LOUIS LLOYD & CO., CHICAGO, ILL. 1878. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871. By SAMUEL W. BARNUM, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, By SAMUEL W. BARNUM, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. CASE, LOCKWOOD AND BRAINARD, PRINTERS AND BOOKBINDERS, Cor. Pearl and Trumbull Street*, HARTFORD, CONN. PEEFAOE. " ANOTHER book ' Romanism as it is !' I don't want to see it ! I've heard about Romanism ever since I was a child ; and the book- stores have more books on this subject now than are needed." Stop a minute, friend ! Just read the title-page through ; look at this preface, if you please ; study the table of contents ; examine the en- gravings and the reading-matter ; and then think, if you can, what there is, that can fill the place of this present volume. It is true that there are many books on some particular part or parts of the subject here presented ; and not a few, whose statements and arguments are, for one reason or another, received by many gcod people with great suspicion and multiform allowance ; but there is no book which can properly claim to be so comprehensive and complete in all its parts, and so full of the most recent and authentic and valuable information on all the living questions connected with this great subject as this book. The subject certainly ought to command attention from all Amer- icans. The Roman Catholics constitute a large and increasing part of our population ; is it a matter of no concern to us who and what our neighbors are ? Do you not care, friend, who has the balance of power, or the whole power, in our country, provided you can make money, or enjoy yourself for the time being ? If there is any subject upon which every person in the United States of America should be well informed, it is the subject of Romanism. This is not a sensation-book, which aims especially to tell big stories, and to please those who delight to read only the thrilling, the horrible, the unnatural, and the improbable. It is not a romance or a novel with fact and fiction mixed together in inextricable confusion. No ! It has a higher aim to make its readers wiser and better to give them a more correct understanding of matters and questions that are of present and lasting importance, and to fit them for the right dis- charge of those responsible duties which the great and glorious Ruler over all has placed on us as a people and as individuals. In order to iy PREFACE. make every thing plain to ordinary readers, the author has translated the foreign and learned terms which necessarily abound in such a volume, and has endeavored to simplify and explain what seemed ob- scure, and, by means of the table of contents, the frequent references, the general index, and other aids^ to avoid needless repetitions, to bring the whole into a complete and symmetrical form, and to place all its stores of information at the reader's immediate command. This book is not a partisan book, but a book of knowledge and of truth. It has cost much hard work to gather its materials and to put them in proper shape ; but what is here contained is believed to be honestly worth what it has cost the author and publishers, or will cost the reader. The most authentic sources of information have been consulted and used ; the exact truth has been diligently sought and carefully presented to view that it may be seen and known just as it is. Whatever is wise and honorable and reputable and right and true in Rome itself or in the system which there has its origin and seat, has been brought out and exhibited without inquiring solicitously who would be pleased or displeased by the procedure. And, on the other hand, that which is unwise, dishonorable, disgraceful, unrighteous and false, has likewise been spoken of with the same attempt at impartiality and usefulness. Misapprehensions, prejudices, and misrepresentations ought to be corrected, whether they are found in the Roman Catholic or in the Protestant. If what is held or maintained as truth cannot bear the light and cannot stand with God's help, then it is not God's truth ; and no Catholic or Protestant should cling to it. While the author of this book is a thorough Protestant, ances- trally and personally, by position and feeling and undoubting convic- tion, he has allowed Roman Catholics and Roman Catholic authorities to speak for themselves on all points, to tell their own story, to present their own side in all its strength ; and he has likewise endeavored to let Protestantism have an equally fair chance to speak freely and for- cibly. The main part of the book is from Roman Catholic sources ; much of it is translated from their standard Latin works which are altogether beyond the reach of people in general. Hence Roman Catholics themselves may learn more of their own church and system from this volume than they could in a century from all the sources of information to which they have access. The " Canones et Decreta Sacrosancti (Ecjimenict Concilii Tridentini" (= Canons and Decrees of the Holy Ecumenical Council of Trent) j the " Concilii Plenarii PREFACE. V BaUimorensis IL, in Ecclesia Metropolitana Baltimorensi, a die vii. ad diem xxi. Octobris, A. D., MDCCCLXVL, habiti, et a Sede Apostolica recogniti, Acta et Decreta " (= Acts and Decrees of the 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore, held in the Metropolitan Church of Baltimore from the 7th to the 21st day of October, 1866, and authenticated by the Apostolic See) ; the " Mtssale Romanum " ( Roman Missal) ; the " Breviarium Romanum " (== Roman Breviary) ; the " Rituale Roma- num ") = Roman Ritual) ; the " Pontificate Romanum " (= Roman Pontifical) ; " The Primacy of the Apostolic See Vindicated, by Francis Patrick Kendrick, Bp. of Philadelphia ; " " The Garden of the Soul ; " The Catechism of the Council of Trent (Latin and English) ; Collot's " Doctrinal and Scriptural Catechism ; " Ambrose St. John's " Rac- colta, or Collection of Indulgenced Prayers ; " " The Golden Book of the Confraternities;" "St. John's Manual;" St. Alphonsus Liguori's <' Glories of Mary ; " Brandes's " Rome and the Popes ; " The " Cere- monial," published by authority of the Baltimore Council and with the approbation oi the Holy See, for the use of the R. C. Churches in the U. S. ; " The Vickers and Purcell Controversy," published by Abp. Purcell; Cardinal Wiseman's Essays ; " The Catholic World ;" "The Catholic Family Almanac ; " " Sadliers' Catholic Directory, Alma- nac, and Ordo ; " and other standard and approved Roman Catholic publications ; Gieseler's and Murdock's Mosheim's Ecclesiastical His- tories; " The Penny Cyclopedia of the [British] Society for the Dif- fusion of Useful Knowledge," edited by Prof. George Long of Univer- sity College, London, with the cooperation of more than 200 contrib- utors ; Appletons' "New American Cyclopedia;" Murray's Hand- book of Rome and its Environs ; Vasi & Nibby's " Guide of Rome ; " Harper's Hand-book for Travelers in Europe and the East ; and nu- merous other volumes, pamphlets, and documents of authority and value, have all contributed their share to make the present volume A STANDARD WORK in its department a work which may be appealed to with confidence by every one who prizes truth and loves his country, as containing facts and views and arguments which he needs to know a reliable and faithful " Exposition of the Roman Catholic System for the Use of the American People." TABLE OF CONTENTS. FAGZ. PREFACE, ---..---*... 3-5 TABLE OF CONTEKTS, ' - - - * t5_15 PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS, DESCRIPTIVE LIST, ..... 16-18 CHAPTER I., 19-89 THE CITT OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. Its comparative Antiquity. Dates of its Foundation. Romulus and his Succes- sors ; King, Senate, and People ; Patricians and Clients. The Roman Repub- lic : Consuls, Senate, and People ; Tribunes ; Twelve Tables ; Patricians, Ple- beians, and Knights ; Popular Assemblies ; Slaves ; Soldiers and Wars ; Tem- ple of Janus ; Invasions by the Gauls who burn Rome ; Romans become mas- ters of Italy ; 3 Punic Wars, and Destruction of Carthage ; Romans conquer the known world; Internal Dissensions, Dictators, Insurrections, Social and Civil and Servile Wars, and Conspiracies ; First Triumvirate, Julius Cesar, Pompey, and Crassus ; Cesar's Dictatorship and Death ; Second Triumvirate, Octavius (or Octavian), Antony, and Lepidus ; End of the Roman Republic. Augustus and the other Roman Emperors ; their Chronology and Succession. Varying Limits of Roman Territory. Roman Religion ; its Gods and Heathen Institutions ; 10 Persecutions of Christians ; Christianity afterwards Dominant. Decline of the Empire ; Luxury, Licentiousness, and Division ; Rome burnt by the Goths under Alaric ; Other enemies, Huns, Vandals, and Heruli ; End of the Roman Empire of the West. Kingdom of Italy under the Goths and Lombards. Rome and the exarchs of Ravenna. Charlemagne and his succes- sors. The Roman Senator. The Popes as Temporal Princes from 1278 to 1870. Rome again the Capital of Italy. Its Situation and General Features; its Climate, Hills, River, Ports, Bridges, Military Roads, Railroads, Walls, Gates ; Panorama of Rome. Principal Churches : St. Peter's Basilica, with a notice of the Chair of St. Peter ; Basilicas of St. John Lateran, St. Mary Ma- jor, St. Paul, San Lorenzo or St. Lawrence, Holy Cross in Jerusalem, St. Agnes beyond the Walls ; 11 other Churches Described. Palaces : the Vatican, with its Paulino and Sistine Chapels, Museum, Library, &c. ; Quirinal ; Lat- eran ; Capitol ; Private Palaces ; Palace of the Inquisition ; Palazso delta Can- odleria. Villas. Colleges. Schools and Periodicals. Hospitals. Work- CONTENTS. Vii house. Squares. Obelisks. Fountains. Aqueducts, modern and ancient. Castle of St. Angelo. Antiquities : Tomb of Cecilia Metella ; the Coliseum ; Circus of Romulus and Circus Maxima; Palace of the Cesars; Monte Tes- taccio ; Baths of Caracalla, of Diocletian, and of Titus ; the Pantheon ; Roman Forum; Mamertine Prison; Arches of Titus and of Constantine; Trajan's Column and Antonine Column ; Pretorian Camp ; Campus Martius ; Catacombs and Columbaria ; Cloaca Maxima. The Modern City : its Industry, Popula- tion, Districts, Government and Condition under the Papal Rule. CHAPTER II., 90-118 GENERAL VIEW OF THE ROHAN CATHOLIC CHURCH OR SYSTEM. The terms " Roman Catholic," " Romanism," " Romish," " Papacy," &c. Prot- estant Analysis of the System, with Historical Memoranda of Church Rites, Ceremonies, Practices, Doctrines, Titles, &c. Cardinal Wiseman's Account of the R. C. Church ; its Government, Laws (including the Creed of Pope Pius IV.), Constitutive Principle, and Extent of Dominion, with notes giving the "Nicene Creed," the Tridentine Doctrines of Original Sin and Justification, &c The " Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary," as pronounced and denned, Dec. 8, 1854. Vatican Decree of July 18, 1870, establishing the Primacy and Infallibility of the Pope. CHAPTER III., 119-164 THE POPES AND THEIR SOVEREIGNTY. The titles " Pope," " Roman Pontiff," " Holy See," &c. The Pope's Spiritual Sovereignty or Supremacy: Argument from Mat. 16 : 18, 19 ; Question about Peter's being Bishop of the Church of Rome ; Historical View of the Pope's Spiritual Sovereignty. History of the Pope's Temporal Authority : Peter not a Sovereign ; Privileges granted to the Clergy and Bishops by the Roman Emperors ; Political Importance of the Bishop of Rome from the 7th century onward ; Grants from Pepin and Charlemagne ; " Isidorian Decretals " ; John XII. and the A Troubles of the 10th century ; Gregory VTI. enforces the Celibacy of the Clergy, destroys the Independence of the National Churches, and humbles the Emperor Henry IV.; Donation of the Countess Matilda; The Crusades and the Canon Law; Innocent III. forms a Papal State; Removal to Avignon ; Great Schism of the West ; Deposition of Pope John XXIIL, &c., by the Council of Constance ; Decline of Power after Boniface VIII. ; Eugene IV. and the Council of Basle ; the Papal State from Alexander VI. to the present time. Notices of some Popes : Alexander VI. ; Julius II. ; Leo X. ; Pius VII. ; Leo XII. ; Pius VIII. ; Gregory XVI. ; Pius IX. The Pope's Private Life. His Swiss Guards and State-carriage. A Papal Proces- sion. Mass at the Pope's Chapel. The Papal Government. Occupation of Rome by the Italians in 1870: Language of " The Catholic World "; Excom- munication of the King of Italy, &c. ; Address of New York Catholics to the Pope, December, 1870 ; Resolutions and Address to the Government and People of Italy, from the Meeting at the N. Y. Academy of Music, Jan. 13, 1871. Names and Chronology of the Popes. VU1 CONTENTS. PiOI. CHAPTER IV., 165-186 THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AND OTHER OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS. "Allocution" defined; Allocution Maxima qw'dem, of June 9, 1862. "Bull" defined. Bulls, In Ccena Domini, Unigenitvs, and ^Eternus ille. "Brief" ; Defi- nition and Example. " Encyclical Letter " defined ; Encyclical Letter of Pope Gregory XVI., May 8, 1844, and its bearings. "Rescript"; Definition and Example. " Constitution " defined and exemplified. CHAPTER V., 187-201 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. "Cardinal" defined; Development of the Office; Number, Rank, Salary, Dress, and Mode of Appointment ; Personal Appearance ; List. Secretary of State ; Antonelli described. "Consistory" defined. "Conclave" described. "Pre- lates " described. " Congregations " ; their origin, composition, and special work. CHAPTER VI., - - . -202-253 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. " Ecumenical " and other Councils defined. The Catholic Almanac's List of Ecu- menical Councils. Councils accepted by the Greeks, &c. Notices of Ecumen- ical Councils : (I.) First of Nice, 325 ; (II.) First of Constantinople, 381 ; (III.) of Ephesus, 431 ; (IV.) of Chalcedon, 451 ; (V.) Second of Constantinople, 553; (VI.) Third of Constantinople, 680; (VII.) Second of Nice, 787 ; (VIII.) Fourth of Constantinople, 869; (IX.) First Lateran, 1123; (X.) Second Lat- eran, 1139; (XI.) Third Lateran, 1179; (XII.) Fourth Lateran, 1215; (XIII.) First of Lyons, 1245; (XIV.) Second of Lyons, 1274; (XV.) of Vienne, 1311. Council of Pisa, 1409, summoned by Cardinals to end the Great West- ern Schism.' Council of Constance, 1414-18 ; its Deposition of Pope John XXIII. ; Election of Martin V. ; Burning of John Huss and of Jerome of Prague ; Decrees respecting the Supremacy of the Council, &c. Council of Basle, 1431, &c. ; its Contests with Pope Eugene IV. Council at Ferrara and Florence, 1438, &c., for Union with the Greek Church. Fifth Lateran Council, 1512-17; its Sanction of Papal Supremacy. Council of Trent, 1545-63 ; The Catholic World's Synopsis of its Work ; Notices by Hallam and Mosheim. Vatican Council, 1869-70; Bull of Convocation, 1868; Letters Apostolic to the Eastern Churches and to Protestants, &c., with the Answer of American Presbyterians; Syllabus of 1864 ; Protestant Anticipations of the Council; Preparatory Committees ; Apostolical Letter of Regulations, and Assembly of Dec. 2d ; Council-hall ; Opening of the Council, Dec. 8th, from " The Catholic World"; Committees chosen; Discussion on the 1st schema; 2d Public Ses- sion, and Profession of Faith by the Pope and Members of the Council, Jan. 6, 1870; Additional Regulations; 3d Public Session, and Dogmatic Decree on CONTENTS. iX Catholic Faith, April 24th ; Schema on the Little Catechism voted on, May- 4th ; Discussion, Parties, and Vote on the Dogma of the Pope's Primacy and Infal- libility ; Address of the Minority, declining to attend the Promulgation of the Dogma; 4th General Session, July 18th, and Promulgation of the Decrees and Canons respecting the Pope's Primacy and Infallibility, as described in " The Catholic World " and " The New York Tribune " ; The Tribune's Synopsis of the Council's Work ; Adjournment and Indefinite Suspension of the Council. CHAPTER VII., .... 254-282 THE CLEEGT. " Priest " ; Different Meanings ; Protestant and R. C. Views. Sacrament of Or- ders, from the Catechism of the Council of Trent : 7 Orders, viz., Tonsure, Por- ter, Reader or Lector, Exorcist, Acolyte, Subdeacon, Deacon, Priest ; Degrees of the Priesthood, viz., Priest simply, Bishop or Pontiff, Archbishop, Patri- arch, Sovereign Pontiff. Clerical Dress : its Various Articles alphabetically described, with their Emblematic Significations ; Different Colors for Different Days ; Bishop's Dress ; Dress of Minor Orders ; Materials and Cost. Ecclesi- astical Education and Seminaries ; Decrees, Course, &c. ; Dr. Mattison on R. C. Clergy in the United States. Celibacy, except among the Oriental priests ; cases of St. Peter and St. Patrick. Beneficed Priests, Professors, and Bishops take Oath of Conformity and Obedience. Priests assignable and removable by the Bishop. Co-pastors not allowed. Bishops ; how nominated and appointed in the United States ; Consecration of 3 Bishops in New York, Oct. 30, 1 853 ; Bishop's Oath. Statistics of Priests, Ecclesiastical Seminaries and Students by Dioceses in the United States, 1870 and 1871 ; Present Number in the Country. Names of Archbishops, Bishops, and Vicars Apostolic in the United States, 1870-1. Bishops and Priests in the World ; Number and Efficiency. CHAPTER VIH., .... 283-347 BELIGIOUS ORDERS AND CONGREGATIONS. Early History of Monasticism : Paul of Thebes, Anthony, and Simeon the Stylite ; Pachomius, Basil and the Basilians (at Cleveland, O.); Development down to St. Benedict. Historical, Characteristic, and Statistical Descriptions of the Re- i ligious Orders and Congregations, especially of those in the United States, in- cluding their Names and Sorts, Rules, Habits, Divisions, Establishments, Dis- tinguished Members, &c. I. MONKS proper. Basilians (see above). Benedic- tine Monks and Nuns. Trappists. II. CANONS. Augustinian Canons. Pre- monstrants. HI. FRIARS, or Mendicant Orders. Franciscans ; Conventuals, Observants, Recollects, Monks, Nuns, Pius IX. and other Tertiarians, &c. Capuchins. Dominicans, Monks, Nuns, Tertiarians, Inquisitors, &c. Carmel- ites, " Calced ," and " Discalced," Monks, Nuns, Tertiarians, &c. Augustinian Eremites. Servites. " Sisters of Charity of the Order of St. Augustine." Sisters of Mercy. Visitation Nuns. Ursuline Nuns. Alexian Brothers. IV. REGULAB CLERKS. Jesuits (see Chap. IX.). Order of St. Viateur. V. CON- X CONTENTS. GREGATIONS. Oratorians : Italian and English; French. Passionists. Laz- arists. Sisters of Charity, and their Mother-Houses at Emmettsburg, Yonkers, and Madison ; " Sisters of Charity, commonly called Gray Nuns " ; " Sisters of Charity, commonly called Sisters of Providence " ; " Sisters of Charity of the B. V. M." ; " Sisters of Charity of Nazareth." Sulpicians. Redemptorists. Paulists. Oblate Fathers. " Fathers of the Society of Mary." " Society of the Fathers of Mercy." " Brethren of the Christian Schools," and " Christian Brothers." " Brothers of the Christian Instruction of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary," and " Brothers of Christian Instruction." " Congregation of the Holy Cross." Xavierian Brothers. " Brothers of the Sacred Heart." " Chris- tian Brothers of the Society of Mary." " Congregation of the Most Precious Blood." "Ladies of the Sacred Heart." "Sisters of St. Joseph." "Sisters of the Congregation of our Lady," or "of Notre Dame," and " School-Sisters of Notre Dame." " Sisters of Loretto." " Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary." " Sisters of St. Ann." " Community of the Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ." " Sisters of our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd," and " 3d Order of St. Teresa." " Little Sisters of the Poor." " Sister-Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary," and " Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary." " Sisters of the Humility of Mary." " Sisters of St. Mary.'' " Daughters of the Cross." " Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus." " Sisters of the Incarnate Word." " Oblate Sisters of Providence." " Sisters of the Holy Family." " Sisters of Providence." " St. Agnes Community." " Sceurs Hos- pitalieres." " Presentation Convents." Statistics of Eeligious Orders and Con- gregations in the United States and in the World. Extinct Orders. Present Monastic Constitution. Terms Defined. Suppression of Monasteries and Mo- nastic Orders in Various European Countries Detention of Persons in Con- vents, and Proposals for Legislation. Dr. De Sanctis on the 3 Classes of Per- sons who become Nuns, and on the Character and Health of Roman Convents. Leo XII. compels a Nun to see her Mother. Edith O'Gorman, &c. Hull Convent Trial. Rev. Dr. Bonar's Lines, " This is no heaven ! " Reformatory Decree of the Council of Trent. Bp. Ricci's and Pius IX.'s Attempts at Re- form. Regulations of Plenary Council of Baltimore. Form for the Benedic- tion and Consecration of Virgins. Ceremony of Reception, among the Sisters of Mercy. CHAPTER LX., 348-360 THE JESUITS. Their Founder, Ignatius Loyola. Origin, Objects, and Constitutions. Mosheim on their Influence. History and Suppression in France and other European Countries. Character by Hallam, Penny Cyclopedia, and De Sanctis. Number at different times. History and Generals since 1814. Jesuits hi the United States : Early Efforts ; Statistics in 1860 and 1870. CHAPTER X., - - - ; - - 361-373 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS AND SOCIETIES. Early Christian Missionaries. New Impulse of the 13th Century. Columbus, CONTENTS. XI Cortez, &c. R. C. Mission in Congo. Xavier and Missions in the East Indies, Japan, China, &c. Jesuit Missions in America. Colleges of the Propaganda, &c., for Educating Missionaries. Association for the Propagation of the Faith, Leopold Association, &c. Differences between R. C. and Protestant Missions. Statistics of R. C. Missions. Comparative Success of Protestant and R. C. Missions. CHAPTER XL, - 374-390 THE HOLT OFFICE OR INQUISITION. Establishment in the 13th Century. Mode of Procedure, from Friar Nicholas Eymeric Modern or Spanish Inquisition. Case of Abp. Carranza. Congre- gation of the Holy Office. Inquisition in Italy. Inquisition at Borne in 1849, from Dr. De Sanctis. 3 kinds of Torture. Auto da Fe. Spanish Inquisition Suppressed and its Building near Madrid Destroyed in 1809. Statistics. Inqui- sition Defended by R. C. Prelates, &c. " The Catholic World " on Cardinal Ximenes and the Spanish Inquisition. Estimate of the Inquisition, from the Penny Cyclopedia. Inquisition at Borne down to 1870. CHAPTER XH., 391-407 PERSECUTIONS. Canon of the 4th Lateran Council. The Albigenses, and the Crusade against them. The Waldenses or Vaudois : Names and Origin ; Missionary Efforts ; Persecution in 1400; Crusades of 1487, &c. ; Massacre of 1655; Milton's Lines; English Intervention and Subscription; War and Expulsion in 1686; Return in 1689; Subsequent Trials up to 1848. In France: Martyrdom of Leclerc and Chatelain ; Massacre of St. Bartholomew, the Papal Medal, &c. ; Subsequent Persecutions. In Bohemia and England. Statistics. In Madeira in 1843, &c. Responsibility of the B. C. Church. Prof. Fisher on the Differ- ences between Roman Catholics and Protestants in respect to Persecutions. Official Declarations of Protestant Churches. Infallibility and Persecution. Quotation from the London Times. CHAPTER Xm., .... 408-421 THE BIBLE. Ths Bible the Religion of Protestants. Creed of Pius IV. on Tradition and Scripture. Council of Trent on the Canonical Scriptures, the Vulgate, Censor, ship, &c. Decree of the 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore. The Latin Vul- gate, Douay Bible, and Bhemish Testament. Parallel Passages of the Douay and English Bibles. Prof. Lewis on their Likeness. Opposition to the "Prot- estant Bible " : Wickliffe Condemned ; Tyndale Strangled and Burnt ; Rules re- specting Prohibited Books and Versions ; Bible-burning in the U. S., &c. Ex- pensiveness of Douay and other Bibles with Notes, and Scarcity of them in Xll CONTENTS. R. C. countries. Challenge to Abp. Hughes and others in respect to Approved Translations." Is it honest ? " CHAPTER XIV., .... 422-482 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, EXERCISES, ARTICLES, AND TERMS. The Mass, Missal, and Liturgy ; Kinds of Mass ; Order of the Mass, with 35 Illus- trations. The Breviary and Canonical Hours. Seven Sacraments Described : Baptism ; Confirmation ; Eucharist ; Penance ; Extreme Unction ; Orders : Matrimony, with its Regulations and Form. Litanies. Confraternities. As- sociation for Prayer Described. " Missions " of the Oblates, &c. Procession with the Host. Church Terms and Articles alphabetically explained and illus- trated. CHAPTER XV., .... 483-494 HONOR PAID TO SAINTS, RELICS, PICTURES, IMAGES, &C. Decree of the Council of Trent. Devotions to Mary : " Litany of our Lady of Loretto " ; the Rosary described and illustrated ; Living Rosary; other Offices and Devotions to Mary; Liguori's " Glories of Mary"; Statue of Mary and Infant Jesus. St. Joseph : Novena ; Banner. Protestant View, from Cramp. CHAPTER XVI., .... 495-502 HOLT DATS. 1st and 2d Commandments of the Church. Movable Feasts, Holydays of Obliga- tion, Fasting-days, Days of Abstinence, and Ember-days. Other Festivals. Lent : the Carnival ; Passion-Sunday ; Palm-Sunday and Holy Week ; Easter- Sunday. Protestant View. CHAPTER XVII., .... 503-516 CONFESSION AND THE CONFESSIONAL. Definition and Doctrine. Secrecy. The Confessional Illustrated. Method of Confession and Form of Absolution. Catechism of the Council of Trent on the Advantages of Confession, and Reply by Cramp. Lasteyrie, Gavin, and Blanco White on Auricular Confession. Abp. Kenrick on Papal Legislation re- specting Seduction at or through Confession. Protestant View. CHAPTER XVm., .... 517-528 OFFENSES AND PENALTIES. " Penance," " Satisfaction," " Mortal " and " Venial " Sins. Commandments of the Church. Catalogues of Sins. Bp. of Toronto on Mortal Sins, &c. " Re- served Cases." Excommunication, Minor, Major, and Anathema ; Forms, &c., from the Roman Pontifical. Purgatory ; the Doctrine, Proof, Variety of Opin- ions, &c. Protestant View and Illustrative Note. CONTENTS. FAOB CHAPTER XEX., .... 529-540 INDULGENCES. Decree of the Council of Trent. The Doctrine explained hy Leo X., Challoner, Butler, and Collot. 4 Specimens of Indulgences. Indulgences attached to Scapulars. " Is it honest ? " Inconsistency between Theory and Practice on Indulgences, by Wm. H. Goodrich, D. D. CHAPTER XX., 541-551 CHURCH-EDIFICES. Church-edifices in Early Times and on the Continent of Europe. Cathedrals of Cologne and Seville. American Churches : Notre Dame, Montreal ; Cathedral, Baltimore ; Church of Immaculate Conception, and Cathedral, Boston ; Churches in Connecticut ; St. Patrick's Cathedral (new), St. Ann's, and St. Alphonsus's churches, New York ; Churches in Trenton, Philadelphia, Bald- more, Washington, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, San Francisco. Lists of Corner-stones laid and Churches dedicated, Sept., 1869 Aug., 18"0. Shrewdness in the Location, &c. Rev. Dr. Gumming on R. C. Use of the Fine Arts. CHAPTER XXI., .... 552-567 CHTJBCH-PROPERTY AND REVENUES. " Trustee-system " changed to Ownership and Control by the Bishops : Acts of Councils connected with the Change ; Abp. Hughes ; the St. Louis Church, Buffalo ; Father Chiuiquy ; New York Legislation ; Petition and Report in Massachusetts Legislature in 1866. Revenues of the R. C. Church: Sources and Modes of Raising; Masses; Burial-expenses; Matrimonial Anecdote; Salaries of Priests ; Papal Revenue from Indulgences, Peter-pence, &c. CHAPTER XXIL, .... 568-575 DENIAL OF THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE JUDGMENT. Roman Catholic Authorities on this subject. Examples : Rev. Thomas Farrell ; Galileo ; Lamennais, Lacordaire, and Montalembert ; Father Hyacinthe. Prot- estant View of the Right of Private Judgment. CHAPTER XXHL, --.. 576-587 ASSUMPTION AND EXERCISE OF TEMPORAL POWER. Different Opinions on the Extent and Limits of the Pope's Temporal Power : Quotations from " The Catholic World," the " Syllabus " of 1862, 4th Lateran Council, Abp. Kenrick of Baltimore, Hon. Joseph R. Chandler, &c. Gallican- ism condemned by Popes. Pius VII. 's Instructions to his Nuncio at Vienna.-' XIV CONTENTS. Brownson's Quarterly Review on the Pope's Divine Right to Temporal Power. Power assumed and exercised by Pope Pius IX., Abp. Hughes, Bp. Charbon- nel, Priests, &c. CHAPTER XXIV. .... 588-609 EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES. Acts and Decrees of the 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore. Extracts from R. C. Periodicals, &c. New York Controversy, 1823, &c. : N. Y. Public School Soci- ety ; Abp. Hughes ; Appropriations to R. C. Institutions ; N. Y. " Tax-levy " of 1869 and Repeal. Cincinnati Controversy, 1842, &c. : Acts of the School Board; Suit of 1869 and Decision. Massachusetts Law on reading Bible in Schools, and Boston Controversy. Connecticut Law, and R. C. Public Schools in New Haven, New Britain, and Waterbury. Schools in Manchester, N. H. Demand for State-aid in 1853 and subsequently. Rev. B. G. Northrop on an Unsectarian School-system. Rev. H. W. Beecher on the R. C. Plan. CHAPTER XXV. .... 610-621 RELATION OF THE SYSTEM TO GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND PROSPERITY. Our Public-School System of Protestant Origin. " The Catholic World " and Brownson's Quarterly Review on Education and General Intelligence, with Notes. Protestant View. Condition of Italy, Spain, Protestant and Catholic Switzerland, Protestant and Catholic Ireland, and other Protestant and Cath- olic countries. R. C. Periodicals, Bookstores, and Publications in the United States. Conclusions unfavorable to the R. C. Church. CHAPTER XXVI.,- - - - 622-636 MORAL INFLUENCE OF THE SYSTEM. Protestant Concession as to Individuals. Council of Baltimore on Idle and Vicious Youth. Comparative Statistics of European Countries in respect to Murder, Illegitimacy, &c. Police and Prison Statistics of New York City. Immorality of Rome. General Character of Irish Catholic Laborers. Suppression of the 2d Commandment. Miracles : from " Glories of Mary " ; Blood of St. Janu- arius at Naples ; Holy Coat of Treves ; Sacred Thorn of Bari, &c., dropping blood ; Apparition of the Virgin at La Salette ; Frauds. Protestant View. CHAPTER XXVH., .... 637-661 RELATION TO CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY. R. C. Denial of Hostility to Liberty. Origin of Religious Liberty : Maryland and Lord Baltimore ; Roger Williams and Providence ; Menno, &c. ; the Independ- ents of England ; John Robinson. Barclay's Definition and Argument R. C t Position: Pope's Encyclicals and Syllabus of 1864; Cardinal An tonelli ; Cat- echisms of Pen-one ; The Catholic World and other R. C. Periodicals. Rome under the Popes, by Consul Stillman, &c. ; Proclamation to the Jews of Ancona CONTENTS. XV in 1843; Mortara Case. Tuscany and other Parts of Italy; Cases of Count Guicciardini, of the Madiai, &c. France. Spain ; Case of Matamoros, &c. Portugal; Law of 1852. Austria; Concordat of 1855, abrogated in 1867; Pope's Allocution. Castelar's Declaration. New Granada and Pope's Allocu- tion of 1852. Peru. Ecuador and its Concordat with the Pope. Mexico and its Struggles for Liberty. Cuba ; Stealing a Grave. Canada ; Excommunica- tions ; Guibord Case ; Beating of Colporteurs ; Gavazzi Mobs. United States ; Tompkins Square Meetings Stopped ; Attempt to Assassinate Miss O'Gorman ; Mob at Columbus, 0. Protestant Views of the System and Argument. CHAPTER XXVIH., .... 662-692 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL POWER OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. In the United States: Statistics and Estimates of R. C. Population, 1790-1870; Increase by Immigration, Annexation, Multiplication of Children, and Conver- sions of Protestants, with Statistical and Illustrative Details, Comparisons with Conversions to Protestantism and other Losses ; Dr. Mattison's Enumeration of New Expedients Adopted by the Roman Catholics of this Country for Advanc- ing their Power. In England ; Statistics of the R. C. Population at Different Times, Conversions, Converts, &c. ; Cardinal Wiseman, &c., on R. C. Progress, Modes of Influence, &c. In Great Britain ; Gains in England and Scotland Compared with Losses in Ireland. On the Continent of Europe ; Losses in It- aly, Spain, Portugal, Austria, France, Belgium, Germany ; Great Change in the Comparative Power of Protestant and R. C. Nations. In America ; Losses in Mexico, Canada, &c. In the World : Loss of Power on the Whole ; Con- fession and Boast of " The Catholic World " ; Complete Statistics from R. C. and Protestant Authorities, with an Estimate of their Comparative Value, and a Prophecy. CHAPTER XXIX., - - - - 693 to 712 CONCLUSION. " We have heard both sides." Elements of R. C. Strength and Weakness. Du- ties and Encouragements of American Protestants. APPENDIX, INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO THE APPENDIX, 713 TABLE OF CONTENTS TO THE APPENDIX, - - - 714 PART I. THE POPB AKD CARDINALS, ..... 715-717 PART IT. STATISTICS OP R. C. POPULATION, .... 717-718 PART HI. VATICANISM, ULTRAMONTANISM, &c., ... 718-726 PART IV. ROMANISM IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, ... 726-764 PART V. ROMANISM IN THE UNITED STATES, ... 764-797 GENERAL INDEX, .... 798-838 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX, - - 839 to end. PIOTOEIAL ILLUSTRATIONS. FULL-PAGE ENGRAVINGS. I. PANORAMA OF ROME, - - - . -. : - ... FRONTISPIECE The figures on it indicate 1. Porta del Popolo [ = Gate of the People], at the N. extremity of the city. 2. Piazza [= Place] del Popolo, with an Obelisk in the center. 3. Church of Santa Maria [= St. Mary] del Popolo. 4. 5. Churches of Santa Maria di Monte Santo and Santa Maria de' Miracdi. 6. Via del Corso [ Way (or, Street) of the Course, i. e., race-course]. 7. Castle of St. Angelo. 8. Basilica di San Pietro [= St. Peter's]. 9. Vatican Palace. 10. Piazza di San Pietro [= St. Peter's Place], with its Obelisk, Colonnade, &c. 11. Church of San Pietro in Monlorio [= St. Peter's on Montorio, or on the Ja- niculum]. 12. Porta San Paolo [= St. Paul's Gate], on the way to Ostia. 13. Porta San Sebastiano [= St. Sebastian's Gate], on the old Appian Way, at the S. extremity of the city. 14. Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano [= of St. John Lateran], 15. Porta San Giovanni [= St. John's Gate], on the way to Naples by Albano. 16. Lateran Palace (not numbered in the engraving, but N. of and apparently joined with 14). 17. Basilica di Santa Croce in Gerusalemme [= of Holy Cross in Jerusalem]. 18. Church of San Stefano [= St. Stephen] Rotondo [ round, or a rotunda], 19. Coliseum or Colosseum, also called Flavian Amphitheatre or Amphitheatre of Vespasian. 20. Ruins of the Roman Forum. 21. Piazza del Campidoglio [ Capitol Place, or the Capitol Palaces round the Place on the Capitoline Hill]. 22. Pantheon. 23. Quirinal Palace, and Obelisk in the Quirinal Place, West of the Palace. '. 24. Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore [= of St. Mary Major]. U. INTERIOR or ST. PETER'S, - page 56 At the base of the great dome is the Latin inscription " Tu es Petrus et . . . . PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS. XV11 ccdorum" [= Thou art Peter and ... of heaven] taken from Matt. 16 : 18, 19. The other inscription, " Pius Sextus P. M. Pontificatus " = Pitts Sixth, Sovereign Pontiff, Pontificate. The engraving is copied from a larger Roman engraving belonging to Rev. S. D. Phelps, D. D. IIL THE POPE IN HIS AUDIENCE-DRESS, and THE POPE IN HIS SEDAN-CHAIR, WEARING HIS TIARA, IV. BlSHOP ELECT TAKING THE OATH, V. NUN TAKING THE VEIL, -------- VI. AUTO DA FE, VII. MARTYRDOM OF WM. TYNDALE, TRANSLATOR OF THE BIBLE, VIII. THE CATHEDRAL, BALTIMORE, and INTERIOR OF THE CHURCH OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, BOSTON, page 119 " 274 " 347 " 384 " 417 521 CUTS IN THE PRINTED PAGES. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27, Chair of St. Peter, 57 The Pope in his Pontifical Dress, 119 The Pope's Tiara and Keys, 120 Arms of Pope Pius IX., 138 Signature of Pope Pius IX., 138 The Pope in his State-carriage, 142 The Pope borne in his Chair, 146 A Cardinal in Full Dress, 189 Bishop's Crosier, 262 Arms of the Abp. of Baltimore, 262 Arms of the Abp. of New York, 262 Benedictine Monk, 287 Angustinian Canon, 290 Premonstrant, 290 Franciscan or Gray Friar, 294 Dominican Nun, 300 Augustinian Eremite, 303 Wheeling Female Academy, 307 St. iMichael's Retreat, W. Hobo- ken, 311 Academy of Mt. St. Vincent, 315 University of Notre Dame, Ind., 322 Waldensian Women Buried Alive, 396 Heads of Waldenses Blown off, 397 St. Bartholomew Medal, 403 High Mass Elevation of the Host, 422 The Priest goes to the Altar, 424 The Priest begins Mass, 425 9 H.GI. 28. At the Con/iteor, 426 29. The Priest kisses the Altar, 426 30. Priest goes to the Epistle-side, 427 31. At the Introit, 427 32. At the Kyrie Eleison, 428 33. At the Dominus Vobiscum, 428 34. At the Epistle, 429 35. At Munda Cor Mewn, 430 3ft. At the Gospel, 431 37. At the Offertory, 432 38. At the Unveiling of the Chalice, 432 39. At the Covering cf the Chalice, 433 40. The Priest washeth his lingers, 434 41. At the Orate Fratrts, 435 42. At the Preface, 435 43. At the Memento for the Living, 436 44. The Priest holds his hands over the Chalice, 437 45. The Priest signs the Oblation, 437 46. The Elevation of the Host, 438 47. At the Elevation of the Chalice, 438 48. At the Memento for the Dead, 439 49. At Nobis quoqut PeoctUoribu^ 440 50. At the Pater Noster, 440 51. At the Breaking of the Host, 441 52. The Priest puts part of the Host into the Chalice, 442 53. At the Agnus Dei, 442 54. At the Communion, 444 55. At the Ablution, 444 XV111 PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS. rioi. 56. After Communion, 445 57. At Dominiis Vobiscum, 445 58. At the last Collect, 446 59. At the last Dominus Vobiscum, 446 60. At the Gospel of St. John, 447 61. Altar-bell, 461 62. Antependium, 461 63. Candelabrum, 463 64. Bishop's Candlestick, 463 65. Candlestick for Altar, 463 66. Canopy used in Procession of the Sacrament, 464 67. 68. Censer and Incense-boat, 465 69. Chalice, 465 70. Chime of 3 little Bells, 466 71. Ciborium, 466 72. Processional Cross and Staff, 468 73. Cruets with Plate, 468 74. Baptismal Font, 469 75. Holy- Water Pot, 472 76. Kneeling-desk, 472 77. Oil-stock, 473 78. Ostensory, 474 7t. Pyx for Holy Bread, 476 80. Pyx for Holy Oils, 476 81. Triangle, or Triangular Candle- stick, 481 82. Umbrellino for Transporting Sacrament, 451 83. Rosary, 435 84. Coronation of the Blessed Vir- gin, 487 85. Statue of Mary, Queen of Heav- en, with Infant Jesus, 490 86. Banner representing St. Joseph with the Infant Jesus, 491 87. Image of Christ on St. Vero- nica's Handkerchief, 492 88. 89. Reliquaries, or Relic-cases, 492 90. Confessional, 505 91. Apostles Peter and Paul on In- dulgence, 533 92. Arms of Gregory XVI., 533 93. Seal, 534 94. Arms of Card. Abp. of Paler- mo, 534 95. Scapular of Mount Cannel, 537 FULL-PAGE ENGRAVINGS IN THE APPENDIX. CARDINAL H. E. MANNING, from " Harpers' Weekly," PRINCE BISHABCK, engraved from a Photograph, ' - ) KT. HON. WM. E. GLADSTONE, engraved from a Photograph, ^ JOSEPH GUIDOBD, from "Harpers' Weekly," .... ... RBV. CHARLES CHINIQUT, from the "N. T. Witness," ) CARDINAL JOHN McCLOSKBT, engraved from a Photograph, ) 719 729 754 764 CHAPTER I. THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. A THOROUGH acquaintance with the Roman Catholic system of religion demands a knowledge of what Rome itself has been and is. The present chapter, therefore, sketches the origin, history, institutions, and leading features of Rome ; traces the rise and fall of the kingdom, republic, and empire, of which Rome has been the foundation and center, together with the more recent fortunes of the city and its dependent territory ; and describes for stay-at-home travelers whatever is now most noticeable in this interesting locality. The city of Rome is of so great antiquity, that one of its common titles is " the Eternal City." Compared with it, i deed, most of the cities, both of Europe and America, have but a recent origin. St. Augustine in Florida, the oldest town in $4. *** the United States, is more than two thousand three hundred UJw years younger than Rome. Jamestown in Virginia, long noted<2w/ P*** as the first permanent English settlement in America, grew old' and went to ruin years ago; but its age, even now, would be hardly one-tenth of the age of Rome. New York, the largest as well as the most ancient of our great cities, can trace back its origin to a fort and a few rude huts erected by the Dutch, somewhat more than two hundred and fifty years ago, on the southern part of the island of Manhattan ; but Rome is still ten times as old as New York. It is more than ten times as old as Plymouth in Massachusetts, which celebrated its two hundred and fiftieth a miversary in 1870, and is counted the oldest town in New England. Chicago, the young giant of the west, would need to have its age multiplied by sixty-five, before 20 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. it could be placed on an equality with Rome in regard to its years. And if we cross the Atlantic, we shall find Rome main- taining its proud pre-eminence in age over all the great capitals of Europe. Its equal in this respect cannot be found in Lon- don or Paris, St. Petersburg or Berlin, Amsterdam or Vienna, Madrid or Constantinople. None of these can show a history till more than five hundred years after Rome was built ; and some of them were of no importance till long after the settle- ment of America. Yet Rome is by no means the oldest city in the world. ^ Athens, the present capital of Greece, and the renowned seat ancient Grecian art and learning and liberty, is reputed to have been founded eight centuries earlier than Rome. Jerusa- lem became "the holy city" and the residence of Israel's kings 250 years before the currently received date of the foun- dation of Rome; it had been even then a stronghold of the Jebusites for five centuries ; and if, as is probable, it was the "Salem" of Melchizedek (Gen. 14: 18), it follows that Jeru- salem was a place of importance more than a thousand years before Rome existed. Certainly Hebron, which "was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt" (Num. 13: 22), and Da- mascus also, both of which were well known places when Abram first entered the land of Canaan (Gen. 13: 18; 14: 15; 15: 2, &c.), have, in their known duration of almost 4,000 years, a claim to antiquity, by the side of which not only cities in America, but even Rome itself, must bow with deferential regard. The origin and early days of Rome lie beyond the domain of sober and veritable history in that airy realm where legends and fables find no effectual corrective, except, on the one hand, in that stubborn unbelief which leaves nothing but a blank, or, on the other, in that critical conjecture, which is sometimes plausible and sometimes extravagant, but is never a satisfactory substitute for known truth. The twenty-five different legends which are reported to exist respecting the foundation of Rome, may all be grouped under three leading theories, namely : (I.) THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 21 That Rome was founded in the age before the Trojan "War, 1 which is assigned to the ten years beginning B. c. 1194, and ending B. c. 1184. Some who advocate this theory ascribe the building of Rome to the Pelasgi ; others, to the Arcadian Evander. (II.) That the Trojan Eneas (=JEueas), or others (Trojans, Trojans and Aborigines, or Greeks), founded it a little after the fall of Troy, that is, after B. c. 11 84. (III.) That Romu- lus, grandson of Numitor, king of Alba Longa (a city about 15 miles S.E. of Rome), founded Rome several centuries after the Trojan War. Romulus and Remus were reputed to twin_sons of the war-god Mars and of Numitor' s daughter Sil- via, and were said to be suckled by a she wolf. Romulus was deified, aftjr his death, by the name of Quirinus. That Rom- ulus was the founder of Rome was the tradition almost uni- versally received among the Romans, and has been for ages the current account of the origin of the city. The city of Rome, it is added, was built by Romulus on the Palatine hill or mount; and its very beginning was marked with bloodshed, Remus, the twin brother of Romulus, being slain for ridiculing the slender walls of the new city. The date for the foundation of the city, which is given by Yarro and generally adopted, places the event in the year B. c. 753. The 21st of April was kept as a$ C- . festival in memory of the event. Romulus is said to have been the first of the seven kings of Rome, and to have disappeared suddenly after a reign of 37 years. In the early part of his reign the Sabines were united with the Romans ; but their king, Titus Tatius, who was joinfr- ruler with Romulus, was soon slain, leaving Romulus sole king of the united nation. The names of the kings, and the dura- tion of their reigns, are thus given : Romulus, B. c. 753-716 ; Numa Pompilius, 715-673 ; Tul- lus Hostilius, 673-641 ; Ancus Martins, 641-616 ; Tarquinius Prisons (= Tarquin the elder), B. c. 616-578 ; Servius Tullius, 578-534 ; Tarquinius Superbus (= Tarquin the Proud), 534-510. The Roman kings were not hereditary, but limited and elect/- .'C '" 22 THE CITY OP SOME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. ive. The king had no legislative authority, and could make neither war nor peace without the concurrence of the senate and people ; but he was the military leader, the supreme judge in all matters of life and death, and also a priest and the chief director of sacred things. The senate, composed originally of 100 members, afterwards increased to 200, subsequently to 300, 400, 900, 1000 (after the death of Julius Cesar), and then reduced to 600 by Augustus, deliberated at first as the king's council on such public affairs as the king proposed to them ; but, after the abolition of the kingly office, everything was done by the authority of the senate, though this almost unlimited control was afterwards much abridged in various ways. The supreme power in Rome belonged to those who were called " the people," who were assembled to elect magis- trates, to pass laws, particularly in respect to declaring war and making peace, and to try persons guilty of certain crimes. Romulus divided the whole population of Rome into two classes, the burgesses or citizens (who took the name of Patres or Pa- tricii, i. e., fathers or patricians), and their clients or depend- ents. Each one of the latter class was the client of some par- ticular one of the former class, who was called his patron, the relation being somewhat similar, in dependency and closeness of union, to that of child and parent, or lord and vassal. The clients were bound to render certain services to their patrons, and the patrons were to defend their clients from all wrong or oppression by others. The patricians or members of the first class made up at this time what was called "the Roman peo- ple," their clients or dependents, though freemen, having no share in the government. The plebeians came in afterwards and constituted a third class of freemen, who were neither pat- rons nor clients, but entirely free and independent, yet, like clients, without political rights. Such were the early social and political institutions of Rome. Rome had its kings for nearly 250 years. The seventh 'and last of these kings, Tarquin the Proud, was dethroned (B. c. 510) in consequence of his cruel tyranny and the violence of- THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 23 fered by his son Sextus to the virtuous and beautiful Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus. The Roman Republic, which now succeeded, continued nearly 500 years, when it gave place, under Augustus Cesar, to the Roman Empire. In the Republic the two consuls, who were elected annually, took the place of the king as the chief officers of the government. The senators, who were styled " Fathers," and had been appointed, usually for life, by the kings, were, for half a century or more after the republic began, chosen by the consuls and by the military tribunes, who were command- ers of thousands, but afterwards by the censors, who not only took the census of persons and property, but had a supervision over the rank and moral character of all the people. The pa- tricians, who constituted the nobility, at first not only filled all the offices, but monopolized all the political rights in the state. The senators, consuls, censors, and other officers, were patri- cians ; and under the name of " the senate and people of Rome" the patricians enacted all the laws. The early Roman law placed the poor debtor completely at the mercy of his creditor, i who might imprison the debtor, bind him with chains, him on bread and water, sell him as a slave, or even put him '7>vA** to death. As the senators and patricians- possessed most of the wealth, monopolized the power, and often cruelly oppressed the plebeians or common people, the latter were led to take up arms in their own defense, and to institute the office of trib- unes of the people, which the aristocracy were compelled to sanction B. c. 493. These tribunes, whose persons were held sacred, and who had the power to place even consuls under arrest, defended the oppressed plebeians, and in process of time greatly diminished the authority of the senate and the privileges of the patricians, especially by exercising their right to pronounce the word Veto, that is, I forbid, which was suffi- cient to make void any law or decree of the senate. The Twelve Tables, which were arranged and ratified B. c. 451, and-' > were regarded as the foundation of all law, tended, on the-^-C-4 whole, to introduce equal rights in law and government. In- 24 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. termarriages between the patricians and plebeians were for a time prohibited, but were legalized in the year 445 B. c. By the Licinian law, passed B. c. 367, it was ordained that one of the consuls must be a plebeian. Nearly 200 years afterwards (B. c. 172) both consulships were opened to the plebeians. By these and other steps, taken from time to time, the exclusive privileges of the patricians were abolished, and the Roman government became more liberal and democratic, though the patricians and plebeians kept up their dissensions from age to age. In the course of time the equestrian order, or the knights, became very prominent. The knights were originally those 300 rich and accomplished young patricians, who, under Ro- mulus, served as soldiers on horseback and attended the king as his body-guard. As the city grew, their number was largely increased, especially by additions from the best plebeian fam- ilies. Under king Servius Tullius, they amounted to 3,600, and were the wealthiest men in Rome. Each was furnished with a horse at the public expense, and each wore a gold ring. About B. c. 400, many began to serve as horse-soldiers at their own expense, and a distinction was made between these and the more honored knights whose horses were furnished at the public expense. But a still greater change took place when, by a law of Caius Gracchus, about B. c. 120, all who possessed a certain amount of property were raised to the equestrian order, and a body of 300, chosen periodically from this order, was vested with the judicial power. Under this law those who had grown rich by farming the taxes, and taking contracts for fur- nishing supplies to the army and navy, were all brought into the equestrian order and vested with important political privi- leges. For the next 50 years this order had great contests with the senate. Romulus divided the people (the patricians) into three tribes, and each tribe into ten curias ; and hence only the patricians and those plebeians who were afterwards incorporated into these tribes, had any place in the assembly of the people which IHE CITY OP EOME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 25 was held by curiae. But in the centuriate assembly, instituted about 200 years after the foundation of Rome, and held in the field of Mars outside of the city, the people voted by centuries or companies arranged in classes according to their census or ratable landed property. Here the first class, consisting of 100 centuries, and composed of the richest citizens, presented them- selves completely armed, and had a controlling majority, the other four classes having but 93 voting centuries and appear- ing less completely armed, while all the freemen who had an insufficient estate (less than one-ninth of that required for the first class) were thrown into one century without a vote. This centuriate assembly, in which the more wealthy plebeians could vote, became in time the supreme legislative body. The 3 tribes into which Romulus divided the patricians, must not be confounded with the 20 territorial divisions afterwards made by king Servius Tullius, and called by the same name. In the tribes of Servius none but plebeians were enrolled, while the patricians held their place in the other tribes by virtue of their birth and without regard to their residence. Of the plebeian or Servian tribes, 4 were in the city and the rest outside, the whole number being gradually increased with the exten- sion of the Roman territory till B. c. 236, from which time it remained stationary at 35. The tribal assembly, in which the plebeians gave their votes according to their tribes, was origin- ally intended for transacting the business of the plebeian order, but it gradually extended its power over the whole state, and its ordinances obtained all the force of law. Freedmen or emancipated slaves had the right of voting in this assembly ; but they must belong to one of the four city tribes, and there- fore, however numerous, they could not exercise much political power in the assembly. The patricians and their clients, and also the freedmen, are supposed to have been first included in the plebeian tribes by the laws of the Twelve Tables, B. c. 450. Slaves, in distinction from all the above classes, were re- garded as having no rights at all. They were esteemed among the Romans, not as persons, but as things. Their master had 26 THE CITY OP BOMB AND ITS CONNECTIONS. an absolute power over them. He might, and frequently did, scourge, torture, mutilate, or kill his slaves, for any offense, or for no offense ; and sometimes he crucified them from mere caprice. He might force them to become prostitutes or gladia- tors ; he might separate friends or families (for no slave could be lawfully married) at his will ; nor was he considered bound to provide for their welfare in sickness or in health. Yet both law and custom were favorable to giving slaves their freedom. For a long time slaves were not numerous in Rome ; but they must have greatly increased before the expulsion of the kings. It was the custom to make slaves of conquered enemies. Debt- ors and criminals might also be reduced to slavery. In the later ages of the Republic the number of slaves in Rome and throughout Italy was immense. The Romans were warriors from the very beginning of their city. From each of the three original tribes Romulus chose 1000 foot-soldiers and 100 horsemen. The number of soldiers was naturally increased with the growth of the city. Every citizen from the age of 17 to 46 was obliged to enlist as a soldier, when the public service required ; every foot-soldier must serve 20 campaigns, and every horseman 10 campaigns. In the early times no one could hold office who had not served 10 cam- paigns. Much of the time under the kings, and nearly all the time during the existence of the republic, the Romans were engaged in wars. The temple of Janus is said to have been built by Nuina Pompilius, the second king of Rome, with two brazen gates, which were open in war and shut in peace. From the time of Numa to the time of Augustus, a period of about 640 years, this temple, according to the annals, was closed but once, and that only for a short period, after the end of the first Punic war, B. c. 235. The Romans, however, were not always victorious over their enemies. One terrible invasion occurred a little more than a century after the kings were expelled. The Gauls, who inhabited the region north and northwest of Italy, swept over Italy like a hurricane, crushing and destroy- ing. Rome was taken and burnt by them B. c. 390 ; but, while THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 27 one legend says that Camillas, having been appointed dictator, drove them out and exterminated their army, another account declares that the city was ransomed by the payment of a thou- sand pounds of gold to the Gauls, who then marched off to their homes unmolested. The city was rebuilt, but with a haste and irregularity, the evils of which were never remedied till Rome was again rebuilt after its destruction by fire in the time of Nero. Two other invasions of the Gauls followed the one just mentioned, one thirty years after the first, the other ten years later ; but these were resisted with greater courage and firmness, and their consequences were less disastrous. About 125 years after the burning of Rome by the Gauls, B. c. 265 , the Romans became masters of all Italy, leaving some of the cities nominally free as allies, and placing the rest in a position more or less dependent. They then easily became involved in the Punic (that is, Phenician) wars, which were waged with the Carthaginians. The renowned city of Car- thage, the great rival of Rome, was situated in Northern Africa, a few miles from the modern city of Tunis, and was originally founded, according to. the legend, by the princess Dido and other colonists from the Phenician city of Tyre, B. c. 878. The rich island of Sicily was mostly under the dominion of Carthage ; and here the first Punic war began in an acceptance by the Romans of an invitation from the Mamertines, who had established themselves at Messana(now Messina) , to aid them against the Carthaginians. This first Punic war lasted 23 years, from B. c. 264 to 241, and ended, after various successes and reverses, in a decisive naval victory gained by the Romans over the Carthaginians and a consequent treaty, by which the Carthaginians abandoned Sicily and the adjacent small islands, gave up all Roman prisoners without ransom, and paid to the Romans, within ten years, 3200 talents, afterwards increased to 4400 talents, a sum equal to nearly five millions of dollars. Sicily now became the first Roman province ; and the peace between Rome and Carthage lasted about as long as the pre- vious war. But neither Rome nor Carthage was idle during 28 THE CITY OF ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. this period. Both were engaged in perilous wars with other ene- mies ; but both were recruiting their strength, and preparing the way for new conquests. Rome gained possession of Sardinia and Corsica. Hamilcar, an able Carthaginian general, was sent at his own solicitation into Spain to bring that country under the dominion of Carthage. There he collected and disciplined an excellent army, and gained a great province for Carthage, ruling it with vigor and wisdom for eight years. After his death in battle, his plans were taken up and carried on suc- cessfully, first by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, till his death by the assassin's knife, and then by his son Hannibal. The latter, who was only nine years old, when he besought his father Hamilcar to take him along into Spain, was allowed by his father to accompany him only on condition of swearing eternal enmity to Rome and the Romans. On taking his father's place at the age of 24, B. c. 221, he set himself in earnest to realize his father's designs, and at the close of the next year all Spain south of the Ebro and Douro, with one exception, was with Carthage, either by subjection or alliance. That one excep- tion was the city of Saguntuin, an ancient Greek colony then in alliance with Rome, situated on the Mediterranean, about 100 miles south of the Ebro, where is now the modern Murvie- dro. A neighboring tribe, with which Saguntum was at war, invited Hannibal to destroy Saguntum, and he eagerly accepted the invitation. The city was captured after a desperate resist- ance of eight months, though the Roman envoys in vain re- quired Hannibal to desist from attacking their ally. Another embassy, sent to Carthage to demand that Hannibal should be delivered up to the Romans, met with a refusal, and then war was declared B. c. 218. This second Punic war lasted nearly 17 years. Hannibal marched over the Alps into Italy ; in three great battles he terribly defeated the Romans, of whom more than 43,000 died on the bloody field of Cannae ; all South- ern Italy, with most of the cities in Campania, and the Gauls in the North, declared in his favor ; Capua, the next city to Rome in size, and probably its superior in wealth, received him THE CITY OF EOME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 29 and his army ; but the Romans, now taught by experience, fol- lowed the leadership of Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus, and others, and, avoiding decisive battles for several years, kept Hannibal in check, cut off his supplies and detachments from the main army, and harassed him in all possible ways ; the Carthaginians, through the influence of those who were hostile to Hannibal, sent him only scanty reinforcements, and left him long without any support; his brother Hasdrubal,who had once entirely defeated the Roman army in Spain, entered Italy for the purpose of joining Hannibal, but was himself com- pletely defeated and slain before he could effect the desired junction ; Cornelius Scipio the younger, recovered Spain to the Romans, carried the war into Africa, defeated the Cartha- ginians by treachery and fire and sword, constrained the Car- thaginian government to recall Hannibal and his veterans, who for 16 years had sustained themselves in Italy, and at length gained a decisive victory over Hannibal and his army on the plain of Zama, on account of which he is known in history as Scipio Africanus. The conditions of peace, to which the con- quered gave their assent, left the Carthaginians independent within their own territory in Africa ; but required them, among other things, to surrender all prisoners and fugitives, all their fleet except ten galleys, and all their elephants ; prohibited their making war without consent of Rome ; and bound them to pay the Romans 10,000 talents, or more than ten millions of dollars, in annual installments for the next fifty years. The second Punic war ended in the greatest triumph Rome had ever known, B. c. 201. The third and last of the Punic wars occurred a little more than half a century after the close of the preceding one, and lasted three years, till B. c. 146. Carthage was recovering rapidly from its depression ; but, forbidden to make war with- out the consent of Rome, and unable to obtain from the Ro- mans any redress of the wrongs suffered from their ally, Masinissa, the Numidian king, who wantonly seized the best portion of the Carthaginian territory, the Carthaginians finally 30 THE CITY OP ROME AND ITS CONNECTIONS. resorted to war with Masinissa, who defeated them in a bloody battle. Then they sent ambassadors to Rome to justify their course and beg forgiveness. The ambassadors placed Carthage and all her possessions at the disposal of the senate, who an- swered that Carthage should be left free, if 300 of the noblest youth were sent to the consuls as hostages, and the further commands of the senate would be made known through the consuls. The hostages were delivered and sent to Rome. Then the Carthaginians were required to deliver up all their arms and engines of war. This demand was also complied with. Then the consuls coolly declared that the Carthaginians must remove to some point ten miles from the coast, and Carthage must be destroyed. This combination of deception and cruelty filled the Carthaginians with horror and rage. They prepared at once for a vigorous defense. Men and women worked night and day with the energy of despair. Three campaigns passed away before the Romans succeeded in forc- ing an entrance into the city. And even after Scipio and his Roman legions gained possession of the market-place, a terri- ble resistance was kept up for several days. The city was then set on fire, and for six days and nights the flames continued to rage. At length the contest was ended by the surrender of the garrison, and the destruction in the flames of most of those who would not give themselves up to the mercy of the con- querors. According to the decree of the Roman senate, the walls of Carthage were destroyed, and every house was lev- eled to the ground. The Roman province of Libya was formed from a part of the territory of Carthage. But Rome was busy in other wars of conquest during the period of more than a century which elapsed between the be- ginning and the end of these three Punic wars. The Romans entered Asia B. c. 190, in prosecuting their war with Anti- ochus the Great, king of Syria, defeated him in the decisive battle of Magnesia, where he lost 53,000 men, and despoiled him of his dominions in Asia Minor. The Macedonian wars, begun while the second Punic war was in progress, closed, THE CITY OF BOMB AND ITS CONNECTIONS. 31 B. c. 168, with the defeat and capture of Perseus, king of Macedon, and the subjugation of his country to the Roman rule. The conquest of the Dalmatians, B. c. 155, brought the whole region bordering on the Adriatic (now the Gulf of Ven- ice) into subjection to the Romans. The capture and de- struction of Corinth in the same year with the final overthrow of Carthage, B. c. 146, marked the extension of the Roman power over Greece, which now became a province by name of Achaia. Thus the Roman Republic extended its control in every direction ; and before the Republic gave place to the Em- pire, the Romans had their conquests in Gaul (now France), Germany, and Britain, toward the North ; in Armenia, Syria, Palestine, ,e care of whom shall appertain to me in my office ; this I promise, vow, and su*ar so help me God, and these holy Gospels of Gcd." The words in Italics are used when the creed is administered to a beneficed priest, professor, or bishop. 108 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. faith. 2. The obligation of submitting to all these decisions, independ- ently of men's own private judgments or opinions. 3. The authority of tradition, or the unalterable character of all the doctrines committed to the church ; and hence the persuasion that those of its dogmas, which to others appear strange and unscripiural, have been in reality handed down, uncorrupted, since the time of the apostles, who received them from Christ's teaching. 4. The necessity of religious unity, by perfect uniformity of belief: -and thence as a corollary the siiifulness of wilful separation or schism, and culpable errors or heresy. 5. Government by authority, since they who are aided and supported by such a promise must necessarily be considered appointed to direct others, and are held as the representatives and vicegerents of Christ in the church. 6. The papal supremacy, whether considered as a necessary provision for the preservation of this essential unity, or as the principal depository of the divine promises. 7. In fine, the authority of councils, the right to en- act canons and ceremonies, the duty of repressing all attempts to broach new opinions ; in a word, all that system of rule and authoritative teach- ing which must strike every one as the leading feature in the constitu- tion of the Catholic church. " The differences, therefore, between this and other religions, how- ever complicated and numerous they may at first S'ght appear, are thus in truth narrowed to one question ; for particular doctrines must share the fate of the dogmas above cited, as forming the constitutive principle of the Catholic religion. This religion claims for itself a comple e consistency from its first principle to its last consequence, and to its least institution, and finds fault with others, as though they pre- served forms, dignities, and doctrines which must have sprung from a principle by them rejected, but which are useless and mistaken, the moment they are disjoined from it. Be this as it m:iy, the constitution of the Catholic church should seem to possess, what is essential to every moral organized body, a principle of vitality which accounts for all its actions, and determines at once the direction and the intensity of all its functions. "To conclude our account of the Catholic church, we will give a slight view of the extent of its dominions, by enumerating the countries which profess its doctrines, or which contain considerable communities under its obedience. 8 In Europe, Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Bel- 8 More recent statistics of the Roman Catholic church are given in Chapter XXVIII., &c. VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 109 gium, the Austrian empire, including Hungary, Bavaria, PoLmd, and the Rhenish provinces of Prussia, which formerly belonged to the ec- clesiastical electorates, profess the Catholic religion as that of the state, or, according to the expression of the French charte, that of the major- ity of the people. In America, all the countries which once formed part of the Spanish dominions, both in the southern and northern por- tion of the continent, and which are now independent states, profess exclusively the same religion. The empire of Brazil is also Catholic. Lower Canada and all those islands in the West Indies which belong O to Spain or France, including the Republic of Hayti, profess the Cath- olic faith ; and there are also considerable Catholic communities in the United States of North America, especially in Maryland and Louisiana. Many Indian tribes, in the Canadas, in the United States, in California, and in South America, have embraced the same faith. In Asia there is hardly any nation professing Christianity which does not contain large communities of Catholic Christians. Thus in Syria the entire nation or tribe of the Maronites, dispersed over Mount Libanus, aro subjects of the Roman see, governed by a patriarch and bishops ap- pointed by it. There are also other Syriac Christians under other bishops, united to the same see, who are dispersed all over Palestine and Syria. At Constantinople there is a Catholic Armenian patriarch who governs the united Armenians as they are called, large communi- ties of whom also exist in Armenia proper. The Abbe Dubois, in his examination before a committee of the House of Commons in 1832, stated the number of Catholics in the Indian peninsula at 600,000, in- cluding Ceylon, and this number is perhaps rather underrated than otherwise. They are governed by four bishops and four vicars apos- tolic with episcopal consecration. A new one has just been added for Ceylon. We have not the means of ascertaining the number of Cath- olics in China, but in the province of Su-Chuen alone they were re- turned, 22d September, 1824, at 47,487 (Annales de la Propag. de la Foi, No. xi., p. 257) ; and an official report published at Rome in. the same year gives those in the provinces of Fo-kien and Kiansi at 40,000. There are seven other provinces containing a considerable number of Catholics, of which we have no return. In the united empire of Ton- kin and Cochin-China the Catholics of one district were estimated at 200,000 (Ibid., No. x., p. 194), and, till the late persecution, there was a college with 200 students, and convents containing 700 religious. Another district gave a return, in 1826, of 2955 infants baptized, which 110 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. would give an estimate of 88,000 adult Christians. A third gave a return of 170,000. M. Dubois estimates the number of native Cath- olics in the Philippine islands at 2,000,000. In Africa, the i.-lands of Mauritius and Bourbon are Catholic, and all the Portuguese settle- ments on the coasts, as well as the Azores, Madeira, the Cape Verd, and the Canary Islands." On the 8th of December, 1854, a new article was added to the Roman Catholic faith. Hitherto it had been a question among Roman Catholics whether the Virgin Mary was or was not conceived free from original sin, that is, without any in- herited depravity; St. Bernard, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Cath- arine, the Dominicans, &c., had denied the immaculate con- ception; but Pope Pius IX., having previously sent a circular on the subject to all the bishops of the church throughout the world, and obtained the assent of a large majority of them, publicly declared the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary to be a doctrine of the church, and accordingly the follow- ing is now officially inserted as "Lesson VI." "on the 8th of December, at the Festival of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary." " From the Acts of Pope Pius IX. " But the victory of the Virgin Mother of God, at her conception, over the worst enemy of the human race, which victory divine declara- tions, venerable tradition, the constant sentiment of the church, the singular unanimity of the bishops and of the faithful, and the remarka- ble acts and constitutions of the chief pontiffs were now wonderfully illustrating ; Pius IX., chief pontiff, assenting to the wishes of the whole church, determined to proclaim with his own supreme and in- fallible oracle. Therefore on the sixth day before the ides of Decem- ber [= Dec. 8th] of the year 1854 in the Vatican Basilica, in the presence of a great assembly of the Cardinal Fathers of the Roman church and also of Bishops from remote regions, and with the applause of the whole world, solemnly pronounced and defined : That the doc- trine which holds the Blessed Virgin Mary to have been at the first instant of her being conceived, by a singular divine privilege, preserved free from all stain of original sin, was revealed by God and is there- fore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful." VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. ll I "The First Ecumenical Council of the Vatican," whose cessions began on the 8th of December, 1869, has likewise made its additions to the authoritative standards of the church in its two dogmatic decrees. Of these, the first, " on Catholic faith," promulgated April 24, 1870, is divided into four chapters, re- affirming, in opposition to rationalism, naturalism, &c., the doctrines of the church in respect to God the creator of all things, to divine revelation, to faith, and to the relation of faith and reason ; and closes with canons corresponding to these chapters and anathematizing all who do not receive the views therein set forth by the council. The second dogmatic degree, in respect to the supremacy and infallibility of the pope, is the great work of the council, and, on account of its importance, is here given at length, as translated from the original Latin and published in "The Catholic World" for September, 1870. "FIRST DOGMATIC DECREE ox THB CHURCH OP CHRIST, PUBLISHED IN THE FOURTH SESSION OF THE HOLY ECUMENICAL COUNCIL OF TEE VATICAN. PASSED JULY 18, 1870. " Pius, Bishop, Servant of the servants of God, with the approbation of the Hjty Council, for a perpetual remembrance hereof. " The eternal Shepherd ami Bishop of our soul?, in order to render perpetual the saving work of his redemption, resolved to build the holy church, in which, as in the house of the living God, all the faith- ful should be united by the bond of the same faith and charity. For which reason, before he was glorified, he prayed the Father, not for the apostles alone, but also for those who, through their word, would believe in him, that they all might be one, as the Son himself and the Father are one (John xvii. 1-20). "Wherefore, even as he sent the apostles, whom he had chosen to himself from the world as he had been sent by the Father, so he willed that there should be pastors and teachers in his church even to the consummation of the world. More- over, to the end that the episcopal body itself might be one and undivided, and that the entire multitude of believers might be pre- served in oneness of faith and of communion, through priests cleaving mutually together, he placed the blessed Peter before the other apos- tles and established in him a perpetual principle of this two-fold unity, 112 TIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTE1T. and a visible foundation on whose strength ' the eternal temple might be built, and in whose firm faith the church might rise upward until her summit reach the heavens ' (St. Leo the Great, Sermon v. (or iii.), chapter 2, on Christmas). Now, seeing that in order to over- throw, if possible, the church, the powers of hell on every side, and with a hatred which increases day by day, are assailing her foundation which was placed by God, we therefore, for the preservation, the safety, and the increase of the Catholic flock, and with the approbation of the sacred council, have judged it necessary to set forth the doctrine which, according to the ancient and constant faith of the universal church, all the faithful must believe and hold, touching the institution, the perpetuity, and the nature of the sacred aposlolic primacy, in which stands the power and strength of the entire church ; and to proscribe and condemn the contrary errors so hurtful to the flock of the Lord. " CHAPTER I. " Of the institution of the apostolic primacy in the blessed Peter. " We teach, therefore, and declare that, according to the testimonies of the Gospel, the primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of God was promised and given immediately and directly to blessed Peter, the apostle, by Christ our Lord. For it was to Simon alone, to whom he had already said, ' Thou shalt be called Cephas,' * that, after he had professed his faith, ' Thou art Christ, the Son of the living God,' our Lord said, ' Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona ; because flesh and blood hath not revealed it to thee, but my Father who is in Heaven ; and I say to thee, that thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not pre- vail against it ; and I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt loose upon earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven.' f And it was to Simon Peter alone that Jesus, after his resurrection, gave the jurisdiction of supreme shep- herd and ruler over (he whole of his fold, saying, ' Feed my lambs ; ' ' Feed my sheep.' J To this doctrine So clearly set forth in the sacred John 1 : 42. t Matthew 16: 16-19. | John 21: 15-17. VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 113 Scriptures, as the Catholic church has always understood it, are plainly opposed the perverse opinions of those who, distorting the form of government established in his church by Christ our Lord, deny that Peter alone above the other apostles, whether taken separately one by one or all together, was endowed by Clirist with a true and real primacy of jurisdiction ; or who assert that this primacy was not given immediately and directly to blessed Peter, but to the church, and through her to him, as to the agent of the church. " If, therefore, any one shall say, that blessed Peter the Apostle was not appointed by Christ our Lord, the prince of all the apostles, and the visible head of the whole church militant ; or, that he received directly and immediately from our' Lord Jesus Christ only the primacy of honor, and not that of true and real jurisdiction ; let him- be anathema, " CHAPTER II. " Of the perpetuity of the primacy of Peter in the Roman pontiffs. " What the prince of pastors and the great shepherd of the sheep, our Lord Jesus Christ, established in the person of the blessed apostle Peter for the perpetual welfare and lasting good of the church, the same through his power must needs last for ever in that church, which is founded upon the rock, and will stand firm till the end of time. And indeed it is well known, as it has been in all ages, that the holy and most blessed Peter, prince and head of the apostles, pillar of the faith and foundation of the Catholic Church, who received from our Lord Jesus Christ, the Savior and Redeemer of mankind, the keys of the kingdom of heaven, to this present time and at all times lives and presides and pronounces judgment in the person of his successors, the bishops of the holy Roman see, which was founded by him, and consecrated by his blood.* So that whoever succeeds Peter in this; chair, holds, according to Christ's own institution, the primacy of Peter over the whole church. What, therefore, was once established by him who is the truth, still remains, and blessed Peter, retaining the strength of the rock, which has been given to him, ha& never left the helm of the church originally intrusted to him.f " For this reason it was always necessary for every other church, that is, the faithful of all countries, to have recourse to the Roman * Council of Eph. seas. iii. St. Peter Chrys. Ep. ad.Eutych,. t S. Leo, Scrm. iii. chap. iii. 8 114 VIEW OP THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. Church on account of its superior headship, in order that being joined, as members to (heir head, with this see, from which the rights of reli- gious communion flow unto all, they might be knitted into the unity of one body.* " If, therefore, any one shall say, that it is not by the institution of Christ our Lord himself, or by divine right, that blessed Peter has per- petual successors in the primacy over the whole church ; or, that the Roman pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy ; let him be anathema. "CHAPTER nr. " Of the power and nature of the primacy of the Roman pontiff". u Wherefore, resting upon the clear testimonies of holy writ, and following the full and explicit decrees of our predecessors the Roman pontiffs, and of general councils, we renew the definit on of the ecumenical council of Florence, according to which all the faiihful of Christ must believe that the holy apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold the primacy over the whole world, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter the prince of the apostles, and the true vicar of Christ, and is the head of the whole church, and the father and teacher of all Christians; and that to him, in the blessed Peter, was given by our Lord Jesus Christ full, power of feeding, ruling, and governing the universal church ; as is also set forth in the acts of the ecumenical councils, and in the sacred canons. " Wherefore, we teach and declare that the Roman Church, under divine providence, possesses a headship of ordinary power over all other churches, and that this power of jurisdiction of the Roman pontiff, which is truly episcopal, is immediate, toward which the pastors and faithful of whatever rite and dignity, whether singly or all together, are bound by the duty of hierarchical subordination and of true obedience, not only in things which appertain to faith and morals, but likewise in those things which concern the discipline and govern- ment of the church spread throughout the world, so that being united with the Roman pontiff, both in communion and in profession of the same faith, the church of Christ may be one fold under one chief ehejiherd. This is the doctrine of Catholic truth, from which no one can depart without loss of faith and salvation. *St. Irenaeos against Heresies, book iii. chap. 3. Epist. of Council of Aquileia, 381, to Gratian, chap. 4, of Pius VI. Brief Super Soliditate. VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 115 " So far, nevertheless, is this power of the supreme pontiff from trenching on that ordinary power of episcopal jurisdiction by which the bishops, who have been instituted by the Holy Ghost and have suc- ceeded in the place of the apostles, like true shepherds, feed and rule the flocks assigned to them, each one his own ; that, on the contrary, this their power is asserted, strengthened, and vindicated by the supreme and universal pastor ; as St. Gregory the Great saith : My honor is the honor of the universal church ; my honor is the solid strength of my brethren ; then am I truly honored when to each one of them the honor due is not denied (St. Gregory Great ad Eulogius, Epist. 30). "Moreover, from that supreme authority of the Roman pontiff to govern the universal church, there follows to him the right, in the ex- ercise of this his office, of freely communicating with the pastors and flocks of the whole church, that they may be taught and guided by him in the way of salvation. " Wherefore, we condemn and reprobate the opinions of those, who say that this communication of the supreme head with the pastors and flocks can be lawfully hindered, or who make it subject to the secular power, maintaining that the things which are decreed by the apostolic see or under its authority for the government of the church, have no force or value unless they are confirmed by the approval of the secular power. And since, by the divine right of apostolic primacy, the Ro- man pontiff presides over the universal churches, we also teach and declare that he is the supreme judge of the faithful (Pius VI. Brief Super Soliditate), and that in all causes calling for ecclesiastical trial, recourse may be had to his judgment (Second Council of Lyons) ; but the decision of the apostolic see, above which there is no higher au- thority, cannot be reconsidered by any one, nor is it lawful to any one to sit in judgment on his judgment (Nicholas I. epist. ad Michaelem Imperatorem). " Wherefore, they wander away from the right pa'h of truth who assert that it is lawful to appeal from the judgments of the Roman pontiffs to an ecumenical council, as if to an authority superior to the Roman pontiff. "Therefore, if any one shall say that the Roman pontiff holds only the charge of inspection or direction, and not full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the entire church, not only in things which pertain to faith and morals, but also in those which pertain to the discipline and government of the church spread throughout the whole world ; or, that 116 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. he possesses only the chief part and not the entire plenitude of this supreme power ; or, that this his power is not ordinary and immediate, both as regards all and each of the churches, and all and each of the pastors and faithful ; let him be anathema. " CHAPTER iv. " Of the infallible authority of the Roman pontiff in teaching. " This holy see has ever held the unbroken custom of the church doth prove and the ecumenical councils, those especially in which the east joined with the west, in union of faith and of charity, have de- clared that in this apostolic primacy, which the Roman pontiff holds over the universal church, as successor of Peter the prince of the apos- tles, there is also contained the supreme power of authoritative teach- ing. Thus the fathers of the fourth council of Constantinople, follow- ing in the footsteps of their predecessors, put forth this solemn profes- sion : " ' The first law of salvation is to keep the rule of true faith. And whereas the words of our Lord Jesus Christ cannot be passed by, who said : Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church (Matt. xvi. 18), these words, which he spake, are proved true by facts ; for in the apostolic see, the Catholic religion has ever been preserved unspotted, and the holy doctrine has been announced. Therefore wishing never to be separated from the faith and teaching of this see, we hope to be worthy to abide in that one communion which the apos- tolic see preaches, in which is the full and true firmness of the Christian religion ' [Formula of St. Ilormisdas Pope, as proposed by Hadrian II. to the fathers of the eighth general Council (Constantinop. IV.), and subscribed by them]. " So too, the Greeks, with the approval of the second council of Lyons, professed, that the holy Roman Church holds over the universal Catholic Church, a supreme and full primacy and headship, which she truthfully and humbly acknowledges that she received, with fullness of power, from the Lord himself in blessed Peter, the prince or head of the apostles, of whom the Roman pontiff is the successor ; and as she, beyond the others, is bound to defend the truth of the faith, so, if any questions arise concerning faith, they should be decided by her judg- ment. And finally, the council of Florence defined that the Roman pontiff is true vicar of Christ, and the head of the whole church, and VIEW OF THE EOMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. 117 the father and teacher of all Christians, and that to him, in the blessed Peter, was given by our Lord Jesus Christ full power of feeding and ruling and governing the universal church (John xxi. 15-17). " In order to fulfill this pastoral charge, our predecessors have ever labored unweariedly to spread the saving doctrine of Christ among all the nations of the earth, and with equal care have watched to preserve it pure and unchanged where it had been received. Wherefore the bishops of the whole world, sometimes singly, sometimes assembled in synods, following the long established custom of the churches (S. Cyril. Alex, ad S. Coelest. Pap.), and the form of ancient rule (St. Innocent I. to councils of Carthage and Milevi), referred to this apostolic see those dangers especially which arose in matters of faiih, in order that injuries to faith might best be healed there where the faith could never fail (St. Bernard ep. 190). And the Roman pontiffs, weighing the condition of times and circumstances, sometimes calling together gen- eral councils, or asking the judgment of the church scattered through the world, sometimes consulting particular synods, sometimes using such other aids as divine providence supplied, defined that those doc- trines should be held, which, by the aid of God, they knew to be con- formable to the holy Scriptures, and the apostolic traditions. For the Holy Ghost is not promised to the successors of Peter, that they may make known a new doctrine revealed by him, but that, through his assistance, they may sacredly guard, and faithfully set forth the revela- tion delivered by the apostles, that is, the deposit of faith. And this their apostolic teaching, all the venerable fathers have embraced, and the holy orthodox doctors have revered and followed, knowing most certainly that this see of St. Peter ever remains free from all error, according to the divine promise of our Lord and Savior made to the prince of the apostles : I have prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not, and thou, being once converted, confirm thy brethren (Conf. St. Agatho, Ep. ad Imp. a Cone. GEcum. VI. approbat.). "Therefore, this gift of truth, and of faith which fails not, was divinely bestowed on Peter and his successors in this chair, that they should exercise their high office for the salvation of all, that through them the universal flock of Christ should be turned away from the poisonous food of error, and should be nourished with the food of heav- enly doctrine, and that, the occasion of schism being removed, the en- tire church should be preserved one, and, planted on her foundation, should stand firm against the gates of hell. 118 VIEW OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC SYSTEM. " Nevertheless, since in this present age, when the saving efficacy of the apostolic office is exceedingly needed, there are not a few who carp at its authority ; we judge it altogether necessary to solemnly declare the prerogative, which the only-begotten Son of God has deigned to unite to the supreme pastoral office. " Wherefore, faithfully adhering to the tradition handed down from the commencement of the Christian faith, for the glory of God our Savior, the exaltation of the Catholic religion, and the salvation of Christian peoples, with the approbation of the sacred council, we teach and define it to be a doctrine divinely revealed : that when the Roman pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is, when, in the exercise of his office of pastor and teacher of all Christians, and in virtue of his supreme apos- tolical authority, he defines that a doctrine of faith or morals is to be held by the universal church, he possesses, through the divine assist- ance promised to him in the blessed Peter, that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer willed his church to be endowed, in defining a doctrine of faith or morals ; and therefore that such definitions of the Roman pontiff are irreformable of themselves, and not by force of the consent of the church thereto. " And if any one shall presume, which God forbid, to contradict this our definition ; let him be anathema. " Given in Rome, in the Public Session, solemnly celebrated in the Vatican Basilica, in the year of the Incarnation of our Lord one thou- sand eight hundred and seventy, on the eighteenth day of July ; in the twenty-fifth year of our Pontificate. "Ita est [= So is it]. " JOSEPH, BISHOP OF ST. POLTEN, " Secretary of the Council of the Vatican" CHAPTER HI. THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. THE title " pope," now commonly applied to the bishop of Rome, as the head of the Roman Catholic church, is only a different English form of the familiar word " papa " (== father) a word which is found in the Latin and vari- ous other languages as well as in the English. This title " papa " was applied by the early ecclesiastical writers to any bishop, and is now a com- mon designation in the Greek church for a priest; but in the Roman Catholic church it is applied exclusively to the bishop of Rome, according to an order of Gregory VII., A. D. 1075. The pope is often styled " holy father," or " his holiness," likewise, " Roman pontiff," or " sovereign pon- tiff' a title borrowed, as the THE POPE IN HIS PONTIFICAL DRESS. , - ,, />, -If catechism of the Council of Trent allows, from the pontiffs or chief priests of pagan Rome. Gregory I. styled himself " servant of the servants of God," and his successors still use this as an official designation ; but 120 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. they do not so much imitate him in his maintaining that the title " universal bishop " is " profane, anti-christian, and in- fernal." The pope is officially declared to be " the successor of the blessed Peter," and " the true vicar of Jesus Christ." The " holy see " or the " holy apostolic see " denotes the bishopric of Rome or the papacy, and figuratively the pope, who is the occupant of this office. The pope has been for many ages both a spiritual and a temporal sovereign. His spiritual sovereignty or primacy is claimed, as already indicated, in virtue of his being the rightful successor of " St. Peter, the prince of the apostles." The constant appeal in support of this position is to the words of the Lord Jesus in Mat. 16 : 18, 19 : <% And I say also unto thee, that thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my POPE'S TIARA AND KEYS.- ^^ ^ ^ Q{ j^j ^j ^ VIGNETTE OF . THB ROMAN BREVIARY. Val1 a S alI1St * Alld I Wl11 %"'* U " tO the the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." Protestants believe this passage fulfilled in Peter's being the first to preach the gospel, or open the kingdom of heaven, to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 2 : 14-40. 10 : 1-11 : 18. 15 : 7-11, . 42 to A.D. 67. [ " The Guide of Rome " says " A.D. 54, St. Peter established the see of Rome ;" but see above, p. 121.] St. Linus, a Tuscan. St. Anacletus, an Athenian. St. Clement I. ( = Clemens Romanus, or Clement of Rome). - St. Evaristus, a Greek. THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 155 [The Catholic Almanac marks the above four, "Dates uncertain." Appletons' Cyclopedia makes Linns begin A.D. 66 ; Anacletus, A.D. 78 ; Clement I., A.D. 91 ; Evaristus, A.D. 100. The "Guide of Rome" makes Linns begin A.D. 65; Ana- cletus, 78; Clement, 91; Evaristus, 96. " The World's Progress " has Linus, 66 ; Clement, 67 ; Cletus, 77 ; Anacletus, 83 ; Evaristus, 96. The Penny Cyclo- pedia says that Linus died in 68, and was succeeded by Clemens Romanus who died about A.D. 100; that some place Anacletus or Cletus between Linus and Clemens, while others place him after Clemens ; and that Evaristus is recorded as bishop about A D. 100. Some, as Baronius, Bellarmin, &c., reckon Anacletus and Cletns to be two different bishops.] St. Alexander I., a Roman, from about A.D. 109 to A.D 119. [So the Penny Cyclopedia. Three other authorities give only the beginning as A.D. 108; the Catholic Almanac marks only the end as A.D. 119.] St. Sixtus I., a Roman, from A.D. 119 to A.D 127. [The Catholic Almanac marks only the end as A.D. 127.] St. Telesphorns, a Greek, from A.D. 127 to about A.D. 138. [" The Guide of Rome " marks the beginning as A.D. 128 ; the Catholic Almanac gives the end as A.D. 139.] St. Hyginus, an Athenian, from A.D. 139 to A.D. 142. St. Pius I., of Aquileia, from A.D. 142 to A.D. 157. [The Penny Cyclopedia says Pius was succeeded by Anicetus in A.D. 151 ; " The World's Progress " gives this date as A.D. 150.] St. Anicetus, Syrian, from A.D. 157 to A.D. 168. [" The Guide of Rome " makes him begin in A.D. 158 ; " The World's Progress" in A..D. 150; the Penny Cyclopedia makes him begin in A.D. 151 and end in A.D. 161.] St. Soter, of Campania, from A.D. 168 to A.D. 177. [The Penny Cyclopedia makes Soter's time A.D. 161-170; " The World's Pro- gress" makes him begin in A.D. 162.] St. Eleutherius, Greek, from A.D. 177 to A.D. 192. [The Penny Cyclopedia gives his time A.D. 170-185 : " The World's Progress" makes him begin in A.D. 171, and Victor in A.D. 185.] St. Victor I., African, from A.D. 192 to A.D. 202. [" The Guide of Rome " and Appletons' Cyclopedia make Victor's time A.D. 193-202; " The World's Progress" and Penny Cyclopedia make his time A.D. 185-197.] St. Zephyrinus, Roman, from A.D. 202 to A.D. 219. ["The Guide of Rome" makes his time A.D. 202-218; the Penny Cyclopedia and World's Progress A.D. 197-217.] St. Calixtus, Roman, from A.D. 219 to A.D. 223. [" The Guide of Rome " makes his time A.D. 218-223 ; " The World's Progress " JL.D. 217-228; the Penny Cyclopedia A.D. 217-222; Appletons' Cyclopedia A.. 217-223.] St. Urban I., Roman, from A.D. 223 to A.D. 230. [" The World's Progress " makes his time A.D. 228-234 ; the Penny Cyclopedia makes it A.D. 222-230.] 156 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. St. Pontian, Roman, from A.D. 230 to A.D. 235. [" The World's Progress " gives his time A.D. 234-235.] St. Antcrus, Greek, from A.D. 235 to A.D. 236. St. Fabian, Roman, " 236 " 250. St. Cornelius, " " 250 " 252. St Lucius, of Lucca, in A.D. 253. [The Catholic Almanac makes Cornelius's time A.D. 251-252 ; the " Guide of Rome " and Appletons' Cyclopedia make Lucius begin in A.D. 252 ; " The World's Progress " omits both Fabian and Lucius ; the Penny Cyclopedia makes Cornelius begin in A.D. 252, but concurs with Appletons' Cyclopedia in making Novatian the first " antipope " or opposition bishop of Rome in A.D. 252.] St. Stephen I., Roman, from A.D. 253 to A.D. 257. St. Sixtus II., Athenian, " 257 " 259. [Stephen I. and Sixtus II are omitted in " The World's Progress."] St. Dionysius (= Denis), Greek, from A.D. 259 to A.D. 2G9. St. Felix I., Roman, from A.D. 269 to A.D. 274. [Appletons' Cyclopedia and the " Guide of Rome " put Felix A.D. 269-275 ; the Penny Cyclopedia has A.D. 270-275.] St Eutychian, Tuscan, from A.D. 274 to A.D. 283. St. Caius, Dalmatian, " 283 " 296. St. Marcellinus, Roman, " 296 " 305. [The Catholic Almanac gives only his end in A.D. 304 ; the " Guide of Rome" only his beginning in A.D. 306 ; the Penny Cyc.. Appletons' Cyc., and Catholic Almanac, make a vacancy of three to four years after his death.] St Marcellus I., Roman, from A.D. 308 to A.D. 310. [Omitted in the " World's Progress."] St. Ensebius, Greek, a few months in A.D. 310. St. Melchiades, African, from A.D. 310 to A.D. 314. St. Sylvester I., Roman, " 314 " 335. St. Marcus, Roman, in A.D. 336. St. Jul:us I., Roman, from A.D. 337 to A.D. 352. Liberius, " " 352 366. [Liberius was deposed and banished in A.D. 355 by the emperor Constantius, who appointed Felix, a deacon of Rome, bishop ; but Liberius subscribed an Arian creed and was restored to his see in A.D. 358, and died in Rome A.D. 366. Liberius is omitted in " The World's Progress," which inserts Felix II. as beginning in A.D. 356. The " Guide of Rome " also puts Felix II. as pope in A.D. 355 ; Ap- pletons' Cyc. inserts " St. Felix II. (sometimes reckoned an antipope), 355." The Penny Cyc. says " Felix is considered by most as an intruder." The Catholic Almanac omits this Felix entirely. Who is right ?] St. Damasus I., Spaniard, from A.D. 366 to A.D. 384. [Ursinus or Ursicinus, elected and ordained in opposition to Damasus, after a bloody fight, was exiled, and is counted an antipope. Both are omitted in " The World's Progress."] St. Siricius, Roman, from A.D. 385 to A.D. 398. { St Anastasius, " " 398 " 402. THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 157 St. Innocent I., of Albano, from A.D. 402 to A.D. 417. . St. Zosimus I., Greek, " 417 " 418. St. Boniface I., Roman, " 418 " 423. [Eulalius is here noticed as antipope in Appletons' Cyc.] St Celestine I., of Campania, from AD. 423 to A.D. 432. St. Sixtus III., Roman, " 432 " 440. St Leo I. the Great, Tuscan, " 440 " 461. St. Hilary, Sardinian, " 461 " 468. St Simplicius, of Tivoli, " 468 " 483. [" The World's Progress " makes him begin in A.D. 465.] St Felix III., Roman, from A.D. 483 to A.D. 492. [The Catholic Almanac calls him " St Felix II." ; the other tour lists number him IH.] St. Gelasius, African, from A.D. 492 to A.D. 496. St. Anastasius II., Roman, " 496 " 497. St. Symmachus, Sardinian, " 498 " 514. [The two last are omitted in " The World's Progress." Laurentins was chosen bishop in A.D. 498 on the same day with Symmachus ; but, after much bloodshed, Symmachus was found entitled to the see. Appletons' Cyc. wrongly places Law- rence ( = Laurentius) as antipope against Hormisdas below.] St Hormisdas, of Frosinone in the Papal States, from A.D. 514 to A.D. 523. St. John I., Tuscan, from A.D. 523 to A.D. 525. St Felix IV., Samnite, " 526 " 530. [The Catholic Almanac styles him " St Felix HL ;" four other lists number him IV.]. St. Boniface II., Roman, from A.D. 530 to A.D. 532. [Dioscorus, here noted as antipope in Appletons' Cyc., lived only 28 days after his election.] St. John H., Roman, from A.D. 533 to A.T>. 535. [The Penny Cyc. and " Guide of Rome " make him begin in A.D. 532.] St Agapetus I., Roman, from A.D. 535 to A.D. 536. St. Sylverius, of Campania, " 536 " 540. Vigil (= Vigilius), Roman, " 540 " 555. [Appletons' Cyc. makes him begin in A.D. 537 ; " The World's Progress " and " Guide of Rome " in A.D. 538.] Pelagius I., Roman, from A.D. 555 to A.D. 560. John HI., " " 560 " 573. Benedict!., " " 574 " 578. Pelagius JL, " " 578 " 590. St Gregory I., the Great, Roman, from A.D. 590 to A.D. 604. Sabinian, Tuscan, " 604 " 605. Boniface III., Roman, in A.D. 606. [The Penny Cyc., Appletons' Cyc,, and the " Guide of Rome," put him in A D. 607.] St Boniface IV., of Abruzzo, from A. D. 607 to A.D. 614. . IJ3" THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. [The Penny Cyc., Appletons' Cyc., and the " Guide of Rome," make him begin A.D 608.] Deusdedit (= Deodatus) L, Roman, from A.D. 615 to A.D. 618. [Omitted in " The World's Progress."] Boniface V., Neapolitan, from A.D. 619 to A.D. 625. Honorius I., of Campania, " 625 " 638. [See of Rome vacant a year and a half.] Severinus, Roman, in A.D. 640. John IV., Dalmatian, from A.D. 640 to A.D. 642. Theodore (= Theodorus), Greek, from A.D. 642 to A.D. 649. [The Penny Cyc. and " Guide of Rome" make him begin in A.D. 641.] St. Martin I., of Todi in Papal States, from A.D. 649 to A.D. 655. [" The World's Progress " makes him begin in A.D. 644.] Eugene (= Eugenius) I., Roman, from A. D. 655 to A. D. 657. [Appletons' Cyc., Penny Cyc., and " The World's Progress " make him begin A. D. 654.] St. Vitalian (= Vitalianus), of Segni in Papal States, from A. D. 657 to A. D. 672. Adeodatus, Roman, from A. D. 672 to A. D. 676. [The Penny Cyc. calls him Deusdedit II.] Donus or Domnus I., Roman, from A. D. 676 to A. D. 678. St. Agatho, Sicilian, " 678 " 682. " Leo II., Roman, " 682 " 683. " Benedict II., Roman, " 684 " 685. John V., Syrian, " 685 " 686. Conon, Sicilian, " 686 " 687. [Appletons' Cyc. gives Theodoras and Paschal as antipopes.) St. Sergius L, Syrian, from A. D. 687 to A. D. 701. John VI., Greek, " 701 " 705. " VII., " " 705 " 707. Sisinnius, Syrian, a month in A. D. 708. Constantino, Syrian, from A. D. 708 to A. D. 714. St. Gregory II., Roman, from A. D. 715 to A. D. 731. " " in., Syrian, " 731 " 741. " Zachary (= Zacharias), Greek, from A. D. 741 to A. D. 752. Stephen II. (not consecrated), three days in A. D. 752. [Omitted in " Guide of Rome," " World's Progress," and Gieseler.] St. Stephen III., Roman, from A. D. 752 to A. D. 757. [Called " Stephen II." in the " Guide of Rome," Gieseler, and Mosheim.] St. Paul I., Roman, from A. D. 757 to A. D. 767. [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here Constantino, Thcophylact, and Philip as antipopes.] Stephen IV., Sicilian, from A. D. 768 to A. D. 772. [Called " Stephen III." in the " Guide of Rome," Gieseler, and Mosheim.] Hadrian I. (= Adrian I.), Roman, from A. D. 772 to A. D. 795. St. LeoHI., " " 795 " 816. Stephen V., " " 816 " 817. THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 159 [Called " Stephen IV." in the " Guide of Rome " and Gieseler.] St. Paschal I., Roman, from A. D. 817 to A. D. 824. Eugene (= Eugenius) II., Roman, from A. D. 824 to A. D. 827. Valentine, Roman, 2 months in A. D. 827. Gregory IV., Roman, from A. D. 827 to A. D. 844. SergiusIL, " " 844 " 847. St. Leo IV., " " 847 " 855. [Between Leo IV. and Benedict III. some chroniclers insert John VIII., com- monly called " Pope Joan," a female pope ; but her existence is now generally regarded as a fiction, though it was widely credited from the 12th century down to the Reformation.] Benedict III., Roman, from A. D. 855 to A. D. 858. [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here Anastasius as antipope.] St. Nicholas I., Roman, from A. D. 858 to A. D. 867. Hadrian (= Adrian) II., " " 867 " 872. John VIII., " " 872 " 882. Marinus I., or Martin II., Tuscan, " 882 " 884. Hadrian (= Adrian) III., Roman, " 884 " 885. Stephen VI., " " 885 " 891. [Called " Stephen V." in " Guide of Rome," and Catholic Almanac.] Formosus, Roman, from A. D. 891 to A. D. 896. [The Penny Cyc. inserts here Sergius as antipope.] Boniface VI., Tuscan, about % month in A. i>. 896. Stephen VII., Roman, from A. D. 896 to A. D. 897. [Called Stephen VI." in Catholic Almanac, and " Guide of Rome."] Romanus, Tuscan, 4 months in A. D. 897. Theodore (= Theodorus) II., Roman, 20 days in A. D. 898. [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here Sergius III. as antipope. Romanus and Theo. dore are both omitted in " The World's Progress."] John IX., of Tivoli, from A. . 898 to A. D. 900. Benedict IV., Roman, . " 900 " 903. Leo V., of Ardea, 1 month in A. D. 903 (banished). Christopher, Roman, 7 months in A. D. 903 (banished). [Omitted in " The World's Progress," and counted antipope in the Penny Cyc.] Sergius III., Roman, from A. D. 904 to A. D. 911. Anastasius HI., " " 911 " 913. Lando (= Landusj, Sabine, " 913 " 914. [Anastasius and Lando are omitted in " The World's Progress."] John X., of Ravenna, from A. . 914 to A. D. 928. Leo VI., Roman, " 928 " 929. Stephen VTH., " " 929 " 931. [Called " Stephen VII." in the Catholic Almanac, and " Guide of Rome."] John XL, Roman, from A. D. 931 to A. D. 936. Leo VII., " " 936 " 939. Stephen IX., German, " 939 " 942. [Called " Stephen VIII." in the Catholic Almanac and " Guide of Rome,"] Martin III., or Marinus II., Roman, from A. D. 943 to A. D. 946. 160 THE POPE AND HI3 SOVEREIGNTY. Agapetus IL, Roman, from A. D. 946 to A. D. 955. John Xn. (Ottavio Conti), " " 956 " 963 (deposed; died 964). Leo VIII., Roman, in A. D. 963 to A. D. 965. [The Catholic Almanac omits Leo; Appletons' Cyc. marks him antipope; Penny Cyc. inserts him as beginning in 963, and says " styled antipope by some " ; " The World's Progress " inserts him as " elected by Roman citizens in 963 " ; the " Guide of Rome " inserts him as regularly beginning in 964.] Benedict V., Roman, in A. D. 964 (banished ; died in 965). [The " Guide of Rome " omits Benedict ; " The World's Progress " inserts him as " elected by a council " ; the Catholic Almanac, Penny Cyc., and Appletons' Cyc. insert him as regular ] John XIII., Roman, from A. D. 965 to A. D. 972. Benedict VI., " " 972 " 974. Donus or Domnus II., " " 974 " 975. Benedict VII., " " 975 " 983. John XIV., Italian, in A. D. 984. [Appletons' Cyc. and Penny Cyc. insert here as antipope Boniface VTI. ; " The World's Progress " mentions him as pope in A. D. 973, " deposed and banished for his crimes." lie possessed the papal dignity in 974 and 985, for a few months each, and died in 986.] John XV., Roman, a few months in A. D. 985. John XVI., " from A. . 985 to A. D. 996. [The Catholic Almanac, Gieseler, and Appletons' Cyc omit the short pontifi- cate in 985, and make "John XV." pope A. D. 985-996, who is the "John XVI." of the " Guide of Rome," Penny Cyc., and " World's Progress."] Gregory V., German, from A. D. 996 to A. D. 999. [Appletons' Cyc. here inserts as antipope John XVI. "The World's Progress" inserts him as pope in 997. He was a Calabrian, bishop of Piacenza, appointed pope in 997 in opposition to Gregory, but imprisoned and mutilated by the emperor Otho in 998. He is the John XVII. of some.] Sylvester II. (Gerbert), French, from A. D. 999 to 1003. John XVII., Roman, in A. D. 1003. [Omitted in the Penny Cyc. and " World's Progress " ; inserted in Appletons' Cyc. as "John XVI. or XVII."] John XVIII., Roman, from A. D. 1003 to 1009. Sergius IV., " " 1009 to 1012. Benedict VIII., " " 1012 to 1024. [Appletons' Cyc. places here Gregory VI., antipope.] ' John XIX., Roman, from 1024 to 1033. [Appletons' Cyc. calls him "John XVIII. or XIX."] Benedict IX., Roman, from 1033 to 1044. [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here " John XX.," antipope ; the Penny Cyc. inserts " Sylvester, bishop of Sabina," as antipope. Probably these are the same, as John, bishop of Sabina, took the name of Sylvester III. Benedict was expelled, and sold his pontificate to John Gratian, who took the name of Gregory VI. Benedict IX., Sylvester III., and Gregory VI., were all deposed in the synod of Sutri, 1046 ; THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 161 but Benedict again held the pontificate for several months after the death of Clement II.] Gregory VI., Roman, from 1044 to 1046. [Appletons' Cyc. inserts here " Sylvester III." as antipope ; but see note above.] Clement II., Saxon, from 1046 to 1047. Damasus II., Bavarian, 23 days in 1048. St. Leo IX., German, from 1049 to 1054. Victor II., " " 1055 to 1057. Stephen X., of Lorraine, from 1057 to 1058. [Called " Stephen IX." in the Catholic Almanac, " World's Progress," Pennj Cyc., Gieseler, and Mosheim ; Appletons' Cyc and the Penny Cyc. insert Benedict X. as pope between Stephen and Nicholas in 1058 ; but the "World's Progress " styles him antipope, and the Catholic Almanac and " Guide of Home " omit him.] Nicholas II., of Burgundy, from 1058 to 1061. Alexander II., of Milan, from 1061 to 1073. [Appletons' Cyc. gives Honorius II. as antipope here.] St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), Tuscan, from 1073 to 1085. [Guibert, antipope, 1080-1100, under the name of Clement HI] Victor III., of Benevento, from 1086 to 1087. Urban II., French, from 1088 to 1099. Paschal II., Tuscan, from 1099 to 1118. [The Penny Cyc names here as antipopes, Albert and Theodoric.] Gelasius II, of Gae'ta, from 1118 to 1119. [Appletons' Cyc. names here Gregory VIII. as antipope.] Calixtus II., of Burgundy, from 1119 to 1124. Honorius II., of Bologna, from 1124 to 1130. [Appletons' Cyc. notes here Celestine II. as antipope.] Innocent II., Roman, from 1130 to 1143. [Appletons' Cyc. gives here Anacletns II. and Victor IV. as antipopes; th Penny Cyc., Mosheim, Gieseler, " The World's Progress," mention only Anaclctus here, and Victor IV. in 1159.] Celestine II., Tuscan, from 1143 to 1144. Lucius II., of Bologna, from 1 144 to 1145. Eugene (= Eugenius) III., Pisan, from 1145 to 1153. Anastasius IV., Roman, from 1153 to 1154. Hadrian (= Adrian) IV., English, from 1154 to 1159. [His name was Nicholas Breakspear, and he is the only Englishman ever madt pope.] Alexander III., of Siena, from 1159 to 1181. ["The World's Progress" names four antipopes, viz. : Victor IV., 1159; Pas- chal III., 1164 ; Calixtus III., 1163; Innocent III., 1178. The Penny Cyc., has the first three only, and so Gieseler and Mosheim. Appletons' Cyc. has four, but puts " Victor V." for Victor IV. See note under Innocent II., 1130.] Lucius III., of Lucca, from 1181 to 1185 Urban III., of Milan, from 1185 to 1187. Gregory VIII., of Benevento, two months in 1187 11 162 THE 'POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. Clement III., Roman, from 1187 to 1191. Celestine IH., " " 1191 to 1198. Innocent III., of Anagni in Papal States, from 1198 to 1216. Honorius HI., Roman, from 1216 to 1227. Gregory IX., of Anagni, from 1227 to 1241. Celestine IV., of Milan, 15 days in 1241. [Roman see vacant from October 8, 1241, to June 24, 1243.] Innocent IV., of Genoa, from 1243 to 1254. [The Catholic Almanac alone makes him begin in 1241.] Alexander IV., of Anagni, from 1254 to 1261. Urban IV., French, from 1261 to 1264. Clement IV., French, from 1265 to 1268. [Roman see vacant nearly three years.] Gregory X., of Piacenza, from 1271 to 1276. Innocent V., of Savoy, five months in 1276. Hadrian ( = Adrian) V., of Genoa, a month in 1276. John XXL, Portuguese, from 1276 to 1277. [Appletons' Cyc. calls him " John XIX. or XX., or XXL ;" the Catholic Al- manac, "John XXL (XX.);" the " Guide of Rome," "John XX. or XXI."] Nicholas III., Roman, from 1277 to 1280. Martin IV., French, from 1281 to 1285. Honorius IV., Roman, from 1285 to 1287. Nicholas IV , of Ascoli in Papal States, from 1288 to 1292. [Roman see vacant 2^ years.] Celestine V., Neapolitan, 5 months in 1294 (abdicated). Boniface VIII., of Anagni in Papal States, from 1294 to 1303. Benedict XL, of Treviso, from 1303 to 1304. [Papacy vacant 1 1 months.] Clement V., French, from 1305 to 1314. [Papacy vacant 2$ years.] John XXIL, French, from 1316 to 1334. [Appletons' Cyc. and the Penny Cyc. have Nicholas V. as antipope in Italy. He was appointed by the German emperor in 1328, and submitted to John in 1330.] Benedict XII., French, from 1334 to 1342. I- Clement VI., " " 1342 to 1352. Innocent VI, 1352 to 1362. Urban V., " " 1362 to 1370. Gregory XL, " " 1370 to 1378. J A ( Urban VI., Neapolitan, from 1378 to 1389. ~ JL (Boniface IX., " " 1389 to 1404. 1 12 1 1nnocent VII., " " 1404 to 1406. jg "8 | Gregory XII , Venetian, " 1406 to 1415 (abdicated). g ( | d I Clement VII., French, " 1378 to 1394. '> a 1 Benedict XIII., Spanish. " 1394 to 1417 ( deposed : died 1423j. < ( THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. 163 i g .'Alexander V., Cretan, from 1409 to 1410. ;~ : John XXIII., Neapolitan, from 1410 to 1415 (deposed). [Of the popes 1378-1417, the Catholic Almanac gives the Roman line with their dates as above, only making Gregoy's pontificate end in 141 7; it acknowledges " 40 years' disputed succession ;" and simply names the popes of the other two lines above as " rival popes." The " Guide of Rome," the Penny Cyc., and Ap- plctons' Cyc., give the popes of the Roman and Pisan lines in the order of their dates without discrimination, and mark Clement and Benedict as antipopcs. " The World's Progress " gives the whole eight as popes. See pp. 131-2 above.? Martin V., Roman, from 1417 to 1431. [Clement VIII., antipope, 1423-1429. See p. 132 above.] Eugene (= Eugenius) IV., Venetian, from 1431 to 1447. [Felix V., antipope, 1439-1449. See p. 133.] Nicholas V., of Sarzana in N. Italy, from 1447 to 1455. Calixtus III., Spanish, from 1455 to 1458. Pius II., Tuscan, " 1453 to 1464. Paul II., Venetian, " 1464 to 1471. SixtusIV.,of Savona, " 1471 to 1484. Innocent VIII., of Genoa," 1484 to 1492. Alexander VI., Spanish, " 1492 to 1503. Pius III., Tuscan, a month in 1503. Julius II., of Savona, from 1503 to 1513. Leo X., of Florence, " 1513 to 1521. Hadrian (= Adrian) VI., Dutch, from 1522 to 1523. Clement VII., of Florence, from 1523 to 1534. Paul III. Roman, from 1534 to 1549. Julius III., " " 1550 to 1555. M;:r:ellus II., of Fano in Papal States, a month in 1555. Paul IV., Neapolitan, from 1555 to 1559. Pius IV., of Milan, " 1559 to 1565. St. Pius V., of Alessandria in N. Italy, from 1566 to 1572. Gregory XIII., of Bologna, from 1572 to 1585. Sixtus V , of Ancona, from 1585 to 1590. Urban VII., of Genoa, a few days in 1590. Gregory XIV., of Cremona, from 1590 to 1591. Innocent IX., of Bologna, two months in 1591. Clement VIII., of Florence, from 1592 to 1605. Leo XI., of Florence, a month in 1605. Paul V., Tuscan, from 1605 to 1621. Gregory XV., of Bologna, from 1621 to 1623. Urban VIII., of Florence, " 1623 to 1644. Innocent X., Roman, " 1644 to 1655. Alexander VII., Tuscan, " 1655 to 1667. Clement IX., " " 1667 to 1669. Clement X., Roman, " 1670 to 1676. Innocent XL, of Milan, " 1676 to 1689. 164 THE POPE AND HIS SOVEREIGNTY. Alexander VIII., Venetian, from 1689 to 1691. Innocent XII., Neapolitan, " 1691 to 1700. Clement XL, of Papal States, from 1700 to 1721. Innocent XIII., Koman, " 1721 to 1724. Benedict XIII, " " 1724 to 1730. Clement XII., of Florence, " 1730 to 1740. Benedict XIV., of Bologna, " 1740 to 1758. Clement XIII., Venetian, " 1758 to 1769. Clement XIV., of Papal States, " 1769 to 1774. Pius VI, " " " 1775 to 1799. Pius VII., " " " 1800 to 1821. Leo XII., " " " 1823 to 1829. Pius VIII., " " " 1829 to 1830. Gregory XVI , of Belluno, in N. Italy, from 1831 to 1846. Pius IX., of Papal States, from 1846 to . CHAPTER IV. i THE POPE'S ALLOCUTIONS, BULLS, AND OTHER OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS. An " allocution " (Latin allocutio = speech to) is a set speech or formal address made by the pope in his official capacity. An appendix to the pope's encyclical letter of De- cember, 1864, cites 17 " consistorial allocutions " of the pres- ent pope previous to that time, and gives their dates. These allocutions were addressed either to the college of cardinals or to a larger assembly of prelates in Rome or Gaeta. One of the most elaborate of these appears to be that addressed on the 9th of June, 1862, to a convocation, at which at least 245 bishops, archbishops, patriarchs, relative. You know very well that he belonged to a brigand ily at Sonnino ; and what trouble you are to expect a man brou , up as a brigand, and then trained as a priest, to have with conscience, I do not know.' * But it cannot be true that he has played false with the public money in the way the people say.' ' Where did the money come from ?' he replies. ' All the world knows what the Antonelli family were. They were brigands. What are they now? There are four brothers ; the first is the man we are talking of, in whose hands are all the resources of the state ; the second is governor of the bank ; the third fattens upon monopolies and taxes ; and what is the fourth ? The stock exchange agent for the other three. He is to be found in London, Paris, Amsterdam, and so on ; and in all these places the investments of the Antonelli family are something fabulous. We know that all that is our money.' " The " consistory " is the assembly of the cardinals in which the pope presides. The pope in this consistory "makes" bishops, and " creates " cardinals ; reads a discourse already printed, or " allocution" ; but he does not consult any of the cardinals in the consistory. Their office here is not to delib- erate and vote, but to assent. " The pope" governs, as the fountain of infallibility; the cardinals administer, as the or- gans of this infallibility. The consistory is now little more than a formality, the business which was formerly transacted in it being now mostly transferred to the " congregations " spoken of below. The " conclave " is properly a room or place with a key ; and hence the private apartment or set of apartments in which the cardinals are locked up at the election of a pope ; and also, the assembly of cardinals thus held for the election of a pope. On the day after the funeral of a deceased pope the cardinals, after hearing the mass of the Holy Ghost, proceed to their chosen place, usually either the Vatican or the Quirinal pal- 198 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. ace, enter the chapel where the bulls concerning the election are read, and then go to be locked up in their separate rooms till the election of a new pope is effected. The keys of the palace are placed in the hands of a prelate, previously ap- pointed by them, and styled " the governor of the conclave." Each cardinal has with him a secretary and two domestics. The cardinals are placed strictly under military guard, and all communication between them is prevented except in the pres- ence of their military guardians and with their authorization. They meet once a day in the chapel of the palace, where a scrutiny is made of their votes, which are written and placed in an urn ; and this is repeated every day till at least two- thirds of the votes are in favor of some one candidate, who is then considered as elected pope. Every cardinal puts with his vote his name in a separate sealed paper, which remains unopened till after the election is made. Says the Penny Cyclopedia : " When the election is strongly contested, and the cardinals grow weary of being shut up in conclave, negotiations in writing are carried on between the leaders, and a compromise is entered into by which two or more parties, not being able singly to carry the election of their respective candidates, join in favor of a third person, who is acceptable to them all, or at least not obnoxious to any of them. This often gives an unexpected turn to the election. During the conclave the ambassadors of Austria, France, and Spain have a right to put their veto each upon one particular cardinal whose election would not be acceptable to their respective courts. The new pope being elected, and his assent being given, he proceeds to dress himself in his pontifi- cal robes ; after which he gives his blessing to the cardinals, who give him the kiss of peace. After this the name of the new pontiff' is pro- claimed to the people from the great balcony of the palace, and the castle Sant 'Angela fires a salute, and all the bells of the city of Home ring with a merry peal one hour." After the pope and cardinals in the Roman court come the " prelates," who are thus described by the late Dr. De Sanctis, who was himself long connected with the court : THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 199 ' The prelates are a medley of bishops, priests, clerics, and laics, called by the pope to take part in the affairs of the Curia [= court], and putting on the episcopal dress, only without the cross and the ring. These prelates occupy themselves with diplomacy, administration, jurisprudence, and ecclesiastical affairs. A prelate successful in diplo- macy, even though he be a laic, is often made archbishop, and sent as nuncio to foreign courts. Those who apply themselves to administra- tion are sent as governors into the provinces ; those who take to juris- prudence are made civil or criminal judges the chief Roman tri- bunals being composed of prelates ; and, finally, those who devote themselves to ecclesiastical matters become secretaries of one of the ecclesiastical ' congregations.' The pope, the cardinals, and the prelates, then, form the Curia [= court], which consists of the different ' con- gregations,' or ecclesiastical tribunes." There are, according to Rev. Dr. Wylie, 23 " congrega- tions " (commissions, or committees, we might call them), of which 17 are ecclesiastical, and 6 civil, the former direct- ing the whole administration of the church, and the latter regulating all the branches of the state. The names of 15 Roman (ecclesiastical) " congregations " are given in the Re- vue du, Monde Caiholique, as follows : 1. The Congregation of the Holy Office, established by Paul ITT. 2. " " " " Council, established by Pius IV. 3. " " Index, established by Leo X. 4, 5. " " " Bishops and Regulars, established by Greg- ory XIII. and Sixtus V. 6. " " " Rites, established by Sixtus V. 7. " " " Schools, established by Sixtus V. 8. " " " the Consistory, established by Sixtus V. 9. " " " " Examination of Bishops, established by Clement VIII. 10. " " " " Propaganda, established by Gregory XV. 11. " " " Ecclesiastical Immunities, established by Urban VIII. 12. " " " the Residence of Bishops, established by Clement VIII. and Benedict XIV. 200 THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 13. The Congregation of Indulgences, established by Clement IX. 14. " " " Extraordinary Affairs, established by Pi- us VII. 15. " " Oriental Rites, established by Pius IX. Six other " congregations " named in pope Sixtus V.'s ordi- nance of 1587, are thus given by Dr. Murdock : one for sup- plying the States of the Church with corn and preventing scarcity ; one for providing and regulating a papal fleet ; one for relief in cases of oppression in the States of the Church ; one on the roads, bridges, and aqueducts in the Roman terri- tory ; one for superintending the Vatican printing establish- ment ; one on applications from citizens of the States of the Church in civil and criminal matters. But the number, du- ties, and powers of these " congregations " have been altered from time to time. These are however established as per- manent, and the 15 named above are the supreme directors of ecclesiastical administration in their respective departments ; they resolve the doubts which arise upon different points of canon law ; and they are the final tribunals for the determina- tion ol ecclesiastical causes. The Congregation of the Holy Office, or Inquisition, which meets every Monday, and presides over all similar congregations throughout Christendom, had, in 1864, 12 cardinal-inquisitors, one of whom is secretary, with the pope at their head, besides an assessor, a commissary with two companions, an advocate of rites, counselors and qualificators. Each of the other " congregations " is composed of a cardinal-prefect, a certain number of cardinals (usually 5, but not less than 3), and a secretary (who must be a prelate of the Roman court), together with a number of theologians and canonists attached as counselors and assistants, and various offi- cers under the secretary. The Congregation of the Council is composed of cardinals, prelates and doctors thoroughly versed in the canons, and has for its object the authoritative interpreta- tion of the decrees of the council of Trent. The Congrega- tion of the Index examines books and prohibits those which THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 201 are regarded as false and immoral. The Congregation of Bishops and Regulars (the two being united) exercises an administrative jurisdiction over, and decides disputes between, different churches, bishops, chapters, orders, and religious, and whatever other matters of controversy directly concern the clergy; and also receives appeals in criminal cases, except where the offense is within the peculiar cognizance of the Holy Office. The Congregation of Rites was organized for the preserva- tion of traditional vestments, liturgies, and worship, and the prevention of unauthorized changes. The Congregation of Schools corresponds, in some measure, to our boards of edu- cation. The Congregation for the Examination of Bishops receives testimonials concerning the doctrine and habits of can- didates for the Episcopate. Other congregations are, perhaps, sufficiently explained by their names, without going into fur- ther detail. Probably no other European court of the 19th century has been so imposing in its state and ceremony as the Roman court. Its officers are exceedingly numerous, 108 persons of various degrees and titles being, it is said, attached to the personal service of the pope. Purple and scarlet are the pre- vailing colors in the official dresses and equipage of the Roman court. Scarlet especially characterizes the cardinals and other ecclesiastics. CHAPTER VI. ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. AN Ecumenical (^(Ecumenical, from the Greek Oikou- mene) Council is properly a council assembled from all parts of the inhabited world. According to the current Roman Catholic view, a diocesan council or synod is composed of the clergy of a particular dio- cese (as of the diocese of Hartford, which comprises Connecticut and Rhode Island), with the bishop of the diocese at their head ; a provincial or metropolitan council is composed of the bishops of an ecclesiastical province (as of the province of New York, which includes the dioceses of New York, Albany, Boston, Brook- lyn, Buffalo, Burlington, Hartford, Newark, Portland, Rochester and Springfield ; and comprehends New England, NewYork, and New Jersey) with the archbishop at their head ; while the na- tional or u plenary" councils of Baltimore held in 1852 and 1866 were composed of the archbishops and bishops of all the prov- inces (now seven) in the United States. " The Illustrated Catholic Family Almanac," published by " The Catholic Publication Society " in New York, gives, in its issue for 1870, the following definitions and rules, which may be received as of high authority among Roman Catholics of the present day : " An Ecclesiastical Council or Synod may be defined as ' a legiti- mate assembly of prelates of the church, convened for the regulation of its public affairs.' Councils are ecumenical, general, or particular. " An Ecumenical Council is one which represents the whole Catholic church. For such a council it suffices that the chief part of the Church should have assembled, in agreement with the Sovereign Pontiff. ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 203 " A General 1 Council is one which is conspicuous for the number of prelates, but which, through its not being confirmed by the Sovereign Pontiff, or for some other reason is not held to represent the Universal Church. " A Particular Council is one which represents only a portion of the Church. Such councils are 1. National, or primatial ; 2. Pro- vincial, or metropolitan ; 3. Diocesan, which are called simply synods. "Rule I. The definitions of an Ecumenical Council, in matters of faith or morals (but not if 'they merely regard discipline), are, when approved by the Sovereign Pontiff, certain and infallible. " Rule II. Other councils, whether General or Particular, have only as much authority as have the churches which they represent. Their authority may be great ; but it cannot be infallible, unless it be sol- emnly confirmed by the approbation of the Holy See." Roman Catholics differ among themselves as to the num- ber of ecumenical councils that have been held. Thus the " Catholic Almanac " reckons among the number the council of Constance held in 1417, saying of it, " This coun- cil, schismatic in its commencement, afterwards submitted to Pope Gregory XII., and its acts were partially ratified by Pope Martin V. ;" while the Catholic World, also published by " The Catholic Publication Society," in giving a list of the councils, omits this council, but says in a foot-note that some reckon it as ecumenical. There is also a division of opinion in regard to several other councils, as is noticed in the following account of them. The following are the ecumenical councils given in the Catholic Almanac with corrections as to dates. 1. The first council of Nice, A. D. 325. 2. " " " " Constantinople, A. D. 381. 3. " council of Ephesus, A. D. 431. 4. " " Chalcedon, " 451. 1 This distinction between " ecumenical " and " general " councils is bv no means universally observed or accepted. The two terms are often loosely used as synonymous ; though, strictly speaking, " ecumenical," like " universal," denotes or represents the whole, while "general" might be used if only the greater part or a very large part were represented. 204 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 5. The second council of Constantinople, A. D. 553. 6. " third 680. 7. second " Nice, 787. 8. " fourth " Constantinople, " 869. 9. " first Lateran council, " 1123. 10. " second 1139. 11. " third " " w 1179. 12. " fourth " 1215. 13. " first council of Lyons, " 1245. 14. " second " " 1274. 15. " council of Vienne, " 1311. 16. " " " Constance (met 1414), 1417. 17. " " " Florence, 1438-1442. 18. " fifth Lateran council, " 1512-1517. 19. " council of Trent, " 1545-1563. 20. " the Vatican, 1869-1870. The Greek and Russian Christians recognize the first 7 of these councils ; and consider the Trullan council (so called from its assembling in the Trullus, a hall of the imperial palace in Con- stantinople, A.D. 692) an appendix to the sixth council. This Trullan council consisted of more than 200 bishops, and enact- ed 102 canons, which were subscribed by the pope's represent- atives at the imperial court, but, though afterwards approved by pope Adrian, displeased pope Sergius. The Roman church rejects its canons allowing priests to live in wedlock, con- demning fasting on Saturdays, and three or four others. Says Rev. Philip Schaflf, D. D., of the German Reformed church, " The first four of these councils command high the- ological regard in the orthodox evangelical churches, while the last three are less important, and are far more rarely men- tioned." The first ecumenical council, held at Nice in Asia Minor, A. D. 325, was summoned by the emperor Constantino, who presided at the opening of the council and gave to its decrees (against Arianism, e regu- lations were passed to secure proper promotions to ecclesiastical bene- fices ; all hereditary possession of God's sanctuary prohibited ; moder- ation prescribed in the use of the power of excommunication ; luxury, cupidity, and license, as far as possible, exili'd from the sanctuary ; most holy and wise provisions adopted for the better regulation of the religious of both sexes, who were judiciously shorn of many of their privileges, to the proper development of episcopal authority ; the great ones of the world were warned of their duties and responsibilities. These and many other similar measures, were the salutary, efficient, and lasting reforms with which God, at last taking mercy on his people, inspired the fathers of Trent, legitimately congregated under the pres- idency and guidance of the apostolic see. Such was the great work done by the council so great that even this summary review makes our wonder at the length of its duration cease. One remark seems worthy of special notice. The usual complaint of Protestants against the council was, and is, that it was too much under papal influence. Now one of the most notable features of its legislation is the great in- crease of the power of bishops. Not only was their ordinary authority confirmel and extended, but they were made in many cases, some of them of no little importance, perpetual delegates of the apostolic see, 224 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. BO that Philip II. of Spain is reported to have said of his bishops, that ' they went to Trent as parish priests, and returned like so many popes.* So groundless is the statement that the papal jealousy of the episcopal power prevented any really salutary reforms. Such was the great work of the Council of Trent Perhaps the best encomium of the council is that the Catholic of to-day reads with astonishment of abuses arid measures of reform in the 16th century. . . . We have already quoted Hallam ' on the revival of faith and piety in the church that was the immediate effect of the council. All historians agree that the triumphs of Protestantism closed with the first 50 years of its exist- ence. After that it gradually declined." 2 " The Catholic World " also quotes with approbation these Words of Hallam: " No general council ever contained so many persons of eminent learning and ability as that of Trent ; nor is there ground for believ- ing that any other ever investigated the questions before it with so much patience, acuteness, temper, and desire of truth. The early councils, unless they are greatly belied, would not bear comparison in these characteristics. Impartiality and freedom from prejudice, no Protest- ant will attribute to the fathers of Trent ; but where will he produce these qualities in an ecclesiastical synod?" 3 1 The following is the quotation from Hallam's Introduction to the Literature of Europe, here referred to: " The decrees of the council of Trent were received by the spiritual princes of the empire in 156G, 'and from this moment/ says the excellent historian [Ranke] who has thrown most light on this subject, ' began a new life for the Catholic church in Germany.' . . , . Every method was adopted to revive an attaehment to the ancient religion, insuperable by the love of novelty or the force of argument. A stricter discipline and subordination was introduced among the clergy ; they were early trained in seminaries, apart from the sentiments and habits, the vices and the virtues of the world. The monastic orders resumed their rigid observances." 2 For the doctrinal decrees of the council, see further in Chapter II. See also the statistics on political and social power in Chapter XXVIII., the account of the Jesuits in Chapter IX., and of the Inquisition in Chapter XI., &c. 8 To the quotations which " The Catholic World" gives from Ilallam's" In- troduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17thCcnturies," may properly Ixj added the following from the same chapter of the same work : " The council of Trent, especially in its later sessions, displayed the antagonist parties in the Roman church, one struggling for lucrative abuses, one anxious to ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 225 The following estimate of the work of this council is given by the learned and candid Mosheim in his ecclesiastical history, as translated by Dr. Murdock : " The council of Trent, which is said to have been summoned to ex- plain, arrange, and reform both the doctrine and the discipline of the church, is thought by wise men to have rather produced new enormi- ties, than to have removed those that existed. They complain that many opinions of the scholastic doctors, concerning which in former times men thought and spoke as they pleased, were improperly sanc- tioned and placed among the doctrines necessary to be believed, and even guarded by anathemas : they complain of the ambiguity of the de- crees and decisions of the council, in consequence of which, controverted overthrow them. They may be called the Italian and Spanish parties ; the first headed by the Pope's legates, dreading above all things both the reforming spirit of Constance and Basle, and the independence either of princes or of national churches ; the other actuated by much of the spirit of those councils, and tending to confirm that independence. The French and German prelates usually sided with the Spanish ; and they were together strong enough to establish as a rule, that in every session, a decree for reformation should accompany the declaration of doc- trine. The council, interrupted in 1547 by the measure that Paul III. found it ne- cessary for his own defense against these reformers to adopt, the translation of its sittings to Bologna, with which the Imperial prelates refused to comply, was opened again by Julius III. in 1552 , and having been once more suspended in the same year, resumed its labor for the last time under Pius IV. in 1562. It terminated in 1564, when the court of Rome, which, with the Italian prelates, had struggled hard to obstruct the redress of every grievance, compelled the more upright mem- bers of the council to let it close, after having effected such a reformation of disci- pline as they could obtain. That court was certainly successful in the contest, so far as it might be called one, of prerogative against liberty ; and partially successful in the preservation of its lesser interests and means of influence. Yet it seems im- possible to deny that the effects of the council of Trent were on the whole highly favorable to the church, for whose benefit it was summoned The abolition of many long established abuses by the honest zeal of the Spanish and Cisalpine fathers in that council took away much of the ground on which the prevalent dis- affection rested. ... In its determinations of doctrine, the council was generally cautious to avoid extremes, and left, in many momentous questions of the contro- versy, such as the invocation of saints, no small latitude for private opinion. . . . Transubstantiation had been asserted by a prior council, the 4th Lateran in 1215, so positively, that to recede would have surrendered the main principle of the Catholic church. And .... if there was a good deal of policy in the decisions of the council of Trent, there-was no want also of conscientious sincerity." 15 226 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. points are not so much explained and settled as perplexed and made more difficult; they complain that everything was decided in the council, not according to truth and the holy scriptures, but according to the prescriptions of the Roman pontiff, and that the Roman legates took from the fathers of the council almost all liberty of cor- recting existing evils in the church; they complain that the few decisions which were wise and correct, were left naked and unsupported, and are neglected and disregarded with im- punity; in short, they think the council of Trent was more careful to subserve the interests of the papal dominion, than the general interests of the Christian church Of the multitude of vain and useless ceremonies wish which the Romish public worship abounded, the wis- dom of the pontiffs would suffer no diminution, notwithstanding the best men wished to see the primitive simplicity of the church restored. On the other regulations and customs of the people and the priests, some of which were superstitious and others absurd, the bishops assem- bled at Trent, seem to have wished to impose some restrictions; but the state of thing:', or rather I might say, either the policy or the neg- ligence of the Romish court and clergy, opposed their designs. Hence in those countries where nothing is to be feared from the heretics, as in Italy, Spain, and Portugal, such a mass of corrupt superstitions and customs and of silly regulations obscures the few and feeble rays of Christian truth yet remaining, that those who pass into them from the more improved countries feel as if they had got into midnight darkness. Nor are the other countries, which from the proximity of the heretics or their own good sense are somewhat more enlightened, free from a considerable share of corruptions and follies. If to these things, we add the pious or rather the impious frauds by which the people in many places are deluded with impunity, the extreme ignorance of the mass of the people, the devout farces that are acted, and the insipidity and the puerilities of their public discourses, we must be sensible, that it is sheer impudence to affirm that the Romish religion and ecclesiastical discipline have been altogether corrected and reformed, since the time of the council of Trent." It may be added, that two extended histories of the council of Trent have been written ; the first, which has been trans- lated into English, written by Father Paul Sarpi. and some- times displaying a feeling hostile to the court of Rome ; the ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 227 second, written by Cardinal Sforza Pallavicino, and perfectly Submissive to the see of Rome. More than three centuries now passed away without another ecumenical council ; but on the 29th of June, 1867, when about 500 prelates were assembled in Rome to celebrate the centenary of St. Peter's martyrdom, pope Pius IX. publicly and officially announced his intention to convene such a council at as early a day as circumstances would allow. On the 29th of June, 1868, he issued his bull of convocation, the essential part of which is as follows : " Relying and renting on the authority of Almighty God himself, the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and of the blessed apostles Peter and Paul, which we also exercise on earth, we, with the counsel and consent of our venerable brethren the Cardinals of the Holy Roman church, by these letters proclaim, announce, convoke, and appoint a sacred ecumenical and general council to be held in this holy city of Rome, in the coming year 1869, in the Vatican basilica; to commence on the 8th day of the month of December, sacred to the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, Mother of God ; to be continued, and, by the help of God, completed and finished for his glory and for the salvation of all Christian people. And we therefore will and command that, from every place, all our venerable brethren, the patriarchs, arch- bishops, and bishops, also our beloved sons, the abbots, and all others to whom by right or by privilege power has been granted to sit in gen- eral councils and to declare their opinions in the same, shall come to this ecumenical council convoked by us; requiring, exhorting, admonishing, and no less enjoining and strictly commanding them, in virtue of the oath which they have taken to us and to this Holy See, and of holy obedience, and under the penalties commonly enacted and set forth by law or custom in the celebration of councils against those who do not come, that they be fully bound to be present and to take part in this sacred council, unless they chance to be prevented by just impediment, which, however, they must prove to the synod through their legitimate proxies." The pope also issued, September 8, 1868, " letters apostolic to all bishops of churches of the Eastern rite not in communion with the apostolic see," beseeching, admonishing, and press- ingly exhorting them to come to this ecumenical council as 228 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. their ancestors came to the 2d council of Lyons (1274) and to the council of Florence (1438). And on the 13th of Septem- ber, 1868, there followed "letters apostolic of his holiness Pope Pius IX. to all Protestants and other non-Catholics," addressing them as " those who, while they know the same Jesus Christ as the Redeemer, and glory in the name of Christian, yet do not profess the true faith of Christ, nor hold to and follow the communion of the Catholic church," and exhorting them thus : " Let all those, then, who do not profess the unity and truth of the Catholic church, avail themselves of the opportunity of this council, in which the Catholic church, to which their ancestors belonged, affords a new proof of her close unity and her unconquerable vitality, and let them satisfy the longings of their hearts, and free themselves from that state iii which they cannot be assured of their own salvation. Let them continually offer fervent prayers to the God of mercy that He will throw down the wall of separation, scatter the darkness of error, and lead them back to the bosom of our holy mother the church, in whom their fathers found the healthful waters of life, in whom alone the whole teaching of Jesus Christ is preserved and handed down, and the mysteries of heavenly grace dispensed. For ourself, to whom the same Christ our Lord has confided the charge of the Supreme Apos- tolic ministry, and who must, therefore, fulfill most earnestly all the offices of a good pastor, and love with a fatherly love and embrace in our charity all men, wherever scattered over the earth, we address these letters to all Christians separated from us, and we again and again exhort and conjure them speedily to return to the one fold of Christ." Of course, in these letters the Roman pontiff assumes his own infallibility, since formally declared ; the truth and unchangea- bleness of the Roman Catholic church as the sole authorized depositary of the faith and salvation of the Gospel ; and the consequent necessity that all who are not in communion with, and submission to, the see of Rome must be regarded and treated altogether as errorists and heretics, and must them- selves make all the concessions and do all the repenting ante- cedent to reconciliation with him who claims to be the vicar of ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 229 Jesus Christ upon the earth, and who, sitting in majesty and authority upon his pontifical throne, with outstretched hands awaits most eagerly the return of " erring sons to the Catholic church." Few Greeks or Protestants appear to have embraced this opportunity to become reconciled to the Roman pontiff and his Catholic church ; while some ecclesiastical bodies as well as individuals among those thus addressed, have given formal answers much more argumentative and reprehensive and justificatory than submissive or repentant. Thus the com- mittee of the Presbyterian General Assemblies in the United States, representing 5000 ministers and half a million of church members, answered by affirming their positive belief in the Apostles' Creed and the doctrinal decisions of the first six gen- eral councils ; denying their being either heretics or schismat- ics ; refusing to accept the pope's invitation, on account of holding the principles for which both the Council of Trent pro- nounced our fathers accursed, and the church of Rome still utters its anathema, the most important of these principles being (1) That the word of God is the only infallible rule of faith and practice ; (2) The right of private judgment; (3) The universal priesthood of believers ; (4) A denial of the perpe- tuity of the apostleship ; referring also to the leading doctrines of the Roman Catholic church, " which Protestants believe to be not only unscriptural, but contrary to the faith and practice of the early Church ;" and closing with these plain and kindly words : " While loyalty to Christ, obedience to the Holy Scriptures, consist- ent respect for the early councils of the Church, and the firm belief that ' pure religion is the foundation of all human society,' compel us to withdraw from fellowship with the Church of Rome ; we, neverthe- less, desire to live in charity with all men. "We love all who love our Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity. We cordially recognize as Christian brethren all who worship, trust and serve Him as their God and Sa- vior according to the inspired Word. And we hope to be united in heaven with all who unite with us on earth, in saying, ' Unto Him 230 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. who loved us, and washed us from our sins in His blood, and halh made us kings and priests unto God ; to Him be glory and dominion forever and ever. Amen.'" Appended to the encyclical letter issued by pope Pius IX., December 8, 1864, in respect to the "wicked errors" of our times, is a " Syllabus [= catalogue or list] of the principal errors of our time pointed out in the Consistorial Allocutions, Encyclical and other Apostolical Letters of pope Pius IX.," and enumerating, under 10 general heads or sections, 80 of these errors. These 10 sections of errors are entitled, " I. Panthe- ism, Naturalism, and Absolute Rationalism ;" " II. Moderate Rationalism;" "III. Indifferentism, Toleration ;" "IV. Social- ism, Communism, Secret Societies, Bible Societies, Clerico- liberal Societies;" "V. Errors respecting the Church and her Rights ;" " VI. Errors of Civil Society, as much in themselves as considered in their relations to the church ;" "VII. Errors in Natural and Christian Morals ;" " VIII. Errors as to Chris- tian Marriage ;" '' IX. Errors regarding the Civil Power of the Sovereign Pontiff;" "X. Errors referring to Modern Lib- eralism." Some of the specifications under these general heads have respect to religious freedom, the separation of Church and State, the civil contract of marriage, education outside of the control of the Roman Catholic church, the conflict between civil law and the spiritual authority of the Church, the immuni- ties of the clergy, the cessation of the pope's temporal power, &c. Said the British " Quarterly Review" of the Vatican coun- cil, before it met : " Its preface and programme are contained in the Encyclical of 1864. . . . The council is simply a coup cFeglise [= church -stroke] of the Ultra- montanists. It is a Jesuit plot; and the audacious men who take the lead in it reckon before everything to make use of it against the Liberals. It is not modern impiety that they trouble themselves about, for they know perfectly well that its abettors but mock at their anathemas ; it is the liberal tendency in the bosom of their own Church which engrosses their energies ; it is this which they hope to crush. Possibly they may suc- ceed ; only, that which they thus think to destroy, may perhaps burst ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 231 its bonds, and be marshaled once more outside the narrow limits within which they had thought to stifle it. There is their supreme danger." " The Press and St. James Chronicle " said about the same time: " What is the moving spring of this catena [= chain] of events ? Most assuredly it is the spirit of Ultramontanism prompted, guided, and promoted by the order of the Jesuits. If they can only obtain this grand object, they, no doubt, consider they are safe, can never be again anathematized or suppressed by any pope, and that no ecumenical council can again be held to disturb the method of things which they will have established. It is plain it was by this order that the declara- tion of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception was effected. This was the first great step, aiming at spiritual supremacy over the con- science. The second was the encyclical and syllabus, claiming tempo- ral power over kings and nations ; and the third, yet to come, is to combine both in one infallible and irresponsible head." A Protestant also remarked, that it was a shrewd thing to bring all the prelates of the Roman Catholic church together in Rome, and there all reporters being excluded, and the bishops pledged to secrecy to concert measures for action. Every Roman Catholic bishop throughout the world, be it remembered, has to report to the central authority the state of his diocese ; jurists in Rome, it is whispered, have been busy studying the laws of the American states to find and make opportunities for the benefit of the Church ; and all may be assured, that what- ever keen-sightedness and worldly wisdom and long experience would suggest as desirable or expedient, would at such a time and in such circumstances be sought out and effectually taught to those bishops in America or elsewhere who have both the will and the power to subserve the interests of the papal see. The professed object of the council may be made very prominent ; and yet its actual result may be something very different, which Protestants little suspected. In addition to the preparations which had been made by the pope in former years by encyclicals and other public manifesta- tions of his desires and expectations, things were carefully " cut 232 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. and dried" for the council in the following way, according to " The Catholic World," for February and March, 1870 : " Five Committees, formed of Roman and foreign theologians, each under the presidency of a cardinal, have for nearly. a year and a half been engaged in an exhaustive study of the subjects most likely to come up. Their dissertations and essays on such points have been printed for the private use of the bishops, and being up to the day, must be of great use, and will naturally aid much in expediting business. " On December 2d, the Holy Father delivered to the bishops then in Rome [about 500], assembled in the Sixtine Chapel, an allocution in preparation for the council : and they received printed copies of an apostolical letter, dated November 27th, settling some matters for the good order of the council and the dispatch of business .... There are 10 chapters in it. ... " Chapter i. reiterates the laws of the church, and enjoins on all the duty of living piously, and of carefully maintaining an exemplary de- meanor " Chapter ii. is as follows : ' Although the right and duty of propos- ing the matters to be treated in the Holy Ecumenical Council, and of asking the judgments of the fathers on them, belongs only to us and this apostolic see, yet we not only desire, but we exhort, that if any among the fathers of the council have anything to propose which they believe will tend to the general benefit, they shall freely propose it. However, as we clearly perceive that this, unless it be done in proper time and mode, may seriously disturb the necessary order of the busi- ness of the council, we direct that such proposals be offered in this mode, to wit: 1. Each one must be put in writing, and be directly de- livered to a special congregation [=committee] composed of several car- dinals and fathers of the council, to be appointed by us. 2. It must regard the general welfare of the church, not the special benefit of only this or that diocese. 3. It must set forth the reasons for which it is held useful and opportune. 4. It must not run counter to the constant belief of the church, and her inviolable traditions. The said special congregation shall diligently weigh the propositions delivered to it, and shall report to us their recommendation as to the admission or exclu- sion of them, in order that, after mature deliberation, we may decide whether or not they shall be placed before the council for discussion.' We may say here that this special committee has been appo'n ed, and ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 233 is composed of 12 cardinals and 14 prelates. Of the cardinals 5 are usually resident in Rome, 3 are from sees in Italy, 1 is French, 1 Spanish, 1 German, and 1 (Cardinal Cullen) from Ireland. Of the prelates, 2 are patriarchs from the East, 1 is French, 2 Spanish, 4 Italians, 1 South American, 1 (Archbishop Spalding [of Baltimore]) from the United States, 1 Mexican, 1 English, 1 Belgian, and 1 Ger- man. This committee is thus an admirable synopsis, as it were, of the entire council. Their duties may hereafter be delicate and responsi- ble. So far, we believe, they have not been called on to act. . . . " Chapter iii. charges all to keep silence on the matters under dis- cussion. ... i " Chapter iv. declares that the seats shall be occupied according to grades of the hierarchy, and seniority of promotion. . . . " Chapters v. and vii. set forth that, for the rapid furthering of business, there shall be six other standing committees, the members of all of which shall be elected by ballot in the council: 1. On excuses for non-attendance, or for leave of absence, to consist of 5 members. 2. On grievances and complaints, likewise to consist of 5 members. 3. On matters of faith, to consist of 24 members. 4. On matters of discipline, with 24 members. 5. One on regular orders, with 24 mem- bers ; and 6. One on oriental rites and on missions, to consist of 24 members. These last four committees, or ' deputations/ as they are termed, will be presided over each by a cardinal, to be appointed by the pope. "Chapter vi. appoints the officers and attendants required in the council. Prince John Colonna and Prince Dominic Orsini are ser- geants -at-arms. . . . The Right Rev. Joseph Fessler, of Germany, is named secretary of the council, with an under-secretary and 2 assist- ants. 7 notaries are named, and 8 scrutatores or tellers, for receiving and counting the votes. Among these last is Monsignor Nardi, well- known to the foreign visitors to Rome. The promoters, masters of ceremony, and ushers are also named in this chapter. . . . ** Other chapters . . . make known some points of order to be ob. served in the religious exercises of the public sessions and the general congregations ; and enjoin on the bishops attending the council to remain until the close of it, forbidding any one to depart before such close, save with regular leave of absence, duly applied for and obtained. . . . " Finally, the sovereign pontiff, who would preside in person only in the solemn sessions, designated 5 cardinals who, in his name and by his 234 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. authority, would preside in the general congregations. They were cardinals de Reisach, de Luca, Bizzarri, Bilio, and Capalti. [The death of cardinal de Reisach and the appointment of cardinal de Angelis to fill the vacancy, were announced in the congregation of January 3d, 1870.] " The apostolic letter also set forth how the several committees of theologians had prepared schemata, or draughts, as we would term them, on various points belonging to the general purposes of the coun- cil. The Holy Father declared that he had abstained from giving to these draughts any sanction of approval. They would be placed in the hands of the bishops for their serious study and for their discussion, (integra integre) freely and as to every part." The sessions of the council were held in the north transept of St. Peter's a part about 175 feet in length and 95 feet in breadth being separated from the rest of the church by exquis- itely colored, but temporary, partition-walls closing the arches on the north aisle and extending across the space between the two great pillars which support the north side of the dome. The pontiff's throne was placed under a draped canopy and above a raised platform in the semicircular apsis which forms the very northern extremity of the transept. On each side of him, but a little less elevated, were placed the cardinals, on seats covered with red damask, with kneeling-stands before them capable of being changed into writing-desks. Before the cardinals, but a little lower, sat the patriarchs, on seats cov- ered with purple. On 14 rows of high-backed benches running the remaining length (about f) of the hall and rising as they recede, 7 on each side, from the central or front rows, sat the bishops, each with his seat numbered and covered with green- ish Brussels tapestry, and Jiis table suspended by hinges from the back of the bench before him. Seats for secretaries and other officials were placed here and there on the floor ; and 30 or 40 feet from the large entrance-door at the south end of the council-hall in the central space between the front rows of bishops' seats was a temporary altar for masses. Several galleries opening through the wall were for the singers of the ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 235 Sistine choir, sovereigns and members of royal families, am- bassadors, and theologians. The hall was ornamented with a large painting of the descent of the Holy Ghost, with paint- ings of the Apostles' council at Jerusalem, and of the three councils of Nice, Ephesus, and Trent, with medallion paintings of 22 popes connected with ecumenical councils, and colossal figures of the 4 great doctors of the church, Ambrose, Augus- tine, Jerome, and Chrysostom. As the large council-hall was 150 feet high, and was therefore but partially separated from the rest of St. Peter's by the partition, 50 feet high, at the south end, it was found after the council met in it that only the strongest and clearest voices could fill it and be understood, so that discussion was altogether impossible. But this diffi- culty was remedied for the congregations or meetings for dis- cussion, which the pope does not attend, by putting in a new and light partition so as to cut off the altar and half of the bishops' seats, removing the prelates who occupied these seats to other temporary seats in the central space and on the platform, tak- ing away the pope's throne and placing a temporary altar for mass there, and stretching an awning across the hall. For the solemn sessions, in which the pontiff presided, the couiicil- hall was restored to its full size. The expenses of the council were met by " Peter's pence " (see Chap. XXI.) or contributions from the faithful of all countries. It is said that 150 or 200 poor bishops were pro- vided for gratuitously as guests of the Holy Father. This enthusiastic description of the opening of the council is also from " The Catholic World," whose editor, Rev. I. T. Hecker, was in Rome at the time : " The morning of December 8th dawned Although the clouds were hanging low and heavy, and the air was filled with mist, and at times the rain poured down, by six A. M., tens of thousands were wending their way to St. Peter's ; and by seven, every eligible portion of the floor of the vast basilica was crowded. At half-past seven, the cardinals, archbishops, and bishops began to gather in the Vatican Palace, where they robed, putting on white copes and mitres, and then passed to the great hall at the front, and immediately over the vestibule 236 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. of St. Peter's. Here the masters of ceremony assigned to each one his proper place, and they awaited the coming of the sovereign pontiff. " Punctual to the moment, he appeared. All knelt in prayer. In a clear and sonorous voice he intoned the Veni Creator Spiritus. 1 The choir took up the strain, the bishops arose, and commenced to move in procession back to the Vatican Palace, through the ducal hall, down the unequalled Scala JRegia, and into the vestibule of St. Peter's. Along the line the voice of chanting was heard. Without, the air was filled again with the sound of bells and the booming of cannon The prelates marched two and two, each one attended by his chaplain. It was a procession such as the world has seen but once before, and that six hundred years ago, at the Second Council of Lyons. First came the cross, surrounded with burning lights and clouds of incense from the censers, and a group of ecclesiastics attached to the Vatican and to St. Peter's. On came the long white line of mitred abbots, bishops, archbishops, primates, patriarchs, and cardinals, slowly moving, joining in the chanted hymn, or else with subdued voices reciting psalms and prayers. The hall, the grand stairway, and the vestibule were packed by thousands who despaired of being able to enter the church, and hoped at least to look on the procession. All eyes seemed to scrutinize the line of prelates with reverent curiosity. Some in the line had not yet lost the smoothness of their cheeks. They had not yet closed their eighth lustre.* The great majority had passed the half-century of life Many of them, too, far more than the younger ones, were aged and venerable prelates, who, like the rest, had come at the summons of the chief pastor The spectators, of every nation, looked to recognize the bishops each of his own land. They pointed out and whispered to each other the names of those who had won for themselves a world-wide reputation in the church, and looked with special attention on the oriental prelates, scattered here and there through the line, robed, not like those of the Latin rite, in unadorned white copes and white linen mitres, but in richly ornamented chasubles or copes of oriental fashion, glittering with gold and precious stones and bright colors, and wearing on their heads tiaras radiant with gems. On they passed, Italians, Greeks, Germans, Persians, 1 Literally, "Come, Creator Spirit," a hymn of invocation to the Holy Spirit, which Ixjgins thus. 2 As a lustrum or lustre is a period of 5 years, the close of the 8th lustre is the end ot the 40th year. ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 237 Syrians, Hungarians, Spanish and Copt, Irish and French, Scotch and Brazilian, Mexican and English, American and Chinese, Canadian and South American and Australian ; abbots, bishops, archbishops, primates, and patriarchs. " Next came the cardinals the senate of the church. . . . Antonelli, Bilio, Bonnechose, Cullen, Schwartzenberg, Hohenlohe, Banabo, Pitra, Patrizi every one seemed worthy of, and to receive, special homage as they slowly moved on. " But even they were forgotten as the Holy Father approached. Surrounded by his chaplains and attendants, by Swiss guards in their picturesque costume, designed, it is said, with an eye to effect, by Michael Angelo himself, and by the Roman noble guard in their rich- est uniforms, he came borne, according to the old Roman custom which has come down from the times of the republic, in a curule chair, such as ediles and senators were borne in ; such as that which the convert Senator Pudens appropriated to the Apostle St. Peter, which he and many of his successors used, and which is still preserved with care and veneration in St. Peter's. [See Chapters I. and III.] Pius IX. is, we believe, really eighty-one [78] years of age. He is still robust, wonderfully so for that age. His countenance beams still with that paternal benevolence which has such power to charm . . . All knelt as he was borne by, blessing them on either side. In his train followed other attendants and the superiors of religious or- ders, who enter the council, but are not privileged to wear mitres. Conspicuous among them was the thin, ascetic, fleshless form of the superior-general of the Jesuits, in black the little black pope, as they call him in Rome. " Meanwhile the head of the procession has long since reached the grand portals of the Basilica. From the door to the central line of the transept is about four hundred feet, and the nave of the church is about ninety-five feet wide. All this space is crowded with people standing so jammed together that there is not room to kneel, if one wished. Back on either side, under the broad arches, and into the side aisles, the vast mass of humanity extends. . . . Guards had kept free for the procession a passage-way through the crowd, from the door to the main altar. Up this lane the bishops walked with uncovered heads, for the blessed sacrament was exposed on the altar. Kneeling a moment in adora- tion, they arose, and, turning to the right, passed into the space set aside and prepared for the council-hall. To each one, as he entered, his proper place was assigned by the masters of ceremony. The great- 238 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. er part were so placed, when a fuller burst of the choir told us that the Holy Father had reached the portals of the church, had been received by the chapter of canons, and was entering. He left the curule chair and doflfed his mitre ; for a greater than he is here enthroned, and even the pope must walk with uncovered head. He, and the cardinals with him, knelt at the main altar as the bishops had done, and waited until the last strophe of the hymn, Veni Sancte Spiritus [= Come, Holy Spirit], was finished by the choir. He arose, chanted the versicle and prayer to the Holy Ghost, and then, preceded by the cardinals, also entered the council-hall. They passed each to his proper place, the pontiff to a prie Dieu [= 'pray God,' a kneeling-desk], prepared for for him in the middle, to await the commencement of the high mass. . . " The pontifical high mass should have been celebrated by Cardinal Mattei, the dean of the body. But his age and infirmities are too great to permit so great an exertion. Accordingly, the next in rank, Cardinal Patrizi, took his place, and was the celebrant. The pontiff approached the altar with him, recited the Jadica [=' Judge,' i.e., Psalm xliii ] and the Confiteor [= 'I confess,' the confession of sin to God, to the Virgin Mary, &c.], and then retired to his own seat, and the cardinal ascended to the altar, and continued the mass. The music was that of Palestrina, executed by the papal choir as they alone can sing, and without any instrumental accompaniment. Such voices as theirs need none. Just before the last gospel, a portable pulpit was brought out near the altar ; Monsignor Passavalli, archbishop of Iconi- um, ascended it, wearing cope and mitre, and preached the introductory sermon. It was in Latin the language of the council and occupied just 40 minutes. It has since been published, and the reader will not fail to recognizj and admire the eloquence and fervor of his thoughts and the eleganc-e of his Latinity. But no pages can give an idea of the clear, ringing voice, the musical Italian intonations, and the dignified and impressive, almost impassioned, gesture of the truly eloquent Capu- chin. The sermon over, the pope gave the solemn blessing, the Gospel of St. John [John 1 : 1 14] was recited, and the mass was over. * The altar being now clear, the attendants brought in a rich, throne- like stand, and placed it on the altar in the centre. Monsignor Fess- ler, secretary of the council, attended by his assistant, brought in pro- cession a large book of the Gospels, elegantly bound, and reverently placed it on the throne. . . . " The Holy Father then assumed his full pontifical robes. The car- ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 239 dinals and all the prelates, in their proper order, then approached, one by one, to pay him homage, kissing his hand or the stole he wore. Their numbers made it a long ceremony. . . . "This over, all knelt while the pontiff chanted the sublime prayer, Adsumus, Domine [= We are present, Lord]. Solemn and subdued were the chanted amens of the entire assembly. * Four chanters next intoned the litany of the saints in the well- known varying minor strains of Gregorian chant. Most impressive were the responses made by the united Voices of the fathers. But when, at the proper time, the pope rose to his feet, and, holding the cross of his authority in his left hand, replaced the chanters, and rais- ing his streaming eyes to heaven, and in his own majestic and sonorous tones, trembling just enough to tell how deeply his great heart was moved, thrice prayed our divine Lord to bless, to preserve, to consecrate this council, tears flowed from many an eye. All were intensely moved r and not bishops alone, but the crowds of clergy outside, and thousands of the laity, joined, again and again, in the response, Te Rogamus, audi nos [We beseech thee, hear us]. Then, if never before, St. Peter's was filled with the mighty volume of sound. . . . " The chanters resumed, the litany was terminated, and the pope re- cited the prayers that follow it Cardinal Borromeo then, acting as deacon, chanted the Gospel taken from Luke x., narrating the mission of the disciples. He used the volum3 that had been enthroned on the altar. When he concluded, the volume was carried back as before, and reverently replaced on the throne. The assembly were* seated, and the Holy Father, himself seated and wearing his mitre, delivered a dis- course or allocution, full, as all his discourses are, of unction, and re- plete with the thoughts and words of divine inspiration. " At the conclusion of this discourse all knelt, and the Holy Father again intoned the Veni Creator Spiritus. The choir took it up, and the members of the council responded in the alternate strophes. The pope sang the versicles and prayer that follow it, and all again were seated. " The secretary now mounted the pulpit and read aloud the first pro- posed decree, " That this Holy Vatican Council be, and is now opened." The fathers all answered Placet [= It pleases, i. e., Yes] ; the pope gave his sanction ; the formal decree was passed and proclaimed, and the notaries instructed to make an official record of it. " A second decree was similarly proposed, voted, and sanctioned, fix- 240 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. ing the second public session for the festival of Epiphany, January 6th, 1870. The first general congregation was announced for Friday, De- cember 10th, in the same hall of the council. " This closed the proceedings of the first public session, which neces- sarily were purely formal. The Holy Father arose and intoned the solemn Te Deum or thanksgiving. The choir the unrivalled one of the Sixtine chapel took up the strain, intertwining the melody with subdued but artistic harmonies. The assembled bishops, the clergy without, thousands of the laity, familiar from childhood w'.th the vary- ing strains of its Gregorian chant, responded with one accord, in the second verse of the grand old Ambrosian hymn. The choir sang the third verse as before, the crowd responded with the fourth, and so on they alternated to the end. It is impossible to tell in words the thril- ling power of such a union of voices. It moved, overcame, subdued one. . . . "At half-past two, the Te Deum was finished, and the services closed. The Holy Father unrobed, and withdrew with his attendants. But it was past three ere all the bishops could issue from the hall and leave the church. The crowds looked on as they slowly departed, their own numbers long remaining seemingly undiminished." At the first general congregation, held December 10th, Car- dinal de Luca presiding and making an address, the members of the council voted by ballot for the two committees on ex- cuses and complaints, each consisting of five members. These rotes were placed in boxes, and publicly sealed ; and a com- mittee, consisting of the senior patriarch, the senior primate, the senior archbishop, the senior bishop, and the senior mitred abbot, was appointed to superintend the counting of the votes the next day, and also to superintend the counting of the votes in future elections. Copies of the first schema or draught on doctrinal matters were then delivered to the bishops. The meeting was opened at 9 o'clock A. M. with the mass of the Holy Ghost celebrated by one of the prelates without music, and this was followed by the chief cardinal's reading the pray- ers prescribed for the occasion. A concluding prayer was said before the meeting was adjourned. At the second general congregation, December 14th, two ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 241 documents from the pope were distributed to the council ; one on the election of pontiff by the cardinals and the immediate adjournment of the council, should there be a vacancy in the office during the council ; the other, revising the censures and penalties of the canon law, &c. (see Chapter IV.). The coun- cil balloted for members of the committee on matters of faith, 721 members voting. Archbishops Spalding of Baltimore, and Alemany of San Francisco, were two of the 24 members of this important committee. Archbishop Manning of Westminster, England, was another member, and Cardinal Bilio was ap- pointed chairman. It is conceded that the members of this committee almost unanimously favored the decree, subsequently passed, affirming the pope's supremacy and infallibility. At the third general congregation, December 21st, the com- mittee on discipline was chosen. Archbishop McCloskey of New York, and Bishop Heiss of La Crosse,-were the members chosen from the United States, and Cardinal Caterini was ap- pointed chairman. At the fourth general congregation, December 28th, the com- mittee on the religious orders was chosen. Of this Bishop Ryan of Buffalo was the only member chosen from the United States, and Cardinal Bizzarri was appointed chairman. After the bal- loting, the discussion on the first schema began, and was con- tinued on the next day, also on the 3d, 4th, 8th, and llth of January. In all 85 speakers addressed the council on this schema, all in Latin, the first speaker being Cardinal Rauscher of Vienna, the second Archbishop Kenrick of St. Louis, and another Bishop Verot of Savannah. All these discourses were taken down by the stenographers of the council, written out, and then referred with the schema itself to the committee on matters of faith to make such amendments in the schema as might seem advisable, and again bring it up before the council for consideration and ultimate approval or* rejection. In the mean time other schemata or draughts on discipline were placed in the hands of the members of the council to be studied for subsequent discussion and action in a similar way. 16 242 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. The second public session of the council, in which the pon- tiff presided, was held January 6th. There was no procession, yet the crowd in St. Peter's, though smaller than at the first session, was immense. After the mass, litany, and other pray- ers, came the special business of the session to make the solemn profession of faith. This ceremony is thus described in "The Catholic World" for March, 1870 : " The promoters, approaching the holy father, knelt and asked that this be now done. He assented, and arose, and put off his mitre. All arose, and stood uncovered. In his own clear, ringing voice, in tones that filled the hall, and passed out to the multiiude beyond in the church so clear that words could be caught far off at the other end of the transept he read slowly and solemnly the profession of Catholic faith, in the form of Pius IV., and seemed to lay special stress on the declaration that in his heart he held and professed this holy faith, and would hold it, with God's blessing, until death, and concluded, ' I, Pius, Bishop of the Catholic church, so promise, vow, and swear. So help me God, and these holy gospels,' and kissed the book of gospels. He was then seated. The prelates remained standing as before, while one of their number read, in a clear voice, the same profession in their name. When he had concluded, the masters of ceremony placed a book of the gospels on the knees of the pontiff, and one by one the cardinals approached, according to their rank, and confirmed the pro- fession, 'I, Cons'antine, Cardinal Patrizi, promise, vow, and swear, according to the form just read. So help me God, and these holy gos- pels,' and kissed the book. After the cardinals came the patriarchs and primates, and then the archbishops and bishops. . . . The prelates made the profession each in the liturgical language of his rite ; most, of course, in Latin, some in Greek, and Syriac, and Chaldean, and Arabic, and Armenian, and Copt, and Slavonic This solemn cere- mony lasted for two hours and a half. When it was concluded, the Te Deum was intoned, and chanted in the old and venerable style by the choir, the bishops, and the assembled thousands, and with it closed the second public session of the Vatican council." The 29th general congregation was held February 22, 1870, when the discussion on the fourth schema on discipline was re- ferred, like the three before it, to the committee on matters of ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 243 discipline. Including the 7 speeches of that day, 145 speeches had then been delivered before the council on the 5 schemata (1 on faith, and 4 on discipline), and nothing satisfactory to the council had been matured. Some additional regulations were announced in the congregation of the 22d of February, according to which the members of the council who desired to present their views upon any schema or to amend it in any way, were to do this, not publicly in the congregation as before, but by writing out their views, amendments, &c., and sending these written statements to the secretary, who in turn was, at the expiration of the time specified, to deliver them all to the ap* propriate committee, who were, as before, to amend the schema, if necessary, and report it to the congregation with a summary of the remarks made and of the amendments proposed ; and then the presiding cardinals were to appoint a day for its discussion in general congregation, first by those who might previously signify their intention to discuss it as a whole, and next by those who might thus signify their intention to discuss the 1st, 2d, ton them ; I depend rather on the statements which I have gathered daily from moderate men devoted to the Church, and who la- mented the injury inflicted on her. Gross and unmannerly inter- ruptions, hisses and howls, and harsh epithets have greeted the orator who ventured to exercise his undoubted right, while the cardinal-presi- dents have rung the bell to call the speaker to what was called order and, failing to succeed, have gone even to the pulpit to call him down. It is with delicacy and hesitation that I now allude to the highest per- sonage in these States. The ultra Roman Catholic press maintained before the council met that the pope could not and would not be any party to a movement which would exalt him above humanity. He was, as it were, to repose in complete unconsciousness-almost without a will submissive to the ultimate decisions of the Holy Spirit. What is the truth ? Pius IX. has been a warm partisan, has been judge hi his own case, and has pre-theorized himself. In his briefs and allocu- tions he has significantly praised all those who favored the dogma, while he has severely reproved those who opposed it. Even on the occasion 252 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. of a recent festival, his benediction displayed his animus, and unless all Rome is in error, private laudations or private reproofs have been dealt out to those who were supposed to deserve his smiles or to merit his anger. In short, the man who ventured to differ from the Roman Curia [= court] was regarded almost as a criminal both by a portion of the council and by the pope, whom it was permitted to insult. The council was summoned, not to discuss, but to obey, and because a por- tion of it refused to do so, it has been looked upon with an evil eye. Of the ultra Koman Catholic press I shall not say much, for by its rude violence it has put itself beyond the pale of notice. All the worst fea- tures which have marked the infallibilist bishops have been displayed by it in a highly magnified form. The decrees it desired, it has regarded as foregone conclusions, and all who opposed them as ' pestilent fellows.' Hence, instead of encouraging discussion it has dealt in hard words, and has forgotten that when a man handles the pen he should not cease to be a gentleman. Heretics, Jews, Galileans, Falsifiers, Protestants, and a host of other epithets have been lavished on those who differed from it, while those who favored its views have been exalted to the skies. Let us pass it by, for such a spirit has been condemned by the sentiment of all enlightened Roman Catholics. I have spoken of the mode in which the council has been conducted ; let me now very briefly report what it has done. The first public session was held on the 8th of De- cember, 1869, when the sole ceremony was that of the inauguration of the council. The second session was held on the 6th of January, 1870, when, in the absence of any decrees to be proclaimed, the bishops were called on to make profession of the Faith of Pius IV. On the occasion of the third session, which was held on the 24th of April, 1870, some decrees were published regarding the existence of God, rationalism, pantheism, and several other isms. At the fourth council, which was held on Monday last, the primary and infallibility of the Roman pon- tiff were decided, and now, according to the saying of the Romans, the bishops who came as " Pastori" [= shepherds] leave Rome as " Pe- core " [= sheep], and may go and gambol, for having shorn themselves, they are as light as lambs. In the intervals between these sessions there have been many meetings, called General Congregations, at which the canons distributed have been discussed. They have been De Fide [=on the Faith] ; de Officio Episcoporum [=on the office of Bishops] ; de Vita et Honestate Clericorum [= on the life and reputation of the clergy] ; de Parvo Oatechistno [=on the little catechism] ; DeEcclesia ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 253 =on the church] ; De Primatu Romani Pontificis [ = on the primacy of the Roman pontiff]. Some only of these subjects have been partial- ly discussed. The Canon de Ecclesia was before the council when a note of remonstrance from the French government arrived. The an- swer was an immediate order to bring forward the primacy of the Roman pontiff, which, from being the fourteenth article of the Canon de Ecclesia, was promoted to the dignity of the First. I have only to add that the bishops have received permission to leave Rome, with or- ders to reassemble on the llth of November." After the capture of Rome by the Italian troops in Septem- ber, 1870, the order for the reassembling of the Vatican coun- cil was indefinitely suspended. CHAPTER VII. THE CLERGY. OUR English word " priest " is etymblogically the same with " presbyter," both words being traced back to the Greek pre- buteros, which signifies " elder," and is thus translated in the New Testament (Mat. 15 : 2. Luke 15 : 25. Acts 11 : 30. 1 Tim. 5 : 1, &c.). " Priest," therefore, is often nearly synon- ynums with " presbyter," " elder," " minister," " preacher," " pastor," and other terms which denote in general, with vari- ous shades of difference, a Christian teacher or spiritual guide. But " priest " is also used as the English equivalent of the Latin sacerdos and the Greek hiereus, which denote a sacred person, particularly one who performs sacred rites, or offers sacrifice to God. The latter is the predominant signification of "priest" among Roman Catholics, as it would have been among the ancient Jews or among the idolatrous Romans and Greeks. The " priest " among Roman Catholics is a sacred person, who offers sacrifice to God ; the " priests " or clergy of the Roman Catholic church belong to a sacred order or caste, who are regarded as altogether distinct from, and officially su- perior to, the " laity," or common Christian people, and who offer sacrifice, especially the mass (see Chapter XIV.). But Protestants believe that the one sacrifice which the Lord Jesus Christ offered to God for us when he died on the cross, is full and complete (Heb. 9 : 28. 10 : 10-14) that no other sacri- fice to God is needed, and that no other sacrifice acceptable to Him can be made (Heb. 10 : 18, 29) that all true Christians now constitute, as the apostle Peter declares, " a holy priest- hood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God bv Jesus THE CLERGY. 255 Christ " (1 Peter 2 : 5, 9) ; and that, therefore, the priests, clergy, or ministers of the Christian religion are simply the religious teachers and guides of the people, not a separate caste or a holier class by the mere virtue of their office. Here is a fundamental distinction between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. The Protestant goes directly to Christ as his High Priest and the one Mediator with God (1 Tim. 2:5); the Roman Catholic expects his priest to offer an acceptable sacri- fice and procure the pardon of sin for him. The Protestant offers prayer and other spiritual sacrifices himself, and takes the Lord Jesus Christ at his word as an all-sufficient Savior ; he regards the priest who would stand between him and God, and professedly repeat the sacrifice of Christ in the mass, as an unauthorized interloper, and as one who, like an apostate, crucifies the Son of God afresh and puts him to an open shame (Heb. 6 : 6). Among the 7 sacraments of the Roman Catholics, " the sacra- ment of orders " holds a prominent place. Says the Catechism of the Council of Trent : " In the power of Orders is included not only that of consecrating the holy eucharist, but also of preparing the soul for its worthy re- ception, and whatever else has reference to the sacred mysteries To exercise this power, ministers are appointed and solemnly conse- crated, and this solemn consecration is denominated ' Ordination,' or ' the Sacrament of Orders.' A sacrament is a sensible sign of an invisible grace, and with these characters Holy Orders are invested: their external forms are a sensible sign of the grace and power which they confer on the receiver: Holy Orders, therefore, are really and truly a sacrament." There are, according to Roman Catholic authorities, 7 " or- ders of ministers, intended by their office to serve the priest- hood," viz., porter, reader, exorcist, acolyte, subdeacon, dea- con, and priest. Of these the first 4 belong to the lesser or Minor Orders ; the other 3 to the greater or Holy Orders. Says the Catechism of the Council of Trent ; 256 THE CLERGY. " The tonsure ... is a sort of prepare,' ion for receiving orders. In tonsure the hair of the head is cut in the form of a crown, and should be worn in that form, enlarging the crown according as ihe ecclesiastic advances in orders. ' This form of tonsure the Church teaches lo be of apostolic origin "The order of porter follows tonsure: its duty con-ists in taking care of the keys and door of the church, and suffering none to enter to whom entrance is prohibited " The 2d among the Minor Orders is that of reader [= lector], to him it belongs to read to the people, in a clear and distinct voice, the Sacred Scriptures, particularly the Nocturnal Psalmody ; and on him also devolves the task of instructing the faithful in the rudiments of the faith " The 3d order is that of exorcist : to him is given power to invoke the name of the Lord over persons possessed by unclean spirits. 1 "The 4:h and last among the Minor Orders is that of acolyte : the duty of the acolyte is to attend and serve those in Holy Orders, dea- cons and subdeacons, in the ministry of the altar. The acolyte also attends to the lights used at the celebration of the Holy Sacrifice, par- ticularly whilst the Gospel is read " Minor Orders are, as it were, the vestibule through which we ascend to Holy Orders. Amongst the latter" the 1st is that of sub- deacon : to him it belongs to prepare the altar-linen, the sacred vessels, the bread and wine necessary for the Holy Sacrifice, to minis- ter water to the priest or bishop at the washing of the hands at mass, to read the epistle, a function which was formerly discharged by the deacon, to assist at mass in the capacity of a witness, and see that the priest be not disturbed by any one during its celebration At his consecration, the bishop admonishes him that by his ordination he assumes the solemn obligation of perpetual continence " The 2d amongst the Holy Orders is that of deacon : .... to him it belongs constantly to accompany the bishop, to attend him when preaching, to assist him and the priest also during the celebration of the holy mysteries, and at the administration of the sacraments, and to read the gospel at the sacrifice of the mass. In the primitive ages of 1 " Exorcism is now," says Collet's Catechism, " almost exclusively confined to the priests." THE CLEEGY. 257 the church, he not unfrequently exhorted the faithful to attend to the divine worship, and administered the chalice in those churches in which the faithful received the holy eucharist under both kinds. In order to administer to the wants of the necessitous, to him was also committed the distribution of the goods of the church. To the deacon also, as the eye of the bishop, it belongs to inquire and ascertain who within his diocese lead lives of piety and edification, and who do not ; who attend the holy sacrifice of the mass and the instructions of their pastors, and who do not ; that thus the bishop, made acquainted by him with these matters, may be enabled to admonish each offender privately, or should he deem it more conducive to their reformation, to rebuke and correct them publicly. He also calls over the names of catechumens, and pre- sents to the bishop those who are to be promoted to orders. In the absence of the bishop and priest, he is also authorized to expound the Gospel to the people, not however from an elevated place, to make it understood that this is not one of his ordinary functions. . . . " The 3d and highest degree of all Holy Orders is the Priesthood. .... The office of the priest is ... to offer sacrifice to God, and to administer the sacraments of the church : the bishop, and after him the priests who may be present, impose hands on the candidate for priest- hood ; then placing a stole on his shoulders, he adjusts it in form of a cross, to signify that the priest receives strength from above, to enable him to carry the cross of Jesus Christ, to bear the sweet yoke of his divine law, and to enforce this law, not by word only, but also by the eloquent example of a holy life. He next anoints his hands with sacred oil, reaches him a chalice containing wine and a paten with bread, say- ing : ' Receive power to offer sacrifice to God, and to celebrate mass as well for the living as for the dead.' By these words and ceremonies he is constituted an interpreter and mediator between God and man, the principal function of the priesthood. Finally, placing his hands on the head of the person to be ordained, the bishop says : ' Receive ye the Holy Ghost ; whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them : and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained ;' thus investing him with that divine power of forgiving and retaining sins which was conferred by our Lord on his disciples. These are the principal and peculiar functions of the priesthood. "The order of priesthood, although essentially one, has different degrees of dignity and power. The first is confined to those who are 17 258 THE CLERGY. simply called priests, and whose functions we have now explained. The second is that of bishops, who are placed over their respective sees, to govern not only the other ministers of the church, but also the faithful ; and, with sleepless vigilance and unwearied care, to watch over and promote their salvation Bishops are also called 'pontiffs/ a name borrowed from the ancient Romans, and used to designate their chief priests. The third degree is that of archbishop : he presides over several bishops, and is also called ' metropolitan,' because he is placed over the metropolis of the province. Archbishops, therefore (although their ordination is the same), enjoy more ample power, and a more exalted station than bishops. Patriarchs hold the fourth place, and are, as the name implies, the first and supreme fathers in the episcopal or- der. Superior to all these is the sovereign pontiff, whom Cyril, arch- bishop of Alexandria, denominated in the council of Ephesus, ' the Father and Patriarch ot the whole world/ [See Chapter III.]. . . . " To the bishop belongs exclusively the administration of this sacra- ment Some abbots were occasionally permitted to confer Minor Orders : all, however, admit that even this is the proper office of the bishop, to whom, and to whom alone, it is lawful to confer the other orders : subdeacons, deacons, and priests are ordained by one bishop only, but ... he himself is consecrated by 3 bishops." The Roman Catholic church regards the clerical dress as of great importance, and has its peculiar uniform for each order of the clergy. Roman Catholic writers, and most Protestants, concur in referring the origin of the peculiar clerical dress to the 4th century. The chief articles may be thus described : The alb (from Latin albus = white) is a white linen tunic covering the whole person down to the feet. It is the toga or loose outer gar- ment of the ancient Romans. The amice (= amict) is a piece of linen cloth worn on the head and round the neck. The biretum (= birretus or biretta) is the closely fitting and pointed cap, usually black, worn by the clergy, by doctors in universities, &c. ; sometimes called simply the cap. The calotte is a small cap for covering the crown of the head or the part where the clerical tonsure is made. The cassock is a long coat, usually black, worn under the surplice. THE CLERGY. 259 The chasuble is an outer garment, open at the sides, with a cross on the back and two stripes representing a pillar in front. The chasuble is " the vestment," properly so called. The chime re is a sort of cape, worn by a bishop under the rochet. The cincture is a girdle. The cope is a long cloak, with a clasp or band at the neck, and the front open below. The dalmatic, so named from its imitation of a dress originally worn in Dalmatia, is a long white gown with sleeves, worn by a deacon over the alb and stole. It is rather shorter than the chasuble. The maniple is a sort of scarf that the priest wears on his left arm. The mitre (= miter) is the double-peaked cap or crown, worn by a bishop or higher dignitary, and in some cases by an abbot. The pall (= pallium) is a short white woolen cloak, with a red cross, encircling the neck and shoulders, and falling on the back. It is sent from Rome to every archbishop of the Roman Catholic church, and to the four Latin patriarchs of the East. The cloth of which it is made is woven from the wool of two white lambs, blessed by the pope on the festival of St. Agnes, and deposited on St. Peter's tomb during the eve of his festival. The rochet is a linen garment worn by a bishop, and much resem- bling a surplice. The stole is a narrow band of silk or other stuff, worn on a deacon's left shoulder, or across both shoulders of a bishop or priest, and hang- ing nearly to the ground ; also called orary. The surplice is a long white robe, worn by a priest, &c., and differ- ing from the alb in having wider sleeves. The tunic is a subdeacon's outer vestment, and is rather narrower than the dalmatic. The following description of the priest's dress during the celebration of the mass, with the emblematic and religious significations of the various articles, is carefully abridged from the late bishop England's explanation of the mass, mostly in his own language : The under dress of the priest is a black cassock or gown, which he wears to denote his separation from the world and its vanities. Over his cassock or gown he first puts on the amict, then the alb, which 260 THE CLERGY. he girds round him with a cincture, then the maniple on his left arm, the stole on his neck, crossed on his breast, and the chasuble or outer vestment. The vesture of the priest is, with some variations, the ancient Roman dress of state. The emblematic object of the vest- ments was principally to remind us of the passion of Christ. Thus the amict placed on the head, reminds Christians how their Redeemer was blindfolded and spit upon for their transgressions ; and it is intended to excite in the clergyman and his congregation the sentiment of the prayer which is repeated by him when he puts it on : " Place, O Lord, on my head, an helmet of salvation, to repel the assaults of the devil." At present this vestment is altogether covered by the alb, which is an emblem of the white garment in which Herod clad the Savior, when mocking him as a fool, he sent him back to Pilate. The alb teaches us purity ; and this is expressed in the clergyman's prayer when putting on this garment : " Make me white, Lord, and cleanse my heart, that being rendered white by the blood of the Lamb, I may partake of eternal joys." He girds himself with a cincture, as Christ was bound for our crimes ; and the prayer is : " Gird me, Lord, with the cinc- ture of purity, and destroy in my loins every seed of lust ; so that the virtue of continence and chastity may remain in me." The man- iple is an emblem of the weight of our sins laid upon the Savior. The prayer at putting on this vestment is, " May I deserve, O Lord, to bear the maniple of weeping and grief, that I may with exultation receive the reward of labor." The stole, formerly used by public speakers, hung loosely down from the shoulders to the front of the person, and was generally of linen : hence it is thus worn by preachers. It is also the distinctive mark of authority when a number of clergymen are as- sembled together, as, except on a few extraordinary occasions, it is then worn only by the presiding or principal clergyman, and the person who preaches or officiates. It is a sort of yoke laid on the shoulders, and therefore an emblem of the obedience and humility of the Son of God, who, clothing himself in our flesh, took upon him our punishment, that we may be clad in his immortality. When the priest crosses it before his breast, it reminds him that he must have before his heart the pro- tection of the Savior's cross. At putting it on he prays, " Restore unto me, O Lord, the state of immortality, which I have lost in the prevarication of my first parent; and although I approach unwor- thily to thy sacred mystery, may I deserve everlasting joy." The em- THE CLERGY. 261 broidered cross on the back of the chasuble, and 2 stripes representing a pillar in front, teach that the priest and the people should carry their cross after Christ, and lean for support upon the church, which St. Paul calls the pillar of truth. This chasuble, exhibiting the cross upon the priest's back, shows how after the purple garment was thrown upon his shoulders, the Redeemer had the cross also laid upon him, bearing which he went to Calvary to offer the sacrifice of our redemption. The prayer said by the priest when he vests himself therewith is, " Lord, who hast said, my yoke is sweet, and my burthen light, grant that I may be able so to bear it as to obtain thy grace." Of the difference of color of the vestments on different days, Bishop England speaks thus : "The object of the Church is, thus to inform the faithful at once of the sort of office which is performed. Hence, where the means of the congregation will allow of the regulation being carried into effect, she commands that the vestments and hangings of the temple shall be of different colors on different occasions. The colors prescribed are, white, red, violet, green, and black. White is used on the great festivals of our Redeemer, and on the days when we recall to our minds the vir- tues, and entreat the prayers of the Blessed Virgin Mary, of the good angels, and of those saints who served God with fidelity in the practice of virtue, but did not shed their blood by martyrdom. Red is worn on the festivals in honor of the Holy Ghost, who in the form of fiery tongues descended on the apostles ; and on the festivals of those saints who were martyred, as exhibiting their blood. Violet, in times of pen- ance and humiliation ; principally, therefore, in Lent and Advent. Green, oh those days when there is no particular festival or observ- ance ; and black, in masses for the dead, and on Good Friday, when we commemorate the death of the Redeemer." The dress of the bishop, f " silk, white, red, purple, green, or black," cost $1.25 to $4 in gold. " Albs," of " pure linen," are of various prices, those " with French- lace skirt and sleeves," from $5 to $12 ; " with plain Bru s sels-lace," $13 to $20 ; " with Brussels-lace, very rich," from $25 to $60 in gold. " Surplices, all lace, according to quality," are from $5 to $25 in gold. " Mitres " are also furnished, " plain, and embroidered on gold-cloth ;" but the prices are not given. " Benzigcr Brothers," from whose catalogue of vestments, &c., the preceding descriptions and prices are taken, are " printers to the holy apostolic see, publishers and booksellers, manufacturers and importers," in New York and Cincinnati. Their authority, therefore, in this department, is the highest to be found in our land. The various articles of dress worn by the Roman Catholic clergy are expected and intended to affect the senses and through them the feelings of the people. Their number and form, the elaborateness and splendor of their construction and ornamentation, the changes in them for different times and oc- casions, the mystical and religious meanings attributed to them, make a most forcible appeal to the admiration and affec- tion of multitudes. The clerical dress unquestionably aids to give importance and honor and power to those who wear it as a badge of sanctity, and who are openly distinguished by it as a separate and privileged class. The Council of Trent, as has been already noticed, made provision for training young men for the priesthood in ecclesi- astical seminaries. The " decree on reformation," passed at the 23d session of the council, makes it the duty of every ca- thedral, metropolitan, or higher church, to furnish a religious THE CLERGY. 265 and ecclesiastical education for a certain number of boys be- longing to its city, diocese, or province. These boys are to be at least 12 years old, of legitimate birth, able to read and write competently, and selected for this purpose especially from the sons of the poor, without however excluding the sons of the rich who may desire to serve God and the church and pay for their own education ; they are to take the tonsure immediately, and always use the clerical dress ; they are to be instructed in grammar, singing, ecclesiastical computation, and other good arts ; they are to learn the Holy Scripture, ecclesi- astical books, homilies of saints, and the forms of sacraments and rites and ceremonies. Cardinal Wiseman, in answering the charge of ignorance brought against the Spanish clergy, gives the course of pre- paratory studies for the priesthood in Spain 25 years ago, thus : " 3 years' study of philosophy, and 7 years' of theology. Such is the course which we found followed in the seminary of Cor- dova, and in the university of Seville ; and such, we were as- sured, was the course everywhere enjoined, and even required by the government. Now this course comprises Scripture, moral and dogmatical theology, and ecclesiastical and canon law." Both the plenary councils held in Baltimore in 1852 and 1866 enjoined observance of this provision of the council of Trent. The decrees of the 2d plenary council of Baltimore set forth the desirableness of having in every diocese a theo- logical seminary properly so called, and also a small or prepar- atory seminary, and require one seminary at least of each class in every province. In the preparatory seminaries, the pupils of which " must be at least 12 years old and of legiti- mate birth," the youth study, besides the English language, Latin and Greek, and the other things usually taught to Roman Catholic boys, also the Gregorian chant, and at least the first elements of liturgies, and of biblical and ecclesiastical history. In the other or larger seminaries, the best masters to be had are to instruct in whatever is needful for the proper discharge 266 THE CLERGY. of the priestly office, especially in theology as related to both morals and doctrines, in the rudiments of the canon law, in hermeneutics or the interpretation of the sacred books, and in the rules of sacred eloquence. One year at least the last of philosophy, or the first of theology all must devote to the study of Hebrew. German must also be studied in the larger or smaller seminaries, sufficiently at least, to enable the pupils to grant absolution in case of necessity. The pastoral letter of the 2d plenary council of Baltimore sets forth the deficiency of youthful aspirants to the ministry, notwithstanding the extraordinary inducements held out to them in the preparatory and theological seminaries ; expresses the fear that the fault lies, in great part, with worldly-minded parents ; urges such parents to represent the priesthood to their children only as a sublime and holy state, having not only most sacred duties and obligations, but also the promise of God's grace and blessing ; and continues : " And whilst speaking to you upon this subject, we would renew our exhortations to the faithful, to contribute to the extent of their means to the diocesan fund for the support of ecclesiastical students. Sit- uated as the church is in this country, with a Catholic population so rapidly increasing from emigration, there is no work of charity that can take precedence of it, and none which will bring so rich a reward." In respect to the Roman Catholic priesthood in the United States, the late Rev. Hiram Mattison, D.D., a well-informed leading minister of the Methodist Episcopal church, wrote thus in 1868 : " A lack of priests, and especially of American born priests, has been a sore embarrassment to American Romanism for years ; but they are beginning now to get over this difficulty ; and the prospect is, that their priesthood will increase hereafter much faster than it has hitherto done, and that they will be more Americans and far more efficient than the imported priests with which most of their churches have hitherto been manned. " As to the culture and ability of their priests, they are both greatly overrated by Protestants generally. They have generally a kind of classical education, but it is usually very defective. They are well THE CLERGY. 267 drilled in Papal church-history and other lore ; can tell you all about the saints and their wonderful miracles ; but in science and general literature they have but little knowledge. Once in their parishes, with little or no preaching to do, and a liturgy for every thing, few sermons to prepare, and little occasion for study, and living high, and associa- ting little with the world, unless it be with priests, or with the most ig- norant classes in the community, the mind stagnates, and loses all its love for study, and ability to think and labor. The result is, that not- withstanding the college diploma, and a little memorized Latin in the services, the Roman priesthood are, intellectually, among the weakest men in the nation. How seldom do we hear of one who can make a decent speech of ten minutes in public, or write a readable lecture or newspaper article ! Upon the platform or in debate they are in no re- spect equal to the average of Protestant ministers ; so that if their suc- cess was to be inferred from the ability of their priests there would be little to fear." The rise and progress of celibacy in the church, especially in reference to a monastic life, are noticed in Chapters II. and VIII. The determined efforts of Gregory VII. to put an end to mar- riage among the clergy are also spoken of in the account of him in Chapter III. From what has already been said in the present Chapter it is evident that all ecclesiastics, or persons in orders, whether in the major or minor orders, are bound to perpetual celibacy. The council of Trent uttered the follow- ing anathema in the 9th canon on matrimony : " If any one shall say, that ecclesiastics in holy orders, or regulars, having made a solemn profession of chastity, may contract marriage, and that the contract is valid, in spite of ecclesiastical law or vow ; and that the opposite doctrine is nothing else than a condemnation of mar- riage, and that all persons who do not find themselves possessed of the gift of chastity, though they may have vowed it, may contract marriage ; let him be accursed." Celibacy has now been for centuries rigidly enforced among all the Roman Catholic clergy, except among the Maronites, Armeni- an Catholics, Greek Catholics, and other Oriental Christians in connection with the see of Rome, whose clergy marry before or- diaation, but not afterwards. In contrast with this present 268 THE CLERGY. practice of the Roman Catholic church, are the examples of the apostle Peter himself, whom the New Testament represents as a married man (Matt. 8 : 14. 1 Cor. 9 : 5, &c.), and of the immediate ancestors of St. Patrick who lived in the 4th cen- tury and were married clergymen, as St. Patrick thus informs us in his Confession or Letter to the Irish : " I, Patrick, a sinner, the rudest and the least of the faithful, and despicable among many, had for my father, Calpurnius, a deacon, the son of Potitus, formerly a presbyter, who was the son of Odissius, who lived in Bonaven, a village of Tabemia " [formerly supposed to be in Scotland, but now regarded by high authorities as Boulogne, in the north of France]. The oath of conformity to the church and obedience to the pope, which is found at the end of the creed of pope Pius IV., and which all beneficed priests, professors, and bishops are obliged to take, is given in Chapter II. ; the special oath of bishops is given in a subsequent part of this chapter. Among the decrees of the plenary council of Baltimore con- firming former decrees of the provincial council of Baltimore respecting priests, we have the following : " Since it has often been doubted by some, whether the prelates of the church in these united provinces had the power of assigning the priests to the sacred ministry in any part of their dioceses, and of re- calling them thence, according to their judgment in the Lord; we ad- monish all priests living in these dioceses, whether ordained in them, or received in them, that, mindful of their promise at ordination, they may not refuse to devote themselves to any mission designated by the bishop, if the bishop judges that sufficient provision can be had there for sustaining life decently, and the office agrees with the strength and health of the priests themselves. We do not wish, however, by this declaration, to make any innovation in respect to those who held paro- chial benefices, only one of which, namely in New Orleans, do we yet recognize in these provinces ; nor do we intend at all to derogate from the privileges which have been granted to the Religious by the Holy See." The council, after decreeing that a church should never THE CLERGY. 269 have several co-ordinate pastors, but one pastor only, with one or more assistants, if necessary ; and expressing their desire to have the provinces especially in the larger cities, divided into districts like parishes, one for each church, and each curate in- vested with parochial or quasi-parochial rights, proceed thus : " We do not at all intend, by the use of the terms ' parochial right,' * parish,' and ' curate,' to attribute to the rector of any church the right, so-called, of immovability ; or to take away or in any way diminish the power, which, according to the discipline received in these provinces, the bishop has of depriving any priest of office or of transferring him to another place. But we admonish and exhort the bishops to refrain from using this right of theirs except for weighty reasons and just grounds." The 3d chapter of title III. in the " Decrees of the 2d Ple- nary Council of Baltimore " is on the election of bishops, and provides that every third year every prelate in the United States shall send to the metropolitan of his province and also to the Congregation of the Propaganda at Rome a list of the names of priests whom he regards as worthy and fit for the office of bishop, this list to be prepared with the greatest care and secrecy, and with reference to a schedule of 14 " notions and questions " respecting the necessary qualifications that when any see, metropolitan or episcopal, becomes vacant, all the prelates of the province shall assemble in council or special convention, and discuss the qualifications of 3 or more candi- dates who may have been recommended for this vacancy by the deceased prelate in a sealed letter or otherwise by the nearest bishop or senior bishop or the archbishop, and shall then vote by secret ballot respecting each candidate that the acts of the convention shall be sent to the Congregation of the Propa- ganda that the opinions of the other archbishops respecting the candidates, and, in case any candidate belongs in another province, of his bishop or metropolitan, shall also be forwarded to Rome and that the Holy See, having full liberty to choose bishops, may fill the vacancy by appointing to it one of those recommended or some other one. In case a bishop wishes a 270 THE CLERGY. coadjutor, he names 3 candidates, and presents his petition to the Congregation of the Propaganda, and the archbishop and other bishops send thither their opinion respecting the candi- dates before the pope makes any appointment. The following account of the consecration of 3 Roman Cath- olic bishops in St. Patrick's cathedral, New York city, on Sun- day, Oct. 30, 1853, is from the New York Daily Times of the next day. " The ceremonies were of a most imposing character, and continued from 1 1 A. M. to 4 p. M. At 9 A. M. the doors were opened, and in a short time every available seat was occupied. Until the procession had entered, the main aisle was kept clear, but soon afterwards both main and side aisles were crowded. The proceeds ($1 for each admis- sion) are to be set apart for the benefit of the ' Brothers of Christian Char- ity,' to assist in the erection of their Normal School at Manhattanville. The bishops consecrated were Rt. Rev. John Loughlin (Irish), bishop of Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Rt. Rev. James Roosevelt Bayley (American) bishop of Newark, N. J. ; and Louis de Goesbriand (French), bishop of Burlington, Vt. Monsignor 1 Bedini, Papal nuncio, consented to perform the ceremony. Outside of the cathedral there was a large crowd assembled to witness the procession, which at 1 1 o'clock formed at the archbishop's house, in Mulberry St., and marched to the main entrance, and through the centre aisle of the cathedral in order of pro- cession There were nearly 50 priests robed in vestments of the finest material, satin richly wrought in blue, scarlet, and gold ; 6 bishops at- tired in full pontificals, with mitre, and cope, and crook. Over his Ex- cellency, Monsignor Bedini, was borne a canopy of scarlet velvet. Hav- ing reached the front of the altar, each made obeisance and took seats inside and around the altar railings. The assistant bishops were: Bishops Rappe of Cleveland, and McCloskey of Albany. The pre- senters were : Bishops Timon of Buffalo, Fitzpatrick of Boston, and O'Reilly of Hartford. " Having gone before the altar, Monsignor Bedini was conducted to 1 Monsiynor (Italian) or Monseigneur (French) signifies " my lord," and is a title of archbishops and other prelates. Bedini was an Italian, a Papal nuncio, styled Archbishop of Thebes, who spent several months in this country in 1853, having been charged, it was said, with an important mission to our government, on his way to Brazil. THE CLERGY. 271 the throne on the right, and then vested ; the bishop's clerk, accom- panied by the assistant bishops, went to the side chapel to vest. JMon- signor then took his seat before the middle of the altar, and the assist- ant bishop, wearing the mitre, and clothed in a richly wrought cope, presented the bishops elect, who each wore a biretum. " The senior assistant bishop said : ' Most reverend father, our holy mother, the Catholic Church, requires of you to raise this priest, here present, to the burdensome office of a bishop.' " Monsiguor Bedini ' Have you the Apostolic commission ? ' " Presenting bishops ' We have.' " Moasignor Bedini ' Let it be read.' " Rev. Mr. McCarron, Notary to the Consecrator, received and read the Apostolic mandate, in Latin. At its close, Monsignor Bedini said, * Deo gratias ' \_= Thanks to God]. " The bishops elect then knelt and severally read the following oath [in Latin] : ' Elect of the church of N., I shall, from this hour, hence- forward be obedient to blessed Peter, the Apostle, and to the holy Ro- man Church, and to the blessed Father, Pope N., and to his successors canonically chosen. I shall assist them to retain and defend against any man whatever, the Roman pontificate, without prejudice to my rank. I shall take care to preserve, defend, and promote the rights, honors, privileges, and authority of the holy Roman Church, of the Pope, and of his successors, as aforesaid. With my whole strength I shall observe, and cause to be observed by others, the rules of the holy Fathers, the decrees, ordinances, or dispositions, and mandates of the Apostolic see. When called to a synod, I shall come, unless prevented by a canonical impediment. I shall perform all the things aforesaid> by a certain messenger, specially authorized for this purpose, a priest of the diocese, or by some other secular, or regular priest of tried vir- tue and piety, well instructed on all the above subjects. I shall not sell, nor give away, nor mortgage, enfeoff anew, nor in any way alien- ate the possessions belonging to my table, without the leave of the Ro- man Pontiff. And should I proceed to any alienation of them, I am willing to contract, by the very fact, the penalties specified in the con- stitution published on this subject.' The Consecrator held the Gospels open on his lap, and received the oath from the bishops elect, who, kneeling, also placed both hands upon the book, and said : ' So may God help me, and these holy Gospels of God.' 272 THE CLERGY. " The bishop elect and the assistant bishops now took their seats, and while the consecrator read aloud the examen [= examination], the assistant bishops accompanied his words in a low voice. The con- cludino' questions were answered by the bishops elect. ' Ita ex tola corde, vo!o in omnibus consentire et obedire' [= Thus from my whole heart I desire in all things to consent and to obey]. " Among the questions in the examination are the following : " Consec. ' Wilt thou teach, both by word and example, the people for whom thou art to be ordained, those things which thou understand- est from the holy Scriptures ? ' Elect' I will.' " Ques. ' Wilt thou with veneration receive, teach, and keep the traditions of the orthodox fathers, and the decretal constitutions of the holy and apostolic see ? ' " Ans. ' I will.' " Ques. 'Wilt thou exhibit in all things, fidelity, subjection, and obedience, according to canonical authority, to the blessed Peter the Apostle, to whom was given by God the power of binding and loosing ; and to his Vicar our Lord Pope Pius IX., and to his successors the Roman Pontiffs ? ' "Ans.' I will.' " The examination having closed, the bishops elect were led to the consecrator before whom they knelt and reverently kissed his hand. Monsignor Bedini, laying off his mitre, turned to the altar, and com- menced the mass, the bishops elect being at his left hand, and the as- sistant bishops at their seats. After the ' confession,' the bishops elect went to the small chapel, laid aside the cope, and, opening the stole, put on the pastoral crook, girded on the stole without crossing it on the breast, were vested with the tunic, dalmatic, and chasuble, and put on the sandals, and, returning, continued the ma*s. The litanies and masses were continued, varying from the usual forms to admit particu- lar ceremonies of the consecration, the bishops elect being part of the time prostrate at the left of the consecrator. The litanies concluded, the consecrator, aided by the assistant bishops, opened the book of Gos- pels, and laid it on the neck and shoulders of the bishops elect severally: each of the bishops touching the head of the bishop elect, saving, ' Re- ceive thou the Holy Ghost.' "After prayer, the heads of the bishops elect were bound with linen, THE CLERGY. 273 and they then approached Monsignor Bedini severally ; he, kneeling before the altar, began the hymn [of invocation to the Holy Spirit] ' Veni, Creator Spiritus ' [= Come, Creator Spirit], which was contin- ued by the choir. Madam Steffanone was engaged, and sang some solo passages with beautiful effect. When the first verse was performed, the consecrator took his seat in front of the altar, put on his mitre, and taking off his ring and gloves, again put on the ring, and dipping the thumb of his right hand in chrism, he anointed therewith the head of the bishop elect, who knelt before him, first making the sign of the cross upon the crown, and then anointing it entirely, saying, ' May thy head be anointed and consecrated with heavenly blessing in the pontifi- cal order.' "The 131st Psalm was then sung by the choir. \VhiIedoingso, the consecrator anointed the hands of the bishop elect, then blessed and handed him the crook or staff of the pastoral office, then blessed the episcopal rings, and placed one on the annular finger of each bishop elect, saying, ' Take this ring as a token of fidelity, so that being gifted with inviolate faith, thou mayst guard the spouse of Christ his holy Church.' " The consecrator then took the book of the Gospels from the should- ers of the consecrated, and, together with the assistant bishops, handed it closed to the consecrated, who touched it, the consecrator at the time saying, ' Receive the Gospel, go preach to the people committed to thy care, for God is powerful, that he may increase his grace in thy behalf; who lives and reigns forever.' Amen. " The consecrator and the assistant bishops now received the conse- crated to the kiss of peace on the right cheek. The consecrated re- turned with the assistant bishops to his chapel, where he continued the mass to the offertory. The consecrator in like manner continued the mass." Archbishop Hughes then preached a sermon from 1 Peter 2 : 25, extolling the office of a Roman Catholic bishop. The ser- mon being finished, " Monsignor Bedini took his seat before the altar, and the conse- crated bishops, attended by the assistant bishops, presenting themselves, knelt before the consecrator, and offered him 2 lighted torches, 2 loaves, and 2 little casks of wine, then kissed the consecrator's hand. The consecrator and the consecrated bishops then continued the mass at the 18 274 THE CLERGY. same altar, the latter at the epistle side. The Te Deum was intoned by Monsignor Bedini, his mitre being laid aside, in a full, clear voice. After it had commenced, the consecrated bishops, each between two other bishops, walked down the centre aisle, giving their blessing to the people as they passed, who knelt to receive it. After singing the 4 antiphon ' and some other ceremonies, the consecrated bishops received the kiss of peace from their brethren, and the ceremonies concluded." The oath which is given above as taken by the bishops is considerably shorter than that which has been taken for cen- turies in Roman Catholic countries ; but agrees with the form given by the late archbishop Kenrick of Baltimore, who says, " the present pope, at the solicitation of the bishops of the 6th council of Baltimore [1846], consented to the omission of the feudal phrases, and sanctioned this simpler formulary, to be used by all the bishops in the United States." Yet a gentle- man who was present at the ceremonies of Oct. 80, 1853, was confident that the longer oath given in the Pontificate Roman- um which he held in his hand at the time, was taken by the bishops elect, and the Decrees of the Plenary council of Balti- more in 1866 contain no modification of the oath. It is believed that nothing regarded as essential was omitted then or is omit- ted now. The oath, as given above, certainly appears to be incomplete. The original oath is thus translated from the Pon- tificale Romanum, published by authority of the popes and re- published at Rome in 1869 by the Congregation of Rites and the Propaganda. 1 " I, N., elect of the church of N., from this hour henceforward will be " faithful and obedient to the blessed Peter the apostle, and to the holy Roman church, and to our lord, the lord N. [Pius] pope N. [IX.], and to his successors canonically coming in. I will not advise, or con- sent, or do anything, that they may lose life or member, or be taken by an evil deception, or have hands violently laid upon them in any way, or have 1 The large cut opposite this page is copied from one in the Pontificale Romanum, edition of 1818. 2 The words in Italics are not in the oath as recorded in the preceding account of the consecration of the bishops, Oct. 30, 1853. THE CLERGY. 275 injuries offered to them under any pretense whatsoever. The counsel in- deed, which they shall intrust to me, by themselves, or by their messengers, or letters, I will not, to their harm, knowingly reveal to any one. The Roman papacy and the royalties of St. Peter, I will help them to retain and defend, without prejudice to my order, against every man. The legate of the apostolic see in his going and returning, I will treat honorably and help in his necessities. The rights, honors, privileges, and authority of the holy Roman church, of our lord the pope, and of his aforesaid suc- cessors, I will take care to preserve, defend, increase, and promote. Nor will I be in any counsel, or deed, or working, in which any things may be contrived against our lord himself or the said Roman church, to the injury or prejudice of their persons, right, honor, state, and power. And, if I shall know such things to be taken in hand or managed by any whomsoever, I will hinder this as far as I can ; and as soon as I shall be able, I will make it known to our said lord, or to some other one, by whom it may come to his knowledge. The rules of the holy Fathers, the decrees, ordinances, or dispositions, reservations, provisions, and man- dates apostolical, I will observe with all my might and cause to be ob- served by others. Heretics, schismatics, and rebels against our said lord or his aforesaid successors I will, as far as I can, follow after * and Jight against. When called to a synod, I will come, unless I shall be prevented by a canonical impediment. 1 will myself personally visit the thresholds of the apostles [i. e. Rome~\ every three years 2 ; and I will render to our lord and his aforesaid successors an account of my whole pastoral office and of all things in anywise pertaining to the state of my church, to the discipline of the clergy and people, finally to the salvation of the souls committed to my trust ; and I will in turn humbly receive and with the utmost diligence perform the apostolic commands. But if I shall be detained by a lawful impediment, I will perform all the things aforesaid by a certain messenger specially authorized for this purpose, one of my chapter, or some other one placed in ecclesiastical dignity, 1 The Latin word here is persequar, from which comes our word " persecute," and which literally signifies " follow perseveringly," hence " pursue," " hunt after," "prosecute," or "persecute." 2 This period applies to those in Italy and its vicinity ; once hi 4 years is the rule for those in France, Spain, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, &c. ; once in 5 years for those in remoter parts of Europe, in North Africa, &c. ; once in 10 years for those in Asia, America, &c. Thus the Pontificate Romanian determines. 276 THE CLERGY. or else having a parsonage ; or, if these are lacking to me, by a priest of the diocese ; and, if the clergy are altogether lacking, by some other secular or regular presbyter, of tried honesty and piety, well-instructed in all the above named subjects. In respect to an impediment of this sort, however, I will give information by legitimate proofs, to be transmit" ted by the aforesaid messenger to the Cardinal proponent of the holy Ro- man church in the Congregation of the Sacred Council. Assuredly the possessions belonging to my table I will not sell, nor give away, nor pledge, nor infeoff anew, or in any way alienate, even with the consent of the chapter of my church, without consulting the Roman pontiff. And if I shall make any alienation, I desire by that very act to incur the penalties set forth in a certain constitution published on this sub- ject. " So help me God and these holy Gospels of God." The Roman Catholic priests, theological seminaries and ecclesiastical institutions, and ecclesiastical, clerical, or theological students in the archdioceses and dioceses in the United States are thus reported in Sadliers' Catholic Directory for 1870 and 1871 The archdioceses are marked "A." ; the dioceses " D." ; and vicariates apostolic " V. A." Theol. Stnd. 1870 1871 Dioceses. Priests. Theol. Sem. 1870 1871 1870-1 Baltimore A. 195 195 12 Cincinnati " 131 145 2 New York 210 229 1 New Orleans " 145 153 1 St. Louis " 180 180 1 Oregon City " 14 14 .. San Francisco " 92 92 . . Albany D. 170 170 .. Alton 96 103 1 Boston ) 1 OO 143 . . Springfield (established 1870_)D. ] 183 51 Brooklyn D. 81 91 1 Buffalo " 102 102 1 Burlington [Vt] " Charleston [S. C.]" 28 18 28 14 Chicago " 142 154 . . Cleveland " 107 117 2 Columbus [Ohio ] " 46 46 .. Covington 31 31 Detroit 88 93 .. Dubuque 80 98 .. Erie 43 44 . . Fort Wayne 68 69 .. Galveston 75 75 .. Grass Valley [Cal.] 26 25 Green Bay 31 41 60 58 28 30 40 40 24 24 45 52 20 20 95 68 30 10 30 10 50 21 17 22 '. 11 11 35 34 12 12 12 10 17 17 12 3 55 12 THE CLERGY. 277 Diocese*. Priests. Theol. Sem. 1870 1871 1870-1 Hartford D. 95 95 .. Harrisburg 32 34 .. La Crosse 22 22 . . Little Rock 8 8 . . Louisville 84 84 2 Marquette and Sault St. Marie D. 15 13 Milwaukee D. 144 153 2 Mobile 33 33 1 Monterey and Los Angeles [Cal.] D. 32 32 .. Nashville D. 16 17 . Natchez 20 25 Natchitoches " 17 17 .. Nesqualy [Washington Ter.l D Newark [N. J.] D. 12 92 13 88 *2 Philadelphia " 169 170 4 Pittsburg " 110 129 1 Portland [Me.] " 38 41 Richmond [Va.] " 17 17 1 Rochester [N.Y.J " 45 44 Santa Fe 81 81 . Savannah 9 9 . Scranton " 28 32 . St. Joseph [Mo.] " 16 19 . St. Paul 65 65 Vincennes " 88 88 1 Wheeling 24 26 . Wilmington [Del.] D. Colorado and Utah V. A. 12 11 12 12 Idaho 11 Florida " \ 14 . St Augustine D. J Kansas V. A. 34 35 . Nebraska 21 20 N. Carolina " 4 6 3784 3968 36 Theol. Stud. 1870 1871 70 70 11 18 6 6 56 56 90 13 3 1 8 8 5 5 10 10 138 155 * 36 7 . . . 9 9 7 1 10 14 32 32 20 16 4 4 8 6 10 10 9 8 1086 952 These statistics, imperfect, yet the best obtainable, show a gain in 1 year of 184 priests, and a loss of 134 ecclesiastical students for the same period, the number of seminaries remaining the same. Making allowance for 3 vicariates apostolic (Arizona, Montana, and the Indian Territory Ea^t of the Rocky Mountains) which are not reported in the Directory for 1871, we may estimate the present number of Roman Cath- olic priests in the United States at just about 4,000. If we suppose the ratio of priests and ecclesiastical students to be the same in the dioceses, &c., which do not report the latter as in those which report both, we shall obtain about 1400 as the whole number of Americans now study- ing for the Roman Catholic priesthood. The following list of archbishops, bishop-", and vicars apostolic is from Sadliers' Catholic Directory for 1870, with notes designating the changes made in that for 1871. In the 1st column " A. " stands for 278 THE CLERGY. Archdiocese, " D." for Diocese, and " V. A." for Vicariate Apostolic ; the bishops and archbishops follow in the 2d column ; and the dates of their consecration (marked " C.") and of translation to their present dioceses (marked " tr.") in the 3d column. PROVINCE OF BALTIMORE. BIOCESB. Baltimore, A., Most Rev. Martin John Spalding, D.D., C. Sept. 10, 1848 ; tr. May 6, 1864. Charleston, D., Rt. Rev. Patrick N. Lynch, D.D., Erie, D., Rt. Rev. Tobias Mullen, D.D., Harrisburg, D., Rt. Rev. Jeremiah F. Shanahan, D.D., " July 12, 1868. Philadelphia, D., Rt. Rev. James F. Wood, D.D., Pittsburg, D., Rt. Rev. Michael Domenec, D.D., Richmond, D., Rt. Rev. John McGill, D.D., Savannah, D., Rt. Rev. Augustine Vdrot, 1 D.D., Scranton, D., Rt. Rev. William O'Hara, D.D., Wheeling, D., Rt. Rev. Richard V. Whelan, D.D., Wilmington, D., Rt. Rev. Thomas A. Becker, D.D., Florida, V. A., Rt. Rev. Augustine Verot, 1 D.D., North Carolina, V. A., Rt. Rev. James Gibbons, D.D., " Mar. 14, 1858. " Aug. 12, 1868. " April 26, 1857. " Dec. 9, 1860. " Nov. 10, 1850. " April 25, 1858 ; tr. July 14, 1861 " July 12, 1868. " Mar. 21, 1841 ; tr. in 1850. " Aug. 23, 1868. [above). Administrator Apostolic, 1858 (see Cincinnati, A., Most Rev. John B. Purcell, D.D., Cleveland, 8 D., Rt. Rev. Amadeus Rappe, D.D., C. Aug. 23, 1868. PROVINCE OF CINCINNATI. C. Oct. 13, 1833. " Oct. 10, 1847. 1 Bishop V6rot was consecrated April 25, 1858, bishop of Danabe in partibus, and made Vicar Apostolic of Florida ; translated to Savannah July 14, 1861 ; to St. Augustine, as a new diocese, in 1870. Ignatius Persico, D.D., is now bishop of Savannah, C. March 8, 1854; tr. in 1870. The other vicars apostolic are also bishops of some diocese in partibus infiddium ("see p. 99). 2 Bishop Rappe resigned Aug. 22, 1870; and Very Rev. Edward TT * fO f * *"** f ^^ m nks W&3 at first left to the discretion of the abbots, and that St. Benedict did not determine the color of it." " The habit of the Benedictine nuns consisted of a black robe, with a ecapulary of the same, and under that robe a tunic of white and undyed wool. "When they went to the choir, they had, over all, a black cowl, like that of the monks." As has been already intimated, the Benedictine order spread over Europe with great rapidity. In the 9th century other 288 BELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, &C. monastic rules and societies became extinct, and the Benedic- tines alone flourished. One writer enumerates 200 cardinals, 1600 archbishops, 4000 bishops, 15700 abbots and learned men, who all belonged to this order ; another reckons among its mem- bers 24 popes, 15000 bishops, and 40000 canonized or beatified saints, including St. Bernard, St. John of Damascus and others of the most illustrious men in the annals of the Roman Catho- lic church. Augustine with 40 other Benedictine monks came into Britain in A. D. 596, converted the king of Kent and most of his subjects from idolatry to Christianity, and laid the foun- dation of the modern British church, Augustine being the first archbishop of Canterbury. The early Benedictines were un- questionably virtuous, upright, and useful ; they tilled the ground, reclaimed wastes, raised cattle, preserved and copied manuscripts, cultivated the arts and sciences, educated mul- titudes in their schools, and were esteemed holy and prevalent in prayer. But the order grew powerful and rich ; discipline was relaxed ; monasteries became splendid edifices ; voluptuous- ness, indolence, pride, vice and wickedness took possession of the very cloisters. For centuries, however, the most respectable and renowned men of Europe were trained up among the Benedictines. The historians of monachism reckon 23 branches or divisions of this order, distinguished by local or other specific appellations and by slight differences of habit and discipline. The principal of these branches are, theClunians (=Cluniacs orCluniacensians), Cistercians, Camaldolese, Vallembrosians, Grammontensians or Grandimontensians, Carthusians, Fontevraudians, Ber- nardines, Guilbertines, Humiliati, Celestines, Feuillants, Trap- pists, Olivetans, and Benedictines of St. Maur. The Benedic- tine monks of the original stem numbered 1600 in 1858, according to Appletons' Cyclopedia, and their chief seat is still Monte Cassino. The " Statistical Year Book of the Church," as quoted in the CatholicAlmanac for 1870, gives the present number of Benedictine monks as 5000. There are monastic establishments of this order in this country, in the dioceses of Chicago, Covington, Erie, Newark, Pittsburg, St. Paul, Vin- RELIGIOUS ORDERS MONKS, NUNS, e, pressed on all side-s made peace with the king in 1229. This was a mortal blow to the Albigen- ses. The Inquisition was now permanently established at Toulouse to try those heretics who had escaped the sword. Raymond himself died some years after; and in him the house of the Counts of Toulouse be- came extinct, and its territories reverted to the French crown. The extermination of the Albigenses in the South of France was complete ; the country was devastated.". The people commonly called the " Waldenses " or the " Yaw- dois " [pronounced vo-dwaw] , who live in the Alpine Valleys of Piedmont in Northern Italy, have been persecuted for cen- turies by the Roman Catholics. The name " Waldenses " (= Waldensians) is derived from Peter Waldo, a rich mer- chant of Lyons, who became a reformer in the 12th century, and whose disciples were also styled " poor men of Lyons," " Leonists," &c. The French name " Vaudou " (in Latin " Vallenses"*) signifies "men (or "people") of the valleys." These Waldenses or Vaudois claim that their ancestors have inhabited the same country and held the same faith ever since the days of the apostles ; but Mosheim and other eccle- siastical historians disallow this claim of antiquity as a dis- tinct sect, " though," says Mosheim, " it has long been admit- ted that for centuries there had existed in the valleys of Pied- mont various sorts of people, who were not in communion with the church of Rome," and that persons had long lived there " who agreed in many things with the Waldensians." In the middle ages the Waldenses and others of the same faith sent out many missionaries to visit their brethren scattered through France, the north of Spain, Flanders (now in Bel- gium), England, Germany, Poland, Bohemia and other parts of modern Austria, Italy, Daniel [= Daniel in O. T. ; and in Apoc., the Song of the 3 Children, the Story of Susanna, and the Idol Bel and the Dragon] ; Osee [= Hosea] ; Joel; Amos; Abdias [= Ohadiah] ; Jonas [Jonah]; Micheas [= Micah] ; Nahnm; Habacuc [= Habakkuk] ; Sophonias [= Zephaniah] ; Aggeus [= Haggai] ; Zacharias [=Zechariah] ; Malachias [= Malachi] ; I. Machabees [= I. Maccabees, in Apoc.] ; II Machabees [= II. Maccabees, in Apoc.]. The New Testament of the two ver- ions is substantially the same, " the Apocalypse " of the Douay being " the Reve- lation of St John the Divine" in the English version. 410 THE BIBLE. any interpretation of the scriptures " contrary to that sense which "holy mother church has held and holds, or contrary to the unanimous con- sent of the fathers," the offenders to be " denounced by the ordina- ries [= bishops], and punished with the penalties determined by law" ["a jure" = by legal right or justice] ; it provides for a censorship of Bibles and religious books, under penalty of excommunication and fine for those who print, publish, circulate, or have them wiihout the examination and approval of the ordinary ; and it provides punishment by the bishops for those who pervert the language of holy scripture to profane uses. The 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore, held in 1866, after repeating some of the leading parts of the Tridentine decrees, adds another decree, which is thus translated : " Since the faithful keeping of the deposit of the Holy Scriptures, committed by the Lord to the Church, requires of the bL-hops to strive with all their strength, lest the word of God, adulterated through the fraud or carelessness of men, be furnished to the faithful, we vehe- mently urge all the pastors of souls of this region, to keep continually before their eyes all those things which have been decreed in the matter of so great moment by the holy council of Trent, commended by the supreme pontiffs, especially by Leo XII. and by Pius VIII. of happy memory, in their encyclical letters, and determined by the most Illustrious and Reverend, John Carroll, Archbishop of Baltimore, in conjunction with the other bishops of this region, at the meeting held in the year 1810 : that they keep away from their own flocks the bibles corrupted by non-Catholics, and permit them to pick out the uncor- rupted food of the word of God only from approved versions and editions. We therefore determine that the Douay version, which has been received in all the churches whose faithful [i. e., whose members] speak English, and deservedly set forth by our predecessors for the use of the faithful, bo retained entirely. But the bishops will take care that for ihe future all editions, both of the New and of the Old Testament of the Douay version, be most faultlessly made [i. e., printed], according to the most approved copy to be designated by them, with annotations which may be selected only from the holy fa- thers of the church, or from learned and Catholic men." THE BIBLE. 411 By the " old Vulgate Latin edition " the council of Trent meant the Latin version of the Bible which has long passed as Jerome's. He was one of the most learned and celebrated of the Latin fathers, a monk and priest, born in Dalmatia about A. D. 330, and dying at Bethlehem about A. D. 420. About A. D. 383 he began, at the request of pope Damasus, to revise the old Latin version of the Bible ; and about A. D. 390-404 he made a new translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew. The Latin Bible, which is called by his name, is in some parts a very valuable translation, but is of very une- qual merit, and is thus described by an able English critic and scholar, Rev. B. F. Westcott, in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible : " The books of the Old Testament, with one exception, were cer- tainly taken from his [Jerome's] version from the Hebrew ; but this had not only been variously corrupted, but was itself in many particu- lars (especially in the Pentateuch) at variance with his later judg- ment The Psalter [= P.-alms] .... was retained from the Old Version, as Jerome had corrected it from the Septuagint [= the an- cient Greek version of the Old Testament]. Of the Apocryphal books Jerome hastily revised or translated two only, Judith and Tobit. The remainder were retained from the Old Version against his judgment ; and the Apocryphal additions to Daniel and Esther, which he had carefully marked as apocryphal in his own version, were treated as integral parts of the books In the New Testament the text of the Gospels was in the main Jerome's revised edition ; that of the remaining books his very incomplete revision of the old Latin." In regard to the editions of the Vulgate published by popes Sixtus V. and Clement VII., see the account of the bull JEter- nus Hie, in Chapter IV. The Roman Catholic church, as appears above, accepts and defends the Latin Vulgate Bible as its standard, and anathe- matizes all who appeal from it to any other version, or even to the Hebrew and Greek originals. Moreover, every translation of the Bible into English or any other language must be made 412 THE BIBLE. from the Vulgate, and accompanied with notes ; or it can not be acceptable to that church. Thus the title page of a Douay Bible in the author's possession reads : " The Holy Bible, translated from the Latin Vulgate : diligently compared with the Hebrew, Greek and other editions, in various lan- guages. With annotations by the Rev. Dr. Challoner ; together with references and an historical and chronological index. With the appro- bation of the provincial council. Baltimore : published by Fielding Lucas, Jr. 138 Market Street." The New Testament, translated into English from the Latin Vulgate, and approved by the University of Rheims in France, was published at Rheims in 1582 ; and is hence called the " Rhemish Testament." The Old Testament, translated into English from the Vulgate, and approved by the University of Douay in France in 1609, completed the Roman Catholic ver- sion of the Bible into English, which is therefore called the " Douay Bible." The annotations by Rev. Dr. Challoner, now published in the Douay Bibles of this country, differ much from the notes by the translators in the early editions ; and the version itself, as now published, has been considerably modified in its language* from that which was used by the translators, and is more like the English version of 1611, which is often called king James's Bible, or the authorized version, and is familiar to all English-speaking Protestants as their common Bible. A few comparisons between the Douay (with its notes) and the common English Bible will be of interest. The edition used of the former is that of which the title page is given above. * Thus " arch-synagogue " in Mk. 5 : 35, is now " ruler of the synagogue " ; " longanimity " in Rom. 2:4, is " long-suffering " ; "a new paste, as yon are azymes," in 1 Cor. 5 : 7, is now " a new mass, as you are unleavened " ; " obdurate with the fellatio of sin," in Heb. 3 : 13, is " hardened by the deceitfulness of in," &c. THE BIBLE. 413 DOUAY VERSION. Gen. 1 : 1-3. " In the beginning God created heaven and earth. "2 And the earth was void and empty, and darkness was upon the face of the deep : and the Spirit of God moved over the waters. "3 And God said: Be light made. And light was made. " 4 And God saw the light that it was good : and he divided the light from the darkness. " 5 And he called the light Day, and the darkness Night: and there was eve- ning and morning one day. " 6 And God said Lot there be a firmament* made amidst the waters : and let it divide the waters from the waters. " 7 And God made a firmament, and divided the waters that were under the firmament, from those that were above the firmament. And it was so. " 8 And God called the firmament, Heaven : and the evening and morning were the second day." PSALM cxvi. " Alleluia. " O praise the Lord, all ye nations : praise him, all ye people. " 2 For his mercy is confirmed upon us : and the truth of the Lord remaineth for ever." ST. MATTHEW 3 : 1-12. " Now in those days came John the Baptist preaching in the desert of Ju- dea; " 2 And saying : Do penancef : for the kingdom of heaven is at hand. ENGLISH VERSION. Gen. 1 : 1-8. " In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. " 2 And the earth was without form, and void ; and darkness was upon the face of the deep : and the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. " 3 And God said, Let there be light and there was light. " 4 And God saw the light that it was good : and God divideth the light from the darkness. " 5 And God called the light day, and the darkness he called Night : and the eve- ning and the morn ing were the first day. " 6 And God said, Let there be a fir- mament in the midst of the waters : and let it divide the waters from the waters. " 7 And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament : and it was so. " 8 And God called the firmament Heaven : and the evening and the morn- ing were the second day." PSALM cxvu. " praise the Lord, all ye nations ; praise him, all ye people. " 2 For his merciful kindness ic great toward us : and the truth of the Lord endureth for ever. Praise ye the Lord." ST. MATTHEW 3 : 1-12. " In those days came John the Cap. tist, preaching in the wilderness of Judea, " 2 And saying, Repent ye ; for the kingdom of heaven is at hand. " * A firmament. By this name is here understood the whole space between the earth and the highest stars. The lower part of which divideth the waters that are upon the earth, from those that are above in the clouds." t " Do penance. Pcenitentiam agite, ptravotirt. Which word, according to the use of the scriptures and the holy fathers, does not only signify repentance and amendment of life, but also punishing past sins by fasting, and such like peniten- tial exercises." 414 THE BIBLE. "3 For this is he, who was spoken of by Isaias the prophet, saying : A voice of one crying in the desert : Prepare ye the way of the Lord ; make straight his paths. "4 And John himself had his gar- ment of camel's hair, and a leathern girdle about his loins ; and his food was locusts and wild honey. " 5 Then went out to him Jerusalem and all Judea, and all the country about Jordan : " 6 And they were baptized by him in the Jordan, confessing their sins. " 7 And seeing many of the Pharisees and Sadducees * coming to his baptisnv he said to them : Ye brood of vipers, who hath showed you to flee from the wrath to come ? " 8 Bring forth, therefore, fruit wor. thy of penance : " 9 And think not to say within your- selves : We have Abraham for our father : for I tell you, that God is able of these stones to raise up children to Abraham. " 10 For now the axe is laid to the root of the trees. Every tree, therefore, that yieldcth not good fruit, shall be cut down, and cast into the fire. "11 I, indeed, baptize you with water unto penance : bnt he who is to come after me, is stronger than I, whose shoes I am not worthy to carry : he shall bap- tize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire. "12 Whose fan is in his hand : and he will thoroughly cleanse his floor, and gather his wheat into the barn ; but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire." " 3 For this is he that was spoken of by tho prophet Esaias, saying, The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight. "4 And the same John had his rai- ment of camel's hair, and a leathern gir- dle about his loins ; and his meat was locusts and and wild honey. " 5 Then went out to him Jerusalem, and all Judea, and all the region round about Jordan, " 6 And were baptized of him in Jor- dan, confessing their sins. " 7 But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees come to his baptism, he said unto them, O genera- tion of vipers, who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come ? " 8 Bring forth therefore fruits meet for repentance : " 9 And think not to say within your- selves, We have Abraham to our father : for I say unto you, that God is able of these stones to raise up children unto Abraham. "10 And now also the axe is laid unto the root of the trees : therefore every tree which bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down, and cast into the fire. "11 I indeed baptize you with water unto repentance : but he that cometh after me is mightier than I, whose shoes I am not worthy to bear : he shall bap- tize you with the Holy Ghost, and with fire: "12 Whoso fan is in his hand, and he will thoroughly purge his floor, and gather his wheat into the garner ; but he will burn up the chaffwith unquench- able fire." " * Pharisee* and Sadducees. These were two sects among the Jews, of which the former were for the most part notorious hypocrites; the latter a kind of free- thinkers in matters of religion. " THE BIBLE. 415 ST. MATTHEW 6 : 9-13. " 9 You, therefore, shall pray in this manner : Our Father, who art in heaven, hallo ved be thy name. "10 Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. "11 Give us this day our supersub- stanti; 1 .! bread.* " 1-2 And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. " 13 And lead us not into tempta- tion.f But deliver us from evil. Amen." ST. JAMES 5 : 14-20. " 14 Is any sick among you ? Let Kim bring in J the priests of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil, in the name of the Lord : "15 And the prayer of faith shall save the sick man : and the Lord shall raise him up : and if he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him. " 1 6 Confess, therefore, your sins one to another ; || and pray for one another, that you may be saved ; for the continual prayer of a just man availeth much. "17 Elias was a man passible like unto us : and with prayer he prayed that it might not rain upon the earth ; and it rained not for three years and six months. ST. MATTHEW 6 : 9-13. ' 9 After this manner therefore pray ye : Our Father which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. " 10 Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heaven. " 1 1 Give us thia day our daily bread. "12 And forgive us oar debts, as we forgive our debtors. " 13 And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. Amen." ST. JAMES 5 14-20. "14 Is any sick among you ? let him call for the elders of the church ; and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord : '15 And the prayer of faith shall save the sick, and the Lord shall raise him up ; and if he have committed sins, they shall be forgiven him. "16 Confess your faults one to another, and pray one for another, that ye may be healed. The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much. "17 Elias was a man subject to like passions as we are, and he prayed ear- nestly that it might not rain : and it rained not on the earth by the space of three years and six months. " * Stipersitbstantial bread. In St. Luke the same word is rendered daily brtad. It is understood of the bread of life, which we receive in the Blessed Sacrament." " t Lead us not into temptation. That is, suffer us not to be overcome by temp- tation." " J Let him bring in, $~c. See here a plain warrant of Scripture for the sacrament of extreme unction, that any controversy against its institution would be against the express words of the sacred text in the plainest terms." " || Confess your tins one to another. That is, to the priests of the church, whom, vcr. 14, he had ordered to be called for, and brought in to the sick : more- over, to confess to persons who had no power to forgive sins would be useless. Hence the precept here means, that we must confess to men whom God hath ap- pointed, and who, by their ordination and jurisdiction, have received the power of remitting sins in his name." 416 THE BIBLE. "18 And he prayed again: and the heaven gave rain, and the earth yield- ed her fruit "19 My brethren, if any of you shall err from the truth, and any one convert him : " 20 He must know, that he who caus- eth a sinner to be converted from the er- ror of his way, shall save his soul from death, and shall cover a multitude of sins." 1 JOHN 2 : 1-4. " My little children, these things I write to you, that you may not sin. But if any man sin, we have an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the just: " 2 And he is the propitiation for our sins ; and not for ours only, but also for those of the whole world. " 3 And in this we do know that we have known him, if we keep his com mandments.* "4 He that saith he knoweth him, and keepeth not his commandments, is a liar ; and the truth is not in him." "18 And he prayed again, and the heaven gave rain, and the earth brought forth her fruit. "19 Brethren, if any of you do err from the truth, and one convert him ; "20 Let him know, that he which converteth the sinner from the error of his way shall save a soul from death, and shall hide a multitude of sins." 1 JOHN 2: 1-4. "My little children, these things write I unto you, that ye sin not. And if any man sin, we have an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous : " 2 And he is the propitiation for our sins : and not for ours only, but also for the sins of the whole world. " 3 And hereby we do know that we know him, if we keep his commandments. " 4 He that saith, I know him, and keepeth not his commandments, is a liar, and the truth is not in him." To a Protestant, the notes in the Douay Bible are altogether the most objectionable part of it. No Protestant, of course, accepts or reverences as inspired truth the additions to the books of Esther and of Daniel, or any of the books which are found in the Douay Old Testament, but not in the Hebrew Bible. But there is much truth in a recent utterance by Prof. Tayler Lewis of Union College : " We venture the assertion that a candid man of good education, and whose mind had never been prejudiced on the question, might read chapter after chapter of the Old and New Testament, in the common English version, in the Douay, in the Rheims, in the German of Luther, the Latin Vulgate, &c., without discovering any difference that would "* We have known him, if we keep his commandments. He speaks of that prac- tical knowledge by love and affection, which can only be proved by our keeping his commandments ; and without which we cannot be said to know God, as wo should do." THE BIBLE. 417 arrest his attention. He might, in this way, read through the whole Scriptures without finding anything that could bear the name of a dog- matic contradiction." Yet the opposition of the Roman Catholic church to the common English Bible, or, as they call it, the " Protestant Bible," is well known as no new thing. John Wickliffe (= Wycliffe),the herald of the Reformation, and the earliest transla- tor of the Bible into English, made his translation from the Vul- gate ; but the council of Constance in 1415, more than 30 years after his death, anathematized him as a notorious and scandalous heretic, and ordered his body and bones to be disinterred and cast out from ecclesiastical burial. William Tyndale (= Tyn- dal or Tindal), another English reformer and a translator of the Bible from the Hebrew and Greek originals into clear and simple English, was, through the efforts and influence of Henry VIII. and others, arrested at his retreat on the continent, imprisoned a year and a half in a strong castle, condemned as a heretic, and finally, after uttering his last prayer, " Lord, open the king of England's eyes," was strangled and then burned at the stake, at Vilvoorden (now in Belgium), Oct. 6, 1536. Some of the early English versions of the Bible gave much offense to the Roman Catholics by their notes in opposi- tion to the doctrines of the Roman Catholic church ; but Cran- mer's Bible (1540, &c.) and the authorized or Common English Version (published "by authority" of king James I. of Eng- land) omit all controversial or doctrinal notes, without satisfy- ing the Roman Catholic demand at all. The council of Balti- more, giving law to the Roman Catholics in this country, only echo the prevalent and authoritative sentiment of their church when they speak of all but their own versions as " the bibles corrupted by non-Catholics." The Encyclical Letter of pope Gregory XVI. against Bible Societies, rants.iys these first words "Orate Fratres "( = Pray brethren) with his voice a little elevated ; but the remainder [" that my and your sacrifice may be ac- ceptable with God the Almighty Father" J is said inaudibly, or " in a perfectly un- der tone." Then the priest turns round to the altar and joins his hands before his breast ; and the attendant, or bystanders answer, or otherwise the priest himself " May the Lord receive the sacrifice from thy (or, my) hands, to the praise and glory of his name, to our profit also, and that of all his own holy church." The priest with a loud voice says, " Amen." The secret prayer or prayers which fol- low are variable, and correspond with the collects for the day or occasion. At the conclusion of these the priest says in a distinct voice or sings, " Per omnia secufa stculonun " (=through all the ages of ages, i. e., world without end) ; the choir an- swers, " Amen ;" the priest follows,"Z>owt/ius vobiscum " ( = The Lord be with you) ; the response is, " Et cum spiritutuo" ( = And with thy spirit) ; the priest says, " Sursum cort/u,( = Lift up your hearts) ; and is answered. "Hubemus aa Dominum" ( = We have, unto the Lord); then the priest, "Grottos ayanuts Domino Deo nostro" (=Lct us give thanks to the Lord our God) ; and the choir, " Dignum ft justum est" (=lt is proper and right) ; after which he says or sings the preface. * The "preface" is so called, because it immediately precedes and introduces the canon of the mass. There are 11 different prefaces, namely, the common preface, and those ot Christmas, Epiphany, Lent, Easter, Ascension, Pentecost, the Trinity, the Apos- tles, the Cross, and the Virgin Mary. They declare the propriety of gfving thanks to God through Christ, pray to be permitted to worship God with the inhabitants of heaven, and introduce the Sanctus. Some of them refer also to the special occa- sions when they are used. 6 The Sanctus, taken from Is. 6 : 3, &c., aud uttered by the celebrant, with the CHUBCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 435 and the subdeacoa on the left, to join in the words * Holy, Holy, Holy,' &c. after which the subdeacon having made his reverence tothe altar, des- cends to his former place* and the deacon comes to the left hand side, to assist in turning the leaves of the book, during the canon which immediately follows." The "Canon of the Mass," which is said to have been unchanged for nearly 1800 years, includes the consecration of the bread and wine, and the com- munion, and is read in a low voice. The canon begins by in- voking the Father of mer- cies, through Jesus Christ his Son, to accept these sacrifices for the holy Cath- olic church, for the pope and bishop and all the orthodox, and professors of the catholic and apostol- ic faith. Then follows the " memento" or " com- memoration of the living," which is thus translated : Pilate says, "Behold the Man." AT THE ORATE FEATBE8. Jesus is Condemned to Die. AT THE PREFACE. choir and the people, is thus translated : " Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Sabaoth [=hosts]. The heavens and the earth are full of thy glory. Hosanna in the highest. Blessed is he that comcth in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the 436 CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. " Remember, Lord, thy servants and handmaids, N. and N., ( he joins his hands ; prays a little for those for whom he intends to pray* then with extended hands proceeds :) and all the bystanders, whose faith and devotion are known to thee, for whom we offer to thee, or who offer to thee this sacrifice of praise for themselves and all that belong to them, for the redemption of their souls, for the hope of their wel- fare and safety ; and to thee, the eternal, living and true God, they pay their vows." Jesus Bears His Cross. To this is added a com- memoration " of the glori- ous ever-virgin Mary," and of the blessed apostles and martyrs, and of all the saints, " to whose merits and prayers thou mayst grant, that we may be de- fended in all things by the aid of thy protection." The celebrant now spreads his hands over the bread and wine to be con- secrated, and beseeches the Lord " graciously to ac- cept this oblation of his servitude " in the ministry, " as also of his whole family*' (the congregation), to dispose their days in peace, to preserve them from eternal damnation, and number them in the flock of the elect, "through Christ our Lord." Now follows a prayer claimed to have come down from AT THE MEMENTO FOR THE LIVING. highest." The assistant rings the bell at the Sanctus, for the congregation to join in it. The celebrant crosses himself at the sentence, " Blessed is he that cometh." CHDRCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 437 Veronica offers Jesus a Towel. CHALICE. Jesus is nailed on the Cross. the apostles, which, with the rubrics (in parenthesis) and other prayers, is trans- lated from the Missal: * * Which oblation webeseech that thou, God, wilt deign to make in all things blessed (thrice he makes the sign of the cross over the oblation), ap- proved, sure, rational, and accep- table ; (he makes the sign of the cross once over the host and once over the chalice) that it may become to us the body and blood of thy dearest Son our THB PRIE8T HOLDS HIS HANDS OVEB Lord Jesus Christ. " * Who the day before he suf- fered (he takes the host) took bread into his own sacred and venerable hands ; (he raises his eyes to heaven) and raising his eyes to heaven to thee, Al- nvghty God, his Father giving thanks to thee, (he makes the sign of the cross over the host) he blessed, brake and gave to his disciples, saying : Take, and eat all ye of this.' " Holding the host in both hands between the fore-fingers and thumbs, he utters the words of consecration secretly, distinct- ly, and attentively over the host, and at the same time over them all, if more than one are to be conse- crated : " ' For this is my body.' " Having uttered the words of consecration, immediately he THE PBIE3T SIGNS THE DELATION. 438 CHURCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. THE ELEVATION OF THE HOST. Jctus is exalted on the Cross. kneels and adores the consecrated host ; he rises, shows it to the people, places it back upon the cor- poral, again adores it ; and does not disjoin his thumbs and fingers, except when the host is to be handled, down to the washing of his fingers. " Then, having uncovered the chalice, he says: 'In like manner after supper, (he takes the chalice in both hands) taking also this noble chalice into his holy and ven- erable hands, giving thanks likewise to thee, (holding the chalice in his left hand, he makes the sign of the cross over it with his right) he blessed and gave to his dis- ciples, saying : Take and drink all ye of this.' "He utters the words of consecration over the chalice, attentively, continuously, and secretly, holding it a little elevated. u ' For this is the chalice of my blood, of the new and eternal testament : the mys- tery of faith : which shall be shed for you and for many for the remission of sins.' " Having uttered the words of consecration, he replaces the chalice upon the corporal, and saying secretly, ' as oft as ye do this, ye shall do it for a AT THB ELEVATION OF THE CHALICE. . , , memorial of me. u He kneels and adores, rises, shows it to the people, puts it down, covers, and again adores. Then disjoining his hands he says : Blood flows from Jesus' wounds. CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 439 u ' Whence also, Lord, we thy servants, but also thy holy people, mindful of the so blessed suffering of the same Christ thy Son our Lord, also of his resurrection from the dead, but also of his glorious ascension into the heavene,offer to thy excellent majesty of thy gifts and presents, (he joins hands and makes the sign of the cross thrice over the host and the chalice at the same time) a pure host, a holy host, an unspotted host, (lie makes the sign of the cross once over the host and once over the chalice) the holy bread of eternal life, and the chalice of perpetual salvation.' " "With extended hands he proceeds : " ' Upon which mayst thou deign to look with a propitious and serene countenance, and to hold it accepted, as thou didst deign to hold ac- cepted the gifts of thy just boy Abel, and the sacrifice of our patri- arch Abraham, and what thy high priest Melchizedek offered to thee, a holy sacrifice, an immaculate offering.' "Bowing low, joiaing his haads and placing them upon the altar, he Jesus prays for the World. " ' We as suppliants beseech thee, Almighty God ; order these to be borne by the hands of thy holy angel to thy altar on high, hi sight of thy divine majesty ; that as many of us as (he kisses the altar) at this altar shall par- take of thy Son's most sacred (he joins his hands, and makes the sign of the cross once over the body and once over the blood) body and blood, (he crosses himself) may be filled with every heavenly blessing and grace. (He joins his hands.) Through the same Christ our Lord. Amen.' " COMMEMORATION FOE THE DEAD : " ' Remember also, Lord, thy servants and handmaids, N. and N., who have gone before us with the sign of faith, and sleep in the sleep of peace. (He joins his hands, prays a little for those dead, for whom he intends to pray, then with extended hands proceeds) AT THE MEMENTO FOR THE DKAD. 440 CHtJRCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. The conversion of the thief. To them Lord and to all who rest in Christ, we pray thee to grant a place of refreshment, of light and peace. (He joins his hands and bows bis head.) Through the same Christ our Lord. Amen.' " He strikes his breast with his right hand, saying with his voice a little raised [the prayer beginning] ' Nobis quoque pec- catoribus, [which is thus trans- lated :] "'To us also sinners, hop. ing from (he multitude of thy compassions, mayst thou deign to give some part and fellow- ship with thy holy apostles and martyrs ; with John, Ste- phen, Matthias, Barnabas, Ignatius, Alexander, Marcel- linus, Peter, Fdicitas, Perpe- tua, Agatha, Lucia, Agnes, Cecilia, Anastasia, and all thy saints : into whose so- ciety, we beseech thee, not as an appraiser of merit, but as a bestower of pardon, do thou admit us. (lie joins his hands.) Through Christ our Lord. " ' Through whom, Lord, thou dost always create, (he now makes the sign of the cross thrice over the host and the chalice at the same time, saying,) sanctify, vivify, bless, and give to us all these good things. (He uncovers the chalice, kneels, takes the host AT THB PATEB HOSIER. ^ ^ r j gbt j^ j^j^ the chalice with his left : thrice he makes the sign of the cross with the host from one lip of the chalice to the other, saying,) Through him, and with him, and in him, (twice he makes the sign of the AT NOBIS QCOQUE PECCATORIBU8. Seven words ofjesus on the Cross. CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. 441 between the chalice and his breast) there is to thee, Almighty Father, in the unity of the Holy Ghost, (he raises the chalice a little with the host, and says,) all honor and glory. (He replaces the host, [wipes his fingers, if necessary,] covers the chalice, kneels, rises, chants or reads,) World without end. (Answer.) Amen. (He joins his hands.) Let us pray : admonished by salutary precepts, and directed by divine instruction, we dare to say.' " The celebrant then extends his hands, and says or sings the Lord's prayer, and is answered at the end with a repetition of the last petition, " But deliver us from evil." The "canon of the mass," properly so called, ends with the prayer preceding the Lord's prayer ; but the next part, which is the preparation for and receiving of the communion, is now also included in the canon. In a solemn mass, the deacon, who stands behind the cele- brant during the first part of the Lord's prayer, goes up before the conclusion of it to the celebrant's right, and the subdeacon now also carries up the paten, which he gives to the deacon, and then returns to his place below ; the deacon having wiped the paten, places it in the right hand of the celebrant, who, hav- ing said the " amen " to the Lord's prayer, con- tinues in a low voice the next prayer : " Deliver us, we beseech thee, Lord, from all evils past, present, and future ; and the blessed and glorious ever Virgin Mary Mother of God interceding, with thy blessed apostles, Peter and Paul, and Andrew, and all the saints, (he crosses himself with the paten from fore- head to breast, and kisses it) graciously give us peace in our days, that, supported by the help of thy compassion, we may be always both free Jesus dies on the Cross. AT THE BREAKING OF THE HOST. 442 CHURCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. The Soul of Jesus descends into Hell. f rO m sin, and secure from every disturbance^ (lie places the paten under the host, uncovers the chalice, kneels, rises, takes the host, breaks it through the middle over the chalice, saying,) Through our same Lord Jesus Christ thy Son. (The part which is in his right hand he places upon the paten. Then from the part which remains in his left hand he breaks a small piece, saying,) Who with thee, in the unity of the THE PBIEST PUTS PART OF THE HOST INTO THE Hol J Ghost, Kveth and reign- CHALICE. eth God. (The other middle part with his left hand itself he places on the paten, and holding in his right hand the little piece over the chalice, in his left the chalice, he The Conversion of many at the Cross. says in a distinct voice) World without end. (Answer.) Amen. (With the little piece itself he thrice makes the sign of the cross over the chalice, saying,) The peace of the Lord be ever with you. (Ans.) And with thy spirit. (He puts the little piece into the chalice, saying secretly,) May this mixture and consecration of the body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ be made to us who receive it unto eternal life. Amen. (He covers the chalice, kneels, ri- ses, and bowing to the sacra- ment, joining his hands, and thrice striking his breast, he says [" in an intelligible voice," the " Agnus Dei, " thus] :) Lamb of God, who AT THE AGNUS DEI. CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 443 takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on us. Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on us. Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world, grant us peace.' " In masses for the dead, the celebrant does not strike his breast at the Agnus Dei ; instead of the " have mercy on us " is twice said " grant them rest ; " and instead of " grant us peace " is said " grant them eternal rest ; " the prayer for the peace of the church is omitted, as well as the " Peace be with thee, And with thy spirit," which follow it. After the Agnus Dei, in ordinary and high masses, the cele- brant offers in secret 3 short prayers ; the first for the peace and unity of the whole church ; the second, that he himself may be freed from his sins and from all evils and may always adhere to Christ's commands and never be separated from him ; the third, that his reception of Christ's body may not be to his condemnation, but to his mental and bodily protection and healing. In high masses, the deacon kneels at the celebrant's right during this first prayer for peace ; then rises ; they both kiss the altar ; and after embracing each other, the celebrant kisses the deacon, saying, "Pax tecum" ( Peace be with thee) ; to which the deacon answers, " Et cum spiritu tuo " (=: And with thy spirit) ; then the deacon, having adored the sacrament on the altar, gives the " peace " in like manner to the subdeacon in his place below ; after which they come up to assist at the altar, while the celebrant continues the two other prayers. After these prayers, the celebrant " kneels, rises, and says in secret : " ' I will take the heavenly bread, and I will call on the name of the Lord. (Then bowing a little, he takes both parts of the host between the thumb and forefinger of his left hand, and the paten between the same forefinger and the middle finger ; and striking his breast with his right hand, and raising his voice a little, he thrice says, devoutly and humbly,) Lord, I am not worthy [then he goes on secretly] that thou shouldst enter under my roof; but speak by a word only, and my soul shall be healed. (After this, crossing himself with the host over the paten, he says,) May the body of our Lord Jesus Christ keep my soul unto eternal life. Amen. (He reverently takes both parts of the 444 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SEKYICES, &C. AT THE COMMUNION. host, joins his hands, and rests a little in meditation on the most holy Jesus is buried. sacrament. Then he uncovers the chalice, kneels, collects the fragments, if there are any, wipes the paten over the chalice ["care- fully with the thumb and fore- finger of his right hand, and the fingers themselves,"] saying in the mean time,) "What shalll ren- der to the Lord for all the things that he hath rendered to me ? I will take the chalice of salvation, and I will call upon the name of the Lord. I will call upon the Lord with praises, and I shall be safe from my enemies. ( He takes the cup in his right hand, and crossing himself with it, says,) May the blood of our Lord Jesus Christ keep my soul unto eternal life. Amen. (He takes all the blood with the small piece [of the host put in the chalice]. Having taken this, if there be any to take the communion, he administers it to them, before he purifies himself. Afterwards he says [" secretly "]) What we have taken with our mouth, Lord, may we take with a pure mind; and from the temporal gift may there be made to us an eternal remedy. (In the mean time he reaches out the chalice to the attendant, who pours out in it a little wine, with which he purifies himself; then he proceeds:) May thy body, Lord, which I have taken, and blood, which I have drank, ad- here to my bowels : and grant that the stain of wickedness may not remain in me whom the pure and holy sacraments have renewed. Who livest and AT THE ABumoir. rcigncst for ever. Amen. "(He Jesus is anointed. CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 445 Jesus' Resurrection. washes his fingers, wipes, and drinks the ablution, wipes his mouth and the chalice, and folding the corporal, places it on the altar as before : then he goes on with the mass.) " Bishop England says : " If communion were to be given, it was usually done af- ter the celebrant had commu- nicated himself, and then the choir sung some Psalms The Psalm usually performed on this occasion in the early days of Christianity, was the 33d [=rPs. xxxiv.], 'I will bless the Lord at all times.' The 9th verse [= Ps. 34 : 8], ' O taste and see that the Lord is sweet,' &c., was sometimes chosen as the antiphon. Other Psalms were sometimes taken, , ., , ~ -r> i AFTER COMMUNION. and then only part of a Psalm, and at present but 1 or 2 verses, which is called the ' communion,' though at present the communion is frequently given after mass, and not at this tune." The passage of Scrip- ture called" communion " is one of the variable parts of the service, and is read by the celebrant from the missal at the epistle side of the altar. He then goes to the middle of the altar, and, after kissing it, turns to the people and says, " Dominus vobis- cum" (:=the Lord be with you) ; and is an- Jesus appears to his disciples. AT DO MIXCS VOBISCCM. 446 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. swered, "Et cum spiritu tuo " Jesus 40 days with His disciples. AT THE LAST COLLECT. And with thy spirit). Ho then returns to the book, and says or sings the post- communion prayers, which are also variable, and cor- respond particularly to the collects. After these are finished, he closes the book, joins his hands before his breast, returns to the mid- dle of the altar, and kisses it. Then. he turns to the people, and says, " Dom- inus vobiscum" to which the response is given as before. After this is said, he stands with his hands joined before his breast, and facing the people, says, if it is to be said, " Ite missa est " (= Go, the mass is over), adding two alleluias in Easter-week ; and then, after the response, " Deo gr alias " (= Thanks to God), returns to the altar. On days of penance, when the Ita missa est is not said, ho returns, after the Dominus vobiscum, to the middle of the altar, where, facing that, and joining his hands before his breast, he says, " Benedicamus Domino " (= Let us bless the Lord) ; and is answered, "Deo gratias " (= Thanks to God). But in masses for the dead, he stands in the same way facing the altar and says, " Jlequiescant in Jesus ascends into heaven. AT THB LAST voBisccM. CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. pace " (= Let them rest in peace) ; and is answered, " Amen." In the solemn mass, the deacon, instead of the celebrant, says or sings the ltd missa est, Benedicamus Domino, and Requiescant in pace. Before the Dominus vobiscum, there comes in Lent a "prayer over the people" (==oratio super populum), read at the book, and preceded by a call from the celebrant or dea- con " Humiliate capita vestra Deo " (= Bow down your heads to God). After the Ite missa est or Senedicamus Domino has been said, the celebrant bows before the middle of the altar and with his hands joined over it, utters a secret prayer to the Trinity for the acceptance of his homage and sacrifice. Then he kisses the altar, stands upright, lifts up his eyes, extends, raises and joins his hands, and bows to the cross as he says, in an intel- ligible voice, " May Almighty God bless you," and turning to the people, he proceeds," Father, and Son, (he makes the sign of. the cross) and Holy Ghost." Ans. " Amen." The cele- brant then goes to the gospel side, and says the last Dominus vobiscum, to which the response is given, as above. In masses for the dead the benediction and Dominus volis- cum are omitted. The cele- brant then reads John 1 : 1-14, he and the congrega- tion kneeling at the words in verse 14 " Hi verbum cartf facium est 9 ' (= And the Word was made flesh), and the whole service being con- cluded with the response " Deo gratias " (= Thanks to God). Instead of this gospel, another is sometimes substituted, as when a fes- tival is celebrated on a Sun- day or holyday, which has a proper gospel of its own. The descent of the Holy Ghost. AT THE GOSPEL OF ST. JOIIX. 448 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. Besides the Missal, which contains the ritual and rubrics (= directions printed in red letters) pertaining to the various masses, there is also the Breviary or book containing the offices of daily prayer, or the " canonical hours." The name " Bre- viary " (Latin breviarium = abridgment) is traced back to the llth century, and was probably adopted because the offices which it contained had been revised and contracted from the longer forms previously in use. The canonical hours are named " matin " or commonly " matins " (Latin matutinum = morning), " lauds " (laudes = praises), " prime " (prima ~ first), "tierce" (tertia = third), "sext" (sexta =. sixth) "none "or "nones" (nona = ninth), "vespers" (vesper or vespera evening) " complin " or " compline " (completorium = that which completes or fills up the daily service). The canonical hours originated among the ancient monks. Says Fosbroke's British Monachism : "Because the Jews separated the day into 4 quarters or greater hours, each containing 3 lesser or common hours, so each canonical hour was presumed to consist of 3 smaller; and the whole 'night and day was then divided into the 8 services of matins, lauds, prune, tierce, sext, nones, vespers, and completorium or complin." Matins and lauds thus came between midnight and 6 A. M., then " prime," &c. Says Appletons' Cyclopedia : " According to the original custom, still preserved in some- strict monastic orders, matins and lauds should be recited soon after mid- night, prime early in the morning, tierce, sext, and none at 9, 12, and 3, vespers late in the afternoon, and compline in the evening. The usual custom is, however, at present, both in the public singing or recita- tion of the office in choir, and in the private reading of it, to say matins and lauds on the preceding evening, the little hours at some convenient time in the morning, and vespers and compline at any time in the afternoon. The office is obligatory on clergymen in the major orders, the members of monastic communities, and those who hold bene- fices. It is chiefly composed of the psalter, and lessons from the scriptures and the acts of the saints and martyrs, with hymns, versicles, and prayers interspersed. A great variety of offices have been and are in use. The CHUBCHLT AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 449 one most generally used in the Catholic church of the "West ia the Roman breviary." This breviary bears the title : " The Roman Breviary restored according to the decree of the most holy council of Trent, edited by order of the holy supreme pontiff Pius V., revised by the authority of Clement VIII. and Urban VIIL, with the offices of the saints most recently granted by the supreme pontiffs unto this day." The vignettes of the missal and breviary are both given in Chapter III. According to the rubrics in the Roman breviary, the Pater nosier (= Lord's prayer) and Ave Maria (== Hail Mary ; see Chap. XV.) are " said in secret before matins and all the hours, except at complin. . . At the beginning of matins and prime, and at the end of complin, is said also the apostles' creed." For this and the history of various rites and practices in the Roman Catholic church, see Chapter II. The 7 sacraments, as already mentioned in Chapter II., are baptism, confirmation, the eucharist, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and matrimony. According to the catechism of the Council of Trent, baptism is "the sacrament of regeneration by water in the word ; " its matter, or element, is " any sort of natural water ; " and its true and essential form, " I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." " Baptism may be administered by dipping, pouring or sprinkling." Bish- ops and priests, by right of office ; deacons, by permission of the bishop or priest ; or " in case of necessity, but without its solemn ceremonies, . . . all, even the laity, men and women, to whatever sect they may belong," may administer baptism. " This power extends, in case of necessity, even to Jews, infi- dels, and heretics ; provided, however, they intend to do what the Catholic church does in that act of her ministry." Spon- sors are required at the solemn ceremonies ; and are to watch constantly over their spiritual children, and carefully instruct 29 450 CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. them in the maxims of the Christian life. The baptized person should have only 1 sponsor, or, at most, 1 male (= god-father) and 1 female (= god-mother) ; and cannot lawfully contract marriage with these sponsors or with the baptizer. " Infants, unless baptized, cannot enter heaven." Unbaptized adults are to be invited and prepared to receive baptism. Insane persons, who have no lucid intervals, or who in lucid intervals express a wish to be baptized, may be baptized. Baptism is on no ac- count to be repeated ; but a conditional form may be used when there are reasonable doubts of the validity of the previous baptism. The water to be used in baptism should be conse- crated on the vigils of Easter and Pentecost ; the person to be baptized is brought or conducted to the door of the church and is forbidden to enter until Satan's yoke is cast off, and certain questions in respect to Christian doctrine are answered by the person or the sponsor ; exorcism is used to expel the devil ; salt is put into the person's mouth ; the sign of the cross is marked on his forehead, eyes, breast, shoulders, and ears ; spittle is put on his nostrils and ears ; at the baptismal font, the per- son or his sponsor renounces Satan, and all his works, and all his pomps ; he is anointed with the oil of catechumens on the breast and between the shoulders ; the person or his sponsor makes a profession of all the articles of the creed ; then the question if he will be baptized having been answered affir- matively, the priest administers the baptism* in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost ; then the priest anoints with chrism the crown of the baptized person's head, puts on him a white garment or kerchief, and puts a burn- ing light into his hand. The name given to the baptized should be taken from some saint. He baptizes by pouring water on the head 3 times in the form of a cross ("or by dipping thrice, where this is the custom), the pourings coinciding with the pro- nouncing of the 3 names of the Trinity. The anointing the head with chrism is also in the form of a cross. The service ends with the address : " N. go in peace, and the Lord be with thee." Ans. " Amen." The 2d Plenary Council of Baltimore decreed that priests should never administer baptism outside of the church, except in imminent danger of death, or for some weighty reason. CIIUSCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 451 The catechism of the council of Trent teaches that confirma- tion is so called, "because, if no obstacle is opposed to its efficacy, the person who re- ceives it, when anointed with the sacred chrism by the hand of the bish- op, who accompanies the unction with these words, ' I sign thee with the sign of the cross, and confirm thee with the chrism of salvation, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,' is con- firmed in strength by receiving new virtue, and becomes a perfect sol- dier in Christ. . . . The matter of confirmation is chrism . . .= oint- ment composed of oil and balsam . . . consecrated with solemn cere- monies by the bishop. ... In confirmation, as in baptism, a sponsor is required. l . . . Confirmation may be administered to all, as soon as they have been baptized ; but, until children shall have reached the use of reason, its administration is inexpedient. If not postponed to the age of 1 2, it should therefore be deferred until at least that of 7. ... The forehead of the person to be confirmed is anointed with sacred chrism. . . . When confirmed, he receives a gentle slap on the cheek from the hand of the bishop. . . . Finally, he receives the kiss of peace." The imposition of hands in confirmation is made by the bish- op's extending his hands towards the person or persons to be confirmed ; the anointing by his dipping his right thumb in the chrism and making the sign of the cross with it on the fore- head of each ; and he accompanies the slap on the cheek with the words " Pax tecum " (= Peace be with thee). The " eucharist " is also called the " sacrifice," " commun- ion," " sacrament of peace and charity," " viaticum" (= pro- vision for a journey ; a name used when administered to one about to depart this life), " supper." It must be consecrated and received only by one who is fasting. The sacramental bread should be of wheat flour and natural water, fresh, without spots, not easily flying to pieces, and unleavened. The wine should be Sauterne, Bordeaux, Catawba, Isabella, or other undoubtedly genuine sort, not Port, Madeira, Sherry, Malaga, &c. The cup i The 2d Plenary council of Baltimore passed a decree that " this custom, already introduced in some dioceses of this country, should be everywhere introduced." "452 CHUBCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, &C. is denied to the laity generally. All are to communicate once a year at Easter ; or, in the United States, at some time from the 1st Sunday in Lent to Trinity Sunday. The rites and cere- monies connected with the eucharist are given in the canon of the mass, and in the preceding part of this chapter. " Penance " is closely connected with confession (Chap. XVII.) and with offenses and penalties (Chap. XVIII.). " Extreme unction " is so called because it is the last to be administered, of all the unctions prescribed by the Roman Catholic church. The matter of this sacrament is holy oil (olive oil) blessed by the bishop on Holy Thursday. With his thumb dipped in this oil, the priest anoints the sick in the form of a cross on the eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, hands, and feet, using at each anointing a prayer thus : " Through this holy unction and his own most tender mercy, may the Lord be indulgent to thee in regard to whatever offenses thou hast committed by seeing (or, hearing, smelling, taste and speech, touch, walking). Amen." This sacrament is accompanied by the sprinkling of holy water, and the offering of many prayers for the recovery of the sick person, for his deliverance from the power of the devil, gold cloth) &c> A clapper of wood, is used instead of the altar bell, from the Gloria in excelsis of Maundy-Thursday to the Gloria in excehis of Holy Saturday. CHURCHLY AND DEVOTIONAL SERVICES, AC. 467 A " confessional " (= concessionary) is a place for a priest to hear confessions. It may be a chair or bench placed in a dark part of the church or chapel ; or a structure erected for the purpose, and furnished with a seat for the priest, and often with a door to shut him in, while he hears confessions. A grate is usually placed on one or both sides of the priest, that the penitent or penitents may whisper the confession through the grate into the priest's ear. (See Chap. XVII.) . The " corporal " is a consecrated linen cloth, which is spread on the altar, before the bread (to be made the body [corpus in Latin] of Christ) and wine are placed there and consecrated in the mass. The corporal should be about 22 to 24 inches square, of very clean and beautiful linen, starched, with a small cross (not of gold or silver) wrought in the mid- dle. When not in use it should be neatly folded, and kept in the burse. Cotton is used for wiping the priest's hands after blessing the font, &c. The " credence " is the side-table, near the altar, on which the chalices, paten, host, cruets,